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, UNITED STATES COMMISSION OF FISH AND WHE PES 
ishes, 
U. @ Wationa/ Museum 


Onrded 


fe Ae a VG 
REPORT 


OF 


THE COMMISSIONER 


FOR 


ASS 


A.—INQUIRY INTO THE DECREASE OF FOOD-FISHES. 
B—THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES IN THE 
WATERS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1830. 


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634,79 
LETT E R 
COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


His report for the year 1878. 


JANUARY 13, 1879.—Ordered to lie on the table and be printed. 


UNITED STATES COMMISSION, FISH AND FISHERIES, 
Washington, D. C., January 9, 1879. 
GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to transmit herewith my report for 
the year 1878, as United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, 
embracing, first, the result of inquiries into the condition of the fisheries 
of the sea-coast and lakes of the United States; and, second, the history 
of the measures taken for the introduction of useful food-fishes into its 
waters. 
Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
SPENCER F. BAIRD, 
Commissioner. 
Hon. Wm. A. WHEELER, 
President United States Senate, and 
Hon. 8S. J. RANDALL, 
Speaker of the House of Representatives. 


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CONTEN T'S, 


I—REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 


A—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 


Page. 
Pe UNERODUCTORY) BRMARKSE Scan cielo se cwaetsae Use doaseeteeesaete cos taaatecssanasccouetecseseaee xv 
Nuntberol reports Ninberto pubuUsheds-waceetconc st ceases as se/saaen sioace ccs dee elclancricenectese xN 
Period covered py; pPreseno MEPOLbe sasscns ssc sce ns Ka acecle sees omces eae cice stoma tout cece cides KV 
Continued increase in the scale of operations each year .....-..---.------.--2-- 22 eee eee eee eee KV 
Di VISIOMOL SUD|CCUS) + 44- sa5e/ cies sciowiee pee e Oo cee e cette teak ase aee teas esas semece suns cue ee xv 
Special assistants in charge of divisions.-.........-..--...--- AR ROC SOOO ESOC ESO NOEmaeaaeeSode XV 
ORIN GMb y/o cc.=sssstessetaseks coco sels csessoscssedeetas secs sde sseeoe soot eee xV 
OTepropagarione sass asclocee ees nec choelocets see cea sess mo anne er es xV 
2, OBJECTS! OF THE UNITED STATES Hist COMMISSION <2. --..- 22-02-0000. = -seceneneeccostcn---= xvi 
RESUS AIMed Abi DYyslbs WOLK je cecses see soca ce cncmcccuisines scwice ows cmjssie esas stale deleioemcteee seins xvi 
1. Dustrated reports on aquatic animals and plants....-...-.......--------26------sees xvi 

2. Collection of specimens for National Museum and for distribution to educatiunal estab- 
Jishments sae seemec se ccmaccciics eng eisens ceca saat wese mec cas sclsie Soeeemcese ss xvi 

3. Reports on chemical and physical character of the waters, with reference to the intro- 
duehOMOois OOO TISHGN Ee: scent ete cece a tecesscre see cinnamon ie cliaeeel Mere eae ciate xvi 

4. An account of the various methods and products of the fisheries, with suggestions as 
to improvements, especially by the introduction of........-..---..-..----.-e---0------- xvii 
SBE AIM ULA WAIN Sse eee sce cele s ee Ae case e Sep eecaet cen edieetacewntnsseneaekeaemce Xvii 
Gollmestoricap Luror COd ts =. Jacececcastsiaaces wap cones sensesaeine saeinciiecaasaeeaaern xvii 
5. Statistics and history of American fisheries from the earliest time to the present... --. xvii 
Methods by which! this isto be-accomplished, --- 5 ----5.<sco-s-ccecsecseseesccema sss xvilt 
6. Improved system of obtaining statistics in the future..-..-...-...-...---------------- xviii 
7. A complete exhibit in the National Museum of apparatus and products of the fisheries xviii 

The work commenced in connection with the International Exhibition at Philadelphia 
AVIS Ose sees nee en else Nae ea iene mw cinerea ae nee eae er cleteee sa pee Reel xviii 
Continuation since that time...--. s/c niefae aia cial ston ealp ioe) Sars ate = eleee ats atejs'< cilia ee eicicte state XViii 
8. Investigation of the movements and habits of fish as a basis for legislation. ...-....-. xvili 
Necessity of covering the whole country in this research .........-..-.-.---+--0+---- Xvili 
Structure of fishways and method of purifying the waters, a corollary.--.......----. xvii 

9. Preparing a judicious system of regulations as to close seasons, varying with the cir- 
CTEM SPA COS ra nae ee eta wiminiclalnn piatcic cia ole enim minis iolaeisisiokele sp<feiaie @ inte sees mineteiels meee iain xix 

10. Actually stocking the waters of the United States with useful food-fishes, and the best 
methodsiotvaccomplishin etherODjeCbs=- «s.<-5= Se. sae <isae = fossen pares Soeaceyicien hiss ons xix 
&) ASSISTANCE, BENDERED: THE) COMMISSION .-- occ.c-ohace tae ciete were ceaice sods tessckaccteeessce=ss xix 
By the government im cenerale oo .ceiseisciciarsietaic <iaroee ca eee cleins oemmncieciwowsclnticicce uh canine xix 
General requirement to render all possible aid -...---..-2.....---22---seseeecnee- sees xix 
Rheisecrotary, Ol LherN avyger- = eset el oaa sa cnns stalscece s ceeaass a See Aeect= tase seaees xix 
Detailiofsteamor Speedwell: s.osa.ccdeecciceecsneseswosccamnencccecteocttaesnaicccuncee xik 
Supplyotsiworlatwmcheser.s4sseceete esse ek aeecioce act kt ecceot ccnaap eee scoteeessveee xix 
Re pal OLSH Isl COMMIASION VESSOIS ass siciew aonicceivecneswmies eco relsome cae aeneaes cfaiioa sale xix 
MheiSecrotaryiof tho Treasurys a. on pice 2 stems occa scuelbie cnn seisiee ja atinee ee cisuae cose sesos xix 
Towing Of Vessels! by TeVeuwe CHbbOLS | cs os acnccicmicse ces laceeceieiotsisted fees coeceats xix 
Neuen HOUSe;bOArd.. -- 5.5 sees inns wcseccs otincabaatasaeecs anita lebawoudunceuuedettos« XK 
Temperature, OUSCLV ALON go5 onje/-- 012.5 re eccieciecinesaressenvcnmedle sueeueuelod se biss cee xx 
ADRG) NOCLOtATY OLN AL: = ses acne ne Smee inet nc aisle ccc nies ed sabe Line abe see etbeeesd acces xx 
Supply of arms and men to McCloud River Station .......-.....--..---.----e--e-eeeee xx 
heiChio£ Signal-Ofmicer-s0-i5<e as sae eee: vacncbemecacoance Suscleet Nase Ca toe eesooes « xx 
River,and coast temperature observations. -........ccccoees set cece sslecce see bececees xs 
Syenalistationiat.Gloncester:..24-c-2ecsenqi nos setee Seen nes eee tote melee ee o acs XX 
Dailytorecasts of the weatheky.o.---aacosciecwes teeta ve coe ee ea eeeaerice eee eck eeaaae xx 
SHherPatent OM GO ys qs ssamwiayseseiscseiectsinin Ss Soren cro cjercere amie sie aatabe sins selatinaG clea Molore xx 
Report on apparatus of fishing and fish culture .......-..-. 022-222-2202 + eee ee ences BON 
Meio Oca Mopartment. <4: +<ses cies asses ce eat sue San le cle tee ae oe eece ante Peewee xx 
Establishment of post-office at McCloud River hatchery .......-..--..- adobe, Kaaeobe xx 


Vv 


Wii. CONTENTS. 


Page. 
3. ASSIBTANCE RENDERED THE ComMiss1on—Continued. 
The Superintendent of Public Buildings and Grounds .....-- Beeb Sabbessdadesbbaseosttdos XX 
Supervision of construction of carp-ponds ..-..-.-..-..--1----000.--------------00 sal, eR: 
By private associations and individuals......-..-..--------------------+----------------- xxi 
Phe ksh Commissioniof Maryland) Se\ee a= +m lclcs\s claleain.-10 =inim = ale lele iat lelas em lal ale lnlelte eerie Xxi 
he Commissioners of Droid HON Parkse c= seeeeace eee > aoe ae See ea clini eer xxi 
The railroads throughout the United States..........-..----------+------+--+-------- xxi 


B.—INQUIRY INTO THE HISTORY AND STATISTICS OF FOOD-FISHES. 


4. FIRLD OPERATIONS DURING THE SEASON OF 1878..----..----------------- 2 ---- 2-52-2222 onan ee xxi 
Co-eperation of the Navy Department. .-...-.------- 2-22.22 222 pene ee eee eee eee ene xxi 
Detail of Speedwell .-...-. 2. ---- 2-020 soe enn ne cnn n ne een ene eee ne een xxii 
Personnel of Speedwell) <2 52. =. 5. = peepee see es ale ae email eae ale a eee xxii 
Establishment of headquarters at Gloucester, July 9. .......--..------------2------------ xxii 
RWWal art an Ov OLLGOS « -.seimic lem a orale tn = = — lal el ee eee eal ae ee oleate ee xxii 
Associates and assistants .....---.2.20.-00-ene--- aces GENO SHACE MO OHEM SOA SOS ASK Stisselse! xxii 
esoarches of Or. Aarlow: <2 <2) ct atalatsl=l= miele etoile ale tetete lala elope at amie tle lee xxii 
Investigation of fishes for food and fertilizers, by Professor Atwater -..-...-.-.-.--.---- xxiii 
Other researches and Tesultse ses ac oe niet elem alee en at a le ele mr alse we el bate oer Xxili 
Wollections Mad ee a= a fo nie rete ee ese a a eel xxiii 
Statisticsiand history ofthe fisheries: oc) clea nate am ania nye ale ele elem ales) eee ele Sierereate xxii 
Memperavures and SOUNGINGS\ = -/-\ccen eles me oe elate late ammo = wie) atals le ol meet ee aL 
Aod from' signal office .---. 22.45.22. .<== =n enslnae aes nine ea sieme milena ele miole ee eee xxiii 
Storm-sicnalistation... 52). ¢sscs-- 25-2 ashes eene == sees Saleen a ee eee rs sii 

BD) au liyp sf OL C BUS Dacre rtm = orm peer am eat ee xxiv 
VASIPORS iG WEIN Oy SEASON ears lateieie sla ele aia mtale vs ae eee are a lee Kxiv 
Arrival of Tallapoosa with Secretary of Navy:------:c-cacecos.----eceaceinaae= senaeee- =e Xxiv 
[rip to the fishing banks, by Riis. Neweomb!iseess.. oe ease =: ee aeeecin as eee ee eee Xxiv 
Close.of fieldioperations, September 3022-2 222222225 a5 ene sats ene seme a ae aes aie alee xxiv 
Departure from Gloucester, Ocvober15.- 22 e2ce Jae esate ness oes cineca eee eee eee xxiv 
Portion of party remaining for operations with codfish. ........-....220---.----.--------- xxiv 


C.—THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-YISHES. 


Be AVORK.- ACCOMPLISHED) IN (1878 142-222 -<2 -- epoch ceele sane eeins = cen Solse ee ahaa erate hae eee XXV 
Che quinnat, or California salmon (Salmo quinnat)......-..--.-------------------- XKV 
The: McCloud River statiomes 4.2 see 2 ee oe eles afer aeiein niga a ae er ale te ee eae eee XXV 
Extensive repairs required on account of the floods.........-.----.-------------.---- XXV 
Establishment there of the post-office, Baird...........-.:-.-.-------------+4-s0ce--0 XV 
Threatened violence; and aid by the War Department .............------------------ XxXV 
Enormous productio£ salmon: emg ieee ei oe ae atte oleate el ee aaa eleta ates eee ere =xXV 
Commencement and’ close’ of the'season! soe 8 ee oi cee easce mie sine Cleliaeine ate sees ele XXV 
Inoidents of the-fishery <\s5 senate cn ae ciel lem ees ele eee eee eae ieee XKV 
Shipment eastward of embryonized eggs ..--..-...--- 22 coe se (oben caneeeeee- seo sone xxvi 
Deposit,.of fish in the Sacramento o22- = sea eee ee toate ere te re alae ete xxvyi 
Shipment of eg¢s to foreign countries .-- 22 --s on = sate miceninta = Semieelee lite eeleeiaisie= = eiele xxvi 
Clam ad aise sees seo ae icldiasoin.esm mein) stators terete See etrorere eater tars at ate aT ae eee xxvi 

Great Britain)... ..--0c aod nce ecasie teen eee seem tafe Bee oe eae eee te xxvi 

(SIGINT? soosdocpadasoodEacdonsoce= aalsisciciessoe sea sisint aaeoe ea -emistinntamese aterm XXvil 

RTA CC (25min njojsjm cin min jacmraiaseyn sg arenes imimfape eal ree TE Se ao ere te XXvii 
Wetherlands 2a). 4.2050 liek case tmcien cin Sees ee Relates eel teens ete ee ee xxvii 

Now Zeman de a oo oie aie ici tym wipe pease is ol et thee TE aes eran ete we eto ate ala ea tele XXvii 

Tho Clackamas Station. 20-22 4cccceeniemeanwiciaewieee ewe CERIBels pre iatela)e es aeet eee Reet eee XXVii 
Establishment.in 1877,....0<.—--cn.s00 cjcicjnere oe sarejm ectte a oie ate mebatate aS ota a age eter tee xxvii 
Operations.and! results of 1878_..-.--......hcoe sce wane eneeee eae ee elas eae ee eee eee xxvii 
Expense of the work. 3.2 22..03o002 52 jos seueeneee ee eee eee eee eat S 3 Xxviii 
Proposed southern station 2. - 22.455 cep ncmne ce sew comer en tpiseslem senate eee tees ere etetete XXxviii 
Objectio£ suchia station... 0s netenoncd Y aeheds SOE AAR Ak ole ee Ok ee ne eee NNW 
Difficnities Iniselection of a.site... ..2- <---- eee ceca le sens ek See ee ee ate leet Xxviii 

The Atlantic salmom (Salmosalar) -. 22:5 mois cin smmiaisdds Sleeee=& doce Hak Bidets eels oe Xxix 
Ther Bucksport, SEAtOW = 96 nj2)- 22 nid aan no om nisie so.eie eine, aj=peinlaje soca beeiatoe ents ee ae ee ol ate xxix 
Reasons for temporary cessation of efforts........ 2-222). 22.58. dice cee bees e- we xxix 
Proposed renewal of operations in 1879... .... .,...-< - son - asibonmews tla mtile seeelele em ials ie latee Xxix 

Very marked increase in salmon in 1878.2 2. cc nee 2neSSin Ss). leecesemaleeee=mamaka=i-1= xxix 


Appearance in new waters, where planted. ...........2-s..<ccccsecnacees seen os Mong peal 


CONTENTS. Vil 


5. WORK ACCOMPLISHED IN 1878—Continued. 
The Atlantic salanon—Continued. 


General summary of facts of increase of salmon..........--....- Sdc See a ASAE Sot hea xxix 
RIVERS Ol MAING te cree cun catch ches tee <= c.dmejviscbinsrteiia= el mmalsapcnueysjasine Sue rcuuswettas xxix 

AEA dU eva oe ooo Sesee ee OC ese eG CoEUe Ese Seabee cor Rese CSoetee ener alen- Seoaoeece xxix 
‘Boutin coast of: NewsEmg land 7254-27. <s28' ccna te acemone sen ths coven theme wee tes xxix 
Phe: Connecticuttecssse Nowa at Scinest se cicmete crepe ce ceteeemate mse tee ees coewe ae 2.0.08 
pRhe-endsoneee ss eeeee ea meiain ainiaiisiolale iaeists ee eiseice amieclaikic Seceitaeeee ee sae eee s xxx 

The Delawarerwptotetsjecas eset sass tes. APee eas ve hatt step elec tens eee ee Se ee Oe 

Phe Susquehanna sess seers ose ees eC ES CL we Lice Ine say Sen ee Xxxi 
Referenceito appendix for’ fall'details: Syse. Je ee ao ee ee le XXxi 
Necessity of State legislation to keep up the supply...-..--.---------2-+------eeene nee ee Xxxii 
Whe Schoodic salmon; land-locked salmom (Salmo salar, subsp. sebago).--....... XXxii 
GrandtiakeStream station asc ses- sect oret ens onset ses vee ave cae Sed Saale ae ee = oe xxuii 
Waturerand distribution ofthis dish jao-ss tte atee = tera encee oa toe eaeteneee ees. xxxii 
Moritsomihe ish sccsee ete een ono theese cis skate sae ec eORne Behe eee ew eehu es me eeee xXxxili 
IWiork- in: previous, years at other stations. ...<...0-ss--s0.cespe deena neles cagecocttces xxxiii 
Dates of beginning and ending the taking of eggs..........-- 222.20 == 2 ee eneeee sees Xxxili 
Statistics of takeofieras, 3s stk sod. qkereos es sees ee dese setae Meoeehartesae se XXxiv 
Importance of artificial propagation from these fish.............---.---2ee.e2----eee XXxiv 
Difference in results with the Schoodic and the sea salmon..............2...+-------- XXxiv 
SEWER SUGITON dogdcocacde seasede Toes Den nOete aBECea Jaca teen boot sane HBaueGor on aUeaueneee XXxiv 
he White Wish’ (Coregonus chipetformis) ..--.--..22-2cdeetieceu ss dons act tye Gude ose e ce XXXV 
BNorthville) (Mich: )istation) <2 2-00 s4520.0.5-..andioe snes ces eee aeuen ose a see eeP wae XXXV 
Distribution; of impregnated CPOs soo. os mje ciccm c\ are go's «544 Heel aa AN EE ee eco. XXXV 
Mhe Shadi(Alosnsantatssvmd) | oe cones oe Ee oe AS eee onal ysctee eRe cele oe XXXV 
GonerabremanrkS os feos cis cies asin ass dani Mase eine ors oo ewe manasa See Wud). < XXEV 
AU PSMATLS SOUNC StatlONc so. < ccna cecicccwncenie alte uss ase ceeee aa ase a Saeco XXEV 
Assistance rendered by the departmentsinj5252- 22s joowse se daesaseweseietienh 120d ene. es XXXVi 
Kquipmentiand apparatus... 23.2: sss2dssbeeps ests soot ue -bacleswale tie teoo. Soke eel. Ss XXXVI 
Commencement, of works 523-0 cscbs-2 ss psees carer cae ase th eed ae ceeds eo Xxxvi 
Results\of the season seo sate th 92952 se seg yds areaeand oes aee aba cee sek te een eS XXXVI 
WMbundance of Herein hy ioe ccna ska stings cere can is cteiheae ase Sete eegies ss ce Secciasceaes XXXVi 
Acknowledgments to Col/Marshal Parks 22. 23356. ig3 2h - Jt bb do csebeccceeeuesn----- XXXVii 
OLOMaGHRiVer ‘StablON 2 sei. cena peiseis sie ea)ei e252] tara sides erred ae Maia teas Da Noe XXXVii 
HMayreide Grace station: <2: s)s's ssf = cesses Saceasaeasaadacs 8 diercicratase Sider eas alee «21a sis aeeeioet XXXVil 
Shipment) Of Ash) o os jee. econ sete ene nae gd cee acoe eee sae sete abs mee tioe teem ens XXXVii 
MVisiisOfsihere resident: and! OUbOrs tse. .,ccas-ccecceciacccaajsscees code aaceeeccanee ae XXXVil 
Potal-yreldsofshadi-for) the seasOm: see. enone chan us Me deds Noa! Soares aa ansieine aes XXXVi 
Rappahannock station of Colonel McDonald -.---.....2. 0.020222 2222 onc en needs eo ene eee XXXVii 
General result of shad-planting in the United States...........222---2 -----2- eee ee none XXXVI 
Lhe Sacramento RVers css. ae aeie eon cisess een es cee wees eee meteaterroaccce XXXVili 

LP hesMassissippie Valley nsassacceccnvecsssescecsace cc cccnaeetecousins retetsemoeeeciec. XXXViii 
IADHEOMISVIllOytase sr sm see Ssaas a adeae tos so csece ees -noeapoboce soc enceee need nancies XXXVili 
Opheripomtst, seeas soe sea ee ee eee eee Nee ee een ee arate ee SUR MES e ae XXXViil 
Shortmivers ot the! GultiofeMexicopesseser ss seen eee ne Sees eens gee XxXxix 

UNE PROANO KES RIVED =< acre ae eee ate a Cee Saiie e wa cea ees eh Seta aa xxxix 
‘RhesMayishadvsnessse sees go so a Ne Sees Suse a aes Sekt a SSe She aa eee aber ees te XXxIx 
DRhe-Sen.Merrins (Oluped harengus) iiss fo foe scoscss cess ees ee XXxXix 
‘Ehe\Gloucester station} <.th ss. sesso se eee Se eee ee ck ee eee ele eee eee b:@10:0b-< 
Expermmentst by Miri Clarke eee es eG aS ent as ES NT ae XxXxix 
Normans "Land ‘station®13 9/2. siese oss eee ee Sa be Oe es sot ea nee xxxix 
Experiments‘or-\Vanalubdwards seo aes ere oa ee a a OL Dea wae KUNG 
IEXPELUNEHislol “Dry Meyer, Of Kaelin ceteris ee ee Ce I AE eR MINER LIARS Orne Ta ke x? 
ine Camel (Cyprinus Convio) trace a= eels cS ee ee ae ee Re xl 
‘RherP raid Ve Park station’: eet a So rs Ree SERIA PENMAN EE NE oe, xl 
ther Washington) station 25.7) at ee ee ASIN hans ON AAR MER TRON tt the xl 
Appropriation by Congress for the Monument Lot pond ..........-..----.--.-------. x1 
Transfer of part of the fish from Druid Hill Park, Baltimore ................-.------ xii 

her Arsenal pond stig sega fee ae ons eel IS MA MR ED PY COTES xii 
Ereezingiof theponds no injury to: the fish. /.bte.ce ee ee Bae xiii 
Mhe @odi( Gadus morrhuay esses rcsesss ores bee oe nr SS RO y exis: 
whe) Gloucesteristation 3320s esr es oe ae oo I Sine pene SEDI PE xii 
initiationofsthe enterprise ts soso rts Se oe Ph wd cc ece xiii 
Facilities forthe work at ‘Gloucestersscece2 3 oe ee ee ceo ccc slice cceces slili 


Previous'investigationsiof Sarge. ltrs cssee ee toe ae eae eae sou cali tali dec sccews xiii 


VIil CONTENTS. 


5. WORK ACCOMPLISHED IN 1878—Continued. 
The Cod—Continued. 


Experiments a8 to proper Apparatus ... 200.2222 een ene wn he ee sane enn eens nines nnmnsace xliii 
Personsienvacedan the wOrko cscs a0 a2 sane cles Sepeeni= =e |= => anaes eee eee xliii 
Closevor workin ds anuary V819 ac. concn ae cocoon oecaiers +4055 eee e eee aa eae eee xiii 

HW xperiments On) OLNeM GAA L son = = eo ssn a aicle siete palatal ayaa eee eee taecetale ana ste etoe is eoe xliii 
Contemplated arrangements in the future....-....---.----- concen eon ese ewn nee nee oe xiii 
Reference'to article by Mr. Harll-~ oon. oe nee ne nee nen - ame menine cee eee === xliv 
Whe Sole (Solea vulgaris). .......2.------ ------ enn eee on =-nn new enn nn nn nnn nemnn en xliv 
SORMUE PONE S GALLON ee areata = ae mise sam elm ee le xliv 
Collection of specimens of sole and turbot.......-.-.-------------------------- eee xliv 
Transfer in charge of Hred. Mather --- ser smcccicee aso 2eemen == -ee = Ean xliv 
Failure of the experiment, and its, CAUSE oe wat oo cele emai = aoe oe eee ain eine silos xliv 
(VINTEC) 685566 sacs pas onbeicee Co SpeSE Se coosoncascosossacbe so s8 -Sases seca Bosodse ss sco xliv 
Hxpertmonts ol OsSCar SCHMIC. cscs =o -mieemre ase ee eee elena eee ee eel alee xlv 
(Coyne boys binvensiey nih Ways Ae BE Pee ean ep eee ODDO Saocc COAG corn To ero See US SSAS HARSHA Scnoseee - xlv 


D.—THE RELATION OF FISH CULTURE TO THE AMERICAN FISHERIES. 


6. INFLUENCE OF CIVILIZED MAN ON THE ABUNDANCE OF ANIMAL LIFE. 


Illustrations of former abundance of life in America. .........-...22--.--------2-2-0-2eee xivi 
Mammals ‘and birds. « -...2 6 S28 s02 SSIs Hales sctaete teers saree ee ane eee xlvi 

ISHS Wisse sescice ccc siee dese tt eeeteeesansmaestecadel aneee cis ss 5lsie Gaeta eee ene xlvi 
Salmon/in'the Connecticut =--2-22 2.5 ss soe ee se one ene ee nae Sean eee eee xlvii 

Shad and herring in the Potomac ..-<tccn.-2se22----05--t2cess-4see- see eee eee 

Striped. bass.along thecoast:= <2 - . 22h pcs wines ose nie sae aoe ee eee xlvii 

Marine fishes: the halibut,.é¢ =..--222--<--2---a- omsecea = seme sane aee eee xlvii 

Especial influence of man on abundance of fishes. ...... 2.0.2. 2.20c0 een eenenee eee -------- xlviii 
(Upon inshore‘marine fisheries of: cod, 202. - 6 eon nie ceecn sane ae nee sansa seeeeeeae ae xlviii 
Influenced by decrease of anadromous fish. ....-...--.-.-.--------+ess00. -2------ xviii 

Marine fish follow the anadromous to the coast ...--.---.-------------------- xviii 

Also lie in wait to catch returning adults and young..........--..----------- xlviii 

No inducements to come inshore with diminution of anadromous fish........ xlix 

Consequent necessity to go many miles from land to take cod, &c.-.-...--... xlix 

Upon anadromous fishes, as shad, salmon, &¢......----.-.--.------ SONG 2 ee = opie 
Influence of artificial dams......... jRistteeet op setae cewees -daRee eo nere eth ees xlix 

Prevent ascent: to spawning rounds... ~~). -osseant secten scaece- ls) bedeee xlix 

Time required to show-marked effect j...'..2 .. one spree ee cesses s tmceiew owas xlix 

Sawdust «ci .cesscciaciersciteawuetetestanme dessus oe ene oet ee ean oe tee nea 1 

Coal-tar and factory refuse: << 2252: ssc seccs5522 ces koees! ss sence eaetewae eee 1 

Nets and. pounds.......00-<cctessiaceetedentss secs decent <cb seccmels mae E eer eee 1 

Remedies for the:decrease.-—..... 2.5 -<- Uoaner cece ck ose aa oot et cess oe sa ee ee eee 1 
Legislation and: protection. .....2s2o5.d2-22ebacbeocts cds cissenee ph nee e eee see eee aeeeees 1 
Artificial propagation:s..-<.<+sscnssscatesces sce cces satan hese ge hee oe Seas ee eee 1 

7. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF INCREASE OF FISH SUPPLY..-.....------------------ poet 1 
Relation between fish and butchers’ meats =2. 92. fe ec oe owen woe Gee ee see sas n aera ees 1 
iHormer extentto’ which-fish were used asfo0d > -22.ss-2- seco eee ee eee eee eee eee eee 1 
SSeMODE OF INCREASING SUPPLY OF FISH: 23... ..ssceccmsceeceetins aoe nen eee leone sae eee li 
BOLE RSL AtION = <= cicicice tinic's one cncewie otsst we cucle ene eoe ceiaaeeerelelae ere seleetaialeya as ola ata eae eee li 
By ptsh:colture: .-~ .<<.soeb ose sea ae ae o-oo ee RE eee eee eee betta cee eee li 
Transfer and rearing of parent or young fish, and eggs laid naturally......-----..--.---- li 
Practice Of Chinese «--..cvecs cceocs cess s sec cee wer cee eno eee ae een aaiee See ae eee li 
Artificial propagation’. -...2....522 220 ooo lan oecon ohana eee eee eee eee ene. sae lii 
General principles and methods. ....2 2202... s2 dae 2e ccc acdas docdees=— seach ee see eeee lii 
Economy of artificial propagation compared with natural........-..--.------+------ lii 

Great superiority in results, ofthe former “oc. <2 2... -seeee sce ee aes tae eee A lij 

More complete fertilization of. eges....--6 5. - 252 o- s-cleeeneseeee te eeaeeeane ia lii 

Protection of eggs and young fish from enemies. .....-.------.-----+--+------ lii 

Pstimated: ratio sz see seese's cecessneoecpecweeuwieas be ssOeeeee eee eee eee lii 

jHustory of artificial propacation.--..2.......02-ssesesees ese e asset eee eee een lii 

In HUT OPO anne eh <5 5i02Sc ade x <n oad eiss <eenes memeien emaesine aap ee ee eee ee lii 

Mn tAimericawhe sf.e0s Coste sew Ja lnc aoe kas oh eke weet ate be eelelee eeee ae eee cae hii 

Mrout, ossl ste see ee. LE SRE Ee See eee ete aat aes lii 

Shad 2 fe sec dale ces Ge sca ke wa dtices cen oa.c ace cess Sec ee eee aos eee eee eee liii 

Seth) Green’s method cs sh... 2. oc nceeeeceeene wja‘a'sjnjeee na teeee dane estes liii 


Mercuson's method) 225 3.6 ose ee os c0s 5 \scncicsescenieesaee bSase0csace aidonee oe Dai 


CONTENTS. IX 
Page. 
9. OPERATIONS OF UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. .....2-2-scncenc ene ecntn ce ceceeenneceeneeees liii 
First established in 1871 for inquiry into the fisheries........0. 22-2 nee ee =e eee eee ee ne liii 
Propagation of fishes added. im 1872... 2.2.2.2. eee ene ce eee enw cence cre ccncecceaecenenaas liv 
Nishes receiving, especialattention )---. 50... 22. - cee cee nccanes eennncncrenceaiesueienn liv 
Shadlandeisnmportantere ae cates cece = eee ose cess eeeieaiaes ete mnlalera sein = mere istetatets esta liv 
Successful results of planting them .....-.-...- 25.025. - serene enemeraabennane sees liv 
The eastern or Atlantic salmon) .2.--42¢-2---- ---- oer coc emesh ac ceceedecasseemnnina=ms = liv 
Results in the Connecticut and elsewhere. ............------002-e--0-e----------- lv 
The Calitoriasalmone. a. aencle scien is ona cee aes = siete chin semclede sate mana S aa nie aenieelers ame lv 
Advanta ves;over other species<44-p4es---<<els= ace ancideass + meneme cent eee emanate lv 
Great demand and extensive distribution ........-..--...---.-------------------- lv 
The German carp.---.. Denes Sosiethe Soe ores arcs Sonnet sosaetects sto ariinels sein cteierise Aeneas lvi 
TSAI ba ccuctbnesHeredon SoseneeansHasopccsdack oct ian Sen hh eee eons ae lvi 
Mmitroduchonof steane inh atehin eg fst ese eae en eae eee seme oe an satis = acme feo leeretelatatateleratara lvi 
INVemtonlos Mire Herons ONE tessa ep eeaeas oases ce ee aie nae meeea teen eats ae)4 sfaitelaiat= mater Wi 
Greatincresse in number of shadenatohed) 22 sassaseca<a<=siniacleacuinionsinni=cenede ee weeidate lvi 
Application of apparatus to hatchery of cod. -..-.-- 2. ------cesjeencacs-sccancsrnieesce-- 55 lvi 
Hstablishment at Gloucester) Mass) oes. -- cc smsjsci- «cise aemele\sacdsiemicle se anil ale ininie inn lvi 
Expectation of extending line of coast cod-fisheries ..........----..22-0.e-002------------ lvii 
Application to hatching of mackerel, halibut, &¢ ......----...--..0-eeces ceeenceens------ lvii 
Effect on British fisheries of increase in American supply.-.--.---.---+.------------------ lvii 
E.—TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION OF FISH FOR 1878. 
TapLE I.—Distribution of shad from April 11 to June 14, 1878, by the United States and Maryland 
GommissionsiomHishiand Misheriesy see's soceaiesc ees feiss ee vic oe ae rigeicte spsletdolsleigte Aejoe's a alenamt= lviii 
TaBLE II.—Distribution of California salmon reared from eggs collected in 1678* .-...------- --- lxi 
TABLE III.—Distribution of land-locked salmon reared from eggs collected in 1878. (Deferred 
until the next report, on account of incomplete returns.) 

TaBLE IV.—Distribution of whitefish reared from eggs collected in 1878f .....------------------- lsiv 
Il.—APPENDIX TO REPORT OF COMMISSIONER. 
APPENDIX A.—PATENTS; LEGISLATION ; PROTECTION. 

TI. Bobert G. Dyrenforth. List OF PATENTS ISSUED IN THE UNITED STATES, GREAT BRITAIN, 
AND CANADA, UP TO THE END OF 1878, RELATING TO FISH AND THE METHODS, PRODUCTS, AND 
APPLICATIONS OF THE FISHERIES. By Robert G. Dyrenforth, principal examiner, United 
Statesweabent: Omeeres.-caaat ass ae wlere antes ode wis aan siae a /slerealetste's =o stele enleins «'eleieforeeicisetaa acres 33 
PAN GTIGAMYD ALCNES os a= = alteania a ain a2 a eleiw ne asics wise win wln os eietaia mi siom setele-latm|sim Vee isles minim aim 3-15 
TSTMS PONS) oe ose n Rb er SOO bbc HOODOO SDE OO Dab DqOO DUO COCO SSE Er canoe. =o) mo SSR AaeeBeeS 11-15 
Canadian patents) Se oo o.oo Soc scene oie = women oman cee ncewceeretecesceese= =m escsec enim ~ 16 
Il. Robert G. Dyrenforth. ABSTRACT OF PATENTS ISSUED IN GREAT BRITAIN, UP TO THE 
YEAR 1878, HAVING REFERENCE TO THE PURSUIT, CAPTURE, AND UTILIZATION OF THE PRODUCTS 
OF THE FISHERIES. By Robert G. Dyrenforth, M. D., examiner, United States Patent Office. 
AVVADIS EX DEOME LL Te See ease aes eee ee a ee tee ee miele aa ete mieten eo elotee akaraiaiae er eae relate 17 
I. Wemorial. A Prerition TO THE FIsH COMMISSION OF THE UNITED STAaTEs, signed by 
theishermen of Block Island, Junel201877 sseecn 2-2 sss se oe nin cicie sna nese eesceeec cee 35 
APPENDIX B.—FISHERY EXPOSITIONS. 
IV. A. Feddersen. AUSTRACT OF AN ARTICLE FROM THE ‘‘ NORDISK TIDSSKRIFT FOR FISKERI,” 
1878, entitled ‘‘ OBSERVATIONS ON FISHERY EXPOSITIONS,” ETC. By A. Feddersen ..-....-.--.-- 43 
V. Joakim Anderssen. REPORT ON THE DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES IN THE WOBLD's EXPosl- 
TION IN PHILADELPHIA, 1876. By Joakim Anderssen, juryman..............-.-.--.---------- 47 
ihe dishery, exhibition in Philadel phianmet8i6s--secessiscns set cine sionclee avila doe aie => 47 
Mea Dhegisheresione Norton AMerncgers. cake aet ee ee eee eee cae ates siete sce ses ccee me 54 
III. Brief account of the fisheries of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland ............---..---- 64 
IQYS DROSHA 2-3 Lease deo A hd cha cedinn pcos cecasaue 5 Sas asOsoat >See Beene secses 67 


* The eggs of the California salmon were hatched out in 1878 but not distributed, for the most part, 
until 1879. The hatching and distribution were made by the State fishery commissions, except when 


otherwise stated. The imperfections of the returns will be remedied in the next report. 


7 Not hatched until 1879. The‘hatching and distribution made by the New Jersey I'ish Commission. 


The eggs were collected by IF’. N. Clark, of Northville, Mich. 


x CONTENTS. 


APPENDIX C.—THE SEA FISHERIES. 


VI. Frederick Wi, Wallem. Report ON THE AMERICAN FISHERIES. By Frederick M. 


Wallen ease cciccraimae nec ccna y tia ccs ccc n5 ois anal wcewioe atelsa nla (= Nelseetetetal Ae aiet mints lel petetetee tte 75 
Tntroductory, remarks cos seen ss- soc casas con see oes midn nie = oo melee tal eat eee ela tel 75 
Te The dresh-fisht GiadG sn ce\s == so = sa snes a olen ieee mtaleler ete hate hate ata teed ol ole ee q7 
Ii Kinds/and pricesiof fish. ....2-----<. 22-2 s-sme0s-cceccees oem me caesdnta dae “ee teen 78 

III. A culinary fish dinner, with international dishes......-.-..------.--..--------------0- 
IV. North America as a market for imported fish products. A few statisties -........-..- 83 
V. Preserving fish with ice, and the significance to Norway of this mode of treatment -.. 89 
iva. he) American refrigerator . . 2-2 seen e Nite ale matt eat eto ee ore eee 92 
VII. Two kinds of refrigerators on board packet steamers for carrying fresh meat ...-...-- 94 
WiLL Hresh-water fisheries in -Am erica. = so ssesae cleanse ncises a cies eee eee ae ea eee 98 
IX. Hatching young fishes for the sake of the fisheries. ......-.......---.---.------------- 102 
X. Life on board a fishing schooner at sea. Mackerel catching with the purse-seine .... 108 
Xo Concluding TeMarks -o oo semitone eel ele eee alate a eta alot ate ee et 114 

VII. Ei. Widegrem. SHORT INTRODUCTION TO THE PROPER CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE 
BALTIC FISHERY. By H. Widegren, Stockholm, 1874 --- 20. 6c. en ose cememen ae nm hanna nte= ase 117 
Phe rfanm a Of Ghee ae a ee la arm alee ee ele ate ede eel et ele hee tee eet 117 
I. The coast fishery on the coast and in the bays of the Baltic..............--.------ 118 
TT Thefisheries inthe open Baltic .a- 2 52-s--4sesace sees eee sae eee eee 124 

VIII. Axel Vilheim Ljungmam. THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN AND THE SCIEN- 
TIFIC INVESTIGATION OF THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES. By Axel Vilhelm Ljungman.-.-.......... 143 


I. The necessary basis for carrying on the Bohuslan salt-water fisheries and the scientific 
and practical investigations and experiments required for obtaining this basis .--. 143 
Il. Brief review of our present knowledge of the mode of life and the migrations of the 


herring, and their physical and biological causes......-...-----..------------------ 160 
IX. Axe! Vilhelm Ljungmam. THE GREAT BOHUSLAN HERRING FISHERIES. By Axel Vil- 
helm Ejunpman: 255 se 562. ak eee am ae mela ese eet eee ete melee inital ates ole alee ell loll 221 
X. Anonymous. SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING THE NORWEGIAN FISHERIES ...-....----------------- 241 
XI. Lieut. Niels Duel. Sraristics OF THE LOFFODEN FISHERIES FoR 1878. By Lieut. Niels 
UCL we ba cnece sce ah stins cee Se ee ee eae oe aerate enna enstere a aerate tctatoys 0 arta ts ua aaa fo eae 245 
APPENDIX D.—DEEP-SEA RESEARCH. 
XU. Prof. G. ©. Sars. RepvorT ON THE NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878. By Prof. 
CRO) St Nr: pease ate eae aie es Gia Pi eh Nae ee ORs IR oR i SS ERA SHEARS Oe oiSadocon: 257 
XIT. G. Marsten. ON THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF THE BALTIC SEA AND THE GERMAN 
OCEAN: By G. Karsten-c 25. -sesesee ee cee cee eee eee aeace etee ese ase ae eit eee ees 283 
APPENDIX E.—THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MARINE ANIMALS. 
XIV. @scar Marger. Report ON THE MARINE IsorpopA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT 
WATERS. By Oscar Harger. With thirteen plates.....-......---------<s+ee-c-nees- ==" ---== 297 
NE MONISCIOD): 2's 5 sis.cn cle coc cece eee ee eee eee ecie See siat eRe ee seer oe as eee 305 
HATE BOpyridis ~ > 23 ces ccc ccc cece te re eee ree ela tela eke ote ee 311 
10 0 Ro N(6) 0006 C2 eee En SAREE DOLE OOOC GD ac Coa STaS ea SOOr OES sae a0t 312 
VE MEO NOpsides ¢ os. 1.) Sane ese cces Selec Soc se aeemepia se sie meplalaiplac ete e las ae eee ee 328 
BVeMMelotbeidaa: ete sie Sa ye rec NN me She oo ete et oe 335 
AVA DRY: aretn ote (ot: ieee a ee een RR a ees a Sats per Oe ee Sapa be cos saneeace rade occdsodess: 361 
Walley Sphreromids 02 on.). cid okwc sche s coe eget algun te ea eae Bela ceiae ates « qeeliae(c cinoma tn aint 367 
AVAL IMNOTIMD wishes Soc boc home wee er ee Se ee eee ee oo ate eee nets etait! 371 
TXeyGirolanids 522.6625 ccd ood peo ne 2 See ee ee ene Seneca oe ieee 376 
2G vii ea een min yen Db 5A Be nic onphamcamnocca stim Ss2aco2 57 382 
xe Oy mothoids 25222250. 2-228 oe a SoS oe ae eee alee eee tee ae 390 
EXG TD PAM GD UPI wes siecitis obs be sole See wc ck ale Seca ee Celie Cee Oe ee eee oe siete ae eee 396 
BNODINy, Geno PHU G93 5) sarsie so, clSine ~ ES oc Saree bobo o So tue See ee oe eae es ee eee se ele ee tele eee 408 
SXONV GM RRMaidas se ebeeeua detec cua cecilia acd SUE Ree re mee eateries ata atetate ele ete 413 
MAREOL AULNOTIGICS) | ans oc onitiae os) a's acivs mac aemele adem oe ee ee eee eens ae a Peis 436 
ixplanationof, the plates 24... 2-0. .2 <2 -setses liek ee eee eee Ae EBEe Ee SUR pe Mattar vane 408 


Alphabetical Index: . 22. .22..c0'5 05 mn cb sacete debs sake Coane re oe al stele nineties 459 


CONTENTS. XI 
Page. 
XV. Edmund ES. Wilson. Rerorr on THE PycNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT 
waters. By Edmund B. Wilson. With seven plates..--- BLE RU Ae a Lees eee ae 463 
HAA Vane lati y CHOP OUIG Coy alata nicinla emai ame a malnaainninje aisielela/aenicie ela sie\n staan = stom ice a eae 469 
amily = UWA cholidigyjencsca. ewe tet ecme cc wae cus caus Sees Mero ce Seen mele bie maemestoie 471 
amily We Palleni(speseewisssian ssc ance cecccinioca ceoacen seecceitis cence stein lec mwaivaeaiaeree 476 
Hamahy sve wNymphontd eae enc eretctictstacie see eae mtramatiale c's alslers Se misao Memiteleloiaicinte cieehe cea ie 484 
HEIN G OL WORKS TOLOLREdKtOm eee mc cones tees nc be ct cee ene cee le ecco peinmer ea anes ea sicicians me 499 
Tp TALON OF pIRGeS eee een aaa ae eee cme cya mes cocea casa ssa e ae sean sane mets 503 
PRG Oxear ara a oem mae atin sera eis ate aie cic leinte winielcia me lelatars at ialuya'e Sha sic camrerebeie tate etera. sealer eiesiaraye neta 505 
APPENDIX F.—THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD FISHES.—GENERAL CONSID- 
ERATIONS. 
XVI. Baron de la Valette St.George. THE ENEMIES OF FISH. By Baron de la Valette 
St. George, director of the Anatomical Institute at Bonn .....- Ho noanicmoseguccestdoondacoese+ 509 
XVII. DH. Ieasech. IS SAWDUST AS SERIOUS AN OBSTACLE TO THE ASCENT Of SALMON-IN OUR 
RIVERS! ABS GENERALLY MAINTAINED?) By Prof. H. Rasch -s.. 222... o 28 oo e ee cece ne 517 
XVIII. KE. Reichardt. THE PURIFICATION OF RETUSE WATER. By Prof. E. Reichardt, of Jena. 519 
Buriicaxtion om water Dy TOPOSO <5. s2c5 soe se ccae one a OU Ne ot cases ata see sek ages ces oe 520 
PUNACAtON OL water by Chemical process) ecicncec ane cos sc cc oem na ate a oe ene 521 
XTX. A. IS. Stirlimg. NOTES ON THE FUNGUS DISEASE ATPECTING SALMON. By A.B. Stirling. 525 
XX. A.B. Stirling. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FUNGUS DISEASE AFFECTING SALMON 
AND OMBER RISH. | VicAL Mme Sirlin OY kee ce ce eb kee oar ise Wak LRAT URS ER ge lh 531 
XXI. Anonymous. SICKNESS OF THE GOLDFISH IN. THE ROYAL PARK, BERLIN. From ‘‘ Deutsche 
WIscherel-Vewtun Ge yo) seen cccks soca as clade ces ateetacoekas snl e ue sete I 537 
XXII N. Wergeland. Tur ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE NORWEGIAN LAKES AND RIVERS AS A 
MAE GOR FISH CULTURE. /ByiN. Wergeland 22 23.220. $28. sedoe Dasher ee ee 529 
Te pGeneraliconsideratiOns\..2 Sates ica ae tee SNS UI Ee Ra ea 543 
WI. What further should be done, and wher efare Lapid saeinited dense soos Re sons Sateteens a SL ats 549 
IU. The fishes which should be the objects of culture; also the kinds ef fishes and other 
aquatic animals which should be reared as food for these ..-.-..--..-...----------- 564 
Ver Acqninedlexperience's=! =. bM6h is. sek NY Sd eI Es eR ave ae EU 580 
V. Estimated profit and the economical Salae ofthe wateriarea ssi 5u. ese shu Ieee 589 
XXII. Christiam Wagmer. WHAT DOES A FISH Cost? By Christian Wagner..........--- 605 


APPENDIX G.—THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES.—APPLICATION. 


Clupeide.—The herring family. 


XXIV. James W. Mlilmer. THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SHAD IN 1878. By 


PU RINGR Neen NOt scree secs ae eet le NS Oh re oe haa io pan Scare ery ves ae in 

A. Station on Albemarle Sound)... 22-2 -<..cec<2-c-+osecer eseieeicle(isscie ees mateeacisieiswese= 

‘iB. Siation mearibHavre de Grace, Maryland) ccs qcn- ceca anceree Keen ecca seen ecceinsseeaee 

CME OCOMAC) RAV CE SUALLON o> 2) ei emilee tet ree rae Moe metus conn ne he Guin emma cus smite 

Me Generalmesnlts sess scawes oaccstiseecew clon samen cases tee sell aetas tenia 4 ciceieaaelcersee ae 

XXV. EX. A. Micyer. BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE DURING THE ARTIFICIAL RAISING OF 
HERRINGS IN THE WESTERN BALTIC. By H. A. Meyer. Preface .................-2--------0ee 

I. Influence of the temperature on the development of the eggs of the herring in spring. . 

Il. Influence of North Sea water on herrings’ eggs from the Baltic ...........2-.2...----- 

III. Raising young herrings from artificially impregnated eggs................-22..--.---- 


XXXVI. A.V. Ljzmgman. TUE PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF THE NERRING AND SMALL HER- 
RING, WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO THE COAST OF BOHUSLAN. By A. V. Ljungman............... 


Cyprinide.—The carp family. 
XXVII. Robert A. Poppe. THE INTRODUCTION AND CULTURE OF THE CARP IN CALIFORNIA. 
yA OLOPA MeO DDG maser etere aac eestes ase ence ac assent ee eee ae fo. eels aos eee 
AXVIT. Eben Bandittem. ON CARP CULTURE, CHIEFLY IN ITS RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 
yg DEMYB ALLL aaa oa wae os ase Aeeelisioseseninssd SSSA anu Ae naked tan ccc cee. MIN aee na Ue 
XXIX. Br. Ed. ee ON THE CARP-PONDS OF NETHER-LUSATIA. By Dr. E. Veck- 
CEREUS RACEES D/L iPS Ue OY aA NU a Nr 


XXXI. Anonymous. Mr. CurisTIAN WAGNER'S ESTABLISHMENT FOR RAISING GOLDFISH, AT 
OUD ENBIR Gi GTA ieee cabins meme ae Pee at TER OREN Me Ep ce Ni, A ekg 


xil CONTENTS. 


Page. 
Gadide.—The cod family. 
XXXII. R.E. Earli. A Report ON THE HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SHORE COD 
FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN, MASSACHUSETTS, TOGETHER WITH NOTES ON THE NATURAL HISTORY 
AND ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF THE sPEcIES. By R. E. Earll, assistant, United States Fish 
Commission! 2046 225 dec tees on cascnce cge cnc Sanco SocGule asst asnelecces seecame des See ama ene eee 


ANS Morne laventayay see eA ee BSE Ee SOAR a Soon san cctaone sadadeb nase stnige ez cess ce 685 
iB seh oishore fis MOTOS We tenia eS ais ete eet a = wold he te oy tal boleh end ieee 686 
1 Oniein‘otmbe.cod fisheries of Cape Amn. - ac. ae aca nee wn cin nelae ene ieee ioe 686 
an Characterofmhe HS binCWTOUNGS facicen. woe seme -inies cine te == -seeee SSCEEO Oe BS SAe 692 
Bee erelb: SCHOOLS eee a ieee sei ase asia aia eels alee alee ee 692 
AN IMG} O TET) ECO) NM He penn no OSE SE ORE Cer a aeosboone SE ooe Door ECCe MnO mm enEaSss Sochsos 693 
Fy Uva NAUK Pl oe see Sa nee Gangcadncane SaqeoOd ber Gee ssdcuee ae Josie Gans a6 696 
6. Disposicion made of thetishts sos 5 see omeee esses = an eeee seleen ee sae ee a ee 700 
CA Naturalvhistoryot theicoder 32 .- soci sees aes hema aisle nies oie oinala feet fee oo ee 704 
1, ‘Geocraphical distribmuion scan 2m see canis oe eater oe riajed aise aioe) setae nee ilo 704 
or iCharacteristics Of tholcod sees cus, a. tee cake ene nan sentra tone ec eee es ae eee 705 
SH OOCdKO ft ne CO ser aceeenessa ee eemacee eee alas 1 AMES ABS EG cnceers «oaseesucconadesoc 710 
asshnemies of theCod? wesc. sant oo tote ool te ects cine eta a clon sata Soe ie a ele Sete at ge erent ied: 
OP AEG PLO UCI OM seme seis = ain\ela l= olan Seale mim alee lee et mtate fel ole eee ee a ee tte te a 712 
D. Hatching operations— 
T- Objectiof the Worle ee sae. teseme esate ise ce eeeieeiels selctae ad teteen ie ace ete 718 
25 (Preparations for hatehing) 2 2.225 50. oe cee tne cle wom a wcninn sae rete earn eee 718 
3 Manneriof procurin® 622s) seo .c nie msitee oe ee eee seeieen seated. = a4: SUSE Ee eae oe 719 
4: Hatching operations 2.9 sci s 266-2 nee esos noses asieaein aaa cae ae eee 720 
5. Ditticultiesiencountered 222. - wc oplesiccenenen en ricn eae senaeienar cn ceSee eee eee 726 
6. Experiments with eggs of other species— 
JAG 1S Gp Bb NR Ree Boos oaboao cobboogoocde Hososos Le edanesBadesissacé ee see sis eee 727 
IBS Pollock? 4. s2-s=<6 BEE AEE E as GREE BREA 5S Ree Heim 4 docinoc 729 
Cr Haddock 2 o-ccncemnseresse elses sean e rece ace ee nea «nee eens eee 730 
We Conclusions’ --s-----ssceee cee cee ene eenine eee cee nietee ns: cee etine ese ee 731 
10, ANE NES Eee ces sapsctoonee BAS ebb ob ondbec be sticos Sec cntintte See sab Sossaccoese sooasS- 732 


Salmonidee.—The salmon family. 
XXXII. Livingston Stome. REPORT OF OPERATIONS AT THE UNITED STATES SALMON-HATCH- 


ING STATION ON THE McCLouD RIvER, CALIFORNIA, IN 1878. By Livingston Stone*........... 741 
Table I. Table of temperatures taken at the United States salmon-breeding station, 
McCloud River, California, during the season of 1878 .-.-..-------..--.-----------0 764 
Table IL. Table of salmon eggs taken at the United States salmon- breeding station, 
McCloud River, California, during the season of 1878 .-....-----....-2.------.---- 766 


Table WI. Table showing the weights of salmon spawned on various days at the United 
States salmon-breeding station, McCloud River, California, during the season of 


STB. cs Ste S pclctaletalote nee Hicleloletel ot etelslostenis ois thes ead es ee Eee eee rivy 

Table IV. Table of distribution of salmon eggs from the United States salmon-breeding 
station, McCloud River, California, during the season of 1878-......--.--..---..--- 768 

Table V. Catalogue of natural history collections made for the Smithsonian Institution 
in 1878 by, Livingston Stone: 5.22)... -cs0ceecie qe = lees - = aoe eee ee eee ener 769 

XXXIV. W.E. Wubbard. REPORT OF SALMON-HATCHING OPERATIONS IN 1878 AT THE CLACK- 
AMAS, (OREG:; HATCHERY... By W. EF. Hubbard. co.cc cne oo ene os cease tees sears eee 771 


XXXV. H&. B. Pratt. REPORT OF SALMON-HATCHING OPERATIONS ON ROGUE RIVER, OREGON, 
AST TO7.) By Uke BePratt 2: coo: vs5ek csc aca cence ee a en ee 


XXXVI. Charles G. Atkins. REPORT ON AN ATTEMPT TO COLLECT EGGS OF SE3AGO SALMON 


PN S78... By Charles, G. Atkins. . . 3.20.10: co nes sme aaeaane nice @aaee aitsce kona see cae ee 775 
i. Habitat of Sebago salmon 2.22.5 <<<,. ac.cd2 ces dese aascslen ae ee eee eee ae eee T7 
2. Characteristics of, Sebago salmon ...--0<cco--sesene nese ceo eee nee eee 776 
oy Mormer‘efiorts ati cultivation: ...2-.qechsdeecc keene see eee ee cee nee eee eee ee 78 
4° Organizationot operations in 1878. -2-- 2. .-225- oe sos nee eeseie cones Ae OP ee ee sere 778 
DENS ;SCASON'S WOLKE vases cee hocd ova cdeemecen coe e coats Gee See eee ee er 779 
6. He Buck's diary atiSonco Lock! 1878)... 222 acess ct sete ee ele ee ee 780 
7. Observations on temperature and weather at Songo Lock ...-..--.-.---.-------------- 785 

XXXVI. Charles G,. Atkims. Report oN THE COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC 

SAUMON EGGS IN}1878. “By Charles G. Athing 2222252 32. oc. ccc ccincsosnanesceneee ae see caee ee eee 789 
TH APTEPATAONS Ao 22 oon es Se vid eee desale ol ate tee ee eee te aoe eRe eee eee 789 
2 Bishing.and spawning oo-88 kee Sees ses | AOE A Paley ee me 791 


3. The development of the eggs 


* The species involved is the Quinnat salmon (Salmo quinnat). 


* Published in 1876. 


CONTENTS, XIII 
XXXVII, Charles G. Atkims—Continued. Page. 
Srey s ONIN Os bIPMeNuee mes ec tesa sceceaum tse cissswel ae ces ceancate ce eee tete re meee 798 
S.Hatching andyplantin gain. i. .45s 2 cron walas cists wems vices spews ot So keute ach medal oe 799 
Table I. Record of fishing in Grand Lake Stream, Maine, October, 1879, and November, 
NOTE e einta sins, o\s einen mtaisio a alata ene nscteis ctcia elas te ate ae ee see Cae Sm 800 
Table I. Record of spawning operations at Grand Lake Stream, 1878 . SrEoossoreceoo 2 
Table III. Measurement of Schoodic salmon at Grand Lake Stream, raise UST Sareea 803 
Table IV. Record of shipment of salmon spawn from Grand Lake Stream, February and 
ADDI 1S (Qhemcenemanmensc mec ease eee s cect cc eae Soar eS ore OC ey ad 804 
Table V. Statement of the distribution of Schoodic salmon, 1879.........---.....-..---. 805 
Table VI. Observations on the temperature and weather at Grand Lake Stream, 1878.... 809 
Table VII. General summary of observations on temperatures at Grand Lako Stream 
FLOMMOCtODEr STO tO May el STOuINClUSI Vets ee neat eee eee eee eee 814 
XXXVI. Eforace BD. Dumm. Do THE sPAWNING SALMON ASCENDING THE SACRAMENTO 
RIVER ALL DIE WITHOUT RETURNING TO SEA? By Horace D. Dunn. With notes by Livingston 
SLOTS .2oGBS ERG TEECHE Gabe SE EEE e URE DS IC Aa ea eas Mm nen eshiy son RRA iat omy eile iat ay DT yt 815 
XXXIX. Mortom Allport. PRESENT STATE OF THE SALMON EXPERIMENT IN TASMANIA. By 
Jyh Waveney Ib haya rh 8 Od SEND NY Aits Wipe ee eerie Pee Ae a en SS 7 UT ee 819 
XL. CORRESPONDENCE CONNECTED WITH THE TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF THE QUINNAT SALMON AND 
WHITE FISH TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, 1877, 1878, AND PRIOR YEARS. ...-...--...----- 825 
PASULSUI ELT reselerieatatals mR SIa tape vatate ape iets oe 7c EI 8 pn UR a 825 
New, Zealandyereae ss epee etki ey ates ee keel UUNUN Mee ast lai ) Oy MMt dda seal eRe 833 
XLI. CORRESPONDENCE CONNECTED WITH THE TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF THE QUINNAT SALMON AND 
OTHER SALMONIDA TO EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IN 1878 AND PRIOR YEARS ...-..-..--..-....--..-. 907 
Crosman ygee ato pectinases ae anoisia = scent etc eoe nee oe ee eee, ne 907 
France... .-% » SH SOS BS OUOCSHOOAHAS HOE CHACHA ECOARemtEr Meare a oe BUA Si Ee al ee Ve 912 
The Netherlands. -.-......-..- Esai sie miata’ Ae miele aniaieiarctote setts ob ine ee naires eriace eee ene 914 
_XLIT. SUMMARY OF REPORTS FOR 1878 BY STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS RESPECTING THE INCREA5B 
ORO OD RISHERS 1B YAR TILICLATEROPAGA TION ss cciccle ness anis snes aasteeee ec aoe ae te ee 925 
IER) ese GOH BACHOR SAG ets ERT SEE ai DP ae Sek Ap) es LI aA ae Ss tcl gu) 8) 928 
Ne wpllam pS bireis\., 5/223 sees cee se Ns SMO 928 
Massachusetts te-ceuet afugoe see tae os ewiss sas sieieisrdseeae, aceeystdll eae hel eel e 932 
Rbodeplsland ( vsescnaawss bse Apes ce cladistic he ee eee a A Re 934 
emrmechiCniyedti asset er Ase te 6 tS Fe See uieea ssn coat cao bee iad ibe < sah ems 934 
IGT VIG Je SSE SARE SBS COR sare ace ere ets ema mm Cty nr Mes CORTES “RAEN O NOT mbsnth Fe? | 935 
Ne ruiVe TROY ee mata a aan os ctapeseh Soe nee su A Neath ais tise Sena Ua aul cl WN 938 
HP ONNIS VLV AI Brome seo ts.. en emee Soke ays etn a eee ih eee tablet me 940 
SMV Land peepee ses es aesisee se SN Acre each 4 ke OA a egg AR 941 
AID TaN V2 OSG Uc FEED eB es ESR oe th I Re Se ane RE OE Ae RR A 941 
MERSSISSIPPL Vise ye ses Nae este hs Me Cue eta E Poe. PUR SE's areal Pen nae 942 
CAM bE Mare RS ae oe SPE eas eae hee ens egw mea OD Pera One Ee SR eN S PET  eN 943 
XLUL ©.G. Atkins. Cuear mxTurvs FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. By Charles G. At- 
BCUMIG UE = -IeCiA. laine eran 2s Jet cle cmae chad MRM NW na ae HB nh aly SH ycvaices he in awn ls aay Raga, 945 
La Scope of thespaperrais45..55 Sb aeus essences aoe eee ne Mela t ahes a Il 945 
ANI UGOL trates Sake leh no Scene Ra see emma es Eee ee ec NE “Mee od cca el: Socal “vite Sates 946 
GS STO Rec cob SC oe aor HOE SEER O EES OO OBEISS cote See aac ae ee ar en Ren NI os 948 
ASWarmsandioond uitgee ens eee sins PP eM eL ohe cS corse, VNR ea Road Bh elm arg 949 
ape MLCT OMe eee see Namie san oe ave GOT ee OR NRO ce Sa ae eds ee en 950 
GBH berin gerne ns seen maaan sass cosas or toe eye tec. et anc ageless et ee 952 
Mwbatchine troughs|and fittings: 2.1 fsces co. leeee ets, feet in ene ASE AUR SN Oe 954 
SUEVVALG Lay Biches strane neem ante ts at sds SNM tame: AO Allee ah ATE RSOES ERE SIU 957 
See NUCA in PAP GItr Ay A eOk WOE cece s Aes seen ae eed ee ie anes Sak By Rn 959 
LOMCapacity Ofgthoitrouglis’.552512.412 535222202) meee ee _ OY in ey ALOE AL 961 
UL ISTO REISS Se bice-eae Pies em ates ae ed aR |e eee Ai ly a a ec gae heii 8 ic ea 961 
LoapereAtMentiOly Chee ras ss fscc settee oe os Ao nena eS A 2 
13 welreatmentioriGhetish te sees eset cece e es ome ae een ee» abe eT aan Ext Poa), Ae 964 
TeMiConclusionesss ss 524s] ce Tat aaa Se eee TG EIN, Sy AL eae 965 
EUADIClOf Contents: Se hres r aca Saas Stee ar eee Le eeR ee interne A) PENRIOe? Tome CF (UD 906 


XIV CONTENTS. 


APPENDIX H—MISCELLANEOUS. 
Page. 
XLIV. W. G. Farlow. ON THE NATURE OF THE PECULIAR REDDENING OF SALTED COD-FISH 
DURING THE SUMMER TIME (as observed more particularly at Gloucester, Mass., during the 
BUMMOL/OL STS) 1 Evy sWis Gre Eva) OW, Mle DD ore aici wai ase im oll elle eal 969-974 


PAR paMDelECAl Wradex ee ace koe sas lee oat clam aio G’s div ajsmiocide sole a gee ela =o 4< arom ciety eltimnlig emieimim aim 975 


REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 


A.—_GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 


1.—INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 


The present report is intended to include an account of the operations 
of the United States Fish Commission for the calendar year 1878, 
although the history of a portion of its work, especially that connected 
with the propagation of salmon, is continued to the date of the actual 
planting and disposition of the young fish in 1879. It constitutes the 
sixth volume of the series, although relating to the eighth year of the 
existence of the Commission. 

As in previous years, the history of the work of 1878 shows a con- 
tinued increase in the scale of operations, commensurate with the increased 
appropriations made by Congress. This, however, has involved no 
material addition to the expense of the management, the clerical force 
remaining the same, notwithstanding an enormous increase of corre- 
spondence, especially with the fish commissioners of States, fish culturists, 
and generally persons interested in having private or public waters sup- 
plied with the fish covered by the work of the Commission. 

In the accompanying reports, the operations of the Commission will 
be treated, as heretofore, under two heads—Inquiry and Propagation. 

Under the former is included the history, condition, and statistics of 
the great fisheries and the proper methods of prosecuting them; and 
with this are closely connected questions as to the natural or adventitious 
causes influencing the abundance of fish and the methods by which such 
abundance may be increased. 

Under the second head is given the history of measures taken to ac- 
tually increase the supply of desirable fishes in particular waters, either 
by artificial propagation, or by transfer from other localities, or both 
combined. 

The first-mentioned division of the work, including research into the 
character of the fishes belonging to the North American fauna, has been 
in charge of Mr. G. Brown Goode, assisted by Dr. T. H. Bean. The 
collection and investigation of marine invertebrates has been conducted 
by Prof. A. E. Verrill, assisted by Mr. Richard Rathbun, Mr. Sanderson 
Smith, and Mr. Warren Upham. The work of propagation of food-fishes 
was under the superintendence of Mr. James W. Milner, assistant com- 
missioner, aided by Mr. Frank N. Clark, and with the very valuable co- 

XV 


XVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


operation of Mr. T. B. Ferguson, Fish commissioner of Maryland. To 
all these gentlemen I am under great obligations for efficient assistance 
in carrying out the objects of the Commission. To Dr. Farlow I am 
indebted for an important research upon the peculiar reddening of salted 
codfish, to which further reference will be made. 


2.—OBJECTS OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 


It had been my intention in this report to go into very minute details 
in explanation of the plan of research adopted by the Commission for 
carrying out its objects and the actual results that have been accom- 
plished. This, however, will be more conveniently deferred until the 
next report, which will chronicle some important changes; and I will 
here present only a brief synopsis of the subject, in illustration of the 
extent of the general programme and the amount of labor involved in 
carrying it out; as also shadowing forth the benefit to American fisheries 
to be hoped for as the result of such action. Not the least important 
feature in the research is the securing of statistics for the proper treat- 
ment of international questions connected with the common use, by the 
United States and the British Provinces, of the waters of the North At- 
lantic. 

The results hoped for by the inquiries initiated or contemplated may 
be summarized as follows : 

1. The preparation of a series of reports upon the various groups of 
aquatic animals and plants of North America, especially those that 
have a direct relation to the wants or luxuries of mankind; these to be 
published as monographs in successive volumes of the Commission, to be 
illustrated by wood-cuts and otherwise, as may be necessary for the 
proper comprehension of the subject. The aim, of course, will be to pre- 
sent the descriptions of the various species in intelligible phraseology, 
and to add accounts of the habits and peculiarities of the species, with 
their relation to each other and the physical conditions of their sttrround- 
ings. This will include, among others, an illustrated history of the 
various food-fishes of the United States, and towards which great 
progress has been made, especially in the preparation of a large number 
of admirable illustrations, executed by Mr. H. L. Todd. 

2. The utilization of the very extensive facilities at the command of the 
commission in the interest of educational and scientifie establishments in ~ 
the United States, by securing large numbers of specimens of aquatic 
animals and plants which, after reserving the first series for the Na- 
tional Museum, will be distributed, properly labelled, to colleges and 
academies and scientific societies. A vast amount of material of this 
kind has already been gathered, and is now in the hands of specialists, 
who are engaged in preparing it for the treatment referred to. It is 
hoped the coming year to distribute many hundreds of thousands of 
specimens. 

3. A complete account of the physical character and conditions of 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XVII 


.the waters of the United States, as to chemical composition, temperature, 
&c., with special reference to their availability in nurturing the proper 
Brecies of food-fishes. 

4. A history and description of the various methods ailecen in 
North America, in the pursuit, capture, and utilization of fishes and 
other aquatic animals, with suggestions as to imperfections of existing 
methods and the presentation of devices and processes not hitherto 
adopted in the United States. A careful study of all the circumstances 
connected with this division of the proposed work of the Fish Commis- 
sion has shown that an exchange of experiences may be of very great 
importance in improving the old fisheries and developing new ones. Sev- 
eral methods of fishing employed in Europe and unknown in the United 
States can be introduced to very great advantage ; but so far no special 
effort has been made to bring this about. Among the noteworthy of 
these is the system of beam trawling, so universal and so productive in 
Europe, and by means of which the flat fishes, especially the turbot and 
sole, are obtained in immense quantities, in otherwise unproductive local- 
ities and at moderate cost. It may almost be said that there is a larger 
investment in this fishery than in any other in Great Britain ; and yet it 
is practically entirely unknown in the United States, its use having 
been confined to the operations of the United States Fish Commission, 
of Professor Agassiz, and perhaps the Chicago Academy of Sciences. 
There is no doubt that beam trawling will add enormously to the facili- 
ties for procuring wholesome food at a very cheap rate. The sandy 
coast of the United States, especially south of Cape Cod, is pre-emi- 
nently adapted to the use of this apparatus, and there are thousands of 
square miles over which it can be carried with no possibility of exhaust- 
ing the supply. 

Another method of fishing, in great part unknown, or at least unprac- 
ticed in the United States, is that of taking codfish by means of gill-nets. 
Could this be introduced on our shores, especially in connection with the 
vast schools of cod that come in winter on our coast go spawn, it would 
relieve fishermen of their great embarrassment, namely, that of procur- 
ing bait. During the winter season it is frequently almost impossible to 
obtain bait of the proper kind, and without which fish cannot be taken. 
In the Loffoden Islands there is a fishery very similar to that referred 
to, in which, during the winter, large numbers of fish are taken, one-half 
of which, and these the finest and fattest, are caught in gill-nets without 
any bait whatever. The American methods of the treatment of fish in 
preparation for market can also be greatly improved by adopting foreign 
experience. 

5. Statistics of the various branches of the American fisheries from 
the earliest procurable dates to the present time, so as to show the de- 
velopment of this important industry and its actual condition. There is 
no nation so badly provided with such statistics as the United States ; 
and in the absence of appointed methods of gathering them the task 

Ii F 


XVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


will be a very onerous one, but the later it is deferred the more and 
more difficult will it be, with but little on record. Old men, still living, 
alone possess the traditions in regard to the existence and progress of 
many of our most important elements of the fisheries, and it has been a 
special object of the Commission, at its several stations, to find such de- 
positories and to collect, by the help of a phonographer, all the facts 
they can furnish, as also to overhaul old account-books and other memo- 
randa more or less fugitive in their character. A great amount of such 
history has already been secured, especially in regard to the mackerel-, 
cod-, and halibut-fisheries. 

6. "The establishment either by the general government or in connec- 
tion with the States of a thoroughly reliable and exhaustive system of 
recording fishery statistics for the future, to be combined annually and 
published by some of the public departments of the government. Some- 
thing of this kind is done by the Treasury Department for a few branches 
of the fisheries, but the result is necessarily inadequate and incomplete. 

7. The bringing together in the National Museum not only of a com- 
plete collection of the aquatic animals and plants referred to, but of illus- 
trations of all apparatus or devices used in the prosecution of fisheries 
at home and abroad, together with specimens of the results. 

In-the winter of 1874 75 Congress made an appropriation to enable 
the Departments of the Government to present at the International Ex- 
hibition at Philadelphia a complete display of the resources of the United 
States. A portion of this fund having been assigned to the Fish Com- 
mission, the occasion was embraced to commence such a collection as 
that referred to. This was exhibited at Philadelphia and was highly 
appreciated. Since that time every opportunity has been made use of to 
secure additional objects of the same kind, showing the earlier and per- 
haps obsolete methods and applications, as well as those that are now in 
currentuse. To these have been added illustrations of the methods and 
apparatus of artificial propagation of fishes, or of technical fish culture. 

8. An investigation of the movements and habits of the various kinds 
of fish, to serve as a basis of legislation, either by the general govern- 
ment or by the States. 

It is very difficult to establish data of this kind upon facts furnished 
by any one State; it is only by considering the subject in its relations 
to the whole country that an equitable system of legislation can be 
suggested. Dates and conditions that answer admirably for one part 
of the country will be entirely unsuited to another, especially so far as 
relates to the periods during which fish should not be taken. The ques- 
tion, too, of keeping open the natural channels of the water, so that 
fish may ascend to their source, is one that will generally require the 
action of the general government. 

Other inquiries involved are the introduction into the water of sub- 
stances injurious to fish, either of a mechanical or chemical nature, &e. 

A corollary to the above is the determination of the best form of 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XIX 


fishways for the different conditions of American rivers, of methods ot 
chemical or mechsnical purification of the waters, We. 

9. By means of the information to be thus obtained, it will be possible 
to determine what regulations shall be made by the general government 
or by the States in respect to close seasons or intermissions of capture, 
the size of the fish to be caught, the enfofced use of fishways, regulations 
as to introduction of refuse, &e. All this will require careful considera- 
tion, so as to avoid infringing upon natural or vested rights, while doing 
everything to the best interest of the community. 

10. The stocking the various waters of the United States with the 
fish most suited to them, either by artificial propagation or transfer, 
and the best methods and apparatus for accomplishing this object. 


3. ASSISTANCE RENDERED THE COMMISSION. 


The act of Congress authorizing the prosecution of the labors of the 
United States Fish Commission instructs the Heads of the various de- 
partments of the Government to render to it all necessary and possible 
aid; and, as in previous years, the most generous and liberal interpre- 
tation of the law has been given by them. 

To the Secretary of the Navy, Hon. R. W. Thompson, obligations are 
especially due for aid, without which the success of the Commission would 
have been much diminished, both in the branch of Inquiry and Propa- 
gation. 

The most notable favor rendered by the Secretary has been the fitting 
out of the iron steamer Speedwell, and placing it at the disposal of the 
Commission for the summer-work, this being the third year of its detail 
for such service. Only second in importance to this was the furnishing 
of two steam launches, with two firemen each, to be used in connection 
with the propogation of shad in Albermarle Sound and in the Susque- 
hanna River. 

In accordance with the instructions of the Secretary of the Navy to 
the commandant, the facilities of the navy-yard at Washington have 
been freely extended in the fitting out or repairs of the scows and other 
vessels belonging to the Fish Commission. 

The Treasury Department, through the Bureau of Revenue Marine, 
has also rendered a hearty co-operation by transporting the hatching 
barges of the Commission to and from their various stations. The reve- 
nue-cutter Ewing, under Captain Fengar, towed these boats from Wash- 
ington to Norfolk en route for the scene of operations on Albemarle 
Sound, and, at its conclusion, from Norfolk to Havre de Grace, for service 
there, and finally back to Washington when the hatching season was 
completed for the year. 

The revenue-cutter E. A. Stevens, under command of Capt. J. G. 
Baker, and stationed at Newbern, was also instructed to render similar 
aid, whenever necessary, in the Albemarle Sound waters. 


xx REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


To the Light-House Board of the Treasury Department is due the 
means of initiating and prosecuting important observations upon water 
temperatures in the vicinity of various light-houses and light-ships along 
the coast the necessary blanks being furnished by the Commission. 
These, when filled, were delivered to the light-house inspectors and by 
them forwarded through the Light-House Board to the Commission. 

The War Department has furnished eight Springfield rifles and eight 
hundred cartridges for the purpose of the protection of the United States 
salmon-hatching station on the McCloud River against lawless depre- 
dators, white and Indian. General McDowell also supplied a detail of 
men for special service during the critical period of operations. 

The Signal Office of the War Department, under General Myer, has 
also extended important co-operation, by continuing the series of obser- 
vations of water temperatures initiated several years ago at the request 
of the Commission. It has been possible by this means to get a general 
idea of the variations of temperature in the principal streams of the 
country, and thus to supply, incidentally, information necessary to 
judicious action in connection with the introduction of the different 
kinds of food fish. 

The observations taken at the sea-coast stations of the Signal-Office 
are also of great importance in determining the conditions of the move- 
ments of the pelagic fish, such as the mackerel, menhaden, blue-fish, &c.; 
and the extension of this system promised by the Chief Signal-Officer, 
by which all the coast telegraph and life-saving stations and light-houses 
and light-ships are to be included in the series of observations and 
furnished with the best kind of instruments, is also of very great 
importance. 

Partly for the service of the Commission, and also to assist in the com- 
merce and fisheries of the coast, the Chief Signal-Officer made Glouces- 
ter a storm-warning station during the summer of 1878, thus adding 
greatly to the facilities of the work. The forecasts of weather were also 
sent daily, arriving some time before the receipt of the Boston papers. 

To the Patent Office of the Interior Department is due, through Dr. 
Dyrenforth, chief examiner, a list of all the patents relating to fish and 
fish culture issued in Great Britain and some other countries, as well as 
in the United States. 

For the purpose of better facilitating the operations at the McCloud 
River salmon station the Post-Office Department authorized the estab- 
lishment of the post-office of Baird, in Shasta County, by means of which 
the station and its vicinity generally are provided with the necessary 
postal facilities. Previously, the nearest convenient post-office had been 
at Redding, a number of miles distant, and for the receipt of the mail 
therefrom the station was dependent upon the courtesy of the stage- 
drivers. 

To Colonel Casey, Superintendent of Public Buildings and Grounds 
in Washington, the Commission is indebted for the construction and 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, XXI 


improvement of the carp ponds on Monument Lot, the work being exe- 
cuted with great economy and with satisfactory results. 

The public and official acknowledgments of the Commission for im- 
portant services rendered are also equally due to many private establish- 
ments and individuals. The mostimportant of these is the Maryland Fish 
Commission, under the direction of Mr. T. B. Ferguson. By combining 
operations at various times with this organization, the United States 
Commission has been enabled not only to secure the valuable superin- 
tendence and aid of Mr. Ferguson in its work, but the free use of im- 
portant apparatus, and a consequent reduction of the absolute expense. 

The Druid Hill Park Commission, of the city of Baltimore, is also 
entitled to mention in this connection for authorizing the use of the park 
for the cultivation by the Commission of the German carp, golden ide, 
and other fishes. For this purpose it constructed several ponds at 
a large expense to itself, for the continued culture of these fish, thus 
serving as an auxiliary station to the establishment at Washington. 
This is a matter of very great importance, as the ponds in Washington 
are very low, and the locality has been overflowed by the Potomac 
River several times within the last thirty years; and as this may at 
any time occur again, involving the loss of all the fish, the Baltimore 
station will furnish the means of renewing the sttpply at Washington. 

A large number of railroads throughout the country, a list of which 
will be furnished hereafter (see p. Xxxvii-xxxviii), have also co-operated 
with the Commission. The special favor conferred is that of receiving 
quartermaster’s orders for the transportation of messengers, and in per- 
mitting the cans containing the young fish to be carried in the baggage 
cars of express trains without extra charge, and allowing at the same 
time the attendance of one or more messengers. 

The extent of this favor can be better appreciated by the fact that 
not unfrequently there are two messengers, with twelve to eighteen 50- 
quart milk cans filled with water, to be transported on a passenger train. 

Acknowledgments due to other co-operating bodies and to individ- 
uals, will be made in their proper place. 


<i ga t INTO' THE HISTORY AND STATISTICS OF 
FOOD-FISHES. 


4.—FIELD OPERATIONS DURING THE SUMMER OF 1878. 


The ability to carry on the researches along the coast of the United 
States, for the purpose of solving the problems referred to in a preceding 
page, has been dependent in a great measure upon the facilities fur- 
nished by the Navy Department for the purpose; and I have already 
mentioned that the liberal interpretation of the law of Congress made 
by the predecessor of the present Secretary of the Navy and carried out 
by the latter in the earlier years of his administration, has been continued 
during the year 1878, 


XXII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The United States steamer Speedwell, assigned to the United States 
Fish Commission in 1877, was also placed at its disposal in 1878. Com- 
mander L. A. Beardslee, who had been in charge of the steamer Blue- 
Light during the field-work of 1873, 1874, and 1875, was placed in com- 
mand of the Speedwell; Commander Kellogg, who was in charge of the 
vessel in 1877, having been assigned to other duty. 

All the necessary repairs to the Speedwell were made at the Ports- 
mouth navy-yard, at which place she had been laid up during the preced- 
ing winter. 

After a careful inquiry into of different points on the sea-coast from 
which a critical scientific research might profitably be made in the in- 
terest of the fisheries, Gloucester, Mass., was selected, and on the 9th of 
July I established my headquarters there for the season, accompanied 
by the entire clerical force of the Commission. 

After due inquiry, a suitable wharf and buildings were rented on Fort 
Hill, at the mouth of Gloucester Harbor. Rooms for laboratories, offices, 
storage, &c., as also a large apartment, used afterwards for the hatching 
of codfish, were included in the accommodations supplied. The wharf, 
directly on which the buildings were situated, fronted about 150 feet on 
two sides. 

The Speedwell arrived on the 18th of July, and from that time until 
her departure, on the 30th of September, the work was carried on without 
serious interruption other than that caused by the weather, excepting 
for one period, from the 4th of August until the 14th, when she was at 
Portsmouth undergoing certain necessary repairs. 

The personnel of the Speedwell consisted, in addition to her com- 
mander, Captain Beardslee, of Dr. J. F. Bransford, surgeon; H. E. 
Drury, paymaster; R. W. Galt, engineer; James H. Smith, executive 
officer; James. H. Kuhl, mate. The wharf, buildings, and apparatus 
were in charge of Capt. H. C. Chester, under whose superintendence 
also the work of:dredging and trawling was usually conducted. The 
total force of the steamer, including petty officers and men, amounted 
to about 40. 

The laboratory work was, as usual, under the special charge of Mr. 
G. Brown Goode and Prof. A. E. Verrill; Mr. Goode, aided by Dr. Bean, 
taking charge more particularly of the fishes, while Professor Verrill, 
assisted by Mr. Richard Rathbun, and for a portion of the time by Mr. 
Warren Upham, superintended the dredging and trawling work and 
the collection of marine invertebrates. 

For a portion of the season Dr. W. G. Farlow was engaged in carry- 
ing on some researches into the peculiar condition to which salted cod- 
fish is liable during the moist summer weather. Small red specks show 
themselves upon the fish and rapidly spread, in time covering it com- 
pletely. This is accompanied by a tendency to decomposition, which 
spoils the fish for market. As avery important subject, I invited Dr. 
Farlow’s attention to it, and his report will be found in the appendix 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXIII 


herewith. He considers the affection to be due to the presence of a 
minute red alga, possibly derived from the salt used in curing the 
fish. The Cadiz salt, examined by him, was found to contain the spores 
of this alga in large quantity, being tinted of a pink color thereby. 
These were doubtless derived from the vats or evaporating places of the 
salt. The Trapani salt, also used by the fishermen of Gloucester, was 
found to be free from this admixture, and its use is therefore recom- 
mended. The attempt to eradicate the affection will require that the 
holds of the vessels and the salt-houses be kept perfectly free from the 
introduction of this plant. 

During a visit by Prof. W. O. Atwater to Gloucester, during the sum- 
mer, an arrangement was made with him to prosecute a series of investi- 
gations upon the food-qualities of various species of fishes and their 
availability for the manufacture of fertilizers, involving many chemical 
analyses. « 

The various researches prosecuted during the summer’s campaign will 
be presented hereafter in the form of spécial reports. 

The usual collections were made, especially by means of the dredge 
and trawl, and the specimens secured are held for the National Museum 
and for distribution to educational establishments throughout the United 
States. 

An extremely valuable mass of information was obtained during the 
summer, by Mr. Goode, in connection with the early history of the Glou- 
cester fisheries, and by means of questioning some old fishermen and 
Sailors he secured full details as to the inception and early history of 
the mackerel, halibut, cod, and other fisheries. This will be embodied 
with the series of investigations undertaken for the purpose of securing 
Statistical information on the American fisheries, the importance of 
which was referred to in the previous report. Many specimens of fishery 
apparatus were also secured, some of them obsolete or displaced by 
modern apparatus, others illustrating the present condition of opera- 
tions; all, however, of interest. 

In addition to the collections made, many soundings and temperatures 
of the water were taken, the condition of the bottom ascertained, &c.; and 
an important generalization was made by Professor Verrill, based upon 
certain collections of fossil remains brought in by fishermen from various 
parts of the fishin g banks. These were evidently of Tertiary age, but of a 
formation and distribution differing remarkably from anything known 
on the mainland, and suggesting to Professor Verrill the existence of a 
Tertiary deposit off the coast, hitherto unknown. While some of the 
species are the same as those found on the mainland, others are entirely 
different and appear to be new to science. 

The work of the Commission was greatly facilitated during the period 
of its stay by the establishment, by order of General Myer, of a storm- 
warning station at Gloucester. This was erected on the top of the cus- 
tom-house, one of the highest edifices in the city and visible for a great 


XXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


distance. Apart from its aid to the work of the Commission it enabled 
the large fleet of Gloucester fishermen to regulate their departure to sea 
with great advantage. 

As usual, the Commission had many visitors during the summer ; some 
for the purpose of taking a special part in its work, and others to famil- 
iarize themselves with its general operations. 

Among the visitors were a number of gentlemen belonging to the 
Boston Fish Bureau, and familiar with the coast fisheries, to whom I 
had the pleasure of exhibiting the Pole flounder, seen by them for the 
first time. <A similar experience was had with fish merchants and skip- 
pers of Gloucester. Reporters from the principal Boston papers, and 
some from New York, were also included in the number of those receiv- 
ing the attention of the Commission. 

A special incident of the season was a call from the Secretary of the 
Navy, Hon. R. W. Thompson, on the Tallapoosa, on the 25th of July. 
The Secretary was accompanied by several of the officers of the depart- 
ment, as the chief naval constructor,the chief engineer, the Paymaster- 
General, the attending surgeon, &c. The vessel remained in port for 
two days, and the occasion was taken to show the Secretary and party 
the operations of the Commission on the Speedwell, in the way of trawl- 
ing and dredging. 

For the purpose of determining more particularly the character of the 
animal life on the Grand Banks, especially of the ocean birds, which are 
used in great numbers by the fishermen for bait; I made arrangements 
with Captain Collins to carry Mr. R. L. Neweomb on a halibut trip to 
the banks. He was absent from the 28th of August to the 18th of Sep- 
tember, and brought back many interesting specimens of birds as well 
as of marine invertebrates. It was found that the birds serving as bait 
were for the most part a species of petrel, of which many hundreds are 
often taken on a single trip by means of the hook and line. 

The most active field-work of the Commission closed for the season 
on the departure of Professor Verrill on the 12th of September; but 
other branches were continued until the departure of the Speedwell for 
Washington on the 30th of that month. She reached her station in good 
season and was laid up in the Washington navy-yard for the winter. 

I remained in Gloucester until the 15th of October for the purpose of 
finishing up certain statistical inquiries and of making the necessary 
arrangements for the propagation of codfish, to which reference will be 
made in a succeeding section of the report. Leaving on the 15th, I 
reached Washington with my party on the 24th. Mr. Milner, with Mr. 
kh. E. Earll, Frank N. Clark, and Capt. H.C. Chester remained behind 
in connection with the last-mentioned interest. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXV 


C.—THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD FISHES. 
5.— WORK ACCOMPLISHED IN 1878. 


The Quinnat or California Salmon (Salmo quinnat). 

The McCloud River Station—The heavy rains of the winter of 1877- 
1878, and during the spring of the latter year, caused great damage in 
the valley of the McCloud River, and especially to the works on the 
United States Salmon Reservation. Many of the buildings were swept 
away, and the dam and works for raising water to the hatching-house 
were entirely ruined. A special allowance of $2,500 was made to Mr. 
Stone for restoring the station to the proper condition ; and, reaching the 
ground on the 9th of May, he immediately went to work to reduce the 
disorder and render the works satisfactory for future operations. 

The establishment by the Postmaster-General of the post-office of 
Baird, on the reservation, on the 3d of May, 1878, was of very great 
service to the Commission in keeping up its communication with the 
outside world. Previously the nearest convenient post-office was that 
of Redding, 22 miles distant, and the party at the works was dependent 
upon the eourtesy of the stage-drivers for bringing along the mail. 
This act proved of service, not only to the reservation itself, but to the 
settlers scattered around, who appreciated the advantage to them in 
diminishing their travel. 

As in previous years, there were various alarms in regard to lawless 
whites and Indians who threatened to raid the establishment and burn 
the buildings, as also to take possession of the penned-up fish, and thus 
nullify the work of the Commission. An application made to the War 
Department for arms was met by the issue of eight Springfield rifles 
and eight hundred cartridges. This equipment, supplemented by the 
detail by General McDowell of some soldiers, placed the establishment 
in a satisfactory condition of defense, and no violence was attempted. 

The season of 1878 proved to be the most productive in the history of 
the establishment, and the number of eggs obtained, fourteen millions, 
was truly enormous, far exceeding those taken in any one season by all 
the salmon establishments in the world put together. According to Mr. 
Stone’s estimate 18,000,000 could easily have been secured if desired, 
but the take was limited to the number applied for by the State com- 
missioners and those needed to maintain the supply in the Sacramento 
River. 

The first eggs of the season were taken on the 20th of August, and 
from that time until the 5th of October, when the last car was loaded 
with salmon eggs, the time of Mr. Stone and his assistants was employed 
without intermission. The fish were unusually abundant, thousands 
being often taken at a haul. | 

A notable feature in the season was the small size of the parent fish, 
these averaging less than nine pounds, some of the mother fish, full of 


XXVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ripe eggs, weighing only from six to eight pounds. This, Mr. Stone 
thinks, is due to the stoppage of the large salmon by the fishing at the 
canneries on the Lower Sacramento, allowing only the smaller fishes to 
pass. 

It will doubtless somewhat astonish many persons at the East who 
are not familiar with the scale of operations on which the business is 
conducted at the West, to be told that from seven to nine thousand 
salmon were several times taken at the station in a single day. 

The number of eggs actually secured and embryonized was so large 
that two cars were required to transport them to the East. Of these, 
the first left Redding with 4,000,000 on the 29th of September, arriving 
at Chicago on the 3d of October. The second, with 3,250,000, arrived 
at Chicago on the 7th of October. They were Br by Mr. Bred Mather, 
and the distribution was immediately made from that city by express. 
The details of distribution will be found in the schedule attached to Mr. 
Stone’s report. 

As usual, a large number were hatched out and planted in the Me- 
Cloud, for the purpose of keeping up the supply in the Sacramento, 
2,500,000 being thus treated; 500,000 eggs were presented to Canada, 
100,000 to England, 100,000 to France, 100,000 to Holland, 250,000 to 
Germany, and 200,000 were sent to New Zealand. 

In the report for 1877 mention is made of the shipment to various 
foreign countries of California salmon. The half million of eggs sent to 
New Zealand arrived in perfect condition, and were distributed by the 
government, to the several provinces. The latest advices speak of the 
young fish being seen in every direction, and promising to be the ances- 
tors of a numerous progeny. Owing to various causes, however, the 
consignments to Germany, France, England, and the Netherlands in 
1877, were failures, only about 25,000 eggs of the German lot surviving. 
iiheae had been packed in a special manner by Mr. Mather, and escaped 
the fate of the rest. 

Owing to the very high opinion entertained by European fish culturists 
of the California salmon as a food fish, both on account of the ease of 
its cultivation and the fact that it resists higher temperatures of water 
than the Atlantic salmon, it was determined to renew the experiment, 
by a transmission in 1878; and Mr. Mather was authorized to repack 
the eggs in his own way and accompany them to their destination. In 
accordance with instructions he, therefore, met the car containing the 
eggs from California at Chicago and received 250,000 for Germany, 
100,000 fer France, 100,000 for Great Britain, and 100,000 for the Neth- 
erlands. These he carried to his residence at Newark, and after repack- 
ing them by his own method, he took passage by the Bremen steamer 
Oder, and arrived at Bremerhaven on the 23d of October. The con- 
signment for France was shipped from Southampton, on the way, and 
that for England was sent, for the most part, to the Southport Aqua- 
rium. The eggs for the Netherlands were met by an agent of the gov- 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXVII 


ernment at Bremen and transported to Amsterdam, where they were 
hatched out by the Zoological Garden. 

The new venture proved to be a perfect success, avery small percent- 
age of the eggs failing to be hatched out. Of the eggs of the German 
consignment 45,000 were sent directly to Mr. Haack at Hiiningen, for 
introduction into the Rhine. One hundred and fifteen thousand were 
sent to Mr. Schuster, at Freiburg, for the Danube and the Rhine; and 
30,000 to Hameln, for the river Weser. Various smaller lots were dis- 
tributed to other places; and all were successfully hatched out and 
placed in their destined waters. 

The 100,000 sent to France were also hatched out with comparatively 
small loss and introduced into various rivers of the republic. Those for 
the Netherlands were equally successful. The number actually received 
in Amsterdam was estimated at 85,000, and of these over 60,000 pro- 
duced healthy fish, and were planted in various streams. 

In the general table of distribution of California salmon will be found 
the indications of the various streams in which the fish were placed 
respectively. 

Later in the season a consignment of the land-locked salmon was sent 
to the Société d@’Acclimatation in Paris. These, however, owing to some 
unexplained casualty, arrived in poor condition, and comparatively few 
were saved. 

Full details in regard to the work at the McCloud River station will 
be found in Mr. Stone’s article, given in the Appendix. 

Clackamas Station.—In the report of 1877 reference is made to the 
fears of the salmon-canners on the Columbia River as to a threatened 
diminution of the fish, and to the arrangement made through Mr. Stone 
for the establishment of a station for artificial propagation. This, after 
considerable delay, was established in the Clackamas River, but owing 
to the lateness of the season when the work was completed only a small 
number of eggs-were obtained. These were supplemented by a trans- 
mission from the McCloud River, and a successful result accomplished. 

The work was continued in 1878; but the funds available for the pur- 
pose being very limited, I agreed to assign a portion, not to exceed 
$5,000 of the appropriation, to the work, believing that in so doing I 
was properly carrying out the intention of Congress. 

The first eggs were taken on the 5th of September; and up to the 30th 
2,081,000 had been taken from 478 females. Some casualties were expe- 
rienced in the course of the season by the heavy rains, which caused the 
dam to break; but a reasonable percentage of eggs was satisfactorily 
hatched out and introduced into the river. The principal part of the 
hatching and depositing in the river was done between the 24th of De- 
cember, 1878, and the 2d of January, 1879, the number of young turned 
in being estimated at 1,203,000. The percentage of loss would have 
been much less but for the necessity at one time of moving the eggs 
from the hatching house to the river and back on account of a flood. 


XXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The details of the work will be found in the appended report of Mr. 
William F. Hubbard, the assistant superintendent. 

At the close of the season it was found that the bills, in regard to 
which proper vouchers could be rendered, and applicable to the actual 
work, and not simply to the construction of permanent improvements, 
amounted to about $3,600, which was duly paid to Mr. J. G. Megler, the 
secretary of the Oregon and Washington Fish Propagation Company, to 
which the works belonged. 

Proposed salmon-hatching station for the Southern States—It is well 
known to all fish culturists that the expense of moving impregnated 
eggs of fish is very much less than that of transporting the same number 
of the young fish, as the former, with proper precautions, can be for- 
warded by express to any part of the United States, while the latter 
require the constant care and attendance of a messenger, and a much 
larger space, in proportion, for their accommodation. 

The demand for the California salmon on the part of the southern 
and middle tier of Mississippi Valley States has suggested the pro- 
priety of a station where the eggs can be received and hatched, and 
trom which the fry can be distributed at much less expense than from 
Baltimore, Maryland; Northville, Michigan, and other stations, where 
the hatching in question has been carried on. 

An extensive correspondence was entered into with parties in Tfen- 
nessee, Northern Alabama, Mississippi, &c., and several points were vis- 
ited by Mr. Clark to ascertain their adaptation for the purpose. The 
especial requisites are, an ample supply of pure spring water of a tem- 
perature as much under 60° as possible; a proper fall of water; and con- 
venient relation to a railroad center from which the fish can be distrib- 
uted to assigned depositaries. Of course the place must be healthy, 
and one where the desired facilities will be freely granted by the owners 
of the ground. 

Several localities were found possessing more or less of the necessary 
requisites. Among these were Huntsville, Ala.; Vicksburg, Miss.; Bon 
Aqua Springs, Tenn.; Birmingham, Ala., &c. The highest tempera- 
ture found, of 634°, was at Vicksburg; the lowest, about 59°. The 
outbreak of the yellow fever in Tennessee during the summer of 1878 
prevented any action on the subject. This, however, is only deferred for 
the present, and it is hoped that another season, when a selection will be 
arrived at, it will be possible to arrange a temporary establishment 
where the eggs of California salmon and possibly of California trout 
may be successfully hatched. It will not be necessary to keep the works 
in operation for more than a month for either of these occasions; so that 
the expense will be comparatively trifling. 


Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar.) 
In view of the uncertainty as to the results of earlier efforts connected 
with securing the eggs of the Atlantic salmon, operations were sus- 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXIX 


pended in 1877, and this intermission continued in 1878, it being thought 
desirable to wait for evidence that the work had been successful. 

I am happy to say that during the present year the indications of suc- 
cess have been so unquestionable as to warrant the re-establishment of 
the Bucksport station, and it is hoped that the result for 1879 will show 
a good progress in this connection. It may be stated in general terms 
that nearly every stream on the Atlantic coast as far south as the 
Susquehanna in which young salmon were introduced as far back as 
1874 and 1875 has proved to contain adult spawning fish in 1878. 

An exact statement of the catch of salmon in the rivers along the 
coast is impossible, but the daily newspapers have been filled with the 
records of capture from Denny’s River, in Eastern Maine, to the Susque- 
hanna,in Maryland. In addition to this the correspondence of the Com- 
mission contains numerous references to captures of salmon, some of 
which I will proceed to present. 

The increase in the rivers of Maine, although decided, has not been 
much, a matter of specific statement, as the salmon have never been en- 
tirely absent from its waters, and consequently their occurrence in the 
rivers excited less remark.* The case was quite different, however, in 
the Merrimack, where salmon of late years have only been seen at very 
rare intervals. As the result of the action of the commissioners of 
Maine and New Hampshire, large numbers of salmon were observed 
while ascending the fishway in the dam at Lowell for the purpose of 
performing the function of spawning in the headwaters of the rivers, 
especially in the Pemigewasset, where many young were afterward seen. 

For the details of these runs of salmon I refer to the extracts from the 
reports of the commissioners of Massachusetts and New Hampshire 
given in the Appendix. 

In October, 1878, a salmon weighing 11 pounds was caught in Narra- 
gansett Bay, between Narragansett and Wickford. Other instances of 
captures in the same waters are recorded. 

The weirs in Martha’s Vineyard Sound, especially at Menemsha, se- 
cured a considerable number of salmon, most of which were sent to the 


*TIn connection with the subject of salmon in Maine, it should be borne in mind that 
the fish from which the eggs are taken at the Penobscot or Bucksport station are not 
destroyed by the operation, but are returned to the water uninjured. Mr. Atkins has 
been in the habit of affixing a platinum tag to each fish before returning it to the 
water, bearing a number corresponding to a record of the date of capture, the weight 
before spawning, the weight of the eggs taken, and the weight of the fish when restored 
to the water. Mr. Atkins found several instances of a second capture of the same 
fish. Thus he records No. 768 as having been stripped on the Ist of November, 1875. 
It then weighed 21 pounds 7 ounces, and yielded 5 pounds 7 ounces of eggs. When 
turned back into the river it weighed 15 pounds. The same fish was recaptured at 
Lincolnville, Me., on the 14th of June, 1877, weighing 26 pounds. 

Another fish, No. 1010, which on the 9th of November, 1875, weighed 18 pounds 2 
ounces, had 4 pounds 10 ounces of eggs, and when dismissed weighed 134 pounds, was 
retaken, also near Lincolnville, on the 13th of June, 1877, weighing 30} pounds, thus 
showing an increase of 124 pounds in two years. 


XXX REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


New York market with the other captures. The greatest success was, 
however, experienced in the Connecticut, where the catch from the be- 
ginning to the end of the season is considered as amounting to not less 
than 600 individuals, varying in size from 9 to 20 pounds, most of them 
finding a market in New York. <A great deal of enthusiasm was excited 
in the early part of the season by these captures, and the fish first taken 
were sold readily for a dollar per pound, and even more. 

One of the earliest catches in the Connecticut was on the 4th of May, 
when a fish weighing 11 pounds was sent to Benjamin West, of New 
York, from Saybrook. On the 10th of May Mr. S. B. Miller reported a 
salmon taken in a seine near the west end of Long Island. Two were 
taken eight miles from the mouth of the Connecticut on the previous 
day, and on the same day 12 other salmon were received in New York 
from the Connecticut, one weighing 19 pounds, and all selling for from 
85 cents to $1 per pound. Mr. James A. Bill, fish commissioner of Con- 
necticut, on the 14th day of May informed me that within his knowledge 
80 fish had been taken up to that time in the Connecticut River between 
its mouth and Windsor, these varying from 84 to 18 pounds in weight. 
From 6 to 12 were captured daily. 

It is known that in addition to what were caught by the fishermen in 
the Connecticut many others entered it, as shown by the holes made in 
the gill-nets. These holes were at first supposed to be caused by stur- 
geons, but it was subsequently ascertained that they were due to large 
salmon that could not be held by the thin twine. 

There were no authentic cases of the occurrence of salmon in the Hud- 
son during the year. This is easily explicable from the fact that no young 
were introduced by the commissioners of the State, they being unwilling 
to take any steps in this direction until the proper means for their pro- 
tection, as well as that of the shad, against the gill and stake nets should 
be passed by the legislature. A very few planted by private enterprise 
yielded no positive result, although several rumors of captures were 
given in the newspapers. 

The case was very different in regard to the Delaware River, in which 
quite a number of deposits were made, partly by the fish commissigns 
of the State and of the United States, and partly by individuals. The 
earliest introduction of salmon in this river was made in 1871 by Mr. 
Thaddeus Norris at the expense of some public-spirited citizens of Phila- 
delphia, the eggs having been hatched out on the Hudson River, and 
the young transported to the Delaware. Only about 2,000 survived the 
journey. In 1872 12,000 eggs were purchased of Mr. Wilmot, at New- 
castle, Ontario, and hatched out near Easton, Pa., with a loss of only 
ten per cent. The young were placed in the Bushkill, a tributary of the 
Delaware, near Easton. 

The next lot of salmon planted in the Delaware consisted of 5,000 fry, 
the sole product of 750,000 eggs received from Germany by the United 
States Fish Commission, in the winter of 1872~73. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, XXXI 


These were hatched out by Dr. Slack, at Bloomsburg, and planted in 
the Muscanetnong in the spring of 1873. Subsequently the commis- 
sioners of New Jersey and Pennsylvania introduced other lots, and it is 
difficult to say how many of these deposits contributed to the results of 
1878. 

The first show of salmon in the Delaware was in the autumn of 1877, 
when a large fish was seen directly engaged in the act of spawning at 
the mouth of the Bushkill River, this quite probably being one of Mr. 
Norris’s fish. It was killed by a rifle-ball in ignorance of its true char- 
acter, and sent to me for identification. It is now preserved in the col- 
Jections of the National Museum. 

On the 19th of January Dr. Abbott, of Trenton, reported the cap- 
ture of a salmon 16 inches in length at Trenton, this being probably a 
grilse. 

On the 6th of April Mr. E. J. Anderson, fish commissioner of New 
Jersey, announced the taking of two salmon, one weighing 18 and the 
other 234 pounds, in the Delaware. One of these was also sent to the 
United States commission at Washington, where it is preserved, to- 
gether with an excellent cast. 

Later in the year the catches in the Delaware were quite numerous, 
thg total number, according to the fish commissioner of the State, 
amounting to some hundreds. 

The southernmost locality in which salmon have been taken is the 
Susquehanna, a fine one of 19 pounds having been caughtin a gill-net in 
the vicinity of Spesutie Island, just below Havre de Grace, and obtained 
by Mr. James W. Milner, in charge of the United States shad-hatching 
operations there, and sent to Washington. This was a fresh-run fish, in 
perfect condition, and formed the subject of an admirable drawing and 
plaster cast. It probably was derived from a lot of salmon planted by 
Mr. Ferguson, fish commissioner of Maryland, in one of the tributaries 
of the Susquehanna. 

For fuller details of the occurrence of salmon in the Eastern and Mid- 
dle States and in Maryland I refer to the appendix, where a condensed 
statement, as prepared by Mr. C. W. Smiley from reports of State com- 
missioners, will be found. 

While these facts show conclusively that the experiment of introduc- 
ing the Salmo salar into the more northern rivers of the Atlantic States 
by the United States has been a success, it will be readily understood 
that the great object will be to establish a continued run to be kept up 
by naturally spawned fish, a result which should be continually aimed 
at. It is not to be expected that the general government or the States 
will continue indefinitely their effort to obtain eggs and plant the young 
fish, especially as the time may come when this resource will not*be at 
(hein command. 

Where rivers are entirely destitute of salmon, either from an ex- 
haustion of the supply or from never haying existed there, artificial 


XXXII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


propagation must begin the work. But unless this is supplemented by 
the enactment and enforcement of laws forbidding absolutely the cap- 
ture of the fish for a period of four to six years, and then establishing 
a close time of several days in each week up to a certain period, after 
which no fish at all shall be taken, the efforts now being made might as 
well be intermitted first as last. There is no object in going to the ex- 
pense for the purpose of furnishing a few fishermen with a supply 
of fish to be sold for their benefit, and not administered for the good 
of the community. The magnitude of the results will be in direct pro- 
portion to the enactment and enforcement of the proper legislation. 


Schoodic salmon (Salmo salar, subsp. Sebago.) 

Grand Lake Stream Station.—Of the various species of Salmonide, 
treated by the United States Fish Commission, the fish variously known 
as landlocked salmon, Schoodi¢ salmon, Sebago salmon, Glover’s salmon, 
Win-ni-nish, &e., is one that is most eagerly sought after by State fish com- 
missioners, fishing clubs, and fish culturists generally. Anexact miniature 
of the sea salmon or Salmo salar in appearance, flavor, game qualities, &e., 
the difference in size was for a longtime considered sufficient to establish 
it as a distinct species. Late researches, however, prosecuted by Profes- 
sor Gill and Professor Jordan, among the large collections at Washing- 
ton, have satisfied these gentlemen that it must be regarded as a 
dwarfed form, hardly even a variety, of the Sal®o salar, owing itsreduced 
proportions a its abode in lakes or ponds, and ceneeauentin more lim- 
ited range than it would have in the ocean, although its continual sojourn 
in fresh water may have had something to do withit. The westernmost 
locality where it is found on the New England coast appears to be Se- 
bago Pond, a large body of water which discharges into Casco Bay, 
north of Portland. Here it is called Sebago salmon or Sebago trout, 
and attains a considerably larger size than in most other waters, as 
in the Sebee Lakes, northwest of Bangor, in certain ponds in the Mount 
Desert region, and the Schoodie Lakes of Maine and New Brunswick, 
which are perhaps its best-known localities. It is also seen in the Saint 
John’s River and certain ponds of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, as 
well as in the tributaries of the Saint Lawrence. To what extent it is 
taken on the south shore of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence or on the coast 
of Labrador, I am unable to say. 

In various parts of the British provinces it is known as the Win-ni- 
nish, which would perhaps bea much more appropriate appellation than 
the term landlocked salmon, since other species of the Salmonide pre- 
sent themselves under similar circumstances. A similar variety occurs 
in Sweden, and possibly elsewhere in Europe, and relating to the same 
species, Salmo salar. 

In the opinion of many persons, and especially of Mr. Samuel Wilmot, 
the salmon of Lake Ontario belongs to the same division, although in 
size it more nearly corresponds with the sea-going salmon. Formerly 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXIII 


immense numbers of these fish existed in Lake Erie and ascended its 
tributaries on both the Canadian and American sides to spawn. 
They have, however, for the most part, been exterminated on the 
American side, and but for the efforts of Mr. Wilmot would probably 
haveexperienced the same fate onthe northshore. A number of yearsago, 
however, that gentleman, finding a few pairs ina small tributary of Lake 
Ontario, near Newcastle, undertook their artificial propagation, and 
so successful were his efforts that he increased the number enormously, 
although no great increase in the number of captures has resulted. This 
is probably due to the fact that they cannot be taken at the time when 
they are fresh run and in good condition for food. Their present spawn- 
ing-grounds are very near the lake, and, as in the short rivers of Cali- 
fornia, they come into the streams only when they are nearly ripe, and 
remain a very short time, returning at once to the lake. It would seem 
that, to have a satisfactory river salmon fishery, the stream must be 
long enough for the fish to remain a considerable time in it, so that they 
may enter it before they are ripe and give an opportunity for their cap- 
ture by suitable devices. 

The advantages of this landlocked form, which, so far as the United 
States Fish Commission is concerned, it is proposed hereafter to term 
the Schoodie salmon, unless the name Win-ni-nish be considered prefer- 
able, are the readiness with which the eggs can be obtained, the hardi- 
ness of the fish, and their perfect adaptability to a great variety of 
circumstances and temperature. They are said to resist warmth of 
water better than even the brook trout and to be an available fish not 
only for lakes and ponds, but also for long reaches of deep water in 
rivers through which there is comparatively little current, such as are 
found in the Saint John’s River in New Brunswick and elsewhere. 

The Schoodic salmon has, for several years, occupied the attention of 
the United States Fish Commission, and the successive reports will show 
what has been done in this connection. <A trial made several years ago 
in Sebec Lake and this year at Sebago Pond, have led to the conclusion 
that the Schoodie lakes of Maine, and perhaps New Brunswick, will fur- 
nish the best stations for the collection and distribution of eggs. The 
locality controlled by the United States Fish Commission is situated not 
far from the tannery of the Messrs. Shaw Brothers, on Grand Lake 
Stream, the outlet of Grand Lake, one of the Schoodic chain of eastern 
Maine, and at no great distance to the west of Calais. This, for many 
years, had been the resort of fishermen in the proper season, the fish 
occurring in immense numbers and furnishing admirable sport. By ar- 
rangement with the Messrs. Shaw, certain privileges of water and fish- 
ing were obtained by payment of an annual rental, on the usual condition 
as established by the laws of Maine, that one-fourth of the eggs obtained 
should be hatched out and the young returned to the waters. In addi- 
tion to this, a cousiderable per-cent. of the remainder goes into the 
waters of the State in other localities. Here, the United States, in conjune- 


1) Ea fy 


XXXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


tion with the States of Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Con- 
necticut (two or more of them), has carried on operations under the 
superintendence of Mr. Charles G. Atkins and with varying success, for 
which reference may be made to the detailed report of Mr. Atkins. 
There have been some difficulties from time to time in getting a proper 
head of water for developing the eggs to a suitable stage for shipping, 
and’ numerous obstacles have been found in the securing of the fish. 
These, however, have now all been palliated or overcome. 

The taking of eggs in 1878 was begun on the 7th of November, and 
closed on the 4th of December, at which time the return of the parent 
fish to the lake ended. The total number of eggs for the season amounted 
to 1,723,000. One great advantage connected with the taking of eggs 
from salmon as well as trout is that the parents are not injured, but by 
careful handling may be returned to the water in good condition, so that 
another year they may yield an additional supply. Great care is exer- 
cised in this respect, so that neither at Bucksport or Grand Lake Stream 
are many fish absolutely lost. 

While, by actual experiment, about 90.1 per-cent. of all the eggs taken 
were impregnated and embryonized by the artificial process, scarcely 
more than 10 per cent. would have been by natural propagation. If 
we consider the immense number of even impregnated eggs consumed 
by the white perch and other vermin of the lake, and compare the re- 
mainder with the absolute propagation artificially,the vast dispropor- 
tion of results can be readily appreciated. 

Mr. Atkins, in referring to the impregnation of the Schoodic salmon 
states that at Bucksport the successful impregnation of 96 to 98 per 
cent. of the sea salmon was accomplished. This difference from the ex- 
perience with the former he considers to be due to possible circumstances 
affecting the fish in their somewhat artificial detention in fresh water, 
from which the sea-run individuals escape. 

Owing to various circumstances beyond the control of Mr. Atkins, 
such as an abrupt change to colder weather, a certain portion of the eggs 
collected were destroyed. But, of the 1,723,000, there were 1,470,000 
embryonized, or carried to that point where the eyes of the young fish 
could be seen through the envelope. Ofthese,370,000 were retained for 
Grand Lake Stream, and of the remainder 1,110,000 were shipped by the 
United States Fish Commission, and distributed among anumber of States. 
The rest went to Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. Of 
the 370,000 retained for Grand Lake Stream, 350,000 healthy young fish 
were hatched out and turned into the water. 

The details of the distribution of these fish will be found in the tables 
of Mr. Atkins’s report, to which I refer for much interesting information. 

Sebago Station—An earnest appeal by Mr. E. M. Stilwell, fish com- 
missioner of Maine, determined the United States Fish Commission to 
make an experiment in regard to securing a supply of eggs of the Sebago 
Pond variety ef landlocked salmon, in view of its much greater size than 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXV 


that found at Grand Lake Stream, and of the greater accessibility of the 
locality. 

It will be remembered that the Sebago is a large stream, situated in 
Southwestern Maine, which discharges through the Presumpscat River 
into Casco Bay to the north of Portland. The landlocked salmon found 
in it have always been celebrated for their beauty and weight, a size of 
six or eight and ten pounds, and even more being not unfrequent. 

Unsuccessful efforts were made some years ago to obtain spawning fish 
from Sebago Pond, for the purpose of securing their eggs. It was imagined 
that, owing to the protection afforded by recent legislation and the removal 
of certain obstructions in the water, a new effort might be more satisfac- 
tory. Acting upon this impression, Mr. Atkins was directed to estab- 
lish a station, for the purpose of an experiment, which he accordingly 
did, leaving Mr. Buck, one of his assistants of long experience, in charge. 
After giving the matter a fair trial, the enterprise was abandoned, as, with 
all the devices in the way of nets, &c., only ten males and six females 
were captured, and the entire number of fish entering the river for the 
purpose of spawning was estimated at scarcely more than fifty. The 
largest fish taken was a female, weighing 8 pounds 10 ounces after 
spawning, and the average was about three pounds. 


Whitefish.—( Coregonus clupeiformis. ) 

The great amount of attention paid to the artificial propagation of the 
whitefish by the commissioners of the lake States, especially of New 
York, Ohio, Michigan, and Wisconsin, has rendered it unnecessary for 
the United States Commission to take up the subject to any great ex- 
tent, although Mr. Frank N. Clark usually collects several hundreds 
of thousands of eggs, and develops them at his fish-culture estab- 
lishment at Northville, Mich., for any desired assignment. These, for 
the most part, have been sent to the commissioners of California, and. 
also to various parties in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Wisconsin, &c. 

The actual distribution made will be found in the appropriate page 
of the tables. 


Shad.—(Alosa sapidissima. ) 


As in previous years, the propagation and distribution of shad was 
conducted under the able and efficient superintendence of Mr. James W. 
Milner, co-operating for a portion of the time with Mr. T. B. Ferguson, 
the fish commissioner of Maryland, whose help, as in previous years, is 
gratefully acknowledged. 

To Mr. Milner’s report, in the appendix to the present volume, I refer 
for details of the work accomplished, confining myself here to a mere 
abstract. 

Albemarle Sound Station—In previous reports reference has been 
made to the advantages of substituting Mr. Ferguson’s cone and bucket 
apparatus for the floating hatching-boxes, so unsatisfactory in tidal 
waters. Desirous of testing the experiment with this apparatus on a 


XXXVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


large scale, operations were commenced much earlier in the season than 
usual, and at a southern station, in Albemarle Sound. The barges used 
by the Maryland commission in its work in 1877 were purchased and 
thoroughly equipped by the United States Commission, and towed by 
the revenue-cutter Ewing, in command of Captain Fengar, to Norfolk, 
whenee a private tug carried them to Avoca, a plantation and fishing 
landing of Dr. W. R. Capehart, situated near the mouth of the Chowan 
River. The Maryland steamer Lookout was also employed in the serv- 
ice by an arrangement with Mr. Ferguson. 

In addition to the Lookout, a steam-launch, furnished by the Navy De- 
partment, rendered essential aid in visiting distant landings for the col- 
lection of spawn and in transporting young fish from the station to the 
steamer for shipment via Franklin to various portions of the Southern 
States. 

The work commenced about the 1st of April, with the benefit of 
every possible aid from Dr. Capehart, and up to the 1st of May about 
10,000,000 eggs had been secured; the largest number taken in any one 
night being 1,605,000, on the 15th of April. The shipments of fish to 
remote points began on the 11th of April, amounting in all to about 
5,000,000. These were distributed in part by the United States Commis- 
sion, and in part by the fish commissioners of Maryland, North Caro- 
lina, and Virginia, who were furnished with what they could well trans- 
port to waters within these States. 

A remarkable feature of the fishery season on the North Carolina 
coast consisted in the unprecedented number of alewives, or fresh-water 
herring, captured at various landings, as many as 400,000 having been 
taken at one haul. The glut of these fish was so great, that at one time 
they were sold at 50 cents per thousand; indeed, it became necessary 
to stop using the seines ten days earlier than usual on account of the 
difficulty of handling so many fish. 

Mr. Ferguson, having been appointed one of the Commissioners to the 
Paris Eahibingn, was obliged to leave Avoca before the close of the sea- 
son, and the ule was then continued by Mr. Milner and his assistants. 
On the 2d of May the station was closed, and the barges and launches 
were towed to Norfolk by the revenue-cutter E. A. Stevens. At Nor- 
folk the Ewing again took charge of the tow and reached Havre de 
Grace with her charge on the 11th of May, where the hatching work 
was resumed under direction of Mr. Frank N. Clark—Mr. Milner, how- 
ever, having general supervision. 

The station selected this year at Havre de Grace was the same as that 
used in 1877, namely, a sheltered harbor between Spesutia Island and 
the western shore. The work was prosecuted on four barges and aided 
by two navy launches, a second one having been furnished for the pur- 
pose by the Navy Department. The steamer Lookout was dispatched 
to the Potomac for the purpose of collecting eggs of shad and hatching 
them on that river. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, XXXVII 


The entire take of eggs at Havre de Grace amounted to 12,730,000 ; 
the largest number secured at one time being 1,940,000 from 97 spawners, 
on the 29th of May. The total shipments and distribution of fish from 
this point amounted to over 9,000,000. 

In the absence of Mr. Ferguson, the interests of Maryland were cared 
for by Mr. Thomas Hughlett, another member of the State fish commis- 
sion. 

The total production of the season at the three stations of Avoca, the 
Potomac, and at Havre de Grace amounted to 15,500,000 fish. The 
shipments extended to all parts of the United States, as far even as 
California, a fourth transmission having been made to the Sacramento 
River—a stream in which the success of the work in the past has been 
notably manifest. 

Special acknowledgments are due on the part of the United States 
Fish Commission to Col. Marshall Parks, the president of the Albe- 
marle and Chesapeake Canal, who not only tendered the use of the 
canal, passing all of our vessels to and fro free of toll charges, but 
having learned that toll had been collected from the steamer Lookout 
on her first voyage of reconnaissance, made in December, 1876, gen- 
erously refunded the amount collected. 

Col. Parks has, throughout all of our operations on Albemarle Sound, 
given us every aid, and by his cordial co-operation has evidenced his 
interest in the development of the resources and the future prosperity 
of that region. 

A pleasant feature of the shad hatching operations at Havre de Grace 
consisted in the visits made by various persons to the station. Thus, 
on the 5th of June, I accompanied the President and the Secretary of 
the Navy, with a party of other invited guests, in a special car, return- 
ing the same night, and at a later date, a number of members of Con- 
gress. Many reporters from New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore 
also embraced the opportunity to become familiar with the aims and 
results of the Commission, and to publish an account of the same. 

To complete the history of the operations of the year 1878, connected 
with the propagation of shad on the Atlantic coast, I may remark 
that Colonel McDonald, fish commissioner of Virginia, made a station 
at Tobago Bay, near the mouth of the Roanoke River, and hatched out 
about 1,960,000 fish between the 3d of May and the Ist of June. All 
of these were placed directly in the Roanoke, and cannot fail to make 
their presence known within the next three or four years. 

I am gratified in being able to state that the labors of the United 
States Commission in introducing shad into new or depleted waters 
have commenced to show results during the year 1878. Some of the 
earliest efforts in regard to stocking the rivers with shad were prosecuted 
in connection with the Sacramento River, a shipment of 12,000 fish 
having been made June 19, 1871, by Seth Green at the expense of the 


XXXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


California commission, followed in subsequent years by transmissions by 
the U.S. Fish Commission. The Sacramento River may now be consid- 
ered as fairly supplied with fish, numerous adults having been taken 
during the year, although they have been sold surreptitiously, in con- 
sequence of a prohibitory law. It is to be hoped that with a few addi- 
tional shipments the stock will soon be self-sustaining, and possibly that 
the adjacent rivers north and south will receive an ample supply. 

For the Mississippi Valley, we have a very satisfactory result of the 
operations of the Fish Commission in the Ohio River at Louisville, 
where several hundreds of fish were captured in 1878 and exposed for 
sale in the Louisville market. The citizens are naturally jubilant at this 
great addition to their food resources, and stoutly maintain that, com- 
pared with the shad of the Connecticut, the Delaware, and the Susque- 
hanna, those of the Ohio are by far the finest. Should this run con- 
tinue, I hope to give further information in regard to it in a future 
report. 

As nearly as we can ascertain, these fish have all been derived from 
a deposit of 30,000 made in the Allegheny River by Seth Green, and 
200,000 by Mr. Wm. Clift in the year 1872, at Salamanca, in Western 
New York, in both cases in behalf and at the expense of the U. 8S. 
Commission. 

For the purpose of ascertaining the facts in regard to the occurrence 
of shad at points in the Mississippi Valley other than Louisville, the 
commissioners of fisheries of Kentucky caused a circular of inquiry to 
be published in the principal newspapers, asking to be informed on this 
subject. Several responses were received, and among them one from 
Mr. John F. Oliver, of Steubenville, Ohio, who on the 25th of Septem- 
ber wrote to say that a number of shad were caught in the Ohio at that 
place early in the season, on their way up, very many having been 
brought into market. He urges the importance of legislative measures 
for the protection of these fish, at least for a time, stating that two fish- 
ermen at Wing and Wing Rock, three miles above Steubenville, on the 
West Virginia side of the river, caught with hoop or set nets six or seven 
bushels of shad. 

Dr. Paul Sears, of Mount Carmel, IL, also writes to say that parties 
fishing with set nets in March, April, May, and June, caught what they 
supposed to be a new species of hickory shad (Pomolobus mediocris), but 
which he found on examination a different variety, in not having the 
lower jaw protruding as in the hickory shad, and in being thicker below 
the dorsal fin. These are points in which the true shad differs from 
its ally, and render the fact of its occurrence at Mount Carmel unques- 
tionable. 

In addition to these statements, Mr. George Spangler announced on 
the 3d of May the capture of about a dozen shad near Madison, Ind. 
The first sold for a trifle, but the price rose considerably when the fish 
were identified. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXIX 


Mr. George F. Akers, of Nashville, Tenn., wrote on the 21st of May 
that many shad were taken during the year near Nashville. 

On the 20th of March a four-pound shad was caught at Wetumpka, 
Ala., in the Coosa River, and on the 18th of April several shad were 
taken at Rome, in George Creek, according to the report of Dr. George 
A. Hampton. 

Specimens of the Ohio River and Alabama shad were sent to the 
National Museum for identification. 

A very decided increase in the catch of shad in the Roanoke River in 
1878 is aseribed to the fact of the introduction of so many young fish in 
previous years, as the result of the operations of the United States Fish 
Commission on that river. 

It may here be remarked that the fishermen, at least on the Potomac 
and in Albemarle Sound, distinguish what they call a May shad, a fish 
coming in later than the ordinary shad, in Albemarle Sound appear- 
ing from the middle to the end of May. These are said to be very 
fat, with short, thick tails, and with the back more golden than blue. 
Whether we are to establish two species of shad, as has been done with 
the herring, one composing an earlier run and another a later, has not 
been shown for want of sufficient material. 

Herring.—(Clupea harengus.) 

Experiments prosecuted at Gloucester before the eggs of the cod were 
ripe showed satisfactorily that the sea herring could be multiplied arti- 
ficially on a sufficiently large scale for economical purposes: <A large 
run of the spawning fish came on the coast in October, and, for a few 
days at least, ripe eggs could be had in any desired abundance. 

Mr. Clarke fitted up an extempore apparatus by placing slides of glass 
vertically in a long box, somewhat in the style of the Williamson appa- 
ratus, so that the same water was made to flow through a series of com- 
partments. The glass plate was laid flat in shallow pans, and the eggs 
dropped upon them, adhering tenaciously wherever they touched. A 
portion of the milt being added, a small quantity of water was intro- 
duced so as to dilute it, and by coming in contact with the eggs, pro- 
duce the desired impregnation in the current of water. The eggs hatched 
out rapidly, and a very considerable number of young were produced | 
and placed in Gloucester Harbor. 

Partial experiments, indicating the same general result, were made in 
1877 at Noman’s Land, by Mr. Vinal Edwards, of the United States 
Fish Commission, and mentioned in detail in the report for the year 1877. 
About the same time Dr. Meyer, of Kiel, made a very elaborate in- 
vestigation upon the development of the herring and the means of 
retarding it. He suggests that the result as published may be applied 
to lengthening the hatching period of the egg of the American shad and 
alewife, in connection with the effort to transmit these fish to Germany. 

It is proposed to test this question more fully during the coming year; 


XL REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


but the conditions are quite different in the case of these species. The 
shad and alewife have non-adhesive eggs (those of the latter slightly so 
at first), and are hatched out in warm water, or with arising tempera- 
ture. The egg of the herring, on the other hand, is adhesive, and is 
hatched at a low and descending temperature, the difference in physical 
conditions demanding different treatment, the nature of which the pro- 
posed experiments will no doubt settle satisfactorily. In Dr. Meyer’s 
apparatus glass plates are arranged horizontally with the eggs on the 
under side, a condition impossible in the case-of the alewife. 


The Carp.—( Cyprinus carpio.) 

The Druid Hill Park Station.—I have already referred in previous re- 
ports to the various experiments of the Commission looking to the intro- 
duction into the United States of the best varieties of the German carp, 
a species considered to be of very great utility, especially to the South, 
for food purposes, and bidding fair to stand in the same relation to the 
farmer among fishes that domestic fowl do among birds. The fish brought 
in by Mr. Hessel in 1877 were cared for at the Druid Hill Park, under 
the direction of Mr. T. B. Ferguson, commissioner of fisheries of the 
State of Maryland, and by permission of the park authorities. It was 
considered advisable, however, to have a portion of the supply in Wash- 
ington, where the fish could be more immediately under supervision. 
Inquiry was therefore made as to a suitable location for the fish, either 
in ponds already built, or to be constructed. It was, of course, thought 
best that they should be placed on government ground, where there 
would be no question as to rental. Several small lakes on the Soldiers’ 
Home property were at first thought of, but the governors were unwill- 
ing to allow the changes necessary to fit them for the purpose, and it 
was with difiiculty that suitable ground could be found for the construe- 
tion of new receptacles. The work was under the direction of Mr. Hes- 
sel, who had a survey made, and laid out the contour. Soon after the 
work was begun, it was ascertained that the supply of water that had 
been relied upon for this purpose was inadequate, and the enterprise 
was abandoned. In this emergency Mr. Hessel had his attention called 
to the so-called “Babcock Lakes,” two in number, which have a surface 
of about 6 acres each, situated on the Monument Lot, and separated by 
a driveway. These were found suitable in every way as to size, supply 
of water, &c. Application was made to Congress, at its special session, 
for the privilege of using these ponds, and for an appropriation to adapt 
them to the required service. The application was granted, and $5,000 
allowed to put them in order. The work was conducted by Colonel 
Casey, with all due economy, the plans being furnished by Mr. Hessel. 
The ponds were drawn off and graded, so that a series of ditches, radiating 
from one point, would concentrate therein the contents of the pond. A 
basin or collector was built at this outlet, walled with brick and armed 
with heavy plank, and a suitable gateway and overflow was established. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLI 


This portion of the work was completed in the spring, and after the water 
was let in, two-thirds of the fish in Druid Hill Park were brought over and 
placed in their new abode. For the purpose of having a suitable series 
of hatching-ponds, the surface of an island in the west pond was 
elevated, and the area subdivided so as to form two basins of suitable 
dimensions. These were fitted up properly with reservoirs and ditches, 
so that they could be drawn off on the same general principle as that 
adopted for the larger pond. Into these were placed several of the 
breeding carp, and quite a number of the young fish resulting there- 
from. In the mean time work was also prosecuted on the westernmost 
of the two ponds; but owing to the adverse weather and incessant rains 
of the spring it could not be completed, as the warm weather suggested 
the necessity of restoring the water to its place to prevent malarious 
exhalations. This was accordingly done, and further action deferred 
for the time. A second appropriation for $2,400 was used in complet- 
ing the work, and especially in paving the bank to prevent the washing 
of the wind and waves. As an additional means of putting the ponds 
in proper order for the discharge of the necessary functions, a series of 
brick tanks were planned (six in number), in which the fish could be 
classified when the ponds were drawn off, and those taken out that served 
for shipment, and the ‘others returned. These were to be 20 feet long, 
and respectively 2, 5, and 9 feet in width, with a uniform depth of 54 
feet. The work on the ponds was postponed, owing to the fear of en- 
dangering the health of the city by making the necessary excavations 
on the island for the walls of the bank, and the completion was delayed 
by various vexatious causes, so that it was not till the early part of the 
winter that they were completed, and to disturb the fish in their winter 
quarters was not cousidered desirable. The construction, however, is 
available for service, and it is hoped that in 1879 an extensive distribu- 
tion of fish may be made. 

Of the fish brought from Germany by Mr. Hessel in 1877, the follow- 
ing were found alive and in good condition in the Druid Hill Park 
Pond when drained in the spring of 1878: 10 mirror carp, 90 leather 
carp, 80 scale carp, 40 gold orfe, 50 King or Hungarian tench, 20 
common tench, 2 golden tench. As already explained, the three va- 
rieties of carp all belong to the species Cyprinus carpio. The gold orfe 
is a variety of the Jdus melanotus, a large, fine Cyprinoid fish of Europe, 
somewhat resembling in size and shape the fall fish (Semotilus shotheus) 
of American waters, and of a brilliant red something like that of the com- 
mon gold fish. The tench (inca vulgaris) like the carp, occurs in several 
varieties, the best being the king tench. The gold tench is a red form 
of the species just mentioned. 

Of the fish above enumerated, there were retained in the Baltimore 
ponds the ten mirror carp, one-fourth the stock of the leather and 
scale carp, the hungarian tench, and gold orfes, respectively; all the 
common tench and the two golden tench. There were brought to Wash- 


XLII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ington 65 leather carp, 48 scale carp, 10 golden ides, and 14 tench, which 
were distributed as follows: 


Babcock Lake, 
or East Pond 
Tsland Pond 
No.1. 
Island Pond 
No. 2. 
Arsenal Pond. 


esNeL Calpe asen scree caseeris sie ane BoE Ean SnnASon= Seidoshbe 39 13 13 
Scalelcarpenas soseeee see eer cle cceestoeis pele «eee eeece eee 
Groldennidesee sees ser ee ene sic ciclele wine oo taie one ete itee teint tata 10 
Man eytenehie: =. 2- a= -----se-0seecesss>~ seee-2=944s-teeeer=- 145)| ast .26|,g27¢ 2c ee oe 14 


All the mirror carp and the golden tench, about half of the scale 
carp, three-quarters of the stock of ides, and most of the tench remained 
in Baltimore. Bs 

In order to diminish the danger of loss of the carp in the Monument 
Park by disease, inundation, or theft, the offer of Major McKee, com- 
mandant of the United States Arsenal, to accommodate a portion of 
them in the ice-pond of the arsenal grounds, was gladly accepted, and 
all of the scale carp, 48 in number, were placed therein on the 23d of 
May. So far as known, these fish continued in excellent condition 
throughout the year and without loss. 

The very severe weather of the end of December, 1878, and beginning 
of January, 1879, caused the two carp ponds to freeze over sufliciently 
thick to bear skaters, and the opportunity was eagerly embraced by 
large crowds of both sexes. As any disturbance overhead was likely to 
seriously injure the carp in the east pond, a notification was placarded 
around it forbidding entrance on the ice on any pretense whatever. No 
restriction, however, was made in regard to the western pond, and while 
the deprivation was cheerfully borne, the community enjoyed the facili- 
ties allowed to their fullest extent. The superintendent, Dr. Hessel, 
was directed to prevent the crowd from coming upon the island in the 
west pond, on which tanks and hatching apparatus were located, hut 
was authorized to allow ladies and children to enter the house, a privi- 
lege gladly embraced, and to such an extent that sometimes as many as 
sixty persons were in the building at onetime. <A few days of incessant 
skating cut up the ice so that several applications were made by the 
public to have the surface of the pond flooded, and thereby make a new 
skating surface. It was found impossible, however, to meet the request 


of the petitioners, as there was no plug of sufficient size in the west pond 
to produce any effect. 


The Cod (Gadus morrhua). 


The Gloucester Station—A most important increase in the range of 
the work of the United States Fish Commission, in the way of the pro- 
pagation of food fishes, was made during the year in connection with 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLIII 


the various species of the cod family, especially of the true codfish. 
While engaged in the prosecution of researches into the condition of 
the fisheries at Gloucester, my attention was called to the facet, in the 
early autumn, of the approaching ripeness of the cod, haddock, &c., and 
it was determined, after conference with Mr. Milner, to institute experi- 
ments looking towards the artificial propagation of the cod, it being 
known from the researches of Sars that the eggs of that fish are non- 
adhesive and that they are discharged in the open sea, and float freely 
at the surface. With this information as a basis, preparations were 
made to utilize a portion of the wharves and buildings leased by the 
Commission at Gloucester for the erection of the necessary cod-hatching 
apparatus. A steam-engine, pumps, and other appliances were ordered 
on from the shad-hatching barges at Baltimore, and the work of fitting up 
was vigorously prosecuted under the direction of Capt. H. C. Chester 
and Mr. Sauerhoff, the whole work being under the charge of Mr. 
Milner. 

The cones, so serviceable in the hatching of shad, were first tried ; 
but did not work satisfactorily, in consequence of the changed conditions, 
the eggs being lighter and floating at the surface instead of sinking 
to the bottom as with the shad. After numerous trials to overcome 
this principal difficulty, a device was hit upon by Captain Chester, which, 
in a great measure, answered the desired object; and as it became 
possible to secure an ample supply of eggs, the experiment was prose- 
cuted vigorously and ultimately crowned with success. Several millions 
of cod were hatched out and turned into the harbor of Gloucester, 
where, in the ensuing summer, they could be readily observed around the 
wharves, and even taken with a hook, the unwonted sight attracting the 
greatest interest of the fishermen and residents. 

Mr. Frank N. Clark, who had had charge of the shad-hatching work 
at Havre de Grace, also supervised the hatching of cod at Gloucester, 
and introduced some important improvements in the apparatus. 

Mr. Milner was obliged to return to Washington by illness, and Cap- 
tain Chester having also been incapacitated from a similar cause, the 
establishment was broken up in the early part of January, 1879, and the 
apparatus dismantled and boxed, ready to be returned to the southern 
stations. 

Other species of Gadide, as the haddock, ete., were experimented with 
upon a small scale, and the feasibility of artificial propagation of the 
species of the cod family fully established. 

The only very serious difficulty experienced during these experiments 
was that from the turbidity of the water, this being necessarily taken 
from the harbor, and more or less polluted, especially in stormy weather, 
by the dock mud. 

It is confidently believed that if a vessel can be constructed and an- 
chored in the proper quality of water an enormous propagation of fish 
can be accomplished. There is apparently no limit to the number of 


XLIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


egos that can be secured, in view of the fact that a mature cod will fur- 
nish from two to nine millions, and the number of spawners taken in the 
vicinity of Cape Ann almost every day being very great. Of course it 
requires special conveniences to do this work, particularly during the 
inclement season of winter. The season during which the eggs can be 
obtained, however, is a very long one, extending from November to 
March and April. 

For a detailed account of the whole experiment and of the observations 
made during its progress, I refer to the article by Mr. R. E. Earll, in the 
appendix. This may justly be claimed as perhaps the most important 
contribution ever made to our stock of information respecting the 
natural history of our principal food-fish. 

In connection with the work upon the codfish, satisfactory experi- 
ments were also made in regard to hatching the sea herring, as detailed 
elsewhere. 


The Sole (Solea vulgaris). 

Reference has been made heretofore to a wish to meet the oft-expressed 
desire of citizens of the United States that the European sole might be 
introduced into American waters; and not daunted by the essential non- 
success of the work of last year (by which only two were successfully 
transported to our shores), arrangements were made with Mr. C. L. Jack- 
son and Mr. Long, of the aquarium at Southport, in England, to secure 
a supply of young fish and hold them in readiness for further action. 
In accordance with this, over eleven hundred were brought in during 
the season. Many deaths occurred in this number in a few days after 
being captured, but 165 surviving were kept alive in the tanks for a 
considerable period of time. 

Mr. Mather, of whose visit to Europe in connection with the transpor- 
tation of the eggs of the California salmon mention has been made on 
another page, went to Southport, on his return to the United States, 
and took charge of the fish. Unfortunately, however, the necessarily 
crowded quarters, and, possibly, the fact that they were brought in tin 
cans, which rusted very rapidly, proved adverse to a successful experi. 
ment, and the entire lot died, one after another, before the return voyage 
was completed. 

A portion of this ill success was thought by Mr. Mather to be due to 
a pump in use for aérating the water, the packing of which had been 
saturated with some chemical substance which exerted a deleterious 
influence. In this, as well as in the previous experiment, the United 
States Fish Commission is indebted to the courtesy of the Cunard Steam- 
ship Company for important facilities. 


The Sponge of commerce. 

Among the more recent enterprises in the way of artificial propagation 
of aquatic animals is that relating to the artificial propagation of the 
sponge of commerce. Prof. Oscar Schmidt, of the University of Gratz, 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLY 


has been so successfuk in his preliminary efforts in this direction, that 
the Austrian Government has authorized him to attempt the development 
of this industry on the coast of Dalmatia. The process is very simple, 
consisting in selecting the proper season in the spring, and dividing a 
living, marketable sponge into numerous pieces, and fastening them to 
stakes, which are driven into the sea bottom so as to submerge them. 
These fragments at once begin to grow out, and at the end of a certain 
time each one becomes an entire sponge. 

According to Dr. Schmidt, three years is a sufficient length of time to 
obtain from very small fragments sponges worth several cents apiece. 
In one experiment the cost of raising 4,000 sponges amounted to about 
$45, including the interest for three years on the capital employed. The 
sales amounted to $80, leaving a profit of $305. 

It was my intention to give a detailed account of the practical results 
of the work prosecuted by the Commission from the beginning, showing 
the aggregate of work done and the promise of future success, by the 
reappearance as adults of the young fish which had been planted in 
their localities. Owing, however, to necessary delay in the preparation 
and the publication of this report, it has been thought expedient to keep 
this history for the report of 1879, when it is hoped that sufficient evi- 
dence will be given to show that all reasonable anticipations of a suc- 
cessful outcome have been realized, and that the future holds in store 
great possibilities of ever-increasing food resources, which, so far as the 
United States is concerned, is to have a very important economical 
bearing. 

It must be borne in mind, too, that the United States Fish Com- 
mission is only one of many in operation in the same direction in 
the country, very many states now having commissioners devoted to 
their work, and all more or less successful either in the artificial propa- 
gation of fishes in extending the distribution of species already oc- 
curring in the waters, or in the introduction and enforcement of protec- 
tion of fishes during the critical periods, without which the most ex- 
tensive efforts in fish culture will fail of their object. 


D.—HUMAN AGENCIES AS AFFECTING THE FISH SUPPLY, 
AND THE RELATION OF FISH CULTURE TO THE AMER- 
ICAN FISHERIES.* 


6.—INFLUENCE OF CIVILIZED MAN ON THE ABUNDANCE OF ANIMAL 
LIFE. 


It may safely be said that wherever the white man plants his foot and 
the so-called civilization of a country is begun the inhabitants of the 
air, the land, and the water, begin to disappear. The bird seeks a new 


* This article, exactly in its present form, was written for presentation elsewhere, 
but not published. It was intended to constitute a popular exposition of the sub- 
ject to the end of 1878, and consequently includes to a considerable extent data con- 
tained in the previous pages. 


XLVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


abiding place under the changed conditions of the old, but the return 
of the season brings him again within the dangerous influence, until 
taught by several years of experience that his only safety is in a new 
home. The quadruped is less fortunate in this respect, environed as 
he is by more or less impassable restrictions, such as lofty mountains, 
deep rivers and lakes, and abrupt precipices, and sooner or later reaches 
the point of comparative extinction, or reduction to such limited num- 
bers as not to invoke any continuance of special attack. 

The fish, overwhelmingly numerous at first, began to feel the fatal in- 
fluence in even less time than the classes already mentioned, especially 
such species as belong to the fresh waters and have a comparatively 
limited range. 

The cause of this rapid deterioration is not to be found in a natural 
and reasonable destruction for purposes of food, of material for cloth- 
ing, or other needs. The savage tribes, although more dependent for 
support upon the animals of the field and forest than the white man, 
will continue for centuries in their neighborhood without seriously dimin- 
ishing their numbers. It is only as the result of wanton destruction for 
purposes of sport or for the acquisition of some limited portion only of the 
animal that a notable reduction is produced and the ultimate tendency 
to extinction initiated. 

Of the abundance of animal life in North America, in the primitive 
days of its occupation by the European immigrant, we have an ample 
history in the accounts of the earlier travelers. Buffaloes in enormous 
hordes reached almost to the Atlantic coast, wherever extensive plains 
existed. The antelopes rivaled in numbers those of Central and South 
Africa. The deer of various species were distributed over the entire con- 
tinent from the Arctic regions southward, and from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific. The moose existed far south of its present limit. The elk was 
a familiar inhabitant of Pennsylvania and Virginia. Wild fowl, such as 
ducks, geese, swans, &c., of many species, were found during the winter 
in countless myriads in the Chesapeake and other Southern bays and 
sounds. 

Now what remains of this multitude? The buffalo has long since 
disappeared from the vicinity of the Mississippi River, the deer is nearly 
exterminated in many localities, though still holding its own under 
favorable circumstances, and the antelope is restricted to limited areas. 
The wild fowl, congregated at one time in bodies miles in extent, are now 
scarcely to be seen, although still proportionably more abundant in the 
winter season on the coast of California and towards the mouth of the 
Rio Grande in Texas than anywhere else. 

Perhaps a still more striking illustration is seen in the fishes. It is 
still within the recollection of many old people (showing how plentiful 
the fish must have been) that the apprentice and pauper, in the vicinity 
of the Connecticut River, protested against eating salmon more than 
twice a week. This noble fish abounded in all the waters of New England 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLVII 


as far west as the Connecticut and even to the Housatonic, though we 
have no evidence that they ever occurred in the Hudson River or far- 
ther to the south. The shad was found in every stream of the coast 
from Georgia to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, and, although still ascend- 
ing most of these waters during the spring, has been sadly reduced 
in abundance. Within even fifty years no waters of the same extent 
in the world could show such numbers of shad and herring as the Poto- 
mae River below the Great Falls. Martin’s Gazeteer of Virginia, pub. 
lished in 1834, at Alexandria, states that the preceding year twenty-five 
and a half millions of shad were taken by the various Potomac fisheries, 
as well as seven hundred and fifty millions of fresh-water herring. This, 
by a moderate estimate, would amount to six hundred millions pounds of 
fish secured in six weeks in this single system of waters. This Gazeteer 
also states that during the same year nearly one million barrels of fish 
were packed on the Potomac, requiring as many bushels of salt. These 
were consumed in the United States or shipped to the West Indies and 
elsewhere. What isthe condition of things at the present time? In 1866 
the catch of shad on the Potomac had dwindled to 1,326,000, in 1878 
to 224,000, the latter not 1 per cent. of the yield of 1833. The catch of 
herring in 1833, estimated, as stated, at 750,000,000, had been reduced in 
1866 to 21,000,000, in 1876 to 12,000,000, and in 1878 to 5,000,000 ; again 
less than 1 per cent. of the yield of the first-mentioned period. 

A similar reduction has taken place in the abundance of the striped 
bass or rock-fish, a species inferior to none in its excellence and econom- 
ical value for food. John Josselyn, gent., in 1660, says that three 
thousand bass were taken at one haul of the net in New England. 
Thomas Morton, in 1632, says, of the Merrimac, that he has seen stopped 
in the river at one time as many fish as would load a ship of a hundred 
tons, and that at the going out of the tide the river was sometimes so 
full of them that it seemed if one might go over on their backs dry- 
shod. 

Mr. Higginson, in 1630, says that the nets usually took more bass 
than they were able to land. Even so recently as 1846, one hundred 
and forty-eight tons are said to have been taken on Martha’s Vineyard 
at two hauls of the seine. Per contra, the catch in the Potomac in 1866 
amounted to 316,000 pounds; in 1876, to 100,000; in 1878, to 50,000. 

Many more instances of the enormous abundance of the anadromous 
fishes (marine species running up from the ocean into fresh waters for 
the purpose of spawning) in different parts of the country in former 
times could easily be adduced. Similar illustrations of the former 
abundance of fishes exclusively inhabitants of the salt water can be 
brought forward to any extent. In the early days of the Republic the 
entire Atlantic shore of the United States abounded in fish of all kinds. 
Where cod, mackerel, and other species are now found in moderate 
quantities, they occurred in incredible masses. 

The halibut, one of the best of our fishes, was so common along the New 


XLVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


England coast as not to be considered worthy of capture, and was con- 
sidered a positive nuisance when taken. It is only within a few years 
that our people have come to learn their excellence and value, but they 
have already disappeared almost entirely from the inshores of New 
England, and have even gradually become exterminated in nearly all 
waters of less than five hundred feet in depth. 

The inquiry now arises as to the causes of the terrible depletion of the 
inhabitants of the water, and one so detrimental to human interests. 
The question relates in part to an actual extermination, and in part to 
a disappearance from accessible fishing-grounds. The practical result 
to the fishing interest is about the same in either case. . 

It is quite safe to assume that most species of the ocean fishes, in their 
abundance and ability to escape the pursuit of man, are less amenable 
to destructive influences than those of the interior waters, the halibut 
being perhaps one of the few exceptions of a species that may be con- 
sidered actually exterminated over a certain area. That the supply of — 
nearly all other kinds in the inshore fisheries of America everywhere 
has diminished in enormous ratio is unquestioned. What were and are 
the causes, and what the remedy? 

One most plausible solution of the problem is to be found in the very 
close relationships between the so-called anadromous fishes and those — 
permanently resident in the ocean. The anadromous species are repre- 
sented by the salmon, the shad, the fresh-water herring or alewife, and 
some other kinds, which, although spending the greater part of their 
life in the ocean, periodically enter the fresh waters, in greater or less 
numbers, and ascend as high as they can for the purpose of finding 
suitable places wherein to deposit their spawn. This done, the parent 
fish soon returns, leaving the young to follow. The young shad or 
herring remain in the rivers three or four months and then go down to 
the ocean. The salmon is more persistent, the young remaining from 
one to two years, after which they too descend to the sea, and, like the 
shad and herring, for the most part there attain their entire growth. It 
is not thought that either the parent fish or the young go to any great 
distance from the mouths of the rivers, and it is believed that the fish 
born in one stream never think of entering any other than that in which 
they first made their appearance. 

Bearing in mind the countless myriads of these fishes formerly entering 
our rivers—the shad and herring along the entire coast of the United 
States to the Bay of Fundy, the salmon from the Connecticut east- 
ward—and noting the extent to which they are preyed upon by the 
more rapacious inhabitants of the sea, we may understand why such 
multitudes of the larger fish formerly approached the shores in pursuit 
until deterred by the increasing shoalness or freshness of the water. 
Even then, however, they would remain near the shore, lying in wait 
for the parents and their young returning in such vast quantities dur- 
ing the later months of the year. In all probability these constituted 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLIX 


a chief inducement to the movement of the predacious fish to the coast 
in such numbers during the spring and summer. In autumn and win- 
ter the sea-herring and the fish of the cod family visit the shores for 
quite another purpose, namely, to deposit their eggs. But from what- 
ever motive, the fact remains that years ago throughout the twelve 
months an ample supply of the finest fishes was within the reach of 
everyone, so that a fisherman with a small hand-line and an open boat 
was able to support his family without any difficulty. 

Now, with the continued reduction in abundance of the salmon, shad, 
and fresh-water herring, the summer fisheries have dwindled and nearly 
disappeared, leaving only those of winter with its inclement weather to 
furnish occupation to the fishermen, and compelling him in the most 
dangerous season of the year to betake himself to the Georges, La Have, 
Quereau, and other banks, especially to the Grand Banks of Newfound: 
land, to prosecute his work in expensive vessels, and exposed to perils 
and privations of a terrible character. 

Assuming, then, that the chief agency in the decrease of the ocean- 
shore fisheries has been the reduction in the number of the anadromous 
fish, 7. e., those passing up from the ocean into the fresh waters to 
spawn, let us inquire into the causes of the diminution of the latter. 
They certainly were very plentiful in the early days of European coloni- 

‘zation in America, but at that period all the rivers were open to the sea, 
without dams or other artificial obstructions. Few or no saw-mills cast 
into them sawdust and other refuse; no gas-works polluted them with 
coal-tar, creosote, &c., and paper-mills, factories, &c., running off poison- 
ouscompounds, were unknown. The fishing apparatus was confined to 
lines and nets of no great extent, not sufficient to barricade the streams 
and impede the upward movement of the fish. 

After the settlement of the country began, these possible dangers 
came to have an actual existence. It is probably to the erection of dams, 
however, that the first great diminution was due. The salmon, the shad, 
and the herring proceeding from the ocean to the headwaters of their 
native stream, were met by an impassable barrier, which they were 
unable to surmount, cutting them off from their favorite spawning- 
ground, and, indeed, in many cases, from the only localities where the 
operations of reproduction could be properly performed. They wore 
themselves out in fruitless attempts to overcome these obstructions, and 
were compelled finally to return to the ocean without depositing, or at 
least utilizing, their spawn. A second year, a third, and even a fourth 
would probably make but little difference in the number making the 
attempt to ascend, this being due to the fact that four years is the 
average period from birth at which most fish are mature and able to exer- 
cise the reproductive act. By the end of the fourth year, the last crop of 
young fish hatched in the upper waters of the river will have made its 
appearance as mature males and females. After this the diminution 
takes place with increasing rapidity until, five or six years afterwards, 

IV F 


L REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the fish are found to have disappeared entirely from the stream. So 
much for the dams. As for the other causes, sawdust and other refuse 
matter get into the gills of fish and produces irritation and subsequent 
death. Coal-tar refuse is known to be a very great detriment to the 
healthful condition of water so far as fish are concerned, and it is proba- 
ble that a part, at least, of the decrease of shad and herring in the 
Potomac is due to the dischargefrom the gas-works of Washington and 
Alexandria. 

The rapid increase in the size and number of the nets, whether pounds, 
seines, drift or gill nets, that has manifested itself within the last twenty 
years has doubtless had a similar effect with the dams in producing a 
decrease. The fish are harassed and worried by them, and hindered in 
an equal degree from reaching their spawning-ground, and thus another 
drain on the supply is added to the many already in operation. 

What, now, are the remedies to be applied to recover from this lament- 
able condition of the American fisheries (a condition which, we may re- 
mark, has existed in all countries of Europe, but which in some of them 
has already been greatly lessened by the proper measures)? These are 
twofold. One consists in the enactment and enforcement of legislation 
protecting what we have, and allowing natural agencies to play their 
part in the recovery; the other consists in the application of the art of 
artificial propagation of the fish. Either, alone, in some circumstances, 
will answer a very good purpose. The two combined constitute an alli- 
ance which places at our command the means of recovering our lost 
ground to a degree which, but tor the experience of the last ten years, 
would hardly be eredible. 


7.—POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF INCREASE OF FISH SUPPLY. 


Now let us glance at the importance in the political economy of the 
United States of an increase in the supply of fish for food. We are at 
present a people of 49,000,000 souls, which, by the end of the present 
century, will probably amount to double the number. The production of 
animal food on land depends in large part upon the amount of soil avail- 
able for grazing; but, with the increase of population, the necessity of 
amore lucrative yield makes it imperative to prosecute the cultivation of 
the cereals or other articles of direct food to man, thus restricting the 
area of pasture-lands. Many countries of Europe have already reached 
that period when they look to foreign nations for their supply of animal 
food. America furnishes a great part; the less populated regions of 
Europe the remainder. The increase in the price of what is called 
“butcher’s meat,” though gradual, is inevitable, and every year a larger 
and larger percentage of the population will be unable to secure it. In 
this emergency we must look to the water for the means of supply. In 
former days the inhabitants of the sea-coast and rivers obtained a very 
large portion of their animal food from the water; and in proportion as 
this state of affairs is restored will the condition of the future population 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LI 


be improved. The legislation required consists in the enactment of laws 
for the introduction of fish-ladders, by means of which the spawning-fish 
can reach the headwaters of the rivers; in a prohibition against dis- 
charging sawdust, gas-refuse, chemicals, &c., into the water; in a limi- 
tation as to the pounds, number, and size of mesh of nets, and especially 
in the establishment of close seasons during the week, during which 
the capture of fish by nets shall be forbidden, and an absolute prohibi- 
tion of their capture after a certain date in the year. These dates will 
necessarily vary with the kinds of fish to be protected. 


8.—MODE OF INCREASING THE SUPPLY OF FISH. 


Bven, however, with all these regulations, supposing them to be thor- 
oughly enforced, there remains much to be done. Our rivers, capable 
of accommodating very many tons of fish, must be restocked, or there 
will be no result from our labors. This is not to be accomplished by 
the transfer of the parent fish from one point to another, especially as 
the shad and alewife will not survive a few moments removal from the 
water. It is through artificial propagation that the restoration of cer- 
tain species of fish to their former place of abode, and the introduction 
of fish to waters where they were before unknown, is to be accomplished. 

Fish-culture and fish-rearing, in a certain sense, are nothing new. The 
Chinese and other Oriental nations have practiced a form of the art for 
ages. In Europe it has been prosecuted for centuries. The transfer of 
fish from one sea to another was accomplished by the Romans of old. The 
bringing of fish into restricted waters, where they are supplied with 
food and allowed to grow and multiply, or even the gathering of eggs 
after they have been laid and impregnated by the fish, represents the 
so-called fish-culture of China. The young fish hatched under favorable 
circumstances are supplied with food and reared carefully, sometimes 
even in tubs or jars, and in the course of a few years furnish a remu- 
nerative return to their owners. Such nurture or maintenance of fish, 
under circumstances when they can multiply and attain their growth, 
is, however, not fish-culture proper in its modern sense. This is based 
upon the artificial impregnation of the fish and is practiced by stripping 
the eggs from mature females; by fertilizing these eggs by the milt of 
the male; by placing the eggs thus fertilized in a condition favorable 
for their development, and by the protection of the resultant fish until 
they are able to take care of themselves ; they may be then kept indefi- 
nitely in ponds or turned out at once into suitable waters. It is this 
operation which has constituted the basis of recent effort, and which 
has been crowned with such triumphant success. 

At first sight it would seem impossible for man with his limited op- 
portunities and means to compete with or even to supplement nature in 
the process of maintaining or increasing the supply of a certain species 
by artificial impregnation, but a consideration of the subject will show 
‘what really can be claimed. The process of natural impregnation of 


LII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


fishes is, for the most part, external; that is to say, the eggs of the fe- 
male and the milt of the male are discharged at or about the same time 
into the water, the two being close together, so that, as far as they 
come in contact with the milt, the eggs become fertilized. Observation, 
however, has shown that a very small proportion of the eggs are actu- 
ally fertilized, possibly 10 per cent. being a liberal estimate. Again, 
these eggs, some of which remain three months before they are devel- 
oped, some but a few days, or even hours, are exposed continually to the 
attacks of vast hordes of animals of all sizes, especially minnows, crabs, 
frogs, birds, &c., by which still another large percentage is consumed. 

Still further: The young fish when hatched out is almost as helpless 
as the egg, being unable to defend itself from danger, and is devoured 
with great eagerness by the same class of enemies, as being an especial 
delicacy. As a general rule it is believed that a yield of five young 
fish, with the yolk-bag absorbed, and the fins fully formed, and able to 
take care of themselves, is a liberal allowance for each thousand eggs. 
By the artificial method of propagation, 90 per cent. of the eggs should 
be thoroughly fertilized, and when the fish is hatched out it is kept 
from its adversaries until able to look out for itself. It may safely be 
assumed that eight hundred and fifty fish out of a thousand eggs are 
produced artificially as compared with the five in a thousand produced 
naturally. The ratio of production may, in round numbers, be claimed 
to be nearly two hundred to one in favor of artificial production, possibly 
much more. 

A few words in regard to the history of this wonderful art may not be 
amiss. Among the first to practice artificial hatching was a German 
named Jacobi, who, about the middle of the last century, announced the 
success of experiments with the German trout. There are vague rumors 
of something earlier, but they are not matters of history. In 1844, Remy 
and Gehin, two illiterate Frenchmen, rediscovered the art and brought 
it to the notice of the French Government, by which they were liberally 
rewarded, and steps were taken to exercise it, although with but little 
result, notwithstanding the efforts were directed by eminent naturalists, 
such as Quatrefages and Coste. Ata later day, however, the practice 
of artificial impregnation of fish-eggs in Europe became more and more 
common, until at the present time there are several national and a large 
number of state and private establishments occupied, for the most part, 
in hatching and rearing the various species belonging to the trout and 
salmon family. 

In America, the first practical action in the way of artificial production 
of fish was begun in 1853 with the trout. The experimenters were Drs. 
Garlick and Ackley, of Cleveland, Ohio; and to them we owe the in- 
itiation of actual fish-culture in this country. With the proof of success 
attending their efforts, as shown by these gentlemen in their fish-ponds 
near Cleveland, it was not long before many persons entered the same 
field, the trout, as before, being at first the exclusive object of attention. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LI 


In 1867, the attention of the New England commissioners of fisheries 
was directed to the possibility of increasing by artificial means the 
abundance of the shad, the enormous diminution of which was felt to be 
a serious evil. It is to Seth Green, of New York, that we owe the idea 
of the possibility of reproducing shad and the initiation of the steps 
necessary to carry it into effect. While the methods of stripping the 
parents and of impregnating the eggs were essentially the same, the 
devices employed for hatching out the eggs of the trout were all found 
to be unavailable, not only unfit in themselves, but powerless to accom- 
plish the work on a sufficiently large scale to make it of any economical 
value. A floating box with a wire-cloth bottom first suggested itself to 
Mr. Green. This was filled with impregnated eggs, and anchored in the 
river, where it occupied a horizontal position, and a partially successful 
result obtained. It was found, however, that in a horizontal box the 
eggs were not sufficiently exposed to the action of the water and that 
they collected in the ends and corners, where the larger number perished. 
The idea then occurred to Mr. Green that by nailing two parallel strips 
of wood obliquely across the opposite sides of the box, the bottom would 
be maintained obliquely to the water. The experiment worked like a 
charm, and from that time until very recently the Green floating box 
has been the apparatus almost universally employed for this purpose. 

It is impossible here to go into any further account of the numerous 
modifications of fish-hatching apparatus for special cases and particular 
kinds of fish, although I shall refer hereafter to certain improved devices 
now employed by the United States Fish Commission as superior to all 
others known to it. 

As already stated, the successes of Drs. Garlick and Ackley induced 
great numbers of people to take part in the work, but it was not until 
about the time that Seth Green obtained a patent for his invention that 
any State action was brought into play on a large scale in hatching shad, 
although something had previously been done with salmon. It was about 
this time that the New England States appointed commissioners of in- 
land fisheries to see that certain legislation was enforced, and to take 
measures for the improvement of the general supply. Other States fol- 
lowed, and now there are nearly thirty having fish commissioners ap- 
pointed to attend to the subject. 


9.—OPERATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 


A new era in the history of fish culture was entered upon in the es- 
tablishment of the United States Fish Commission in 1871. Its origi- 
nal object, as authorized by law of Congress, was an investigation into 
the causes of the alleged decrease of the fishes of the sea-coast and 
lakes, and the recommendation of measures for their restoration. The 
Commission was organized by the appointment of Spencer F. Baird, 
then assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, as Commis- 
sioner, and his first work was prosecuted during the summer of 1871, 


LIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


along the New England coast. Many investigations were made and a 
rational theory in regard to the condition and improvement of certain 
coast fisheries was prepared and published by him in the following year. 

In 1872, a committee of the American Fish Culturists Association 
urged upon Congress the importance of an appropriation to supply use- 
ful food-fishes to such rivers and lakes of the country as were the com- 
mon property of the nation, but which, not being under the jurisdiction 
of one State, had been left unattended to. An appropriation was ulti- 
mately made and put at the command of the United States Commis- 
sioner. These appropriations have been made year by year, and year 
by year new varieties of fish have been taken into consideration, 
and the field of operations extended, although still confined almost ex- 
clusively to species of national importance, and their introduction inte 
rivers and lakes which State or private enterprise cannot cover. 

Among the more important species now cared for by the United States 
Fish Commission, may be mentioned the shad, the fresh-water herring, 
or alewives, the striped bass, the salmon of Maine, the land-locked sal- 
mon of Maine, the salmon of California, and the German carp. 

The importance of increasing the supply of shad already existing in 
a given river is easily appreciable, and the desirability of introducing 
them into rivers where they had been previously unknown is equally evi- 
dent. As the result, partially or entirely, of the efforts of the United 
States Commission, the Sacramento River, and many streams of the 
Mississippi Valley and of the Gulf of Mexico, where this fish was pre- 
viously unknown, have been largely stocked with it, and it is hoped 
that in a few years it will constitute avery important element of the 
food supply of the country. A statement of what has been done in this 
connection will be found in the reports of the Commission. Thus, in the 
year 1873, about 260,000 dimunitive fish, averaging a quarter of an inch in 
length, were placed in the headwaters of the Alleghany River, in Wesern 
New York. These fish, or such of them as escaped the perils of infancy, 
passed down to the Gulf of Mexico and there obtained their growth. 
In 1877, or at the end of the four years required for their full develop- 
ment, they re-entered the Mississippi on their return to the place whence 
they had started in 1873. On their passage upward they passed Louis- 
ville at a time when the river seines were in full operation, and the fish- 
ermen were surprised to find among their hauls large numbers of fine- 
looking fish of a kind entirely unknown to them. It was soon shown, 
however, by those familiar with this famous fish, that they were the gen- 
uine white shad, of which it is estimated that no less than 600, from 
three to five pounds in weight, were taken during the run past Louis- 
ville. Additional captures were recorded at other points of the Ohio 
and its tributary rivers. Specimens of these shad are now carefully pre- 
served in the National Museum. 

The eastern salmon has for many years been unknown in the waters 
of the United States, except to a limited degree in the Kennebec, Pe- 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LV 


nobscot, and other streams of Maine. The work of restocking the origi- 
nal haunts with this fish was commenced in 1866, by the State of New 
Hampshire, and followed subsequently by several of the New England 
States, and in 1872 with the very important co-operation of the United 
States Fish Commission, which of late years has borne the chief expenses 
of the outlay. 

What, now, has been the result, and especially in the Connecticut River, 
which formerly abounded in large numbers of the salmon, and which 
has been the principal scene of operations? Young salmon in greater 
or less numbers have been introduced by the States of Massachusetts, 
Connecticut, Vermont, and New Hampshire, beginning in 1867, but not 
in any considerable quantity, until supplemented and strengthened by 
the United States Commission in 1873, which from that time took the 
lead in the production. 

Great incredulity had been manifested by most persons as to any prac- 
tical result from artificial propagation, and, as year after year passed 
without bringing the expected run of salmon into the Connecticut, sneers 
and jokes at the expense of the United States and State commissions 
multiplied. The occurrence, however, of one or two large salmon in the 
Connecticut in 1876, and of a dozen in 1877, interfered with this skep- 
ticism, which was changed into enthusiastic appreciation by the appear- 
ance in 1878 of large numbers of fine, fat salmon, such as have not been 
seen in the river for many years. No less than 500 fish, each of from 
ten to twenty pounds in weight, were captured at the mouth of the 
river, and sold in the New York market for the most part, at prices 
ranging from 75 cents to a dollar per pound. This, in all probability, 
did not represent anything like the number of fish that entered the river, 
but merely those that were taken in the shad-nets, apparently very im- 
perfectly and ill-adapted to the capture of so heavy a fish. Increasingly 
larger and larger yields may be expected in the future, at least up to 
1880; their continuance beyond that time may depend upon the legis- 
lation of the States through a part of which the Connecticut river 
flows.* 

The California salmon has great advantage over the ordinary species 
in much greater hardiness and capacity for existence in waters warmer 
by many degrees than those to which the eastern salmon is habituated. 
It has been introduced by millions in the tributaries of the Mississippi, 
the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean. It has been transported 
to Australia, New Zealand, and the Sandwich Islands, to Germany, 
France, and the Netherlands, where the eggs have been thankfully re- 
ceived, hatched out with perfect success, and successfully planted. 
Wherever taken it has been looked upon as one of the most important 
subjects of fish-culture. Without any exception, the distribution of the 


* The experience in the Merrimac and the Delaware Rivers, and to a like degree on 
the Susquehanna is much the same as that mentioned for the Connecticut. Specimens 
of salmon from all these rivers are preserved in the National Museum. 


LVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


California salmon has been made under the auspicies of the United 
States Fish Commission. 

The German carp, one of the latest species that has oceupied the at- 
tention of the United States Commission, is one of the most important. 
There are many varieties, three in particular being best known. Of 
these, one is covered with large scales, something as in the goldfish; 
another has lost all the scales, except along the lateral line, while the 
third is entirely destitute of scales. These are known respectively as 
the scale, mirror, and leather carp. 

The carp has been domesticated in Europe from time immemorial, and 
represents among the finny tribe the place occupied by poultry among 
birds. It is a fish adapted to the farmers’ ponds and to mill-dams, less 
so to clear gravelly rivers with a strong current. Where there is quiet 
water with a muddy bottom and abundant vegetation, there is the home 
for the carp; there it will grow with great rapidity, sometimes attaining 
a weight of three to four pounds in as many years. It is a vegetable- 
feeder and not dependent upon man for its sustenance. As an article of 
food the better varieties rank in Europe with the trout, and bring the 
same price per pound. 

I have already referred to the use of the Seth Green floating box for 
the hatching out of shad. I now eall attention to the very important 
improvement, in greater part the invention of Mr. Ferguson, fish com- 
missioner of Maryland, by which the floating box has been superseded 
by a new apparatus worked by steam, in which a thousand shad can be 
produced with the same facility as a single one by the old method. 

As the result of the first year’s experiments with the new apparatus, 
in 1878, of the United States Fish Commission, 16,000,000 shad were 
hatched out, and in large part deposited in streams all over the country 
by the Commission’s messengers. 

During the past winter of 1878~79, the United States Fish Commission 
has, however, made a step far in advance of its previous efforts, and of 
the most novel and striking character. While the establishment and in- 
crease of the fresh-water fisheries has been of the utmost importance, 
especially those of the anadromous species, the Commission has of late 
been considering the possibility of artificially multiplying the marine 
species, confident that by this measure a vastly greater sphere of use- 
fulness will be entered upon. The first experiments have been made 
with the cod, a fish which is the staple of American marine industry, 
and which involves the investment of a large sum of money and the 
labor of many thousands of men. This visits the coast of New England 
in the winter for the purpose of spawning; Cape Ann, Mass., being an 
especially favorite ground for the purpose. 

A temporary establishment was fitted up in the autumn of 1878, in 
Gloucester Harbor, Massachusetts, for the purpose of a series of prelimin- 
ary experiments looking towards the artificial propagation of the cod, 
commencing in November. During these trials many difficulties were . 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LVII 


encountered and overcome. It was found that the principle on which 
the work was to be done was diametrically opposite to that used in con- 
nection with the fresh-water varieties, as the egg of the cod floats on 
the top of the water instead of sinking to the bottom. This obstacle 
was finally surmounted, and many millions of the young cod were hatched 
out and planted in the ocean adjacent to Gloucester Harbor. A number 
of these fish were sent to Washington. 

It is now believed to be possible not only to greatly increase the sup- 
ply of the cod where it is at present found, but, by carrying the young to 
new localities, to establish cod fisheries as far south as the coast of 
North Carolina, where the fishermen may find regular occupation during 
the winter—now his poorest season—in capturing these fish in large 
quantities and supplying the adjacent markets or even exporting them. 

The same apparatus and mode of treatment can be used for hatching 
mackerel, halibut, sea-herring, and other species, so that we have at our 
command the means of so improving and increasing the American fish- 
eries as to obviate the necessity in the future of asking a participation in 
the inshore fisheries of the British provinces and thus enable us to dis- 
pense with fishery-treaties or fishery relations of any kind with the Brit- 
ish or other governments. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


LVIII 


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LIX 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


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LX 


00¢ ‘002 ‘ST 
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REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


000 'T 
900% 
000‘T 
000 ‘T 
000 % 
000 ‘8 
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000 ‘¢ 
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REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


LXII 


000 ‘OT 
000 ‘OL 
000 ‘OT 
000‘ 
000 ‘OT 
090 ‘Gz 
983 
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LXIUI 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Epes ce GLEE 
Fae ees OLE: 
on eee OLOE: 
SONS ASHE 
wise ee ew OLS 
pee ae OLE 
pie tena ROLEL: 


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prices HN ‘qjynours,7 pues woydarey 
AON ‘AQID WosreD 
AON ‘OWT 
“*° oyy ‘osvyyiep 
OFT WPLUVIGT 
> eyosouuryy ‘AJUNOD SMVADIG 


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eOSIUUITY ‘AJUMOD FYSIIAL 
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----*"* eqosouutyy ‘Ajunoy inesa'T 
“--2+"--eqosounryy ‘AJUNOD UTZIV]T 
Oise 
-----=-pqosouuryy ‘{zum0g onaner 
OPaemeas 
---eqosouuryy ‘AjUNOD UBATOPUR AL 
pecs eines eyosouuryy ‘AJUNOD LOMOTT 
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pono vy osouuryy ‘Ayanoeg onypoor) 
TOU ‘oowo0y 
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sores Bsr ‘Agunog vypoosny, 
Satelite hye pigs ce eae TOU ‘Pormoyy 
st teee* OBSIqoT ‘Ayunog PIOFXO A 
se esneeeeenteeeesee-norTy ‘WOspoUL 


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ssinle's srerrees-osUT TINSUABYyg 
POOR ARCOM EES Suoozedoyy OYVT 

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LXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


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a 


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*saq}tq1g 


APPENDIX A. 


PATENTS ; LEGISLATION ; PROTECTION. 


1.—LIST OF PATENTS ISSUED IN THE UNITED STATES, GREAT 
BRITAIN, AND CANADA, UP TO THE END OF 1878, RELATING TO 
PISH AND THE METHODS, PRODUCTS, AND APPLICATIONS OF 


THE FISHERIES. 
By RoBerT G. DYRENFORTH, 6 


Principal Examiner, United States Patent Office, 


AMERICAN PATENTS. 
FISHING. 


Including FISH-HOOKS, FISH-TRAPS, FISHWAYS, FLOATS, HARPOONS AND SPEARS, 
NETS AND SEINES, OYSTER CULTURE, PISCICULTURE, REELS, Rops, SINKERS. 


DECOYS. 
T(E Gael ee Bi 0 ee ere ee May 
Cie SECS Nie elite are os a tsie aes ebarghs eg tec z oe Feb. 
217 SGT. UNO RUSTE AA IRR ERD rae ee ee Meee Aug. 
ee ENS TEI selon lool soit 8 ob ols wd eo te a erste .....May 
Pt SULALEL. ANG. SONIC: a0 sick sone. 2 ae we vic wee 3 Se Oct. 
FISH-HOOKS. 

Bueelbrechtand SKM o 2... se. cect ade July 

JEGICME PONS) Gs tic A eer Reeser is Seminary ee Aug. 

AULA Shad) Arig an Gea aA aio eee mano 2 Bae Aug. 

lap ie Greniyer a ba te cen SS ae Aug. 

CIN AV Partai 2 eae at ees Solin kp Ne Sept 

ire) OTS OM sel palo nie ols chet oo \eleinjemia shersem eo cen 2 Slate March 20, 1849. 

BOS em WO pee Miree i re taie) ovale a <ip.elieteiel te eee Sheth April 
Une ONG Ee Ftc \adia's ng sae me een = te cei April 
IETS Ol Rae De.) sila ws esoe' si<!5/nic cores oda dele ee, SHE April 
Hee me SAME O se cys ene. pss bse e wrne oes June 
Pariem@Ookmup hy (oo oo ela bo Neeeoeieee waue June 
Sie me OMMSON toss. neon coe O8 5 ances cite k Oct. 
Pore el yee l S28 2) Ro Soy fo eno eee de cou ok April 
ee MC Med eines onan = as So eS Lae July 
Se mS COU MR cea 2 es ie 8 oe os ace oA sok Sept. 
eee em LOLENG VV Tce Pe eee te Se Sol ee Feb. 
Sioemmerindnh, A.D... 7..8. sss setcnkwsccescle oes! Aug. 
eee Me AMMO WTeg) Ned sae wenn nn vemncecaascden Sept 
eo we ramd ells Gos We 5 a oas mann sendorceecemens as Nov. 


5, 1857. 
11, 1868. 
3, 1869. 
10, 1870. 
27, 1874, 


28, 1846, 
91, 1847. 
21, 1847. 
15, 1848. 
5, 1848. 


6, 1852. 
11, 1854. 
11, 1854. 
12, 1855. 
19, 1855. 

9, 1855. 
22, 1856. 
14, 1857. 
90, 1859. 
12, 1861. 

2, 1864. 
20, 1864. 
7, 1865. 


2 


4 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
oiAooL. Warisand OhNsONs 5... .02- 22...) pee Dec. 19, 1865. 
PMPUOL, Gatvermonre, He .c cc... este c 2s ee Jan. 9, 1866. 
ofp). Johnson and Mowarth-<......-.0-.--..eeeeeee April 24, 1866. 
pnb od map, BVVec 0D cot cami = Sexe Da 2c: 3 3 May 15, 1866. 
Je, 04, OO Wins Writ. JCI. LU abe. eee Oct. 2, 1866. 
oss.) me PO ACOD.. 2 LL Sa eo ee Nov. 20, 1866. 
ORO I. MOTOSUY, OnIO reno gcc -t\-- edhe be aetesto ma abe Sere Nov. 20, 1866. 
poo stunodes, H. Reand J. W.. deen ccc cance ee hee Jan. 1, 1867. 
pisos. MuCe Ts DCD jAt0ID '.\. 0: e eee ee sae wee cee Feb. 12,1867. 
peste MEATCL, GE. 2° oes ees oye eee ee Aug. 27, 1867. 
pe ead der (TD)... |... Maecenas ee cee - eee Sept. 24, 1867. 
purces soenhart, cA. Ul... ¢seewage ese oe eee eee Nov. 123367. 
AUrOie. berlinie, Tey oo... eee ce tee nee ae Nov. 12, 1867. 
MPoOO. WiShyly. Ais! ccs aise wees ee oe ee April 28, 1868. 
79,446. Christian, J. B....-- 2 sare yeiptn oats =e oe June 30, 1868. 
SOvlolee Mennetts, A.A:.. - 0.26. oe oe eee ee eee July 21, 1868. 
SOO A ELUDES 6 0s okt i OE ASL, Se eee Jan. 26, 1869. 
S2 ogo. Memon Erancis .s: nse be este he AS eee Sept. 14, 1869. 
GE Sy eh OMO, HRANICIS << 2 ce eee ee eee Sept. 14, 1869. 
SA Odd. emo, Francis ..\).)-eie eee tee Sept. 14, 1869. 
OA CAN GETS, Le 3a‘. ciemree ee eee eae ace ae See Oct,” iste 

Le Joo. Chapman, “Willian (Oe 3223p ooo os eee July 5, 1870. 

Risto ATOM, By io 22 oe eee bones eee eee eee Feb. 21, 1871. 

ines, Chapman, William io. 2... - 2 sae nare eee May 30, 1871. 

HORi(icbos eArMOre, hy. ss te eye Salle so. sife\ajale laren avs oie ae ee Aug. 8; 187i: 

Meh S2.. Mann -< JE... ik See: jo one eee eee eee Nov. (21, 267: 

LSTA, SON CHANT MOF 5. 5 oe sie ty Geter ae eae See Feb. 20, 1872. 

2 OFe eine Hoek wee beetee oo wie etre REA Lee July 16, 1872. 

eos 0). | MaMa lo secede ol eee ee eee ae May 20, 1873. 

Pee). Alon: BH c.cei une ese test vetveceteees eee Aug. 19, 1873. 

4146. Harper.and. Smith -.-....~....-...:...2228se! Sept. 23, 1873. 

is. eiba@erald, Ty.B.. 2... 22.5 os elena Jan. 13, 1874. 

AEDS C4: el ames. W.. AL . 2.0 ss. os - cane tee ee EEO EE Jan. 27, 1874. 

ia Cahoon, M..V. Bi... .. 2s. ts ueee ses Seneee eee March 24, 1874. 

Bee amend. A. Wo oc .s.s oso seen cam alten eeee March 31, 1874. 

Hotes. Euard/and Dunbar. .........0.. deme Caen ssn ck May 26, 1874. 

Lapse oimmer |G. IE... ook. ca eke See eee ee Aug. 4, 1874. 

PONE LOO APE CUM PINE), fein o'e) <2 <5 ws 6 So se wr ee ret! Dec. 8, 1874. 

HOS AO AO mmr A Lode es licen ou Seed <a June 1, 1875. 

Oi Sree Greer ratty fos S56 cine erent Aa Ne oo eee Sept. 14, 1875. 

EEINO OS (ECO c Go 3 ~ Sata cincre oye a vaterer ne ines eae Jan. 4, 1876. 

EEO OS, UOC te gd ete ia cae odo.) on Beso i Moves Nee Jan. 4, 1876. 

UA C9; BUC le Beton es aa. choc an Leola 9a <3 3 SEN Jan. 4, 1876. 

MTs OOO, CHIN TS) .< fee a clini ieladeleisictoens nyalaistwiaes thy Ura May 23, 1876. 

ESUB0S.  Brishis Al SO Fee re wteieheconsiy ew wiotole tei wire leatoeie’ Aug. 22, 1876. 

ASS O20. J OWGE: Eos ances ale ttctereeses 4 Ula lemapetciard - sare Nov. 21, 1876. 


AMERICAN PATENTS RELATING TO FISH AND FISHERIES. 5 
Pe et eee AON sek a Seer pert cwostacy cna saan ahainarennect aia heh oe Jan. 2, 1877. 
Setlet, Jane and MO0rsc. 2. cineco nace wn reinc ates been Jan. 9, 1877. 
ee mete a PARGMMA, cls Ws Aocateiees 5 mo mtenns onerarstrdd atin ele? dete date April 17, 1877. 
eee ire ARTE a ed sO) 2 Sees rx Aon acne posasnroy hot ot openalar Haharan drt May 1, 1877. 
emer eey, © renteats | Gh Ct tecetyerc tne rctosctsrarm ferann annsatat a vote The May 22, 1877. 
Rey | BUTE AT Es 3 Walerete sean ag sh ck cl yan Foheroinsntonanars tat baton ches fered Oct. 30, 1877. 
ec rmetan ELE EE 2 Fie aejoc chat crannies on magetenare sed dial idle) d aka Dee. -11,-1877. 
PPE OZG. IMitehell, Ji. A. ...0rnre- /ra:0:0- Bo\atetNh a oiatehets baila areas Feb: 5, 1878. 
208,581. Falvey, J-..... hae SR AO A eee eee Oct. 1, 1878. 

FISH-TRAPS. 

Mee Hi NP OPREN 18.3 SAPs foes Soo to. ee ee Dec. 9, 1856. 

Baie Aine Bits Pett rth ett Sat. Tae ate: Meyer Jan. 18, 1859. 

Parente ter A VRTL ATL 1 E), = Bote et 2 Peet OA March 8, 1859. 

erie Peabioti be) Or reer ete eet a ele sere March 3, 1868. 

ieee: MeCanehianes Ts Brrr ters tes eee April 7, 1868. 

fe hg ECU NEG a Fee 2 Race ee BN A Mm Re A May 12, 1868. 

OE ULAR 2) oO Uo Ree a ee ee aed eid ciple ier a Sie ae ae Dec. 22, 1868. 
eee Pe) PAIN ONG ol Bre 5, 2 ots Sto ee ee oe April 4, 1871. 
cag, AEC 8 AAP CS 6 a ca a Jan. 30, 1872. 
i31439. Harcourt and Cottingham ................---- Sept. 17, 1872. 
132,476. Livaudais, C........... Sree Et CMe tr erik i Oct. 22, 1872. 
Mamenibees RUmeMOUIATIATE Ot 2X * = #8 afar Jan. 21, 1873. 
1415063. Pavonarius-and Michtle,: 2. . 2.2.7... 2 2... Aug. 5, 1873. 
Cen Nie ke Sekt ei. Sheet teste ts cctmeee Nov. 10, 1874. 
eee Oper by Aino s oth oc tA th Ltt Ste ee, May 18, 1875. 
Pe eh DIODETES,« Jr t- tc aer otters he EE Ses June 6, 1876. 
memroat. Hateheoek; J.-O--.- 21.42% o's oo Sar eee Hh Eg Sept. 6, 1876. 
og ESE SCE Sah, ES a an ary a ee i ae March 20, 1877. 
eee, WAnADER- J Mpc: ee oho ain ee eee ele Aug. 14, ST7. 
Poel. UO MOISEVOE, 197 Orme es = 222 5255s ttt fee Jan. 1, 1878. 
ER PER NAD RAR 5 Ok oh = aia latinle oe oho ss Bt ee ek March 19, 1878. 
ape poner UNCC, OO =.8 2 © az o's 52 7's Se ot ett et April 23, 1878. 
2026). Robertson, 8. N. and -H; A~..-2222.022 225.2% April 30, 1878. 
Bee mieeMen sund 2.2.2.2 22 vee esses she ces fie May 28, 1878. 
ei Oe ware Omid ~RODEPS, 222.2 esate te eS! June 4, 1878. 

FISHWAYS. 

TREC ANTES 1 GPa Sg a oe SE Aug. 14, 1866. 
126,257. Brewer, J. D .....- ieee: see ae April 30, 1872. 
“ES We ooo tlc Ol. eee fees eae er Se Oct. 22, 1872. 
1 EGS Ew 72700 ee 0 ee ee eee Oe 22 Aug. 18, 1874. 
PRACT 2 lo. tai a\ec sos 2S: cess < ee Aug. 6, 1878. 
Pere CIUONAIC, Mi. occ coed cose cece = aft re wa fe bie Sept. 24, 1878. 

FLOATS. 
Pei pe Wiegsaxe, Charles. s.is0nasssesaassccesce he cud April 18, 1854. 
12,060: Hoards, J..W.....+-.- ano en een rAeekennins SnD: Dee. 12, 1854. 


6 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
SOOO ON PROMO aN cletara ae tel etete ia feietateicun fa] arei-t- ee eee Feb. 2, 1869. 
AUIS Jbiisie he | eee Se eae heer) Keb. '8,1870. 

127,218. BLOWN and Jarvis, JP .- 0-2-9. 2 -cieine ceri taee May 28, 1872. 

ET SSDs MeV ONVE LL Lt a nse oie se erecee.e unio jora eset cin w= Bo ee July 9, 1872. 

MGpeSOl. Guim, W.-W... <o.scac nie eien eee en el eee July 20, 1875. 

po tot) Sanders, i). eee ee eee ee July 4, 1876. 

fen o2oDayis, . VW .andis. el 2. acer ee eee eee Jan. 16, 1877. 

eee OO. VCOie) 0, dere .ce = eee terer eyes eh pete ae March 27, 1877. 

HARPOONS AND SPEARS. 

J,(09.. Warner ane Gaylord. 32.2... - =. Oct 8, 1850. 
MG OU. ECO COM. ie era erste wide oe oo wiloe occ alee wreelgrie tae Nov. 4, 1856. 
A S49, ar le eo ete ne ciaea ste c cr alee eee ee Pep aeee May 25, 1858. 
J0;410. oyslhomas Woo... 2os0 cee ose oe oar ee June 3, 1862. 

PAA ALO: SKA ae WV tee cece eres ae eel ite eee Oct. 28, 1873. 

HHS2I50. 0) MONS ME is. d souls > eee eine ne ee eee Oct. 5, 1875. 

Niele eEledees aS. ea oe oa ede tats ie oN! 3 anes ete Jan. 18, 1876. 

POOL.) LAVION. Wits cos oo 2S eee wee o'er Aug. 6, 1878. 

NETS AND SEINES. 

Bvarts, USS 2-2 ene. 2 -- s - -oe eee ee March 21, 1838. 

is bPoR i ae Ses SWRI cosh odkccd seo ss June 4, 1838. 

Pracys Omuisietiise se\<i- «=~ 9 cote eee eee Sept. 19, 1838. 

COO gE pies ies eet iain 0. Ae oe eee March 17, 1843. 

SD WATE rel (MUN eco tar oe sh = oa ieee April 25, 1843. 
Carm,ohannon, and Carr 92-2 eee ee eee Sept. 14, 1844. 

a0. De Saxex (Charles <3.5.. 22-2. ep eee April 18, 1854. 
SOM Lal WEN OMAS cence ee ef: 6 epee ee ee . April 27, 1858. 
A020. Merritt, ji.s1 Beco sciele cise swiss oe eee ec Bee June 29, 1858. 
pee SO cn Cr OOCRWIN «kt mace etl e eltctelcl te ston ee eee April 8, 1862. 
Beeono. fam dolph s Wier. =e eee oo nae 2 see ie Aug. 25, 1863. 
Semooo. aes IB), A. ay eee cin ee la c's ce eee ome June 19, 1866. 
sion kerk and Varking scr. che oto tee tee tio Aug. ‘f,2S66: 
oo. eae. VV Wiliam . 22...) setae erie erereieye eve ake -Nov. ~ 6, 1866. 
ome ol worossman, OO <0 .2 2. eee ciate sees Ser Feb. 26, 1867. 
ees e NES I ATIC) 120,322) hg etna tele lenis aie ae re March 31, 1868. 
ipa Siem DOL EMOMAS ...) 0's. 0S Sue ote ee ee clk eg oct. April 7, 1868. 
SUZ Commes iON. 22sec see eee Pega e epee 2a July 28, 1868. 
24001 Garnwmipht, Ps 2225.52. 32.cescen fap 43-1 Sept. 29, 1868. 
Sev lige CRC OCLODEEG AD). 2.025)... ce ac acene es eee eee Oct. 13, 1868. 
SOs VECO MN Neg iacts.sioicicrc <3 eval > ae ee eee toe Oct. 27, 1868. 
Sh A els E80) do Ss Se On ES eae SEM oeisencl= > - Oct. 27, 1868. 
87,740. Werdmiiller, F. A ...-. er re ee March 9, 1869. 
SORGUBRE Se Noy bts Wel an COA RA Ae SOAS As Ae g © Se 26 Feb. 8, 1870. 
113,572. Ryder, jr., B..... S58 54 DSBOHe DONATE Saito 1 Bld oi April 11, 1871. 
ANS Siie eT AM 1. Wise cisetetetsisttela) atte Te laereteiatctele feet April 18, 1871. 


AMERICAN PATENTS RELATING TO FISH AND FISHERIES. v (i 


117,957. 
120,974. 
124,635. 
137,930. 
144,888. 
155,140. 
167,189. 
194,434, 
197,313. 


127,903. 
130,631. 
149,921. 


68,871. 


DET. 


78,952. 


80,775. 
105,176. 
116,112. 
116,995. 
136,834. 
148,035. 
149,198. 
151,080. 
160,002. 
166,413. 
173,262. 
180,085. 
199,527. 


207,333. 


15,466. 
16,626. 
24,987. 
27,305. 
41,494, 
43,460. 
43,485. 
43,546. 
49,663. 
55,653. 
56,937. 


Alexander, L. H ......--.020-.---.---------- Aug. 15, 1871. 
Seheny, lv: Saeeesene shes ey ase Aaa Stes doc Noy. 14, 1871. 
Smitten ye wactew ose. 5 em oe Stata o-ee-.March 12, 1872. 
Ketcham, O. H.o-...--% We toiiatatte Pose e oes e April 15, 1873. 
Campbell, Je Que... ces 2s. SeBBE Sopc aoccboac Nov. 25, 1873. 
Brewster, ©). 260... ULCER BDn eben or okie ~-.-pept. 22, 1874. 
IE On ae Fee SOR AE Soe SRS mCI me er Aug. 31, 1875. 
TO WES Sunie wieciere's'< stoi: aioe hltae cera ate Anges Ze LSeT. 
NS Gece Ine rete fer haat i n ata atom afer na oye aicia Nov. 20, 1877. 
OYSTER CULTURE. 
J LATERDIAGL 1 Be TSS) Ae eS Pe ees Seren ate June It, 1372: 
Peel eUp lye Eleme evtey yarciticveahseis sa | auexnac=iveysiete oe ee. 20 Ser. 
RE or ee ON =, Leper Reh Sate child ons, STojohss ye.clenan kes ie -.April 21, 1874. 
PISCICULTURE. 
(‘CiCiNS) SSSR nA passe Smee pric aadae aoc -.. wept. 17, 1867. 
IDRC CRs ea SOURCE yn ete reper AR. see Peo Deen, 1G 4567. 
Quis \Me isla ote (Ap aahaeen eaermeng Hae ee June 16, 1868. 
Shi Neale pees ochre Sep CaeIeS ote. ietetate ..Aug. 4, 1868. 
SO GVUL BUT Spe Neg Ses vei ce esters eic ators pe orn. timpas Simtel eceiage ate July. 12, 1870. 
Sopdies Jb) 4 (oy else oo die bicmiae aera a ters ore iot June 20, 1871. 
et Wel ve pe Me cs sn ae Ee ont tedete ovals che hebes abs ote July 11,1871. 
HET Ubcr Ti Vlg Gantey age) crepe cere cclals ayn ate eityo'e <- are elec mim epciehs March 18, 1873. 
GON enelee Nice ci Sacks cra ea OS eys.0) ow Salon aie es eevee ayers March 3, 1874. 
Peri NC HNN career elciata.nie jcc) aoc stateicis ogsiepectats March 31, 1874. 
Palate ON crate. n cians PERCU eyelet TT May 19, 1874. 
PESO Cle Nee tev co in hI R fennel sale cia: «shake apo Feb. 23, 1875. 
Awes aOR te atdinleatey slot ths (cro o\aiei 2 ane) a cfaleieve Aug. 3, 1875. 
VET REVAL OES SA ee See eee getets eee Feb.. 8, 1876. 
AIUIUUEONGS FATS epee AS a eae nero oer July 18, 1876. 
OU MSOs ldo oar to tye, Sin 2,512 Sioa) lars ta ne eels Jan. 22, 1878. 
"\iaV TEI Lee [Rear oe eA Ae ee ee See er Aug. +0, 1878. 
REELS. 
LUNES AS oc ici eects eden inks on a Ree et May 26, 1838. 
DEE TUR es tl eel 8 a Bia aaer MNaat ae y i AaE Aug. 5, 1856. 
SACOM P HCL ARG ttorcta Sarat a arol re arerens ota eter cloml sr Hebe Onision. 
shes b VV iatolige.*+-.*.'2*teretatettster ee S22 Aug. 9, 1859. 
Het UD) See AES 1 eee ti ar i A I Rc Feb. 28, 1860. 
ID YOTEG AKER A Fe led ria acti Mere Feb.” - 9,'1864. 
icity GrICSUN@ Vie tekst ra trate tee se cle < oe July 5, 1864. 
Dials Ui Ee Ae DE Agee ae ea een a AR a 2 July 12, 1864. 
Cuamimnes,Phomas-VW ti: ..%....- 2020 rI28: July 12, 1864. 
Sebaet,” VV a Vie o.4.+-5.". 6 ONG HBG Pe LPIA EN Bas See Aug. 29, 1865. 
LEVERS is Se CE tie ai ie nee he June 19, 1866. 
Eeaaunltme eine te mine afc 2 ets Ses 57. Ma aie ice Aug. T, 1866. 


Q 


a) REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
(i344, Vion PHofe, JUS .-- 9-82 2-5---- 2-3 --e eee Nov. 26, 1867. 
PaO SUReN, Wa Hac. fe cree a= cles alee. 2 no oe cieee June 2, 1868. 
GorOkis Mybatley, Wa. 3. ci.0 os ae oe oe -.5.0 ep Sept. 22, 1868. 
SAO eroron, FON. oS. 2. ok. one eee ee Nov. 3, 1868. 
87,188. Xavier, Francis....-.--.-------+------------ Feb. 23, 1869. 
83:026. Foster, C.S. H ....------------+---+---2+--2= March 23, 1869. 
D850. Noss, J.J... <2. 26-25. 5- + eens s oe - 22 eer Oct. 12, 1869. 
96,652. Altmaeir, P. A ...--. ---.---------++-->--2-= Nov. 9, 1869. 

ious omeldon, G.\Gioce ae: pci ee a eee = ee May 31, 1870. 

Heeo2o Decker, HU foes ae ee ee March 7, 1871. 

BPE ZO CETY 5519. 13 cocoa teeta terete tee ere Nov. 14, 1871. 

Hera HOWLCT,: Arch (on Sate <a) she ety a eats June 18, 1872. 

Bawls. Nooney, Goa. eee eee cae ae eee ae eee Jan. 14, 1873. 

DES ONC Shs OFtl ieee oe eae ye ere aro poco oe Sait Jan. 28, 1873. 

ne At. McCord, Os Wi ars eet ciel oe ee Feb. 10, 1874. 

Ha Seo. sOTViS, (0 cee ee ee ee eae ee May 12, 1874. 

161,314. Winans and Whistler .....-.---------------- March 23, 1875. 

fe7Sf>, MeMonald, A. Vi 3s see <- le 6 roe May 4, 1875. 

PGb4l. Winslow, Ho... -.cewcereees tienes -e-eee eee Aug. 3, 1875. 

ago.227.. Winans and ‘Whistler ..22.<-..2.2 .--s<52s46e- March 21, 1876. 

WiWID4L. Noe) CO. Ui ccuwaeen. cect eetees ces 25 geeberee as May 16, 1876. 

HOMSIS, Philbrook, Ws ei. casciee cx 2-24 ace sae June 12, 1877. 

195.578. Copeland, Gi. WP <2. 26-0. see Se aie eee er Sept. 25, 1877. 

RODS 
LOW. Wemsaxe, Onanlesia. -- 3- <r se aac ss se aeeee April 18, 1854. 
20,309. Underwood and Bargis ...........----------- May 18, 1858. 
Bods. PEibenarts PCW sien. 20m = ei see rea Oct. 4, 1859. 
ooo. V.Ol) LLOLC, ONO S ye se ascimiere cae = ieee ene May 20, 1862. 
he ROBO ARM ESE SH tire Se SS SNe cere cre ce Sle Oct. 16, 1866. 
moor. Montrose, Je cs2. 22-2. 5 J.). a eeeieigerg a ae Dec. 24, 1867. 

nMSe>. Hubbard, Wed \ce2 22. -- ecco seme ee aang March 15, 1870. 

Hobos Mout, WN OMAS 34/5). <rnjnie 2 jae etal siete chs rains Sept. 26, 1871. 

iOlD. MeHarg, J. Beas p2% esate eee ale oer March 18, 1873. 

aeesGd6: Smith, W. Mo... ies. 2 ses sewerage ee July 8, 1873. 

meeeteo. Senieur, M2. cee eee eee eee eee Se aie Aug. 26, 1873 

etc OH 0... ns eee eee ee oeee ee Ee ress tak Aug. 18, 1874. 

64528. Graves, J. Li.....22-2--s2eeceegmeriays- 4- tee June 22, 1875. 

#69181. Leonard, H. L ....-.---:.-+--2------ +25 tee Oct. 26, 1875. 

sijoulss.bemny, ©. ...-..--.cee-seece. +--+ ese ee eee Nov. 23, 1875. 

iqe-bot, Hadicott, F.............ss00%- soae- der eee Feb:, 15,1806. 

HOS S70.) Masher, (C. Wo..--. <2. ess 3822 cee see eee Jan. 1, 1878. 

206,264. J. A. Robertson. ....------------+-2cceee ees: July 23, 1878. 

207,665. Leonard, H. L.....--.--..-:- re ee er Sept. 3, 1878. 

208,500. Van Altena, H....-.--..-..-----++------++-- Oct. 1, 1878. 


AMERICAN PATENTS RELATING TO FISH AND FISHERIES. q 


SINKERS. 
14,587. Smith, William ----.....0..-5ssse-eecee-- ee April 
go192. Woodbury, William. -.+.--.-::222.-+2.-- +... July 
atoo. Jvecker, FH). Hex .-ss sea * =: tee nt ss =e Feb. 
Decor. Marin, J. d0.2e.--------- =>. - ddissdeieneccc July 
Fish 27UL, Levee OES Dae SU aa lel ST RAG ia aa ioe. Sept. 
Ol-620. Martin, J. Rh... -----~.-- EEL An REA Sat ous Jan. 
fo SS ai hiyae dy Cine Bea ee linea mri mest Dec. 
MGS et MOUmROp amr Der eit mr.) le Sete etna a laln nice © ote May 
ie tae. oro Wylie Ele 6). ioe ee dee ve omen May 
Bee SUIS RN NS e nciiefela'aln sinie'slee = 0s Sine =e = === sie Nov. 
84885. Leach and Hutchins..........--.-....--..--- Dec. 
DOTS Oe CUS Ubes rena ee Seen aac cree one Pare Feb. 
Seen Os 2000s In: Daan: saa nee ea eee heeelecie ee see Aug. 
een re ACTIN ID PE Ld ort Phat. Fo ete nf ale Polailelatora asics sie etataua ss Sept. 
ore Oss PLAC WEs Arla clay./ =r st = sam elena). = 2 = nine erect .-. sept. 
Mts OSI. ete LEMON Hii. c i's 02 /e'ninlae!'> a1>'= W103 emia e!~lnlase vl w= "se -\= Sept. 
ee Re PANT rua NAR A oS thie a 5ie Sree lst =e oho a alate April 
Pays. WHOLIS. \Is UF s.2 4-2 ene se alecine ts aus este Sept. 


ee Westacouin ty. Grae= om We csne An- == 5 ae melo acts Jan. 7, 1851. 
Meee eNotes <0: yahalao fare! aina "aie > wala’ aleve efaliate Some July 29, 1856. 
PEW AGEOSS nM och = Sos 4 3k LS asia sesh sien e tee Dec. 13, 1859. 
Boies. EenPOR l=. <!2-°.'e! a! « <!<'<!a's\0'e"e's Be OD arp eects «ib March 19, 1861 
Hea WaPTUCOVES; ela Ria alsin (ar'e(n ein'a2)'s'e\e\e'n == wwe ste wera ocean Sept. 20, 1864. 
MO MOD ee HELEN OT elle pits 3 ala 'ctoyslatohern ale e'a'claiste/aic's arate ialos Jan. 3, 1865. 
Semis, INO UESOMs, 1 atart 2 fat~/a)are' “slat a1, aaa e's: ateisiaalet aia sels July 11, 1865. 
Boe Pe GANOEG. ENE teeta ots cre nels elas eia's = sieais eves Nov. 20, 1866. 
HO GLOeNODIe, DB. Gr 7 2 ss) jects sacs cin Ap eoe te 6 ues + July 9, 1867. 
Oe oea NOW is Gy cus «socio ces aaiseine sins sac sceson. July 16, 1867. 
USS J8 (ori Cons De A a een Nov. 5, 1867. 
CEE SSISE ce 08) 3 Nd OA) 9 Eg eo eR Heb. Adeis6s. 
UNO, NOTRE ENG EA Sire)! 26. faa 2% sate Yorelee olealcte tas in! olay oe cle Aug. 4, 1868. 
Se Stile Maem WV AID 25327. to tes! fein sta aohaletote an! auterals eee Sept. 8, 1868. 
Serato ares MURA Wik aya 618 a<e)n)5. 50:4 5) lola "o wresleealele’e/aialo = spe 2 5 ee Oct. 27, 1868. 
5, 58) Fe OUTS Oa 9 8S ee ea eA eee Noy. 10, 1868. 
ere EO WOI phahcatare%/ io" * 0 /o% sto 2's Seine eRe ele hia ie nid Soe Dec. 8, 1868. 
64,00). Burnham, H. I ......2 2.2.00 ata teeeye totems eee Dec. 15, 1868. 
OMe. VAS VV ALTAMD roi 00 sinn.'0ei0'a snfa'n'wineis ‘a's cibeels Jan. 19, 1869. 
SOAs MOU LOMAS ici io'eie'ss'a 0's « nlaleleiinin'e wfolein tele ule = « Jan. 19, 1869. 
SO SISES IS 2; C1008) (CER Sed Sea ee a March 16, 1869. 
see CUE PINTAARODS OM dhe." 1-t.'" 2ofate/afe "so visions ae 'osefobeleltele Siac March 23, 1869. 
od Cpe MEW OOM Len is lnc'c apie xia isiae Se gee eceems o0'h nas May 25, 1869. 


FISH, PRESERVATION OF.—ICHTHYOCOLLA. 


FOOD.—PRESERVATION OF FISH. 


1, 1856. 
7, 1863. 
21, 1865. 
31, 1866. 
25, 1866. 
29, 1867. 
10, 1867. 
5, 1868. 
12, 1868. 
3, 1868. 
15, 1868. 
9, 1869. 
3, 1869. 
5, 1871. 
22, 1874. 
14, 1875. 
11, i876. 
19, 1876. 


10 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


90;944. Havard, C., and Harmony,5N. X........ sce. June 8, 1869. 
Saniso. Dotceh, J). Ensce sentence cere sfels -'<feiele eee Aug. 3, 1869 
Dono. Adams, iva ceric ll << aioe soe eee Sept. 28, 1869 
90,298. Thorp, Greece ahi ls larcres <inlbie © élsic' 2 Snir Oct. 26, 1869. 
97,145. Adams, R. A ..... Se llstsiterc'si= clej=/elelel »/=\ cic) tiene Nov. 23, 1869. 
MOS OSS: WObeH ei Meep eee hia hc~ 2s ccs eee ee Nov. 8, 1870 
OD S2.0 PEVONMe MMI SAN elses sinc cle'ciete's ania w oot actowiee eee Dec. 6, 1870 
eb? 129. Dawasvand Mavis... ..\- des ee erelelaratemine aioe Feb. 28, 137k 
SES GOO: MORO MGM es: WV os o's'c'apvslaeeneme eran, yale sitters oa ae April 4, 1871 
125,102. Vazquez and Rosenberg ..- 25... 2s -..ce <a. March 26, 1872 
ibs ramen, Te Lys. Spee eect sila ee Geel meee May 21, 1872. 
Teor ee OSCUeT a, Bp ott secret elo oc wisi ateas eestor Repeat June 25, 1872. 
pub Oe) clenley, “Ts iW alee cists ale hee se sisieie cle OR ener Oct 1, 1872. 
iFo2-o16. Pharo, H. Alc. an. jcc ce seas oss sie ee Clann ommameen 
bSo,3. COOGMAN ils nS.eAse = «<P colaerelaiae ene eee Jan. 21, 1873. 
EES SOO SH ALD, “WalhaM aioe cilachcsle eclpiee se eee es Sept. 30, 1873. 
WES oe NE al er GAs colar. cree a acto cere Bandon aoesscae March 10, 1874. 
PAG = SNL Wer, As Kass. so ec esice HE RMSAO IBS 5 March 351, 1874. 
oO 133. Osborn 1G. ke. 22 oe Smavidicics socees see. one nemere 
1205) bod Wig} £3 af) ps ey « Ge RA es Se ers ye mre ae ioe eee June 16, 1874. 
161,596. Davis and Davis ............ Maid Side soleta sere April 6, 1875. 
GZS TEOS Baits VAC ibapmere sta Sar hele Miata ata 5a iot cote ya te April 13, 1875. 
NGO.» Goodall Ore Saelis coer erecta ce ee ey eita ars ae ee Jan. 4, 1876. 
S916. Dunbar, G. VV., G.oH., andl 1 22. t eae June 20, 1876. 
TSE O10 Amana ws, Oo a poite se os oes hao aloe eee Aug. 29, 1876. 
186,204. Goodale, 8S. L....... Ee Poor Oe a Se Jan. 16, 1877. 
Sao. Gamer. (Cle. oe = cee aon enemas Febs) (6) 281073 
AQT B34e RICH MS oie ais oe Se o.s2 2 e's as eeleen vices eee March 26, 1878. 
Z(H Gai. Woodnutt. Miyamtan 2 oan S228. oes ee ets oe June 4, 1878. 
B66, Garin, Se VV ok cess else's c se sie soar eee are June 18, 1878. 
Bila oa0. Bliss Samide cae 2 es. ce «3 nals eee ae July 9, 1878. 
ICHTHYOCOLLA, ETC. 
Willig ni <0 Mein oe reece sisie mentee ke ores March 4, 1812. 
15 2b nee RPO i RR momei in Nebo nie Ay ey March 23, 1822. 
12 3 #5) 9 004 24 PR ae aye rleger AR a res en Aug. 14, 1822. 
Norwood etal. ee ee eee eee eee ee eee Jan. 21, 1834. 
MP RUS PROOWIC. a 2's soc su sicles are secre euneets erenje ele orto Dec. 19, 1848. 
533636; Lewis and Stanwood ......------s--¢-04s,-+- Apel  jaeaiseG. 
a TOMUMSON «5 5. <.- oe i o ote seer oe eeelw ee cenit May 19, 1868. 
MOA OMICS 2 = a sos ese ph oes oe eee Bee REE Aug. .9, 1870. 
1SAsOD0; Wamning =<... 2... 54%... Soe pie ane sain Jan. 7, 1873. 
Eelam UNL OT Pave ta ic ciara’. a's a's oo wo x's s Sols Oe oe ne March 10, 1874. 
HEA O ADO AM VVOOW 2.5)./5, a's \a<i<is-asiainsincsigrgelaeeleee We Sti pee March 31, 1874. 
PRAGA eS PAIN OOM s.\0-<.5;5 ats'siaial Sais aels ¢ sas are Sects RE May 23, 1876. 


ENGLISH PATENTS RELATING TO FISH AND FISHERIES. 11 


ENGLISH PATENTS. 
FISHING. 


Including DECOYING, FLOATS, FISHWAYS, FISH-TRAPS, HARPOONS AND SPEARS, Hooks, 
NETS, OYSTER CULTURE, PISCICULTURE, PARALYZING BY ELECTRICITY, REELS, 
Rops, TACKLING, SINKERS. 


DECOYING. 
Lt ROD aoe oi el ee a & ahd ee Pte barge tag No. 59 of 1632. 
Miami S ANGMMATWOOG 2. o.c.cc cose yoo ee es oe es tes No. 295 of 1692. 
Ree NL AIT CS pe Miche s So tomo ys ce ako cw a a steven Sebahe No. 4582 of 1821. 
JOCTLETIED: «25 225.28 0) 5 a Re ar gn 8 No. 4815 of 1823. 
FR BATS IEAM eS S = ccm, <-daes or aay ere eat chor Werbhon) arg iabe ayes No. 2580 of 1862. 
LU TEI SYS Ay 20g ee i eR I ek cee One Ae SA SES NOS TOlLOh ouers 
FLOATS. 
DPI aS BS RAR ies ee Ee ene oe gee No. 2003 of 1859. 
FISH-TRAPS. 
Bll Gils do Sp eiee Gee AES ES eee ie a eee Te No. 150 of 1860. 
SURE GILS Be hits eee Re a ee No. 1120 of 1860. 
Lee ae et iar hee in, nla, oy oy Sais, & onda al Saco No. 3548 of 1867. 
A ELLSTIND SS Le wt AGE agement Rae een UK RTC RY oP No. 1425 of 1868. 
LTTE: C0 VS RS a is ate Prat No. 1276 of 1869. 
LLGZIEIN go chUh. Gea a Rie eh ea ae ee ee No. 358 of 1873. 
SVEN 2 PES oe ee ee ee eee et No. 1281 of 1873. 
RIES IN, Las rte ae te SA ee nen en eee ee No. 4043 of 1876. 
FISHWAYS 
J TUTTI TU Senate aa PR aR Re a No. 974 of 1858. 


Leh Gl) Oe ee wiccdiele ss Sayeeda Shes Same S402 5.2 No. 1367 of 1783. 
Vonereveand Colquhoun, ...j.552.2sse2724ee5% 2524425 No. 4563 of 1821. 
ECO I PNA wie ny ne ic.<'be bce ae eRe ee CEE No. 8541 of 1840 

JVC S AITO ee a eS ee No. 10914 of 1845. 
Se US er te SES ein Fis atc, "wren lNs o's areas 2 See ee No. 125 of 1856. 
“LEITSTIANE oo A a enna re ae ee Dare ae No. 1110 of 1857. 
JSR) of RE ee ree, Te ee No. 2301 of 1857. 
EGET Na Sewage oro 6 cinceee MEY ee vs se scae SMe Sea Ss No. 2340 of 1857. 
VERSES I PT ae a SO ee eee eee No. 450 of 1861. 
eepeeeaml CANNON CaM, 2 ss oocc 420s sed sce.cre 25 62d E Re Sees No. 550 of 1865. 
WiCleumes One esis sass stceree since iktedke ZNO: 3012 0f E867, 

FISH-HOOKS. 
PIEC Sr OMM eT Ec hs Sets bebe erst SES toe osc: No. 1719" of 1789. 


Bell Williams 52.2423 : Reem Saye ns tse elo aS ae. v8 No. 2063 of 1795. 


12 


VRPT AG F701 toy MNase A Boia eat bala 3 ee eee No. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


GH], OSES ayarsiste amc deeleio ieee cin cle meee na ain ites No. 11520 of 1847. 
AITO O, PA eae ae etn alms= mein sain aie © erin mi ieee No. 533 of 1852. 
Huddart, G. A... . 1 oe ee een ee ee ene ens eee No. 889 of 1852. 
MAG MERION idle < cnin cies wommiin scene emisin se es nem alee No. 2902 of 1853. 
pores Wallltam To. oc oe ce rien oa none eee cence ohne No. 923 of 1857. 
Newton, William E............--- 220s eee eee eee ee No. 11385 of 1859. 
Hackett, William A ........-----.---0------------ No. 428 of 1865. 
rawlis, @harles.... .-): = <.-c tse em aie eee = ele elma = No. 38177 of 1865. 
WEIMER, JOS 2... = coe cee se nice se lee eee es ies vain = No. 4138 of 1866. 
CEU ete ci os 2 steerer ters yn line eee ins nl ele ateesiot mt No. 150 of 1867. 
281 os =) AS ees enn ees oem rea Nee OB el: No. 1765 of 1867. 
ATE NARA EC 26 ote oka Seu ore ena ara ee ey No. 2714 of 1867. 
NETS. 
SENG ee Wl ee ee ee Ane OARS 6 cece No. 1872 of 1859. 
JUAN As Cements Slerwe aah 5 ee re ae Be No. 3099 of 1860. 
3 RATT SC Spee se ge Sarat ae Rg aco tbo een eR aoe Hct Pi No. 492 of 1861. 
IBEC nr OE 6 pa ee ene en meen ey a ne NS an No. 1871 of 1863. 
Muy EV UETNS 212 ee ee oye ete ae ees oo atl eee No. 3534 of 1865. 
HeMVSOM eelec.c ose 2 Seis eho = <a oe Sere ie. No. 193 of 1866. 
Weekes 2 ss a2. ee ees is Rta, RK” 2.2 No. 2008 of 1866. 
WVARISIM SON: 22). oes es ce sete teeiais. ele > 6 eee No. 1146 of 1867. 
Ekeaithetb <2. = cere eee eo sate ec etcr sn «we ere ere No. 1331 of 1867. 
eilebt sce C eet ane eee bic aa oo ee eines No. 1532 of 1867. 
mciilett 2 Ase. 45. RNS Nee a 3 oS ee ere No. 1335 of 1867. 
NOMMSOM ect enee eee meeee ee os 5 Li ee oie meee erie No. 2140 of 1867. 
ADS Tea UZ GIN Schaar ce at oe ae a ek, <tr rele at mene eee No. 323 of 1869. 
OYSTER CULTURE. 
PN OI IO UNH A: 5, Sys) 0s ciev beens sekdl = Sone ose slsiase pie = nar orien No. 2930 of 1863. 
Or oes See a a Sa Ue ees epee No. 1040 of 1864. 
AOR ei 8 non ac oa ie ei esate Oe aot cholo ta etd aes athe Siatore No. 1316 of 1870. 
CGI 2 nn ree ccm ay mmm! Bree eo oe No. 4103 of 1874. 
serlcacnllandare (02 4... ce cote. cel eee ss oe ae eee No. 3506 of 1875. 
lemmnesrand Amdersqn..-.. 2-25-20. +) deen t 2 =o No. 2470 of 1876. 
MME VOTE NO 5255 5 5 ae aha eeieas ols cieinicig ee aries ie No. 1447 of 1877. 
PARALYZING BY ELECTRICITY. : 
PREM GPE WE Y= Can co ences afele aielei circle eee nee No. 2644 of 1865. 
Prem GAIN NATOL « <:<.-.5 < aco 42 arcinle cle eet ereidialaisaicleteich ae No. 3228 of 1868. 
PISCICULTURE. 
Folsom IN vette cae = ons Hos cece cena sn eae ouee No. 2594 of 1854. 
REELS 
Civen, JoWN:..... 5 syrealeies == A Re een ee eeeomees A 4ess No. 3157 of 1808. 


1956 of 1856. 


ENGLISH PATENTS RELATING TO FISH AND FISHERIES. 


MRRP EME tere, EIAs. w atinlak a (ale ok sielee ela\alale'e eee siv'e's' vei’ No. 932 of 1862. 
MGs Hote cate Ae che waa te Sie rb oetnurvaceinesaae: No. 1806 of 1868, 
PECAMOUEHII Sain c nc oesben qanvesdude seeds ewan es No. 588 of 1873. 
SRGED CONS os See aici ier cattqme ducer eles aol aasdie ste das es No. 3283 of 1876. 
POMOC Fhe: cn cans nana roan sna mere nvorhe ese de No. 655 of 1877. 
RODS 
Paracom, amc) Wesmenlel so (ea) ere nase alas cee Ae/-ctsGric.s 6 No. 2017 of 1853. 
2 DURE Ge Sed bo BRceas oc one yo’ oa Eiaas No. 461 of 1857. 
[PODER UES 22 3 2 An oar om clebe ao ae peau Oe SUnOORas Ogee No. 1553 of 1858. 
TE ICQI Tbr. 22k CAG SRS RRR On C SCR tere. No. 3528 of 1868. 
MV Merei etiam WANTS GUS or. Se loca este ote opepes 6.0 mie 4 Fieve No. 1648 of 1874. 
DET, aM ESTING LS) OSA Cee eee OFS SRO Pee: Beene No. 1840 of 1874. 
FLOATS Bb 08 Uae te ce Oe rene Pac ee ey a No. 1806 of 1876. 
AICI, 2) o DS BR eR ebee (ia ocscodkogupenyepoerscos. ac No. 1553 of 1877. 
TACKLING. 
LD ONO Se ess ee I et cee re aE No. 881 of 1767. 
FIGEEORY 2s Sa.is aioe Loaselet Bee So cR ee AE OROr Eee er No. 361 of 1858. 
PATRETRO) 2 cuca s ie, Hits Ae pei geeks No. 1755 of 1866. 
SINKERS. 

Ey LED As BS Aga aaa NO. (92, 0f 1874. 
PRESERVATION OF FISH. 
FOOD.—PRESERVATION OF FISH. 
ep tem AMV VALLES Ot boca 2 = 2 2s oicias ones case No. 278 of 1691. 
Woekburmy Ayo. <p <= Se ene Hee eR G ote No. 793 of 1763. 
1 SB BEN Y Lye Oe PUR eA a ee eee ne No. 2441 of 1800. 
elope ites = 22: %=-<.- Bet SA sraic¥glayote wraric,s\e evalsreie aiapis 6 2 orehoN Oap eee ODEO Teel Mies 
SESE HEP Te) INN ees Was catt Acco cteyrccag teh k= (4.9) 5) ofc: «ss gies, sive a avn <P No. 4150 of 1817. 
SEATS Spy LURID Skee BS SRR A, Se Ae ences Pa ie re No. 7036 of 1836. 
Benjamin, H., and Grafton, H ...... Goheial eter messy ko No. 9240 of 1842. 
NAb Ney aD cc 8c owas <a c/a si as clatointta Sd wala sgo'e t's No. 10322 of 1844. 
Pano, Avi. and Verde, Ho... 2.2. 5... Lobe me otc No. 231 of 1854. 
ROMO MED Sc atacsaiaa ainici ava 50.0 a e.e 4 seme s Sun! sie wales No.) “0i0f 1855: 
EIENORE 1D evens See a a Ml ne a eg No. 965 of 1855. 
BO eel a arate oats a oyna. 6' ojos ase mee tae Scien © 52 No. 1820 of 1855. 
J575\ UNG eee rr Be alee att a\en cio. ofas 5 aa ateregeeees No. 1559 of 1855. 
Lock Tent ile JM De agen eS es oo ee a eS ees No. 2223 of 1855. 
Beta MUN Tigh Cy ears. Src foiete aya a'eS ci.6 os sv acaisleidtelem es ore No. 1982 of 1856. 
Resi Cie Hina: a/accin oasis @ sie ciee ss 9 se Buco No. 2976 of 1856. 
Ces IIo lis osisae cles sca pa cuee due. cdeee ese No. 14 of 1857. 
De Rem ERE es eo dae Geen oO ya ciencee s-INOG 4220 OL 1808. 
Oe em ee ne clade aicin te tolelalets & als’s vio No. 1198 of 1858. 
JUIN 1/815 eit ee i a a arm Am gee No. 536 of 1859. 


ESEOOULA Met Eye cs sc g wis Cee Se aise 6d Sdddodsedaee wesw NOy 


13 


1202 of 1859. 


14 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 

OVATE NN ele oo 12 an. ini wiaimtele APO SAS ee eo No. 1404 of 1860. 
OO VN ge retele = ie'= = = nla mr aa eee No. 309 of 1861. 
STUER. 6 APRS cane car sian eeteteteate tet ae fotage' is, iota No. 576 of 1861. 
TEFOREMEt, tll wo dss wicle er siete se KdleleatRele tte do osc cls e.s ini No. 2569 of 1862. 
Miorean, J OM 32 5--2) sence rer BE ees Gicvrisicie[a.-)-/ee No. 713 of 1864. 
McCall and Sloper ........... eee secs Pines eee No. 2794 of 1864. 
recoll DD scan eee ert) BBROAS CSO0.445 550.52 No. 1349 of 1866. 
Medlock, Be Sand Bailey, W-.-:-:1~- aie%s = (isteloto's <= tals’ No. 1707 of 1866. 
Ro Tat lig NV ptt eel esc date Sore ele sha os: payee ew etatot the Rete No:  3s790risor 
SOOM AO EN Pree cartel wb e's alata le bie le 'o%s Wake ae ere fe No. 1200 of 1867. 
OHIEL el eliia atte sc cta icc a latata'a'a ateen eile awe a a% Seek eee No. 105 of 1868. 
LUPE) S85 Se aa ee ee eS re Ae No. 3194 of 1868. 
MeMIMONG, 1. LL. Chen eee ke tense eee seu sess sek eS No. 1381 of 1869. 
AMOS (Misano iecc ec eeussteneecan sete ee ss Seamer No. 2345 of 1869. 
MISCO she lest tein Ss eek: Spee Seems ae yee ee ae No 60 of 1370. 
RCAC Viet Orns Seinia}a= eyes = =o wal SEO EaOb SHAS Ben ab No. 2096 of 1870. 
HERPES TOOT EN teste oh co or sata) =o asks wucpeeeeee Se ie ope No. 2568 of 1870. 
CIDER NaC oe ea ae geerperenyrers Parser Resa ers sings oe oe No. 3105 of 1870. 
OPT EIU itl Dg PGE a ete ag ai ester ts eed ed No. 3321 of 1870. 
LUD TSI at Sh Pd mano De Ner hr iete mabe ta in No. 460 of 1871. 
12 CITC ipsd BSH Cp MRR er POF Se erhalten earl No. 1233 of 1871. 
REO colt <b ascii ta bate otal ese aire tec eer No. 2698 of 1871. 
Wazoguez and Rosenberg... c85 ci /25 sac oc hen om ..-No. 3387 of 1871. 
We Malortié and \Woods= kth 26 tet wet are oes No. 3803 of 1872. 
CHET OBS eee nee NTs SEPA AA Sey So oheey No. 1837 of 1874. 
PIGTACM PAS toc CES 6 Bien, to eee oe A eee No. 2032 of 1874. 
1 OEE) ca aera eee iP as Maclean Metres (Ae Seis ears eacters No. 3645 of 1874. 
MET Oe aN). 3) ccesercucieis ce tien Sor ok, Samer een ane No. 3652 of 1874. 
eave eon), Ei acto naieie Sone grin eres 1) et eee ee No. 3653 of 1874. 
RCauNOnDY, Os NY ce naan aece . ais Sk toe eee No. 351 of 1875. 
REMMI AN ACKSON sso. cone cccteine See pene Bees No. 933 of 1875. 
Lal silts, LUA e ee ea eye Bae Semen Saar era alin Sse Ts No. 2307 of 1875. 
Drmawinger, dis, Al. 52... sa in otis SST eee No. 3073 of 1875. 
ETERS HELE 5 LDN Go ae a Mae nen RDI Gee yg gh oe 8 Spee NII No. 3120 of 1875. 
1 SIRE MSA AS Geers amar eran Cer a Ser is a No. 5729 of 1875. 
BTEWEFR .- .-.. SE OP ATE PL SSS Mie ak, SB No. 160 o£ 1876: 
PUGS ON geet ai cis wie an se a.t.cie oie te Rea SE ELE No. 1492 of 1876. 
GTC hb Geren teeta occas, 2 6s =’ =) sl eee ee ee No. 1920 of 1876. 
SiG Sas ko. | Bee e eee eee eter Sit 2 ERM eae No. 2064 of 1876. 
LO EP RGE SEBS TO OA ae aE eee eel No. 2432 of 1876. 
UN ea ib rere eae eenete nt cve'e os occ ciao 3.00 Se cree ae No. 2479 of 1876. 
GUIOh x aernetueonee «co isn eaig se «sc <elaNele ay eee eee No. 3107 of 1876. 
KRGOLE. oi crear Ms a ctete Real sicia so dicts ote crs cteree a ee No. 4446 of 1876. 
IIRC ai Slope snide ne ese eee a a No. 4605 of 1876. 
PL OMUERIEG =. << & 52 VG Seat co eh ck a No. 4612 of 1876. 
ERATE ON, ss aye ee ee mena eh ac terrae ea No. 4624 of 1876. 


4920 of 1876. 


PATENTS RELATING TO MANURES. 


AMERICAN PATENTS. 
MANURES, FISH. 


4050, Demolon and Thurneyssen.--~--.---..65 ..:. March 6, 1855 
USD a a RNAS 1B ee ne eee an irs © ee cee Dec. 20, 1859. 
Soy AU Ged Bie is 18) iA iO OAC r He Miser Soc oeis aon nec Nov. 12, 1861. 
Bech iso) oes Coreen Vee dn Wd Ge ciateiera sien 6 St Scia\ aia'= evelacs Os July 26, 1864. 
AnySaclly Tally \Nigal Ge peo ob BB ones Sem ae minerr Heed aor March 14, 1865. 
Pree eevee) TEU TNs Nees te < egciie = I ie a op slate ays afte eects m1 sahay- March 23, 1869. 
0 108) GO SMO) SaeGa es SSeS Gomer Gan od orem s aoe Dec. 14, 1869. 
99201, Smith, A.-.-.. SN oo oe arin eee Serbian pate leasic, serene ee Jan. 25, 1870. 
eee eu Oe Oe ce rok Rha aes hohatel fatale toes een Feb. 41,1870: 
S073. 1OOPeL, LLOOPer ANd) LUSO <5. c00 josccns eps: Feb. 8, 1870. 
ee Ga LOOMERs Wied le les J ore a.art Gunes ote are Feb. 15, 1870. 
Seta ee UU CO cee drarst fate ctateiay eve wel a ciel ss) star o(oizs case fae Seca Feb. 15, 1870. 
Be TOON Ore e aot cameron Sats nels so t,5 acres 21S Ss Feb. 15, 1870. 
Baer aed Oe Onesie 1m ale aie, reigieey sasinn Sai sc as ees May _ 3, 1870. 
ee emUNN CRO) cee ra eihsrs aes oye 52 sia = ethels. a's a save ae ease June 14, 1870. 
112 TH aos CORN GP Us as er ge So ee Pe March 14, 1871. 
Pee DCC cM WM oof E oc othe ah Sos. ease . ioe ae April 23, 1872. 
aero SMEMATC os, Decne cease es acted cae. e = Heise Aste July 14, 1874. 
Peete TOWEL AN oan ks... akerorictiel ose gs elem ae Sept. 24, 1878. 
ENGLISH PATENTS. 
MANURES, FISH. 

iene pelolove xtvyaraim a steve, /ps)=) ey Napais Sia sig taetetclalsee SoS No. 10806 of 1845. 
HS Og Pe. fut isis, to. ar No meat te Sais Sean eS SE Se No. 11924 of 1847. 
Hy tiie He RM eras ino acta ool adsl n! MSA OL SSS No. 12023 of 1848. 
JB fers LS OP ee Se 2 er ee es ee No. 12250 of 1848. 
JST, COTREN DY _ Nite Girt ae Pe, 28 Ere Ee No. 14255 of 1851. 
TEU brine Cee eta STS a ase cyanate: aichu) navctateic 2 ae eros ee No. 546 of 1853 
(OLDS iIN AS Ly VE se ene No. 1375 of 1853 
(OSE EDDIE 128 3 1 Ce ee a eee ee No. 2027 of 1853 
ARGV VU BATES Is o's 5 vo Sorapcvars wtoferalts ss: 'a%teceirgeann™s No. 2181 of 1854. 
aelrelard and ELabvey jaye. site gees sews See oe ines No. 648 of 1855. 
CoMUR ACS OEIC AM a s'0,srararnicterin «Gmc se dtavale che ite Pate o/c a's No. 744 of 1855. 
TUNEL) CCES og BO ae ne No. 1079 of 1855. 
IVE aaa NS, tb! i6 wrest a via dd bays ade baa ceaes ino INO. LoT9iol 1596. 
QS Ae. eae Eee wee See lee No. 1198 of 1858. 
UGTA UNS 2) Nel oe ee a ee No. 684 of 1861. 
UD Ny lire Sees RIG Wl ea Lk ce recalls wala eis a No. 1351 of 1868. 


16 REPORT OF 


COMMISSIONER OF 


FISH 


AND FISHERIES. 


Duy i100 AR ee ae re ae NS Oe a No. 
EIAILEON, ABI oti ein aeioie ne is = oya5 fe Leas pepe eee No. 
Hawsol, ocular, Slater @& Wilson .. 222.0. .e- eee No 
SOOKE AV cle en oidler si alajaic, Sate ial Boca Sins alae ote eee No. 
Metealtejand Massimeham..... .20,.< ss see oie oer No. 
SESE Gap aces iain'e isa sw wcielelberes PSAs biti emanate No. 
PER GRTINAT (2c) 0:4 a anim sisi Ee re mer cde, aerate No. 


CANADIAN PATENTS. 


FISHING. 
Including FisH-Traps, FisHways, FisH-Hooxs, Harpoons, NETs, 
FISH-TRAPS. 
Wout shan 53 Mee ee ae eee ee eee eee No. 
FISHWAYS. 
IBSROWET ae 5 =citenie = 2's) cio chanel pe toe I ae Le eee No. 
BREWED sie oaths: s\distn wie 2. oe Se ere ee ee ares Sy No. 
FISH-HOOKS. 
ERA ET AIG SNITCH ec ee eee eee yeep te yest No. 
rod UGUIYE) Sepa MORE ett ote AI ss, ee Sy See ag tS .- aNG: 
SHTLT SOA Af RR ee eR sp aR. SN ieee No. 
HARPOONS. 
Peleier jibes oo Yi pa be acs 2 See Oe ee oe No. 
NETS 
UOTE Ee ere ania ber Ae ay RNR ren om reals Jul(s 
MUURETHIS OND ee as aah. ssw asele ese eile sls oie once Sekine pee No. 
WCRONR EE oe cee wn im is eee emis eee ce sieeia aceasta No. 
PISCICULTURE. 
| 
PEobOmsanel Greer . <j... Stee omen cee eee er eos No. 
OIE SR he aa MS oxo is Sha Seema ee Steen aera No. 


VO 62 Se Ae eC eee ety a= CEs ela tes ard on No. 


3779 of 1868. 
2114 of 1873. 
2662 of 1873. 
2790 of 1873. 
3329 of 1873. 
4176 of 1874. 
2380 of 1876. 


PISCICULTURE. 


2621 of 1873. 


2386 of 1873. 
4720 of 1875. 


2110 of 1873. 
3067 of 1874. 
6666 of 1876. 


2383 of 1873. 


53 of 1840. 
84 of 1845. 
113 of 1847. 


2220 of 1873. 
4927 of 1875. 
6054 of 1876. 


I].—ABSTRACT OF PATENTS ISSUED IN GREAT BRITAIN UP TO 
THE YEAR 1878, HAVING REFERENCE TO THE PURSUIT, CAP- 
TURE, AND UTILIZATION OF THE PRODUCTS OF THE FISHER- 
IES. 


By R. G. DYRENFORTH, M. D., 
Examiner, United States Patent Office. 


DECOYING FISH. 


No. 59 of 1632.—GRENT.—Provides the net, spear, or hook with a 
looking-glass to lure the fish. Provisional. No drawing. 


No. 295 of 1692.— WILLIAMS and MArwoop.—Fish lured by means 
of lights burning upon or undtr the water. Provisional. No drawing. 


No. 4582 of 1821—DE CHABANNES.—Aittracting and catching fish— 
Lamp under water having one or more communications with the atmos- 
phere to feed the flame and allow the smoke to escape; mirrors connected 
with traps or nets to lure the fish; living fish surrounded by glass or 
other protection in or about the nets, further to lure. Drawing, Plate I. 


No. 4815 of 1823.—CoFFiIn.— Catching fish.—Bait tossed overboard to 
bring schools of mackerel about the vessel; hooks are then used weighted 
by brightened lead. Drawing, Plate VIII. 


No. 2580 of 1862.—FANSHAWE.—For decoying or for seeing when a 
sufficient number of fish have been collected in a net, employs a station- 
ary or movable submerged electric or other light; phosphorized oil, or 
other luminous fluid ; or submerged reflectors reflecting light from above. 

A globe of plain or colored glass, covered by strong wire net, contains 
the light and is supplied with air by flexible tubing; or a lantern is em- 
ployed, constructed with a double roof that, the air therein becoming 
rarified by the heat, a current may be produced and the lantern rendered 
self-supplying with air. 

The illuminating apparatus is lowered through a well near the center 
of the boat; or lights are sustained by buoys around the vessel. 

When lines are used for cod, salmon, and other fishing, places a small 
wire-protected glass globe filled with a luminous fluid near the bait, on 
a horizontal line, and supplies air for combustion through a flexible tube. 
Drawing, Plate II. 


No. 1751 of 1863.—Jopocius.—Ordinary electric light to lure the fish 
into a cage or net. Drawing, Plate III. 
2F 17 


18 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
FLOATS. 


No. 2003 of 1859.—FEARN.—A double-cone buoy formed of staves is 
made air and water tight by means of tongues and grooves. The heads 
are provided with stays to prevent bulging or collapse, and have a 
bracket for attaching the rope. Drawing, Plate I. 


FISH TRAPS. 


No. 150 of 1860.—ALLEN.—Bait-can.—For a bait-can which shall 
occupy less space when out of use, provides a flexible bag open at the 
top, where the edges are connected to a metal ring serving as a flange to 
a metal covering-plate. In the center of this plate is an opening provid- 
ed with a perforated lid, and the plate has a handle capable of being 
turned down. The metal top is connected by jointed uprights to a shal- 
low metal pan, which forms a bottom for the can. The sides being flexi- 
ble, the uprights being jointed in the center and the pan at the bottom 
being larger than the top-plate and ring, the can may be folded when 
notinuse. Small sleeves slip over the joints and keep uprights straight 
when the can isin use. Provisional. No Drawing. . 


No. 1120 of 1860.—STEVENS.—Keeping jish alive—Supplies oxygen to 
the water either by injecting air into it or by throwing the water upwards 
into the air. Uses a box having a false bottom, in which a number of 
small holes are pierced. Airis supplied by means of a bellows. The 
water may be raised into the air by endless chains and buckets or by 
paddle-wheels. No drawing. 


No. 3548 of 1867.—DAMM.—Fish-tank.—Supplies air to the water in 
the vessel containing the fish. <A is the tank, having a pipe leading 
from the pump ©, fitted with a piston-rod, handle, E, and a toothed 
sector, G, whereby reciprocating motion may be imparted to the pump 
and the water forced through pipes H and I. The pipe I and head ¢ are 
fitted with short pipes, a, open to the atmosphere to force the water to 
the external air. <As the stream enters the tank it impinges against a 
dise to prevent undue disturbance of the water therein. Drawing, 
Plate IV. 


No. 1425 of 1868.—LEHEUP.—Fish-boves—Employs wooden screws 
to secure the parts together, or a pin having at one end an eye or hole 
to receive a pin or bolt; or employs a pin with a T-shaped head, the 
shank being clinched or riveted; or employs an L-shaped pin or bolt. 
No drawing. 


No. 1276 of 1869.—ENGHOLM.—Retaining caught fish in life.—The water 
drawn from the cistern or tank is forced through pipes provided with air- 
induction nozzles down into the cistern again. An air-pump may be 
used. Provisional. No drawing. 


ABSTRACT OF ENGLISH FISHERIES PATENTS. 19 


No. 358 of 1873.—LEACcH.—Apparatus for hauling in nets.—To facilitate 
the labor of hauling in great lengths of rope, netting &c., the boats are 
provided with auxiliary removable screw-propellers, driven by a steam- 
engine, which may also pump air or water into the fish-well. The water 
in the well communicates with the water outside of the boat, so that 
when the latter is in motion a current is established. The lines are 
coiled around a barrel, which is rotated by the engine. The capstan is 
mounted on the same shaft with the barrel, and both are connected to 
the shaft at will by a double-acting clutch. On the lower end of the 
spindle which carries and actuates the barrel and capstan is mounted a 
large bevel-wheel, driven by bevel pinion mounted on a horizontal 
shaft connected with the engine crank-shaft. The bevel pinion is capa- 
ble of motion endwise on the shaft, so that it may be thrown out of gear 
with the large bevel-wheel. The other end is provided with a clutch- 
coupling, so that the propeller shaft may be driven when required... The 
barrel is provided with a traveling guide to lay the rope evenly when 
wound thereon. The guide is provided with grooved pulleys mounted 
on a vertical double-screw shaft, which is driven at a varying speed, 
regulated by the coiling-barrel, by means of chain and pulley on the 
lower end of the hauling-barrel. No drawing. 


No. 1281 of 1873.—LEAcH.—Tishing.—Upper part of the boiler pro- 
jects through the deck and is provided around its upper edge with a 
circular rail or guide which supports the barrel of the capstan, which 
latter forms a cap for the boiler, and is provided with anti-friction wheels 
which run on the circular rail or guide on the top of the boiler. To the 
lower edge of the capstan barrel is adapted a horizontal guide-wheel, with 
a V-shaped edge, which runs against V-shaped guide-wheels mounted in 
bearings secured to the deck. The capstan barrel also carries a large 
toothed wheel which is driven by a pinion on the upper end of the ver- 
tical shaft mounted in bearings attached to the side of the boiler. The 
large toothed wheel and large horizontal guide-wheel are attached to a 
band-break-connection to the capstan. No drawing. 


No. 4043 of 1876.—LAKE.—Apparatus for catching jfish—<A. sliding 
shank or bar terminates in a disc, in the center of which is pivoted a 
latch. Hooks are secured to the lower ring of a crown and pass through 
openings in the said disc. The crown is composed of a ring, disc, and 
connecting ribs, this disc having an oblong slot for the passage of 
the shank. -A spiral spring surrounds the shank, and has a tendency 
to push the first-named disc in the direction of the points of the hooks 
and cause the latter to close. A bar or dog is fastened to the crown 
disc, and is provided with a lip which engages with the short end of the 
latch when the device is ‘set.” 

The bait-holder terminates in a hooked end, being pivoted at its oppo- 
site extremity to the first-named disc. This holder is bent to form an 
angle so as to engage with the latch. 


20 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


To set the trap, compress the spring by bringing the dise and ring 
towards each other until the lip passes over the lower end of the latch. 
The other extremity of the latch rests in the angle of the bait-holder. 
As soon as a fish displaces the holder by taking the bait, the latch is 
liberated from engagement with the lip of the dog, and the spring 
causes the dise and ring to move apart, bringing the points of the hooks 
together firmly securing the fish, which, in most instances, will be 
instantly killed. A ring is provided to which the line may be fastened. 
No drawing. : 
FISHWAYS. 

No. 974 of 1858.—PHYMonI.—Apparatus for Catching Fish—A trench 
cased with brick, wood, or stone, provided with a cover. 

Operation: Raises the cover by means of cross-bars a few inches to 
allow the water and fish to pass in, when the fish will secrete themselves 
within the trench. When necessary, places bait in the trench to allure 
or decoy the fish. Also, places along the sides of the trench, against the 
apertures, a lattice of wire so hung as to rise or fall and close the aper- 
ture against egress of the fish. No drawing. 


HARPOONS. 


No. 1567 of 1783.—BAYLgEs.—“‘A triangular instrument which, when 
struck, pushed, or thrown, and falling on its point on large fish, will 
penetrate, cripple, kill, and hold such fish; or, if falling on its side, its 
withers will grapple and take the fish.” No drawing. 


No. 4563 of 1821.—CoNGREAVE and CoLQuHOUN.—Force the barbed 
instrument into the fish by means of a rocket. Rocket may be used 
alone, or before or behind the harpoon, or to carry a line, or a shell 
which, bursting within the body of the whale, will kill it, and may besides 
fill it with gas and prevent its sinking. No drawing. 


No. 8541 of 1840.—LANcE.—The rod is provided with a screw-thread 
running its entire length and working into a ferule in the head of the 
harpoon; to the reverse end is attached a fly, which forces the harpoon 
into the fish as he moves forward. Attached to the harpoon is a buoy, 
to assist in impeding the fish’s progress. 

Figure 4 is a varied form of the instrument, made with triangular- 
cutting edges toward the point, and furnished at its base with barbs 
which turn on pivots. Drawing, Plate V. 


No. 125 of 1856.—RECHTEN.—The barb of the harpoon is made in 
one piece, turns on a center at the end of the shaft, and is retained by 
a peg, so that when the barb enters the fish the peg will be broken and 
the barb will place itself at right angles to the shaft. The shaft consists 
of two bars welded together; the head is made tubular a short distance, 
and a hole extends transversely through it. The harpoon is shot from 
agun. Drawing, Plate IL. 


ABSTRACT OF ENGLISH .FISHERIES PATENTS. 21 


No. 1110 of 1857.—T1nDALL.—To obtain precision in firing, non-liability 
to derangement, to hold the fish in whatever position the harpoon is 
lodged, and to increase the efficiency: 

The muzzle of the gun is of smaller diameter than the rest of the barrel, 
for fitting on a collar contained in the center of the harpoon-head when 
the harpoon is to be discharged. Collar has on each side a short barbed 
harpoon-piece, with the barbed ends turned backwards. Line attached 
to harpoon-pieces by means of a thimble connecting it with a shackle, 
jointed to the harpoon-pieces. Gun loaded with a long cylindro-conoidal 
missile, a short piece of the after end of which is made to fit the bore of 
the gun, whilst the rest is of a reduced diameter, terminating in a cone 
or point. Mouth of harpoon collar fits exactly to smaller forward por- 
tion of the cylindrical ball, and is turned out internally to fit to the angle 
forming the connection between the larger and smaller diameters of 
the ball. Ball in barrel close up to powder of charge, and collar with 
its duplex harpoon being placed upon the muzzle, it follows that when 
the weapon is discharged the ball enters the collar, but being caught 
therein at the part behind exactly fitting the bore, it carries away the 
duplex harpoon and the line with it. Ball and harpoon thus enter the 
fish together. 


With duplex harpoon just described may use an expanding harpoon 
er harpoon-shot, the two harpoon pieces or arms which it carries being 
folded down and retained by the barrel of the gun. A spring throws 
them out when the harpoon is discharged, and pull of the fish expands 
them fully. Arms of this harpoon are at right angles to those of the 
main harpoon. The expanding harpoon has studs to guide it and secure 
the correct relative position of the two sets of harpoon arms. 

In another form, shown in figure 6, the head is of the common form, 
but fitted with a solid cylindrical shank passed through a cross-piece 
which fits upon the muzzle of the gun at a distance to allow the escape 
of the compressed air when the gun is fired. To this cross-piece is at- 
tached the shackle for connection with the line and rings. The after 
end of the harpoon shank has a stud or collar piece, and when the gun 
is fired this stud or collar piece strikes against the arm through which 
the shank is passed, thus carrying the line along with it. Drawing, 
Plate VI. 


} 

No. 2301 of 1857.—Roys.—Rocket with an explosive charge in its 
head is attached to a feathered shaft provided with barbs. The rope or 
chain is attached near the rocket-head and is also provided with barbs. 
Drawing, Plate VII. 


No. 2340 of 1857.—Roys.—A small tube has barbs projecting from 
the sides, and to these a bridle is attached, which is connected to a cord 
or chain, and upon this a cross-bar is fixed to prevent the shell passing 
through or entering too far into the fish. No drawing. 


22 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


No. 450 of 1861.—WALKER.—The harpoon has jointed barbs at its 
point and a case containing the explosive charge. The opposite end is 
formed in the shape of a hook and is provided with a spring catch to 
secure the link and line. Drawing, Plate III. 


No. 550 of 1865.—Roy and LILLIENDAHL.—The spear is provided with 
jointed barbed arms which open outwardly. Drawing, Plate II. 


No. 3312 of 1863.—WELcH.—To the head of the shaft are secured a 
shell, B, and barbs, C, the latter hinged upon a pin and kept closed by 
an elastic band. The shaft is bored out and the igniting fuse is placed 
therein. FE is a wire ring to which the line is attached. In figure 4) 
is a metallic tube around the fuse. Drawing, Plate III. 


HOOKS. 


No. 1719 of 1789.—JoHnN ANDREWS.—The fish-hooks are first formed 
of steel wire in the usual way and then hardened, tempered, polished, 
and completed. 

The hooks, cold, are placed upon thin cap paper and covered with 
yeast to prevent the fire from penetrating too quickly into the steel, in- 
juring the beard and fine point; they are then placed upon an iron plate 
and put into an iron case and placed in a slow fire until red-hot, after 
which they are removed and placed in a tub of milk-warm water for the 
space of one minute, and finally in fine emery, where they are heated 
until dry. The hooks are then brightened by agitating them in a barrel 
containing a mixture of water, castile-soap, and emery, after which they 
are again dried by being brought in contact with dry ash sawdust, and 
put into leather bags and agitated by hand. 

In order to temper the hooks, hour-glass sand made hot and the fish- 
hooks placed loosely therein are kept constantly agitated, by which 
means, also, the hooks will become dark blue. The hooks are then re- 
moved, placed in a leather bag, and agitated, and afterwards they are 
put up in steel paper. No drawing. 


No. 2063 of 1795.—WILLIAM BELL.—Casts hooks from steel or com- 
mon fusible iron. No drawing. 


No. 11520 of 1847.—MosEs PooLEe.—The hook is so constructed that 
by the aid of instruments combined therewith the holding of the fish will 
be more certain. . 

a, the hook; b, the retaining instrument which is attached to the stem 
of the hook at c, there being a stop at d to prevent the hook and retain- 
ing instrument from coming too close to each other. eis a spring which 
has a tendency to keep the hook and instrument closer together. The 
spring e is affixed to the stem of the hook and connected to the retaining 
instrument by means of the short link f. In the retaining instrument a 


ABSTRACT OF ENGLISH FISHERIES PATENTS. 23 


notch is made, into which the end of the sliding bolt h enters, such 
sliding bolt being slotted and attached by studs to the stem of the hook 
a. Drawing, Plate IV. 


No. 533 of 1852.—A. I’. BAINBRIDGE.— Flies.—Attaches the wings, 
fins, &c., to the hook by means of elastic, flexible, and controllable thread; 
such as vulcanized rubber. Drawing, Plate VI. 


No. 889 of 1852.—G. A. HUDDART.—Artificial-fly wings resembling 
he natural wings of flies, made from rubber, gutta-percha, or analogous, 
compounds, by molding, the molds having lines or markings correspond- 
ing to or in imitation of the markings of the wings of the natural insect. 
No drawing. 


No. 2902 of 1853.—R. J. N. Kine.—Artificial bait.—Artificial bait for 
fish, in the form of a minnow, made of brass or other metal, formed square 
inside. Side hooks are fastened to the minnow. A brass block is fitted 
inside the minnow, to which steel springs are riveted, and hooks which 
extend from the tail of the minnow are soldered to these springs. No 
drawing. 


No. 923 of 1857.—WILLIAM H. Box.—First, electroplates fish-hooks ; 
second, attaches the hook directly to the swivel-box by means of a knob 
or pin-like head, and not to an eye, as usually practiced. Drawing, 
Plate V. 


No. 1135 of 1859.—Wm. E. Newton.—“ Sockdologer” fish-hook, ren- 
dered perfect and sure in its operation and less dangerous to be handled 
while baiting, by arranging between the main hooks, and connected to 
the same by two arms, D, D', a bait-hook, F, in such manner that by 
forcing the two arms to a horizontal position the main hooks are spread 
open or set. The top portion of the main hooks is made elastic, so that 
by the action of this portion, together with the power obtained by two 
additional springs, the main hooks spring together as soon as the slight- 
est strain on the bait-hook disturbs the horizontal position of the two 
arms. Drawing, Plate V. 


No. 428 of 1865.—Wm. A. HACKETT.—The fins, wings, or vanes, made 
of metal, horn, bone, or other material, are secured to the fishing-hook 
in such manner that when the said hook is drawn through the water or 
held in a running stream it will be made to spin or twirl. The hook is 
swiveled to the line. No drawing. 


No. 3177 of 1865.—CHARLES BAYLESS.—Makes at the junction of the 
stems of the two hooks a spring by coiling or bending the wire of which 
the double hook is made. Around the stems of the double hook a band 
or ring is placed capable of sliding upon said stems. No drawing. 


No. 413 of 1866.—JosEPH WARNER.—Makes at or near the end of 
the shank of the hook an eye, b, and side-grooves or depressions ¢, into 


24 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


which the said eye opens and by means of which eye or eye and grooves 
or depressions the line or gut is readily and securely attached. Draw- 
ing, Plate V. 


No. 150 of 1867.—GEDGE.—A double fish-hook, composed of two parts 
or branches. 

The first branch, a, is bent at right angles at its upper part, where it 
is pierced with a hole, e, the edges of which are rounded for the better , 
passage of the line l. At its lower part it has a hook on which the bait 
is placed. 

The second branch, f, is attached to the first at 0, and is held in a fixed 
position by a piece, c, the sides or cheeks of which form springs nipping 
and retaining this branch, which is further provided with a ring, G, and 
a hook. 

To use this fish-hook, open the branch f/ and fix it to the collar or nip- 
ping piece ¢, pass the line through the hole e, of the first branch, then 
attach it securely to the ring G, of the second branch, and then bait the 
hook on the first branch a. Drawing, Plate VIII. 


No. 1765 of 1867.—WELCH.—Swivel for fishing tackle—The box or 
case of the swivel is made of metal tubing open at both ends. To one 
end attaches, by soldering, a loop. The shank or stem of the swivel, 
which works in the box, is made of wire, and is provided with a knot 
at one end, the knot being situated within the bow or loop of the case 
when the stem is placed within said case. The opposite end is fash- 
ioned into a loop. By this construction the shank or stem is irremov- 
able from the case, and at the same time free to rotate within it, while 
the case is free to rotate upon the shank. 

In applying the swivel to spinning bait, solders the tube constituting 
the case to the back of this spinning bait; but instead of soldering the 
loop or bow to the box or case itself, it may be soldered to a tube or 
portion of a tube soldered to the spinning bait, within which last-men- 
tioned tube or portion of a tube the box or case of a swivel is fixed. 
The hooks are attached to the loop or end of the shank or stem, and the 
end of the fishing-line or swivel connected with the fishing-line is at- 
tached to the loop or bow of the spinning bait. Drawing Plate, VIII. 


No. 2714 of 1867.—A. MorRRALL.—A_ piece of wire is bent into or 
caused to.assume such a shape that when in its normal condition it 
nearly represents the letter VY. The ends of the wire are formed into 
barbed hooks. When baited the hooks are pressed together. Drawing, 


Plate VII. 
NETS. 


No. 1872 of 1859.—STuaRT.—Manufactures nets of single yarn. No 
drawing. 


No. 3099 of 1860.—HENRY.—The net submerged has a rubber tube 
carried around and attached to it, which communicates with an air-pump 


ABSTRACT OF ENGLISH FISHERIES PATENTS. 25 


for inflating it with air, causing the net to float. Empty casks are also 
attached as floats. A weight is fastened to the bottom of the net by 
hooks, which may be opened at pleasure by a cord operated from the 
boat to allow the net to be disengaged from the weight and float to the 
surface of the water. Drawing, Plate IX. 


No. 492 of 1861.—JAMES.—The nets are buoyed by balloons inflated 
with air, and having proper ballast (water). The nets are drawn in by 
a windlass or by other suitable means. Drawing, Plate X. 


No. 1871 of 1863.—HeEcToR.—The net is formed with compartments 
and closing apertures to retain the fish in the net. Drawing, Plate X. 


No. 3334 of 1865.—Hurn.—Forms the nets of continuous pieces of 
tanned leather. No drawing. 


No. 193 of 1866.—Bryson.—Maintaining artificial light under water 
for the purpose of attracting or decoying fish. 

First. Has a copper vessel with two compartments, into one of which 
oxygen is forced or condensed, while the other contains hydrogen, also 
forced or condensed. Each compartment is provided inside with a valve 
to regulate the escape of the oxygen and hydrogen to the point of com- 
bustion, so that these gases are not allowed to mix except at that point, 
whereby explosion is prevented. Light having been applied to the 
gases, the apparatus is lowered into the water and the gases continue 
to burn until entirely consumed, the presence of atmospheric air to keep 
up combustion not being necessary. The light is covered with a water- 
tight glass globe, provided with a receptacle to contain the water gen- 
erated during the combustion. The light, when introduced under the 
water, attracts the fish thereto. Lime or other substance may be em- 
ployed in contact with the gases. 


Second. Has nets for catching the fish attracted by artifical lights. 

Two nets, the upper being larger than the lower; attaches weights to 
the circumference of the upper net, and floats at and near its center, the 
lower net being placed under the light. The upper net is let down over 
it, which, owing to the weights and floats, descends somewhat in the 
form of an umbrella, and incloses all the fish within its reach, which 
are thereby caught between the two nets. Drawing, Plate IX. 


No. 2008 of 1866.—MAcxk.—To the buoys and net anchors are attached. 
The rope from the anchors serves as guide lines to the net. Lights are 
also used to attract or lure the fish. 

a, anchors; b, bottom of sea; c, main line to the buoys; d, stretching- 
tackle for bottom of net; e, stretching-tackle for upper part of net; f and 
g, stream stopper-tackle; h, stretching-tackle to the surface of the water; 
k, net; 1, m, x, bait; n, electric light; 0, p, bags filled with herring; 2, 
buoy. Drawing, Plate XI. 


26 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


No. 1331 of 1867.—HALLETT.—The nets have a platform of triangular 
or semi-circular shape. To the mouth of the platform attaches weighted 
chains, also a lightly loaded line through the center of the platform; 
intersects the platform at intervals with cod-lines or light roping by 
lacing. To the sides of the platform by lacing a weighted line or chain, 
attaches a “walling” or “leader” of net work, which runs around all 
sides of the platform except the mouth. No drawing. 


No. 1332 of 1867.—HALLETT.—The net is made cone-shaped and the 
upper part of the mouth is well supported by buoys. The under part 
of the mouth is made with a deeply curved margin, bordered by a ground- 
rope or chain, which is heavily weighted, or the chain is tarred or cov- 
ered with oakum or hemp, or it is galvanized. The net is fitted with 
two pockets, one on each side, made by lacing the upper and under parts, 
beginning at the outer edge and gradually working toward the middle 
and small end of the net; attaches to the sides of the mouth leaders of 
net-work with sole and back ropes, the sole-ropes being loaded and the 
back-ropes being corked. To the bottom of the net attaches chains 
loaded. At the rear end of the net attaches a heavy weight; at the 
front end a buoy. No drawing. 


No. 1333 of 1867.—HALLETT.—The same as No. 1331 of 1867, and 
having pockets similarto those used in beam trawls, except that they 
are not covered with net-work at the surface of the water, and have in 
place thereof two small buoy ropes. No drawing. 


No. 2140 of 1867.—JoHNSoN.—Twists the twine while in the process 
of netting and makes the net with a looped knot. Forms the net of 
twines, alternate ones being larger than the others. Drawing, Plate VILL 


No. 792 of 1877.—CorRIN.—Fittings for sinking fishing nets. Weights 
of oval form have a hole through the center through which is run a line 
about two feet in length; to this line at each end of the weight another 
line is spliced, and both are fastened to the bottom of the net, so that 
the line through the central hole is on a level with the bottom line or 
rope of the net, and only half or a portion of the weight then projects 
below the net. No drawing. 


OYSTER CULTURE. 


No. 2930 of 1863.—AYCKBOURN.—Tiles, &c., preferably concave, ar- 
ranged in groups upon each other and at right angles, catch the spawn 
as it floats. The tiles are coated with common clay of the consistency of 
thick cream, and on this is laid Portland cement, to which the young 
oysters attach and grow. When it is desired to remove them, theoysters 
and clay are broken off together. No drawing. 


No. 1040 of 1864.—CRroFrT.—Tanks are so constructed that water will 
pass freely among the oysters placed in rows, inclined with their mouths 


ABSTRACT OF ENGLISH FISHERIES PATENTS. 27 


upwards, and supported by long narrow tiles indented, to be easily 
broken, and provided with projections for holding them up. Over the 
tiles is placed material to induce the spat or brood of the oyster to ad- 
here. Provides water-tanks, the temperature and water-supply of which 
may be regulated and varied (fresh or salt), but the water should be ac- 
climatized gradually. Has star collectors, formed of wheels on spindles, 
connected by rollers armed with bunches of bristly substances or hooks. 
Has also spat collectors, tile perforated and filled with cork. Drawing, 
Plate XII. 


No. 1316 of 1870.—BERT.—The walls of the inclosure are built of 
masonry, their foundation below the lowest tides and their heights above 
that of the highest tides, to prevent loss of eggs. The inner surface is 
irregular at a height of three feet. The bottom of the basin has a de- 
clivity toward the center when the trench is formed, in order to drain 
the water from the basin and suppress the deposits of mud. A torus two 
inches high is built, perforated at different places to allow the diluted 
mud-deposits to pass, but prevent the oysters from following. 

A, walls; B, rough inner surfaces; C, inner walls; E, trenches; G, 
toruses; F, oysters; I, platforms; J, stone supports for platforms; L, 
pillars which support cross-pieces and there movable ceiling. Pl. XVI. 


No. 4103 of 1874.—MIcHEL.— Hives for Breeding Oysters.— First. 
Moulds from cement rectangular vessels open at top and having their 
bottoms provided with numerous holes. 

Second. Forms an open rectangular trough without perforations 
through its bottom. The ends of this trough project downward, form- 
ing a stand. 

A pair of these vessels, the lower one perforated, and the upper one 
placed on it as a cover, form a hive; numbers of which are placed side 
by side on the beach or on timber sleepers, to form a breeding and rear- 
ing bed. 

The lower perforated vessels receive the ‘spat, and are kept clean by 
the wash-water running through them. The upper vessels, besides serv- 
ing as covers, form nurseries, and protect the oysters against enemies 
and changes of weather. Drawing, Plate XII. 


No. 3506 of 1875.—DE LAGILLARAIE.—Breeding or Cultivating Oys- 
ters.—Secures the oysters to a wire and suspends them in the water in a 
manner that renders them easily accessible for inspection or removal. 
The oysters thus wired are secured to trellises. The oysters may be 
placed in cages provided with hooks, said cages being made buoyant 
and moored to a submerged chain, held by floats. Drawing, Pl. XVI. 


No. 2470 of 1876.—JENNINGS and ANDERSON.—Propagation of Oys- 
ters.—Place the oysters and spat in water-tight receptacles made of 
earthenware or other material and covered over at top. The site upon 


28 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


which the receptacles are placed may be enclosed by protecting walls, 
which, whilst affording protection, will allow of the passage of water as 
the tide rises or falls; or the receptacles may be placed in water-tight 
wooden troughs. Drawing, Plate XII. 


No. 1447 of 1877.—MEWBURN.—Apparatus used in Breeding Oysters.— 
A box made of any suitable material communicates with the exterior 
by water and air supply cocks, or bas the upper part open without an 
air-cock, when the apparatus is situated away from the sea and fed arti- 
ficially, or is closed hermetically when the apparatus is placed so that 
it emerges at each tide. In this apparatus the collecting hives and the 
breeding oysters are placed at spawning time, or spawn or spat obtained 
elsewhere may be put therein. A piece of silk, the meshes of which 
are too fine to allow the spawn to pass through, is then placed over each 
water inlet and outlet, so that no spawn or spat can escape when the 
water is renewed. 

Whether the apparatus emerge or not, the collectors should offer the 
greatest possible surface for the deposit of the spat, and be fed by water, 
sufficiently clarified by filtering, to insure and maintain the cleanness 
of the collectors. The water must be renewed without sensible agitation, 


its introduction be regulated by means of cocks, and a slow current _ 


obtained, continuous or intermittent, according to the position of the 
apparatus. The water is renewed sufficiently often to put the spat in 
the best conditions of vitality, filtered water being always employed. 
The apparatus consists of a box provided at its lower part with a cock 
which communicates with a filter situated a little below. The cover of 
the box, which closes it hermetically with the aid of strong bolts or 
screws, is provided with two India-rubber tubes having valves, one of 
which opens outward to allow the escape of air at the rise of the tide, 
while the other opens inward to allow air to enter at the fall of the 


tide or when the apparatus empties. The box is firmly secured in the | 


water by stakes, to which. it is only pinned, to allow of its being re- 
moved when required, and the India-rubber tubes are placed on rigid 
pipes long enough to give the apparatus time to fill before the water 
reaches their top or the waves pass over. 

* Inside the apparatus is placed a hive composed of a series of frames 
containing wire or other gauze, and placed one above the other. The 
frames are filled with a layer of shells, broken and sifted, and a certain 
number of parent oysters placed at intervals. There is fixed atthe side’ 
of and below the box a filter of any suitable kind, through which the 
water will pass before its introduction into the box. The water arriving 
at the rising tide will pass into the filter and be deprived of all foreign 
matter, and finally enter the apparatus above, driving out the air through 
one of the valves, and carry sustenance to the breeding oysters placed 
among the frames. The water in retiring allows the second valve to 
open and admit air to the apparatus. 


ABSTRACT OF ENGLISH FISHERIES PATENTS. 29 


The spawn or spat, in rising in the apparatus will traverse layers of 
collectors, and the water in retiring will filter through the layers of 
broken shells and deposit thereon the spat which it holds in suspen- 
sion. The apparatus can be inspected daily and the hive withdrawn 
when sufficiently filled and replaced by a fresh hive. A series of ap- 
paratus may be supplied through one filter. No drawing. 


OYSTER DREDGES. 


No. 2906 of 1860.—ENNIS.—An open-mouth cage so formed and fitted 
that when lowered into the water and drawn over the beds it will first 
disturb and then gather up the oysters. 

Fitted to and extending across the mouth of the case, are two scrap- 
ers, set parallel to each other and on opposite sides of the cage. In 
front is a rake held in position by binding-screws forming a double rake. 
The drag-iron having an eye is secured to the sides of the cage, and to 
the eye the rope is attached for hauling the dredge. Drawing, Plate 
SIV; 


No. 523 of 1869.—BRABASON.—The links of the dredge are runners 
like those of a snow-sleigh, turned up at the ends and connected by an 
iron ring or link which rests on them and presents a smooth under sur- 
face which carries it along the bottom of the sea, passing over the spat 
or brood of oysters without injury to them. Provisional specification. 
No drawing. 

OYSTER RAKES AND TONGS. 

No. 2171 of 1866.—JoHNSON.—Two converging rakes are provided 
with handles united by a rivet, one handle being provided with a spring 
which pulls upon the upper end of the other. The rakes are held open 
by a lever having its fulcrum on the projecting end of one of the 
handles, one end of the lever taking into a catch upon the other handle 
and a lowering rope or chain being attached to the opposite end of the 
lever. The weight of the apparatus will cause the catch to hold as the 
apparatus is lowered while open. When the apparatus rests upon the 
bottom, the weight being relieved, the lever unlatches and the rakes 
are drawn together by the spring. Pulling upon the rope then also 
draws the rakes together. The teeth are removable. Guards at both 
the ends and back of the rakes prevent anything falling out. Drawing, 
Plate XIII. 


No. 1438 of 1867.—Jounson.—Two rakes with scoop-shaped or open 
heads, each attached to a handle and the handles connected by a joint, 
near the middle, the rake teeth coming toward each other. Drawing, 
Plate XIV. 

ELECTRICITY, PARALYZING FISH, &C. 


No. 2644 of 1863.—BaGes.—Wires or hooks and lines, nets, &c., con- 
nected to a galvanic battery. The fish receiving an immediate shock is 
paralyzed or killed. Drawing, Plate XV. 


30 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


No. 3228 of 1868.—BENNETT and WaARD.—Electricity, galvanism or 
magnetic electricity. —Places in the boat a galvanic battery with its coils 
and necessary accompaniments, insulated wires, in connection with and 
passing from the opposite poles of the battery and inside or along the 
line, to which the harpoon or other instrument is attached. No drawing. 


PISCICULTURE. 


No. 2966 of 1853.—Boccius.—A vessel having apertures in its top 
and bottom of such a size as to prevent the eggs or spawn passing 
through, yet sufficiently large to allow water to percolate into the appa- 
ratus when immersed. It is made of two or more sections or parts, one 
part fitting into or on the other. In the interior are placed trays, one 
over the other, if required, upon which the eggs are placed. Drawing, 
Plate XVI. 

REELS. 


No. 3157 of 1808.—JoHN CURR.—Method of applying ropes for catching 
and detaining whales——The boat is provided with a reel, brake, brake- 
lever, guide for the line, and rollers to keep the line near the center of 
the boat. When the whale has nearly run out the line of one boat, it 
may be joined to the line of another boat. Drawing, Plate XV. 


No. 1956 of 1856.—KENTON.— Makes the reels of papier maché and 
passes a metal axis through the reel and connects the winch by which 
the said reel is turned to the axis. The case in which the reel works is 
made of a tubular piece of papier maché closed by discs, through the 
center of which the axis of the reel passes. Drawing, Plate XV. 


No. 1806 of 1868.—MurRE.—The carrier, to facilitate the winding of 
several lines and hooks simultaneously on the winder and to permit one 
line or hook to be withdrawn at a time without entangling the rest or 
breaking them, consists of a tablet having at each end a cap or ferrule, 
the center of which is hollow to receive a piece of cork in which to insert 
the barbs of the hooks. On each side are a number of openings reached 
by a sloping duct, through which the lines are successively and alter- 
nately passed in a hank till completely wound up, the hooks being fixed 
in a similar manner, openings being made for their reception on both sides 
of the apparatus. The hooks are protected by a metal band attached to 
the cap of the ferrule, one end working on a hinge and the other fixing 
with a clasp. May have a simple line-winder, which is of the same con- 
struction, less the cap for bearing the hooks. This apparatus is furnished 
with a cover, having an opening at one end through which to draw the 
lines. Another form consists of an endless band of pasteboard in the 
shape of a flat cylinder, and the lines are drawn around this, being passed 
through openings at the sides as before. Hook-carriers consist of a 
wooden plate with ends terminating in a metal cap having notches for 
the hooks, which are protected by hinged metal bands, the opposite ends 


ABSTRACT OF ENGLISH FISHERIES PATENTS. ol 


being furnished with hasps. Another form is a bobbin or reel with a 
cover or case at the bottom, and in the interior is a circular shaft, the 
upper end of which terminates in a button or cork for the hooks, and the 
line is passed around small projecting knobs on each side of the shaft 
at the top and bottom. No drawing. 


No. 388 of 1873.— HEATON.—Recesses one of the side disks and places 
on its axis a pinion facing outward towards the recess and connects the 
pinion to a hollow axis working through the corresponding plate for 
winding the line on, and over the recess. On the outside of the disk 
applies a plate with a rim around its interior, having teeth cut on the 
inner edge, which gear with an intermediate wheel acting on the pinion. 
This outer plate works on an independent axis passing through the axis 
on which the line is wound and is secured in position by the spreading 
head of a screw on the other side. A handle is applied to give motion 
to the plate, and from the teeth on the plate acting on the intermediate 
wheel, motion is given to the pinion and winding axis, the multiple of 
motion being governed by the size of the pinion and intermediate wheel. 
No drawing. 


No. 3283 of 1876.—CORBET.—Atiaching reels to rods.—Instead of at- 
taching the reel to the outer surface of the rod in the ordinary manner, 
provides a frame consisting of two side plates and two tubular or hollow 
ends. Into one of these tubular ends inserts the top part of the rod, 
and into the other the lower portion or handle of the rod. No drawing. 


RODS. 


No. 2017 of 1853.—DAWSON and RESTELL.—The joints are constructed 
in the shape of a segment of a circle; that is to say, the cross-section of 
the joint will represent the segment of a circle, or that of a tube bent 
into the shape of a trough or gutter. The joints are permanently con- 
nected, and each joint lies in the joint next preceding it when the rod is 
inserted in the butt, which is made cylindrical and to resemble a walking- 
stick. No drawing. 


No. 461 of 1857.—JoHN BENNETT.—Upon the ends of the rods to be 
joined rigidly together, attaches a metallic tube or ferrule, the tube on 
one end being larger than that on the other, so that one of the tubes 
may enter and slide in the other tube. The larger tube has in its axis 
a smaller one, so that the tube which enters the larger tube or ferrule 
slides between two concentric tubes. The two rods are joined together 
by means of a cylinder of India rubber (which acts as a joint), and the 
smaller tube or ferrule is provided with a bayonet joint, in which a pin 
in the larger tube engages. No drawing. 


No. 1553 of 1858.—A. PorEcKY.—Strips of whalebone, horn, tortoise- 
shell, or other corneous matter, or the artificial imitations, are formed by 


32 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


any suitable process into plain, fluted, ornamental, flexible, or rigid tubes. 
They may be either wholly or partially filled with a suitable composition 
or material, or may be left unfilled, thereby allowing of their sliding, one 
over the other, like a telescope. No drawing. 


No. 3528 of 1868.—BRiITTEN.—Instead of wood, for those parts which 
are required to be pliant, makes use of steel or other suitable metal that 
will secure the requisite strength with lightness and elasticity. These 
parts are formed into tubes, which are tempered in the usual way. The 
ring-fittings for guiding the line are on little bands of spring metal, 
which go round the rod and clip it, and are movable along the rod. The 
whole rod complete can be inclosed in the lower joint by a cap and fer- 
rule. The several lengths of rod are connected by short pieces of thin 
tubular metal soldered to the ends inside the larger and outside the 
smaller following lengths, and are made slightly conical in opposite di- 
rections to fit tightly when drawn out. No drawing. 


No. 1648 of 1874.—MouLTRAY.—In the socket, covered with brass, 
there is made an incision sufficiently large to receive a spring. By means 
of two metal pins driven into the wood and covered by brass, the metal 
spring is fastened. Theupper end of the spring is bent upward and placed 
in the incision at its upper end, so that by coming in contact with the brass 
covering of the socket it may be prevented from coming out of the in- 
cision. In the ferrule which receives the socket and at a place thereon 
corresponding to the place which the spring will occupy in it when the 
socket is inserted in the ferrule, an opening is cut to allow the spring to 
work freely. When the socket is placed in the ferrule the spring holds 
them fast. No drawing. 


No. 1840 of 1874.—JAck.—Fixes the stem part of each joint to its 
corresponding socket-piece by forming a very small, short projection, or 
pin, on the large part of the stem-piece, which, when inserted into its 
socket-piece, enters a small recess cut in from its outer end and is then 
to be turned round into a groove cut or embossed into the inner circum- 
ference of the socket. No drawing. 


No. 1806 of 1876.—HoLroyp.—Forms the joint-fitting in the usual 
way, with the addition to the lower end ferrule of a projecting collar 
and screwed spigot, both situated at the upper part of such lower end 
ferrule. Also forms the upper ferrule with an enlarged screwed socket 
to receive and hold the lower ferrule and its screwed spigot, forming an 
air and water tight joint when the two are fixed together. Drawing, 
Plate X. 


No. 1553 of 1877.—AstTon.—Takes wood or cane sections, having at 
each end the usual metallic ferrule, but having a slot, into which is placed 
a plate of metal pierced at each end, there being a corresponding pier- 
cing in the ferrules. Into this secures a pin, thereby forming a joint 


4 


PLATE I. 


DECOYING. 


4582 of 1821. 


Fig. 4. 


Fig. 3 


FLOAT. 


2003 of 1859. 


hols 


eed en a 


ee ey 


SS eee 


PLATE II. 


125 of 1856. HARPOON.- 


HARPOONS. 
P. 22. 


550 of 1860. 


DECOYING. 


17. 


Jey 


2580 of 1862. 


450 of 1861. 


<2 


‘My 
i ellnaes 


DECOYING. 


3312 of 1868. 
P. 22. 


PLATE Iv. 


3548 of 1867. 


FISH TRAPS. 


11520 of 1847. 


PLATE V. 


928 of 1857. 1135 of 1859. 
12), 28}, P. 23. 


413 of 1866. 
Ba23: 


Fig. 2. 


- ce 


PLATE VI. 


| 


558 of 1852. 


Fig. 3. 


1110 of 1857. 
. 21. 


Fig. 4. 


Fig. 6. 


| : BS me ; 


& — 


PLATE Vil. 


EN 


Fig. 2. 


O 0 
CSS SSS SS SSS 


Ean 
—— 


~— 


pero 


_ —_ | ~ & 


PLATE VIII. 


4815 of 18238. 
12h ale 


2140 of 1867. 
126 At 


Fig. 4. 


Fig. 3. 


2714 of 1867. 
P. 24. | 


1765 of 1867. 
P. 24. 


150 of 1867. 
BP. 24; 


Fig. 1. 


5S AARON SAGER CSET SSS 


sss 
7 


PLATE IX. 


193 of 1866. 
P25 ee 


SSS iS SS 


A 
WUWvnnmnacenuaaninany AKX vy Vien 
URED AY i a 
LONE OS 
RON 
RY 


* al 
rt 
¢ 
’ 
LS { } 
<a « 
a 
ee 
} 
— 
i 
; 
1 
! 
Pal 
. 
. 
whe 


PLATE xX. 


1871 of 1868. 
IP 2b: 


PLATE XI. 


2008 of 1866. 


re apn | \ | | 
eS 


se 


A Ws 


besyees 


SSS \ 
BeSgseseses 
bosemescsesl 
stat, 
pesgbssosss| 


<Ss 


i <j. 

‘4 s 

a 4 

A | ) 

[A 3} 

lai salt © 

rk RY 
| | 
Kock 
Beaeesey! | | 
RSS 
Reeesestey 
Besossese / 
BeSeesess 
Sess 


Z 
%, 
on 
i, 
gi 


‘is 


ye" 


Kx 

5 
% 

04% 


: 
4, 
iy 
Ke 
Xi 
XA 
ae 


xy 


x 


TE is 


cS 


= ap 
he if 
— = Sree ese 
{Sees 


LN°L23 BL 


1146 of 1867 
» re: 
|| 
—~ 


Fig, 8. 


‘ 


2 ea 
a io 
64! i 

nil rd 
i 


PLATE XII. 


4108 of 1874. 
Ieee 


es 
Fig. 1. 

(o ) 

Ne 


1040 of 1864. 
1S Pc 


Fig. 6. 


2470 of 1876. 
P.. 27. 


PLATE XIII. 


2171 of 1866. 


Fig. 4. 


Fig. 5. 


PLATE XIV. 


2906 of 1860. 


1438 of 1867. 
P 29. , 


Fig. 3. 


{ 
i 
j 
} 


PLATE XV. 


or) 
© 
(00) 
Tess 
on 
Hm 
St 
(ce) 
N 


Fig. 1. 


SSS SSS TS ST —. SSSSSSSSSSSSES 


== 


3157 of 1808. 
30 


Fig. 3S. 


ELTA LLL 
Nos 


1956 of 1856. 
P. sae 


PLATE XVI. 


P. 30. 


2966 of 1853. 


fe) ts 

| Ne fa) 
5 i 
of : 
One oi 
om % 
rat 

mn N 
Le! 


GS BL 


3506 of 1875. 
P. 27. 


ABSTRACT OF ENGLISH FISHERIES PATENTS. oo 


and allowing the rod to be folded up for portability when not required 
for use; but when required, the rod is unfolded and a tapered metallic 
tube which is over each joint is moved downwards, making it permanent 
or secure. The plate of metal may be constructed with a slot at one 
end in an oblique direction; in this case it would be hooked on to the 
pin, so that in case of one section of the rod being broken, another can 
with facility be substituted. Drawing, Plate XIV. 


TACKLE. 


No. 881 of 1767.—CoBB.—Long lines; small lines for snoods with hooks 
fixed thereon and small weights to sink the same. Small buoys prevent 
the hooks and bait touching the bottom of the sea, that the fish may 
readily discover the bait. No drawing. 


No. 361 of 1858.—HEcTOR.—Galvanized wire rope or lines and gal- 
vanized wire instead of the ordinary hemp ropes and materials: No 
drawing. 


No. 1755 of 1866.—FRERE.—Barbed hooks connected to line attached 
to a spring whereby the line will be capable of yielding when pulled by 
the fish, and when his power is expended the fish will be drawn up. No 
drawing. 


oF 


II.—A PETITION TO THE FISH COMMISSION OF THE UNITED 
STATES, SIGNED BY THE FISHERMEN OF BLOCK ISLAND, JUNE 
12, 1877. 


A PETITION. 


STATE OF RHODE ISLAND, NEWPORT CouNTY, 
New Shoreham, Block Island, June 12, 1877. 
To the honorable Fish Commission of the United States : 

We, your petitioners, citizens of the United States and of Block Island, 
natives and fishermen, believe that the catching of cod by means of trawl 
lines is diminishing the cod on our grounds, from which we believe that 
fish will eventually be driven if that mode of taking them is continued, 
because— 

First. At any time the cod will bite the bait upon a small hook more 
readily than upon a large hook, because the small hook is hidden. The 
hand-fisherman uses a large hook, for he must, in pulling, keep his line 
taut, and the sharp struggles of the fish would break a smaller. Small 
hooks are used on trawl-lines, which are never very taut, and hence are 
quite elastic. During December, January, February, and in early March, 
when these fish deposit their spawn, they are very shy, and only a few 
will bite the large hook on the hand-line. In the past they have been 
secure in depositing their spawn, thus securing their propagation. Now 
that the trawl-lines have come into use, the fish, biting at the baited 
hooks, are taken in large quantities at a time when their destruction in- 
volves the destruction at the same time of myriads of eggs, thus directly 
tending to prevent the perpetuation of their species. 

Second. It very frequently happens that a trawl-line with from 600 to 
1,000 hooks attached becomes so chafed by the rocks on the bottom that, 
when loaded with fish, it breaks, and only a portion is secured. The 
remainder, with hundreds of struggling fish, is carried hither and thither 
until the fish die. Their struggles frighten the other fish very much 
more than when caught on a hand-line, for then the captured fish is im- 
mediately taken from the water, and but little of his distress is seen by 
other fish. Moreover, when the fish die, their bodies, becoming putrid, 
effectually rid the ground of cod until the bodies rot from their fasten- 
ing and drift away, leaving the water pure again, or soon to become so. 

Third. Oftentimes, the fish caught on the trawl-hooks are left to 
struggle for hours before the trawlers get time to take them on board ; 
and, indeed, this is usually the case, for they use so many lines that 
they can haui them only a few times in a day. Meanwhile, many of the 


Ac 


Jo 


36 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


fish get clear. Suffering from the lacerations of the hook, and fearful 
of becoming again entrapped, they communicate their fears to their 
sympathizing companions. Itis very noticeable that since the trawls 
have been used on our grounds, the fish have been much more shy than 
formerly, and that they struggle much harder when caught. Fre- 
quently they are caught with the small hooks of trawl-lines still in their 
mouths; or, without hooks, but with mouths still bleeding where torn 
in escaping. The foregoing sentence is true of fully one-siath of the fish we 
have caught since trawls were used on our grounds. 

Fourth. The hand-fisherman returns home each night and dresses 
his fish on the land, the offal being used for manure. The trawler re- 
mains at sea for days, and sometimes for weeks, even—remains until 
his vessel is loaded. In cleaning the fish he throws overboard the offal, 
which sinks to the bottom and there decays. This putrid matter drives 
the fish away so long as it remains. The trawler works frequently on 
the tideward side of the grounds, so as to catch the fish as they come 
in. Thus the offal is thrown over at places whence, as it is moved at 
all by the tide, which is usually not very strong, it is swept slowly over 
the whole fishing grounds, poisoning them for the time throughout their 
entire extent. 

We further believe that trawl-fishing tends directly to injure the 
hand-fisherman ; to injure the markets for fish; to injure the standard 
of fish as an article of food; and, eventually, to the great injury of all 
concerned in the business of catching cod, trawlers included, and for the 
following reasons: 

-First. These trawl-lines, stretched for miles on the fishing grounds, 
and running in parallel lines as close together as is profitable, make a 
barrier which, while in theory it only takes equal chances with hand- 
fishermen, in fact monopolizes the ground to the irreparable injury of 
the man with a single hook; for the trawl-hooks are placed so close to- 
gether that comparatively few fish cross the line, being either caught or 
deterred by the struggles of others captured; and the trawlers can so 
place their lines in suecession or in parallels as to oceupy all the most 
desirable parts of the ground, one trawler requiring the space of one 
hundred men with hand-lines. 

Second. Trawling, to be successful, requires larger boats and more ex- 
pensive gear than are within the means of hand-fishermen. The boats 
must be larger in order to carry the fish caught, and also in order to 
better withstand the effects of storms ; for the trawler generally remains 
all night at sea, while hand-fishermen return home every night. 

Third. Trawlers sometimes catch 8,000 or 10,000 pounds in one or two 
days. They are unable to dress so many fish, as they sometimes catch, 
which, not seldom, are greatly damaged before they can be taken to 
market. So large a quantity will glut any available market, and the 
fish often spoil before they can be sold. Cod become very cheap, and 
the dealer is led to hold the fish on ice or in pickle in the hope of better 


PETITION TO THE FISH COMMISSION. rf | 


prices; for prices of course fall with the greatly increased abundance of 
the fish, and the chances are great that he who buys must lose if he 
sells at once. Meanwhile the fish are injured more or less, even on ice 
or in brine. 

Fourth. As a few days of good trawling may give those fishermen an 
enormous quantity of cod, especially where from thirty to sixty vessels 
are trawling; and as no one can tell when such good fishing may come, 
the dealer buys with great caution, lest he shall have on his hands a 
large amount while the market is becoming more and more crowded 
every day. Serious losses of this kind have made dealers very cautious 
in buying. 

But the trawling is goodand the trawler is impatient to go to the ground 
again, and anxious to get rid of fish which he fears will spoil on his hands; 
so he sells at any price. Thus the difficulty is aggravated, and the amount 
of damaged fish thrown on the market is greatly increased. When cod 
were caught only by hand-lines the supply was much more uniform and 
more susceptible of correct anticipation, while at the same time the fish 
were sold to the consumer at prices very reasonable, compared with other 
food staples. At the same time each man could care for what he caught, 
and thus a much better article of food was produced. 

Fifth. When, a few years since, trawling was begun at Gloucester, 
Mass., cod were caught in large quantities near the port. So close were 
they taken that they were sent ashore as soon as a large dory was loaded, 
and in such quantities that the dories were generally loaded and sent 
ashore three times ina day. Soon the fish could not be caught there, 
having been either taken or scared into deeper water. The trawlers 
kept on until now the fish are not caught in quantities, on some of the 
grounds east of Massachusetts, nor except in one hundred and twenty fath- 
oms of water. As the grounds failed, the trawlers extended their opera- 
tions along the coast, spoiling the grounds wherever they went. Where 
they have fished long the hand-fisherman can no longer get his living by 
catching cod. Now they have come to our grounds. They are nearly 
all strangers, men of Portuguese birth, and we can already see the bane- 
ful influence they are exerting. Nor are the causes of the direct injury 
to us difficult to find nor hard to understand. The fish are driven into 
deeper water and so far from shore that we, returning home every night, 
can compete only at great disadvantage, for we can be on the ground 
only a few hours at best; and the farther we must go, the fewer hours 
we can remain. It is remembered well here that four of our best fisher- 
men went seventeen times in one season to Coggeshall’s Ledge, nearly 
twenty miles from Block Island, and caught an amount of cod reckoned 
at four quintals per trip to each man. Since trawlers have been there 
we cannot catch enough to pay for the trip. 

We would further respectfully call your attention to the plas 
facts: 

First. In former years our government, in the fostering care which 


38 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


it exercised for the fishing interests of the country, offered bounties 
to encourage men to engage in fishing for cod. A certain sum was 
allowed for each bushel of foreign salt used by vessels of more than 
fifty-five tons registered tonnage. Block Island was at that time entirely 
destitute of a harbor in which vessels could ride in a storm. We were 
compelled in stormy weather to haul our boats above high-water mark 
to save them from the fury of the waves. From this cause we could 
not use vessels large enough to claim the bounty offered; hence we were 
compelled to compete at great disadvantage with the fishermen of more 
favored localities. 

Second. When, in 1870, the breakwater at Block Island was begun, 
one of the principal reasons given by the government for so large an 
expenditure of money was that the work would greatly foster the fishing 
interests of the island. If our fishing grounds are permitted to be 
spoiled by the use of trawl-lines, then has the breakwater become of no 
avail to benefit the fisheries of Block Island. 

We, your petitioners, almost without exception, are owners of small 
tracts of land, from which we derive a small income, insufficient, it is 
true, for our support, but which, when added to the amount realized 
from cod-fishing, has hitherto given us a comfortable living. On these 
tracts of land we have built us houses. Here are our homes. Now that 
our fishing threatens to fail us, we are very apprehensive that we may 
be compelled to leave our homes; for if this business shall be ruined, 
our island cannot support more than one-half of its present population. 
We are, almost to a man, too poor to own boats large enough to trawl 
successfully; but in our own boats we have been successful. We would 
point with pride to the fact that while from most of the ports of the 
coast many vessels and men are lost every year in the fishing business, 
not one Block Island boat has been lost within the memory of man. 

Therefore we do beseech your honorable commission to urge the pas- 
sage of a law prohibiting the catching of cod by trawl-lines in the waters 
of the Atlantic Ocean between Montauk Point on the west and No Man‘s 
Land on the east, and thus insure the return and continuance of the 
good fishing we formerly enjoyed, lest by the ruin of this fishery we 
shall be compelled to seek our subsistence in other pursuits and in other 
localities, away from the island endeared to us as the place of our birth 
and the home of our childhood. 

That you will thus secure to us, on our native island, the opportunity 
to obtain our subsistence by that honorable toil to which we have been 
necustomed from our youth, we will ever pray. 


William Dodge. Darius B. Dodge. Seabury A. Mitchell. 
Welcome Dodge. Uriah B. Dodge. C. C. Holmes. 

Aaron W. Dodge. John Thomas. R. W. Thomas. 
Edward P. Littlefield. James E. Rose. Joshua T. Dodge. 
Charles A. Paine. Herman A. Mitchell. William J. Steadman. 


George C. Sprague. Lorenzo B. Mott. Joseph H. Willis. 


PETITION 


Caleb Wescott. 
Enoch Steadman. 
William T. Dodge. 
Benjamin Rose. 

L. Steadman. 


Whitman W. Littlefield. 


Rufus A. Willis. 
Giles P. Dunn. 
Samuel A. Dunn. 
Joshua D. Dunn. 
John Ray Littlefield. 
Daniel Mott. 

John EK. Dunn. 
Samuel R. Littlefield. 
E. C. Smith. 
Barzillia B. Dunn. 
Amos Mitchell. 
Samuel G. Mitchell. 
Charles Sprague. 
Leonard Mitchell. 
Charles Littlefield. 
Oliver D. Sprague. 

_ Willard Sprague. 
J. R. Sprague. 
Stanton 8. Allen. 
Lemuel B. Rose. 
James H. Mitchell. 
Asa R. Ball. 

Henry Ball. 

John Rose. 

John HE. Ball. 
George W. Braymon. 
Elisha Dickens. 
Noyse Ball. 
Charles Ball. 
Edward C, Allen. 
John A. Mitchell. 
H. B. Steadman. 
N. L. Willis. 

Edgar C. Sprague. 
Nathaniel Sprague. 


Silas N. Littlefield. 
John EK. Willis. 
Charles Hall. 
William P. Dodge. 
Halsey Littlefield. 
Lewis N. Hall. 
James M. Dodge. 
Charles W. Willis. 
Ransford A. Dodge. 
William M. Rose. 


Walter R. Littlefield. 


Lemuel A. Dodge. 


William R. Mitchell. 


Edwin A. Dodge. 
William Card. 
Lorenzo Dodge. 
Nathaniel Lathan. 
James N. Latham. 
George W. Conley. 
Ezekiel Mitchell. 
Benjamin T. Coe. 
Lloyd E. Ball. 

O. F. Willis. 
Andrew J. Dodge. 
Leander A. Ball. 
Aaron W. Mitchell. 
George E. Thomas. 
Elihu W. Rose. 
Seneca Sprague. 
William Sprague. 
Lewis E. Thomas. 
Joshua Dodge. 
Horace J. Negus. 
C. Negus. 

M. Negus. 

George W. Willis. 
George A. Hull. 
William J. Greene. 
Samuel P. Dodge. 
Horatio N. Milikin. 
Elias Littlefield. 


TO THE FISH COMMISSION. 


Nathan C. Dodge. 
John P. Steadman. 
Ray W. Dodge. 
Marcus M. Day. 
Erastus Rose. 
Willial Rose. 
Alfonso Perry. 
Solomon Dodge. 
Joshua Rose. 
Clarence Rose. 
Halsy C. Littlefield. 
Gideon P. Rose. 
William ©. Littlefield. 
Richard A. Dodge. 
John C. Dodge. 
Samuel Ball. 

A. N. Sprague. 

N. B. Wescott. 
Edwin Dodge. 
Thomas H. Mott. 
Hermanza Rose. 
Martin V. Ball. 
James A. Dodge. 
Freeman Mott. 
Howard C. Mott. 
Lartis Steadman. 
William LL. Milikin. 
Welcome Dodge, 2d. 
Simon Dodge. 

John W. Milikin. 
S. D. Willis, 
Andrew VY. Willis. 
Samuel L. Hayes. 
C. W. Dodge. 
Robert Rose. 
Hezekiah Mitchell. 
Charles F. Sprague. 
Edgar Dickens. 
Eleander Dodge. 
Benjamin Sprague. 


39 


_ 


Uae tat 
i 


APPENDIX B. 


FISHERY EXPOSITIONS. 


a Le eta 
~ Sea 


IV.—ABSTRACT OF AN ARTICLE FROM THE “NORDISK TIDS- 
SKRIFT FOR FISKERI,” 1878, ENTITLED “OBSERVATIONS ON 
FISHERY EXPOSITIONS,” &C.* 


By A. FEDDERSEN. 


In a former article, Mr. Feddersen had declared himself in favor of 
fishery expositions, independent of agricultural or other expositions ; 
not including, however, great international exhibitions, where every 
branch of human activity is represented. Wherever the fishery exhibit 
is only an appendix to some other exhibition, it will be neglected and not 
awaken sufficient interest. In spite of this, there was a good fishery 
exhibit at the agricultural and industrial exposition in Vibarg (Denmark), 
in 1875, and at Norrkoping (Sweden) in 1876. This result was owing 
entirely to the arduous labors of a few zealous and enthusiastic men. 
These successes were, unfortunately, not followed up—at least as far as 
Denmark was concerned—at the Svendborg (Denmark) exhibition, and 
at the great international exhibition held at Paris in 1878. 

There are many who doubt the usefulness of such exhibitions, saying 
that the practical result is by no means commensurate to the efforts. 
made. It cannot be denied that there is a field for “humbug” in all 
exhibitions, and that there is a tendency to make a special show for the 
occasion. But as exhibitions are the order of the day, and probably will 
be for some time to come, people should not stay away because they are: 
not in every respect as perfect as they might be. The object should be 
to get the greatest possible good of them and endeavor to keep away 
from them everything which savors of “humbug,” and surely some good 
will come of it; new inventions will become wider known and goods of 
sterling quality will find a larger market. Exhibitions, if properly man- 
aged, can certainly be highly instructive. As an instance of this, the 
Bergen exhibition of 1865 may be inentioned, the beneficial effect of which 
is felt to this day. 

It is probable that the direct benefit derived from fishery exhibitions 
will be greater than that of other exhibitions, as there will be less 
chance for mere show. Although great progress has been made with 
regard to fishing apparatus, there will always be a chance to make them 
still more effective, so that they can be handled with greater ease, or be 
manufactured of better and more durable material. In this connection 


* Nogle Bemerkninger om Fiskeriudstillinger og andre Fiskeriforhold. Abstract 


made by Herman Jacobson. 
43 


44 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


we will only point to the increased use of cotton for fishing apparatus 
since 1865. And as regards the proper treatment, preservation, utiliza- 
tion, and shipping of the products of the sea, there is still a vast field 
for improvement. Fishery exhibitions will finally prove very beneficial 
to fishing legislation, as they will afford an opportunity to competent 
and practical men to meet and fully discuss this important subject. 
There is still so much ignorance with regard to this last-mentioned mat- 
ter, and there are so many different and widely divergent views, that it 
is extremely desirable, both for the government and those specially in- 
terested in the fisheries, to arrive at some well-established principles 
which may form the basis of suitable legislation. There is, therefore, 
ample reason to encourage and uphold fishery exhibitions. 

As far as Denmark is concerned (and perhaps other countries), it must 
be said that fishery exhibitions will prove failures unless a strong and 
direct appeal is made to fishermen and to fish-dealers, as well as to man- 
ufacturers of fishing apparatus, to take an active part in such exhibitions. 
Astonishment has sometimes been expressed that our fishermen do not 
take a greater interest in these exhibitions; but it should be borne in 
mind that, with few exceptions, fishermen are very conservative, both 
as regards apparatus and methods, and that it requires a special effort 
to stir them up. If this matter were seriously taken in hand by some 
zealous and energetic men, we would see a great improvement in our 
fisheries brought about by exhibitions. The better preservation of fish, 
and the increased knowledge of the best markets for their goods, would 
certainly be a practical benefit to the fishermen; gradually improved 
apparatus, boats, &c., will be introduced, and make the fishermen more 
and more independent. Until this result is brought about, the fishermen 
should be assisted by the government, which unfortunately has hitherto 
done too little in this respect. A knowledge of improved methods and 
apparatus should be spread, practical and theoretical instruction should 
be given, and money should be liberally appropriated for furthering the 
fishing interests. Since the fishery exhibition at Svendborg in 1877, 
and our fishery exhibit at Paris in 1878, were failures, owing chiefly to 
lack of interest and the entirely inadequate sums appropriated for the 
purpose by our government, a strong effort should be made to be well 
represented at the international fishery exhibition to be held at Berlin 
in May, 1880. As Germany will always be the chief market for our fish- 
ing products, this should certainly not be neglected. 

Tn conclusion, the following suggestions are submitted, in the hope 
that at some fishery congress they may assume the form of definite res- 
olutions: 

1. The fishery exhibit at agricultural or industrial exhibitions is abol- 
ished. 

2. In its stead meetings of fishermen and all persons interested in the 
fisheries are held annually in different parts of the country, where fish- 
ing products, apparatus, &e., are exhibited. 


-_ 


OBSERVATIONS ON FISHERY EXPOSITIONS. 45 


3. From time to time—say every three or five years—larger fishery 
expositions are held, at which all those nations are represented which 
fish in the same waters as we. 

The government should of course give liberal aid to the fishing inter- 
ests, and a society should be formed for promoting the fisheries in all 
their different branches. 


ie 02) 


la mii 
i IK) Ag 
Wht Ne Wate 


V.—REPORT ON THE DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES IN THE 
WORLD’S EXPOSITION IN PHILADELPHIA, 1876. . 


By JOAKIM ANDERSSEN, Juryman.* 


I 
THE FISHERY EXHIBITION IN PHILADELPHIA IN 1876. 
COMPRISED ACCORDING TO THE “ GROUPING FOR THE JUDGES’ WORK.” ; 
(GROUP V.) 


Fish and productions of fisheries, fishing implements, &c. : 


_ 


. Aquatic mammals: seals, whales, &c.; living specimens in aquaria; speci- 
mens stuffed, salted, or preserved in other ways. 

. Fish, alive and preserved. 

. Fish in brine, and parts of fish used for food. 

. Crustacea, echinoderms, béche de mer. 

. Mollusks, oysters, clams, &c., used for food. 

. Shells, corals, and pearls. 

. Whalebone, shagreen, fish-glue, isinglass. 

. Fishing implements: nets, baskets, hooks, and other apparatus used for fishing. 

. Pisciculture: aquaria, hatching-pools, vessels for transporting roe and young 
fish, and other apparatus used for hatching, raising, or preserving fish. 


Oot of WW 


The judges, whose number for the whole exposition was 250 (half of 
that number being Americans) in the department of fisheries, were, in 
the beginning— 

1. Professor Spencer F'. Baird, director of one department of the gov- 
ernment exhibit and Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tition in Washington, chairman. 

2. Mr. Seth Green, Superintendent of Fisheries of the State of New 
York, from Rochester, N. Y.; and 

3. The editor of this report. 

Later, when Mr. Seth Green, partly on account of his health and 
partly on account of his many other engagements, could not attend, and 
was therefore discharged at his own request, his place was filled by a 
man of similar experience, Mr. 7. B. Ferguson, Commissioner of Fisheries 
for the State of Maryland. Both Professor Baird and Mr. Ferguson 
were so overwhelmed with work and were so much occupied in various 
ways that they had scarcely any time to attend to their jury work. In 
consequence, Mr. B. Phillips, secretary of the government exhibit, a 


*Beretning om Fiskeriafdelingen ved Verdensudstillingen i Philadelphia i 1876, af 
Joakim Anderssen, Jurymand. Aalesund, 1877. Translated by H. Jacobson. 
AT 


48 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


highly intelligent gentleman and well-known correspondent of one of 
the great New York papers, was chosen to act for Professor Baird and 
Mr. Ferguson, in conjunction with the editor, as permanent member of 
the committee. It ought to be mentioned that, as in the beginning so 
few objects were exhibited in the department of fisheries, three judges 
were deemed sufficient for this group; but as objects continued to come 
in all the time, these judges had enough to do, so that this group could 
not finish its work until the very last moment, July 30. It must like- 
wise be mentioned that at the Philadelphia Exposition the verdict of 
the judges was not final, but that it had to be submitted to the criticism 
of the Centennial Commission and had to be approved by them; the 
verdict thereby became more impartial and dignified. 


EXHIBITORS AND OBJECTS EXHIBITED. 
A.—NORWAY. 


Norway, which, both with regard to its products and implements, was 
best represented (excepting of course the United States, whose exhibit 
was very full), numbered thirty-two exhibitors, who are mentioned be- 
low, together with the objects exhibited by them. 

1. Commercial Union of Aalesund.—An almost complete collection of 
all the fishing implements used in Norway, as well as models of fishing- 
boats. 

2. Carl E. Ronneberg & Sons, of Aalesund.—Dried codfish, dried and 
pressed codfish in tin cans. 

3. Laurids Madson, of Aalesund.—Sides of codfish, prepared in the 
Scotch manner. 

4, H. A. Helgesen, of Aalesund.—Preserved fish-cakes, fresh salmon in 
tin cans (lobsters were promised but were not sent). 

5. Patent Twine Manufactory (Kraasbye Brothers, of Aalesund).—Fish- 
ing-lines of silk, flax, and hemp. 

6. The Bergen Museum.—Large and instructive collection of fish in 
spirits of wine, stuffed fish, models of vessels and boats, lodging and ice 
houses. 

7. The Bergen Commercial Union.—A complete collection of fish dried 
and salted, salt herring and roe, and several kinds of fish-oil. 

8. The Bergen Smoking Establishment.—Smoked herrings, four different 
sizes (great herrings, merchants’ herrings, middle herrings, Christiania 
herrings). 

9. Fagerheim’s net factory (Gottlieb Thomson, Bergen).—Salmon and 
herring nets, mackerel and codfish nets, made of hemp and cotton. 

10. Peter Mohn, Bergen.—Salt fat herrings in tin cans. 

11. Peter Egidens, Bergen.—Fine herrings and anchovies. 

12. Thomas Brichsen, Bergen.—Different kinds of fishing-hooks. 

13. H. Dons, Christiania (Christiania Preserving Company.)—Small 
smoked herrings in oil, and fish-cakes in hermetically sealed tin cans. 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876, 49 


14. Christiania sail factory.— Nets and lines made of hemp. 

15. Hadeland glass manufactory.—Glass floats and glass balls for nets 
and lines. 

16. Falck- Ytter, Christiania.—Fishing-sleighs. 

17. W. Nordrock, Christiania.—Anchovies. 

18. Mrs. Gina Smith, Christiania. —Anchovies. 

19. Mrs. Rina Tellefsen, Christiania.—Anchovies. 

20. Zeorg Lund, Christiania —Anchovies. 

21. C. C. Just, Christiania.—Anchovies. 

22. Christian Johnsen, Christianssund.—Dried codfish. 

23. Jens O. Dahl, Havé.—Codfish and herring nets, codfish-lines. 

24. Borderich & Co., Lyngver.—Fish-flour (codfish chopped fine), white 
caviar (made of codfish roe), isinglass. 

25. Norwegian Preserving Company, Mandal.—Fresh preserved floun- 
ders, mackerel, and anchovies. 

26. C. A. Thorne, Moss—Anchovies in oil, fresh lobster and salmon 
in hermetically sealed cans. 

27. Stavanger Preserving Company.—Preserved fish-cakes m wine and 
other sauces, fresh lobster in hermetically sealed cans. 

28. C. Stormer, Svolver.—White caviar. 

29. Svend Fohn, Ténsberg.—Four different kinds of spermaceti. 

30. Anton Rosing’s Widow.—Cakes of fish-flour. 

31. D. B. Soyland, Flekkefiord.—Preserved skate. 

32. F. Hjorth, Frederikstad.— Anchovies. 

(The articles which were to be sent from the Bergen Glass Manufactory 
did not arrive.) 

Of these exhibitors the first thirty, whose articles were found to be in 
excellent condition, were recommended for awards, and the Centennial 
Commission also adopted this recommendation. The two last mentioned 
exhibitors, however, received no award, because the articles exhibited by 
them were spoiled, probably because the cans had not been properly 


sealed. 
B.—SWEDEN 


had the following exhibitors: 

1. The Royal Swedish Commission, H. Widegren, superintendent of fish- 
eries, Stockholn.—A. complete collection of fresh-water fishing imple- 
ments, also nets, lines, &c., used by Swedish fishermen on the banks in the 
North Sea and the Kattegat, models of bank-fishing vessels and boats, 
especially of a boat for transporting live fish, salt Gottland and Blekinge 
herrings, eel, and codfish, dried codfish, and anchovies (pickled spratt), 
and finally a collection of fish from the Swedish lakes and coasts in glass 
jars filled with spirits of wine. 

2. Gustav Andersson, Tjellbacka.—Skinned and boned herrings, ancho- 
vies and sardines in hermetically sealed tim cans. 

3. H. C. Bergstrém, Lysekil—Anchovies and herrings in hermetically 
sealed tin cans. 

4F 


DOs REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND. FISHERIES. 


4, N. O. Erickson, Lysekil—Anchovies and herrings in hermetically 
sealed tin cans. 

5. J. J. Hallgren, Gullholmen.—Anchovies and fine skinned and boned 
herrings. 

6. August Lysell, Lysekil_—Anchovies and fine skinned and boned 
herrings. 

7. Hdward Nilson, Grebbestad.—Smoked mackerel in oil in hermetically 
sealed tin cans. 

8. N. Wikstrom, Stockholn.—Preserved salmon. 

All the first mentioned seven exhibitors were recommended for awards; 
the salmon exhibited by N. Wikstrém, although good, was found wanting 
in freshness of flavor. 

(C. M. Amundson, Udevalia, and Leidesdorf’s manufactory of fishing 
implements, Stockholm, had announced several objects for exhibition, 
which, however, were not sent.) 


C.—FRANCE 


had of course the largest, finest, and best arranged exhibit of all kinds 
of sardines, sardels, and anchovies hermetically put up in oil. The ex- 
hibitors were principally from Nantes, L’Orient, Paris, Bordeaux, and 
Belle Isle, and most of them were recommended for awards. 


D AND E.—SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 


exhibited common sardels and other food-fish boiled in oil, and besides 
a large number of preserved cuttlefish and mollusks boiled in oil with 
tomatoes, truffles, &c., and finally dry-salted and hard-pressed sardines 
in small wooden boxes, for poor people and therefore comparatively 
cheap. The Spanish exhibits came from Corunna, Bermeo, Pontovidero 
(Galicia), Loredo, Velva-Grove, Nevera, and Barcelona; and the Portu- 
guese exhibits from Lisbon, St. Ybes, Oporto, Faro Alga, and Cambra 
Balbura. 
J".—ITALY 


had likewise exhibited several kinds of sardines in oil, anchovies, and 
pickled eel from Leghorn, Genoa, and Bologna: 
G.—RUSSIA. 
Preserved whitefish and carp from St. Petersburg and Astrachan 
sturgeon-caviar, isinglass, and seal-oil. 
H.—TURKEY’S 


only exhibit consisted of a kind of caviar of whole fish-roe, in the form 
of sausages, called “ botargo,” having a most delicious flavor. 


) 


I-— AUSTRIA. 


Preserved skinned, strongly salted, and pressed small herrings (a kind 
of sardels) in oil. 


a. 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 5] 


J.—THE NETHERLANDS 


had a fine exhibit of excellent herring-nets, floating nets, codfish-lines, 
trawl-nets, a model of a large herring-seine, models of fishing-vessels, 
and boats, both ancient and modern, from A. G. Maas in Scheveningen; 
pickled herring from M. I. Suries & Co. in Rotterdam; smoked salmon 
from T. E. Novenhays in Amsterdam, and models of cotton nets from 
Arntzenius, Jamnek & Co. in Goor. 


K.—GREAT BRITAIN. 


Pilchards in oil, fresh preserved salmon, from C. Freyer and Crosse & 
Blackwell, London; fresh-water fishing implements from W. & J. Ryder, 
Birmingham; and fish-hooks from Joseph Buchanan, Glasgow. 


L.—GERMANY. 


Samples of nets made of cotton, flax, and hemp from “ Mechanische 
Netzfabrik und Weberei-Actien Gesellschaft,” Itzehoe, Holstein, and 
Igler, Bohemia. 

M.—CuHILI 


had a comparatively large exhibit of different kinds of preserved fish 
and mollusks (12 kinds), prepared alge and sea-grass, in oil, in the 
Spanish-Portuguese way. 

N.—JAPAN. 


Models of fishing implements, fine nets of silk and flax, fish-poles with 
the line running inside the pole, lobster and eel traps, different kinds of 
fish baskets and boxes for keeping live fish, strongly salted and smoked 
salmon with head and tail, sewed in coarse cloth, dried sea-weed (sea- 
weed-tengusa), of which an insipid but cooling dish is prepared by mix- 
ing a large quantity of sugar with it, isinglass, and prepared fish-skin 
(shagreen). 

O.—CHINA. 
Models of fishing implements, isinglass, dried crustaceans and fins. 
P.— BRAZIL. 
isinglass, preserved fish, turtle-oil, and butter. 
Q.—ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
Fish-baskets of straw and fishing-lines. 
R.— LIBERIA. 
Nets made of the fiber of trees (ramee). 
-S.—CAPE OF GooD HopE. 


Fresh crayfish preserved in tin cans. 


52 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 

T.— VICTORIA. 

Shell-fish, crabs, and stuffed fish. 
U.—TASMANIA. 

Stuffed fish (salmon and trout), and different kinds of shell-fish. 
V.—BERMUDA. 

Corals, shell-fish, beautiful live salt-water fish in aquaria. 

X.—CANADA 


had exhibited a large quantity of preserved fish and other marine ani- 
mals, chiefly lobster, mackerel, and salmon (Canadian Meat and Produce 
Company, Richibucto), besides salt salmon, trout, and herring (also 
smoked), dried codfish, pollock (Halifax, Nova Scotia), fishing imple- 
ments, especially for fresh-water fishing, and winches for hauling in long 
lines. 
Y.—THE UNITED STATES 

had, as was to be expected, the largest and most complete collection of 
all kinds of fish and fishing implements, boats, models of boats and 
vessels, &c., and everything pertaining to the fisheries and fish trade, 
all under one and the same roof,in the United States Government’s 
building, in which there were catalogued specimens of all the products 
of the United States—grain, fruit, minerals, coal, land and marine ani- 
mals, industrial products, both ancient and modern, war materials, &. 
It would lead us too far to enumerate everything pertaining to fish and 
fisheries, and in fact does not come within the scope of this pamphlet, 
while we shall make brief mention of those exhibits which the indi- 
vidual States had made in their respective ‘“‘ State buildings” or in the 


main buildings. 
1.—Massachusetts. 


The Commission of Fisheries of this State had exhibited a complete 
and beautiful collection of boats and vessels, especially mackere]- 
schooners, fishing-boats, &c. The city of Gloucester, at present the 
largest and most important fishing station in America, had exhibited a 
complete and very instructive collection of everything belonging to 
bank-fishing, as well as models of ancient and modern boats and vessels 
floating on a pond specially arranged for this purpose, on which seine- 
fishing was illustrated by models, and on whose banks there were models 
of different establishments for receiving and preparing fish. Among the 
apparatus peculiar to America we must mention the so-called “ bait- 
mills,” by which suitable pieces of bait are cut very rapidly from the 
raw material, salt herring, swordfish, cuttlefish, &c., and likewise the 
‘‘ice-crushers” and other implements for breaking the ice, used for keep- 
ing fresh fish, in small pieces. W. K. Lewes & Brothers and W. Under- 


e 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 53 


wood & Co., Boston, had a separate exhibit of salmon, lobster, codfish, 
mackerel, and shell-fish, preserved fresh; and the Gloucester Isinglass 
Company and Norwood & Son, Ipswich, had an exhibit of isinglass. 


2.— Maine. 


Extract of fish (juices) resembling Liebig’s extract of meat, suitable 
for nourishing soups, put up hermetically in tin cans, a new invention by 
J. G. Goodale, Saco; mackerel and lobster put up fresh by J. Winslow 
Jones, Portland; oysters put up fresh by the Annapolis Packing Com- 
pany; preserved lobsters and large mackerel by the Portland Packing 

Jompany; preserved oysters and clams by Bunham & Morrell, Portland; 
fishing-poles by Charles E. Wheeler, Farmington. 


3.—Pennsylvania. 


A large selection of fishing-poles of split bamboo, and other fresh-water 
fishing implements, from Fox, Shipley, and John Krider, Philadelphia. 


4.—New York. 


Preserved salmon, mackerel, oysters, clams, and isinglass, from Kemp, 
Day & Co., New York; whalebone, salt eel and salmon, auchovies, sar- 
dines, and caviar, from Max Ams, New York; live salt-water and fresh- 
water fish and green turtles, in aquaria, from Eugene Blackford, New 
York. 

5.—Maryland. 

Models of oyster vessels and boats; oyster scrapers and tongs, with 
the winches belonging to them, used in the Chesapeake Bay; samples 
of oysters from different depths; model of the hatching-house and ap- 
paratus in Druid Hill Park, Baltimore; model of a floating fishing-bat- 
tery near Baltimore; fish in spirits of wine; large quantities of preserved 
oysters (Murray & Co., Baltimore.) 


6.—Ohio. 
Stuffed fresh-water fish (Cuvier Club, Lake Erie). 
7.—Chicago. 
Isingiass made of sturgeon. 
8.—Californa. 
Fresh salmon, put up in cans, from Columbia River. 
9.—Oregon. 


Fresh salmon put up in tin cans, and salt salmon in one-half and one- 
quarter barrels, from the Oregon Packing Company. 
Being on the jury, I had, of course, an opportunity to see and examine, 


54 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


all the above-mentioned exhibits, and all my observations led me to the 
decided conclusion that America stands very high as regards its salt- 
water and fresh-water fisheries; as high as in many other branches of 
industry. This will become clearer from the following description of— 


i 
THE FISHERIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Besides the observations made by me at the exhibition, I had another 
opportunity of gaining further knowledge of this subject by a journey 
to New York, Long Island, Boston, and Gloucester, which I made in 
company with Mr. F. Wallem. 

I shall first speak of the jish markets. Of these, the Fulton Market, 
in New York, is the largest and best arranged. It consists of a series of 
large connected buildings, situated partly along the East River and 
partly along some of the streets of New York, and contains convenient 
places for wholesale and retail fish-dealers, for offices, and packing; also 
a library and reading-room, as well as kitchen and restaurants. At the 
exhibition, and later in his establishment in Fulton Market, I made the 
acquaintance of one of the great fish-princes, Mr. Eugene Blackford, 
whose magnificent and well-arranged establishment contains numberless 
live fish, and fresh fish on ice of every kind, and, as a specialty, soft 
crabs, which in New York are considered a delicacy during the period 
when they change their shell, and are therefore eaten in enormous 
quantities, shell and all, both boiled and broiled, lobsters and green 
turtles, which are brought weekly from the West Indies, and are from 
New York sent to other cities, and frogs. I suppose that Mr. Black- 
ford is the only one of these fish-dealers who himself supplies his market 
with live and fresh fish. For this purpose he keeps a little steamer, fur- 
nished with a purse-seine, which twice a week makes trips between the 
mainland and Long Island, and generally returns with a considerable 
quantity of fish. Nearly all the fish-dealers have their own fishing- 
schooners, or have at least an interest in one. Whenever there is no 
sale for fresh fish, or the prices are very low, the fish are placed in large 
and well-arranged ice-cellars, where they freeze, and are kept till they 
can be sold to greater advantage. Although the sales were quite good 
at the time I visited New York, I nevertheless found in Mr. Blackford’s 
ice-cellar a large quantity of frozen fish, especially large salmon, which 
had fallen a few cents in price. Whilst in the street the temperature 
was 108° Fahrenheit, it was 40° in the cellar, which made it necessary 
to put on warm woolen clothing before descending into it. 

This large fish-market supplies Philadelphia and many other cities 
with fresh fish or fish on ice nearly all the year round. The kinds of 
fish which are most common are: Codfish, flounders, mackerel, salmon, 
brook-trout (Salmo fontinalis), bass (Perca atraria, Labrax lineatus), blue- 
fish (Scomber saltator), shad (Alosa or Clupea sapidissima), turbot, pompano 


5 
/ 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876, 55 


(Trachynotus). The prices of fresh fish in a market as large as this one, 
of course, vary considerably. The following are the average prices: 
Codfish, 5 to 6 cents; flounders, 8 cents; common mackerel (Scomber 
scombrus), 8 to 10 cents; Spanish mackerel (Cybiwm maculatum and regale, 
Scomber maculatus and regalis), which is esteemed as highly as salmon, 
25 to 30 cents per pound. ‘The value of ali the fish annually sold in Ful- 
ton Market is about $2,000,000. Of these, Mr. Blackford seils about one- 
tenth, or $200,000 worth. 

In Boston the fish-trade is carried on in a little different manner from 
New York. Besides a large common market, where all kinds of fresh, 
salt, and smoked fish are sold, there are special markets for fresh fish, 
where the fish are received from the fishing-schooners and placed on ice, 
and where the vessels that are going out are furnished with bait and 
ice. It must be mentioned here that all the fishing-schooners which 
are sent out from Boston and supply the Boston markets with fish are 
always furnished with a considerable quantity of ice for keeping the fish 
fresh. These vessels usually make one trip every two weéks, and gen- 
erally return to Boston with a full cargo of fish. Their fishing imple- 
ments consist of lines, with which they chiefly catch codfish and floun- 
ders, but also small swordfish, which are quite common on the coast be- 
tween Cape Cod and Cape Ann, where the Boston fishermen have their 
station. The prices of fish in Boston are generally a little lower than in 
New York. ; 

In Gloucester, the most important fishing-station in America, which 
possesses more than 500 well-furnished and beautiful fishing-schooners, 
there is no fish market like in New York and Boston, but a large number 
of very considerable fish-establishments, which supply a great portion 
of the United States and Canada with fresh fish, and more especially 
with salt herring, mackerel, dried codfish, and smoked halibut. As the 
fish-trade of Gloucester is very extensive, a more detailed deseription 
will not be out of place. 

Gloucester, situated on Cape Ann, in the State of Massachusetts, a 
few miles from Boston, was founded by Englishmen about two hundred 
years ago, and, after many ups and downs, it has, from an inconsider- 
able fishing-village, by energy and pluck, risen to be an important city, 
with a population of about 17,000, who live almost exclusively by the 
fisheries, which, as I mentioned before, employ about 500 schooners with 
an aggregate tonnage of 30,000, besides a large number of boats engaged 
in coast-fishing. The poet of these fisheries for a single year (1875) are, 
according to a volume published in 1876 entitled “The Fisheries of 
Gloucester,” as follows: 


Value. 
Bank (Newfoundland).cod.... 177,473 quintals......... $998, 628 
See Ci) a ae 185, 758 quintals......... 1, 021, 669 
Georges halibut... 2... 2, 462, BOL OUNAS pci_-cyoie tenet 172, 365 
Pat RANG)... 8....24- 1,248, 423 pounds .....°... 507, 389 


56 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ake” i(yn)* if sisicia's mieieieke stots 4,257 quintals........-. , 12,774 
Cusk (Brosmius vulgaris)...-. 2, 349 quintals......... 7, 047 
ollogkic O22 ori scee 9,417 quintals......... 32, 964 
eRRINGS Socio Ha eee 38, 292 barrels.........- 153, 168 
Coast fisheries by ‘the dory fishermen”: 
Bresh Ash: sie (PIP Ie IS Ls ana EE 89, 738 
Prepared HSh 3s .0 Dee sees A aS Ha uet se Be 185, 697 
EIST OMe ae erate ose cine tote ps are (clere tyee S ee ene 8, 945 
Mackerel si ieicei ak YUL a 18, 172 barrels No. 1.... 327, 112 
Mackerelnilin oils av. eo deod 7,065 barrels No. 2.... 184, 780 
Mucierel etches. aie 21, 763 barrels No. 3.... 174, 104 
Mackerelioct sis esse e20de 4,039 barrels No. 4.... 24, 205 
POG gies since tile ajailebm' 5 ayo divlegt hath ohh maec rst aaa a cal $3, 900, 586 
Furthermore: 
Pickled fish : 
31,750 herrings, valued at.........-........ $15, 494 
163 barrels cod, 404 barrels swordfish ....... 1, 097 
4103 barrels trout, and 76? barrels fins ...... 4, 042 
214 barrels salmon, 250 barrels tongues, &c. . 2, 282 
ROTATING Q0C se /2 6.5 cist bie eiejerel teeta ere er aetel« sarele te 10, 000 
BAUEO UNG TSE one ccqe fore ote area eet elie eel tat ate 8, 000 
Qil, not mentioned above ...........-....-- 100, 000 
138, 915 
Grand total ..... Jefe -g She Mannie eys Seetp octet hie $4, 039, 500 


These figures will show the prices of the commonest American fish- 
ing products. It will be noticed that roe is not mentioned, as but few 
roe-fish are caught, and as nearly all the roe is used for bait. 

Next in importance to the Gloucester fisheries are those of New York 
and Boston, then those of Portland, Me., Baltimore, California, and Ore- 
gon. The coast fisheries carried on along the whole coast of the United 
States, especially of menhaden, shad, porgy, bluefish, lobsters, oysters, 
and clams, yield considerable sums of money every year. The value of 
the salt-water fisheries of the United States has never been accurately 
calculated, but I think that it amounts to about $20,000,000. With re- 
gard to the value of the fresh-water fisheries of the United States, the 
uncertainty is still greater; but it is certain that even now it is very 
considerable, and hopes are entertained that in future it will be still 
greater, owing to the energetic measures which are being taken to fur- 
ther and to encourage these fisheries. These hopes are well founded, to 
judge at least from the happy results which so far have been obtained 
by pisciculture. Whilst lobsters of unusual size are caught in great num- 
bers on the coasts of Maine, Massachusetts, and New York, the largest 

* “Lyr” is the Danish for pollack (Gadus pollachius); but the ‘‘hake” of our East 
coast are species of Phycis.—T. H. B. 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1576, 5T 


number of oysters is caught in Maryland (Chesapeake Bay) and Dela- 
ware (Cape May and the Delaware Bay). The salt-water fisheries are 
most highly developed in Massachusetts, whilst the most important fresh- 
water fisheries are in New York and Maryland, where the most excel- 
lent measures have been adopted for increasing and developing the fish- 
eries. In the following I shall give a brief description of these fisher 
ies, chieily from the official reports of the State superintendent of fisheries 
for the State of New York, Mr. Seth Green, and the commissioner of 
fisheries for the State of Maryland, Mr. Ferguson, but partly also from 
my own personal observations. 

Kvery State which takes an interest in the fresh-water fisheries has 
its own fish-commission and a superintendent of fisheries responsible to 
this commission. The State makes an appropriation so as to enable 
him to carry on his work, which consists in increasing the number of 
fish by every possible artificial and natural means, and in encouraging 
and furthering pisciculture. At the head of the fisheries stands a United 
States Commissioner of Fisheries, at present Prof. Spencer F. Baird, 
of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, a naturalist of great 
fame. 

The magnificent and costly hatching-houses and fish-ways which have 
been established in the States of Maryland and New York show the in- 
genuity, the practical manner, and the extent to which pisciculture is 
carried on in these States. The results obtained by these establish- 
ments are truly astonishing, as millions of fish of every kind are called 
into existence, filling the large rivers and lakes. It is especially those 
kinds of fish which are considered the best food-fish, e. g., salmon, trout, 
and shad, that form the principal objects of pisciculture, but other fish, 
if they are of any value at all, are not neglected. The populous cities 
of America are therefore as a general rule well supplied with fresh fish, 
which form an important article of food. American pisciculture, which 
includes a system of protection with carefully framed regulations for 
protecting the young fish, has attracted great attention especially in 
Germany, where of late years hatching-houses on the American plan 
have been established under the superintendence of a gentleman from 
New York. The result of these experiments is not known to me. I can- 
not say with absolute certainty how many millions of fish are annually 
hatched and placed in the many lakes and rivers of America, but their 
number must be very considerable. 

Of the hatching-houses those invented by Mr. Seth Green, of Roches- 
ter, N. Y., and by Mr. T. B. Ferguson, of Maryland, deserve the great- 
est attention, constituting the New York State hatching-house in Cale- 
donia, N. Y., the Druid Hill hatching-house in Maryland, and the fish- 
ways near the Great Falls of the Potomac. Recently so-called “ ponds” 
for keeping live fish and for protecting young fish have been established 
in the Detroit River. These “ ponds” are sheets of water hedged in with 
poles joined by boards in such a manner that the water can circulate 


58 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


freely, and that the young fish can easily slip through the openings. 
At one end of these ponds there is a movable gate fastened at the 
bottom to a mud-sill and protruding obliquely about one foot over the 
surface of the water. Whenever a haul is made near the “ pond,” the 
net with the fish is pulled through the gate by pushing the gate down 
with a pole; and the fish are emptied into the pond without being 
touched by human hands, and without leaving the water, so that the 
fish with the young reach the pond in an entirely fresh condition. » An- 
other arrangement, partly for making net-fishing easier and partly for 
keeping the young fish, is found near Havre de Grace (not far from Bal- 
timore), and consists of floats or “ batteries” with movable aprons en 
three sides, on which the net is hauled in such a manner that the fish 
and their young go direct from the net into a fish-pond in the float, from 
which the young fish can through small openings pass easily into the 
open water. These ‘ fish-batteries” are only used in shallow water 
and in places where net-fishing could not well be carried on without 
some similar arrangements, and are moved from one place to the other 
wherever it is thought that there will be good fishing. The idea of the 
three movable aprons, which touch the bottom when the float lies still 
and can be raised up by means of chains whenever the float is to be 
moved, is this, that the influence of the current may be avoided by haul- 
ing the net in on that side where the current will not interfere with it. 
On the float are long poles, which are stuck into the bottom when the 
float is to lie still, and are raised when it is to move again. The aprons 
are then raised so high above the water that their corners can rest on 
frames and thus be held up until the next anchoring place is reached. 
There are also on these floats winches worked by horses for hauling in 
the nets, and dwelling-houses and sheds for keeping and preparing the 
fish. These floats are generally manned by 60 to 70 fishermen. The 
fourth side, which has no apron, is used for taking the fish on shore. 
Such an arrangement modified according to local demands would prove 
very useful in our country wherever nets cannot be hauled on shore in 
the usual manner. 

It is impossible for me to give in this place a detailed description of 
the hatching-houses and fish-ways; all the more so as it would require 
drawings to make it perfectly clear. I therefore refer the reader to the 
above-mentioned Reports for 1875 and 1876, published by Mr. Seth Green 
and Mr. Ferguson, which contain plates. These Reports may be obtained 
by addressing Prof. Spencer F. Baird, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- 
ington. 

Great exertions have been made of late years to stock the American 
rivers and lakes with foreign and domestic fish by transporting live fish 
and impregnated fish-eggs by railroad from California, and from Europe 
by steamers, in boxes specially constructed for the purpose. These en- 
deavors have partly succeeded beyond all expectation, so that at pres- 
ent eastern waters contain not only the highly-prized California salmon 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 59 


(Salmo quinnat), but also trout and carp from Germany, and these fish 
seem to be in as flourishing a condition as in their proper home. A 
number of practical laws, partly local and partly applying to the whole 
country, have been made for the better protection and encouragement of 
the fisheries. | 

No less than to the development of the river and other fresh-water 
fisheries, have the Americans given their attention to the improvement 
of vessels, boats, and implements used in coast and ocean fishing, and a 
closer examination of this subject shows the high rank to which the 
American salt-water fisheries have attained. 

The well-known American fishing-schooners, especially the Gloucester 
mackerel-schooners, are as beautifully constructed and as comfortably 
arranged and fitted up as a pleasure-yacht, and cost from $6,000 to 
$10,000 and $12,000, fully equipped, including fishing implements and 
boats. These schooners, which sail very well, have a tonnage of 60 to 
130, and a crew of 9 to 14, according to the size of the vessel and the 
character of the fishing in which it is to be used. The schooners used 
for bank-fishing either near Newfoundland (Grand Bank) or George’s 
Bank, are only furnished with long lines like the Swedish and Norwegian 
bank-fishing vessels, but instead of the large and heavy boats used by 
the latter, they have smail flat-bottomed boats, so-called “ dories”, which 
are considered unusually good and safe, and are handled a great deal 
easier. Every bank-schooner has about 6 to 8 of these, arranged accord- 
ing to their size, three to four on each side of the deck. Whilst fishing is 
going on there are generally only two men in every dory, and single lines 
with a few hundred hooks are used, not as in Sweden and Norway a long 
row of lines tied together, with as many as 2,000 hooks, which latter 
arrangement, of course, involves a much greater risk in stormy weather. 
Nor do the Americans use the glass floats so common with the Swedish 
and Norwegian fishermen, probably because the lines can be handled a 
great deal easier without such floats, and are also more independent of 
the various currents. The'nature of the bottom near the American 
coast is probably also more favorable for keeping the bait in place. The 
Norwegian half-moon-shaped weight for sinking the lines is not known 
in America, where a weight shaped like a plummet or a cylinder with a 
thick brass wire stuck through it is used. The large hooks or prongs 
used in Norway, by which the fish is frequently torn to pieces without 
being caught, are known from olden times, but have long since been 
abolished as unpractical and barbarous. The mackerel and herring 
schooners which are engaged in fishing either along the coast or in the 
Bay of Fundy during summer, or on the coasts of Newfoundland and 
Labrador chiefly during autumn, and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence dur- 
ing winter, are now all furnished, not with lines, but with the so-called 
‘“‘ purse-Seine”, a new invention which of late years has become the favor- 
ite American fishing implement in all waters except on the banks, where 
wind and current forbid its use. 


60 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The idea of catching fish with seines in the open sea has been enter- 
tained long since, but as far as I know it has only been carried out in 
America by the introduction of the purse-seine, with which large num- 
bers of mackerel, herring, shad, menhaden, and other coast fish are 
caught. Whenever a school of fish makes its appearance it is quickly 
surrounded by the seine, by one boat rowing in a circle whilst a dory 
lies still with the one purse-string and the one pulling-string (?), until 
the whole net is out in the water, whereupon all four strings are brought 
together on the boat, on whose railing there is a stationary arrangement 
for drawing the net together, which, when closed, forms a complete sack 
or purse, from which it derives its name, and which holds the fish, often 
amounting to several hundred barrels for a single haul. By means of 
large hooks the fish are then hauled up into the vessel, which lies ready 
to receive them. The length of these seines is from 150 to 220 fathoms, 
their depth in the middle from 15 to 30 fathoms, but ‘at the ends only 
from 6 to 10 fathoms. The size of the meshes varies. The central por- 
tion forming the purse contains the smallest meshes (about 2} inches 
between the knots), made of the strongest cord; then follows on each 
side of the centre a portion with larger meshes and thinner cord, and 
still larger meshes and thinner cord at both ends, all calculated to make 
the handling of the seine as easy as possible. Such a seine (about 200 
fathoms long and 25 to 30 fathoms deep), fully equipped with good cork 
floats (about 700) and nut-shaped weights weighing about seven-eighths 
of a pound each fastened at short intervals along the bottom rope, with 
the exception of the centre piece, which generally is without weights, 
so it can quickly be pulled together, and with either galvanized lead or 
brass rings (weighing 2 to 3 pounds) through which the two pulling- 
ropes pass from end to end, costs from $800 to $900. Only the best cot- 
ton thread or the finest hemp cord is used for these seines. The boats, 
which are well built and constructed in the most practical manner, cost 
about $300 apiece. Instead of bark or catechu, tar is used for fixing 
up seines which have been in use for some time. After having been 
put in boiling tar, they pass between rollers to make them pliable and 
to squeeze out the superfluous tar. 

Many difficulties had to be overcome before the idea of the purse-seine 
was carried out practically; but all these difficulties were conquered by 
American energy and perseverance. These difficulties consisted chiefly 
in making the seine as light as possible and having the purse of a suit- 
able size and shape in proportion to the seine itself, and in the method 
of drawing the net together. At first the following method was followed: 
Before the seine was set a large and heavy leaden weight, with two 
blocks of iron, was, by means of ropes, lowered to the bottom in the 
place where the seine was to be set; then the seine was gradually rowed 
out into the water, pulled together at the bottom, and finally hauled up 
into the boat. All this process consumed considerable time and labor, 
and during the pulling together at the bottom many fish were lost, whilst 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 61 


now the process is quick and safe. The greatest drawback was this, 
that the seine must reach the bottom, and wherever the water was too 
deep for doing this it could not be used. The sack-nets, used with us 
for catching pollock, or the net invented by Mr. Kildal, in Nordland, for 
catching codfish, are only incomplete realizations of the above-mentioned 
idea, and cannot compete in practical usefulness with the purse-seine, 
whose use is not confined to certain localities, as the sack-net, nor to 
certain portions of the bottom, like Kildal’s net, but which can be used 
everywhere unless hindered by strong waves or currents. Purse-seines 
would prove extremely useful in our country, where schools of herring 
often keep in the middle of the fiords, where they cannot be reached by 
common nets, or in any other way except occasionally by a floating net. 

Convineed of the incalculable profit which would accrue to our country 
from a more general use of the purse-seine, I have everywhere recom- 
mended its introduction; and my efforts in this direction seem to be re- 
warded, as Fagerheim’s mechanical net factory near Bergen has given 
serious attention to the matter, and has already received several orders 
for purse-seines. But besides carefully manufactured seines on the 
American plan, and light boats, some practice will be necessary before 
the introduction of the purse-seines will yield fullresults. After having 
in Boston procured models of purse-seines and boats, which are to serve 
as guides to our manufacturers, I still desire that some American purse- 
seine fishermen could be engaged to instruct our fishermen in the use of 
these seines, so that our experiments might not prove failures, but lead 
to a speedy adoption of these seines. I may say here that negotiations 
have been opened with an American fisherman, which, so far, however, 
have not led to any definite results. 

I have been somewhat lengthy in my description of the purse-seine, 
but the great importance of having it introduced with us will serve as 
an excuse. It seems strange that this seine, which has been in use in 
America for almost twenty years, and which in fact has become the prin- 
cipal American fishing implement, has not yet been introduced in the 
Scandinavian countries, from which so many good sailors have emigrated 
to America, and have there become experienced fishermen; but, as far as 
I can ascertain, it is a fact that this seine has not been introduced in a 
single European country, and is only known by name. 

In bays and along the coasts the Americans very frequently use an- 
other somewhat expensive fishing implement, which is unknown with us, 
the so-called “pound-net,” a sort of self-acting trap, something like our 
self-acting salmon-traps, only considerably larger, with which all kinds 
of fish are caught. As this net seems peculiarly adapted to the Ameri- 
can coasts, with their great wealth of fish, and on account of its high 
price (about $400) does not seem suited to our circumstances, I will not 
give any further description of this very ingenious contrivance. 

The well-known trawl-net and floating net of the Dutch, French, and 
English is, as far as I could ascertain, not used in America, where the 


62 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


purse-seine fully supplies its place. For the smaller fisheries in bays 
and mouths of rivers our common nets are likewise used, only with this 
difference, that the floats are not fastened to the net itself, but swim en 
the surface of the water, fastened at short intervals to the strings con- 
nected with the net. Common casting-nets are also used, and purse- 
seines are sometimes used in this way simply by taking the pulling- 
ropes off. 

An implement peculiar to the American bank-fisheries are the so-called 
‘““nippers,” rings made of cotton yarn, used instead of gloves when 
handling the ropes. A furrow or groove runs all along the outside of 
these rings, and the ropes, whilst being hauled in, rest in this groove. 

A bank-schooner generally makes three to four trips every summer, 
and, if the market is good, often realizes from $10,000 to $12,000 a 
season. The codfish and halibut, which are prepared and salted on 
board, are divided in about the same manner as in the Swedish and 
Norwegian bank-fisheries: the owner of the schooner, who furnishes 
the lines and other implements, receiving one-half and the crew the 
other half of the net yield. The result of the mackerel and herring 
fisheries varies more than that of the bank-fisheries. The average sum 
realized by mackerel-schooners is $8,000, and by herring-schooners 
$5,000 to $6,000, which is divided in the same manner as the result of the 
bank-fisheries. The small schooners which carry on line-fishing along 
the coast, and sell their fish fresh on ice, realize, on an average, $4,000 
to $5,000 annually, which sum is distributed in different ways, but gen- 
erally, as with our small cod-fisheries, in such a manner that the owner 
receives one-fourth and the crew the remaining three-fourths of the net 
income (the owner’s risk being, of course, considerably smaller). 

As the continent of North America, comprising the United States (now 
including California and Oregon), extending from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific, and the Dominion of Canada, consumes nearly all the fish which 
are caught by American fishermen, the fish are only prepared with a 
view to rapid consumption. They are therefore nearly all shipped fresh 
on ice, or sprinkled with salt and then dried or smoked a little. Codfish 
does not, therefore, undergo the long drying process as with us, and in 
Iceland, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, which supply distant markets, 
€. g. Spain, Portugal, Italy, the West Indies, and Brazil, where only 
well-dried fish can be sent. When the fish have been taken out of the 
brine, either just as they are taken from the schooners or from large bar- 
rels where they have been kept in brine, they are dried on poles stretched 
a few feet from the ground, for three days, without being turned and 
pressed, are packed in large boxes and shipped inland by railroad, sell- 
ing at from 5 to 6 cents per pound. Fish prepared in this manner will of 
course not shrink much, and weigh heavy. Some kinds of fish, as for in- 
stance the cod and pollock, after having been dried in the above-men- 
tioned manner, are skinned, boned, and cut in narrow strips, put up in 
small boxes weighing from 35 to 50 pounds each, and sent farther in- 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 63 


land by railroad, selling at from 6 to 8 cents per pound. Mackerel and 
also to some extent herrings are not treated in quite so Summary a man- 
ner. They are prepared very much in the same way as with us, by being 
split and salted down in barrels which are made by machinery and do 
not look very solid. In order to keep better, the largest and fattest, 
mackerel and herring which from August to November are caught on 
the coast of Labrador are cut open and their entraiis are taken out. 
The common herrings, resembling our spring herrings, which during the 
spring and summer months are caught on the coasts of America and 
Newfoundland, undergo a peculiar process by being salted in the holds 
of the schooners, from which at the end of the trip they are taken to the 
warehouses, where they are transferred to barrels and shipped inland at 
a price of $3 per barrel. Such herrings are of course of an inferior 
quality,and they cannot be used as with us, but must be soaked in fresh 
water (or milk) and then either boiled or smoked. During the year 
1876 several cargoes of salt herring of different size and quality 
were shipped from America to Sweden. The herring-fisheries on the 
coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland might be developed much more 
than they are at present. But so far the herring has not been much 
esteemed in America, and the herring-fisheries have consequently been 
somewhat neglected. 

That the shipping of herring from Norway to Montreal and Chicago 
has paid, must be in part ascribed to the desire of the Scandinavian 
emigrants to have this genuine Norwegian article of food, and in part 
to the difference of quality between the Norwegian and American her- 
ring, the former having a more delicate flavor than the larger Labrador 
herring. 

The Americans also make use of their fisheries in many ways un- 
known to us. The finer portions of the halibut, of which large numbers 
are caught on the banks and near the coast of Greenland, are prepared 
and smoked like salmon and sold at a comparatively cheap price (5 to 
12 cents per pound), whilst a number of other fish, e. g., the menhaden 
(Brevoortia), and a sardel-like fish are used for making oil and guano. 
(The Pacific Guano Company uses enormous quantities of fish for these 
purposes.) Oil for medicinal purposes is, as far as I could ascertain, 
not made in America. 

As I have mentioned before, great quantities of lobsters, oysters, and 
clams are caught on the eastern coast of North America, are sold at a 
cheap price, and therefore form a very common article of food, partly 
raw (oysters and clams) and partly cooked, oyster and clam soup being 
a very common, cheap, and delicious dish. Of late years many oysters 
are put up in hermetically-sealed cans, and find a ready market, partly 
for ships going out on long voyages and partly in Europe. The Amer- 
ican oyster has a somewhat different shape from ours, as well as from 
the French and English oyster, being somewhat longer and more fleshy 
than ours. In America oysters are not raised artificially, as in France 


64 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


and England, as their natural rate of increase seems sufficient to supply 
the demand; but wherever the oyster trade forms a large source of in- 
come, as in Maryland, certain regulations are enforced for protecting 
the oysters. At Cape May and in the Delaware Bay oysters are caught 
and eaten all the year round. The same also applies to clams and lob- 
sters. Fish-meal and fish-balls put up in hermetically-sealed cans are 
not known in America, and the well-flavored articles of this kind in the 
Norwegian exhibit, therefore, attracted much favorable attention. 

The common mackerel are, in America, sorted according to four sizes 
and qualities—Nos: 1, 2, 3, 4—all differing in price. The so-called Span- 
ish mackerel is a fish resembling the trout in its beautiful appearance, 
with red spots, and almost as large as a small salmon, and sometimes 
fetches as high a price as salmon. Whilst ling is very scarce near the 
American coasts, nearly all our common fish are found in large numbers; 
€. g., codfish, hake, pollock, haddock, cusk, flounders, halibut. The had- 
dock reaches a much larger size than with us. Itis highly esteemed, 
and is sold at a tolerably high price, either fresh or slightly smoked. It | 
is well suited for being shipped on ice on account of its thick skin and 
its firm flesh. A fish not known with us, but very common in America, 
is the so-called “sheepshead” (Sparus or Sargus ovis), which gets its 
name from the peculiar resemblance of its head to that of a sheep. 

To enumerate the many different kinds of fish found near the coasts 
of North America would be of but little interest to the general public. 
To those who take a special interest in the matter I would recommend 
the following works: “Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of 
Maryland, 1876,” and “Classification of the Collection to illustrate the 
Animal Resources of the United States,” also published in 1876 by Prof, 
G. Brown Goode, M. A., in which all the North American food-fishes are 
enumerated and classified. 

The American method of freezing whole cargoes of herring and mack- 
erel, so that they keep fresh in the hold for two or three months, has 
yet to be spoken of. Unfortunately, [had no opportunity during my 
stay in America to witness the working of this method, but I was told 
that it was very practical. An American gentleman had promised me 
some written information on the subject, but so far I have waited for it 
in vain. 

Til. 


BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE FISHERIES OF NOVA SCOTIA 
AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 


In Nova Scotia, whose capital (Halifax) I visited on my return from 
America, and in Newfoundland, whose capital (St. John’s) I likewise vis- 
ited in order to make myself acquainted with the fisheries, I found that 
they resemble ours rather than the American fisheries. There is more 
of a regular custom trade, or, in other words, the fishermen are more 
dependent on the merchants than in the United States, where they are 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1:76. 65 


generally their own masters with regard to the way in which they wish 
to dispose of their fish. The fishermen of Nova Scotia are, to some extent, 
and those of Newfoundland nearly altogether, equipped by the mer- 
chants, to whom they thus become debtors, gradually paying off their 
debt by fish. It therefore often happens, as with us, that in poor fishing 
seasons the merchants run a risk of not having the money laid out by 
them refunded, or that they sometimes are cheated out of the whole or 
a portion of the fish on which they had calculated, by fishermen (in order 
to raise cash) selling their fish at a higher price than they would receive 
from their merchants to foreign merchants or to the French fishermen’s 
colony at St. Pierre, southwest of Newfoundland. 

The Nova Scotia cod-fisheries hold about the same relation to those of 
Newfoundland as the Séndmére and Nordmére cod-fisheries to those of 
Loffoden and Finmarken. These fisheries are carried on very much in 
the same way as with us. The coast-fishery is chiefly carried on by 
large, well-manned boats, with nets and lines, and the bank-fishery 
by swift schooners fitted up like the Gloucester ones and furnished with 
dories and boats, only not quite so handsome in their appearance. The 
French fishing-vessels belonging to the above-mentioned French colony 
of St. Pierre have a different shape and different rigging (generally 
cutters or. large sloops like the English lobster-vessels); they are also . 
manned and equipped differently from the Newfoundland bank-fishing 
vessels. The French fisheries near Newfoundland differ altogether from 
those of other nations, especially with regard to the preparing of the 
fish and roe, and the distribution of the fish. The state stands at the 
head of the fisheries, and has a governor at St. Pierre who superin- 
tends the whole. The present governor, M. Boubert, with whom I had 
the pleasure to travel from Halifax to Liverpool, told me that the French 
Government had sent him a number of Norwegian fishing implements, 
especially codfish nets and lines with floats; but as he had not yet had 
any opportunity to try them, he could not say anything regarding their 
practical use in these waters. 

A Norwegian who has lived for a number of years in New York as 
partner in a large business establishment which failed during the civil 
war, and who now lives in Halifax, as Belgian consul, Mr. C. E. Rénne 

son of the late Danish Doctor Ronne of Christianssand), who was edu- 
cated at the Norwegian Naval Academy, but had to leave the naval ser- 
vice on account of his weak eyes, a man of position in Halifax, with an 
unusual knowledge of languages and great experience, was likewise the 
companion of my voyage from Halifax to Liverpool. From this inter- 
esting gentleman I obtained a great deal of information regarding New 
England and Newfoundland in general, and their fisheries in particular, 
for which I herewith express my heartfelt gratitude. I made copious 
notes regarding the leading features of the Nova Scotia and Newfound- 
land fisheries, but to complete these there are still wanting, the manner 


in which the fish are prepared, statistical data, &¢., and I shall give 
5 F 


66 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


these more from oral than from written accounts, or from my own per- 
sonal observation, as my stay in both places was only very short. 

In Nova Scotia as well as in Newfoundland the fish are prepared in a 
more conservative manner than in the United States, viz, with the view 
of obtaining an article that will keep well and may be sent to tropical 
climates, especially the West Indies, Brazil, Spain, Portugal, and Italy. 
The codfish, which forms almost exclusively an article of export to for- 
eign ports, is first treated in the usual manner, viz, as soon as possible 
after having been caught it is opened and all the entrails are taken out; 
it is then salted in the hold of the vessel, generally with white Cadiz or 
Liverpool salt. When the vessel returns from her trip the fish are taken ~ 
to the ‘“‘drying-places ”, where they are washed and cleaned of all super- 
fluous salt and all impurities. They are then laid in small heaps, and 
afterwards, when the weather is favorable, side by side on scaffoldings, 
which, in Newfoundland, are very high, so as to let the air pass through 
freely and let them dry thoroughly, in just the same manner as we dry 
our codfish. The washing process, however, is somewhat different, for 
the fish are not left so long in the water as to get soft and lose some of 
their flavor. The thin black skin is also left on the Newfoundland cod- 
fish, as people do not think it worth while to take it off. As the climate 
of Newfoundland often prevents the rapid drying of the fish, there are 
on every drying-place, close to the scaffolding, small huts where the fish 
are placed in rainy or damp weather. A number of fish are neverthe- 
less damaged during the drying process, and turn sour and dark; such 
fish are then sprinkled with thin lime, which makes them look white 
enough. The fish which are bought fresh from the boats are of course 
prepared and salted in sheds, and then after some time treated in the 
above-mentioned manner. The fresh liver is melted by steam to oil for 
medicinal purposes exactly as we do it in Norway; and the old livers 
which cannot be used in this way are made into brown train-oil. The 
roe of the codfish is treated in the same manner as with us, and is either 
shipped to France or seld to the French colony at St. Pierre. But the 
Newfoundland cod-liver oil and roe are by no means esteemed as highly 
as our Norwegian oil and roe, which is probably caused by the different 
mode of preparing it, and by the different food on which the codfish 
live in these parts. 

Besides cod-fisheries, which are the most important, Nova Scotia and 
Newfoundland carry on extensive herring and seal fisheries in the sea 
extending between Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Labrador. Whilst 
the herrings from Nova Scotia are chiefly shipped to Canada and the 
United States, the Newfoundland herrings nearly all go to England, 
chiefly to Liverpool. These herrings are prepared in the usual manner. 
The quality of the Newfoundland herrings, however, is by no means very 
good. 

The average quantity of dried fish shipped from Nova Scotia is 
36,000,000 pounds, and from Newfoundland 108,000,000 pounds. I am 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 67 


not able to state the quantity of oil, roe, herrings, and seal-skins which 
are shipped from these two countries. 

The prices do not vary much from those of other countries, and are 
subject to the same fluctuations which are caused by the varying results 
of the fisheries and by the state of the markets. The dried codfish are 
shipped from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland to the West Indies and 
Brazil, partly in boxes and partly in baskets or a sort of tubs hoiding 
about 108 pounds each, and to Europe by merely placing them loose in 
the hold of the vessel. The shipping of new dried codfish generally 
commences towards the end of August or in September. 

It may be known what an influence the cuttle-fish (calamare) has on, 
the Newfoundland fisheries, as it is a most excellent bait, which can 
scarcely be replaced by any other. Just like the capelin in Finmarken, 
the cuttle-fish at certain times visits the coast of Newfoundland in 
large schools, and large numbers are then caught to be used as bait in 
the cod-fisheries, which commence in May and last till the end of Sep- 
tember or October. The cuttle-fish are either kept fresh or salted, and 
their price varies considerably. With regard to the bait-herring, every- 
thing is exactly as with us. 


Jie 
POSTSCRIPT. 


After having made myself acquainted with the character of the Ameri- 
can fisheries, it was my object to apply to our fisheries all the practical 
American improvements as far as this might be possible. I therefore 
undertook my journey to New York, Long Island, Boston, and Glouces- 
ter, accompanied by Mr. F, M. Wallem, a newspaper correspondent of 
great and varied knowledge; the special object of this journey being to 
become still better acquainted, from personal observation, with the Ameti- 
can fisheries, and particularly with the working of that most excellent fish- 
ing implement, the purse-seine, whose introduction into Norway we both 
considered of great importance, especially for our mackerel and herring 
fisheries. We were everywhere received with the greatest politeness and 
readiness to be shown all that was to be seen. JI must here make special 
mention of Mr. A. A. French, in New York, head of a branch office of 
the American Net and Twine Company, of Boston, who showed us about 
on Long Island, where we saw the most important fishing implements 
and the way in which they are used, and of Mr. Eugene Blackford, of 
New York, who took us to Fulton Market and showed us everything of 
interest in that vast establishment. In Boston we were very kindly 
received by the representatives of the firm of A. A. French & Co. (the 
American Net and Twine Company), and in Gloucester we were fortu- 
nate enough to meet with the same kind reception from the head of the 
- firm of Procter, Trask & Co., which last year shipped herrings from 
Gloucester to Sweden, and also from one of the partners of the firm of 


68 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Cunningham & Thompson, Mr. Thompson by birth a Swede, who for 
a@ number of years carried on bank-fishing and halibut-fishing with a 
vessel of his own, and is now solidly established in his present business; 
and finally from another Swede, Mr. Joseph Simpson, who, after having 
been at sea for many years as a bank and mackerel fisherman, has, with an 
American, Mr. Maker, established a repair shop at Gloucester under the 
firm of Maker & Simpson, employing 10 to 12 men exclusively in the 
repairing of purse-seines. This gentleman explained to us the arrange- 
ment and use of the purse-net, and undertook to get us models of the same. 
Other valuable and interesting information we received from Capt. H. 
Allan, of the fishing-schooner Bonanza, a new and elegant vessel of 137 
tons, equipped for catching herring with a purse-seine near the coast of 
Labrador, which had just returned from there with a full cargo (about 
1,800 barrels), and from his son, Mr. John Allan, who was commissioner 
of the Gloucester fishery exhibit in Philadelphia. To all these gentlemen 
we herewith express our gratitude. 

We also visited the well-known boat-builders, Messrs. Higgins & Gif- 
ord, in Gloucester, whose workshops annually produce several hundred 
dories and a large number of purse-seine boats, and ordered a model of 
the last mentioned boat. 

In making a few concluding observations in connection with the im- 
provements in our fisheries, which in my opinion might advantageously 
be introduced in our country from America, I do this not only with the 
wish and hope of benefiting our fisheries, but also with a consciousness 
of the vast importance of the subject and of my inability to do full 
justice to it. However, I will boldly write the following, hoping that it 
will at any rate induce people to give the matter some thought and 
awaken some discussion which may further the interests of the great 
and important subject of the fisheries. 

In the first place, especially with the view of developing our great 
herring-fisheries, the purse-seine should be introduced, and for our coast 
and bank fisheries light and quick-sailing fishing-vessels in connection 
with the above-mentioned dories. The usefulness of such vessels cannot 
be doubted, as a great deal in the fisheries depends on being swift in 
reaching the fishing-place, in catching the fish, and in bringing them 
home in a fresh condition. 

Purse-seines, of different sizes and prices, are now made to order by 
Fagerheim’s mechanical net factory near Bergen (A. G. Thomsen). On 
account of their being easily handled I would recommend purse-seines 
of first-class cotton thread, not longer than 150 fathoms, and 25 fathoms 
deep. The price of such a purse-seine will probably range from 2,400 to 
2,800 crowns ($643 to $750). 

IT would not advise changing common herring-nets of thick hemp 
thread to purse-seines, as they would be too heavy and the change 
would involve a great deal of labor. Models of purse-seine boats, dories, 
and swift-sailing fishing-vessels may be obtained from Messrs. Higgins 
& Gifford, in Gloucester, Mass., U.S. A. 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 69 


After what has been said above it might seem practical to use steam- 
ers instead of sailing-vessels for the fisheries, but in the present condi- 
tion of the fisheries there would be much in the way of carrying out 
this idea. I have some experience in this matter, for a few years ago I, 
in company with Mr. Frederik Hanssen and Mr. Jens Sahl, built and 
equipped a fishing-steamer of about 20 horse-power and a tonnage of 
about 500. This steamer Erkn6, which otherwise was a perfect success 
in every respect, and which was intended for the spring-herring fisheries 
and the bank-fisheries, was, after a few failures, chiefly occasioned by the 
stoppage of the spring-herring fisheries, sold to the S6ndmére-Romsdal 
Steamship Company. The expenses of a tolerably strong and not too 
small steamer like the Erkn6 are too great in proportion to the advan- 
tage accruing from its use. If enterprises of this kind are to pay, they 
ought to be carried on on a large and well-devised plan, fea ing con- 
siderable capital. 

The attempts which have been made to use fishing-steamers both in 
the Loffoden and in Finmarken have proved the correctness of this 
view. Even in America the use of steamers in the fisheries (excepting 
of course the seal and whale fisheries) is very limited. 

The use of floating nets deserves attention next to the use of the purse- 
Seine, as has been fully proved by the experiences of the Stavanger fish- 
ermen during the last year. Practical and well-equipped fishing-boats, 
as well as good and strong fishing implements will always pay in the 
long run, although the first outlay may be considerable. 

The necessity of having suitable laws for protecting the fish and their 
young, and of having systematic arrangements for restocking our rivers 
and lakes with fish, partly by artificial hatching and partly by trans- 
ferring fish and their young from one water to the other, deserves our 


fullest attention, and we may learn a great deal from America in this 
respect. 


The method of preparing fish for the trade is likewise a question of 
great importance to our country. Every one acquainted with these 

matters knows what a loss is involved by drying salt codfish too little, to 
soak it, as is the custom with us, and to dry it lying in an oblique posi- 
tion. By this wrong way of treating the fish, not to mention the great 
carelessness in killing and cleaning it, and in letting too much time 
elapse before salting it, it of course loses much of its nourishing quality 
and its juiciness, becomes softer, lighter in weight, and will not keep as 
well. The drying process with us is generally carried on too slowly and 
in too careless a manner, as the fish remain unnecessarily long piled up 
in heaps without being turned; they consequently begin to ferment and 
turn dark and sour. The consequence of drying codfish on rocks which 
are heated by the sun, is that the fish are often burned and get shrivelled. 
The drying of codfish on scaffoldings or on small stones has this ad- 
vantage, that it does not burn so easily and that it dries better, the 
warmth and the air acting evenly on both sides of the fish. To salt the 


70 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


dry codfish in close boxes or barrels, lets the salt penetrate it much 
better and makes it heavier and juicier than when it is merely salted on 
the seaffolding. I think it would therefore be an advantage if those 
vessels which sail to the Loffoden and Finmarken to buy raw fish, had 
close boxes or bins in which the fish could be salted, with an arrange- 
ment to let the brine flow out from time to time. The so-called Scotch 
method which recently has been adopted by several large fishing-houses 
is therefore to be highly recommended. I convinced myself of this at 
the Philadelphia Exposition by examining the codfish exhibited by the 
firm Lauretz Madson, in Aalesund (prepared in the Scotch manner), 
which not only looked very tine, but had kept well and were very heavy. 

The old law prohibiting the salting of codfish in boxes or barrels was 
doubtless well meant, but it has now become clear how senseless this 
law was. 

I can also recommend the new American method of treating gently 
dried codfish, viz, by taking off the skin, cutting out the backbone and 
breastbones, then cutting it lengthwise in narrow strips and packing it 
hermetically in small wooden boxes; this method will prove of special 
advantage where the saving of freight is an object, when fish have to 
be sent to distant countries, and in keeping the fish in a good state of 
preservation. The advantage will be evident if a good price can be ob- 
tained, as the freight on that part of the fish which is valueless as food, 
is saved, as the fish itself will keep better even during the longest 
journey, and as the skin and bones may be used as fertilizers and will 
readily sell to guano manufacturers. 

I think it would be worth while for our fish-1 merchants, besides ship- 
ping whole codfish in boxes to the West Indies and Brazil, to ship such 
skinned and boned codfish not only to these countries but ane to Buenos 
Ayres, Montevideo, Peru, Australia, and possibly to Japan, China, and 
the interior of Germany, especially at times when whole codfish do not 
find a ready market. 

The making of isinglass from fish-maws forms a considerable branch 
of American industry, as a good deal of isinglass is used for making beer 
and wine clear. I must strongly recommend the putting up in bermet- 
ically-sealed tin cans of stuffed crabs (Cancer pagurus), which has so suc- 
cessfully been begun by Mr. C. Wiese, of Osmundsvaag, as well as of 
fish-balls in brown sauce, convinced that these articles will always find 
a ready market, especially on board the large transatlantic steamers. 
I think that halibut smoked in the same manner as salmon would also 
sell very well with us, but would not be so well suited for the foreign 
trade, as fish which is not thoroughly smoked does not keep as well as 
strongly-smoked fish. Gently-smoked anchovies or small herrings, her- 
metically sealed and put up in oil, like those which Mr. Henry Dons, of 
the Christiania Preserving Company,.had exhibited in Philadelphia, are 
sure to sell well. 

If we consider what large quantities of shellfish, especially clams and 


ANDERSSEN, FISHERY EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876, 71 


muscles (Mytilus edulis), are eaten, both raw, with vinegar and pepper, 
and boiled in milk, in America, France, and also in Spain and Portugal, 
and what a cheap and healthy food they are, it seems that we, who have 
so many muscles, ought certainly to follow the example of these countries. 
I sincerely hope that the freezing of herrings and mackerel in the holds 
of vessels will also soon be introduced in our country as the most suit- 
able way of preserving large quantities of fish for a long time, and, like- 
wise, that the shipping of fresh fish on ice will become more common 
with us than it is now. I think that so far the lack of proper means of 
communication has prevented our adopting these improved methods of 
shipping fish. It must not be forgotten, however, that in order to ship 
fresh fish on ice with any reasonable hope of success, the fish must really 
be fresh when it is put on ice; as fish which is several days or even hours 
old does not answer the purpose. If, therefore, those fish which are 
caught in the open sea are to be shipped on ice, it is absolutely necessary 
that the fishing-vessels either have ice-boxes or regular fish-boxes, where 
the fish can be kept alive. Itis very important that both live and killed 
- fish should be brought to market as soon after they are caught as pos- 
sible, as it is well known that-a fish loses much of its wholesome, nour- 
ishing quality when it dies a natural death and the blood cannot flow off. 
Small fish-ponds for keeping those fish alive which have been canght in 
nets will, therefore, in connection with fish-boxes on board the vessels, 
prove extremely useful, and deserve to be introduced wherever it is 
possible. 

I must, in conclusion, mention quite a new rowing-apparatus, invented 
by Mr. William Lyman, of Middlefield, Conn., which was patented during 
the Philadelphia Exhibition. This so-called “‘bow-facing rowing gear” 
consists in having the oar divided in two parts, which are connected by 
double galvanized-iron hinges, which move in the form of a parallelogram, 
and are fastened to the boat by small balls in bronze caps, which fit 
exactly in two pieces of board screwed firmly to the boat, from which, 
therefore, the motion proceeds towards both sides. The rower sits with 
his face towards the prow of the boat and uses the handle of the oar in 
the usual manner, whilst the oars themselves move in the same direction 
and drive the boat forward when the rowe: draws the oars towards him- 
self, and backward when he pushes them away; therefore exactly the 
reverse of the usual mode of rowing. ‘7o a person unaccustomed to it, 
this way of rowing looks very strange. as the boat seems to move the 
wrong way. The advantage is this, :hat the rower can always sit and 
look in the direction in which he is going; but I think that this inven- 
tion will never be of much practical use, except in harbors, or for hunt- 
ing and fishing. As far as I know, two samples of this rowing gear 
were bought during the exhibition, besides the one which I bought, and 
brought to Norway by Mr. A. Brun and a ship-builder, Mr. Brénlund, 


who therefore are able to give further information regarding this curi- 
osity. 


APPENDIX @. 


eee 


THE SEA FISHERIES. 


a | 


4 
o. 
Art 
bal 
a 
a 


VI.—REPORT ON THE AMERICAN FISHERIES*, 


By FREDRIK M. WALLEM 


NOTE BY TRANSLATOR.—The prices of fish given in section VI are in large part incorrect. 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 


In the United States of North America the traffic in fresh fish is of the 
greatest importance, whereas in salted and dried fish it is of compara- 
tively secondary importance; and the development in all fish-traffic in 
the Union augurs that this condition will strengthen and advance till 
fresh fish to a greater extent than now will become the chief product of 
the fisheries and will employ the greatest capital. The American fish- 
dealers enlarge their field of operations with remarkable energy and 
ability. They extend their fishing-grounds along the east coast both 
south and north, so that in atwinkling they pass from the Gulf of Mexico 
to a considerable distance up on the Greenland coast, traversing a 
coast-stretch of 600 to 700 geographical miles. At the same time they 
extend their field eastward by going farther to sea and employing 
steamers for fishing-vessels ; while the catch inland in the great lakes 
and streams takes a decided advance, which result is based upon sys- 
tematic protection and artificial propagation. Halibut, for instance, 
they fish for off the Greenland coast (since the year 1870), and sell in 
the fresh state some hundreds of miles inland after having been sent in 
ice by rail from the landing-place; nay more, the American fishermen 
have attempted to bring halibut from the Iceland coast.t It will soon 
be attempted to send salmon caught in California to markets in Europe 
in a fresh state, just as American oysters in the shell have been, for 
some time already, to a few in England. The Americans will soon catch 
fish a thousand miles from home, if they continue to be eaten fresh as 
latterly ; they will buy fish on one side of the globe and sell them on the 

*Om de Amerikanske Fiskerier. Indberetning til Departementet for det Indre fra 
cand. jur. Fredrik M. Wallem om en af ham med offentligt stipendium foretagen 
Reise til Philadelphia-udstillingen i 1876. Udgivet efter Foranstaltning af Departe- 
mentet for det Indre. Christiania. 1878. Report on the American Fisheries, by 
Fredrik M. Wallem, of a journey undertaken by him at the public expense to the 
Philadelphia Exhibition in 1876. Published by direction of the Department of the 
' Interior. Christiania. Bergh & Ellefsen’s printing office. 1878. Translated from 
the Norwegian by Tarleton H. Bean. 

tThe first attempt at halibut-fishing off Iceland was made in 1873, but failed, it is 
said, on the ground of a bad choice of season; it was the experimenter’s purpose to 


repeat the attempt. 
75 


76 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


other after skillfully cooling and preserving them with ice. The art of 
preserving fish fresh for a long time and transporting them over great 
distances is an object of much study, and has called forth many ex- 
periments, while salting is little heeded.* And so this national pursuit 
may advance to this result, that the traffic in fresh fish will become 
more and more important. The numerous fishery-inspectors in the 
United States have, besides other duties, to give the coast-extent, lakes 
and other waters, detailed and continuous advice about food-fishes, to 
protect them and promote their increase where they already are found, and 
at the same time to provide barren or depleted waters with a new stock 
of the kinds of fish which are best adapted to furnish suitable and 
healthy food for the people. To assist the fishermen and promote ex- 
tension, the natural as well as the artificial, has become a business which 
employs many scientifically-cultivated men and many industrious and 
skillful public functionaries besides. And the fruit of this whole united 
effort is available with that practical and quick grasp which is peculiar 
to the people. With regard to good implements, boats and ships, the 
American fishermen appear to be equally apt to profit by what they 
have and to invent improvements and new things to the utmost limit. 
The fishermen consist as a rule of clever people, of whom not a few are 
from nations of Europe most actively engaged in fishing, so that it is 
probable that the most of the improvements from Europe are known to 
them. 

The fisheries take a place nearest in the class with the Norwegian so- 
called “ great fisheries ”—cod and herring—which is an acknowledgment 
of the second rank for the United States. In the cod-fisheries on the 
banks—George’s and Newfoundland—the Americans certainly partici- 
pate with a great number of vessels, but other nations fish here perhaps 
with a greater number, and compete with them in the world’s market. 
Herring-fishing about Labrador, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland 
and thereabouts, is not an important business, though partly a com- 
paratively new industry; some of the American vessels fish for her- 
ring when they cannot on account of the season prosecute any other fish- 
ing, but some buy fresh or frozen herring from the shore fishermen, 
either to use them, or to sell them fresh in the large coast towns. Of 
the good (fat) herring the major part are consumed in the United States 
themselves; the inferior, thin ones they export, in the latter part of the 
year, to Europe. The oyster and lobster fisheries on the United States 
coast are, compared with the European, of great importance, and supply 
not only suitable and very agreeable food for all classes in the Union, 
but also a tolerably important article of export for the world’s market, 
especially canned. 

With this short survey finished, I shall now give an account of the re- 
sults of my journey. 


*In the years 1861~’73 were issued twenty-five patents for preparing and preserving 
fish and bait; only one for salted fish. 


WALLEM. ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 717 


sid 


THE FRESH-FISH TRADE. 


The exhibits of the different countries represented had greater or 
smaller divisions for their fishery-industry. In the matter of implements 
there was something, but in the line of products there was much to see. 
The American division was richest in the first-named respect, while their 
products were not present in great variety in the exhibition itself, but 
in the fish-markets. As the products in many respects give the Amer- 
jean fisheries a peculiar character and well merit the serious attention 
of other nations, I set myself as a special task to examine this matter. 
I adopt therefore as a suitable introduction for my report the fresh-fish 
trafiic. 

By the distinguished favor of the Norwegian juror, Consul Joakim 
Anderssen, I was introduced to some of the more prominent business 
men in this branch, and in company with him I went through Fulton Mar- 
ket, New York, where an important trade in fresh fish is carried on, and 
in whose market-building they have their local association, assembly- 
room, library, &c. Later we continued our examination in Gloucester 
and Boston until the consul’s return home in August, after which I 
alone went to sea in a fishing-vessel and followed mackerel-catching for 
two weeks, to become acquainted with its practical working. 

I shall not now undertake to mention the fish-merchants’ association, 
its organization, with prices-current, &c., but immediately proceed to 
the business itself in Fulton Market, in New York City. 

Fresh fish are sold here from stands, not boats or ships, and are said 
to be used at all seasons of the year with ice, to keep them fresh as long 
as possible. I visited the place the first time in August, in very warm 
weather; the last time I was there was in February. Then the streets 
were covered with some feet of snow and ice. Both times the fish were 
partly hard frozen, partly packed in ice. « No fish were sold living; the 
only approach to living “ fish” were the large turtles, which are brought 
in by steamers from the West Indian and Florida coasts. The retailers 
were not ‘ fish-wives,” but young men; merchants’ clerks. 

The number of kinds of fish offered for sale was great, and the prices 
at different times of the year varied greatly, without, however, fluctu- 
ating much from one day to another. 

Here merchants of moderately large capital carry on the traffic, part 
of whom have their own fishing-vessels, giving the business a character 
something like the Norwegian trade in salted and dried fish and herring; 
I mean that it is free from the mean and dirty market traffic which one 
as a rule associates with the sale of fresh fish. The retailers in Fulton 
Market have, in part, marble counters, neatly-arranged stands, a private 
office where the owner of the stand may note his sales. The large mer- 
chants exercise supervision, and the young attendants, dressed in long 


78 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


aprons, handle the fish and deliver them at fixed prices. The fish-mer- 
chant to whom we were introduced, Mr. Eugene G. Blackford, was not 
only a capable business man but also a highly accomplished gentleman. 
He was able to give us not only information on all things concerning 
the fish-traffic, but also scientifically-founded communications on the 
natural history of fishes. As president of that great society, the Amer- 
ican Fish Culturists’ Association, he was identified with all the promi- 
nent scientific men in that branch, and with the large staff of fishery 
commissioners in all parts of the United States. We could not have 
been introduced to any one who was better fitted to be our cicerone and 
our living lexicon. A great portion of the information which I acquired 
on the fresh-fish trade I owe to his favor and intelligence. 


Th. 
KINDS AND PRICES* OF FISH. 


As I remarked before, the kinds of fishes in the market are numerous, 
and the prices, naturally, different in different seasons. I shall name 
such fishes as are generally used for domestic purposes, and the prices 
of some. 

Haddock (similar to our hyse) is one of the commonest and best fish. 
It is taken on the coast as well as on the Great Banks. They are sold 
fresh in small quantities from 6 to 8 dre* per pound; they are employed 
also as stock-fish. 

Pogies or menhaden (Alosa menhaden of the herring family) are like- 
wise a good small fish; they are taken in great masses with steamers 
and purse-seines along the coast and some distance out to sea. <A great 
portion is made into oil and guano, the manufacturing of which is done 
in large factories on the coast. By the barrel, which average 300 to 500 
each, they are sold from 44 cents to 88 cents. In the fish-market they 
are sold fresh, and retail for 6 to 8 and 10 dre per pound. 

Thin herring are found in the fish-markets, especially in winter, and 
then frozen and fresh. These come from the Newfoundland and New > 
Brunswick coasts, where they are either caught or purchased for $1.09 
per barrel. They sell them fresh at retail for 6 to 8 and 10 Ore per 
pound. They are also salted, and then principally whole. Another 
fat kind of herring, most like the Norwegian great herring, which is 
found in the fall on the coasts named, and off Labrador, they generally 
work up into a very choice salted article for the West; lastly they salt 
the thin herrings for export to Europe. 

Some more esteemed and higher-priced kinds of fish are: butterfish 
(Poronotus triacanthus), catfish (species of Amiuwrus), flounders, sheeps- 
head (Archosargus probatocephalus, a sea-carp), sturgeon, Swordfish, rock- 
fish (Roccus lineatus, a sort of sea-perch). Cod I did not see; they are 


* FoOT-NOTE.—The re equals 7% or about ¢ of a cent.—TRANSLATOR. 


*WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 79 


found now and then at fair prices. The common mackerel are sold in 
season for 40 to 50 dre apiece. Here mackerel is the object of an im- 
portant fishery which lasts from spring till fall on the coast and at sea, 
the prices varying greatly. A large portion are salted and sold in barrels 
at prices from $4.91 to $15.29, or even $20.47, for the largest and finest. 

Halibut vary greatly in price according to the scarcity or abundance 
of fish; they send them also by rail many hundred miles inland, whole, 
partly filled and partly surrounded with ice, in boxes of from 350 to 400 
pounds. The prices in the fish-markets fluctuate greatly according to 
the magnitude of the catch, and when they prosecute the fishery far out 
at sea on the banks and even along the coast of Greenland no one can 
constantly have a correct opinion as to where the fishing will be the 
August, 1876, in New York was 40 dre per pound wholesale, 60 to 75 
dre per pound retail, and were noted later in a fishing-port near Bos- 
ton 50 per cent. cheaper; moreover, the price may vary from 9 dre to 
60 dre per pound in large lots. . 

Halibut are to some extent salted (especially the heads); some parts 
also are smoked (especially the backs and the bellies). The cheeks are 
considered a delicacy. From the heads, also, oil is expressed. Salted 
halibut heads are sold for $4.91 to $6.28 per barrel. With regard to the 
assorting of halibut I shall only remark, that white-naped halibut bring 
as high as 100 per cent. more than the black-naped. 

Salmon fluctuate also greatly in the city markets—from 45 6re to 50 
dre—but decline in the height of the season to 23 dre per pound— 
in July for instance; they may as early as August advance to 90 dre, 
and in November, in the hard-frozen state, they may bring 33 cents per 
pound. Speculation in frozen salmon is considerable, for the accumu- 
lation in the winter months is often great, and as a consequence of over- 
speculation the holders may be obliged in January and February to sell 
their stock at a rather low price, to prepare for the arrival of the fresh 
fish in the market. Smeked salmon is not uncommon; the price varies 
from 50 to 90 dre per pound. 

The dearest and most esteemed fish are a fresh-water species and the 
pompano (Trachynotus carolinus, a member of the mackerel-family); this 
delicacy is taken in the South, the champion of the sub-tropical waters, 
and commands as high as $1 per pound. Another much hunted fish is 
the Spanish mackerel (Cybiwm maculatum); we tested it in a restaurant in 
Fulton Market and found it fat, delicate, and savory. 

The commonest fish in general use is the shad (Alosa sapidissima, of 
the herring-family), which often tastes a little mawkish, but in other 
respects is a fine, though bony fish. Whether the Americans, among 
other things, have a decided taste for fish will be seen from what follows. 


80 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH. AND FISHERIES. 


III. 
A CULINARY FISH-DINNER WITH INTERNATIONAL DISHES. 


Some time after the jury of the exhibition had given its award upon 
the fish-products from every quarter of the globe, the well-known society, 
the American Fish Culturists’ Association, gave a fish-dinner, at which 
the choicest international delicacies and rarities of fish-preparations were 
served at a meeting of connoisseurs. This was in reality a higher jury, 
which was here to pronounce judgment upon the fish-food of all nations. 
The whole selection was made by the associations’ most capable fish- 
experts, and as special caterer was engaged “that culinary artist,” Mr. 
M. Sudreau, which was the highest official guaranteee upon the bill of 
fare. ' 

It is naturally not my purpose to give anything in reference to the 
feast; I shall concern myself only with the official portion of the affiair— 
the bill of fare. This gives through its contents a clear statement of 
what this “ higher jury” considered specially worthy to be served. And 
in this statement lies an award which shows more clearly than the jury 
itself what belongs to the choicer fish-preparations, as the fish-products 
of every country securing premiums were brought into a single collec- 
tion. To the whole was given a humorous coloring, as an example of 
which, to a portion of the current American fish-preparations was given 
a special name after this or that scientific man or matador or functionary 
in fishery branches; not, however, preventing the attentive specialist 
from studying the serious side of the affair. No Norwegian fish-dealer 
can réad that bill of fare without observing what a part the Norwegian 
fish-prodycts were assigned at this fish-dinner. And if he intend to 
speculate in the American market with fine products, the bill of fare will 
doubtless give him many useful hints. I shall therefore give an epitome 
of it. 

The repast was begun with genuine turtle-soup or green turtle a la 
Blackford. This is not a costly article in America (a plate costs, as a 
‘rule, in the restaurants, 80 dre; while in England one. must pay 82 
cents to $1.09). After soup, was served lobster salad, “Seth Green’s. 
style.” Among the extra selected warm entrées were crayfish salad, 
roast oysters, and roast crawfish (Cambarus). After these, in small part 
savory preliminaries, came the pith of the affair—the international dishes. 
in selection. 

Of American fish-products were served: Striped bass (Roccus lineatus, 
a perch); pompano (Trachynotus carolinus, belonging to the mackerel- 
family—a costly delicacy, which brings as high as a dollar a pound in 
the fish-market); bow]s of terrapin (Malacoclemmys palustris); deviled crabs 
(whole small crabs, which are eaten shell and all; in shedding, the fact 
is that the shell is quite soft); turbot, filet of sole, and frog or toad salad. 

Baked American fish-dishes were represented by sheepshead (Archo-- 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 81 


sargus probatocephalus, belonging to the sea-carps), and bluefish (Poma- 
tomus saltatrix). And these were served cold: Hels in jelly, crayfish, 
salmon, lobster salad, caviar from California, and oolachans from Alaska, 

Norway was represented by: Mackerel in oil, halibut, stewed fish, 
baked mackerel, and preserved mackerel, together with salmon. 

Sweden’s representation was: Anchovies and mackerel. 

From Portugal were served: Sea-eel, sardines in oil, ling in oil, cuttle- 
fish in oil, soles in oil, mackerel in oil, and swordfish. 

From Spain: Sea-eel with tomato sauce, mixillon, sardines in oil, sar- 
dines in vinegar, and baked bass (a perch). 

From Italy: Sardines. 

From Holland: Salmon. 

From France: Sardines, tunny, and anchovies. 

From Russia: Caviar and poisson au blane. 

From Turkey: Botargo (roe of Mugil sp.) in the form of caviar. 

From China: Fins of a kind of shark, white-shark fins, dried Octopus 
egg, and dried fish-stomachs. 

From Japan: Shark and dried salmon. 

From Africa: Crayfish from the Cape of Good Hope. 

For dessert were served, among other things, pudding a la Neptune 
and Neapolitan ice-cream. And for “decoration pieces” were given, 
besides other things, Bateau de Pécheur & la Roosevelt, and Kan-Ten, a 
Japanese seaweed, & la Sekezawa Akekio. 

There was also a rich selection, especially of mackerel, eels, and sar- 
dines, both from different countries and in different modes of prepara- 
tion. These food-fishes were served fried, in oil or in vinegar. Salmon 
also was well represented, and, so far as concerned a single dish, cer- 
tainly in a rather new form, namely, as dry-fish from Japan. Shark-fins 
and cuttlefish in oil seemed more curiosities than the actual fish-dishes 
of foreign countries. ‘The edible seaweed from Japan excited much atten- 
tion on account of its quality as a refreshing food; not the least because 
it also represented an important industry in Japan—a kind of tillage of 
the ocean bottom. Of the modes of preparation, that “in oil” was espe- 
cially conspicuous, and it has thereby gained a special recommendation. 

To the Norwegian manufacturers of fish-products it will at once appear 
Strange that in this selection of ‘‘the whole world’s” fish-products the 
common wares from the great Norwegian fisheries were not represented, 
though both Italian preparations of Norwegian dried fish and Spanish 
preparations of Norwegian split cod appear to have been obliged to pass 
in among the dishes prepared with oil! The culinary artist, Mr. Sudreau, 
had the opportunity to offer the guests Norwegian as well as Canadian 
split cod, Norwegian and American salted herring, &c., but he has prob- 
ably found that such things are not according to the American taste. 
The single exception made in the manner was in serving “ stewed fish 
from Norway.” This was prepared from chipped dried cod (exhibited by 
Bordewich & Co., in Lyngver) together with “Japanese dried fish,” com- 

6 F 


82 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


posed of dried salmon. Neither dainty herring nor fat herring from Nor- 
way were served, nor Norwegian anchovies, although both Swedish and 
French anchovies were. Perhaps the Norwegian specimens were spoiled 
in the strong summer heat; of this, however, I have no certain informa- 
tion. If, notwithstanding this, a small market be found in America for 
the Norwegian fish-products here named, it will happen in this way, that 
the strongly mixed population, especially in the Western States, con- 
tains many families from countries in Europe where the Norwegian fish- 
wares are current articles. These families become customers for the 
Norwegian as well as for the corresponding American wares; also as 
supplies for different European ships’ crews small lots of Norwegian 
fish-products may find some sale. But, taken in the mass, the population 
of North America will not become customers for Norwegian dried cod, 
split cod, and pickled herring. 

This committee, conversant with the subject of fish-dishes, confirmed 
me also in another assumption with regard to the Norwegian manufac- 
turing. As before remarked, there were served both large and small 
fish in oil—not fewer than seven dishes were in oil—among them Norwe- 
gian and Portuguese mackerel, sardines (both Spanish and Portuguese), 
eels, &c. In restaurants in the great cities in North America one will 
searcely find highly spiced herring or anchovies in the way that the 
North-Huropean taste demands them, but almost exclusively oil-pre- 
pared articles. This, I assume, is due to a culinary principle, that it is 
not desirable to serve up strong articles, with which particularly should 
be classed brandy and beer or ale, in a dry and warm climate. The 
Americans have, in this point, appropriated the South-European taste 
for oil-prepared articles without liquors. Naturally, here, also, excep- 
tions are found, as before mentioned, concerning dried cod and split cod, 
especially in the Western States; in the communities strongly inter- 
spersed with German, Scandinavian, and Irish in the West even highly- 
spiced herring, sausage, and pickled meats are staple articles; they 
are served up as ‘free lunch” in eating-houses, because the strong 
seasoning makes it necessary for the customer to drink beer to quench 
the burning thirst which these articles produce and gradually augment. 

I have tried these things. They are, according to my taste, a very 
disagreeable food, and the traffic itself with this sort of ‘free lunch” is 
ill-esteemed as an ugly, rumseller’s speculation. 

The bill of fare, moreover, regarded from-a culinary standpoint, has 
interest in this, that prepared fish-roe, other than Russian caviar itself, 
must be able to find a market, for’smuch as it was adopted to be served 
up with this dinner. It is true, only the Turks and Chinese supplied 
these delicacies, but for a manufacturer in Norway this might well be 
almost a matter of indifference and no serious hinderance from imitation. 
As for the rest, the Norwegian exhibitors, Bordewich & Co. and Stormer 
(in Svolver), had caviar, the first of cod-roe. These articles, however, 
were not served up with the dinner. For Norwegian manufactured fish- 


WALLEM'ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 83 


roe to sueceed in a European or American market, the manufactured 
article must still doubtless be given a stronger agreement with the uni- 
versal taste, just as it manifests itself in the Russian caviar. At the 
same time it should be admitted that Russian caviar does not suit all 
tastes and that a change in manufacturing it might insure success. A 
comparatively new mode of preparing or pickling was sardines in vin- 
egar (from Spain). I am of the opinion that Norwegian herring in 
vinegar, or pickled like English pickles, or merely in vinegar and onions 
with seasoning of pepper, just as they often are served latterly in the 
west-country families (in Norway), might become a salable article. 
(‘ Herring in jelly” resembles somewhat an article which was experi- 
mentally introduced into the market from Norway.) 

Taken as a whole, I think that the Norwegian manufacturers of fish- 
products, especially of dishes for the table, will be able to extract useful 
hints from the bill of fare mentioned, which certainly was made up under 
the direction of persons conversant with the subject, and with every 
regard to refined culinary skill. Another ‘“ complimentary dinner” 
which was given by the same association on the 14th of February, 1877, 
in New York, I had the opportunity of studying, but I found nothing 
which I have not already mentioned above. 


HV. 


NORTH AMERICA AS A MARKET FOR IMPORTED FISH- 
PRODUCTS. 


(A FEW STATISTICS.) 


From the foregoing remarks on the common kinds of fishes in Amer- 
ica, the prices and taste, it is evident, so far as I see, that North America 
cannot become a great market for Norwegian fish-products, and that for 
many reasons, any one of which is sufficient to decide the matter. 
That the most important Norwegian fish-products, as a rule, do not 
suit the taste of Americans, since neither herring nor dried cod nor split 
cod are used in households or are served up at any meal, is the prin- 
cipal condition which prevents the sale of these products in America, 
taken asa whole. In the next place, the kinds of fishes which Ameri- 
cans are most fond of are either not found at all on the coasts of Nor- 
Way, or sparingly, and therefore, as a rule, will be too dear after trans- 
portation across the Atlantic, which is one of the main causes which 
prevent Norway from supplying the articles most common in America. 
But whether the Norwegian fisheries themselves -can procure the proper 
kinds of fishes for America, or whether the Norwegian fish-products will 
be manufactured according to American taste, as they now are oceasion- 
ally, the main condition of the trade will be to furnish fish-products either 
fresh in ice or fresh hermetically sealed (canned). 

I believe that no one in Norway is at present able to fulfill these con- 


84 REPCKT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ditions; and, in the next place, at the same time that one would find 
himself able to overcome the difficulties which interpose, he would 
have, in the Canadian fisheries and kinds of fishes, which are closely re- 
lated to the Norwegian, too powerful competition. 

Jn the mean time one cannot hope at present or even in the near future 
to find Americans as customers for Norwegian fish-products; so the busi- 
ness is not ended, on the contrary it is scarcely begun, and it is a mat- 
ter of considerable importance for Norway, because the relation hinges 
quite naturally on this: cannot the Norwegians compete with the Ameri- 
cans in the American markets as well, perhaps, as the Americans with 
the Norwegians in the Norwegian markets? They do so already, and 
will certainly, year by year, become more dangerous in competition. 
American salted herring has already been introduced into Sweden, Ger- 
many, and Russia, Norway’s best customers for the articles mentioned. 
No doubt many believe that the American article is not dangerous to 
the Norwegian traffic, because it is carelessly prepared and of inferior 
quality; but the Americans will hardly fail to make themselves familiar 
with the mode of preparation which the new customers’ taste demands, 
whether it refers to their great herring or their fat herring. They have 
almost as much material as the Norwegian, they do not lack the ocea- 
sion, and certainly there is no want either of inclination or ability to 
enter into competition. Split cod from the American waters compete 
with the Norwegian both in Europe and South America; why not also 
herring from the same places ? 

it seems to me that it would be very appropriate if the consuls con- 
cerned had their attention directed to this matter, and should, through 
their reports, give the mercantile class of Norway the necessary infor- 
mation on the American competition with Norwegian fish-products in 
the different markets, together with the result from season to season. I 
have not been able to get any collected official report concerning the 
fisheries in America or the exports of fish-products. The United States 
of North America have no fishery statistics, and the data I have ob- 
tained and found respecting them are partly the estimate of private 
individuals conversant with the subject, partly a digest of many differ- 
ent statistical tables which I have been obliged, under various difficulties, 
to revise. At the same time, I think that our knowledge of the Ameri- 
can export and import of fish-products is so small that any contribution 
thereto will be received with thankfulness, and not the least from those 
who are as greatly interested therein as the Norwegian fish-merchants. 
1 shall therefore, here communicate an epitome of the results which were 
obtained in the way indicated above. 

If I estimate the yearly profit of the United States fisheries at fully 
$27,300,000, I think that would come as near as possible to the truth. 
This estimate is founded partly on the estimate of private individuals 
on the consumption of fresh fish of all kinds in the great cities, partly 
on the official reports from fishery inspectors on the catch in some States, 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 85 


and partly on the official statistics of commerce and navigation. In the 
$27,300,000 is naturally not included what foreign nations capture on the 
banks in America, nor what the fisheries of Canada yield. If one 
should take both these factors into the calculation the amount mentioned 
may perhaps be increased by one-half, because the French fisheries alone 
on the Newfoundland banks have a yearly profit of $1,365,000 to 
$1,638,000, and the Canadian fisheries yield $10,920,000 to $12,285,000 
yearly. 

I shall not undertake to state more definitely how the sum of $27,300,000 
arises, because it would simply be to render one series of estimates and 
another series of data, which would not help to make the matter clearer. 
So much of the statistics shall I, however, particularize as to mention 
two chief divisions, namely, the profit of the salt-water fisheries at about 
$20,475,000 and the profit of the fresh-water fisheries at about $6,825,000.* 

With regard to America’s exports and imports of fishery-products, that 
is a matter more easily substantiated. The following summary of the 
official statistics for 1875 gives an instructive survey : 


IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED STATES. 


a. Fish-products free of duty: 


All kinds of fresh fish......-. amounting to.. $351, 889 
Salted: herring) (222,52. Juul), H 1. 288, 590 
malted mackerelo 2s)... a “ .. ©6584, 283 
All other kinds of fish-products es “ 1. 928, 344 
Moraltcduby tires.) Avie INO ol SMO a $2, 153, 106 
b. Fish-products paying duty: 
Piekled herring: ...;...-)-.,. -.--amounting to.. 226, 494 
Piekled mackerel 75/2. .(43 31, or Af ye 553 
Sardines and anchovies in oil 
and Otherwise... 2)... 5 2). cosa O20. 179 
Other fish-products.......... ue eas, 1025283 
Total paying duty....-... TEI. 2 5 200 RPA Ae AE 855, 509 
3, 008, 615 


The preceding year the importation of the items here named was 
$3,208,527 ; the articles free of duty amounted, however, to only $1,800,000, 
but the duty-paying imports were greater, namely, $1,400,000. The im- 
portation of sardines and anchovies especially was of greater importance, 
amounting to about $1,000,000. 

* For comparison it perhaps may be instructive to state that the Norwegian marine 


fisheries may be estimated at $12,285,000 to $13,650,000 yearly and the French at 
$15,015,000 to $16,380,000, 


86 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


According to the same official statistics for 1875 the exports of fish- 
products from the United States of North America were: 


Died and smoked fish: "Ce are foo.) 29203 $710, 121 
Riess bh fis Mit V22 9 1') 27 oot en apne eens Tos 20 eo eee tee 69, 448 
Fiekted isin). 8. Cre Es ee eee AE 309, 669 
Bish otherwise prepared #5522: ...622 22. 220. 1, 855, 550 
Whaleanddfishlolie Soe), bee 455, 236 
SO ISDOES I taut re te te. alsa oe Sane eal L770, 277 


Besides those used in transit : 


PESSIMISM ies GLE Oak ol edese Sit loe wee 3, 895 
ermine Os aie hea lta: Jere £8 eee 11, 722 
Mackerel sii) 5 ty. ii eae Pe Se Rapin eh eet 10, 254 
Sardines and: anchovies:.:2: 5. 25s.ctsosden. 1: 23, 296 
Oilofiall kinds::: .edtockesGel Hath ot ae eee 11, 236 
Adi other fish prodwete.t! 2) 2s/2.. lest disable. 157, 053 

— 217, 456 

_ 38, 837, 757 


While importation in the last year has been diminished, exportation 
seems to have increased, by which one may well conclude that the fish- 
eries are in constant advancement. The American fish-dealers’ exchange 
with foreign countries amounts also to about $7,000,000; but an account 
more in detail as to the countries with which this exchange occurs may 
perhaps be of great interest to the Norwegian fish-merchants, wherefore 
I shall compile an abstract of tables relating to the subject. 

The fresh fish, amounting to $352,000, which were imported duty free, 
were almost exclusively from Canada; the same was the case with the 
$584,000 worth of mackerel and about half the quantity of herring, 
quoted at $289,000. On the other hand, the importation of the remain- 
der of the herring, $226,000, together sate sardines, a and all 
other fish, was from the lle countries : 


Valued at— From— 
Pickled herring, 14,243 barrels. . $154, 302 Holland. 
5.615 9 2. OL abo Germany: 
LO eliee y bese 6, 854 Newfoundland and Labrador. 
Wi Ne yeaih cO s. 2, 897 England. 
126 wight)? 38 480 Quebec and Ontario. 
yor i Ba 2) 298 Scotland. 


As the prices quoted are invoice-prices, it is seen that the herring sent 
from Europe were invoiced at over $10 to $12 per barrel, while herring 
from the Canadian coasts were only $4 to $5 per barrel. Direct from 
Norway and Sweden they are imported for $2; but I am informed that 
some of the herring imported from Hamburg are Norwegian. 

Sardines and anchovies in oil reached a value of $1,000,000:in 1874, 
but in 1875 they were imported only to a little over half the amount, or 
$526,179, distributed among the following countries: 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 87 


Prom Brance {oe cas wa BURR. _.-.-to the amount of.... $445, 022 
Soeaaprer LAG Gis. 2 a RS S olalace i: pf ill reece DO gD LS 
MP ERIMAMY 2257.02) 5 2 Hay Biel. 3s Ch ce iud-ed fi) del OgD 
eae HOUAnG 42.53 os: ite eet GE hale as Scot Dare arse 8, 028 
Roi Italyye eee. 2 tS ORS Bale, ee « Gedy 2, 448 
¢ Quebee and Ontario .......-. a? aa heft fey ali Cah. 1, 894 
Soa S0ls.2 ik wine ee VL Be ah Sh ee HO idee 789 
“Sweden and Norway... .o.2 6.242: oe a Cone Active 152 


In the importation of anchovies it also holds good that some Nor- 
wegian (and Swedish) wares go by way of Hamburg to America. 

The great item of import—“all other fish-products”—vrepresents over 
$1,000,000, and is due mainly to the following countries : 


Mra AMA SUG 5 oe sais ashes oh 2 yards cigiene Seer about... $900, 000 
SMR EUN a IS0 "2c. ca apd Sir ie Sale Dee eee ae Oi Tike ie AB. 205 
RCCL SEC OTN OY a: si clanove chain's: sit ein «= soaps pip pate age a Bete 243 
SRG CTLVAUY) 2 oP weve ccm sels ie aU eh ee Bact ct Sl ata En aia teicees 
SECA COle oi foc ec nic aie eee ce tes SEE sot ae ae WA dry Pg 7652) 
STE UG TUE 08 eRe si es ears es eae gene re Co ie 5, 750 
of) (OUI OE TR ees ce CS ne eo eT SS eee 2, 635 
See Ween and: INOEWAV a. +S. s: sos0 56 aeons ere: an Aes a: 955 
SVE SACO URS. oo cere Pe hea, isnt ae etre Slowed Se atone oe eens 3 806 
MMLC Vy cite ates sok <iwiesorsis © bi58s ES At igh tote a eee 795 
“3 1g) a cye21 Eh 010 ee ee er Ritesh ors omietee eS 518 


The cities and ports to which the greatest portion of the importation 
came are the following: 


Boston and Charlestown, Mass., to the value of....-.....--. $1, 298, 921 
New York, ¢ Poy Ga adds Stet -tiescs ere 754, 884 
Portland and Falmouth, Me., SO esa steqacomeur cea 369, 816 
Passamaquoddy, Me., YY CSCO a eee ee 158, 586 
San Francisco, Cal., a Cee edo eee eee 101, 152 
New Orleans, La., Us a mnIee  Betlede dS : 94, 104 


Next come the cities near the great inland lakes, which are supplied 
with $100,000 worth of fresh fish. To New York, New Orleans, and San 
Francisco are imported the greatest quantity of anchovies and sardines, 
while Boston imports most of the salted herring and mackerel. 

With regard to America’s exportation of fish-products, the greatest 
items in American wares in 1875 were as follows: 


DRIED AND SMOKED FISH. 
71,489 ewt., valued at.. $450, 655 to Hayti. 


18,005 « «¢ .. 64,514 “ Hollandish West Indies 

12,089 « “i. = 49, 628 “ French West Indies. 

7,565“ vO Fe ele ours to a) ato eta Sindy 

5,546  & ¢ .. «©2200, 075 “ San Domingo. 

S825 | ke COLD, 1! Daa G6: Brazil, 

gO ea “« .. 11,453 “ English West Indies and Honduras. 


1,923 / «1. 14,264 “ United States of Colombia. 


88 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


A smaller portion of items go to China, Japan, France, the Azores, 
and Madeira, the Spanish colonies in Africa and elsewhere. Nothing is 
exported to Spain, Portugal, and Italy, where, on the contrary, New- 
foundland split cod has so great a market. _ 

Of fresh fish, as above noted, are exported $69,000 worth, of which 
about $68,000 worth are shipped from Key West, Fla., to Cuba. 

Pickled herring are exported to about the same markets as the dried 
and smoked fish, and, besides, to the French colonies, the English colo- 
nies of Australia, Liberia, the Sandwich Islands, Porto Rico, and Vene- 
zuela. 

The $2,000,000 worth of ‘all other fish-products” went for the greatest 
part to England, the English colonies, and Hong-Kong, because the 
most important items are the following: 


Value. 
To England ...... aS idue mle Systeve aera hie Goa Sn) ele ome eae at nee eee $974, 673 
‘Co Rnglish colomes in Australia ..2:2.2)2)25. 0222. eenreeee 298, 280 
PET OM EAMONN Scere cls cet Me akc als oe ete 2 5 2 eee eee a eee 216, 522 
BL OUT AMY ete cle nis Cinino oo eine emeee mtemiee SEBS Ss o4c- 74, 998 
J (G1 0 2s eG eae ee Qeosa ESB ose SHAE cidos 46, 924 
Se eeetnCe and eT COLOMICS 2. cnet. -eict hes ee eee 37, 733 
SmUmited States of Colombia = 5-25. 6.0c60 ses sec ae ee 33, 461 
BEET RYILN 5) -seje nro 210. <jaaitsre y= =e oie eee See Lee techn ae A es eee 30, 032 
SOMPELOTU cin ej2e waies nin tnicte sincjesee sin eb alerts tiers tne aienn 2 ae eee 28, 183 
EO DT ye ee ic aslo nate = salute eaayeiole rn elairaio) ein ty" 8 eae ence eee ee eee 7, 441 
“ China and Raha RA EADAE SON IPM APUTAMRM rs Atom ed rns GREE 8 8, 826 


The exportation of oil, as previously stated, ahieunied to $455,000; 
the quantity was 896, 000 American gallons, or about 30,000 panel 
which were shipped ans the following principal items: 


To England 304,605 gallons, valued at...-..... Nala des lo cee $125, 583 
“ France 241,161 se Gh vop at oh ol aleda'e cues ie lage 123, 937 
“ Scotland 197,891 “ Re eee Means pases fs 80, 670 
“ Canada 119,007 3 Or tnd shes GOR okie 2 ae 65, 999 


The remainder went to the English possessions in Australasia, Cuba, 
Hong-Kong, Mexico, and elsewhere. 

The great exportation of oysters, which is said to be still in its infancy, 
amounts to $170,000; the following were the most important markets: 


Wana Pieter gcse <is)\sfe ew aa)s - » scineteieeitnee siete. aes $70, 114 
Gland Reema esp cits. de SO aie eo oaiispeeicios Ie 38, 661 
English possessions in Australasia............... Pe ye 11, 639 
SGOUTOMNY | pe a PS cite i alt? Balak Mea uc i eee «© >. pier ears 
Argentine Republic See N obi cam n gc ote etn ay lel as aes a 6, 609 
CORSO F ie Camas CONS. 2 - 00 Aa Aap ae me PENANG Oe Ora Sa 6, 458 
, 0510: See a A 5 Og BO Remy Se oo a Neg eee a 4, 388 


Next come Brazil and Chili, Mexico and the Senaweh Islands, Ven- 
ezuela and various states in South America, Japan, China, &c. 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 89 


The ports from which are exported the American fish-products are 
only partly the same which receive the greatest import of such wares; 
exportation, for example, goes on especially by way of San J*rancisco, 
which exports to the value of $1,500,000; New York to the amount of 
about $1,000,000; Boston about $700,000, and Key West a little over 
$100,000. 

It appears from this abstract that Americans get their greatest supply 
of fish in oil from France and England, pickled herring from Canada, 
Holland, and Germany, while all other fish-products come mainly from 
Canada, China, and elsewhere. And exportation occurs chiefly to Eng- 
land, the West Indies, Australasia, Kastern Asia, and South America. 

As it is probable that Norway cannot compete with America in these 
foreign markets—the West Indies and the east coast of South America 
excepted—so also it is likely that she will not readily be able to satisfy 
America’s demand for fresh fish, fish in oil, and the rest of the chief 
articles. But it is more nearly certain that America can act in opposi- 
tion to Norway as well in Europe as in other countries. It is of much 
interest to know this. 


NG 


PRESERVING FISH WITH ICE, AND THE SIGNIFICANCE TO 
NORWAY OF THIS MODE OF TREATMENT. 


The fact that the Americans are able to furnish salted fish-products 
so cheaply that it may become a serious apprehension that they will 
compete with the Norwegians even in the markets of Europe, arises 
partly from this, that the American fishermen sell their fresh fish so 
readily and profitably, partly because the fishermen are better equipped 
and more skillful in their calling than the Norwegians, taken as a whole, 
and finally for the reason that the kinds of fishes concerned abound in 
the American waters, and besides they are comparatively little in demand 
for the consumption of the country’s own population. I shall next treat 
of the factors here indicated. 

The first—the traffic in fresh fish—I have previously treated in its own 
chapter, in which I remarked that the preserving of fish with the help 
of ice and frost plays a principal part in the business. But I shall now 
enter more fully into this matter, because I will communicate all the in- 
formation in regard to preserving fish with the aid of ice which I believe 
at present may have practical interest. 

T have read with much attention the articles which have been published 
on this subject in the Norwegian newspapers, and I have specially noted 
the interesting information which the consul-general, Mr. W. Christopher- 
sen collected. I hardly mistake when I think that the summa summarum 
of the public discussion of the subject has been this, that for the present 
it is neither practical nor advisable to encourage Norwegian fish-dealers 
to attempt the exportation of fresh fish in ice from our great fisheries. 


90 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Against this result I shall venture to make some objections, because I 
will point out the weakness of the conclusions which have been advanced. 

They have, in the first place, so far as I can judge, confined themselves 
to England as a market and to cod as an article of export. Just as I, on 
the one hand, regard this limitation of the matter as inadequate, so, on 
the other hand, I consider the views which have put themselves forward 
in this region; and I may say, further, that the question being limited 
thus, the answer must be what it is, namely, that for the present the 
attempt to send cod in ice to England should be discouraged. That: this 
should be the answer arises simply from the fact that the English import- 
ers of fish desire living cod. With it the affair is decided. Closer inves- 
tigation as to what kinds of cod are most esteemed in the English market 
might, therefore, at present seem superfluous. And to institute caleu- 
lations as to how great expenses will attend the carrying of fresh dead 
cod in ice from Lofoten or Kristianssund to Hull or London may be un- 
necessary. However, the'subject may acquire interest later on, and 
therefore I shall not retain certain information communicated to me on 
the prices of cod in England: 


Living North Sea and Iceland cod are sold for $19.11 to $27.30 per score. 
Ekeré cod, wet-salted, cere Cen ace 98 66° SG ees 
Lofoten cod,“  “ en Fe oe 98 / HG 


The Norway-coast cod, as well as the Lofoten, are thus seen to rate at 
very low prices; yes, lower than one as a rule can secure in the fishing- 
places in Norway itself. Cod in ice command only one-fourth to one- 
sixth as much as cod in the living state, and are said, under the present 
management, to have great difficulties to overcome. These difficulties 
consist chiefly ia this, that the wholesale fish-dealers in England (the 
whole of England’s and Scotland’s trade in fresh fish is in the hands of 
ten to twelve wholesale dealers) antagonize the importation of all other 
fresh fish than those which they themselves get. They have their own 
vessels with wells for keeping living fish, and every attempt to compete 
with them in this or in the traffic generally they contend against so reck- 
lessly that a fresh attempt hardly occurs.* One may even in Norway 
have a little experience of this. But should the opposition from the 
wholesale dealers themselves be relinquished, yet will the fact that the 
eod is a kind of fish which easily loses its fresh taste in freezing, always 
render competition with the Englishmen’s own living cod the more diffi- 
cult. After all, one will naturally prefer the living cod. 

Of halibut, salmon, and mackerel—three kinds of fishes which are well 
adapted for sending in the frozen or iced condition—there have gone, on 
the contrary, for many years, a not inconsiderable quantity from Norway 


* When the Americans began to export to England fresh meat in ice the English 
butchers raised a strong opposition, and only after sundry conflicts, which cost much 
money, the Americans, with the aid of the press and the people, won admission. How- 
ever, a time was selected when a single English butcher, in order to spite the Amer- 
icans and their meat, called all his worst meat ‘‘American,” and sold it cheap. 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 91 


to England, which demonstrates practically, indeed, that the fish business 
treated of can be prosecuted with England and certainly succeed besides, 
because it is carried on by nearly the same Norwegian firms summer 
after summer, year after year. 

But the chief question was, not whether fish from the so-called great 
fisheries—herring fishery and cod—could be exported in ice instead of 
in pickle, or salted and dried. In England, the main question was, 
“Will I buy dead cod instead of the living?” And the answer was “No!” 
But in South and East Europe the inquiry was different, namely, “ Will 
I buy fresh fish instead of salted and dried?” And it is this question 
which I believe cannot be regarded as capable of being answered in the 
negativein reference to the investigation of the English business-relations. 
My personal opinion of the matter is this, that herring as well as cod can 
be transported without too great expense to Norway’s present great cus- 
tomers in East and South Europe. The difficulty consists not in this but 
in the fact that one of those markets must be prepared to preserve these 
frozen or iced wares in this condition, even in the manner of loading. 
But this difficulty itself can gradually be overcome, provided the traffic 
only can endure the expenses attendant upon it, which I can have no 
opinion of, since I do not know the proportions of the ice business in the 
countries concerned. That the whole may be amended without exorbi- 
tant expenses, so that fresh cod and herring may be delivered in South 
and East Europe, J am confident, from the fact that similar kinds of 
fishes are delivered in America to markets as far distant from the fish- 
eries. At the same time it is indeed clear that all depends upon whether 
those customers really desire fresh fish from Norway. If they do not, 
then the matter is thereby decided. But until one has experience of this 
by some experiments, the question cannot be regarded as satisfactorily 
answered, and it was only this I wished to take exception to in the re- 
sults which the public discussion appears to have desired to establish, 
and that immediately. 

For a clearer understanding of the matter, I had some time before 
examined the relations of this business in America, the fish concerned 
as well as other articles of food, and I shall now communicate what I 
learned. 

With regard to the treatment of fishes with ice, a distinction must be 
made between merely packing fish in ice and freezing them for storing. 
The first—packing in ice—is employed in ordinary transportation, as 
from the sea or fishing-banks to ports, and from the ports (generally 
after replenishing with fresh ice) to the selling-places or markets in cities. 
The other ice-treatment, by which the fish are frozen, is employed mainly 
in storing fish, as, for example, to enable the fish-dealer in question to 
preserve fish from summer until winter or from one season to the next. 

Preserving in ice appears to require no skill, yet it demands some 
judgment to answer the purpose entirely, as to the quantity of ice in 
proportion to the quantity of fish, the convenient size of the pieces of 


92 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ice, the material and shape of the box—all are things of importance, and 
not the least elements of a practical economy. 

Greater judgment, however, is demanded in freezing for a subsequent 
storing of wares. This is truly a new art, on which a patent was taken 
ten or twelve years since in America, and it will become very important. 
I shall, therefore, venture to describe a so-called freezing-apparatus or 
frost-vault. 

VI. 


THE AMERICAN REFRIGERATOR. 


A refrigerator must not only keep the article cold, but it must keep 
its temperature near zero or below the freezing-point; and to do this is 
required not only a constant supply of ice, but also such an effect of ice 
as will produce and maintain intense cold. 

Most persons have seen a common ice-chest for household use; its 
purpose is only to keep articles of food cool or cold. But no matter 
how much or how often one may fill it with ice, the provisions will not 
generally freeze; partly because the ice-compartment is too small, partly 
because the mass of ice cannot of itself send out sufficient cold over the 
provisions to freeze them hard; besides the distance from the ice is so 
great that the intervening air makes freezing (in mild weather) nearly 
impossible. 

The largest and best furnished freezing-vault which I saw was one 
belonging to the above-named Mr. Eugene G. Blackford. It was, prac- 
tically speaking, a cellerage 80 feet long, 11 feet wide, and 10 feet deep, 
fitted up as a small store-room. The outer frame of the vault was much 
like a ship’s deck, tight, and composed of planks. <A trap-door led down 
to a room where it was dark and the temperature some degrees below 
the freezing-point; on the day on which I inspected it there was a strong 
summer heat of 35° C. (=95 Fahr.). The ceiling itself was double, 
and the lining was partly sawdust (to prevent the influence of warm air), 
partly ice mixed with a certain proportion of salt (to send the cold in 
the ice out over the room, “liberate” it, as it is called in physics). Along 
the sides and at the ends and across the vault itself were constructed 
large conduits or rather long reservoirs for ice mixed with salt, to act 
on the air in all parts. The situation and shape of this reservoir form 
a very important part of the apparatus. The art is to get the cold in 
the ice, which is “liberated” with salt, to operate so that it will be of 
the greatest benefit and also most valuable with least expense. As cold 
or cold air “falls,” these ice-reservoirs are placed highest up in the top; 
the cold air must also fall right through the whole vault. and cool the 
entire room in its wandering. Were they, on the contrary, placed on the 
sides or bottom, the cold liberated from the ice would simply fall along 
or down the reservoir itself. Side-reservoirs would also merely form 
a cold wall or ice-belt around the vault. Such a cold wall they have 
also, but the ice of the reservoir is best utilized, as indicated, by allow- 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES, 9d 


ing the cold to fall out in the room; therefore the wall-reservoirs, which 
appear as closed conduits, are given an oblique position, so that the eold 
from the uppermost ice may fall out freely and operate as a correspond- 
ing ice-blast from the ceiling. The floor is least liable to an invasion of 
warmth; the ice-receiver here is, therefore, most poorly supplied with ice. 

To protect the provisions against ice-water drip from the ice-box, there 
are placed conduits and conductors. As for the rest the oblique position 
of the reservoir will contribute toward carrying the ice-water away with- 
out dripping. When once the warm air is expelled and the ice has su- 
premacy, it requires less to maintain freezing for a year or as long as 
one wishes. 

This vault of 10 by 80 by 11 feet, or 8,800 cubic feet, could easily hold 
100,000 pounds of fish. It was divided by walls and ice-pipes into four 
parts, each part furnished with an endless number of shelves of mould- 
ing. To keep the temperature in the whole apparatus some degrees 
below the freezing-point, 1,400 pounds of ice is required daily in the heat 
of summer. The price of the ice was about $4 per ton of 2,000 pounds. 
The expenses in this respect were therefore only about $2.80 per day in 
the heat of summer and proportionally less during the remainder of the 
year. In winter are required for the apparatus only about 1,000 pounds 
of ice per week, about 29 cents per day. In the cooler country of Nor- 
way an apparatus of this size would require a smaller quantity of ice, 
and the ice would be had at a much cheaper rate, in Bergen City for 
instance, for $1.64 to $2.18 per ton, which would amount to only 82 cents 
to $1.09 per week to preserve 100,000 pounds of fresh fish in winter ; 
truly, a cheap preserving! Even a smaller quantity of fish could profit- 
ably be stored here when the prices in midsummer are very low, and it 
could be calculated upon with safety that they would advance later in 
the autumn, as happens with the price of salmon, which rises from 10 and 
12 cents to 25 and 30 cents; yes, as high as 50 cents a pound toward 
Christmas. But it will readily be perceived that a quantity of fish, say 
only 1,000 pounds, would not support the increased expenses of an ap- 
paratus so large for a longer time. 

Not every kind of fish can endure such cold, but like many kinds of 
provisions some lose much in flavor. And even the articles of food which 
endure it must be treated in a peculiar manner. Among other things it 
must be observed carefully that fish intended for storing in cold must 
be frozen stiff immediately, or as fresh as possible. Delaying the stiff- 
freezing some time, or, under certain circumstances, any time, is a source 
of great loss. Also, in thawing, measures must be taken that nothing 
shall be spoiled. Thawing must, by preference, take place in cold air so 
as to ‘repel (skyde) the ice,” as it is called in the Norwegian household 
language, before further dressing or cooking can occur. 

The kinds of fishes which best endure storing in cold are salmon and 
halibut; next very fat herring and mackerel; but cod and flounders and 
other common fishes will lose their flavor; also oysters. The fatter fish 


94 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


are, the less will their agreeable taste suffer; the poorer, the greater such 
danger. 

Experiments have been made with all kinds of provisions, drinks, and 
fruit. The result so far reached is this, that every kind endures a cer- 
tain low temperature, below which one cannot venture without injuring 
the flavor. Especially fruit and most kinds of flowers are very sensi- 
tive in this respect. To treat them directly with ice-cold ai will, I 
think, not sueceed; but perhaps the indirect. method, or the now com- 
mon cold-air method for cooling off the preserving-room will do better. 
Pork is also somewhat difficult to handle, but for a different reason: it 
requires such intense cold to be entirely protected. Again, it has been 
found that the more uniform the cold is kept the better. 

My informant states that the use of ice as a means of preserving 
these articles dates back only twelve years. A patent for freezing sal- 
mon had yielded the patentee $30,000 to $40,000; but while the patent 
was respected concerning salmon, competitors soon learned that the 
patent-right was not infringed upon by employing freezing for other 
provisions, and after a lawsuit respecting it the patentee lost, as the 
tribunal declared that freezing other articles of food than salmon was 
free or not patented. At the same time the use of ice is considered yet 
to be in its infancy, or taken as a whole only to have acquired impor- 
tance in the treatment of salmon and some other fish-wares, together 
with fresh meat. With regard to fruit no one has gone beyond experi- 
ment; but as soon as the proper ice treatment is discovered one must 
admit that America will export to Europe large quantities of fresh fruit,* 
just as is already the case with fresh meat, and experimentally with 
fresh salmon. 


VIL. 


TWO KINDS OF REFRIGERATORS ON BOARD PACKE'P- 
STEAMERS FOR CARRYING FRESH MEAT. 


As the transportation of fresh meat from America to Europe in steam- 
ers has attracted marked attention, and as a similar transfer of fresh 
fish will perhaps in time become an example for the Norwegian fish and 
game dealers, | undertook a journey across in a steamer which was fur- 
nished with cooling-off apparatus (refrigerators), and then remained many 
days in Liverpool to investigate the condition of the meat after the voy- 
age, and to make myself better acquainted with all the details of the 
arrangement. ; 

So far as my experience goes, the method employed in the transporta- 
tion of fresh meats across the Atlantic is copied from a rather common 
method of refrigeration used by the pork-butchers in the West. This last- 


*Fruit-growing is a great industry in the United States. Much is exported in the 


form of conserved and preserved fruit. Of all kinds of apples alone were exported in- 


1875, as officially advised, more than $1,000,000 worth. 


re 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 95 


named method I shall, therefore, treat of first, also for the reason that 
it may possibly be interesting to the public. 

The great pork-slaughtering houses operate chiefly in winter; the 
summer killing is regarded as of an inferior quality (judging from the 
recommendatory advertisement, ‘‘ winter-cured” American pork). The 
reason is, that heat will prevent, in a greater or less degree, the successful 
salting of pork; in the cold of winter one may be more certain that the 
pork will be put in salt sufficiently early, or that the air will not influence 
the flesh before the salt has begun to operate. During a visit which I 
paid to a pork-butchery I convinced myself of the significance of vetrig- 
eration for the trade. The body of the hog, as soon as the animal is 
killed, is thrown into a large scalding-trough filled with hot water, where 
it remains some minutes, to be scalded, or sufficiently long for the whole 
carcass to become so thoroughly hot that it takes a long time before it 
is cold enough for salting and packing. It is important, now, to shorten 
this interval, and also to prevent any hurtful influence from the action 
of the air. In winter this is not so dangerous. In summer or in warm 
weather it is hurtful. A sudden cooling-ott by putting the pork in ice, 
it is thought, will injure its favor; and even a natural cooling-off in 
wintry air is not to be recommended. It is important, therefore, to 
devise a method by which refrigeration could proceed to a proper length 
of time and uniformly, independent of the weather, and in such a way 
that the right point of time for salting could be determined with safety. 
They have here, among other things, constructed for a refrigerator a 
large box with a blowing contrivance or pump. Inside of this box, large 
enough to hold a small drove of hogs, the carcass is hung up; thereupon 
the air-pump is set in motion, first to pump out the warm air given off 
by the carcass, and then to blow more and more cool air in until the air 
corresponds with cold water, and cold air from an ice-chamber follows. 
The current of air travels constantly the same way, flowing along the 
ceiling or the upper side of the box towards one end, from which it goes 
backward along the bottom to the other end, when it carries the heat 
from the carcass up and out. When the cooling is somewhat advanced, 
they do not allow the current of air to escape into the outside air, but 
into an ice-chamber, and thereby it becomes colder and colder until it is 
everywhere uniform and the cooling of the carcass is finished. To give 
the current of air greater cold, ice is mixed in the ice-room with salt in 
such proportion as will give out the degree of cold desired. 

This last part of the refrigeration forms the basis of the method of 
treating fresh meat in its transportation over the Atlantic in steamers. 
The meat is brought on board soon after killing, and is quickly cooled 
off and sewed in muslin; thereupon it is hung up in the inclosure 
arranged in the room for transportation. It is important now to main- 
tain a low temperature until the vessel reaches the European port. How 
this is accomplished I shall seek to explain as I describe the refrigera- 
tors which I saw in the American steamer which carried me across. 


96 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The steamer had three rooms furnished with cooling-apparatus (refrig- 
erators); of these, two were on the second deck, a little forward of mid- 
ships; the third was astern in the peak, and extended from the keelson 
up through the two decks. The first were kept cold by water, the last 
by air. Each of the rooms was 9 to 10 feet high, 12 to 14 feet wide, and 
40 to 45 feet long. They were perfectly empty inclosures. The cold- 
water rooms, which I shall mention first, were provided with deors for 
loading and unloading the meat. The doors opened out into a stair- 
way by which one reaches the deck. Immediately outside the door was 
the steam-engine which forced the cold water; close by was the ice-box, 
through which the water is led; also, finally, two separate zinc-covered 
and well-lined ice-storerooms—one for each room—5d to 6 feet wide, 10 
to 12 feet long, and 9 to 10 feet high. <A sufficient quantity of ice was 
kept for the voyage. The inside of the refrigerating-roobms was provided 
with close series of hooks, on which the carcasses were hung, sewed in 
muslin. They-must, as far as possible, hang clear of one another, partly 
to prevent chafing during the rolling of the ship, partly to give the cold 
air free access to all parts of each carcass. When the rooms are filled 
there is not room for a boy, hardly enough for a cat, to creep along the 
floor. The fuller they are the easier it is to maintain the cold. All sides 
of the rooms were encircled by lead pipes 25 inches in diameter, 16 coils 
on each side. The pipes were fastened directly to the wall. This was 
the furnishing of the room. 

The work of refrigeration I shall next briefly mention. The problem 
is to keep the temperature uniform and low—usually 37° Fahr., or, more 
accurately, never above 40° Fahr., nor below 35° Fahr. ‘To this end the 
rooms were first completely inclosed, made tight, then hermetically 
sealed. In the pipes, which with an aggregate length of 1,700 to 1,800 
feet encircled all the walls, was pumped cold fresh water by a little 
steam-engine, which worked a pump for each room. ‘The water circu- 
lates through the whole length of the pipes in a room, returns to the 
starting-point, holds, then, a temperature near 29.3° F’., is conducted over 
ice and salt, forced again into the pipes, and produces and maintains 
a temperature of about 35.6° to 37.49 KF. This current of water is con- 
tinuous, since the circulation is uninterrupted; the quantity of water is 
increased by the melting of the ice; the surplus finds an outlet. Fresh 
ice is supplied constantly in the ice-boxes, and each ton of ice is mixed 
with nearly a quarter as much salt. The temperature of the room is 
controlled through a very small window, inside of which a thermometer 
is hung, and by that the temperature of the body of water is regulated. 
To protect the meat, the pumping is continued until the last carcass is 
unloaded. 

The work or oversight of the work of the pumps is taken in charge 
by two men who watch alternately. This superintendence, as well as 
the engines, pumps, pipes, &c., is at the expense of the shipper of the 
meat; the steam, on the contrary, is furnished free by the ship. The 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. DG 


freight amounts to so much per ton of the whole room occupied; this 
trip, about 30s. per ton. The apparatus employed returns free in the 
steamer, and the vacant room is used by the vessel for other freights. 

The third refrigerating-room had cold air instead of cold water, wooden 
air-tubes 14 to 15 inches wide instead of the leaden water-pipes of 24 
inches diameter. The current of air which is to cool off the room and 
keep the temperature low is set in motion by a blowing-arrangement 
which is driven by a little steam-engine of $ horse-power. The blower 
which stands upon the first deck makes 180 to 210 strokes per minute, 
This drives the air through a box of ice and salt down into the room, 
which is everywhere penetrated by it; it is led back in a similar way 
through a box filled with ice and salt, and comes from this up again 
under the fan, which forces it downwards in an endless round as long as. 
there is meat to be preserved in the room. The temperature, which is. 
here controlled within the blower, is in the room about as in the cold- 
water rooms, but often 3° Fahr. lower. The principle is the same, 
and no one is able to point out any difference of advantage of one 
over the other system. Both are considered excellent. This cold-air 
room was 30 feet long, two decks high, and for the rest extended along- 
side over the whole peak. This accommodated 250 whole beef carcasses, 
which hung in two layers, one for each deck’s height. The box in which 
the fan worked was only 5 feet high, 24 feet long (alongships), and 14 
feet broad (athwartship). The expenses were met as in the other room, 
and the freight was paid, as there, only for the room occupied. 

This, then, was the information I had to convey,and which I believed 
would be a matter of interest. One may see herein why the ice treat- 
ment of provisions is employed in America in the different industries 
and for different purposes. That something similar might be practiced 
in Norway appears to be a conclusion not without foundation; it is im- 
portant only to overcome the difficulties and regulate the mode of treat- 
ment which the Norwegian traffic must involve. But to point out more 
in detail the practical mode of laying hold of the matter may be found 
to lie somewhat outside of my present task; it will be enough to indi- 
cate incidentally that the wealth of our country in game, fish, and other 
provisions which are mainly used fresh, might be made serviceable to a 
great extent if the tradesmen interested should follow the example of 
the Americans. The many fast steamers along the whole coast and go- 
ing to foreign countries appear to me, for instance, well enough fitted as 
afield of experiment for such a refrigerating-room; yes, merely having 
ice-boxes on board a large steamer for chartering for the use in question 
might perhaps be found both a good speculation for the owners and a 
convenient and noteworthy arrangement for the consignors and con- 
signees in our large cities and in foreign countries. 

It remains to prove by an adequate trial of such enterprise what I, 
for my part, consider for the present as certain, namely, that the using 
of ice is a practical method of preserving and transporting provisions 

TF 


98 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


in the fresh state for a long time; also, for ourselves, [ think it will not 
require a long time before great advantage will be found in using ice for 
our great fisheries, even to a greater degree than is now common in 
America. I think, also, that our fat-herring fisheries will find a valuable 
adjunct in ice-using, when, for instance, the fishing occurs far from a 
salting-station, and it is important to preserve herring in summer until 
salt, barrels, and sufficient help can be secured. In America they freeze 
whole cargoes of herring. Bait, too, for the cod and coal-fish fishery 
might be preserved by the proper amount of ice where now it is wasted 
or cannot be had. 

The matter is first brought into practical operation for the salt-water 
fisheries, so we should next investigate how far our numerous rivers, 
lakes, and fiords, well adapted for fishing, ought to derive advantage 
from the use of ice, and be made to furnish a great quantity of goods 
for sending abroad. As matters now stand, our inland and fresh-water 
fisheries rank rather low, and the yield can scarcely be conveyed to 
market, except in a half-spoiled condition, in summer. The experiments, 
the experience in the practical business itself, which one acquires with 
reference to this fishery in America, have brought me to believe that 
much might be accomplished by us. 

The fresh-water fisheries of the Americans, inland and on the great 
lakes, are prosecuted so largely by using ice and storing frozen fish, that 
the trattic in these fish-products is a comparatively great business. On 
this I shall venture to communicate more detailed information. 


VIG: 
FRESH-WATER FISHERIES IN AMERICA. 


That the fresh-water fisheries have an entirely different signification 
for America from that in other countries was shown in the Exhibition 
in many ways. While the fishery-division of most countries consisted 
mainly of fishery-products from the sea-fishery, and only occasionally 
had some fine implements for lake-fishery, or a portion of the products 
of the fresh-water fishery, the main strength of the American division 
lay in this direction. One noticed instantly that this branch was the 
object of special partiality om the part of the American functionaries 
concerned. 

In Agricultural Hall there was a series of aquaria in which various 
fishes disported themselves, surrounded by all the comforts which belong 
to a happy domestic life in fresh-water depths; the handsome, sprightly 
aquarium-tenants were not only well fed, but were also shown all other 
attentions which fish delight in; their home was furnished with beauti- 
ful sea-weeds, shells, corals, and muscles; in shady grottoes of curious 
stones reposed friendly-disposed sea-creatures and crabs of exquisite 
beauty; fresh water bubbled forth continuously and diffused an agree- 
able coolness which the outside spectators certainly envied them in the 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 99 


oppressive summer heat; and, finally, they were constantly surrounded 
by a dense circle of spectators, especially children and ladies, who felt 
themselves very fortunate to see them, admired them, and in their delight 
gave them rare dainties. Nearly as much attention was bestowed on 
the fishes cast in plaster and painted with great skill. This collection 
(the cost of which is stated to be $27,300), was larger than that, and had 
a place in the Government Building, where also a collection of photo- 
graphs (with the scale of measurement attached) and color sketches of 
all sorts of fishes were exhibited. Here was found a great variety of 
implements, hatching-apparatus, and the requisites for the transporta- 
tion and planting of young fishes. 

The products of the fresh-water fisheries were also exhibited in great 
abundance, chiefly all forms of preserved salmon. In a couple of refrig- 
erators were shown fresh fish, which, in spite of the oppressive heat, 
kept their fresh, delicate appearance many months. This was both an 
exhibition of fish and of a mode of preservation, and the two parts com- 
bined were an illustration of the advanced development of the fish- 
traffic. Beside California salmon lay pompano from the Gulf of Mex- 
ico, always equally fresh and sweet. The great prominence which they 
had thus given the fresh-water fisheries must naturally excite one’s in- 
terest in them; but since, as before remarked, no detailed statistics of 
the fisheries are to be found, one is cut off from access to an easy mode 
ef furnishing himself clearer information on their extent and importance 
as a public industry. At the same time there are found so many local 
statements respecting them, and also copious individual estimates con- 
cerning this and the proportions of the fisheries in other directions, that 
one‘with their help can form a tolerably good conception of the part 
they play. 

In a more detailed account of the relations of the great lakes it is 
seen that the whole fishery-traffic here is entirely similar to the great 
coast and sea fisheries. The author, one of the esteemed functionaries 
of the Government of the United States, had visited most of the great 
lakes and procured statements regarding the scientific as well as the 
practical interest in this connection. The annual supply of fresh-water 
fishes which fifteen cities alone take near the borders of the lakes, is 
found to amount to not less than 32,250,000 pounds, of an aggregate 
value of $2,184,000, the local expenses not included. Nearly two-thirds 
were furnished in the fresh state, and consisted of 14,000,000 pounds of 
salmon, trout, pike, whitefish, and fresh-water catfish; over 4,000,000 
pounds (or 20,000 to 25,000 barrels) of fresh-water herring were supplied, 
but of these 10,000,000 pounds more were delivered salted. 

The prices were not stated for the individual kinds, but the total of 
$2,184,000 for 32,250,000 pounds gives an average price of 27 cents per 
Hnglish pound, or about $2.73 for 36 Danish pounds, and this must be 
called a good price. But if one take properly into consideration that 
here are mentioned fish so fine and well flavored as salmon and. trout 


100 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


it must be granted that the prices were very low. And without low 
prices on these inland fish-products it would not be practicable for the 
Americans to furnish so considerable a quantity for export to Europe 
and to almost the whole world. In reality the state of things is this, 
that Americans furnish, in the European markets, fresh salmon, for ex- 
ample, cheaper than many countries in Europe themselves can get them 
from their own fishermen, and that, notwithstanding the fact that the 
Americans have considerable expenses on their goods besides a long 
transportation. ° 

The explanation of this peculiar circumstance must be exclusively 
sought neither in the abuse or overdoing by the countries concerned of 
the fisheries in their waters by which the abundance of the fishes dimin- 
ished and the prices enormously advanced, nor should the explana- 
tion be sought in the natural wealth of fishes in American rivers. None 
of these explanations will strike the right point in the matter. The only 
satisfactory reason, in my opinion, is this: the Americans latterly pros- 
ecute their inland fisheries with a deliberation on the basis of practical 
scientific measures, which in the course of time must bring and already 
has brought it to pass, that these fisheries will increase and year by year 
make their competition with all other countries quite overpowering. 
Americans can overdo the fishing in a water-course just as well as others, 
and in reality the complaints about such abuse are not few. But at the 
same time that they seek to prevent this abuse they do not restrict them- 
selves to protective laws and prohibitory enactments against fishing at 
certain times or with certain destructive inplements. They do not con- 
fine themselves to passive measures; they do not depend exclusively on 
nature’s own assistance to counterbalance the fishermen’s want of judg- 
ment and selfish efforts. The American fishery commissioners have ahold 
on much more effective measures, active measures: they transfer young 
fishes to the best water-courses; they see that the barren rivers and 
waters again get a supply of edible fishes; they erect great hatcheries 
for the “cultivation” of new material for the fisheries, hatching out both 
the fish themselves and the subordinate fish on which they feed. And 
all these active endeavors take place on a grand scale and with a gen- 
erosity on the part of the people, which at first thought might seem 
exaggerated, but which upon closer consideration will be found to con- 
tain a wise economy combined with practical truth and correct appre- 
hension of what is for the best. As I next have to treat of the fishery 
itself I shall defer until the next chapter mentioning the hatching opera- 
tions and give here only some few presumably very instructive partic- 
ulars on the “ cultivation of fish-material” for the fisheries. 

In the year 1872 the United States Congress voted $15,000 to defray 
the expenses of transporting shad (stamsild) to the Pacific States and 
the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi River, 
and to transport salmon, whitefish, and other edible fish to the waters 
in the Union which were best adapted for them. The same year was 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 101 


voted anew $10,000, and the next year $17,500. But this was not the 
beginning of these operations, nor was it a solitary series of concessions; 
but it was, so is it stated in the reports, the natural outgrowth of 
what so many individual States already had voted, and so many pri- 
vate individuals had already performed. From another statement it 
is learned that in thirteen States was voted on an average $2,730 
yearly for many years for the development of the inland fisheries, 
and individual States had in the last eight or ten years also applied 
$27,300 to $40,950 for restocking their water-courses with fish. On the 
Pacific coast there is a river, the Columbia River in Oregon, in which 
nearly 7,000,000 salmon-fry were let loose, to make the fishery flourish. 
In the same river they are also caught quite extensively ; because one 
has estimated that of the catch there in the last year will be produced 
$3,013,000 to $3,276,000 worth of canned salmon in tin boxes to export 
to the States and England. Salmon of the year are planted as well 
as the fry. They spare no pains to aid the producing-power of nature 
itself; the stream, productive and rich in fishes, is by combined scientific 
and technical aid made still richer, still more productive. They will 
take care that the great fishery shall become still greater, and under no 
circumstances less. As there are naturally many fish here, it must be a 
suitable place for them; so they plant millions of fish because there is 
plenty of room. 

The inland fishery is carried on with no small employment of capital 
in implements, boats, ice-houses, steamers, &c. Large stationary nets 
and traps are used, which have an average value of $546 to $819. Of 
boats valued at $546 there are hundreds on the great lakes, but $109 is 
a common value. <A peculiar kind of boat called “ Norwegian,” and so 
described that I must believe it to be related to the “listerbaaden,” is, 
however, considered clumsy for rowing by Americans, wherefore only 
fishermen from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark use this form. On Lake 
Michigan the fishery is prosecuted also with small steamers; they cost, 
as a rule, $1,092. Not fewer than 100 ice-houses for keeping fish fresh 
are found throughout the extent of the lakesnamed. In several places 
a considerable quantity of salmon and trout are stored until a later time, 
when the fishing is ended, and they sell at a higher price. Also in the 
fishing-vessels themselves they have apparatus for hard-freezing fish, 
and they sail from one lake to another with a cargo frozen in this man- 
ner; on board the vessels in Lake Superior alone are frozen 270,000 
pounds. The greatest inland market for the fishery-products of the 
great lakes is Chicago, to which city, in 1872, were conveyed about 42 
million pounds of salmon, trout, pike, &c., and a total of 74 millions of 
fresh-water fish, at a value of $4,641,000. 

It will bea long time before the fishery of any Norwegian water-course 
will reach results which can in any manner stand by the side of those 
here mentioned. But there is certainly no insurmountable obstacle in 
the way of increasing the profits of all the inland fisheries of Norway 


102 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


to such considerable amounts as will endure the comparison. Norway 
has so many famous fish-streams and rivers, that one should have in 
them an invitation to the attempt, especially since one has so practical 
and satisfactory an example to follow as the Americans present. But 
as matters now are the good waters yield only indifferently well to a 
rational fishery; one sees the profits diminish and the cost of carrying 
on an antiquated fishery increase, the less the occasion for old methods 
becomes. ° 


Xe, 


HATCHING YOUNG FISHES FOR THE SAKE OF THE FISH- 


ERIES. 


As in most other countries where the fishery is a greater industry, 
some persons also in the United States have sometimes complained that 
the fishing is falling off; and as elsewhere so here one has for some time 
heard complaints of uncertainty as to where the cause was to be sought 
for. Some were of the opinion that it was over-fishing or with too many 
implements; others were just as sure that the destructive quality of 
certain appliances was the cause. That the fish were scared away by 


the noise of steamers, cannonading, or by the bad smell of decayed . 


offal from manufactories, I have, however, not seen advanced. 

The question of the decrease of the number of fishes on the coast 
arising in earnest in the years 1860 to 1870, was, in the spring of 1871, 
intrusted to Prof. Spencer F. Baird to investigate the matter. He re- 
ceived a commission to learn how far the fishing on the coast, as well 
as in the fresh waters, was diminished; what cause had occasioned the 
decrease, and what expedients in the form of law and otherwise ought 
to be employed to furnish the fishing-grounds with a new supply of fish, 
and in other ways make fish diet cheaper for the people. The professor 
immediately set his hand to the work. With the assistance of a number 
of practical men and men of scientific acquirements he begun investi- 
gations of the temperature of the water at different depths, its vary- 
ing transparency, its chemical composition, the influence of currents in 
the depths and at the surface, food-supply for the edible fishes—in short, 
examinations of everything on which the success of the fisheries must 
depend. This was the first year; the next year saw a rapid advance, and 
Professor Baird associated then with himself a corps of thirty-seven spe- 
cialists, more than half of whom were professors, teachers, and students 
in zcdlogy and natural history, the rest being fishery inspectors and 
similar functionaries from eight different States and from British America; 
so great was the interest with which they participated in the investiga- 
tions. A fund was established for the propagation of one or another spe- 
cial kind of fish, as, for example, the salmon from the Atlantic coast; and 
for the people at large, who ought to become interested in the mysteries 


a oe 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 103 


of development, a large aquarium,* the importance of which for scientific 
study was especially set forth. It was not long before they found out what 
should especially be done; they resolved to devote great energy to the 
propagation of young fishes, or, to speak perhaps more correctly, to the 
protection of young fishes. Instead of leaving the young to their own 
fate, they secure the spawn and the milt in time, allow the whole pro- 
cess of development to proceed in the publicly established apparatus, to 
set free therefrom the young as soon as they can take care of themselves. 
For many years have a portion of the fishermen followed the business 
of hatching spawn, raising the young in order to sell the grown fish 
later; and so skillful had individuals become in this achievement that 
the scientific men learned from them and took some of them into the 
service of the state as superintendents of the hatching operations 
throughout the Union. This thing, that individuals had acquired a con- 
siderable fortune by hatching and rearing fish, contributed naturally to- 
wards giving the whole matter the powerful impulse in a purely practical 
direction, which it gained very early. 

In a book on trout-culture, written by a practical breeder, it is said, 
quite significantly for the stand-point which has already been reached, 
that it ‘pays better to rear trout than hogs”; and every one knows what 
the pork business is for America. All that I have learned indicates that 
this assertion has gained general acceptance both among the common 
people and the learned ; and it is said to be assured that in the art of 
rearing fish the Americans surpass all others. 

Partly to control the fisheries themselves, and partly in great measure 
to carry on the hatching operations, there were by degrees appointed in 
eighteen different States, taken together, fifty-two commissioners or fish- 
ery inspectors, besides a regular staff of subordinate officials. There 
was established by the United States Government, besides, a fish com- 
mission, Whose chief is the well-known Prof. Spencer F. Baird. With 
this complement of special practical cultivated officials and talented sci- 
entific men the effort was untiring to produce and distribute young fishes 
from the mountain to the sea in small rivers and lakes, in the great 
streams, and in the great bays, both of fresh-water and salt-water fish. 

Of large hatching-establishments there are many, public as well as 
private. A more detailed description of them would certainly be inter- 
esting, but without illustrative drawings such a thing would be hard to 
understand. Besides, the public is much too little informed about the 
matter to regard anytiing other than the practical results as particularly 
interesting. I shall, therefore, here devote my attention to throwing 
hight upon what I will call the great enterprise of the hatching opera- 
tions in America. 


*This aquarium was set up after the example of the previously named society, the 
“American Fish Culturists’ Association.” 1t was established in New York on a rather 
large scale, and had at one time even a living whale to exhibit, which, however, un- 
fortunately died, after the expiration of some time, from consumption, according to the 
statement of the doctors. 


104 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


One of the most popular kinds of fishes in America is the shad, or 
“stamsild,” which forty or fifty years ago was caught by the million in 
many bays and mouths of rivers. As soon as there was talk of restoring 
the depleted fisheries to their former magnitude, it was resolved, among 
other things, that they should also try the shad, both because it is a 
favorite article and because it multiplies rapidly. An experienced cult- 
urist, Mr. Seth Green, was taken into the service of the government and 
began the experiments. At the first hatching the eggs yielded only 2 
per cent. of young; later it advanced to 70 per cent., and increased to 
99. This was regarded as a triumph, because this high percentage of 
young hatched out was greater than ever was seen or hoped for, and it 
was also among the first great attempts with the herring kind. During 
a period of twenty days 40,000,000 f young shad were liberated at the 
mouth of the Connecticut River. No one knows in what time this fry 
will become mature or return to its nursery. Some think it will be about 
five years; others, a much shorter time. The next summer they began 
to hatch a new brood, and after an attempt of twenty days the summer 
heat became too strong for the eggs (they had already gained experience 
as to what temperature the young should have), and they concluded 
their work after having liberated 60,000,000 of living shad-fry. The 
following year they wished to await the result of the 100,000,000 before 
intrusting much money to the sea. The fourth year the people were 
highly surprised. It was three years since the first young shad were set 
free, and as early as the close of May it was reported that for twenty 
years such shoals of shad had not been seen approaching the land, and 
vessels which had come through the neighboring sound reported also 
great schools which stood towards the mouth of the river. The next day 
there was reported from five different fishing-places an unusually large 
catch of shad and from the rest that the fishing was remarkable. It 
continued to be great the whole fishing-season through, and the fish 
were large and good. By a comparison of this year’s catch with that of 
previous years, it is found that this year’s greatest haul yielded about 
60 per cent. larger profits than ever before reported. The State’s (Con- 
necticut’s) fish commissioner did not stop with this ; the result had indeed 
been good, and they continued to set free the young and then capture 
the adult. In the two following years 156,000,000 eggs were taken and 
impregnated. Many States followed the example, and there will be 
planted yearly millions of shad-fry, carefully hatched, for the enriching 
of the fishery of the coast and in the rivers. 

An interesting experiment was undertaken with shad in 1871. This 
fish was never seen in California or on the Pacific coast. In the year 
mentioned upward of 20,000 young shad were sent there and set free at 
Sacramento. They wished to introduce shad into a sea entirely new to 
them, and submit them to the experiment as to whether they would live 
there, and whether they would return to the place where they were lib- 
erated. The 20,000 shad disappeared in the deep in 1871; two years 


Va Se 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 105 


later a few shad were seen here and there in the neighborhood, and in 
1874 a number were caught. They had reached a good size, weighing 
as high as 34 pounds. This with many other experiments testified that 
shad require three years to become adults, that the shad will return to 
its feeding-place or where it was set free, and that the shad can thrive 
in entirely different seas from that in which it is thought to be a native.* 

With a similar herring-species, the alewife, many experiments have 
been made also, which have testified how easy the alewife is to hatch 

ut, how quickly it grows to an edible size (three years), and how rapidly 
it multiplies. It is estimated that every shad with spawn has 50,000 to 
80,000 eggs, and that the “fresh-water herring” or alewife has, in pro- 
portion to its size, four times as many eggs. This naturally great capac- 
ity for reproducing itself is what one takes advantage of when one at- 
tempts with hatching-apparatus to protect the young from falling a prey 
to its natural enemies. Even a small number of herring will, provided 
their reproduction is protected, be able to increase to a great shoal in 
the space of a few years, and with this consideration in view it becomes 
an entirely practical economy to liberate millions of young every year and 
allow the fishermen to catch the adults for the fish-market. From one 
fishing-place it is stated that they yearly set free 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 
young shad, and that the fishing steadily improves, so that now they 
catch between 300,000 and 400,000 pounds of mature shad. 

It was after a little practice in the art that they succeeded in hatching 
out this herring-species, which now appeared so greatly increased. Be- 
fore they had confined themselves mainly to salmon and trout, whose 
hatching was an ancient and well-known matter in Europe. And after 
the successful experiments with the shad itself they did not neglect 
these species of fish, because salmon and trout are far more valuable 
articles, and the California salmon especially is celebrated for its agree- 
able flavor. They applied themselves very diligently to their multipli- 
cation and distribution to new waters. For the illustration of this work 
I shall merely call to mind the operations on the Columbia River, in 
Oregon, and only add here that in 1875 11,000,000 of salmon-eggs were 
collected at the establishment of the Uimited States Government, which 
were sent eastward to the waters of different States; this shipment 
amounted to not less than 20,000 pounds, including the packing. From 
another river were sent 5,000,000 eggs, packed in boxes of 50,000 each. 
On this scale they prosecute the work now with unabated vigor and 
with the mutual co-operation of the different States. 

The economical question will indeed be of great interest for Norway. 


“In a report printed in January, 1878, and which I have just received, it is stated 
that it is considered certain that the “adult shad will return to the place where it 
was set free when young.” And by the fish-commissioner of California it is reported: 
“Shad were in 1876 and in 1877 right abundant in the Sacramento River.” 

“There can be no doubt that the first shad which were brought from the Hindeos 


River in 1871 have been out in the depths of the sea and have now returned and 
spawned.” 


106 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


In the numerous reports which I have read I have, however, found 
very little concerning it, so I cannot state in dollars what it will cost to 
hatch out some millions of salmon or shad. At the same time I have 
seen that the gathering of salmon-eggs, according to a statement, is 
becoming less expensive each year, and that the profit steadily increases. 
The same was still more the case with the shad, which yields so remark- 
ably many more eggs. In the large establishments it is managed so that 
they succeed in one of them in hatching out a million shad for $1.09, 
including all expenses. This million of shad one cannot naturally keep 
under his care until they become salable fish. They set free the whole 
mass, and it disappears in the deep to return in about three years to the 
shore where it was liberated. It is believed that one-fourth part return 
from their wandering about in the sea, where they are persecuted by so 
many fish. But even with so small a portion in safety, it must indeed 
turn to good account. Because, if one estimate, for instance, that an 
establishment hatches one billion in three years at $1.09 per million, 
then would this outlay of $1,092 in the space of the next three years 
yield a shoal of two hundred and fifty million shad. If only 2 per cent. of 
these are caught, one will then get five million shad, which would amount 
to from ten million to fifteen million pounds of fish, worth at least 11 
cents per pound, which is $273,000 to $409,500 gross receipts. This eal- 
culation will seem, however, so exaggerated that, perhaps, no one will 
accept the result. One can, therefore, take oft, deduct freely, and reckon 
on getting merely 10 per cent. profit, and then it reaches $27,300 to $40,950 
gross profits from the young shad hatched out for $1,092. 

I have been informed that this shad (and the alewife also) might be 
particularly adapted to our Norwegian fiords. Lately I have come to 
the belief that an experiment in this direction will be worth the trouble. 
If one could, along the Norwegian coast, for an outlay of several thou- 
sand crowns, cause some shoals of shad to visit the coast annually, there 
would be a possibility that an attempt would be made with our own 
herring; perhaps it would multiply just as rapidly. With the American 
experiments in sight, I cannot, for my part, consider it a bold idea to 
contemplate the possibility that one, by skillful hatching, might be in 
condition to make up for the vanished spring-herring. But what will it 
cost? With the above calculation as a clew, the price would not appear 
to be great. But the point for the Norwegian herring concerned is this: 
that no one yet understands hatching it, scarcely how to use an appa- 
ratus; yes, indeed, no one knows how long it takes before it will mature 
or become salable. The prospects so far are indeed uncertain, and it 
is perhaps far too early to suggest the idea. It is also with a certain 
risk that I at present entrust it to paper and—publicity. However it is 
allowed to stand as my calculation. 

With regard to the expense of hatching salmon and trout, they have 
in Europe varied experience in these branches. But the Americans 
maintain, as previously remarked, that they have carried the business 

® 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 107 


much farther, and hatched them both more safely and cheaper—uniformly 
cheaper. It will, therefore, be interesting to see the prices of salmon- 
eggs. I shall first, however, premise the remark that, according to the 
statement, salmon of both sexes must be bought from the fishermen 
and then brought to the establishment to spawn. The expenses of this 
plan naturally become considerably greater than with the little shad, 
because salmon ready to spawn are costly. The table refers to an estab- 
lishment in Penobscot, Me.: 


Number of eggs | Price per 1,000 
et per fish. ki eggs. 
LEE oo ocbcoaocod sconce dscdop onde se nendecousSecoesacoshobboecotbace 651 $16 25 
TOTO ee eon tesce et Sant nisesie socks es Se pe el oetetet oa ate atateta =f) atere(orae 2, 268 425 
LUGS oc ceocqoocisapobcicksnngeepsTebEpecae Seceubeibocdcas cénconosscodos 3, 560 2 73 
USO ced oo croced coed SdCnSn OOS COsEnoE cobnn 6s SBD ee eoooboneococgaDeBEce 5, 151 2 00 


In the last-named year 3,039,000 salmon-eggs were gathered, assorted, 
and packed for the price of $2 per thousand eggs; the whole operation 
cost $6,000. A similar condition obtains with the trout; but, notwith- 
standing, this is so profitable that this hatching is carried on as an 
industry by fishermen and countrymen. <And so great importance do 
they attach to the general distribution of salmon and trout in all waters, 
that the fish-commissioner ot the State of New York has decided that 
the State establishment, which can now produce the young indefinitely, 
shall deliver to every owner of small streams or lakes as many young 
as hedesires to plantinhis waters, whereas hitherto only the great waters 
were supplied. They desire that the edible fish shall spread to all 
waters, even to the smallest streams and ponds. 

In connection with this benevolence and generosity with which the 
fishery-inspectors are animated, to oblige all interested, it should be 
mentioned that they instruct the people in hatching and rearing young 
fishes. And the work enlarges so as to include more and more kinds of 
fishes, so as tosucceed gradually by study and experiments in learning the 
peculiarities of the fishes concerned, and what there is to notice with 
regard to the temperature of the water, the nature of the bottom, arti- 
cles of food, &c. For this study material is collected from the whole 
world; even from the interior of China information is seen to be brought 
on breeding; and it was, therefore, not surprising to see that the Norwe- 
gian spring-herring question also, and the dispute between Axel Boeck 
and Ossian Sars about their new herring-theory has found a place in the 
official reports. In a fishery-meeting in New York in 187J, to which I 
was invited, they wished even to have an account of the Norwegian 
legal provisions for the preserving of fish, on which occasion I, on a 
special summons from the directors, was obliged to come forward with a 
discourse. A fishery-inspector from Holland also, who, by chance, was 
present, was questioned on his country’s fishery-relations. 

Besides the proper fish hatching and rearing they have also applied 


108 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


themselves to cultivating and raising oysters, lobsters, frogs, eels, &e. 
The so-called oyster-culture, with which is next intended systematic 
preserving and capture, is a great business, without a parallel in any 
country.* 

From what I have here communicated in extracts and brief summa- 
ries it will presumably be evident that the American example contains 
a stirring invitation also to Norway to develop her fresh-water fisheries, 
which are now greatly neglected. 


X. 


LIFE ON BOARD A FISHING-SCHOONER AT SEA.—MACK- 
EREL-CATCHING WITH THE PURSE-SEINE. 


After having waited some time for an opportunity to go to sea, to wit- 
ness the business out there, I succeeded in getting a promise of a place 
on board the schooner William Baker, Captain Pearce. It was an old 
vessel, but a good sailer, and the captain was recommended to me as an 
experienced, enlightened, and generous man, who would take much 
interest in communicating to me all the information he could give. He 
had carried on the herring-fishing at Labrador, halibut-fishing off the 
west coast of Greenland, and was now determined to prosecute mackerel- 
fishing in the sea north of Boston. 

Late on a rainy evening I was informed that the vessel was now ready 
to sail, in Gloucester Harbor, and that I could come on board. Neither 
the weather nor the vessel particularly invited one out in the dark, foggy 
night. But after being shown a tolerably good bunk astern, where 
besides myself four of the crew had quarters, [soon found myself adjusted 
and anxious to get under sail. Harly in the morning we cast loose and 
the vessel hauled out into the channel. But the wind was still; we 
could make no headway. While we waited for the wind a portion of 
the crew passed away the time by taking a bath and swimming out in 
the deep. Their invitation to me to swim a race with them I was in the 
notion of accepting, when the signal was given to make sail and get 
under way. All came on board, took off their swimming-clothes, put on 
dry clothes, and caught hold at the anchor-breaking and later at the haul- 
ing-out sothat itwasa pleasure to seethem. The brutalexecution ofdis- 
cipline, so often censured on American merchant-ships, did not exist on 
board here. The whole crew were native Americans, active and experi- 
enced fishermen. They associated with one another with good-will, eat- 
ing at a table common to us all, and carried on their work with mutual 
Satisfaction. Neither beer nor whisky is found on board; but warm 


*In one of the last official reports to the United States Government is found printed 
a full description of the oyster-industry in the United States. Here, according to the 
older statements, the whole oyster-trade is estimated to amount to the sale of 
4,000,000,000 oysters, worth about $69,250,000. To this may be added the profit of 
other shellfisheries, and of the oyster-shell, which is burned into lime. 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 109 


coffee and tea can be had from five in the morning to six o’clock in the 
evening. In other respects the victuals were good and nourishing, con- 
sisting mostly of beef, pork, all kinds of fresh fish, different kinds of pie 
and pudding, sometimes vegetables, with eggs occasionally ; in short, 
about as in a frugal municipal family in Norway. The men were not 
hired, but had half the weight or a half share of the profits, which were 
calculated after the expenses of salting, packing, barrels, &c., were de- 
ducted. The cook, who besides the usual work in catching had to 
prepare the meals, got besides for his part $27.30 per month. The trip 
just ended had been made in three weeks and had yielded a profit of a 
little over $81.90 net per man, which is considered a very good trip. The 
erew in herring-fishing, on the contrary, is generally hired. They ship 
at $10.92 to $13.65 per month for young boys; $52.76 to $40.95 for able- 
bodied fishermen. 

After being under sail a couple of days we saw a whole fleet of mack- 
erel-schooners. There were between 80 and 90 sail, some of which had 
made a light catch. We passed some steamers which carried on men- 
haden-fishing, and which went into port every evening to unload. These 
vessels were quite recognizable by this, that they had two men on the 
lookout in the cross-trees, on the foremast, and the rest in boats prepared 
for fishing. Among other sail we passed also an old-fashioned French- 
rigged vessel, which carried on mackerel-fishing with trolling-lines; the 
vessel was belayed and went before the wind. A crew of ten men stood 
to leeward, and each man with at least two hand-lines, which he inces- 
santly cast out and hauled in, while two men ground bait (in a hand- 
mill) and threw out “chum.” The catch was poor, and the mode of 
catching, itself, most fishermen had given up for capture with purse- 
seines, which have superseded all other implements. 

While crossing back and forth we often saw mackerel-schools playing 
in the water, but they vanished suddenly. ‘The folks told me that one 
could smell mackerel as well as menhaden when the large schools of fish 
were in the water. I entertained doubt of the truth of this information, 
but in the following week I became perfectly convinced of its authen- 
ticity. Early one morning one of the crew said that he smelt menhaden, 
and went immediately aloft on the foremast to discover the school. A 
half hour later we saw a school playing on the surface of the water; it 
was large mackerel. In haste everything was made ready; the purse- 
seine, which lay on the after hatch coiled up in a bundle and wet with 
brine (to prevent rotting), was quickly flung down in the seine-boat, 
which was kept constantly in tow; next two small boats set out, so- 
called “dories”, flat-bottomed, light-rowing boats, half ‘ sjagte” and half 
lighter. These are said to be the best fishing-boats known. When all 
was ready I leaped down into the boat, and away it went. After a half- 
hour’s rowing the seine-boss found that the time had come to row in on 
a large school, which played quite delightfully. In three minutes the 
seine, of about 250 fathoms, was rowed out and cast in a circle around the 


110 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


school. After ten minutes more the seine was pursed, and in it they es- 
timated that they had caught 300 barrels of mackerel. A dory was sent 
with a message on board the schooner, which was managed by the cap- 
tain and a small boy; after a little mancuvering the schooner sailed 
close to the seine, got a portion of the cork-line on board, so that the 
catch was brought between the vessel’s side and the seine-boat. <A large 
dip-net, with tackle and a long handle, was made ready, and in a few 
minutes the living mackerel were thrown upon the deck by the half- 

barrel. The captured fish in the seine became, in the mean time, very 
~ uneasy, and rushed from one side of the seine to the other; suddenly the 
seine burst in many places; they sought to haul in the seine, both in 
the boats and on board, and after much trouble they succeeded in retain- 
ing and heaving on board a total of about 50 barrels. The rest of the 
mackerel escaped through the large holes in the seine. 

As soon as the catch was secured on board they took in all sail and 

‘began on the preservation of the mackerel. With small dip-nets the fish 
were thrown in a square trough, and from this, as they were cut and 
washed, they were assorted according to size. The fish was split or cut 
in the belly (?) about as cod which are manufactured into split fish. 
While sprinkling them with salt they give them some slight cuts in the 
back to make the flesh swell and give the fish a fatter and fuller appear- 
ance. This is a trick which both the sellers and buyers understand. 
Twelve men are engaged at a time with the salting, while the remaining 
two men examine and repair the seine. In the space of two and a half 
hours 47 barrels stood ready salted. For every four barrels of fish was 
required one barrel of Liverpool salt, the packing being done later on 
shore. 

The next morning at 6 o’clock we were again in the boats, made a 
new cast, but caught nothing. At 8 o’clock we were again out, went 
half way round with the seine, when the whole school sank to the bottom. 
We caught nothing. The mackerel were wild and shy, played a little 
at the surface of the water, but vanished quickly, to emerge again farther 
away. The mackerel-schools were very large this day; for as far as we 
could see on all sides they were playing on the surface of the water. 
We made no catch notwithstanding. The captain’s attempt to entice 
the Schools with “chum” also failed. At 11 o’clock we again made a 
east, but took only eight mackerel. At 2 o’clock p. m. we made the 
fourth cast and got a couple of barrels; at 4 o’clock, another cast, and 
took 10 barrels, but small mackerel; and at 6 o’clock we made another, 
but got almost nothing save small fish. This was a laborious day; but, 
notwithstanding, we were the next day, at 5.30 in the morning, again in 
the boat, made a cast, but instantaneously the school turned around and 
made their escape. We saw many schools also this day, and at 6.30 we 
were again on the way after one. This time we were successful. They 
estimated the catch in the seine at 400 to 500 barrels. They were very 
large and fat mackerel. After some trouble, the vessel sailed to us, got 


—s 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. ps Gi 


a portion of the seine on board, and the taking in the fish was about to 
begin. But the fish were very uneasy in the seine; sunk to the bottom 
with such force that the boat was on the point of capsizing, although we 
placed eight men on the other gunwalt to counterbalance the mackerel. 
At one time ail went smoothly enough to haul in on the seine and make 
the purse smaller and smaller to prevent the frantic rushing of the mack- 
erel.. But suddenly they sank again to the bottom, careened the boat 
over so that we took in a quantity of water. We were scarcely ready to 
place ourselves on the other gunwale when we felt that the boat sud- 
denly righted itself and lay still. The most knew what had happened; 
it was that the mackerel succeeded in breaking the old seine. Through 
a large hole, which became larger and larger, about the whole school 
escaped; and although we in all haste hauled in on the fragments and 
tried to form a new purse, we succeeded in saving not more than five in 
the whole 500 barrels. 

At 9.15 we set sail for the nearest port; it was considered useless to 
attempt to mend the more than half worn-out seine. After a day’s quick 
sailing, we reached Boothbay late in the evening. In the harbor lay 
a schooner just arrived, which was filled to the rail with fresh-caught 
mackerel. The crew worked the whole night in preserving them. With 
resignation our crew saw this work. Had we had a better seine, we 
would also have had remunerative night-work in salting some hundred 
barrels of mackerel. The next morning I left the vessel, to return to 
Gloucester by steamer and railroad. 

In this way 600 to 700 schooner-rigged vessels carry on mackerel- 
catching out in the sea, and almost exclusively with purse-seines. They 
are of from 120 to 150 tons burden, and 10 to 14 men for crew. I have 
seen the statement that one, as a rule, can calculate that each schooner 
during the summer catches 1,000 barrels, at $10.92, which would give 
$6,552,000 or $7,644,000 as the aggregate profit. The catch, however, 
is quite variable; some successful vessels have caught many thousand 
barrels in a season. The fishing begins in April or May, far south on 
the coast. Then the mackerel are fat. The fishing-fleet follows them 
northward week after week, and in July or August they have advanced 
as far north as Nova Scotia. Thereupon they bear southward again. 
The mackerel have now become very fat and large; the catch is then at 
its best. In September the schools are in full retreat to the warmer 
waters again; and in October and November the fishing closes. 

Salted mackerel are submitted to public inspection. They are assorted 
into three numbers, the prices of which in August, 1876, are subjoined 
here: ; 


Length of fish. | Number per barrel. Price per barrel. 
No. 1, 4 Hnelishvinehes 2.3. 2-::. 22% PAlsouibel 40nsss sa the eee eM Taek ees $16 33 
Wo2; 1) English imehes)25-2..-.....-- JAY NSea Se enol ge Be aa 7 64 
No. 3, under 11 English inches. ........ About 350 and over 6 00 


| a ple wee were eee cence 


112 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


For No. Us with the heads cut off is obtained $5.56 more than for com- 
mon l’s. For packing, barrels, and inspection, is estimated on the aver- 
age $1.91 per barrel. 

The same schooners which prosecute mackerel-catching go partly also 
into the herring-fishing ; the best fat-herring fishing begins in the mid- 
dle of August and continues at Newfoundland and Labrador until about 
mid-winter. In the winter months are caught also large fat herring. 
Alternating with this fishing the same vessels carry on in part cod-tish- 
ing on the Great Banks, and halibut-fishig there and off Greenland. 
These fisheries I had not the opportunity to make myself more familiar 
with, as it would have taken a long time to follow the vessels out on the 
banks and see them. But with regard to the profit in general I can 
state that it is about as in mackerel-fishing, with the difference, how- 
ever, that the herring-fishing yields something less than $5,560 to $8,190 
to a schooner for the season, while bank-fishing for cod and halibut 
yields something more, namely, as much as $10,920 to $13,650. How- 
ever, the halibut-fishing fluctuates greatly, it is said; since it may some- 
times yield a far greater profit, of which one has an illustration in this, 
that a vessel has brought its owners about $27,300 profit in a year, and 
that skippers have earned from $1,638 to $5,560 for their share. 

A description of the universal implement for the capture of mackerel, 
menhaden, and herring, namely, the purse-seine, I have already sent to 
the honorable department in a printed letter. Besides I have treated 
of the purse-seine in a couple of articles in the “ Bergen Post” last sum- 
mer, in which I gave an account of a trial trip with a Norwegian purse- 
seine of hemp thread. This trial trip, at which I was present by re- 
quest, after four days’ sojourn at home on my return from Philadelphia, 
was made from Stavanger and required 14 days’ time in the beginning of 
Jane. The result arrived at was briefly this, that even a large, heavy 
purse-seine of hemp thread may at a pinch be used for the capture of 
herring, but hardly of mackerel. However, we saw only herring, but 
not a single mackerel, whieh could hardly be expected either, since the 
weather was cool and partly stormy near the coast as well as twenty 
miles out in the North Sea. That a large purse-seine of about 200 fathoms 
is not suitable arises from this, that it is cumbersome to handle; the 
thread alone in a hemp seine is about 50 per cent. heavier than in a cot- 
ton seine, and the heavier the seine is, the more cork and lead must it 
have; from this it follows again, that heavier twine must be used; one 
gets also a far heavier implement, and for its management is required a 
larger crew, which again involves a larger boat—in short, step by step 
one departs from the chief qualifications for the purse-seine’s cardinal 
virtue, facility of management united with strength, by which its whole 
cost as well as the expenses of working it are not so inconsiderably 
greater at the same time that the profit in general must be diminished. 
The fact that the purse-seine in question later in the summer caught 
mackerel partly shows that it should not be entirely rejected. 


; 
id 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. Lars 


Another Norwegian purse-seine of hemp thread, procured in Bergen, 
was used north of Doore in the summer-herring fishing; it was, though 
more nearly perfect, yet larger and more massive; but it caught a few 
herring. Some errors and inaccuracies I had occasion to point out and 
partly remedy in both of these. In the southern spring-herring district 
in the winter a partial attempt was made with more or less unpractica] 
imitations of purse-seines, as the common herring-seines were fastened 

together; concerning these attempts I think it should be said that they 

surely injure rather than benefit the matter; because they must as a 
rule bring disappointments and indirectly weaken the desire to make the 
attempt with a proper and easily managed implement. In Sweden and 
Germany also they wish now to experiment with American purse-seines 
ot cotton; thither were sent, after the receipt of orders, many small 
models with descriptions from Norway. 

The purse-seine is, however, fully discussed in Consul Joakim Ander- 
sen’s interesting communication on his operations as a juryman at the 
Exhibition. I shall therefore not occupy myself further with it, but take 
leave of it by closing with a little note, which has its special interest: 
The American purse-seine is arranged on exactly the same principle as 
that which forms the basis of an implement of capture for herring in- 
vented by Berent Chr. Vedeler, of Bergen, now deceased, on which he, 
by a supreme resolution of the 12th of March, 1859, received a patent 
for five years. A drawing and model of Vedeler’s purse-seine are found 
in the Polytechnic Journal for 1864 (the time registered by engineer N. 
H. Brun, m. jl.), pages 125 and 124. From this it is seen that it differs 
very slightly from the American; the difference is essentially this, that 
Vedeler allowed the pursing-rope to run in rings along three sides of 
the seine, while the Americans more practically let the pursing-rope run 
only along the bottom line. Moreover Vedeler decided that his seine 
ought to be only 40 fathoms long and 10 fathoms deep, also only a sixth 
part of the usual size among the Americans for large seines. Since Ved- 
eler said nothing about the thread, i assume that he has used hemp 
thread, which, as before mentioned, is not used in America, where cotton 
thread is considered far more suitable and the only proper thing for purse- 
seines. It is not so unlikely that Vedeler’s patent is the first entirely 
original invention, and that his invention, like so many remarkable ones, 
has found its way to America, and there received the merited apprecia- 
tion and such a practical eres that it has become the most impor- 
tant implement for a very considerable business. In any case it seems 
to me that Mr. Vedeler’s invention deserves mention and his talent to be 
commemorated at this time, since his original idea returns to its native 
land in improved form now to find in all probability full appreciation.* 


* The purse-seine was in use in America in its present form at least as early as 1855.— 
Translator. 


8 F 


114 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


xe: 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 


As one will have seen, I have treated only of what is especially pecu- 
liar in the American fishery business. I have only occasionally and quite 
hastily touched upon what there is in common to the Norwegian and 
American relations. The task which I set myself was to find out in 
what direction the development of America’s fisheries went, as I believed 
that therein would be found the cause of the growing superiority of the 
Americans as fishermen and fish-dealers. If I have succeeded in show- 
ing this, and that the track in which development proceeds there must 
lead to great profits above the present average, then I may flatter my- 
self that I have given those most interested in Norway’s fisheries some 
useful hints. That I have not been able to exhaust everything, is evi- 
dent; I have not dared to extend my treatise over the entire field, but 
was obliged to confine myself to several points so as to be able to give 
something collected and complete. Since one for so many years fre- 
quently has heard complaints, for instance, about the management of the 
herring, the herring-barrel’s capacity, the handling and drying of split 
cod, &c., I consider it useless to repeat or support these current com- 
plaints in the survey of the state of things in America; besides, there is 
doubt whether the Norwegians, just in this respect, had so much to learn 
from the Americans. 

What Norway needs first and foremost is an enlarged market for its 
products. So far as the herring are concerned, this may in part be at- 
tained by using better barrels, which will endure longer transportation 
without allowing the herring to become dry of pickle. Beyond this 
there is indeed nothing new for the management of herring. But for 
the fishery-products in general more is required; they must have more 
varied preparation and not be exclusively salted, pickled, or dried. 

These modes of preparation will no doubt be demanded by the most 
important markets for Norwegian wares; but it is certain that both 
fresh and oil-prepared articles may also find profitable markets. And 
indeed the more variety one employs in the treatment of the raw mate- 
rial the less will one be liable to suffer from overfishing and overproduce- 
tion. When we employ new modes of preservation we will find new 
markets, and when we secure more markets we will make more profit- 
able sales. 

In discussing the American traffic with fresh fish in ice, their storing 
of fish in a freezing-apparatus, their import and export, preserving ar- 
ticles and treating them with oil, I have sought to point out how the 
fish-traffic is developing in America, and thereby also indicate in what 
direction, in my opinion, we also ought to go to work in Norway. In 
treating of the American hatching-operations and what is therewith as- 
sociated, I have wished to point out what means they have at hand for 


WALLEM ON AMERICAN FISHERIES. 115 


increasing the country’s profits from the lesser fisheries, yes, perhaps, 
partly even for creating new and quite important fisheries. In finally 
discussing the arrangement and use of the purse-seine, I have sought 
to direct attention to an implement of capture which we stood greatly 
in need of, namely, an instrument with which one can fish in the open 
sea, and among other fishes catch also the herring, which will not resort 
to the shore. It seems to me that much might be accomplished with all 
the implements here named. ‘The fisheries in our country, it is true, are 
associated with so many ancient traditions and continue in many parts 
in so little developed proportions, that it could not be expected that new 
ideas should be accepted at once, to say nothing of a complaisant recep- 
tion ; but perhaps on that very account one should labor the more dili- 
gently to extend in this field an acquaintance with improvements and 
new methods of work. 


VII.—SHORT INTRODUCTION TO THE PROPER CARE AND MAN- 
AGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 


By H. WIDEGREN, Stockholm, 1874.* 


THE FAUNA OF THE BALTIC. 


The fish living in the Baltic are either such as live and propagate ex- 
clusively in salt water, e. g., the herring, the small herring, the codfish, 
the flounder, and others, or such as must properly be considered as fresh- 
water fish, but which can live and propagate in the but slightly briny 
water of the large and small bays and inlets of the Baltic. The fresh- 
water fish which are also found on the coast of the Baltic and form the 
principal objects of the fisheries, are the perch, the pike, the roach, the 
bream and other carp-like fish, as well as the burbot. Besides these, 
there are found in the Baltic several kinds of fish, which, like the salmon, 
the grayling, the gwiniad, and the eel, must chiefly be considered as 
migratory fish, staying sometimes in salt water, and at other times, 
principally during the spawning season, in fresh water. 

In consequence of the character of the fish-fauna of the Baltic, the 
fisheries carried on in its waters are not only sea-fisheries in the proper 
sense of the word, but also such fisheries as are carried on in our Swedish 
lakes, with which many of the inlets of the Baltic—especially those 
which only through narrow and shallow sounds are connected with the 
outer coast—show the greatest similarity in regard to those conditions 
which have an influence on the fisheries. 

As we are going to give a short introduction to the care and manage- 
ment of the Baltic fishery, we will first consider the fishery carried on 
in the inner bays and inlets of the Baltic, and which, to distinguish it 
from the herring and other sea fisheries, is by the fishermen called 
“rock-fishery” or ‘“coast-fishery.” In this treatise we shall chiefly make 
use of the latter name as more expressive of the idea, as this name 
mentions the locality where this fishery is chiefly carried on, viz, the 
coasts of bays and sounds. 


*Kort Vagledning for Ostersjé-Fiskets riitta vard och bedrifvande af H. Widegren. 
Stockholm, 1874. Translated by Herman Jacobson. 
117 


118 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


I. 


THE COAST-FISHERY ON THE COAST AND IN THE BAYS 
OF THE BALTIC. 


In order to carry on the coast-fishery in the proper manner, the first 
thing required is an exact knowledge of the mode of life of those fish 
which are to be caught; and, secondly, an intimate acquaintance with 
all the fishing-implements employed at different seasons of the year. 
To do full justice to the subject would require more space than can be 
allowed in a short introduction ; we shall, therefore, only give the most 
important points which should be known and observed by a successful 
fisherman. 

Kinds of fish caught by the coast-fishermen.—The principal fish found 
on the Swedish coast of the Baltic and in its bays and sounds are, the 
perch, carp, crucian, tench, roach, chub, Cyprinus vimba, bream, pike, 
salmon, trout, gwiniad, Salmo albula, burbot, and eel. As useful either 
for bait or as food for larger fish we must mention the ruff, the stickle- 
back, the minnow, the bleak, and the smelt. 

Mode of life of the above-mentioned fish—AIl the above-mentioned fish 
have this in common, that at certain seasons of the year they visit cer- 
tain places on the coast and the coast-waters, and that every year during 
the spawning season they go to such places as seem specially suited for 
propagating. Although all of them may in a certain respect be more or 
less called migratory fish, it has been observed that each one of them in 
those waters in which it lives confines its migrations to certain limits, that, 
for instance, the perch and the bream, &c., each only visit their certain 
bay (and this a bay near to the deep water), and that they scarcely ever 
extend their migrations beyond this, the limits of their wandering and 
spawning, unless the spawning-places are disturbed or other natural 
causes lead to a change. This characteristic trait of the fish, to confine 
its migration to certain limits, and each kind and school to select that 
spawning-place where it was born, is especially striking with the migra- 
tory fish properly so called, the salmon, carp, gwiniad, and others, which 
generally go up certain rivers and streams for the purpose of spawning. 
By marking young salmon which were on the point of leaving the river 
where they were born, it has been proved that these fish, which of all our 
fish wander away farthest from their regular place of sojourn, nevertheless 
return to it regularly. It has moreover been proved that if a whole 
school of fish, for example, gwiniad, &c., having its spawning-place in a 
small stream, is caught, no fish of this kind will ever return to this stream, 
although the nature of the water has remained the same, and although 
they will continue to go in streams close by, where the fishing has not 
been of so destructive a character. On the other hand it has been found 
that fish have left such streams which, by draining, cultivation, or other 
agencies, had their natural character changed so as no longer to offer a 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 1h 


suitable place of sojourn. Every experienced fisherman knows, moreover, 
to what a degree the placing of fagots and the preparing of artificial 
spawning-places attracts fish and induces them to spawn in a certain 
place. 

Rules for carrying on the fisheries, made in accordance with the character 
of the different kinds of fish above mentioned.—The experience which has 
been gained regarding the migrations of fish, their extent, and the con- 
ditions under which they are undertaken, is of the greatest importance 
to the practical fisherman. 

In the first place it must not be expected that the fisheries will be 
equally productive every year, unless, especially during the spawning 
Season, fishing is carried on in such a manner as always to leave a certain 
quantity of fish in the water, so that the propagating process may go on 
undisturbedly. It is wrong, therefore, as is sometimes done with us, to 
use large seines and catch the entire school of fish coming to a certain 
bay, in the hope that other schools from other parts of the Baltie will 
soon replace it. Such a change from their regular route is entirely at 
variance with the nature and habits of fish. From what has been said 
above, it will be seen that in order to count on continued good fisheries, 
the nature of the water should be kept unchanged as much as possible, 
and in fact it should in every way be made still more suitable for the 
various kinds of fish. Care should therefore be taken not to disturb 
vegetation in those places where fish spawn in spring, and as regards 
the fish of the salmon family, which spawn in streams during autumn, it 
will be necessary to keep the gravelly bottom, which these fish like, free 
from mud, shavings, &c. As for keeping the natural conditions undis- 
turbed, it must be mentioned that by excessive fishing—which unfor- 
tunately is too often practiced with us—certain smaller kinds of fish, e. g., 
the bleak and the smelt, are not entirely destroyed, but that larger and 
finer kinds of fish are thereby deprived of their natural food, and are 
thus forced to eat their own fry, which of course seriously endangers the 
future of the fisheries. Ifa man wishes to improve his fishery, and does 
not to a certain degree spare the small fish which are of no use for the 
table, he would make the same mistake as he who stocks water with fine 
fish without supplying them with the necessary food. It is moreover 
well known that in spring the fish generally go on grassy bottoms and 
in small brooks and streams for the purpose of spawning; that after this 
they go in deeper water, and later in summer stay at a certain depth ; 
that in autumn they again seek sandy or grassy bays, and finally in 
winter either gather in certain deep basins of the sea or near currents. 
From this knowledge it follows, that in order to make the fisheries suc- 
cessful, one should attentively follow the migrations of the different 
kinds of fish all the year round, observe the exact time of their wander- 
ing from one place to the other, and finally examine the nature of the 
bottom and the depth of the sea in different parts of the fishing-waters, 
because a person not acquainted with all these conditions cannot know 


120 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


with absolute certainty in which places the fish may be found at differ- 
ent seasons of the year. 

A farmer or mechanic who only occasionally engages in fishing, there- 
fore, runs the same risk as a bird which, born in a cage, suddenly gains 
its liberty. It starves to death on account of its lack of the faculty of 
observing and its ignorance of those places where food may be found. 
To this must be added the circumstance that a good farmer, accustomed 
to handle the plow and spade, does but rarely possess the necessary skill 
in using lines and hooks or nets, and will, consequently, not be a very 
successful fisherman. Fishing should, therefore, only be carried on by 
persons who have been able to gain some practice in it, and who can de- 
vote their whole attention to it; and those who have such small fishing- 
waters that it would not pay to keep a special person to take care of them 
would, therefore, do best to club together with some of their neighbors 
and let out their fishing-waters to skilled fishermen. 

After having thus given the most important reles which should be ob- 
served with regard to the mode of life of fish, and after having likewise 
pointed out the way in which our fisheries could best be furthered and 
protected, we will briefly mention the way in which a fisherman should 
go to work, the methods of fishing, and the fishing-implements which can 
and should be used at different seasons of the year. ’ 

Various ways in which the fisheries may be improved.—Rarely, or per- 
haps never, do we find a sheet of water which is so favorable to the 
propagation of the different kinds of fish living in it that its condition 
could not in any way be improved, that is, made more convenient and 
suitable for the spawning of the fish. Just as the farmer must be very 
careful to water, to plow, dig, and fertilize this ground, because, being 
left to itself, it will be overrun with weeds and will not yield the produce 
which, with some care, might be expected from it, thus the proprietor of 
fishing-waters must take care of these waters and aid nature by artificial 
propagation, and make the water a suitable dwelling-place for the young 
fish, and protect these as much as possible against their enemies. The 
propagation of fish fortunately goes on under such conditions as to en- 
able man to extend considerable aid to nature; and to give this aid 
should be the first duty of every proprietor of fishing-waters who has his 
true interest at heart. 

Of our common fish, the perch, the pike, bream, roach, and other carp-like 
fish spawn in spring or early summer, whilst the salmon, gwiniad, char, 
and burbot spawn in autumn and winter. Most of the fish which spawn 
in spring lay their roe on pieces of wood, aquatic plants, algie, grass, 
reeds, &c., to which the roe remains sticking until the young have 
slipped out. This is the case with the perch, for example, which lays its 
eggs in bag-like heaps on pieces of wood or on reeds, as also with the roach, 
whose roe is in separate grains, fastened to pieces of wood, stones, or 
aquatic plants found near the shores of lakes. The pike, the bream, and 
the tench and other carp-like fish lay their eggs on grassy bottoms or 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 121 


among aquatic plants. These fish love to lay their eggs in places where 
there is a current, as in small streams, the mouths of brooks, &c. The fish 
of the salmon kind, on the other hand, lay their eggs free, not fastening 
them to any object, and select for this purpose gravelly and stony places 
in brooks and rivers, on whose free bottom they lay their eggs. In 
order to protect the eggs which have been thus laid the fish of the sal- 
mon kind beat the bottom with their tails, in order thus to cover the roe 
with gravel and sand. 

Every one who intends to further the propagation of fish and thus to 
improve the fisheries must, in the first place, ascertain how those fish of 
which an increase is desired spawn in nature, and then to arrange his 
course of action in accordance with the knowledge gained. As regards 
the fish of the salmon kind, whose roe generally takes a longer time for 
developing, experience has shown that their number can best be in- 
creased by protecting the fish during the period it stays in the streams 
and is occupied in spawning, and also by introducing artificial propaga- 
tion, that is, impregnating the roe in an artificial manner and keeping it in 
special establishments until the young fish are large enough to take.care 
of themselves. As there can be no question of establishing hatching- 
places for fish of the salmon kind on the Baltic, as these would have to 
be made in brooks and streams, this is not the place for describing the 
arrangement of such establishments; but we shall here mention the 
various means by which fish-waters may be improved. 

If it is the intention to increase the number of those fish which spawn 
in spring and whose roe is fastened to branches and other objects in the 
water, the owner of the water must, first and foremost, see to it that 
such objects are found in the water. This is all the more important as 
through the destruction of the forests, the draining of the marshes, and 
the gradual rising of the Scandinavian peninsula, the natural spawning- 
places, at least in certain localities, are diminished or deteriorated. By 
placing in the spawning-places, a short time before the spawning-season 
commences, fir branches two to three yards long, or fagots, or by laying 
pieces of sod on the bottom of smaller sheets of water, or by planting 
aquatic plants which it is known that the bream and other kinds of 
fish prefer to lay their roe upon, natural spawning-places may be 
much improved. If such care is to be further extended to the young 
fish special ponds may be dug and their sides clothed with fagots or 
suitable aquatic plants. A number of fish which are about to spawn 
are then placed in these ponds, where they lay their eggs on the fagots 
or plants. The branches, full of roe, are taken out every day and placed 
in @ smaller pond 2 feet deep under the water, which by a hedge of 
fagots is separated from the outer sea, so that large fish and crabs may 
be prevented from entering the pond and destroying the roe. 

The bream, pike, and ide, which last-mentioned kind loves to lay its 
eges in flowing water on a grassy bottom, may be inclosed in separate 
smaller basins at the mouth of brooks and streams where the above- 


122 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


mentioned natural conditions are found or can be artificially procured. 
After the fish have laid their eggs they are caught and taken out, whilst 
the roe is, of course, left on the grassy bottom until it is hatched. The 
young fish are then allowed to go free if such is their desire. By these 
and other similar means the number of fish in a bay may be considerably 
increased. It is evident, however, that these means will help but little 
unless measures are taken to prevent the young fish from being caught 
in nets with small meshes or with other fishing-implements. Care must 
also be taken that the schools of fish in one and the same sheet of water 
are not, by excessive fishing, diminished to such a degree as no longer 
to be able to propagate their species at the rate necessary for keeping 
up their numbers. He who cuts down the tender blade will never reap 
any grain, and he who only sows one-tenth of the seed which his field 
ought annually to yield, will never have a full harvest. It is evident, 
therefore, that the owner of fishing-waters must not only employ the 
above-mentioned means for increasing his number of fish, but must also 
see to it that the spawning process is not disturbed and that the tender 
young fish are properly protected. With the view of obtaining this end 
and in view of the fact that fish will wander from one sheet of water to 
the other—thus making it possible that one owner of fishing-waters may 
disturb the fisheries of another—the common interests of the proprietors 
of fishing-waters imperatively demand that all carry on their fisheries in 
a manner suited to the nature of the fish and the peculiar condition of 
the water. He who desires to reap a full harvest from his fishing-waters 
must, therefore, not only himself carefully observe all the rules necessary 
for preserving and protecting his fisheries, but he must likewise see to 
it that his neighbors do the same. Wherever such rules have not yet 
been adopted it will be in the interest of the owners of fishing-waters to 
introduce them as soon as possible, as only after this has been done will 
there be any reasonable hope that the measures for improving the fish- 
eries will be successful. 

With regard to the nature of the fauna of our Swedish coast, there 
are chiefly two rules which ought to be observed in fishing, and these 
are, not to fish with nets during the spawning-season, and not to use 
nets whose meshes are shorter than one decimal inch, except in cases 
where bait is to be caught. Just as important as it is in spring to pre- 
pare suitable spawning-places for the fish, it will be to see to it that the 
above-mentioned rules are not transgressed during the year. Where all 
the possible means have been employed for aiding the propagation of 
fish, and where only suitable fishing-implements are used, the owner of 
fishing-waters, like the farmer, must not miss the harvest-time. Human 
ingenuity has, fortunately, in course of time invented so many methods 
of catching fish, that he who is well versed in these methods may derive 
a benefit from his fishing-waters nearly all the year round without using 
methods of fishing by which the young fish are destroyed, or by which 
the future of the fisheries is undermined. 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 123 


Seasons and implements for the Baltic coast jisheries.—As the pike be- 
gins to spawn earliest in spring, and as it is a voracious fish-of-prey which 
should not be spared too much, it should form the first object of fishing. 
For this purpose it is necessary, before the ice is completely gone, to 
close the entrances to the larger inlets by brushwood. As the pike in 
most parts of the country begins to spawn much earlier than other fish 
spawning in spring, nets may be used, at any rate in the beginning of 
this fishery. Towards the end of April or the beginn’ig of May, when 
the perch, the roach, the flounder, the bream, and other fish commence to 
spawn, net-fishing must, of course, be stopped, and stationary nets should 
be used, placed at right angles with the shore, and so as not to close the 
entrance to the smaller inlets where these fish usually spawn. Whilst 
the ice lasts, traps should be set for catching bream. Bundles of brush- 
wood are also laid in May with traps for catching roach. Those roach 
which are caught during the spawning-season should be kept in marshy 
waters in a convenient place, so that during summer they may be used 
for bait. In the same manner smelt and bleak are also caught with large 
nets, and are used for food or for bait. It must be mentioned that fish 
caught during the spawning-season will live much longer in marshy 
waters than those caught when the spawning-season is over. A wise 
fisherman, therefore, will supply himself with as much bait as possible 
during the spawning-season. Besides nets and traps, wicker-baskets 
are used during the spring spawning-season for catching perch. bream, 
pike, &c., and are placed as deep as possible, as also the so-called Eee 
man’s nets, which are used at some fishing-stations, and with which gen- 
erally a good many fish are caught. 

After the spawning-season has closed, fish may be caught during June 
and July, either with fishing-lines in deep water or with nets in the fish- 
ing-waters and other places suitable for this implement. Different kinds 
of fish, of course, require different kinds of bait, live fish, fry, or worms, 
according to the kind of fish you wish to catch, whether pike, perch, 
bream, or other fish. At midsummer-time, fishing with hooks and lines 
properly commences. In July, immediately after the bream has done 
spawning, this fish is caught with smaller nets, which have a purse with 
large meshes. These nets, which are chiefly used in the province of 
Skane (Southern Sweden), are let down from two boats in deep water, 
and in favorable weather a good many fish are caught in them. These 
nets only cost from $4 to $5.50 (American money) apiece. In July and 
August fishing is carried on with seines, common nets, and hooked 
poles. Casting-nets are also during summer thrown out among the 
reeds, and are used for catching all kinds of fish, with or without poles. 
During the autumn months seines and nets should chiefly be used, espe- 
cially in those places where the bleak and smelt spawn. But even dur- 
ing this season a good many fish may be caught in deep water with 
deep-water nets. During winter, traps are set in streams and the mouths 
of brooks and in the spawning-places of the burbot, for catching this kind 


124 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of fish. In deep bays nets are set during winter, towards which the fish 
are driven by poles. Under the ice roach are caught in traps and are 
then used as bait for pike, which kind of fish is even caught under the 
ice with hooked poles or hooks and lines. By using the methods of fish- 
ing mentioned above, at the different seasons, a thrifty and energetic 
fisherman may derive a good income from his fishing-water all the year 
round. 


a: 
THE FISHERIES IN THE OPEN BALTIC. 
ad. THE HERRING-FISHERY. 


The different kinds of herring which are found in the trade and on the 
coast of Sweden.—\t is well known that in the sea which surrounds the 
Scandinavian peninsula there are found different kinds of herring, vary- 
ing in size and fatness, which on certain portions of the coast are 

caught, and prepared in different ways reach the great markets under 

different names. Nearly all over Sweden the following kinds are found 
in the trade ¥ Norwegian herring, graben herring, lodd herring, fat her- 
ring, Gottenburg or Bohuslain herring, Kulla hentia, Bleking herring, 
small herring, anchovies, skarp herring, spiced herring, &cé All these 
different kinds are prepared from only two kinds of herrings, viz, the 
herring proper (Clupea harengus, L.)—in the Baltic called “ strémming”— 
and the sprat (Clupea sprattus, L.), of which the former both in nature 
and in trade occurs in far greater numbers than the latter, which is only 
caught and prepared to a comparatively small extent, Tost as ancho- 
vies. As the “ stré6mming” is nothing else but a vaviety of the herring 
proper, as I intend to show later, the term “herring” used in this treatise 
is understood to mean both the herring of our western coast and the 
“strémming.” The sprat can easily be distinguished from the herring 
proper by its smaller head and by the circumstance that its ventral fins 
are nearer the head than with the herring proper. The sprat, moreover, 
on its lower side ends in a sharp edge somewhat resembling a saw, which 
is not the case with the herring. 

The herring, which on certain coasts forms a rich source of income, 
has its proper home in the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, but is also 
found in the seas connected with the above, the Kattegat and the Baltic. 
Like other fish the herring has also in course of time undergone certain 
changes regarding size, fatness, &e., according to the different seas or 
fiords where nature has placed it. These changes have chiefly been 
caused by a difference of food not only in the Atlantic Ocean, the Kat- 
tegat, and the Baltic, but even in different portions of the Western Sea 
and the Baltic. We therefore find that every portion of the sea and 
even certain bays have, so to say, their own race of herrings, which cer- 
tainly are not a different species from those found on other neighboring 
coasts, but which, nevertheless, can easily be distinguished as a different 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 125 


variety owing to the surrounding nature. Thus, for example, a larger 
kind of herrings is at certain seasons of the year found in some bays of 
the Baltic and can easily be distinguished from those herrings which live 
and spawn on the outer coast; and the herring found on the coast of Bo- 
huslin and in the Christiania fiord differ in size, &c., from the herring found 
on the western coast of Norway. These differences have not only given 
rise to different ways of preparing the herring and to different names 
under which the herring comes in the market, but from them certain 
conclusions may be drawn regarding the mode of life of the herring, 
from which, again, important lessons may be derived regarding the pro- 
tection and the improvement of the herring-fisheries. Even at this day 
there are many fishermen who entertain the opinion, which before science 
had spread more light was quite common, that the herring only acci- 
dentally came from remote portions of the ocean to those coasts where 
it is caught, and therefore these fishermen thought to do right by using 
these accidents and catching as many herrings as possible; in other 
words, to fish with the most destructive implements, even those by which 
a whole race of fish would be destroyed. But since experience has 
shown that Norwegian herring are never caught on the coast of Bohus- 
lain, nor Kulla herring on the coast of Bleking, nor Gottland herring on 
the eastern coast, &c., and since the time and place have been discovered 
where the herring spawns; as well as the mode of life of the tender fry, 
its place of sojourn, &c., it has been ascertained that the herring—like 
the salmon and other fish—has certain limits to its migrations, certain 
places where it spawns, Xe. If good herring-fisheries are to continne 
on certain coasts they must be carried on in such a manner as not to 
catch all the fish which come to a certain place either to spawn or to 
live. Care should also be taken to spare the young fry, because if this 
is not done the race of fish on the coast in question may be destroyed, 
since no new race can be expected to come here, and thus a large source 
of income will be lost, whilst if the young fish are spared good fishing 
may be expected every year. 

In several places on the Baltic and the Western Sea carelessness with 
regard to the preservation of the race of herrings and the protection of 
the young fish has been severely punished. The investigations which 
have been made for several years, have shown conclusively that careless 
and destructive fishing has contributed not a little to the cessation of 
the great Bohusliin herring-fisheries, which unfortunately have not yet 
recovered, chiefly because as soon as a school of young herrings shows 
itself on that coast it is immediately caught with nets that have small 
meshes. Near Bresund, in Norway, the herrings used to come to the 
coast for many years, but ceased to come when people began to use nets 
with small meshes. To give instances from nearer home we will men- 
tion that not so long ago herrings came to the coast near Braviken and 
to the mouth of the Motala River, as well as near Lésingsskiir and 
Botilshast, where large quantities were often caught. But people com- 


126 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


menced to use nets during the spawning-season, by which this entire race 
of herrings was caught; and since that time fishing has entirely ceased 
in those places. Similar instances might be given from many other 
places on the Baltic. With these experiences fresh in our remembrance 
it will be evident to every one how important it is to carry on the fisheries 
in accordance with certain well-defined rules based on a thorough knowl- 
edge of the nature and mode of life of the fish, if the future of the fish- 
eries is not to be seriously endangered. 

To enable the fisherman to judge for himself what is best for the im- 
provement of the herring-fisheries in every case, besides those rules 
which may possibly have been laid down by a law of the state, it will be 
necessary to give some further information regarding the nature and 
mode of life of the herring. 

Natural history of the herring.—The herring is a gregarious fish and 
is generally found in large schools, especially at the time when it 
approaches the coast, which it does regularly at certain seasons of the 
year, partly to spawn and partly to seek food in calmer waters both 
before and after the spawning-season. 

During winter the herring lives in the deep water outside those coasts 
on which it has its spawning-places; but even during this time it visits 
the deep fiords, and therefore moves about in the same way as during 
summer, which is shown by the fact that in the Baltic herrings may be 
caught during the winter with nets placed under the ice at different 
depths (from 5 to 24 fathoms), and even with drag-nets in bays and inlets. 
During its migrations to and from the coast as well as during its stay in 
the deep waters of the open sea, the herring is sometimes near the sur- 
face and at other times near the bottom; and these changes of place are 
thought to depend partly on the temperature of the water and partly 
on the currents and other natural causes, concerning which, however, 
experience has not yet taught us such certain lessons as to draw from 
them reliable conclusions regarding the depth at which the herring is 
found at different seasons of the year. Fishermen had, therefore, best 
make experiments by setting nets at different depths. 

The spawning-season varies among the herrings found in one and the 
same sea, and even the different schools or tribes have different spawn- 
ing-seasons, and even in one and the same school all fish do not spawn 
at the same time, probably owing to difference of age or to slower or 
more rapid growth, &c. . 

In the Baltic the herring spawns either in spring or in summer, and is 
accordingly called either spring herring or summer herring. In the 
Southern Baltic the herrings continue to spawn till the middle of Octo- 
ber, whilst in the northern portions of this sea the spawning-season 
closes in August. The fish spawn either outside the coast on raised bot- 
toms at a depth of 13 to 15 fathoms, or in the bays running inland, mostly 
in places where the bottom is overgrown with alge. The spawning is 
done very quickly, as soon as the school has gathered in its spawning- 


MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 127 


WIDEGREN 


place, the whole process probably occupying not more than five or six 
hours. The roe is laid on aquatic plants, stones, pebbles, &c. The de- 
velopment of the roe occupies a shorter or a longer time, according to 
the different temperature of the water. 

In May, when the water is colder, it takes 14 to 18 days to hatch the roe, 
but in August and July, when the water in the spawning-places generally 
has a temperature of 14 to 15 degrees (C.) (57.29-59° I*.), it only requires six 
to eight days. The newly-hatched young fish, which are smaller and more 
transparent than most other young fish, and are, therefore, hard to dis- 
tinguish, are a little over 4 inch long, and have, for eight days after the 
hatching, a bag attached to their body, which hinders the young herring 
from being very brisk in its movements during the earliest part of its 
life. Only after the young fish has lost this so-called wnbilical bag it 
begins to swim about, gather in schools, and seek food. It is difficult to 
ascertain with absolute certainty the growth and size of the young her- 
ring at certain periods of its life, especially as not all the young fish 
have the same ability to gather food, on which circumstance their growth 
of course depends. 

Attempts have been made to raise young fish by placing them in 
small basins and feeding them regularly, but so far these attempts have 
proved unsuccessful, as the young fish did not live longer than five 
weeks, at which time they have reached a length of about 4 inch. 
During the whole first year of their life the young fish may be found in 
the spawning-places, both on the outer coast and in the inner bays. 
Young fish, measuring 1 inch in length, may be supposed to be about 
two months old; at the age of three months they measure about 14 inch 
in length, all the fins are completely developed, and the color of the 
body resembles that of the grown herring, so that they may be easily 
recognized as the young of this fish, which formerly could not have been 
done. After examining young fish found in the spawning-places one 
has felt justified in concluding that the young herrings measuring about 
3 inches in length, which in spring are found in the spawning-places, are 
those fish which have been hatched earliest during the preceding year, 
and are, therefore, about a year old. The young fish measuring 5 to 6 
inches in length, which are often caught in nets, are therefore supposed 
to be only two years old. When a fish has reached this size the roe and 
milt begin to develop rapidly, and when it has reached a length of 8 
inches it is capable of propagating, and may then be supposed to be 
about three years old. 

The food of the young herring, as well as of the full-grown herring, 
consists chiefly of small crustaceans scarcely discernible with the naked 
eye, which are found in large quantities in the water both in shallow and 
deep places. By towing in the sea-water with a net made of fine gauze 
large numbers of these little animals may be caught. They are more or 
less plentiful at different times and under different conditions of weather, 
and at different depths. This may possibly explain to some extent the 


128 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


fact that the herrings are not always found at one and the same depth. 
In summer these’ small crustaceans are found nearer the surface, and the 
herrings at this time likewise go nearer the surface. Like other fish, the 
herring abstains from food for some time before and after spawning, and 
its stomach is then generally empty, but after spawning it begins to take 
food again, and gradually recovers the strength and fatness which it had 
lost during the spawning process. This explains why the herring is fat 
at one time of the year and lean at another. 

About two months before spawning commences the herring may, as 
a general rule, be said to be fattest and best. This fatness it retains 
almost to the end of the spawning-season, when it begins to get lean, and 
when it is not fit to be caught. The herring, after having done spawn- 
ing, usually goes into deeper water in order to seek food, and does not 
return until it has entirely recovered its strength. That the herring, like 
other fish, returns to the place where it was born as soon as it has become 
capable of propagating is proved by the fact mentioned above that certain 
schools or tribes of herring spawn at the same place every year. That 
the number of fish is one year larger in one place than in another is 
donbtless caused by changes in the weather, currents, &c. Similar 
causes may even produce an almost total failure of the herring-fisheries 
in some locality. Cold and unfavorable weather during the spawning- 
season doubtless often kills large numbers of the young fish of some 
school, which of course will affect the herring-fisheries for several years 
to come. These and other-circumstances on which the herring-fisheries 
depend have so far been so little explained that not much can be said 
regarding them; but it is fully known and understood that man may 
destroy the herring-fisheries in some portion of the sea not only by using 
nets which will catch both old and young fish, but also by disturbing the 
spawning-places. 

It has been mentioned before that certain tribes of herring, especially 
the larger ones, spawn near the coast on bottoms overgrown with alge. 
If this bottom is made unfit for spawning by pulling out or otherwise 
destroying the alge by dragging nets along the bottom or in any other 
way, the herrings are forced to seek other and more suitable places for 
spawning, and they consequently leave these waters which they used to 
visit regularly. Experience gathered in Bohuslin and other places has 
shown that the herring is very sensitive in this respect, and leaves its 
old spawning-place entirely if its nature is changed or disturbed. Every 
one, therefore, who wishes to protect his fisheries should be very careful 
not to change the nature of the spawning-places, either by disturbing 
the growth of the alge or other aquatic plants or by throwing refuse or 
impure matters in the water. 

Different methods of catching herrings—From what has been said re- 
garding the nature and mode of life of the herring, it will be seen that 
in order not to destroy the whole tribe by catching the young fish or by 
disturbing the spawning-places, it will be best not to use nets during the 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 129 


spawning-season of the herring, but only use them in autumn and 
winter, when the herring visits the deep waters of the inner bays. Fish- 
ing with nets having large meshes may, however, be carried on at every 
season of the year. 

On the coasts of Skane, Bleking, and Gottland the herrings are not 
caught with stationary nets, but with so-called floating nets, which 
method of fishing is in many respects very advantageous, for which rea- 
son I shall briefly describe it. 

After the usual number of nets, 27 to 30, have been well arranged and 
placed in a boat furnished with all the necessary apparatus and provis- 
ions, three men enter the boat and go out to sea. The time for leaving 
the shore depends on the wind and on the distance from land at which 
the herring is just then supposed to be, because the nets should be cast 
during dusk. When the casting is to begin the sail is lowered, one man 
places himself at the prow, another in the middle, and the third at the 
stern of the boat. The one at the prow takes hold of the oars and rows 
with the wind, the one in the middle loosens the floats and the weights, 
and the one at the stern casts the net. In this manner the whole net gets 
in the water with the ‘exception of one end, which is hanging over the 
edge of the boat. To the last loop of the net a weight is attached by a 
rope of a certain measured length, with its float, which is thrown out, 
and then the whole net is carefully laid while the boat is rowed forward. 
When the first net has been set, the second one is taken, the loops are 
joined by a strong knot, to which again a weight and float are fastened, 
and this is continued until ali the nets have been set, in such a manner 
that the largest floats are in the center of the whole stretch of nets, be- 
cause otherwise the net would sink in the middle if a very large number 
of fish should happen to be caught. Finally, when all the nets have 
been set, there is attached tothe last hoop, besides the weight and the 
float, the so-called floating line, a rope 30 fathoms long, to which at 
about a fathom’s distance from the net a stone of the size of a fist is 
attached, so the nearest net might not be raised too high, especially if 
the weight has gone down deep. If the depth is only one or two fathoms 
no stone is used. The floating line is then cast out and finally fastened 
to the fore part of the boat. Boat and nets are then allowed to drive 
with the wind and current, and once every hour the nearest net is 
examined, to see whether the herring “ takes,” as the Gottland fisher- 
men say. If you happen to fall in with a large school and the current 
is not too strong the net must generally be hauled in after two to three 
hours, so as not to catch more fish than the boat can carry. The Gott- 
land boats carry about 300 “hvlar,” besides the net and other appa- 
ratus. But in order to derive the full benefit from the herring-fisheries, 
it is not only necessary to take the proper care of them, so there is 
always a sufficient quantity of fish, but a thorough knowledge of the 
different ways of preparing fish for the trade is likewise required. 

As fishermen very often are not able to sell the fish they catch for a 

9F 


130 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


reasonable price whilst in a fresh condition, it is very important for them 
to know the best methods of preparing them, especially in these times, 
when the improved means of communication enable people to get even 
necessary articles of food from a distance. Every one should therefore 
endeavor to obtain and retain a good market for his fish by preparing 
them well and by constantly improving his goods. 

The improved means of communication and intercourse between dif- 
ferent parts of the world make it possible that the Baltic herrings may 
now be advantageously sold both at home and abroad, whilst formerly 
scarcely any were exported. The methods of preparing the heering have 
to be varied according to the different markets for which it is destined, 
as different countries have different tastes. 

The preparation of the herring for the trade.—The methods of preparing 
the herring for the trade, at present in vogue, are the following: 

1. Salting the herring (common Baltic salt herring) for home consump- 
tion or the German ports on the Baltic. 

2. Preparing the herring after the Norwegian or Dutch method (so- 
called “ delikatess-sill,” 7. e., delicious or delicacy herring) for home con- 
sumption. . 

3. Spicing the herring (spiced-herring) for home consumption and for 
the foreign market. 

The choice between these three methods will chiefly be determined by 
the fatness and general condition of the fish; but also by the greater or 
less ease with which markets for the differently-prepared fish are reached, 
and other similar circumstances, which may best be considered by the 
fisherman himself. The fat herrings which are sometimes caught during 
autumn and mid-summer on certain portions of the coast, are of course 
best suited for a finer article of goods—‘delicacy-herring,” or spiced- 
herring—whilst the common herring is best salted, taking care, how- 
ever, that by salting a superior article of goods is obtained. 

General rules for preparing jish.—The first and foremost rule is to bring 
the fish as soon as possible after it is caught in contact with the pre- 
serving element, viz, salt. Great care should be taken that the fish 
before being salted is not exposed too much to the sun, because it will 
in that case easily spoil or rot. During summer every boat should there- 
fore be provided with a sufficient quantity of tarpaulin, so the fish may 
be kept well covered during the homeward voyage. It will also be found 
very useful to have on the boat a box with broken ice, in which the fish 
are laid as soon as caught, and are thus kept fresh until salt can be ap- 
plied. Fish which have been brought to market fresh, and have for a 
time been exposed to the warmth, should never be salted, because such 
fish are frequently a little spoiled. Another very important rule which 
should invariably be observed is, that everything should be done in as 
neat and cleanly a manner as possible. Fish-refuse, cr any other refuse, 
should therefore never be tolerated in the salting-houses, or in the vessels 
used for salting. Nor should old brine ever be used, as it contains slime, 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 131 


blood, &c., and does not salt the fish thoroughly, but is apt to give it an 
impure and disagreeable flavor. The quality of the salt is also of great 
importance. It is not only necessary to use loose, strong, and hard salt, 
which is the best for salting fish, but also to obtain the best quality of 
the kind of salt needed. Salt which has been damaged by sea-water, or 
which contains impurities, should of course never be used. 

If one has fresh and good herrings just taken from the water, good 
salt, and clean and ample vessels, all the necessary conditions are ful- 
filled for preparing a first-class article, following one of the methods 
given below. 


1. Method of preparing common Baltic herrings for home consumption and 
for the German ports on the Baltic. 


Two mistakes are often made in salting herring as this process is at 
the present time carried on by the fishermen on most of our coasts, viz, 
salting it too much and pressing it too hard. It is highly important to 
prepare the fish in such a manner that it may for a long time be pre- 
served in good condition. It is of course also important, both for the 
buyer and seller, that the barrels should be well packed. Both these 
objects may be obtained without having the fish salted too strongly, and 
without pressing it almost flat, so it loses all its natural fatness and tastes 
of nothing but salt. In many places the fish are pressed so hard that 
they form a lump, from which the brine flows off without penetrating, 
which makes the fish dry and rancid and by no means agreeable as an 
article of food. Even if such fish were to find a market in some places, 
this method of preparing it must be condemned. Although it is of course 
impossible to lay down rules for preparing fish which would hold good 
in every case, or satisfy every taste—especially as one buyer cares little 
for the flavor or fatness of the herring, but only for its weight, whilst 
another cares nothing at all for the latter—most buyers nowadays en- 
deavor to obtain an article having a good pure flavor, and being at the 
same time carefully packed. To prepare such an article the following 
directions are given, which may of course be modified to suit the different 
tastes, &c. These directions have for several years been followed in the 
best salting-houses in Gottland and on the southern Baltic coast, and 
fish prepared in this way will never lack buyers. 

In preparing the common herring St. Ybes, Lisbon, or other strong 
kinds of salt should be used; but Cagliari salt, as well as some 
looser kinds of English and French salt, may likewise be used, especially 
if the fish are intended for speedy consumption. The salt should be 
crushed so that the larger crystals also melt in the brine, and the salt 
comes in the greatest possible contact with the flesh of the fish. 

As salt herring are generally shipped to distant places, and are thus 
during the voyage exposed to the pressure of other goods, or whilst be- 
ing transported by railroad or wagons run the risk of being handled 
carelessly, they should always be packed in carefully made tight barrels, 


132 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


with good strong hoops, so they can stand a long journey without the 
brine running out. It should be remembered that herrings from aleaky 
barrel are not worth one-fourth as much as those in a good barrel. As 
soon as the herring has been taken from the net they should immediately 
be thrown in small vessels filled with pure and clear brine. There 
should never be so many herrings laid in a vessel that the lower ones 
are pressed too hard by the upper ones, but if the number of fish is very 
large a greater number of vessels should be used. After the herring 
have thus been immediately brought in contact with salt, they are taken 
out by degrees to be cleaned and gutted, care being taken that all the 
entrails are taken out, but not the roe and milt. The practical way of 
doing this is well known to every fisherman. As soon as the herring 
have. been cleaned they are laid in another vessel also filled with pure 
brine. When the whole lot has been cleaned, or even while the cleaning 
is going on, the cleaned herrings are taken out of the brine and rinsed 
in fresh and clean sea-water, whereupon they are for awhile placed in 
small baskets or kegs with a perforated bottom, so the water may flow 
off. When this has been done the fish are placed in tight barrels, which 
are kept in readiness for the purpose, and sprinkled with dry salt. The 
sprinkling is done in the following manner: The fish are laid loose in a 
barrel with crushed salt, 3 kappar to the barrel; whenever a layer has 
been finished the fish and salt are stirred so they may mingle thoroughly. 
After 24 hours the fish are taken out and again placed in baskets or 
kegs with perforated bottoms, so the brine may flow off. After this has 
been done, which generally takes an hour, the fish are regularly packed 
and salted in tubs. The fish are placed in layers with their backs down- 
ward. Between every layer of fish there is a layer of crushed salt, at the 
rate of 5 kappar to every barrel. After the tub has been thus filled, a 
light weight is placed on the top, merely to keep the fish under the brine, 
and not press it too hard, which makes the fat and the juice of the fish 
run out into the brine, thus destroying the delicate flavor of the fish. 
After the tubs have been thus filled they are allowed to stand open for 
several days, and as the mass of fish gradually settles down, new layers 
are added to every tub. When after some days the fish do not settle 
any more, the tubs are closed. They ought then to be rolled gently and 
turned upside down every two weeks, so the brine may thoroughly 
penetrate all the fish. Whenever the herrings are to be shipped, the 
tubs are looked after once more; if they have settled any, they are filled 
up for the last time, and are then considered ready for the market. The 
brine which flows over from the tubs and that which is obtained after 
every Salting, may be put in those vessels in which the fish are kept im- 
mediately atter being caught and whilst they are being cleaned. It is 
important, however, to see to it that this brine is changed as soon as it 
has been used more than once or twice and becomes mixed with im- 
purities. To use 9 kappar salt to the barrel, as is done on the coast of 
Oestergétland, is not advisable, because the fish is pressed too hard and 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 133 


gets too salty. After the fish has been dry salted, no more than 5 kappar 
salt to the barrel is needed, whereupon the fish should immediately be 
placed in tubs and not be pressed more than is necessary for filling the 
tubs properly. In Norrland they let the herring lie uncleaned in brine 
for 24 hours, and moreover in brine which has been used many a time 
before for the same purpose. It will easily be seen from what has been 
mentioned above that this custom should be abolished and that the her- 
ring should be cleaned as quick as possible. 

On the coast of Karlskrona they dry-salt the fish with only 1 kappar 
salt to the barrel, and then salt it with 7 kappar to the barrel. This 
method cannot be recommended whenever the fresh fish should have a 
chance to soak in a sufficiently strong brine, whilst, if this is done, it does 
by no means require as large a quantity of salt. 

Baltic herring prepared in the above-mentioned way finds a ready 
market not only at home but also in foreign ports on the Baltic. The 
price of herring varies very much in different years, and is dependent 
partly on the result of the fisheries in each year, but also on the price 
of Norwegian and other foreign herring. In some years when the her- 
ring-fisheries have been successful, both in Norway and Sweden, the 
Swedish fishermen can scarcely obtain a price which fully pays them for 
their trouble. It may, therefore, be advantageous to seek foreign mar- 
kets, and prepare the fish for these. Salt herrings may, at certain times, 
find a ready market in the ports of Northern Germany, Stettin, Stral- 
sund, and other places. The best time for this trade is from mid-summer 
till the beginning of September. Herrings which are intended for the 
German market ought to be prepared in the above-mentioned manner, 
but should be very carefully packed in strong tubs, not holding as much 
as the Swedish barrel (about 220 pints), but in tubs of the same size as 
those used in Bornholm and on the German coast, which only hold about 
193 pints each. Such tubs, if they are well packed and the fish are in 
good condition, fetch from $3.50 to $5.50 each in the Stettin market, a 
price which many a year may prove very acceptable to the fishermen of 
Southern Sweden, especially if one takes into consideration the fact that 
these tubs are much smaller than the Swedish and therefore contain 
fewer fish. 


2. Method of preparing the so-called “ delicacy-herring” for home consump- 
tion. 


It is well known that every year considerable quantities of Dutch 
herrings and Norwegian fat herrings are imported into Sweden, partly 
in large tubs, but mostly in small barrels or kegs, and that these fish 
are mostly consumed by the better classes. Experiments have shown 
that the large and fat Baltic herring, which is caught in several places, 
can easily be prepared in the same manner, and make a better and par- 
ticularly fine domestic article, which comes very near to the foreign “del- 
icacy-herring,” and therefore finds a very ready market at good prices 


134 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


all over Sweden; all the more as the Swedish “ delicacy-herring” can be 
furnished for a much lower price than the foreign. 

The very name ‘delicacy-herring” shows that it is not intended for 
every-day use. It is therefore generally kept in smaller kegs than the 
common herring. It is evident that the *delicacy-herring” should not 
be salted as much as the common herring, as it thereby loses its delicious 
flavor. As it therefore must be salted with finer and looser salt, it fol- 
lows that it cannot be kept as long as the common salt herring. In 
preparing ‘delicacy-herring,” finer and looser kinds of salt should be 
employed, e. g., Liverpool salt, Liineburg salt, Cagliari salt, &c. The 
Liineberg salt is said to be the best for this purpose. 

Norwegian method of preparing delicacy-herring.—As soon as the her- 
Tings are caught they are put in pure brine, whilst the cleaning process 
is going on. Some only take out the stomach, but it will be best, as is 
done in preparing the common herring, to take out both the stomach 
and the entrails. As soon as the herrings have been cleaned they are 
immediately laid in small tubs or kegs, in regular layers with the back 
downward; salt is placed between every layer at the rate of 6 kappar 
to the barrel, and sait is also placed on the top. <As the herrings during 
the first days settle in the tub, new layers are added. After about six 
days an opening is made with a stick between the herrings and the side 
of the tub, which is filled up with salt, whereupon the tub is closed. 
Before being shipped every tub is examined and if necessary filled up, 
as was done with the common herring. If sufficient brine should not 
form in the tub, a little hole is made in its side with a gimlet, and pure 
brine is poured in, whereupon the hole is closed. It is very advisable 
to turn and roll the full kegs as often as possible. Herring prepared in 
this manner has kept entirely good and fresh for six months. 

Dutch method of preparing Baltic herring.—Fresh and fat Baltic herrings 
are, aS soon as they come out of the water, placed in small kegs, and are 
for at least an hour stirred with fine Liineburg salt. Then the fish may 
be cleaned in the usual manner, or also, without being cleaned, be placed 
in kegs with fine Liineburg salt between every layer. After the kegs 
have been filled they are closed and examined and filled again in the 
manner described above. The herring which has not been cleaned does 
not keep quite as long as that which has been cleaned. Fish prepared 
in this manner at Herba, in Gottland, has kept fresh and good for more 
than a year. 

Swedish herrings, prepared in the Norwegian or Dutch manner, have 
fetched a good price both in Stockholm and other cities of Sweden. 


3. Method of preparing spiced herring. 


So-called spiced herring is an article of trade which, like anchovies, 
is kept in glass jars or very small kegs. It may be prepared from any 
kind of herring, and is esteemed as highly with us as in some cities of 
Northern Germany. But its preparation can so far not be said to form 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 135 


a special trade, but must rather be considered as experiments made by 
housewives in order to give some little variety to their meals, but espe- 
cially to the lunch-table. But as these herrings might be in demand in 
some places, and might possibly fetch a good price in the foreign market, 
I shall here give the receipt for preparing them. 

Freshly caught herrings are immediately laid in vinegar, adding one- 
fourth part water and some salt. After twenty-four hours the herrings 
are taken out and the vinegar is allowed to flow off. The fish are then 
placed in a tub or keg, with the following spices in the folowing quan- 
tities to every hval of herrings: 1 pound dry fine salt, 1 pound powdered 
sugar, 1 ounce pepper, 1 ounce laurei leaves, 1 ounce saltpetre, $ ounce 
sandal, 4 ounce ginger, + ounce Spanish hops, 4 ounce cloves. Others 
use the following spices: 1 pound salt, 4 pound sugar, 2 ounces pepper, 
2 ounces allspice, 1 ounce cloves, 1 ounce Spanish hops. The herring 
should remain in this mixture for two months before being used. Some 
lay the herrings immediately in vinegar which has not been weakened 
with water or salt, and after twelve hours they are taken out and treated 
in the above-mentioned manner. If the spiced herring should after a 
while be without brine, good brine of Liineburg salt should be poured 
in, and then they will keep for years. 


b. THE COD-FISHERY. 


Of the many fish belonging to the cod family, e. g., the codfish proper 
(Gadus morrhua), the pollock (Gadus virens), the haddock (Gadus aegle- 
finus), the ling (Molva vulgaris), the hvitling (Gadus merlangus), &c., 
which live in salt water, and which, in the Kattegat and the North Sea, 
form the object of those extensive fisheries by which many inhabitants 
of the Norwegian and Bohusliin coasts make their living, there is found in 
the Baltic only the common codfish (Gadus morrhua, L.), at least in such 
quantities as to repay the trouble of catching it. In the Sound and the 
portions of the Baltic adjoining it haddock (Gadus aeglefinus), glyskoljan 
(Gadus minutus), hvitling (Gadus merlangus), pollock (Gadus virens), and 
blanksej (Gadus pollachius), are frequently caught, but nowhere in the 
Baltic proper are they found in such numbers as to form the object of 
special fisheries. From these its relatives, the codfish proper is distin- 
guished by its upper jaw projecting over the lower jaw, by having a 
beard on the lower jaw, by having its side bent near the center of the 
middle dorsal fin, and by having such small eyes that their diameter is 
much less than the distance from the corner of the eye to the tip end of 
the nose. The haddock, the glyskoljan, and the hvitling have, it is true, 
a projecting upper jaw also, but can easily be recognized: the haddock 
by having almost Straight sides and a black spot on each side about 
under the middle of the first dorsal fin, the glyskoljan (Gadus minutus) 
by the circumstance that the diameter of its eyes is larger than the dis- 
tance from the corner of the eye to the tip end of the nose, and the 
hvitling (Gadus merlangus) by its not having the beard which is found 


136 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


on the lower jaw of the codfish, the haddock, and the glyskoljan. 
The pollock and the blanksej (Gadus pollachius) both have the lower jaw 
projecting farther than the upper jaw, and are thereby distinguished 
from the above-mentioned fish found in the Sound and the Baltic, which 
likewise belong to the cod family. The pollock is again distinguished 
from the blanksej (Gadus pollachius): the former has a cloven caudal 
fin, its sides are almost straight, and its color gradually changes from a 
dark sea-green on the back to silver-gray on the belly and sides; the 
latter has a caudal fin, which is but little indented, its sides are sharply 
bent, and the brownish-black color of the back is clearly defined from 
the silver-gray of the sides. 

The codfish proper never reaches the same size in the Baltic as on our 
western coast or the coast of Norway. Whilst in the North Sea and 
the Western Ocean it grows very large, and often reaches a weight of 40 
pounds, the Baltic cod seldom weighs more than 15 pounds. Like the 
herring, it gets smaller and smaller the farther north in the Baltic it is 
found. The average weight of the codfish found in the Southern Baltic 
and the Sound varies from 3 to 6 pounds, whilst near Gottland it is only 
2 to 3 pounds, and on the coast near Stockholm only 1 to 2 pounds. 

The color of the codfish varies considerably, owing chiefly to the dif- 
ference of food and the different bottoms on which it lives. Generally 
the upper parts of its body have an ashy-gray or olive color, thickly dot- 
ted with round spots of a yellow or brownish hue, decreasing in number 
towards the sides; the lower part of the body is whitish, without any 
spots. The varieties which are found most frequently are the so-called 
“ Berg ”-cod, in Bohulsin, which has a reddish color, thickly covered 
with spots, and having reddish or grayish-brown fins and back; the 
“ Pall ”-cod, near Gottland and the “ Berg”-cod of the Southern Baltic, 
whose whole body is of a dark color with but few spots. The full-grown 
codfish prefers deep water, either on the outer coast or in large bays 
and inlets, and only during the spawning-season it temporarily goes into 
shallow water. It spawns at different times on the different coasts: in 
the Sound in March, on the coasts of Skane and Bleking from the mid- 
dle of March till the end of April, near Gottland and on the coast of 
Stockholm during April and May. When the spawning-season ap- 
proaches, the codfish ascends from the deep to shallow waters, either on 
the outer coast or in bays and inlets. There is this peculiarity about the 
roe of the codfish, that it does not adhere to aquatic plants and stones 
like that of other Baltic fish, but, according to observations made by 
the Norwegian naturalist G. O. Sars, floats about freely near the sur- 
face of the water. Even with a low temperature of the water the eggs 
are hatched after 18 days, and with a higher temperature, even in a 
Shorter time. After being hatched, the young fish continue to float 
about near the surface of the water at least as long as they still have 
the umbilical bag which most young fish carry for some time after being 
hatched. This bag serves as the food of the young fish; and as soon 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 137 


as it is consumed the fish requires other food, and seeks places where 
suitable food can be obtained, and where it can find protection against 
the attacks of the numerous fish-of-prey which eagerly devour the: 
young fish. Such places are the algw-covered bottoms near the shore, 
where small crustaceans, scarcely discernible to the naked eye, are 
found in profusion and form the first food of the young fish. As the 
young codfish grows, becomes stronger and larger, and is able to defend 
itself against its enemies, viz, fish-of-prey of every kind, not the least 
dangerous among them being the old codfish themselves, it goes into 
deeper waters, where it finds larger crustaceans, worms, and snails, which 
at a more mature age form its favorite food. When fully grown the 
codfish is a voracious fish-of-prey, devouring almost everything coming 
in its way, young fish and fish of every kind. It therefore prefers the 
deep waters, where it feeds on the large schools of herrings, and often 
visits the banks where the herring spawns, and devours its spawn and 
young. Since the roe of the codfish does not adhere to plants or stones, 
but floats about freely near the surtace of the water, it depends on cur- 
rent, weather, and wind to what coast it will float, and a large portion 
of it is consequently very often cast ashore and lost. And as it is well 
known that the codfish, like other fish, when fully grown, revisits the 
coast where it was born, it is impossible to calculate on seeing again, as 
full-grown fish, the young codfish which were born on a certain coast. 
For the roe laid near some coast may, by current and wind, be carried 
to distant parts, and the home of the young fish will be the coast to 
which the roe has been earried accidentally; and this coast will be revis- 
ited by them when they are fully grown, when, after having closed their 
annual regular visits to the deeper waters, the time comes for them to 
seek shallow waters. | 

Nature has thus arranged it so that even with the greatest care and 
protection it is impossible to calculate with absolute certainty on a suc- 
cessful cod fishery on any given coast. Experience has shown that on 
certain coasts no codfish have come to spawn for several years, although 
fishing had by no means been carried on in a destructive manner, and 
although the natural conditions continued as favorable as during the 
time when the codfish annually visited those coasts in large numbers. 
It is supposed, and probably correctly, that the cause why enormous 
cod-fisheries have for many years been carried on uninterruptedly in 
some localities, e. g., the Loffoden, the Norwegian coast, the Shetland 
Islands, Iceland, &c., must be found in the fact that these coasts or 
groups of islands are so favorably situated near or in deep waters, that 
even when current and wind are comparatively speaking less favorable, 
a sufficient quantity of roe and young fish is carried into the bays 
and sounds to insure good fisheries. It must also be remembered that 
the cod-fisheries carried on in the Loffoden and other large fishing 
places on the Atlantic Ocean, although carried op near the coast, have 


138 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


altogether the character of ocean fisheries, fishing going on mostly in 
the open sea and at aconsiderable depth, 50 to 100 feet and more. 

It is evident from all that has been said that the cod is a kind of fish 
which prefers the deep waters or banks in the open sea, and that one 
cannot calculate on its coming to a certain coast every year, and on 
catching it with the apparatus usually employed in coast-fishing. It has 
been shown by actual observations that the Baltic also contains a con- 
siderable number of codfish on those bottoms and banks which extend 
almost along our entire coast. Fishermen who expect annual produc- 
tive codfisheries must therefore possess the necessary apparatus for deep- 
water fishing. We shall now give afew brief directions how to carry 
on these fisheries. 

As the banks on which the codfish stay the greater part of the year 
are situated at a considerable distance from the shore, it is evident that 
the fisherman should have a good vessel, strong and large enough to 
reach the shore when a storm should spring up. For this purpose the 
boats used for salmon-fishing on the coast of Bleking, known by the 
name of “ Blekings-ekor,” are well suited. These boats are large enough 
to offer ample protection for the fish which have been caught, so the 
fisherman runs no risk of having his fish spoiled before he comes home. 

Cod-fishing on banks may be carried on with so-called ‘ hand-lines” or 
‘ codfish-lines,” with “ angling-lines,” and with nets. As the “hand- 
line” is so well known, it will not be necessary to describe it. 

The “angling-line” (long line or traw]-line), with which fishing in the open 
sea can and should be carried on, resembles a common long fishing-line, 
only with this difference, that it is furnished with floats which keep the bait 
from the bottom, as otherwise it would be eaten by different marine ani- 
mals. The line should be made of such strong material that it will not 
tear when being hauled in; when laid, it should of course be steadied by 
weights sufficiently heavy to prevent its being driven away in stormy 
weather. To mark the place where the line is laid, a buoy is used, with 
a flagstaff and flag large enough to be easily seen when the fisherman 
comes to haul in his line. As bait may be used, pieces of herring or 
other fresh fish, worms, snails, and muscles. The line may be laid efther 
in the morning or in the evening, and in favorable weather the fisher- 
‘man should so arrange it that he can stay at the fishing-place until it 
is time to haul in the line. During this time of waiting, the crew may 
employ themselves by fishing with “ hand-lines.” 

Net-fishing in deep water or in the open sea should’be carried on with 
common codfish-nets, which, however, should be a little deeper than 
those used in coast-fishing. Each set generally has 24 nets. When the 
nets are to be set, they are fastened to two ropes of about the same 
length as the depth of water where the nets are to be set. To the ends 
of these ropes an anchor is attached; to this is fastened another rope 
reaching to the surface, and having at its end a buoy to indicate the 
place where the fisherman has to look for his nets. These, which have 


ee 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 139 


been laid in the boats in good order, are then set in the manner shown 
in Figure 1, Plate I. When several fishermen set nets close to each 
other, it becomes necessary to attach an anchor also to the end of the 
row of nets, with a rope reaching up to the surface and having a buoy 
attached to it, to show in what direction the nets have been set, so that 
other fishermen may not set their nets across the former, and thus pro- 
duce confusion and make the hauling-in difficult. If the net has been 
set so far from the coast that the fisherman can no longer see it, he must 
either cast anchor and remain in the fishing-place till the net is taken 
up, or he must when leaving the coast mark some object ou it, and then 
by the aid of his compass row or sail for some time in a certain direction, 
so that he can easily find the place where his nets are set, even if stormy 
weather should oblige him to seek the coast before his nets are taken 
up. In cod-fishing one should have two sets of nets, so the one may 
dry whilst the other is in the water. 

Methods of preparing the codfish.—To prepare a good article of codfish, 
it should never lie in the boat without being cleaned for any length of 
time, as it may easily spoil. A careful fisherman carrying on cod-fishing 
on.a large scale should therefore always have in his boat small boxes or 
kegs in which the fish may be laid in salt. The crew should also be 
large enough, that two or more persons may immediately commence to 
kill the fish, so the blood may flow off, and, if possible, clean and salt 
them. It is likewise important that the fish should not be bruised or 
trodden on, as thereby their flesh becomes loose, full of holes, and its 
appearance is not very inviting. The Baltic codfish may be prepared 
either as so-called “ brine-cod” (Habeljo) or so-called “dry-cod” (Klipp- 
Jisk). The Baltic codfish may of course also be prepared as ‘‘common 
dried cod” or so-called lutfisk, although by its small size it is not very 
well suited for this method of preparing it. Whether the fish is to be 
prepared as ‘‘brine-cod” or ‘dry-cod,” it must first be cleaned thor- 
oughly, so that no blood is found near the backbone; the entire skin is 
carefully removed from the whole lower part of the fish. In large cod- 
fish the backbone is taken out, whilst in smaller ones it is allowed to 
remajn ; the head is cut off, and the fish is then ripped open, so that it 
presents the appearance shown in Figures 1 and 2, Plate II. After the 
fish has been ripped open, cleaned and washed, the water is allowed to 
flow off, whereupon it is laid in layers in barrels and salted, the outer 
side downward, and with sufficient salt between each layer to keep the 
fish from spoiling. After the fish has remained in brine for about eight 
days, and its flesh has become firm, it should be taken out. If it is to 
be used for “brine-cod,” it is again placed in barrels with enough fine 
white salt between the layers to keep the fish from spoiling ; whilst if it 
is to be used for “dry-cod” (Klippfisk), it is treated in the following 
manner: The fish are taken from the brine, and laid in rows on slanting 
boards, so the brine may flow off. Whilst being taken up they are 
washed in the brine and brushed carefully, so as to remove all impuri- 


140 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ties. After the fish have laid on these boards for a night, they are spread 
out to dry either on flat rocks or on a sort of lattice-work placed in a 
drying booth. It is best to lay the fish on a lattice-work to dry, as the 
rocks often get very hot and therefore cause the fish to shrivel. When 
the fish are laid out to dry, the air should not be damp, nor should the 
fish be exposed too long to a hot sun. In the evening, as soon as the 
air gets damp, the fish should be piled up in heaps and be again spread 
out in the morning. This is continued till the fish gets half dry, when 
the pressing commences, which is done in the following manner: The 
fish are piled in large heaps, covered with boards, and on these stones 
of a suitable weight are placed (Figure 4, Plate III). Whilst being 
pressed the fish should again be spread out for drying, if the weather is 
favorable, but should likewise, when night comes or when damp weather 
sets in, be piled up and pressed, and the sides of the pile covered with 
matting or tarpaulin so as to keep the moisture out. This is continued 
till the fish gets so dry that when pressed with the thumb no impression 
is made, showing that the flesh has become quite hard. The fish are 
then packed in wooden boxes and are ready for the market. Fish pre- 
pared in this manner find a ready sale not only at home but also abroad, 
in England and Germany, where “dry-cod” fetches a higher price than 
“ brine-cod.” 
c. SALMON-FISHING WITH LINES. 


The salmon is a kind of fish which lives half the time in fresh water 
and half the time in salt water. Its nature compels it during summer 
to seek swiftly-flowing streams, where during autumn it deposits its roe 
among pebbles and rocks. Observations have shown that its roe loses 
its vital power as soon as it comes into contact with salt water. The 
young salmon hatched in the streams stay there about two or three years, 
and generally during the rising of the streams in spring return to the 
sea or to large lakes, where the easier access to food makes them grow 
rapidly. The young salmon, when they have reached the sea, as well as 
the full-grown salmon, live on small fish, e. g., herring, launce, smelt, 
&c. When the salmon has become capable of propagating, after a stay 
of one or two years in the sea or some lake, it returns to the streammwhere 
it was born, deposits its roe, and goes back to the sea; and thus its life 
continues to be a regular change of its place of sojourn until it is either 
caught or meets with its death in some other way. Fishermen living 
near the coast can, therefore, not expect good salmon-fisheries unless 
the salmon are protected in the streams during the spawning-season ; 
nor can the fishermen living along the streams hope to see the salmon 
again unless the coast-fishermen carry on fishing in such a manner as 
not to prevent the salmon from going up the streams. Both classes of 
fishermen have, therefore, an equal interest in having the salmon-fish- 
eries regulated in such a manner as to suit the nature and mode of life 
of the salmon; for if this is not done, both the coast waters and the 
streams will soon lose their wealth of salmon. The laws for protecting 
the salmon-fisheries therefore prescribe that no salmon are to be caught 


WIDEGREN—MANAGEMENT OF THE BALTIC FISHERY. 141 


in the streams during their spawning-season in autumn, and that no nets 
shall be set at or near the mouth of streams in such a manner as to hinder 
the salmon from reaching their spawning-places in large numbers. Ex- 
perience has shown that wherever these regulations have been carefully 
observed, the salmon-fisheries have very soon improved considerably. 
Every fisherman, therefore, who has the true interest of the salmon-fish- 
eries at heart, should, above everything else, see to it that the fishery- 
laws are carefully observed in his neighborhood. 

Salmon-fishing in the Baltic is chiefly carried on with nets. <As this. 
method of catching salmon is well known, it needs no further description. 
But salmon may also be caught with lines in the open sea near the outer 
coast. This is done on the southern coast of Sweden, and we shall there- 
fore briefly describe this method of fishing. 

It is well known that the salmon stays in the sea during the latter part 
of autumn, winter, and spring. Whilst the young salmon which spend 
their first year in the sea prefer to stay near the mouths of rivers, or, at 
any rate, not far from the coast, the older ones generally spend the cold 
season of the year in deep water, following the schools of herrings which 
are found there. The fishermen on the coasts of Skane and Bleking 
make use of this circumstance, and during winter and spring, whenever 
the sea is free from ice, and stormy weather does not interfere with fish- 
ing, catch many salmon, which at this time are sojourning in deep water. 

As was mentioned above, hooks and lines are used in this fishery. 
The hooks are laid in the open sea, and the lines are kept in position by 
anchors or heavy weights in the same way as is done in the cod-fishery 
in the open sea. The line is not, as is generally done in other fisheries, 
sunk te the bottom, but is kept floating near the surface by means of 
large cork-floats (Figure 5, Plate I). The line must of course be strong 
and the weight heavy, so the fish, which are generally large and powerful, 
may not carry everything away with them. Asa very long line would 
doubtless get entangled during the winter-storms, only short lines are 
used, measuring about 20 fathoms in length, with no more than three to 
four hooks on each line. To make up for this deficiency a large number 
of lines is set, each with its separate weight. Cheap and very suitable 
weights may easily be obtained by inclosing large pieces of rock in a tri- 
angular lattice-work of wood, with sharp sticks of wood projecting on all 
sides. 

For bait, herrings are generally used, which are attached to the hooks. 
in the manner shown in Figure 5, Plate I. The hook should be of strong 
galvanized-steel wire, of the size and shape shown in Figure 6, Plate III. 

Fishermen who use hooks and lines for salmon-fishing should of course 
be provided with a sufficient number of lines, so they may set new lines 
when going out to sea for the purpose of examining those which have 
been set for some time. As soon as the warm weather sets in, salmon- 
fishing with hooks and lines ceases, partly because the salmon then go 
up the rivers, and partly because the warm temperature of the water 
makes the bait spoil too quickly, so that it becomes entirely useless. 


VII.—THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN AND THE 
eee ne INVESTIGATIONS OF THE SALT-WATER FISH- 
ERIES, 


By AXEL VILHELM LJUNGMAN.” 


IC 


THE NECESSARY BASIS FOR CARRYING ON THE BOHUS- 
LAN SALT-WATER FISHERIES AND THE SCIENTIFIC AND 
PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS RE- 
QUIRED FOR OBTAINING THIS BASIS. 


 §1. Every state ought to consider it as its duty to make scientific 
investigations, at any rate within its own limits. 

In order that a comparatively poor, extensive, and thinly populated 
country may do its duty in this respect, it is doubtless necessary that 
the work be done systematically, according to a well-matured plan, if the 
object in view is to be attained, 7. e., a thoroughly scientific knowledge 
of one’s own country. Societies or individuals may, in this respect, do 
as they deem best--their work and their sacrifices will in any case do 
some good—but the state must act according to a distinct plan, so that from 
want of means one portion of the investigation may not suffer, which, by 
a wiser and more systematic use of all the means at the command of the 
state, might have led to good results without thereby injuring any other part 
of the investigation. 

It is always cheapest to do everything systematically, and is the surest 
way to reach one’s object, and it is almost indispensable at a time when 
so considerable a portion of the public revenues must be devoted to the 
defense of the state against foreign enemies. 

Wealthy states (especially those which possess colonies) can and ought 
to extend their scientific investigations also to uninhabited and uncivil- 
ized portions of the world. In this way we shall, in course of time, attain 
to such a complete scientific knowledge (physico-geographical, geologi- 
cal, mineralogical, botanical, zoological, ethnographical, linguistical, and 
archeological) of our world as our rapidly progressing time demands. 

§ 2. The great services which science has rendered to agriculture, min- 
ing, and industry, as well as to nearly all our trades, and the losses which 
a lack of theoretical knowledge has frequently occasioned, show the ab- 
solute necessity of following the only certain guidance of science. In 
all branches of human activity a desire is manifested at the present 


* Bohuslins Havfisken och de vetenskapliga Ha vfiske undersdkningarna, Af Axel Vilhelm 


Tjungman. Gottenberg, 1878. Translated by Herman Jacobson. 
143 


144 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF®FISH AND FISHERIES. 


time to utilize all the results of science, to abandon old prejudices and 
all endeavors which are only based on accidents. 

The great importance of the fisheries has shown the urgent necessity 
of scientific investigations, so that they may be carried on in the proper 
manner and protected from injuries caused by ignorance and greed, a 
necessity which the government has recognized by making appropria- 
tions and by instituting a course of investigations.' 

§ 3. A suitable fishery legislation and administration of the fisheries 
can likewise only be based on a careful scientific and practical investi- 
gation. It must be remembered that both with regard to the fisheries 
and other industries it is of importance that the state does not meddle 
more than is necessary, for by making too many rules more harm than 
good is often done, as, contrary to all calculations, such rules may fre- 
quently hinder the free development of any trade. To find the medium 
in this respect presupposes a thorough knowledge, both theoretical and 
practical, of the whole trade, and a well-matured plan based on this 
knowledge, which, without too great difficulties, may be carried out in 
such a manner that the results can be calculated beforehand with some 
degree of certainty. Without sufficient knowledge of a trade or indus- 
try it is not possible to gain any firm basis for legislation or calculate 
any of the possible results. 

§ 4. Scientific investigations are, as will be shown below, necessary, 
not only for gaining a theoretical basis for legislation and for successful 
administration, but also for the furthering of the fisheries themselves, as 
even with regard to these they may bring to light facts which may prove 
extremely useful’, A common objection to this view is this: that a 
trade does not need the aid of science, but that it is best to let it de- 
velop freely. Itis well known that science has proved useful to the fish- 
eries as well as to agriculture and other trades, chiefly by showing the 
way in the making of experiments and thus facilitating any improve- 
ments or new inventions, although the great mass of people who grad- 
ually reap the advantages of such inventions hardly ever think about 
the scientific work which necessarily had to precede them. 

Although it is best to keep the fisheries free from too much legislation 
and meddlesome interference of the government, a complete knowledge 
of the entire natural history of fish is both useful and necessary, as well 
as of the proper method of preparing fish for the trade; and in all these 
respects science may extend considerable aid. 

§ 5. This whole field should be investigated scientifically even if no. 


1This paragraph, like some of the following, is taken from former articles of the 
author, viz: ‘‘Report on an expedition for examining the salt-water fisheries in the 
Skagerak and Kattegat, made during the summer of 1871, on board the royal gun-boat 
Gunhild,” Upsala, 1873, (partly given in “Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri,” II. Copenhagen, 
1874, p. 1-14), and ‘‘Prelimindr Berdttelse,” &c.—Preliminary report on the herring and 
herring-fisheries on the western and southern coast of Sweden. Upsala, 1875. 

8 J, MacCulloch ‘On the herring” (Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and 
Arts. XVI. London, 1824), pp. 210-211, 216, 222, 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 145 


material advantage should result from such investigations in the imme- 
diate future. The history of natural sciences and trades furnishes nu- 
merous examples how a science may be studied and worked up for many 
years, in some cases even for a century, without yielding any practical 
result, until all of a sudden some grand invention surprised the public. 
How long, for instance, was electricity considered by the great mass of the 
people as a useless matter, good enough perhaps for the learned to know 
something about, but of no practical value, until its practical application 
produced a sudden and radical change in public opinion. Science ought 
to be cultivated conscientiously and perseveringly for its own sake, and 
sooner or later its results will prove useful in practical life. 

§ 6. As the scientific and practical investigations which come into 
question here are to give us that knowledge which is indispensable for 
obtaining the necessary basis for carrying on and administering the fish- 
eries in the best possible manner, as well as for useful legislation on the 
subject, in fact for a final solution of the whole fishery-question, it will 
be evident that these investigations must extend to everything concern- 
ing the fisheries. These investigations must, therefore, not be confined 
to technical, law, and administrative questions, but must extend to ques- 
tions of economy and natural science. All the different points from 
which the fisheries may be viewed must be considered if any good result 
is to be obtained. For the omission of one of these may essentially 
change the results. A most thorough and complete treatment of the 
whole subject is absolutely necessary. 

§ 7. It is well known that the so-called inductive method is the only 
one both in natural history and in a trade which will lead to a reliable 
general knowledge. From many agreeing facts a deduction is made 
regarding a general law, which will gain in probability in proportion as 
the induction is complete in all its parts. This shows the necessity of 
making aS many observations as possible at different times and places, 
and of comparing these with older observations handed down to us by 
reliable writers. The necessity of making numerous observations during 
a long period of time increases, as there are very frequent exceptions 
from general rules which cannot always be considered as abnormal, and 
as a lack of agreeing facts with regard to even one or two points may 
make it very difficult to reach any certain conclusion. It is, of course, 
not possible to obtain in this way that degree of completeness which 
would lead to absolute certainty. 

With regard to our present subject—the fisheries—one must be careful 
to avoid the very common mistake of making hasty observations or facts 
which have not been fully established* the basis of more or less preten- 


* Under this head comes the use of entirely accidental methods of explanation, 
which is but too frequent. From an accident anything may easily be explained, but 
then such an explanation may be utterly worthless. Anything that is accidental has 
in itself something inexplicable, and stands without its proper causal connection, and 
it is much more difficult to assign its cause than to understand that fact which it is 
intended to explain. 


10 F 


146 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


tious and imposing scientific systems. It must be remembered that in 
science, as little as anywhere else, is there a royal road to reach one’s 
object, and it is often nothing but vanity which has led persons to build 
such air-castles and call them scientific achievements. 

§ 8. The difficulty of finding the causal connection is also much greater 
in that portion of natural history which is most important for our pur- 
pose, that is, the so-called physiology of relations, than in anatomy 
or the history of natural development. ‘The anatomist, after having 
dissected a few specimens and found them to agree, may generally be 
certain that he has ascertained their normal condition, and that any de- 
viations from this which may possibly be discovered in the future must 
be considered abnormal. The anatomist can and must often be satis- 
fied with examining only a few specimens, and may from these draw 
a tolerably certain conclusion; but this would not answer in the physi- 
ology of relations with its many changes and irregularities. Here it is 
necessary to employ every means at our command for taking the greatest 
possible number of observations, and then, after critically examining 
their reliability, and instituting the most careful comparisons between 
them, and by using every method of induction, analogy, and hypothesis 
for reaching a conclusion, to obtain the most probably or at least approx- 
imately correct view. ‘Thus the demonstrative certainty gradually de- 
creases in the physico-mathematical sciences in proportion as we depart 
from the abstract, outward forms of objects, or from general laws or 
component parts, and enter the domain of organic nature, which becomes 
more difficult for the naturalist the more life itself comes into question. 

§ 9. Regarding the general view of nature and the different methods 
of explaining its phenomena, it must be said that a really scientific ex- 
planation, going back to final causes, is scarcely possible, as soon as from 
general views we enter upon details. An explanation from absolutely 
certain causes, carried through consistently, must always move in a 
circle, because the world is a whole, developing systematically, and as 
the various phenomena of nature mutually depend upon each other, so 
that one phenomenon may depend upon another which follows it, whilst 
we from our youth up are accustomed to draw a conclusion by advancing 
from a post hoc to an ergo propter hoc. The aim of natural science is, 
therefore, to be as free as possible from teleological and mechanical prej- 
udices and methods of explanation, and to endeavor to show the actual 
connection between the different phenomena, and not to draw philo- 
sophical a priori conclusions as to their absolute necessity. 

On the material which has been acquired in this manner every one 
must, according to the best of his ability, base his more or less philo- 
sophical theories, being careful, however, to keep these latter strictly 
separate from the facts. 

§ 10. The sources of knowledge to which we are directed as regards 
fish, fishing-waters, and fisheries, are: literature, the experience of fish- 
ermen and superintendents of fisheries, and direct observations and 
experiments. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 147 


As regards literature we must have reference not only to that more 
scientific portion of it contained in book form, but also to that more 
seattered information found in newspapers and periodicals or in the 
various official documents in city or state archives. In order to make 
full use of this source of information so very important for the herring- 
fisheries, it is of course necessary to consult the more important foreign 
works and documents (for example, the Danish, Dutch, and British). 
The importance of studying the special literature of a subject will be self- 
evident if we remember the well-known fact that in those fields of human 
knowledge which have been cultivated most, no one, whatever his natural 
talents may be, can, through bis own exclusive endeavors, obtain that 
knowledge which is stored up in literature for the benefit of posterity, 
much less carry his knowledge very far beyond this limit. A thorough 
acquaintance with all the facts which others have brought to light on a 
certain subject must form the starting-point for those endeavors from 
which the greatest possible results may be expected. 

But it is not only that knowledge which is stored up in literature 
which must be taken into consideration, but everything which has been 
collected, preserved by tradition by the fishermen and the superintend- 
ents of the fisheries. The gathering and working up of this very hete- 
rogeneous material is connected with considerable difficulty, and presup- 
poses a good deal of experience obtained by direct personal observations, 
as well as a varied knowledge of all the literature on the subject. The 
great mass of the people are often more inclined to be influenced and even 
prejudiced by anything coming from foreign parts; the experience of 
foreign countries is doubtless also in many respects richer and more 
raried than our own and more fully corroborated by experiments and 
scientific investigations. The chance of increasing our stock of knowl- 
edge by studying the experience of foreign countries should, therefore, 
not be neglected. In doing this, however, it should be remembered that 
there are great differences of nature, law, and economy between our 
own and other countries, which point is but too frequently lost sight of. 

The material obtained from literature and the experience of fishermen 
must be critically sifted, and for this purpose as well as for extending 
our knowledge beyond this limit, direct personal observations and exper- 
iments are necesscry. Experiments are moreover required to prove the 
correctness of opinions that have been advanced, and of hypothetical 
explanations. 

A full description of the best means for utilizing these various sources 
of knowledge will be given below when each portion of the fishery 
investigations will be treated separately. 

§ ll. Fishing is a trade which absolutely requires special experience. 
This experience embraces the proper use of the different fishing-appa- 
‘See A. Boeck, in “ Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri.” V1. Copenhagen, 1872, p. 7. 

A. V. Liungman, “ Pretiminér Berdttelse”—Preliminary report for 1873-1874, on the 


investigations regarding the herrings and herring-fisheries on the western coast of 
Sweden. Upsala, 1874, p. 70. 


148 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ratus, the preparation of fish, and the use of fishin the household. All 
these points must be worked up carefully and thoroughly so as to give 
all the necessary hints. But as all this experience cannot be gained by 
one man engaged in the fishing-trade—ars longa vita brevis—as much as 
possible of it must be gathered both from old documents and from the 
fishermen themselves, and must then be proved by personal obserya- 
tions, which must also be made with the view of developing and increas- 
ing the material. In order to make this material as valuable as possible 
it is of course highly necessary to become acquainted with the more 
prominent foreign fisheries, especially those which excel ours. 

The technical investigations must therefore relate to the existing con- 
dition of the fisheries but also to their further development and to any 
possible improvements. Among the subjects “which: in this respect: 
deserve special attention, the large periodical Bohuslin herring-fisheries 
doubtless occupy a prominent place. With regard to these fisheries we 
need, above everything else, a brief but complete review of all the 
experience gained in the course of centuries concerning the herring- 
fisheries, the preparation of herring, and the herring-trade; for as it is 
well known that these, our largest fisheries, are periodical, and cease 
entirely for many years at a time, we cannot expect that all the experi- 
ence we need is handed down to us by tradition.’ 

The technical investigations ought moreover be specially directed to 
the scientific treatment of everything relating to the different methods 
of preparing and preserving fish. 

Finally, it would be necessary to carry out according to a wellanatured 
plan all the different experiments required to corroborate our knowledge, 
to try new fishing-laws, new apparatus, methods, and other improve- 
ments. In order to make such technical investigations and experiments 
really valuable and useful, they ought to be committed to persons who 

can devote their whole time to it; for of the young naturalists who are 
generally detailed for such investigations, it cannot be expected that 
they should haye that undivided interest, that local knowledge, and that 
“practigal experience which are absolutely required to make such investi- 
gations truly successful. 

§ 12. As it is the object of the fisheries, as well as of agriculture, to 
utilize the productive powers of nature for human purposes, and this 
not only with regard to the quantity and quality of nature’s productions, 
but also to their preservation and possible development, the chief con- 
dition of success will be a complete and reliable knowledge of the nature 
of these productions, of the causes which create and sustain them, and of 
the mechanical or chemical aids and apparatus by which they may be 
investigated and utilized. By comparing this knowledge with that ex- 
perience which practical fishing constantly supplies, we obtain the so- 


oP; Dubb, “ Anteckningar om sillfishet i Bohusliin ” ( Kgl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Hand- 
lingar for ar 1317), p. 32, 33. ae i c 
6 A, V. Liungman, ‘Om fiskerilagstifiningen for bohus-linska skirgdrden,” IV (Gote- 


borgs-Posten, 1875, mo. 78) 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 149 


called knowledge of the trade, or, in other words, the science of the 
trade. 

The science of the fisheries, 7. e., the knowledge of how to carry on the 
fisheries, fully developed and arranged as a whole, forms the science of 
fishing, properly so called, and in proportion as it is really scientific, fish- 
ing becomes a branch of natural science. 

In order to make the necessary technical investigations, a good knowl- 
edge of natural science is required as well as a special knowledge of those 
branches of natural science which form the theoretical foundation for the 
special science of the fisheries. 

§ 15. As fishing requires a knowledge of the mode of life and other 
characteristics of fish as well as of the fishing-waters, so fishing carried 
on as a trade requires a knowledge of the laws of economy. We there- 
fore need an economy of the fisheries just as much as their practical and 
scientific knowledge, although the latter is certainly an essential condi- 
tion of the former. 

A wise administration must never favor one trade at the expense of 
another which is just as important or perhaps even more so, thereby 
bringing about a conflict of interests which cannot in any way be bene- 
ficial to the state. The fisheries must therefore be considered in their 
relation to other trades and occupations, especially agriculture and nay- 
igation, the general welfare of the state, the means of communication, 
&e. Special regard should also be had to the changed circumstances of 
our times in case the great herring-fisheries should again be revived; 
which event, strange to say, has for nearly half a century been rather 
considered as a curse than as a blessing for Bohuslin.”? The social ques- 
tion of our coast will, therefore, likewise have to be considered—a ques- 
tion whose solution may puzzle our wisest men. All this becomes the 
subject of a special branch of knowledge, which might be termed “ the 
economy of fisheries,” whose aim would be to promote the fisheries by 
working up the various scientific methods and corroborating their use- 
fulness by practical experiments, always considering the economical value 
of the fisheries for the public as the foundation on which all improve- 
ments in the fishery-laws and the administration of the fisheries should 
be based. 

The fisheries should therefore form the subject of the most thorough 
and exact treatment even from an economical point of view, and this all 
the more as the want of such treatment has doubtless been the chief 
cause of the insufficiency of our fishery-legislation. 

§ 14. The investigations must, furthermore, extend to the whole subject 
of law and administration; for since their purpose is to gain that knowl- 
edge which is necessary for carrying on and superintending the fisheries 
in the most efficient manner, attention must not be diverted from this 
object or extended beyond its limits. As such a course would only delay 


7A. V. Ljungman: ‘“ Nagra Ord om de stora bohus-ldnska sillfiskena.” Gottenburg, 1877, 
p- 28. 


150 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the results or prevent us from reaching them,* the investigations must 
be carried on with a special regard to the needs of a good administration, 
which ought, therefore, to be clearly specified. 

A complete knowledge of everything pertaining to law and adminis- 
tration is certainly just as necessary for the legislator as a technical, 
economical, and scientific knowledge. ‘This last-mentioned knowledge 
is necessary for proving the practicability of the legislative and admin- 
istrative measures; and in order that the full significance of these meas- 
ures may be understood, a sufficient knowledge of local and technical 
conditions is required. <A satisfactory solution of the whole fishery- 
question, to serve as a basis for systematic investigations and for a reform 
of fishery-legislation, can therefore only be reached by placing each sep- 
arate part of the question in thoroughly competent hands. The lack 
of such preliminary and preparatory measures is doubtless one of the 
chief causes of deplorable defects in our fishery-legislation and of prac- 
tical mistakes springing from them. 

What we need, therefore, is a complete and systematically arranged 
review of all the laws relating to the Bohuslan salt-water fisheries from 
the oldest times down to the present. Such a review should, as far as 
possible, give the causes of every amendment to these laws and tell us 
how the amended laws worked; the laws should be examined with the 
view of testing their applicability to the changed circumstances of our 
times, and they should finally be compared with the experience of other 
countries. If all this were done in a most thorough manner, we might 
look for truly beneficial results. 

§ 15. In order to fully understand the Bohusiin salt-water fisheries, 
some purely historical investigations are necessary, which may yield 
some material of great value which could not have been obtained in any 
other way. As an illustration of this assertion we may quote the exam- 
ple of Agel Boeck, who, in his well-known work, “ Om Silden og Silde- 
Jiskerierne” (On the herring and the herring-fisheries), has based his 
whole treatment of the important questions, “‘ why the great periodical 
Scandinavian herring-fisheries have ceased ”°, and ‘“ what influence is by 
outward physical conditions exercised on the migrations of the herrings” 
on such investigations. Besides, how could we without such historical 
investigations ever settle the question regarding the nature, spawning- 
time, &c., of the old Bohusliin herrings?" or corroborate or disprove the 


8 Thus it has often been the case that practical objects have been used as a bait for 
carrying through purely theoretical measures, which in no way could prove a benefit 
for the trade. 

9A. Boeck, ‘‘ Om Silden,” &c., I, Christiania, 1871, p. 82-119. 

10 66 se ce oe i p. 79-82, 

1 The supposition regarding the relation of the old Bohuslan herring to the present 
herring forms, as is well known, the basis for all our fishery-legislation since 1852; and 
the opponents of this legislation, therefore, chiefly direct their attacks against this 
supposition. (See ‘ Handlingar rérande sillfisket i bohusldénska Skdrgdrden,” Stockholm, 
1843, p. 71-73, 156,172. ‘‘ Godtebarg’s Handels-och Sjofarts-Tidning, 1853, No. 147, sup- 
plement. ‘‘ Nya Handlingar, §c.,” I, Gottenburg, 1874, p. 22-24, 29-32, 63-66. ) 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 151 


assertion that a severe winter with much ice has a beneficial influence 
on the herring-fisheries, an assertion which has been so strongly made 
by Professor Nilsson and others?” or how could we, in any gther way, 
ascertain the practical working of the older fishery-laws and decide in 
what respect and in how far the fishing-trade has improved, remained 
stationary, or gone down? 

It will scarcely be necessary to say any more regarding the great value 
of historical investigations in themselves and their absolute necessity 
for gaining as complete as possible a knowledge of our fisheries. 

As regards our largest and most famous fisheries, the great periodical 
herring-fisheries, we must in the first place not only examine the possible 
causes (real or supposed) of the periodical cessation of these fisheries, 
which has played such a prominent part in our fishery-legislation, but 
also the causes of the somewhat regular changes in the course and loca- 
tion of the fisheries, and in how far these changes depended on physical 
conditions, &c. By making these investigations we obtain a great mass 
of historical facts which will amongst the rest serve as a guide in framing 
laws in case these great fisheries should revive.’ Much information 
would also be gained in this way, throwing light on many a dark point 
in the natural history of the herring and aiding in solving the difficult 
question of the migrations of the great herring-schools. The literature 
referring to these questions amply proves how important a complete his- 
torical reyiew of the Bohusliin herring-fisheries is for reaching a satis- 
factory solution of the whole herring-question."* 

It is evident that the history of other fisheries will also be very inter- 
esting and may furnish valuable material. The historical part of these 
investigations should, therefore, by no means be omitted or neglected. 

§ 16. The investigations must finally embrace all the facts of natural 
science, which will enable us to master the theoretical conditions “of a 
successful carrying on and administration of the fisheries” in a much 
higher degree*than it is possible for the uneducated fisherman. A scien- 
tific knowledge of nature forms the theoretical basis on which alone a 
wise and beneficial management of the fisheries can be built up. We 


12 *¢ Handlingar rorande, §c.,” p. 64, 67, 74, 77, 156, 163. 

A, W. Malm, Naturhistoriska studier i det fria och: Rammaren. Gottenburg, 1860, p. 5. 

13 The regular changes in the course of the great herring-fisheries, and the consequent 
changes in the quality of the herrings require a legislation to suit these changes. Leg- 
islation should, therefore, be guided by the experience of former centuries. The first 
part of an approaching fishing-period cannot be considered as the standard for the 
whole time it lasts. In all probability it will in its course undergo considerable 
changes, and we must, consequently, look for this standard in the corresponding part 
of former fishing-periods. That this way of judging is correct is proved from the last 
fishing-period (1747-1808). For many of the regulations made during the latter por- 
tion of this period, and based on the experience of the first portion, proved to be anti- 
quated and of little use, and in some cases were even more hurtful than helpful. The 
fishermen themselves, therefore, often demanded changes in the administration and in 
the laws. It must be said, however, that many of these changes were demanded 
from purely egotistical reasons. 

4 Prelimindr berdttelse (Preliminary report) for 1873~74, p. 71-72. 


152 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


need therefore a tomplete and thorough knowledge of the true object of 
the fisheries, of the nature of fish, and of the nature of the water in 
which thg fish live, and finally of all those conditions on which the prop- 
agation, development, and life of fish depend. 

The scientific investigations which are of importance must in the first 
place refer to an increased knowledge of the anatomy, physiology, develop- 
ment, characteristics, and varieties of fish, as well as to their distribu- 
tion, and the probable causes of their appearing and remaining on dif- 
ferent bottoms, and consequent upon this to their varying food, their 
jsolation, hydrological relations, &c. They must also relate to the 
spawning of fish (time, place, whether near the surface or on the bot- 
tom), to their growth, difference of age, food, enemies, sickness, &e., de- 
pendent on physical conditions, their daily life, their regular annual 
migrations (caused chiefly by their desire either to seek food or to prop- 
agate the species), to their sudden appearance or disappearance, and to 
its causes, &c., as also to the nature of the fishing-waters, to the plants 
and animals contained in them as well as to their physico-geographical 
character. In the following we shall endeavor to point out the methods 
which should be followed in gathering all the material which is needed 
for a thorough knowledge of our salt-water fisheries. 

§ 17. For a thorough study of the physiology, development, anatomy- 
&c., of fish it is doubtless necessary, if its results are to answer the in- 
creased demands of our times, that a person should haye leisure, so that 
he can devote his whole time to it, and that he should be in possession 
of all the material and scientific apparatus which are required for such 
investigations. For some of these investigations, well-arranged aquaria 
will be of special value. With regard to these studies the author 
recommended, guided by the experience of foreign countries,” in his 
preliminary report, the establishment of a complete station for scien- 
tific investigations of the sea™ in a suitable place on the Bohuslan 


1© In France chiefly gained by the work of Coste and later by that 6f Lacaze-Duthier 
and in England, France, and Germany by the great public aquaria, as well as in Italy 
by the zoological station in Naples founded by A. Dohrn and subsidized by the govern- 
ment. (See: Bulletin de la société impérial zoologique @acclimatation. 1862, p. 107-114; 
1863, p. XLVII-LXIII; 1864, p. 261-269; 1865, p. 533-541; 1872, p. 164-167, 268.— 
Archives de zoologie expérimentel et générale. 11, p. 1-88.—Preussische Jahrbticher. XXX, 
p. 187-161— Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche zoologie. XXV, p. 457-480.—H. Beta, Die 
Bewirthschaftung des Wassers und die Erndten daraus. Leipzig, 1868, p. 236-248.—J. G. 
Bertram, The harvest of the sea. 3d edition. London, 1873, p. 293-296.—F. Buckland, 
Familiar history of British fishes. London, 1873, p. XI.—On the organization and 
progress of the Anderson school of natural history at Penikese Island. Cambridge, 
Mass., 1874.) 

16 Prelimindr Beriittelse for 1873~74, p. 71. United States Commission of Fish and 
Fisheries. III. Washington, 1876, p. 166. 

17Tn the above-mentioned report the author has expressed the opinion that the 
necessary special hydrological investigations should be carried on by persons specially 
detailed for the purpose, who should have their headquarters at the same station. 
This idea, although not without its advantages, might, however, meet with considers 
able difficulties when carried out practically. 


——s 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 153 


coast, which ought to be under the supervision of competent 
zoologists and botanists and furnished with all the necessary scientific 
apparatus. 

Tt will be self-evident that such an institution would not only further 
the study of this part of natural science in our country, but would be 
almost indispensable for such a study; nor can there be any doubt that 
its activity can and ought to extend to a much larger field than the 
mere investigations of the fisheries. 

§18. In order to gain a sufficient knowledge of the mode of life of fish, 
of their migrations, &c.,in a certain given region, it will be necessary to 
make uninterrupted observations for a number of years with all the 
means at one’s command (especially by fishing at all seasons of the year) ; 
and in order to make such observations truly valuable they should be 
carried on simultaneously in different parts of the given region; for local 
differences in the physical conditions will also produce differences in the 
appearance, mode of life, &e., of the herrings; and by observing the 
herrings only in one place we would just as little gain a general knowl- 
edge of this fish and its mode of life as we would obtain a knowledge of 
the meteorological conditions of a large country by observations gath- 
ered at a single point. In order to gain the true value of phenomena 
observed in a certain place, a more general knowledge is required, which 
ean only be obtained by comparative studies. 

From the foregoing it will be seen how difficult it is to arrive at abso- 
lute certainty, and how necessary, therefore, to base our knowledge on 
the greatest possible number of systematically gathered facts. It will 
also be evident that both the time during which, and the number of 
places where, these facts are gathered should be increased in proportion 
as the kinds of fish which are the objects of investigation are in the 
former case liable to appear at longer intervals, and in the latter case 
are subject to more local changes. 

§ 19. In order to facilitate and to accelerate the acquiring of the de- 
sired knowledge, it will be necessary to have recourse not only to his- 
torical researches, but also to the experience of fishermen. Regarding 
the value of this last-mentioned source of information, it must be borne 
in mind that the information furnished by our fishermen on the mode of 
life and the migrations of fish, &c., are very much on the style of the pre- 
dictions of our old-fashioned weather prophets. These old signs are fre- 
quently of just as little value for the fisheries as for agriculture. But 
although meteorologists have long since shown the worthlessness and 
fallibility of such predictions, people continue to believe in them, for un- 
educated persons are apt to remember the few times when such predic- 


18 See also Preliminiir Berdttelse for 1874-1875, p. 18. The most suitable place for such 

a station would doubtless be the mouth of the Gullmar fiord in the neighborhood of 

Fiskebickskil. Farther north the station could not well be, if it should answer its 

eee also with regard to the investigations of the expected large periodical herring- 
eries. 


154 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


tions proved true, and to forget the many times when they were not ful- 
filled. Such persons will never think of comparing the cases when such 
signs were without any significance whatever with those cases when they 
were followed by certain results, nor do they weigh the probability of the 
one or the other. They are always inclined to follow a post hoc by an 
ergo propter hoc. The opinions of fishermen are also often at variance 
with each other, even with regard to the influence of outward circum- 
stances on the fisheries. It must finally not be forgotten that the nature 
of the fisheries themselves requires great caution in applying results 
gained by positive experience. Fishing is generally carried on with very 
insufficient apparatus and only at that time and in those places where the 
greatest gain may be expected. There is a great difference between the 
occurrence of fish in a certain place and the occurrence of fisheries in 
the same. The fish may, for instance, come in a certain way which 
makes it impossible to catch them with the only apparatus on hand, and 
the fisheries, therefore, come to an abrupt end, although there are plenty 
of fish. The fishermen are, moreover, frequently governed by prejudices 
and actually cease to fish before the most profitable period of the fish- 
ing-season has arrived, simply because they think they have noticed 
some adverse signs. All the information gathered from fishermen must, 
therefore, be sifted in the most critical manner, and the most extensive 
fishing must be carried on by the observer himself with every imaginable 
kind of apparatus, in order to corroborate or disprove the statements of 
the fishermen. 

§ 20. In order to gain more reliable and more complete knowledge than 
can be obtained from fishermen or through historical researches, it is, as 
I remarked above, absolutely necessary to make direct personal obser- 
vations in a number of places. There should be a separate observer in 
every place, who, following a well-devised plan, would make daily ob- 
servations on the fisheries, &¢., which would serve as a basis for a natu- 
ral history of fishes, and for historical and statistical fishery-reports 
(annals of fisheries). The superintendents of the fisheries would cer- 
tainly be able to render much valuable assistance in making these obser- 
vations. 

§ 21. The necessity of comparing the course of the fish, their mode of 
life, and their migrations, with the meteorological and hydrological con- 
ditions, for the purpose of increasing our knowledge of their natural 
history, has long since been recognized, and caused the Royal Scientific 
Society at Gottenburg, as early as the beginning of this century, whilst 
the last great herring-fisheries were still going on, to set a prize for the 
best treatise on ‘The influence of the currents on the Bohuslin herring- 
fisheries.” When the fisheries ceased, Dr. P. Dubb, the most unprejudiced 
and learned of our older authors who have given attention to the Bohus- 
ln herring-fisheries, also expressed the opinion that meteorological and 
hydrological causes occasioned the periodical coming and going of the 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN, 155 


herrings on the coast of Bohuslan, and proposed that the state should 
make an appropriation for a scientific investigation of these causes."° 

It is clear, however, that any scientific investigation which intends to 
ascertain in how far there is any periodicity in the coming and going of 
the herrings, and whether such periodicity applies to our herring-fish- 
eries, and, in case this is so, what laws govern this periodicity, ought to 
extend over at least a century. This length of time need not frighten 
any one, for long before the century has come to a close such investiga- 
tions will have yielded results which will af{aply repay for all the time 
and trouble. 

§ 22. In order to obtain reliable results from combined observations of 
the fish and fisheries and of meteorological and hydrological facts, it 
will be necessary, as I have already said in my above-mentioned prelim- 
inary report,”° to have as complete as possible a series of simultaneous 
observations. This requires a number of persons placed at suitable sta- 
tions, whose observations are collected in one report, as is done, for 
example, with regard to the investigations of the sea made on the coast 
of North Germany.) Without such exact, reliable, and uninterrupted 
observations of the fisheries and their physical conditions made during 
a longer period and for the purpose of comparison, it will be utterly im- 
possible to reach any higher degree of probability or certainty. 

§ 23. All the necessary meteorological observations had best be made 
by the stations of the Royal Meteorological Central Institute, which 
have been established on the western coast of Sweden; but for hydro- 
logical observations, as well as for observations of the fish and fisheries, 
we have as yet no stations for making continuous observations”. As 
the application of hydrological data to the natural history of fish and 
the course of the fisheries absolutely requires that these observations 
should be uninterrupted and go on all the year round, especially during 
the cold season, when the principal fisheries are carried on, it will be 
self-evident that all hydrological observations which have been made 
hitherto chiefly during the summer months cannot be of any very great 
value. This is not said to detract from the generally acknowledged 
value of one or the other portion of purely theoretical hydrology, such as 
we possess in the investigations of the Swedish waters made by Forch- 
hammer, Edlund, Meyer, Mohn, F. L. Eckman, and others; but what we 


19 P, Dubb, Anteckningar om sillfisket i Bohuslin (Kgl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar, 
1817), p. 46. Similar investigations have for nearly the same purpose been made in 
several foreign countries, and some of our own writers have acknowledged their im- 
portance. 

20 Prelimindr berdttelse, 1873-1874, p.70; 1874-1875, p. 17. 

See: Ergebnisse der Beobachtungs stationen an den Deutschen Kiisten iiber die physick - 
lischen Eigenschaften der Ostssee und Nordsee und die Fischerei. 1873-1876. Berlin, 1874- 
1877. 

2 Since this was written the Nautical and Meteorological Bureau has been estab- 
lished, which doubtless will supply this want, and farnish the necessary hydrological) 
observations in the shortest time and with the least outlay. 


156 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


have said merely refers to hydrology as an aid in the study of ichthy- 
ology and the fisheries. 

§ 24. But the separate hydrological conditions, such as the different 
currents of the sea, its temperature, the proportion of salt and gas con- 
tained in the water, &c., must be studied, not only in themselves and 
in their relation to the fisheries, but also with regard to their influence 
on the vegetable and animal life of the sea. The scientific investiga- 
tions of the sea must therefore endeavor to find the connection between 
the different organic forms, both in a general way and more especially 
with regard to those that are of economical value for man. Thus, with 
regard to the herring, science ought to find out the influence which 
the diatoms and other animalcule exercise on it, and the conditions on 
which their occurrence and distribution depend.”? The vegetable and 
animal life of the sea must therefore be studied, not only from a mor- 
phological, physiological, descriptive, and physico-geographical point of 
view, but also with regard to the position which each individual form 
occupies in the great household of nature. 

§ 25. The bottom of the sea must not be forgotten, but must be made 
the subject of a thorough scientific investigation, both as regards its oro- 
graphical and geognostical character, not only in itself but chiefly with 
regard to the influence which it exercises on the currents of the sea and 
on its vegetable and animal life. 

§ 26. The extent of the different scientific investigations is thus clearly 
given by the very character of the study of natural history, which, the 
more scientific it is, the more it should be a comparative study, because 
nature forms a continuous whole where one link of the chain is con- 
nected with and depends on another, so that no satisfactory result can 
ever be obtained if one branch is studied as a specialty to the exclusion 
of those with which it is connected. 

§ 27. As has been mentioned above, all such investigations of the sea 
and the fisheries, if they are to lead to the desired result, must be car- 
ried on simultaneously in as large a number of places as possible; for 
in no other way can a deep insight be gained into the hydrological con- 
ditions of the nature of the fisheries themselves, and of their connection 
with meteorological causes. These investigations must, therefore, as is 
already done in meteorology, be made by the united efforts of several 
nations. The investigation of the nature of those small seas round which 
so many of our modern civilized nations dwell—Englishmen, Dutch, 
Germans, and Scandinavians—and which, more than any other seas, are 
full of fishing and sailing vessels, should certainly be of such interest 
for science, the fisheries and navigation, that there should be no delay 
in making them. Germany has also in this respect made a beginning, 
by sending out expeditions, and by having daily observations taken at 


% J. MacCulloch ‘‘On the herring” (The Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and 
Arts. XVI. London, 1824), p. 219. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. Lat 


a number of stations. This example is now, to some extent, followed 
by Norway, where the government has, since the year 1861, instituted, 
at its expense, a series of investigations of the herring and cod fisheries, 
and where, at the present time (1876), the chiefly zoological investiga- 
tions have not only been made in that portion of the open sea where, 
according to Prof. G. O. Sars, the Norwegian herring has its proper 
home, but also in more distant portions of the ocean. The meteorolog- 
ical societies of Utrecht and Edinburgh have, the former from 1856 to 
1864, the latter since 1873, directed their attention to this subject, although 
they have, so far, at least, not published any of their results. 

§ 28. In Sweden, this special branch of natural science has till quite 
recently been somewhat neglected by the great mass of our people, 
although it cannot be denied that several of our naturalists have, by 
their self-sacrificing tabors, produced very important and valuable scien- 
tific works in some very closely related subjects. Thus there are very 
few parts of the world whose aquatic fauna and flora are so well known 
(with regard to the different species) as Bohusliin. All these labors, 
which certainly must aid the investigation of the fisheries, have been 
made for an entirely different purpose, and, therefore, as a general rule, 
pass by the most important points for owr subject. 

The proposition which has been made several times to institute a more 
or less exhaustive scientific investigation of the fisheries, has, therefore, 
not yet led to any positive result, the cause of which must chiefly be 
found in the little importance of our fisheries to the state, an importance 
which possibly has been somewhat undervalued. The most extensive, 
and doubtless the most valuable of these older propositions, is the 
one which Prof. C. J. Sundevall made with regard to the scientific and 
technical sides of the salt-water fisheries, more than twenty years ago.” 

§ 29. As I have endeavored to show in the foregoing, all these investi- 
gations will be most successful and yield the fullest scientific results by, 
Jirst, establishing a complete station for scientific investigations of the 
sea on the coast of Bohuslan ;”° and, second, by appointing a sufficient 
number of observers to gather continuous data regarding the fisheries 
at the more important fishing-stations;77 and, third, by instituting a spe- 
cial meteorological and hydrological investigation of the sea.? 


24 Jahresbericht der Commission zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der deutschen Meere 
im Kiel. I-III. Berlin. 1873, 1875. 

» Stockholm’s liins Kgl. Hushallnings-Séillskaps handlingar (Transactions of the Stock- 
holm Economical Society), VI, p. 211-212. 

*® Prelimindr Berdttelse, 1873-1874, p. 71; 1874-1875, p. 18. See above, § 17. Since 
this was written, such a station for zoological investigations has been established 
by the liberality of Dr. A. Regnell, at the instigation of Prof. S. Lovén, at Christine- 
berg, in the district of Skaftéland; but we do not know in how far this station will 
make those investigations, which are of most importance for the fisheries. 

7 Prelimindr Berdttelse, 1873-1874, p.74; 1874-1875, p. 17-18. 

°° Prelimindr Berdttelse, 1873-1874, p.70; 1874-1875, p. 17-19. This last-mentioned 
wish may be said to have been fulfilled by the establishment of the ‘Nautical and Me- 
teorological Bureau,” which has been placed under the direct supervision of the Royal 
Navy Department. 


158 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Tt ought to be an object of special interest for us to obtain an accurate 
knowledge of our own waters, especially since such a knowledge would 
be of as great practical and scientific importance to our fisheries and 
navigation as the geological investigations have been to our agriculture 
and mining. The proposed investigations of the sea are no less neces- 
sary, and will certainly prove just as useful. 

§ 30. With regard to the arrangement of these investigations, it may be 
well in this place to add a few remarks concerning their scientific por- 
tion. It has, at least of late years, become a custom with us to put all 
such investigations into the hands of a committee of older scientists. 
Although cases could be mentioned where such an arrangement was not 
only not hurtful but proved of absolute benefit, such cases must certainly 
be considered as exceptions. The most extensive scientific investigation 
ever undertaken in Sweden, viz, the geological survey, has been arranged 
on a totally different plan, which, most assuredly, is the only one which— 
deserves to be followed. In foreign countries, such investigations have, 
as far as known, hardly ever been placed in the hands of a commit- 
tee. In Norway, where the fisheries are of much greater importance, 
and where, consequently, the investigations must be much more exten- 
sive, not only the making of a plan for such investigations regarding 
the herring and the herring-fisheries, but the whole management of the 
investigations has been placed in the hands of quite a young man, who 
had not even finished his course at the university? In Germany, these 
investigations have certainly been entrusted to a commission, but Its 
members do all the principal work themselves.” In the United States 
of North America, the investigations of the fisheries, both as regards 
their arrangement and their execution, have been placed in the hands 
of one and the same man.! If no person or persons can be found to 
whom the investigations may be entrusted. it is not worth while to make 
any; for a committee, even if its members are fully aware of the object 
of the investigations, can scarcely reach any valuable results through 
others, unless these possess the faculty of acting for themselves. 

In case such a committee should, however, be considered indispensable, 
it will be important to place at its head a man who will not be led astray 
by any interest foreign to the proper object of these investigations. 

If any investigations of this kind are to be truly useful, thei result 
must be laid before the public just as it is, without any additions or 
emendations. 

§ 31. It has already been mentioned in the foregoing, and is really self- 
evident, that a well-devised and detailed plan is absolutely necessary, 
so the object may be reached with the greatest possible saving of labor, 


30 Juhresbericht der Commission zur wisserschaftlichen Untersuchung der deutschen Meere 
in Kiel. I-III. Berlin, 1873, 1875. 

3i United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. 1-III. Reports of the Commis— 
sioner for 1871-1872, 1872-1873, 1873-1874, and 1874-1875. Washington, 1875-1876. 


eee 


[THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 159 


have no connection with the point in question. Many a practical and 
scientific investigation has by its result proved the truth of this assertion. 

It is, furthermore, necessary to have as complete as possible an outfit 
of all the required apparatus of the best construction; for as the expenses 
are small compared with the result, one should not, through negligence 
or foolish saving, run the risk of obtaining incomplete or incorrect results. 
No expense, labor, or care should therefore be spared to make the ap- 
paratus as complete and as efficient as possible; for the result of the 
investigations to a large extent depends on this. 

We need not mention again, in conclusion, that such numerous and 
exhaustive investigations must be continued without interruption for a 
long period of time, and that no grand results must be looked for after 
a few years, or expected from the work of one person; for the different 
portions of the investigation ought to be distributed among a consider- 
able number of persons. 

§ 52. A rich field is thus opened for scientific investigations and for 
practical experiments, which must be worked up in all its parts before 
that knowledge and experience can be gained which is the essential con- 
dition of an entirely satisfactory arrangement and management of our 
salt-water fisheries. Even if the time when this point shall have been 
reached, as regards our knowledge of the nature of fish and of the sea, 
is far distant, we should not hesitate to make use of the little knowledge 
we possess for improving the condition of our salt-water fisheries and 
further their success by legislative and administrative reforms, always 
bearing in mind, however, the incomplete and insufficient character of 
that knowledge on which our reforms are based. The consciousness of 
the small extent and insufficiency of our knowledge should not make us 
indifferent or indolent, and we must not forget that a clear knowledge 
of difficulties is a good step forward towards overcoming them. 

if a basis has to be found for legislation on which the welfare of thou- 
sands of human beings depends, no mistakes should be made; least of 
all such as could easily be avoided by uprightness and a little self-criti- 
cism. - Our actual knowledge of the subject is unfortunately still so lim- 
ited that there can be no question of demanding one or the other axiom, 
which has been by no means fully proved an infallible basis for legis- 
lation; but it is rather a duty to point out the defects in our knowledge 
and endeavor to remedy them as soon as possible. In saying this we do 
not mean that our knowledge, insignificant in itself, could not serve as a 
basis for some improvements in our legislation; for it must not be for- 
gotten that as long as perfection cannot be reached we must endeavor 
to make the best use of what we possess. It is, under all circumstances, 
the duty of the scientific investigator, in a field like the fisheries, to give 
all the facts just as they are, and not, from a desire to appear as a great 
discoverer, or from fear of censure, to hide the naked truth. 


160 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


7: 


BRIEF REVIEW OF OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE 
MODE OF LIFE AND THE MIGRATIONS OF THE HERRING, 
AND THEIR PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CAUSES. 


1. The rich herring-fisheries which took place on the coast of Bohus- 
lin at the end of last year (1877) and the beginning of the present year 
(1878) have caused me to publish a brief statement of the present con- 
dition of the scientific investigations regarding the mode of life of the 
herring and its annual and other migrations, as well as of those nat- 
ural conditions which may be their causes. I have done this with the 
special object of making the scattered scientific material accessible for 
the general public, as this certainly would be of practical use in case the 
herrings should again regularly visit our western coast in any consider- 
able numbers. The amount of knowledge we possess is small; but if 
brought within the reach of a larger public it may nevertheless have a 
beneficial influence on the fisheries. So far, we do not possess any sci- 
entific collection of all the material prepared with a view to the spe- 
cial needs of our coast; just as little any general and comprehensive 
epitome of it. In order, therefore, to make this treatise as timely as 
possible I have collected all the facts in my possession, and by compat; 
ing them with the results of the most recent foreign investigations I have 
endeavored to make them as complete and reliable as possible, which, 
however, has not materially changed my previous views. ‘These more or 
less strictly scientific investigations have so far not produced any result 
which could lead to a complete and much-needed reform in this branch 
of human knowledge; but in most points our knowledge is just as incom- 
plete and as little critically sifted as it was a hundred years ago. 

2. The object of this entirely preliminary review of our present know!- 
edge of the mode of life and the migrations of the herring is, first, to give 
in as brief and as clear and systematic a form as possible all the mate- 
rial which has gradually accumulated in the course of time, in order to 
make it more accessible both to scientists and to fishermen; second, to 
give a review of the historical development of the more important points 
in our knowledge, in order, if possible, to prevent mistakes in the future, 
and to facilitate a more correct understanding of all the circumstances ; 
and, third, to show the necessity and to point out the course and possible 
results of continued scientific investigations. An entirely satisfactory 
scientific review of all our knowledge presupposes an ample amount of 
material critically sifted, consisting in observations made uninterrupt- 
edly during a long period of time at a large number of places; for, as in 
meteorology, all truly scientific knowledge must be based on a collection 
and comparison of as large a number of observations as possible, made 
by reliable persons during a long period of time and in many different 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 161 


places. The most extensive and most complete number of observations 
will bring our knowledge as near actual truth as possible. It will be 
self-evident that whenever, as in the case of the fisheries, we have to do 
with periodical changes embracing long periods of time, there will be 
special need of many and long-continued observations. 

3. But as such entirely sufficient material is for the present not 
accessible, and could not possibly be procured during the comparatively 
short time which I have been able to devote to the investigation cof the 
herrings and the herring-fisheries on the western coast of Sweden,” even 
if I had had ever so many able assistants, I cannot do better than to use 
the material on hand, which, certainly from a scientific point of view, is in- 
sufficient, but which, nevertheless, possesses some practical value. Hven 
the most careful preparation of this heterogeneous mass of material 
must, however, be defective, because no satisfactory result can be reached, 
unless we possess a thorough knowledge of all the points based on the most 
comprehensive scientific material. Although, in a work like the present, 
it may be important to give in each case the exact source from which 
the information has been drawn, I have thought fit to deviate from this 
generally observed rule, chiefly because it is my intention to treat the 
whole subject more fully in a larger work which Lam preparing, the title 
of which will be “On the Herring and the Herring-Fisheries,” and also 
to reduce the time® and cost of this brief review as much as possible. 
I nevertheless hope that this little work may be of some use, and prove 
a help to those of our writers on the fishery-question who by different 
circumstances are confined to the observations of others. 

4, Natural science, considered as a systematic review of all nature, is 
constantly growing more many-sided and more complicated, in propor- 
tion as it develops and as it is simplified by having many different facts 
condensed into general axioms (‘‘ Les sciences progressent en se simplifiant,” 
Leibnitz). Nature forms a continuous whole, all parts of which are con- 
nected by an indissoluble causal connection both among themselves and 
with the constantly developing universe; the scientific investigation of 
a natural object or a natural phenomenon can reach completeness only 
in proportion as it is many-sided. It is a very common mistake to view 
the different phenomena isolated from others; and science suffers in 
consequence, entire systems being built on such incomplete views, which 
may for the time being satisfy at least the less scientific and critical 
portion of the public, but which are very hard to root out, all the harder 


®Since July, 1873, I have (commissioned by the government) been busy in collecting 
such scientific data regarding the natural history of the herring and the herring-fish- 
eries as I deemed necessary for improved legislation on our herring-fisheries. 

The greatest difficulty has been experienced and almost insurmountable hinderances 
placed in the way of gaining the necessary time for a work like the present, by the 
necessity of carrying on simultaneously the investigations regarding the other por- 
tions of the biology of the herring, and the many other different points in this whole 
herring question, the legislative, administrative, and economical parts of which have 
taken up the greater portion of my time spent on the coast of Bohuslin. 


a 


162 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


when they are propped up by the strong pillars of authority. The dif- 
ferent changes in the development of science follow entirely different 
methods, and the investigations of the period immediately preceding 
ours, devoted more to special branches, have doubiless, through their 
results, furnished a very necessary basis for the more many-sided tenden- 
cies of our present science. 

5. Only through long periods of time the human race can gradually 
reach a higher and more complete knowledge. The history of sciences 
shows in every branch of knowledge an exceedingly slow development, 
quicker at times, but at other times slow, stationary, and even retro- 
grading. Even the gaps in the historical material, or the just as com- 
mon and easily-explained custom of directing attention from the less 
important to the most important representatives of scientific develop- 
ment, lead a less experienced and thoughtful man to entirely different 
points than those in question. It is therefore best, as a general rule, 
not to look for too much * that is new in science” in an author who has 
in his special line of scientific investigation been preceded by many and 
prominent writers who have used all the old material, and who, having 
solved those problems which were of easy solution, have left the most 
difficult questions unanswered.* But even of the most unassuming 
author we may demand thai he shall treat his subject from the present 
scientific point of view. 

6. A remarkable misconception of the aim of scientific work, which 
even in our time is not altogether rare, is the idea that the object of the 
naturalist consists chiefly in increasing the scientific material by making 
rich collections of objects and observations, by describing everything 
as minutely as possible, and by combining all the facts to a whole, which 
is then occasionally termed in a somewhat contemptuous manner “a 
compilation.” A higher view of science must, however, disapprove of 
such a lowering of that most important kind of scientific work, which is far 
different from mere compilation, which only aims at arranging the works 
of several authors systematically in one work. In saying this I do not 
mean to deny the value or necessity of scientific collections or compila- 
tions, but merely to raise a faint protest against those who overestimate 
these compilations and undervalue combined scientific activity. Science 
doubtless needs as complete and as critically sifted material as possible, 
but this material in itself is not yet science. The object of the natu- 
ralist, therefore, does not only consist in the constant accumulating of 
observations in order to reveal hitherto unknown facts or to corroborate 
known facts, but in combining the material gathered by himself and 


54 If we therefore go over the works of older authors on this subject in chronological 
order, we soon find that their views only very gradually become clearer and more dis- 
tinct, and that the more critically sifted and arranged axioms which we intend to 
give we by no means owe altogether to our predecessors. Only by joining the various 
facts and arranging them systematically they become important, and not least by 
thereby showing their insufficient character if viewed from a truly scientific point of 
view. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 163 


others into a whole. The last-mentioned work is no less important than 
the former, and is actually the really scientific portion of the work. 

7. Even in biology there are many questions which cannot be satis- 
factorily answered by one person, but which demand the systematic work 
of several naturalists, just as is the case in meteorology. That this is 
specially necessary with regard to our subject will be evident when we 
think of the complete series of observations which are needed—observa- 
tions referring not only to biology, but also to meteorology, hydrology, 
&e.; for only by making full observations in all these directions can we 
arrive at any satisfactory result. And in order to have these observa- 
tions as full and systematic as possible there should be a number of sta- 
tions working according to one and the same plan.® 

Although the time is certainly very far distant when sufficient obser- 
vations will have been collected to furnish the necessary material for a 
satisfactory scientific solution of our problem, we shall see from the fol- 
lowing that, as far as Bohuslin is concerned, a complete meteorological 
station would be extremely useful during a rich fishing-season. Those 
who devote themselves to the herring-fisheries would gain an increased 
knowledge of the herring, its mode of life, and its migrations, and their 
dependence on the changes of the weather, and such a knowledge would 
certainly be of great practical use to them. 

8. In order to gain a correct view of the causes of the irregularities 
in the mode of life and the migrations of the herring, it is specially neces- 
sary to get as complete a knowledge as possible of the influence which 
physical and biological causes exercise on the herring. 

In treating this very difficult and but little known subject it must not 
be forgotten that hitherto fishing, carried on as a trade, has been almost 
the only means of observing the influence of such causes; and as fish- 
ing is only carried on at those seasons and places and with those imple- 
ments which promise the greatest success, it will be clear how incom- 
plete and unreliable our knowledge must be. Great caution is required 
in gathering and receiving information, for mere fanciful and hypothet- 
ical theories lead us only farther away from our true object. This part 
oi my work had chiefly to be confined to the collecting and arranging of 
all the data found in literature. 

9. We must first consider the influence which the su» and the moon 

xercise. The sun produces day and night and the four seasons. The 
changes produced by the turning of the earth round its axis and round 
the sun act not only through the greater or smaller quantity of light, but 
in a still higher degree through the differences of temperature and the 
general changes in the weather which they produce. Attempts have 


**Those who have to do this preparatory work should be fully impressed with the 
fact that the result of their labor will chiefly benefit the scientists of the future. They 
must, therefore, sacrifice their own scientific vanity and the hope of reaping the fruits 
of their labor, but be satisfied to know that it will form part of the foundation of the 
science of the future. This self-sacrificing work may well be said to ennoble him who 
engages in it, and who deserves the esteem and gratitude of humanity. 


164 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


even been made to prove that the sun produces considerable periodical 
changes in the weather by the regularly changing number of the solar 
spots. The moon, on the other hand, exercises an important influence 
through the difference of light which her changes produce, through 
the tides regulated by her, and the different currents occasioned by the 
tide, which are chiefly caused by the attraction of the earth. In this 
last-mentioned respect the sun exercises a similar but weaker influence, 
which more or less modifies that of the moon. 

10. As regards the influence of sound on the herring, it is well known 
how easily it is frightened by any unusual noise. There is no doubt that 
the sense of hearing is not very strongly developed in the herring, 
although the old opinion, which was held even by Linné, that fish are 
entirely deaf, has long since been proved to be erroneous. The herring 
generally returns immediately to the place from which a sudden noise had 
scared itaway. It has also been sufficiently proved that it is highly im- 
probable that a long-continued noise may drive the herrings away from 
places which they have been in the habit of visiting from time imme- 
morial. But even quite recently it has again been maintained that such 
has been the case, and steamboats, men-of-war, fortresses, fishermen, 
coopers, &¢., have been accused of having by noise brought the herring- 
fisheries in some places to a premature end; but no satisfactory proof 
for any such assertions has ever been brought forward. The herrings 
have disappeared from places where the thunder of cannon has never 
been heard, and where no steamboats have ever come, whilst they have 
continued to make their appearance in localities where steamboats and 
the shooting of guns were frequent. As far as steamboats are concerned 
we may specially mention the mouth of the Thames, the Firth of Forth, 
the Sound, the Great Belt, &c. It is certain that thunder causes the 
herrings to go to so great a depth that they cannot be reached with 
the common fishing-implements, which will be further proved below by 
facts; and a violent cannonade may, of course, have the same effect. It 
is well known that a strong wind blowing towards the coast often hinders 
or interrupts the approach of the herrings, but it is scarcely probable 
that the roaring of the waves when dashing against the rocks produces 
the same effect. 

11. Regarding the influence of electricity, we still are without the neces- 
sary observations on which any certain opinions might be based. It has 
been known from olden times that during a thunder-storm the herrings 
seek the deep water, but so far it is impossible to say whether this action 
is caused by the thunder, the glare of the lightning, the electricity itself, 
or all these influences combined. Valenciennes says that the herrings 
become violently excited by thunder, and that newly-hatched herrings 

36 There is a deeply rooted conviction among the fishermen that the changes of the 
moon exercise a most decided influence on the mode of life and the migrations of the 
herring. In examining the different opinions entertained by fishermen, it was found, 


however, that all this supposed influence may be reduced to the few above-mentioned 
cases, and that it is by no means very important. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 165 


may suddenly leave the coast from this cause. The Dutch Meteorological 
Institute at Utrecht says, in its report of 1859, on observations made 
during the so-called “ great fisheries,” “that during a thunder-storm ac- 
companied by heavy rain the herrings do not come up to a height where 
they can be caught till dawn”; and the Meteorological Society of Edin- 
burgh mentions “that according to their observations there will be good 
fishing the same day when a considerable thunder-storm extends over the 
greater portion of Eastern Scotland, but that there will be scarcely any 
fishing on the day following on that portion of the coast-waters which, 
So to speak, forms the outer edge of the great deep.” G. C. Cederstrom 
believes that he has found “a surprising connection between the course of 
the fish and electricity.” It seems, however, that this “connection” may 
be ascribed to other causes than the influence of ‘cosmic electricity.” 

12. Regarding the influence of light we possess a considerable num- 
ber of observations, and opinions based on them. Light is therefore 
justly considered as one of the more important causes which exercise an 
influence on the more or less regular course of the herrings. We shall 
below give a full account of these observations and of the various opin- 
ions based on them. The herring, like many of our salt-water fish, can- 
not bear a very strong light, or prefers at any rate a dim light. Neu- 
crantz therefore supposes that the glare of the lightning drives the 
herrings into deeper water.” 

It is well known that both the herring and the small herring stay in 
deeper water during the day than during the night on account of the 
light, although the depth, of course, varies according to the greater or 
smaller intensity of the light. A bright moonlight*night is therefore 
considered less favorable for herring-fishing, because the herring stay 
in deeper water. It is, however, just as probable that this opinion has 
been created by the increased difficulty of catching the herrings in a 
bright light, as by the supposition that in the darkness the herrings 
find some protection from their pursuers, and therefore seek dark places 
even during day-time.*® This probably also causes the influence which 
the varying degree of transparency of the water exercises on the fish, 
eries, fishing always being best when the water is less transparent or 
turbid, or when the rays of light are broken by small waves. 

The changes of light and darkness caused by the setting and rising of 
the sun seem to have a great influence on the herring, exciting them 
considerably and causing them to come up from the deep; fishing with 
floating nets is consequently most profitable at those times. If during 
very dark nights the herrings keep in such deep water that they can- 
not be reached with the floating nets, it happens occasionally that the 
light of the rising moon attracts them towards the surface so the nets 

*" To show how sensitive fish are to the influence of light, we may mention the fact, 


that codfish kept in shallow vessels open to the sun have become blind from the strong 
light. 


8 When seeking food the herrings are, even in day-time, not unfrequently found 
near the surface of the water. 


166 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


can be quickly filled. The oblique direction in which the rays of the 
sun and the moon strike the surface of the water doubtless has a great 
influence. In many places the fishermen use torches during fishing- 
firmly convinced that the herrings are at, night-time attracted towards 
the surface by light. Valenciennes mentions an observation made by 
French fishermen, ‘that in winter the herrings do not begin’ to stir 
until the sun rises, when they come nearer the surface, and that the 
same also applies to the newly-hatched herrings.” 

13. Ofall meteorological causes, the temperature of the air seems to exer- 
cise the most decided influence on the herrings, chiefly through its influ- 
ence on the weather in general, and more especially on the temperature of 
the water and the quantity of herring-food. The herring (as we shall 
show farther on) prefers a certain even temperature, and as this is 
not found near the surface or near the coast, it goes into deeper water 
or farther away from the coast. We thus possess numerous data show- 
ing that both the herring and the small herring have by cold weather 
been hindered from approaching the coast, or that the fisheries which 
had already commenced during mild weather have been interrupted 
from the same cause. Durmg the winter herring-fisheries mild weather 
is therefore generally considered -favorable, although this is certainly 
not the case under all circumstances. For it is well known from the 
last great Bohuslin herring-fisheries as well as from the western coast 
of Scotland, that the remaining of the snow on the mountains and the 
consequent considerable cold are thought to promise good winter fishing, 
whilst thawing weather produced by a southeasterly wind is considered 
unfavorable. Gréat heat has just as much influence on the fisheries as 
great cold, and the fisheries which are carried on during the warm sea- 
son are just as much inconvenienced by the heat as the winter fisheries 
by the cold. The herrings seem to keep at a certain depth which is 
regulated by the temperature, so that in moderately mild weather they 
are nearer the surface, and at a greater depth either in very cold or very 
warm weather. Miinter relates, that in Pomerania the wicker baskets 
for catching herrings must be placed deeper, as in spring the warmth of 
the sun increases; and it is well known from the large fisheries which 
during summer and the beginning of autumn are carried on in the north- 
western portion of the North Sea, that cooler weather brings good fish- 
ing. After a very hot spring and summer the herrings are also said not 
to come so near the eastern coast of Scotland as they do otherwise. 
There it has, however, been noticed that a high temperature at the be- 
ginning of the fisheries, if immediately followed by a comparatively lower 
temperature, has been favorable to fishing. It is well known on the 
Limfiord (Denmark) that a warm summer is generally followed by rich 
autumn fisheries, so that the saying has become proverbial there, “* Many 
flies, many herrings.” Both the herring and the small herring are 
northern fish which like cool but not entirely cold water, and some of 
our most important fisheries are therefore carried on during the coldest 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 167 


season of the year. If the cold is too severe, however, the herrings are 
thought to become torpid. 

The temperature of the air thus seems to exercise its influence chiefly 
through its extremes, which the herrings cannot well stand, and through 
its influence on the spawning of the herrings. During the spawning- 
process the herrings need a certain even temperature, and, therefore, in 
case of great heat or cold, go to deeper spawning-places. The temper- 
ature of the air, therefore, has a much greater influence on the fisheries 
of spawning herrings than on the common herring-fisheries, whilst the 
latter are more influenced by wind and current. The influence of the 
temperature of the air will be more noticeable when fishing is carried 
on with floating nets than when stationary nets are used. 

As different winds produce a different temperature, and thus exercise 
an essentially different influence on the herrings, we shall, farther on, 
when speaking of the influence of the wind, give more data regarding 
the influence which the temperature of the air has on the herring. 

After a mild winter, and during a mild, early spring, the spawning of 
those herrings which spawn in spring and the spring-herring fisheries 
begin somewhat earlier than otherwise. When in spring the air gets 
warmer the young herrings seek shallow waters, but when cooler weather 
sets in they return to the deep water. 

14. The pressure of the air, as far as known, only exercises an influence 
on the herrings through the changes which it produces in the weather 
and in the direction and force of the wind; for all we know regarding 
the direct influence of the pressure of the air on the sea and thereby on 
the herrings is the fact that it is not very considerable. Observations 
which in this respect have been made with regard to other fish are not 
sufficiently numerous and general to base any certain opinion on them. 

The Meteorological Society of Edinburgh has published the results 
of their comparison between the observations on the course of the fish- 
eries made by the superintendents of fisheries during the years 1867-1872, 
and the simultaneous meteorological observations, from which it appears 
that the richest hauls were generally made when the barometer was 
“high and steady,” whilst the fishing was not so good when the barom- 
eter was “low.” Frank Buckland, however, has recently directed atten- 
tion to an article, by J. Salmon, of Lowestoft, in “Land and Water,” 
January 16, 1862, according to which an “unsteady” barometer had 
during the autumn herring-fisheries in the Southern North Sea (the so- 
called ** Yarmouth fisheries”) been favorable to fishing. Itis well known 
that fishing is good when the herrings keep at a moderate depth, and 
the strength of the wind and the motion of the water are favorable to 
the use of fishing-apparatus. 

In the Skagerack the lower or higher state of the barometer has a 
considerable influence on the herring-fisheries, both through its influence 


on the weather in general and more especially on the wind and the cur- 
rents of the sea. 


168 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


15. Regarding the influence which fog and haze have on the herrings, 
we possess scarcely any information except the observation made by 
the Dutch floating-net fishermen that foggy weather is not favorable to 
fishing. Fog and haze probably have a similar influence as a cloudy 
sky, but doubtless they often injure the fisheries by impeding the sailing 
near the coast. Nothing definite is known concerning the influence 
which the different degrees of moisture in the air or the evaporations 
from the surface of the water may possibly have on the herrings. 

16. The clouds also must be considered. A cloudy sky is generally 
thought to be favorable to fishing; this idea probably originates in the 
circumstance that clouds produce a subdued light, which brings the 
herrings nearer to the surface and renders it more difficult for them to 
see and escape the fishing-apparatus. During the night clouds will 
diminish the warmth, the lower regions of the air and the surface of the 
water will, therefore, become cooler, and by day-time clouds will prevent 
the upper portions of the water from getting toowarm. The greater or 
less degree of cloudiness by day or night is therefore of considerable 
importance for the fisheries, especially during summer. 

17. Regarding the influence of rain, snow, or hail on the herrings, it 
will easily be understood that this chiefly depends on its connection with 
other meteorological conditions. When it rains or snows the sky is 
generally covered with clouds, the pressure of the air is lower and the 
weather milder (the latter caused, among other things, by latent warmth 
being set free). Rain or snow is therefore generally considered favor- 
able for fishing. Excessive rains, however, followed by floods, are con- 
sidered unfavorable in Seotland. When rain is accompanied by a 
thunder-storm or a hurricane, it is of course these last-mentioned phe- 
nomena which exercise an influence on the herrings and the herring- 
fisheries. 

That snow should scare the herrings away, as Neucrantz says, cannot 
be considered as the general rule, although this may occasionally be the 
case in consequence of local peculiarities (for example, when fishing is 
going on at a season of the year when a fall of snow would produce a con- 
siderably lower temperature), but the form in which the “ falling weather” 
shows itself (rain or snow) seems to be immaterial. The influence which 
the fishermen ascribe to the snow remaining on the mountains has been 
spoken of above. 

18. Of all the outward physical causes, the winds doubtless have the 
most important influence on the mode of life and the migrations of the 
herrings. This influence of the wind may, however, be occasioned by 
the different temperature, cloudiness, rain, &c., which it produces, by the 
influence which it exercises on the force, velocity, and direction of the 
currents by the considerable changes which it brings about in the height 
of the water, the motion it produces in the upper layers of the water, 
and the consequent greater or smaller waves, turbid state of the water, 
or different breaking of the rays of light. This influence of the wind is 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 169 


still more increased for us by the fact that it either hinders or favors 
fishing in a greatly varying degree, thus influencing the very sources of 
our knowledge. 

The influence of the wind on the herrings varies considerably as the 
hérrings approach the coast either for the purpose of seeking food or 
for the purpose of spawning, a circumstance which hitherto has been too 
much overlooked, which makes the working-up of the material on hand 
peculiarly difficult. 

From the observations at our command it seems to be certain that 
when herrings approach a coast for the purpose of spawning, they seek 
quiet waters. Storms often prevent them from reaching their accustomed 
spawning-places, or compel them, if they can wait no longer or have come 
close to the coast, to come quite near the land or to go far away from 
their usual spawning-places which are in deep water, whilst a gentle 
wind, from whichever quarter it may come, has very little influence on 
the herrings. Land-wind may, however, as a general rule be considered 
most favorable to the fisheries during the spawning-season. 

Regarding the influence of storms on the herrings during the spawn- 
ing-season fisheries, we must here give the results of that valuable com- 
parison of facts from the Norwegian spring-herring fisheries, which we 
owe to the “historical investigations” of Axel Boeck. He found that 
during a violent land-storm the herrings seek the coast, when the best 
fishing is near the sheltered fishing-places, whilst during violent sea- 
wind the herrings but rarely go to those places where they are generally 
caught and which are quite open towards the sea. During long-contin- 
ued northwesterly and southwesterly storms herrings often visit places 
where they never come otherwise, and go farther up the fiords. During 
long-continued sea-wind the spring-herring fisheries cannot be carried 
on in the otherwise quite regular course from south to north. Boeck 
also relates, of the same fisheries, that during calm weather the herrings 
often separated into smalier schools, and the chief fisheries did not com- 
mence until a southwesterly or northwesterly wind had stirred up the 
water and mixed the lower and warmer layers with the upper and cooler 
ones. 

n the east coast of Scotland, near the Moray Firth, land-wind is con- 
sidered favorable to the spawn-herring fisheries; but for those fisheries 
which are carried on farther out in the open North Sea, sea-wind is con- 
sidered better, more especially on the banks far from the coast. It is, 
furthermore, thought that for these fisheries southern winds are better 
- than western winds, and for the herring-fisheries near Yarmouth western 
winds are most favorable. For those herring-fisheries which in the 
northwestern portion of the North Sea, at a considerable distance from 
the coast, are carried on by the Dutch and Germans, northerly winds 
are considered more favorable than southerly, and westerly than easterly 
winds. The fisheries in the open sea will, of course, show a considerable 
difference from the coast-fisheries in regard to the influence of the winds. 


170 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Gisler relates that in the Bothnian Gulf storms do not drive the her- 
rings from their places of sojourn far out at sea, and that the herrings, 
when storms prevent them from approaching the sea-coast, are tS 
to spawn out at sea where there are suitable banks. 

As regards our present Bohusliin herring-fisheries, they are so insig 
nificant, the spawning-places are all in such sheltered locations, and the 
fisheries are carried on with so little energy, that it is very difficult to 
obtain sufficient data on which to found any certain opinion. We have 
been informed, however, that during the herring-fisheries near South 
Hisingen, the herrings go farther: up towards the mouth of the river 
during land-wind, when there is good fishing in the neighborhood of 
Ny-Elfsborg; and when westerly and southerly winds prevail the best 
fishing is farther out near the coast of Andal and Hiastvik. 

During that part of the last great-herring fishing-period, when large 
numbers of herrings spawned near our coast, land-wind was generally 
considered most favorable to fishing. 

As the most important, most profitable, and safest herring-fisheries ? 
are those which are carried on during the spawning-season (as during 
the other portions of the year the fish are not so fat and their course is 
more uncertain), it will be clear that, although physical conditions exer- 
cise a far greater infiuence on the last-mentioned fisheries, our knowledge 
of them is much more limited. 

When the herrings come to the coast for the purpose of seeking food, 
wind and especially storm has an entirely different influence on them, 
and the occurrence of the herrings is chiefly determined by the quantity 
of herring-food found in a certain place. Thus the herrings often ap- 
proach a coast with that wind which drives in large quantities of herring- 
food, and leave the coast with that wind which drives the herring-food 
away. This explains why during the last great Bohuslin herring-fishing 
period the herrings did not always appear in the same numbers during one 
and the same direction of the wind ; for during that period when the her- 
rings spawned near the coast land-wind was more favorable than sea- 
wind, whilst during that period when the great mass of the herrings 
only approached the coast for another purpose, a strong sea-wind often 
caused the herrings to enter the fiords and thus brought about the be- 
ginning of the fisheries. 

In discussing the causes why the great-herring fisheries came to an 
end, people made the mistake of supposing that all manner of refuse float- 
ing in the sea and various noises kept the herrings on the outer coast 
and hindered them from coming nearer until the storm drove them in- ; 
Both from our last great-herring fishing period and from our later much 
less important herring-fisheries it is well known, however, that a south- 
easterly wind drives those herrings which have come for the purpose of 
seeking food away from the coast, because it blows from the land in such 
a direction that it both increases and accelerates the Skagerack current 
on the outer coast and directs it farther away from the coast, carrying 
with it the great mass of herring-food. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. LU 


If we examine the observations made in different places, we shall 
soon find that one and the same wind will exercise a different influence, 
just according as in one place it blows from and in another place towards 
the coast. Itis, for instance, reported from the Firth of Forth that during 
the winter of 1863 unusually long-continued westerly (7. e., land-)winds 
hindered the small herrings from going to their usual places in the inner 
portion of the fiord, and caused some of them to seek shelter near the 
Granton breakwater, in the middle portion of the fiord. Fishing was 
consequently not very successful, whilst during the more severe winter 
of 1866 violent land-winds drove the herrings and small herrings far up: 
into the fiord. As in that region Jand-wind is more common during a 
severe winter, such a winter is generally considered more favorable to 
the fisheries than a mild one, just the contrary from what it is in Bohus- 
lan, where westerly wind and consequent milder temperature and higher 
water are decidedly more favorable to the fisheries than land-wind with 
cold temperature and low water. The same difference will become ap- 
parent when we compare Bohusliin with Norrland. 

By combining all the observations made in different places, we get 
a small number of géneral axioms regarding the influence of the wind 
on those herrings which come to the coast for the purpose of spawn- 
ing, and these would be the following: Sea-wind is favorable to the fish- 
eries, aS it causes the herrings to seek the coast; violent storms compel 
the herrings to seek deep water or shelter in the calmer fiords, but a 
brisk sea-wind is generally favorable. Small herrings often seem to 
seek shelter near the land, and in Bohuslin it has been observed near 
Hisingen that in summer during easterly wind the young herrings like to 
go towards the mouth of the river. As regards the Skagerack herring 
fisheries, it must not be forgotten that in judging of the influence of the 
wind one must take into consideration its direction and force, not only 
near the coast of Bohusliin but also out in the North Sea. In order to 
form a correct judgment it will therefore be necessary to have synoptic 
observations of the wind to refer to, and not to forget that the effect 
frequently will not be noticed till long after the cause. ' 

We furthermore possess different observations and opinions about the 
influence of the wind on the herrings, which are of a less certain and 
scientific character, and of which we do not know whether they have 
been gathered during those fisheries when spawners were caught, or 
during those fisheries when only fish coming to the coast for food 
were caught, or from both. We finally possess some data concerning 
the direct influence of storms on the herrings, for example, that “im- 
mediately after a storm they keep near the surface, and are actually giddy 
and so weak that some are cast on shore or comenear theland,” and, “ after 
the lapse of a few days, if the storm continues, get quite soft, as if their 
flesh was melting” (Gisler); that storm compels the herrings to keep 
closer together, and that a violent storm tends to mix the herrings and 
the small herrings, whilst otherwise they always keep in separate schools, 


172 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Thus we know from Scotland that the herrings, immediately before a 
storm, Gome near the surface; and in several places in Bohusliin, espe- 
cially on the coast of Fjellbacka, it has been observed that the herrings 
go away from the coast against storm and weather, although some time 
after the storm there is generally again good fishing. It must be remem- 
bered that a storm is often preceded by commotion in the water and 
other causes which may influence the herrings. 

19. Regarding the influence of the weather in general, it should be no- 
ticed that the herrings evidently prefer even and mild weather, free 
from all extremes; and such weather is, in most cases at least, an essen- 
tial condition of successful herring-fisheries. The herrings especially 
dislike all sudden changes in the weather, and it is even asserted that 
they are so sensitive in this respect that by their actions they show a 
distinct foreknowledge of changes in the weather, to which circumstance 
we shall have occasion to refer again. 

It must be borne in mind that it is chiefly the general character of the 
weather® which here comes into question, and that in order to under- 
stand its influence it is necessary to have reliable and as far as possible 
complete synoptic weather observations covering a much larger area 
than a few fishing-stations. It must likewise not be forgotten that the 
spawning herring is much less influenced by the weather than the her- 
ring which comes to the coast to seek food, so that the fishing for the 
former is much more certain than that of the latter. Fishing with float- 
ing nets near a coast is much more dependent on the weather than fish- 
ing with stationary nets. 

I have on:the coast of Bohusliin often heard the failure of the potato 
crop brought in connection with good herring-fisheries, and with a cer- 
tain show of reason, as weather which is favorable for the autumn and 
winter herring-fisheries, is generally unfavorable for the growth of pota- 
toes. This agrees with Gisler’s observation from the Norrland herring- 
fisheries, where the fishermen say that when the corn grows well on the 
land there is not much fishing in the sea, and when the sea is full of fish 
there is little corn on the land. Similar observations from the last cen- 
tury we find in the works of Schining, Strom, and Lybecker, and there is 
doubtless a good deal of truth in them, especially in former times when 
agriculture was not so advanced as it is now, and to a great extent 
depended on the state of the weather. 

It should finally be mentioned here that there is supposed to be acen- 
tennial periodicity in the weather caused by the relative number of 
solar spots, according to which larger and smaller solar-spot periods 
have been spoken of, and by the changing position of the moon towards 

The general character of the weather is best seen in the winds as the fullest ex- 
pression of all its determining features, and as having the greatest influence on the 
mode of life and the migrations of the herrings. The general character of the weather 
must, however, be taken into consideration, not only during the fishing-season, or the 
days and weeks immediately preceding it, but also during the different seasons of the 
year, and for longer and shorter periods, each comprising several years. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. LS 


the earth, by a change in the direction of the currents of the sea, and 
especially of the Gulf stream, or by the influence of the polar ice and 
its floating towards southern regions, &c. If future scientific investi- 
gations should prove the existence of such a periodicity, it is quite 
probable that light will be thrown on many a dark point in the biology 
of the herring. 

20. Among the hydrological phenomena which for the better under- 
standing of the mode of life and the migrations of the herring require 
our attention, the more or less agitated condition of the water caused by 
the winds is the most prominent. The motion of the waves seems to 
exercise an influence on the herrings partly by aérating the water, 
partly by mixing water of different temperature, and finally by the 
occasionally very violent agitation which is produced even in the lower 
regions of the water near the bottom. The last-mentioned effect of the 
motion of the waves, which shall form the subject of special investiga- 
tions, has a considerable influence especially on the spawning herrings, 
which need calm waters for spawning, heavy waves often compelling 
them to seek spawning-places which are sheltered or in the deep water 
where the motion of the waves is not so perceptible. Gisler says that 
violent storms tend to weaken the herrings when near the coast, and 
numerous observations corroborate the fact that during such storms 
the herrings leave the coast or seek sheltered places; and even the 
heaving of the sea preceding and indicating the approach of a storm 
seems often to have the same effect. The direction in which this heav- 
ing takes place forms, therefore, one of the more important signs, from 
which the fishermen predict the future of the weather and of the fish- 
eries. In the open sea, far from the coast, the motion of the waves 
seems to have no or little influence on the herrings; the Dutch so-called 
“large” herring-fisheries are therefore not at all influenced by it. Smaller 
surface waves seem always to have a favorable influence on the fisher- 
ies, probably because they break and therefore subdue the light. 

21. We must also take into consideration the different height of the 
water which is caused by wind and tide. On coasts where the tide is 
very perceptible, it doubtless exercises a very considerable influence, 
especially on the fisheries,—much more so than on the life of the herring. 
Perley says that in the Bay of Fundy, during the spring tide, in early 
summer, herrings which have come to the coast to seek food are easily 
caught even during day-time; and at Yarmouth the richest hauls are 
made when the tide comes in during the three hours before and the 
three hours after midnight. According to Strém all kind of fishing is 
more successful at S6ndmér when the tide is in than when it is out. I 
have been informed that on the west coast of Scotland the herrings are 
nearer the surface during slack tides than when the tide is high. On the 
coast of Bohusliin the tide is not very perceptible during the season 
when the principal herring-fisheries are going on; and this whole matter 
has been studied so little that not much can be said regarding the infiu- 
ence which the tide has on the herrings. 


174 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


In speaking of the influence of the wind, it has already been said, that 
when it blows towards the coast and consequently produces high water 
it is favorable to the fisheries, whilst when it blows from the coast and 
produces low water it is unfavorable. Very high water, however, is, 
according to Gisler, not favorable to fishing on the coast of Norrland. 
On the coast of Bohuslin it is considered a general rule that steady and 
fine weather and high water are best for the fisheries. Very high water 
is, with us, only caused by violent winds blowing from the sea, which, of 
course, often interrupt the fisheries. G@. C. Cederstrém says that the 
herrings are more lively when the water is moderately high than when it 
is very high. 

22. Of all the hydrological eauses, the currents of the sea doubtless 
exercise the most important influence on the mode of life and the migra- 
tions of the herring. This influence seems chiefly to depend on the 
herring-food which these currents carry, through the temperature and 
the nature of their water, and through the aid which they render to the 
migrations of the herrings. 

That the currents influenee the herrings in the choice of their spawn- 
ing-places is chietly caused by their influence on the temperature of the 
water and their carrying the necessary food for the young herrings. 
According to Eckstrém, it is also quite probable that the herrings in 
moving to a. distant spawning-place take advantage of the ease with 
which the currents carry them towards their destination. This opinion 
seems to be corroborated by the place where and the direction in which 
those herrings which spawn in autumn came to the coast of Bohuslin 
during the last great herring-fisheries. On the course of the spawning 
herring during the spawning-season the current seems, as Boeck already 
has said, to have but little influence, as the herrings go to their spawn- 
ing- en both with and against the current. This does not coincide, 
however, with the views of other naturalists, according to whom the 
herrings always go against the eurrent. As land-wind was during our 
last herring-fishing period considered favorable as long as those herrings 
which spawn in autumn came to the coast to spawn, and as most of their 
spawning-places were on the southern coast, it seems that the herrings 
generally went .against the current. The circumstance that fishing 
for spawning herrings near South Hisingen, at the mouth of the Godta 
River, is best when land-wind prevails is explained by the fishermen in 
this way: that the land-wind accelerates the current of fresh water which 
is going out and increases the intensity of the under-current of salt water 
with which the herrings are supposed to come in. 

With those herrings which come to the coast for the purpose of seek- 
ing food, all this is different; for they are chiefly influenced by the occur- 
rence of this food, which is again dependent on the current. Thus 


40 One must be careful not to draw too rash a conclusion that spawning herrings will 
soon come to a coast in great quantities because many herrings come to that coast to 
seek food. . 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 175 


during the latter part of our last great herring-fisheries the herrings 
came with those currents that were going towards the coast, and cur- 
rents going out to sea were consequently considered unfavorable to the 
fisheries, especially when they took their direction from a southeasterly 
wind. Regarding the coming to our coast of those herrings which occur 
in the greatest number, and especially of the so-called “old sea-herrings,” 
there is a remarkable agreement between the place where and the order 
in which they came, and the direction of those currents of the sea which 
come from the North Sea and the Kattegat along the coast of Bohuslin 
and in the Skagerack. The current coming from the North Sea goes 
north of Skagen towards the Pater-noster Rocks, near which it is met 
by the current from the Kattegat going north; thereupon they both 
follow the coast, and after having passed Lindesnis finally go into the 
North Sea in a westerly direction. The fishing for the herrings coming 
from the open sea has generally commenced near Tjérn and the Marstrand 
Islands, from which point the herrings spread towards the north and 
south, in the former case following the current; and as the current north 
of Soteniis turns away from the coast, the herring-fisheries on the north- 
ern coast have generally been less certain and less important than those 
on the central coast.” 

The young herrings often go with the current, and therefore often 
undertake comparatively long voyages, of which we have a proof, unfor. 
tunately hitherto overlooked, from the coast of Bohuslian, on whose south- 
ern portion especially the young of those herrings which during autumn 
spawn in the Kattegat are often seen.” 

The herring delights in going with its head against the stream, espe- 
cially when in search of food, and near the coast it prefers those places 
where there is arapid current. The herring is a fish which likes flowing 
water; but this does not mean that it is driven about by the waves like 
a piece of wood. According to ancient and modern observations the 
herring goes just as easy with as against the stream, and when pursued 
flies as rapidly against it as with it. 

During our last great herring-fisheries, and especially towards their 
end, it was asserted by persons opposed to the boiling of fish-oil that 

the refuse from the oil-refineries, which was thrown into the sea, pre- 
- vented the herrings from coming near the coast, whither they were only 
driven by violent storms and currents. This view, however, was strongly 
opposed by many fishermen; but G. C. Cederstrém seems still to lean 
towards the view of the great power of the current over the herrings, 


4 This was probably during the last great herring-fisheries also caused by the cir- 
cumstance that those herrings which spawn in autumn, as far as known, chiefly 
spawned on the central and southern coast, whilst those herrings which spawn in 
winter were far more frequent on the northern coast. With the small herring this is 
entirely ‘different; for the most extensive small-herring fisheries have always been 
carried on on the northern coast. 

© The coast of Bohusliin offers much better protection to the young fish, and is prob- 
ably in other respects, too, a much more suitable place of sojourn for them than the 
open coasts of the Kattegat, which are nearly void of organic life. 


176 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


and maintains that they must give way to storms and strong currents, 
adding, however, that in that case they either seek shelter or go into 
deep water. 

From observations made during the English and Scoteh fisheries we 
know that the tide, especially in narrow waters, by the regularly chang- 
ing currents which it produces, exercises a considerable influence on the 
herring-fisheries. The richest hauls are made when the current is swift- 
est, because the floating net is then carried over a greater area. The 
rising of the tide is generally considered more favorable than its falling, 
and the herrings have often been observed to swim towards the tide. 

The greatest difficulty in utihzing our observations of the influence of 
the currents on the herrings, both for science and for the fisheries, is 
this, that these observations almost exclusively refer to the surface-cur- 
rents, although there is reason to suppose that deeper currents have 
often had an influence on the herrings. 

23. Closely connected with and often directly dependent on the eur- 
rems, at least in the North Sea, is the color of the water. A large number 
of observations made during the so-called “great” herring-fisheries in 
the open North Sea show that more fish are caught when the water is 
green than when it is blue. The green color of the water also indicates 
this in the northern waters, which are richer in “herring-food” and in 
fish ; and the blue color in the southern waters, where there is less her- 
ring-food and consequently also fewer herrings. Prof. G. O. Sars’s obser- 
vations, made during the summer of 1876, show, however, that the rela- 
tion between the ‘“ herring-food” and the color of the water may be exactly 
the reverse. 

It has already been said above that thick or turbid water is better for 
fishing than very clear and transparent water. 

24, Regarding the influence of the greater or less saliness of the water 
On the herrings there are a number of opinions, some of them directly 
opposed to the one held by me. Thus it has been supposed that the 
herrings when spawning sought less salty waters. H. A. Meyer believes 
that those herrings which are found in the western part of the Baltic 
and which spawn in spring, prefer sea-water mixed with a good deal of 
fresh water, and mentions various instances from the Schlei-fiord and 
other places on the Baltic. Buton closer examination this does not seem 
necessarily to follow from these observations; but they seem rather to 
lead us to this conclusion, that the herrings when about to spawn only - 
look to the convenient location of the spawning-places, and that neither 
a small degree of saltness, as in the Schlei-fiord, nor great saltness, as on 
the east coastof Scotland, prevents them from selecting a place. Because 
the sea-water in the fiords is in many places less salty than in the open 
sea, it does not follow that the herrings during the spawning-season come 
to the coast on account of the smaller degree of saltness of the water.® 


43 Neucrant2’s hypothesis (in which he follows Pliny) seems more plausible: that the 
herrings are by their instinct led to spawn near the mouths of rivers, as these locali- 
ties possess great advantages for the young fish, principally plenty of food and shelter. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. LEC 


Tn this as in many other respects the spawning herrings are less sensitive, 
when impelled by a natural instinect—in this case the strong desire to 
spawn. 

The fishermen in the Scotch fiords, however, say that great floods 
caused by continuous rain often produce failures of the fisheries. 

It is well known that herrings, especially young ones, when seeking 
food come to the mouths of rivers, and this fact has been explained in 
different ways. Parnell thinks that it is caused by the increased tem- 
perature produced by the mingling of fresh and salt water, whilst Duha- 
mel du Monceau supposes that it can only be caused by violent storms, 
or that at any rate the herrings do not show the least preference for 
fresh water. och [possibly intended for Boeck.— Translator’s note}, again, 
believes that only violent persecutions by their enemies compel the her- 
rings to seek the mouths of rivers. G. C. Cederstrom thinks that this is 
caused by the circumstance “that the herrings’ need of acid is easier 
satisfied in fresh water than in salt water.” Other authors think the 
herrings seek the mouths of Yivers because they find more food* or 
better shelter from their enemies in the less salty, more turbid, and 
ealmer water. 1 cannot deny that even spawning herrings are oceca- 
sionally found in the mouths of rivers, but as we know so little concern- 
ing it it may well be supposed that it is caused by extreme conditions of 
the weather. Valenciennes, however, remarks that the herrings do not 
enter the mouths of rivers until they have spawned. As far as the 
Bohuslin coast is concerned it must be said that the coast-herrings 
peculiar to it are caught most frequently near the mouths of the Géta 
and Glommen Rivers.” Near the mouth of the Gota River, especially, 
it has been observed that the young herrings during summer when east 
wind prevails like to come near the mouth of the river. It may be men- 
tioned, as a peculiarity, that during the last great herring-fisheries the 
herrings in the year 1752 accidentally went so far up the Gota River 
that they were caught near Tingstad, six and a half (English) miles up 
the river. In the year 1733 the herrings are said to have gone very far 
up the river Oder, in Germany. 

25. It is quite probable that the quantity of air contained tin the sea- 
water has some influence on the herrings; and several authors have 
referred to it. So far we have no direct observations of the influence 
which the greater or less quantity of air contained in the sea-water has 
on the herrings; but it is natural to suppose that coast-waters which 
have been well aérated by a strong sea-breeze attract a larger number 


“Tt is searcely in accordance with actual trath, as Buckland supposes, that the small 
herrings devour the refuse from the sewers of great cities, which is so frequently found 
near the mouths of English rivers. This refuse, doubtless, produces a large number 
of lower microscopical organisms, which either directly, or by serving as food for small 
crustaceans, &c., benefit the herrings. 

*Tt must not be forgotten that in these places the herrings can easily be sold at a 
comparatively high price and are consequently more sought after. 

2F 


178 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of herrings, and that, therefore, after the breeze has gone down there 
will be good fishing in those waters. 

26. Among the hydrological causes the temperature of the water doubt- 
less, next to the currents of the sea, exercises the greatest influence on 
the herrings. $, There is good reason to suppose that the herrings prefer 
a certain even temperature of the water, and that they consequently 
avoid too warm or too cold water. ‘This degree of temperature, however, 
differs greatly according to the different locations, fisheries, and races of 
herrings. The fishing for spawning herrings is, for example, on the east 
coast of Scotland going on at a season of the year when the temperature 
of the water is very high (from the middle of July till the middle of Sep- 
tember), or very low (January to March). The observations of the Scotch 
and Dutch Meteorological Societies made during the Scotch and Duteh 
summer herring-fisheries have shown that the temperature of the water 
most favorable to these fisheries is about 15° C. (55.4° F.). During the 
Scotch winter-fisheries, however, the temperature of the water ranges 
from 49.5 to 59.5 C. (40.1° to 41.9° F.), and during the Norwegian spring 
herring-fisheries it only ranged from 3° to 4° C. (37.49 to 39.29 F.). But 
our observations are still so incomplete and relate so exclusively to the 
spawning-herrings, that it is impossible to say anything with absolute 
certainty excepting the fact that the herrings, when the temperature of 
the surface waters is either too high or too low, go to deeper waters, f 
But as the changes in the temperature of the water are chiefly caused 
by the much better known and more fully-observed temperature of the 
air and by the currents of the sea, we refer the reader to what has been 
said above (13 and 22) regarding their influence on the herrings. It will 
be clear that the former has a more decided influence during summer and 
the latter during winter. ‘ 

As has been mentioned above (18), the agitation produced in the 
water by strong wind is favorable to fishing, by mixing the upper and 
lower layers of the water and by thus equalizing its temperature. 

The preference shown by the herrings for an even temperature of the 
water, has led to attempts to explain thereby the apparent irregularity 
in the occurrence of the herrings. 

27. It is well known, from olden times, that the formation of ice on the 
sea has an influence on the herrings and the herring-fisheries, although 
we do not possess sufficient observations on this point to form any cer- 
tain scientific opinion. From Professor Hdlund’s observations regarding 
the formation of ice in the sea, we know that the formation of bottom- 
ice will drive the herrings away. It is more than a mere supposition 
that the formation of bottom-ice not only drives the herrings away but 
also destroys their eggs and young ones, and on those coasts—for in- 
stance, of the Baltic—where ice is frequent in winter, the herrings do 
not spawn during that season. It is likewise well known that on the 
coast of Canada much floating ice keeps the herrings and other fish away 
from the coast. On the coast of Bohusliin, however, it has been observed 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. hee 


that the herrings oceasionall y go under the ice which has formed for some 
time, and that there is good fishing when the ice has broken. 

28. Regarding the influence of the depth of the water and the pressure 
of the water on the herrings we do not possess sufficient observations 
to form a definite scientific opinion. The scientific authors who have 
recently treated the biology of the herring have arrived at essentially 
different views regarding the question whether the herring must be con- 
sidered as a fish specially fitted for a life near the bottom of the sea in 
the deep basins outside the coast, or whether its nature fits it better for 
a life near the banks in the open sea or comparatively nearer the surface. 
It is clear that the migrations of the herrings must in the latter case go 
on near the surface, whilst in the former case the herrmgs would, both 
in coming and going, seek deep waters. 

The Dutch fishermen who use floating nets have observed that the 
herrings often change very suddenly from one depth to another, but it 
is not known whether these changes only extend to a few fathoms or to 
a greater depth; nor do we know whether these changes are made on 
account of the greater or less pressure of the water, though the last- 
mentioned hypothesis is certainly highly improbable. 

A French naturalist, Carbonnier, has expressed the opinion that the her- 
rings, like other fish, are, immediately after having done spawning, com- 
pelled to seek deeper waters to obtain the greater pressure ‘which has 
become necessary on account of their empty belly”; but although we cer- 
tainly possess a number of observations all tending to show that the 
“empty” herrings go into deeper waters than the “full” herrings, we do 
not know enough on this point to justify us in embracing Carbonnier’s 
opinion; for herrings have been known to come to the surface immedi- 
ately after spawning, and data are not even wanting which go to show 
that “empty” herrings lived nearer the surface than “full” ones. 

29. We must also take into consideration the influence exercised on 
the herrings by the character of the bottom, both as regards its formation 
and composition and its vegetation. Concerning its orography, we know, 
from observations made during the Scandinavian herring-fisheries, that 
the herrings, when approaching the coast, often follow the valleys of the 
bottom, probably because there they find calmer and more sheltered 
waters and a more even temperature, not excessively cold in winter nor 
very warm in summer. Thus the herrings seem, during the last great 
herring-fisheries, and even: several times since, to have approached the 
southern coast of Bohusliin by way of the so-called “ great furrow” or 
valley; and the depression of the bottom, which, from its northern end, 
extends towards the Marstrand fiord, has evidently something to do with 
the circumstance that the great fisheries generally commenced near the 
islands at the mouth of this fiord. Similar easily distinguished valleys 


©This phenomenon might possibly be explained by the supposition that a layer of 
ice prevents the sea-water underneath from getting any colder, as the soil keeps 
warmer under a cover of snow. 


180 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


running crosswise from the great valley direct towards the coast, which 
doubtless have exercised an influence on the herring-fisheries, are found 
on that part of the coast of Bohuslin lying south of Soten. On the 
northern coast it has also been observed that both the herrings and the 
small herrings follow the deep valley between the outer and inner coast. 

Hans Strom and, recently, G. O. Sars in a more scientific form have 
mentioned that the current is always stronger near the edge of a bank 
rising from the depth of the sea, and that in such places there is always 
a greater abundance of fish-food and of fish. It is quite probable, there- 
fore, that such banks have an influence on the migrations of the herrings, 
especially if we remember that all the great herring-fisheries are carried 
on near such banks, and that the North Sea chiefly owes its wealth of 
fish to such banks. 

Inner coast-waters protected by islands, rocks, or rising ground from 
the violence of the sea, where the herrings can remain undisturbed for a 
great length of time (by which, however, they become almost worthless), 
likewise require our attention. All fishing for those herrings which have 
come for the purpose of seeking food is carried on in such waters, which, 
moreover, afford excellent shelter for the young herrings. 

Regarding the geognostical character of the bottom, it is well known 
that the herrings when spawning like a hard and firm bottom, and avoid 
a muddy or clayey bottom, or a sand-bottom whose upper layer is 
easily stirred up by the waves. It is also well known that the herrings 
when spawning prefer a bottom covered with plants. 

30. We must not overlook the importance of the geographical location 
of a coast in influencing the herrings, although this influence has cer- 
tainly been overrated by older authors. In this connection we have to 
consider the greater or less distance of a coast from the poles, its loca- 
tion on the eastern or western side of a continent, and its greater or less 
distance from the open sea. The herrings do not extend their migra- 
tions, in any considerable number, at least, farther south than those 
regions where the fauna has a decidedly boreal character, or farther 
north than that point where the sea is filled with polar ice. The location 
of a coast on the eastern or western side of the Atlantic Ocean is highly 
important; and herrings are found in great numbers on the west coast of 
Europe in degrees of latitude (for example, in Nordland and Finmarken) 
in which on the east coast of America (as in Greenland) they are compara- 
tively scarce. The nearness of the Polar Sea, with its enormous wealth of 
‘“‘herring-food,” does not only inerease the number, size, and the quality 
of the herrings, but also influences their selection of spawning-places. 
Sometimes, however, as is the case in Northeastern America, the Polar 
Sea may prove hurtful in its influence by large masses of floating ice 
preventing the herrings from coming near the coast. The greater or 
less distance of coast-waters from the open sea is of great importance, 
for experience has shown that waters, such as the Baltic, which are far 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 181 


from the ocean, are never visited by any of the great schools of herrings, 
and, therefore, offer no opportunity for any really “great” herring-fish- 
eries. To this circumstance Bohuslin doubtless owes, to some degree at 
least, the comparatively short duration of its fishery periods, and the 
long intervals between these periods. In addition to this, it must not 
be forgotten that the coast of Bohusliin is not near as much Javed by 
northern waters containing much ‘“‘herring-food” as the coasts of the 
North Sea. 

ol. Regarding the influence on the herring of biological causes, it will 
be clear that, in one respect at least, viz, the satisfying of the herrings’ 
demand for food, they exercise a very decided influence, and also that 
they entirely depend on climatical, hydrological, orographical, and geog- 
nostical conditions. From the foregoing it will be clear that the “ her- 
ring-food,” both by its quantity and by the depth in which it is found, 
will have an influence not only on the herrings but also on the herring- 
fisheries. Although the herring’s certainly do not take any food whilst 
spawning, the occurrence of “herring-food” has, nevertheless, also an 
influence on the spawning herrings’ course near the coast; since they 
still need a little food, and all the more, the longer before the commence- 
ment of the spawning-season, they come near the coast. It is self-evi- 
dent that the quantity of “‘herring-food” in certain coast-waters will de- 
termine the size of the herrings living in these waters; and even the 
greater schools of herrings living in the open sea seem to a great extent 
to be dependent—at least as far as their young ones are concerned—on 
the quantity of food found near the spawning-places. As the quantity 
and occurrence of “herring-food” are dependent partly on the above-men- 
tioned physical conditions and partly on the quantity of food and of organic 
matter necessary for its formation,” it will easily be understood how im- 
portant it will be to obtain an accurate scientific knowledge on this sub- 
ject, based on the horizontal and vertical distribution of the “herring- 
food,” with a special view to its dependence on physical conditions; and 
as the acquiring of such a knowledge involves much trouble and time, 
very little has so far been done in this direction, so that our knowledge 


‘See: K. Moebius, Das Thierleben am Boden der Deutschen Ost- und Nordsee, Berlin, 
1871, p. 9, and: Die Auster und die Austern wirthschaft, Berlin, 1877, p. 83, in which last- 
mentioned place he says: ‘‘Every cenobitic region possesses in every period of gene- 
ration the highest degree of life which it is capable of forming and sustaining. All 
the organic matter contained in such a region is, therefore, completely absorbed by the 
beings produced there. It is probable, therefore, that in no part of the earth capable 
of producing life any organic matter is left for spontaneous generation.” But is it not 
possible that exceptional conditions in one place may destroy a species which, also, 
without limiting the other species belonging to this cenobitic region, could exist there? 
And might there not be places where a species might flourish and live in large num- 
bers, no matter whether it was formed there or brought there from other places, but 
where, owing to the want of the conditions necessary for utilizing the organic matter 
found there, such matter is stored up for the future? And does not geology furnish 
many similar instances? And do not the Polar regions owe thfir extraordinary wealth 
of organic matter to some such process of storing up during milder climatic conditions? 


182 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


is consequently somewhat incomplete.* It will, therefore, scarcely be 
necessary in this place to adduce further proof of the necessity of soon 
acquiring such knowledge, which, in the future, will be of great practi- 
cal use. 

The “herring-food,” which is chiefly composed of small crustaceans, 
depends, as to its occurrence and numbers, on lower and smaller organ- 
isms, through which it indirectly absorbs all the organizable matter in 
its neighborhood. Without an exact knowledge of these organisms and 
the conditions under which they are found we shall never attain to a 
correct view of the causes producing the “herring-food” and the her- 
rings. It has long since been known that among these microscopie 
lower organisms, diatoms occupy a prominent place. On the coast of 
Bohuslin, especially near Fjellbacka, the fishermen have observed that 
the tender young herrings generally stay among the greenish “slime,” 
which is chiefly found where fresh-water courses empty into the sea; and 
as they had not observed the spawning of the herrings they drew from 
this the remarkable conclusion that the young herrings originated from 
this “slime,” chiefly consisting of diatoms. The’ more frequent occur- 
rence of diatoms in the mouths of rivers is probably also one of the 
causes of attraction which draws especially the young herrings thither. 
In the Christiania fiord Prof. G. O. Sars has observed a similar organic 
“slime,” consisting chiefly of diatoms, in great quantities, early in spring 
or immediately after the breaking of the ice; and in the open Skag- 
erack I, myself, whilst examining the so-called “ Koster Grounds” during 
the summer of 1871, found large numbers of diatoms in the current 
going along the outer coast of Bohuslin.*® In the Polar seas Scoresby 
has already observed large numbers of diatoms, and his observations 
have been corroborated by the Swedish Arctic expeditions. The ceno- 
bitical and practical importance of the diatoms, as well as their develop- 
ment from a ‘formless organic slime” (‘free indefinite protoplasm,” 
“formless indefinite organic matter”) has recently been discussed by 
Prof. Youle Hind and Prof. G. 0. Sars. As this “sea-slime” chiefly oc- 
curs in the Polar seas, especially where there is Polar ice, and is by the 
currents driven farther south, Professor Sars very beautifully remarks 
that “in the inhospitable Polar Sea, filled with ice, we find the last 
causes of the inexhaustible wealth of the more temperate seas.” The 
influence of the Polar regions and the Polar ice on the herring-tisheries 


“Prof. K. Moebius, of Kiel, a member of the commission appointed to investigate the 
German seas, says very truly: “We are still woefully ignorant regarding the physical 
conditions of a cenobitic region and their relation to the plants and animals of such a 
region, as also regarding the mutual influence of the plants and animals existing 
there at one and the same time. So far we know but very little regarding the ceno- 
bitic life of the different and distant regions of land and water.”—Zcitschrift fiir wis- 
senschafiliche Zoologie, XXX. Supplement, p. 376. 

4°As even at that tinfe I was convinced of the importance to the fisheries of these 
microscopic organisms, I have repeatedly pointed to the necessity of making them an 
object of special scientific investigations. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES :-OF BOHUSLAN. 183 


has thus again been brought into prominence, but in a different form 
and free from all those fanciful ideas which are characteristic of the last 
century. 

32. Among the biological conditions which exercise a great influence 
on the herrings we must mention the persecutions of their enemies. 

From the observations of the fishermen it is well known that fish-of- 
prey, especially the codfish, can, by sudden and determined attacks, 
scatter whole schools of herrings; and on the west coast of Norway the 
small schools which either go by the side of the larger ones or follow 
them are supposed to be chased by codfish. 

Whales and seals seem not to have such an influence on the schools 
of herrings, and the first mentioned owe it chiefly to their colossal size 
that they are reported as capable of driving the herrings wherever they 
please. Even in the old Norwegian laws it was forbidden to kill whales 
which drove herrings towards the coast during the herring fisheries, and 
even at much later times various autbors have spoken of the whales “as 
commissioned by Providence to lead or rather drive the herrings to those 
coasts for which our Lord had destined this blessing”; and have also 
considered it as a special providence “that the whales and fish-of-prey 
again cause the herrings to fly to their proper home; the eternal ice of 
the Polar seas, whither their enemies could not follow them and disturb 
them in the peaceful enjoyment of their rest.” Even in our days the 
Norwegian fishermen not unfrequently ascribe the failure of the fisheries 
to the circumstance that the herrings have not been properly chased by 
the whales and fish-of-prey. That the whales and fish-of-prey follow the 
herrings instead of leading them, for the sole purpose of devouring them, 
has long since been proved by Martin, Jessen, Bloch, Nilsson, and others. 
It is quite probable, however, that the whales and fish-of-prey cause the 
herrings to keep closer together. 

As regards the other larger enemies of the herrings, we know of none 
which can exercise the slightest influence on their migrations; but they 
may, as is especially the case with birds, indicate the place where her- 
rings are, and thus be of great importance to the fishermen. 

Among the enemies of the herring we must undoubtedly also count 
man. But man’s influence on the mode of life and the migrations of the 
herring is very insignificant in comparison with the above-mentioned 
larger animals and fish-of-prey. The chief means by which man per- 
secutes the herrings is the different fishing-apparatus, among which only 
the net influences the course of the herrings to any degree. 

The herrings keep somewhat shy of the nets, and this is the reason 
why darkness, turbid water, or a surface agitated by the wind is most 
profitable for net-fishing. When the water is turbid, fishing with float- 
ing nets may occasionally be successful even by day time. If the water is 
too much agitated, fishing with floating nets will generally be unsuccess- 
ful. When the herring keep near the surface of the water, but seem 
unwilling to enter the floating net, they may occasionally be driven into 


/ 


184 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


it by making a noise. Fishing with stationary nets is of course some- 
what different, because such nets are always set in such a manner that 
the herrings must strike them in moving from one place to the other. 

When a school of herrings during their migration strike a net they are 
not thereby hindered in their progress, but they go either above or below 
it, and after having passed it again pursue their course at their usual 
depth. This makes it possible by placing several nets in a row to catch 
the whole school. It is generally thought, however, that by placing the 
nets too close together the herrings are hindered from entering the 
fiords. . 

During the spawning-season the herrings are not afraid of the net, 
even in broad daylight, but rush blindly towards it, seemingly with the 
intention of squeezing themselves into its meshes, and this in such a fu- 
rious style that they frequently push down the net entirely. Fishing 
by day-time with stationary nets or with drag-nets held by anchors may 
generally be carried on only during the spawning-season or when the 
water is very turbid. This proves that the herrings are much less afraid 
of their enemies when animated by the propagating desire than when 
merely seeking their food. Mrdyer says very truly with regard to those 
annual visits which the herrings pay to the coast for the purpose of 
spawning: ‘ If we consider how little the herrings are disturbed in their 
course, and how calmly they allow themselves to be caught or devoured 
by other fish, we must become convinced that fear does not put them to 
flight and that noise does not scare them, but that their instinct guides 
them on the way they must follow.” 

Farther on I shall have occasion to speak of the influence which the 
enemies of the herrings exercise on their periodical visits (55, 56, 60.) 

33. The different outward conditions of nature must, however, as re- 
gards their influence on the herrings, be considered not only separately, 
but combined and connectedly. But as different effects spring from the 
same cause, owing to difference of the seasons, different local cireum- 
stances or different objects of the herrings’ visits to the coast, and as 
fishing with different apparatus produces very different results, it will be 
necessary, in comparing observations from different places and times 
and from different kinds of fisheries, first to combine those that are more 
closely connected, so as to obtain an exact knowledge of every kind of 
fishery during every season of the year, before one can draw general 
conclusions. Both in collecting and arranging the observations too 
little regard has in general been paid to the above-mentioned points, 
or to the mutual relations of the various meteorological, hydrological, 
orographical, and geognostical data and their relation to biological 
facts. This has also made it very difficult for me to give a complete 
review of the observations and opinions of myself and others. 

Thus, for example, the physical investigations of the herring-fisheries 
made by the Dutch and Scotch Meteorological Societies have been made 
with too exclusively a practical object, and thus only furnished informa- 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 185 


tion regarding the conditions of the weather under which the herrings 
make their appearance in a manner favorable to the floating-net fisheries, 
whilst they leave us entirely in the dark with regard to many other in- 
teresting points. 

The great majority of all the observations we possess relate to fishing 
during the spawning-season; and it is well known that these fisheries 
are both richer and more certain than those carried on at other seasons, 
and have therefore generally been considered more important. The 
catching of those herrings which have come to the coast to seek food has 
only recently become more important; and we therefore do not as yet 
possess a sufficient number of observations on these fisheries, which is 
to be deplored, as the herrings when seeking food are much more de- 
pendent on outward natural conditions than when they are spawning. 

The physical conditions prevailing in certain waters (among them 
principally the differences of saltness and climate as being dependent on 
the weather and the currents of the sea), the geographical location and 
the orographical and petrographical character of the bottom, will of 
course exercise a great influence on all the organic beings found in these 
waters, or, in other words, on their whole Evobitie life; it will be clear 
therefore that only a complete knowledge of all these conditions, both in 
the present and in former times, will satisfactorily explain all the phe- 
nomena presented by the races of herrings belonging to these waters, 
such as the different spawning-seasons, the varying degree of fatness, 
flavor, &c., as well as the more or less regular periodical changes in the 
migrations of the herrings. Unfortunately our knowledge of all these 
matters is so far Very limited; we thus neither possess very exact knowl- 
edge regarding the influence of the weather on hydrological conditions, 
nor regarding the influence of these last-mentioned conditions on the 
different biological conditions. Such knowledge, in order to answer its 
purpose, should not be confined to one locality, but should extend to a 
large number of fishing-stations, which would enable us to gain more 
general and satisfactory opinions regarding the combined influence of 
physical and biological causes on the herrings and their migrations and 
consequently on the herring-fisheries. 

In order to obtain such knowledge it will be necessary to have access 
not only to good orographical and petrographical maps, as well as to 
synoptic weather statistics, but also to synoptic tables of hydrological 
and biological observations. 

34. After having considered as fully as my limited time would allow, 
the influence of physical and biological causes on the herrings and the 
herring-fisheries, I will go over to a more direct representation of the 
migrations of the herrings, referring, of course, to all the foregoing ob- 
servations and opinions. 

In order to reach a sufficiently distinct terminology and a more com- 
plete knowledge of the whole subject, it will be necessary by way of in- 
troduction to give a brief systematized review of fish as to their place of 


186 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


sojourn.” The place where fish are found may be considered by itself, 
or as a basis for dividing the fish into different groups. With regard to 
the former we can distinguish between the uninterrupted and a more or 
less accidental or periodical, that is, occasionally interrupted occurrence 
of fish. The periods may be daily, yearly, or extend to a longer space 
of time. With regard to the second point, the fish may be divided in the 
different groups mentioned below, using as a basis either the character of 
the water where the fish are found, on the geographical location, or the 
degree of regularity with which fish make their appearance, the extent 
of time and space of their periodical appearance, and the greater or less. 
stability as to their place of sojourn. It will be clear, however, that 
these groups cannot always be distinctly defined, but that the lines of 
demarcation are often somewhat vague, especially between the sub- 
divisions coming under one and the same head. 


A.—WITH REGARD TO THE CHARACTER OF THE WATER, FISH MAY 
BE DIVIDED 


1. as to the saltness of the water, into 
a. fresh-water fish, and 
b. salt-water fish (or sea-fish). 

Between these two groups there is, however, a sort of neutral 
territory, some kinds of fish living in either water. There are 
also some “sea-fish” which ascend the rivers for the purpose 
ef spawning, their young ones returning to the sea (so-called 
‘““anadroms”) in order to grow to maturity, or in order to satisfy 
their craving for food, in which case the fish which have grown 
to maturity in fresh water go into the sea for the purpose of 
spawning (so-called ‘“ katadroms”). 


2. as'to its degree of agitation (flowing or stagnant water), into 
a. Yiver or brook fish, and 
b. sea or lake fish. 
Among the lake-fish there are likewise some which occasion- 
ally go up into the rivers. 


B.—WITH REGARD TO THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION, FISH MAY BE 
DIVIDED 


1. with regard to their horizontal distribution, into 
a. littoral or coast fish,*! that is, fish which always stay near the coast, 
b. pelagian or sea fish, that is, fish which always, or at least the 
greater portion of the year, live in the open sea. 


An entirely different subject, foreign to my present investigation, is the question 
of the general geographical distribution of fish over the globe, and their geological 
distribution throughout the ages. 


J. R. Lorenz, Physikalische Vehiiltnisse und Vertheilung der Organismen im Quarner- 
ischen Golfe. Vienna, 1863, p. 332. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 187 


2. with regard to their vertical distribution, into 

a. bottom-fish, that is, fish which always, or the greater part of the 
year, live near the bottom. With regard to the character of the 
bottom, we can again distinguish among these fish which live on 
clayey bottoms, and fish which live on rocky or stony bottoms, on 
banks or on the slopes extending from the coast to the great deep,” 

and 

b. surface-fish, that is, fish which generally live near the surface of 

the water. 


C.—WITH REGARD TO THE DEGREE OF REGULARITY WITH WHICH 
FISH MAKE THEIR APPEARANCE, AND THE EXTENT OF TIME 
AND SPACE OF THEIR PERIODICAL APPEARANCE, FISH MAY 
BE DIVIDED, INTO 

1. stationary fish, which live always in the same locality. 
2. migratory fish, fish which only periodically appear in a place with a 
certain degree of regularity. 
These migratory fish may be subdivided 
a. with regard to the direction ofthe migration or its local object into 
a. fish moving chiefly in a horizontal direction and seeking other 
waters. These are therefore principally found among the coast- 
fish, 
8. fish moving chiefly in a vertical direction and seeking deeper 
or shallower waters, 
y- fish moving both in a horizontal and vertical direction seeking 
not only a different depth but entirely different waters. 
b. with regard to the local object of the migration within a certain. 
given region, into 
a. fish which limit their migrations to this region, and 
8. fish which occasionally extend their migrations farther. 
¢. with regard to the chief object of the periodical migration, into 
a. fish seeking spawning-places, that is, fish which leave their ac- 
customed dwelling-places principally for the purpose of spawn- 
ing, and 
8. fish seeking food,‘ that is, fish which migrate chiefly to seek 
food, and which, therefore, are less regular, both as to the length 
and course of their migrations, because the occurrence of food 
depends on changeable physical conditions. For this reason 
those fish which visit certain localities for the special purpose 
of seeking food are occasionally classed in one group with the 
other migratory fish under the general name of “roving fish” 


This would be the place to draw attention to the division proposed by Lorenz (in 
the above-mentioned place) of the littoral fish into “stationary bottom-fish” and 
“roving bottom-fish.” 

It is evidently nothing but gross ignorance which has caused a few of our writers 
on the fishery-question to use the term “wandering fish” (from the German) instead 
of the old Swedish term ‘“‘flytt fish.” 

#© The term is taken ‘‘a parte potiori,” which is assuredly the desire for food, which 
is doubtless stronger than a desire for rest and quiet well-being. 


188 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


(strykfishar®). They may, under the influence of less common 
physical conditions occasionally appear in places where they 
are not found otherwise, and where Hess must therefore be con- 
sidered as accidental ores. 

d. with regard to the season when these migrations take place, into 

‘“‘winter-fish” and ‘ summer-fish,” &e. 

é. with regard to the number of periodical visits paid to a coast dur- 
ing the year, into fish which come once a year and fish which 
come several times a year. 

Jf. with regard to the steadiness of the visits to a certain locality, 
into 

a. resident fish, and 
8. periodical fish. 
3. Erratic fish, that is, pelagian fish which roam about irregularly and 
only visit a coast accidentally.® 


D.—WITH REGARD TO THE GREATER OR LESS STABILITY IN THEIR 
PLACE OF SOJOURN, the fish may finally be divided into 

1. fish which, on account of the torpor of winter or summer, by sucking 
themselves fast to objects resting at the bottom or floating about in the 
water, or from other causes, are generally in a state of rest. 

2. fish which are more or less in motion, which, with many, assumes the 
character of a REGULAR DAILY MOTION. (Hven those fish which gen- 
erally are in a state of rest may occasionally be classed in this group.) 

35. After giving the above outline of the way in which fish may be 
divided into different groups, we must ascertain what position the her- 
ring holds with regard to these different divisions and subdivisions. 

The herring is most decidedly a salt-water fish, although it certainly 
also occurs occasionally in water whose saltness is very limited, for in- 
stance, in the northern portion of the Gulf of Bothnia; and for short 
periods, whilst spawning or seeking food, it will also enter bays and 
mouths of rivers whose waters contain very little salt. 

36. The herring is both a littoral and a pelagian fish. When young it 
generally stays near the coast, but begins comparatively early to follow 
the currents of the sea and go some distance from the coast. As a gen- 
eral rule, however, the herring is more of a littoral fish when young, and 
a pelagian fish when older. Very small shoals of herrings may some- 
times be altogether littoral, the individuals composing them, as far as 
known, scarcely ever going any distance from the coast. The larger 
shoals, however, generally spend the greater part of the year out in the 
open sea, and the great schools are altogether pelagian in their character, 
visiting the coast only during comparatively short periods of the year.” 


55,8, Nilsson, F'drnyad underddnig berdttelse om fiskeriarne i Bohuslin. Stockholm, 1828, 
p.15. Handlingar rérande sillfisket i bohuslinska Skirgarden, Stockholm, 1843, p. 37. 

568. Berthelot, Oiseaux voyageurs et poissons de passage. II. Paris, 1878, pp. 99 and 125. 

67 Instances are not wanting, however, when such pelagian herrings have, under 
peculiar circumstances, remained near the coast for a longer time. 


—— 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 189 


It has even been supposed that some schools of herrings spawn on the 
banks far out in the open sea, without ever approaching the coast for 
that purpose. 

Those herrings which remain stationary near a coast, or which only go 
a very short distance from it, will best be called “coast-herrings,” to dis- 
tinguish them from the more pelagian or “sea herrings.” This difference, 
although only a relative one, is certainly one which has a considerable 
influence on the fisheries. 

With regard to the place of sojourn and its influence on the character 
of the herring, a number of different opinions have been advanced in 
course of time. It is well known from the herring-fisheries in the west- 
ern part of the North Sea, and especially from the Dutch fisheries, that 
the herrings, both before and after spawning, are found in large numbers 
at a considerable distance from the land; and that the herring-fisheries 
on the eastern and southern coasts of Great Britain proved successful 
at certain regular intervals; the supposition therefore seemed highly 
probable that it was the same school of herrings touching the English 
coasts on their southward journey, and people seemed naturally inclined 
to ascribe to the herring a decidedly pelagian character, and from these 
originally popular opinions Anderson, and, later, Gilpin, developed their 
strange theories of the migrations of the herring. On the western coast 
of Scandinavia people had certainly not been in a position, like those on 
the eastern coast of Great Britain, to base their views on the course of 
the floating-net fisheries; but the opinion had gradually gained ground 
(probably through observations made by seamen and fishermen) that the 
herrings during the time they were not near the coast lived out in the 
open sea in a northwesterly direction from the region which they used 
to visit for the purpose of spawning. Gradually, however, Anderson’s 
migration theory gained adherence here and there among the educated 
classes. Thereupon this theory was gradually opposed by Bloch, Lacé- 
pede, MacCulloch, and Nilsson, the last-mentioned one specially endeav- 
oring to prove the entirely littoral character of the herring, an opinion 
which, though strongly opposed by fishermen, gradually gained numer- 
ous adherents among the naturalists, but which nevertheless is only 
correct in part, only being applicable to comparatively small schools of 
herrings. In opposition to this too one-sided opinion of Professor Nilsson, 
Axel Boeck has maintained the old distinction made by the fishermen 
from time immemorial between “sea-herrings” and “ coast-herrings,” but 
has not gone so far as to ascribe to the former a thoroughly pelagian 
character. This has been done, however, on truly scientific grounds by 
Prof. G. O. Sars ; and, finally, G. Winther and myself have more in detail 
developed the views which have here been presented regarding the chief 
place of sojourn of the herrings. 

37. The opinion that the herring is a swrface-fish has only recently be- 
gun to gain ground in scientific circles, although, strange to say, it had 
for along time been quite prevalent among the fishermen. Herring- 


AQGQ REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


fishing has principally, and in olden times exclusively, been carried on 
with apparatus that could only be lowered to a comparatively insignifi- 
cant depth both in the open sea and near the coast; and as these fish- 
eries were going on at different seasons of the year, and as herrings were 
occasionally seen by seamen, it will be easily understood that the herring 
was first considered as a surface-fish, none of the older writers on the 
herring-question having apparently entertained any other opinion. It 
was Anderson, always inclined to the wonderful, who first pronounced 
another opinion, viz, that the proper home of the herring was the “ bot- 
tomless deep,” under the polar ice, where sharks and codfish could not 
breathe and disturb the herring in its “proud repose.” Although Ander- 
sows theory had many adherents, and for nearly a century enjoyed almost 
universal popularity among naturalists, but little attention seems to 
have been paid to the question whether the herring was a bottom-fish 
or not. Nilsson, however, pronounces a more distinct opinion on this 
subject. He supposed that the herring was, properly speaking, a deep- 
water fish, which, in his opinion, was proved by the fact that herrings 
are found in the stomachs of codfish, but he most emphatically opposes 
Anderson’s view that the herring could only live in very deep water.* 
, This view has since then been embraced and further developed by Awzel 
Boeck, who, however, went much further than Professor Nilsson, and thus, 
for example, placed the proper home of the Norwegian so-called “spring 
herring” at the bottom of the deep valley which extends along the coast 
of Norway; and in proof of his assertion, has mentioned the fact that 
in the stomach of herrings caught immediately on their arrival rem- 
nants of small crustaceans had been found which only live at a very 
great depth. <A different opinion, however, was soon after advanced by 
Prof. G. O. Sars, who at first considered the herring as a “bank-fish,” 
like the codfish,®® but later as a surface-fish, like G. C. Cederstrém, who, 
though inclining to the opinion that the herring, like the eel, sometimes 
concealed itself on the bottom, nevertheless raised some well-founded 
objections to Axel Boeck’s assertion, and his mode of proving it.” The 
proofs which have been brought forward in support of the theory that 
the herring was specially formed for a life at the bottom of the great 
deep, have been thoroughly refuted by the two above-mentioned authors, 
and are in no wise re-established by the direct observations made on 
the west coast of Norway, through which we know that the spawn of 
herrings, though seldom, is still found as deep as 60 to 100 fathoms, and 
that herrings are occasionally caught with stationary nets at a depth of 
50 to 60 fathoms. 

58 Nilsson, strange to say, mentions the unusual pressure of the water, to prove the 
unreasonableness of Anderson’s opinion. 

9 Quite recently this opinion has been modified by saying that the herring, although 
a ‘‘surface-fish,” nevertheless showed a decided preference for the banks where the 
codfish live, on account of the stronger current generally found there. 

60 Even Cederstroém mentions the strong pressure of the water, ‘‘exercising a hurtful 


influence on the gills,” as the principal cause why the herrings did not go into deeper 
waters. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 19% 


From what has hitherto been known, it will be evident that the her- 
rings can certainly go as deep as 100 fathoms, but that they must never- 
theless be considered as ‘“‘surface-fish,” which, according to accidental 
physical causes, change the comparatively short distance from the sur- 
face at which they generally live. The circumstance that the herrings, 
when near the coast, often go into deeper water, might possibly be 
ascribed to the milder winter temperature and to the cooler summer tem- 
perature, as well as to the greater calm and shelter which the deep waters 
doubtless offer. Whilst spawning, the herrings must, of course, go to- 
wards the bottom. 

38. Although there may be very small schools of coast-herrings, com- 
posed of stationary fish, the herring must, in a general way, be consid- 
ered as an entirely migratory fish. 

From the fact that the herring is a surface-fish, it almost necessarily 
follows that the migrations of the herring generally go in a horizontal 
direction, an opinion, however, which science has only reached quite re- 
cently; for, according to Anderson, Nilsson, Axel Boeck, and several other 
naturalists, the migrations of the herring go in a vertical direction, hav- 
ing for their object a different depth of water with varying pressure and 
temperature. 

With regard to a certain region, the migrations of the herring may 
be specially directed towards this region, or they may only pass through 
it, in which latter case the herring would only be a jish-of-passage as far 
as that region is concerned. 

The herrings which visit a coast are, with regard to the object of this 
visit, either herrings which seek a spawning-place or herrings which 
seek food, in which latter case their coming and going is less regular 
and more dependent on physical conditions.® | 

With regard to the season when the herrings visit the coast, they are 
divided into winter-herring, spring-herring, summer-herring, or autumn- 
herring. 

The sea-herrings generally visit the coast only once a year, but some- 
times also twice. 

With regard to the steadiness of the herrings’ visits to a certain coast 
the herrings must be considered regular migratory fish, as far at least as 
the extent of coast is not too much limited, and not too much regard is 
paid to the irregularities of those herrings which come in search of food ; 
but the very large schools of sea-herrings may also, as will be shown 
below, be considered as periodical visitors to the coast—such periods 
extending over eighty to one hundred years. 

39. With the exception of those parts of the day when the herring is 


°| This circumstance has given rise to the often quoted and misunderstood saying of 
MacCulloch that the herring is ‘‘an apparently most capricious fish.” (Quarterly 
Journal of Science, Literature, and the Arts, XVI, No. XXXII, London, 1824, p. 214.) 
Most of the instances of the capriciousness of the herrings seem to have been taken 
from the herring-fisheries on the western coast of Scotland, which have for theirobject 
only herrings which have come in search of food. 


192 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


supposed to be asleep it isin constant motion, and its daily course, especially 
whilst near the coast, is entirely regular. 

Itis well known now that the herrings generally keep quiet during the 
middle of the day and the middle of the night, but are in motion morn- 
ings and evenings, and that they go into deeper waters by day-time and 
near the surface by night. The herrings are, therefore, undoubtedly in- 
fluenced by the changes of ight, especially when the rays of light strike 
the water in a very oblique direction at the rising and setting of the sun 
or moon, which seems to waken the herrings to new life and cause them 
to seek those depths which are best for fishing. The principal changes 
in the daily course of the herrings are doubtless caused by the varying 
occurrence of the ‘“ herring-food” and by the herrings’ desire to find 
shelter from their enemies. 

It is also well known that the herrings go near the coast towards sun- 
set and return to the deep about sunrise. According to Axel Boeck the 
Norwegian spring-herrings during the spawning-season go to the spawn- 
ing-places at nightfall and leave them in the morning, but towards the 
close of the spawning-season they also come to the coast during the day, 
so that the fishermen generally consider rich day-fisheries as an indi¢a- 
tion that the fisheries are approaching their close, a prediction which, 
however, is not always fulfilled. G. C. Cederstrém says that in the Bal- 
tic the autumn-herrings often go into the deep at night, and come nearer 
the coast towards morning, but that the reverse may also occasionally 
be the case. . 

40. Regarding the annual migrations of the herrings to and from the 
coast, a number of different opinions have been advanced in course of 
time. Some of these I have briefiy hinted at when speaking of the 
character of the herring as a littoral or pelagian fish (36). 

Older writers, and the fishermen themselves, seem not to have enter- 
tained any other opinion than that the herrings coming from the ocean 
approached the coast at certain times of the year, generally in a direc- 
tion from north to south. ‘The idea that the proper home of the herrings 
might be the Polar Sea, near the North Pole, never entered the mind of 
the older writers on the fishery-question, who knew that the herring- 
whales keep farther south than the great whales of the ice-filled Polar 
Sea; that these last-mentioned whales lived on entirely different food 
than herrings, and that no herrings had been seen near Spitzbergen, 
or, aS a general rule, farther north than the North Cape in Finmarken. 
The herring-fishermen, with their limited geographical knowledge, were 
scarcely able to form or entertain a Polar-migration theory. 

The herring-fisheries on the coasts of Shetland, Scotland, and England 
gradually go farther south in proportion as the spawning-season comes 
later during the year. The English at the spawning-time generally fished 
near the coast, and the Dutch had their principal herring-fisheries only in 
the North Sea. Theirknowledge of the herring was consequently limited 
and led them to suppose that it was one and the same great school of 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 193: 


herrings which coming from the north went all round Great Britain and 
thus produced the different fisheries. This opinion soon became a gen- 
erally-received axiom, and is as such given in the older works on the 
herring-question (forexample, the works of Camden, Schoock, and Ionston). 

This was the origin of the great migration-theory which was by later 
authors advanced in the Atlas maritimus et commercialis published in 
London in 1728,” according to which the herrings were supposed—from 
want of room and food—to come from the north in such enormous masses 
that in passing between Greenland and the North Cape (which large 
space of sea was for them only a narrow sound), they had to keep very 
close together in order to pass. It was also supposed that after having 
passed this sea the herrings divided into two schools, the one (again 
divided in two smaller schools by Ireland) going west and the other east 
of Great Britain, not to be seen again after they had reached its southern 
coast. According to this opinion the herrings were supposed to propa- 
gate not only near the North Pole but also near the coasts of Great 
Britain. 

Fascinated by these bold conjectures Johan Anderson, always inclined 
towards fantastic opinions, determined to work them up in detail; and 
he did not forget the Scandinavian countries with their separate divis- 
ions of the great school of herrings, which, as he supposed, did net only 
have their proper home in the “ bottomless deep” under the Polar ice,. 
but also sheltered from the persecutions of men and fish-of-prey, increased 
to such an extent that an enormous number of herrings was forced every 
year to leave their home and visit those coasts which Providence intended 
to bless in a special manner. It will not be necessary to dwell any longer 
on this strange and fanciful theory, especially as nearly every one who 
has written on the migrations of the herrings has devoted far more time 
to it than it deserves, even to the exclusion of really important scientific 
questions. This theory, worthy of Miinchausen, may serve, however, as 
an example of the credulity and the total want of critical discernment 
prevailing not only among the great mass of the people, but also among 
naturalists, some of whom give this opinion in their works as if it were 
a scientific truth. 

But as another fish—popularly called “ herring,” and by many consid- 
ered identical with the herring proper—comes to the eastern coast of 
North America from the south, it became necessary to modify the mi- 
gration-theory with regard to America. And this was done by John 
Gilpin, who let the herrings follow the declination of the sun and annually 
wander in an elliptic course between the Polar circle and the Tropic of 
Cancer all round the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, thus con- 
stantly avoiding both excessive heat and excessive cold. It will not be 
necessary, either, to give much time to this fantastic theory, which, 


® Dott according to M. E. Bloch, Oeconomische Naturgeschichte der Fische Deutschlands, 
I, Berlin, 1782, p. 188, a statement which, however, seems to be doubtful. 
13 F 


194 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


although it has never become general, has been fully described in the 
well-known works of Kroyer and Axel Boeck. 

Anderson’s migration-theory, which finds adherents to this very day, 
has, in course of time, undergone various changes. Thus some suppose 
that the herrings go into southern waters for the sake of propagating, 
and then return with their young to the Polar Sea, which offers an 
abundance of food (Pennant and others), because the herrings were seen 
to come near the coast full of roe or milt and leave it empty; and be- 
‘cause Anderson’s explanation of this fact seemed insufficient, one began 
tq think of analogous facts in the life of birds and other migratory ani- 
mals, or was forced to the opinion that there were inconsiderable changes 
in the herrings’ visits to the coast in the direction of their journey, &e. 

4J. Anderson’s migration-theory was subjected to a thorough and anni- 
hilating criticism by the distinguished ichthyologist Bloch, whose opinion 
has been shared by Noél de la Moriniére, Lacépéde, and Quensel. With 
more originality MacCulloch has also followed Bloch’s opinion, and has 
‘directed attention to the impossibility of making Andersons theory agree 
with the evident irregularities in the course of the herrings. Some 
years before JlacCulloch, Couch had opposed the migration-theory and had 
described the character of the herring as.a “local fish” on the coast of 
Cornwall. 8S. Nilsson has with great emphasis pronounced himself in 
opposition to the theory of a central school of herrings near the Pole, 
and has specially mentioned the physical impossibility of the young her- 
rings developing in the great deep of the Polar Sea; he has also op- 
posed the opinion that every coast should have its special race of her- 
rings distinguished by outward marks and a separate spawning-season, 
being, consequently, more local and littoral in its character. Professor 
Nilsson, therefore, not only opposed the theory of a central race of her- 
rings near the North Pole, but of such a central race altogether. The 
dispute caused by Professor Nilsson’s writings on the regulation of the 
Bohusliin herring-fisheries caused the Rev. 0. Lundbeck, pastor of the 
church at Kliidesholmen, to advance the theory of a central race of her- 
rings probably living in the North Sea, to which we owed the great her- 
ring-fisheries, and from which, in course of time, the smaller races of 
coast-herrings had separated, a theory which might possibly be harmo- 
nized with the views advanced in Bloch’s criticism of Anderson’s theories,™ 
but which is in direct opposition to the facts and opinions given by Pro- 
fessor Nilsson. Lundbeck’s hypothesis found no adherents, and seems to 

6 Professor Nilsson went so far in his zeal to give to every coast its special local race 
of herrings, as to entirely deny the possibility of two or more different races occurring 
‘Con one and the same coast and under exactly the same natural conditions.” This 
one-sided and doubtless erroneous opinion has recently found an adherent in Prof. G. 
O. Sars. 

& Bloch believes that the time of spawning depends on age and temperature, and 
from this opinion it may easily be deduced that the herrings which spawn in the North 


Sea during autumn, and which are actually somewhat smaller than the common her- 
rings, are only the young of the Norwegian spring-herrings. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 195 


have been entirely consigned to oblivion. MacCulloch’s opinion, however, 
has met with great and universal favor, and has been shared by Yarrel, 
Parnell, and others, whilst Professor Nilsson’s opinion is held by C. 8. 
Sundevall, Ekstrim, Valenciennes, Mitchell, Berthelot, and others. 

Recent theories regarding the annual migrations and coast-visits of 
the herrings chiefly ditfer from each other in this, that the migration is 
thought to extend over a greater or less territory, just in proportion as 
the herring is considered a more littoral or more pelagian fish, and in as- 
cribing various natural instincts as the causes of these migrations. 

42, We must finally mention the theory advanced in explanation of 
the fisheries of new herrings on the western coast of Norway, that the 
herrings do not, as is generally supposed, spawn every year, but only 
every other year. This theory was in the beginning only used in expla- 
nation of the exceptional occurrence of a small number of so-called 
‘‘herrings-of-passage,” but was more generally applied when people be- 
gan to take into consideration the unusual and frequent occurrence of 
so-called “new herrings” or ‘winter herrings.” If this theory is correct, 
the same herrings would, as a general rule, visit the same coast only 
every other year for the purpose of spawning, and the annual fisheries 
of spawning-herrings must, therefore, principally be caused by herrings 
which alternate in their years of spawning. The frequent visits which 
herrings pay to the coast between the spawning of every other year, but 
during the spawning-season, must, therefore, be considered as exceptions 
occurring at the end (or the beginning) of a period of fisheries (for spawn- 
ers). After having spawned the spring-herrings would not occur among 
the summer-herrings during the following summer and grow fat, which, 
as we know, takes place quick enough, but would remain lean for more 
than a year. Still less is there any cause why the so-called ‘new her- 
rings” should appear so seldom during the fishing-season and so fre- 
quently after its close. This theory* may be convenient for explaining 
the above-mentioned phenomena, but it cannot be fully accepted unless it 
can be harmonized with other phenomena, which are the principal ones 
to demand an explanation.” The investigation of the subject only be- 
comes more complicated through such theori ies, whose value is, therefore, 
very doubtful. 
™ 45. It has been mentioned before (22) that the young herrings begin 
to wander about at an early age, chiefly to seek food or shelter from their 
enemies, or possibly more agreeable places of sojourn. It has frequently 


% Although it is generally supposed that herrings can spawn several times in succes- 
sion, we have no positive proof of this, and this question seems lee never to have 
been examined scientifically. 

*The theory mentioned in the beginning of 42.—Translator’s note. 

% I do not mean to imply by this that every herring capable of propagating the spe- 
cies must spawn eyery year, but merely that when possessed of full health and strength 
every herring will generally doit. It must, moreover, be remembered that the indi- 


vidual fish composing one and the same school do not all become capable of propagat- 
ing the species at the same age. 


196 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


been observed that the young herrings, as they grow up, leave the shal- 
low waters near the coast and go into deeper waters farther out towards 
the ocean, whence, after a while, they return to the coast in company 
with the older herrings. The knowledge of the details of these migra- 
tions is, like our knowledge of their physical and biological causes, so 
limited that very little can be said regarding them. 

Regarding the coming of the herrings from the sea to the coast we 
only know that during. the spawning-season they generally approach the 
spawning-places in dense schools, coming from the north, and that when 
visiting the coast for other purposes the schools are smaller and more 
scattered, extending over a larger stretch of coast, and come both from 
the north and the south. Those herrings which come to seek food gen- 
erally remain for some time in the outer waters before they come near 
the coast, and their visits are neither as regular nor as long as when 
they come to spawn. But even the great mass of herrings does, during 
the spawning-season, not remain near the coast longer than one or two 
months, exceptions from this rule being very rare indeed. Herrings 
which have thus remained near the coast over their regular time become 
almost entirely worthless. During the last great Bohuslin herring-fish- 
eries this seems to have occurred more frequently. 

In approaching the coast the herrings generally begin at a certain 
point, spreading from it either to the left or right or in both directions, 
influenced in this by the weather, the currents of the sea, and the nature 
of the bottom. The herrings do not like to visit the place where they 
have spawned, a second time. It has also been noticed that the large 
herrings do not go as high up the fiords as the small ones, and that when 
the spawning-season comes in winter or spring the large herrings spawn 
before the small ones, whilst when the spawning-season comes in sum- 
mer or autumn the small or younger herrings spawn before the larger 
and older ones. After spawning, the herrings have often been observed 
to go nearer the coast than before spawning; fishing with drag-nets may 
therefore be carried on long after fishing with stationary nets has ceased, 
as the “empty” fish (those that have spawned) do not easily enter a 
stationary net. 

The going-out of the herrings is generally a much quicker process 
than their coming-in, and as it is more difficult to catch herrings whilst 
they are leaving the coast, we know very little about it. After the her- 
rings have left the coast, they do not stay outside any length of time, 
but immediately go out to sea to seek food and enjoy the greater pro- 
tection which the deeper water affords. When the herrings have been 
to the coast for the purpose of spawning, they gendyally leave the coast 
in a northerly direction. 

With regard to the extent of the annual migrationdof the herrings, I 
have already mentioned the different opinions, and I Will only add here 
that the larger a school of herrings is, the greater will be the extent of 
territory where they must seek their food, and the farther from the coast 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 197 


must they extend their migrations. It is not known from direct obser- 
vations how far the largest schools of herrings extend their migrations, 
but certainly much farther than MacCulloch, Nilsson, Boeck, and their 
followers assert. 

44, The annual migrations of the herrings may be influenced by phys- 
ical causes both as regards their time and their direction. It is well 
known that favorable, mild weather accelerates, whilst bad weather 
retards the approach of the herrings to the coast,” and that wind and 
current may bring a much greater number of herrings to one part of the 
coast than to another near it. The general rule, however, is that the 
herrings, when coming in to spawn, visit the place where they were 
born. When the herrings come in to seek food, they will generally go 
to those waters where they have been accustomed to find food in the 
greatest abundance; those physical causes, therefore, which have an 
influence on the occurrence of food will also influence the direction of 
the herrings’ migrations, as I have had occasion to remark before. 

45, The annual migrations of the herrings are chiefly caused by the 
desire to propagate the species and to seek food. For spawning, the 
herrings need a suitable bottom for depositing their eggs, a bottom 
which also must contain a sufficient quantity of food for the young 
herrings and afford shelter for them. All these requirements are only 
met near a coast. Even if hefrings, as has sometimes been said, not 
without a show of reason, spawn on the Dogger-Bank or other still more 
distant banks in the North Sea, this does not disprove our assertion, for 
it is doubtless only the greater ease with which the young fish can reach 
the coast from these banks which has made it possible for the herrings 
to spawn there.® 

The grown herrings must again go to the ocean to seek their food, 
which they chiefly find in the currents and those waters which come 
from the Polar Sea. In some places, however, they find the required 
food during some part of the year near the coast; and thus there may 
be fishing towards the end of summer and the beginning of autumn, as 
on the western coast of Norway, or during autumn and winter, as on 
the coast of Bohuslin. The influence which the desire for food exercises 
on the annual migrations of the herrings has sometimes been overrated, 
so that it has occasionally been considered as the chief cause, even in 
cases when the desire to propagate was undoubtedly the principal cause. 

As the spawning herrings, on account of their being packed more 
closely together and on account of the steady course which they pursue, 
are more exposed to the persecutions of their enemies, and as this danger 
of course increases the nearer they get to the coast, they generally go 

See 13. This is applicable chiefly to those herrings which spawn in spring (that is, 
after the close of winter when the ice is breaking up). On coasts like those of Nor- 
way and Scotland, laved by warm currents of the sea, this is less noticeable. 

It is therefore not improbable that the young herrings which in such large number 
are found near the western coast of Norway are at least in part the offspring of her- 
rings which have spawned on the North Sea banks. 


198 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


into deep water immediately after having spawned, in order to find the 
necessary Shelter, and leave the coast much quicker than they came. 
The larger herrings seem likewise to thrive better in the open sea than 
near the coast, and consequently do not stay there longer than is abso- 
lutely necessary. Neucrantz, however, goes too far when he supposes 
that the herrings leave the coast only to escape unpleasant physical con- 
ditions, for instance, cold or violently agitated water. It has already been 
mentioned that want of space or the persecutions of enemies have in for- 
mer times by some been considered as the chief causes of the annual 
migrations and regular coast-visits of the herrings. Such opinions are, 
however, no longer entertained, and therefore cannot claim our attention. g* 

46. The great periods (eighty to one hundred years) of the large races 
of sea-herrings have long since been known, as far as certain points on 
the coast of Bohusliin are concerned, but have not formed the subject of 
Scientific investigations till the present century. In olden times this 
phenomenon, as peculiar as it was important from an economical point of 
view, wasconnected with religiousideas or with some superstitious notion 
of the period, and it was only Strém, Lybecker, Dubb, and MacCulloch 
who spoke of these almost inexplicable facts in a scientific manner, 
From the last-mentioned author we have the expression, often quoted in 
season and out of season, that the herring is an entirely “capricious” fish. 

Nilsson, who had set himself the special aim to find the causes why the 
Bohusliin herring-fisheries came to an abrupt end in the year 1808, for 
the first time examined the question regarding the long periodical visits 
of the so-called “old” or ‘genuine sea-herrings” to the coasts of the 
Skagerack in a truly scientific manner. The result of it was, that their 
conformity to natural laws was totally denied, and the periodicity of our 
great herring-fisheries was explained by the herrings having been driven 
away by man, enough young fish, however, having been left every time 
to gradually produce new fisheries, to be followed in turn by the final 
expulsion. This opinion, which was stubbornly opposed by the fisher- 
men who in Lundbeck had found a literary spokesman, who maintained 
that it was the nature of the herring “to change its place, and that its 
visits to our coasts were periodical,” was generally shared by the natural- 
ists of that time, such as C. J. Sundevall, 8. Lovén, W. von Wright, Ek- 
strom, Malm, Widegren, and others. Even Aréyer shared this opinion to 
some extent, as in these migrations of the herrings continuing for many 
years and then ceasing all of a sudden he could see nothing else but the 
changes to which all sea-fisheries are subject; at a later time he chiefly 
ascribed the undeniable fact of these migrations to the increase in the 
number of birds and fish-of-prey, changes in the weather, the character 
of the bottom, the sea-water, and excessive fishing with destructive ap- 
paratus. 

In direct opposition to this view supported by the most influential 
scientific authorities, Loberg and Axel Boeck, sustained by popular opin- 
ion and by the history of the herring-fisheries of Western Scandinavia, 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN., 199 


have endeavored to prove that those races of herrings which visit the 
coasts of Bohusliin and Western Norway change their spawning-places 
periodically, although they could give no reason why it should be so. 
Axel Boeck, following in part H. Strom and other older authors, also 
showed that there are several tolerably regular changes in the course of 
the herring-fishery during the great fishing periods. Later G. 0. Sars 
has made an ingenious attempt to explain one phase in these changes, 
viz, the arrival of the herrings at different times during the fishing 
period, by the varying occurrence of the ‘“ herring-food” supposed to de- 
pend mostly on meteorological and hydrological conditions; in the be- 
ginning, however, he seemed inclined, like Nilsson, to deny the periodicity 
and to suppose that the visits of the herrings continued without inter- 
ruption unless checked or hindered by man’s interference, but later 
entertained an opinion which agreed more with that of Boeck. G. Win- 
ther has also shared Boeck’s view in describing the analogous Sound fish- 
eries, whose changes, however, are less marked. Finally I have at- 
tempted to explain the periodicity partly by the tendency of the school 
of herrings to become great through the influence which its size must ex- 
ercise on the cenobitic conditions in the disproportionately small spawn- 
ing-places, partly by the greater distance from the spawning-places at 
which the herrings just on account of the size of the school must seek 
their food, which depends on supposed periodical changes in the meteo- 
rological and hydrological conditions. 

47, The great migration periods of the large schools of herrings are 
marked by very regular changes both in the time of the herrings’ an- 
nual arrival at the coast and in the locality where they arrive. It must 
be remembered, however, that all the knowledge we possess of these 
changes is derived from the fisheries, and that the too exclusive use of ap- 
paratus only suited to coast-fishing has made the coast-fisheries more 
prominent than they would have been otherwise. But wherever herring- 
fisheries are carried on not only near the coast but also with floating nets 
at a considerable distance from the land, such as is the case, for example, 
near the east coast of Scotland, or with purse-nets as on the northeastern 
coast of North America, the changes are much less marked and have 
therefore hitherto almost entirely escaped attention. MacCulloch has 
some observations on this point chiefly with regard to the fisheries on 
the eastern coast of Scotland, but it is only recently that I among others 
have directed attention to the fact that the herrings on the eastern coast 
of Scotland have changed their chief place of visit to a point about 100 
English miles farther south, and have left the Moray Firth, and that they 
have commenced to come near the coast earlier during the season, so 
that the September fisheries are very insignificant now compared to 
what they were formerly. On the coasts of Bohuslin and Norway, 
where fishing is chiefly carried on with seines and stationary nets, such 
changes have been known from time immemorial. 

48. Thus es Hans Strém in Norway observed that the herrings 


200 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


during the period they visited the coast of Séndmor (1736-1756) came 
later and later every year, and predicted, in accordance with an old 
tradition and the experience had at Stat, that the herring-fisheries of 
Séndmoér would come to an end. This really took place in Bohuslin, 
where it had been observed already towards the middle of the last great 
fishery-period, that the herrings came to the coast later and later every 
year, which led people to fear that as in times of old the herrings might 
again gradually leave the Swedish coasts. Somewhat later (1782) Strdm 
compared the Bohusliin fisheries with those of Norway, and, basing his 
opinion on their evident similarity, predicted that the end of the Bohus- 
lan fisheries was near at hand. 

About ten years later Lybecker expresses himself more distinctly, as 
follows: “If with prophetic eye we could see the future and predict the 
fate of the fisheries, we might say witha great degree of probability that 
a change will take piace soon. We know from history that when her- 
rings or other fish-of-passage arrive near the coast later and later, and 
at the same time keep farther and farther away from the coast, this 
means a change in the migrations of the herrings, and may even point 
to their leaving the coast entirely. This has been the course of the Nor- 
wegian herring-fisheries, and even of the Swedish herring-fisheries during 
their older periods, and in fact with all those fisheries where fish-of-pas- 
sage are the principal object, with the only exception of the Scotch and 
English fisheries. * * * If we take into consideration the roving 
nature of the herrings and the examples from olden times, it is highly 
probable that the herrings will come later every year and finally leave 
our coast altogether.” 

It had frequently been maintained that too much fishing, and fishing 
with destructive apparatus, were the proper causes of the herrings com- 
ing later every year, and might even lead to the complete cessation of 
the fisheries; and people therefore made futile attempts to obviate this 
danger by legislation. As the ominous predictions regarding the her- 
ring-fisheries were, however, not immediately fulfilled, they were almost 
forgotten; but when the herring-fisheries came to an end in the year 
1808 people imagined that the herrings arriving later and later every 
year fully proved the assertion that they had been driven away by the 
imprudent action of the fishermen. It was said that refuse thrown into 
the water, and noise, had prevented the herrings from coming near to the_ 
coast, that they had spawned in the open sea, and had, then, in conse- 
quence of the languor and weakness following the spawning, been driven 
towards the coast by storms. 

During the more recently closed Norwegian spring-herring fisheries it 
was (according to Léberg) noticed, not without anxious forebodings, that 
the herrings, which in the beginning of the fishing-period did not come 
near the coast till early in February, gradually came earlier and earlier, 
so that finally the fisheries commenced before New Year; and that this 
change was followed by another, the herrings again coming later and 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 201 


Jater, till the fisheries did not commence before February. This pecu- 
liarity, however, was thought to be a consequence of the irregularity 
with which the herrings visited the same places on the coast. It was 
not till Axel Boeck began to investigate the matter that this whole ques- 
tion was treated from a more scientific standpoint. He showed that the 
coming of the herrings to the coast at different times during the period 
was subject to certain rules, and that this regularity in the movements 
of the herrings was observed not only during the Norwegian spring-her- 
ring fisheries of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but also dur- 
ing those herring-fisheries which were going on on the coast of Bohuslin 
during the second half of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. This 
peculiar phenomenon has therefore become far more important than it 
was thought to be in former times; and it may well be said to contain 
the key to the question of the periodicity of the great Scandinavian her- 
ring-fisheries. Boeck was not able to assign any cause for these entirely 
regular changes in the time of the herrings’ visits to the coast. This has 
been attempted, however, by G. O. Sars and myself, and an account of 
these attempts will be given below. 

49. At a very early period of the last great Bohuslin herring-fisheries 
it had been observed that the herrings came to the coast a little far- 
ther north every year. This became so noticeable that it was men- 
tioned in the Parliamentary Fishery-Commission’s report of January 15, 
1770. These changes took place in the following order: the fisheries 
commenced on the central (or as it was then called “northern” coast), 
but soon after turned to the southern coast, and during the years 1760- 
1765 went as far south as the northernmost part of the Holland coast, 
although the coast near Elfsborg and Marstrand was the principal fish- 
ing-place. Up to the year 1780 the herrings gradually left the southern 
coast and chiefly visited the central coast, going as far north as Strém- 
stad from 1775 on, and making their appearance near the Hval Islands 
in the southern part of Norway from 1778. These changes also attracted 
the attention of foreigners, and Lybecker speaks of them as sure signs 
that the Bohuslin herring-fisheries were approaching their end. 

When the herring-fisheries actually came to a close, and people began 
to argue about the causes of this misfortune, those who ascribed it to 
imprudent and destructive fishing saw in these changes a proof of their 
assertions. They maintained that as soon as the southern coast began 
to be covered with salting-houses the herrings left this coast and came 
to the northern coast, and when this too began to be filled with similar 
establishments, ‘the herrings seemed disturbed and seared, and came 
in smaller schools, approaching both the northern and the southern coast 
in those places where there was least noise and where least refuse was 
thrown into the water.” (Svensson.) 


°° Axel Boeck’s assertion that during the last great Bohuslin fisheries fishing first 
commenced on the sonthern coast (Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, p. 106) is therefore not 
correct. 


202 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Even on the west coast of Norway it had (according to Loberg) been 


observed during those spring-herring fisheries which had been going on — 


there since the close of the Bohuslin herring-fisheries in 1808, that the 
herrings changed the places of their annual visits, and many attempts 
were made to explain this phenomenon. None of these attempts, how- 
ever, found much favor, and Léberg therefore maintained that probably 
these changes were caused by the influence of wind and current. 

New interest began to be taken in this question when Avzel Boeck 
proved that these changes were to some extent regular, and had been 
shown to be regular not only during the older fisheries, concerning 
which our sources of information were very meagre, and during the last 
Norwegian spring-herring fisheries, but also during the great Bohuslin 
herring-fisheries of the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries.” 

Boeck has not assigned any natural cause for this regularity in the 
changes of the herrings’ visits, and I believe that I am the first who has 
made any attempt to find the causes of this phenomenon. I supposed 
that during that part of the fishing-period when the herrings came to 
the coast for the purpose of spawning, they preferred its northern por- 
tion, because the temperature of the water was higher and more even 
during the later part of the season when they came there, whilst the south- 
ern coast would again offer peculiar advantages of temperature during the 
earlier part of the season when they came there. During that part of 
the fishing-period, however, when the herrings came to the coast for 
other purposes than spawning, their choice of a place would chiefly de- 
pend on current and wind; fishing on the central and northern coasts 
was therefore more certain than on the southern coast. More will be 
said farther on (60, 63) concerning these attempts to explain the changes 
in the migration of the herrings. 

50. Among the peculiar phenomena of the latter part of the last great 
Bobusliin fisheries, attention has been drawn to the unusual occurrence 
of small herrings among the larger ones during the last thirty years. 
This phenomenon has also become more significant since Axel Boeck has 
shown that something very similar took place prior to the close of the 
last Norwegian spring-herring fisheries, thus seemingly being an indi- 
cation that the fisheries are approaching their end. During the above- 
mentioned herring-fisheries none but large herrings were caught, and on 
the coast of Bohusliin, for example, it was only immediately before and 
after the annual fisheries that small herrings were caught among them. 
The Norwegian spring-herring fisheries generally begin every year with 
straggling herrings and are mostly followed by smaller herrings. 

The case which Boeck mentions from the Stavanger coast and from 
the year 1766 does evidently not belong here, as it only proves a less 
productive local autumn-herring fishery, when herrings of different size 
are generally caught. 


70 It is highly probable that the same was the case during the Bohuslin fisheries of 
the second half of the sixteenth century, as the fisheries came to an end much earlier 
in the southern than in the other parts of the coast. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 203 


51. In order to get a more correct idea concerning this peculiar ming- 
ling of great and small herrings towards the end of a fishing-period, it 
will be necessary to consider another phenomenon which seems to be 
connected with it, and which has hitherto been overlooked. — It is known 
from the last great Bohuslin herring-fisheries that during the last thirty 
or forty years (therefore during more than half the period) the herrings 
came to the coast for entirely different purposes than spawning, and 
that the herrings, though not exactly being a mixture of great and 
small fish, differed greatly in size, fatness, and general quality.”!. It then 
became customary to call the full-grown herrings—whose number was 
small—by a characteristic name, “select herrings” or “fat herrings.” 
It was thought that impure water and noises had caused the herrings 
to stay in the open sea, until after spawning they were in so weak a con- 
dition that a strong wind would drive them towards the coast. 

A similar phenomenon has during the last ten years been observed in 
the Norwegian spring-herring fisheries, so that instead of spawning her- 
rings (‘‘genuine spring-herrings”) an inferior kind of herring has been 
caught, which is called ‘mixed herring” or “new herring,” the number 
of full-grown herrings being exceedingly small; their spawning-season 
seems moreover to come somewhat later than that of the genuine spring- 
herring, which spawns in winter, and they might therefore possibly be- 
long to asmall race of coast-herrings which spawn in spring. Boeck 
considered this phenomenon as a dark and mysterious enigma; G. 0. 
Sars was the first who—as far as the Norwegian spring*herring fisheries 
were concerned—examined the whole question from a scientific point of 
view. As regards our (the Bohuslin) fisheries, it was scarcely possible 
to suppose that the so-called ‘‘new herrings” were spring-herrings which 
only visited our coast after having spawned, as the well-known char- 
acteristics of the ‘‘new herrings” prevented their being considered as 
spring-herrings which had but recently done spawning. It was there- 
fore supposed that they were old and young fish which would not spawn 
till the following winter, and which during the preceding autumn would 
keep nearer the coast than the spring-hérrings, which latter would, when 
going to their new spawning-places in the outer deep coast-waters, 
drive the “new herrings” towards the coast. But Sars has failed to ex- 
plain why such a “driving-in” of great masses of “new herrings” did 
not take place during the preceding period when the herrings came to 
the coast for the purpose of spawning. It is tolerably certain that these 
so-called ‘“‘new herrings” are, to a great extent at least, such fish as 
have not yet reached the age when they are capable of spawning; but 
as this would not apply to the great mass of the herrings, the supposi- 


7 See H. Strém “ Sammenligning imellem de Norske og Svenske Fiskerier ” (Comparison 
between the Norwegian and Swedish fisheries) in Dansk Museum, January 1782, p. 7, 
9-11, where he supposes that the above-mentioned Bohusliin herrings are the young 
of the spring-herrings which have emigrated from the Norwegian coast, and are there- 
fore the same as those which at that time were in Norway called “ winter-herrings.” 


204 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


tion gained ground that the herrings only spawned every other year, an 
opinion to which I cannot give positive assent, at least to such an ex- 
tent as would be necessary. 

In comparing the above-mentioned Norwegian and the Bohuslan fish- 
eries (the latter having for their object herrings which come to the coast 
for a totally different purpose than spawning), it will soon be found that 
the phenomenaare very similar, and that the spawning-herring fisheries 
are immediately followed by a longer or shorter period of new-herring 
fisheries; and I have even been led to suppose, basing my opinion on 
the development of the last great Bohusliin herring-fisheries, that all 
great herring-fisheries, at least in Bohuslian, are not only followed but 
also preceded by a similar period of ‘ new-herring” fisheries. By this 
term as well as by the term “ period of spawning-herring fisheries,” I 
understand, of course, only separate portions of one and the same great 
period of herring-fisheries; and as the intervals between two such great 
periods on the coast of Bohuslin generally last from sixty to one hun- 
dred years (an average of seventy), these intervals would be shorter on 
coasts which are nearer that part of the ocean where the herrings chiefly 
find their food, for instance, the western coast of Norway, and possibly 
in very favorable localities almost imperceptible. It is evident that the 
‘‘new-herring fisheries” are much less certain than the ‘ spawning-her- 
ring fisheries,” which is very noticeable on the west coast of Norway. 

It is also my opinion that the “new herrings” on the west coast of 
Norway belong to an entirely different race of herrings from the Nor- 
wegian spring-herring,” and that they may possibly be identical with 
those herrings which periodically visit the coast of Bohuslin. The cir- 
cumstance that the “new herrings” were not generally seen during that 
part of the fishing-period when spawning-herrings were caught, such as 
was the case during the Norwegian spring-herring fisheries, is said to be 
owing to the weaker ‘new herrings” having been chased by the stronger 
spawners to those regions which these had formerly occupied themselves. 
According to this supposition it would seem impossible that great 
spawning-herring fisheries could be going on simultaneously on the 
coast of Bohusliin and on the western coast of Norway ; but quite likely 
that those herrings which during autumn have visited the coast of 
Bohusliin for the purpose of spawning, visit the west coast of Norway 
later in winter as “new herrings” or ‘“ winter-herrings.” 

These suppositions of mine do not claim any higher scientific value, 
but may nevertheless prove useful by possibly directing attention to 
the necessity of collecting and combining facts relating to the history of 
the herring-fisheries much more than has been done hitherto. 

52. After having thus briefly mentioned the different theories regard- 
ing the migrations of the large races of herrings and the phenomena 
which characterize the large fishery-periods, we must mention the nu- 


72 Compare, however, the above-mentioned entirely different opinion regarding the 
relation of the ‘‘ winter-herring,” communicated by H, Strém. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 205 


merous attempts to find the causes of these migrations; this is prob- 
ably the most difficult and most violently disputed part of the whole 
herring-question. As these fishery-periods have been most distinctly 
marked by long intervals on the coast of Bohuslin, as there they have 
caused the greatest economical revolutions, and as consequently they 
are better known, having at an early period been made the subject of 
scientific investigations, a brief review of the successive views regarding 
the causes of the cessation of the last great Bohuslin fisheries will be 
in place here. 

When the great herring-fisheries came to an end in the year 1808, 
and many men experienced heavy losses, causing great want and suffer- 
ing on the coast of Bohuslin, it was quite natural that in Bohuslin, at 
least, people began to think seriously about the causes of this great mis- 
fortune and about the possibility of retrieving it. When by direct ob- 
servations it had been ascertained as an undeniable fact that the so- 
called “ old herrings” had really left the Skagerack, the opinion gained 
ground among the more educated classes that the herrings had been 
chased away by destructive fishing, by noise, and by the great quantities 
of refuse from the oil-refineries which had been thrown into the sea; this 
opinion was publicly expressed in a pamphlet published in 1822 by Mr. 
Svensson, the proprietor of large salting establishments. This as well as 
the repeated demands for subsidies from the state to promote the fish- 
ing interests ang help the impoverished fishermen finally induced the 
government to order a scientific investigation ofthe whole matter. This 
investigation was entrusted to Prof. S. Nilsson, who during the summer 
seasons of 1826, 1827, 1832, and 1833 visited the coast of Bohuslan. In 
his reports he gave his above-mentioned opinion as to the cause why the 
herring-fisheries had come to an end. But when he proposed, in order 
to help the Bohuslan herring-fisheries, that fishing with close nets should 
be prohibited and in its place fishing with stationary nets having wide 
meshes should be introduced, his general views began to be opposed, 
especially the one that the herrings should have been driven away by 
too much fishing, which last-mentioned idea people thought they could 
tracein his reportfor 1828, Professor Nilssonreplied that his expressions 
had been entirely misunderstood, that he had never “ either entertained 
or expressed” such an ‘unreasonable idea.” During the conferences 
with a number of fishermen which were held in the year 1833, the opin- 
ion that the herrings should have been driven away by too much fish- 
ing, by noise, or by impure water was strongly opposed. When the 
above-mentioned causes no longer found favor, the opinion gained 
ground that the fisheries had come to an end through the use of close 
nets, an opinion which found some support in an “ ominous” expression 
of the distinguished ichthyologist Mr. Bloch. This opinion was not - 
directly submitted to the criticism of the coast population, and con- 


sequently remained in favor for some time, but was finally also aban- 
doned. 


206 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Thus one opinion followed the other, and finally it was maintained 
in a somewhat dictatorial manner that in all these causes which had 
been assigned for the cessation of the fisheries there was at any rate 
some particle of truth. 

53. In other places, likewise, where the herring-fisheries had ceased. 
or had decreased, the question as to the causes of this phenomenon had 
become the subject of discussion, and various explanations were at- 
tempted, all of which were also applied to Bohuslin. None of these 
explanations, however, gained general favor; they were, nevertheless, 
subjected to a thorough criticism by MacCulloch, Kroyer, Liberg, Axel 
Boeck, and others. In spite of this they continued in one shape or the 
other to be believed and contradicted, and even in our own times at- 
tempts have been made to solve the problem by following some of these 
old-fashioned ideas. There are, besides, quite a number of modern ex- 
planations or suppositions which explain the phenomenon by purely 
natural causes, whose value cannot yet be determined, because these 
natural causes are not fully understood. Explanations have, however, 
been attempted, not only by such more or less probable causes, but 
even by myths or entirely accidental circumstances. The desire to find 
the causes of all natural phenomena is deeply implanted in human na- 
ture, and when science or ingenuity.is unable to find these causes 
people will resort to accidents and myths. Only those persons, however, 
who are of a strictly critical and thoughtful nature, and who, conse- 
quently, both appreciate the difficulties and are but too well acquainted 
with the defects and the limits of human knowledge, will feel inclined, 
at times at least, to give up all hope that the question will ever be satis- 
factorily answered. 

54. In examining, however, all the causes which have been assigned 
for the cessation of the fisheries, we find that they may be arranged 
under three heads. The first of these embraces mythical or accidental 
causes ; the second, causes produced by human agencies; and the third, 
biological and physical causes. 

A.—WMythical and accidental causes: 

1. God’s wrath on account of the abuse of his gifts, human godless- 
ness and ingratitude, Sunday fishing, refusing to pay tithes to the 
clergy, &c., or dissatisfaction with fhe laws and regulations made 
by the government, ce. ; 

. Magic; 

. Spilling of blood ; 

. Cruelty shown towards the herring ; 

. Using herrings as manure; 

. Occurrences which accidentally took place at the same time when 
the herrings disappeared, such as conflagrations on the coast, the 
erecting of new light-houses, &c.; 

7. Neglect on the part of the whales and other so-called ‘‘herring- 

hunters” to drive the herrings towards the coast; 


> Cu Oo bo 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN, 207 


8. The capriciousness of the herring or its innate instinct independ- 

ent of outward circumstances. 
B.—Causes produced by:-human agencies : . 

1. The gradual destruction of the herrings by : 

a. teo much fishing, and more especially by catching young her- 
rings in close nets, 

b. preventing the herrings from reaching suitable spawning-places, 

¢. destroying the Spawn, or 

d. destroying the places where the young fish are accustomed to 
Seek food and shelter ; 

2. The gradual expulsion of the herrings from the coast-waters by: 

a. noise, 

b. too many fishermen, 

¢. disturbing methods of fishing, especially fishing with floating 
nets too early in the season, 

d. disturbing the Spawning-process, 

é. disturbing the Spawning-places by fishing or throwin g refuse into 
the water, 

J. leaving dead herrings on the bottom, or throwing guts and gills 
of fish into the water, 

g. making the water impure by refuse from oil-refineries, &e., 

h. hindering the herrings from going undisturbedly to their spawn- 
ing-places, 

t. insufficient and delayed fishing and the consequent scarcity of 
food for the herrings. 

C.— Biological and physical causes : 

1. Gradual destruction of the herrings by unfavorable weather, an 
unusual increase in the number of fish-of-prey and birds-of-prey, 
lack of food, &e.; 

2. The forced expulsion of the herrings from the coast-waters by: 

a. the increasing number of fish-of-prey and birds-of-prey, 

b. the lack of food, 

¢. a change in the nature of the coast-bottoms, making them unfit 
for spawning (these changes may be brought about by bottom-ice 
or floating ice or by the changed nature of the local fauna and 
flora of the sea), 

d. changes in the meteorological and hydrological conditions or in 
their periodicity, 

é. the herrings having to 0 too far from the coast in search of food. 

55. It will scarcely be necessary to say that frequently a greater or 

less number of the above-mentioned causes have been combined in order 
to produce a greater effect, Nor will it be necessary to give much 
attention to the causes mentioned under the first heading (A), although 
they have for a long time met with great favor among the common peo- 
ple. As regards the causes mentioned under the second heading (B), 
they might practically be' divided into two subdivisions different from 


208 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


those mentioned above, the first embracing all those causes based on the 
idea that the herrings were either destroyed or driven away by human 
agencies, and thé second embracing all those causes based on the idea 
that the herrings had been forced to leave the coast from lack of food. 
The causes mentioned under the first heading have, generally speaking, 
not met with universal favor, many of their defenders being led by ill- 
concealed feelings of envy; and the causes mentioned under the second 
heading are generally in direct opposition to the first. Strange to say, 
the method of explanation which has recently been adopted by G. C. 
Cederstrom has seemingly met with some opposition by the knowledge 
which we have gained concerning the great Bohuslin herring-fisheries, 
that those fishing-periods lasted longest during which fishing was car- 
ried on with the greatest zeal, whilst those were shortest during which 
fishing was neglected.” It ought scarcely to be necessary to refute this 
theory, and as far as the above-mentioned theories of explanation are 
concerned, we may point to the, generally speaking, reliable opinions of 
the authors mentioned before (53). It must be granted that the influ- 
ence of human agencies on small fisheries may be noticeable; but their 
influence on the great herring-fisheries is doubtless exceedingly small, 
and can in no wise be the cause of such phenomena as the cessation 
of the great herring-fisheries. At the present time it is very rare to 
find any scientist who still holds to the old and fully refuted opinions. 

56. The biological and physical causes doubtless deserve more atten- 
tion. With regard to them a distinction may be made between the 
theory that the herrings are periodically destroyed and that they leave 
the coast during long intervals. vrédyer has mentioned that if a school 
of herrings is by unfavorable weather compelled to spawn in unsuitable 
places for several years in succession, it may be entirely destroyed or 
at least be diminished to such a degree that the fisheries must come to 
anend. Later, G. C. Cederstrém has thrown out the hint that unfavor- 
able outward conditions had towards the end of the last great Bohuslan 
fishery-period decimated the herrings and thereby brought about the 
end of the fisheries. All the suppositions, however, cannot explain the 
periodicity of the great herring-fisheries ; for these fisheries, as, among 
the rest, has been said by Nilsson, Loberg, and Boeck, have come to an 
end, not from lack of herrings, but because the herrings left those regions 
where they had been accustomed to come. If this were not the case a 
gradual decrease in the number of herrings ought to have been noticed 
towards the end of a fishery-period, but nothing of the kind has ever 
been observed. There is far greater probability in the supposition that 
from some outward causes the herrings have been induced to periodic- 
ally leave those regions which for a long time they had visited regularly. 
The most prominent among them is this, that the herrings should have 


73 This supposition is by some people harmonized even with the actual deterioration 
in the quality of the herrings which undoubtedly takes place towards the end of a 
fishery-period. 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 209 


been driven away by the increased number of fish-of-prey and birds-of- 
prey. This originally popular explanation is quite old, and has been 
mentioned in a somewhat fault-finding manner by Dubb, and has been 
attacked by A.rel Boeck, but has, nevertheless, quite recently (in the 
‘Book of Inventions”) found a scientific champion in Prof. F. N. Smitt. 
He expresses himself regarding the causes of the periodicity.of the her- 
ring-fisheries as follows: ‘In all probability it is chiefly to be sought in 
the common occurrence that when a race of animals which serves as 
food for others, under peculiarly favorable circumstances increases in a 
very marked degree, it also attracts more enemies, which increase in 
number in proportion as the quantity of their food increases. The 
weaker gives way to the stronger; the herrings, therefore, seek new 
spawning-places which afford better protection. When on the other 
hand the fish-of-prey and birds-of-prey do not find the same quantity of 
food, they diminish in number. If, therefore, a new race of herrings 
comes to the old spawning-place and again finds its condition favorable, 
they may increase at a very rapid rate.” According to this explana- 
tion all herring-fisheries ought to be periodical, for there is scarcely a 
region where the herrings are not exposed to enemies ; but such a com- 
plete periodicity as is here spoken of will only be found with very few 
herring-fisheries. Nor do we find in any fishery-period an uninterrupted 
increase in the number of the enemies of the herrings. Thus there 
were rich shark-fisheries on the coast of Bohusliin immediately before 
and in the beginning of the great herring-fisheries of the sixteenth cen- 
tury ; and it is well known that in Scotland and other places the sharks 
and other powerful enemies of the herrings are very irregular as to the 
number in which they occur; this is easily explained, as they cannot for 
their food rely entirely on the herrings, which only visit the coast for a 
short time every year, because they need rich food all the year round. 
Very erroneous ideas seem to be entertained quite generally regarding 
the occurrence of fish-of-prey during coast-herring fisheries, and their 
dependence on such fisheries. These fish-of-prey, which otherwise are 
scattered over a large area, gather in dense schools during the herring- 
fisheries, and are, therefore, noticed more than at other times. Some of 
these fish-of-prey chiefly depend for their food on the fisheries, and the 
herrings are by no means as easy a prey as is generally supposed. It 
will, therefore, be clear, that according to this theory the enemies of the 
herring ought to increase in proportion as the mass of herrings increases, 
whereby the herrings would again decrease. This generally takes place, 
so that the unusual increase of one or the other kind of fish is soon neu- 
tralized again. If, therefore, an increase in the number of fish-of-prey 
were the cause of the herrings moving away from the coast, some cause 
ought to be assigned explanative of the very strange disturbance of the 
natural balance between the number of herrings and that of their ene- 
mies. And this cannot be done, at least if Professor Smitt’s supposition 


is correct, that when the herrings under favorable circumstances increase 
14 F 


210 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


very rapidly, the same should also be the case with the fish-of-prey. 
But on the other hand we seem justified in supposing with Kroyer and 
N. W. Malm, that a decided increase or decrease of fish-of-prey may 
cause a temporary decrease or increase of the herrings at least in some 
of the smaller herring-fisheries. 

57. Lack of food has likewise been considered as a cause why herrings 
have gradually left a coast. Leewwenhock already has considered the 
varying quantity of food as the principal cause why herrings changed 
their place of sojourn; but, as far as I know, this idea did not become 
general until the question of oil-refuse was discussed during the last 
great Bohuslin fisheries;** and when the herrings had ceased to come 
to the coast of Bohuslin, a gradual decrease in the quantity of food was 
assigned as one of the causes of this misfortune. This last-mentioned 
opinion has, so far as the Bohuslain herring-fisheries are concerned, been 
embraced by Prof. G. 0. Sars. If we now suppose, with Professor Smitt, 
that the revival of the great herring-fisheries is owing to the accidental 
arrival of a new ‘race of herrings,” which increased at a rapid rate, it 
is reasonable to suppose that this rapid increase produces lack of food, 
and this explanation will seem more plausible than an increase in the 
number of fish-of-prey from the same cause. But even then it will be 
difficult to explain why not all herring-fisheries are periodical, which is 
certainly the case only with afew. This periodicity ought also to be 
particularly noticeable with those herrings which come to the coast for 
the purpose of seeking food, which is by no means the case. The theory 
that the periodicity of the herring-fisheries is dependent on the varying 
quantity of ‘“herring-food,” has been further developed by Prof. G. 0. 
Sars, who supposes that the herrings are obliged to seek their food in a 
certain regular order at a greater or less distance from the coast. By 
means of this supposition, he endeavored to prove that the Norwegian 
spring-herring fisheries are not periodical in the proper sense of the 
word, but that the occasional decrease of these herrings, or their staying 
away entirely, is caused by the circumstance that at times these herrings 
had to seek their food so far out at sea that they could only come to the 
coast late in the season. They would, consequently, have to spawn im- 
mediately on the very outermost bottom. The fisheries would, there- 
fore, be short and insignificant.” The circumstance that the Norwegian 
summer-herrings continue to be very flourishing has also induced Pro- 


74 About the same time, Prof. H. Strém had directed attention to the circumstance 
that the ‘‘herring-food” may be found in a place one year and stay away the next, 
and that the herrings would consequently have to follow it up. Strém also mentions 
that the small crustaceans, which principally compose the “‘herring-food,” prefer the 
currents of the sea, and that the varying direction of those currents may also cause 
the crustaceans to change their place, and consequently produce new migrations of 
the herrings. The wind may also have a good deal to do with all these changes. 

75 According to Axel Boeck, it is an old opinion in Norway that the herrings, in the 
intervals between the great fishery-periods, have not left the coast, but have only 
transferred their spawning-places to inaccessible bottoms. This opinion has, however, 
been almost entirely abandoned at the present time. 


~~, 4 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 211 


fessor Sars to oppose the general opinion that a period of spring-herring 
fisheries had recently come to an end. Although it has not been suffi- 
ciently proved by actual observations that the spring-herrings do no 
longer spawn in their usual places, this seems scarcely probable; and 
this explanation would in no wise be applicable to the great Bohuslin 
herring-fisheries, which, as far as known, agree with the Norwegian 
spring-herring fisheries in all essential points. From the circumstance 
that the summer-herring fisheries continue to be just as productive (and 
occasionally even more so) as during those years when there were still 
spring-herring fisheries, no such conclusion as the one mentioned above 
can be drawn with regard to the latter; for it does not follow that, be- 
cause the spring-herrings have left their old spawning-places, the sum- 
mer-herrings should also leave the western and northwestern coasts of 
Norway; nor does the fact that the summer-herrings remain prove that 
the spring-herrings must do the same.” Professor Sars seems also to 
be somewhat undecided with regard to his theory, for he has at a later 
time, in accordance with a very general opinion in Norway, expressed 
the idea that there is a direct connection between the Norwegian spring- 
herring fisheries and the great herring-fisheries. The above-mentioned 
opinion of Professor Sars may, however (as will be shown below, 63), 
be developed so as to become more generally applicable; and it is, there- 
fore, not impossible that this very opinion contains the germ of a final 
solution of the problem regarding the migrations of the great shoals of 
herrings. 

58. Intimately connected with this question is the explanation of these 
migrations from physical causes. The opinion is very old that changes 
in the physical conditions are the probable cause of the periodicity of 
the herring-fisheries. The learned and thoughtful Prof. H. Strém began 
already to see the error in the usual method of explaining the periodical 
cessation of the herring-fisheries by human agencies, and endeavored to 
explain the greater or less quantity of herrings, and even the fact of 
their leaving the coast entirely, by physical causes.~ He mentioned, for 
instance, that the rich spring-herring fisheries which took place during 
his stay at S6ndm6r occurred at a time when the weather was very un- 
favorable to agriculture, causing a total failure of the crops, and that. 
such failures are generally indicated beforehand by the frequent oceur- 
rence of a fish—the horngidda—which generally lives in more southern 
regions. Dr. P. Dubb likewise supposes that changes of weather and cur- 
rent are the true cause of the periodical coming and going of the genuine 
“sea-herrings” on the coast of Bohusliin. Hkstrém has explained the 
circumstance that on the coast of Sédermanland the herrings are more 


7 See 45; also, H. Strém, Séndmér, I, p. 468; Dansk Museum, January, 1782, p. 3-4; 
A. Boeck, Om Silden, p. 130; A. V. Ljungman, Prelimindr beriittelse for 1873-74, p. 6. 

" FH. Strom, Dansk Museum, January, 1782, p. 3-9. In this passage he points out that 
changes in the condition of the ice near the North Pole probably cause the periodicity 
in the migrations of the herrings. 


212 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


frequent than on the coasts of Stockholm and Oestgéta, by the different 
direction of the wind prevailing during the time when the herrings come 
near the coast. In the seventeenth volume of the Encyclopedia Britan- 
nica (last edition) the irregularities in the visits of the herrings to the 
west coast of Scotland have, in accordance with the opinion of Pennant 
and MacCulloch, been explained by well-known changes in the Gulf 
Stream, which changes should cause the herrings, which always seek an 
even temperature, to change their old places and seek new ones. This 
opinion has recently been taken up by Frank Buckland. Prof. G. 0. Sars 
has finally endeavored to prove that periodical changes, connected with 
the movement of the great herrings towards the north, probably take 
place in the currents of the sea on the northern coast of Norway. He 
thinks that these changes are indicated by the periodical occurrence of 
wood, &c., washed ashore from foreign countries, and maintains that his 
theory of the “‘herring-food” being found at different times at different 
distances from the coast presupposes regular periodical changes in the 
currents of the sea. 

59. After having given the above historical review of the different 
theories regarding the biological or physical causes of the periodicity of 
the herring-fisheries, it remains for me to indicate the manner in which 
I have further developed these theories during the last five years. I 
Started with an investigation of the question, ‘‘ Which fisheries are pe- 
riodically regular, and which not”; and I have found that only very 
large fisheries carried on near the coast and dependent on the propagat- 
ing instinet of fish are periodically regular. From this I have drawn 
the conclusion that it is the nwmber of a race of herrings which chiefly 
causes them to periodically change their spawning-places near the coast. 
Other fisheries show irregularities with regard to the coming of the her- 
rings, but no periods marked by a complete cessation of the fisheries and 
by regular changes. Thus the Norwegian summer-herring fisheries owe 
their existence to one or several large races of herrings; but, as far as 
known, they are not periodical. This seems also to be the case with 
those fisheries which are carried on in the open sea at some distance 
from the coast, where the fishermen follow the herrings to their spawn- 
ing-places. Our knowledge of these herring-fisheries, however, is very 
incomplete, for we know very little regarding the quality of the herrings 
and the possible changes of time and place. 

The races (or schools) of herrings may nevertheless practically be 
livided into large and small ones, the line between the two not being 
very sharply drawn. And the very fact of certain races of herrings 
being large has led me to explain the periodicity of the herring-fisheries 
in two different ways, which I shall give below. 

60. The enormous numbers in which the large races of herrings make 
their appearance must doubtless (especially when they select a limited 
extent of coast for their spawning-place) produce a great change in the 
natural condition of the coast-waters, both by their furnishing food to 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 218 


numberless marine animals, and by their consuming a large quantity of 
food. This change may finally become so marked as to make these 
waters unfit for spawning, at least for a large race of herrings. The only, 
and nearly always sufficient, protection of the herring in its combat for 
existence is its fecundity; and although we must acknowledge, with 
Kroyer, that “danger does not put the herrings to flight, and that noise 
does not scare them away, but that their instinct points out the way they 
have to follow,” this very instinct would naturally lead them to leave 
spawning-places which are no longer fit for spawning and seek new ones. 
Tt will therefore be clear that in proportion as the extent and nature of 
the spawning-places no longer correspond with the size of the race of 
herrings, the influence of this size will make itself more and more felt, 
and produce a change of time and place in the fisheries. 

In order to judge the probability of this theory it will be necessary to 
find out how the above-mentioned regular changes of time and place of 
the herrings’ visits to the coast can be explained by it. When a large 
race of herrings is compelled to seek another and distant spawning-place 
(in the case of Bohusl&n, a more easterly one), they will, in consequence, 
come later in the year; but if they extend their “hunting-excursions” 
so as to come a little nearer, or the spawning in a still undisturbed 
spawning-place occupies less time, they may come earlier, and after hav- 
ing spawned, return earlier to their former district. Thus the herrings 
would gradually come earlier and extend their visits to other parts of 
the coast (in Bohuslan farther south) until they have brought their “ hunt- 
ing-district” as near the coast as possible. As this was really the case, 
and as the farthest spawning-places (in Bohusliin those on the southern 
coast) were disturbed, the herrings were compelled to seek their spawn- 
ing-places nearer and nearer to the point where they first approached 
the coast (in Bohusliin farther north)... The search for spawning-places 
took up some time; the herrings consequently came later and also left 
the coast later. They therefore also arrived later at their “hunting- 
grounds,” and left the grounds later for the purpose of spawning. In 
proportion as they reached the ‘“hunting-grounds” later, they would 
have to advance farther (that is, farther north) into these, because they 
would arrive in a more starved condition, and therefore require more 
food, which could only be obtained by scouring through a larger extent 
of water. The circumstance that during the last great Bohuslin fishery- 
period the herrings irregularly visited the southern, central, and northern 
coast, is easily explained by the fact that they did not come to the coast 
for the purpose of spawning, and that they always waited for some time 
outside the coast before coming nearer. 

61. This theory of the successive disturbance of the spawning-places 
may possibly also explain the more incomplete periodicity which, as an 
experienced fisherman informed me, is noticed in the Sound and in the 
Great Belt, where the herrings seem to alternate between eastern and 
western spawning-places, so that one year there is good fishing in the 


214 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Sound and the next year in the Great Belt.” <A similar alternation, 
although, of course, on a much larger scale, might well be supposed to 
take place between the eastern and western shore of the North Sea.” 

62. At the first Scandinavian Fishery-Exposition held at Aalesund in 
1864, Awel Boeck is said to have advanced the opinion that the end of 
the last Bohusliin fishery-period was contemporaneous with the recom- 
mencement of the Norwegian spring-herring. fisheries, because the Bo- 
huslin herrings had transferred their spawning-places to those banks in 
the North Sea which the spring-herrings had been accustomed to visit 
during those years when the spring-herring fisheries had ceased. The 
spring-herrings, therefore, on finding their spawning-places taken up had 
returned to the west coast of Norway. Afterward Boeck, it seems with 
good reason, abandoned this opinion, but the attempt to connect the 
inigrations of two great races of herrings with each other nevertheless 
deserves attention. The same opinion has been entertained by other 
writers both before and after Boeck. When during the last winter 
a race of herrings, similar to the ‘new herrings,” visited the coast 
of Bohusliin, I expressed the opinion that these herrings had been 
forced to give way to the Norwegian spring-herrings, which about ten 
years ago had begun to leave their old spawning-places on the west 
coast of Norway. However this may be, it cannot be doubted that the 
movement of one race of herrings has an influence on that of other 
herrings, although this influence may by no means be instantaneous.” 
It is clear that the coming in of larger masses of herrings in one and the 
same place, though at different seasons of the year, will essentially 
increase the influence of the disproportionately large races of herrings 
on a limited extent of coast-waters. It may also be possible for a race 
of herrings to be driven from its territory by a larger and stronger race, 
especially if the latter finds its territory too limited in proportion to its 
size. 

This explanation has also opened out new views by applying it to the 
distinction made between the ‘ new-herring fisheries” and the ‘* spawn- 
ing-herring fisheries” properly so called, for to some extent, at least, it 
may explain the fact that ‘ new-herring fisheries” both precede and close 
a large fishery-period. It also facilitates the explanation of the regular 
changes of time and place in the visits of the herrings during a fishery- 

78 Although it has not been fully proved that such a mutual periodicity exists between 
the herring-fisheries in the Sound and the Great Belt, this whole matter deserves atten- 
tion and ought to be investigated. 

794 fact which may well be connected with the migrations of the herrings from the 
western to the eastern part of the North Sea, is the cessation of the otherwise regular 
whale-fisheries near the Faroe Islands from 1754-1776. But this fact, like the great 
migrations of the herrings in the North Sea, may be explained by supposing that the 
fish moved in a northern and southern instead of an eastern and western direction. 

8 Even herrings of different age, though belonging to one and the same race, may 
thus have to give way to each other, and the proposed method of explanation may be 
applied to the different theories regarding the relationship and maturity of the ‘“ new 
herrings” advanced by H. Strom, G. O. Sars, and myself. 


Te a ee 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 215 


period. The chief difficulty consists in finding a “ primus motor” or the 
original cause which makes the great races of herrings move; and until 
a better explanation is found I would assign as this cause the change of 
biological conditions produced by the great size of a race of herrings, 
and a supposed periodicity of meteorological and hydrological causes, 
and possibly a combination of both. 

63. The other and perhaps simpler way of explaining the periodicity 
of the herring-fisheries by the size of the race of herrings, may be reached 
by considering the very evident effect of this cause, viz, that the herrings 
are compelled to seek their food on a larger territory, farther from the 
coast, and more dependent on the changes of weather and current; and 
here Prof. G. O. Sars’s theory regarding the visits of the herrings at dif- 
ferent times during a fishing-period would come in well. In accordance 
with this theory it might well be supposed that the herrings would finally 
have to seek their food at such a distance that they could not reach their 
old spawning-places at the right time, but would have to select. other 
spawning-places which were within easier reach. But as the herrings 
chiefly live on small crustaceans floating about in the water, we must, in 
following this theory, suppose a change in the occurrence of this ‘ herring- 
food,” which could scarcely be explained except by a periodicity of the 
eurrents and by the changes in the weather which principally produce 
this periodicity. No one has so far, however, been able to show the 
existence of such a periodicity, although it has been supposed to exist, 
and although there are facts which point in this direction. This hypo- 
thetical explanation is, therefore, nothing but a further development of 
the old opinion that the periodicity of the herring-fisheries is caused by . 
physical changes, and its chief merit consists in indicating by the very 
point from which it starts the cause why not all herring-fisheries are 
periodical in consequence of these changes. 

Tt will be clear, however, that this explanation can easily be harmo- 
nized with the regular changes of time and place in the so-called ‘‘land- 
ing” of the herrings, and this consideration should by no means be lost 
sight of. When the herrings are near the coast they can also land sooner 
and go farther along the coast (in Bohuslin and Western Norway farther 
south) than when they are far from the land in the open sea. Regular 
changes in the one will, therefore, also produce regular changes in the 
other. It will be more difficult, however, to explain in this way the ex- 
ceptions from this regular course of changes in the fishery during a 
fishery-period. And such exceptions have occurred both during the last 
Norwegian spring-herring fisheries and during the latter part of the last 
Bohuslin fisheries. This theory may also be further developed by com- 
bining it with the other theory that the one race of herrings has to give 
way to the other so that the great races of herrings would be uninter- 
ruptedly moving backward and forward. 

64. If, as [have supposed, two great herring-fisheries should be inti- 


216 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


mately connected with each other, it must also be supposed that the 
regular changes of time and place are likewise connected. The later 
arrival of the herrings in a more northerly place than usual would indi- 
cate the near end of a fishing-period in one case as an earlier arrival in 
a more southern place in the other. 

65. The favorable conditions on which the development of a great race 
of herrings depends are only found on a coast which is near the open 
sea. The great race of herrings which has periodically visited the coast 
of Bohuslin can scarcely be supposed to have developed there (at least 
not under conditions like the present), and the greater distance from the 
sea (and more especially from the Polar currents with their abundance 
of “herring-food”) is doubtless the chief cause why the Bohuslin fishery- 
periods are more distinct, shorter, and separated by longer intervals than, 
for example, the fishery-periods of Western Norway. The same cause 
might also explain the fact that the sea-herrings for a number of years 
came sooner to the western coast of Norway than to the coast of Bohus- 
lan, and that the space of time between the earliest and the latest arri- 
val of the herrings near the coast was so much greater during the last 
Bohusliin than during the last West Norway fishery-period. 

Another cause of the relative shortness of the Bohuslin fishery-peri- 
ods may be found in the circumstance that, as the herrings belonging 
to the coast of Bohuslain spawn in spring, this season is the most suit- 
able for spawning on this coast, whilst in the Kattegat, the Sound, and 
the Belts autumn is the more favorable season. As the sea-herrings 
which visited the coast of Bohuslin during the great fishery-periods 
chiefly spawned in autumn, it must be supposed that during their visit 
to the Skagerack they were compelled to spawn under comparatively 
unfavorable conditions, especially as regards the newly hatched young 
ones. This may, to some extent, have induced them to seek other spawn- 
ing-places sooner than would have been the ease otherwise. It is also 
quite likely that the coast of Bohuslin, towards the end of the fishery- 
period, when the herrings did not come in till December, was less invit- 
ing (at least for those herrings which spawned during winter). This may 
also have been caused by unfavorable weather. If, as Avel Boeck has 
shown, a temperature of the water of + 3° C. (37.49 F.) is not injurious to 
the herrings, it does not follow that this is not the case with a lower tem- 
perature accompanied by the formation of bottom ice. As most of the 
spawning-places on the coast of Bohuslin are located in shallow water, 
the cold must produce far greater changes in the temperature of the 
water than in the spawning-places on the western coast of Norway, which 
are located in deeper waters and are exposed to a much more powerful 
current of the sea with a far more even temperature. Too little atten- 
tion seems to have been paid to the great injuries which several closely 
following severe winters must have inflicted on the spawning-places ef 
the herrings. This unsuitableness of the coast of Bohusliin as a spawn- 


tee Sere - 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 217 


ing-place for a great race of herrings which are accustomed to spawn in 
winter, would be another reason for opposing the idea that the Nor- 
wegian spring-herrings had alternated their visits between the coast of 
Bohuslin and the west coast of Norway.®! 

66. For the sake of comparison and completeness, we must also give 
an account of those circumstances which have been assigned as the 
causes of the disappearance or diminution of fish in localities where they 
have been observed for along time. Among the causes which have been 
mentioned, the following are the principal ones: pidemics among the 
fish, changes in the nature of the water or of the bottom by voleanic erup- 
tions or by the accumulation of mud (caused, among other things, by the 
increased denudation of the coast consequent upon the destruction of 
the forests), and steamboat traffic. 

In carefully examining the rich literature on this subject, it will be 
found that of all the causes which have been mentioned as having an 
injurious influence on the fisheries, only the following have been more 
generally accepted: Hucessive fishing, fishing with destructive apparatus, 
destroying the vegetation of the bottom, the eggs, and the young ones, 
preventing the fish from reaching their spawning-places, impure or turbid 
water, fish-of-prey, and, finally, lack of food (which may be caused by 
human agencies). 

Among those fish which, like the herrings, have either entirely or to 
some extent left places where formerly they have been very common for 
longer or shorter periods, we may here mention the following North Sea 
fish: The codfish, the haddock, the mackerel, and the shark. On the 
northeastern coast of America there are a number of fish of which the 
same is known. It thus appears that just the most important sea-fish 
are quite irregular in their coming and going, and, unfortunately, our 
knowledge of the causes of this phenomenon is exceedingly limited. 
Not only our scientific but also our historical knowledge of these fish, 
and especially of the herrings, is so limited that at present there is very 
little hope of having this scientific problem satisfactorily solved in the 
near future. Such a work requires not only a most extensive biological 
and physical knowledge of our waters, but also a thorough acquaintance 
with the history of the different fisheries. It is greatly to be lamented 
that Axel Boeck’s premature death put an end to the important study of 
the history of the Norwegian herring-fisheries, to which he had devoted 
himself for several years, and that the rich material which he had col- 
lected for a history of the Scotch and Dutch herring-fisheries has not 
been worked up. It is quite likely that this material, properly worked 
up in a scientific manner, would furnish many and important contribu- 
tions towards the solution of the problem regarding the migrations of 
the great races of herrings. 


*! Tt is entirely different, however, with those sea-herrings that visit the coast of 
Bohuslin or the west coast of Norway during winter for other purposes than spawning. 


218 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


From the little that is known regarding the periodicity of the great 
herring-fisheries, it will be clear that the periodical coming and going of 
the herrings, which on the coast of Bohuslan has been observed for six 
successive centuries, cannot possibly be purely accidental, although the 
causes of this phenomenon can so far only be guessed at. All attempts 
to explain this phenomenon from accidental causes must oes be 
classed with the mythical explanations. 
~» 67. In briefly recapitulating the different scientific theories regarding 
the migrations of the herrings, it will be found that they may all be ar- 
ranged under the following heads: 

A.—The theory of a central vace of herrings, according to which all her- 
rings which are in the world belong to one great central race, from 
which all kinds of herrings, both great and small, come. This the- 
ory is varied as follows: 

1. This central race of herrings is supposed to live in the Northern 
Polar Sea, from which large schools emigrate every year to those 
coasts saltewe herring-fisheries are carried on (Anderson, Pennant, 
and others). 

2. This central race of herrings is constantly moving through the 
Northern Atlantic Ocean in a circle, whose extent is regulated by 
the declination of the sun (Gilpin). 

3. Besides this great central race of herrings living in the Northern 
Atlantic Ocean, causing the great herring-fisheries, smaller local 
races have separated in course of time, causing the smaller coast- 
fisheries (Lundbeck). 

According to the first two of these three theories there would 
be no regular migrations, whilst such would take place accord- 
ing to the third. 

B.—The theory of separate races of herrings, according to which the dif- 

' ferent fisheries are caused by separate races of herrings, each 
having its own locality. This theory is varied as follows: 

1. The theory of a coast-race of herrings, considering the herring ex- 

clusively as a bottom-fish. This may again be subdivided : 

a. Some suppose that there is only one local race of herrings in 
every place, which, if not driven away by human agencies, always 
stays near the coast. There is consequently no difference between 
coast-herrings and sea-herrings, and there are no regular migra- 
tions (Nilsson). 

b. Others think that more than one race of herrings may occur in 
one and the same place. There is consequently a difference be- 
tween coast-herrings and sea-herrings, and there areregular migra- 
tions; but the proper homes even of the sea-herrings are the deep 
valleys on the bottom of the sea near the coast (Awel Boeck). 

2. The theory of a sea-race of herrings, considering the herring as a 

surface-fish. This theory is also subdivided : 


a 


oe 


THE SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF BOHUSLAN. 219 


a. Some deny the occurrence of more than one race of herrings in 
one and the same place, the difference between coast-herring and 
sea-herrings (littoral and pelagian herrings) and regular migra- 
tions (G. O. Sars). 

b. Others maintain that there is a relative difference between coast- 
herrings and sea-herrings, that more than one race of herrings 
may be found in one and the same place, and that the great 
Schools of herrings migrate regularly (A. V. Ljungman). Yo 

68. It is doubtless necessary from time to time to give a review of the 
results of the scientific investigations, so as to obtain a suitable starting- 
point for new and systematic researches. As the scientific material has 
been considerably increased during the seven years since Axel Boeck 
published his well-known work “Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne” (The 
herring and the herring-fisheries), a new review of this material had. be- 
come necessary to show the extent and character of our present knowl- 
edge, and to present the different opinions on a subject of such vast 
economical importance as the herring-fisheries. In endeavoring to con- 
tribute my share towards the solution of this important problem, I have 
invariably directed attention to the necessary theoretical premises, which, 
unfortunately, has often been neglected. In doing this one is less ex- 
posed to the danger of being led astray by the false hope of having hit 
the right thing in every case; a clearer view of all the points is gained, 
as well as a knowledge of the difficulties and of the insufficient charac- 
ter of the means by which these difficulties can be overcome. This will 
make us more humble and more cautious, and help us to avoid the proud 
certainty which is so often found in older and less eritical works. As 
it cannot be expected that this in itself most difficult and practically 
most important question regarding a part of the biology of the herrings 
can be quickly solved by the labor of one person, it will be necessary 
that naturalists who have given attention to this subject should freely 
communicate to each other their different theories and the results of 
their investigations. The historic review of these investigations shows 
how beneficial and indispensable this interchange of ideas has been. 
The mere gathering of facts does not lead to any great result. These 
facts must be compared and combined into more or less developed theo- 
ries, always, of course, remembering that there is a chance of these theories 
leading to no results or only to partial results. Theories are frequently 
apt to mislead; but even from the most erroneous theories some useful 
truth may finally be developed by constant work and by a continued 
purifying and eliminating process. Mistakes play an important part in 
the development of human knowledge and lead to greater caution and 
thoughtfulness in the future. The very knowledge that something is 
not as we supposed at first, is a step forward; in order that an erro- 
neous opinion may be refuted, such an opinion must first have been ad- 
vanced. My opinion on this point may also serve as an explanation of 
the circumstance that both in this and in former articles I have given 


\ 


220 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


theories with whose errors I was well acquainted, errors chiefly owing 
to the fact that all the conditions for a satisfactory development of these 
theories had not been fulfilled. 

If by the foregoing treatise I have succeeded in making the accumu- 
lated scientific material more accessible, and in directing attention to the ab- 
solute necessity of more complete and more exhaustive scientific investigations 
regarding the important fishery-question, my principal object has been 
reached. 


aE 


| 


IX.—THE GREAT BOHUSLAN HERRING-FISHERIES, 


By AXEL VILHELM LJUNGMAN.* 


Among the causes which have exercised a powerful influence on the 
material and moral well-being of the population of Bohuslin, the large 
periodical herring-fisheries doubtless occupy avery prominent place. They 
are called periodical, because, as far as known, they have only lasted from 
twenty to eighty years, with intervals of sixty to one hundred, or of an 
average of seventy years, when the North Sea herrings did not enter 
the Kattegat and visit our coasts. We will, for the present, not inquire 
into the causes of this phenomenon, but observe what infiuence these 
fisheries have had on the well-being of our country, and endeavor to 
draw certain lessons for the future. We intend to show that these fish- 
eries have exercised an influence not so much through the enormous 
income derived from them as by the corruption and immorality which 
they brought in their train, and by the sudden and radical changes which 
they occasioned in the quiet and even development of the resources of 
the province. 

In considering each one of the fishing-periods separately we arrive 
at the remarkable and unexpected result that in course of time these 
troubles rather increase than decrease. To prove this we shall give 
a brief account of the older fisheries in chronological order, and give 
a fuller account of the more recent fisheries. 

The oldest date we have regarding the Bohusliin herring-fisheries is 
from the reign of Olof “the Saint” (A. D. 1000-1028). The war between 
him and Olof “Lap-king,” which prevented the Visigoths from drawing 
their usual supply of herrings and salt from Bohuslin,! caused th® bold 
utterances of Thorgny at the general assembly at Upsala in 1020. The 
old northern sagas relate that there were considerable herring-fisheries 
in Southern Norway, which undoubtedly means the coast of Bohusliin 
during the reign of King Sverre, that is, during the second half of the 
eleventh century. The data regarding the herring-fisheries which we 
have from those remote times are, however, so incomplete and so vague 


“Nagra ord om de stora bohus-liinska Sillfiskena. Af Axel Vilhelm Ljungman. Goteborg, 
1877. Translated by Herman Jacobson. 

The province of Bohusliin has an area of 1,952 square miles and a population (De- 
cember, 1876) of 248,024. The chief city is Gottenburg, with 70,000 inhabitants, the 
second city of Sweden.—Translator’s note. 

‘It must be remembered that in 871 the Norwegian king, Harold “ Haarfagre” (Fine 
hair), had united Bohusliin with Norway, in whose possession it remained till 1658, 
when it was ceded to Sweden. 

2 221 


oe 


222 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND: FISHERIES. 


that all we can gather from them is the fact that even then the herring- 
fisheries were carried on only at long intervals, for if they had been going 
on uninterruptedly they would certainly have assumed such proportions 
as to attract the attention of the authors of the sagas. The conditions 
under which such fisheries can be carried on in Bohusliin are so favor- 
able, compared with the northern and western coasts of Norway—and 
Norway was at that time powerful enough to protect the fisheries during 
the short fishing-season—that it would be unreasonable to suppose that 
such had not been the case, or that the herrings should have visited this 
coast steadily without any considerable fisheries being carried on. But 
as in all probability the herrings did not come regularly every year, the 
Bohusliin herring-fisheries must have been less important in those times. 
This will appear still more probable if we take into consideration the 
smaller population, the constant disturbances occasioned by civil and for- 
eign wars, and the limited knowledge of proper fishing-implements and 
of the proper way of preparing fish for the trade. _ 

The first Bohuslin herring-fishery of any importance has, therefore, 
probably been the one which attracted so much attention during the first 
part of the thirteenth century, and which is supposed to have begun 
towards the end of King Haékon Hékonsson’s reign, that is, in the begin- 
ning of the second half of the twelfth century. King Hdkon “the 
Old” died in 1262, and in 1257 it seems the fisheries had not yet com- 
menced.2 It was only under the reign of this king that the outer coast 
of Bohuslan was occupied and cultivated by man, which certainly was 
the most essential condition of the development of the sea-fisheries as a 
trade independent of agriculture. 

Bohuslin, like the rest of Norway, had, during the twelfth century, 
reached a degree of civilization, wealth, and population which scarcely 
found its equal in the other portions of Scandinavia. The city of Mar- 
strand dates its existence from that period (although its excellent har- 
bor hgd before that time become a favorite meeting-place of merchant- 
vessels); and the establishment of wealthy convents’? near Drags- 
mark seems likewise to point to the importance and development 
of this coast. With the convent founded by King Hdékon there was 
combined a sort of high school, one of the first of its kind, if not in the 
whole of Scandinavia, at least in that portion. This school, during the 
following two centuries, became of considerable importance for the whole 
country. The constant intercourse kept up by a flourishing commerce 
between Norway and foreign countries, the great interest taken in litera- 


2Concerning these fisheries see 4. Boeck’s article: ‘‘Det bohuslénska sillfiskeriet’s histo-. 
ria,” in “‘ Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri,” I, Copenhagen, 1878, pp. 1-3; and 4. 2. Holmberg: 
“Bohuslin’s historia och beskrifning.” Uddevalla, 1842—45. I, p. 80; II, p. 84; ITI, p.. 
194, 406. Second edition, Oerebro, 1867, I, p. 96, 279; IL, p. 314; ILI, p. 191. The opin- 
ion advanced by the first-mentioned author that these fisheries had commenced long: 
before the end of the twelfth eentury seems, however, somewhat doubtful. 

3’ Even long before this time Picks was a similar convent at Konungahella. 

4 Holmberg: Bohusldn’s historia och beskrifning, LI, p. 102-108; 2d ed., L,, p.. 227. 


a ee 


BOHUSLAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 225 


ture and art, evinced by translations of the master-works of the litera- 
tures of Western Europe, and by beautiful buildings, of course contrib- 
uted their share towards the mental development of the people. And 
as Bohusliin, on account of its favorable location, its wealth, and popu- 
lation, had formed an important portion of the monarchy ever since the 
beginning of the tenth century, where the kings often resided and where 
the nobility gathered, it cannot, as under changed circumstances was 
the case at a later period, have been neglected over other portions of 
Scandinavia. This period was, in many respects, the golden age of Bo- 
huslin, and it reached a degree of wealth and political power which 
even the party-warfare of centuries could not destroy entirely. These 
civil wars resulted in the strengthening of the royal power and the estab- 
lishment of a well-ordered government, which Sweden, for instance, did 
not obtain till the reign of Gustaf Vasa (1523-1560). All this caused the 
rich herring-fisheries, which are supposed to have begun about 1260, to be 
earried on with energy, in order to utilize the vast masses of herrings 
which came to the coast. These herring-fisheries continued without any 
considerable disturbance by war till far into the thirteenth century, and 
it is not impossible that there was good fishing off and on till the year 
1341. If our suppositions regarding the beginning and end of these 
fisheries are correct, which, however, cannot be said with absolute cer- 
tainty, this fishing-period must have extended over eighty years or more, 
and would, therefore, have been the longest fishing-period on record. 
From this fishing-period we have the first account of foreigners being 
allowed to participate in the herring-fisheries, a measure by which first 
the herring-trade and then all the other trade of the country gradually 
got into the hands of foreigners, by which Bohuslén lost much of its 
importance, which, to a great extent, depended on its shipping and com- 
merce. The foreigners who visited these fishing-grounds had certainly 
to pay a tax for the herrings which they took away, but it is not known 
that any such tax was demanded from the citizens of the country, either 
for exporting herrings or for the privilege of participating in the fisheries. 

Under the reign of Magnus Hakonsson, the son of the above-mentioned 
king, Hakon Hékonsson, in the year 1274, the old provincial laws of Nor- 
way were revised and collected in a common law, which is the oldest law 
that was ever in force in Bohusliin. Its regulations regarding the fish- 
eries are, in the main points, in force in Norway to this very day. As 
regards the herring-fisheries, the regulations are evidently taken from 
the older laws of Northern and Western Norway,° and only relate to the 
so-called spring-herring fisheries, which are carried on during the winter, 
but not to those fisheries which are carried on during the milder season 
of the year, and consequently not to the Bohusliin fisheries. 

At the end of the above-mentioned fishing-period there followed a 
longer interval during which those kinds of herring which chiefly form 


5 Hakon Hakonsson’s Law XV, 5. Compare L. M. B. Aubért: “De norske Retskilder 0g 


deres Anvendelse.” Christiania, 1877, p. 36. 


224 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the object of the great fisheries do not seem to have visited our coast. 
About the middle of the fourteenth century we find very flourishing her- 
ring-fisheries, and on the 15th of July, 1453, Pope Nicholas V urged the 
archbishop of Lund, the bishop of Skara, and the abbot of the convent 
of Hovedé to protect the right of the priests in the diocese of Oslo to 
receive a tithe of all the herrings that were caught against any interfer- 
ence of the secular powers.6 But we possess a much more distinet 
and important proof that rich herring-fisheries occurred during this 
period, in a deposition’ made at the district court of Askim, on Tuesday 
after St. Botulph’s day, that is, the 22d of June, 1496, which says, “ that 
Hvinge and other coasts have from olden times belonged to the Swedish 
empire and to the district of Elffnesborg, no one can question; and those 
who caught herrings there paid a tax at Elffnesborg, as is well known.” 
We thus must conclude that herring-fisheries had been going on there 
which were still remembered, and that the authorities taxed the people 
for the privilege of participating in these fisheries. This change of our 
periodical herring-fishery to a kind of government fishery® is something 
entirely new and unknown in former legislation. In all probability it 
may be traced to the foreign tendency and the constant impecuniosity 
of the union kings, who came from German stock. In Denmark, where 
the union kings mostly resided, the rule had been established that every- 
thing which did not belong to an individual or to a community belonged 
to the king. A circumstance which caused the introduction of such a 
herring-tax, or at any rate facilitated it, may have been the popular 
notion that the herring-fisheries were a special gift of Providence, for 
which gratitude should be expressed to the king as to the representative 
of divine power. This last-mentioned idea is doubtless derived from the 
pagan idea that the highest priestly power belongs to the king. In ac- 
cordance with this idea the Norwegian law granted to the king a certain 
portion of the whales which from time to time were driven against the 
coast of Norway. Although we have no positive proof that the tax on 
herring-fisheries was also introduced in Bohusliin, it is highly probable 
that this was the case sooner in Bohuslan than in Vestergotland, unless 
the crown claimed this tax at one and the same time in both provinces, 
which is the most probable supposition. The royal power was at that 
time much more developed in Norway than in Sweden, and it is scarcely 
probable that the union kings should have introduced such a tax in Ves- 
tergotland and not also in Bohuslan. The herring-fisheries of Western 
and Northern Norway were not treated in the same manner, because 
they were of a different character, there being no periods when these 
fisheries stopped entirely, like those of Bohusliin; although something 
similar takes place in the winter fisheries, the summer and autumn fish- 
eries have generally continued without interruption. 
~ 6 Bocek in ‘Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri,” I, p. 3-4. 

7 J. Oedman: ‘“Bohuslins beskrifning,” Stockhobn, 1746, p. 378-380. 

8 C. G. Styffe, ‘“Framstdllning af de s. k. Grundregalernas uppkomst och tilldémpning 4 
Sverige,” p. 266. 


BOHUSLAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 225 


We have no data regarding the time when this Bohuslin herring-fish- 
ery of the fourteenth century began or when it ended. We know that 
King Prik, “ the Pommeranian” (1389-1439), asked the English king, Henry 
VY, in the year 1415, to prohibit the inhabitants of several English sea- 
towns from fishing for herrings on the coast of Norway, which privilege 
had been granted to them in the year 1294; but it is uncertain whether 
this prohibition referred to actual fishing or to general trade—more espe- 
cially to the exportation of lumber—which was going on under the pre- 
text of herring-fishing.2 Nor is it absolutely certain that this prohibitiom 
referred to Bohusliin, although this is quite probable. The herring-fish- 
eries at that time formed a pretext for Englishmen, and still more for 
Dutchmen from the province of Zealand, as well as for Germans, to get 
a great portion of the trade of Scandinavia, “and especially Denmark,” 
into their hands; and the lumber trade was at that time, and even till 
Bohuslin was united with Sweden, one of the principal sources of income: 
of this province. Since King Hrik at the same time prohibited the Ger- 
mans from fishing in Skane, whilst he granted still greater privileges to: 
the Dutch, it almost seems as if he had intended that the Dutch should 
monopolize the Scandinavian herring-fisheries. They were doubtless 
Jess dangerous than the Germans, who occasionally attempted to aequire 
these rights by force. 

During this fishing-period the city of Marstrand obtained similar priv- 
ilegés from King Christopher, “the Bavarian,” in July, 1442, and itschurch,, 
in the year 1460, was granted a tithe of the herring-fisheries.° We 
mention these facts merely to prove that this city must at that time have- 
been in a flourishing condition, which could not have been brought about 
by anything but the herring-fisheries. Uddevalla had probably at this. 
time likewise gained importance and become a city. Its oldest priv- 
ileges, however, date from the end of the fourteenth century. 

To this herring-fishery of the fourteenth century the old historian 
Peter Claussén doubtless refers in his well-known work ‘“ Norriges ocom- 
liggende Oers sandfaerdige Bescriffuelse” (True Description of Norway 
and the surrounding Islands), when he says: “It is said that in former 
times there have been very extensive herring-fisheries in Viksidan, 
which have disappeared by magic, bad men having sunk a copper horse 
in the sea and thereby driven the herrings away from the coast; but 
this is only a fable; for it was the wickedness of men, their abuse of 
God’s good gifts and their godless life, which caused the fisheries to 
cease. This was also the case during the last herring-fishery which the 
merciful God gave to Viksidan in the year 1556.” Peter Claussin lived 
during the second half of the sixteenth century. 

Concerning this last-mentioned herring-fishery, which commenced about 


° See Holmberg, ‘Bohusliin’s historia och beskrifning,” II, p. 14; 2d edition, I, p. 211. 
© Holmberg, “ Bohuslin’s historia och beskrifning,” II, p. 406-408, 429; 2d edition, III, 
p. 192-193, 212. 
4 At that time Bohusliin was called “‘Viksidan,” to distinguish it from the southeast- 
ern coast of Norway, which was called “‘ Agdesidan.” 
15 F 


226 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the middle of the sixteenth century,” and which continued without inter- 
ruption till 1590, we possess much more information. The change of 
these fisheries from public to crown fisheries in Vestergotland, which is 
actually proved, whilst the same is supposed to have taken place in 
Bohusliin, has now been fully proved also with regard to this last-men- 
tioned province. It was carried out in a manner which exercised a great 
influence on the fishing-trade and on the physical and moral welfare of 
our coast. On the 19th of April, 1561, King Frederick IT sent a letter 
to the Bohuslén authorities in which he says: “Since we have learned 
that the fisheries are very much increasing in Marstrand, we ask you to 
see to it that the royal tax on fishing is regularly collected.” 

Further information concerning this right of the crown we find in 
the “Rules and Regulations for the Bohuslain herring-fisheries,” pub- 
lished on the 12th of July, 1561, which are said to be the oldest reg- 
wlations of this kind, and which at that time were generally known 
by the name of the ‘ Marstrand law-books.” We must here give the 
introduction to these ‘* Rules and Regulations” as showing the claims 
ef the king and the great influence of this fishery on the material 
welfare of our province. It reads as follows: “We, Frederick IT, make 
known to all men, that since we have learned how the Almighty God 
has extended his favor and blessing to our kingdom of Norway by let- 
ting the herrings come to its coast, we decree for the benefit of all those 
who are engaged in the fisheries, first, that all foreign merchants aftend- 
ing the fisheries must stay in Marstrand and nowhere else," and there 
pay to us a tax of 520 herrings per season and one-half dollar for every 
12 tons of herring exported from the kingdom.” Second, that no foreign 
merchants visiting these fishing-stations shall bring with them any but- 
ter, skins, tallow, or any other goods, except what they absolutely need 


2 As already in the year 1557 the citizens of Oslo, Ténsberg, and Sarpsborg, had 
obtained the privilege of trading with Marstrand, Kungelf, and Udevalla, in exchange 
for certain rights granted to the inhabitants of these towns, it seems that even at that 
time the fisheries had become so extensive as to attract attention; and the herrings 
must certainly have come to this coast several years previous to 1557. For it often 
takes a long time till good herring-fisheries become known, which has been fully proved 
by our fisheries during the seventeenth century. 

The extracts from the royal letters and regulations concerning the herring-fisheries 
of the fifteenth century are taken from Axel Boeck’s above-mentioned treatise on the 
history of the Bohusliin herring-fisheries in ‘‘ Nordisk Tidsskrift for Diskeri,” I, p. 5- 
27, to which we refer those who desire further information regarding this fishing- 
period. 

14This regulation was occasionally dispensed with, for instance in 1566 for the Lubeck 
merchants; but in 1573 and 1580 it was decreed that foreign merchants could only 
trade in other places by special permit from the Marstrand tax-gatherers. 

16 This tax was finally raised to one dollar for every 12 tons; the consequence was 
that many foreign merchants made false entries, giving the names of Swedish mer- 
chants in other towns as the owners of the herrings; or bought the herrings from the 
fishermen on the outer coast, and thus paid no tax at all. By a Royal Decree of 1580 
it was strictly forbidden to export any fresh herrings. 


‘ 
Pee 


BOHUSLAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 227 


during the time they stay here.’ Any one transgressing this rule for- 
feits his goods. Our own subjects shall be allowéd to fish wherever 
herrings are found, and pay their annual tax in Marstrand.'* They need 
not pay any tax on those herrings which they salt for their own use, but 
on herrings salted for exportation to foreign parts they shall pay the 
same tax as foreigners.!® Both citizens and foreigners are commanded 
to faithfully observe all theseregulations.” These so-called ‘“‘ Law-books” 
must not-be considered, however, as having introduced any new or per- 
manent law, or as having changed any of the general laws of the country, 
with the exception of regulations which were occasionally made just for 
one season.” Transgressions of these laws and regulations did not come 
before the common courts, but before the royal tax-gatherers, who in 
fact superintended the entire fisheries. It appears from the introduc- 
tion to the oldest of these so-called ‘“ Law-books,” that the inhabitants 
of Bohusliin, like all others who participated in these fisheries, had to 
pay a certain tax, and that the same right of fishing was given to the 
king’s subjects in Denmark and Germany as well as to those in Norway. 
It is evident that such a law as that which the kings had made with re- 
gard to the Marstrand coast, and later also with regard to the more 
northern portions of the coast, allowing foreigners to participate in the 
fisheries on very much the same conditions as their own subjects, drew 
a large number of people to our coasts during the fishing-season, and 
Peter Clausson also reports that every year several thousand vessels and 
boats came from Denmark and Holstein as well as from other countries. 
As the king of course desired the greatest possible revenue from his 
fisheries, and as this revenue was paid partly in an annual quantity of 
herrings, and partly in a certain sum of money on those herrings that 
were exported, it was of course desirable to draw a large number of 
fishers to the coast and export as many herrings as possible. It appears, 
trade, a decree was published in 1569, that they should only be allowed to trade from 
Michaelmas (September 29) till the first Sunday in Lent. And by further decrees of 
1573 and 1580, the privileges of foreign merchants were limited still more. 

7 The tax in herrings must always be paid in the largest and best herrings, and was 
measured in a separate vessel holding about one-third ofa ton. Every fisherman must 
sell to the government a boat-load of the first herrings at the “usual” price. The 
government moreover had the first right to buy the best herrings—until all the royal 
salting-houses were supplied—any one who made a higher bid than the tax-gatherers 
being heavily fined. The tax-gatherers, however, must pay the highest price which 
could reasonably be demanded. 

** In 1580 the tax was raised to one dollar for 12 tons, also for citizens if they exported 
their fish in foreign vessels. 

* The assertion made by some people, that several regulations contained in these 
‘“‘Law-books” have been handed down to our own times by popular tradition and are 
still observed by the coast population of Bohusliin, shows only complete ignorance of 
the present state of affairs. The most complete of these ‘‘Law-books” is mentioned in 
Lh. Boeck’s Oversigt over Literatur, Love, Forordningar, Rescripter m. m. vedrirende de 
norske Fiskerier [Review of the literature, laws, regulations, decrees, &c., of the 
Norwegian Fisheries], Christiania. 1866, p. 3-8. 


228 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


however, that the inhabitants of Bohuslain did not look favorably upon 
fishermen coming from abroad, and Peter Claussén relates that the Bo- 
huslin people hated all those who came there to fish, and frequently 
cursed them and beat them, so that it was not safe for any fisherman to 
go among them, unless they were well armed and a number of them 
went together. Gradually, however, the number of foreign fishermen 
grew so large that they became all-powerful, and the principal part of 
the herring-trade passed into their hands. In order to become a source 
of national welfare, the herring-fishery must, as was the case with the 
Dutch, be not so much an object in itself as a means of increasing com- 
merce and navigation. From the time (1612 and 1620) when the Dutch 
resolved to carry on the herring-fisheries. according to strict rules for 
their own sake and as an object in itself, they began to go down, and 
gradually lost their importance, so that this so-called “ gold mine” of 
the Netherlands dwindled down to nothing, and had finally to be sup- 
ported by considerable government subsidies. 

The method of fishing likewise led to trouble, for in order to catch 
the greatest possible number of fish, nets were used exclusively, requir- 
ing a large number of people, who were thus taken away from other 
occupations, and being crowded together, occasioned disturbances and 
immoral practices. The cause why fishing was carried on with nets must 
doubtless be sought in traditions and in the regulations of the above- 
mentioned ‘ Law-books,” as well as in the manner in which the royal 
tax was collected.” Even the preparing of the herrings for the trade, 
which consisted chiefly in drying, required by far too many men. 

That these fisheries were very considerable may be inferred from sta- 
tistics given in a pamphlet published at the time, according to which 
Marstrand annually salted, dried, and exported 600,000 tons of her- 
rings. We must here give Peter Claussén’s brief description of these 
fisheries, as throwing a good deal of light on this whole question. He 
says: ‘“‘Several thousand people from the neighboring countries, Nor- 
way, Denmark, and Holstein, had come here with their wives and 
children, and had built themselves houses on the coast. Noblemen, as 
well as merchants and peasants, had erected large and beautiful houses, 
some of them two or three stories high; some of these were so large 
that 168 tons of herrings could conveniently be hung up and dried at 
one andthe sametime. Extending for 50 to 60 miles along the outer coast, 
there weremany thousand houses and huts, and numberless people lived on 
every bay and fiord and island. Thousands of vessels arrived annually 
from Denmark, Germany, Holland, England, Scotland, and France for 
the purpose of buying herrings and shipping them to distant countries.” 
Marstrand, which was the centre of the fishery and the trade connected 


20 See ‘ Law-book” of October 26, 1575, §&8-11, 13; Holmberg, ‘‘ Bohuslin’s historia 
och beskrifning,” II, p. 88; 2d edition, I, p. 283. 

21 Holmberg, ‘“Bohuslin’s historia och beskrifning,” II, p. 84-85; III, p. 408; 2d edition, 
I, p. 280; HI, p. 193. 


BOHUSLAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 229 


with it, rose to considerable importance; it had two mayors, a chief of 
police, a syndic, ten aldermen, &c., which certainly is an evidence of 
prosperity.” Another evidence is found in the amount of war-taxes 
which Marstrand had to pay during the war with Sweden, and which 
was as high as that of the large city of Bergen. The inhabitants of 
Marstrand complained about this, and succeeded in having the taxes 
lowered; but this fact shows indisputably that at that time Marstrand 
was the second city of Norway, and ranked higher than Trondhjem, Oslo, 
and Tonsberg. Uddevalla seems also to have derived considerable ben- 
efit from these fisheries.” 

We will now see what influence these rich fisheries exercised on the 
moral condition and true well-being of Bohusliin. The king, in order 
to increase the revenues of the crown, desired to draw as many fisher- 
men as possible to the coast of Bohusliin, and succeeded in seeing his 
desire fulfilled. The consequence was, that all sorts of people came to 
Bohuslin from Norway, Denmark, and the German provinces of the 
Danish crown, many of them by no means persons of high moral char- 
acter. Peter Clausson, in the above-mentioned pamphlet, gives us some 
idea of the character of the coast population, when there we read of the 
‘‘ godless life which the people led, drinking, gambling, whoring, murder 
and quarrels being every-day occurrences” in the cities of Marstrand 
and Udevalla.** 

As the number of bloody frays increased, it became necessary to ap- 
point special surgeons. It is highly characteristic of those times that, 
whenever the surgeons had to dress fresh wounds, they had to.announce 
the fact to the tax-gatherer, so the king might not lose the fine which 
was imposed on frays of this kind. The ‘Law-books” imposed very 
heavy fines on the transgression of any of their regulations; still disor- 
der and vice were not much diminished.” The tax-gatherers, in whose 
hands great power was laid, were frequently guilty of violent extortions. 
The revenues which the crown derived from these fisheries proved of 
little benefit to the country, for they were chiefly employed for carrying 
on a useless war against Sweden. 

Towards the year 1590 the fisheries began to decrease, as was gener- 
ally supposed, on account of the godless life led by the fishermen, and 
the abuse of God’s gifts; and the last ‘‘ Law-book,” which was issued in 
1589, therefore recommends an earnest reform, saying: “As all good 
gifts come from Almighty God and His Divine Majesty, thus our king- 
dom of Norway has richly experienced His favors, its inhabitants as 


2 Holmberg, * Bohuslin’s historia och beskrifning,” III, 408-409; 2d ed., III, p. 193- 
194, 

*3 Holmberg, ‘‘ Bohuslin’s historia och beskrifning,” III, p. 113; 2d edition, II, p. 239. 

°4 Holmberg, ‘‘ Bohuslin’s historia och beskrifning,” II, p. 93, note; III, p. 113, 409; 
2d edition, I, p. 287-288, note; II, p. 239; III, p. 194. 

*5 Holmberg, ‘‘ Bohusldn’s historia och beskrifning,” Il, p. 93, note; 2d edition, I, p, 
287-288, note. 


230 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


well as others having been blessed with successful herring-fisheries. But 
since there is danger that God may withdraw His blessings on account 
of the great sins and vices of the inhabitants of the coast, our tax-gath- 
erers, each one in his district, shall see to it that people in the fishing- 
stations lead good and Christian lives; that there is preaching every 
Sunday, and people are exhorted to lead a godly life, so that God may 
be moved by the prayers of good Christians to extend His blessings to 
us also in the future.” A short time after this ‘‘Law-book” had been 
issued, the herrings entirely disappeared from the coast of Bohuslain; 
and Peter Claussén relates that “‘many hundred merchants and fisher- 
men went to great expense, but all in vain.” 

It would naturally be supposed that after the close of the fisheries the 
coast population were suffering from great poverty and want; but as 
nothing of the kind is handed down by tradition or by writings from those 
times,” it must be supposed that the evil consequences were in some 
measure diminished or warded off in such a way as not seriously to influ- 
ence the whole province.” It is possible that many of the inhabitants of 
the coast moved to other parts, or found some other employment. The 
land-owners of Bohusliin were at that time well-to-do and independent, 
having other sources of income; whilst in the cities, among the rest in 
Marstrand, the considerable commerce had produced a state of well-being. 
Although the herring-fisheries exercised a great influence on the popula- 
tion of Bohusliin through their demoralizing tendencies, and through the 
poverty consequent upon their sudden cessation, Bohusliin suffered less 
than it did two hundred years later when the same occurrence took place. 
One reason was certainly the shorter duration of the fisheries in the six- 
teenth century as well as the very limited freedom of trade. 

About seventy years later, when Bohusliin, after having for eight cen- 
turies formed a province of Norway, was incorporated with Sweden, the 
herrings again visited our coast; and there would certainly again have 
been large fisheries if the sanguinary war between Denmark and Sweden, 
which lasted from 1675 to 1679, had not prevented all fishing. More- 
over, the conditions for drawing together on this coast a large number 
of experienced fishermen were not so favorable as when Bohusliin still 
belonged to Denmark-Norway. 

In order to give to the herring-fisheries some legal sanction, a royal 
decree was published, October 13, 1666, concerning a regulation which 
was to be observed during the herring-fisheries. In this regulation cer- 
tain ports are mentioned, viz, Gottenburg, Kalfsund, Marstrand, Moll- 
sund, Gullholmen, and Lysekil, in which alone herrings might be taken 
ashore and be prepared for the trade, and where inspectors, endowed 
with the necessary authority, should supervise the fisheries and see to 

26 Holmberg, ‘‘Bohusl. hist. 0. besk.,” II, p. 100, 101, note. 

27 It is quite probable, however, that these demoralizing herring-fisheries have left 
traces on the central coast of Bohusliin, especially near Tjérn, which may be felt even 


in our days; for otherwise it would be difficult to explain the low moral state of the 
population on that coast, of which Holmberg and other authors speak. 


Bi alent ee oe >< 


BOHUSLAN HERRING-FISHERIES. Zoi 


it that only good herrings got into the market. People had learned wis- 
dom by experience, and henceforth only Swedish subjects were allowed 
to engage in the herring-fisheries, whilst foreigners had to acquire this 
privilege by special compact. But no such compact or treaty with for- 
eigners is ever mentioned. J oreigners were also forbidden to buy her- 
rings in the ports. There was no tax on herring-fishing, and it is sup- 
posed that the Swedish Government by granting this freedom intended 
to make the population of the newly-acquired province more favorably 
inclined towards itself. The tax on herring exported to foreign countries 
was lowered considerably. To maintain good order among the fisher- 
men a so-called “port-law” was published the 10th of May, 1669. 

As the inhabitants of Bohusliin henceforth carried on the fisheries 
almost exclusively under a comparatively mild government, they derived 
considerable benefit from the fisheries. Holmberg mentions as a proof of 
this that most of the church ornaments in Bohusliin date from this 
period.”8 

We have no data regarding the exact time when this fishing-period 
came to aclose. But about the year 1670 the herrings seem to have 
ceased to come to the southern coast of Bohuslin, and according to the 
most reliable authorities fishing seemed to have closed in 1679 or 1680 
also on the central and northern coast. According to an old tradition 
there is said to have been occasional fishing till the commencement of 
the great Northern war, under Charles XII, in the year 1700.” 

In the foregoing it has been said that the law of Magnus Hakonsson is 
the oldest law of Bohusliin. This law had been examined, however, and 
its language changed a little under the reign of King Christian IV when 
it was printed in the year 1604. As regards the fisheries, however, the 
regulations of the old law remained almost unchanged. This law of 
1604 remained in force in Bohuslin till the winter of 1682, when the 
Swedish law was introduced.” The regulations of the Swedish law 
regarding fishing were fewer in number and shorter, as the fisheries were 
not so important for Sweden as they had been for Norway; but they 
changed nothing regarding the privilege of fishing on the sea-coast, for 
coast-fishing was at that time, in Sweden as well as in Norway, with few 
exceptions, open to all inhabitants of the country. 

About sixty or seventy years after the great herring-fisheries of the 
sixteenth century came to a close, the last great Bohusliin fishing-pe- 
riod commenced, concerning which all the inhabitants of this province 
tion, I, p. 148, 280; II, p. 241; III, p. 136, 196. 

*° Lundbeck, “Antekningar rérande Bohuslinska fiskerierna, « synnerhet sillfisket” [The 
Bohuslin fisheries, especially the herring-fisheries]. Gottenburg, 1832, p. 35-36. 

%° Holmberg, ‘“Bohusl. hist, 0. besk.,” I, p. 185; 2d ed., I, p. 148.—Aubert, ‘De Norske 
Retskilder” [Sources of Norwegian Law], p. 397-406.—“Nytt juridiskt Arkiv” [New 
Law Archives], 1876, II, No. 12, p. 1-9. 

*! Among these exceptions the more important are the so-called ‘crown fisheries,” 
near the royal domains, parks, or islands, where fishing can only be carried on by 
special permit of the government authorities. 


232 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


have heard, and which, according to unanimous testimony,” began in 
the year 1747. Fishing seems to have commenced in the neighborhood 
of Tjérn and the Marstrand Islands, but soon after seems to have ex- 
_tended along the whole southern coast to the boundary of Holland. 
Later the herrings chiefly came to the coast between Marstrand and 
Lysekil, and after the year 1773 also to the northern coast. In 1778 
occasional herrings are said to have been seen near the Hval Islands, 
in that part of Southeastern Norway which bounds Bohusliin. On the 
northern coast the herrings advanced a little farther north every year, 
whilst their quality had already begun to deteriorate. In speaking of 
the northern coast in those times, the coast north of Sotenaes is not 
counted in, but this term only applies to the coast between Marstrand 
and Lysekil. Towards the end of this fishing-period, however, large 
quantities of herring again came to the southern coast; but this was 
considered an exceptional case. The Norwegian naturalist Axel Boeck 
has shown that a similar change has taken place, both in the Norwegian 
spring-herring fisheries and in the Bohusliin fisheries during the six- 
teenth century, and we are therefore justified in expecting that this will 
also take place in the future, in case the herrings should again come to 
our coast. This fishing-period came to an end in 1808, after having 
lasted sixty-two years, and this event was foreshadowed by the moving 
of the fish in a northerly direction, by the later and later appearance of 
the fish, “finally only about Christmas time,” and by its being mixed 
with small herring during the last year of this fishing-period. The value 
of these indications for the future is increased, since the above-men- 
tioned Norwegian naturalist has shown that the same took place at the 
close of the Bohusliin fisheries in 1590 and of the Norwegian fisheries 
in 1787 and 1870.* 

The fisheries, however, grew in importance only very gradually, for 
Sweden could not, as Norway had done formerly, send a sufficient number 
of experienced fishermen to the coast, but these had to be educated by 
degrees. From the Dutch the Swedes learned the proper way of pre- 
paring the herrings, and soon movable nets were adopted instead of 
stationary ones. As a great many more herrings were caught than 
could conveniently be salted and smoked, people in the year 1760 began 
to make oil of those that were left over. All this was easier, for both 
the new method of fishing and the manufacture of oil required only a 
comparatively small number of men, which as early as during the fisheries 
of the sixteenth century had been considered a great advantage. For- 
eigners were excluded from the fisheries and from the trade in fresh her- 
rings, although the last-mentioned regulation was not strictly enforced 


32The year 1752, which in some works is mentioned as the time when these fisheries 
commenced, is probably the year when the herrings commenced to approach the Gott- 
enburg coast in any considerable number. 

334, Boeck, ‘Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne,” &c. [On the herring and the herring-fish- 
eries, &c.]. I. Christiania, 1871, p. 102-118; Géteborg’s och Bohusliins Hushdllning-Salls- 
kaps Quartalsskrift [Quarterly Review of the Gottenburg and Bohusliin Economical 
Society], October, 1870, p. 36-39 and 44-54, 


a 


ee. = 


BOHUSLAN® HERRING-FISHERIES. 200 


in the case of the Danes and Norwegians. Foreigners who intended to 
become Swedish citizens were for three years freed from all personal 
taxes and enjoyed the same privileges as the natives. The government 
asked no tax for the privilege of participating in the fisheries, but even 
paid a subsidy for furnishing large seines, and also in other ways en- 
couraged the fishing-trade. The government also endeavored to draw 
people to the coast to engage in fishing by giving them free building- 
lots, lumber from the royal forests, freedom from military service, We. 
From 1756 till 1787 the government even permitted Swedish subjects 
who had fled from Sweden on account of minor offences to return with- 
out being punished if they would settle on the coast and engage in fish- 
ing. In 1765 a decree was published permitting people who lived in the 
most distant provinces on the Gulf of Bothnia to go to Bohuslin by sea 
free of expense if they would engage in the herring-fisheries. The num- 
ber of those who came to the coast of Bohusliin every year during the 
fishing-season in order to be employed in fishing or in the preparation 
of fish for the trade was, during the most flourishing period, estimated 
at 50,000, not counting in the stationary population of the coast.** 
Besides holding out inducements for people to engage in fishing, en- 
deayors were also made to further the fishing-interests by improved and 
more complete laws, for which purpose during the period 1767-1772 a 
special parliamentary “fishing-commission” was appointed to which all 
questions concerning fishery-legislation were referred. During the pe- 
riod 1774-1778 special reports on the subject were ordered by the gov- 
ernment. The result of the work of the “above-mentioned commission 
was a general fishery-law, which, for the time when it originated, must 
be considered as possessing considerable merit, and a special law for the 
North Sea fisheries, which afterwards also included our herring-fisheries. 
In the former law, which in all essential points is the same as our pres- 
ent fishery-law of the 29th of June, 1852, the privilege of fishing on the 
inner coast was limited to the proprietors of the coast, which rule in 


34 See S. Nilsson, ‘‘ Handlingar rérande Sillfisket i Bohusldnska Skdrgarden” (The her- 
ring-fisheries on the coast of Bohusliin]. Stockholm, 1843, p. 11. 

35In those places where persons having the privilege of fishing had been in the habit 
of catching fish on ‘‘each others’ coast,” everything should remain in statu quo, and 
such fisheries should be in common to all proprietors of a certain extent of coast, a 
regulation which rightly understood might prove very useful. (See ‘Nya handlingar 
rorande Sillfisket i Bohuslinska Skargarden,” I. Gottenburg, 1874. Appendix, p. 15-16, 
§ 12.) The granting of the exclusive privilege of fishing to the owners of the coast 
was likewise done with the view of promoting the fishing-interests, as it was thought 
that they would be in the hands of those who for their own advantage would carry on 
fishing in the most approved manner. It was moreover only the logical development 
of those principles of law which gradually had obtained in Sweden as well as in other 
Germanic countries. It is an error to suppose that the general fishing-law of 1766, as 
well as its explanation published in 1771 regarding the western coast of Sweden be- 
tween the Sound and the Norwegian frontier, had been entirely abrogated by the law 
of 1774 “‘for the North Sea fisheries and the salting-houses in the districts of Gotten- 
burg and Bohusliin”; for this was certainly not the intention. Such a change would 
have required a resolution of Parliament sanctioned by the king. (See §§ 2, 40, 42 of 
the constitution of 1772.) 


234 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF ISH AND FISHERIES. 


former times held good only in exceptional cases, rather because it had 
been in force from time immemorial than because of any royal decree. 
An exception, however, was made with regard to our great periodical 
herring-fisheries, or as the law terms them “the great North Sea herring- 
fisheries,” from which no Swedish citizen could be excluded, on what- 
ever coast it might be, even on those coasts where, prior to 1766, the 
proprietors had had the exclusive privilege of fishing.“ By thus dis- 
tinguishing from a legal point of view the periodical herring-fisheries 
from the other fisheries, the three hundred year old claim of the crown 
to the former was formally established. To further the herring-fisheries, 
the privilege was granted to catch herrings in nets even on those parts 
of the coast which were held by private owners. From the decrees 
which were published from time to time (from the year 1748), and from 
the ‘Complete Regulations for the North Sea fisheries,” published in 
1774, it appears that it was the intention of the government that hence- 
forth the fisheries should no longer be hindered by granting royal priv- 
ileges or monopolies to individuals, as formerly had been done several 
times (for example, in the year 1745.)*7 To preserve order in the ports 
and at the different fishing-stations a new and improved set of “* Regula- 
tions for ports” was published in 1771, by which a number of special 
officers were appointed, who were to superintend the fisheries and main- 
tain order; thus 1772-1774 a “chief superintendent,” 1783-1791 a * super- 
intendent,” which office was to be filled by the chief pilot of each district, 
and finally, 1791-1821, a “superintendent of herring-fisheries.” * 

In accordance with the ecdnomical views of those times the govern- 
ment, especially during the first half of this fishing-period, endeavored 
to encourage the fishing-trade by a high premium on exported herrings, 
by which the owners of large establishments were certainly benefited, 
but which otherwise proved no advantage.*® Such a rich and natural 
trade as the Bohusliin herring-fisheries of that period ought certainly to 
have supported itself without any premiums. If the large sums which 
now only benefited a few capitalists had been used for maintaining good 
order and morals in the fishing-stations, the whole fishing-trade and 


26In the law of 1852 the expression ‘‘the great North Sea herring-fisheries” is 
changed to ‘‘such salt-water fish as approach the coast in large schools,” which change, 
however, was of no practical consequence. Any positive change in the fishery-laws 
would have to be made in accordance with certain rules laid down in § 87 of the con- 
stitution of 1809. 

37 As late as 1778 we find in a “‘report on the herring-fisheries,” a suggestion that no 
new exclusive personal privileges might henceforth be granted, and no old ones re- 
newed. 

38 Regarding the Bohuslin fishery-legislation, see Sjéberg, A., ‘‘Om den Svenska Fis- 
kerilagstiftning” [On the Swedish fishery-legislation]. Lund, 1866; and the same au- 
thor’s articles in the ‘‘ Géteborgsposten,” 1875, Nos. 47,52, 59, 61,78, and 1877, No. 102. 

39Jt is highly characteristic of those times that it was a frequent occurrence that 
those sums of money which had been appropriated for premiums, to a considerable 
extent found their way back to the authorities who had granted them, in the shape 
of bribes. 


BOHUSLAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 235 


especially the fishermen themselves would have been benefited and the 
future of the herring-fisheries would have been very different from what 
it is now. 

The great importance of these herring-fisheries will best be seen from 
the fact that during the decade 1770-1780, the average annual quantity 
of herrings amounted to about a million barrels—1,100,000 barrels in 
#i87—and later this quantity was doubled, and, according to some author- 
ities, even trebled, upwards of three million barrels having been realized 
in one year.” It is probable, however, that this last-mentioned figure 
is somewhat exaggerated, or at any rate is an exceptional case.4! The 
number of herrings which came to the coast was so large that the quan- 
tity caught only represented a very small portion of the whole number; 
and the fisheries had generally come to a close, not because there were 
no more herrings, but because every one being supplied with herrings 
they fetched no price at all. It will be self-evident that such extensive 
fisheries put large sums of money into circulation. And if we take into 
consideration the number of people employed in preparing and trans- 
porting herrings as well as in those trades which are dependent on the 
fisheries, we will be able to get an idea of the great direct and indirect 
economical value of these fisheries. The coast of Bohuslin, and especially 
the district of Elfsyssel, was at that time densely populated, and pos- 
sessed numerous salting-houses and oil-refineries. The following statis- 
ties are gathered from official documents: in 1787 there were in Bohus- 
lan 338 salting-houses and 429 oil-refineries, with a total of 1,812 boilers, 
using 40,986 barrels of herrings per day. The number of large seines was 
308 and of boats 2,100. These figures even increased considerably 


40 Holmberg, ‘‘ Bohusl. hist. 0. besk.,” II, p. 85-86; 2nd ed., I, p. 280-281. 

41 P, A. Granberg, ‘‘ Staden Goteborgs historia och beskrifning” [History and description 
of the city of Gottenburg], Stockholm, 1814-1815, II, p. 158, 159, 216-217. P. Dubb, 
‘“‘Anteckningar om silljfisket i Bohuslin” [Remarks on the Bohuslin herring-fisheries] in 
the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences, 1817, p. 33. According to the 
first-mentioned authority the highest annual export of herrings from Gottenburg was 
190,000 barrels prepared herrings and 50,000 aumes herring-oil, whilst according to 
Dubb the export from the whole coast was upwards of 350,000 barrels herrings and 
120,000 aumes herring-oil. Twenty barrels of herrings of medium quality were re- 
quired to produce one aume of herring-oil. 


2° Handlingar och Protocoller rérande Kgl. Majts. i nader férordnade Beredning éfver 
Sillfiskeri-Handteringens nérmare reglerande [Official Reports on the herring-fisheries], 
Gottenburg, 1789, p. 29-30, 37, 43, 54, 89-90, 109, 146, 177, 178, 180,186. In order to give 
an idea of this flourishing period and explain the fact that even to this day people are 
sighing for a return of those halcyon days, we will quote the following from O. Lund- 
beck, Anteckningar rérande bohusldnska-fiskerierna [The Bohuslin fisheries], Gottenburg, 
1832, p. 42-43: ‘““He who knew the coast of Bohusliin 25 years ago, and now sees it 
again, will scarcely be able to refrain from tears. Then it presented an imposing 
appearance. From the sea itself rose massive walls and pillars supporting immense 
salting-honses and oil-refineries. Farther inland rich warehouses and busy workshops 
might be seen, as well as palatial residences of the merchants and neat cottages of 
the fishermen and workingmen. The coast was crowded with a busy throng and the 
sea studded with sails. Every night it looked as if there were a grand illumination, 


236 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


during the following years. The cities, of course, derived the greatest 
benefit from the fisheries, and it may well be said that the cities and 
those capitalists who owned the large establishments, were really the 
only ones who had any positive profit from the fisheries. Gottenburg, 
especially, must here be mentioned, which, according to “Granberg’s his- 
toria,” owed its flourishing condition chiefly to the East India trade and 
the herring-fisheries. Granberg says that the exportation of herrings 
and more especially of herring-oil gave a new impetus to commerce in 
general and exercised a decided influence on all trade.® The cities of 
Bohusliin likewise flourished considerably during this period. Marstrand 
almost quadrupled its population, and Uddevalla rose to importance as 
well as the city of Kungelf* The great ease with which in those days 
money was made in Bohuslin and the many chances offered, especially 
to persons of the working-classes, to lead a joyous and careless life, of 
course attracted large numbers from all parts of the kingdom, and, as 
might be supposed, generally persons of low morals. The above-men- 
tioned decree allowing persons who had been convicted of minor offences 
to return to Sweden if they would engage in the fisheries, actually made 
Marstrand from 1775-1794 a kind of free port or harbor of refuge for 
criminals, and did not serve to raise its general standard of morality. If, 
furthermore, we take into consideration the fact that the owners of salt- 
ing-houses and oil-refineries were licensed to keep groceries and retail 
liquor-stores, the consequences may easily be imagined. The greater 
portion of the male population of the coast were scarcely ever sober, as 
enough money was earned during the fishing-season to keep them going 
all the rest of the year. The grog-shops were, therefore, crowded all the 
year round with the exception of Christmas Day and Good Friday. 
Fishermen and workingmen, coming from other parts, generally arrived 
a month before fishing commenced, and this season of idleness was almost 
exclusively devoted to drinking and carousing. Asa natural consequence 
of such a life the majority of the coast population had no thoughts for 
the future and no moral strength to bear reverses. Sanguinary quarrels 
were not so frequent as during the sixteenth century, but all other vices 
prevailed.” The authorities never thought of stemming the tide of cor- 
ruption, their whole attention being occupied with the prevention of 
smuggling, for which purpose a number of small men-of-war were in 


many thousand lights shining from the windows and from the numerous lamps along 
the quays, and being reflected in the waves. Everything was life and bustle, and tons 
of gold changed hands. Now nothing is seen but ruins, only here and there a dilapi- 
dated fisherman’s cottage, awakening melancholy thoughts in the heart of the visitor. 
Would that soon these glorious times for which thousands are sighing might return.” 
This was written in the year 1831. 7 

4 Granberg, Géteb. hist. och beskr., I, p. 65; II, p. 153, 176. The enormous sums which 
this exportation yielded were used as capital in starting or supporting important home- 
industries, and their want was painfully felt when in 1808 this source of wealth ceased. 

44 Holmberg, Bohusl. hist. 0. beskr., II, p. 120-121, 349-350, 415-421, 425; 2nd edition, 
II, p. 246; III, p. 138-139, 200-204, 207. 

46 Holmberg, ‘‘Bohusl. hist. och beskr.,” II, p. 82, 92-93; 2d edition, I, p. 277,287. 


a ee | 


BOHUSLAN HERRING- FISHERIES. 2a" 


1774 stationed on this coast. For settling difficulties among the fisher- 
men an enlarged and improved code of “port regulations” had been 
published, according to which certain judicial and police powers were 
entrusted to some of the fishermen, but all this did not improve the 
moral character of the population. The coast of Bohuslan gradually 
became a sort of vast poor-house, all sorts of homeless and shiftless peo- 
ple congregating there in addition to those who through their debauch- 
eries had lost all they had earned during the fishing-season. Since all 
the better class left Bohusliin every year at the close of the fishing-sea- 
son, and finally for good, when the fisheries came to a close, and took all 
their earnings with them, Bohusliin reaped all the evil consequences of 
the fisheries without enjoying any of their benefits. The poverty and 
misery on our coast when the fisheries totally ceased in 1808 actually 
beggars description. But it was not only the coast which suffered; the 
agricultural interests of the province had been totally neglected from 
want of men willing to work on farms and from the general degeneracy 
of the times. Strange to say, the enormous fortunes which had been 
made and remained in the hands of a few, disappeared quickly or passed 
into other and worthier hands. It is not to be wondered at that under 
these circumstances large herring-fisheries, such as those of the eight- 
eenth century, began gradually to be considered as a curse rather than 
as a blessing, which opinion was, among others, expressed by the his- 
torian of Bohuslin, Avel Emanuel Holmberg,*® and by its zealous and 
highly-honored governor, Count C. G. Lévenhjelm. Jt must be granted, 
however, that all the ev i consequences of great herring-fisheries mite 
be avoided, or at least greatly diminished, by proper precautions, and 
that such fisheries, if properly managed, might greatly further the ma- 
terial development of Bohusliin.* Regarding the last great fisheries it 
must be said that their evil consequences are chiefly to be ascribed to 
wrong management on the part of the authorities, who sacrificed the 
interests of the fishermen, the workingmen, the coast, and the whole 
province to those of a few large exporters. This mistake was caused, 
to a great extent, by the wrong economical principles prevailing in those 
times and by fhe, want of education and enlightenment among our coast 
population. No petitions were, therefore, ever made to the government 
authorities or to the Parliament to remedy existing evils, and no improve- 
ment could, therefore, ever be looked for. 

The great changes for the better which, during the last thirty or forty 
years, have raised both the rural and the coast population of Bohusliin 
to a very respectable height of intelligence and well-being, may serve 
to indicate the way which should be followed if great herring-fisheries 

*© Holmberg, *‘Bohusl. hist. och beskr.,” II, p. 91-94; 2d edition, I, p. 286-288. 

“ Goteborg’s och Bohuslins Kgl. Hushallnings-Sdllskaps Handlingar [Reports of the 
Economical Society of Gottenburg and Bohuslin], for 1847, Gottenburg, 1848, p. 27-28. 

4° Concerning the hopes of a return of the great herring-fisheries see the author’s 
article in the “‘Géteborgsposten,” 1876, No. 216, and in the Bohusléns Tidning, 1876, No. 77. 


238 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


should again occur. As regards the coast, the great cholera epidemic 
of 1834 must be mentioned, which carried off the greater portion of the 
worthless population. A general improvement then took place by the 
more perfect means of communication, the increased commerce, and the 
constantly-increasing prosperity consequent upon this, as also by the 
change in the fish-trade, fewer fish being salted and a great many more 
being sold fresh ;* the extension of the bank-fisheries by the introduction 
of more suitable vessels, which enabled the fishermen to undertake voy- 
ages to more distant and richer fishing-banks (during the first half of the 
fourth decade of this century as far as the Jeder, and in the beginning 
of the sixth decade as far as Storeggen); by subsidies from the govern- 
ment, the Economical Society, and private individuals, and last but not 
least by the truly benevolent liquor-law of 1855, which marks an epoch 
in the history of Bohusliin. This last-mentioned law shows conclusively 
how much good may be accomplished by wise legislation, and how neces- 
sary it is that the government should take a firm stand in suppressing 
all those evils and disorders which are caused by a low standard of 
morality or by too many opportunities for satisfying the sensual appe- 
tites. With regard to the aid which the state may extend to the ditter- 
ent trades and industries, it is now generally acknowledged that nothing 
is more hurtful to the best interests of the country than the creating of 
a state within the state by establishing and encouraging monopolies. It 
is to be hoped, therefore, that our coast will, in the future, be spared that 
kind of encouragement by the government which was given to it during 
the eighteenth century. May Sur people, on the contrary, learn more 
and more to rely upon their own exertions, and may all material prog- 
ress serve to further good order, sobriety, and morality, and thus advance 
the true welfare of our province. The future historian will then be 
able to give our population a better character than that which Avel 
Emanuel Holmberg’! was obliged te give them thirty or more years ago, 
even if he could not record as large and flourishing herring-fisheries as 
Holmberg. And then let all “exceptional” or ‘‘monopoly” legislation be 
done away with, always introduced under the false pretence of benefit- 
ing the “poor fishermen.” The population of Bohuslan need no longer 
be the charity-child of the government. 

To further the true welfare of our coast we need not only a wise and 
enlightened government, but above everything else energy and enlight- 
enment among our own people. It is not enough that they obey the 
laws and are skilled and diligent in their various occupations, but in 
order to make real progress they must take a warm and active interest 
in all public affairs. If a community is to develop to the highest point 
of material and moral prosperity there must be a good deal of public 


Great weight must be attached to the circumstance that the coast of Bohuslin does 
no longer, as was the case during the last great fishing-peried, form the rendezvous for 
all the loafers and good-for-nothing people from every part of the kingdom. 

56 Holmberg, ‘‘Bohust. hist. och beskr.,” II, p. 88, 99-101; III, p. 191, 192. 

51 Holmberg, “‘Bohusl. hist. och beskr.,” Il, p. 39-40; ILL, p. 192; 2nd edition, I, p. 233. 


BOHUSLAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 239 


spirit; and probably our province is lacking a little in this respect. 
May, therefore, the indifference which is still too prevalent give place to 
a burning zeal for the public welfare, and mere egotistical interests be 
nore and more placed in the background; and truly our province may 
boldly meet all the storms of time. 

Our great Bohusiiin herring-fisheries, and more particularly the last 
great fishing-period, give us many a useful hint for the future. They 
ought to furnish convincing proof that it is not always a large income, 
or, as it is erroneously termed, ‘an excessive share of God’s gifts,” which 
contributes most largely to the well-being of individuals or nations: 
They show that what is easily gained is also easily lost, especially if 
nothing is done to put the gain to a proper use; they show that in order 
to further trade and industry something more is needed than money sub- 
sidies, and that man, even in his material endeavors, must have some 
higher object than the mere making of money, and that good order and 
enlightenment are essential conditions for attaining to true and perma- 
nent welfare, and finally that it is a great and grievous mistake to think 
that such welfare can ever be reached by nothing but money. 


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X.—SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING THE NORWEGIAN FISHERTES,* 


[From ‘‘Bergensposten” —a daily paper published at Bergen, Norway, Tuesday, 
March 4, 1879.] 


SPECIAL NoTicE.—In view of the fact that our fisheries need further 
development in nearly every direction, the undersigned have agreed to 
form a society for the purpose of promoting the Norwegian fisheries. 
These fisheries, which form one of the most important sources of income 
of our country, have at different times attracted the attention of the 
government, and not without exercising some beneficial influence. But 
since the fisheries in other countries have progressed, and the utilization 
of their products has been more and more developed, it has become 
apparent that our country has remained behindhand with regard to its 
fisheries and all the various industries connected therewith. 

If it is true that Norway is one of the greatest fishing-countries in 
the world, her citizens should consider this as a strong incentive to de- 
velop and utilize this vast source of income to its greatest extent; with 
regard to this matter our country should not be excelled by any other. 

With the example of other countries and with their experience to guide 
us, this society will endeavor to aid and develop our fisheries by hatch- 
ing and raising fish, by improving the methods of fishing and the fish- 
ing-apparatus, and by utilizing to their fullest extent all the products of 
the fisheries; it will in fact be the object of this society to aid every en- 
deavor to further the fishing-interests. 

We therefore invite our fellow-citizens in town and country to become 
members of this society. The annual contribution of each member will 
probably be 5 crowns ($1.34), but we hope that there will be many pub- 
lic-spirited citizens who have both the desire and the means to pay 
more. 

JOHAN AMELN, 


and sixteen others. 
BERGEN, February 27, 1879. 
y) y ) 


4 

EDITORIAL.—As will be seen from a notice in our issue of to-day, a 
number of the most prominent and intelligent citizens of Bergen have 
started a society whese object it is to promote the fishing-interests. 

It will be said of this movement, as of so many others started at the 
right time and by the right men, that it should have been begun long 

* Selskabet for de Norske Fiskeriers Fremme. Bergensposten, Tirsdag d. 4 de Marts 
1879, Translated by Herman Jacobson. 

16 F 241 


942 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ago, and that itis astonishing that no one has thought of it sooner. We 
wil not discuss this question; suffice it to say that such societies could 
not be started at a better time and with better prospect of success. 
There is a general depression of all trades and industries, and every at- 
tempt to aid a great industry will awaken sympathy with the great mass ° 
of the people, because all feel that they have an interest in the matter. 
And there is no industry which will appeal so strongly to the sympathy 
of our people as the fisheries; a society which undertakes to develop 
the fisheries will meet a very general demand not only in our city but in 
every fishing-station from Cape Lindesnaes to the North Cape. We 
can say without exaggeration that never has a society been started in 
our country with a more timely, practical, and patriotic object. 

The notice which has been published starts with a well-known and de- 
plorable fact, namely, that our country is far behind other countries with 
regard to the fisheries. And the society makes it its object to place our 
country where it belongs in this respect. Every thinking person must 
have found out long ago that as regards our fisheries our country has 
not kept step with other countries; for nearly every journal has year 
after year informed us how many important improvements have been 
made in other countries, whilst we have done little or nothing. Our 
fisheries have certainly not gone down, for the value of their produc-, 
tions has been constantly on the increase; but the fisheries of other 
countries have increased more rapidly and have made important progress, 
which has thrown us in the shade. Thisis a serious matter for Norway 
and more especially for the city of Bergen. If we are outstripped in the 
competition with other countries in that industry which on our entire 
coast from Christianssund to Vardo is the chief source of income of the 
whole population, the future will look dark in many other respects and 
the general development of the country will be hindered or retarded. 

The signers of this notice, who are fully agreed as to the great impor- 
tance of this matter, are not saying too much when they maintain “that 
our fisheries need further development in nearly every direction.” And 
as this deplorable fact is the cause of publishing this notice, every one 
Should consider it a strong incentive to join the society and thus aid a 
good cause. There cannot possibly be any doubt on this point. But 
the question which will arise first is, How shall our fisheries be aided? 
where shall we begin? and what shall be done first? 

We anticipate that this society will gain many members in town anc 
country, and that both the state and city authorities will subsidize this 
important undertaking. We also hope that the society will possess as 
much common sense and scientific ability, as is represented by the sign- 
ers of the notice. And with such anticipations we ask the important 
question, “What shall be done?” 

The signers of the notice mention “the hatching and raising of fish”, 
“improving the methods of fishing and the fishing-apparatus” and 
“utilizing to their fullest extent all the products of the fisheries”, in 


SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING THE NORWEGIAN FISHERIES. 243 


short the aiding of “every endeavor to further the fishing-interests.” 
Such a programme means the establishment of an institution to work 
in each of these directions, and the organization of special societies or 
committees for the better carrying-out of all these objects. It will there- 
* fore be of great importance that this society should be joined by men of 
all classes throughout the country, so that no special interest or no 
special knowledge be excluded. 

The whole question therefore becomes one of great importance to the 
entire country; and it is quite natural that the programme has not en- 
tered into any details as regards the carrying-out of the many different 
objects of the society. The society will probably organize very soon, 
and when it has once become an accomplished fact, we have no doubt 
that the plans for work will be laid out with that efficiency which may 
be expected from the signers of the notice and the classes of society 
which they represent. The work will then progress with that energy 
and caution which the great and national importance of the question 
demands. 

In pointing once more to this notice and its important object, we con- 
sider any further recommendation superfluous, and would merely say in 
conclusion, that this question concerns a matter of the most vital interest 
to our whole country. 


XI.—STATISTICS OF THE LOFFODEN FISHERIES FOR 1878. 


(From the official report of the Superintendent, First Lieutenant in the Navy, Niels 


Juel.) 
Number of fishing-stations............ I Hae Se Ae 56 
Extent of fishing-district in nautical miles..... Seis a ath iahath 124, 


Highest number of vessels in the district. ......-.--..0:.00- 722 
Highest number of boats in the district......--...-222..---- 4,912 
Eieshest mumber of men in the district: . [006 5.: 00sec os -s5e 27,3 


Number of telegrams. 


= peers eeneeee Se 
Months. Received.| Sent. | Total. 

Udi TARA TS to dndoc ASE ese EaO ane OSS SeCE aus ConcrridodUBOOMDOUSUBUEUSeOnoLeT 1,003 | 1,707 2,710 

LISTE GT 0000 cOS000 TODD EE DEAS Sa DOCH COKSSIOuC HOSA CSCC Sone BSD CUCTOOMAceoE 2,175 | 3,288 5, 463 

IVTATC eee ee ee eas td Olen ReMi END ie Taney TS 5,666 | 7,578 | 13, 244 

PA THD ee ofa o'ala craiaevs winiele ¢ ales Sclnicie aeisigulomists cledies owicls otis we dislesielesauaissinecoa's 3,880 | 4,915 8, 795 

BRO eee area ete niee me cictelaias ca anicianc cise dele ciesioinicieicuiaie oa ciaisercivesiclace 12, 724 | 17, 488 30, 212 


Number of boats in the district at the end of each week. 


Nieek ending January 19 li. cc). cccse sss cardes w ais USRrers tetas 
Senna e Om ets cia a. a see cree Si visowe a « Aelenee oe 
RGU AYA Drapes soca we! 0/50. 8 suai oie Solna Aha ey meyer 2, 227 
BEE] OnE Tas hee A a EP Cl wis two ee 2, 549 
Hepruary 16s 2/4250). oa See esa PEE pee ue A 3, 037 
February 23.(....... sis dias ato 'sieisic aie nie mielouetatel | te menue Ole 
Maren 22 2275... Be tofekcl c/a) ais) ave = oo ober oleate vena erareees 4, 180 
INP AV CI Gueitiaet elec tass 2 Fo agietae Sete te sts nen een 
Marcel; 16. 2.:-- Seater aie, oi Wiaici « <\q/icisane arama temenate tet oan 4, 400 
Waren 23) e.23.-: shoe a nia sisiu a aio ayyoteeteotare ies oP tetera 4, 670 
March 30) sc. acess oata’o tt epeatene SOS ORION 4, 673 
Be 01a esas et ee Se hte At Sotto ees cient pee 3, 010 
VANTOVN FEDS noercta Stare ala a's a's ula Seteere era einte ee oa re eens 
Number of men, boats, §e., grouped according to the different kinds of apparatus. 

Misber- Crews. | Boats. 
DN tsa Mitt ere Meets bain)s san sdocnecscedecees Berea eeeris Bee Oo De oe seee-| 13,168 | 2,154 | *2, 430 
Baertait faite: ES ater ees alae seca vicasuiceenebee ene & = i se Ny 
SEG SINEEEES, 22-2 22) en SOU NT Ty Rn Wages 
ei op Le cio) soca annesaaszisotae's [23,034 4,087) 5, 251 

* 269 of these also occasionally used lines. +701 of these used no lines and 143 used lines. 


245 


A 


246 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


There was an increase from last year of 2,542 in the number of net- 
fishermen, and an increase from last year of 417 in the number of deep-bait 
fishermen, and a decrease from last year of 1,504 in the number of line- 
fishermen. 

The percentage of fishermen using different apparatus was as fol- 
lows: 58 per cent. used nets, 32 per cent. used lines, 10 per cent. used 
deep-bait. 

Number of vessels at the Loffoden March 16, 1878.—Steamers 5, schoon- 
ers 59, sloops 26, yachts 376, other vessels 202, total 668, with 3,111 
sailors, and a tonnage of 342,620. 

Cargoes of these vessels —Not specified 479, dry goods 19, groceries 18, 
flour 27, ham, lard, &c., 10, bait 14, notions 34, wooden ware 9, with a 
total value of $70,400. 


Number of days when no net or line fishing could be carried on. 


January. February. March. 


Disiricts. 


\Nets.| Lines. |Nets.| Lines. | Nets.| Lines. 


10 10 8 8 

i) Zh 6 6 

il 8 7 7 

11 11 10 8 

14 10 1 8 

14 13 10 9 

15 13 10 6 

SscRbcdI) kt 12 13 8 

PRM emeeeeaecsemeencs acisicessesceseee cae eoccuncocessne! posass 14 14 12 9 
Soérvaagen ..... Sceactndneebccéacaccusacbscosaqhessatcosaccs| Bence 14 12 il 8 


Temperature of the air ai the station of Svolver (in degrees Fahrenheit). 


Average tem- ¢ - 
perature. a q 
3 ~ 
. > & = 
: o9 & S. 
Week ending— E E E FI 
: =a = 2 
a 1G) yi aaa 
i=} Ss = a o 
20 | Ree Aen ee 
411) 8" |) ee ees 
AMER eLO ecnlcsancuccincascouenaces CODD SKUADHICOS COD CHOREC nOnnerec cones: 34.16} 31.64} 3.26 | 28, 
TITAN 2) nace hE eC ee ECS eOUO nC aocRbOr ceEobocSésocacenossno spancecace 81.64} 24.44 | 89.92 ; 21. 03 
February 2......-. PBC DOORN ABD ONOO Sap SRe ce seon sobd6 cof nenodesocodibescsec- 26.24 | 35.06 | 23. 
27.68 | 39.02 ; 
25.34 | 35.06 
80.74 | 39.92 
23.18 | 37. 04 
22.46} 87.94 
25.88 } 41 
27: Tae aerate 
; 21.02 | 39.38 
ADIL 6 ocecee ss erewecnennewecnccccs a ols) w'a alain amie ele apeloletinlelesierelelm ia) =i=(=\<im/=)= 42.62} 33.08 | 46.04 
April 13 vee cncuccs Sand OCS SEOs BES EeC HS Oncnce SRSA GaSn OOS OAS ESEnBOeo ser | 44.06 | 32. 48. 92 
AVerage fOr theROadOl eccccccccsncsccacsasuwesdacendesseciassiscl= | 84.16 | - :26.'600| Soares acters 


STATISTICS OF THE LOFFODEN FISHERIES FOR 1878. 247 


The average temperature last season was 33.08 F., and the average 
lowest temperature 24.95 F. Ithas therefore been a little warmer this 
year. January and the first part of February on the other hand were 
considerably colder. The average temperature from January 19 to Feb- 
ruary 9 was last season 55,6°, and this season 31.82 F. The eause of the 
early fishing this season can therefore not be the higher temperature, as 
some have supposed. During the fishing-season I have not been able 
to discover any connection between the fishing and the temperature of 
the air. At Hopenand Henningsver there was good fishing all through 
February and March, no matter whether the thermometer rose or fell. 
The few good fishing-days which the East Loffoden fishermen had during 
February were from the 12th till the 16th, when the average temperature 
was 28.94 F. From the Jith March to 16th March on the other hand 
fishing at the East Loffoden was very poor, although the temperature 
had risen to an average of 32.36 F. Again there was good fishing from the 
18th to the 23d of March, when the highest average temperature of March, 
37.76 B., was reached. I have therefore come to the conclusion that the 
fisheries are entirely independent of the temperature of the air, and if 
Professor Sars and others think they have observed the contrary, they 
must have taken an exception for the rule. 

Temperature of the water at the station of Svolver in Fakrenheit—The 
temperature of the water in the harbor of Svolver has been observed 
every day from January 26 to March 2, both at the bottom and at a 
depth of 6 fathoms (bottom). The temperature at the bottom varied 
from 32 to 40.10 degrees F., and was generally higher in proportion 
when the temperature of the air was lower. The instrument used was 
a Casella-Miiler thermometer. 


; ae Water. 

Week ending— D 
epth of 
6fathoms. 


lw Noon. Lowest Surface. 
| 


TPE Sia tet CLS a ee ree Petpet 32.36 | 27.68 | 35.69 37. 04 


ED) 91 hn SR a A a a ee A ee an ee | 20,84] 25.34} 35.35 37.7 
pebruaey ee eee eit Sn EIA ead ice. ahs Renae 34.88 | 30.74 33. 94 36. 35 
March 2 .... FEU AIG SG a OE A! 28.94 | 23.18 35. 06 38. 84 


The fact of the water at the surface being colder when the temper- 
ature of the air was 34.88 F., than when it was colder, is probably caused 
by the melting of the snow-water. It seems less probable, however, 
that the effect of the snow-water should be felt at a depth of 6 fathoms, 
especially as no stream worth the name falls into the sea at this place, 
and as far as our knowledge goes nothing of the kind has been observed. 
Between the temperature of the water and the wind there seems to be 
a certain connection. We could not ascertain which was cause and 
which was effect as the weather was very changeable. The tide seemed 
to have no effect on the temperature. 


248 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


Deep-water temperature. 
Pp 


January— | February— 
{ 
| 


STIPE AS Sehoneouede 
10fathoms..--....... 
20 fathoms .......-- | 
30 fathoms .......... 
40 fathoms........... 
50 fathoms ..2:..--<; 
60 fathoms .....-.... 
70 fathoms - 22524... } 


* Observations stopped on account of a storm. 


All these observations were taken at the same place, about one-third 
mile south-southeast of the Svolver light-house. The instrument was 
unfortunately broken on the ist of March, and no further observations 
could be taken. The observations on the 8th of April were taken with 
another instrument, which, however, had no indicator, and the result was 
approximately calculated from data gathered at former observations. 

Asa general rule the temperature at a depth of 10 fathoms has been 
35.60-36.50 F., at 30 fathoms 37.40-38.30 F., aud at the bottom 39.20 
-1F. There were, however, so many exceptions from this that there is 
every reason to doubt the correctness of the observations. No fault 
could be discovered in the instrument; when brought to the surface from 
the different depths it always fell to the same point at which it stood 
when lowered. The observation of the 14th of February corroborates the 
one of the 12th, and that of the 26th makes that of the 25th quite prob- 
able. If on the 25th February a current of 52.70 F. degrees warmth 
really entered the west fiord, it has during the twenty-four hours which 
elapsed whilst the observations were being taken, mingled with the cold 
water in the fiord, and this comparatively warm mixed water has risen 
to the surface; on the 26th it had reached to within 10 to 30 fathoms 
from the surface, whilst the temperature at the bottom had sunk to 
44.60 degrees F. The temperature in the harbor of Svolver at a depth 
of 6 fathoms also strangely favors the probability of the observations be- 
ing correct, as on the 12th, 14th, 25th, and 27th February it was 39.65 


to 40.10 degrees, a warmth which was only reached once during the 


course of the winter, viz, on the 3d February. It is therefore quite pos- 
sible that there are really very strange currents. No conclusions, how- 
ever, can be drawn as to their influence on the fisheries until the exist-, 
ence of these currents is fully proved. If instruments can be obtained, | 
the observations will be continued next year. 


—_— 


STATISTICS OF THE LOFFODEN FISHERIES FOR 1878, 249 


Proportion of spawners and milters. 


’ February, | March 1-18. From March 19, 
Average percentage. 
Apparatus used. | 1 aT 
; : - apes a F 
EWeibe ye | 2) 8 (eee 
Breas |e) | Sle eeiiae 
2 | 4 E uP ae ete a a 5 
n a a nD a | a a = 
PUEDEN OLS toca Sn sine we iaaitinica cisiaciiaaelertateisecnt: | 54 | 66 47 46 54 40 52*| 70 30* 
OAT TOUS oa canta cme teereratteintelare siities =o SBOE eae aoe ce 43 46 40 40 43 36 
[OG LAG Ere) OUR AR ORREEL 2 ee Okan Lie aan 64| 77| 431 48| 59| 36] 43%,  50*| 40* 
Wilontin P-LMe8) oS cn2 ose al dace de sos aiceion ens 63 | 69 57 | 58 70 46 45 67 31 
1 


* Observations of 1877. 


As far as the bottom-apparatus is concerned this year’s observations 
agree with those of last year, and may therefore be considered closed. 
They agree, moreover, with those natural conditions which the super- 
intendent considers as the cause of the statistical data as far as the 
sSpawners are concerned. The floating-lines show during the first half 
of March a larger percentage of spawners than the bottom-lines. More 
accurate observations, however, would have but little practical signifi- 
cance as far as the statistical data of spawners are concerned, and they 
will therefore not becontinued. The discrepancy between the results of 
the two kinds of apparatus may possibly be caused by the small number of 
observations (only 80), as there is no cause to suppose that there is any 
difference between the bottom and the floating apparatus as regards the 
spawners and milters. As Professor Sars has made entirely different 
observations and has given his reason for them, I shall endeavor briefly 
to refute his views. 

Professor Sars says in his report (p. 55): ‘Those boats which had used 
bottom-nets had almost exclusively caught milters, whilst more spawners 
had been caught by those who had employed floating nets or lines. 
That the proportion between spawners and milters must be such, I could, 
even without palpable proof, have told people beforehand from my ob- 
servations of the full-grown roe.” The observations made by me and 
my assistants show that the majority of fish canght in bottom-apparatus 
may be milters, but they likewise show that occasionally the majority 
may be spawners, and that on an average an equal number of both 
kinds are caught. It is both improbable and impossible, that milt- 
ers should be caught exclusively in bottom-apparatus and spawners in 
floating-apparatus. It is improbable, because the floating-net is 12-40 
fathoms from the bottom, and if the professor’s observations were cor- 
rect a similar extent of water must intervene between the milters and 
Spawners. It is impossible, because floating-nets are not used very ex- 
tensively, viz, only by the fishermen at the stations east of Sérvaagen, 
and where should the large proportion of spawners come from, if the 
bottom-nets caught only milters ? 


250 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Number of livers to the barrel. 


| pee : 
Ae 
A | 3 2 | — a 
3 R = Ea 5 B 5 @ 
$ | o - S D s = Es “ 
Week a 4 @ ee a | g = E e |e 
ending— pote hme S 5S | = 5 | g 5 5 s 
| zl : se : | : f 
a a . D ° m | : Rn . 2 . 71 e-| @ 5 aD . m : mn 
elaizlalala|2 RAZA AIA IAA 14 AAA jaIAa 
- ew caret io ane — aes] SS | |) aa iar. 
Tanga baleerstiecn pees ae 95 | 300} 360] 420|....| 400)....) 3001....].... ae ge0l....|-../a60ldeal... _ 
ne) ae, OL ee --.| 400} 250} 300} 360; 420) 300} 400, 300, 350)....|.... \....| 380] 300/350'360/480)...|... 
400) 300) 400) 250] 300) 360) 420, 300) 400, 300, 350)....|....|.... 380, 300'350'3601480|. . | oy 
16 400) 00} 400| 300; 380] 350, 450, 300) 400) 300, 350)....|.... 300, 360, 300)350|360)480). ..|. 
2 460) 360! 500! 300] 380! 350! 450} 300] 400! 300! 350!....|.-.. ....| 480) 300/350/360/480/250'300 
March 2 460] 360] 500, 300] 380] 430) 520, 300} 400 350) 400) 300) 350| 460 500 350'400|360'440/250 300 
9 500, 860; 500; 400| 500] 430} 520) 350| 450 380, 430) 300) 400) 460, 500, 350,400'360 440|350'450 
16 500| 400] 500) 450) 580) 480, 580 400) 500, 400 460| 300| 400! 460 500 350!400|300/400'350/450 
23 500) 400) 600) 400) 550) 480, 580, 500) 600) 400) 460, 300) 400) 500, 740, 350/500,368/480/350/450 
30 500| 450! 650) 450) 580) 480] 580) 500) 650 430 600, 450 600) 500) 740) 350/500360 460 450 600 
April 6 400, 450) 650) 450, 580) 486) 580) 500) 650) 500) 650, 300) 600, 500) 740) 350 450/360 480/400)500 
Eee ee --| 450) 600)....].- eae A Alera 460, 700). --|oe-|850)700)|...|- 4 
i} i 


Highest number of livers from line-fishing, week ending April 13.. 700 
Highest number of livers from net-fishing, week ending April 13.. 550 
Lowest number of livers from line-fishing, week ending January 26.. 300 
Lowest number of liversfrom net-fishing, week ending January 26.. 250 

Both in 1876 and last year there was a period from the middle of 
February till March when the fish increased in fatness; and as the num- 
ber of fish generally increased about the same time, I concluded that 
new schools had come in. This yearno increase of fatness was observed 
except about the middle of March in the district of Sdrvaagen, but on 
the other hand it was observed that this year the fish were fatter than 
last year from the beginning of the fisheries. Fishing also commenced 
early and promised well at all the stations. From the middle of Feb- 
ruary the fatness gradually decreased, so that probably no new schools 
arrived after that time with the exception of the district extending from 
Henningsver to Ure, where the proportion of liver kept unchanged 
longest, and where there was steady and good fishing all the time. Al- 
though the proportion of liver kept unchanged for a long time west of 
Nufsfiord, there was no fishing from the middle of February till the 
middle of March, and no net-fishing till the end of March. The unfavor- 
able weather was probably the cause of this, as the fishermen could not 
reach their usual fishing-places as often as was desirable. 


Price of fish (not stated per what quantity). 


Net-fishing. | Line-fishing,. Deep-bait fishing. 
|Absolute. Average, Absolute. Average. Apeertten Average. 
$$ | $$} ——|—_—_—_ |}___ 

INES be 2.2. cove so eweseteeeacdelcce: $6 34 $6 03 | $5 62 $7 77 $5 09 
LO ORF Sasbe ose ssudhaasses0 soo 75secac% 3 75 5 00 | 


3 5 36 | 
3 48 4 55 | 4 02 455 
bo eee 


— 


STATISTICS OF THE LOFFODEN FISHERIES FOR 1878. 251 


Price of liver, roe, and bait (per barrel), and of heads (per 100), 


Toll 2°30), | ESE) aie et a) OL SR a per barrel.. $4 28 to7 50 
MURRPME EVE gee) Scie’) =~ + <a. 6 lope eR cies os, a oa do. 4 28 to 4 82 
Raters’ s Sisco .+ a nicistniteheee teins ss .<7sie do. 2 14to & 36 
Presh herring for bait... ..s0a=+ a2 een do. 2 54 to 4 28 
Bale herein’ for Dalit cc asus «cote e cc do. 2 14 to 4 82 
auilensh for bait. {ce eecle clos tateabaee mac do. 3 21 to 6 43 
MESCles LOR Dali; freee sl sg 5 os sees do. 214 to 4 28 
1 LE" FEM ote Es 70 el ae RO per hundred. 8to 32 


This year’s fishery has been the second largest ever known; and if the 
weather had not been so very unfavorable during February and March, 
the number of fish would—in spite of the total failure of the fisheries in 
April—have been as large as last year; for it is my opinion that the 
schools on the banks were much larger. In January and February 
4,500,600 were caught; in April, 2,500,000; and in March, 17,750,000; 
whilst last year (1877) the number was 16,000,000 in March. The first 
of the two following tables shows the result of the Loffoden-fisheries for 
every week from 1869 to 1877, and the second shows the result per month, 
calculated for the last and the first week of the month according to the 
days when fishing was going on and the number of fish caught during 
the week. According to these data an average Loffoden-fishery ought 
to yield about 20,500,000, of which 4,300,000 (21 per cent.) are taken in 
January and February, 12,300,000 (60 per cent.) in March, and 4,000,000 
(19 per cent.) in April. This year (1878) the percentage was as follows: 
January and February, 18.2 per cent.; March, 71.7; and April, 10.1. 


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STATISTICS OF THE LOFFODEN FISHERIES FOR 1878, 253 


TOTAL RESULT OF THE FISHERIES, 1878. 


Number of fish caught............ GES EBS SOLE Shoes - 24, 660, 000 
Number of heads sent to the guano factories............. - 16, 500, 000 
Liver (barrels)......... SG Sond gobo Ger Reese need sine as 53, 150 
Medicinal oil (barrels) ..... oapgee See wit tee ea's 2 a clone siete . 3, 044 
Roe (barrels)..... a) alolel d'acl Cees See 2.28 Place we tea 26, 130 


Upwards of 14,000,000 fish were caught with nets, 9,250,000 with lines, 
and 1,250,000 with deep-bait. 
Gross receipts of the Loffoden-fisheries, 1878, $1,742,000. 


Number of fish and quantity of roe, liver, and oil per week. 


a 24 
be =e are (Fishing- 
Bas = S 3 | days. 
-—— So Lae | 
eal oy = 
AS Bead A 
Ba Mt res SCN ee aN tgs 2 
Week ending— = = fae 2 3 6 
r= =TF Sat 
a a 4 a g sie 
| maid 
| ae 
Thousands. Barrels. E | c 
jl Ean OLE ET Pe Be 2 aaa 
Bentarys OG cssivedoccercescsuheeeteee: G0) sea ee. 158} 400 13} 350] 4 es. 
IDs G0 Bhi Oem o ee OSEABEEC DEN SUCRE IAeE ee ad inane ere ene 200 | — 900 20 250 8) Wk 
Is Er DO poadac Bobobad beso BCOb RA pETnGe| |u wedi consent 340 | 1,900 | 55 | 1,500] 1] 2& 
February Nie aciciinisietnicnidla/clenieiaiepeos seri or OOO Parc nctt. 1, 800 | 6,800 | 350 | 5,200| 2) 3 
HEHIUALY Loch sas cel cenet pecebeete csc eee] 1B 000) coees. oe 500 | 7,800}; 480; 6,000 |....| 2 
NPA ER YA oelemcceieceic cies te ovis elec cisclonee es ace 5,500 | 3,500 | 2,500 | 15, 000 | O25 IIS 200 ep shiven. 
PAR CI Olerae Sale cele cicsiciseainw susie dels ince sodas 8, 500 6,000 | 3,000 | 22, 000 | 1, 650 | 16, 500 3 | 1 
MGTGHUIG Vans \caacisccace ncn cciseejicesacheinate 11,750} 9,000 | 3,250 | 28, 000 OOO) 19; 000) WS eoe 
Mamaheraieece.ccriesielncc tect sete catceew sc 17,750 | 14,500 | 6,000 | 39,000} 2,700 | 24,000} 4}| 1 
MMAR GH BO lec scee cinepicicmaas deans stenee bes see 22,250 | 18,750 | 4,500 | 48,000 | 38,000 25 1000s a clean. 
BAND Giese clase eral ae teresa ciate se SR Soe 23, 500 } 19, 750 1, 250 | 50, 000 | Ramieieiete's [eeretaisier | 2 | 2 
PATIL plsmetececistenciets scion nays cies aiets ae acta weee 24,750 | 21, 000 1, 250 | 53, 000 jrcccecee|eeeeeee- 5; 1 
WOE conodoocostesdacgdtmaunseSDoScse |sonedeos| Geiccocadéacearce eae ae | Spacaeae eeeeos | 25 \*134 
| 


* Against 32 and 21 in 1877. 


The largest number of fish caught, in proportion to the number of fish- 
ing-days and the number of men engaged, was in the week March 16 to 
March 23. The result all through March was unusually even. It is 
estimated that arter the 14th of April 120,000 fish were caught. About 
half a million of fish were consumed during the fisheries, as well as 1,000 
barrels of liver. About 20,000 cod were salted in barrels for sale. The 
quantity of bait used was as follows: Nine hundred barrels fresh her- 
ring; 12,000 barrels salt herring; 3,500 barrels cuttlefish; 900 barrels 
muscles; with a total value of upwards of $67,000. Most of the salt bait 
was pared by the fishermen at their homes. 

The treasurer of the “Medical Fund” reports that the taxes on fish in 
the districts of Nordland and Tromsé in 1877 amounted to $43,682, dis- 
tributed as follows: 


(Oi eS GG chi a Scinic's Sheet ie alae win/ala nie Og 
Salt codfish....... Pcratete alate 0 ha tare? w'sSm  afcioenncte Siete clditieres cima sciee toa D 
OU Sey Rea apeieieieka[o sis cleletate os) stores tiie aie tet neg ole 
BOGS. t eet ia eS alip 5 cieliace! che’ s:aleha.a'e\aisie  a)xia woleie «4 615 
BES EAA ol aa ee aE OIA oy, cic, ice Sala 6. aie eiain:sin'ie sie disis wirselee o's op) ORR 


954 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Result of the fisheries in the districts of Nordland and Tromsé, 1875, "76, and 77. 


1875. | 1876. 


| 1877. 
| if 
j 5 | 
| Fish. | | | Fish. Fish. | | 
Fisheries. | | Oil | Roe. | | Oil. | Boe =i} Oi. | Boe. 
| B A a | a = 
‘Millions. Barrels. _ [Millions. Barrels. ions. 
Loffoden-fisheries........ | 154| 74) 35,000 | 21,000 | 17 | 53} 35, 000 | 22,000 } 25 43) 40,000 | 29,000 
Other winter fisheries....| 14] 6 | 13,000 ; 8,500 | 24; 6 | 14,500 | 12,000 4) 8F 16, 000 
Summer and autumn fish- 
CRICH Meta ces nelcsacieces| sees 94, 8,000 1,000 4) 94) 8,000} 1,000 $| 123) 10, 006 1, 000 
BR ee eee eh [ 164) 23 56, 000 | 30, 500 | 20 | 203} 57,500 | 35,000 | 283! 253/ 69, 000 
FISHERMEN’S EARNINGS. 
Gross average earning for each fishing-day in February ..-...-. $1 87 
Gross average earning for each fishing-dayin March........... 4 35 
Average receipt per day, counting all the days of the season... 93 


Highest total sum earned by a net-fisherman ...............-- 214 40 
Lowést total sum earned by a net-fisherman .................. 48 24 


Highest total sum earned by a line-fisherman.....- BP SAM 120 60 
Lowest total sum earned by a line-fisherman............-.---- 32 16 
Highest total sum earned by a deep-bait fisherman,.........-. 85 76 
Lowest total sum earned by a deep-bait fisherman........- oases eo 


Hired men earned from $32.16 to $40.73 besides board and lodging. 


—_— ae — 


APPENDIX D. 


————— 


DEEP-SEA RESEARCH. 


255 


XII.—REPORT ON THE NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 
1878, 


By Pror. G. O. SARs.* 


HAMMERFEST, July 10, 1878. 

Mr. Epiror: As has already been announced in the plan of the ex- 
pedition heretofore published in your paper, Hammerfest will be our 
chief station during the present year. At this place the expedition is 
supplied with coal and other necessities for its various cruises into the 
Arctic Ocean. Three such cruises are mentioned in the plan: one 
toward the east, one toward the west, and one toward the north. ‘The 
first of these, which principally concerned the so-called East Sea (Osthav) 
has now been completed, and I will improve the time while we are lying 
here at Hammerfest equipping ourselves for our second cruise toward the 
west, to make good my promise and send your paper something about 
the expedition and about what. it has accomplished so far. 

The scientific investigations were begun, as you have already learned 
from telegrams, in the West-fjord, where we chose a point a considera- 
ble distance up the fjord about directly opposite Tran-isle. The West- 
fjord here has, according to previous soundings, its greatest depth, 
namely, 350 fathoms. <A series of careful observations of the tempera- 
ture were made in this place, whereby the remarkable fact heretofore 
observed farther out in the sea, namely, that ata certain depth (here 
only 40 fathoms) can be found a temperature considerably lower than 
that found in both lower and higher water-strata, could be established 
with perfect certainty by the use of instruments improved in many 
important respects. A cast of the dredge was also made in this place, 
whereby various curiosities were brought up from the deep. The 
weather was here, as on our whole cruise, brilliant, and we most thor- 
oughly appreciated the summer breezes, well knowing that we before 
very long should have to exchange this beautiful sunshine for the rough 
climate of the Arctic Ocean. In Tromsé, where we stopped only a few 
hours, we took on board a pilot who is to accompany us on our cruises 
this summer. He is an experienced Arctic seaman who has spent no 
less than thirty-five summers in the Arctic seas about Spitzbergen, Jan 
Mayen, and Nova Zembla, hunting seal and walrus. He has made the 


* Translated by Prof. R. B. Anderson of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., 
from a series of letters to ““Dagbladet” by Prof. G. O. Sars. 
17 ¥F 207 


258 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


impression of being a man of rare reliability and intelligence, and will 
doubtless prove a great help to the expedition, especially when we come 
to Spitzbergen, where he seems to be nearly as well acquainted as at his 
birth-place, Tromso. 

Before we reached Hammerfest we visited the Alten-fjord, where ex- 
plorations were made at two points. Here, too, we found an intermedi- 
ate minimum of temperature, though not before reaching the depth of 
100 fathoms. ‘The fauna of the sea-bottom showed, as might be expected, 
a more marked Arctic character than in the West-fjord, where it still 
was perfectly Atlantic. - 

Jn Hammerfest, where we arrived on Saturday the 22d of June, early 
in the morning, the members of the expedition were most cordially re- 
ceived by the city authorities, and the two days we spent here afforded 
us ample evidence of the rare hospitality and kindness for which this 
most northern town of our mundane sphere is famous. 

On Monday night, the 24th of June, we weighed anchor and directed 
our course to the north and east in the usual steamship route. On our 
way we examined two of the large Finmark-fjords, namely, Porsanger- 
fjord and Tana-fjord. In both a series of careful observations of the 
temperature were taken, which did not, however, show any such inter- 
mediate minimum as was found in the West-fjord and Alten-fjord, un- 
doubtedly on account of the greater shallowness of the water. The 
fauna was likewise examined, both with the dredge and the trawl-net, 
whereby its genuine Arctic character could be established. Among the 
hauls made here it is necessary to make special mention of the one 
made in the Tana-fjord with the beam-trawl, under the supervision of 
Captain Grieg. <A richer haul we zoologists have hitherto scarcely seen. 
The trawl-net was brought up containing more than two barrels of loose 
mud, out of which protruded large beautiful sea-anemones and varie- 
gated star-fishes, and wherein we saw tumbling about a number of fishes 
(sea-perch, flounder, and skate). We were here thoroughly convinced 
of the superiority of the beam-trawl over the common dredge, espe- 
cially after we had made various important improvements, not only in the 
net but also in reference to the arrangement of the weights which are 
to hold the runners in the right position against the bottom. But the 
instrument being very large, it is also difficult to manage, and hence it 
can as a rule be used only in calm weather, and in a comparatively 
smooth sea. We have since had occasion to test it with excellent suc- 
cess in the open sea, and desire all the more to make use of it here- 
after, since it has been found that even the most active animals and 
fishes can be secured in this manner. 

In fine, calm, bright weather we doubled the barren and exposed coast 
of East Finmark and arrived during the night on June 25th at Vardé 
Isle, where we remained during the following day to complete our 
equipment and to determine more accurately the geographical position 
of this point. Early on the morning of the 27th of June, we weighed 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, 259 


anchor and turned the prow to the east for our first ocean cruise. The 
fair weather still continued for some time, so that we dredged with ex- 
cellent results on the same day at a distance of about forty miles from 
the coast, where the water was found to be 148 fathoms deep. But the 
rapidly falling barometer warned us to look out for drizzly weather, 
which was not long in coming. Toward evening it began to blow from 
the west, and during the night we had a perfect gale with chopping sea, 
which made our ship roll in a most disagreeable manner, so that it 
finally was found expedient to lay the stem of the vessel against the 
waves and thus await a change in the weather, a method of working 
the ship with which we had become only too familiar on our first ex- 
pedition. This state of things continued not only during the remaining 
portion of the night, but also all of the next day, and while it lasted no 
kind of investigations could be thought of. Under these circumstances 
time naturally hung heavily on our hands, and we kept looking anx- 
iously at the barometer to see whether no change might be expected. 
But the barometer appeared very capricious. Now it would rise a little 
and make our hopes rise correspondingly, then it fell again without 
having advanced more than a few millimetres. The following day the 
weather had cleared up a little, but a pretty stiff breeze was still blow- 
ing, and it was so damp and cold that we fairly dreaded the idea of go- 
ing on deck. Meanwhile we had been able to throw the lead early in 
the morning and take a series of observations of the temperature, 
whereby it became evident that we had already advanced within the cold 
area. Having thus found the eastern boundary line between the Polar 
and the Atlantic currents, and the manner in which they pass into each 
other having been more carefully examined, we stopped here, and after 
having undertaken a dredging we continued northward for the purpose 
of further tracing the above-mentioned boundary line. The weather 
continued drizzling and cold, very much like winter, with interchanging 
showers of snow and sleet, and a temperature that fell even down to 
33.8° Fahr. Thus it was not to be wondered at that we who came from 
summer warmth of more than 68° Fahr., found it disagreeable, and, 
though being in the midst of summer, we were obliged to put on winter 
clothes from head to foot whenever we desired to breathe fresh air upon 
deck. During the four following days the Polar current’s boundary 
was followed accurately. In so doing we first sailed to the north, then 
to the west in the direction toward Beeren Island. On the way we also 
undertook a couple of dredgings, whereby we gained a tolerably correct 
idea of the character of the fauna, though the weather threw many ob- 
Stacles in the way of these investigations. On the evening of the 3d 
of July we saw the first ice, which appeared in the form of quite small 
detached blocks, of the most fantastic shapes, but later in the form of 
connected floes. Birds increased in number and kind as we advanced. 
Auks, fulmars ,and gulls flocked everywhere, and in the horizon were seen 
a number of high columns of smoke as from a fleet of steamships. They 


260 REPORT OF. COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


were whales that were gormandizing on the abundant fauna of the Polar 
waters, and which as we drew nearer exhibited their broad, black backs 
above the surface of the water, after having emptied their lungs with a 
rumbling noise and whirled the water up in the form of a high column 
of smoke. <A glittering illumination spread itself over the sea filled with 
floating blocks of ice. Late in the evening a shout came that land was 
in sight ahead. It was our experienced pilot, whose keen eye first had 
discovered Beeren Isle through the fog. The rest of us in vain strained 
our eyes; all we could see was fog and the sea. Tired of looking, and 
knowing from the chart that we still were a considerable distance from 
land, the majority of us resolved to retire to our berths in order to 
enjoy with quickened energies on the following morning the sight of 
Beeren Isle and if possible undertake to land. 

Our waking the folowing morning gave us the agreeable sensation of 
a perfectly smooth sea. We had not known the ship to lie so quietly 
for a long time, and as the serew only now and then throbbed, we soon 
understood that we were near the shore. We were therefore not slow 
in donning our clothes and springing upon deck in order to get a more 
perfect idea of the situation. At about the distance of a quarter of 
a mile from the ship lay the barren rocks of Beeren Island before us, 
partly shrouded in fog. We were in the lee of the land, east of its most 
southern point, doubtless the most picturesque part of the island. A 
high promontory, with sharp weather-beaten crests, extends precipi- 
tously into the sea, and in front of it rises again, in the form of a beau- 
tiful obelisk, a high, wonderfully shaped, isolated rock, called the Stappe. 
When the fog rose a little from the land in the rear of these rocks, 
extensive connected masses of snow were seen, interchanging with steep 
precipices and barren, gravelly flats. Further toward the north lifted 
itself out of the fog Mount Misery, which is 1,700 feet high, and around 
the summit of which winds a peculiar precipice, looking like an artificial 
breastwork. Between this highest mountain on Beeren Island and the 
south point lies the so-called South Harbor, where we intended to land, 
im order to put ashore the mail entrusted to us for the Dutch expedition, 
which, on its passage to the east, had determined to touch the same 
point somewhat later. According to our instructions the place was sit- 
uated near the so-called Mayor’s Gate (Borgermesterport), a wide gate- 
way in the rock, through which in calm weather one can row a large 
yawl. By the aid of our glass we soon discovered the portal, minutely 
described and represented by an illustration in the Report of Norden- 
skjold’s Expedition, in 1863, and therefore, when we had approached as 
near to it as we dared with the steamship, we dropped our anchor, where- 
upon two yawls were put into the sea and furnished with men. 

We rowed without aecident through the famous and grand Mayor’s 
Gate, which was guarded by a multitude of noisy gulls, and landed on 
a gently sloping, sandy beach, where we, without the slightest difficulty, 
and perfectly dry-shod, planted our feet on the ground of Beeren Island. 


a 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, 261 


Directly to the right of the Mayor’s Gate, and a few paces up from the 
harbor, lies an old deserted Russian hut, the point indicated to us by the 
Hollanders. The roof was partially dilapidated, and here and there the 
floor was torn up and drenched with snow-water; but the walls were 
well timbered and had resisted the destructive influences of the wintry 
blasts and of the snow tolerably well. The plain and simple interior 
arrangement, a couple of bedsteads and a rudely-fashioned table, gave 
us an insight into the dreary existence which its occupants must have 
experienced during the long wintry nights, while the storm howled with- 
out and the snow gathered in towers round about the hut. That time 
had hung heavily on their hands was also sufficiently evident from the 
numerous inscriptions and carvings which covered the walls and bed- 
steads. With an industry and exactness that partially made up for the 
lack of artistic talent, we here found carved with a jack-knife ships of 
all sizes and descriptions, the cordage and yards represented as mi- 
nutely and accurately as possible. In the rear of the house lay parts of 
the skeleton of a polar bear, which undoubtedly had been altogether 
too impertinent to escape with his life. The time required to dispose of 
the mail was occupied by a part of us for the purpose of taking a short 
stroll into the interior part of the island. Nothing more melancholy 
and dreary can be imagined. Even Jan Mayen seemed to us a garden 
in comparison with these barren flats, strewn with nothing but pebbles 
and gravel. : 

After having taken this invigorating exercise on shore, we returned 
to our ship, where we weighed anchor and proceeded westward, in order 
to determine more accurately the slope toward the great deep outside. 
At the distance of about forty miles from the island we cast the dredge 
at a depth of 35 fathoms. The bottom here consisting chiefly of coarse 
sand, the harvest was comparatively insignificant. On the other hand, 
the surface of the water was here filled with pelagic animals; our sur- 
face-net especially yielded enormous quantities of peteropods (Limacina 
arctica), and many of the specimens were of quite tnusual size. The 
surface temperature was, aS might be expected from the proximity of 
the ice, very low, and the sea-water was filled with a peculiar sea-slime, 
which on our former expedition had been observed under similar circum- 
stances. But at a somewhat greater distance from the island a very 
sudden change took place, the temperature of the water rising at once 
to from 35.6° to 41° Fahr., while the color changed from a greenish to 
a dark-blue hue. It was the warm water of the Atlantic that here met 
the Polar water, without being able, however, as it seems, ever to get 
over to the coasts of Beeren Island, where the Polar current seems to 
be as dominating as at Jan Mayen. At somewhat long intervals the 
lead was thrown as we progressed outward, showing first 115, then 457, 
and then 750 fathoms, without the discovery of any abrupt descent any- 
where. At the last-named station a complete series of observations 
of the temperature were taken, which showed 32° Fahr. to be situated 


262 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


much deeper than we had expected to find it so far north, namely, be- 
tween 400 and 500 fathoms. A dredging undertaken at the same place 
gave comparatively little return, the bed of the sea being so soft that 
the mouth of the dredge undoubtedly became filled up too soon with 
the tough clay, without being able to catch anything after being so filled. 

We now bent our course to the south, then again to the west, in order 
to find the depth of 1,000 fathoms. This having been accomplished, we 
turned our prow toward Norway, making soundings at suitable intervals, 
in order to determine the ascent at this place from the deep. The ascent 
was here much more abrupt than further north, it being between 500 
and 300 fathoms, which seems to indicate the existence of a real preei- 
pice between Beeren Island and Norway. We could not, however, de- 
vote much time now to establishing the details in regard to this preci- 
pice, our coal and water supply diminishing to an alarming extent, and 
we having still to examine the fauna at this point. Two hauls with 
the beam-trawl at different depths gave exceedingly interesting zoolog- 
ical results. In the first haul, which was made at a depth of 447 fathoms, 
with a temperature at the bottom of 33.08° Fahr. we got, among other 
things, a specimen of a species of halibut (Hippoglossus pinguis) more 
than a foot long. This species of halibut is not known on our coasts, 
and belongs to the far north. In the second haul, which was made in 
a depth of 190 fathoms, we also secured some fish of the Cottoid family, 
among which there apparently was a new variety, and besides we got 
an extraordinary amount of lower animals, which gave to us, as zoolo- 
gists, abundance of work, even long after we arrived at Hammerfest. 

We anchored in the harbor of this town on Monday noon, July 8, upon 
the whole well satisfied with the results of our first cruise into the Polar 
Sea, and with the brightest expectations in regard to the two cruises 
yet to be made before the expedition is completed. 


if; 
HAMMERFEST, July 27, 1878. 

Mr. Eprror: We are again lying here well moored in Hammerfest’s 
Harbor, after having once more plowed the waves of the Polar Sea, and 
I shall avail myself of the opportunity, while we are resting after our 
work done, of sending you some brief account of our last eruise, con- 
tinuing my story where I left off in my previous letter. 

After stopping about four days in Hammerfest, which was necessary 
for taking on board coal and other prerequisites, we weighed anchor on 
the morning of the 13th of July, and proceeded northward through the 
South Island Sound in beautiful, calm sunshine. On the so-called Bond 
Island Ridge, one of the most celebrated fishing-grounds in this locality, 
we stopped for a short time, whereupon our fishing-tackle was brought 
out. Ina short time we hauled up several fine-looking codfish, which 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, 263 


differed in no material respect from the so-called winter codfish (Skreid), 
and in size searcely were inferior to the common Lofoden codfish. The 
contents of the stomach were examined carefully, both in these and. 
in other species of fish caught at the same time. It appeared as usual 
that the codfish had not been very delicate in the choice of his food, 
which was very mixed, and consisted partly of crabs and mollusks, and 
partly of small fishes. In one of the stomachs we found a wolf-fish a 
span long, and this was yet so fresh that it could be preserved as a speci- 
men in spirits. The coal-fish seemed to have been far more delicate in 
the choice of his food, which consisted exclusively of cuttle-fish, and, 
upon further examination, this proved to belong to the well-known 
Arctic form, the Gonatus amenus, of which there heretofore has been 
found only one specimen on our coasts. This last discovery was of no 
little interest to us, partly because by it the appearance of this cuttle- 
fish in large numbers on the coasts of Finmark could be established, 
partly because the remarkable change in coal-fish fishing that recently 
has been observed in these regions could be naturally explained by the 
very appearance of this peculiar food. 

A westward course was now taken and the jagged mountains of South 
Island soon disappeared from above the borizon, while we still had a 
glimpse of the loftier, snow-covered plateaus of Seiland. An indistinct 
land-line was yet seen for a short time in the southeast; then all van- 
ished, and we had nothing but the boundless sea on all sides around 
us in the horizon. On the same day soundings and a series of observa- 
tions of temperature at a depth of 95 fathoms were taken. At twelve 
o’clock in the night the lead was thrown out again, indicating 630 fath- 
oms, and on the evening of the following day we found 1,110 fathoms, 
whence it appeared that the descent toward the deep here was tolerably 
gradual. At the last-named place we stopped, and the trawl went to the 
bottom, ‘accompanied by our best wishes. In the morning the appara- 
tus was hauled in good condition on deck, and it brought up from the 
deep a draught larger than any we ever had gotten before. In the net 
were found, in addition to a great variety of lower animals, no less than 
five specimens of a rare Arctic fish (Zycodes), one of which measured 
more than a foot in length and seemed to be full-grown. The excellent 
qualities of the trawl were still further demonstrated by this successful 
haul, and for the time being the dredge heretofore used fell wholly into 
discredit with us. As we progressed westward the air steadily grew 
colder. During a part of the time we had been surrounded by dense 
fog, and on the folowing morning the weather was so disagreeable that 
we had to put on a complete suit of winter clothing when we went on 
deck. We sounded in the forenoon, finding 1,200 fathoms, and took with 
great care a series of observations of the temperature, finding 52° Tahr. 
at only 30 fathoms’ depth. Here we sent the trawl down again; but al- 
though the greatest precautions were taken both in letting it down and 
in the further maneuvering of it, it soon appeared, upon the hauling in 


264 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of the trawl, by the insignificant stretching of the accumulator, that the 
apparatus for some reason or other had not followed the bottom. In 
spite of this fact the net had caught in the stratum of water nearest 
above the sea-bed two specimens of the sea fauna of such extraordinary 
interest that they abundantly repaid the trouble and care we had given 
to this haul. One of these was a fish, the other a cuttle-fish, both alike 
remarkable and interesting. The fish was of a brilliant scarlet color, 
with extraordinarily far-projecting, thread-like ventral fins, and belonged 
to a hitherto entirely unknown genus and species of the cod family.* 
The cuttle-fish likewise proved to be a new species of the remarkable 
and hitherto but little known genus Cirroteuthis. Of both a drawing 
in colors was immediately made, which will be of valuable service in the 
preparation of the final report. 

On the following morning we were surrounded on all sides by a dense 
fog so that we could see scarcely more than a few fathoms from the ship. 
The wind changed successively from north to northwest and west, which, 
in connection with the position of the barometer, indicated that we were 
just passing the north side of a tornado and that we in all probability 
soon would be outside of its range. By the heavy swell setting in from 
the southwest we were also informed with sufficient certainty that there 
was at no very great distance from us to the south a storm, and that, 
too, one of the very worst sort, so that we deemed ourselves fortunate 
that we on this oceasion found ourselves so far into the Arctic Sea. 
Toward evening the sea became remarkably smooth, and an icy cold 
filled the atmosphere. In the west was seen toward the horizon a pe- 
culiarly clear glimmering in the air, which we already, from our former 
cruise, recognized as being ice-blink. At 94 o’clock ‘“ Drift-ice ahead!” 
was shouted, and a piece of ice, much worn and perforated by the sea, 
came slowly floating past our ship, the first messenger from the Green- 
land ice. This was followed by still another, then by more and more, 
and finally the sea was filled on all sides with blocks of all possible 
sizes and of the most fantastic forms. Colossal mushrooms with hollow, 
beautiful, bright, green stems; swans, with far-extended necks ; boats, 
with full crews; wonderfully jagged, pillars stooping or leaning in vari- 
ous directions; flats sloping irregularly and half hid in the sea, crowded 
one on the top of the other—in short, the most extravagant forms passed 
in review before our ship as we progressed. Far out in the horizon was 
discovered a snow-white irregularly winding line, from which single blu- 
ish tops reared their heads, and over which a clear ice-blink, not unlike 
a sort of aurora borealis, appeared. Here the ice seemed to be more 
continuous, and our experienced pilot, who was sent aloft in order that 
he might be able to form a more accurate estimate of the situation, 
advised us that further progress westward was impossible. We had 
reached the Greenland ice, and although this had taken place somewhat 
sooner than calculated in our plan, we had to submit to the inevitable 


*Rhodichthys regina Collett. —T. H. B. 


NORWEG{AN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, 265 


and change our course, steering northward and following the apparent 
direction of the edge of the ice. The following night we reached the 
northernmost station, where we cast the lead, finding a depth of about 
2,000 fathoms, the greatest depth we had yet observed. We now turned 
our course to the east, casting the lead at suitable intervals, and usually 
taking a series of careful observations of the temperature in order to 
determine accurately the curve which indicates the modifications of the 
temperature at various depths. Thereby we established, among other 
things at various stations, the interesting fact that at a certain depth 
below the surface there is found a minimum of temperature, then again 
a more or less distinet rise of the temperature, below which the usual 
gradual decrease toward the bottom was observed. 

The following day the trawl was sent down to a depth of 1,206 fath- 
oms, and although it was evident that it had gone down on the wrong 
side, that is, with the beam down and the runners up, it still contained 
several interesting objects from the deep, and among them two speci- 
mens of the same Arctic fish (Zycodes) which we had caught betore at 
a somewhat less depth. Jn the night we sounded again, finding a depth 
of 1,500 fathoms, and the series of observations of temperature taken 
showed that we were already outside of the actual limits of the Polar 
current, as we did not find 32° Fahr. before reaching the considerable 
depth of 400 fathoms. 

The tornado we had touched recently had now evidently passed us 
entirely. On the following day the weather was calm, and the sea was 
so smooth that even microscopic examinations of the peculiar sea-slime, 
which on this expedition was observed in various places in the ocean, 
could be made successfully. We were now rapidly approaching a point 
where the depth, according to a sounding made during the voyage of 

yaimard, was recorded as being 260 fathoms, and which, therefore, was 
to constitute the extreme points of the bank extending between Beeren 
Island and Spitzbergen. It being of importance to investigate more 
accurately the ascent from the deep in this place, the lead was cast at 
short intervals, but the depth did not decrease in any marked degree. 
Exactly at the point indicated on the chart where Gaimard’s lead had 
been cast, we still found a depth of 1,060 fathoms, which presupposes a 
considerable error in the chart of the soundings heretofore made at this 
place. Not before we had made three or four soundings further to the 
east did we find the real ascent to the bank, and thus we had an oppor- 
tunity of making here a not unimportant correction in the sketching of 
the depth-curves. At a depth of 650 fathoms, that is, on the very slope 
of the bank, the trawl was let down and brought up again late in the 
forenoon of the following day to be placed in good order on the deck. 
It contained about three barrels of mud. An exceedingly plentiful 
harvest of zoological specimens was secured, and, as usual, there was 
found, in addition to lower animals, a considerable number of fishes in 
the net, among which were several of great importance. Upon the bank 


266 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the trawl was sent to the bottom again at a depth of 180 fathoms, but 
the net was here torn to pieces by the sharp stones, so that we secured 
only what had accidentally been caught in the meshes, chiefly hydroids 
and polyzoa. The temperature both of the atmosphere and of the water 
had meanwhile sunk to so considerable an extent that it was evident 
that we had again come within the boundaries of the Polar current. We 
therefore regarded it as our duty to proceed a little further to the east, 
in order to investigate the physical and biological conditions in this 
stretch of the ocean, which for the most part of the year is filled with 
ice. We cast the lead at short intervals, finding a gradually ascending 
slope until we reached a depth of only 21 fathoms. At the surface the 
water was perfectly ice-cold, that is, 31.649 Fahr., the lowest tempera- 
ture we had observed at the surface. It being presumable that the 
bottom here was stony, the dredge was sent down instead of the trawl, 
and it brought up from the bottom a considerable amount of coarse sand 
mixed with stone. Between and on these stones, and entirely covering 
the tangles, were found enormous masses of hydroids, many of which 
were very beautiful. Whole forests of these must cover the bottom in 
this locality. We did not find it suitable to our present purpose to make 
investigations further to the east, and so we turned our prow toward 
Beeren Island, which appeared in sight on the same day about noon. 
First rose above the horizon the peculiarly formed Mount Misery, and 
after that a long, low stretch of land on the north side of the mountain. 
it seemed to be endless, and afterwards proved to be the flat and undi- 
versified northernmost portion of the island. A stiff breeze from the 
north had meanwhile arisen, which increased as we approached the land, 
and it soon made the waves so tumultuous that we were obliged to give 
up all thoughts of landing at this time. Off Mount Misery the wind 
was so violent that the sea was whipped into mist, and the ship careened 
fearfully. We hugged the shore so closely that we were in sight of 
South Harbor and the Russian hut, in order, if possible, to find out 
whether the mail left here by us for the Dutch expedition had been 
received. By the aid of our glasses we soon spied the signal left by us, 
and the flag had been removed, which we of course regarded as a sign 
that the expedition had been there. A letter just received here, proba- 
bly brought by some fisherman, assures us that everything had been 
found in good order. The letter is from the chief of the expedition. 
Having lain quiet for some time off the south side of the island await- 
ing if possible a favorable change in the weather, all sails were hoisted 
at ten o’clock in the evening, the engine was set to work at its utmost 
capacity, and we turned the stem of the ship southward toward Norway. 
So long as we still were in the lee of Beeren Island we had compara- 
tively smooth water and a moderate breeze; but as we got further out 
to sea the wind increased and the waves waxed higher, and finally there 
blew a perfect gale from the north, the waves dashed high, and we sped 
forward at the rate of sixty-five miles per watch. It was the first time 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, 267 


that we were obliged to scud under bare poles on account of a real gale, 
and although the ship frequently careened and pitched badly, making 
boxes and other things tumble about in wild confusion, we still had 
abundant occasion to praise the excellent qualities of the Voring and 
pronounce her an excellent sea-going vessel. In spite of the fact that 
the sea was exceedingly chopping and the surges very bad, the latter 
rushing against the ship from all quarters, the vessel acted splendidly 
and did not ship a single sea. 

We hastened southward with impetuous speed, and at the expiration of 
less than twenty-four hours we had made the four hundred miles from 
Beeren Island to Norway. The first landfall was Ing Island, one of the 
outmost of the islands of Finmark. A large point of it was seen 
through the fog and was immediately recognized by our experienced 
pilot. 

Thenceforth we had the clearly marked steamship route before us, and 
we anchored in the Hammerfest Harbor all safe and sound early in the 
morning of the 25th of July. 


JOBE 


ON BOARD THE VORING, September 1, 1878. 

Mr. Epiror: The scientific work of the expedition is at length com- 
pleted, and with the consciousness of having improved the time to the 
best of our ability, and completely carried out the plan arranged for the 
expedition, we are now taking a good rest after our exertions, while the 
Voring is leisurely carrying us southward along the usual steamship 
route. It is now something more than a month since my last letter, 
and during this time we have seen so much and had such varied expe- 
riences, that I dare not at this time undertake to give you an exhaustive 
account of our whole cruise. For the present you will therefore have 
to content yourself with only a part. The continuation will follow as 
soon as opportunity offers itself. 

After a sojourn of four days at Hammerfest, which was necessary for 
completing our supply of coal and water and of other provisions, we 
weighed anchor on Monday, the 29th of July, at 64 o’clock in the afternoon, 
and after having fired four guns as a farewell salute to the city, we 
steamed northward along the usual route, out the Sér6 Sound past the 
Ship’s Holm out into the ocean. The weather was calm and warm, and the 
sea was so smooth that scarcely any motion of the ship was discernible. 
But the atmosphere toward the north was quite hazy, so that the sun, 
which, during the whole day, had been shining from a perfectly pure and 
clear sky, later in the evening hid itself behind a heavy bank of fog, and so 
did not afford us an opportunity of observing the partial eclipse which 
was just then taking place. The following morning we had already 
advanced a considerable distance into the ocean, and the fog, so com- 


268 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


mon here, soon wrapped us in its clammy, cold atmosphere, and com- 
pelled us to put on again our traveling clothes, which for some time had 
been stowed away. In the afternoon the trawl was let down to a depth 
of 223 fathoms, and in the evening it was brought on deck in good con- 
dition, containing a large amount of mud, in which were found several 
siliceous sponges. As usual we also foun] several fishes in the net: a 
rare flounder, a specimen of a Greenland species of Aspidophorus, and 
a small cottoid. Besides, the mud contained numerous lower animals, 
with the examination of which we zoologists were occupied until late 
the following day. 

We were now rapidly approaching Beeren Island; but the fog was so 
dense that no land could be seen before we had come within a few miles 
of it, when the summit of Mount Misery appeared among the masses of 
fog. Meanwhile the wind had begun to freshen, and a pretty decided 
swell set in from the west, which made the prospects for landing at the 
point visited by us before but little promising. Still, we continued our 
course northward along the east side of the island, keeping as near to 
the coast as we thought advisable. Now and then broken parts of the 
somber island, by this time well known to us, became visible, but were 
again wrapped in the fog which gradually accumulated into threatening 
driving cloud-banks. The rapid falling of the barometer also warned us 
that a storm was brewing, and as we would in that case be unable to 
accomplish anything out at sea, we agreed not to proceed any further 
for the time being, but to worry the storm out in the lee of the island. 
Nor was it long before the storm broke and began to creak in our cord- 
age, but we had the land to the windward and therefore lay perfectly 
at ease, tacking back and forth. 

The following day brought but little change in the situation. The fog 
came hurrying over Beeren Island in dense masses which entirely envel- 
oped the summit of Mount Misery, and left only the gloomy strand with 
its steep weather-beaten precipices in sight. Toward evening the wind 
settled somewhat, and finding ourselves just then off the flat northeast- 
ern side of the island, where, according to former reports, coal-beds and 
rich fossil-bearing strata of rock were to be found, we deemed it proper 
to attempt a landing for the purpose of making careful explorations and 
gathering specimens of various kinds. Having approached the coast as 
near as we could with our ship, the boats were let down and hastily filled 
with a crew of the younger members of the expedition; they were fur- 
nished with guns, botanical boxes, and other articles of equipment suita- 
ble to the occasion. It was then eleven o’clock in the evening. But the 
night is here at this time scarcely darker than the day, and there was 
nothing to hinder our postponing our sleep until the following morning. 

We steered into a little bay on the coast which we had observed from 
the ship, and where the breakers were considerably less formidable than 
elsewhere, and got the boats safely drawn on shore and made fast on a 
strand evenly sloping and covered with boulders and driftwood, where 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, 269 


a small stream, the so-called English River, came trickling down. ‘The 
place was well chosen, and it appeared on our later investigations that 
it would not have been possible at any other point to get over the preci- 
pice, which from the flat land within descends into the sea. Here the 
ascent was not difficult, and we soon found ourselves upon the plateau, 
whence endless flat and barren wastes strewn with boulders, with here 
and there a little lake, stretched as far as the eye could see. Some rare 
birds, among which a broad-tailed Lestris pomerina, resembling a bird of 
prey, soon attracted our attention, and three fine specimens were brought 
down by our guns. We followed the coast northward as far as seven 
miles from the English River, now making excursions into the interior 
of the island, now approaching the coast, whence we got splendid views 
of a couple of wonderfully shaped rocks standing isolated in the sea, 
the English Block and the North Loaf, where myriads of sea-birds had 
chosen their places for nesting. But now came the fog, dark, cold, and 
wet, driving upon as from the interior of the island, and it soon became 
so dense that it robbed us of every outlook, wherefore we concluded that 
it was about time for us to make an end to further progress and begin 
our march back. On the way we had the good fortune to stumble upon 
some fossil-bearing rocks, which here cropped out, and were so loose and 
crushed by the ice that we found no difficulty in making a large collec- 
tion. Some slate-formed layers of coal were also found, of which speci- 
mens were gathered. 

After a pretty exhausting march through the dense fog, over the sharp 
stones, we finally reached our landing-place at about four o’clock in the 
morning, whence we could, through the fog, barely catch a glimpse of 
the Voring, which, in the mean time, had anchored as near to the shore 
as possible. On board, the captain, with his usual thoughtfulness, kept 
in readiness for us a cup of steaming coffee, which tasted excellent after 
our wearisome excursion, and, together with a glass of good grog, gave 
our bodies the requisite amount of heat. 

Meanwhile, there was taking place near the stern of the ship a scene 
which kept us awake for several hours longer. A couple of the crew had 
gotten out the trolling-lines, and in an incredibly short time had brought 
on board some beautiful codfish. As soon as this became known all was 
life and activity among the crew, and all the trolling-lines that could be 
found on board were brought into service in a hurry. Several of the 
members of the expedition also took part in the fishing, and that with 
a zeal scarcely less intense than that of the crew. One splendid cod- 
fish after another was hauled in over the rail, and soon the deck was 
strewn with sprawling fishes, so that there was scarcely room to walk 
without stepping on them. About two hundred codfish were in the 
course of a few hours drawn up, which showed conclusively what a 
wealth of fish there must be around this island, in other respects so des- 
olate and inhospitable. At six o’clock in the morning we at length tum- 


270 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


‘ 
bled into our berths and soon fell asleep, and did not awake again before 
noon. 

We were still in the lee of the island, for a new storm had broken 
out, Which soon compelled our captain to weigh anchor and keep mov- 
ing, as before, back and forth along the island. In the evening the pros- 
pects were very dark and melancholy. The showers came down from 
Mount Misery howling and creaking through the cordage of the ship, 
and whipping the seainto foam. The swells of the sea had also increased 
considerably, and made the ship, as soon as we got ever so little further 
from the land, pitch and roll terribly, by which we could easily under- 
stand what rough weather there must be further out at sea. Mean- 
while, it was our intention at the first perceptible improvement in the 
weather to leave Beeren Island without delay, with which we by this 
time, to tell the honest truth, were thoroughly disgusted. 

The following morning we were already on our way northward. The 
wind had quieted considerably, the barometer had risen, and the atmos- 
phere had cleared. But the storm during the previous two days had 
thrown the ocean into so violent a commotion that our ship, having the 
seas on the beam, rolled with more violence than ever. Later in the day 
the sea quieted little by little, and a breeze from the north made it set- 
tle still more rapidly. When we had advanced to about midway be- 
tween Beeren Island and Spitzbergen we stopped, the trawl was sent 
down to a depth of 123 fathoms, and was hauled on board full of speci- 
mens of the fauna of the deep. Not less than twenty-eight fishes (the 
most of them small, it is true) were secured by this haul, besides a 
multitude of lower animals, among which were some of great interest. 
We now directed our course to the westward, in order to determine the 
descent of the Beeren Island Bank toward the deep outside. In three 
successive soundings we found down along the bank, first, 444 fathoms, 
then 795 fathoms, and, finally, 1,149 fathoms. At all these stations care- 
ful series of observations of the temperature were taken, both with the 
usual Casella-Miller thermometer and with the improved Negretti-Zam- 
bra, the result going to show that in this stretch of the sea there is found 
a considerably confused distribution of temperature in the deep. The 
course was again changed and directed northward to Spitzbergen. On 
the way the trawl was sent down on the declivity of the bank, but came 
up in disorder, the net, probably on account of the severe ground-swells, 
having been wound around the beam. 

The following day, toward noon, we got the first landfall of Spitz- 
bergen, but the land was for the most part covered with fog, so that we 
only here and there caught glimpses of immense masses of ice and 
snow that shimmered through the fog. We sent a dredge down on the 
bank, where the water was only 70 fathoms deep. But we were unsuc- 
cessful again, the sack of the dredge being so torn asunder by the sharp 
stones on the bottom that only what accidentally stuck fast to it and 
to the tangles could be secured. In the evening of the same day we 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, (i 


doubled South Cape, with the low island off it, and a pretty stiff north 
wind having meanwhile set in, we steered toward the southeast point 
in order to get in lee of the land, and at the same time get, to begin with, 
some idea of Spitzbergen’s grand natural aspects. From a broad yal- 
ley, completely filled with snow, a mighty glacier extends far into the 
sea, having abrupt edges and floes at the base.. Above it rises a beau- 
tiful, dome-like mountain, which bears the name Keilhan’s Mountain, 
so called after our celebrated countryman Keilhan, whose explorations 
in these northern regions form the basis of geological knowledge of this 
Arctie land. East of Keilhan’s Mountain we got a glimpse of a consid- 
erable portion of the east coast facing Storfjord. It lay illuminated by 
the clear light of the midnight sun, while the west side was enveloped 
in dense masses of fog. Having made some physical and zoological in- 
vestigations right by the foot of the glacier, we set our course to the 
southeast out into Storfjord, until we found a depth of 150 fathoms, 
where a careful series of observations of temperature was taken, and a 
dredging made, which gave us a tolerably complete idea of the fauna of 
the sea-bed. The stem was then turned to the west again in order to 
complete our first passage between Spitzbergen and the Greenland ice. 

The same day we reached the ledge, where a couple of Greenland 
shark-hunters were seen lying atanchor. The lead here showed a pretty 
abrupt descent toward the deep, and at a comparatively short distance 
from the edge we had a depth of 750 fathoms. Here the trawl was sent 
down, but it was brought up with the net completely torn asunder, which 
was the more to be regretted, since, from the animals still sticking fast 
in the meshes of the net, it could be seen that the fauna here must be 
extraordinarily plentiful. But the bottom was evidently here of such a 
nature that it would involve a great risk to make another haul, where- 
fore we proceeded westward, throwing the lead and taking careful ob- 
servations of the temperature at suitable intervals. 

On Thursday, the 8th of August, at noon, we were warned that ice 
was in sight. And it was found that to the north of us, at the horizon, 
appeared a white line of considerable length, from which blocks of ice 
came drifting with the current southward. But the sea being free from 
ice to the west, we continued our course in that direction. In the eve- 
ning we passed longitude 0° without our having met with any ice, 
wherefore the ice previously seen clearly must have been an isolated 
collection of drift-ice. In the night the trawl was sent down to a depth 
of 1,700 fathoms, and we awaited with great suspense the result of this 
haul, as we had never before tried the trawl at so great a depth. But, 
in hauling it up on the following morning, the rope suddenly snapped on 
account of the great weight, and the whole trawl, together with 2,000 
fathoms of rope, was lost. This was a misfortune greatly to be regretted, 
and for the time being it could not help depressing our spirits, not only 
because we had given much time and toil to the maneuvering, but also 
because we had sent the trawl down with great expectations. As mat- 


22 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ters now stood there was nothing else for us to do than to move on, and 
meanwhile see to getting a new trawl ready as soon as possible. As ice 
was now seen in the horizon in various directions, we did not deem it 
advisable to press further forward toward the west, and so we changed 
our course to the northeast, trying as far as practicable to follow the 
edge of the ice. The further north we came the more ice we saw, and at 
last we were surrounded on all sides, wherever we turned our eyes, with 
large and small floes of ice of the usual bizarre forms, but still with suffi- 
cient space between them to allow the ship to be maneuvered further in 
the above-mentioned direction, provided proper care was taken. At six 
o’clock in the evening we at last came out of the belt of drift-ice, and 
had a clear and open sea before us. The weather was brilliant during 
the whole time, the sun shone bright, and the sea between the ice-floes 
was as smooth as in a harbor. 

The following morning we had already advanced up to the next pas- 
sage, and when we had established a depth here of 1,640 fathoms, our 
course was directed to the east again toward Spitzbergen. In the eve- 
ning we sounded again, finding 1,333 fathoms, and an accurate series of 
observations of temperature was also taken by which it became evident 
that we had already gotten out of the Polar current, 32° F. not being 
found before we reached a depth of 400 fathoms. 

Meanwhile we had made a new trawl, with a new rope and other be- 
longings, and although the depth was considerably less than at the last 
station, it still was so great that a successful haul with this apparatus 
would be of great interest in a biological respect. Hopeful, we then let 
the trawl sink down, trusting that the new rope would stand the test 
this time. But when we came to haul the trawl in, the same unusual 
strain appeared on the accumulator as the previous time; its strings 
were stretched to thrice their length, although the trawl was raised from 
the bottom. On our former expeditions, further south, we had several 
times used the dredge at a similar depth, without anything like this 
happening, and hence we were in the greatest suspense to get at a sat- 
isfactory explanation of this yet inexplicable phenomenon. After much 
work and considerable anxiety in regard to our apparatus the trawl 
finally came up, and with it came the key to the problem. The net con- 
tained not only, as we had been wont to find, theretofore, the usual bi- 
loculina-clay, but, together with this, large, round stones, of which one 
was estimated to weigh about 500 pounds. The beam holding the run- 

_ners apart from each other was broken in two by the great weight, and 
it must be regarded as a wonder that the net, too, was not torn to pieces. 
The whole sea-bed here seenis to be literally covered with small and 
great stones lying loose in the mud, and they must, without any doubt, 
come from the icebergs that during the summer season constantly break 
loose from the glaciers on Spitzbergen and then melt here under the 
influence of the warm Atlantic current and unload the stones which by 
the action of the glacier are brought upon the ice. The further exam- 


eT a eee 


Fost ee 


w 


ALLE NAA, A le 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878. 273 


ination of the materials brought up brought to light several inter- 
esting forms of animals; nor were fishes wanting, three specimens of a 
beautifully banded species of Zyecodes being secured in good condition 
and preserved. 

Toward evening of the same day we caught Gone of land ahead. It 
was off the northwest coast of Spitzber gen, and proved to be the long 
and yet but little known Prince Charles’ Foreland, the sharp pinnacles of 
which first lifted their tall heads above the horizon. The following morn- 
ing the weather was fair and the sun shone clear and bright. We were 
then only about thirty miles distant from land, and the mountains on 
Prince Charles’ Foreland and around Icefjord lay perfectly clear with 
their mighty masses of snow and ice. At 125 fathoms’ depth we sent 
down a dredge which brought up a considerable portion of loose mud, 
containing the usual Arctic animal forms. 

It was determined that the next dredging was to take place at a depth 
of about 400 fathoms, or where the bank declined toward the deep. So 
we steered to the west, to the point where according to the previously 
sketched contour-lines we could expect this depth. Upon casting the 
lead we found, however, to our surprise, that the depth was only 97 
fathoms. We were here clearly on a sharp edge, and the soundings 
made immediately afterwards further out also showed an unusually 
steep descent toward the deep. At 416 fathoms the dredge went down 
and came up again with its net full of gravel and stones. On the tan- 
gles were hanging beautiful specimens of a sort of Medusa-head (As- 
trophyton) up to two feet in diameter, together with a few specimens of 
the same beautiful branched sponge which we on our first expedition 
had caught in the Umbellular region; and from among the gravel was 
separated a large number of other marine animals, some of which were 
of great interest. 

According to our plan two passages more were to be made between 
Spitzbergen and the Greenland ice further to the north. Meanwhile 
from the experience now gained it was thought sufficient to make one 
cruise to the north, and in this manner considerable time would be gained. 
The stem was therefore turned to the northwest and then to the north, 
in order if possible to determine the point where the Atlantic current 
meets the Polar current. Meanwhile the wind had begun blowing from 
the northwest, with a chopping sea, so that the ship on account of the 
constant consumption of coal lay a great deal too high in the water and 
consequently made extremely slow progress. But fortunately we were: 
sailing with the current, and were thus helped along a little more 
rapidly than we had expected. The weather remained unchanged all 
the next day, and the ship lay the whole time fighting the chopping sea, 
while the propeller was lifted by every heavy swell entirely out of the 
water, and beat about wildly in the air, without being able to push the 
vessel forward with its usual force. Still we did go forward, and on the 
following morning we observed the first floes of ice. We had then ad- 

18 F 


274 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


vanced tothe eighteenthdegree. The depth was 450 fathoms, and a series 
of careful observations of temperature was taken at this point, whereby 
it appeared, however, that we had not yet by far reached the real Polar 
current. As it could be judged by these observations that the northern 
limit of the Atlantic current must be looked for at a considerably higher 
latitude far in among the drifting ice, and as such a cruise was not 
really a part of our plan, we decided to stop here and turn our course 
toward the north side of Spitzbergen. Before this was done we made 
a cast with the trawl, which gave us ample specimens of the fauna of 
the sea-bed, among which were several specimens of rare fishes. On 
the surface of the water were found enormous quantities of the peculiar 
ocean slime, which we on our previous expedition had observed, and re- 
newed accurate microscopic examinations were made of the same at this 
time. Dense fog now came drifting in upon us from the ice, and at 
length so diminished our horizon that the ship seemed to float in the 
midst of a boundless sea of fog. But suddenly, as if by enchantment, we 
‘came in the afternoon out of the dense bank of fog into bright sunshine 
and had before us at the distance of about forty miles the jagged north- 
west coast of Spitzbergen, with the so-called seven Ice Mountains. 
Somewhat nearer the shore, at a depth of 250 fathoms, another haul was 
made with the trawl, which likewise gave a plentiful zoological harvest, 
which kept us zoologists busy for along time. Meanwhile nature claimed 
her dues, and weary from the day’s work we sought our berths, while 
the Voring directed her course toward the Norse Isles in order to anchor 
there and take in ballast and water. 

The following morning, the 15th of August, we lay well anchored at 
the place determined upon, and here awaited us the surprise of seeing 
ourselves in company with no less than four Norse fishermen, and 
among them the sloop so well known from Nordenskjold’s expedition, 
the Ice Bear. These vessels had already been lying here at anchor for 
some time while the crews were busily engaged in catching cod in the 
immediate vicinity. Fog still partially covered the surrounding mount- 
ains, so that we were enabled to orient ourselves only piece by piece as 
the fog rose. We were lying in a quite broad sound, in which the cur- 
rent rushed on with considerable rapidity, carrying with it blocks of ice 
of various forms and sizes. East of us we had the real so-called Norse 
Isle. West of us was White Island. Both were barren partially snow- 
clad masses of rock from which weather-beaten grayish heaps of stones 
extended down toward the strand. Directly north of us arose out of 
the fog a peculiarly formed mountain, the so-called Clowen Cliff, and 
further to the west we caught a glimpse now and then between the fog 
of the most northwestern of these islands, that is, the Amsterdam Island. 
South of us we had the northwest point of Spitzbergen’s mainland, 
which extended toward White Island. But the main channel toward 
Red Bay remained enveloped in a compact mass of fog out of which 
small and large masses of ice now and then came forth, sailing through 
the sound past our ship. 


— Se 


| 
. 


iii ee 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, 275 


In the afternoon a couple of the members of the expedition, accom- 
panied by our pilot, who was well acquainted in these regions, undertook 
an excursion in a boat southward toward the mainland. On our way 
we passed numerous large and small ice-floes, which came floating in 
from the constantly ice-filled sea east of the Norse Islands. Between 
the ice-blocks were swimming large flocks of auks and black guillemots, 
of which a few became an easy prey to our guns. At one point where 
the mountain sides seemed less steep, we landed to take a look at the 
island. After having passed a high mound of gravel and boulders, 
among which a few alpine plants eked out a miserable existence, we 
came into a valley of some width surrounded by steep mountains. The 
major part of the valley was occupied by a lake of fresh water. But 
the small amount of summer heat had been able to keep only a small 
strip nearest to the mound open, while all the rest was covered with 
eternal ice. The water was carefully examined by the aid of the appa- 
ratus which we had brought with us. The only living things we could 
discover were a couple of specimens of the larve of a species of gnat. 
The round stones strewn everywhere over the bottom of the lake were 
covered with a close, dirty, greenish crust, which seemed mainly to be 
formed from a species of alga, of which we took specimens. Over the 
water flew a pair of solitary gulls. Otherwise everything here seemed 
so barren and desolate that we were glad to get back to our boat again 
and pass on further. We rowed north to the other side of White Island 
and landed again on a flat holm (rocky island), which on account of its 
somewhat more greenish hue seemed to give promise of a thriftier vege- 
tation. On the sandy strand a few eider ducks tumbled about with their 
recently-hatched young, but quickly absented themselves when we ar- 
rived, plunging dexterously into the sea, one after the other, and they 
did not come to the surface again before they had gotten outside of the 
range of our guns. On White Island itself we gathered a few plants, 
and from its highest point we had a brilliant view of the mighty mount- 
ains and glaciers in the so-called Fair Harbor. We returned by way of 
the north side of White Island. But dense fog soon deprived us of every 
outlook, so that we only now and then caught a glimpse of the gray, 
weather-beaten strand of White Island and of one and another iceberg 
Sailing by us. At eight o’clock in the evening we were on board again, 
where we zoologists were engaged for some time longer in investigating 
the fauna of the sea-bed in the immediate vicinity of the ship. 

On the following morning the fog lifted a little so that we could see 
a little more of our somber surroundings. Through the sound came, 
as usual, one floe of ice after another drifting with the current. One of 
these, which was not observed in time, turned against our bow with so 
great force that it shook the whole ship as if we had struck bottom, and 
it warned us sufficiently that it would not have been a mere joke if our 
ship, at full speed, had collided with one of these compact masses 
almost as hard as stone. About noon the boats belonging to the fish- 


276 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES 


ermen came sailing in from the mouth of the sound, all loaded full to 
the gunwale. The fishing on the previous night had been quite unusu- 
ally abundant, and so there was here an unexpectedly convenient oppor- 
tunity for studying the Spitzbergen codfish and the conditions attending 
the catching of it in these waters. In order to form a more accurate 
estimate of the vast amount of fish caught here at this time we give the 
following reliable figures: On three boats, each having a crew of two 
men, were caught from 10 o’clock in the evening until 4.30 o’clock in the 
morning, eleven hundred and fifty-three codfish. After having dressed 
these fish and rested a short time, the same six men went out again at 
8 o’clock the same morning and came back at 1.30 o’clock with eleven 
hundred codfish. Each man had thus in the course of twelve hours 
hauled up three hundred and seventy-five fish, which makes one fish 
every other minute. 

At four o’clock we had taken in water and ballast, wherefore we 
weighed anchor and stood to the north again. According to our plan a 
few physical and biological observations were to be made on the banks 
directly north of the Norse Islands. But as it kept freshening with a 
breeze from the southwest as we came further out, and as the fog was 
very dense, we changed our plan and directed our course, instead, south- 
ward into the ‘“Smeerenberg.” The fog, which out at sea stood like a 
dense, dark wall, had as yet but partially gotten in here, and so we got 
during our passage through this channel, celebrated from former expe- 
ditions for its beautiful mountains and glaciers, a most excellent oppor- 
tunity of getting acquainted with the mighty and grand natural features 
of Spitzbergen. Views, each more picturesque and surprising than the 
preceding one, opened before our eyes as we advanced. Every valley 
and ravine is here filled with a mighty glacier, which with abrupt walls 
shoots out into the sea; and above the glaciers tower, further into the 
interior, beautiful mountains abounding in the boldest peaks and preci- 
pices. The straggling masses of fog drifting over the land from the sea, 
between which the evening sun shed its clear rays of light, spread over 
all a peculiar mystic halo which added, in a marked degree, to the bril- 
liancy and grandeur of this scene. In the innermost part of the bay 
unfolded itself before our eyes in the clear light of the evening sun a 
glorious panorama of mountain peaks, which, with the most fantastic, 
jagged forms, rose from a valley completely filled for many miles with 
snow, and from this extended a mighty glacier—the largest one we hith- 
erto had seen—out into the sea. From the greenish blue, shimmering, 
abrupt end of the glacier came one iceberg after the other, floating with 
the current out of the fjord. One of these, of mighty dimensions, 
crowned with glittering peaks, passed close by our ship and was imme- 
diately sketched. That our sketch-books did not rest during the remain- 
der of our passage through this interesting channel, is a matter of course. 
Every one of us that knew how to use a pencil, with some sort of practice, 
certainly has some view or other in his sketch-book from that glorious 


| 
| 
| 
| 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, Pa ({) 


sail, and they who were not bold enough to record on paper what they 
saw, will, at least, long preserve in their memories a vivid and lasting 
impression of the imposing and solemn scenery that here, for the first 
time, met our eyes. 

Through the so-called South Gate we once more directed our course 
to the sea, where we again met the dense threatening bank of fog, ac- 
companied by a fresh breeze from the southwest. As the weather looked 
anything but promising to the seaward we agreed to run into Magda- 
lene Bay, a bay entering Spitzbergen’s plateau south of Smeerenberg, 
and likewise renowned for its imposing scenery. It was then quite late 
in the evening, and the fog partially concealed the surrounding mount- 
ains. But between these show forth distinctly the mighty glaciers, 
the number of which is really extraordinary. In the innermost part of 
the bay, in the lee of a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a flat isth- 
mus, and surrounded on all sides by majestic mountains and glaciers, 
we cast anchor, and it being already late in the night the most of us 
sought our berths in order to be able on the following morning to study 
with refreshed strength the grand scenery of Spitzbergen, and to make 
some physical and biological observations at this interesting point. 

The morning brought calm weather, but the fog still enveloped to a 
great extent the mighty mountains which here on all sides lift their 
jagged peaks to the skies. The sea was everywhere filled with blocks 
of ice of all sizes and forms, from quite small fragments to respectable 
icebergs, and presented a peculiar greenish color on account of the con- 
stant melting of glacial ice. Enormous numbers of the Arctic pteropod - 
(Limacina) were seen moving about on the surface of the water, and 
among them were also a few specimens of the crystal-clear whale-food 
(Clione), and at some distance from the ship a pair of seals were seen 
inquisitively lifting their heads up to look at the ship. At this last sight 
our hunters grew lively. Rifles and ammunition were quickly brought 
out, and three specimens, two ringed seals and one young large cub, had 
to give their lives as a penalty for their curiosity. Later in the day some 
of the members of the expedition made a trip ashore to the peninsula 
lying before us, which seemed for ages to have been used as a burying- 
ground. Numerous graves bore ample testimony of the sufferings of 
men who, impelled by love of knowledge or by greed of gain, had been 
obliged to leave their bones here. But the graves did not really deserve 
the name. The soil consists chiefly of stone, so that it had been only 
possible to cover the rudely timbered coffins as well as circumstances 
would permit with stones. Now the most of them lay exposed to the 
air, open and broken asunder by the ice, possibly also interfered with by 
the polar bear and by other beasts, and in the coffins were found only 
scattered portions of the skeletons. As if the beasts of prey really had 
shown respect to the noblest part of the human body, the skulls were 
still, we found to our astonishment, in the most of these graves lying in 
their places. From the greatly varied forms of the craniums it could be 


278 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


determined that the deceased had belonged to various nationalities, and 
a skilled cranologist would undoubtedly be able to point out easily the 
Dutchman, the Russian, the Norseman, &c. From the highest point of 
the peninsula we had a splendid view of the south side of the bay. Gla- 
cier upon glacier here extended, one beyond the other, as far as the eye 
could see toward the ocean. The ice here really had the appearance of 
being the predominating part, and the visible mountain peaks seemed 
in fact to be nothing more than the boundary lines between the different 
glaciers. In some places the ice had even been crowded over the mount- 
ain peaks and formed peculiar masses suspended, as it were, in the air, 
and it seemed that they must every moment fall down from the precipi- 
tous mountain sides. In the east or at the head of the bay the first one 
of the glaciers shoots out into the sea. No less than four glaciers here 
gather themselves into a mighty mass of ice which constantly under the 
influence of the summer warmth sends out into the sea icebergs of all 
sizes and forms. One of these, which laid itself right athwart the bow 
of our ship, gave us considerable trouble when we were to weigh anchor, 
about eight o’clock in the evening. 

In order to investigate the temperature in this bay, constantly filled 
with ice, we slowly and with all possible care approached the head of 
the bay where the above-mentioned immense glacier shot out into the 
sea. Here, surrounded on all sides by floating masses of ice, we sent 
our lead and our thermometer to the bottom. The depth was 60 fathoms 
and the temperature at the bottom 28.4° Fahr., the lowest temperature we 
had observed up to this time. A little further out, where we were less en- 
cumbered with ice and could better maneuver the ship, the trawl was 
sent down and brought up ample specimens of the fauna of the bottom. 
Not only various lower animal forms, but even fishes were found here 
and seemed to thrive remarkably well in this ice-cold water. Particu- 
larly did we in this haul bring on board numerous specimens of a sort 
of small codfish, the so-called ice-roach (Ismort, Gadus polaris), of which 
we heretofore had obtained only one specimen. 

We now steamed toward the outlet of the bay to the sea, in order 
finally to make some investigations on the bank and on its declivity 
west of Prince Charles’ Foreland. The wind had entirely subsided and 
the sea was smooth, but dense fog soon hid the land entirely out of sight. 
On the following morning we were at our station. The weather was still 
and calm as on the preceding day, and the fog had so far lifted that the 
lower parts of Prince Charles’ Foreland could be seen. We cast out the 
lead here, finding 500 fathoms’ depth, and hence we were already on the 
slope of the bank. A little farther out the trawl was sent down at a 
depth of 110 fathoms and was brought up covered all over with a species 
of the elegant feather-star (Antedon), of which several beautiful and per- 
fect specimens were secured and preserved. We were now nearly through 
with our investigations in the open sea, and therefore directed our course 
southward along Prince Charles’ Foreland, in order to run into the Ice- 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878. 279 


fjord, where we had made up our minds to lie still for a few days and 
make the necessary examination of the ship’s engine, which now had 
been in almost constant use ever since we left Hammerfest. 

The following morning we had already reached the inlet of the Ice- 
fjord. The north side of the fjord still shows the grand scenery charac- 
teristic of Spitzbergen; from the northwestern point, where the Dead 
Man and the Auk Horn lift their heads, there are, as far as eye can see 
toward the interior, splendid mountain views separated from the mighty 
masses of ice and snow. On the other hand, the south side has a totally 
different appearance; the mountains are here less high, and their sum- 
mits usually form plateaus, while the sides slope gradually and show a 
regular arrangement both of the horizontal layers and of the glacial 
rivers that are dug out in the vertical clefts. There is nothing pictur- 
esque in the general effect. About in the middle of the fjord we sent 
the trawl down, but it brought up nothing of interest excepting a young 
specimen of a peculiar spiny Arctic fish (Cyclopterus spinosus). At 
noon we directed our course toward Advent Bay, which was intended 
for our station, and outside of which a couple of fishing-vessels lay at 
anchor. A long flat strip of land which extends into the sea from the 
western shore forms here a natural. mole, within which there is an 
excellent harbor, in which the largest fleet might be able to find a 
convenient anchorage and abundant protection against the storms. 
Here we let our anchor drop. We were now at our goal, where we 
were to spend at least three or four days. But nature in this locality 
has nothing of the grand and imposing features that characterize Spitz- 
bergen. The mountains around the bay have the same monotonous 
character and dismal grayish hue as those we had seen on the entire 
south side of the fjord. The splendid glaciers which so beautifully 
diversified the landscape are here wholly wanting, and in lieu of these 
the valley ascends gradually from the sea, forming a slope, with the 
same grayish-brown tiresome color that characterizes the mountains. So 
far we were not a little disappointed in our expectations, but still we 
had a few nice evenings when the mountains and glaciers on the north 
side of the fjord blazed in the evening sunlight, casting a beautiful reflec- 
tion athwart the fjord to our anchoring place. Meanwhile our time 
was spent in the most profitable manner possible. While our captain 
was engaged upon the hydrography and chart of the bay, we zool- 
ogists industriously examined the sea-bed with our dredges and made 
excursions on land for collecting plants and whatever else of interest 
we might find. Nor was the noble art of hunting neglected, and a 
party was organized of the best and most skillful marksmen to under- 
take a reindeer chase. But the reindeer is, at this season of the year, 
very shy, and usually keeps itself farther from the coast than at other 
times; and not until we had made several and repeated efforts and 
accomplished miles of fatiguing marching did we succeed in killing a 


280 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


very small young deer, whose exceedingly fine and sweet meat was a 
welcome addition to our mess. 

After having remained three days and three nights in Advent Bay 
everything was ready for the home passage. The boiler had been care- 
fully examined, a new supply of water had been taken on board, and 
the bay had been mapped. At six o’clock in the afternoon, on the 22d 
of August, we weighed anchor, and after having made a haul with 
the trawl at the outlet of the bay, which, however, gave us but a small 
return, we directed our course out of the Ice-fjord to the sea. We 
had only enough coal left to last eight days, so that a longer stay at 
Spitzbergen, for this reason if for no other, could not be looked upon as 
advisable. But as Bell Sound, a place famous for the beauty of its scen- 
ery, lay directly in our way, we agreed among ourselves that, in case 
we obtained favorable weather, we would, as a sort of leave-taking cere- 
mony, make a short trip in there, in order to be able to bring home with us 
a perfectly fresh impression of the imposing scenery of Spitzbergen. The 
evening was still and the sky cleared, so that we retired filled with the 
fairest hopes of being able on the following morning to enjoy the sight 
of Bell Sound’s celebrated mountain peaks and glaciers. But we were 
deceived in our expectations. Dense fog on the following morning en- 
veloped the land and hid all the mountain peaks from sight. Under 
such circumstances we would scarcely gain anything by running into 
Bell Sound, and as it was out of the question to spend any time waiting 
for clear weather the trip was abandoned. So the stem of the ship was 
turned to the south again, and every trace of Spitzbergen soon vanished 
in the fog. About half way between Spitzbergen and Beeren Island we 
finally took a series of careful observations of the temperature, in order 
to get one more factor in the complicated problem of establishing the 
conditions of temperature in this belt of the ocean. And herewith our 
investigations were at length completed. Instruments and apparatus 
were packed away, and what we now had to do was to get southward to 
Norway as rapidly as possible. 

The weather, which up to this time had been unusually still, showed 
on the next day all signs of changing for the worse. The barometer fell 
rapidly, in the horizon appeared threatening cloud-banks, and the wind 
began to blow from the east. Toward evening the breeze had increased 
into a gale, but it fortunately blew from the northeast, and hence it was 
favorable to us. The studding-sails were set, and, as if the Voring her- 
self now was longing to get home, she sped on with unusual velocity, so 
that we were making much more rapid progress than we from the be- 
ginning had calculated. As we got farther south the waves became 
higher, and the ship, which now was uncommonly light, now and then 
tossed about so violently in the night that we were several times in a 
rather disagreeable manner awakened from our sleep. But we had 
already tested the Voring once before, under similar circumstances, and 


ae et 


Sat 


NORWEGIAN DEEP-SEA EXPEDITION OF 1878, 281 


knew that she would ride the waves securely and bring us all the sooner 
home across the Arctic seas, and we were all intensely homesick. 

At eight o’clock of the next day we got the first landfall of Norway. 
Far out in the horizon we got a glimpse of something of a deep-bluish 
hue, which at some times scarcely could be distinguished from the at- 
mosphere, but which gradually became more distinct and defined. In 
this we finally recognized with certainty the outmost island in the Loppe 
Sea. It was Bird Island, toward which our course had been directed 
during the whole time. Still we were a considerable distance from land, 
and it being late in the night we retired to our berths with the happy 
consciousness that we shouid soon be within the skerries in smooth 
water. When we came on deck the following morning we were just 
entering Grét Sound. For the first time for many weeks we again looked 
upon green fields and trees, and soon the charming Trom Island, with 
its cultivated fields, its beautiful forests, and its smiling villages, lay 
before us in its complete summer dress. At twelve o’clock we lay safely 
moored at anchor in the harbor of Tromsé, and we all soon had the 
pleasure of receiving by post and telegraph fresh and glad tidings from 
home. 

After stopping a couple of days at Tromsé, which was necessary in 
order to increase our supply of coal, we weighed anchor on Thursday, 
the 29th of August, at two o’clock in the morning, and steamed south- 
ward along the usual steamship route. The weather was brilliant, and 
it was a source of great relief to us, after having been tossed about so 
long on the billows of the Arctic Ocean, to be able to take our ease in 
smooth water within the skerries. On the evening of the same day we 
passed West-fjord in perfectly calm, beautiful weather. On the next day 
our progress was checked somewhat by foggy weather; but the third 
day was clear and warm as summer, and gave us another opportunity 
to rejoice at the sight of the glorious mountains and fjord scenes down 
along the coast of Nordland. On Wednesday, the 4th of September, we 
swung into the harbor of Bergen, where we were greeted by a general 
display of flags, and after having given and received a salute we an- 
chored in the usual place near the Sugar-house Wharf. Three of the 
members of the expedition Chief Physician Dr. Danielssen, Mr. Friele, 
and Cand. Thorne, here bade us good-bye. The rest of us, after spending 
two days in Bergen, passed with the Voring to Christiania, where we, 
after a most delightful voyage, arrived on Monday last, the 9th of Sep- 
tember, at four o’clock in the afternoon. 


ih ede 


tee wt 
eR 


XUI.—ON THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF THE BALTIC SEA 
AND THE GERMAN OCEAN,* 


By G. KARSTEN. 


The following lines are designed to call attention to the investigations 
of the Baltic Sea and German Ocean, which have been in progress sev- 
eral years, and which are of especial interest in opening up a new field 
of observation, to which hitherto but little attention has been paid. 
The extensive experiments of the Americans and Englishmen have in- 
creased our knowledge of the physics of the ocean and its organisms, but 
not being made with the view to continued systematic investigations, they 
have resulted only in discovering for the time being certain relations for 
given points; the variations, be they of a periodical or a non-periodical 
nature, for one and the same locality could not be ascertained during the 
rapid passages through the ocean. But just these variations are of 
special significance, since upon them depends our knowledge of the phe- 
nomena of the currents and of the relations between the physical con- 
ditions and the phenomena of life, as in meteorology, where the final con- 
clusions are not drawn from a few isolated observations but from a 
knowledge of the limits between which the variations take place. With 
this view, Dr. H. A. Mayer made extensive investigations of the physi- 
cal conditions of the western part of the Baltic, hoping thereby to gain 
information regarding the variable character of the organic world, a fact 
established by his own observations as well as by those of R. M6bius. 
The observations of Dr. Mayer have shown that the western portion of 
the Baltic offers fluctuations in all the physical elements—in the height 
of the water, its temperature, and the proportion of salt—fluctuations 
which vary with the seasons and likewise in different years. These ob- 
servations gave a sufficient explanation of the character of the currents, 
but in order to properly fix the laws of these currents the co-operation 
of a number of savans was found necessary, since only by simultaneous 
observations at many points the enterprise could be made a success. 

The impulse to make the present investigation was given by the Ger- 
man Society for Fish-culture, which, fully comprehending its impor- 
tance, requested the Prussian Government to have the work established. 
The government acted in accordance with this petition, and entrusted 


“Translated by Dr. Oscar Loew. 
283 


284 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the work to a Commission stationed in Kiel. This Commission took 
into consideration the following points, viz: 

(a) Depth, height of the water, condition of the bottom, quantity of 
salt and air of the water, and temperature. 

(b) Flora and fauna of the sea. 

(c) Distribution, propagation, and migration of the useful animals— 
problems which required for their proper discussion and settlement ob- 
servations at numerous stations along the coast, as well as on the high 
sea. From the preliminary observations of Mayer it was known that in 
the western part of the Baltic the variations in the water are analogous 
to those of the climate; further, it was established as a fact that the 
physical conditions of the eastern and western portions differed—for in- 
stance, the variations in the amount of salt show smaller differences in 
the eastern than in the western part. This is in another relation also 
found in the German Ocean. The work was commenced by establishing 
a number of stations along the German as well as the foreign coast, one 
station being at Heligoland. Two expeditions have thus far been sent 
out, one in 1871, another in 1872, the former to the Baltic, the latter to 
the German Ocean. The following is a brief summary of the work of 
the Commission, the mode of observation, and the results, with the ex- 
ception of the part relating to organisms, for which the reader is referred 
to the publications of the Commission. 

The most important points for determination were the amount of salt 
and the temperature. As variations in these depend upon the currents, 
and these again upon various causes, as the height of the water, the 
direction and velocity of the wind, the duration of ice-formation, the 
amount of rain and snow in the drift regions, &c., it was evident that a 
thorough study would require a long series of observations. The amount 
of air contained in the water could not be well determined on account of 
the want of methods sufficiently simple for the several stations. The 
proportion of salt is important for several reasons: 

First. The difference in the amount of the saline substance is one 
cause of the currents, the heavier salt water having the tendency to flow 
to the deepest place. In this manner two currents may be produced—a 
vertical one when from some cause or other the upper strata become 
more concentrated, and a horizontal one when two strata of different 
densities lie side by side. The latter currents predominate in the Ger- 
man Ocean as well as in the Baltic Sea. 

Second. The strata in motion will also have temperature of their own. 
For the waters in question this can be easily shown. The under current 
of the heavier water of the German Ocean can readily be recognized by 
its temperature upon its entrance in the Baltic, and the same is the case 
with the light upper current issuing from the Baltic. 

An analogous difference is found in comparing the different strata of 
the German Ocean with the waters of the Atlantic. Furthermore, there 
is a certain relation between the amount of salt and carbonic acid con- 


INVESTIGATION OF BALTIC SEA AND GERMAN OCEAN, 285 


tained in the water, and also between this and the organic life. The 
salt determinations are made with the hydrometer kept at the stations. 
It may be objectionable that the method used is not absolutely exact on 
account of the unequal composition of the salt in different parts of the 
sea. It is not necessary, however, to take this into consideration here, 
since the currents mainly depend upon the density of the water, which 
is indicated to a great degree of exactness by the hydrometer. At the 
stations there is no method simple enough for a trustworthy determina- 
tion of the air contained in the water; the air collected from the water 
on expeditions, however, has been subjected to a chemical analysis. 

The formula adopted by the Commission was well founded, being the 
result of the observation that an increase of the specific gravity of 0.0001 
corresponded to an increase of 0.0131 per cent. of salt. The results thus 
far obtained are the following: 

The specific gravity increases with the depth. In consequence of the 
German Ocean containing less salt than the Atlantic, and again the 
Baltic Sea less than the German Ocean, an under-current of -heavier 
water can be traced flowing from west to east, and a lighter upper cur- 
rent flowing from east to west. This is shown by the current-meter as 
well as by the densities of the water and the difference in temperature. 
In very narrow straits, however, as, for instance, in the “Little Belt” 
and the ‘‘Alsensund,” the different currents become turbulent and more 
or less mixed. 

The intensity of the currents is variously changed by climatic influ- 
ences, of which the wind is the most powerful. Prevailing westerly and 
southwesterly winds drive heavy currents from the Atlantic into the 
German Ocean and thence to the Baltic, at the same time retarding the 
light upper current. Easterly and northeasterly winds act reversely, 
diminishing the heavier under-current and increasing the lighter cur- 
rent on the surface. In accordance with the climatic conditions is the 
fact that the most salty water enters the Baltic in fall and winter, and 
the least in spring and summer. The amount of salt in the spring is 
reduced by the melting of the ice in the north and east; plentiful rains 
produce a like effect in summer. As the height of the water depends 
much upon the strength and direction of the wind, the percentage of salt 
will show a certain relation to the height. This relation, however, is 
not a simple one. Continuous west winds will not only increase the 
whole bulk of water in the Baltic, but also produce local differences be- 
tween the height of the water on the eastern and western coasts, as above 
mentioned. We have then in the eastern part of the Baltic an increase 
of the mean level and a decrease of salt, while in the western part, the 
height of the water decreases and the amount of salt becomes greater. 

Taking into consideration certain climatic relations, especially the wind, 
and the change of these relations in different years, it is clear that not 
only every stratum of water of a certain locality will show a difference 
in the amount of salt, but also that there will be deviations in differ- 


286 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ent years; therefore only a prolonged period of observations can deter- 
mine the average amount of salt of a certain locality. A glance at the 
following table will give an idea of the great variations taking place. 
Although the nambers are mere approximations, the differences are, 
nevertheless, considerable. 


TABLE.— 
| 
Surface. Depth. 
Maximum. Minimum. |Fathoms.| Maximum. Minimum 
Locality. ip mics ae eeeemees + =a ms 

je Bap [eel Read ee 

ec oO ac | | ie a 

Ext | Sas | bet | Shas i Be | fs | BM | fis 

O° is see pee) =| ue Sa oS eS 

Ow 5 Cw = a C+ I Cys io 

Bley | a* |e Tia ena esc 4 

I. BALTIC SEA. 
Helsingor* ......---c0++ee0-5---- 1.0190 | 2.51 | 1.0062 | 0.81 | 16 1, 0259 | 3.39 | 1.0086 | 1.16 
UKOTSOL™® 225. o-oo ~ oo wow eee oes--- | 1.0208 | 2.73 | 1.0088 | 1.19 20 1.0250 | 3.27 | 1.0154 | 2.02 
Friedericia* . .........-.2+--2--+- 1, 0203 | 2.66 | 1.0092 } 1.22 9 1.0220 | 2.88 | 1.0104 | 1.36 
Svendborgsund* .......--.--.--- 1.0184 | 2.45 | 1.0085 | 1.15 u 1.0187 | 2.49 | 1.0095 | 1.26 
Sonderbimg ......--..---.------- 1.0211 | 2.76 | 1.0092 | 1.22 10 1. 0243 | 3.20 | 1.0095 | 1.26 
SHG IKOMM LOLOG* aces sale canola owieie= | 1.0174 | 2.30 | 1.0079 | 1.05 10 1.0204 | 2.67 | 1.0121 | 1.59 
Friedrichs Ort.... 1.0201 | 2.63 | 1.0043 | 0.58 | 8 1.0219 | 2.87 | 1.0078 | 1.04 
Kieler Hafen ... AIO Mee aiot0) le OU0 Ui eee 16 1.0196 | 2.58 | 1.0122 | 1.60 
Febmarnsund .. 1.0135 | 1.77 | 1.0072 | 0.96 6 1.0147 | 1.95 | 1,0090 | 1.20 
Travemundej -. 1.0161 | 2.11 | 1.0093 | 1.24 5 1, 0163 | 2.14 | 1.0093 | 1.24 
1M esaaSsesocor 1.0160 | 2.10 | 1.0097 | 1.29 | 4 1.0169 | 2.22 | 1.0108} 1.42 
Warnemiindet 1.0098 | 1.28 | 1.0063 | 0.83 | 5 1.0128 | 1.68 | 1.0072 | 0.96 
ID yest. (er Seah odashodsqaddpecese 1. 0133 | 1.74 | 1.0066 | 0.86 5 1.0152 | 1.99 | 1.0069 | 0.91 
Lohme, Rugen ...............--- 1.0094 | 1.25 | 1.0032 | 0. 42 10 1.0095 | 1.26 | 1.0050 | 0. 66 
Neufahrwasser ....-...---------- 1.0081 | 1.10 | 1.0019 | 0.25 3 1. 0086 | 1.16 | 1.00385 | 0.46 
TEUIES soncobonesedodpogne sSabesose 1 0066 | 0.86.) WOOT | 0.19 eee a cai mim fe tmimlala alltel 
Il. GERMAN OCEAN. 

Ellenbogen, Sylt ...... veeeeeeees! 1. 0255 | 3.34 | 1.0208 | 2.73 ul 1. 0258 | 3.38 | 1.0215 | 2.82 
Wilhelmshafen ........-----2.--+ | 1.0266 | 3.48 | 1.0220 | 2.88 8 1. 0268 | 3.51 | 1.0222 | 2.91 
ED OTUTA sacs Priniasin=peiamieicia 1.0276 | 3.63 | 1.0210 { 2.75 13 1. 0277 | 3.65 | 1.0219 | 2.87 
Heligoland§ .-.... 202... csee eee 1. 0287 | 3.80 | 1.0244 | 3.22 44 1. 0288 | 3.81 | 1.0249 | 3.28 


* Observed by A. H. Mayer. 

t Consequence of ice. 

+t Not embracing a whole year. 

§ Values probably too large in consequence of instrumental error. 


With regard to the details of the currents and their relation to the 
wind the reader is referred to the publication of the Commission. 

The temperatures.—Both bodies of water, the German Ocean and the 
Baltic Sea, show, in general, different relations as to temperature, but 
as they intercommunicate by way of the straits of Skagerak and the 
Kattegat, they exercise some reciprocal influence in this point of view. 
The condition of the Baltic with regard to climatic influences is almost 
that of an inland sea, owing to the insignificant extent of its junctions 
with the German Ocean and its greater outflow. Only in the vicinity 
of its junctions, and under certain circumstances at some distance from 
them also, there is a considerable influence brought to bear upon the 


—_— 


Steed ee 


im 


Fee A Tet tg A ORI tie 


INVESTIGATION OF BALTIC SEA AND GERMAN OCEAN. 287 


temperature of the Baltic by the entering under-currents. The tem- 
perature of the Baltic varies greatly with the respective temperature of 
the air, the changes decreasing, of course, with the depth. The unequal 
temperatures of increasing latitudes will be equalized by the perpetual 
motions of the waters. 

The German Ocean shows much smaller variations of temperatures, 
and undoubtedly will present different conditions at different points, 
being connected with the Atlantic in the North by a wide and in the 
South by a narrow channel, and again by a narrow channel with the 
Baltic in the East. 

While throughout the year currents of but little variations enter 
the channels from the Atlantic, those from the Baltic are of various 
temperatures. This, together with the greater depth of the German 
Ocean, will suffice to show that it requires years of observation and 
prolonged study to determine the exact relations of temperature. The 
observations hitherto made for different strata can only be considered 
as initiating a closer study, the former investigations relating mainly 
to surface-temperatures. The observations along the coast not having 
to be made in great depths, the thermometer of the Commission could 
be of a simple construction. The thermometer for ascertaining the sur- 
face-temperature was very simple, reading to .2 of a degree; the tem- 
perature could be read either directly in the ocean orin a large quantity 
of water freshly drawn. For the observations of the temperature in 
deep water the thermometers were surrounded by a thick layer of India 
rubber, a poor conductor of heat. The instruments were compared, and 
the time necessary for each to indicate a change in temperature was 
noted, as well as that during which they marked the temperature of the 
water after being exposed to theair. An hour was ascertained to be the 
average time for each instrument to indicate the temperature of the 
depth, and fully five minutes that between the removal of the instru- 
ment from the water and any perceptible change. The thermometers 
always remained at the desired depth for one hour before the tempera- 
ture was read.* During the expeditions upon the open sea this instru- 
ment could be used only when the ship or boat lay still or was anchored ; 
in all other cases Casella’s maximum and minimum thermometer was 
used. The results gained are the following: 

The temperature of the surface-water of the Baltic, and with dimin- 
ished extremes also that of the depths, varies with the temperature of 
the atmosphere. As an example the observations at two stations, Son- 
derburg and Kiel, are here given: 


Sh Ea a PT 
*These thermometers, surrounded by India rubber, can be had at Steger’s in Kiel. 


288 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Sonderburg. \ Kiel. 
Month. } | 
Atmos- | Surface | Tenfath-| Atmos- | Surface Five | Ten fath- 
phere. | of water. oms. phere. | of water.|fathoms.! oms. 
1869. | 
JaNuary .-..----------------e- 34, 82 34.9 34.9 34.19 | 36.7 36.9 39.9 
February -...--.-------------- 40. 60 38. 7 38. 3 40, 54 38. 7 39.9 40.3 
IU Gy ClO aado saeainooaeosbeecce 3D. OL 37.4 36.7 35. 47 | 37.8 39. 0 41.0 
JATH <2. - cccccemcncenconene= 48. 87 44.4 40.8 48.44 48.2 44,4 42.2 
WER VeSneoo gobo cOOnonaD peeeeres 51. 26 51.8 47.5 51. 92 | 53. 6 | 39.3 | 43.2 
SUNG Aras dece see eee eee ens 54.90 53. 4 48. 0 54.90 | 57.2 56.1 | 41,4 
DULY. yas encase wecteeee cee. 63.10 | 59.7 | 55. 2 62. 74 | 65. 7 | 61.7 | 42.1 
“A TIPMAG Bose cies aacceicaaiee minis 58. 90 51.6 60. 3 59. 10 63.3.) 63. 0 43.5 
SEOEMT NGS Roce cogbonSaccbes 57. 36 | 59. 4 58. 3 | 56. 34 | 60.3 | 59. 4 | 44.8 
Octobereeeacancssseteoseccaes 46.74 52.2 51.8 46. 90 | 3. 6 | 54.9°| 48.6 
INOVEMDCL eee escccecccsnes ces 38. 64 | 42.3 42.8 | 39. 00 46. 6 | 47.5 | 48.9 
December -..---.--.---------- 85.17 } 41.4 40.3 35. 60 | 39. § | 43.2 | 43.7 
BViear eee ee eit ees 47.23 | 48.2 46.2 46. 92 | 50. 2 | 49.7 | 43.2 
| | | 


The correspondence of the temperature of the surface-water with that 
of the atmosphere is evident at a glance. In Sonderburg, however, the 
periodicity can be traced to a depth of 10 fathoms, while in Kiel a marked 
decrease is noticeable at a depth of 5 fathoms, and at 16 fathoms a shift- 
ing of the seasons and a great diminishing of the extremes. The wider 
distribution of heat at Sonderburg is produced by the strong current of 
the Alsensund, mingling different strata, while at a depth of 16 fathoms 
at Kiel, motion is produced only by the inflow of heavy currents, or by 
strong winds. 

The temperature of the surface-waters is greater than that of the at- 
mosphere; for the temperature of the latter is taken in the shade, while 
the surface-waters are greatly influenced by solar radiation. <As it is 
hardly possible to recognize the Jaw of the changes in temperature in 
one year, the following average values of six years of observation in Kiel 
will give a clearer expression of the retardation of the heating influence 
of the season: 


Kiel, average of six years. (Degrees Fahrenheit.) 


Atmos- | : | Five Sixteen 
Month. phere Surface. | sthoms. | fathoms. 
eer 
31. 40 34. 08 36. 12 37. 60 
32. 20 | 34. 02 34. 80 37. 20 
37.17 35. 98 35. 76 36. 27 
44, 62 43. 60 40. 55 36. 80 
51. 70 51. 50 47.44 40.18 
58. 00 60, 80 55. 07 41. 96 
62. 60 65. 59 61. 80 43. 60 
62. 58 65. 3 62. 90 47.45 
55. 42 55. 74 59. 58 52..70 
47. 87 53. 10 54. 34 54. oA 
39. 44 45, 39 47.07 49.44 
35. 40 38. 52 40. 55 43. 02 
46. 54 48. 67 48. 00 43. 40 


The annual period here enters regularly into the greatest depth. In 
the air and on the surface July is the warmest month; at 5 fathoms the 
heat of August predominates, while at 16 fathoms October is the warm- 
est and March the coldest month. The variations of the average values 


INVESTIGATION OF BALTIC SEA AND GERMAN OCEAN. 289° 


between this table and the previous one, for 1869, demonstrate the in- 
equality of the course of the temperature during the isolated years, and, 
further, that in the water, as in the air, the climatical differences are rep- 
resented. Herein the extreme values of the temperatures of the air play 
a significant part. The following numbers may give an idea how the 
cold year of 1871, with its low temperatures, influenced the temperatures. 
of the water even at great depths: 


Kiel. 
Atmosphere. Surface. Five fathoms. |Sixteen fathoms, 
Month. SSS SS a 
Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. —, Min. 
| é 
1871 | | 
PANUALY <sine ce. one ewicnwewn es cweecs 87.4 5. 0 32. 9 33. 3 32.0 | 27.9 32.7 30. 4 
WODTUALY ..---o-- 2a aee nnn --2----s- 50. 0 —6.7) 34.2 32.0} 32.4 31.5 34, 2 32. 0 
WONT Soo onped3s escusecbssscendepe 56. 3 25./2 42.1 35. 4 38.3 34. 9 85. 4 34. 2 
2:0 HL) Coos Sb oshaa saggodeeDonUSSsones 55. 8 29.7 46.8 38. 7 39. 8 37.1 37. 2 34.9 
LAY pogertitne Aasr boebepsopde—Ebcons 74.3 34.9 54,5 45.5 51.1 41.0 41.0 37. 6° 
JNO. seoconoS6e nnonsnoerenscosssone 79. 2 41.4 65. 7 53. 4 59. 0 51.1 43.9 41.0 
USS Sep oneodea sor ecm osedores ace 76.8 51.8 68. 0 59. 0 61.2 55. 6 43.9 42.1 
JTS edo pS ODO DODD ERE OS SacCD-re 81.5 50. 0 73. 6 61.2 64. 6 59. 0 54.5 44.3 
SOPURMI DEL cic nts oft - civ eactdoanleccmtts 77.0 40.1 65.7 56. 7 61. 2 57.4 56. 7 55. 6° 
(OGINEGT? soos anc Seno cEponoeoco Se ende 61. 2 30. 4 54.5 47.7 55. 6 50. 0 56. 7 54. 5 
ENOVEIADOD ti ticd ie ctuw sven wicwoaoces 45.3 28.4) 47.7 39. 8 60.0] 41.0 54. 5 47.7 
DWECOMDEM: os cia wieis sade ass om ctenss | 39.2 5.7 37.6 34. 2 38. 7 35. 4 46. 6 38. 7 
: | 


The low temperatures of the air during a severe winter, therefore, 
reduce the temperatures of all strata considerably below the usual 
average. These lower temperatures are maintained in the depth for a 
long period; in the following autumn they again suddenly increase. If 
then a mild winter follows, the higher temperatures remain for a longer 
time and keep the lower strata above the average values. The lowering 
of the temperatures of all the strata below 32° F. finds an explanation 
in the fact that the maximum density of the water of 2 pér cent. salt, 
as at Kiel, is in the region of the point indicating 29°.8 F., and, therefore, 
vertically descending currents of the heavier water will effect a rapid 
equalization of temperature. This will be the more easily possible when, 
like in the winter months, all water-strata have an increased percentage 
of salt, with little variation between the different strata. If, however, 
the lower strata are considerably richer in salt than the upper, then the 
communication of the lower temperature of the latter will be slow, 
since the increased densities of the cooler upper strata do not reach the 
densities of the lower strata, notwithstanding the higher temperature 
of the latter; violent winds, however, would soon cause a thorough in- 
termingling. The above-mentioned sudden changes of temperature in 
August and in autumn may be attributed to two different causes: either 
the strata mingle thoroughly, whereby the percentage of salt of the 
lower strata will be diminished and the temperature of the upper strata 
communicated to them; as, for instance, in 16 fathoms at Kiel, September 
8, 1870, the specific gravity was 1.0167; temperature, 50° F.; September 
13, specific gravity was 1.0155; temperature, 61°.2 F.; or a sudden 
entry of heavy underwater from the German Ocean, with its own higher 

19 F 


290 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


temperature, takes place, replacing the lower cold strata of the Baltic. 
In the latter case the increase of temperature is combined with an in- 
crease of specific gravity. This was observed at Kiel on the 16th of 
August, 1871, when the specific gravity was 1.0118; temperature, 50° F.; 
while on the 21st of the same month the specific gravity was 1.0140; 
temperature, 56°.75 F. These sudden variations are very singular, for 
the reason that usually the changes in the depths are very slow and 
gradual, and often for weeks are scarcely perceptible. Suchsimultaneous 
changes of temperature and percentage of salt have been noticed at all 
observing stations along the Baltic. Thus, for instance, at Sonderburg 
it was observed that the temperature, which from the 13th of December, 
1872, to the 22d of January, 1873, at 10 fathoms was lower than 41° F., 
suddenly changed to 42°.1 F., while at the same time the specific grav- 
ity of 1.0195 increased to 1.0243, owing to a powerful current of warmer and 
heavier water from the German Ocean. If, on the one hand, the Baltic 
in summer furnishes an excess of heat to the German Ocean by the upper 
current, the latter in winter, on the other hand, by the under current 
effects a rise of temperature in the former. This source of heat for the 
winter is of especially good service in the western portion of the Baltic, 
and is certainly an important climatic element. It is not yet established 
with certainty how far to the east this under current extends. The 
smaller the percentage of salt the greater the maximum of density; hence 
it is probable that, notwithstanding the lower temperature. of the winter 
in the north and east, the water in the greater depths never cools to the 
extentof thatin the west. Experience, however, on this point is wanting. 

Regarding the relations of temperature in the German Ocean, but few 
observations have thus far been made. Stations were not established 
previous to 1872. The facts observed, however, are (1) the annual period 
of the temperature of the water decreases towards the west; (2) the differ- 
ence of temperature between the strata of different depths is smaller than 
in the Baltic; and (3) a decrease to the freezing-point never occurs. 
During the expeditions currents from different sources could easily be 
traced by the thermometer and hydrometer; for instance, the currents 
of the Elbe and Baltic. The following table from Mayer’s work contains 
some older observations on the average temperatures of the Baltic, 
Kattegat, and Irish coast, which show very distinctly the decrease of the 
differences in the annual periods: 


Month. Baltic. | Kattegat. | Irish coast. 

PANU AR ese e Pare cinjwciec eee cal'sdeccaebesws coaecmetace se seacmteretnssaee 35:8) |ccssnceasees 46. 6 
108) On ae i CORP ORO ROCCE ACE AEGe Croce ace Goacdc soo cedans HaboosuS 36;:3' | nase eeere 45.7 
IRGC eter elotete ais atelain/a <(aisinws\cssis's wisiniete a cmintetetateinte nisin er nteloteteraiereinta etetarelsamias 36.9 36.3 45.9 
JAD. Sean eo doce Canc COCH DOGO BHUDE OE SObH cen nSapEce Cabo SGC OSIOSOSe 44.6 42.6 48.4 
BVDV Ee ears iaara ei siete a Sicterchele comedies cree Sime Wa ete ira ene he Hae ae restate ane 52.7 49.5 51.8 
IIT G Pr saa Oe eit we civic wc cis = oma saya eee mace eaaeiaeis sane ce ielcie 59. 0 54.7 55. 4 
RUD yrs atate ela o eicte ne cinsisis isa soe a bels suas s Cininceise aes eGeceeeine ciecec cine 64. 6 60.8 58. 7 
PARTE TES be a aycl cites ake let chals ele eae min aie wjacnia cstare jee ae mere ates me rctainicie.s class 64.8 62.1 60. 1 
RO MEOUID OLE A soe oe hice Setaiore este atin so tee lore Sea oe eles atcetetaete icteyatatein alee ajar 59.9 57.8 59. 4 
OC@EODOR oo ono isc sass ee Sees ne clawin win nm Cees ereris cee ae ete cies ees 53. 4 52. 0 55. 2 
INOVOHIUDOL senciss sa deans cee anaes eet a tastasee omececomeacaeeeaabecce 44.6 42.8 49.1 
DD GCOMPO Liters to ciciccicre seer eee ete Maiaietes Seles ie om ianiem abieraanied ates 30N9)| sserssebaaes 48.2 


INVESTIGATION OF BALTIC SEA AND GERMAN OCEAN. 291 


But only by a long series of observations it can be determined to what 
extent these differences decrease at the different points of the German 
Ocean in contradistinction to the temperatures of the Baltic, what in- 
fluence is brought to bear by the currents in different seasons, and what 
relations in greater depths the period of higher temperatures will show. 

It will be seen from the following series of one year’s observations 
at Heligoland that in the German Ocean, the temperatures of the waters 
of all strata are subjected to greater changes than the temperatures of 
the waters of the Irish coast although these changes are much smaller 
than those of the Baltic. 


2] 
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REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF 


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tees neseee esses eeesss--2* goquiaydag 


“TIMOTT 


INVESTIGATION OF BALTIC SEA AND GERMAN OCEAN. 293 


The difference of 29° in the temperature of the atmosphere between the 
coldest and the warmest month is lowered to 249.5 in the surface-water, 
and at a depth of 44 fathoms to 24°. The absolute extremes, however, 
are as follows: In the air, 579.6 F.; in the surface-water, 269.1, and in 
deep water, 24°.3. The average volume of the heat of the water in all 
strata exceeds that of the heat of the air, and it is therefore probable 
for Heligoland that a source of heat must be looked for in the entering 
heavier under-current of ocean water. Although the temperature of the 
air falls considerably below the freezing-point, the temperature of the 
water at Heligoland in all the strata remains above this point, and, 
without doubt, this difference causes one of the principal differences in 
the development of organisms which cannot be explained by the differ- 
ences in the percentage of salt. 

For further information the reader is referred to the report of the 
Commission. 

AUXILIARY APPARATUS. 


For the various observations many auxiliary implements are required, 
such as lead-lines, hoisting-apparatus, sounding-cups, water-bottles, &e. 
A few words may be said in relation to these, since the usefulness 
of areometric determinations depends upon the well-working of the 
machinery. 

To secure specimens of bottom water a simple arrangement, first used 
by Dr. H. A. Mayer, is employed. <A strong, well-corked flask is lowered 
to the desired depth, when it is uncorked by a sudden jerk of the line; 
the drawing up may be easily done, as experience has shown, without 
a noticeable change in the quality of the water. This arrangement, 
however, cannot be used for any but moderate depths, having, like all 
other means for this purpose, the disadvantage of not permitting a gas- 
analysis, the air of the bottle becoming partially absorbed by the enter- 
ing water. Anexamination of waters thus obtained shows the presence 
of irregular quantities of the permanent gases, partially derived from 
the air of the bottle. With the view of exact areometric determinations 
and gas analyses the Commission has made use of various instruments, 
those of Professor Dr. Jacobsen, in Rostock, and of Dr. H. A. Mayer 
proving the best. The apparatus of Jacobsen consists of an India-rub- 
ber bag partially filled with mercury and freed from air by pressure. 
The cork is self-regulating, opening as soon as the bottom is reached 
and closing again when the bag is drawn up. The apparatus of Mayer 
consists of a wide, open metallic cylinder, with bottom valves, and per- 
mits the bringing up of water from any depth. For further details, 
especially regarding the amount of carbonic acid, reference is made to 
the annual reports of the Commission. 

Of the other apparatus used during the investigation we only mention 
the current-meter. The instruments permitting of determination of the 
direction and intensity of the currents are very defective. From an 


294. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


anchored ship it is comparatively easy to determine the surface-current, 
but not when the vessel is in motion, especially as regards the determi- 
nation of the under current. On a firm position or from an anchored 
Ship, the Commission made use of a simple apparatus consisting of two 
metallic plates combined crosswise and fastened by a fine wire. The 
current pressing against the plates shifts them from a horizontal position, 
and thus the strength of the current is approximately determined by 
angle of deviation. This instrument, however, is not sufficiently sensi- 
tive for a weak current, and does not admit of an exact determination 
of the velocity. Floating bodies combined with the plates also worked 
unsatisfactorily for the under currents, the upper currents interfering 
with the indication of the instrument; it was found to be perfectly useless 
when the ship was in motion or when drifting with the current. As the 
determinations of velocity and direction of these currents are of great 
importance, the invention of a good current-meter is very desirable. 
Deep-sea investigations proper have been made by the Commission only 
in a limited sense; the greatest depths investigated were in the Baltic 
amounting to less than 200, and in the German Ocean to less than 400 
fathoms. In such depths it is not difficult to manipulate the instruments. 
The determination of depth can be made by simple means; the bringing 
up of bottom may be done by dredging. Should the Commission have oc- 
casion to make more extended investigations of the German Ocean cur- 
rents, or the Navy enter upon such scientific labors, it would be desirable 
to introduce improvements in the measurement of depths, the apparatus 
thus far employed not being sufficiently accurate. For trustworthy de- 
terminations an apparatus operated by the pressure of the water is 
required. Some instruments have been constructed upon the principle 
of Mariotte’s law of compressed air, but they are not sufficiently sensi- 
tive. It would probably be best to make use of spring-manometers 


constructed for high pressures of the ocean depths. The knowledge of . 


temperatures and percentage of salt will be highly valuable only in con- 
nection with exact measurement of depth. 

The Commission hopes that the government will continue the means 
for carrying on the investigation in question. When the expeditions 
become more frequent and numerous, and the Navy and commercial ships 
participate, science cannot fail to be considerably enriched by important 
results. There will then be occasion to solve many more interesting 
problems not thus far studied, for instance the changes in the mean level 
of the ocean, or the secular changes in the level of the coast, the question 
of the intensity of light in various depths of the water, etc., ete. 


= —— 


or aces 


APPENDIX )E. 


THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MARINE ANIMALS. 


— 
“ & 


XIV. REPORT ON THE MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND AND 
ADJACENT WATERS. 


By OscaR HARGER. 


The following paper includes the species of Isopoda at present known 
to inhabit the coast of New England and the adjacent regions, as far as 
Nova Scotia on the north and New Jersey on the south. These limits 
have been chosen from the fact that nearly all the marine collections of 
this order made by the Fish Commission have been from the New Eng- 
land coast, except those from the Nova Scotia coast in 1877, while the 
commission had its headquarters at Halifax. Previous to the work of 
the Fish Commission extensive collections had also been made, mostly by 
Professors A. E. Verrill and 8. I. Smith, of Yale College, in the Bay of 
Fundy and at other places along the coast as far south as Great Egg Har- 
bor, in the southern part of New Jersey. The collections thus obtained, 
and others in the museum of Yale College, have, through the kindness of 
Professor Verrill, been used in the preparation of this article. As there 
has not yet been sufficient opportunity for the study of the Bopyride, 
only a list of the known species of that family is included, and for this I 
am indebted to Professor 8S. I. Smith. Thespecies of the remaining fam- 
ilies are described at length, and nearly all figured in more or less detail 
in the plates accompanying the article. Throughout the article especial 
reference will be had to the [sopoda of our own coast, and many pecu- 
liarities of structure, not found in our genera, will be more or less com- 
pletely disregarded. As the Oniscide area terrestrial family, only a few 
species, found usually, or only, along the shore are here included. 


ISOPODA. 


This group is an order of Crustacea, so named from two Greek words, 
feos, equal, and zods, a foot, from the general similarity of the legs 
throughout, all being thoracic. The order belongs to the Tetradecapoda, 
‘‘fourteen-footed,” called also Hdriophthalma, or “ sessile-eyed” Crustacea. 
All of these terms, however, require modification when applied to the 
animals included in this order, since in the genus Astacilla the anterior 
pairs of legs are quite unlike the posterior, in Gnathia there are never 
more than twelve feet, or legs, in six pairs, and lastly in Tanais and its 
allies the eyes, when present, are not sessile, but articulated with the head, 


or stalked, as in the higher Crustacea. It may, however, be stated that 
297 


298 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the relations of the Tanaide with the rest of the order are remote, and it 
is perhaps doubtful whether they should be retained among the Isopoda, 
especially as this family differs from the rest of the order in its mode of 
respiration, as will be explained hereafter. 

Although this order is not a large one its representatives are perhaps 
more widely distributed than in any other order of Crustacea. Every 
one is familiar with ‘“‘sow-bugs” or “pill-bugs,” which are found even in 
damp houses and in cellars, as well as under leaves in woods or under 
almost any pile of rubbish among decaying vegetable matter. These 
terrestrial species do, indeed, become rare in the colder parts of the world, 
but are found as far north as Greenland. Other species less familiar, but 
perhaps hardly less abundant, inhabit ponds and streams of fresh water, 
and others are found along the shores of all oceans; yet others abound 
among the marine vegetation of the shallow waters, or fix themselves 
upon the bodies, or within the mouths of fishes and other marine ani- 
mals. Species are found swimming free in the open’ ocean, and others 
are brought up from the greatest depths to which the dredge has yet 
penetrated. 

It will be convenient to give here a brief general account of the struc- 
ture of the animals composing this order, and an explanation of the 
terms used in their description. Most of our marine species have a 
greater or less number of the segments at the posterior end of the body 
coalescent, but in the genus Cirolana they are distinct; the animals 
are, moreover, of large size and very abundant in some localities; ref- 
erence will therefore be constantly made to the figures of Cirolana 
concharum, on plates LX and X, in illustration of the parts of the animal 
and of the terms used. A few specimens of this animal will help mate- 
rially in gaining a knowledge of the structure of the group ; or, if speci- 
mens of Cirolana cannot be obtained, a common ‘“sow-bug” (Oniscus 
or Porcellio) may be substituted. - 

The body appears to consist of fourteen segments, of which the first 
is the head; thenext seven form the thorax, or pereion of Spence Bate, 
and the last six the pleon, sometimes called the abdomen. Returning 
to the head we find, looking from above, a pair of eyes—each consisting 
of a group of ocelli—and two pairs of antennary organs. Of these the 
upper pair, or antennule (pl. X, fig. 60), consist on each side of three 
comparatively large basal segments, which, together, are called the 
peduncle, or peduncular segments, and support a more slender and taper- 
ing flagellum or lash, composed of a considerable number of short seg- 
ments, decreasing in diameter toward the tip, and each, usually, bearing 
a fascicle of sete, which are called by Fritz Miiller olfactory setz, from 
their supposed function. The antennule are very small and rudimentary 
in “sow-bugs” and their allies. Below the antennule are the antennz 
properly so called (pl. X, fig. 61 a), which are also composed of a peduncle 
and flagellum. The five basal segments constitute the peduncle, and the 
following, usually much shorter and smaller segments, are flagellar. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 299 


Underneath, the mouth is seen to be protected by a pair of organs 
called maxillipeds (pl. X, fig. 62 a), with which, for convenience of dissec- 
tion, we shall commence the description of the parts of the mouth. The 
five terminal segments of the maxillipeds in Cirolana (numbered 1 to 5 in 
the figure) constitute the palpus, but this number varies in the different 
genera. They are articulated to the external surface of the large basal 
segment (m), usually proportionally much larger than in Cirolana, as in 
Idotea phosphorea (pl. V, fig. 286, m), or in the “‘sow-bug” where the 
palpus is greatly reduced. The basal segment of the maxilliped is, in gen- 
eral, produced internally beyond the origin of the palpus, and furnished 
with strongly plumose or pectinated sete at the tip. Frequently along 
its inner margin one or more short styliform organs are attached, as in 
Jera albifrons (pl. I, fig. 5), while along its basal margin is a more or 
less distinct suture, indicating the epimeral segment of this organ, which 
will be further explained. The basal segments of the opposite max- 
illipeds meet along the median line, where their margins are nearly 
straight, and to the base of the outer margin is attached a more or less 
triangular external lamella (pl. X, fig. 62,1). The name ‘“maxilliped” 
is frequently used for the basal segment only, which is often, as in the 
‘““sow-bugs,” much larger than the rest of the organ and serves to cover 
and protect the other organs of the mouth. 

When the maxillipeds are removed we find two pairs of maxille, the 
outer and inner; of these the outer, or second pair (pl. X, fig. 61D), are 
in general of a delicate texture, and three-lobed at the tip, the two 
outer lobes being articulated to the basal piece, and all three lobes cili- 
ated on their inner margins. The inner, or first pair of maxille are of 
a less delicate texture than the outer, and are hardly of the ordinary 
form in Cirolana (pl. X, fig. 61 ce); reference may, therefore, be made to 
Synidotea nodulosa (pl. VI, fig. 35 ¢), where the two unequal lobes are 
shown, the inner comparatively small, and supported on a slender pe- 
duncle, curved inward, truncated at the tip, and bearing stout, curved, 
pectinated sets; the outer much more robust and larger, similar in 
general outline to the inner, but armed with stout, curved, denticulated 
spines at the tip. 

The mandibles (pl. X, fig. 61 d) are usually toothed at the apex, the 
teeth being supported on a dentigerous lamella, which may be double 
on one mandible, usually the left, and receive the lamella of the oppo- 
site mandible between the two; below this lamella is often a comb of 
pectinate sete, and, generally, a molar process, as. in Janira alta (pl. I, 
fig. 12 6, m). In many genera a three-jointed palpus (pl. X, fig. 61 d, p) 
is articulated to the external surface of the mandible, and, usually, the 
terminal segment of the palpus is more or less semicircular, or curved, 
and bears on its inner margin a very regular comb of sete (pl. III, fig. 
12 b), apparently of service in cleansing the organs of the mouth. This 
comb may be continued or repeated on the second segment, as in Ciro- 
lana (pl. X, fig. 61 d, p). In the “sow-bug” and many other genera the 


300 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


mandibles are destitute of palpi. The oral opening between the mandi- 
bles is defended by an upper and lower lip, or labrum and labium, which 
are, however, median, and not paired organs, like the other parts of the 
mouth. 

The seven thoracic segments are of firm texture above, but softer 
underneath. The dorsal surface is in general more or less rounded, and 
in Cirolana is continued well down at the sides, where, except in the first 
segment, it is crossed by a suture cutting off a quadrate, or somewhat 
triangular piece, called an epimeron, or, in the plural, the epimera. The 
epimera are well shown in the side view of Cirolana concharum (pl. IX, 
fig. 58). They belong to the legs, and form a portion of the large prox- 
imal segment called the coxa. Usually, however, the legs are figured 
as in pl. X, fig. 62 b, without this segment, which adheres strongly to 
the body; often, as in the first segment of Cirolana, the suture sep- 
arating it disappears. The remaining six segments of the legs are more 
slender, and are called respectively, beginning with the segment follow- 
ing the coxa, the basis, ischium, merus, carpus, propodus, and dactylus, 
the last being usually slender and curved, often bearing a curved spine 
or claw at the tip, and, especially in the first pair, capable of flexion on 
the propodus, so as to form a prehensile hand. In the Tanaide, as in 
many of the higher Crustacea, the propodus may be prolonged into a 
digital process, against which the dactylus closes, forming a chela (pl. 
XIII, fig. 85), or chelate hand, as in the lobster. In the gide and the 
Cymothoide a greater or less number of the dactyli are strongly curved 
or hooked, for the purpose of retaining firm hold of the host, on which 
these parasitic species live. Legs thus constructed are called ancoral, as 
in Livoneca ovalis (pl. XI, fig. 67d and e). 

Of the seven pairs of legs attached to the thorax or pereion, the first 
three have in general a resemblance to each other, and are often more 
or less prehensile, while, as in Chiridotea (pl. IV, figs. 16 and 20), the 
last four are more strictly locomotive organs; but to this condition 
of things there are many exceptions, especially in the development of 
the first pair of legs, which are quite variable throughout the order, be- 
ing not even pediform in the males of the Gnathiida, but two-jointed, in 
our species, and lamelliform (pl. XII, fig. 76d). Except in this family, 
however, no confusion arises from speaking of the thoracic appendages 
as the first to the seventh pair of legs, or thoracic legs, and in general 
these terms will be used except where it may be necessary to use the 
technical terms, gnathopods or gnathopoda and pereiopods or pereiopoda, 
for these organs, as proposed by Spence Bate, according to whose system 
the first and second pairs are called the first and second pairs of 
gnathopoda* or gnathopods, and the remaining five pairs the first to 
the fifth pair of pereiopoda or pereiopods. When necessary these 
terms will be added as explanatory, having the merit of scientific 
accuracy as well as applicability to other groups of Crustacea, where a 


*See also Edwards, Ann. Sci. nat., IIT, tome xvi, p. 221-291. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 301 


marked distinction of structure and function frequently occurs between 
the organs homologous with the second and third pairs of legs in the 
Isopoda. 

In the adult females of this order there is commonly formed, on more 
or less of the under surface of the thorax, an incubatory pouch for the 
reception and development of the eggs. The outer surface of the pouch 
is usually formed by four pairs of lamelle attached just within the 
origins of the second, third, and fourth, together with the first or fifth 
pairs of legs, and in the females of many genera, Sphwroma and Asellus 
for instance, these lamella may be observed in a rudimentary condition 

on the under surface of the thorax when not actually in use carrying 
“eggs or young. In Asellus, and in some other genera, they are found 
- upon the first to the fourth segments, instead of the second to the 
fifth. In Anthura the ineubatory pouch extends over only three seg- 
ments, the third, fourth, and fifth; and in Astacilla it is confined to a 
single segment, being composed of a single pair of elongated plates 
attached to the fourth segment. In TYanais a further remarkable va- 
riation occurs, and the eggs and young are carried in sacs attached 
to the under surface of the fifth thoracic segment, while in the closely 
allied genus Leptochelia the form of the incubatory pouchis normal. Jn 
the Gnathiide and Anthuride, according to Spence Bate and Dohrn, the 
ineubatory pouch is formed by the splitting of the integument of the 
inferior surface of the thoracic segments in the females, and for the dis- 
charge of the young the outer lamella thus formed further divides into 
scales, one pair for each segment of the pouch. In Jera, Epelys, and 
probably other genera, a similar mode of development seems to occur. 

The six segments of the pleon are smaller than those of the thorax, 
often much smaller, and frequently more or less united, sometimes 
consolidated into a single piece with scarcely any trace of division 
above, but the number of pairs of appendages is generally six, show- 
ing the composite nature of the apparently simple organ. Of these 
six pairs of appendages or pleopods, the first five are more or less con- 
cealed beneath the pleon, and consist on each side of a basal segment 
bearing two lamelle (pl. IV, fig. 19¢), of which the outer is the anterior 
when they overlap. These lamelle, at least the anterior pairs, are 
usually ciliated along more or less of their distal margins with long 
slender plumose sete. In the males of most of the genera, the inner 
lamella of the second pair bears, articulated near the base of its inner 
margin, a slender stylet (pl. IV, fig. 19 6, s). This stylet seems to afford, 
in many cases, specific and even generic characters. 

The last segment, sometimes called the telson, has its pair of append- 
ages specially modified, and called the uropods (pl. X, fig. 63). They 
consist in general like the pleopods of a basal segment bearing two 
lamellie, or rami, not being always lamelliform, and in the Tanaide they 
are more or less segmented (pl. XIII, fig. 86). One of these rami may 
disappear, as in Spheroma and in some of the Idoteide (pl. V, fig. 25 ©), 
where a further modification takes place, and the uropods are so articu- 


302 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


lated to the inferior surface of the pleon as to fold together like a pair 
of cupboard doors, forming an operculum for the protection of the more 
delicate pleopods. Except in the Tanaide, respiration is carried on by 
means of the pleopods. 

In the Asellide, Idoteide, and some other families two or more of the 
segments of the pleon are united, so that, seen from above, the pleon, 
like the head, may appear to consist of a single segment, as in Jeera albi- 
Jrons (pl. I, fig. 4), but the number of pairs of its appendages, usually 
six, remains as evidence of this consolidation. In like manner the 
head is to be regarded as composed of several segments united, and the 
number of such segments is indicated by the number of pairs of appen- 
dages. In the Tanaide and many of the higher Crustacea, the eyes, 
more or less distinctly stalked or articulated with the head, are seen to 
be of the nature of a pair of appendages, which may be regarded as be- 
longing to the first cephalic segment. The antennule and antenns 
represent, respectively, the second and third cephalic segments, and, in 
jike manner, the mandibles and two pairs of maxille represent the 
fourth, fifth, and sixth segments of the head. A seventh segment is 
indicated by the maxillipeds. This segment is regarded by Huxley as 
properly thoracic* instead of cephalic, but, for purposes of description, 
the segment and its appendages will be regarded as belonging to the 
head, and the next segment considered the first thoracic. 

This segment, like the following thoracic segments, is usually free, 
-and has the dorsal region well developed, but in the adult Gnathia it 
is united with the head, and still more closely so in the Tanaide. The 
seventh thoracic segment is the last to develop, and in young Isopoda, 
taken from the incubatory pouch, only six pairs of legs are commonly 
found. In Gnathia this condition prevails through life, and in the adults 
the first pair of legs are also modified, especially in the males, so as to 
‘quite lose their pediform character, leaving apparently only five pairs of 
legs. Further modifications of structure will be described in the fam- 
ilies and genera in which they occur. 

The nomenclature adopted, as explained above, corresponds nearly 
with that proposed by Mr. C. Spence Bate in his Report on British 
Edriophthalma, and used by the authors of the British Sessile-eyed 
Crustacea. 

The length of an Isopod, in the present article, is given as the length 
of the body, exclusive of appendages, and is measured from the front 
of the head to the tip of the pleon. When, as in Janira, the head is 
produced medially into a “rostrum” (see pl. I, figs. 9 and 10), the meas- 
urement is taken from the tip of the rostrum, which is a part of the 
head, and not properly an ‘‘appendage.” 

Among the Edriophthalma or sessile-eyed Crustacea, the Isopoda may 
in general be characterized as follows: Body depressed rather than 
compressed; respiration carried on by means of the pleopods, of which the 
Jast pair only are modified into uropods. 


* Huxley, Anat. Iny., Am. ed., p. 276. 


q 
/ 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC, 303 


The body is said to be depressed, or flattened from above, in distinction 
from the form usually seen in the Amphipoda, where it is in general flat- 
tened from side to side. An important exception to the ordinary mode 
of respiration eccurs in the Tanaide, as has already been mentioned. 
In this family respiration takes place in two lateral cavities, situated 
beneath the integument of a large cephalothoracic shield, covering the 
head and first thoracic segment. In general, as the name of the order 
indicates, the legs are similar in structure and function throughout, as 
in the “‘sow-bug,” but may differ considerably, as in the Arcturide, ‘the 
Munnopside, and the Tanaide. 

The arrangement of the families in the present paper can only be re- 
garded as tentative, and no higher grouping will be attempted further 
than to indicate briefly the relationships of a few of the families to each 
other. 

The Oniscide may, on account of their aérial respiration, be regarded 
as standing quite distinct from the remaining families, and should, per- 
haps, be further divided as proposed by Kinahan. As they do not, how- 
ever, come within the proper scope of this article, I have not attempted 
to subdivide the family. The Bopyride have been placed near the Onis- 
cide in deference to the opinions of Dr. Fritz Miiller. Having made no 
study of this family myself I do not express any opinion as to the pro- 
priety of separating it so widely from the Cymothoide, with which it has 
usually been associated. The Asellide and Munnopside are closely allied 
to each other. The Jdoteide and Arcturide form a group distinguished 
especially by their operculiform uropods. The above families correspond 
nearly with the “ marcheurs” or walking Isopoda of Edwards, and more 
nearly with the ‘“ gehende Asseln” of Miiller. They usually have the 
antennule much less developed than the antenne, and the uropods ter- 
minal or inferior, that is, attached to the end of the last segment, or in 
the last two families to its inferior surface. 

The Spheromide and Limnoriide are closely allied, and perhaps ought 
hardly to be kept separate as families. The Cirolanidw, Algide, and 
Cymothoide form another group embracing a wide diversity of forms, 
from the active predatory Cirolana to the sedentary and distorted Livo- 
neca, and yet apparently connected by easy gradations. The remaining 
families are generally regarded as aberrant, and form the “Isopoda 
aberrantia” of Bate and Westwood. They do not present any very evi- 
dent relationships with the preceding. Of these the Anthuridw have 
usually been associated with the Idoteidw or the Arcturide, or with 
both. Except an elongated form, however, they do not appear to have 
much in common with either of these families. According to Dohrn’s 
observations they are related to the Gnathiide in the structure of the 
incubatory pouch. The Gnathiide have the head united with the first 
thoracic segment, as in the Tanaide, but this last family is widely sep- 
arated from the others, and doubtless ought to be regarded as forming 
a distinct suborder, according to the views of Dr. Fritz Miiller. 


304 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The arrangement of the families adopted, and to a certain extent their 
attinities, are indicated in the subjoined table, in which, however, as 
throughout the article, special reference is had to the representatives of 
the order in New England waters, extralimital species, genera, and even 
higher groups, Apseudes and the Serolids, for example, being disre- 
garded. The arrangement will be seen to considerably resemble that 
of Dr. Fritz Miiller. I have placed the Tanaide at the other end of the 
order, partly, however, from the necessity of a lineal arrangement. 


SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF FAMILIES. 


I. Respiration pleonal; legs not furnished with a chelate hand. 
1. Legs in seven pairs. 
a Antennule small or rudimentary; antenne longer, often much elongated. 
t Uropods terminal, sometimes rudimentary, rami mostly styliform. 
Legs ambulatory; antennule rudimentary; respiration aerial. 
I. ONIscID®, p. 305 
Legs prehensile; sexes very unlike; adult forms degenerate; para- 


RIGOR 1 7-ck aie each ceeeeene enbaeeees seas II. Bopyrips&, p. 311 
Legs ambulatory or prehensile; segments of pleon united ; antenns with a 
multiarticulate flagellum.........-. fist beers, ae nets III. ASELLIDA, p. 312 
Last three pairs of legs natatory; segments of pleon united; antenns with 
a multiarticulate flagellum................---- IV. MuNNopsID&, p. 328 

tt Uropods inferior, operculiform. 
Legs prehensile or ambulatory, not ciliated...--.....-. V. IpoTripa&, p. 335. 


First four pairs of legs ciliated; last three pairs ambulatory. 
VI. ARCTURIDA, p. 361 
b Antennule and antenne subequal; body not elongated. 
t Uropods lateral, with one ramus obsolete or subrudimentary. 
Antennulse and antenn well developed; pleon of two segments; uropods 


with one movable ramus ...U.. lu. Seek sete VII. SPHAROMIDA, p. 367 
Antennule and antenner short; pleon of six segments; outer ramus of uro- 
MOOS SM AN sce kn 6 Bere nrc mae patie kere mctchee axe VIII. LIMNORUDA, p. 371 


tt Uropods lateral, distinctly biramous; rami mostly lamelliform. 
Mouth carnassial; legs not ancoral; antennule exposed in front; pleopods 
OH AUE Mastin wea cao sce aoe nt cmiiaew oe ere IX. CIROLANIDA, p. 376 
Mouth suctorial; first three pairs of legs ancoral; antennule exposed in 
ENED Grp whe elas eS aida sats -clsgead BAS ele Sealed Ca LEN eee A 
Mouth suctorial ; legs all ancoral; antennule concealed at base by the pro- 
jecting front; pleopods naked..---.-.......-.. XI. CyMOTHOIDA, p. 390 
ce Antennule and antennex subequal, or antennule much the largest in the thales; 
body cylindrical, elongated. 
t Uropods lateral and superior. 
Legs ambulatory or prehensile..........-...-.-.. XII. ANTHURID, p. 396 
2. Legs in the adult in six, apparently only five, pairs. 
Five pairs of legs ambulatory ; antennule and antenne subequal. 
XIII. GNATHIIDA, p. 408 
II. Respiration cephalothoracic; first pair of legs terminated by a cheldte hand. 
Legs ambulatory and prehensile; head united with the first thoracic seg- 
ment; antennular flagellum single.......---..... XIV. TANAIDA, p. 413 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 305 


J,—ONISCID Zi. 


Antennule rudimentary ; legs ambulatory; pleon of six distinct seg- 
ments, of which the last is small; mandibles without palpi; uropods 
terminal.* 


This large and important group of Isopoda being terrestrial in habit, 
only afew species are mentioned in this paper. They inhabit moist situa- 
tions, and are commonly known as “‘sow-bugs,” “pill-bugs,” “ wood-lice,” 
&c. Several species may often be found under an old board or pile of 
rubbish. The genus Sigia Fabr. inhabits sea-shores, above tide-level, 
and a few other genera are found under heaps of seaweed, or burrowing 
in the sand along the shore. Three such species, belonging to as many 
genera, are heve described and figured, but are less fully treated of than 
the marine species that follow in the other families. Other species, 
especially of the genus Porcellio, may be found in similar situations. 

The family may be at once recognized by the apparent possession 
of only a single pair of antenne. These are the antenn# properly so 
called, the antennule being minute and rudimentary. This is generally 
regarded as a character indicating a high degree of development, and 
causes them to somewhat resemble externally some of the shorter myrio- 
poda, which, like other insects, have but a single pair of antennary 
organs. The maxillipeds are large and operculiform in this family, with 
short and few-jointed palpi. The mandibles are destitute of palpi. 

The legs are rather weak and fitted only for walking, and usually more 
or less concealed by the projecting epimeral regions of the thoracic seg- 
ments. The pleon, in our species, has its segments distinct and decreas- 
ing rapidly in size to the last, which bears the more or less exserted uro- 
pods. These organs may not, however, project beyond the general 
outline of the pleon, as they scarcely doin Actoniscus, while in Armadillo 
they assist in forming the very regular outline of that part of the body, 
which closes against the head when those animals, as is their habit, roll 
themselves into a ball on being alarmed. 

This family is placed by Bate and Westwood in a separate “ division,” 
the “Airo-spirantia,” on account of their aérial respiration. The air, 
however, requires to be saturated with moisture, and in some of the 
genera the respiration is, in part at least, aquatic. On this subject the 
reader is referred to the publications of Duvernoy and Lereboullet and 
of Nicholas Wagner. 

Philoscia *Latreille. 
Philoscia Latreille, Hist. nat. des Crust. et des Ins., tome vii, p. 43, “1804.” 

Head rounded in front, not lobed ; antennze with its segments cylin- 
drical, flagellum three-jointed ; pleon suddenly narrower than the thorax; 
uropods exserted, basal segment broad, rami elongate. 

*The above diagnosis would not include the genera Tylus Latreille nor Helleria 
Ebner, which perhaps ought not to be regarded as belonging to this family, although 
closely allied to it. 

20 F 


306 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


This genus may be recognized among our Oniscide@ by the rounded 
head without lobes, and the conspicuously narrowed pleon. Only a 
single species is as yet known from New England. 


Philoscia vittata Say. 
Philoscia vittata Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. i, p. 429, 1818. 
Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 50, 1844. 
White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 99, 1847. 
Harger, This Report, part i, p. 569 (275), 1874; Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 
1879, vol. ii, p. 157, 1879. 


PrATE LHe. 1. 


This species may be recognized, among our terrestrial Isopoda, by the 
absence of the usual antero-lateral processes on the head, in front of 
the eyes, and by the sudden contraction of the body at the base of the 
abdomen or pleon. 

Body oval, smooth; about twice as long as broad; head nearly 
twice as broad as long; eyes large, occupying the antero-lateral regions 
of the head. The antennule are minute and concealed from above. An- 
tennz minutely hirsute, especially on the last three, or flagellar, seg- 
ments, inserted below the inner margin of the eyes; first segment short ; 
second about twice as long as the first ; third equal in length to the sec- 
ond, clavate; fourth longer cylindrical; fifth longest, slender, cylindrical, 
straight; flagellum slender, three-jointed, longer than the fifth or last 
peduncular segment; first flagellar segment about one-half longer than 
the second; third longer than the second, tapering, tipped with a short 
transparent filament. 

The first thoracic segment is longer than the following ones, which are 
of about equal length. The anterior angles of the first thoracic segment 
are somewhat produced at the sides around the head; the posterior angles 
are broadly rounded. The second and third segments have their pos- 
terior angles less broadly rounded, but not at all produced backward. 
In the fourth segment this angle is scarcely produced, but in the fifth, 
and still more in the sixth and seventh, it becomes produced and acute. 
The legs increase in size and length from the first to the seventh pair, 
and are well armed with spines, especially upon the inferior surfaces of 
the meral, carpal, and propodal segments. The spines on the latter seg- 
ment are, however, much smaller than those on the merus and carpus. 

The pleon is at the base about two-thirds as wide as the seventh thoracic 
segment. In the first two segments of the pleon the coxe, or lateral lamel- 
le, are short, small, and nearly concealed by the seventh thoracic segment, 
but in the third, fourth, and fifth segments they are evident and acute but 
not large. The sixth segment is acute but not prolonged behind, and ex- 
tends beyond the end of the basal segment of the uropod, which is broad 
and bears the two rami nearly on the same transverse line. The outer ra- 
mus, seen from above, is narrowly and obliquely lanceolate in outline, 
tapering to the tip, and surpasses by less than half its length the more 
slender, styliform inner ramus. The uropods, the legs and antenne, and 
the segments of the pleon, along their margin, are very minutely hirsute. 


eR 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 307. 


The color of these animals is dull and somewhat variable, usually 
brownish or fuscous, with lighter margins and two broad dorsal vitte. 
Length 8™, breadth 4™™, 

This species has been found under rubbish and stones from Great Egg 
Harbor,!.N. J.,to Barnstable,! Mass. Al the specimens that I have seen 
have been from the coast, although Say states that it is “very commen 
under stones, wood, &c., in moist situations.” 


Specimens examined. 


: oF 
a H 
2 Locality. Habitat. When oor: Received from— a5 wee 
3 : Ey) 
a A 
1222 | Somers and Beesley’s Points,| Shore......--..-. Se rl | A. E. Verrill and Ale. 
N.J. ; ° Sih Smi theese. ae 25 
1911 | Stony Creek, Conn ........-. SSA CR ee Ser [test seer aechsacen AG He Vierrillle2s |= ssece Ale. 
2146 | Vineyard Sound, Mass...... sadOhaees aia Fo —— —,1871| U.S. Fish Com..../ 8 | Alc. 
1910 | Barnstable, Mass ..-...-..--. dee Oma ssee eee) on SOMES One seems CO. ee esee 3 | Alc. 


Scyphacella §::.'{h. 
Scyphacella, Smith, This Report, parti, p. 567 (273), 1874. 

Antenna composed of eight distinct segments, with a geniculation at 
the articulation of the fourth with the fifth segment; terminal portion, 
or flagellum, composed of three closely articulated segments besides a 
minute apical one; mandibles slender; exposed portion of the maxilli- 
peds formed of only two segments. 


The genus Scyphacella was founded by Professor 8. I. Smith, in part 
I of this Report, for the reception of the following species, the only one 
yet known. In regard to the relations of the present genus with Scyphax 
Dana* Professor Smith says: “This genus differs from Scyphax most 
notably in the form of the maxillipeds, which in Scyphax have the ter- 
minal segment broad and serrately lobed, while in our genus it is elon- 
gated, tapering, and has entire margins. In Scyphaax, also, the posterior 
pair of thoracic legs are much smaller than the others, and weak; the 
last segment of the abdomen is truncated at the apex, and the articula- 
tions between the segments of the terminal portion of the antenne, are 
much more complete than in our species. The general form and appear- 
ance of the genera are the same, and the known species agree remark- 
ably in habits, the Scyphax, according to Dana, occurring on the beach 
of Parua Harbor, New Zealand, and found in the sand by turning it 
over for the depth of a few inches.” 
Scyphacella arenicola Smith. 

Scyphacella arenicola Smith, This Report, part i, p. 568 (274), 1874. 


Verrill, This Report, part i, p. 337 (43), 1874. 
Harger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 157, 1879. 


PuaTE I, Fia. 2. 
The small size, nearly white color, and peculiarly roughened surface 
of this Isopod will in general serve for its recognition, and the presence 


*U. S. Exploring Expedition, Crustacea, p. 733, pl. 48, fig. 5. 


308 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of eyes will further distinguish it from Platyarthrus, which is often 
found inhabiting ants’ nests, but would hardly be likely to occur in the 
sand of the beach. j 

Body elliptical, pleon not abruptly narrower than the thorax, dorsal 
surface roughened throughout with small depressed tubercles each giving 
rise to a minute spinule. Head transverse, not lobed; eyes prominent, 
round; antennez longer than the breadth of the body; with the first and 
second segments short; third, fourth, and fifth successively longer and 
of less diameter; flagellum shorter than the fifth segment, composed 
of three closely articulated, successively smaller segments, and a very 
short somewhat spiniform but obtuse terminal one; all the segments, 
except the minute terminal one, beset with small scattered spinules. 

First thoracic segment scarcely embracing the head at the sides; sec- 
ond, third, and fourth segments each about as long as the first, but in- 
creasing in breadth; fifth, sixth, and seventh diminishing in length and 
the last two also in breadth. Posterior lateral angles of the first three 
segments not at all produced, hardly perceptibly produced in the fourth 
segment; fifth, sixth, and seventh with the angles increasingly produced 
but not acute. Legs increasing somewhat in size posteriorly, armed, 
especially on the inferior surface of the meral, carpal, and propodal seg- 
ments, with short stout spines. 

Segments of the pleon with the coxz but little developed. Ter- 
minal segment slightly rounded at the end, not attaining the end of 
the basal segment of the uropods, which are robust, with the basal. 
segment spinulose, tapering to the base of the short, stout, outer ramus, 
and bearing the more slender inner ramus much nearer its base. The 
inner ramus is actually longer than the outer, but being inserted much 
lower down does not attain the tip of the outer ramus; both are tipped 
with sete. 

‘Color, in life, nearly white, with chalky white spots, and scattered, 
blackish dots arranged irregularly. Eyes black.” Length 3.47, 

This species was ‘found at Somers and Beesley’s Points, on Great 
Egg Harbor!, New Jersey, in April, 1871, burrowing in the sand of the 
beaches, just above ordinary high-water mark, in company with sevy- 
eral species of Staphylinide,” and has also since been found by Pro- 
fessor Smith at Nobska Beach, Vineyard Sound !, Mass., in 1871, and by 
Mr. V. N. Edwards, on the beach at Nantucket Island!, December 6, 
1877. It will doubtless be found at other points along the coast and 


toward the south. 
Specimens examined. 


| 
| | 34 
BH | a ealk F H 
a Locality. | Habitat. eeu Gol Received from— 25 rae 
E | Be 
Great Ege Harbor, N. J...-. | Sandy beach .../ Apr. —, 1871] S. I. Smith ......-..|.-=--- Ale. 
2136:| Nobska Beach, Mass .-...--.|/-.-- dO 2. Shc Seean8 | Amro S91 Sill |. ee dosits. S352 2'* (VAS 
| NEM EWT OW eepe es coecsansccna| see (i (peg ore ee | Dec. 6,1877| V.N. Edwards ...---. 1 | Ale. 
| | 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 309 


Actoniscus Harger. 


Actoniscus Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 373, 1878. 

Byes small; antenne geniculate at the third and fifth segments; fla- 
gellum four-jointed ; terminal segments of maxillipeds lamellitorm, lobed; 
Jegs all alike; basal segment of uropods dilated and simulating the 
coxee of the preceding segments of the pleon; rami both styliform. 


This genus resembles Actecia Dana* MSS., considered as the young of 
Scyphax ornatus, and found with it on the beach at New Zealand. Pro- 
fessor Kinahan,{ on the other hand, regarded the genus as indicating a 
distinct family. The present genus differs from the description and 
figures of Professor Dana as follows: The flagellum of the antennz con- 
sists of only four distinct segments instead of about six; the terminal 
segment of the maxillipeds is less distinctly lobed ; the inner ramus of 
the uropods surpasses the outer, instead of falling far short of it; the 
outer ramus is styliform instead of being enlarged and subequal to 
the produced and enlarged outer angle of the basal segment. 


Actoniscus ellipticus Harger. 


Actoniscus ellipticus Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 373, 1878; Proc. 
U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 157, 1879. 


Puavre I, Fie. 3. 


This species may be at once recognized by the pleon, which appears 
to have four pairs of cox produced at the sides instead of three, as in 
Oniscus and other genera of this family. The last pair are, however, 
the basal segments of the caudal stylets, which are of peculiar form in 
this genus. 

The body is oval in outline. The head appears triangular as seen from 
above, and is angularly produced in a median lobe, but the lateral lobes 
are also large and divergent, and broadly rounded. The eyes are small, 
oval, black, and prominent. They are situated at the sides of the me- 
dian triangular part of the head, and at the base of the lateral lobes. 
The antennule are minute and rudimentary. The antenne have the 
basal segment short; the second enlarged distally, especially on the 
inner side; the third forming an angle with the second, and clavate; 
the fourth’ flattened-cylindrical, longer than the third; fifth longest, 
slender, bent at base and forming an angle with the fourth; flagellum 
shorter than the last peduncular segment, tipped with sete and com- 
posed of four segments, of which the second and third are equal and 
longer than the first, while the last is the shortest, and presents indica- 
tions of another minute rudimentary terminal segment. The mavxil- 
lipeds have the basal segment nearly twice as long as broad; the 
terminal segment elongate triangular, ciliated and somewhat lobed near 
the tip. 


*U. 8. Expl. Exped. Crust., part ii, p. 736, pl. 48, fig. 6 a-h. 
t Natural History Review, vol. iv, Proc. Soc., p. 274, 1857. 


310 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The first thoracic segment is excavated in front for the head, admitting 
it about to the eyes. The next five segments are each a little longer 
than the first, but the last thoracic segment is the shortest. The first 
segment is dilated at the sides to about twice its length on the median 
line. The second, and in an increasing degree the succeeding segments 
are produced backward at the sides. The legs are rather small and 
weak and of nearly equal size throughout. 

The first two segments of the pleon have their lateral processes, or 
cox, obsolete as usual in the family, but the third, fourth, and fifth 
segments are produced laterally into broad plates, which are , close to- 
gether, and, at their extremities, continue the regular oval outline of 
the body with scarcely a perceptible break between the thorax and the 
pleon. This outline is further continued by the expanded basal seg- 
ments of the uropods, which are even larger than the adjacent cox 
of the fifth segment. At the extremity of the pleon both pairs of rami 
are visible, the inner springing from near the base of the basal segments 
below, the outer from a notch near the middle of the inner margin of 
the basal segment. The rami are tipped with sete, and the inner just 
surpass the outer, which, in turn, surpass the produced portion of the 
basal segments. 

Length 4™™, breadth 2™™. Color in life slaty gray. 

This species was collected by Professor Verrill, at Savin Rock, near 
New Haven!, and also at Stony Creek!, Long Island Sound, in company 
with Philoscia vittata Say. 


4 
Specimens examined. 


Se 
Mm 
i b 
Z Locality. Habitat. NyheD co Received from— a3 Dy. ; 
o 
& 
a 7 2 
2137 | Savin Rock; Conn”. -| Shore. 22056252. oo. ee — —, 1874] A.E. Verrill.....-. 2 | Alc. 
2138 | Stony Creek, Conn..|... (eS acaesbendodsacchaod Saaetos Seqdnodesaccs (il ssesnsccocos 1, || Alc: 


The genus Ligia Fabricius* is recorded by Gouldt from the timbers of 
a wharf, probably in Boston, and by Dr. Leidy,{ with some doubt, from 
Point Judith, R. L, and the characteristics of the genus are therefore 
here briefly inserted, as follows: 

Antenne with a multiarticulate flagellum; basal segment of uropods 
exserted bearing two elongated cylindrical rami. 

They are found usually in rocky places and under stones just above 
high-water mark. They are common on our southern coast, and are 
probably, at least occasionally, transported by accident within our lim- 
its. I have seen no specimens from nearer than Fort Macon, N. O. 


* Suppl. Ent. Syst., p. 296, 1798. 
t Invert. Mass., p. 337, 1841. 
t Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., II, vol. iii, p. 150, 1855. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 311 


IT.—BOPYRID Zi. 


This family has not been studied, and only a list of the species, fur- 
nished by Professor S. I. Smith, is included. They are parasitic on Crus- 
tacea, and at maturity, the females especially, are generally much dis- 
torted and degenerate, often losing a great proportion of their appendages. 
The males are much smaller than the females, and of a more normal 
form, and they and the young forms must therefore be relied upon to 
indicate the affinities of this group to the rest of the order. According 
to Dr. Fritz Miiller these forms indicate a relationship to the Oniscide, 
and especially to the genus Zigia, and in deference to his authority I 
have inserted them at this place. 


Cepon distortus Leidy. 
Cepon disiortus Leidy, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., I, vol. iii, p. 150, pl. xi, figs. 26-82, 
1855. 
Harger, This Report, part i, p. 573 (279), 1874; Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 
1879, vol. ii, p. 157, 1879. 
Leidya distorta Cornalia and Panceri, Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Torino, II, tom. xix, 
p. 114, 1861. 
“From the branchial cavity of Gelasimus pugilator, Atlantic City, 
New Jersey.” (Leidy.) 


Gyge Hippolytes Bate and Westwood (Kroyer). 
Bopyrus Hippolytes Kréyer, Grénlands Amfipoder, p. 306 (78), pl. iv, fig. 22, 1838; 
Monog. Fremst. Slegten Hippolyte’s nordiske Arter, p. 262, 1842; Voy. 
en Scand., Crust., pl. xxviii, fig. 2, 1849. 
Edwards, Hist. nat. des Crust., iii, p. 283, 1840. 
Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1863, p. 140. 
Gyge Hippolytes Bate and Westwood, Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 230,1868. 
Buchholz, Zweite deutsche Nordpolfahrt, p. 286, 1874. 
Metzger, Nordseefahrt der Pomm., p. 286, 1875. 
Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, vol. xx, p. 64, (14), 1877. 
Smith in Harger, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 157, 1879. 


Massachusetts Bay !, off Salem, on Hippolyte spinus, 30 fathoms, sand 
and mud, August 4, 1877; on H. Fabricti, 22 fathoms, gravel, August 
4, 1877; on H. securifrons, 90 fathoms, soft mud, August 14, 1877, Casco 
Bay !, on H. polaris and H. pusiola, 1873. Bay of Fundy !, on H. spinus 
and H. pusiola, 1868, 1872. Off Halifax, Nova Scotia, 43 fathoms, Sep- 
tember 27, 1877. Gulf of Maine !, 40 miles east of Cape Ann, Massa- 
chusetts, on H. securifrons, 160 fathoms, soft mud, August 19, 1877; 
also near Cashe’s Ledge, on H. spina, 27 and 40 fathoms, rocks and 
gravel. 

Kast side of Smith’s Strait, north latitude 78° 30’ (Stimpson). ‘“ Dis- 
covery Bay,” north latitude 81° 44’, Greenland (Miers). British Islands 
(Bate & Westwood). Scandinavian coasts (Kriéyer et al.). Spitzber- 
gen (Kroyer). 


312 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Phryxus abdominalis Liljeborg (Kroyer). 
Bopyrus abdominalis Kroyer, Nat. Tidsskr., vol. ii, pp. 102, 289, pls. i, ii, 1840; 
Monog. Fremst. Slegten Hippotyte s nordiske Arter, p. 263, 1842; ; Voy. 
en Seand., Crust., pl. xxix, fig. 1, 1849. 
Phryxus Hippolytes Rathke, Fauna Nomrecane. p. 40, pl. ii, figs. 1-10, 1843. 
Phryxus abdominalis Liljeborg, fvers. Kong]. Vet.-Akad. Forh., ix, p. 11, 1852. 
Steenstrup and Liitken, Vidensk. Meddelelser, 1861, p. 275 (9). 
Bate and Westwood, Brit. Sessile-eyed Crust., vol. ii, p. 234, 1868. 
Norman, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1868, p. 288, 1869; Proc. Royal Soc., London, 
vol. xxv, p. 209, 1876. 
Buchholz, Zweite deutsche Nordpolfahrt, p. 287, 1874. 
Metzger, Nordseefahrt der Pomm., p. 286, 1875. 
Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, vol. xx, p. 65 (15), 1877. 
Smith in Harger, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 158, 1879. 
Massachusetts Bay!, off Salem, on Pandalus borealis, Hippolyte spinus, 
and H. securifrons, 48-90 fathoms, soft mud, August 13 and 14, 1877; 
also, on Pandalus Montagui, 35 fathoms, mud and clay nodules, Au- 
gust 10, 1877. Cashe’s Ledge !, Gulf of Maine, on Hippolyte pusiola, 
27 and 39 fathoms, rocky, September 5, 1874. Halifax !, Nova Scotia, 
on Hippolyte pusiola, 18 fathoms, fine sand, September 4, 1877; also, on 
H. spinus. About 30 miles south of Halifax !, on Hippolyte securifrons, 
100 fathoms, fine sand, September 6, 1877 
Grinnell Land, in north latitude 79° 29’; and “ Discovery Bay,” north 
latitude 81° 44’ (Miers). Greenland (Kréyer et al.). British Islands 
(Norman e¢ al.). Scandinavian coast! (Liljeborg et al.). Spitzbergen 
(Miers). . 
Dajus Mysidis Kroyer. 
Dajus Mysidis Kréyer, Voy. en Scand., Crust., pl. xxviii, fig. 1, 1849. 
Liitken, Crustacea of Greenland, p. 150, 1875. 
?G.0. Sars, Arch. Math. Nat., B. ii, p. 354 [254], 1877 (‘‘ D. Mysidis?”). 
Smith in Harger, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 158, 1879. 
Bopyrus Mysidum Packard, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 295, pl. viii, 
fig. 5, 1867. 
? Leptophryxus Mysidis Buchholz, Zweite Deutsche Nordpolfahrt, p. 288, pl. ii, 
fig. 2, 1874. 
Labrador (Packard). Greenland (Kréyer, Buchholz). ? Off west 
coast of Norway (G. O. Sars). 
Bopyrus, species. 4 
Bopyrus Leidy, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1879, pt. ii, p. 198, 1879. 
? Smith, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 37, 1879. 
A species of Bopyrus is mentioned by Dr. Leidy as “a parasite of 
the shrimp, Palemonetes vulgaris,” occuring in the summer of 1879, at 
Atlantic City, N. J. 


TII.—ASELLID. 


Antenne elongated with a multiarticulate flagellum; legs ambulatory 
or prehensile, not strictly natatory ; pleon consolidated into a scutiform 
segment, bearing terminal uropods, which may be nearly obsolete. 


This family is represented on our coast by four species belonging to 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 313 


three genera, and a species of another genus (Asellus communis Say) 
is common in the fresh-water ponds and streams of New England. 
The genus Limnoria Leach has been regarded by modern writers as be- 
longing to this family, but will be found in the present article in the 
Timnoriide (p. 79). There remain then to be considered the genera 
Asellus Geottroy,* Jara Leach, Janira Leach, and Munna Kroyer, which, 
as represented in our waters, may be further characterized as follows: 

The head is well developed, and in Munna is of large size; the body is 
usually depressed or but slightly arched, except that the pleon is vaulted 
in Munna. The eyes are present in our species though not through- 
out the family. The antennule beyond the basal segment are slender 
and are always much shorter than the antenne, which are elongated 
and composed of a five-jointed peduncle and a slender multiarticulate 
flagellum. The first three peduncular segments are short; the last two 
elongated. The parts of the mouth are protected below by a pair of 
maxillipeds with large external lamelle and five-jointed palpi. Within 
the maxillipeds are two pairs of maxille of the ordinary form; the outer 
or second pair delicate and three-lobed at the tip; the inner lobe being 
formed by the projecting basal segment, while the two outer lobes are 
articulated ; all three lobes are provided with curved spiniform sete. 
The inner, or first, pair of maxillz present two narrow lobes; the outer 
lobe broader and more robust than the inner, and armed with robust 
curved spines, while the inner is tipped with much weaker sete. The 
mandibles (see fig. 12 b, pl. III) are provided with one or two acute den- 
tigerous lamell (d) at the tip, usually a comb of sete and a strong molar 
process below (m), and a triarticulate palpus (p). This latter organ is, 
however, wanting in the genus Mancasellus Hargert from the Great 
Lakes and other fresh-water localities of North America. 

The seven segments of the thorax are distinct from the head and from 
each other, and differ but little in general appearance throughout. The 
legs are mostly slender and elongated, except that the first pair may be 
more robust and better fitted for prehension. In our marine species 
the dactylus, at least behind the first pair of legs, is short and armed 
with two small claws or ungues, while the propodus is capable of con- 
siderable flexion on the carpus. 

The segments of the pleon are united into a single piece, which is scuti- 
form above, flattened or but little arched, except in Munna, and bears, at 
or hear the tip, the biramous uropods, which are, however, nearly obsolete 
in Munna. The pleon often shows more or less trace of its compound 
character in imperfect transverse sutures on the dorsal surface near the 
base, and below it is excavated for the pleopods, the posterior pairs of 
which are delicate and branchial in their nature, while the anterior pairs 


* “Fist. des Ins. t. ii” (Edw.). For information in regard to the common European 
form of this genus the reader should consult the admirable work of G-.O. Sars, Hist. 
nat, des Crust. d’eau douce de Norvége. 

tAm. Jour. Sci., III. vol. xi, p. 304,1876. See, also, op. cit., vol. vii, p. 601, 1874, and 
This Report, part ii, p. 659, pl. i. fig. 3, 1874. 


314 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


are variously modified in the different genera and in the sexes, so that 
much confusion has been introduced into the family by mistaking sexual 
for generic modifications of these organs. The branchial pleopods are 
usually protected by a thickened anterior pair, which, especially in the 
females of our marine species, may be consolidated into a single opercu- 
lar plate, as will be further described. The incubatory pouch in the fe- 
males does not appear to extend farther back than the fourth thoracic 
segment, and it may be confined to the second, third, and fourth seg- 
ments. 

In the last-mentioned, as well as in many other characters, this fam- 
ily is closely related to the next, and perhaps the Munnopside may yet 
require to be united with it. Our species of the two families are at 
once distinguished by the last three pairs of legs, which are ambulatory 
in the Asellide and natatory in the Munnopside. Our Munnopside are, 
moreover, like the other known species of that family, destitute of eyes, 
while the marine Asellide have evident or conspicuous eyes, but the 
fresh-water genus Cecidotea Packard* is blind, as are also certain 
foreign species referred to the present family. ‘The relations of the 
Asellide with families other than the Munnopside are less evident. 
They were associated by Professor Danat with his Armadillide and Onis- 
cide to form his subtribe Oniscoidea, and, Limnoria being excluded, the 
group appears to be a natural one. 

Asellus communis Say, confined to fresh waters, and the only known 
New England representative of the genus, was described and figured by 
the present author, in Professor S. I. Smith’s ‘Crustacea of the Fresh 
Waters of the United States,” published in part II of this report (page 
657, plate I, figure 4). Our marine representatives of the family may 
be most easily recognized by the consolidated pleon, ambulatory or pre- 
hensile legs, none of them natatory, and the slender, elongate antenne. 
The genera may be distinguished by means of the following table: 


BHOLt SUDLUCIMENtAL Yio ee eae ate a iia lela ee eee JRA, p. 314 

flattened ab ; uropods 2 y ’ ’ 
Pleon ; Seats ee aor ; well developed.....---..---..-- PALE NORE ees ot JANIRA, p. 319 
vatlteds head large ose. .- 2-5 -e. sce sasise od oe eiae seinen toes Mains Sele ini sialelo in etoloteearoe Munna, p. 325 


Jeera Leach. 


Jera Leach, Ed. Encye., vol. vii, p. ‘‘434” (Am. ed., p. 273), “1813-14.” 
Antennule short, few-jointed; antenne moderately elongated; man- 
dibles with palpi; first pair of legs similar to the following pairs; lateral 
margins of the thoracic segments projecting over the bases of the legs; 
uropods short, rami subrudimentary; pleon protected below in the fe- 
males by a subcircular plate. | 


The short uropods and projecting lateral margins of the thoracic seg- 
ments serve to distinguish this genus from its allies, and other charac- 
ters of generic importance could doubtless be drawn from the pleon and 
its appendages, as well as from other parts of the structure, but, as it 


*American Naturalist, vol. v, p. 751, figs. 132, 133, 1871. 
tAm. Jour. Sci., II, vol. xiv, p. 301, 1862. 


_ 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 315 


is represented in our limits by a single species, [ have not been able to 
separate the generic from the specific characters with confidence, and 
have therefore described the species without attempting it. 


Jeera albifrons Leach. 
*“Oniscus albifrons Montague MSS.” (Leach). 
Jera albifrons Leach, F.d. Encye., vol. vii, p. ‘‘ 434” (Am. ed., p. 273), ‘£1813-14”; 
Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xi, p. 373, 1815. 
Samouelle, Ent. Comp., p. 110, 1819. 
Desmarest, Dict. Sci. nat., tome xxviii, p. 381, 1823; Consid. Crust., p. 316, 
1825. 
Latreille, Regne Anim., tome iv, p. 141, 1829. 
Edwards, Annot. de Lamarck, tome v, p. 267, 1838; Hist. nat. des Crust,, 
tome iii, p. 150, 1840; Regne Anim., Crust., p. 204, 1849. 
Moore, Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist., n.s., vol. iii, p. 294, 1839. 
Thompson, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xx, p. 245, 1847. 
White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 97, 1847; Brit. Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 69, 
1850; Pop. Hist. Brit. Crust., p. 231, 1857. 
Lilljeborg, Ofvers. Vet-Akad. Férh., Arg. viii, p. 23; 1851; ibid., Arg. ix. 
Peal; 1e52: 
Gosse, Man. Mar. Zool., vol. i, p. 136, fig. 243, 1855. 
M. Sars, Christ. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1858, p. 153, 1859. 
Bate, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1860, p. 225, 1861. 
G. O. Sars, Reise ved Kyst. af Christ., p. (29), 1866; Christ. Vid. Selsk. 
Forh., 1871, p. 272, 1872. 
Norman, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1866, p. 197, 1867; ibid, 1868, p. 288, 1869. 
Bate and Westwood, Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 317, figure, 1868. 
Metzger, J. B. Naturhist. Ges. Hannover, xx, p. 32, 1871; Nordseefahrt 
der Pomm., 1872~, p. 285, 1875. 
Parfitt, Trans. Devon. Assoc., 1873, p. (18), ‘‘ 1873.” 
Stebbing, Jour. Linn. Soc., Zool., vol. xii, p. 149, 1874; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 
IV, vol. xvii, p. 79, pl. v, figs. 5-6, 1876 ; Trans. Devon. Assoc., 1879 p. 
(7), 1879. 
Meinert, Crust. Isop. Amph. Dec. Dan., p. 80, ‘1877.” (Taira.) 
Harger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 158, 1879. 
Jera Kroyeri Zaddach, Syn. Crust. Pruss. Prod., p. 11, ‘(1844 ” (J. Kréyeri Ed- 
wards 7). 
Jera baltica Fried. Miiller, Arch. Naturg., Jahrg. xiv, p. 63, pl. iv, fig. 29, 1848, 
Jera copiosa Stimpson, Mar. Inv. G. Manan, p. 40, pl. iii, fig. 29, 1853. 
Packard, Canad. Nat. and Geol., vol. viii, p. 419, 1863. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, p. 131, 1874; Proc. Amer. Assoc., 
1873, p. 369, 1874; This Report, part i, p. 315 (21), 1874. 
Harger, This Report, part i, p. 571 (277), 1874. 
Jera nivalis Packard, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 296, 1867. (J. nivalis 
Kroyer ?.) 
Asellus Grinlandicus Packard, loc. cit. (not of Kroyer). 
Jera marina Mobius, Wirbellos. Thiere der Ostsee, p. 122, 1873; Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist., IV, vol. xii, p. 85, 1873. (J. marina Fabricius ?.) 
Jera maculata Partitt, Trans. Devon. Assoc., 1873, p. “253” (18), ‘¢1873.” 
Stebbing, Trans. Devon. Assoc., 1879, p. (7) 1879, (albifrons). 


PuaTE I, Fias. 4-8. 


This species is at once distinguished from the other marine Isopoda 
of our coast by the short uropods, arising from a notch in the end of the 


316 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


subcircular pleon. From the terrestrial forms, which it- somewhat re- 
sembles, and in company with which it may sometimes be found, the 
above-mentioned character, joined with the multiarticulate flagellum of 
the antenne, will serve to distinguish it. 

The body is oval and flattened, a little more than twice as long as broad. 
The head is transverse, broadly excavated on each side over the bases of 
the antennule, sparingly ciliated on the lateral margins, with short seat- 
tered spine-like unequal cilia or sete, which occur in a similar manner 
along the entire borders of the animal behind the front margin of the head. 
The eyes are prominent and black, situated near the posterior margin 
of the lateral regions of the head. The antennul are five-jointed, and 
do not surpass the fourth segment of the antenne; the basal segment 
is large and separated from its fellow of the opposite side by about 
twice its diameter; the second segment is about as long as the first, but 
of much less than half its diameter; third segment shorter than the 
second, fourth still shorter, fifth tapering, tipped with sete. The first 
three segments of the antenne are short; the fourth is robust, and 
about as long as the first three together; the fifth is longest, and is fol- 
lowed by a slender elongated flagellum. The maxillipeds (pl. I, fig. 
5) have the external lamella (/) short and broad, nearly straight on the 
inner margin, broadly rounded at the end, and somewhat swollen on 
the external side; the palpus () is five-joimted; the first three segments 
flattened, first short; second dilated internally and ciliated; third ciliate 
in the inner margin and narrowed to the base of the fourth segment, 
which is cylindrical; fifth short, conical. The terminal lobe of the max- 
illiped bears two rows of cilia near the apex, and on the inner side a row 
of short styliform organs. The outer maxille (pl. I, fig. 6 a) consist of 
a Semioval portion, broad and ciliated at the tip, bearing above the 
middle two articulated lobes, armed with strong curved sete at the tip. 
The inner maxille (pl. I, fig. 6 b) are armed with short stout spines, which 
are strongly spinulose on their inner curved side; inner lobe about half 
the diameter ofthe outer. Mandibles with a very much projecting molar 
process, a comb of pectinated sete, and a dentigerous lamella, or two of 
them on the left side. 

The first three thoracic segments are of about equal length along the 
median line, and are together nearly equal in length to the last four, 
which are also subequai along the median line, but the fifth segment 
appears shorter than the others on account of its short lateral margin, 
which has both its anterior and posterior angles strongly rounded. The 
epimeral region of the segments projects at the sides so as to cover the 
bases of the legs, and is squarish in the first three segments, rounded in 
the fourth, and still more so in the fifth, and obtusely angulated behind 
in the sixth and seventh. The legs are similar in form throughout, but 
increase in length to the last pair. They have the basis rather robust; 
the ischium shorter and flexed on the basis; the merus subtriangular, 
and tipped with spines; the carpus and propodus cylindrical, subequal 


— 


aia i i 


—_ vs 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. oud 


in length, but the carpus of larger diameter than the propodus; the 
dactylus short, cylindrical, and provided with two terminal hooklets. 
There are a few scattered spinules and setz on the segments, especially 
the merus, carpus, and propodus. In the males the merus and carpus 
of the sixth and seventh pairs of legs are provided on their inferior mar- 
gins with close-set slender curved hairs, which extend nearly the whole 
length of the carpus and over the distal half of the merus. 

The pleon is proportionally broader and shorter in the male (pl. I, 
fig. 8) than in the female (pl. I, fig. 7). It is broadly rounded behind, 
continuing the outline of the body without break, and is notched 
at the tip for the insertion of the uropods, which scarcely project 
beyond the general outline of the body, and consist on each side of 
a short, stumpy, cylindrical basal segment, a little oblique at the end 
where it bears two almost rudimentary rami, the inner about twice 
as large as the outer, and both tipped with a few short sete. The 
lateral margin of the pleon, like that of the body generally, is beset 
with short, scattered, unequal sets or spinules. Underneath, the pleon 
is excavated for the branchial pleopods, which are covered and protected 
below in the females (pl. I, fig. 7) by a large subcircular plate, sparsely 
minutely ciliated on the margin. In the male (pl. I, fig. 8) the under 
surface of the pleon presents on each side a small oval plate, with its 
inner margin overlapped by a median elongated plate, divided by a cen- 
tral suture, which is open distally. This plate is broad at the base, then 
narrows toward the middle, after which it expands much more rapidly 
into an outwardly curved and pointed lobe on each side, ciliated at the 
tip. Between these two lobes the plate is terminated by two transverse, 
subquadrate and elongated lobes, which are broadest internally where 
they are separated along the median line. They are excavated on the 
anterior margin and less so on the posterior margin, sparsely ciliated 
behind, and conspicuously so with divergent cilia at the outer short, 
straight margin. In the females the incubatory pouch appears to be 
confined to the second, third, and fourth segments. 

In size as well as coloration this species varies greatly, females being 
often found with eggs when less than half the size of the specimen fig- 
ured. They attain a length of 5™™ anda breadth of 2™™, but the males 
are at least one-third smaller and somewhat narrower than the females, 
the sides being more nearly parallel. In color there is also much varia- 
tion. A common color is a dark, slaty gray, with dots or small blotches 
of yellowish, this color prevailing along the anterior margin of the head. 
Very frequently darker or lighter shades of green occur, and the incu- 
batory pouch of the females is often bright green. Some specimens are 
very light colored or nearly white, often with»two or more transverse 
dark bands, with considerable contrast in color; others are reddish 
brown throughout. 

Iam unable to separate the American form, Jw@ra copiosa Stimpson, 
from the common English and European species, although they have 


318 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


hitherto been regarded as distinct. I have had no males from any 
European locality, but through the kindness of the Rey. A. M. Norman 
I have had an opportunity of comparing females from Oban, Scot- 
land, with our species, and have found no specific differences. The 
description and figures given by Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing in the Annals 
and Magazine of Natural History, IV, vol. xvii, p. 79, pl. v, figs. 5 and 
6, show a substantial correspondence iu the males also, so that I have 
regarded the species as common to both coasts. Whether the Green- 
land species J. nivalis Kroyer, and the Southern species J. Kréyert Ed- 
wards, are also identical with J. albifrons or not, I am unable to deter- 
mine, in the absence of specimens for comparison. M. Sars says that 
he has seen specimens of J. albifrons Leach from Trieste, but regards 
the Greenland species as distinct. Médbius regards the species as iden- 
tical from Greenland to the Mediterranean, and unites them under the 
name J. marina. Metzger, following Bate and Westwood, is more con- 
servative, using the name J. albifrons Leach. Bate and Westwood re- 
gard J. nivalis Kroyer and Oniscus marinus O. Fabricius as doubtfully 
identical with J. albifrons, and J. Kréyeri Edwards as distinct. Jd. 
Kroyeri Zaddach = J. baltica Friedrich Miiller appears to be, without 
doubt, identical with this species, as it is separated by that author from 
J. albifrons Leach only by the position of the eyes, which were incor- 
rectly described by Dr. Leach as close together. I have, therefore, re- 
ferred these two names to J. albifrons as synonyms, as has been done 
previously by Lilljeborg and others. J. maculata Partitt, a species based 
almost wholly on color markings, I have referred to J. albifrons, follow- 
ing Stebbing, who believes that he is “in accord with the author of the 
species” in so doing. 

This species is common, and in suitable localities abundant, on the 
whole coast of New England!, and extends as far north as Labrador! at 
least, where it was collected by Dr. Packard, who regarded it as identi- 
cal with J. nivalis Kréyer. It is fouid among rocks, alge, and rubbish 
along the shore, often nearly up to high-water mark, where it may be 
associated with some of the Oniscide, to which it has a certain resem- 
blance in form. It occurs “‘ probably” all around the coast of England 
(Bate and Westwood). Ihave examined specimens from Oban!, Scot- 
land. It extends to Finmark, on the coast of Norway (M. Sars), and is 
common on all the coasts of the North Sea (Metzger). It is recorded 
by Mébius in the Baltic among stones and alge down to a depth of 184 
fathoms. According to M. Sars this species extends to Trieste on the 
Adriatic, but without specimens I have not attempted to decide in re- 
gard to the synonymy of the Mediterranean species. 


| 
| 
. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 319 


Specimens examined. 


Speci- 

Fo oO mens. 

E Locality. 8 Bottom. Nyhan col: Receivedfrom—|_ aie 
4 : : 
~ 

5 SB No. | Sex. 

1921 | New Haven, Conn...|........|..---------------- May 41,1871 |.----...-.....-- 20 |.----- Alc. 

1917 | Stony Creek, Ce fay tr ee ol Tg) 2 oe ae een h issaade Ale. 

1916 Noank Harbor, Conns| sess ie eee ae | a7. DS Bncom: 25, |naecee Ale. 

1915 Apr aie Soudan oo eae eee ace Sateen eee | eememIOTIN Pe. dOwnc. 2250 1 Q | Ale. 
ass 

ThE A (eee eee L. w. | Under stones ...| —— —,1871|.-.-.do ......... Bi) | Esesne Alc. 

1920 Provincetown, WIECH pe soeeelasascrnansns apo0eoe —  —,1872}....do ......... EU eGe noe Alc, 

ob eeih) Banos Aceomcd sdacsoSe SUOTrereeereees te — —,1879|....do .......-. 00; Alc. 

Bees Les Gein sage | ett oe Paes OO rece seine < Aug. 13, 1879) eo. GO) oem ate isc 0\¢ Ale. 

Sci 2- se sepndocedse AbaNe) lbs oneeeaSeesoocue Aug. 13, LBTON Fe c0O: sctssiecicie= 15 Ale. 

6. MIM Ss Se ce asnécetos|booa seer Eel grass ...-..-. Aug. 23, IY) | saci agesee tine 6 Ale, 

Gloucester, iMigssieea septs = ALPS 55550002] —— ——, 1878)... do - 5-52.05 30 Q | Alc. 

See dilt’ ¢Ganeme Goole One| pooddoce Tide | poolsis2i<-.)aas-ee sees eses ears sl Ose starters 719 o¢|Alc 

Casco Bay ---.-.----|--en00-0|eaeese eens on aeons 878) 5 OMe oa nacional sae leas Alc. 

1919 | Eastport, Me...-.--- L.w. | Under stones .. 1868-1870 | A. E. Verrill...| 7 |.....- Alc. 

1918 eeeE or IMGs5 DOO’ nen =e Tide pool .....-. —— —, 1872| U.S. FishCom.} 5 |..2:-. Alc. 
slan 

192) ndian Vickle, Lab-"|..<.:...2|-ssseemecatesce==-|<<s005- 552-050 A. §S: Packard! =| 7 )-:..-.- Ale. 
rador. 

§19*| Hopedale, Labrador.|.....-.-. Stone ess sees eee eeise ose SO) na, sts ain eh anee| Semis Alc. 

Oban scotland’=2-5o|> sees. | some eeeien ear — —,1877 Rev.A.M.Nor-| 4 Q | Alc. 
man. 


* Asellus groénlandicue Packard, MSS. 


Janira Leach. 


Janira Leach, Edinb. Encyc., vol. vii, p. 6434” (Amer. ed., p. 273), ‘¢1813-14”. 
Asellodes Stimpson, Mar. Inv. Grand Manan, p. 41, 1853. 


Body loosely articulated as in Asellus; antennule slender, with a 
multiarticulate flagellum ; antenne elongated, with a spine, or scale, on 
the second segment and with a long multiarticulate flagellum; mandibles 
palpigerous; lateral margins of the thoracic segments not completely 
covering the bases of the legs; first pair of legs prehensile; the carpus 
thickened, and the propodus slender and capable of complete flexion on 
the carpus; dactylus short and armed with two small ungues, as in the 
succeeding pairs of legs; uropods well developed, biramous. 


This genus is represented on our coast by two species, one of which 
was originally described by Stimpson under the name Asellodes alta. It 
does not, however, seem to present any generic differences from Janira 
maculosa Leach, the type of the present genus. Stimpson’s generic 
description appears to have been drawn from the male, as he says: ‘‘ Ex- 
ternal pair of natatory feet having each two lamina, like the others, but 
broader and hardened, so as to perform the office of an operculum.” 
The two inner of these lamine are, however, united along the median 
line nearly to the tip, as will be seen below. 

Our species of this genus may be further characterized as follows: The 
body is elongate oval in general outline, between two and three times as 
long as broad. The eyes are distinct. The head is produced medially 
into a distinct rostrum, and the antero-lateral angles are also produced, 
but in the typical species (J. maculosa Leach) the head is rounded ante- 


320 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


riorly. The basal segment of the antennule is enlarged; the second is 
more slender and cylindrical; the third is short, cylindrical, or slightly 
clavate, and is followed by a short subglobose segment having the ap- 
pearance of a fourth peduncular segment. Beyond this, is a slender 
multiarticulate flagellum, composed of about twenty to thirty segments, 
the segmentation becoming indistinct toward the base. These segments 
are provided, except toward the base, with slender “olfactory sets.” 
The first three segments of the antenne are short and robust, and the 
second bears, near its distal end, on the external side above, a triangular 
seale, or spine, articulated with the segment and directed forward, out- 
ward, and somewhat upward; the third segment is comparatively short 
and small; the fourth and fifth segments are slender and elongated, and 
the flagellum tapers from the base and is composed of many, 80 to 120 or 
more, segments. The maxillipeds (see pl. III, fig. 12 a) are broad, with a 
rhombic-ovate external lamella (1), and a five-jointed palpus (p), of which 
the first three segments are flattened and expanded internally, where the 
second and third segments are also ciliated. The last two segments of 
the palpus are cylindrical, and beut inward toward the median line. The 
outer maxille are rhombic in outline, ciliated and spiny along the inner 
margin and at the tip, as are also the two slender, curved, articulated 
lobes. The inner maxille consist of the usual curved lobes, armed at 
the tip with denticulated spines, which are larger, stronger, and more 
numerous on the outer large lobe. The mandibles are strong, and fur- 
nished with an acute dentigerous lamella on the right side, received 
between two such lamelle on the left mandible; below is a comb of sete 
and a strong molar process. The palpus of the mandible is composed of 
three subequal segments, the last furnished with a comb of sete. 

The thoracic segments do not greatly exceed the head in transverse 
diameter, and are subequal, the second, third, and fourth with a lateral 
emargination. The legs are slender and elongated, ambulatory, or the 
first pair subprehensile and somewhat shorter than the following pairs. 
In this pair the carpus is slightly swollen and the propodus is capable 
of complete flexion upon it. The dactyli are short in all the legs, as 
compared with the propodi, and capable of only incomplete flexion. 
They are armed at the tip with two robust unguiform spines. 

The pleon is broad and flattened above. The uropods are well de- 
veloped and consist of a cylindrical or slightly clavate basal segment 
bearing two rami of which the inner is the larger and longer. The un- 
der surface of the pleon is excavated, and in the females is protected be- 
neath by a subcircular operculum, but in the males of J. alta, and proba- 
bly in both species, the thickened opercular plates are three in number, 
viz, a pair of semi-oval plates at the sides and a more slender median 
plate presenting traces of a suture along the middle. 

In the females, the incubatory pouch is formed of four pairs of plates 
attached to the coxal segments of the first four pairs of legs. These 
plates may usually be easily seen when the females are destitute of eggs, 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. o21 


being then small, elongate, oval, and lying near the under surface of 
the thoracic segments. 


Janira alta Harger (Stimpson). 
Asellodes alta Stimpson, Mar. Inv. G. Manan, p. 41, pl. iii, fig. 30, 1853. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vi, p. 439, 1873; vol. vii, pp. 411, 502, 
1874; Proc. Amer. Assoc., 1873, p. 350, 1874. 
Janira alta Harger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 158, 1879. 


PuaTES II AND ITI, Figs. 9,12, anp 13. 


This species may be at once distinguished from the following by the 
absence of spines in the dorsal and lateral thoracic regions, from all the 
other known Isopoda of the coast, by the flattened, scutiform and consoli- 
dated pleon, bearing well-developed, exerted, biramous uropods, which 
are, however, fragile. It is more slender than the following:species. 

The body is elongated oval in outline, nearly three times as long as 
broad. The head is produced in front into a prominent but short, acute, 
median spine or rostrum, and the antero-lateral angles are ‘also acutely 
produced, but are shorter and less acute than the rostrum. The eyes are 
prominent and black, situated on the upper surface of the head, near. the 
lateral margins. They are elliptical in outline, with the long axes con- 
verging toward a point near to, or beyond, the tip of the rostrum. The 
basal segment of the antennule is shorter than the rostrum; the flagellum 
consists of about thirty segments and does not attain the tip of the fourth 
antennal segment. The scale on the second segment of the antenne is 
short and triangular, does not surpass the following segment, and is 
tipped with a few slender sete. The maxillipeds (pl. II, fig. 12 a) have 
the external lamella (1) obtusely pointed at the apex and angulated on 
the outer side, otherwise they resemble the same organs in J. spinosa, 
as do the outer maxille, the inner maxille, and the mandibles (pl. ITI, 
fig. 12 b). 

The thoracic segments are but little broader than the head, the first 
three and the last two segments are about equal to each other in length; 
the fourth and the fifth are somewhat shorter. The lateral margins of 
the segments do not cover the epimera from above, and none of them 
are produced at the sides into acute and salient angulations, as in the 
next species. In the first segment the lateral margins are rounded and 
the epimera project as an angular tooth on each side in front. In the 
second, third, and fourth segments the emargination is behind a promi- 
nent but narrow lobe at the anterior angle of the segment and the epi- 
mera are two-lobed, In the fourth segment the posterior angle is nearly 
included in the emargination, and in the last three segments the posterior 
angle is elided and the epimera occupy its place. The legs are elon- 
gated and armed with spines, especially on the carpal segments. 

The pleon is rounded-hexagonal in outline, minutely and sharply 


serrate at the sides behind the middle, and undulated over the bases of 
21 F 


322 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


the uropods on the posterior margin. The uropods are slender, easily 
detached, and liable to escape observation. They are nearly alike in 
the two sexes, and consist on each side of an elongate, somewhat curved 
and clavate basal segment, bearing at the end two rami, of which the 
inner is nearly as long as the basal segment, the outer somewhat smaller 
and shorter. The rami are slightly flattened, and, like the basal seg- 
ment, armed with sets, especially at the tip. The branchial pleopods 


are protected in the female by a subcireular operculum (pl. II, fig. 13 a). 


In the male, the inferior surface of the pleon (pl. ITI, fig. 13 b) presents on 
each side a nearly semicircular plate (6), with its inner margin overlapped 
by a median, elongated, and narrow plate (c), marked along the median 
line bya suture. This plate is broadest near the base, then contracts on 
each side to beyond the middle, after which it expands slightly. The 
median suture is open near the tip, and, on each side, is a rounded lobe, 
separated by a sinus from the produced external angle. 

Length of body, exclusive of the antenne and uropods, 8™™, breadth 
3™™, Color in alcohol usually pale or brownish, with small black dots on 
the upper surface. The under surface is lighter, as are the legs and an- 
tenne, especially toward their distal extremities. 

This species is at once distinguished from the common European J. 
maculosa Leach by the form of the head, which is rostrate, and has also 
the antero-lateral angles strongly salient, while in J. maculosa the ante- 
rior margin of the head is nearly straight and the angles are not pro- 
duced. From Henopomus tricornis Kroyer,* as described and figured by 
that author, it differs in the elongated uropods. 

This spécies has not been found south of Cape Cod. Dr. Stimpson’s 
specimens were “ dredged in soft mud in 40 f. off Long Island, G. M.,” 


in the Bay of Fundy. It was dredged in Massachusetts Bay! in from 54 — 


to 115 fathoms mud, sand, and stones in 1878. In many localities given 
below in the Gulf of Maine! from 35 to 115 fathoms in. 1873, 1874, and 
1877, and 120 miles south of Halifax!, N.8., in 120 fathoms gravel and 


pebbles in 1877. It has also been obtained from several localities in the ~ 


Bay of Fundy!, in one case at low water on Clark’s Ledge, near East- 
port, Me. A specimen was collected in 1879, by Mr. Charles Ruckley, 


of the schooner ‘H. A. Duncan,’ thirty miles east of the Northeast — 


light on Sable Island, adhering to a specimen of Paragorgia, from a 
depth of 160 to 300 fathoms. 


*Naturhist. Tidssk., II, B. ii, p. 380, 1847; Voy. en Scand., Crust., pl. xxx, figs. 2 
a-g, “1849.” 


ee 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW. ENGLAND, ETC. 320 


Specimens examined. 


| Speci 
Ke : | g-l When col. | ‘ S me : 
3 Locality. | 8 | Bottom. locke! Pee Ale 
2 2 } | No.| Sex. 
oS SS all ae | Ss ee 
Gulf of Maine, ESE. 85 , Mud,sand,stones; —- —, 1878) U.S.FishCom.| 1/ Q | Ale. 
from Cape Ann | 
29-30 miles. 
Gulf of Maine, ESE. |110-115 | Mud, stones ....| —— —,1878|..-.do ......... 1 Q | Alc. 
from Cape Ann 
30-31 miles. 
Gulf of Maine, SE.} | 5460 | Sand, mud...... | —— ==, 1878 soadtlicAsccaace 21d 2) Alc. 
S. from Cape Ann 
6-7 miles. 
1934 | Gulf of Maine, SE. 90 | Softmud........ LS TTA oO) settee be eee Ale. 
from Cape Ann 14 
miles. | : 
1923 | Gulf of Maino, E. 112-115  Send%nd gravel.| —- —,1877|..-.do ......... 1 cheeieAles 
from Cape Ann 140 
miles. tb pe 
1935 | Between Cape Ann 35 | Clay, sand, mud.; ——- —,1874]....do ......... 1 Ua bese Ale. 
and Isles of Shoals 
1924 | GuJf of Maine, S. of 90) | Rocky oe sccerecac —— — 1873 |2.--d0 .--.+s5-- eS ee Ale. 
; Cashe’s Ledge. | | 
1A || (Cin tony aha a REARS Eocesoaa esosenidec crores — —, 1873 |....do ......... / Lie: Ale. 
Banquereau ........ Sacco: ecllocoaas sseaceqonece —— —, 1878 | Capt. Collins ..| 1 Q | Ale. 
1927al eBay Ol Handy, Me a| sacs sneo ose ae cncle ele oem — —,1872/ U.S Fish Com.| HiGasose Ale. 
1928 ee onan, Clark's gL. W.-30) Rocky eoseeee ee — —, 1872 ee dow sees weecleseees Alc. 
1929 Baye feandy, Buck: Neetbren a0) a Deora rg octane Wal hentd BAA97D (Ls dol. Sia ee 16, 2|Feaee | Ale. 
man’s Head. | ; 
A030 P Bay cots Bandy Off |b tance se ctateccccise sc ANTE HDT LST!) ls -dOMee cies mae Heese Alc. 
Todd’s Head. | | 
19325) Bayiof Fundy, Hast- |..---. 02). -06ccccacccnnencs — —, 1870) A.E. Verrill...; 1 |....-- Alc. 
port. | 
Thirty miles east of 160-300 | On Paragorgia..; —- —,1879, Mr.C.Ruckley.| 1 & | Dry. 
Northeast light | | | 
on Sable Island. } | 
1933 | South of Halifax 120 | 190 | Graveland peb- | —- —,1877) U.S.FishCom.| 1 }.....- Ale. 
miles. | bles. | 


Janira spinosa Harger. 
Janira spinosa Harger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol, ii. p. 158, 1879. 

This species is well marked among our known Isopoda, by the double 
row of spines along the back and the acute laciniations or angulations 
on the lateral margins of the thoracie segments. 

The body is robust, the length but little exceeding twice the breadene 
The head is broad, and produced in the median line into a prominent 
acute spine, or rostrum, about as long as the head. The antero-lateral 
angles are also produced and very acute, but do not extend as far as the 
rostrum. The eyes are rounded semi-oval, with the long axes converg- 
ing toward a point near the base of the rostrum. The basal segment of 
the antennulz is less than one-third the length of the rostrum. The 
second segment is about as long as the first, but of only about half its 
diameter. The flagellum equals, or slightly surpasses, the third antennal 
segment, and consists of about twelve segments. The scale, or spine, on 
the second segment of the antennz is slender and considerably surpasses 
the third segment. The external lamella of the maxillipeds has the 
outer angle prominent, though not acute. 

The thoracic segments are produced laterally into one or two acute 
angulations, giving a sharply serrated or dentated outline to the tho- 


324 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


racic region. The first segment is shorter than the second; the sec- 
ond, third, and fourth are about equal in length; the fifth is about 
the length of the first; the sixth and seventh each a little longer. The 
first segment is acutely produced at the sides, around the sides of the 
head, and bears, near the middle of the anterior margin, two short spines, 
situated about half as far apart as are the eyes, and directed upward and 
somewhat forward. The second segment has both lateral angles pro- 
duced into triangular acute processes, of which the anterior is more slen- 
der than the posterior and directed more strongly forward. The dorsal 
spines on this segment are a little farther apart and larger than in the 
first segment. In the third segment the lateral angulations are more 
nearly equal than in the second segment and directed less strongly for- 
ward. In the specimen figured the third segment bears, on the left side, 
a single broad angulation, apparently representing the posterior, while 
the anterior is only indicated by a slight irregularity in the outline. 
Malformations of this kind appear to be common. The dorsal spines on 
the third segment are much as in the second. On the fourth segment 
the anterior angulation is longer than the posterior, and both are directed 
nearly outward. The dorsal spines on the fourth segment are slightly 
smaller and nearer together than on the third; but, as in all the preced- 
ing segments, they are near the anterior border of the segment. The 
last three segments are acutely produced at the sides into a single angu- 
lation, which is directed more and more backward to the last segment. 
The dorsal spines on the fifth segment are situated nearer together than 
on the anterior segments, and rather behind the middle of the segment; 
they are also smaller than on the preceding segments. On the last two 
segments they are near the posterior border of the segment, and become 
somewhat smaller and nearer together on the last segment. The legs 
_are armed with but few, and rather weak, spines. 

The pleon is broadest near the base and tapers posteriorly, where the 
angles are acutely produced; between these angles the margin is rounded 
and arched over the bases of the uropods, which are about as long as 
the pleon and less spiny than in J. alta. The lateral margin of the pleon 
is armed with very minute acute spinules, and under a higher power the 
margins of the thoracic segments and of the head are seen to be similarly 
armed, especially where most exposed. 

Length 8™, breadth 3.8"; color in alcohol, white. 

This species is near Janira laciniata G. O. Sars,* but is distinguished 
by the double row of dorsal spines, whereas Sars says of that species, 
‘Superficies dorsalis medio leviter convexa spinis singulis tenuibus — 
ornata.” 

The only specimens yet known are two females, which were taken ad- 
hering to the cable of the schooner ‘Marion’, by Captain J. W. Collins, at 
Banquereau, August 25, 1878. 


*Chr. Vid. Selsk., 1872, p. 92, 1873. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. O25 


Munna Kroyer. 


Munna Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidssk., B. ii, p. 615, 1839. 


Form of the female dilated oval, of the male elongated sublinear; head 
very broad (about twice as broad as long), in length equal to one-fourth 
or one-fifth the length of the animal; eyes occupying the postero-lateral 
angles of the head, prominent, as if pedunculated but not movable; an- 
tennulz inserted above the antenne and partly covering their bases, 
short, a little longer than the head, with a four-jointed peduncle and a 
few-jointed flagellum; antenne elongated, equaling or surpassing the 
length of the body, with a multiarticulate flagellum; mandibles with a 
three-jointed palpus; maxillipeds with a five-jointed palpus; legs all 
armed with two terminal ungues; first pair shorter and more robust than 
the others, with a prehensile hand formed of the propodus and the dac- 
tylus; the remaining pairs ambulatory, increasing gradually in length, so 
that the last pair equal or surpass the body in length. The segments 
of the pleon are united into a single vaulted segment, and its inferior 
surface is covered, in the females, by a single opercular plate, while in the 
males the operculum is composed of three parts, as in the preceding 
genera. 


The generic deseription as given above is in part taken from Kroyer, 
the author of the genus. The specimens hitherto obtained do not ap- 
pear to be separable from his species M. Fabricii, to which I have there- 
fore referred them, although differing somewhat from each other. The 
material has unfortunately been, most of it, in poor condition, many of 
the specimens having been dried and much broken. 


Munna Fabricii Kroyer. 
Munna Fabricii Kroyer, Nat. Hist. Tidssk., II, B. ii, p. 380, 1847; Voy. en Scand., 
> Crust., pl. xxxi, figs. 1 a-g. ‘*1849”. 
Reinhardt, Grénlands Krebsdyr., p. 35, 1857. 
M. Sars, Christ. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1858, p. 154, 1859. 
Liitken, Greenland .Crust., p. 150, 1875. 
Harger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 159, 1879. 
Munna, species, Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, p. 133, 1874; Proc. Am. Assoc., 
1873, p. 371, 1874, 
? Munna Beckii G. O. Sars, Arch. Math. Nat., B. ii, p. 353 [253], 1877. (M. Beckii 
Kroyer?) 


PLATE III, Fie. 14. 


This species may be at once distinguished from anything else known 
on our coast by the prominent, as if pedunculated, but immovable, eyes, 
on the posterior lateral angles of the large head, together with the elon- 
gated and slender ambulatory legs in seven pairs, the first pair only 
being somewhat shorter. 

The first specimens obtained in a recognizable condition were small 
and differed somewhat from later specimens, especially in size and pro- 
portions; the differences, however, do not appear to be necessarily other 
than what might be due to age and size, and are such as are described 


326 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


by Kroyer in his specimens of Jf. Fabricii. The legs in the small speci- 
men figured are considerably shorter than in larger specimens obtained 
in 1878, and the flagellum of the antennule consists in the small speci- 
mens of a single segment, or with traces of subdivision into two, while 
in the large specimens it is four-jointed, with a rudimentary terminal 
segment. 

The body is in the female elongate oval, tapering posteriorly, and 
broadest at the third thoracic segment, where the breadth is equal to 
about half the length. The males are more slender, and are not dilated 
behind the head. The head forms about one-fifth of the total length, and 
is nearly twice as broad as long. Its anterior portion between the bases 
of the antennule and antenne is comparatively narrow on its upper 
surface, and is rounded or obtusely angled in front. Behind the bases 


of the antennule it is suddenly much dilated at the sides, and a little be- - 


hind the dilation are the prominent, strongly convex and laterally pro- 
jecting eyes, immediately behind which the head contracts suddenly in 
width, and is then slightly rounded behind. The antennule arise in a 
deep sinus on the antero-lateral region of the head. They consist of a 
four-jointed peduncle followed by a four-jointed flagellum of about the 
same length as the peduncle. The basal antennular segment is stout, 
and subtrigonal in form; the second is more slender and cylindrical, 
while the third and fourth are subequal, quite short and small, together 
not over half as long as the second segment, and should perhaps rather 
be regarded as flagellar segments. The four flagellar segments are of a 
little less diameter than the last two peduncular segments, and are long 
and cylindrical, the fourth being tipped with a rudimentary segment 
bearing two strong terminal sete. The antenne are much larger and 
stouter than the antennule and are about two or three times as long as 
the body. They are composed of a five-jointed peduncle and a.-slender 
multiarticulate flagellum. They arise nearly in front of the antennule 
and their first three segments are short and stout, not longer taken to- 
gether than the first two antennular segments.” The fourth segment of 
the antenne is only about half the diameter of the first three segments, 
but is greatly elongated, nearly or quite equaling in length the head 
and thorax taken together, and is cylindrical, and provided with a 
few short sete, especially at the tip. The fifth, or last peduncular, 
segment is slightly more slender and elongated than the fourth, and is 
followed by a slender tapering flagellum composed of about seventy-five 
segments, or, perhaps, in perfect specimens, of a greater number. The 
maxillipeds are large and broad, as required by the large head, and are 
furnished with a five-jointed palpus, with the basal segment short, the 
second and third flattened and expanded internally, where they are also 
ciliated; the fourth narrow; the fifth short, and both provided with scat- 
tered seta, especially toward the tip. é 
The first thoracic segment is a little shorter than the second, which is 
about equal in length to the third and the fourth; the last three seg- 


4 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 327 


ments progressively decrease in length and width, and the seventh is 
somewhat concealed at the sides by the swollen base of the pleon. The 
basal segments of all the legs are much alike in form, and differ but lit- 
tle in size throughout. They are cylindrical or slightly clavate, the first 
pair. perceptibly shorter and smaller than the second, from which they 
increase very slightly to the sixth, which is the largest, the seventh not 
being larger than the second. The legs disarticulate easily at the end 
of the basal segment, and in the specimens examined nearly all are 
broken off at this point. Beyond the basal segment the first pair are 
comparatively short, about half the length of the body. The ischium 
of the first pair is robust, and a little longer than the merus; the carpus 
is subtriangular and armed with strong short spines on its palmar 
margin; the propodus is about as long as the ischium, slightly swollen, 
and armed with a few spines; the dactylus is short and armed at the 
end with two stout curved claws, of which the outer is about twice the 
length of the inner; between the claws is a slender bristle. The sec- 
ond and following pairs of legs are much more elongated than the first 
pair, the elongation being principally in the carpus and propodus, and, 
in a Jess degree, in the ischium and merus, while the dactylus is compar- 
atively but little elongated. In the second pair of legs the propodusis 
not longer than the carpus, but it becomes proportionally, as well as ab- 
solutely, longer in the following pairs until, in the sixth pair, it may be 
nearly or quite as long as the body and form about two-fifths the whole 
length of theleg. Thedactyliare, in all the legs, comparatively short, often 
less than one-tenth the length of the propodus, and armed with two unequal. 
claws, of which the longer is about two-thirds as long as the dactylus 
itself, and the shorter is more than half the length of the longer. Inall 
the legs the ischium is armed with a few short curved spinules, and the 
elongated propodal segments are furnished with scattered, slender and 
elongated, straight spines, each with a minute bristle near the apex. 

The pleon is remarkably swollen near the base, and is somewhat 
pear-shaped ; posteriorly it is deep, and bears the uniarticulate uropods 
in shallow grooves near the end. On the upper surface are a few 
straight slender spines, and below it is covered in the females by an 
ovate, obtusely-pointed opercular plate, and in the males by a trifid 
operculum, the median portion being slender, with nearly parallel 
sides and a central suture, and the two lateral portions slender, semi- 
ovate and pointed behind. The pleon appears to be carried habitually, 
during life, flexed upward at a considerable angle. 

The length of the specimen figured, by Mr. Emerton (pl. ITI, fig. 14), 
is 1.2™™, breadth 0.77"; but specimens obtained in 1878 measure 3.1™™ 

in length, 1.5™™ in width, in the female, and 1.1™™ in the male. The 
- pleon measures in length 1.1™™ and in width 0.8"" in the larger indi- 
viduals. 

A single much mutilated specimen of this species was dredged in 12 
fathoms, South Bay, Hastport!, in 1872, by the United States Fish Com- 


328 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


mission, and two more specimens, both females, were obtained on eel- 
grass in Casco Bay! in 1873. Five specimens were obtained adhering 
to dried specimens of Acanella from 150 fathoms, Western Bank!, in 
1878, and a sixth, in 53 fathoms, on Brown’s Bank!, in lat. 42° 50’ N., 
lon. 65° 10’ E., by Captain J. Q. Getchell, of the schooner ‘Otis P. Lord,’ 
in the same year. In 1879 a specimen was obtained adhering to Acan- 
thogorgia armata, by Captain George A. Johnson and crew of the schooner 
‘Augusta H. Johnson,’ on Western Bank!, in lat. 43° 15/ N., lon. 50° 
20’ E., 200 fathoms. These specimens were, as has been mentioned, 
considerably larger than those at first obtained. Kréyer’s specimens 
were from a depth of 50 fathoms, at Godthaab, Southern Greenland, 
and according to M. Sars the species is abundant on the coast of Fin- 
mark among Hydroids in the coralline zone. G. O. Sars records I. 
Beckii Kréyer, which he regards as scarcely differing from this species, 
at the harbor of Reikjavik, Iceland. 


Specimens examined. 


| Speci 
5 2 My mens 
4 Locality. A Bottom. Wien cok Receivedfrom— ren 
5 | é No. | Sex. 
2144 | Casco Bay, Me......- Bee gees Eel-grass -.-.-.- =— = =, 1873)| U-S/BishCom:}ri2 | Oh Ader 
1936 | Bay of Fundy, Me . WO desea sees ewisccicn Ih S00 sansa if Q | Alc. 
Brown's Bank ...... G3) | Cease nesden sococe — —, 1878 “Cap i. FQ. 14) 7 QO nye 
Getchell. 
Western Bank...... 150 | On Acanella ....) —— —,1878)...--....--..--- 5 | SQ | Dry. 
Western Bank.....- | 200} On Acanthogor- |— —.1879} Capt. G A.| 1] @2 | Dry. 
| gia armata. Johnson. 


IV.—MUNNOPSIDZ. 


In this family the body consists of two more or less distinct divisions, 
the first consisting of the head and anterior four thoracic segments, and 
the second of the last three thoracic segments, and the pleon, which is 
consolidated into a single segment, convex above. The eyes are want- 
ing. The antennule are much shorter and smaller than the antenne, 
and have their basal segment lamelliform. The antenne are much elon- 
gated, with a five-jointed peduncle, of which the first three segments 
are short and the last two elongated and tipped with a long multi- 
articulate flagellum. The maxillipeds have their basal segments flat- 
tened and operculiform, covering the other mouth parts, and furnished 
with a large external lamella and a five-jointed palpus. The first pair 
of legs are shorter than the three following pairs and imperfectly pre- 
hensile. The next three pairs are ambulatory and usually greatly elon- 
gated. The last three pairs of legs, or at least the fifth and sixth pairs, 
are different in form from the preceding, and fitted for swimming, with 
some of the distal segments flattened and provided with marginal cilia 


; 
f 
| 
\ 
‘ 
: 
4 
. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 329 


or spines. The pleopods are protected by a thickened opercular plate, 
and the uropods are short and simple or biramous. The incubatory 
pouch in the females is beneath the first four thoracic segments. 


Of this family, two species have been found on the New England 
coast, and a third, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, is here included. 
The specimens obtained have been mostly in’poor condition, and one of 
these, belonging apparently to an undescribed species, is so imperfect 
that I have decided to await the collection of better specimens before 
attempting a specific description. In the family characters given above, 
as well as in the following generic and specific descriptions, I have 
availed myself largely of the admirable works of M. Sars and his son 
G. O. Sars, the distinguished Norwegian naturalists, to whom science is 
indebted for the discovery and characterization of the present group. 

The Munnopside of our coast may be easily recognized as belonging 
to the family by the structure of the last three pairs of thoracic legs, 
which are fitted for swimming by being more or less flattened and ciliated ; 
the last pair, however, may return to the more normal type of leg, so 
that the fifth and sixth pairs only may be natatory. The three genera 
which appear to be represented are distinguished as follows: Body sud- 
denly constricted and slender behind the fourth thoracic segment in 
Munnopsis (p. 329); pretty regularly oval in form, with three pairs of 
flattened natatory legs in Eurycope (p 38); suboval but deeply incised 
behind the fourth segment, in Ilyarachna (p. 40), in which genus the last 
pair of legs are scarcely at all flattened or ciliated. 

Munnopsis M. Sars. 
Munnopsis M. Sars, Christ. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1860, p. 84, 1861; Christ-fjord 
Fauna, p. 70, 1868. 

Anterior division of the body dilated, posterior suddenly much nar- 
rower and linear. Antennule with the basal segment large and flat- 
tened, the flagellum elongate and multiarticulate; antennze very long 
and slender, many times longer than the body; the last two peduncular 
segments greatly elongated; the flagellum about equal in length to the 
peduncle; mandibles subtriangular, entire and acuminate at the apex, 
without a molar process; the palpus slender with the last segment thick 
at the base and curved in the form of a hook; penultimate segment of 
the maxilliped not dilated inwardly; last segment very narrow and 
linear. Four anterior thoracic segments excavated above, obtusely 
rounded at the sides; the three following subeylindrical with short 
acuminate lateral processes ; first four pairs of thoracic legs six-jointed 
(beyond the coxal segment), the first pair short; the second pair not 
much longer, rather robust and subprehensile in the males; the two fol- 
lowing pairs greatly elongated and very slender, many times longer than 
the body; but with the basis, ischium, and merus very short; last three 
pairs of legs natatory, all alike, six-jointed, being destitute of dactyli, 
with the last two segments, the carpus and propodus, foliaceous, mar- 
gined with long, slender, delicately plumose sete. Pleon elongate, much 


330 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


longer than broad; abdominal operculum large (nearly cevering the 
whole under surface of the pleon), suboval, simple in the female, but 
consisting of three distinct segments in the male, one median and very 
slender, and two lateral, and furnished within with a peculiar curved or- 
gan, terminated behind with a much elongated seta; uropods slender 
uniramous. ' 


Munnopsis typica M. Sars. 
Mumnopsis typica M. Sars, Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1860, p. 84, 1861; Christ. 

Fjord. Fauna, p. (70), pl. vi-vii, figs. 101-138, 1868; Chr. Vid. Selsk. 
Forh., 1868, p. 261, 1869. 

G. O. Sars, Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1863, p. 206, 1864; Reise ved Kyst. af 
Christ., p. (5), 1866; Christ. Fjord Dybvands-fauna, p. (44), 1869; Chr. 
Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1872, p. 79, 1873; Arch. Math. Nat., B. ii, p. 353 
[253], 1877. 

Whiteaves, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, vol. x, p. 347, 1872; Deep-sea 
Dredging, Gulf of St. Lawrence (1872), pp. 6, 15, 1873; Am. Jour. Sci., 
III, vol. vii, p. 218, 1874; Further Deep-sea Dredging, Gulf of St. 
Lawrence (1873), p. 15, 1874. 

Buchholz, Zweite Deutsche Nordpolfahrt, Crust., p. 285, 1874. 

Heller, Denksch. Acad. Wiss. Wien, B. xxxv, p. (14) 38, 1875. 

Norman) Proc. Royal Soc., vol. xxv, p. 208, 1876. 

Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, vol. xx, p. 65, 1877. 

Harger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 159, 1879. 


PEAT HEE IG. 1: 


This species is easily recognized among the known Isopoda of our 
coast by the form of the body, which suddenly diminishes in diameter 
behind the fourth thoracic segment, so that the last three thoracic seg- 
ments, bearing the ciliated, swimming legs, are only about half as broad 
as the anterior part of the body. 

Anterior division of the body depressed, posterior subcylindrical; 
breadth of body less than half the length. Head small, with the length 
and breadth about equal, equaling the two anterior thoracic segments 
in length, but of much less breadth, truncate in front and without a ros- 
trum, bearing near the posterior dorsal margin two minute conical tuber- 
cles. The eyes are wanting. The antennule in the female, when re- 
flexed, extend to the third thoracic segment, in the male to the fourth, 
with the flagellum longer than the peduncle, pectinate or furnished with a 
longitudinal series of long sete, multiarticulate ; segments in the female, 
23 to 28; in the male, 65 to 66. The antenne are greatly elongate, about 
five times as long as the body, very slender; peduncle more than twice the 
length of the body, the last two peduncular segments beset with numer- 
ous short spinules, arranged in longitudinal rows; flagellum nearly as 
long as the peduncle, composed of about 130 segments. The external 
lamella (l) of the maxillipeds (pl. IJ, fig. 110) is narrowed in front 
with the external margin convex. 

The four anterior thoracic segments are subequal, short, about five times 
broader than long; last three segments broader than long, less than 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 331 


half the width of the preceding segments, bearing near the anterior dor- 
sal margin two small conical tubercles; pleon slightly longer than the 
three preceding segments together, but not narrower, forming somewhat 
more than one-fourth the length of the body, elongate-suboval, the breadth 
searcely equaling half the length, with a median, rounded, dorsal crest, 
but little elevated, and bearing in front of this near the anterior margin 
a small conical tubercle. 

Propodus shorter than the carpus in the first pair of legs, equal to it 
in length in the second pair, which in the males (pl. II, fig. 11 e) have 
the carpus thickened, and armed, on the inferior margin, with stronger 
spines than in the females; third and fourth pairs of legs about thrice the 
length of the body, with the three basal segments, basis, ischium, and 
merus, very short and robust; the last three very much elongated and 
filiform; the propodus longer than the carpus, both armed with many 
short spinules arranged longitudinally; dactylus about one-fifth as long 
as the propodus, slightly curved, naked, very minutely serrulate along 
the convex margin. Last three legs (pl. I, fig. 117) with the carpus 
and propodus elongate-subelliptic, both segments strongly ciliated, the 
propodus a little shorter than the carpus. 

Abdominal operculum in the female (pl. II, fig. 11 g) with a longitu- 
dinal, elevated, acute median crest, flattened medially in the males. 
Daopade plitity more than one- iferd the length of the pleon, composed 
of two subequal segments. Lamine of the incubatory pouch in the 
females attached to the anterior four thoracic segments; the three poste- 
rior pairs large; the third and fourth suborbicular ; the second elongate ; 
the first much alee bifid at the apex. 

Length 8-10"; antenne 40-50""; third and fourth pairs of legs 24— 
3072, Color, light yellowish, or gr een in alcohol; lighter below. 

The one ane that I have had an opportunity of examining were all 
more or less imperfect, and I have therefore, in both the generic and 
specific descriptions given above, made free use of the admirable and 
exhaustive description of this genus and species by M. Sars,* and the 
figures of the species on plate II were copied from the same author, 
having been drawn by his not less distinguished son, G. O. Sars. 

This species like its allies is an inhabitant of deep water on muddy 
bottoms. Three specimens, the only ones that I have personally ex- 
amined, were taken by the Fish Commission in the Bay of Fundy! be- 
tween Head Harbor and the Wolves, in 60 fathoms muddy bottom, 
August 16, 1872. It has been dredged by Mr. Whiteaves in the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence in 125 to 220 fathoms; by the Valorous Expedition 
in Baffin Bay in 100 fathoms (Norman); in 25, to 50 fathoms off Cape 
Napoleon, Grinnell Land, by the Arctic Expedition (Miers); between 
Norway and Iceland in ‘from. 2 20 to 417 fathoms; Christiania fiord, 
200 to 230 fathoms (G: O. Sars); Christiania Sound 50 to 60 fathoms, | 


*Bidrag til Kundskab om Christiania-fjordens Fauna, 1868, pp. 70-95, pls. vi-vii. 
(Nyt Magazin. ) 


332 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


whence the species was described by M. Sars; off Storeggen, 400 
fathoms (G. O. Sars), and northward among the Loffoden Islands, 250 
fathoms; the coast of Finmark, Spitzbergen (Buchholz), and the Arctic 
Ocean about Nova Zembla (G. O. Sars.) 


Eurycope G. O. Sars. 
Eurycope G. O. Sars, Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1863, p. 208, 1864. 


Body depressed, subovate as seen from above; about equally atten- 
uated before and behind. Head of medium size, more or less produced 
between the antennule; antenne very slender, two to four times as long 
as the body; flagellum longer than the peduncle; mandibles robust, 
quadridentate at the apex, and bearing below a series of rigid sete 
and a strong molar process; mandibular palpus well developed, with 
the terminal segment enlarged at its base and curved. Four anterior 
thoracic segments subequal, short; three posterior segments large not 
suddenly narrower than the anterior segments; the first pair of legs 
shorter than the next three, with the dactylus short; the next three 
pairs elongated, and with elongated and slender dactyli; three posterior 
pairs of legs distinctly natatory, with the carpus and propodus strongly 
flattened and provided with numerous plumose marginal sete; dactylus 
of the ordinary form. Pleon rather large, broader than long, obtusely 
rounded behind ; operculum subpentagonal with rounded angles, much 
smaller than the pleon. Uropods short, biramous, rami uniarticulate. 
Dorsal surface of the body smooth and shining. 


For the characterization of the genus, as given above, I have de- 
pended largely upon the work of G. O. Sars, having had myself, for ex- 
amination, only the following species: 


Eurycope robusta Harger. 
Eurycope robusta Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 375, 1878; Proc. U.S. 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 159, 1879. 


PuaTE III, Fie. 15. 


This species may be recognized by the flattened and ciliated swim- 
ming legs, in three pairs, on the last three thoracic segments, which 
are not, as in the preceding species, suddenly of much less diameter 
than the anterior four segments. 

Body oval with the length equal to, or slightly exceeding, twice the 
breadth. Head, behind the bases of the antennul, longer than the first 
thoracic segment, produced medially into a short rostrum about half as 
long as the basal antennular segment. Antennule (pl. II, fig. 15 a) 
attaining the middle of the fourth segment of the antennz in the females, 
surpassing the middle of this segment in the males; basal segment sub- 
quadrate, spinulose at the distal angles, somewhat narrowed from the 
base, bearing the second much smaller segment a little beyond the middle 


5 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 333 


of its superior surface; third segment longer and more slender than the 
second; flagellum of more than twenty articulations, which become in- 
distinct near the base, and are furnished with terminal sete. Antenne 
about thrice the length of the body in the female, somewhat shorter 
in the male, the sexes differing in the fourth and fifth segments, which, 
in the females, are subequal in length and, together, as long as the body, 
while in the male the fifth is shorter than the fourth, and the two seg- 
ments together are about two-thirds as long as the body. The flagel- 
lum is long, slender, and multiarticulate. Maxillipeds (pl. II, fig. 15 b) 
with the external lamella sub-rhombic, emarginate on the exterior distal 
side; palpus five-jointed, first segment short, produced externally into a 
very acute angle; second and third segments broad and flattened ; fourth 
narrow with the inner an®@le produced and rounded; fifth short, oval. 
Maxille of the ordinary form, outer pair with slender lobes. Mandibu- 
lar palpus elongated, last segment strongly curved. 

Thorax widest at the fourth segment; first four segments forming 
about one-third its length on the median line, last segment longest, all 
with their antero-lateral angles produced, the anterior four with the 
epimera projecting as an acute process below, and in front of, the angle. 
First pair of legs (pl. IL, fig. 15 dand d’) about three-fourths the length of 
the body; dactylus short; propodus shorter than the carpus; slightly 
hairy, especially on the propodus with slender hairs. Next three pairs of 
legs longer than the body, subequal, but increasing a little in length to the 
fourth; dactyli slender and acicular; propodi and carpi subequal, spinu- 
lose along their inner margins in the second pair, but not in the third and 
fourth. Last three pairs of legs with the carpus strongly dilated and 
flattened, subcircular as seen in pl. III, fig. 15,7, where the sixth pair is 
represented ; propodus also much flattened and dilated; both segments 
strongly ciliated with plumose bristles, as is also the ischium, or second 
segment along the outer dilated margin; dactylus about half the length 
of the propodus instead of less than one-third its length, as in Z. cornuta 
G. O. Sars, the species most resembling the present. 

Pleon much broader than long, broadly rounded behind. Operculum 
also broader than long, strongly roof-shaped. Uropods (pl. ILI, fig. 15 g) 
with the basal segment shorter than the rami, which are uniarticulate, 
cylindrical, of equal length, obtuse and tipped with a coronet of short 
spines. The inner ramus is more robust, but not longer than, the outer. 

Color in alcohol, honey yellow; length 4.5™"; breadth 2.2™, 

This species appears to approach EF. cornuta G. O. Sars,* but may 
be readily distinguished by its greater size, by the shortness of the 
rostrum, the equal rami of the uropods, and the shape of the external 
Jamella of the maxillipeds, which he describes in that species as “ver- 
sus apicem dilatata et emarginata utrinque acute producta.” In the 
third and fourth pairs of legs, moreover, the carpus and propodus are 
not armed with spines as in that species according to Sars’ description. 


* Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1863, p. 209, 1864, 


334 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


This species was dredged by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence! at a depth of 220 fathoms muddy bottom, and has not yet been 
found on the coast of New England. It is introduced here from the 
probability that it will yet be discovered in the deeper parts of the Bay 
of Fundy, where the allied Munnopsis typica M. Sars has already been 
found, or even in the Gulf of Maine. 


Specimens examined. 


; Speci 
8 . q When col- aie mens: | Dry. 
Z Locality. g Bottom. lected, |Receivedfrom—|__ ren 
5 2 @ No. | Sex. 
1938 | Gulf of St. Lawrence 2PAY || ilo G CS caancoocaljascccagoacsuce J.F.Whiteaves) 10] f @ | Ale. 
1939 | Gulf of St. Lawrence 22041. Soe 0) sc cals ecieee|ncees sees seele sen dvnssaccaes Spl aeeetee Ale, 


Ilyarachna G. O. Sars. 


Mesostenus G. O. Sars, Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1863, p. 211, 1864. 
Ilyarachna G. O. Sars, Christ. Fjord. Dybvahds-fauna, p. (44), 1869. 


Body scarcely depressed, subpyriform as seen from above, narrowed 
behind; its anterior division separated from the posterior by a deep 
constriction. The head is large and broad and without a rostrum. 
Antennule short, with a flagellum composed of but few segments. An- 
tenne exceeding the body in length, with a multiarticulate flagellum. 
Mandibles short and strong, entire at the apex; molar process armed 


with a few setiform spines; palpus either small and three-jointed or want- ° 


ing. Four anterior thoracic segments short, excavated above and fur- 
nished with lateral processes directed forward; the three following 
convex above and destitute of lateral processes ; the antepenultimate 
scarcely narrower than the anterior segments and deeply emarginate 
behind. First pair of legs nearly as in the preceding genus; second 
pair unlike the others and usually more robust; the following two sub- 
equal and commonly much elongated; fifth and sixth pairs of legs much 
as in Eurycope; the last pair unlike the preceding, long and slender, 
with the segments scarcely flattened, and armed with along curved claw. 
Pleon narrowly triangular, pointed at the apex. Abdominal operculum 
large, covering nearly the whole of the under surface of the pleon, pro- 
vided with a median crest and numerous marginal sete. Uropods simple, 
appressed to the pleon. 


For the generic description given above I have depended almost en- 
tirely upon the work of Dr. G. O. Sars, who originally described the 
genus under the name Mesostenus. That name being preoccupied he 
subsequently changed it to Ilyarachna. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 335 
Tlyarachna species. 


A single imperfect specimen of a species apparently belonging to this 
genus was dredged in 106 fathoms, gray mud, 21 miles east of Cape Cod 
Light!, September 18, 1879. The species is probably yet undescribed, 
but, in view of the very imperfect condition of the only specimen yet 
known, I have decided to await the collection of better specimens be- 
fore attempting to make out its characters. It may yet be found to 
represent an undescribed genus, but I am at present inclined to regard 
it as a species of Ilyarachna. 


V.—IDOTEID 2. 


Antennulx consisting of four segments, of which the basal is more 
or less enlarged and the terminal clavate; mandibles not palpigerous; 
thoracic segments subequal in length; pleon with more or fewer of 
its segments consolidated into a large, scutiform, terminal piece; 
uropods inferior, transformed into a two-valved operculum protecting 
the pleopods. 


The Idoteide are represented on the New England coast by ten 
species; another, found near our northern limits, is included, making 
eleven in all, belonging to five genera. The family may be further 
characterized, so far as regards our species, as follows: The body is 
depressed, and varies in its proportions of length to breadth from 
about two to one in Chiridotea ceca to nearly six to one in Hrichsonia 
attenuata. The head is quadrate in outline, except in Chiridotea. The 
eyes are present and usually lateral, but may not be conspicuous. 
The antennule are four-jointed and similar in form throughout the 
family; they may or may not surpass the head in length, but are usu- 
ally short and small. The basal segment of the antennule is more or 
less enlarged and usually subquadrate; the second segment is clavate; 
the third longer and less distinctly clavate; the fourth, or terminal, seg- 
ment, corresponding with the flagellum of the antennule, is nearly 
Straight along its outer, or in the natural position posterior, margin, 
while the opposite margin is gently curved from near the base, and 
rounds over more sharply at the tip; along this margin, especially toward 
the tip, are tufts of short set at regular intervals, indicating an approach 
toward segmentation. The antenne have a five-jointed peduncle, vary- 
ing little in form throughout the family; the first of these segments is 
short; the second is much larger and deeply notched on its under side; 
‘the third, fourth, and fifth segments are longer, but more slender and 
cylindrical or somewhat clavate. The flagellum of the antennze may be 
articulated with many or few segments; it may consist of a single seg- 
ment, or may be rudimentary. The maxillipeds are operculiform and 
cover the other parts of the mouth below. They consist, on each side, of 
a large semi-oval plate, with a straight interior margin, meeting its fellow 


336 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of the opposite side, and bearing on this margin a short, curved, styli- 
form organ. They are provided at the tip with stout pectinate seta, and 
along the basal portion of the outer margin lies, on each side, the large 
external lamella. The palpi of the maxillipeds are flattened and ciliated 
along their inner margins, and the number of segments may be reduced 
to three by the coalescence of the last two and of the preceding two. 
The maxille vary but little in the family; the second or outer pair bear 
as usual three delicate ciliated plates; the first or inner pair are armed 
with stouter sete and spines. The mandibles are robust, acutely toothed 
at the apex, armed with a more or less powerful molar process, and 
are destitute of palpi. 

The thoracic segments are distinct and subequal in length, but may 
differ considerably in width, and are not united with the head nor 
with the pleon. The legs, except in the genus Chiridotea, are nearly 
Similar in form throughout, and, in the first three pairs at least, are 
terminated by a prehensile or subprehensile hand, formed by the more 
or less complete flexion of the dactylus upon the propodus. | The first 
pair of legs is usually shortest and has a triangular carpus. The an- 
terior three pairs of legs are, in general, directed forward, and the 
posterior four pairs are directed backward and are less perfectly, or not 
at all, prehensile, a distinction that reaches its highest development in 
Chiridotea. The seventh pair of legs are absent in the young taken 
from the incubatory pouch, and do not generally attain quite as large 
size as the sixth pair. 

The pleon, seen from above, consists in great part, or entirely, of a 
large, convex, usually pointed, seutiform piece, representing the con- 
solidated terminal segments. As many as four of the anterior segments 
may, however, be more or less completely separated by articulations or 
indicated by lateral incisions or sutural lines. Underneath, the pleon is 
provided with a structure peculiar to and characteristic of this family, 
and the next, viz, a two-valved operculum, formed by the specially modi- 
fied uropods,* or appendages of the terminal segment, closing like a pair 
of cupboard doors and protecting the delicate pleopods, which are lodged 
in a vaulted chamber excavated in the under surface of the pleon. This 
operculum consists, on each side, of an elongated basal plate, often strongly 
vaulted, angulated externally near the base, where it is articulated with 
the terminal segment of the pleon, and bearing at the tip one, or some- 
times two, small lamella. One of these lamellz usually disappears, but 
two are present in Chiridotea, as also in the foreign genera Cleantis and 
Chetilia. When both are present the opereular plates differ only in 
proportion from the ordinary form of uropods, consisting of a basal seg- 
ment and two rami. Within the cavity enclosed by the opercular plates 
lie the usual five pairs of pleopods, each consisting of a basal segment 


*In the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica (vol. vi, p. 641), these organs 
are described as the ‘‘anterior” abdominal appendages. They are anterior only in 
position, being in fact the appendages of the posterior segment. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 538 


supporting two lamelle, and two or more of the anterior pairs are ciliated 
with fine plumose hairs. The inner lamella of the second pair of pleo- 
pods bears, in the adult males, a slender style articulated near the base 
of the inner margin and varying in length and structure in the different 
genera and species. The pleopods, besides their branchial office, are 
also of importance in locomotion, being used for swimming, which is a 
frequent mode of progression in this family, and is often performed with 
the back downward. 

The females are usually broader than the males and carry their eggs 
and young ina pouch, on the under surface of the thorax, formed of 
four pairs of plates, attached to the coxal segments of the second, third, 
fourth, and fifth pairs of legs, and overlapping along the median line. 

The known Isopoda of this family on the coast may be most easily 
recognized by the presence, underneath the pleon, of a two-valved oper- 
culum, opening like a pair of cupboard doors, and by the first three 
pairs of legs being more or less prehensile. Our genera may be distin- 
guished by means of the following table: 


; dissimilar, last four pairs not prehensile...........-..CHIRIDOTEA, p. 337 

Flagellum aisle legs 4 ae bee agen § evident above .......-. IDOTEA, p. 341 
ofthe J CTREGS (OGLE RTS Ge aoe not evident above..SyNmoTEa, p.350 
Sven snot araicniated, Glavaten est -eucseceancleewcee toaatecescs ee ese ....-ERICHSONIA, p. 254 
ishortjiandirudimentanyy ee samne sacle cine oe cise relajoeeeese iataeieet ee eee EPELYS, p. 357 


Chiridotea Harger. 
Chiridotea Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 374, 1878. 


First three pairs of legs terminated by prehensile hands, in each of 
which the carpus is short and triangular, the propodus is robust and the 
dactylus is capable of complete flexion on the propodus; antenne with 
an articulated flagellum; head dilated laterally; abdominal operculum 
vaulted, with two apical plates. 


The two species of this genus found on our coast agree further in the 
following particulars: The body is short, the length being only about 
twice the breadth, and the outline of the head and thorax together is 
subcircular. The anterior part of the lateral margin of the head is pro- 
duced and deeply lobed, the eyes thus appearing dorsal instead of lateral ; 
posteriorly the head is deeply received into the first thoracic segment. 
The antennule are proportionally large, equaling or surpassing the pe- 
duncle of the antennz. The external lamella of the maxillipeds (see pl. 
IV, figs. 18 and 21) is large and broad and the palpus consists of only 
three segments, of which, however, the last two are each composed of 
two coalesced segments, that are separate in the European Ch. entomon. 
Of the two segments thus formed, the terminal is quadrate or rhomboid 
in outline, with rounded angles and is smaller than the preceding, which 
expands distally toward the articulation between the two. 

The thorax is deeply excavated, in front for the head and behind for the 
abdomen, so that the thoracic segments are much longer at the sides than 
along the back, when measured parallel with the axis of the animal. The 

22 F 


338 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


epimera are separated by sutures, except in the first segment, and have 
their posterior angles acute. The first three pairs of legs have the dac- 
tylus capable of complete flexion upon the propodus, which is more or 
less swollen and supported by-the short triangular carpus. In the last 
four pairs of legs the three corresponding segments are nearly cylindri- 
eal and the dactylus is incapable of complete flexion on the propodus. 
The pleon, or abdomen, is convex throughout and pointed at the tip, 
and is composed, apparently, of five segments, of which the first three 


are separated by complete sutures, but the last two are united in the ° 


dorsal region, the sutures separating them being visible only at the 
sides. The opercular plates consist, on each side, of an elongated, 
vaulted, and attenuated plate, regularly rounded at the anterior end, 
truncate at the apex, and bearing just within the apex, on the inner side 
of the organ when closed, two ciliated, ovate or triangular plates. Of 
these the internal plate, or the one next the median line is much smaller 
than the outer; the outer also overlaps the inner, a disposition similar to 
that which prevails in the branchial plates or pleopods. The basal plate 
of the operculum is ciliated along its anterior and inner margin with 
bristles, which are plumose except in the region nearly opposite the 
articulation of the plate, where they become stouter and spine-like. The 
stylet on the second pair of pleopods in the males is long and slender, 
more than twice the length of the lamella to which it is attached. 


Chiridotea cceca Harger (Say). 

Idotea ceca Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., vol. i, p. 424, 1818. 
Hitchcock, Rep. Geol. Mass., p. 564, 1833. (JI. ceca?) 
Gould, Rep. Geol. Mass., 2d ed., p.549, 1835; Invert. Mass., p. 337, 1841. 
Edwards, Hist. nat. des Crust., tom. iii, p. 131, 1340. 
Guérin, Iconog., Crust., p. 35, 1845. 
Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 42, 1844. 
White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 94, 1847. 
Verrill, This Report, parti, p. 340 (46), 1874. 
Harger, This Report, part i, p. 569 (275); pl. v, fig. 22, 1874. 

Chiridotea ceca Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 374, 1873; Proc. U.S. 

Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 159, 1879. 


PLATE LV, Fries. 16-19. 


This species is at once distinguished from the following by its larger 
size and short antenne, which surpass the antennule but little, if at all. 
Among the other known Isopoda of the New England coast, it may be 
recognized by the broad, subcirculaf thorax, joined with an articulated 
flagellum of the antennz and a two-valved abdominal operculum. The 
eyes are, moreover, light-colored and inconspicuous, whence the name. 

The head is but slightly excavated in front for the bases of the an- 
tenn, and there is a more or less open notch at the sides extending 
nearly to the eyes. The antennule (pl. IV, fig. 17 a) are longer than 
the peduncle of the antennze and have the second segment strongly 
clavate; the third cylindrical; the last with about a dozen tufts of short 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 339 


sete ; the peduncular segments are bristly, as are also those of the an- 
tenn. The first segment of the antenne (pl. IV, fig. 17 5) is very short, 
the second about three times as long, longer than any of the following 
segments; the third is longer and more slender than the fourth, which 
is nearly as broad as long; the fifth, or last peduncular, segment is more 
slender than any of the preceding, slightly clavate, about twice as long 
as broad, and longer than any except the second. The flagellum slightly 
exceeds the last two peduncular segments in length and consists usually 
of about seven segments, each bearing a tuft of short hairs near its 
extremity, except the first, which is much the longest, bears two such 
tufts, and is, apparently, composed of two segments united. 

The breadth of the thorax is greater than its length along the median 
line. The first pair of legs (pl. LV, fig. 18 5) are a little shorter thangthe 
next two pairs, and the propodus or penultimate segment is a little more 
swollen. The carpus becomes slightly more elongated in the next two 
pairs. The last four pairs of legs are alike in form and increase in size 
to the sixth pair, which is the largest. The legs are bristly hairy, 
especially on the ischial, meral, and carpal segments, where they are 
provided with stout set curved at the tip. The basal segments bear 
longer and more slender plumose hairs. The epimera are ciliated on 
their external margins as are the lateral borders of the head and first 
thoracic segment and the tip of the pleon. 

The operculum (pl. IV, fig. 18 c) is also ciliated with very fine hairs 
along its postero-external margin; the larger of the apical plates is 
broader than in the-following species, the width being to the length as 
6 to 10. The stylet on the second pair of pleopods in the male (pl. IV, 
fig. 19 b) considerably surpasses the cilia and is curved and acute at 
the tip. Adult males and females seem to be comparatively rare, and 
a common form of the second pair of pleopods (pl. IV, fig. 19 a) presents 
an acute stylet, imperfectly separated from the lamella and but slightly 
surpassing it in length, strongly ciliated like the lamella on its margin. 

Length 12-15™"; breadth 6-8"". The color in life is variable but usually 
dark grayish, much like the wet sand in or on which itis commonly found. 
It may be more particularly described as usually of a dark leaden gray 
on the top of the thorax, sometimes with a central spot, which may be 
bright pea-green, probably from the contents of the digestive cavity 
Showing through. This dark color is continued in an arrow-shaped, or 
halberd-shaped, spot occupying most of the upper surface of the head. 
At the sides of the head and body is a mottling of light yellowish gray, 
darker again on the edge. The under surface of the body and the legs 
are pale and generally uniform in color. In alcohol the colors usually 
fade to a uniform straw color, with fine blackish dots, which are less con- 
spicuous in life. 

According to Say this species extends as far south as Florida. It is 
common on sandy beaches at many localities on the coast of New Eng- 
land, as at New Haven! and other localities on Long Island Sound!, 


340 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Vineyard Sound!, Nantucket!, Provincetown!, and Nahant, Mass.! It 
appears to be very rare, or perhaps does not occur in the northern part of 
the Gulf of Maine, where it is replaced by the next species; it reappears, 
however, on the coast of Nova Scotia, having been collected at low 
water by the U. 8. Fish Commission in 1877, at Halifax!. It is usually 
found on sand below high tide, or burrowing just under the surface, 
but also swims with facility. 


Specimens examined. 


| | | | 
| | Speci 
ra | @ | 8 mens 
2 Locality. 5 Bottom. ies oan a ol- ‘Receivedirom— ring 
: = . Ino | Sex 
4 Fy lies 
Nie weblay enn ccnenie co ecis at SEM a kenesemaeolESccooooeSSraE! soooéeeéécesee 00 | do | Ale. 
1944 paevard Sounds |eeeecacc PREIS C Cepia aes — —, 1871) w. S.Bish Com-s2<-|5---22 Alc, 
GS8i cece ecsceces | | 
GAS a LOitaNantucket ss se he| 2 samSocel| osc Salskiebwc lec seicn DOpb.. 16,1875 oa- CO) eae eens 1 SS See Ale. 
1946 | Provincetown, Mass.|........ SAN cen soc scnios |; —— —, 1872 |....do......... esl ees Ale. 
LOAN GhaNtyNLASS senocss|: UasWelilceacecwessceescoraledecceceersace | A.B, Verrill ..| 3 |...-.. Ale. 
1948 | Halifax, N.S........ WW ee cei ceke cere eae — —,1877| U.S. Fish Com. Jaceeleceeee Alc. 


Chiridotea Tuftsii Harger (Stimpson). 
Idotea Tuftsii Stimpson, Mar. Iny. G. Manan, p. 39, 1853. 
Verrill, Proc. Am. Assoc., 1873, p. 362, 1874; This Report, part i, p. B40 
(46), 1874. 
Harger, This Report, part i, p. 569 (275), 1874. 
Chiridotea Tuftsii Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 374, 1878; Proc. U.S. 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 159, 1879. 


PLATES IV AND V, Fies. 20-23. 


This species is distinguished from the preceding by its smaller size 
and longer antenn#, which are about twice as long as the antennule# 
and bear a slender flagellum. The eyes are also more conspicuous than 
in Ch. ceca. 

The head is excavated in front above the bases of the antenne; and 
the incision in the produced lateral margin is nearly closed by the over- 
lapping of the anterior lobe. The antennule (pl. V, fig. 23 a) are slender 
and do not surpass the peduncle of the antenna, the second segment 
as well as the third is cylindrical, and the last segment bears about 
nine tufts of short hairs; the peduncular segments bear also a few 
bristles. The antenne (pl. V, fig. 23 b) have the first segment short; the 
second, third and fourth about equal in length and more than twice as 
long as the first; the fifth as long as the third and fourth together, 
but more slender and cylindrical; the flagellum longer than the pedun- 
cle, composed of about twelve segments and tapering from the base. 
The maxillipeds (pl. IV, fig. 21) have the external lamella (e) longer 
than broad. 

The first pair of legs (pl. V, fig. 23 c) are somewhat less robust than in 
Ch. ceca._ They are a little aes than the second and third pairs, and 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 41 


have a much more robust hand. The fourth and succeeding pairs of legs 
(pl. V, fig. 23 d) are much as in the preceding species but less spiny and 
with a greater proportion of plumose hairs. 

The external apical plate of the operculum (pl. V, fig. 23 e) is slender 
and twice as long as broad. The stylet on the second pair of pleopods 
in the males (pl. IV, fig. 22 s) does not surpass the cilia, is dilated to- 
wards the tip and obtusely pointed. 

Length 9™™; breadth 4.5". The color is usually light reddish brown, 
speckled with darker, or marked with dark transverse patches, or bands. 
A specimen obtained during the summer of 1879, from a clear sandy 
bottom in 17 fathoms, Stellwagen’s Bank, is thus described from life by 
Professor Verrill: “Color whitish, more or less speckled with salmon 
on the sides above, the specks more regular and distinct on the head, 
some lines and specks of flake-white on the middle of the back above 
the greenish stomach; base of telson salmon brown, its posterior helt 
white; legs marked satin salmon.” 

Dr: (SeamEOE specimen “was dredged on a sandy bottom in 10 
fathoms off Cheney’s Head” in the Bay of Fundy. It occurs in Long 
Island Sound, where a specimen was taken by Dr. T. M. Prudden off 
New London! in 1872. The species was, however, considered rare on the 
coast until 1878, when it was taken in considerable abundance in Glou- 
cester Harbor, ! Massachusetts Bay, in seven to eight and a half fathoms, 
sand and red alge. It has also been collected at Casco Bay, ! Maine, in 
1873; at low water in Prince’s Cove,! Eastport, in the Bay of Fundy, in 
1872, and at Halifax, N.S.,! in 18 to 25 fathoms, sand, September 5, 
1877; a single specimen in each case. Three additional specimens were 
obtained in 1879, as detailed below. 


Specimens examined. 


Speci 
K a mens 
3 Locality. g Bottom. | eee ak Receivedfrom—|__ el 
5 3 | No. | Sex. 
A ia | 
1953) |LOMeNenmgbondonec.:|s.5-seenlacdeses << Saelooc ces |—— —,1872| T.M.Prudden| 1] ¢ | Ale. 
Gloucester Harbor, 83 Sandee o-cscs «ac | —— —, 1878} U.S. FishCom. | 10 |...... Alc. 
Massachusetts Bay | 
Peedoisee So pee a 7h pao area | ee ne1970) hia do esate: (a Bbaade Ale, 
Stellwagen’ 8 Bank..| 17 “Coarse sand..... Sept Gs LST Oie soccer ol) wl Q | Ale 
Off Boston Harbor..| 16 Speckled sand ..) Sept. 13,1879 |....do -.....-.. 2| o0Q | Ale 
803 | Casco Bay, Me ......|.-..--..| Sand.....- BE any | July 12, 103753 ees ieee es eae esp eat Ale. 
1952 eae ney IPFINGO| S|) La Wert lewisis 0) s-cio ale sls aie |—— —,1872]....do......... i Q | Ale. 
1951 Ealitax, ouvershar= | We-o5use.c00sececacs anc tSepta Spleiilees 0.00.44. = ser. nN Sagcioe Alc. 
or. { 
| 


Idotea Fabricius. 
Idotea Fabricius, Suppl. Ent. Syst., p. 297, 1798. 


Flagellum of the antenne articulated; legs all terminated by a pre- 
hensile hand; epimeral sutures evident above except in the first thoracic. 


342 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


segment; pleon composed apparently of four segments, of which the 
last two are consolidated in the dorsal region; operculum with a single 
apical plate. 


The species to which I propose to limit the name Idotea* may be briefly 
characterized as above, and, of these, the three found on our coast agree 
further as follows: The body is elongated, its length being from three 
to four times its breadth, and the sides are nearly parallel. The head is 
quadrate and not produced at the sides. The eyes are lateral. The 
antennule are small and short, hardly surpassing the third segment of 
the antenne. The basal segment of the antenne is very short; the 
second segment much larger and deeply incised on its under surface; 
the third, fourth and fifth segments increase in length but decrease in 


diameter; the flagellum is more or less distinctly articulated, the num- . 


ber of articulations increasing with age. The palpus of the maxillipeds 
is four-jointed, the last segment being composed of two segments united, 
as is indicated by a notch near the tip. 

The thorax is moderately arched, with the sides but little dilated 
in the males, somewhat more so in the females. The epimera are con- 
spicuous and separated from their segments by a suture above, except in 
the first segment, but may not occupy its entire lateralmargin. The legs 
differ but little in form throughout, being all more or less perfectly 
prehensile, but in the first pair only is the carpus triangular. 

The pleon or abdomen appears, when seen from above, to consist of four 
segments, of which the first two are separated by complete sutures, but 
the third and fourth by sutures at the sides only. The uropods, forming 
the abdominal operculum, consist on each side of a flattened, elongated 
plate, with the anterior end rounded, the sides nearly parallel for most, 
or all, of its length and bearing at its truncated apex a much shorter 
more or less tapering or triangular plate. Neither of these plates is 
strongly ciliated in our species, but a stout, densely plumose bristle 
springs from the basal plate, on the inside, near the outer end of the ar- 
ticulation between the two plates. Thestylet on the second pair of pleo- 
pods of the males is not elongated and may not surpass the lamella to 
which it is attached. The ineubatory pouch is conspicuous in the 
females. 

Our representatives of this genus may be recognized among the other 
known Isopoda of the coast by the following characters: The pleon ap- 
pears to consist of four segments, the first three short and the third 
united, in the dorsal region, to the large, more or less vaulted, terminal 
segment; underneath the pleon is the conspicuous two-valved operculum 
and, in the antenne, the flagellum consists of several segments. The 
three species may be distinguished by the form of the tip of the pleon, 
which is more or less tridentate in J. irrorata (p. 343), pointed in J. 
phosphorea (p. 347), and truncate in J. robusta (p. 349). 


* The orthography adopted is that of Fabricius, the author of the genus. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF ao ENGLAND,, ETC. 343° 


Idotea irrorata Edwards (Say). 


Idotea entomon Leach, Edinb. Encye., vol. vii, (Am. ed., p. 243, pl. cexxi, fig. 
7), “£1813-14”; Trans, Linn. Soc., vol. xi, p. 364, 1815 (not Oniscus 
entomon. Linné. ) 

Templeton, Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. ix, p. 92; 1836, 
Moore, Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. iii, p. 294, 1839. 

Stenosoma irrorata Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol.i, pp. 423, 444, 1818. 
Hitchcock, Rep. Geol. Mass., p. 564, 1833. 
Gould, Rep. Geol. Mass., 2 ed., p. 549, 1835 ; Invert. Mass., p. 338, 1841. 
Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 43, pl. ix, fig. 42, 1844. 

Idotea tricuspidata Desmarest, Dict. des Sci. nat., tom. xxviii, p. 373, pl. 46, fig. 

11, 1823; Consid. Crust., p. 289, pl. 46, fig. 11, 1825. 

‘Roux, Crust. Medit., t. 29, f. 11, 12,” (B. & W.) 

Latreille, Regne Anim., t. iv, p. 139, 1829. 

Gould, Rep. Geol. Mass., 2 ed., p. 549, 1835 (tricuspidata ?). 

Edwards, Hist. nat. des Crust., tom. iii, p. 129, 1840, 

CErsted, Naturhist. Tidssk., B. iii, p. 561, 1841. 

Zaddach, Crust. Pruss. Prod., p. 10, ‘‘ 1844.” 

Lucas, Expl. Algérie, tom. i, p. 60, 1849. 

White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 94, 1847; Brit. Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 65, 
1850; Pop. Hist. Brit. Crust., p. 223, pl. 12, fig. 2, 1857. 

Hope, Cat. Crost. Ital., p. 26, 1851. 

Lilljjeborg, Ofvers. Vet.-Acad. Forh., Arg. 9, p. 11, 1852 (Idothea). 

M. Sars, Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1858, p. 151, 1859 (Idothea.) 

Bate, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1860, p. 225, 1861, 

Norman, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb., vol. i, p. 25, 1865; Rep. Brit. Assoo., 
1866, p. 197, 1867; op. cit., 1868, p. 289, 1869. 

G. O. Sars, Reise ved Kyst. af Christ., 1865, p. (28), 1866 (Idothea). 

Heller, Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, B. xvi, p. 728, 1866 (Idothea). 

Marcusen, Arch. Naturges., Jahrgang xxxiii, B. 1, p. 360, 1867. 

Bate.and Westwood, Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 379, figure, 1868. 

“Senger, Fauna of Baltic, Imp. Soc. Nat. Se. Mose., viii, 1869.” 

“‘Miinter und Buchholz, Carcin. Fauna Deutschlands, 1869.” 

Czerniavski, Zoog. Pont. Comp., pp. 83, 129, “1870.” 

Metzger, J. B. Naturhist. Ges. Hannover, vol. xx, p. 32,1871; Nordseefahrt 
der Pomm.,-1872-'73, p. 285, 1875. 

Mobius, Die Wirbellosen Thiere der Ostsee, p. 121, 1873. Ann. Mag. Nat, 
Hist., 1V, vol. xii, p. 85, 1873. 

Parfitt, Trans, Devon. Assoc., Sess. Crust., p. (19), 1873. 

Bos, Bijd. ken. Crust. Hed. Nederl., pp. 34, 67, 1874. 

M’Intosh, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, vol. xiv, p. 273, 1874. 

Stebbing, Jour. Linn, Soc., vol. xii, p. 148, 1874. 

Catta, Ann. Sci. nat., Zool., VI, tome iii, p. 30, 1876. 

Stalio, Cat. Crost. Adriatic, p. 206, 1277. 

Lenz, Wirbellos. Thiere, Trave. Bucht, p. 15, 1878. 

Idotea Basteri Audouin, Descr. Savigny’s Egypt, Crust., pl. 12, fig. 6, 1830.” 

Guerin. Iconog., Crust., p. 32, p!. xxxi, fig. 1, 1829-43. 

“Roux, Crust. Mediterr., t. 29, f. 1-10,” 1830 (B. & W.). 

“Rathke, Fauna der Krimm, p. 380,” 1830 (Edw.). 

“ Tdotea variegata Roux, Crust. Mediterr., pl. 30, fig. 1-9,” 1830 (B. & W.). 

Idotea (pelagica?) Latreille, Cours d’Ent., Atlas, p. 12, pl. xviii, figs, 20-30, 1831. 

“ Armida bimarginata Risso, Hist. nat. Eur. merid., 5,109” (B. & W.). 

Idotea irrorata Edwards, Hist. nat. des Crust., tome iii, p. 152, 1840. 

White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 94, 1847. 
Stimpson, Mar. Inv. G. Manan, p. 39, 1853. 
Leidy, Jour. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phil., II, vol. iii., p. 150, 1855. 


344 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Idotea izrorata—Continued. 
Harger, This Report, part i, p. 569 (275), pl. v, fig. 23, 1874; Proc. U.S. Nat. 
Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 160, 1879. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, pp. 131, 135, 1874; Proc. Amer. Assoc., 
1375, pp. 369, 371, 373, 1874; This Report, part i, p. 316 (22), 1874. 
Whiteaves, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, p. 217, 1874; Further Deep-sea 
Dredging, Gulf of St. Lawrence, p. 15, “1874.” 
Idothea tridentata Rathke, Fauna Norw., Nov. Act. Acad., B. xx, p. 21, 1843 (1 
tridentata Latreille?). 
Grube, Ausflug nach Triest, p.126, 1861. 
? Idotea tricuspis Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 42, pl. 9, fig. 35, 1844. 
Oniscus Balthicus (Ideotea marina) Dalyell, Powers of the Creator, vol. i, p. 228, 
pl. Lsiii, figs. 5-9, 1851 (0. Balthicus Pallas?). 5 
Oniscus (Ideotea) entomon Dalyell, op. cit. vol. i, p. 229, pl. lxiii, fig. 10, 1851 
(not O. entomon Linné.). 


Tdothea pelagica, M. Sars, Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1858, p. 151, 1859 (not of Leach). | 


“ Tdotea acuminata Kichwald, Fauna Caspio-Caucasia, p. 232-233, tab. xxxvii, fig. 
; 6, 1842” (Czerniavski). 
Idothea balthica Meinert, Crust. Isop. Amph. Dec. Danie, pp. 21, 228, ete., 
“1877” (Oniscus Balthicus Pallas ?). 


PLATE VY, Fras. 24-26. 


Adults of this species are at once distinguished from the other species 
of the genus on our coast by the tridentate abdomen, or pleon, and young 
individuals, which often resemble J. phosphorea, may be distinguished by 
the epimeral sutures, which extend quite across the second and succeed- 
ing thoracic segments. For character separating them from the other 
Isopoda of the coast, see at the close of the generic description. 

The body is smooth, not tubercular nor roughened. The head is 
nearly square, narrowing but slightly behind. Theeyesaresmall. The 
antennule (pl. V, fig. 25 a) are short, hardly surpassing the third segment 
of the antenne. The flagellum of the antenne (pl. V, fig. 25 b) is longer 
than the peduncle, distinctly articulated, slender, and composed of from 
twelve to sixteen segments in the adults. When reflexed it reaches the 
third thoracic segment. The external lamella (1) of the maxillipeds 
(pl. V, fig. 26 a) is about twice as. long as broad, and is obliquely 
truncated. 

Thorax with the external margins, as seen from above, forming in the 
adults, a pretty regular curved line, the segments being marked by in- 
cisions instead of by serratures as in the other species. In the second 
and third, as well as in the posterior segments, this margin is formed 
wholly by the epimera. 

The first three segments of the pleon terminate in acute teeth at the 
sides. The fourth, or last segment, has its lateral margins straight, and 
is more or less tridentate at the tip, the middle tooth being much the 
largest. In the operculum (pl. V, fig. 25) the basal plate is about three 
times as long as the terminal one, which is broadly truncate at the 
apex. The stylet (s) on the second pair of pleopods in the males (pl. V, 
fig. 26 b) is usually shorter than, or, in smaller specimens, about as long 
as the lamella to which it is attached, and is abruptly bent toward the 


— —— 


a 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 3845 


lamella at the apex and very obliquely truncated. It is minutely serru- 
jate toward the tip on the side opposite the lamella. 

The males of this species sometimes attain a length of 30™™ to 38™™, 
with a breadth of 8™™ to 9™™ but the females are smaller, rarely, if ever, 
exceeding 20™™ in length, with a breadth of 6.5™™, and are found wit 
eggs when not over 7.5™™ in length. The color varies greatly. Fre- 
quently it is of a nearly uniform light or dark green, or brownish with 
minute blackish punctations. It is often longitudinally striped with 
light color, or nearly white on a dark background, and the stripes may 
be marginal only, or accompanied, especially in the males, by a median 
dorsal stripe. More rarely the colors are arranged transversely in bands 
or blotches, and specimens thus marked are easily mistaken for the 
next species. The females are usually darker than the males, and often 
with a light lateral stripe, which may be very narrow or broken into a 
series of blotches. 

A comparison of specimens from both sides of the Atlantic does not 
seem to furnish any characters by which to separate this species 
from the common European form, J. tricuspidata Desm., and as 
Say’s trivial name has priority I have adopted it. J. tridentata Rathke 
appears to be the same species, but I. tridentata WLatreille* is de- 
scribed by that author as having antenne as long as the body; fur. 
ther, Desmarest, just before his original description of J. tricuspidata 
says: *‘ M. Latreille fait observer que cette idotée [I. entomon] est bien 
différente de celle que M. Leach a décrite sous le méme nom, * * * 2 
cette derniére qu’il nomme Idotée tricuspide,” &c. It would not there: 
fore appear that Latreille was at that time aware that this species 
had a name, much less that he had himself named it I. tridentata. 
Again, in his Cours d’ Entomologie, where he copies figures, doubtless of 
thiy species, from Savigny’s Egypt, he applies to them the name Idotea 
(pelagica?), not recognizing them as his own species. Bate and Westwood 
quote I. tridentata Latreille as a synonym of J. tricuspidata Desm., and 
their quotation? appears intended to refer to a work nearly twenty years 
older than that of Desmarest. They do not, however, give their reasons 
for deviating from the ordinary rules of priority, but, perhaps, con- 
sidered as sufficient the authority of Edwards, who does the same thing. 
Edwards’ description of I. tricuspidata Desm. contains, moreover, an 
evident error, the species being placed in a section of the genus which he 
thus describes: ‘§ 2 Espéces dont l’abdomen se compose de trois articles 
parfaitement distincts (le second étant composé de deux anneux soudés 
ensemble sur le milieu du dos, mais séparés par une scissure sur les 
cdtés).” I. irrorata is included in the same section, but under a sub- 
section, thus correctly characterized : ‘aa Le second article de l’abdo- 
men simple; le troisiéme offrant prés de sa base une fissure de chaque 

“Gen. Crust. et Ins., tome i, p. 64, 00s AT a eee 7 

t Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p.380. The quotation reads, ‘‘ Idotea tridentata Latreille, 


Con. Crust. et Ins. 1, p. 64,” and was doubtless intended for Gen. Crust. et Ins., 
[tome] i, p. 64, [1806]. 


. 


346 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


cété.” No species of Zdotea that I have seen has the second segment 
of the pleon composed of two segments, united along the back but sepa- 
rated by an incision at the sides, as described in the parenthesis above, 
and two certainly of the other species included by Edwards in the sec- 
tion with I. tricuspidata agree with it in the structure of the pleon as 
described in J. irrorata. Meinert unites this species with J. pelagica 
Leach under the name I. Balthica eae and in this he may be right, 
but not being able to consult Pallas’ work, I have preferred to use the 
earliest name that I could certainly connect with the species, rather 
than to introduce further confusion by adopting a name of the applica- 
bility of which I could not satisfy myself. M. Sars also regarded J. 
pelagica Leach as synonymous with J. tricuspidata, and says it is found 
as far north as Tromsoe and southward to the Mediterranean, from which 
statements I conclude that he intended the present species. 

This species is found along the whole coast of New England! and 
extends southward along the coast of New Jersey at least as far as 
Great Egg Harbor! and northward to Nova Scotia! and the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, where it has been collected by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves. From 
Cape Cod southward it is abundant, but toward the north it is, mostly 
replaced by I. phosphorea. It is commonly found among sea-weed along 
the rocky shores of bays and sounds or among the rocks, where its vari- 
ety of colors affords it protection. It is also found far from land, 
attached to floating sea-weed, and was thus taken by Professor S. I. 
Smith and the writer on George’s Banks!, September 14 and 15, 1872, 
at about 41° N. lat., 65° W.Jon. One of these specimens was quite large, 
measuring 38™™ in length, but most of them were of moderate size or 
small. Young individuals are often taken at the surface. According to 
European authors it is common on the shores of Great Britain and 
Ireland (B. & W.); on all the shores of the North Sea (Metzger et yl.); 
(I. pelagica) as far north as Tromsoe (M. Sars); in the Baltic, the Medi- 
terranean, the Adriatic (Heller, Stalio, e¢ al.), the Black (Czerniavski 
et al.) and the Caspian (‘‘ Eichwald”) Seas, and, as with us, is of variable 
color and varies also somewhat in the shape of the termination of the 
pleon, which is, however, more or less three-toothed. 


Specimens examined. 


| oa 
on 
iB p 
2 Locality. E Bottom. eee a oF Receivedfrom— 2 5 pare 
5 a } =o 
z | ae 
|-_ lee |) — 
| 
1078 | FireIsland Beach, L.I.}........ Saath eed 2 ee ae cee ey 0! SUL Smith! 2.22) 50) Alc. 
NO TOM eee CO sits snictene we ciate oe ae ecoe Canal eee enone cee ——— —— ISTO eee Gor. s4 8 9 Glye. 
1954 | New Haven, Conn.....|........ | sidebwacdesmeanee | Nov. —, 1874 A.E. Verrill . 1 | Alc. 
1955 | Stony Creek, Conn.....|........ [ogee eee ce cee Och. 23, 1874) 22 doe aeeeeeee 00 =| Ale, 
1958 | Lyme, CC ests a PTS o [oe eae eee eae eee tl. Fae ee | D.C. Eaton. ..- 2 Ale. 
1963 | Long Island Sound, 4-~“iSandiceszaseess Aug. 3,1874| U.S. Fish Com. 2 | Ale. 
off: Saybrook, Conn. 
1964 | Off Stonington, Conn.. 5 | Sand and gravel.| Aug. 14, AS74ANee doe eee 12 Alc. 
1959 | Noank Harbor, @onne fo o8s.os4} Satfaces so... July, 13 187k |e doen seer 00 «=| Ala 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 347 


Specimens examined—C ontinued. 


1 
. Pa ae | 5 
s acatlie 5 Potton. When col- Received Bi Dry. 
g ei r= eae lected. from— Ba | Alo. 
5 a BO 
a a A a 
1960 | Noank Harbor, Conn..|........ Eel-grass -.....- Ang. 28, 1874 | U.S. Fish Com. 3 Alo. 
Ponts rABNer SiSIANd |. 2... 5-|ccnoniecc|esaceouceeceeeneee — —,1874]....do......... 8 Ale, 
1962 | Watch Hill, R. I.....-.. | LL ivehad aicidote ood sacle se eee Oct. —, 1872 | D.C. Eaton... 2 | Alo. 
1965 | Vineyard Sound Mass .| Sf. — —,1875| U.S. FishCom. 1 Ale, 
RO Gee rACLO) v= =. irialee eyettenie'e ore a — —,1875)....do ......... 7 Ale, 
aN pda |r 3 CLO. = sc.ctate n a\0.ejeiwaya,eiesare OGten 24 STDs 00! Soe ccc es 00 Ale. 
1968 | Provincetown, Mass... — —,1872 | Smith & Harger 2 | Alo. 
SOO te pictonsemicebeeeer .| Aug. —,1879|}U.S. FishCom.] 00 Ale. 
BedO tec cer ee sen eeeter Aig, — 21879 5.10 wuss ede. e 00 =| Ale. 
= OO cowie closaaieeemecnisis AUG — TBEON ena COccemos cee 00 Ale. 
SRL Seem ante Sept.- 45,1879))...do 202.252: 10 | Ale. 
ADORE Dev eUL yee NIARS econ enre || Caearati-llebememienecis cin ecins| =e aeieecacaces A.E. Verrill... 8 | Ale. 
Gloucester, Mass. -..-..)......2. Tide-pool ......- — —,1878| U.S. FishCom. 2 Alc, 
Gloucester, Mass., | 7-10 | Sand, red alga ..)-—— —,1878]....do ......... 00 Alo. 
Outer Harbor. 
Beiveeny Boon: sland isco. cc. |scec cscaeocer sees — —, 1878 | Capt.G.H. Mar- 5 Ale. 
and Matinicus Rocks. tin. Fi 
WASCOPBAY NICs fone e = oe cise z= cleaceaeicnie cs lln aie — —,1873|U.S.FishCom.| 11 | Alo. 
1975.| Casco Bay, Ram I ..... LAWialsise seo cceieaacnes —- —, 1873]....do ......... 4 Ale, 
2150 | George’s Bank.......-.- ee | locas eoaeeeeeeeeeee Sept. —, 1872 |Smith&Harger| 6 | Alo, 
1977 | Bay of Fundy ......... rani O2j| soniereo oomneice coos — —,1872| U.S. FishCom. 2 | Alo. 
sf. toy 
HOSE RO fherbal raz iN 6 </cm:ccn'lecintesce «| toes caiseemerieceee — —, 1877 }....do......... 1 Alo, 
1979 | Nova Scotia ........... TWN es ees caee besa seee — —,1877|..-.do......... 1 Ale. 
‘Durhamcoast, Mnglandi| jesse c-|eccsnecn coeer cen cal scseacce as ceee | Rev. A. M. Nor- 4 | Ale. 
man. z 
NimViasstap At HOPUelre| aces alos cwmeccstigessecce| seasieticcesoesc Jardin des 1 | Ale 
Plantes. ee 
a 


Idotea phosphorea Harger. 


Idotea phosphorea Harger, This Report, part i, p. 569 (275), 1874; Proc. U.S. 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 160, 1879. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, pp. 43, 45, 131, 1874; Proc. Amer, 
Assoc., 1873, pp. 362, 367, 369, 1874; This Report, part i, p. 316 (22), 
1874. 
Whiteaves, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, p. 218, 1874; Further Deep-sea 
Dredging, Gulf of St. Lawrence, p. 15, “1874.” 


PLATE V, Fias, 27-29, 


This species may be distinguished from the others on this coast 
by the pointed abdomen or pleon. Young individuals sometimes re: 
semble the young of JI. irrorata, but may still be distinguished by the 
epimeral sutures of the second and third thoracic segments, which 
do not entirely cross the segment, but allow more or less of the poste: 
rior part of the edge of the segment to form a part of the margin of the 
animal as seen from above. From Synidotea nodulosa it may be distin- 
guished by the evident epimeral sutures and by the three acute teeth 
at the base of the pleon on each side, instead of a single obtuse tooth, 
as in that species. For characters separating it from the other Isopoda 
of the coast see at the close of the description of the genus. 

The body, especially of the young, is rough and tubercular along the 
median line and often also laterally. Older specimens are much smoother, 
losing their large median tubercles but never becoming as smooth as inthe 
‘preceding species. The head is narrowed behind. The eyes are of mod- 
erate size. The flagellum of the antenne (pl..V, fig. 28 a) is shorter than 


348 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the peduncle, and consists of about ten to fourteen segments. The 
maxillipeds (pl. V, fig. 28 6) have the external lamella (/) broader than in 
the preceding species, with its inner margin straight and its outer mar- 
gin curving pretty regularly to a slightly attenuated tip. 

The epimera of the second, third, and fourth pairs are rounded behind, 
and those of the last three pairs are less acute than in J. irrorata. 

Pleon ovate, a little constricted near the middie and pointed, its three 
proximal segments rather less acute than in the preceding species. The 
basal plate of the operculum (pl. V, fig. 23 e) tapers toward the end, and 
the terminal plate is triangular, a little longer than broad. The stylet 
on the second pair of pleopods in the male (pl. V, fig. 29 s and s’) is slender, 
nearly straight, surpasses the lamella to which‘ it is attached, and is 
obliquely truncate. 

Length 25™™; breadth 7™™. The color is very varied, usually dark 
green or brownish, with patches of yellow or whitish, transversely or 
obliquely arranged. I have never observed a striped pattern of color- 
ation, so common in J. irrorata, and it must occur very rarely if at all. 
The color is usually darker Thins in that species. 

This species is found associated with the last among rocks and sea- 
weed along the entire coast of New England! and extends northward 
to Halifax!, Nova Scotia, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence!. It appears 
to be a more northern species than JI. irrorata, as it is comparatively 
rare south of Cape Cod, while it is abundant in Casco Bay, Maine, and 
in the Bay of Fundy. 


Specimens examined. 


Speci- 
re a mens 
2 : | When col- : Dry. 
F Locality. g Bottom. ieetede Received from— nee Alo. 
7; 2 No. Sex 
1980) /eSouth tind Newsa- |ceesces|seecee- cl tenataees Nov. —, 1874 | A. E. Verrill...|....}......| Alo, 
ven, Conn. 
Ld8ts WStonyiCreek. (Conn: .|aescecsc|\waeoamecoteaeecues Sept..23) 1874) | 222200) -s22 cee) sal ene Ale. 
1983 | Off Saybrook, Conn . 4 Sandie accens Aug. 3, 1874 | we s FisiCom. Pacejecceine Alo. 
19847 eon? sland sound <|2 en. =<| asecseiscce cence Atrios 0-1S8745|22 do sees cenes 3| y- | Ale. 
1985 South Fisher’s Isl- Qt coametemcccmccene Aug. 21, 1874 ee SRaceustc eater Alc, 
and. 
1987 || WVineyardy Siow nd | leseeeces|eeadsccceasarcaaes Sey AU) Bac) sepecesed Gone tcc Alo, 
Mass. 
LO8G | <:ci-j: AO eiepass aioe aaeien «| - aac aael vedas caeeciowesecias —— —, 1872 |....do0 ........- <a | Ads 
2 Ye ES CWE ge eee a ee os Oe 8 re aa Pee Se aeanod| Shean adaoscuds Hee ae Nate lethte os De eco G. 
1990 | Off Nantucket ...... 15, oy eae ee eee Sept. 8, Sra) do, teases, 1 | ye © |Alc: 
Cape Cod Bay....... 14 Green mud...... Sept. 15, 1879 U. s RistiGom, Zien Alc, 
aac SSsSt SH ocodsac 7 pay yellow | Sept. 151979 toled0 sec. 584 3 jecnaee| AlG, 
sand. 
fs ieNahant; Mass: 2.52 | ect cot ecoconw oem sealas [Ponisiemmteiesce es A.E. Verrill...|) 3ieeeee- Alo. 
Gloucester, Mass - 7-10 | Sand and alge ..|———- —, 1878) U.S. FishCom.} 00 |¢ 9y.| Ale, 
Ten Pound Island, <Sieeuece Geeos ee onan ae —— —, 1878 |... «see aedleneelteneee Alo, 
Gloucester, erage 
Annisquam, Mass... gh aedocneecoconcoabe |—— —,1878| A. Hyatt ...... 200 eee Alo. 
1991 | Casco Bay, 1 RS Sis PES ee eee Aug. 4,1873!U.S-FishCom.| 1] y. | Ale. 
LON Ge 60) 5 o30 (98 ABB a Ana eSenpeag losccer ssascncs5550 es, 1873 |. AO aoeeaane Ree, Ale. 
1993 | Casco Baya ee rvam ||| asi, lilseecoucecmas teens — —, 1873 }|....do ......... 4 ie arenes Alo. 
Island. 
1994) Bay OLWMUN yess ce =| cece ce|eaceeclenesacismeace ———. —, 1872 |. 1do see cee 1 9 | Ale. 
| Bay of BE TUT yaVEHT alo aera ol eee oe ena — —,1872|....do .-....-.- 00; #? | Ala 
ing River. 
Off Halifax, N.S. 18; >. |cwdelsenesensetaae’s ams, mm, OTT tetne Oeiecaeaee PT Pacene Alo. 
Egmont Bank, ETL Ta ae Rae a — —, 1873 | J.F.Whiteaves.| 1 |...... Ale. 
of St. Lawrence. 


e 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 349 


Idotea robusta Kroyer. 
? Idotea metallica Bosc, Hist. nat. des Crust., tom. ii, p. 179, pl. 15, fig. 6, 1802. 
Idothea robusta Kréyer, Naturhist. Tidssk., II, B. ii, p. 108, 1846; Voy. en Scand., 
Crust., pl. 26, fig. 3, ‘‘1849.” 
Reinhardt, Grénlands Krebsdyr, p. 35, 1857. 
Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1862, p. 133, 1862. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. ii, p. 360, 1871; This Report, part i, p. 
439 (145), 1874 (Idotea). 
Harger, This Report, part i, p. 569 (275), pl. v, fig. 24, 1874; Proc. U. S. 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 160, 1879 (Idotea). 
Liitken, Crustacea of Greenland, p. 150, note, 1875. 


PLATE YI, Fics. 30-32. 


This species is easily recognized within the genus by the pleon, which 
is broadly truncate at the apex and not at all pointed. The pleonis also 
large and more swollen above than in the other species. For characters 
separating it from other Isopoda, see near the close of the generic des- 
cription. 

The entire upper surface, except perhaps that of the pleon, is some- 
what rugose. The head is nearly square, with the eyes large and prom- 
inent. The antenne (pl. VI, fig. 31 a) have the second segment large, the 
flagellum short, usually of ae than ten articulations. Under a sufficient 
power these organs are seen to be clothed with a very fine close pubes- 
cence, which also occurs in a less degree upon thelegs. The maxillipeds 
(pl. VI, fig. 32 a) have the external lamella (/) short and oval. 

The legs are robust and spiny. The epimera, projecting, give a ser- 
rated appearance to the sides of the thorax, as seen in figure 30, plate 
VI, and the dorsum is more convex than in the other species. 

The pleon is large and convex, its sides are nearly parallel beyond the 
middle, and it is broadly truncate, or even somewhat emarginate, at the 
apex. The basal plate of the operculum (pl. VI, fig. 31¢) is elongated, 
with parallel sides; the terminal plate less than one-fourth as long and 
nearly square, but tapering slightly and somewhat broader than long. 
The male stylet on the second pair of pleopods (pl. VI, fig. 32 ¢, s) reaches 
the end of the lamella, to which it is attached, and is slightly curved and 
rounded at the tip. 

‘Length of male 28™™; female 22™"; breadth 9™™. Color bright blue 
or green above when alive, econ: darker and dull in alcohol, with- 
out the markings of the other species, but often with metallic reflections, 
when seen in the water, where it is commonly taken swimming free or 
among masses of floating sea-weed. 

It is thus found in mid-ocean, and was described by Kroyer from speci- 
mens taken in about 60° north latitude between Iceland and Greenland, 
It was taken in considerable abundance at Fire Island Beach!, on the 
south shore of Long Island, by Professor S. I. Smith in 1870; also by the 
U.S. Fish Commission at evan Sound!, Mass., often in company with 
I. irrorata Edw.; at George’s Banks!, Septeniber, 1872, small specimens, 
5™2 in length; Siren Boon Tigad and Matinicus Rocks, near the 


350 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Isles of Shoals! , by Capt. G. H. Martin, of the schooner ‘Northern Eagle, 
in 1878, and at Halifax!, Nova Scotia, by the U. 8. Fish Commission in 
1877, whence it extends to at least 60° north latitude. , 

The figure and description of Idotea metallica given by Bosc corre- 
spond well with small specimens of this species such as were taken by 
Professor 8. I. Smith and the writer on George’s Banks, and the locality 
he gives, “the high seas,” corresponds also with the habit of this species, 
so that I am inclined to think that his name ought to be restored. I 
have, however, retained Kréyer’s name, since he so thoroughly described 
and so well figured the species as to leave no doubt of its identity. 


Specimens examined. 


Speci- 

Fs ‘ mens. 
2 Locality. Habitat. | When ol | Received from— eke 

% No.| Sex 
——— eee ee 
1080 | Fire Island Beach, Long Island...| Surface....]| ——  —, 1870 | S. I. Smith..... 46 | 59 | Alo. 
1998 | Vineyard Sound, Mass............ Surface....) —— —,1875| U.S. FishCom.| 1 |-..-.-. Alc. 
OSS eee Cl Ose ae cera nwinisieineeemeieisieiereimiciss Surfaces 22|s. te osecmeeer asec ae L elaiayeleterels 00} og | Alo. 
Deal see. saiceeeloisaamee te eids widae eet Surface....] July 14,1871 |_.-:do....:....- ile mae Ale. 
SATB) | haar ORS eso Baas Sears ae Surface....} Oct. 24, 1875 Ve x Edwards | 00 |...... Ale. 
O04 Pe Peo... G3 ts beaec cqetemsceceens Surface... .|/iNov, 16,1875 )>-..do:::222.--% 00+ -gs55 Alc. 
2000 George’ Spake woes coat ata es cere Surface. ...| Sept. —, 1872 Suite &Harger| 4| y. | Ale. 
Q60ds) eialifaxs NHS Seti ost. 245 bse Surface. ...} —— —,1877| U.S. FishCom.} 1 }...... Alc. 


Synidotea Harger. 


Synidotea Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 374, 1878. 


Antenne with an articulated flagellum; epimeral sutures not evident 
above; pleon apparently composed of two segments, united above but 
separated at the sides by short incisions; operculum with a single api- 
cal plate; palpus of maxillipeds three-jointed. 


Of the two species that I had referred to this genus I had been able to 
examine only the first when this paper was placed in the hands of the 
printer. Two specimens of the second species were collected during the 
summer of 1879, and an examination of their characters leaves no doubt 
of their generic affinity. Except in the particulars above specified the 
description already given of the genus Zdotea will in general apply also 
to the present, but the species are characterized by a firmer and more 
solid structure, the segments being more closely articulated and the integ- 
ument having a somewhat shelly appearance. The pleon is further con- 
solidated than in that genus, the only trace of its composite nature, as 
seen from above, being a slight incision on each side near the base and 
running up somewhat obliquely toward the dorsal surface. The well- 
developed and distinctly articulated flagellum of the antenne serves 
easily to distinguish the species from those of the following genera of the 
family. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 351. 


Synidotea nodulosa Harger (Kroyer). : 
Idothea nodulosa Kriyer, Naturhist. Tidssk., II, B. ii, p.100, 1846; Voy. en Scand., 
Crust., pl. 26, fig. 2, 1849. 
Reinhardt, Grénlands Krebsdyr, p. 34, 1857. 
Liitken, Crust. Greenland, p. 150, “1875.” 
Synidotea nodulosa Harger, Am. Jour, Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 374, 1878; Proc. U. 8- 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 160, 1879. 
PLATE VI, Fras. 33-35. 


This species may be recognized most easily by the pleon, which is en- 
tire, except for a slight incision near the base on each side, and tapers 
to a blunt but not at all bifid point. The articulated flagellum of the 
antenne distinguishes it from Hrichsonia. 

The head and body are roughened and tubercular, having a prominent 
median row of tubercles and coarse ruge along the sides of the thorax. 
The head has a median notch in front, and immediately above this a 
prominent tubercle directed forward, and succeeded on the median line 
by two less prominent tubercles. In front of each eye is a still larger 
tubercle, directed forward and projecting over the anterior margin of 
the head; behind and within, there are two smaller oval tubercles. The 
eyes are large, convex, and very prominent. The peduncular segments 
of the antenne (pl. VI, fig. 345) increase gradually in length from the first 
and decrease in diameter from the second, which lacks the lateral in- 
cision seen in Jdotea. The flagellum is distinctly articulated, with about 
nine segments, of which the last two are very minute. The maxillipeds 
(pl. VI, fig. 35 a) have the external lamella (/) of an irregular shape, emargi- 
nate on the inner side and obtusely pointed. The outer maxille (pl. VI, 
fig. 355) are armed on their external lobe with strong, curved, pectinated 
set, which become much elongated and stout at the tip of the lobe. 
The inner maxille (pl. VI, fig. 35 ce) resemble these organs in other mem- 
bers of the family. 

The first four thoracic segments have their external margins rounded. 
In the last three the margins are more nearly straight, but with rounded 
angles. The first pair of legs (pl. VI, fig. 34 ¢) are much shorter than 
the second, and the propodus in the first pair is bristly on what is, in the 
ordinary position, the upper side. 

The pleon is short, and tapers from the base. It is convex, bears two 
or three small tubercles on the median line near the base, and an im- 
pressed transverse line in continuation of the short lateral incisions. 
The basal plate of the operculum (pl. VI, fig. 34d) is oblique at the base 
with rounded angles, and is somewhat vaulted, with an oblique elevation 
extending from the articulation to the inner distal angle. The inner 
margin is straight, and the outer parallel with it to near the end. The 
terminal plate is slightly oblique at the base, and is elongated triangular, 
about twice aslong asbroad. The free margins are finely ciliated, except 
at and near the base, and the inner margin of the basal plate bears also 
scattered stouter hairs. The stylet of the males on the second pair of 
pleopods (pl. VI, fig. 35d, s) is longer and stouter than in any of our species 


352 REFORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of Idotea. It is nearly twice the length of the lamella, to which it is 
attached, and of an elongated spatulate form tapering to an obtuse point. 
The lamelle are provided with but few cilia, which extend less than half 
the way from the end of the lamella to the end of the stylet. 

Length 10.5°°.; breadth 3.5°", Females proportionally broader ; 
length 8.°"; breadth 3". Color in alcohol gray, often with brown- 
ish transverse markings. 

This species seems to agree with Idotea nodulosa Kroyer, from South- 
ern Greenland, as described and figured, except that the epimeral sutures 
are not evident above; the lateral margins of the segments are, however, 
somewhat thickened and prominent with ruge, as shown in his figure, 
and I have no doubt that it is the same as his species. It was dredged 
off Halifax! by the Fish Commission at several localities in the summer 
of 1877, in from 16 to 190 fathoms on sandy and rocky bottoms, with 
red algz at one locality. A specimen was brought from George’s Banks! 
by Mr. Joseph P. Schemelia, of the schooner ‘Wm. H. Raymond,’ in 
the summer of 1879, and Mr. J. F. Whiteaves has sent to the Museum 
for examination two specimens collected by Mr. G. M. Dawson, in 111 
fathoms, Dixon Entrance!, north of Queen Charlotte Island, British 
Columbia. The range of the species would therefore be, as at present 
known, from George’s Banks to Greenland and the Arctic Seas, and 
southward on the Pacific coast as far as British Columbia... 


Specimens examined. 


‘ Speci- 
5 : Fs When col- | : eae 2 
F Locality. E Bottom. lected. [Receivedfrom—|__| ‘ayo° 
Z E No. | Sex. 
Dixon Entrance, Q. TOBY Peodonoodaticoscootllodibcacdbeeaonc J. F. Whiteaves} 2 }...... Alc. 
2006 | Off Halifax,N.S....] 16 Stones, sand, red) — —, 1877 U.S. FishCom] 2 |...... Ale. 
alge. 
2007 | South of Halifax,120| 190 | Graveland peb- | Sept. 1,1877|....do......... 1} 2 |:Age. 
miles. es. 
Halifax,outerharbor| 18 Sand, stones .-..] Sept. 4,1877|....do ..-.....-. ie Sone Alc. 
2008 eed pe dcok elses 16 Rocks, nullipore | Sept. 4,1877]|..-.do .......-. nt ees Ale. 
George's Banks) 2.5 :\js- casas acucte seceocmeueess — —,1879| J.P.Schemelia} 1}; 92 | Alec. 


Synidotea bicuspida Harger (Owen). 

Idotea bicuspida Owen, Crustacea of the Blossom, p. 92, pl. xxvii, fig. 6, 1839. 
Streets and Kingsley, Proc. Essex Inst., vol. ix, p. 108, 1877. 

Idotea marmorata Packard, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 296, pl. viii, 

fig. 6, 1867. 

Whiteaves, Further Deep-sea Dredging in Gulf of St. Lawrence, p. 15, 1874. 

Idotea pulchra Lockington, Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., vol vii, p. 45, 1877. 

Synidotea bicuspida Harger, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 160, 1879. 


This species may be most easily recognized among the known Isopoda 
of our coast by the form of the pleon, which is nearly triangular in 
shape, marked by a slight incision at each side near the base, and dis- 
tinetly bicuspid at the tip. 


. MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. Bi 


The body is rather more robust than in the last species, the length 
being only about two and a half times the breadth, and is peculiarly 
marked above by depressed and mostly curved lines, varying in length 
but mostly short, and confined principally to a region on each side of 
the median line and extending across the head but not the pleon. 

The head is broadly emarginate in front, with a median notch, and its 
antero-lateral angles are prominent. The eyes are at the widest part of 
the head, and are strongly convex. The posterior outline of the head is 
nearly in the form of three sides of a hexagon. The antennule attain 
about the middle of the fourth antennal segment. The antennz are 
about one-half as long as the body. The first two antennal segments 
are short and apparently articulated so as to admit of but little motion ; 
the third segment is a little longer than the first two taken together, 
and is the largest of the antennal segments in diameter; the fourth 
segment is somewhat longer than the third, and the fifth or last pedun- 
cular segment is the longest, and is followed by a flagellum, a little 
shorter than the peduncle and composed of about fourteen segments. 
The last three peduncular segments of the antennz are somewhat 
bristly hairy. The maxillipeds are nearly as in the preceding species. 
The outer maxille are destitute of the elongated, pectinate sete found 
in that species. 

The thoracic segments vary but little in length measured along the 
median line, but the fifth, sixth, and seventh are slightly shorter than 
the preceding ones, and this difference is still greater measured along 
the margins of the segments, where the first is longest, the next three 
about equal, and the last three shorter. The legs are robust, the first 
pair shortest, and all more or less bristly hairy. The lateral margins of 
the segments are much less rounded than in S. nodulosa. 

The pleon is short, the length being scarcely greater than the breadth 
at base; above, it is nearly smooth, the impressed lines, so conspicuous 
in the lateral region of the thorax, being continued for but a slight dis- 
tance upon its surface. The incision at each side near the base is con- 
tinued upward and forward by a depressed line on each side; the lateral 
inargins are gently convex to near the tip, which is distinctly bicuspid. 
The basal plate of the operculum is traversed obliquely by a longi- 
tudinal ridge on the external surface, and is rounded in front, slightly 
narrowed behind, and bears a short, triangular, terminal plate, its length 
being but little greater than its breadth. 

Length 15.5""; breadth 6°", Color in alcohol grayish, with white 
cloudings. Lockington says: ‘‘ When recent, the coloration of this spe- 
cies is very beautiful, consisting of red cloudings on a lighter ground.” 

There seems to be no doubt in regard to the synonymy of this species 
as published by Streets and Kingsley, adopted by the writer in a previous 
publication, and given above. 

The only specimens that I have examined were two, brought from the 
Grand ue !, in the summer of 1879, by Mr. Charles Ruckley, of the 

F 


3D4 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


schooner ‘ Frederick Gerring, jr.’, Capt. Edwin Morris. Dr. Packard’s 
locality is “Sloop Harbor, Kynetarbuck Bay [Labrador], seven fathoms 
on a sandy bottom.” Whiteaves records the species from Orphan Bank, 
Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Lockington’s specimens were collected on the 
“west coast of Alaska, N. of Behring’s Strait, by W. J. Fisher, natu- 
ralist of the U. 8S. S. Tuscarora, Deep-Sea Sounding Expedition.” 
Owen’s locality is “the Arctic Seas.” 


Erichsonia Dana. 
Erichsonia Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., I, vol. viii, p. 427, 1849. 


Antenne six-jointed, the terminal or flagellar segment not articulated, 
clavate; palpus of the maxillipeds four-jointed; legs all nearly alike, 
prehensile or sub-prehensile ; pleon with its segments consolidated into a 
single piece. 


This genus is represented within our limits by two well-marked spe- 
cies, which further agree in the following characters: The head is quad- 
rate, with the eyes lateral. The antennule are short, not surpassing the 
third segment of the antenne. The antenne are well developed, more 
than half as long as the body, with a very short basal segment articu- 
lated with little or no motion to the second segment, which is two or 
three times as long as, and of greater diameter than the first. It is, as 
usual in the family, incised at its distal end on the under surface. The 
next three segments are nearly cylindrical. The last or flagellar seg- 
ment is the longest, and is slightly clavate. 

The legs are all terminated by a prehensile or sub- -prehensile hand, the 
dactylus being capable of considerable or complete flexion on the more 
or less swollen propodus. This flexion is most complete in the first pair. 
The first two pairs of legs arise near the anterior margin of the segments 
to which they belong. The place of attachment to the segment moves 
gradually backward in the following pairs until the last two pairs arise 
near the posterior margin of the last two segments. The epimera are 
more or less evident from above, at least in the last two segments. 

The pleon constitutes about one-third the length of the body, and is 
consolidated into a single piece; it bears a more or less evident tooth on 
each side near the base, and is dilated and obtusely triangular at the 
apex. The basal plate of the operculum is oblique at the anterior end 
and abruptly narrowed posteriorly, where it bears a densely plumose 
bristle, as in Idotea ; the terminal plate is triangular. The stylet on the . 
second pair of pleopods in the males is well developed, surpassing the 
cilia; it is minutely denticulated or spinulose near the end and very 
acute. 

The two species found on our coast have but a slight external resem- 
blance to each other, and may be distinguished at a glance, as will be 
seen from the specific descriptions, and from the figures (pl. VI, fig. 36, 
and pl. VII, fig. 38). The long, clavate terminal segment of the antenn# 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. O55 


distinguishes them at once from young specimens of Idotea, especially 
I. phosphorea, which sometimes resemble L. filiformis. This character 
of the antenne serves, indeed, to distinguish the two unlike representa- 
tives of the present genus from all the other Isopoda of our coast. 


Erichsonia filiformis Harger (Say). 

Stenosoma filiformis Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. i, p. 424, 1818. 
Edwards, Hist. nat. des Crust., tom. iii, p. 1384, 1840. 
Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 44, 1844. 

Idotea filiformis White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 95, 1847. 

Erichsonia filiformis Harger, This Report, part i, p. 570 (276), pl. vi, fig. 26, 

1874; Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 160, 1879. 

Verrill, This Report, part i, p. 316 (22), 1874. 


“Prater VII, Fras. 38-41. 


This species may be at once distinguished from the following by the 
strongly serrated outline of the sides, as seen from above. The clavate 
terminal segment of the antenne distinguishes it from the other known 
Isopoda of our coast. 

The body is slender and elongated, but less so than in the next spe- 
cies, the sides are nearly parallel and there is a median row of promi- 
nent tubercles, one, large and bifid, on the head, and one upon each 
thoracic segment. The eyes are prominent. The antennule (pl. VII, 
fig. 39 a) surpass the middle of the third antennal segment. The first 
segment of the antenne (pl. VIL, fig. 39 b) is very short; the terminal 
segment is bristly hairy toward the apex. The external lamella of the 
maxillipeds (pl. VII, fig. 41 a) is emarginate on the outer side toward 
the apex. 

The thoracic segments each bear a prominent median tubercle near 
their posterior margins, and the first bears also a smaller tubercle near 
its anterior margin. In the first two segments the posterior external 
angles are salient and much elevated. The angulated epimera are evi- 
dent from above in front of these projections. In the third and fourth 
segments both lateral angles are salient but not elevated. In the last 
three segments, only the anterior angles are produced, but the epimera 
fill the places of the posterior angles. This arrangement gives the 
appearance of fourteen teeth upon each side of the thorax, and the 
prominent divergent tooth on the pleon makes, in all, fifteen. 

The operculum (pl. VII, fig. 39 d@) is a little more vaulted than in the 
next species and shorter; the basal plate is less than three times as long 
as broad; the terminal plate is triangular. The stylet on the second 
pair of pleopods in the male (pl. VII, fig. 41 b, s) is slightly curved, 
finely spinulose near the apex on the side toward the lamella, and 
minutely and sharply denticulate on the opposite side at the apex, 
as shown in the enlarged figure (s’) of the distal portion of the stylet. 

Length 11™"; breadth 3.4™", The color is a usually dull neutral tint 
without bright markings, but sometimes more or less variegated with 
brown or reddish, fading in alcohol. 


356 REPOKT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


This species was originally described from Great Egg Harbor, New 
Jersey, where Say found it in company with Idotea irrorata. It is not 
uncommon along the shores of Long Island Sound! and as far east as 
Vineyard Sound, Mass.! but has not yet been found north of Cape 
Cod. It is usually found in tide-pools or among eel-grass and alga, 
and has been taken from a depth of 7 fathoms. 


Specimens examined. : 
: cf 
| | 33 
A i Z | When col Ba |p 
. e C - . | @Q Ve 
2 ocality. hee Bottom. lected, -Receivedfrom— 34 ie 
5 3 Bg 
A cm yap 
| 
2010 | Long Island Sound..| SS ele all Sipalseebaciser ee eiee | anemone ene See Seana eee 00 Alc 
Putte etbimblsdalandas, tcl) oscil sco seces hee Sel nea ne ene A. E. Verrill...|.........-| Ale. 
2012 ions Tslnd: Buunds 7 Sand and shells ., —— —, 1874! U.S. FishCom. 1 Alc. 
Sound. E 
2013 | Long Island Sound..} 44 Sand and gravel.| —— —, 1874|....do --...-... 2 Ale. 
2014S Pee dO eee ee aches |-----+--|------------------ —— —,1874}....do -........ 1 Ale. 
PAVING) |S tO) eee cease es ee Sept..10) 1874 |2== do = soeeeee 2 Ale. 
2016 Noank ....--. eee eee Eel-grass .....-- —— —, 1874 |....do ........- 2 Ale. 
OL MVANCVALONSOUN Goce alls sieshie |e senor ore aetna —— —,1875).-...do ........- 2 Alc. 


Erichsonia attenuata Harger. 


Erichsonia attenuata Harger, This Report, part i, p. 570 (276), pl. vi, fig. 27, 
H 1874 ; Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 160, 1879. 
Verrill, This Report, part i, p. 370 (76), 1874. 


PuatEs Vi and VII, Fies. 36 and 37. 


This species is at once distinguished from the preceding by its slender 
form and regular outline; the clavate antennal flagellum distinguishes it 
from other Isopoda. 

The body is smooth throughout and about six times as long as broad, 
without prominent irregularities and narrowly linear in outline. The 
eyes are small and black. The antennule (pl. VII, fig. 37 @) are short, 
slightly surpassing the second antennal segment. The antenne (pl. VII, 
fig. 37 b) are stout and smoother than in the preceding species. The 
external lamella of the maxillipeds (pl. VII, fig. 37 ¢, 7) is oval and 
regularly rounded at the tip. 

The thoracic segments increase in size to the third, which is equal 
to the fourth, and the last three are of a gradually decreasing size. The 
epimera are nowhere conspicuous, but may usually be seen from above, 
pspecially in the posterior segments. 

The pleon presents only slight traces of a lateral tooth near its base 
and is but little dilated toward the tip. The operculum (pl. VII, fig. 
37 d) is longer than in the preceding species, the basal plate is more 
than three times as long as broad, the terminal plate elongated trian- 
gular and obtuse. The male stylet on the second pair of pleopods 
(pl. VI, fig. 37 e, s) is nearly straight, hardly surpasses the cilia, and 
is minutely denticulated near the acute apex. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. BEY 


Length 15™™; breadth 2.5™™, Alcoholic specimens are of a light 
grayish yellow, with minute black punctations. 

It was abundant in eel-grass at Great Egg Harbor, New Jersey! in 
April, 1871, and has also been found at Noank, Conn.! on eel-grass, but 
is not common. It has not been found north of Cape Cod. 


Specimens examined. 


Speci 
Pr a mens 
© P g When col- 4 oa Dry. 
F Locality. E Bottom. lented: Receivedfrom—|_ Ale 
& S No. | Sex. | 
1226 | Great Egg Harbor, |.-.-.----. Eel-grass ....-..| Apr. —, 1871 | S. I. Smith..-..} 00 |....-- Ale. 
N.J. 
2018) | Noank, Conn _:..-.-||.<=----. S2200) -caseiscoeren — —, 1874 | U.S. FishCom.} 1 2 | Alc. 


Epelys Dana. 
Epelys Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., I, vol. viii, p. 426, 1849. 


Antenne shorter than the anntennule and with only a rudimentary 
flagellum; palpus of the maxillipeds three-jointed ; legs all terminated 
with prehensile hands; pleon consolidated into a single segment with a 
basal lobe on each side. 


Two small and closely allied species from this coast have been referred 
to this genus. They resemble each other very closely and may be at 
once recognized by their depressed ovate form, very short antennz, and 
generally dirty appearance. The form of the body and absence of power- 
ful mandibles distinguish them from the male Gnathia. The length of the 
body is between two and three times its width. It is marked by a de- 
pressed line on each side, running from the posterior part of the head, 
across the thoracic segments, nearer to their lateral margins than the 
median line, except perhaps in the last segment, thence continued to in- 
close a prominent hemispherical protuberance on the anterior part of the 
pleon, giving the animal somewhat the appearance of a trilobite. The 
body is slightly roughened under a lens, or sometimes minutely hirsute. 
The head is slightly dilated at the sides, with the anterior angles pro- 
duced, and bears a pair of broad, low, triangular tubercles on its anterior 
part, and acurved posterior depression. The eyes are lateral and prom- 
inent, the antennule are longer than the head, surpass the antenne, and 
have the basal segment but little enlarged. The antenne (pl. VIII, fig. 
45 b) are shorter than the head, not surpassing the third antennular seg- 
ment, the segments increasing in length to the fourth; fifth as long as 
the fourth, but more slender, bearing a minute, slender rudiment of a 
flagellum, which is setose at the tip. 

The thoracic segments have thick evident margins; first segment 
smallest, somewhat embracing the head; third and fourth largest; 


358 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


last segment curving around the base of the pleon. The epimera are 
not evident from above. The legs (pl. VIII, fig. 46 a) are slender and 
all terminated by a slender prehensile hand, of which the finger, or 
dactylus, becomes almost acicular in some of the posterior pairs. AI 
the legs are more or less hairy. 

The pleon bears on each side, near its base, a rounded lobe, which is 
separated from the large posterior portion by a more or less evident 
incision. Dorsally it is convex, and presents two hemispherical eleva- 
tions, the proximal more convex than, but only half as large as, the 
distal. They are separated by a broad and deep groove, and the distal 
convexity is continued upon the obtusely-pointed apex of the pleon. 
The operculum (pl. VIII, fig. 46 b) is vaulted; its basal plate is rounded 
anteriorly, carinate near its inner margin, contracted externally for the 
distal third of its length and truncate at the tip, where it bears a stout 
elongated-triangular finely ciliated terminal piece. The basal plate is 
coarsely ciliated on its inner margin, and bears a few plumose hairs 
along its outer free margin. The stylet on the second pair of pleopods 
in the males is short and stout, surpasses the lamella but not the cilia, 
and is spinulose just below the blunt apex. 

Both species are of a dull neutral color, and commonly covered with 
particles of mud or other foreign matter. They occur on piles, or under 
stones, in muddy places, and are dredged on muddy bottoms. 


Bpelys trilobus Smith (Say). 


Idotea triloba Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., vol. i, p. 425, 1818. 
Edwards, Hist. nat. des Crust., tome iii, p. 134, 1840. 
Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 43, 1844. 
Leidy, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., II, vol. iii, p. 150, 1855. 
Jaera? triloba White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 97, 1847. 
Epelys trilobus Smith, This Report, part i, p. 571 (277), pl. vi, fig. 28, 1874. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, p. 135, 1874; Proc. Amer. Assoc., 
1873, p. 372, 1874; This Report, part i, p. 370 (76), 1874. 
Harger, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 160, 1879. 


PLATE VII, Fies. 42 and 43. 


This species may be recognized among our Isopoda by its appearance 
when seen from above, recalling the form of the trilobites, the flattened 
dorsal surface being marked, as in those animals, by two lateral longi- 
tudinal depressions. The pleon is consolidated into a single piece and 
the antennz have only a rudimentary flagellum. It closely resembles 
the next species, but is smaller and most readily distinguished by the 
lateral margin of the thorax, which is, especially in the anterior part, 
nearly even instead of zigzag from the projecting angular segments. The 
anterior angles of the head are also less produced. 

The pleon is shorter and broader, its breadth being to its length as 
six to ten. The deep transverse groove across the pleon is continued 
to the margin, with only, at the most, traces of a tubercle at each side. 
The stylet on the second pair of pleopods of the male (pl. VI, fig. 42 6, 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. ode 


s, and s’), is a little less elongated than in the next species, not attain- 
ing the middle of the cilia. 

Length 6™™; breadth 2.3™". The color is uniform, dull, usually 
obseured by the adhering particles of dirt. 

This species was described by Say from Egg Harbor!, New Jersey, 
where specimens were also collected by Professors V errill and Smith, in 
April, 1871, among eel-grass. It has also been found at Savin Rock !, 
near New Haven, and Noank Harbor!, on piles and among eel-grass; at 
Vineyard Sound!; Mass., at Provincetown! Mass., near Cape Cod in 
1879; sparingly near Glouc ester! Mass., in 187 8, and even as far north 
as Qoahee Bay!, about thirty miles northeast of Perdand. Me., where it 
was taken by the United States Fish Commission, in 1875, along with 
Venus mercenaria and other southern forms. 


Specimens examined. 


i 
oa 
5 Z When col 4s Dr 
(o) : - : es 4 
4 Locality. 5 Bottom. lected,  [eceivedfrom— e g ‘Ale 
I I am 
i) a7 
1227 | Great Egg Harbor, |.-.....-.- Kel-grass ..-.--- Apr. —, 1871 |S. I. Smith... -- tf Alc. 
N.J. 
2019) Savan!) Roek) | New | Teiwa |lit-Sace <n. 7-34-15 1871-1872 | A. K. Verrill -.| 2 Alc 
Haven. 
POZO Noam Mar bOns S26. sccellacos cil eects sate Seve eyce Aug. 12, 1874 | U. Be eit Com. 12 Ale. 
ZAPALN eens Kay Sore ee ee SiN ltetooe ete eccr an. July 13, 1874 edone see 7 Ale 
2022 eee Oy ter eye yee ea alll gtie spatter Onipiles i. =. July 27, 1874 |... ae ah icy oe 1 Ale. 
PAT Pee CON nee see eames |lstaciace a Eel-grass .....-- — —, 1874 BO Oh eects 00 =} Alc. 
BOS alawvateheral li Mae cms cele ye esis <i preter sac cere oieit Apr. —, 1873 ‘A.E. Verrill.- 4 Ale. 
2025 | Vineyard Sound .....- Ks exch ae fi he em ne | —— —, 1871) U.S. FishCom. 2 Ale. 
PCO peanue lr elena See a eet tee | i 1 | Ale. 
2027 dOys. 3:22am se 1 2 Alc. 
Provincetown, Mass. . 2 Ale. 
ELON ac ee oon ee pees 1 Alec. 
Pe OWS at eecieseer cee ae nek 9 Ale. 
Gloucester, Massitun sien sees Tide- pools Pemona ee Selec eat! caccceae 2 Ale. 
2028 | Quahog Bay, Mies =... L. % Muddy, 222-25 -5- —— —,1873]....do .....-..-. 3 Alc. 


Epelys montosus Harger (Stimpson). 


Idotea montosa Stimpson, Mar. Inv. G. Manan, p. 40, 1853. 
Epelys montosus Harger, This Report, part i, p. 571 (277), 1874; Proc. U. 8. 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 161, 1879. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, p. 45, 1874; Proc. Amer. Assoc., 
1873, p. 367, 1874; This Report, part i, p. 370 (76), 1874. 
Smith and Harger, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. iii, p. 3, 1874. 
Whiteaves, Further Deep-sea Deedee: Gulf St. lige Peace. p. 15, *61874.” 


PLATE VIII, Fias. 44—47. 


This species closely resembles the preceding, and may be recognized 
among our Isopoda by the characters mentioned under the former spe- 
cies, from which it is distinguished by the following characters: The 
eyes are prominent; the anterior angles of the head salient. The tuber- 
cles on the head are more prominent than in the former species. The 
lateral margins of the thoracic segments, especially the second, third, 
and fourth, are angulated and salient. The pleon is more elongated 


360 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


than in the last species, its breadth being to its length as 5.5 to 10, and 
the depression crossing it is partially interrupted at each side by a tuber- 
ele which often projects, as seen from above, just behind the basal lobe, 
forming a shoulder to the large terminal lobe. The stylet on the second 
pair of pleopods in the males (pl. VIII, fig. 47, s and s’) attains about 
the middle of the cilia. 

Length 10°°; breadth 4™"; color, as in the preceding, dull, and 
usually much obscured by adhering dirt. , 

A few specimens were collected in Whiting River, near Eastport, Maine, 
in 1872, which are much more decidedly hirsute than is usual, both on 
the upper surface and on the legs as well. In other respects they appear 
to be referable to this species, although the posterior thoracic segments 
are rather less angulated at the lateral margin. They may be worthy of 
a variety name hirsutus. 

Dr. Stimpson’s specimens were “taken in deep water on sandy and 
muddy bottoms” in the Bay of Fundy, and this species usually replaces 
the last in the northern localities. It has, however, been taken as far 
south as Block Island Sound!, near the eastern end of Long Island 
Sound, in 18 fathoms, sandy bottom, and in 29 fathoms Vineyard Sound !. 
North of Cape Cod it is more common. It was dredged in 25 fathoms 
on St. George’s Bank!, at Stellwagen’s Bank ! in 20 to 40 fathoms, rocky 
and sandy bottom; Casco Bay!, 16 to 17 fathoms mud; Bay of Fundy !, 
at many localities, usually on muddy bottoms, and in 16-18 fathoms 
mud and stones, off Halifax!, Nova Scotia, by the Fish Commission, and 
in 14 fathoms off Richibucto, in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, by Mr. 
J. I’. Whiteaves. The greatest depth positively recorded is 29 fathoms, 
but it may very likely have come also from a depth of 40 fathoms near 
Stellwagen’s Bank. : 


Specimens examined. ° 


| E 
} Cn 
= | a j | rm 8 
< | Locality. 8 Bottom. wien, ool Receivedfrom— 3 a vent 
B | 3 | ae 
a & bPhen 
2029 | Vineyard Sound ...... PoE Me ech as Sept. 14,1871|U.S.FishCom., 8 | Ale. 
2030 | Block Island Sound .. - ASH Sandee ses se see ———— RTA eee OO ne eeeteiee | iL Alec. 
| Off Boston Harbor ---. 16 | eres sand, | Sept.18, 1879 |.-..do ......... \ ee Ale. 
| shells. 
| Gloucester Harbor, ToS 3c Os. cece eer —— —,1878|....do ..--.-..- | 30 | Ale. 
| | Mass. | 
2032 | George’s Bank ....-..-. OB) edhe Sees SS SINE) HA Soa enaiaeoeece 2 Ale. 
2031 | Stellwagen’s Bank ....| 20-40 | Rocks and sand.| ——_ —;1873) A. S. Packard.| 1 Alec. 
2033 | Casco Bay ..--.-.----.- | 16h) Mind eee aa July 12,1873; U.S. FishCom-.| 00 Ale. 
2035 |....do | : ATI F180} 1873/2200 - - 2b. oe 00 Ale. 
So ontilt —— —, 1873 |....do -.......- 00 Ale, 
2038 | Bay of Fundy, East- |........ [22 a IS ee a= SYA easaG ty soses see 6 Alc. 
port. 
ZUR) |L.o SAU Ee poe seco psbes0eae| Macrae ice a ee Beane oe —— —,1872|....do.........| 2 Ale. 
2040 | Bay a Fundy, Whit- 20 Mia dia eeaeesses —— —, 1872)}....do ......... 6 Alc. 
ing R. | f 
2041 | Seal Cove, Grand 8-10 [cc soek Bose eee SS SIEM SSO Senco. 3 10 Ale. 
enan. 
2042 | Off Halifax, N.S ...... 16 | Stones, sand, red | —, 1877 |....do ..--..--- 4 Ale. 
alge. 
QUST eee Onis <cac sce vcusiatece 18 Mud fine sand ..| Sept. 15, 1877 |....do .......-- 2 Ale. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 361 


VI.—ARCTURID& 


Form elongated; antenne large and strong; first four pairs of legs 
directed forward, ciliated, last three pairs ambulatory; segments of 
pleon more or less consolidated ; uropods opereuliform. 


This well marked family is as yet represented on our coast by a single 
species of the genus Astacilla Fleming, Leachia or Leacia of Johnston 
and other authors. The family can be easily recognized by the four 
anterior pairs of legs, which are directed forward and strongly ciliated 
on their inner margins with long slender hairs. The form of the body 
is elongate and may be very much so, as in our species the length of the 
body in the male is twenty times as great as its diameter at the middle ; 
in the female eight times. The head is of moderate size and the eyes 
prominent. The four-jointed antennule have the basal segment large 
and swollen. The antenne are large and powerful organs, approaching 
or even surpassing the body in length, with the first two segments short, 
the second deeply incised below as in Jdotea, the next three segments 
elongated, and the flagellum varying in the genera, being multiarticu- 
late in Arcturus, and composed of not more than four segments in Asta- 
cilla. The mouth parts resemble, in general, those of the I[doteide. The 
fourth thoracic segment is more or less elongated. The last three pairs 
of legs are ambulatory, differing much from the first four pairs. The 
segments of the pleon are more or less united, and the uropods are mod- 
ified, as in the preceding family, to form an operculum for the more del- 
icate anterior pleopods. They are wholly inferior, and consist on each 
side of a large basal segment, straight on the median line, where it meets 
its fellow of the opposite side, and bearing, in our genus, two small ter- 
minal plates at the apex. 

This structure of the ple6n and its appendages, together with the 
structure of the antennule, antenne, and the parts of the mouth, point 
to a close relationship between this family and the Idoteide. With the 
Anthuride, however, with which they have often been associated, they 
seem to have little in common, except, perhaps, the elongate form of 
body. Even this feature is approached also in the Idoteide, in Hrich- 
sonia, for example. 

Astacilla Fleming. 
Leacia (Leachia) Johnston, Ed. Phil. Jour., vol. xiii, p. 219, 1825 (non Lesueur). 


Astacilla Fleming, Encye. Brit., 7th ed., vol. vii, p. 502. 
Johnston, Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. viii, p. 494, 1835. 


Antennal fiagelium short, not more than four-jointed ; fourth thoracic 


segment elongated, and, in the females, bearing the incubatory pouch 
on its inferior surface. 


The characters given above seem sufficient to warrant the separation 
of this genus from Arcturus, notwithstanding the fact that the young 
of some species, and probably of all, have the fourth thoracic seg- 


362 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ment no longer than the others as noticed by Johnston*, and later 
by Stebbingt, who draws from the fact an argument against the validity 
of the genus. I fail to see, however, why the argument would not be 
equally valid against the use, among mammals, of characters drawn from 
the horns and teeth. Nothing is more common, in case of a genus or 
family possessing a special development of some organ or set of organs, 
than to find that the young of such a group resemble the adults of less 
specialized groups. If, however, as may be possible, a gradation can 
be established between forms which, like Arcturus Baffini, have the fourth 
thoracic segment large but only slightly elongated, and forms like Asta- 
cilla longicornis or A. granulata, in which this segment is much elongated, 
equaling or surpassing the other six in length, there would then be, per- 
haps, no sufficient reason for retaining both genera. For the present it 
seems desirable to keep them separate, and to the characters given above 
we may add the following: 

The head is produced at the sides around the bases of the antennule, 
and is united dorsally with the first thoracic segment, the sutures being 
evident only at the sides where the segment is eodeeed around the 
hinder part of the head. The flagellum of the antenné consists of three, 
or sometimes only two, distinct segments and a terminal spine, which is 
perhaps to be regarded as a third or fourth segment. The maxillipeds 
(pl. IX, fig. 52 a) are robust and operculiform, with a thick external 
lamella and a five-jointed palpus, but little flattened. The mandibles 
are destitute of palpi. 

The first three thoracic segments are subequal and short; the fourth 
much elongated in both sexes; in the males it is slender and cylindrical ; 
in the females itis more robust, and bears on its inferior surface the incu- 
batory pouch. This pouch is thus confined to a single segment, and is 
composed of a pair of elongated lamelle, attached along their outer mar- 
gins, and overlapping widely along the ventral surface. It occupies 
nearly the entire inferior surface of the segment. The last three thoracic 
segments are short and subequal, and the articulation at the posterior 
end of the fourth segment is capable of considerable motion, and, in our 
species, is usually flexed backward nearly at a rightangle. The first pair 
of legs (pl. VIII, fig. 49 b) have the basis directed backward and the re- 
maining segments ciliated and turned forward, and is more robust than 
the three succeeding pairs, which are slender, of nearly equal size, and con- 
sist of only five segments, which are turned forward from the basis and 
held beneath the head. They are strongly ciliated, especially on thé last 
three segments. One of the fourth pair of legs is shown on plate VIII, 
figure 50. ‘The last three pairs of legs are of entirely different structure, 
being robust and prehensile with strong short dactyli. 

The pleon is consolidated into a single segment, which, however, shows 
traces of its composite nature. It is vaulted above and excavated on 


*Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. ix, p. 81, fig. 15, 1836. 
tAnn. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, vol. xv, p. 187, 1875., 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 363 


its inferior surface for the delicate pleopods, which are protected by the 
operculiform uropods. Both rami of the uropods are present in our 
species, but the outer is much the larger and conceals the delicate inner 
ramus in an exterior view. The outer ramus only is thickened and of 
functional importance as an opereulum. 

The habits of these animals are described by Goodsir in the Edinburgh 
New Philosophical Journal, vol. xxxi, p. 311. He says, “‘ With the 
dredge I have procured specimens * * * * alive, and have kept them 
in glass jars of sea-water with sand and corallines, and have thus been 
enabied to watch their habits closely. 

‘* Under the circumstances just stated, each individual will select a 
branch of coralline, will keep that branch exclusively to itself, and will 
defend it with the greatest vigor against all intruders. It fixes itself to 
its resting-place by means of its true thoracic feet, and seldom uses these 
for progression. When it falls to the bottom of the vessel, it fixes its 
long pointed antenne firmly into the sand, and, with the assistance of the 
true feet, drags and pushes itself forward. This, however, may not be 
a natural mode of progression, but may be adopted in consequence of 
the artificial circumstances in which the animal is placed. 

“Swimming is the natural mode of progression. It is amusing to see 
one of these animals resting, in an erect posture, on a branch of coralline, 
by means of its true thoracic feet, waving its body backwards and for- 
wards, throwing about its long inferior antenne, and ever and anon 
drawing them through its anterior fringed feet, for the purpose of clean- 
ing them. It frequently darts from its branch, with the rapidity of 
lightning, to seize with its long antennze some minute crustaceous ani- 
mal, and returns to its resting-place to devour its prey at pleasure. 

“In this manner the antenne are the only organs employed in seiz- 
ing and enclosing the prey, which they drag to the anterior thoracic 
feet, which hold it while it is being devoured.” 

I have discarded Johnston’s name Leachia, or according to his orthog- 
raphy Leacia, proposed in 1825, as being preoccupied by Lesueur,* in the 
Mollusca in 1821. Astacilla is used by Fleming in the 7th edition of the 
Encyclopedia Britannica; 1842 is given as the date in the copy of the 
seventh volume of the Encyclopedia that I have seen, but Johnston re- 
fers to Fleming in 1835 as authority for the name, quoting the Encyclo- 
pedia. Fleming says in the Encyclopedia (vol. vii, p. 502): “The ge- 
nus was instituted by the Rev. Charles Cordiner of Banff in 1784 for the 
reception of a British species which has been denominated Astacilla lon- 
gicornis.”” J have not been able to find whether Cordiner published the 
name at that early date or whether it was a manuscript name only. If 
actually published in 1784 it would have many years’ priority over 
Arcturus, and the author who would unite the genera should use the 
name Astacilla. Even if not published until 1835 it appears to have the 
best claim to recognition as the generic name of the type here treated of. 


*Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. ii, p. 89, 1821. 


= ——— 


364 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Astacilla granulata Harger (G. O. Sars). 


Leachia granulata G. O. Sars, Arch. Math. Nat., B. ii, p. 351 [251], 1877. 
Astacilla Americana Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 374, 1878. 
Astacilla granulata Harger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p, 161, 1879 


PLATES VIII AND IX, Fics. 48-52. 


The elongated fourth thoracic segment distinguishes this species at 
once from all the other Isopoda of our coast. 

The body is in the female eight times and in the male about twenty 
times as long as broad, the breadth being measured across the fourth 
thoracic segment. It is roughened and tuberculated throughout. The 
head is produced at the sides in front beyond the middle of the basal 
segment of the antennule, and is tuberculated above and crossed by 
two transverse grooves, the first between, and the second behind the eyes, 
while a third similar groove evidently marks the place of the suture be- 
tween the head and the first thoracic segment. The eyes are lateral, 
prominent, round-ovate, broadest in front. The antennule in the female 
slightly surpass the second segment of the antenne, in the male they nearly 
attain the middle of the third segment, the flagellar segment being 
elongated in the male, longer than the three peduncular segments 
together (pl. VIII, fig. 48 a). The second and third segments of the 
antennule are in both sexes short and slender. The antenne are fully 
three-fourths as long as the body; the first segment is shorter than that 
of the antennule, being surpassed at the sides by the lateral processes of 
the head and thus concealed in a lateral view; the second segment is 
large, scarcely longer than broad, and presents below a deep angular 
sinus in the distal margin, as in Idotea; third segment about as long as 
the head; fourth segment longest, slightly exceeding the fifth, which is 
equal to the first three taken together. The flagellum* (pl. VIII, fig. 49 a) 
- is less than half the length of the last peduncular segment and usually 
consists of three distinct segments, of which the first is as long as the 
other two; the second is equal in length to the third, which is tipped 
with a terminal spine or claw, probably to be regarded as a fourth seg- 
ment. Sometimes, however, only two distinct segments exist in the 
flagellum besides the claw. The flagellar segments are finely and 
sharply denticulate along the margin which is inferior when the an- 
tenne are straightened. The character of this denticulation is shown 
in figure 49 a’ on plate VIII, where a small section of the margin is shown 
enlarged 100 diameters. The maxillipeds (pl. EX, fig. 52 a) are robust 
and cover the other parts of the mouth; the external lamella (1) is 
ovate and in the figure is somewhat bent outward from its natural 
position. The palpus of the maxillipeds is five-jointed and but little 
flattened, strongly ciliated along the inner margin. The terminal lobe 


*The figure of the animal (pl. VIII, fig. 48,) was sent to the engraver before I had 
seen any specimens except the imperfect ones collected in 1877, and the flagellum of 
the antenne was dotted from the young specimens. Fig. 49a on plate VIII was 
made from a specimen obtained in 1878. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 065 


(pl. IX, fig. 52 a, m’) is quadrate, scarcely ciliated at the apex, and 
distinctly articulated with the maxilliped. The outer maxille (pl. 10 
fig. 52 b) are three-lobed and strongly ciliated. The inner maxille 
(pl. IX, fig. 52 c) are two-lobed, the lobes robust and short, the outer 
armed ae short spines at the apex, the inner with three slender curved 
sete. 

The thoracic segments are coarsely granulated or tuberculated; the 
first is produced at the sides around the head nearly to the eyes; the 
others have their anterior and posterior margins transverse. The fourth 
segment in the female is a little less than three times as long as broad, 
and is longer than the other six segments taken together, but is only 
four-fifths as long as the last three segments together with the pleon. 
It is tuberculated, especially above, but bears no prominent tubercles or 
spines, and is subeylindrical. In the male this segment (pl. VUT, fig. 48 5) 
is more elongate and much more slender, exceeding in length the three 
following segments with the pleon. In the ordinary position the thorax 
is geniculate at the posterior articulation of the fourth segment, forming 
nearly a right angle with the rest of the body. The last three segments 
have their epimeral regions angulated and salient. The first pair of 
legs (pl. VIII, fig. 49 b) are of moderate length and, beyond the basal seg- 
ment, flattened; the basal segment is directed backward but the leg is 
bent upon itself at the ischium and the remaining segments are directed. 
forward and applied to the under surface of the head. The ischium and 
merus support but few cilia,and these mostly along their inner margins, 
but the carpus, propodus, and dactylus are not only ciliated on the in- 
ner margin with slender simple cilia, but also bear on the side toward 
the body stout scattered spinulose setz, which are specially abundant on 
the propodus. The opposite side of the leg is nearly smooth. The sec- 
ond, third, and fourth pairs of legs are five-jointed and similar to each 
other, except that the basal segments of the second and third are some- 
what shorter than in the fourth (pl. VIL, fig. 50). The second pair is 
shorter than the third, and the fourth is a little the longest. All these 
legs are directed strongly forward and habitually held nearly in the 
ppsition shown in the figure, under the anterior surface of the body and 
the head. The last three segments are furnished with elongated sete 
along their inner margins. These sete are inserted in two rows and so 
placed as to diverge at anopen angle. The dactyli appear to be obsolete 
in these legs. The fifth, sixth, and seventh pairs of legs are of quite a 
different and more ordinary structure. They contain the full number of 
segments, and are terminated by robust, slightly curved dactyli. A 
young specimen obtained has only two pairs of legs of the ordinary form, 
the last or seventh pair being represented only by rounded tubercles, 
one on each side of the seventh segment. 

The pleon is elongate-ovate, narrower in the male (pl. VIII, fig. 48 ¢). 
Dorsally it is strongly convex, especially in front. It is two-thirds as 
long as the fourth thoracic segment in the female, and three-fifths as 


366 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


long as that segment in the male. It is provided with rather coarse 
tubercles in front, which are arranged transversely in three rows, and 
behind the third row is a deep transverse groove, behind which the tu- 
bercles are less prominent and more of the character of granulations. 
On each side before the middle is a prominent, sub-acute tooth, directed 
outward and backward immediately above the articulation of the uropods. 
The tip of the pleon is not spiniform, but only slightly attenuated and 
obtuse. The pleopods are delicate in structure, and the anterior pairs 
are ciliated. The uropods or opercula are more than nine-tenths as long 
as the under surface of the pleon (pl. VII, fig. 48 c), but cannot be seen 
from above. They consist on each side (pl. VIII, fig. 51) of an elongated, 
semi-oval, basal, lamellar segment, thickened and vaulted externally, with 
the anterior end rounded, and bearing a salient semi-circular process on 
the outer margin near the anterior end, for articulation with the pleon. 
Posteriorly this plate is tapering and it is broadly truncated at the tip, 
where it bears two lamelliform rami. Of these the external is thick, 
like the basal segment, and is of an elongate triangular form and com- 
pletes the operculum behind, while the inner ramus is a small and 
delicate oval plate, articulated to the basal segment near its inner distal 
angle, and completely covered and concealed by the outer ramus when 
the operculum is closed. The inner ramus is sparingly ciliated at the 
tip. The pleopods are very delicate, and the anterior pairs are ciliated. 

In the females the lamelle forming the incubatory pouch are thick- 
ened and tuberculated or granulated along the outer edge where they 
are attached to the segment. The thickened area is bounded by a lon- 
gitudinal ridge, beyond which the lamella is thin, smooth, and translu- 
cent, permitting the eggs to be seen through it, and the thin portion of 
the right lamella (in the specimen examined) overlaps its fellow of the 
opposite side so far as to bring its edge along the base of the ridge bound- 
ing the thickened portion of the opposite lamella. Near the anterior 
end and on the outer side is a rounded lobe in the margin of the lamella 
for articulation with the segment. 

Length of female 10™™; male 11™™; diameter of fourth thoracic seg- 
ment, female 1.2""; male 0.52™"; color in alcohol, nearly white. 

This species was described by the writer without having seen Sar@ 
description of Leachia granulata. The volume containing his description 
has since been obtained by the Yale College Library, and a careful com- 
parison of our specimens with his description leaves little doubt that the 
species is identical with his. His specimens were somewhat larger than 
ours, females measuring 14° and males 17". The females in A. longi- 
cornis Sowerby are much larger than the males, and the reverse rela- 
tion of size in this species appears to be unusual in the genus. 

Specimens were first collected on this coast on George’s Bank !, in the 
summer of 1877, and the three then obtained were found adhering to 
Primnoa, and had been dried and somewhat broken. Better specimens. 
were collected adhering to the cable of the schooner ‘Marion,’ at Ban- 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 367 


quereau!, by Capt. J. W. Collins, August 25, 1878, and a fine specimen 
was obtained in seven fathoms off Miquelon Island!, south of Newfound- 
land, by Capt. C. D. Murphy and crew of the schooner ‘Alice M. Will- 
jams,’ July 3,1879. Sars’ specimens were collected between Norway and 
Iceland at stations 18 and 48, of which the respective localities as given 
by him are latitude 62° 44.5’ north, longitude 1° 48’ east, in 412 fathoms, 
clayey bottom, and latitude 64° 36’ north, longitude 10° 21.5’ west, in 
299 fathoms, clay and sand. 


Specimens examined. 


Pa Z Specimens. 
2 
5 Locality. 2 Bottom. hate (Received from—| ———_——— sory: 
@ 
ps E No. | Sex 
2045 | George’s Bank.....-|.------.|---------------- .— —, 1877 | U.S. Fish Com. 2/Qy] Ale. 
BPEGN | iy CON sano seins nieicin||=,<°610 socdlenseseeagho6 -as¢ ABT || 22 OOngae as eine 1 Jo | Alc. 
Banquereau, N. S...| 250 | Rocky .-.....-. — —, 878 ape J. W. Col- 3 Q | Ale. 
8. ‘ 
Off Miquelon Island. Vig RMB meme EE Zeid) July 3, 1879 | Capt.C.D.Mur-| 1 Q | Alc. 
| phy and crew. 
! ( \ 


VIL—SPHAROMID i. 


Body short and convex; head transverse; antennule and antenne 
multiarticulate, with evident distinction into peduncle and flagellum; 
mandibles palpigerous; epimera united with the thoracic segments; 
anterior segments of the pleon short, united and articulated with the 
large terminal segment; uropods lateral with only one movable ramus. 


This family is sparingly represented on the eastern coast of the 
United States, and within our limits only a single species is found, 
belonging to the typical genus Spheroma. The animals are usually of 
small size, and have the body short, broad, and convex. The head is 
transverse, and both pairs of antenne are inserted near together below 
its anterior margin. These organs are much better developed than in 
the following family. The epimera are faintly indicated in the thoracic 
segments by impressed lines. The anterior segment of the pleon is sim- 
ilarly marked with transverse sutures indicating the segments of which 
itis composed. ‘The last segment is large, and one or more of the pos- 
terior segments may be notched, tuberculated, spiny, or variously modi- 
fied, as occursin many foreign genera. Below, the pleon is much exca- 
vated for the pleopods, which, as usual, are in five pairs, the anterior 
three ciliated. In the males a slender stylet is articulated near the base 
of the inner lamella of the second pair, and lies along its inner side, so 
that in the natural position they lie close together on opposite sides of 
the middle line of the body. These pleopods, though received into a 
cavity in the under surface of the pleon, are not protected by any oper- 
culum nor opercular plates, as in most of the preceding families, nor is 
the external pair thickened, as in the Anthuride. 


368 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Spheroma Latreille. 
Spheroma Latreille, Hist. nat. des Crust. et des Ins., tome vii, p. 11, 1804. 


Body contractile into a sphere; antennule and antenne short or of 
moderate length; maxillipeds with a five-jointed palpus; legs all ambu- 
latory; dactyli short and thick; uropods short, ramus and basal seg- 
ment subequal. 


The name of this genus is derived from the peculiar habit of many 
of the species of rolling themselves into a ball when alarmed. The body 
is so constructed as to facilitate this operation, the antennule and 
antenne being received into a groove at the side of the head; the epi- 
meral regions of the thoracic segments behind the first are narrowed 
nearly to a point and project well downward so as to meet very close 
together and still leave room for the included legs, while the uropods, 
shutting together like a pair of scissors, fold also partly under the large 
terminal segment of the pleon and fill the crevice between the pleon and 
the head. The maxillipeds in this genus are provided with a long 
densely ciliated five-jointed palpus. The maxille are much as in the 
Idoteide, the outer pair three-lobed and strongly ciliated, the inner 
two-lobed with the inner lobe small and tipped with pectinate sete, the 
outer larger and armed with curved denticulated spines. The mandibles 
have a strong molar process, a dentigerous lamella armed with acute 
teeth, and a three-jointed palpus. 

The legs are rather weak and nearly alike throughout, all ambulatory. 
The pleon is svarcely narrower than the segments of the thorax and ap- 
pears to consist of two* segments only, of which the first is much like the 
last thoracic segment, but more strongly produced at the sides than is 
that segment and marked with impressed lines. It is articulated with 
considerable motion to the large scutiform terminal segment, which, in 
this genus, is rounded and entire at the tip, and not strongly tubercu- 
lated nor spiny. Anteriorly, the angles of this segment are produced 
downward into a rounded lobe in front of the shoulder from which arise 
the uropods. These organs are not greatly elongated; the basal seg- 
ment is produced into a plate about equal in size to the single ramus. 


Sphzeroma quadridentatum Say. 
Spheroma quadridentata Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., vol. i, p. 400, 1818. 

Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 44, 1844. 

White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 102, 1847. 

Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, v., p. 314, 1873; This Report, part i, p. 569 
(275), pl. v., fig. 21, 1874; Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, 1879, vol. ii, p. 161, 
1879. 

Verrill, This Report, part i, p. 315 (21), 1874. 


PLATE IX, FIG. 58. 


The outline of the body when extended is a pretty regular ellipse, but 
the animal, when disturbed, rolls itself into a ball with facility, and by 


*The pleon is inadvertently described by Bate and Westwood in the British Sessile- 
Eyed Crustacea, vol. ii, p. 401, as ‘having all the segments fused together.” 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 369 


this habit may be distinguished from the other marine Isopods of our 
coast. 

The head is rounded in front with an elevated margin, and a slight me: 
dian projection between the bases of the antennule. The eyes are 
small and sub-triangular, widely separated. The antennule and the 
antenn are inserted on the inferior surface of the head, and, when the 
animal contracts, they are received into a groove along the margin of 
the head and anterior thoracic segment. The antennule (pl. LX, fig. 54a) 
have the basal segment large, the second segment small and conical, 
the third slender, cylindrical; the flagellum about ten-jointed, ciliated, 
shorter than the peduncle. In the antenne (pl. IX, fig. 540) the peduneu- 
lar segments decrease but little in diameter, and increase in length from 
the first to the fifth, and are followed by a flagellum about as long as 
the peduncle, tapering from the base, with the basal segments strongly 
ciliated along their inner or anterior distal margins. The antenne are 
separated at the base by a triangular, somewhat projecting epistome, 
which also partly separates the bases of the antennule. The maxilli- 
peds have the basal segment short and somewhat triangular, with plu- 
mose sete at the acute apex, and a five-jointed palpus, of which the first 
segmentis short and smooth, and the following segments strongly ciliated 
along more or less of their inner margins. The outer maxille are termi- 
nated by three ovate rather acute lobes, which are strongly ciliated. The 
inner maxillze have the inner lobe tipped with four pectinated curved: 
sete, and the outer armed with strong denticulated spines. -The mand- 
ibles are robust and bear on their external surface at the apex a dentig- 
erous lamella, or usually two such on the right mandible, receiving the’ 
lamella of the left between them; below the lamella is a strongly ciliated 
ridge supporting the dentigerous lamella and connecting it with the mo- 
lar process, which is large and strong. The mandibular palpi are slender, 
with the last segment sub-semicircular, bearing at its apex a few serrated 
spines, and below a comb of straight sete; the middle segment bears a 
similar comb with stouter spiny sete at the ends. 

The first thoracic segment is longer than the others, and much elon- 
gated at the sides,embracing the head as far as its anterior margin. 
Above this lateral expansion on each side the segment is excavated for 
a projecting lobe of the head behind the eye. The second, third, and 
fourth segments are somewhat shorter than the first and longer than the 
fifth, sixth, and seventh. The margin of the last segment bends slightly 
backward at the middle. In the thoracic segments behind the first the 
epimeral sutures are indicated by a faint depressed line, below which 
the lateral margin of the second segment tapers to an obtusely rounded 
point, the third is more acutely pointed, the fourth oblique and acute 
behind, the fifth and sixth also oblique but less acute, and the seventh 
rounded. The legs are weak, hairy, and much alike.throughout, formed 
for walking, and none of them chelate. The dactylus in allis short and 
robust, armed with a stout curved spine or claw at the tip, and a smaller 

24 ¥F 


370 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


straight spine below it. In the first pair of legs the carpus is short and 


triangular, the ischium and merus bear on their upper margin a row of © 


long slender plumose hairs. In the second and third pairs of legs these 
hairs are also found, and the carpus is longer. The fourth pair of legs 
are robust, the following pairs more slender to the seventh. Allare well 
provided with slender hairs, with a few stouter ones intermixed. 

The anterior segments of the pleon are consolidated into a single piece 
somewhat resembling the last thoracic segment, but marked at the 
sides by depressed lines, indicating sutures, as shown in pl. LX, fig. 53. 
At the sides this segment is broadly rounded and projects much below 
the seventh thoracic when the animal is contracted, The large terminal 
segment has a similar lobe in front of the bases of the uropods. At the 
insertion of the uropods the segment is considerably contracted laterally, 
but is rounded and strongly margined behind. Its anterior lobe, all the 
thoracic segments, and the head are also margined by an elevation run- 
ning completely around the animal except where it is interrupted by 
the uropods. The uropods extend nearly to the tip of the telson, and 
consist on each side of a basal segment continued backward into a nar- 
row oval plate with entire margins, flattened below, where a similarly- 
shaped ramus is articulated near its base, the two shutting together like 
the blades of a pair of scissors. The articulated plate bears four more or 
less acute serrations on its exterior margin, whence the specific name. 
The pleopods are ciliated, and the second pair (pl. LX, fig. 54¢) bears, in 
the male, on the inner lamella, a slender curved stylet, longer than the 
lamella, and articulated near its base. 

Length about 8°", breadth 4°". The color, as usual in shore species, 
is variable; some are of a uniform slaty gray, many are marked on the 
dorsal surface with a whitish, cream color, or rosaceous patch, bordered 
more or less with dark or black. This patch has commonly a longitud- 
inal direction, and is usually symmetrical, and may be broad or much 
narrowed in the middle. On the dark or barnacle-covered rocks, where 
these animals are often found, the colors are evidently protective, but 
they are imperfectly preserved in alcohol. 

This species was described by Say, who “found these animals very 
bumerous on the beach of Saint Catherine’s Island, Georgia, concealing 
themselves under the raised bark, and in the deserted holes of the 
Teredo, &c., of such dead trees as are periodically immersed.” He also 
gives East Florida asa locality, and there are specimens in the Yale 
Museum from Florida! It extends as far north as Provincetown, Mass.! 
near the extremity of Cape Cod. It is common on the southern shore 
of New England!, and is usually found among algz or rocks. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. O71 


’ 


Specimens examined, 


% 8 
J : i: 
= Locality. A Bottom. eee ee ‘Received from— ee wins 
i=} a =i 
A | co 7, 
o05# | Plorida-2:...-c4-<- o Boee eee eee | ae cee ee eae emer tii oe Smithsonian 
| Instieecee esi 00) Ale. 
194 iGreat Hee Harber tN. dit |2:..:.|.c.cesceeeeesels April, 1871 |Smith& Verrill|...... Ale. 
2053 | New Haven, Conn........- te co: (nae oe ae tee a5.” S. I. Smith....) 5 Ale. 
Savin Rock, New Haven..| L. w. | | Roe Mc yis eS ate all eto Aare rolei state aie [aietiew sis ele niere 00 Ale. 
2052 Stony Creek, Contes esse IPRoie |) ISCWiay soa56eo])acnoscscdsebedllesenessecsepaos- 00 Alc. 
2049 | Vineyard Sound, WEDS 2. 8. BBR e Aa HeoosaaeSebacecc —— —, 1871 | U.S.FishCom.| 3 Ale. 
OHM eects. Ola ciseateje ee cites ele<iclars Ta GWiey ile acicisietee paces see —— —, 1871 |...:do -.--....-.. it Alc 
2051 E Oia ee esti ator: eae Pa llatic acs Salsteeteiotuecesioes —— —, 1875 COLONES eee 5 Ale 
“Provine etown, Mass ...... Tews lose das seiscve eres Aug =. 1879) ie s3. GO): <5 -- 5 00 Ale. 
~-W sacdadasndodee: 566856 4 Eel-grass....- | Aug. —— LOUD) ates O = 210 seins alo 1 Ale. 


VUL—LIMNORIID A. 


Body compressed; antennule and antenne short, subequal; mandi- 
bles palpigerous, formed for gnawing; feet not prehensile, all similar, 
with short, robust dactyli; epimera united with the thoracic segments ; 
pleon of six distinct segments; pleopods similar in form throughout; 
uropods lateral, biramous. 


This family as constituted above contains the single genus Limnoria 
Leach, which appears also to contain but few, or perhaps a single, species* 
of wide distribution. This genus was placed in the tribe Asellotes 
homopodes with the Asellide by Edwards, without, however, having 
examined the animals himself. He has been generally followed in this 
arrangement by later authors. Previous authors had associated the 
genus, as it appears to me more justly, with Spheroma and the Cymo- 
thoide in the wide signification of the latter term. White, in his List 
of British Crustacea, used the name Limnoriadw to include this genus 
with the Asellidw. I have preferred to constitute a new family for the 
genus, which has, however, evident relations with the Spheromida, and 
perhaps should yet be united with that family. 

Under the circumstances family characters can scarcely be separated 
with certainty from those of generic or even of specific value only, but 
for the purpose of comparison with other families certain important char- 
acters may be here stated. The body is somewhat depressed dorsally, 
but is also compressed at the sides, and when extended is subvermiform. 
It is nearly capable of being rolled into a ball, as in the genus Sphwroma. 
The head is of moderate size and strongly rounded above, as in Sphe- 
roma, and the eyes are widely separated and on the sides of the head, a 
condition not usual in the Asellide. The antennule are short and stout 
and the basal segment is but little larger than the second; the flagellum 


“It is perhaps hardly necessary to remark that L. xylophaga Hesse, Ann. Sci. nat., 
tome x, p. 101, pl. ix, 1868, is not an Isopod. According to Prof. Smith it is Chelura 
terebrans Phillipi, a boring amphipod often found associated with Limnoria, See an 
article by that author in the Proceedings of the U. 8S. National Museum, 1879, vol. ii, 
pp. 232-235. 


o72 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


consists of a single, almost rudimentary segment. The antenne differ 
widely from any in the Asellide, since they are less robust than the anten- 
nul, and but little longer; the peduncular segments are all short, having 
almost the same proportion to each other as in Spheroma (see pl. IX, 
figs. 54b and 560), the last two being together about equal in length to the 
first three, instead of far surpassing them as in the Asellide; the flagel- 
lum is short and few-jointed, mostly made up of a tapering basal seg- 
ment, and not at all resembling the slender multiarticulate flagellum of 
the Asellide. The mandibles are adaptively modified in accordance 
with the boring habits of the species, but the othér mouth parts do not 
seem to present characters from which comparisons need be drawn with 
other families. 

The legs are somewhat similar to those seen in many Asellide, being 
furnished with short dactyli, each armed with a strong curved claw, and 
a Shorter spine below. A similar form of leg is, however, seen in Sphe- 
roma. ‘The epimera are united to the lateral margins of the thoracic 
segments almost precisely as in Spheroma, an arrangement that does 

_not prevail in the Asellide. 

The pleon has all its six segments well developed and perfectly separated 
from each other, while in the Asellid@ they are united into a single seuti- 
form segment, or at most, the basal segment only is more or less distinct. 
The pleopods are of the normal number and similar in form and texture 
throughout; the anterior pairs are ciliated. Each pair of pleopods consists 
of a basal segment, bearing an inner narrow lamella and an outer oval one, 
which, except in the fifth pair, are well ciliated. In the male the inner la- 
mellaof the second pair bears, on its innermargin, astylet, as in Spheroma 
and many other genera of Isopoda. In the Asellidw the branchial pleo- 
pods are in fewer than five pairs, and are protected in front by a simple 
or compound operculum of firmer texture than the other pleopods. Dr. 
Coldstream * fell into an error in describing the respiratory organs as con- 
sisting of “six pairs of scale-like bodies, pendant from the anterior seg- 
ments of the tail, * * arranged in three rows, in an imbricated man- 
ner, one of each kind (‘oval’ and ‘nearly quadrangular’) being articu- 
lated together on a common peduncle on either side.” He further 
describes, loc. cit., p. 324, “ two vesicular bodies of an oval form” behind 
the branchie. These organs were without doubt the external lamellze 
of the fifth pair of pleopods, as shown by his figure. There are, how- 
ever, four instead of three ciliated pairs anterior to the last pair, one 
of which was overlooked by Dr. Coldstream, and in this error he has 
been followed by Bate and Westwood.t+ If the observations of Dr. Cold- 
stream had been correct, an affinity might have been indicated with the 
Asellide. The terminal segment is flattened and scutiform, in shape 
resembling that of Jwra, but the uropods are strictly lateral, being 
attached at the broadest part of the segment and in front of the middle. 


* Edinburgh New Phil. Journal, vol. xvi, p. 323, 
t Brit. Sessile-Eyed Crustacea, vol. ii, p. 350. 


ee 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 373 


The relations of the present family with the Sphwronmide appear to 
be more close, but the structure of the mandiblés and perhaps also that 
of the maxillipeds, the fully segmented pleon and the biramous uropods 
seem to be characters of family value, which, however, a fuller investi- 
gation of the boring Sphwromide might go far to break down. 


Limnoria Leach. 
Limnoria Leach, Edinburgh Encyc., vol. vii, p. £433” (Am. ed., p. 273), ‘£1813-14.” 


Mandibles with a nearly even chisel-like cutting-edge at the tip and 
no molar process; maxillipeds elongate, with a well-developed external 
lamella and a five-jointed palpus; first thoracic segment large; uropods 
with the outer ramus very short and almost obsolete. 


The aboveécharacters differ from those by which Leach separated this 
genus from Cymothoa and the Spheromide, with which he associated it. 


Limnoria lignorum White (Rathke). 
“Cymothoa lignorum Rathke, Skrivt. af Naturh. Selsk., v. 101, t. 3, f. 14, 1799” 
(White). 
Limnoria terebrans Leach, Ed. Encye., vol. vii, p. ‘433’ (Am. ed., p. 273), 
“1813-14”; Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xi, p. 371, 1815; Dict. Sci. nat:, tome 
xii, p. 353, 1818. 
Samouelle, Ent. Comp., p. 109, 1819. 
Desmarest, Consid. Crust., p. 312, 1825. 
Latreille, Regne Anim., tome iv, p. 135, 1829. 
Coldstream, Edinb. New Phil. Jour., vol. xvi, pp. 316-334, pl. vi, 1834. 
“Hope, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., vol. i, p. 119” (B. & W.). 
Thompson, Edinb. New Phil. Jour., vel. xviii, p. 127, 1835; Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist., vol. xx, p. 157, 1847. 
Templeton, Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. ix, p. 12, 1836. 
Moore, Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist., n.s., vol. ii, p. 206, 1838; ibid., 
vol. iii, pp. 196, 293, 1839. 
Edwards, Annot de Lamarck, tom. v, p. 276, 1838; Hist. nat. des Crust., 
tom. ili, p. 145, 1840; Reégne Anim. Crust., p. 197, pl. 67, f. 5, 1849. 
Gould, Invert. Mass., pp. 338, 354, figure, 1840. 
Fleming, Encyce. Brit., 7 ed., vol. vii, p. 502, 1842. 
Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 48, pl. ix, fig. 33, 1844. 
“Kirby and Spence, Int. Entom., 5th ed., p. 238; 6th ed., p. 203” (White.) 
White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 96, 1847; Brit. Crust. B. Mus., p. 68, 1850. 
Dalyell, Powers of the Creator, vol. i, p. 241, pl. Ixv, figs. 7-15, 1851. 
Leidy, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., II, vol. iii, p. 150, 1855. 
Gosse, Man. Mar. Zool., vol. i, p. 136, fig. 242, 1855. 
Steenstrup and Liitken, Vidensk. Meddel., II, vol. ii, p. 275, 1861. 
Hesse, Ann. Sci. nat., Zool., V, tome x, p. 113, 1868. 
Jones, Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. Nat. Sci., vol. ii, pt. iv, p. 99, 1870. 
Verrill, Proc. Am. Assoc., 1873, p. 367, 1874. 
Macdonald, Trans. Linn. Soc., II, Zool., vol. i, p. 67, 1875. 
Andrews, Q..Jour. Mic. Sci., II, vol. xv, p. 332, 1875. 
Limnoria lignorum White, Pop. Hist. Brit. Crust., p. 227, pl. 12, fig. 5, 1857. 
Bate, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1860, p. 225, 1861. 
Bate and Westwood, Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 351, figure, 1868. 


374 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Limnoria lignorum—Continned. 

Norman, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1868, p. 288, 1869. 

Mobius, Wirbellos. Thiere der Ostsee, p. 122, 1873. 

Parfitt, Fauna of Devon, Sess. Crust., p. (19), 1873. 

Verrill, Am. Jour, Sci., III, vol. vii, pp. 183, 185, 1874; Proc. Am. Assoc., 
1873, p. 371, 1874; This Report, part i, p. 379 (85), 1874, 

Harger, This Report, part i, p. 571 (277), pl. vi, fig. 25, 1874; Proe. U. S. 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 161, 1879. 

M’Intosh, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, vol. xiv, p. 273, 1874. 

Stebbing, Trans. Devon. Assoc., 1874, p. (8), 1874. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 
IV, vol. xvii, p. 79, 1876. 

Whiteaves, Further Deep-Sea Dredging, Gulf St. Lawrence, p. 15, ‘1874.” 

Metzger, Nordseefahrt der Pomm., p. 285, 1875. 

Meinert, Crust. Isop. Amph. Dec. Daniz, p. 77, 1877. 

Smith, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 939, fig. 2, 1880. 

Limnoria uncinata Heller, Verh. k. k. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien, B. xvi, 7 734, 1866. 
Staho, Cat. Crost. gran, p. 211, 1877 


PLATE IX, Fias, 55-57, 


This species may in general be recognized by its habits, being usually 
found burrowing in submerged timber, to which, notwithstayding its 
insignificant appearance, it often proves very destructive. 

The body is subcylindrical, tapering slightly at each end and covered 
above with short hairs to which more or less dirt usually adheres. The 
head is narrower than the first thoracic segment. The eyes are lateral and 
consist of about eight ocelli, one central and the others around it. The 
antennule (pl. IX, fig. 56a) are short and seem to arise from near the 
middle of the front of the head. The basal segment is the largest; the sec- 
ond and third are of slightly decreasing size; the fourth or flagellar seg- 
ment is much the smallest, and tipped with sete. The antenne (pl. LX, 
fig. 56b) are more slender than the antennule, and arise just below their 
bases and a little farther apart. The first two segments are short; the 
third slightly longer; the fourth and fifth increasing somewhat in length; 
the flagellum is not longer than the last two peduncular segments, and 
consists of a tapering segment, followed by a few short terminal seg- 
ments provided with a terminal brush of sete. The maxillipeds (pl. IX, 
fig. 56 ¢) are slender; the external lamella is semi-ovate, with the inner 
margin nearly straight, acute, and ciliated at the tip; the palpus is 
five-jointed but short, with the segments flattened, and all but the first 
ciliated along their inner margins. The outer maxille (pl. IX, fig. 56 d) 
are slender, three-lobed, and ciliated at the tip. The inner maxille (pl. 
1X, fig. 56 e) are also slender, the inner lobe tipped with pectinate bristles, 
the outer with robust spines. The mandibles (pl. LX, fig. 567) are some- 
what elongate, but of a simple form, being curved inward, flattened and 
chisel-shaped at the tip; below there is a slight tubercle, apparently the 
rudiment of the molar process; externally, above the origin of the palpus, 
is a prominent tubercle; the palpus is short, of three subequal segments, 
the last furnished with a rather imperfect comb of setz. 

The first thoracic segment is about twice as long as any that follow; 
it is crossed by a broad, shallow depression, and is rounded at the sides. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. oth 


The second and third segments are each about half the length of the 
first. The epimeral sutures are evident, aud the epimera are rounded 
behind in the second segment, but a little more prominent in the third, 
becoming acute and increasing in size and extension backward to the 
seventh. The fourth segment is slightly shorter than the third, and per- 
haps a little broader; the last three are short, decreasing in length to 
the seventh, but maintaining about equal width. The legs are short and 
rather robust. The first pair have the carpus triangular, but this seg- 
ment becomes more elongate in the sueceeding pairs. The dactyli are 
robust, and are armed with a strong curved spine or claw at the tip and 
a smaller one below it. The merus, and usually the ischium and carpus, 
bear a few spiniform tubercles on the lower surface except in the last 
pair, which are also more elongated and slender than the others. 

The pleon is scarcely narrower than the thorax, and tapers but little; 
the first four segments are of equal length; the fifth is longer with a 
median elevation and a transverse depression on each side. The last 
segment (pl. LX, fig. 57a) is transversely oval or subcircular, broader than 
long, with the anterior margin raised, especially at the middle, where the 
elevation is continued a short distance on the segment, but posteriorly 
it is flattened. The posterior margin is ciliate with hairs of various 
lengths. The uropods (pl. IX, fig. 57)) are attached just in front of the 
middle of the segment at its widest part. They consist on each side of 
a somewhat wedge-shaped basal segment, ciliated and bluntly denticu- 
lated distally on the outer side, and supporting two rami, between which 
it is produced below into a strong tooth-like process. The outer ramus 
is very short and curved outward; the inner is not as long as the basal seg- 
ment, and is ciliated externally and at the tip. Underneath, the pleon is 
much excavated for the pleopods, which are strongly ciliated. The first 
pair (pl. LX, fig. 57¢) consist on each side of a short basal segment bear- 
ing two lamelle; the inner lamella is almost four times as long as 
broad, with nearly parallel sides, ciliated at and near the tip; the outer, 
which is also in front of the inner, is sub-oval with the outer margin 
more convex than the inner, ciliated near the tip and along most of the 
outer margin, and inserted a little obliquely upon the basal segment. 
The next three pairs of pleopods are similar to the first pair on each 
side, except that in the males the second pair (pl. EX, fig. 57 d) bears a 
stylet (s) articulated to the inner margin of the inner lamella about the 
middle. The posterior pair of pleopods are smaller than the others and 
not ciliated. 

Length 4.5"; breadth 1.5"; color light grayish. 

Mueh has been written upon the destructive habits of the Limnoria or 
“oribble” and the means of preventing its attacks on woodwork, for 
which the reader may consult especially the publications of Leach, Cold- 
stream, Hope, Thompson, Moore, Gould, Bate and Westwood, Verrill, and 
Andrews, who has observed it attacking the gutta-percha of submarine 
telegraph- cables. 


376 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


It is found boring in submerged wood along our coast from Florida! to 
Halifax!, N. 8., and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It occurs above low- 
water mark, but does not usually live far below that line; it has, however, 
been found by Professor Verrill at a depth of 10 fathoms in Casco Bay, 
and was dredged by the U.S. Fish Commission in a depth of 74 fathoms, 
Cape Cod Bay!, Mass., in the summer of 1879. It is abundant, according 
to European authors, in many localities on the coast of Great Britain 
and in the North Sea. JZ. wncinata Heller, from Verbosca, in the Island 
of Lesina, Adriatic Sea, appears to be the same species, as the differences 
pointed out by Heller do not really exist, but were doubtless suggested 
by the incorrect figures that have been published representing the uro- 
pods with rami composed of two or more segments. The form of these 
appendages, as shown on plate IX, fig. 57 b, corresponds well with Hel. 
ler’s description. It was found by Heller associated with Chelura tere- 
brans. Limnoria is said also to occur in the Pacific Ocean, and from its 
habits might be expected to have a wide distribution. 


Specimens examined. 


a D 
E When col 53 |p 
E Locality. Habitat. facta L ~ | Received from— ae Tah 
5 

A An 
OSs Mord ay <2 o:-\2-1-.s/9s sie ciel BOLIN PM WO OG eas seem semaine Smithsonian Inst - 6 Ale. 
Provincetown, Mass..... Sud) Sobor sascasor Aug., 1879 |U.S.FishCom....| 00 Ale. 
0A Ta | DCASCONDAY: 22 <\<j5<0 coc eek fst dOmecstioree sent ——— mm 1873), |e sO) cas n cede cts 30 Ale. 
IB Diva OLE OLY) ao eeisieee eae ae OO Be eee ee —— —, 1872 ||2.,. do 2.2.22 2 sce 00 Alc. 
allitaxNaisicce cacmeaese cendOeeuccemacees ——— STR eee Oo meseneaetcene 00 Ale. 


| 


IX.—CIROLANID/Z&. 


Front formed of the approximate basal segments of the antennula, 
which are not covered by an anterior projection of the head; antennule 
and antenne presenting an evident distinction into peduneular and 
flagellar segments; maxillipeds with a five-jointed palpus; mandibles 
formed for biting, palpigerous; legs all terminated by nearly straight 
dactyli; epimera distinct behind the first thoracic segment; pleopods 
at least the anterior pairs, ciliated; uropods biramous, the rami flattened 
and ciliated. 


This family is represented on our coast by two closely allied species 
apparently belonging to the typical genus Cirolana, although approach- 
ing the allied genus Conilera, to which I formerly referred them. They 
have been hitherto usually referred to the following family, but the dif- 
ferences in the structure of the mouth parts, first pointed out by Schiddte, 
seem to warrant their separation as a distinct family. The mandibles 
are formed for biting, being armed with long and powerful teeth, which, 
closing together like the blades of scissors, are well adapted for lacerat- 
ing the flesh of fishes on which they feed. The first three pairs of legs 
are fitted for prehension, but they are destitute of the strongly curved 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC.’ BY iy 


dactyli found in the Agida, and still better developed in the Cymothoida, 
In the Cirolanide the propodus, in the first three pairs of legs, is some- 
what curved and the dactyli are nearly straight, so that while the first 
three pairs of legs are powerful organs of prehension, they are also 
capable of letting go preparatory to the seizure of another victim. The 
posterior pairs of legs are ambulatory or fitted for swimming by their 
form and armature of bristly hairs. The ciliated pleopods are also 
powerful swimming ‘organs, so that these animals are well fitted for the 
predatory life they lead. The epimera are well separated by sutures 
in all the thoracic segments behind the first. The pleon is scarcely nar- 
rower at base than the last thoracic segment, and is composed of six 
distinct segments, of which the last is much the longest, but not broader 
than the preceding segments, and tapers posteriorly. The uropods are 
lateral, articulated near the base of the last segment and distinctly 
biramous. 

The mouth-organs of this and the two following families have been 
the object of special research by J.C. Schiédte, whose papers in the Natur- 
historisk Tidsskrift have been in part translated in the Annals and 
Magazine of Natural History. He regards Cirolana as representing “ the 
highest development of the crustacean type among the Isopoda,” and 
even hints that Cirolana and Aga should be removed to opposite ends of 
the series of Isopoda. The same author would closely unite the Bopy- 
ride, Alga, and the Cymothoide into a single group, the Cymothoe, 
while acknowledging that the young of Cymothoa estrum, “ according 
to the classification hitherto current, * * * would rather be allied 
to Cirolana than to Cymothoa.” His classification, however, appears to 
be based almost entirely upon the structure of the mouth, disregard- 
ing the totality of structure upon which alone morphological classi- 
fication can securely rest. In deference, however, to his views I have 
here regarded Cirolana as the type of a distinct family, which must still 
be considered as closely related with the two following families, on the 
principle that it is ‘more important that similarities should not be neg- 
lected than that differences should be overlooked.” 

Among the more important of the similarities by which these fami- 
lies seem to be united may be mentioned the following, as exemplified 
by our species. The segments of the thorax and pleon are all distinct 
from each other, so that the body, in the adults, appears to consist of 
thirteen segments behind the head, although in the genus Ourozeuktes 
Edwards* the segments of the pleon are consolidated. The epimera 
are distinct in all the segments behind the first thoravic. The pleon 
may or may not taper from the base, but if is terminated by a large 
scutiform segment, sometimes more or less sculptured, and bearing at 
the sides, near the base, a pair of uropods, in which the basal segment 
is more or less oblique distally and the rami lamelliform, thouga one of 
them may be narrowly so. The pleopods are unprotected by any form 


* Hist. nat. des Crust., tome iii, p. 275, 1840. 


378 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of operculum and the anterior pairs are ciliated in the young of all three 
families, but this ciliation, as weil as that on the uropods, may be lost 
in the sedentary adults of the Cymothoide. In all our species the dorsal | 
surface is smooth throughout, or minutely punctate under a lens, but 
destitute of distinct roughness, tuberculation or sculpture, except that 
the telson may be faintly grooved or sculptured, and in some foreign 
species more distinctly so. 


————— eS 


Cirolana Leach. 
Cirolana Leach, Dict. des Sci. nat., tome xii, p. 347, 1818. 

Thoracic segments subequal; eyes small, well separated; mandibles 
armed with strong acute teeth; dactyli straight, or but slightly curved; 
pleon of six distinct segments; basal segment of uropods with the inner 
angle produced, 


Two closely allied species are found on this coast, which I formerly 
referred to the genus Conilera Leach. Further consideration induces 
me to refer them rather to the present genus, although they have some 
features which point toward Conilera, and are perhaps between that 
genus and the typical forms of Cirolana. From Conilera, as described 
by Bate and Westwood, our species differ principally in the more 
robust four posterior pairs of legs, in the produced angle of the basal 
segment of the uropods, and in the structure of the first pair of pleopods, 
which are not operculiform either in size or texture. Of these two 
species one is abundant and is described at length. The description 
will, however, apply almost equally well to the other except in the few 
points mentioned in the appropriate place. The characters given, 
though slight, appear to be constant, and I have therefore retamed the | 
two specific names. 
This genus differs from ga in the strueture of the legs, and was placed 

by Professor Dana in a separate subfamily. In Cirolana the first three | 
pairs of legs are strong, and armed with minute spine-like claws at the | 
tip of the nearly straight dactyli; the propodi in these legs are robust, 
spiny, and somewhat curved, and some of the preceding segments are 
also armed with spines. These legs thus form powerful organs for seiz- 
ing living prey, and are not, as in the Cymothoide, and, in a less degree, 
in ga, merely fitted by their curved dactyli to retain the hold of the 
animal upon its host in a parasitic existence. The last four pairs of 
legs are well ciliated and capable of use either for walking or swim- 
ming, and these animals are thus fitted for their active and predaceous 
life. 
Cirolana concharum Harger (Stimpson). 

~Ega concharum Stimpson, Mar. Inv. G. Manan, p. 42, 1853. 

Liitken, Vidensk. Meddel., 1859, p. 77, 1860. 
Conilera concharum Harger, This Report, part i, p. 572 (278), 1874. 
Verrill, This Report, part i, p. 459 (165), 1874. 
Cirolana concharum Harger, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 161, 1879. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. O79 


PLATES IX AND X, FIGS. 58-63. 


This species may be most readily recognized among our Isopoda by 
the distinct thoracic and abdominal segments, the small lateral eyes, 
and the evident distinction, in both antennule and antenne, of pedun- 
cle and flagellum. J'rom the next species it is distinguished by the tip 
of the telson, which is truncated, or slighty emarginate, and grooved on 
the median line above near the end. 

The body is, when extended, about three times as long as broad, and 
is smooth and polished throughout. The head is quadrate, a little broader 
in front than behind, and embraced at the sides by the first thoracic 
segment. The eyes are triangular, with the angles rounded, and are 
often partially covered below by the projecting anterior lobes of the first 
thoracic segment. They are separated by about three times their long- 
est diameter. The antennule (pl. X, fig. 60) are robust, with their 
basal segments in contact; the first segment is short and sub-spherical ; 
the second also short; the third cylindrical and as long as the first two 
taken together and followed by a robust, but short, tapering flagellum, 
consisting of about fifteen segments, of which the second is as long as any 
other two, but the rest are all short. The flagellar segments beyond 
the first are provided each with a tuft of “ olfactory sete.” The antennz 
(pl. X, fig. 61a) are longer and more slender than the antennule, and 
are separated at their bases. The first four peduncular segments are 
robust; the first two short; the third and fourth each about twice as 
long as the first or second, and the fifth or last peduncular segment 
slightly the longest and much the most slender. The fourth and fifth 
segments bear along the distal portion of their outer margins long 
bristle-form hairs. The flagellum is slender and composed of from 15 
to 18 segments, each bearing a few short bristles. The maxillipeds 
(pl. X, fig. 62a) are elongated and almost pediform but flattened ; 
the external lamella is small and subtriangular, rounded and hairy at 
the tip; the palpus is five-jointed, with the last four segments broad, 
flattened, and well ciliated; the tip of the maxilliped, nearly concealed 
by the large palpus, is provided with very densely plumose bristles. 
The outer maxille (pl. X, fig. 616) are short and robust; the two articu- 
lated lobes narrow ovate, rounded at the tip, armed, especially the inner 
one, with spines and plumose or pectinated bristles. The inner maxille 
(pl. X, fig. 61 ¢) are robust, with the outer lobe armed with strong smooth 
spines; the inner lobe rounded at the end and bearing three straight 
rather blunt spines, densely covered toward the tip with soft hairs. 
The mandibles (pl. X, figs. 61 d) are robust and horny at the tip, armed 
with one strong acute tooth, and in the right mandible with one acute 
and one obtuse tooth along a cutting edge, while the left mandible has 
three less acute teeth along this edge. Each mandible is, moreover, 
provided with a molar process or area (m), on its inner surface set along 
its interior and upper margin with spines. A narrowly lanceolate leaf- 
like appendage is attached just below the molar area. This appendage 


380 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


is furnished with a few bristles near the base, and its upper edge is 
armed with minute denticles; it is movable and ordinarily concealed 
behind the mandible. On the external surface, just above the origin 
of the palpus, each mandible bears two elevated, conical, obtuse tuber- 
cles. The palpi are slender, the second segment longest and hairy on 
the margin beyond the middle, the last segment slender and curved, 
with the usual hairs or slender bristles along the inner curvature. 

The second and third thoracic segments are a little shorter than the 
others, which are of about equal length. The fourth and fifth segments 
are widest. The first segment is produced at the sides around the head 
so as to very nearly attain the anterior lateral angles of the head, and 
often so as to obscure the lower margin of the eyes. The epimerafiéu- 
tures are scarcely distinguishable in this segment, but evident in the 
following segments. The epimera are rounded behind as far as the 
fourth, but the fifth is slightly angulated, and the sixth and seventh 
acute and produced backward beyond the margin of the corresponding 
segment. The first pair of legs are short and stout, and well armed 
with spines and bristles; the basis is of the ordinary form ; the ischium 
is nearly triangular, having the upper margin much produced in the 
distal portion and bristly ; the merus is expanded in a somewhat similar 
manner, but the angle is bent forward beyond the short carpus over 
the base of the propodus; the opposite or lower margin of the merus 
is armed with short stout spines; the carpus is short and small and 
possesses but little motion on the propodus, which is robust, somewhat 
curved, and bears a strong short dactylus. The second and third pairs 
of legs resemble the first pair, but the carpus increases somewhat in 
size, and there is more motion in its articulation with the propodus. 
They are directed forward, while the remaining pairs are usually 
directed backward and are more flattened. The fourth pair of legs 
are short like the first three (pl. X, fig. 62), but, except in size, resem- 
ble the following pairs. They are well provided with bristles in tufts, 
and along the margins of the segments, and especially the merus and 
two adjacent segments, are armed with long stout spines. The pro- 
podus is straight and much more slender than the carpus. The fifth 
and sixth pairs of legs increase in size, and the propodus especially be- 
comes more elongated, but the seventh pair are a little smaller than the 
sixth. 

The pleon is scarcely narrower at base than the last thoracic segment, 
and the first segment is often nearly concealed by the last thoracic. The 
fifth segment is longer on the back but shorter at the sides than the 
preceding segments. The last segment, or telson, is triangular with the 
ciliated apex truncated and emarginate or notched at the end of a short 
median furrow at the tip. The uropods (pl. X, fig. 63) slightly surpass 
the telson and are strongly ciliated; the inner ramus bears also a few 
spines near the tip; the basal segment has the inner angle produced 
along the margin of the inner ramus, which is broad and expanded 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. asl 


distally, with a notch at the external angle; the outer ramus is slender 
and tapering, slightly surpassing the inner. 

Length of large specimens 32™", breadth 10™™, but usually smaller; 
22™™Jong,7™™ broad. The ground color in life is yellowish, with reddish 
brown on the anterior margin of the head and on the posterior margins 
of the segments, especially in the dorsal region, where the segments are 
also marked with black dots. In life the body is somewhat translucent 
in the thinner parts. In alcohol the translucence disappears and the | 
color fades to a nearly uniform yellowish or buff with black dots. 

This species was described by Stimpson from Charleston, 8. C. Most 
of the specimens in the collection are from Vineyard Sound !, where it 
occurs sometimes in great abundance, and is common especially during 
the winter. It is found swimming about in shallow water, and may be 
taken in a scoop-net, and is found also in lobster-pots. It was dredged in 
45 fathoms off Block Island!, near the eastern end of Long Island Sound, 
in 1874, but has not yet been found north of Cape Cod. 


Specimens examined. 


a 
on 
3 | When col ue D 
o : en col- P Ty 
F Locality. 3 Bottom. Teorede Received from— 4 a While. 
a 5B 
A 7a 
PNGL Ott Mishers Island’: 22) = 52st sneaelocee ets ota ane a0 May —, 1875 | J. H. Latham..} 100+} Ale. 
PUGOs WANG yard | SOUNG =. series o.l| == =a ele eee eee ete asi Mar. —, 1874 | V.N. Edwards} 10 | Ale. 
DOGO See COL ec aanc ae dassiee once Bik.) |. 2c--5 -2e-ne----| AUG. 20, 1875)| US. Bish. Com.|, > 1 Ale: 
2062 | Eel-pond, Wood’s Holl ....|..-..-... Mod diye seer Jliy, 23) 1875) |e. -OOsee eee aes 100+] Ale. 
BOGS ROhLeN ews bOneiMadm 6.) 2.scml|t cic sl-wicte| oelnlalci ceicle s/5.0 5 CATS LOMAS 74 ceil tsicinierteels 1 | Ale. 
2064 | Off Martha’s Vineyard....| 18 San diyaeeeeer Sept. 20, 1875 jaesedo HEcaenDoc 1 | 2Ales 


Cirolana polita Harger (Stimpson. ) 

ga polita Stimpson, Mar. Inv. Grand Manan, p. 41, 1853. 
Liitken, Vidensk. Meddel., 1859, p. 77, 1860. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. v, p. 16, 1873. 

Conilera polita Harger in Smith and Harger, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. iii, pp. 3, 

22, 1874. 

Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, p. 411, 1874. 

Cirolana polita Harger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 161, 1879. 

This species so closely resembles the preceding, that a full description 
would be little else than a repetition of that given above. It appears, 
however, to differ constantly from the form already described, by its 
somewhat more elongated and cylindrical body; in the eyes, which are 
“elongate trapezoidal in shape, narrowest anteriorly,” and in the tip of 
the telson, which is regularly rounded or slightly pointed at the tip with- 
out any truncation, much less any emargination, and is not at all grooved 
above. 

Length 25", breadth 6.5™"; color much as in the preceding species. 

Dr. Stimpson’s specimens were ‘found on the fine sands at low-water 
mark on High Duck Island,” in the Bay of Fundy, and the specimens 
that I have examined are from Cape Cod Bay!; from near Salem!, Mass. ; 


382 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


George’s Banks!, and east of Banquereau!, or Quereau, latitude 40° 36’ 
north, longitude 57° 12’ west, where seven fine specimens were taken 
from a halibut (Hippoglossus), June 2, 1879, by Capt. J. W. Collins. It 
appears to replace the preceding species at the north. 


Specimens examined. 


| cS 
| , ° a 
H z | : ze 
a Locality. 5 Bottom. When col- (Receivedfrom—| 3.8 | DEY 
E a | lected. =) 39 Alc 
= 
A cs | 5 a 
aa ae | aoa ae ieee Ca ll | | 
CapeiCoduBay.= occu. 8 7 | Coarse, yellow | Sept. 15,1879 | U.S. FishCom.’ 2 | Ale. 
sant | | 
1314 | George’s Bank, lat. 41940’ | 25 | Sand....-..... | ———, 1872 | Suitband et | ‘1? Ades 
N., lon. 68° 10’ W. 
1399 George's Bank, lat. 42911’ | 150 | Soft, sandy | ——, 1872 Paseand and 1 |} Ale. 
yon. 67°71’ W. | mud. | Cooke. 
Saleen: Massisecce- AaB weueoallieenseculsesccnecetassone — —, 1878 | J. H. Emerton. 1 Ae, 
East Quereau ......... Sly 190 a Noses coee eee ce | June 2,1879 |Capt.J.W.Col-| 7 | Ale 
| lins. 
\ | ! | 


X.—AIGID A. 


Front formed of the approximate basal segments of the antennule, 
which are not covered by an anterior projection of the head; antennule 
and antennze presenting an evident distinction into peduneular and 
flagellar segments; maxillipeds operculiform; mandibles formed for 
piercing, palpigerous, mouth suctorial; first three pairs of legs ancoral, 
last four ambulatory ; epimera distinct beniad the first thoracic segment; 
uropods lateral, biramous, ciliated, and flattened. 


This family was represented within our limits by a single species of 
the typical genus until the summer of 1879, when a single specimen was 
collected of a second genus belonging to the Agide, but having evident 
relations with the next family, and in many characters intermediate be- 
tween ga and the Cymothoide. The two genera by which the family 
is at present represented on our coast may be further characterized as 
follows: Both the antennule and the antenne are directed laterally, the 
former arising near together on the anterior margin of the head and 
forming part of the outline of the animal as seen from above. They, 
as well as the antenne, present an evident distinction into peduncular 
and flagellar segments. The maxillipeds are operculiform, and have 
the palpus armed with short hooks for adhesion to the surface of the 
fish on which they may be feeding. The mandibles are armed with a 
horny point, but not toothed as in the Cirolanide, and, while fitted for 
piercing, are not capable of lacerating and biting off pieces of flesh as in 
that family. 

The first three pairs of legs are ancoral, or armed with strong curved 
dactyli, which, once implanted in the body of a victim, retain their hold 
without effort—a structure which attains its fullest development in the 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 383 


following family. The remaining pairs of legs are fitted for walking. 
The thoracic segments are subequal in length and have the epimera well 
separated, except in the first segment. 

The pleon may or may not be suddenly narrower than the last thoracic 
segment, and, in our species, is composed of six distinct segments, of 
which the last is large and scutiform. The uropods are composed of 
a basal segment, oblique at the apex with the inner angle more or less 
produced, and bearing two flattened, ciliated rami; they are distinctly 
lateral, being inserted high up on the sides of the last segment. 

This family contains our largest Isopod, Aga psora, and to it should 
probably be referred the huge Bathynomus giganteus A. Edwards, from 
the Gulf of Mexico, measuring more than eleven inches in length. It 
has usually been regarded as embracing the Cirolanide. I have already 
given my reasons for separating them, but have to regret my inability to 
examine many types of genera apparently more or less intermediate in 
position between ga and, on the one hand Cirolana, and on the other 
Cymothoa and Livoneca. I have therefore retained the old classification 
rather than to unite the following genera with the Cymothoida. 

‘Our two genera are most easily distinguished as follows: Eyes large 
and approximate, dga, p. 89; eyes wanting, Syscenus, p. 93. 


Giga Leach. 
Aiga Leach, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xi, p. 369, 1815. 


Eyes large; palpus of maxillipeds five-jointed ; three anterior pairs of 
legs terminated by strong curved claws; posterior pairs slender, with 
slender nearly straight dactyli; pleon not suddenly narrower than the 
thorax; pleopods ciliated. 


This genus is represented within our limits by a single species, which 
may be easily distinguished by its large approximate eyes. The basal 
segments of the antennule are flattened and the flagellum is compara- 
tively slender. The maxillipeds have a five-jointed palpus, which is 
short and flattened and bent around the oral opening, and the inner 
margins of the three terminal segments are provided with a row of 
strong hooked spines, which are also found upon the outer maxille, thus 
forming two rows of short hooks on each side of the mouth, by means 
of which the opening of the mouth can be closely applied to the fish on 
which these animals prey. The inner maxille are slender and styliform 
and armed with sharp curved spines at the apex, and the mandibles are 
also acute and fitted for piercing. The body is moderately convex, and 
the last four pairs of legs are nearly alike ambulatory and of moderate 
length, the last pair, when extended, scarcely surpassing the telson. 
The pledn is composed of six distinct segments, and the basal segment 
of the uropods is strongly produced at its inner angle, as usual in the 
family. The pleopods are ciliated in the adults as well as in the young. 


384 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


#&ga psora Kroyer (Linné). 
Oniscus psora ‘‘Linné, Fauna suecica, ed. ii, 1761”; Syst. Nat., ed. xii, tom. i, 
p. 1060, 1767. 
‘Pennant, Brit. Zool., vol. iv, pl. 18, fig..1, 1777 (certe)” (B. & W.). 
O. Fabricius, Fauna Greenlandica, p. 249, 1780. 
Mohr, Islandisk Naturhistorie, p. 110, 1786. 
sEiga emarginata Leach, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xi, p. 370, 1815; Dict. Sci. nat., 
tome xii, p. 349, 1818. 
Samouelle, Ent. Comp., p. 109, 1819. 
Desmarest, Consid. Crust., p. 305, pl. 47, figs. 4, 5, 1825. 
Griffith and Pidgeon, Nat. Hist. Crust., p. 218, pl. viii., fig. 3, 1833. 
Edwards, Hist. nat. des Crust., tome iii, p. 240, 1840; Regne Anim., Crust., 
pl. iv, fig. 4, and pl. Ixvii, fig. 1, 1849. 
Gould, ? Rep. Geol. Mass., p. 519, 1835; Invert. Mass., ae 398, 1841. 
Gosse., Man. Mar. Zool., vol. i, p. 134, 1855. 
Aga Ronee psora) Kroyer, Gnweadls heer aadee p. 318, 1838, 
Aga psora Lilljeborg, Ofvers, Vet.-Acad. Foérh., 1850, p. 84, and 1851, p. 24. 
Liitken, Vidensk. Meddel., 1858, pp. 65, 179, 1859; ibid., 1860, p. 181 (7) 
1861; Crustacea of Greenland, p. 150, 1875. 
Schiddte, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, vol. i, p. 12, 1868. 
Bate & Westwood, Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 283, figure, 1868. 
M. Sars, Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1868, p. 261, 1869. 
G. O. Sars, Hard. Fauna, Crust., p. 275 [32], 1872. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. v, p. 16, 1873. 
Smith and Harger, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. ili, p. 22, 1874. 
Whiteaves, Further Deep-Sea Dredging, Gulf St. Lawrence, p. 15, ‘¢1874.” 
Metzger, Nordseefahrt der Pomm., p. 285, 1875. 
Meinert, Crust. Isop. Amph. Dee. Dna [eles te OO KEY fa a 
Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, vol. xix, p. 134, 1877. 
Harger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Nae , 1879, vol. i, p. 161, 1879. 
dLiga entaillée Latreille, Régne lene. .» tome iv, p. 134, 1829. 


PLATE X, Fic. 64. 


The present species is the largest Isopod, and indeed the largest 
Tetradecapod known on the New England coast, reaching a length of 
nearly or quite two inches and a breadth of one inch, and has even at- 
tained to the dignity of a popular name, “salve-bug”, by which it is 
known among fishermen. It may be further distinguished by its large 
approximate eyes, covering a large proportion of the upper surface of 
the head, and by the possession of ancoral legs in three _pairs only, the 
last four pairs of legs being fitted for walking. 

The body is oval, broadest at the fourth and fifth thoracic segments, 
where the breadth is about half the length. The dorsal surface is 
moderately convex and smooth except for minute and rather seat- 
tered punctations, which oceur also on the legs, especially on the basal 
segments, on the antennule, the uropods, andl even the pleopods. 
The head is transverse and sub-triangular, salient in front between 
the bases of the antennulse. Much of the upper surface of the head is 
covered by the large oval or somewhat reniform eyes, which do not quite 
meet on the median line. The antennule when bent backward nearly 
or quite attain the anterior margin of the first thoracic segment, and 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 385 


have their first two segments large and flattened, and wedge-shaped in 
front; of these the basal segment is quadrate in outline, as seen from 
above, and nearly as broad as long; it closely approaches its fellow of 
the opposite side in front, but is separated from it behind by a median 
process of the head; the second segment is triangular in outline, as seen 
from above, with the apex of the triangle extending beyond the origin 
of the third slender cylindrical segment, which is followed by a tapering 
flagellum of about a dozen segments. The antennze when reflexed 
extend beyond the first thoracic segment and have the first two seg- 
ments short and compressed, the third somewhat longer, the fourth 
and fifth longer and nearly cylindrical, followed by a tapering flagellum 
about as long as the peduncle and composed of fifteen to twenty seg- 
ments. The maxillipeds have a short triangular external lamella and 
a five-jointed palpus, of which the first segment is short and transverse; 
the second is triangular and bears, on its inner apex, a few slender 
hooked spines; the third segment is broad and flattened, with the inner 
margin short, and armed with about three robust hooked spines; the 
fourth segment is flattened and transverse and armed along its inner 
margin with about six similar spines; while the fifth segment is small, 
sub-oval, and armed with much more slender curved spines. The outer 
maxille are provided with curved spines at the apex much like those of 
the maxillipeds. The inner maxille are rod-like and terminate in sharp 
somewhat curved spines placed close together. The mandibles support 
a slender palpus of three segments, of which the middle one is much the 
longest, and the last is robust and sickle-shaped, with a comb of short 
spines along the inner curve. This segment lies, in the ordinary posi- 
tion, just at the base of the antenna of the same side. 

The first thoracic segment is, at its anterior margin, scarcely broader 
than the head, but expands rapidly backward. It is excavated in front 
for the eyes, which project somewhat beyond the posterior margin of the 
head, ‘The second, third, and fourth thoracic segments are each a little 
shorter than the first; the fifth and sixth are somewhat longer; the 
seventh is shorter than the sixth. The epimera of the first thoracic seg- 
ment are not separated by suture, but in the second and following seg- 
ments they are so separated, and, especially on the anterior segments, 
marked with two oblique depressed lines. The epimera of the second, 
third, and fourth segments are rounded or truncate behind, but in the 
posterior segments they become acute and extend beyond the angles of 
the segments to which they are attached. The first three pairs of legs 
are short and armed with strong hooked dactyli. The propodal seg- 
ments are also curved, and the carpus is short in the first pair but 
somewhat longer in the second and third pairs. The merus is almost 
crescent-shaped in the first pair of legs, its horns embracing the carpus 
above and below, but it becomes more elongated in the succeeding pairs; 
in all three pairs its inferior margin is armed with a few short, stout 
spines. The fourth and succeeding pairs of legs are of quite a different 

25 F 


386 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES 


type from the first three. The four segments following the first or 
basal one are straight, cylindrical, or slightly compressed, armed with 
short spines, especially below and at the distal end, subequal in length 
but decreasing in diameter to the propodus, which bears in each pair a 
short, slightly curved and comparatively weak dactylus. The seventh 
pair is only imperfectly developed in the young specimen figured, but 
never quite attains the size of the sixth pair, which is the largest. 

The pleon is scarcely narrower than the last thoracie segment and 
tapers but little to the fifth segment. The last segment is triangular, 
with the sides but little dilated, and is pointed at the tip without grooves 
or carinations. The uropods scarcely surpass the telson; the basal seg- 
ment has its inner angle long and spiniform, extending the whole length 
of the inner margin of the inner ramus and ciliated toward the tip; the 
rami are flattened, the outer elongate ovate, obtuse; the inner with the 
inner margin straight, the outer curved and emarginate near the tip. 
Both rami and the posterior part of the telson are ciliated. 

Length 16-50", breadth 7-25™™; color in alcohol light brown, darker 
toward the head; eyes black. 

Linné’s description of Oniscus psora is too indefinite to be certainly 
recognizable, and in using his trivial name I have followed the au- 
thority of Liitken and others. Our specimens agree well with the de- 
seription of O. psora by O. Fabricius, and are undoubtedly identical with 
that species, which he describes as infesting the cod. They appear to 
correspond also with Bate and Westwood’s figure and descriptions, al- 
though those authors make no mention of Fabricius under A. psora. As 
Kroyer referred the species to its proper genus, I have adopted his name 
as authority for the combination. 

The specimen figured was dredged in the summer of 1872, a little to 
the northeast of St. George’s Bank !, in latitude 42° 11’ north, longitude 
67° 17’ west, in 150 fathoms, soft sandy mud with a few pebbles, and is 
young, as shown by its size and imperfectly developed seventh pair of 
legs. Adults may surpass the size of the figure, but the specimen drawn 
was enlarged three diameters. Adult specimens were obtained from the 
Provincial Museum, Halifax, Nova Scotia, labeled as found on the cod, 
and were probably from the fishing banks of that region, or from the 
Banks of Newfoundland. During the summer of 1879 a considerable 
number of specimens were received by the Fish Commission through 
the Gloucester fisheries, of which only a few are included in the table of 
specimens examined. These specimens were parasitic on the cod (Gadus 
morrhua), and on the halibut (Hippoglossus). Specimens have also been 
obtained from the skate (Raia). Whiteaves records this species from a 
halibut, on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Fine speci- 
mens were obtained by Mr. N. P. Seudder from off Holsteinborg, 
Greenland, in Davis’ Straits!, parasitic on the halibut, and collected in, 
July and August, 1879. It extends to Iceland (Edw. e¢ al.); the British 
Isles (B. and W.); the North Sea (Metzger); Finmark (Sars), and Spitz- 
bergen (Miers). 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 387 


Specimens examined. 


a cia 
n 
PI Z o8 
= Locality. g Parasitic on— pene Received from— aa rie 
A = ae 
a teal wa 
1398 eet ts s Bank, lat. 150! | eccems eee —— —, 1872} PackardandCooke} 1 | Ale. 
TOON lon. 67° 
7 Wa 
Ms) a5 oncoedEDaceed os9075| Fosgung Beeceuoceocbeca Ss aosoqsscae. Colonial Mus. Hal- 2 | Ale. 
ifax. 
George's) Banker. oe chime «amos ine ieiejncniccin ae —— —, 1878} Schooner Alice G. 3 | Ale. 
W onson. 
ates GO seis ve genes tei Codfish .......| May 8,1879| J.P. Shemelia...- 3 | Alc. 
Been ns A Onan cnigmieaieinsiinlo'e| s/o a siniarn sasaCO) sicscsisiene| Mayaulogleno Cope J.Q. Getchell 9 | Ale 
N. E. eee s Bank... 47 SOME ea. Noy. 29, 1878 | J. P. Shemelia. 3) }-Ale 

9154 | Gulf of Maine.........|....-..- “Skate (Raia) ..| —— —, 1878 U.S. Fish Com’n..| 20 | Ale 

2156 | Banquereau.-..-......-. soa Sa085 Halibut. ....-. —— —, 1878 | Schooner Marion ..| 1 | Ale. 

PANY See ae eee 40-50 | Codfish ....-.. —— —, 1878} Schooner Rebecca! 1 | Alc. 

Bartlett. 

2158 | Grand Menan Bank... OO  Boeisiainacests oe —— —, 1878 Schoones Peter D. 3 | Ale 

mith. 

PAG eaeece CO ORGeneeroparceacr 100 -| —— —, 1878] U.S. Fish Com’n..| 1 | Alc. 
Brown’s Bank. ........ 52 | Codfish ....... Dec. 19,1878 | Mr. Isaac Butler - 2 | Ale. 
sence COFs aeons ciate (so seteeci-| =O eee ODS Loglone Capt. J. Q. Getchell 2 | Alc. 
ess Ss COM CLE tet Ls 30) |PSeedomeaccccns|| May) 1 1879) |-2e edo em ones 8 | Alc. 
pat 48° 25’ N., Lon. 180 | Halibut....... ' Aug. 21, 1879 Capt. S We Sroibhi | oc. Alc. 

OW. and crew. 
Davis SiS traitsicteecac|emaseces| ace COxato esses —— —, 1879; Mr. N.P.Scudder.} 10 | Alc. 


Syscenus* gen. nov. 


Eyes wanting; palpus of maxillipeds two-jointed; sixth and seventh 
pairs of legs elongated; pleon suddenly narrower than the thorax; 
pleopods naked. 


This genus is unfortunately represented in the collection by a single 
specimen. It differs from A’ga by characters that point toward the 
’ Cymothoide, as in the reduction of the segments of the palpus of the 
maxillipeds, the sudden constriction at the base of the pleon, and the 
naked pleopods. The absence of eyes, although a conspicuous charac- 
ter can hardly be regarded as of great taxonomic value. It is separated 
from the Cymothoide by the form of the head, which is not produced 
over the bases of the antennulz but merely projects slightly between 
them. The antennulz moreover are composed of three peduncular seg- 
ments and a flagellum; the basal segments are much smaller than in 
4iga and less flattened, but still form a part of the anterior outline 
when seen vertically. The last four pairs of legs differ from the first 
three, and are more or less elongated and fitted for crawling. The 
uropods are distinctly ciliated. 


Syscenus infelix sp. nov. 


This species may be recognized among our Isopoda by the possession 
of the full number of segments, the ciliated uropods, naked pleopods, 
and the absence of eyes. 


* Ziokynvoc, & messmate. 


388 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The body is more than twice as long as broad and only moderately 
convex. The head is small and as seen from above is transversely 
somewhat diathond-shaped with rounded angles. It presents in front 
a slight prolongation between the antennule, and on each side of the 
short median process its outline is excavated above the bases of the 
antennule. The posterior margin is curved, but near each end is a 
faint indication of a lobe, projecting backward like the ocular lobes in 
ga, but the eyes are wanting. The antennule arise near together on 
each side of the front and are short, extending when reflexed but little 
beyond the lateral margins of the head and only slightly surpassing the 
fourth antennal segment. They are readily distinguishable into pe- 
duncular and flagellar segments, the first three segments being of com- 
paratively large size and about equal length; the second segment much 
flattened below against the antenne; third more slender than the first 
two and followed by a short, tapering six-jointed flagellum. The anten- 
nul are in their natural position reflexed, the second segment being 
articulated at an angle with the first. The antenne are considerably 
longer than the antennulz and, when reflexed, slightly surpass the pos- 
terior border of the third thoracic segment. They are inserted below 
and a little outside of the antennule. The first segment is short and 
flattened below; the second is also short, the two together being hardly 
longer than the basal antennular segment; the third segment is about 
as long as the first two together, and the fourth is a little longer than 
the third, but of slightly less diameter; the fifth is more than one-half 
longer than the fourth, but is more slender and is followed by a slender, 
tapering flagellum of about twenty-four segments. The last two pe- 
duncular segments bear a row of elongate bristly hairs along the margin 
which, when reflexed, is brought next the body, and the row is continued, 
though with shorter hairs, along the flagellum. The palpus of the maxil- 
lipeds is composed of two segments of which the first is nearly square 
and armed at the inner distal angle with a minute hook; the second 
is bluntly triangular and armed at the apex, which is directed inward, 
with three hooklets. The external lamella is small and subcireular. 
The outer maxillze are armed with short hooks at the tip; the inner with 
minute denticles. The mandibles are flattened and denticulate at the 
tip and bear a three-jointed palpus of which the three segments decrease 
in size to the last. 

The first thoracic segment is twice as long as the second; its anterior 
margin is adapted to the head; its posterior margin is nearly straight 
above and rounded at the sides until the epimeral region is reached, 
when a short, pointed projection juts backward, being the tip of the 
epimeron on each side, here united with the segment. The next three 
—second, third and fourth—thoracic segments are of about equal length, 
and each a little over half the length of the first segment; their pos- 
terior margins are nearly straight above and rounded at the sides; the 
third segment is broadest. .The fifth and sixth segments are each a 


. 


. MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 389 


little longer than the second; the seventh about as long as the second. 
The last segment, and in a less degree the sixth and fifth segments, 
have their posterior margins excavated along the bacf®; all have their 
lateral angles rounded, although the angles of the seventh segment are 
but slightly so. The epimera are short and pointed; those belonging 
to the second and third segments are larger than the following ones, 
and are applied directly to the lateral margin of the segments; the 
posterior four pairs of epimera are shorter and smaller, and are separated 
from the lateral borders of the segment by a fold of the integument 
cutting off a portion of the anterior lateral angle and increasing in size 
to the last segment. 

The first three pairs of legs are alike, distinctly ancoral and directed 
forward. In each the basis is much the longest segment; the ischium 
is strongly flexed upon it; the merus is expanded distally around the 
base of the carpus and bears a few bristles at the outer angle; the 
carpus is short, less than half as long as the propodus, and the dae- 
tylus is strong and curved. The fourth pair of legs, like those that 
follow, is directed backward; the basis is the longest segment and the 
ischium is strongly flexed upon it and of more than half its length; the 
merus, carpus and propodus are each about two-thirds as long as the 
ischium, and all four segments are armed distally with a whorl of spines 
around the articulation with the succeeding segment; the dactylus is 
slender, sharp and curved. The fifth pair of legs is longer than the 
fourth by a little more than the length of the dactylus, the elongation 
being in the segments from the ischium to the propodus inclusive. The 
sixth pair is the longest, being, when extended, as long as the thorax 
and pleon together. This elongation is confined also to the four seg- 
ments above indicated, and of these the ischium is about as long as the 
basis; the merus falls a little short of the ischium in length; the carpus 
and propodus are of equal length, and are as long as the ischium; all 
these segments are slender and slightly curved, and are armed distally 
and along their inner side with short spinules. The dactylus is slender 
and curved. The seventh pair of legs resembles the sixth but is shorter 
by about half the length of the propodus. The fifth pair does not 
attain the middle of the carpus of the sixth. 

The pleon is of less diameter than the last thoracic segment and 
about as long as the last five thoracic segments. Its transverse diame- 
ter increases slightly to the base of the last segment, where it is broad- 
est; the fifth segment is a little longer than the preceding one, and 
the last segment is of a broad ovate form, acuminate and ciliated at the 
tip, truncated at the base and smooth above, except for a faint trans- 
verse impression on each side near the base, and a still more faint im- 
pressed median line toward the tip. The uropods attain the tip of the 
telson but do not surpass it; they have the basal segment oblique but 
not produced at the inner angle, and bearing two elongate-elliptical 


. 


390 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


rami, tapering at the base and ciliated, the inner about one-third longer 
than the outer. The pleopods are quite naked and destitute of cilia. 
Length 233 breadth, 9™™; breadth of pleon 4™™; length of head 3™"; 
breadth 4.2"". 
A single specimen of this species was dredged by the U. S. Fish 
Commission, about fifteen miles northeast of Cape Cod!, in 130 fathoms 
brown mud, September 10, 1879. 


XI.—CYMOTHOID 4. 


Head produced anteriorly over the bases of the antennule ; maxillipeds 
few-jointed, operculiform; mandibles palpigerous; mouth suctorial; legs 
armed with strong curved dactyli; epimera distinct behind the first 
thoracic segment; telson large and flattened; pleopods not ciliated; 
uropods articulated near the antero-lateral angles of the last segment, 
and composed of a more or less flattened basal segment bearing two 
flattened rami; habit parasitic; body often unsymmetrical by distortion 
in the adults. 


This family is represented within our limits by three genera and as 
many species. They are parasitic in habit, usually on fish, and fix them- 
selves by their strongly-curved claws to their host, often within the 
mouth, or about the branchial cavity, and frequently become distorted 
when fully grown. In all our species the head is small, and has the 
anterior margin produced, concealing the bases of the antennule and 
the antenne. The head is three-lobed behind, and the first thoracic 
segment is adapted to it. The antennule and antenne are both short 
and tapering, without very evident distinction into peduncular and 
flagellar segments. This distinction is, however, usually more or less 
evident on examination. 

The epimera are well separated, except in the first segment, and may 
be projecting and conspicuous. The legs are of nearly the same form 
throughout, but increase in length and become more slender posteriorly.* 
The basal segments are in some genera enlarged and flattened, but not in 
ours; the joint between the basis and ischium is strongly flexed, and 
the segments, at least beyond the ischium, to the dactylus, are short and 
capable of but little motion on each other. The dactylus is strongly 
curved and admirably fitted for firm attachment to the host on which the 
animal may be living. In our species the legs, in the natural position, 
are concealed in a dorsal view beneath the body of the animal, to the 
under surface of which they are appressed, the first three pairs being 
directed forward, and the last three backward, as represented in plate 
X, fig. 66. 

The pleon in our species is not suddenly narrower than the thorax, 
as it is, however, at least in the adults, in some genera belonging to this 
family. The segments of the pleon are distinct, the last one scutiform 


“In ArtystoneSchiddte the seventh pair of legs ‘‘reach to the extremity of the tail and 
are slender, compressed crawling legs, with a small, almost rudimentary, straight claw.” 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. ogt 


and of moderate size, not being greatly enlarged. The pleopods are 
destitute of cilia in the adults. 

This family is evidently closely related to the preceding and may yet 
have to be united with it, or even be extended so as to include also the 
Cirolanide. Our representatives of the three families are so few that 
I have had little opportunity to study the genera, and as before stated, 
I have separated the Ctrolanide principally in deference to the opinions 
of Schiddte. Alitropus Edwards, Syscenus Harger, and Aigathoa Dana 
may be mentioned as genera pointing toward a transition between the 
Agide and Cymothoide, and it is evident that the latter family is made 
up of forms degraded by parasitism. They have thus exchanged the 
ambulatory legs of the 4?%gide for strictly ancorel legs, for the most part 
in seven pairs, and have lost the natatory cilia of the pleopods. Their 
antennary organs are also much less perfect than in that family. All 
these modifications are in the line of the sedentary life of a parasite. 

The interesting observations of Mr. J. F. Bullar have shown that in 
certain genera of the Cymothoide (Cymothoa, Nerocila, Anilocra) a peculiar 
form of hermaphroditism occurs, the young at a certain stage of devel- 
opment being males with well developed testes and external organs, 
but possessing at the same time ovaries with the oviduct ending blindly. 
As development proceeds the male organs are lost by molting, the ovi- 
duct obtains an external opening, the incubatory pouch is developed, 
and the animal becomes a female. Mr. Bullar’s statements provoked 
considerable discussion, but they have recently been verified by Mayer, 
who has, however, shown that self-fertilization does not occur. 

Three genera of Cymothoide are represented within our limits by as 
many species, and a fourth species, Cymothoa pregustator Say* (La- 
trobe) may yet be found, being not a rare parasite in the mouth of the 
menhaden (Brevoortia menhaden Gill) in southern waters. The projec- 
tion of the front of the head over the bases of the antennary organs, 
and the strongly hooked or ancoral legs are characteristic of the family, 
and the genera may be distinguished by means of the following table: 


ciliated, eyes large conspicuous, Aigathoa, p. 393 
Uropots) mace despedy symmetrical ; posterior epimera elongated, Nerocila, p. 391 
unsymmetrical; epimera short, Livoneca, p. 394 


Nerocila Leach. 
Nerocila Leach, Dict. Sci. nat., tom. xii, p. 351, 1818. 


Body oval; head small; eyes of moderate size; posterior thoracic seg- 
ments and epimera angulated or spiniform, giving a sharply serrated 
or dentated outline to the thorax; first two “abdominal epimera” also 
spiniform; pleon of six distinct segments. 


Our species of Nerocila has the characters of the genus much less pro- 
nounced than some foreign ones, as the posterior epimera are nearly 


*Jour, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. i, p. 395, 1818. 


392 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


or quite concealed from above by the projecting angles of the segments, 
and the “abdominal epimera” are mostly concealed beneath the pleon. 
These organs are the much elongated inferior angles of the segments, 
which in allied genera, as 47gathoa, are short and not produced. Ina 
lateral view they considerably resemble the posterior epimera, giving 
the appearance of two additional pairs. The specimen first described is 
smaller than others that have since been obtained. 
Nerocila munda Harger. 

Nerocila munda Harger, This Report, part 1, p. 571 (277), 1874; Proc. U. S. Nat. 

Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 161, 1879. 
Verrill, This Report, part i, p. 459 (165), 1874. 


PUA) XG ATG. lop. 


This species may be recognized among our Isopoda by the projecting 
posterior epimera, and the two pairs of spiniform ‘abdominal epimera” 
beneath the pleon. 

The body is oval, twice as long as broad, smooth, polished, and mod- 
erately convex. The head is flattened, broader than long, narrowing 
anteriorly, broadly rounded or subtruncate in front, three-lobed behind, 
with the middle lobe largest. The eyes are black and consist of an 
irregularly rounded patch of small indistinct ocelli, and are visible 
both above and below. The antennulz are about as long as the head, 
and composed of eight segments, of which the first is short, the second 
is the longest, and the remaining six decrease pretty regularly in size 
to the last. The antenne are a little longer and more slender than the 
antennule and have the first segment short, the second subglobose, the 
third, fourth, and fifth cylindrical, and a little larger than the segments 
of the flagellum, which areabout fiveinnumber. The mandibular palpi 
are longer than any three segments of the antenna, and the first seg- 
ment is large, the second elongate conical, the third shorter, cylindrical. 

The first thoracic segment is much longer than the succeeding ones 
and adapted to the head in front. It is slightly produced at its lateral 
angles behind, or rather appears so from the union of the epimera, which 
really constitute the projecting angles to the segment. In the second, 
third, and fourth segments the posterior angles are but little produced, 
and are equaled or slightly surpassed by the epimera, but in the last three 
segments the posterior angles are acutely produced much beyond the 
epimera of the corresponding segments, the angle of the sixth segment 
nearly attaining the end of the seventh epimeron. In a lateral view, 
only the last two epimera are decidedly acute, while those of the second 
and third segments are obtuse and rounded behind. Seen from below, 
the posterior angles of the epimera are acute throughout. The first pair 
of legs are slightly more robust than the second and third ; the last four 
pairs are still more slender, the last pair longest, and the last two pairs 
armed with a few short spinules. 

The pleon is shorter than the thorax and much narrower, though 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 393 


not suddenly so and tapers but little posteriorly; the telson is flat- 
tened, and regularly rounded behind. The “ abdominal epimera” are 
acute, the second smaller and more slender than the first, but their ex- 
tension backward varies with the state of contraction of the pleon. The 
uropods (pl. X, fig. 65 a) surpass the telson, and have the inner angle of 
the basal segment sharply produced. The rami are flattened; the ex- 
ternal one twice the length of the basal segment, narrowly ovate or lan- 
ceolate, sometimes slightly curved, and surpassing the telson by half its 
length. The inner ramus is narrowly oval, obliquely truncate behind 
and about three-fourths as long as the outer. 

The length of the specimen figured, which was the one first described, 
is 15™™, breadth 7™™, but specimens measuring 25™™ in length have 
since been collected; color brown or greenish, with two narrow dorsal 
bands of lighter color, most evident at the extremities. 

The original specimen was obtained on the dorsal fin of Ceratocanthus 
aurantiacus at Wood’s Holl!, Vineyard Sound, in 1871, and two sore 
specimens of larger size have since been obtained, also from Vineyard 


Sound!, Mass. 
fGigathoa Dana. 


Egathoa Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., I, vol. xiv, p. 304, 1852. 


Body elongate oval; pleon not suddenly narrower than the thorax ; 
head large, subtriangular; eyes large; legs nearly alike throughout, 
with strong curved dactyli; epimera of moderate size or small; pleon 
long and large, composed of six distinct segments; pleopods not cili- 
ated; uropods more or less distinctly ciliated, rami subequal. 


This genus is represented in our fauna by a species parasitic in the 
mouth of a squid. The large, granulated eyes remind one of Aga, and 
the ciliated uropods also indicate the approximation of this genus to the 
preceding family. The ciliation is, however, nearly rudimentary in our 
species, and is present, at least in the young, of other members of the 
Cymothoide. 


#Gigathoa loliginea Harger. 


Egathoa loliginea Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 376, 1878; Proc. U. 8. 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 161, 1879. 


PLATE X, FIG. 66. 


The legs all armed with strong curved claws, the large conspicuous 
eyes and the slightly ciliated uropods serve to distinguish the present 
species from the other Isopoda of our coast. 

Body elongate oval in outline, nearly four times as long as broad, 
slightly dilated near the posterior end. Head broadly rounded in front, 
subequally, but not deeply, trilobed behind. Eyes large, with evident 
facets, lateral, semi-hexagonal, visible from below, covering nearly half 
the area of the head above, projecting posteriorly beyond the middle 


394 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


lobe of the head. Exteriorly they form about two-thirds of the lateral 
margin of the head. Their interior boundary is in the form of three 
sides of a hexagon, separated at their nearest points by a little more 
than the transverse diameter of the eye. The antennule are about as 
long as the head, composed of eight segments and separated at the base. 
The first segment is short and stout; the next two a little longer, but 
searcely distinguishable from the following five flagellar segments, which 
decrease in size to the last. The antenne are composed of ten segments. 
They are more slender than the antennule, and surpass them by about 
two segments. The first two segments are broader than the following 
three, which are also samewhat larger than the five flagellar segments. 

The first thoracic segment is shorter than the head, but much longer 
than any of the succeeding segments, which to the sixth are of equal 
length, each about one-third shorter than the first. The seventh segment 
is about one-third shorter than the sixth. The fifth and sixth are broadest, 
each being about one-third broader than the first. The epimera do not 
project behind the angles of the segments to which they are attached. 
The legs differ but little throughout. The first pair are shortest, and 
the first three pairs are somewhat stronger than the last four, which are 
armed with a few scattered short spinules. The seventh pair are the 
longest. 

The pleon is a little longer than the seven thoracic segments. The 
fifth segment is broader behind than in front, and the last segment is as 
broad at the insertion of the uropods as the third segment, and is rounded 
behind. Anterior pleopods with the basal segment nearly square. The 
uropods are unlike on the opposite sides in the specimen figured. The 
normal form is probably seen in the right uropod, which surpasses the 
telson by less than half the length of the outer ramus. This ramus is 
longer than the inner, narrow, with nearly parallel sides and is obliquely 
truneated at the tip. The inner ramus is somewhat diamond-shaped. 
The ciliation is nearly rudimentary and might be overlooked. The basal 
segment is alike on the two sides and has the inner distal angle acute and 
but shghtly produced. 

Length 13", breadth 3.6™™; color in alcohol yellowish, with minute 
black specks most abundant on the pleon; eyes black, conspicuous. 

The specimen was obtained June 1, 1874, by Mr. 8. F. Clark, at Savin 
Rock!, near New Haven, from the mouth of a squid (Loligo Pealii), whence 
the specific name. Two specimens “parasitic on young mullet” are in the 
Yale College Museum, collected at Fort Macon!, N. C., by Dr. H. C. 
Yarrow, which appear to belong to this species, showing that it is not 
confined to the squid. 


Livoneca Leach. 
Livoneca Leach, Dict. Sci. nat., tome xii, p. 351, 1818. 


Head smail, projecting in front over the bases of the antennule, which, 
like the antenna, are short; legs all alike and armed with strong curved 
dactyli; body broad, oval, often obliquely distorted. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 395 


This genus is represented by a single species, in which the body is of 
a broadly oval form and depressed. All the legs are short and armed 
with strongly curved dactyli, and, in the natural position, are closely 
appressed to the ventral surface, which, however, is more or less exposed 
below along the middle. 
Livoneca ovalis White (Say). 
Cymothoa ovalis Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., vol. i, p. 394, 1818. 
Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 48, 1844. 
Livoneca ovalis White, Cat. Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 109, 1847. (Lironeca). 
Harger, This Report, part i, p. 572 (278), pl. vi, fig. 29, 1874; Proc. U.S. 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 162, 1879. 
PLATE XI, Fia. 67. 


The broadly oval, more or less distorted and unsymmetrical form of 
this Isopod serves to distinguish it from any other species yet recog- 
nized within our limits. 

Body broad, oval, usually oblique, and not, as represented in part I 
of this report, pl. VI, fig. 29, with the sides of equal length. The legs, 
moreover, in that figure are in an unnatural position, as they are, dur- 
ing life, concealed beneath the body of the animal and appressed to the 
ventral surface, the first three pairs directed forwards and the last four 
pairs backward. The dorsal surface is moderately convex. The head is 
small, rounded in front, trilobed behind, the middle lobe much the larg- 
est, the two lateral lobes extending beyond the eyes, which are not con- 
spicuous, small and broadly separated. Antennule (pl. XI, fig. 67a) 
widely separated at the base, with the first segment short and stout; the 
second longer and somewhat tapering; the third about as long as the 
first. These peduncular segments are somewhat flattened. The flagel- 
lum is longer than the peduncle, tapering and five-jointed, curved back- 
ward in the natural position, each segment bearing a row of short blunt 
seta, near the distal end, on the inner curve. The antenne (pl. XI, fig. 
67b) are about as long as the antennul, with the first two segments 
short and stout, the next three more slender; flagellum three or four 
jointed, with the last segment imperfectly divided and tipped with a 
few short sete. The maxillipeds are narrow, with the outer lamella 
partially united to the basal segment and the palpus tapering and two- 
jointed, tipped with a few short curved set, at least in young individ- 
uals. The mandibles are pointed; their palpi (pl. XI, fig. 67 c) tapering 
from the base and composed of three segments of about equal length, the 
first subquadrate, the second tapering, the third nearly cylindrical. 

The first thoracic segment is longest; the next three a little shorter 
and about equal; the fifth and sixth still shorter; the seventh shortest 
measured along the median line, which is usually a curved line except 
in young specimens. The anterior margin of the first thoracic seg- 
ment is adapted to the posterior margin of the head and presents three 
sinuses, the middle one largest, for the median lobe of the head, and two 
smaller ones for the ocularlobes. The posterior margin of this segment 
is strongly convex backward throughout. In the succeeding segments 


396 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


this convexity rapidly diminishes so that the fourth has nearly a trans- 
verse margin and the last three segments become concave behind in an 
increasing degree. The epimera are narrow and obtusely pointed behind, 
and do not surpass the posterior angle of the segment to which they are at- 
tached except in the last two segments. The first pair of legs (pl. XJ, fig, 
67d) are short and stout, the basal segment large but short; the next 
three segments short and with little motion on each other; the propodus 
stout and somewhat curved; the dactylus long, curved, and strong. The 
second and third pair of legs are much like the first, as are the four suc- 
ceeding pairs, but somewhat larger and longer. The seventh pair (pl. XI, 
fig. 67e) have the basal segment about twice as long as in the first pair, 
and the succeeding segments are also proportionally longer than in the 
first pair, except the dactylus, which is slightly weaker and not longer 
than in the first pair. 

The pleon tapers rapidly at the sides; its first five segments are sub- 
equal in length; the last segment forms about half its length, and is flat 
and broadly rounded behind. Uropods (pl. XJ, fig. 677) surpassing the 
telson with the basal segment, about as long as the rami and but little 
produced at its inner angle; outer ramus linear oblong, rounded at the 
end; inner ramus shorter And broader, oblique at the bi: 

Length 17-22™™, breadth 10-12™™, These animals when preserved 
in alcohol are of a leaden color, with the posterior margins lighter. 

They are often parasitic on the blue-fish (Pomatomus saltatrix Gill). 
The details figured on plate XI are from small specimens collected on 
young blue-fish at New Haven!, by Mr. F.8. Smith. Other localities are 
Thimble Islands!, Long Island Sound; Vineyard Sound!, Fish Commis- 
sion 1871, one specimen among scup (Stenotomus argyrops Gill), A 
specimen was sent to the Museum in 1878, collected by Dr. T. H. Bean, 
from the gill of Micropogon undulatus caught at Norfolk!, Va., July 9, 1878. 


Specimens examined. 


i>) 
| D 
aS a 

4 Locality. Parasitic on— phenol: Received from— om 5 pei 

g 3 

iF, A 
coer Norfolk, Va..--..---.-.-------| Mieropogon..-..| July 9,1878| 'T. H.Bean.....-.| 1 |} Ale. 
2071 | New Haven iploe-tish\. see ced aoe eee ne eee F.S. Smith ......- 15 | Ale 
2072 | Vineyard Sound sidolew ses —,1871| U.S. Sieh Com. . 1 | Alc 
2073 |....do Sean atom CES Ast Se Cee 1 | Ale 
PAMiaa teesaess wists cae ecdaeetee cts tae Uae neo ene SAE Facer ello Get ecard eet Ale. 
2075 | Vineyard Sound Bluesish=. 2-5. =. Sept. 2,1871| U.S. FishCom....| 1 | Alec. 
2076 | nnn one ne eee enone na e|nem ee nn sen coeene|onacecneesene- F. H. Bradley..--- 1. | Alc. 


XIT.—ANTHURID. 


Body elongate, cylindrical; mouth suctorial; legs ambulatory and pre- 
hensile, the first pair enlarged; first pair of pleopods thickened and 
crustaceous, protecting the following pairs; uropods articulated at the 
sides of the last segment, standing in a more or Jess vertical position and 
forming with the telson a sort of cup or flower at the end of the body. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 397 


This family is represented within our limits by three species belong- 
ing to as many genera, which, in addition to the characters given above, 
agree further in the following particulars: The body is elongated and 
vermiform, often more than ten times as long as broad, and of nearly 
uniform size throughout. The head and thoracic segments are all dis- 
tinetly separated from each other, and the head and last thoracic seg- 
ment are shorter than the intervening segments, which are subequal. 
Both pairs of antenne are approximate at their bases, and the lower pair 
or true antenne are short, not greatly surpassing the head in length. 
These organs have the basal segment short, the second segment flat- 
tened internally and adapted to its fellow of the opposite side, while 
above and externally it is excavated for the basal segment of the anten- 
nule. The mandibles are palpigerous, and the mouth parts are fitted 
for piercing and for suction. 

In the first pair of legs the first, second, and penultimate segments are 
enlarged and thickened; the two intervening segments, merus and ear- 
pus, are short; the dactylus forms a curved finger tipped with a stout 
spine and capable of complete flexion on the robust propodus. In one 
or two of the succeeding pairs of legs the propodus may be slightly en- 
larged. The first three pairs of legs have the carpus, or antepenulti- 
mate segment, triangular, and their basal segments are directed strongly 
backward. In the last four pairs the carpus may be short, but is not 
triangular, and always distinctly separates the merus from the propodus ; 
they are so articulated to the body that their basal segments are directed 
forward. ‘The first three pairs of legs are articulated to the anterior part 
of the segment to which they belong, the next three near the middle of 
the corresponding segments, and the last pair near the posterior margin 
of the last segment. 

The pleon is short, with the segments more or less consolidated, and the 
pleopods are of the normal number and form. The “ operculum” is not 
formed as in the Idoteide and Arcturide of the uropods, but is nothing 
more than the enlarged and thickened first pair of pleopods, the greater 
part of it being formed of the external lamella, while the uropods have an 
entirely different and peculiar structure. They are biramous, and con- 
sist on each side of a more or less elongated, flattened, basal segment, 
so articulated as to lie alongside the telson, and bearing at the apex a 
terminal plate, the inner ramus, in the same plane with itself, while, on 
its upper side near the base, stands a more or less perpendicular, oval 
plate, the outerramus. The telson is directed obliquely downward, and, 
with the uropods, forms a ciliated cup-like or flower-like termination of 
the cylindrical body, whence the name Anthura, from the Greek dos, 
a flower, and odpd, a tail. 

The structure of the mouth in tkis family has been investigated by 
Prof. J. C. Schiédte, to whose original papers in the Naturhistorisk 
Tidsskrift I have not had access. The paper on Anthura is translated 
and partly condensed in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 


398 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


where that author states that “next the Cymothoida, though as a type 
of a separate family, the genus Anthwra must be placed.” 

The species of this family may be at once recognized by the peculiar 
cup-like termination of the body. This cup or “flower” is formed by 
the telson below, and the uropods at the sides and above; the outer 
rami of the latter organs being placed nearly vertically, and approach- 
ing each other on the median line above, where, however, the ‘“ flower” 
is more or less imperfect. Our three genera may be distinguished as 
follows: First five segments of pleon consolidated above, Anthura (p. 104) ; 
segments of pleon distinct, antennz and antennul subequal, Paranthura 
(p. 108); segments of pleon distinet, antennule greatly enlarged in the 
male, Ptilanthura (p. 111). 


Anthura Leach. 
Anthura Leach, Ed. Encye., vol. vii, p. °404” (Am. ed., p. 243), ‘‘1813~14.” 
Antennulze and antennze short, subequal; thoracic segments not 
separated by constrictions; pleon with the five anterior segments con- 
solidated above and resembling the last thoracic segment. 


Our species of Anthura appears to agree in all generic characters with 
A. gracilis Leach upon which the genus was founded. In A. polita, how- 
ever, the consolidated portion of the pleon is seen at the lower part of 
the sides to be composed of five consolidated segments, and bears the 
normal number of pairs of pleopods, while Bate and Westwood * say that 
‘‘ the four anterior segments are soldered closely together” in A. gracilis, 
and that “the pleopoda consist of, at least, four pairs of oval plates, 
strongly ciliated, on each side of the ventral surface of the basal seg- 
ments of the tail.” They had not, however, fresh specimens of the spe- 
cies, which is evidently closely related to ours. 

The incubatory pouch of the females in the genus is confined to the 
third, fourth, and fifth segments, and is composed of three pairs of 
lamellie, which overlap from behind forward, while the anterior margins 
of the first pair are united to the anterior part of the third segment. 


Anthura polita Stimpson. 
? Anthura gracilis Dekay, Zool. New York, Crust., p. 44, pl. ix, fig. 34, 1844 (not of 
Montagu and Leach). 
Anthura polita Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., vol. vii, p. 393, 1856. 
Harger, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 162, 1879. ¢ 
Anthura brunnea Harger, This Report, part i, p. 572 (278), 1874. 
Verrill, This Report, part i, p. 426 (132), 1874. 


PLATE XI, Fias. 68 and 69. 


This species is distinguished among its allies on our coast by the nearly 
complete union of the basal segments of the pleon, which have together 
the appearance of an eighth thoracic segment. The cup or “flower” at 
the end of the body serves to distinguish it from other Isopoda. 


* British Sessile-Eyed Crustacea, pp. 157 and 160. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 399 


The body is smooth, shining and flattened above and broadly keeled 
in the males below. The head is a little broader than long, deeply ex- 
cavated on each side of the front for the bases of the antennule, and 
produced at the sides. The eyes are small and lateral but distinet, and 
are placed on the outer side of the anterior prolongations of the head, 
about on a line with the bases of the antennule. They are too indistinct 
in the figure, and the eye was even omitted on the right side by the en- 
graver. The antennule (pl. XI, fig. 68 a) consist of a tapering three- 
jointed peduncle and avery short flagellum. The first peduncular seg- 
ment is the largest, and is flattened above and on the inner side; the 
second segment is smaller, cylindrical, and provided with a comb of hair- 
like sete along its outer side; the third is smaller and shorter than the 
second; the flagellum consists of a single very small segment, with 
indications of a rudimentary second segment at the end, where it is also 
tipped with sete. The antennz (pl. XJ, fig. 68b) consist of a five-jointed 
peduncle, and a short flagellum much like that of the antennule. The 
basal segment of the peduncle is short; the second segment is the 
largest and is of peculiar shape, being excavated on the outer side to 
adapt it to the antennula, which lies in the groove thus formed, while 
the segment is bent upward and inward, and exposes a slender triangu- 
lar area with the point backward, between, and on a level with, the an- 
tennule; the next three segments are sub-cylindrical and diminish in 
size, and are followed by one or two small flagellar segments tipped with 
setae. 

The maxillipeds (pl. XI, fig. 69a) are thick and strong, and are com- 
posed of a basal quadrate segment, a little longer than broad, with its 
proximal external angle elided for the short, sub-triangular external 
lamella, and bearing two segments representing the palpus. Of these 
segments the first is but little smaller than the basal segment and 
is sub-quadrate, tapering a little at the sides beyond the middle. . The 
terminal segment is straight at its articulation with the preceding, and 
nearly so along the inner side, then rounded in the remainder of the out- 
line. The segments of the palpus are finely ciliated along their margins, 
except along the external margin of the first segment, where the cilia- 
tion nearly disappears; they are also provided with coarse sete, a few 
of which occur on the maxilliped, near the outer distalangle. The inner 
maxilla (pl. XI, figs, 69 and b’) is rather robust, and terminated by 
a strong tooth or spine, below which, on the inner side, is a row of 
smaller curved teeth. The mandibles are terminated by a horny tooth, 
below which is a serrulated lobe; the mandibular palpus is robust; the 
second segment much the longest and provided with stout sete; the last 
segment with a comb of rather short sete. The maxillipeds are of much 
firmer texture than the other parts of the mouth. 

The first thoracic segment is the longest, and is closely adapted to 
the head behind so as to allow but little mofion. The second segment 
is shorter but somewhat broader than the first, and is rather freely 


400 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


articulated with it, and still more freely with the third; it is car- 
inated below, but its articulations are much less free than in the next 
genus. The third, fourth and fifth segments are each about the length 
of the second; the sixth and seventh are progressively shorter. The 
first pair of legs (pl. XI, fig. 68¢) are quite robust and have but little free- 
dom of motion, being directed forward under the head and hardly capa- 
ble of further lateral extension than is shown in the figure of the animal. 
The basis and ischium are large and articulated so as to form a curve, 
bringing the legs forward; the merus is short; the carpus is triangular 
and extends along the side of the thickened propodus for about half 
its length, projecting like a tooth at the end; the propodus is ovate, 
much thickened and armed with a tooth near the middle of the palmar 
margin, along which it is ciliated, as is also the carpus; the dactylus is 
short and stout and tipped with a slender, curved, chitinous claw about 
as long as the dactylus itself. The figure (pl. XI, fig. 68 c) represents the 
inner surface of the leg, the merus being much less conspicuous on the 
outer side. The second and third pairs of legs are nearly alike and 
much more slender than the first pair. Oneof the third pair is represented 
on plate XI, fig. 68d. In both these pairs of legs the carpus is small and 
triangular and wedged in between the merus and propodus, which meet 
above; the merus is a little larger in the second than in the third pair, 
and in both pairs it is provided with a few sete at the upper distal 
angle and along the opposite or palmar side, where the carpus is also 
armed with sete; the dactylus bears a few very short sete. The re- 
maining pairs of legs are rather more slender than the second and third, 
and the merus is separated from the propodus above by the carpus, 
which is, however, short. These legs are somewhat hairy, like the pre- 
ceding pairs. 

The anterior part of the pleon (pl. XI, fig. 68g), consisting of the first 
five segments consolidated, appears much like an eighth thoracic seg- 
ment a little longer than the seventh; traces of the sutures between the 
segments can be seen at the sides. The last segment is distinctly 
articulated, a little elevated dorsally, where it is also somewhat hairy ; 
at the lower part of the sides it is covered by a slightly projecting 
lobe of the preceding segment, which extends over the proximal part 
of the basal segment of the uropods. Distally the terminal segment 
is depressed at a steep angle, and is in the form of a plate, ovate and 
ciliated at and near the tip, where it is obtuse; the sides are nearly 
parallel, and it is surpassed by the uropods, which consist, on each side, 
of a large basal segment, carinated on the outer side and toothed at 
the articulation with the outer ramus, obliquely truncated at the end, 
where it bears a short, obtusely-triangular, ciliated, inner ramus, or 
lamella, in the same plane as the basal segment. The outer ramus, or 
lamella, forms nearly a right angle with the basal segment, and stands 
upon its superior outer margin. This ramus is elongate reniform in out- 
line, being notched below for the tooth on the basal segment, and is 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. AOI 


ciliated along its free superior margin. The first pair of pleopods 
(pl. XI, fig. 68 e) are composed on each side of a short, quadrate basal 
segment supporting two rami, of which the outer is, like the basal seg- 
ment, of firm texture, and acts as an operculum; in shape if is semi- 
oval, with the inner margin nearly straight, and is ciliated distally, and 
along the outer margin. The inner ramus is much smaller than the 
outer and of delicate texture, and, in the natural position, is covered and 
concealed by the outer ramus; it is slender, with nearly parallel sides, 
rounded at the tip, and not ciliated. In the males the second pair 
of pleopods (pl. XI, fig. 68,/) bears, near the middle of the inner margin 
of the inner ramus, a slender stylet, slightly surpassing the lamella to 
which it is attached. 

The lamelle forming the incubatory pouch of the females are of con- 
siderable antero-posterior dimensions, and the posterior widely overlap 
the anterior ones, while the anterior border of the first lamella is united 
with the third thoracic segment, to which the lamella belongs. 

Length 15-18™"; breadth 1.8-2™™. The color is brownish above, 
mottled with yellowish or honey color, lighter underneath. 

This species was described as new by the present author in the first 
part of this report under the name A. brunnea, but there appears to 
be no sufficient reason for regarding it as distinct from Dr. Stimp- 
son’s A. polita. It is apparently closely related to A. gracilis Leach, 
although sufficiently distinct according to Bate and Westwood’s* de- 
scription and figures. Those authors, however, seem to have had but 
very poor and imperfect material on which to base their work. They 
figure and describe the telson and uropods as truncated and crenulated, 
and Montagu,t in his original description of the species, says that “the 
body is terminated by five large caudal appendages truncated at their 
ends.” 

Kroéyer’si descriptions and figures of A. carinata approach much more 
closely to the present species. His figure of the antennula considerably 
resembles ours, but in his description he gives as the relative lengths 
of the four segments composing it 11, 4, 3,5. In our species the last or 
flagellar segment is much the shortest, as may be seen by the figure, 
plate XI, fig. 68a. He further speaks of the telson as crenulated, while 
it is entire in A. polita, and his figure (Voy. en Seand., pl. 27, fig. 3‘) 
shows no tooth-like projection or angle on the basal segment of the 
uropods, as seen in a lateral view, and the corresponding margin of the 
outer or superior plate is destitute of the notch shown in the lateral 
view of these organs on plate XI, fig. 68g. The inner ramus or lamella 
of the first pair of pleopods is also figured as much larger and more 
expanded distally than in our species, for which see plate XJ, fig. 68 e. 
Unfortunately I have had no European specimens for comparison. 

* Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 160, 1868. 

tTrans. Linn. Soc., vol. ix, p. 103, pl. v, f. 6, 1808. 

t Naturhist. Tidssk., II, B. ii, p. 402, and Voy. en Scand., Crust., pl. xxvii, fig. 3 a-o, 


1849. 
26 F 


402 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


This species was described by Dr. Stimpson from specimens taken at 
Norfolk, Va., and has since been collected by Professors Smith and Ver- 
rill at Great Egg Harbor!, N. J., in 15 fathoms shells and mud; by the 
U. S. Fish Commission in Long Island Sound!, especially at Noank 
Harbor!, among eel-grass (Zostera marina) and mud; off Block Island! 
in 17 to 195 fathoms sand, mud, and stones; at Vineyard Sound !, at low 
water and in sand, and in 1878 at Gloucester !, Mass., in mud and among 
alge. 


Specimens examined. 


aire 
oD 
: : Na 
He i 
F Locality. g Bottom. Whensecl, Receivedfrom— a meh 
c| . 3 . 
~ 
3 ro¥ 
a Fe ae 
Great Egg Harbor, N.J. 14 | Shells and mud.-.-..| Apr. —, 1871 | Smith & Verrill|...--- Alc. 
2077 | Noank Harbor, Conn --|......-. Eel-grass..-.------ TPs 28) 1874/ U. asec 2 | Ale. 
QO7TSN p2s20O fase =, Sacco selec st oa Mud and eel-grass. Aug. 29, 1874) |. 2=-d0 2re--se55 2 | Alc. 
2079s|525-Go\s sess nse sen seen ss Mma) 3355 2c8 cease Aug. 28, 1874 vie Letnasase 2 | Alc. 
2080 Vineyard Sound=-—- 2. GS 2 OA eos ss ne Se Seece Sept. 8, ASF in. -e@Oye oa oe 2a 2 | Alc. 
Squan Estuary, Glou- |.....--. Mir cat ecascaees — —,1878]....do .......-. 2 | Alc. 
cester, Mass. 
Gloucester, Mass ...--.|.-- Cree Mud and algw...-- ——— | =, 1878) dO oc e eens 1 | Ale. 


Paranthura Bate and Westwood. 


Paranthura Bate and Westwood, Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 163, 1866. 
Pleon articulated, composed of six segments; thorax deeply con- 
stricted at each end of the second segment; antennule and antenne 
subequal; palpus of maxillipeds three-jointed; inner maxillz acicular. 


The first character given above is the only one given by Bate and West- 
wood, who, however, mention that the pleon bears the normal number 
of pleopods; a character that would not distinguish our species from the 
other genera. The distinctly articulated flagellum of the antennule is 
provided with a partial whorl of bristles, which, however, forms only the 
most rudimentary approach toward the structure of those organs in the 
males of the following genus. The segmentation of the pleon is indis- 
tinct in the dorsal region, but is apparent at the sides when seen from 
above, and the pleon does not at all resemble an additional thoracic 
segment as in Anthura. Both pairs of antenne are provided in our 
species with a distinctly articulated flagellum, and are of nearly equal 
length. 


Paranthura brachiata Harger (Stimpson). 


Anthura brachiata Stimpson, Mar. Inv. G. Manan, p. 43, 1853. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. v, p. 101, 1873; ibid., vol. vii, pp. 42, 411, 
502, 1874; Proc. Am. Assoc., 1873, pp. 350, 357, 1874; This Report, parti, 
p. 511 (217), 1874. 
Whiteaves, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vii, p. 213, 1874; Further Deep-sea 
Dredging, Gulf of St. Lawrence, p. 15, 1874.” 
Harger, This Report, part i, p. 573 (279), 1874. 
Smith and Harger, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. iii, p. 16, 1874. 
Paranthura brachiata Harger, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 162, 1879. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 403 
PLATE XI, Fie. 70. 


The deep constrictions, by which the second thoracic segment is sepa- 
rated from the first and third, serve to distinguish this species from the 
allied forms on our coast, and the “flower” at the end of the pleon dis- 
tinguishes it from other Isopoda. 

Body moniliform, with evident segments; head narrower than, and 
about half as long as, the first thoracic segment, flattened and quadrate 
above, with a groove behind a raised anterior border, wedge-shaped 
below, deeply emarginate on each side of the projecting front above for 
the bases of the antennule; eyes lateral, not conspicuous, extending 
behind the emarginations. Antennule (pl. XI, fig. 70a) with the first 
segment large but longer than broad, flattened above; second and third 
segments cylindrical; flagellum of twelve or more segments in adult 
specimens, with the first segment short, second twice as long and the 
longest segment of the flagellum, which tapers from the second segment 
and bears on the distal end of each segment an imperfect whorl of hairs. 
The antenne (pl. XI, fig. 70 )) slightly surpass the antennule. They have 
the first segment short; the second flattened on the inner side, where it 
is usually in contact with its fellow of the opposite’ side, and excavated 
on the outer side above to accommodate the basal segment of the anten- 
nule; the third segment is short; the fourth and fifth longer and cylin- 
drical. The flagellum consists of about twelve segments, tapers from 
the base, and is somewhat hairy. Both the antenne and antennule 
are a little less developed and have one or two less segments in the 
females. The maxillipeds (pl. XI, fig. 70 ¢) are elongated, with a short, 
oval external lamella, and a two-jointed palpus. The large basal seg- 
ment of the maxilliped projects on the inner side nearly to the end of 
the first segment of the palpus. The palpus has its segments of about 
equal length and provided with a few scattered bristles. The inner 
maxille (pl. XI, figs. 70d and d’) are evident at the tip in an under 
view of the head; they are elongate and acicular, and minutely and 
sharply retro-serrate toward the tip. The three-jointed palpus of the 
mandibles is also conspicuous below; all three of its segments are 
short, and the last, which lies ordinarily between the bases of the an- 
tenn, is flattened, oval, and provided with the usual comb of setz. 

The thorax is somewhat flattened above, carinate anteriorly below, 
and has the last segment much the shortest. The first segment is wider 
than the head and about twice its length, and is more closely united 
with it than are any of the thoracic segments with each other; it is 
strongly carinate below, especially on its anterior part, where the carina 
ends in a prominent tubercle; a much more slender carina bounds the 
flattened dorsal portion laterally. The second segment is separated 
from the first by a deep constriction, and is articulated so as to allow 
considerable motion, especially in a vertical plane; its antero-lateral 
angles are prominent in the form of low, rounded tubercles, and be- 


404 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


tween them are two less evident tubercles on the front margin of the 
segment; the dorsal surface tapers behind, and is bounded laterally 
by carine; below, the segment is wedge-shaped, but not carinated; 
behind, it is separated from the third segment by a constriction not 
quite as pronounced as that in front. The third segment presents two 
rather more evident median tubercles in front on the dorsal surface, 
which is defined laterally by carine, fading away at about the middle 
of the segment; below, it is coeenened and carinate in the males, 
but membranous along the median line in the females, as are the 
remaining segments more widely in that sex. In the males they are 
hard and chitinous throughout, rounded and scarcely wedge-shaped. 
The fourth segment is slightly longer than any of the others, and bears, 
near the anterior end of its dorsal surface, an oval depression with slight 
elongated elevations at each side. A similar structure occurs on the 
fifth and sixth segments, which are of decreasing length. The seventh 
is much the shortest thoracic segment, not being longer on the median 
line than the head; it is somewhat produced laterally. 

The first pair of legs (pl. XI, fig. 70 e) are not as stout as in Anthura 
polita, and are more flexible; the carpus is the shortest segment, and 
is triangular, broader than long; the preceding segment, or merus, 
Shows but little in an external view, but is more evident in an inner 
view, as shown in the figure, and is much broader than long; the pro- 
podus is much swollen proximally on its anterior or upper side; im- 
mediately in front of the end of the carpus it bears a stout tooth; the 
dactylus is strong, and tipped with a curved claw. In the second and 
third pairs of legs the carpus is triangular, but in the posterior pairs 
it is more elongated so as to distinctly separate the merus from the 
propodus. 

The pleon is short, the telson triangular, acute at the apex. Uropods 
with the basal segment strongly carinate externally, terminal plate 
acutely triangular, proximal superior plate oval, curved and attached 
by its side, nearly meeting its fellow of the opposite side above. First 
pair of pleopods (pl. XI, fig. 70/7) with the external ramus semi-oval; 
internal ramus less firm in texture, ligulate, ciliated distally. Second 
pair of pleopods in the males (pl. XI, fig. 70g) furnished with a slender 
stylet articulated at about the male of the inner, posterior, lamella, 
ynd extending beyond its end. Both the lamelle are crossed by a trans- 
verse suture just beyond their middle, at the point where the stylet 1 is 
attached to the inner one. 

Length 28™™"; breadth 2.2™; females about one-third smaller. The 
rolor is usually light lle ci brown, or sometimes somewhat darker, 
but not as pronounced as in the other members of the family, and nearly 
che same throughout. 

From P. norvegica G. O. Sars* our species is distinaniened by the eyes, 
which, though inconspicuous, are present. It lacks the tubercle de- 


* Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1872, p. 88, 1873. 


in Vineyard Sound! by the Fish Commission in 1871; 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 


405 


scribed and figured by Heller on the head of P. arctica,t and the flagel- 
lar segments of both pairs of antenne distinguish it from P. costana 
Bate and Westwood.t 

This species was dredged by Dr. Stimpson ‘on a shelly and some- 
what muddy bottom in twenty fathoms off the northern point of Duck 
Island,” Bay of Fundy. It is rare south of Cape Cod, but was taken 


also on St. George’s 


Bank!, in 110 fathoms, mud and sand; Gulf of Maine!, down to 115 


fathoms; Bay of Fundy!, 


down to 80 fathoms on muddy, shelly, and 


sandy bottoms; and off Nova Scotia!, 59 fathoms, pebbles, sand and 
rocks, and at other localities as detailed below. 
Mr. Whiteaves in 200 fathoms in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, between 
Anticosti and the mainland of Gaspé. 


Locality. 


Vineyard Sound 
Gulf of Maine, east from 
Cape Ann 140 miles. 


} east from Cape Ann 13 
miles. 
Gulf of Maine, 
Brown’s Bank. 
George’s Bank 


Gulf of Maine, off Ports- 
mouth 22 to 28 miles. 
Gulf of Maine 


near 


Casco Bay, 20 miles 
southeast of Cape 
Elizabeth. 


Gulf of Maine, 27 miles 
off Portland. 

Casco Bay 

Gulf of Maine, 17 miles 
southeastof Monhegan 
Island. 

peckporh Me 


| Bay of Fundy, between 
| Head Harbor and 
Wolves. 


Off Head Harbor 
Bay ane Fundy 


Menan, New Bruns- 
wick. 
Southeast from Cape 


Sable 18 to 22 miles. 


Gulf of Maine, southeast | 


Bay of ‘Fundy, “Grand |. 


Specimens examined. 


Fathoms. 


P| ae, 
TG (ofS Ce 


Bottom. 


Mud and stones. 


Rocks and bar- 
nacles. 
Brown mud 


Soft mud 


Mud, sand, and 


When col- 
lected. 


ee 187 


5) ae ER yb 


-/ —— —, 1874 


.| — 1870 


Sand, gravel,and |—— —, 1877 


stones. 


Ptilanthura Harger. 
III, vol. xv, p. 376, 1878. 


Ptilanthura Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., 
Antennule with the flagellum remarkably developed in the male, 
multiarticulate; second and succeeding antennular segments provided 


Bh) 197 We 


— —,1874|.... 
-| Aug. 12, 1873 |... 
| 


.| Aug. 26, 1878 |.... 


It was dredged by 


Received from—- 


U.S. Bart caae 


Packard and 
Cooke. 
U.S. FishCom. 


See ier 


A. E. Verrill.. 
U.S. FishCom. 
52.00 


ae oe Verrill.. 


U.S. FishCom. 


Number of 
specimens. 


one 


t Denkschrift, Acad. Wiss. Wien., B. xxxv, p. [14] 38, pl. iv, figs. 9-12, 1875. 
t Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 165, 1866. 


406 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


with an incomplete, very dense whorl of fine slender hairs; pleon seg- 
mented, elongated; palpus of maxillipeds one-jointed. 


The most important character of this genus is doubtless found in the 
structure of the antennule in the male sex. In the females the anten- 
nul are small, and the flagellum consists of a few slender rapidly 
tapering segments. They thus bear considerable resemblance to 
young specimens of Anthura polita, and being collected with them, 
were at first mistaken for them. They are distinguished by the larger 
and more conspicuous eyes, and by the more elongated and distinctly 
segmented pleon. In the presence of eyes our species differs from a 
form described by G. O. Sars, Paranthura tenuis, from near Stavanger, 
Norway, in which the males have a well-developed, eight-jointed and 
densely hairy or setiferous flagellum on the antennule. 


Ptilanthura tenuis Harger. 


Ptilanthura tenuis Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 377, 1878; Proc. U.S. 
Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 162, 1879. 
PLATES XI and XII, Fies. 71-74. 

Males of this species are at once recognized by the greatly developed 
antennule, resembling miniature bottle-brushes; females may be dis- 
tinguished from the young of the other species by the conspicuous eyes; 
they are much smaller than the adults of the other species. 

The body is smooth, flattened above, narrow at the middle, broadest 
at the base of the pleon. Head broader than the first thoracic segment 
and nearly as long, on the median line; longer than broad, narrowing 
to a point in front and much less acutely behind. The eyes are promi- 
nent, black, situated within the margin of the head and visible both 
above and below. The antennule in the males (pl. XII, fig. 74a), when 
reflexed, attain the third thoracic segment; the first segment is large, 
but not longer than the second; the third is shorter than the second 
and followed by a short, subtriangular segment, which must be regarded 
as the first segment of the flagellum, although resembling the last 
peduncular segment much more than it does the succeeding or second 
flagellar segment; this segment is small at its base, but expands rapidly 
above and below and on the side which is next the body in the ordinary 
reflexed position of the antennula, and on these sides it bears, at its dis- 
tal end, a fine and dense fringe of long slender hairs, which attain, when 
appressed, about the fifth following segment. Similar segments, to the 
number, in some specimens, of eighteen or twenty follow, forming an 
organ resembling a minute bottle brush or plume, whence the generic 
name. On one side, however, of the organ, which corresponds nearly 
with the outer or anterior side, according as the antennula is more or 
less reflexed, the whorl of hairs is interrupted. In the females (pl. XJ, 
fig. 73) the antennule are shorter than the antennz, with a short flagel- 
lum consisting of a small basal segment and a minute terminal one 
tipped with a few sete. The antenne (pl. XII, fig. 74) are short, 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 407 


differing little in the sexes, hardly surpassing the peduncle of the anten- 
nule in the males, with a short three or four jointed flagellum bear- 
ing a few hairs near the tip. The maxillipeds (pl. XI, fig. 71b) have 
a quadrate basal segment, somewhat emarginate externally for the 
subtriangular external lamella, and bearing a single suboval terminal 
segment, or palpus, somewhat truncate and ciliated at the tip. The 
inner maxille (pl. XI, fig. 71c) are five-toothed, one tooth being strong 
and terminal and the other four lateral. The mandibles bear a single- 
jointed palpus. 

The thoracic segments are subequal in length except thé last, which 
is but little over half as long as the others, though broader behind than 
any of them. They are slightly narrower than the head and margined 
laterally with a somewhat raised ridge. The third, fourth, and fifth have | 
an elongate oval depression on the median line near the anterior margin. 
The first pair of legs (pl. XI, fig. 72) have the segments well separated, 
the carpus nearly equilaterally triangular, the propodus moderately thick- 
ened, and the dactylus strong and tipped with a stout claw; the carpus 
and propodus are bristly on their palmar margins. The remaining pairs 
of legs are slender and nearly equal in size. 

The pleon is about as long to the tip as the last three thoracic seg- 
ments. The first five segments are consolidated along the dorsum, but 
distinct at the sides. Hach segment rises into a low broad tubercle on 
each side of the median line. The last segment is about as long as the 
preceding five, and is elongate-ovate, and obtusely pointed behind. The 
basal plate of the uropods is about half as long as the telson; the 
terminal or inner lamella is triangular-ovate, and about equals the 
telson. The proximal or superior lamella is narrowly semi-ovate, 
with an emargination on the upper side near the tip. The first pair of 
pleopods (pl. XI, fig. 71d) are shorter than the abdomen, and have the 
outer plate semi-obovate and the inner shorter, with nearly parallel 
sides. The second pair of pleopods (pl. XJ, fig. 71e) bear, in the males, 
a Slender straight stylet, articulated below the middle of the inner 
lamella and slightly surpassing it. The outer lamella is imperfectly 
articulated near the middle. 

Length 11""; breadth 0.9""; females about one-third smaller; color 
brownish and more or less mottled above, lighter beneath, margined with 
translucent at the sides, extending on the sides of the head as far as 
the eyes. 

This species is rare on the coast. It has been taken by the United 
States Fish Commission, on muddy bottom, in Noank Harbor, Long 
Island Sound!; off Watch Hill!, R. I., in 18 fathoms, sand ; and off Block 
Island!, in 17 to 194 fathoms, sand, mud, and stones; at Waquoit, 
Vineyard Sound!, in sand, at low water, September 8, 1871; in Casco 
Bay!, sand and mud, from 9 fathoms, in 1873, and by Prof. A. E. Verrill, 
at Grand Menan, in the Bay of Fundy! in 1870. 

It is nearly related to and doubtless congeneric with Paranthura 


408 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


tenuis G. O. Sars,* but is at once distinguished by the presence of eyes, 
from which character, as distinctive, the name P. oculata might be applied 
to our species if a new trivial name should be thought necessary. 


Specimens examined. 


: Speci- 
H QD mens. 
2 Locality. 8 Bottom. esa OE Receivedfrom— Dey : 
5 ey 
ie é No.| Sex 
2099 | Noank Harbor, Conn}. ....... ind see se eee. —— —,1874| U.S.FishCom} 1] ¢ | Ale. 
Pit | PRA hl Seen ig 38 5 ee tihles eas 3 1GN 22. gga | aoe oe | soe eles 
2100 | Off Watch Hill, R.I.| 18 Sands. 2s .ccc<- dulyssie at S74 eee dO enceeeee 1) oy s| eA: 
2105 | Off Block Island ....| 17-193 | Sand, mud, and | —— —,1874]|....do..-..-...| 1] Q | Ale. 
stones. 
2103 | Vineyard Sound, | L. w. | Sand..:......-... Nept. 6, 1S eseed0) ee seeeaee | a Q | Ale 
ass. 
2101 | Casco Bay, Me.--....].-...... Mindi se esses cee July, WE AS7Siee- dolce sseee 1) dial PAde? 
PALI 1 RG Ci een ane ne 9 Sand and mud ..| Aug. 4,1873}....do .-..-..-- 1 |- Sy ieAde: 
2106 | Bayof Fundy,Grand |.-...-..-.- Fee sccesses Mscccoe |} —— —,1870| A. E. Verrill..| 1] 92 | Ale. 
Menan. 
| 


XTL—GNATHID ZA. 


Thorax with only five pairs of legs of the normal form in the adults, 
and apparently consisting of only five segments; antennule and an- 
tenne short, with evident distinction into peduncle and flagellum; 
mouth organs suctorial in the larval state, more or less aborted in the 
adult; pleon with its segments distinct, bearing the normal number of 
pleopods; uropods inserted at the sides of the base of the last segment, 
biramous and resembling the pleopods but of firmer texture. 


This family is represented on our coast by a number of forms, all of 
which, however, appear to be referable to a single species, in which, 
contrary to what is ordinarily observed in the order, a considerable 
transformation occurs, especially in the males, after the young leave 
the incubatory pouch, and before they reach the adult form. The 
sexes are very unlike at maturity, but in both the thorax may be seen, 
by a little inspection, to consist in reality of seven segments, of which 
the first is united with the head, but separated from it by a sutural line 
near its posterior margin, while the seventh is small and resembles the 
segments of the pleon, which appears as if consisting of seven seg- 
ments. The last thoracic segment does not bear a pair of legs. The head 
is large in the adult male and armed with a powerful pair of curved jaws 
projecting strongly forward and curved upward. The antennule are 
short and widely separated at base. The antenne are inserted nearly 
below them. 

The five pairs of pediform legs are ambulatory and nearly alike 
throughout; the propodal segments are somewhat elongate, and the 
dactyli weak. All the thoracic segments except the first are distinct in 
the male, and all are distinct in the larval forms, but the fourth and fifth 


* Chr. Vid. Selsk. Forh., 1872, p. 89, foot-note, 1873. — 


— ee 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 409 


(third and fourth free segments) are indistinctly separated in the adult 
females. 

The pleon is much alike in both sexes and the young, and consists of 
six distinct segments, each of which bears a pair of appendages. The 
first five pairs of these appendages, or pleopods, are carried beneath the 
pleon and subserve the purposes of respiration, while they are also used 
in swimming. They consist of a short basal segment supporting two 
rami, ciliated at the tip in the young. The uropods are directed back- 
ward and are of firmer fexture than the pleopods. They are ciliated 
near the tip. 

Only a single species has yet been recognized within our limits, and 
the male, female, and young will be described under the specific name. 

The striking sexual differences in this family have caused much con- 
fusion, the males having been referred to one genus (Anceus), and the 
females to another (Praniza), and even these genera have been referred 
to different tribes or subfamilies. The true relationship of these forms, 
long ago suspected by Leach, was first made known by M: Hesse,* who, 
however, seems not to have stated it very clearly and perhaps did not 
correctly apprehend it at first. His descriptions, however, of the 
females of Anceus apply to what had previously been regarded as the 
female of Praniza, although he says in the same paper that Praniza is 
only the larval state of Anceus, which is true only of the young, or larval 
forms, or the then supposed males of Praniza. This family has been 
further investigated by Bate, Westwood, and Dohrn, to whose writings 
the reader is referred. It may be here remarked that Bate and West- 
wood in their account of the structure of Anceus, in the second volume 
of the British Sessile-Eyed Crustacea, appear to have overlooked the last 
thoracic segment, and suppose that either the first or second segment 
must be wanting. Dohrn calls attention to the rudimentary (or embry- 
onic) condition of the seventh thoracic segment as the one missing to 
complete the normal number, but describes and figurest as “untere” 
and ‘“obere Mundextremitit” (‘‘verwandeltes erstes” and ‘“zweites 
Gnathopoden Paar”) what I regard as the maxillipeds and first pair of 
thoracic legs, or, according to Spence Bate’s terminology, which Dohrn 
seems to have misapprehended, the maxillipeds and the first pair of 
gnathopods. The second pair of gnathopods are pediform as usual in 
the Isopoda, and are the first of the five pairs of legs. Of the five 
pairs of pereiopods normally present, only four are developed in the 
Gnathiidae. The family is thus remarkable in the order both for the 
transformations undergone in its development, and for the retention 
after all of an embryonic feature. 

Having discarded the names Anceus and Praniza for reasons given 
below, I have also rejected the family name Anceide and substituted 
for it a name, suggested by Bate and Westwood and derived from that 


*Ann. Sci. nat., IV, tom. ix, p. 106, 1858. 
t Zeit. Wiss. Zool., xx, taf. vii, figures 24 and 25. 


410 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of the typical genus. The name Anceide should perhaps be restored in 
case Risso’s species should not prove to be congeneric with Gnathta 
termitoides Leach, Cancer maxillaris Montagu.* 
— Gnathia Leach. 
Gnathia Leach, Ed. Encye., vol. vii, p. 6402” (Am. ed., p. 240), ‘*1813-14.” 
Praniza Leach, MSS. 
Anceus Risso, Crust. de Nice, p. 51, 1816. 

Head very large and quadrate in the male, smaller and subtriangular 
in the female; first pair of legs operculiform in the male, subpediform 
in the female; pleon much narrower than the thoracic segments, with 
nearly parallel sides, and a sharply triangular telson. 


The name Anceus Risso, which has been used by modern writers for 
this genus, ought, according to all rules of, priority, to give way to 
Gnathia Leach, as acknowledged by Bate and Westwood,t who, however, 
hesitated to restore the name on account of Kirby’s coleopterous genus 
-Gnathium. While the undoubted priority of the name is a sufficient 
reason for its re-establishment, it may be worth while to add that 
Gnathia was not restricted by Dr. Leach to either sex alone, as that 
author had the sagacity to “suspect that Oniscus coeruleatus Montagu 
[Praniza coeruleata Desm.| was the female” of Gnathia, and, as far as I 
am aware, did not publish a generic name for the Praniza-form, although 
the name Praniza was used by him as a manuscript name, and as such 
appears to have been published by Latreille in the Encyclopédie 
Méthodique, which I have not been able to consult. 


Guathia cerina Harger (Stimpson). 

Praniza cerina Stimpson. Mar. Inv. G. Manan, p. 42, pl. iii, fig. 31, 1853. 
Packard, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 296, 1867. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. vi, p. 439, 1873; vol. vii, pp. 38, 41, 411, 

502, 1874; Proc. Am. Assoc., 1873, pp. 350, 354, 358, 362, 1874. 
Anceus americanus, Stimpson, Mar. Inv. G. Manan, p. 42, 1853. 
Gnathia cerina Harger, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 162, 1879. 
PLATE XII, Fias. 75-79. 

It will be convenient first to describe the male of this species and then 
the female and larval forms. The powerful and prominent jaws in front 
of the large quadrate head of the males of this small Isopod serve to 
distinguish it from any other on our coast. 

The shape of the body is well described by Dr. Stimpson, as ‘“ regu- 
larly rectangular, abruptly narrowed at the commencement of the abdo- 
men, which has the appearance of another very small rectangle set into 
the ince and of only one-third its width.” Itis somewhat bristly hairy, 
and Tint tuberculated and roughened above, especially on the lateral 
portions of the head and on the anterior thoracic segments. The head 
is broader than long, depressed medially in front and produced into a 
rounded lobe between the projecting upturned jaws. The eyes are small 


*Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. vii, p. 65, pl. vi, fig. 2, 1804, 
t Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 169. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 411 


and placed well forward at the sides of the head. The antennule (pl XII, 
fig. 76a) are shorter than the head and slender, sparingly hairy, with a 
short, few-jointed flagellum. The antenne (pl. XII, fig. 766) are also 
slender, with the first segment apparently composed of two united; the 
second segment short; the third and fourth longer, nearly cylindrical and 
followed by a slender few-jointed flagellum. The jaws (pl. XJ, fig. 76 ¢) 
are elongate and turned upward at the apex, irregularly and bluntly 
toothed near the base within, and somewhat carinate on the outer side 
near the middle, the carina ending rather suddenly in a tooth-like pro- 
cess of the jaw as seen from above. The under surface of the head is 
deeply and broadly grooved longitudinally, and this groove is covered 
by what appear to be the transformed first pair of thoracic legs (pl. XI, 
fig. 76d). They are in the form of a semi-oval plate on each side, attached 
near the base of the external side and strongly convex and ciliated on 
the inner side, where they overlap. This plate is truncated at the apex, 
where it bears a small oval lamella; on the surface of the large plate 
are three large, oval, semi-transparent areas. Within these plates is 
another pair of organs, consisting of a large basal segment and an artic- 
ulated series of four flattened ciliated segments. These may be regarded 
as the maxillipeds, with a four-jointed palpus. 

The first thoracic segment is indicated above only by a faint sutural 
line near the posterior margin of the large head. It is followed by five 
very distinct segments, of which the first two are perhaps most distinct, 
short, and strongly tuberculated, especially along their posterior mar- 
gins. ‘The third free segment is broader than the second, square at the 
sides, with two broad lateral elevations. The fourth free segment is 
somewhat rounded in front, with its chitinous integument apparently not 
calcified along the median line. The fifth freesegment is narrower than 
the preceding and produced at the sides around the small last thoracic 
segment and the base of the pleon. The legs are nearly alike through- 
out, somewhat hairy and spiny. 

The pleon is slightly dilated at the middle, with the angles of the 
segments salient. The last segment is acutely triangular, ciliate behind, 
surpassed by the uropods, which are also ciliated with a few bristles ; 
both rami are slender, the inner a little broader than the outer. The 
pleopods (pl. XII, fig. 78 e) cofisist of two slender elongate lamelle, the 
inner longer than the outer, attached to a basal segment and not ciliated 
in the adults of our species. 

Length 4.4"; breadth 1.3°"; color dirty yellowish brown above, 
lighter below. This form is Anceus americanus Stimpson. 

The adult female (pl. XII, fig. 77) differs from the male principally in 
the following characters: The body is smooth and tapers behind and 
before, but is much swollen medially, where the segmentation becomes 
obscure, and the thoracic region seems converted into a sack for the 
reception of the eggs, plainly to be seen through the transparent integu- 
ment. The head is comparatively small and subtriangular, emarginate 


412 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


in front. The eyes are placed farther back, and the large conspicuous 
jaws are wanting. Under the head, the first pair of legs (pl. XII, fig. 
78 a) are slender, three-jointed with a minute terminal segment, and lie 
upon a delicate membranous plate on each side; within these are a pair 
of organs resembling what I have regarded as the maxillipeds of the 
male. 

The first two free thoracic segments are short and curved some- 
what around the,head; the next two segments are much enlarged and 
nearly coalescent, and the fifth free segment is nearly similar in form to 
that of the males. The last thoracic segment is short and small and, 
as in the male, resembles a segment of the pleon. 

The pleon (pl. XII, fig. 78 ¢) differs little from that of the male, but the 
angles of the segments are less salient. 

Length 3-4""; breadth 1.5"". Color ‘pale yellowish or waxen.” Dr. 
Stimpson was “inclined to consider” this form as the female af Praniza 
cerina. 

The larval forms bear a much greater resemblance to the female than 
to the male but are more slender than either, the thorax being, in the 
smaller specimens, but little broader than the pleon. The head is broad, 
with large prominent eyes, and is distinct from the first thoracic segment, 
its posterior margin being truncated. The antennule have a short 
basal segment to the flagellum, which is followed by an elongate cylin- 
drical segment forming about half the length of the flagellum, but 
bearing at its end a few short:segments. The mouth organs project 
beyond the head, giving it an acute outline, and are evidently formed for 
piercing and suction. The large jaws of the adult males are, of course, 
wanting. The maxillipeds are slender and elongated. 

The first pair of thoracic legs (pl. XII, fig, 78 b) are elongate, with the 
normal number of segments, a triangular carpus, and a strong curved 
dactylus, reminding one of the legs of the Cymothoide. The first tho- 
racic segment is small and short and well separated from the following . 
segments. The next two segments are quite distinct in all the forms, 
but usually the fourth, fifth, and sixth segments are united much as in 
the adult female. These forms appear to be the young females, and were 
described by Dr. Stimpson under the name of Praniza cerina ; more 
rarely, however, specimens are found in which all the thoracic segments 
are distinct and somewhat resemble those of the adult male, but with 
their peculiarities less marked (pl. XII, fig. 79). 

The pleon resembles that of the adults, but is not suddenly much 
narrower than the thorax. The pleopods as well as the uropods are 
ciliated at the tip (pl. XII, fig. 78d). 

Both these forms of young were taken from the body of a sculpin in 
the Bay of Fundy in 1872, and, when fresh, their bodies were bright red. 
In alcohol they fade to a waxy yellow. 

Adult males of this species greatly resemble Anceus elongatus Kroyer, 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 413 


but his Praniza Reinhardi differs in its proportions of the antennary 
segments from G. cerina. 

This species was described by Dr. Stimpson from females “ dredged 
on gravelly and coraliine bottoms in 20-30 fathoms in the Hake Bay,” 
and males “dredged on a sandy bottom in 10 fathoms off Cheney’s 
Head,” Grand Menan, in the Bay of Fundy. It has been collected by 
the U. 8S. Fish Commission in Massachusetts Bay!, off Salem, 22-50 
fathoms, gravel and soft mud; Gulf of Maine!, at several localities; Casco 
Bay !, 50 fathoms; Bay of Fundy!, in many localities, 10 to 60 fathoms, 
rocks, stones, and mud, and young specimens have been taken adhering 
to codfish and the sculpin. It was dredged by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves in 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence!, in 220 fathoms, mud. Further details in 
regard to localities are given in the subjoined table. 


Specimens examined. 


. Speci- 
5 aay q When col- : OS Dry. 
Z | Locality. g Bottom. Teetedl Received from— ‘Alo: 
S 3 
mB | 2 | No. | Sex 
SS | 
Massachusetts Bay, 3 Mind races Aug. 31,1879 | J. H. Emerton.| 3/ 9 | Ale. 
miles S. E. Nahant. 
2108 | Massachusetts Bay, 22 Gravel, stones.| —— —,1877| U.S. FishCom.| 3 |...... Ale. 
off Salem E. S. KE. 
9 to 11 miles. 
2109 | Massachusetts Bay, 33 Muda aes: —— —,1877}|....do ....--... PL Qa Ale: 
off Salem E. 8S. E. : | 
8 to 9 miles. | 
2121 | Massachusetts Bay, | 25-26 | Gravel, stones.| —— —,1877|.-..do..-...... 1 Q | Ale. 
off Salem- E. S. E. | 
6 to 7 miles. 
2110 | Massachusetts Bay, | 45-50 | Mud .......... | —— —,1877|..-.do ......... 12 | Sf? |} Ale. 
off Salem. FE. S. E, | i 
11 to 13 miles. 
Gulf of Maine, S.E.4 | 54-60 | Sand, mud.....| Ss SIGHS acc sosbocane 12 |b Py.| Ale. 
5. from Cape Ann, 
6 to 7 miles. if 
2107 | Gulf of Maine be-| 27-36 |....do......... oeeoh = 1874 edo neeeee eee 9 | Ale. 
tween Cape Annand 
Isle of Shoals. } 
2111 | Casco Bay ..-........- AY) “oliecnccs epogeakoer Aug. 6, ae Boe (REAP Ra Soe 2 g Ale. 
PATONG See (CRS se epee SOE casein dlc maces So eee — —,1873}.--.do .....-.... 1 Ale. 
UTS ciatercte toh isie aise abe = simicts|| <i aicie. 2 = 2] CEPR lam =~ o's — —, 1873 GOs Leet ae 10| do Q | Ale. 
2115 Mins tport, MMOs sc cocance 10-20 | Rocky......... —— —,1872|....do ......... 3} @ | Ale. 
Tp aren eA Ole Se ecer Oe es ciic leas caese eo eee etree a Se — —, 1872)....do......... 3] 2 | Ale. 
eee ae seals nsisinia's Jaen sie sisiewalllQaaeee weeetccens| ——=, —=—,1868'|| At sea ViGrTalle a. (ers. Seen eA Ge 
2114 | Bay of Bandy, Boe eraser On sculpin, &¢.| —— —, 1872] U.S. FishCom | 12 y. | Alc. 
Galatea O acs oaisinie =.or5,er6 20200 Este cn ccm eh macs — —, 1872 GON as 5/5 5 2 Alec. 
PALSY sees « iB ODE ODEO ASAE BERR S On locooe SoOenaCes — —,1872]....do ......... 5 d8 Alc. 
2119 | Bay of Fnndy, off 40) Wee Ae aioe orice —— —,1872/..-.do.........| 6|/o¢ Alc. 
Head Harbor. 
2122 | Bay of Fnndy ........ GO) Gili esetie doetmcen ds 1870-72 A.E. Verrill...| 00} of | Ale. 
Off Sable Tabi sesece 160 te Lophohelia.| —— —,1878| U.S. FishCom.} 4| ¢& | Ale. 
2120 | Gulfof SaintLawrence| 220 | Mud..........|............- J.F.Whiteaves| 1| y Ale. 


XIV.—TANAID Zi. 


Respiration cephalothoracic, taking place in a cavity beneath the 
walls of the united head and first thoracic segment; eyes, when present, 
articulated ; antennular flagellum single ; first pair of legs enlarged and 
more or less perfectly chelate; pleopods natatory, ciliated, not branchial ; 
uropods, terete, terminal, with at least one jointed ramus. 


“= 


414 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


This family differs widely from all the other Isopoda, and indeed 
from all the sessile-eyed Crustacea, in the structure of the respiratory 
organs, and in the fact that the eyes, when present, are articulated with 
the head, or stalked, though without any proper pedicel. 

I have seen species of only two genera, Leptochelia Dana and Tanais 
Audouin and Edwards, from within our limits. These genera are, by 
some authors, united under the name Tanais, but there seems to be 
ample reasons for separating them. While they agree in many charac- 
ters, they differ widely from Apseudes Leach, which should probably be 
regarded as belonging to a different family not represented on our coast, 
and is accordingly not included in the above diagnosis. 

Our representatives of the Tanaide may be further characterized as 
follows: The body is subeylindrical and elongated, from four or five to 
at least eight times as long as broad. The head and first thoracic seg- 
ment are covered by the large cephalothoracic shield, which tapers 
somewhat in front, and is dilated behind. Its postero-lateral regions 
are occupied on each side by the branchial cavity, opening behind by a 
vertical slit, and in front by a-nearly horizontal orifice. During life a 
lash-like organ can be seen through the body wall, in constant vibration, 
propelling a stream of water from behind forward through the cavity. 
The eyes, when present, are distinctly articulated with the head, and in . 
the males are generally larger and more coarsely granulated than in the 
females. They are absent in one of our species, as in the one mentioned 
by Willemoes-Suhm from 1,400 fathoms in the Atlantic Ocean, off the 
North American coast, obtained by the Challenger expedition. They are 
described as indistinct in other foreign species. The antennulz are in- 
serted close together immediately below the vertex of the head and 
between the eyes. They are robust at base, and in the males may be 
elongated, but in the females are short, with only three or four segments 
and a minute rudiment of a flagellum. In neither sex have they any 
trace of the secondary flagellum seen in Apseudes. The antenne are 
more slender than the antennule, and inserted almost directly beneath 
them. They are five-jointed, with the first and second segments short, 
the third larger and longer, the fourth and fifth slender and cylindrical, 
and, like the antennule, with indications of a flagellum. The antenne, 
like the antennul, are tipped with bristles and bear a few scattered 
similar bristles on their segments. 

The mouth organs are aborted in the males, at least in the genus Lep- 
tochelia, but in the females the mouth is protected below by a well-devel- 
oped pair of maxillipeds, of which the basal segments meet at an angle 
forming a keel on the under surface of the head. The palpi of the max- 
illipeds are four-jointed, and armed with strong cilia; the last segment is 
strongly flexed on the penultimate. The inner maxille are spiny, and 
have the outer lobe reflexed and bearing elongated cilia at the tip. The 
mandibles are strong, destitute of palpi, and armed with one or two 
dentigerous lamelle at the apex and a strong molar process. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 415 


The first pair of legs are robust, and in the males may be large and 
much elongated; they are in both sexes of our species powerful organs 
of prehension, being strongly chelate. Like the remaining pairs of legs, 
they have only five movable segments, unless an articulated spine at 
the extremity of the fifth segment is to be regarded as the true dactylus. 
On the other hand, the basal segment in many specimens presents indi- 
cations of a short segment at its distal end, as if really consisting of the 
united basis and ischium. If this latter supposition be the true one, the 
hand of the first pair of legs is formed, as might be expected, of the pro- 

‘podus and the dactylus ; the propodus is thickened and provided with 
a digital process stronger than the curved dactylus, which closes against 
it; the digital process bears toward the tip a few stout, bristly sete. 
These legs are attached to the under side of the united head and_ first 
thoracic segment below the branchial cavity, and are directed forward. 
They are capable of but little lateral motion, and are nearly in contact 
below, especially toward their bases, which cover and partly conceal 
the organs of the mouth and the bases of the antenne. The second pair 
of legs are very slender in comparison with the first, and are more slender 
than those that follow. Their basal segments are flattened, somewhat 
elongated, and usually bent with the convexity outward, in adaptation to 
the basal segments of the first pair of legs, which they partly embrace. 
The last three pairs of legs have their basal segments swollen. 

The pleon consists, in our species, of five or six segments, and bears 
three or five pairs of strongly ciliated pleopods of the ordinary form, 
and fitted for swimming, and also a pair of uropods, consisting of a large 
basal segment bearing one or two rami. This ramus, or the inner one 
when there are two, is articulated and composed, in our species, of from 
two to six segments. The outer ramus may also consist of more than 
one segment. Like the antennule and antenne, the uropods are pro- 
vided with setz, which are often elongate. 

In the young the seventh pair of legs are not developed, and, accord- 
ing to Miiller, the pleopods are likewise wanting and the uropods have 
less than the adult number of segments. 

This family has been the subject of special research by Fritz Miiller, 
Spence Bate, Dohrn, and others, to whose writings reference may be 
had for further description of their anatomy and development. Their 
proper place among the Crustacea cannot be regarded as settled, though 
the opinion of Fritz Miiller that they represent an ancestral type of 
Isopoda is probably the best offered as yet. According to Dohrn, they 
present in their development affinities with Asellus, Ligia, and Cuma. 
Gegenbaur associates his Tanaida with the Podophthalma rather than the 
Edriophthalina. 

Our species of this family are sharply divided into two genera, for 
which I have, after some hesitation, adoped the names Tanais Aud. and 
Edw. and Leptochelia Dana. I have not been able to see Audouin and 
Edwards’ Résumé d’Entomologie, in which the genus Tanais is said to 


416 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


have been established, without description, in 1829. In the Précis 
d@’Entomologie, by the same authors, is a figure (pl. xxix, fig. 1), appa- 
rently the same as that in the Résumé, which is there called Tanais de 
Costa. Latreille,* in 1831, characterized the genus, basing it upon Gam- 
marus Dulongii Aud., figured by Savigny. Westwood,f in 1832, proposed 
for the same species the name Anisocheirus, without, however, mention- 
ing any characters. In 1836, Templetont described and figured, with 
evident care and accuracy, a species of this family under the name 
Zeuxo Westwoodiana. This species has, according to his figure, six 
segments in the pleon. Edwards, in his general work, Histoire natu- 
relle des Crustacés, figures and describes Tanais Cavolinii (tome iii, 
p. 141, pl. 31, fig. 6), and refers the figure in the Précis d’Entomologie 
to that species. In 1843, Rathke § described and figured Orossurus vit- 
tatus as a new genus and species allied to Apseudes and Tanais, but 
there do not seem to be any characters of importance to separate it 
from T. Cavolinii Edw., and, indeed, Bate and Westwood are inclined 
to regard them as identical species. If, however, 7. Dulongii be re- 
garded as the type of the genus, there appears to be nothing but the 
clothing of the basal segments of the pleon to separate the two genera, 
and this character seems of no more than specific value, since 7. Du- 
longii is described by Bate and Westwood as possessing the peculiar 
‘‘branchial appendages” at the base of the fifth pair of legs. These ap- 
pendages are doubtless incubatory sacs, similar to those of 7. vittatus. 

For the second genus I have hitherto used the name Paratanais Dana, 
on the ground that Leptochelia of the same author, although having 
priority, was founded upon the characteristics of the male sex. The 
type-species, however, of this genus, L. minuta, possesses all the charac- 
ters of Paratanais that could occur in the male. Leptochelia Hdwardsti 
Dana, Tanais Hdwardsii Kréyer, moreover, belongs to the same genus, 
and I have adopted the name for both sexes. 

The minute species, by which this family is represented on our coast, 
may be readily recognized by the proportionately large and strong chelate 
first pair of legs articulated to the united head and first thoracic segment. 
The two genera are distinguished by the number of segments in the 
pleon, which are five, with three pairs of pleopods in Tanats (p. 122), and 
six, with five pairs of pleopods in Leptochelia (p. 126). 


Tanais Audouin and Edwards. 


Tanais Audouin and Edwards, “Résumé (not Précis) d’Ent., p. 182 (without de- 
scription, 1829), pl. xxix, fig. 1” (B. & W.); Précis d’Entomol., p. 46, pl. 
EK, el 
Edwards, Hist. nat. des Crust., tom. iii, p. 141, 1840. 
Crossurus Rathke, Fauna Norwegens, p. 35, 1843. 
Antennule and antenne simple ; mandibles without palpi; pleon com- 
posed of five segments bearing three pairs of ciliated pleopods below, 


* Cours d’Ent., p. 403. tAnn. Sci. nat., tome xxvii, p. 330, 1832. 
¢Trans. Ent: Soc., vol. ii, p. 203, 1836. § Fauna Norwegens, p. 35. 


7 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 417 


and a pair of simple uropods behind; eggs incubated in sacs attached 
near the bases of the fifth pair of legs of the females. 


This genus is distinguished from the next by the structure of the 
pleon and the uropods as given above, and the females are, when carry- 
ing eggs or young, distinguished from all the other Isopoda by the wart- 
like, or sac-like, appendages of the fifth thoracic segment. Usually a 
small wart-like appendage is visible on each side of the inferior surface 
of the thorax just within the bases of the fifth pair of legs, but the size 
of these organs varies greatly, and in some specimens they become dis- 
tended with eggs, extended lengthwise with the body and more or less 
coalescent, so as to form the large, bilobed incubatory pouch, as figured 
by Rathke. This pouch is, however, attached only to the fifth segment. 

The presence of a peculiar appendage to the fifth pair of legs in this 
genus has been noted by various authors. Bate and Westwood figure, 
in the second volume of the British Sessile-Eyed Crustacea, page 122, a 
leg of the fifth pair with the attached pouch, which they “regard as a 
branchial sac similar to those existing in the Amphipoda, and conse- 
quently affording a proof of the nearer relationship of Tanais with that 
order than is possessed by any other isopodous animal.” They remark 
further that “this appendage is wanting in some specimens, and its 
variable existence is probably a character of specific distinction in the 
group.” Those authors have not, however, separated 7. vittatus into two 
species on this character. Stebbirng* mentions a specimer with eggs 
‘as described by Rathke.” Macdonald} figures a female with an incu- 
batory pouch, which he briefly describes as “a membranous expansion 
or saccule under the thorax.” 

Rathke’s original description is as follows: “‘ Beide Exemplare, die ich 
untersuchen konnte, waren Weibchen und trugen Hier unter dem Thorax. 
Diese aber, die iibrigens verhiltnissmissig ziemlich gross waren, lagen 
nicht, wie bei Idothea, Ligia und vielen andern Isopoden, in einer zum 
Theil aus Schuppen bestehende Briithéle eingeschlossen, sondern bilde- 
ten zwei linglichovale, dicht neben einander liegende und an der Ober- 
fliche nur wenig unebene Massen von ziemlich betrichtlicher Grosse. 
Jede von ihnen war zusammengesetzt aus den Hiern und einer durch- 
sichtigen eiweissartigen Substanz, die um jene herumgegossen war, sie 
wie ein Kitt zusammen hielt, und sie zugleich auch an die Bauchseite 
des Leibes befestigte. Es zeigten demnach jene Massen ganz dieselbe 
Zusammensetzung, wie die sogennanten Hiertrauben der Cyclopiden, 
Lernzaden und Branchiopoden.” Rathke, having had only two speci- 
mens, does not appear to have perceived the attachment of these masses 
at the bases of the fifth pair of legs, and of course had no opportunity 
to see them in various stages of development. A specimen belonging to 
this genus and measuring 17 millimeters in length was obtained at Ker- 


* Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, xvii, p. 78, 1876. 
+ Trans. Linn. Soe., II, Zool., vol. i, p. 69, pl. xv, fig. 1, 1875. 
27 F 


418 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


guelen Island by Willemoes-Suhm,* who describes the sacs attached to 
the fifth thoracic segment and attaining, as the young develop, a diame- 
ter of three to four millimeters. 
Tanais vittatus Lilljeborg (Rathke). 
Crossurus vitiatus Rathke, Fauna Norwegens, p. 39, pl. 1, figs. 1-7, 1843. 
Tanais tomentosus Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidssk., B. iv, p. 183, 1842; ibid., II, B. ii, 
p. 412, 1847; Voy. en Scand., Crust., pl. xxvii, figs. 2 a-q, ‘1849.” 
Lilljeborg, Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Férh., Arg., viii, p. 23, 1851. 
Meinert, Crust. Isop. Amph. Dec. Danie. p. 86, ‘‘1877.” 
Tanais hirticaudatus Bate, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1860, p. 224, 1861. 
Tanais vittatus Lilljeborg, Bidrag Kann. Crust. Tanaid., p. 29, 1865. 
Bate and Westwood, Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 125, 1866. 
Stebbing, Trans. Devon. Assoc., 1874, p. (7), and 1879, p.(6); Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist., IV, vol. xvii, p. 78, 1876. 
Verrill, Am. Jour. Scet., ILI, vol. x, p. 38, 1875. 
Macdonald, Trans. Linn. Soc., I, Zool., vol. i, p. 67-70, pl. xv, 1875. 
Harger, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 162, 1879. 
PLATE XIII, Fies. 81, 82. 

This species is at once recognized among our Isopods by the pleon, 
which is beset with bristly hairs at the sides, and crossed by two rows of 
similar hairs near the posterior margins of its first two segments. 

The body, though small, is rather robust, the length being about five 
times the breadth, which is greatest at the first free, in reality the second, 
thoracic segment. The head and united first thoracic segment is short, 
not longer than broad. The eyes are distinctly articulated and much less 
in diameter than the bases of the antennule. The antennule are shorter 
than the head and first thoracic segment, and are composed of three seg- 
ments, of which the first is longer than the other two together, while 
the second and third are of about equal length; the third segment is 
terminated by one or two rudimentary segments, surmounted by a tuft of 
straight bristly setee. Similar sete arise from the terminal portions of the 
two preceding segments. The antenne are as long as the antennulex, but 
more slender, and consist of a five-jointed peduncle, somewhat setose like 
the antennule, and terminated by a rudimentary flagellum beset with 
sete. The basal plates of the maxillipeds are ciliated externally, and 
meet each other on the median line so as to form a keel narrowing back- 
wards; distally they become thicker and bear a four-jointed palpus, of 
which the second and third segments are dilated internally and ciliated, 
and the fourth is spatulate and ciliated at its extremity. The inner 
maxille have one of the lobes of the usual form and position, and armed 
with short, curved spines at the tip, while the other is bent backward 
anil bears several elongated cilia at the tip, and by its constant motion 
urges a stream of water through the branchial cavity. 

The first pair of legs are much enlarged and extend, in their natural 
position, beyond the head, and the “‘ hand” is ordinarily directed nearly 
downward. The digital process of the propodus bears a broad lobe on 
its inner side, and an acute tooth at its extremity; at the side of the lobe 


* Zeit. Naturges., B. xxiv, p. xvii, 1874, 


a ee 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 419 


is a row of set; the dactylus is strong, with an obtuse tooth on its 
inner margin. In the second pair of legs the dactylus is rather robust 
and tapers strongly. In the succeeding pairs of legs the dactyli become 
curved, and, in the posterior pairs, hooked and armed with a comb of 
slender teeth, while the three preceding segments are also armed with 
slender teeth or spines at their distal ends. The constrictions between 
the thoracic segments are well marked, giving the body a somewhat 
moniliform appearance. In breeding females, a pair of warts, or sacs 
of greater or less size are found attached to the under surface of the 
fifth thoracic segment, and containing eggs or young, according to their 
stage of development. These sacs often, if not usually, coalesce more 
or less perfectly before maturity. 

The first three segments of the pleon are not narrower than the last 
thoracic segment, and are strongly margined, or tufted, at the sides with 
plumose hairs. These hairs are continued in two transverse rows, one 
upon the first and another on the second segment near their posterior 
margins, across the back of the pleon. This character is only im- 
perfectly shown in the figure, where the transverse rows of hairs should 
have been more strongly indicated. The last two segments of the pleon 
are suddenly narrower than the first three. The last is much longer 
than the fourth and bears a short tooth at each side near the base. 
This segment may be composed of two united. The three pairs of 
pleopods are nearly alike (pl. XIII, fig. 82), and consist of a basal segment 
bearing two semi-oval lamelle, which, as well as the basal segment, are 
strongly ciliated. The uropods are scarcely longer than the last two 
segments of the pleon, and the basal segment is comparatively small; 
the second segment is nearly as long as the first, the third about half 
as long as the second and tipped with sete, with which the first two 
segments are also provided. 

Length 5.5™"; breadth 1.1™™; color brown, mottled with lighter 
above; beneath, nearly white. 

This species occurred on piles and among alge and eel-grass at 
Noank!, Conn.,in the summer of 1874, along with Leptochelia algicola, but 
in much less abundance. It was described by Rathke from Molde, on 
the west coast of Norway, and inhabits also the British Isles, and while 
the present article was going through the press I received, through the 
kindness of Rey. T. R. R. Stebbing, specimens from Torquay!, England, 
which confirm my previous determination of our species as identical 
with the European form. It has been found by J. D. Macdonald “in 
the excavated wood of piers,in company with Limnoria and Chelura 
terebrans.” It is doubtfully identified by Bate and Westwood with a 
Mediterranean species, T. Cavolinii Edw. On the authority of Lilljeborg 
I have regarded it as identical with Tanais tomentosus Kroyer, although 
differing in the number and proportion of the segments of the pleon, as 
described and figured by that author. Kroéyer’s specimens were from 
Yresund, Denmark. 


420 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Leptochelia Dana. 


Leptochelia Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., II, vol. viii, p. 425, 1849; U. S. Expl. Exped., 
Crust., p. 800, 1853. 

Paratanais Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., II, vol. xiv, p. 306, 1852; U. S. Expl. Exped., 
Crust., p. 798, 1853. 


Antennule and antenne simple; mandibles without palpi; pleon 
composed of six segments, bearing five pairs of ciliated pleopods below, 
and a pair of biramous uropods behind ; incubatory pouch of the females 
of the normal form. 


The genus Leptochelia was constituted by Professor Dana for a form 
which Fritz Miiller has since shown to be the male of Paratanais Dana, 
and although so far as I know the name has not hitherto been used 
for any but the male forms, I see no reason why it should not be 
adopted instead of the later name Paratanais. I have therefore adopted 
it for the four species lately described, from our coast. Dr. Stimpson’s 
Tanais filum undoubtedly belongs to the same genus, making five species 
within our limits, only four of which I have seen. The species that I 
have examined may be further characterized as follows: The body is of 
nearly uniform size throughout. The antennule are directed forward 
and have a large basal segment, in contact with its fellow of the opposite 
side at its origin, and composing about half the length of the organ in 
the females; but in the males this segment, though absolutely much 
larger than in the females, may not form more than about a third of the 
total length of the antennula, which is nine to twelve jointed and termi- 
nated by a well developed flagellum. The antenne differ but little in the 
sexes, and are five-jointed. The organs of the mouth are abortive in the 
males, and the oral region is covered below by a pair of subtriangular 
plates, perhaps the rudiments of the maxillipeds. The second thoracic 
segment is shorter than those that follow it; the fifth and sixth are the 
longest, and the seventh is shorter than the sixth. 

The pleon consists of six distinct segments, subequal in length or 
with the last somewhat longer than the others. These segments are 
smooth above, and the first five bear on their under surface each a pair 
of pleopods, much like those of Tanais (pl. XIII, fig. 82), but not cili- 
ated on the basal segment. The last segment bears a pair of uropods, 
which consist of a large basal segment bearing two terete rami. Of 
these the outer ramus is shorter and smaller than the inner, and may 
consist of a single segment so small and short as to be easily overlooked ; 
the inner ramus is larger and longer, and composed, in our species, of 
from two to six segments. The number of these segments appears to 
be of value as a specific character, but not perfectly constant. 

In the females the incubatory pouch is formed, as in the order gener- 
ally, by four pairs of lamelle attached to the bases of the second, third, 
fourth, and fifth pairs of legs. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 421 


Leptochelia algicola Harger. 


Leptochelia Edwardsii Bate and Westwood, Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 134, 1868 
(Tanais Edwardsii Kréyer?). 
Tanais filum Harger, This Report, part i, p. 573 [279], 1874 (non Stimpson). 
Verrill, This Report, part i, p. 381 (87), 1874. 
Paratanais algicola Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 377, 1878. 
Leptochelia algicola Harger, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 162, 1879. 


PLATES XII and XIII, Fies. 80, 83-86. 


The large and strong chelate ciaws, six-jointed pleon, and uropods 
with a short, one-jointed, outer ramus and a six-jointed inner ramus, 
will, in general, distinguish the present species from any other Isopod 
on our coast. 

The body is of nearly uniform size throughout, and not constricted at 
the articulations. The head is narrowed in front. The eyes are conspic- 
uous and plainly articulated, and are largein the males. The antennule in 
the females (pl. XIII, fig. 84a) are shorter than the head and first thoracic 
segment, and are composed of three segments, of which the first is longer 
than the second and third together, and the third is slightly longer than 
the second, and, in some specimens, present traces of a division into two 
segments. The basal segment bears a short, stout seta just beyond the 
middle and one or two more near the tip; the second has also setz near 
the tip, and the third bears a tuft of half a dozen or more sete at the 
tip. In the males (pl. XII, fig. 80) the antennule are about two-thirds 
as long as the body and usually eleven-jointed, but sometimes with one 
or two segments more or less than that number. The basal segment 
forms, in this sex, about one-third the length of the organ, and is curved 
from near the base so as to be convex upward; the next two segments 
decrease rapidly in length, and are followed usually by eight flagellar 
segments provided with “olfactory set” from two to four or more to a 
segment. The antenne (pl. XIII, fig. 84b) in both sexes are short, 
slender, and decurved, terminated by a tuft of sete. They appear to 
vary but little in the family. 

The first pair of legs have the merus triangular, bringing the ischium 
and carpus together. In the female (pl. XIII, figs. 83 and 84 ¢) these 
legs, in their natural position, extend but little beyond the head; the 
propodus has a stout, digital process nearly in the line of its axis; 
this process is broadly notched near the base, then elevated into a 
slightly serrulate lobe, and bears at the apex a short, stout terminal 
tooth. Near the base of the lobe are usualiy two stout sete. The 
first pair of legs in the males are much larger and more elongated, 
especially in the last three segments; the carpus is elongate and 
cylindrical, extending about half its length beyond the head, and 
attaining the end of the basal antennular segment; the propodus (pl. 
XIII, fig. 85) is robust and has a strong, ered, and two-toothed 
fetal process, bearing also two stout set# near ie second tooth; 
the dactylus is also curved and provided on its inner margin with 


422 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


about seven short sete springing from the bases of as many serratures 5 
the propodus bears on its inner surface, above the origin of the dac- 
tylus, a comb, formed by a row of short set, and terminated at each 
end by a longer one. In the second pair of legs (pl. XIII, fig. 84d) the 
dactylus, with its terminal spine, is not as long as the propodus, which 
bears two or three set near its tip. The third and fourth pairs of legs 
are shorter than the second. The last three pairs have their basal seg- 
ments moderately swollen; the merus, carpus, and propodus of these 
legs are armed with a few spines near their distal ends; the dactyli are 
short. 

The pleon is slightly broader near its base than the thoracic segments. 
The first five segments are subequal in length, the last longer and 
pointed behind. The uropods (pl. XIII, fig. 86) consist of a robust basal 
segment (b) bearing two rami, of which the outer (0) is very short and 
uniarticulate; the inner (7) is six-jointed, tapering from the base, with 
the segments of about equal length and provided with set near their 
distal ends. 

Length 2.2"; breadth 0.337"; color nearly white. 

It is possible that this species may prove to be identical with L. Hd- 
wardsii (Kroyer) Dana, although differing from Kréyer’s description* and 
figures, especially in the following particulars: The peduncle of the an- 
tennula, which, according to his description and figure, consists of a short 
basal segment, an elongated segment, and a third short segment, has by 
his description the ratio to the following flagellum of five to four. The 
basal segment that he deseribes and figures was probably only the 
enlarged basal portion of the elongated segment, which, together with 
the following segment, constitutes only about three-sevenths of the 
length of the organ instead of five-ninths according to his description. 
He further describes and figures the uropod as biramous, with the inner 
elongated ramus composed of seven segments instead of six. Other 
differences could be pointed out in the proportions of the thoracic 
segments and the segments of the first pair of legs. Bate and West- 
wood+ figure and describe a species, which they regard as L. Hd- 
wardsii, although their description and figures differ somewhat from 
Kriyer’s, principally in the fact that they figure and describe the 
uropods as simple, saying in the generic description: ‘‘Pleopoda, 
five anterior pairs biramose; posterior pair unibranched and multi- 
articulate;” and again under the species (p. 136), “The posterior or 
caudal pair of pleopoda consist of a single multiarticulate branch, of 
which the basal joint is larger than the terminal ones: it consists of nine 
or ten smail articuli.” They figure it on page 134 as simple, tapering 
from the base and seven-jointed. These authors express their indebted- 
ness “for this interesting addition to our British fauna to the zeal and 
research of the Rev. A. M. Norman, who took it during the summer of 

* Naturhist. Tidssk., vol. iv, p. 174, pl. ii, figs. 13-19. 
t Brit. Sess. Crust., vol. ii, p. 134. 


\ MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 423 


1865 among Zostere between tide marks in Belgrave Bay, Guernsey,” 
and in the deseription of Paratanais forcipatus, on p. 139, mention in 
a foot-note a specimen from the same locality, “‘ which has a pair of six- 
jointed anal filaments with a short one-jointed secondary filament arising 
from the extremity of the basal joint. Can this be the female of 
Leptochelia Edwardsii fully grown?” 

Through the kindness of the Rev. Mr. Norman I have been able to 
examine a specimen labeled ‘“ Leptochelia Edwardsii, Guernsey, 1866,” 
and do not find that it differs from our species in any characters that 
ean be regarded as of specific value. The antennulx have indeed only 
seven flagellar segments, or ten segments in all, which is also the case 
in some of our specimens, though eight such segments—eleven in all—is 
the usual number. The thoracic segments have the same proportion to 

each other as in our species, and the uropods agree exactly with ours 
in being biramous, with the outer ramus short and uniarticulate and 
the inner ramus six-jointed. 

This is the form of uropod described and figured by Kroyer in Tanais 
Savignyi, which, as Fritz Miiller has suggested, is probably the female 
of T. Edwardsii Kr. That species has, however, according to Kréyer, 
a five-jointed antennula, the last segment being rudimentary. I have 
observed among a large number of our specimens two which had the last 
segment divided, though scarcely longer than in the others. These speci- 
mens could hardly be distinguished from 7. Savignyi Kroyer by any 
characters that I have observed. In view, however, of the great simi- 
larity of the females throughout the genus, as exemplified in the females 
of this species and of L. rapax, with both sexes of which I am familiar, 
I have concluded for the present to retain the specific name which I re- 
cently proposed for this species, and wait until an examination of both 
sexes can be had to decide the questions of specific identity. 

I formerly regarded this species as identical with Tanais filum Stimp- 
son, and supposed its range to extend to the Bay of Fundy. In view 
of the number of species now known to exist on this coast, and in the 
absence of any specimens from the Bay of Fundy, I now regard that as 
an error, and have corrected it in the American Journal of Science. 

This species is rather abundant among eel-grass (Zostera marina) and 
alge at Noank! and Wood’s Holl!, and has been taken during the past 
Summer (1879) at Provincetown!, Mass., among eel-grass, on a vessel’s 
bottom and in old piles, in company with Chelura terebrans Philippi 
and Limnoria lignorum White. The specimen sent by the Rev. A. M. 
Norman enables me to extend its range to the Island of Guernsey!, in 
the British Channel. 


424 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Specimens examined. 


} 
d Speci 
H @ mens. 
8 : g When col- ‘ Dry. 
2 Locality. s Bottom. lentoal Hecpielery ‘Nios 
5 a y0.! 
5 é No.| Sex 
2126 | Noank Harbor, Conn)........ Fel-grass ...---- —— —,1874| U.S. Fish. Com! 00 | ¢ 9 | Ale. 
TOT Ae eGo soe wie teen cen heater ele re grass and | —— —,1874|....do......... 00| fQ | Ale. 
alge. 
2128 AMO 2[S 2s eee assis) stents © bie do eee —— —, 1874 do 2 2-tteeee 10 Ale 
2129 “Vineyard Sound, 
TNE Ey ae a Pepocp denser ccosct —— —,1871}|..-.do .......-.. 1} -Q ry) Ade: 
2130 | Vineyard Sound, | | 
Parker’s Point....|......-. L. w. on algex. ——. —, 1875 |. =:d0' tes-252-% Ne (Sccicic Ale. 
PAB Es 52 ee See eee [sceeesse | Onpiles..---.--- —— —, 1875 |....do .--.-.-... ee atone Ale, 
2132 uy See mnt slareisinial| siete oielatavs Suriaceses--ace —— —, 1875 doeeeereeee Bal Hil del tec 
DGD ||. ay CE ee a err ens eat OTs See Oe eee ee Sula Seas Alc. 
Hipsovindeto qa: Maag.|\ Ewe. 2) eece nee aaee Aug. 22, 1879 OG)s-ss- eee 13 a Ale 
JB ARSE GO Fees eines aeeene Hal SUAS P > 2renie| neue ner eK: (1) erg ees Ua bare 2 Ala 
Se do’ aaencas soc ee 3 O ...--.-.--.| Aug. 23, 1879 |....do ......-..| 2 | "2 | Ales 
eee 0 a es eos ‘In old piles ..... Ang, 23,.1879)|:22.d0..--22-.-)¢ Tule sohey| eae 
Sean do--.-2--.5---|=-=2-=-.| Wessel bottom’ 5! Sept:ie, 1879.\|s=.100)2520-2-c4| 2a iiaeade 
{ | { 


Leptochelia limicola Harger. 
Paratanais limicola Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 378, 1878. 
Leptochelia limicola Harger, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 163, 1879. 
® PLATE XIII, Fries. 87, 88. 

I have seen only females of this species, and these in general much 
resembie the same sex in J. algicola described above, but differ as fol- 
lows: The eyes are small and inconspicuous, being’ less than half the 
transverse diameter of the basal antennular segment. The second seg- 
ment of the antennule (pl. XIII, fig. 88a) is short, only about half as 
long as the third. In the second pair of legs the dactylus with its ter- 
minal claw or spine is longer than the propodus, and the claw is 
slender and attenuated. The pleon is not wider than the segments of 
the thorax, and the uropods have the outer ramus two-jointed and sur- 
passing the basal segment of the inner ramus, which is five-jointed, with 
the first segment long and imperfectly divided. 

Length 2.5"". Color white in alcohol. 

The specimens of this species were dredged in 48 fathoms, soft mud, 
in Massachusetts Bay!, off Salem, Py the United States Fish Commis- 
sion, in the summer of 1877 


Leptochelia rapax Harger. 
Leptochelia rapax Harger, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 163, 1879. 
PuatTE XII, Fias. 89, 90. 

Females of this species closely resemble those of the two preceding 
species, but are distinguished by the following characters: The eyes 
are larger and more conspicuous than in Z. limicola. The last segment 
of the antennule is scarcely longer than the preceding, instead of nearly 
twice as long. In the second pair of legs the dactylus is somewhat 
shorter, and the terminal spine less attenuated. The external ramus of 
the uropods consists of a single very short and small segment, shorter 
than the basal segment of the inner ramus, which is not elongated. The 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 425 


inner ramus is five-jointed instead of six-jointed, as in L. algicola, from 
which species the males are easily distinguished by the elongate and 
slender antennule and chelate legs, and by other characters, as may be 
seen from the following description and the figures. 

The males (pl. XIU, fig. 89) are remarkable for the long, slender hand 
terminating the first pair of legs (pl. XIII, fig. 90). The body of the male 
is short and robust, and the segments are well separated by constric- 
tions at the sides. The head with the united first thoracic segment is 
short and rounded, bulging strongly at the sides just behind the eyes, 
which are conspicuous, considerably less in diameter than the bases of 
the antennule, distinctly articulated and coarsely faceted. The anten- 
nul are much elongated, especially in the basal segment, which con- 
stitutes nearly half the length of the organ, and is more than one-third 
as long as the body; this segment is straight, swollen on the inner side 
near the base, then tapers gradually to the tip; the second segment is 
a little over one-third the length of the first and cylindrical; the third 
is again about one-third the length of the second, and scarcely thicker 
than the following flagellar segments, which vary in number froni six to 
eight, and are usually of about equal length. In case there are eight 
flagellar segments the first is, sometimes at least, considerably shorter 
than the others. The last segment is tipped with a rudiment, and bears 
a few sete. The whole number of segments, therefore, varies from nine 
to eleven, and if one of the flagellar segments be taken as a unit of 
measurement, the length of the first three segments will be approx- 
imately expressed by the numbers 9, 5.8 and 1.4. The antennz when 
extended do not far surpass the middle of the basal segment of the 
antennule, and are comparatively slender; the first segment is short 
and somewhat expanded distally; the second is slightly longer and 
expanded so as to be sub-cordate; the third is short and cylindrical, equal 
in length to the first; the fourth is the longest segment, being longer 
than the first three taken together, and is slender and cylindrical, with 
a few sete near the tip; the fifth is more slender and but slightly 
shorter than the fourth, and is tipped with a minute rudimentary ter- 
minal segment and a few sete. 

The legs of the first pair are large and much elongated. They vary 
somewhat in size and proportions, but are commonly, when extended, 
longer than the body of the animal. In these legs the segments pre- 
ceding the carpus are robust but comparatively short, while the carpus 
is about half as long as the body, and the propodus (pl. XIII, fig. 90) is 
even more elongated than the carpus, and is usually strongly flexed 
upon it. More than half the length of the propodus is made up of the 
slender digital process, which bears, near the base on the inner side, a 
low, obtuse tooth, and a larger and more prominent one near the slender 
ineurved tip. The dactylus (pl. XIII, fig. 90) is more than half as long 
as the propodus, slender, curved, and pointed, and armed with scattered, 
weak spinules along the inner margin. The digital process of the pro- 


426 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


podus bears also a few sete, especially near the base of the outer tooth. 
The forceps thus formed are in most cases large enough to close around 
the body of another individual, but vary in size, being in some speci- 
mens at least one-third smaller than in others. The basal antennular 
segment may also be somewhat shorter than above described. 

Of the thoracic segments the second (first free) segment is the short- 
est, and is also slightly broader than the others, and broader than the 
head. The third, fourth, and fifth segments increase in length progres- 
sively; the sixth is as long as the fifth; the seventh shorter. In the 
second pair of legs, the dactylus with its terminal claw is about as long 
as the propodus and nearly straight, as it is also in the third and fourth 
pairs, but the dactyli of the last three pairs of legs are more curved, 
and the basal segments somewhat swollen. 

The first five segments of the pleon are of about equa] length. The 
sixth is slightly shorter, obtusely pointed in the middle, and emarginate 
above the bases of the uropods, which are composed of a robust basal 
segment, bearing a minute outer ramus composed of a single segment 
tipped with sete, and a five-jointed inner ramus, also sparingly pro- 
vided with sete. Between the uropdéds and below, a thin spatulate plate 
projects beyond the extremity of the pleon. 

In length the males vary from 2.6™" to 3.8"", and in breadth from 
0.6°" to 0.857". The females measure in length about 2.3"™; in 
breadth, 0.5"”. 

About one hundred specimens of this species, three-fourths of them 
females, were collected by Prof. A. Hyatt and Messrs. Van Vleck and 
Gardiner, in three feet of water, on muddy bottom, in the summer of 
1878, at Annisquam!, Mass., and are the only specimens I have seen. 


Leptochelia filum Harger (Stimpson). 
Tanais filum, Stimpson, Mar. Inv. G. Manan, p. 43, 1853. 
Packard, Mem. Bost. Soe. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 296, 1867. 
Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 378, 1878. 
Leptochelia filum Harger, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 164, 1879. 


‘“‘Very minute, slender, rounded on the back, white, looking very much 
like a short piece of thread. Head small, and rather narrowed in front; 
. first thoracic segment of great length; the second half as long as the 
third, which is about equal in length with the fourth, fifth, and sixth; 
the seventh being a little shorter than the sixth. The segments of the 
abdomen are well defined, the first five equaling each other in length, 
and the terminal one longer than the fifth, but narrower, and rounded 
behind. Antenne short and thick, without flagella, with blunt tips 
crowned with few hairs, as are also their articulations. The inner ones are 
directed forward, and much the stoutest, especially toward their bases; 
while the outer ones are more slender and curve outward and backward. 
First pair of legs exceedingly thickened, with very large ovate hands 
and strong curved fingers. They are generally closely applied against 


a Sa 


a i) 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 427 


the breast. The remaining thoracic feet are very slender, terminating 
in sharp, slender fingers, which in the second pair are very long and 
nearly straight, and in the other pairs short. The legs of the posterior 
pair are a little the longest and thickest. The ambulatory feet, in five 
pairs, are of great length and resemble those of Amphipods. The caudal 
stylets are in length about four-fifths that of the abdomen, and consist 
of four or five articles, with few hairs, each article becoming narrower, 
the last one with a tuft of few hairs at its extremity. Length .15 inch; 
breadth .02. Dredged among Ascidie callose, in 20 fathoms, in the Hake 
Bay.” ; 

I have seen no specimens corresponding fully with the above descrip- 
tion, which is copied from Dr. Stimpson; neither have I seen any speci- 
mens of this family from the Bay of Fundy. I formerly regarded the 
species from Vineyard Sound as Tanais filwm Stimpson, and that name 
is used in this Report, part i, p. 573 (279), where also “Bay of Fundy 
to Vineyard Sound” is given as its range. This error was corrected by 
the writer in the American Journal of Science in 1878. In the absence 
of specimens from the Bay of Fundy I am unable to say positively that 
this species is not the same as my P. limicola, although the number of 
segments in the uropods does not correspond with those of that species, 
and the outer ramus of the uropods, which is rather conspicuous in that 
species, is not mentioned at all by Dr. Stimpson. Further investigation 
is needed to settle this question, but the number of species known to 
me from the coast seems sufficient warrant for regarding this, for the 
present at least, as a distinct species. 

Dr. Packard states that he has dredged Tanais filum Stimpson in the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, “at Caribou Island, in eight fathoms, on a sandy 
bottom.” 


Leptochelia cceca Harger. 


Paratanais ceca Harger, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xv, p. 378, 1878. 
Leptochelia caca Harger, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., 1879, vol. ii, p. 164, 1879. 


PLATE XIII, Fie. 91. 


This species is at once recognized among our Tanaids by the absence 
of eyes. The enlarged chelate claws joined to the united head and first 
thoracic segment, and the six-jointed pleon serve to distinguish it as 
belonging to the present genus. ; 

Body slender, elongated, and rather loosely articulated; head narrow 
in front, not broader than the bases of the antennule; eyes wanting; 
antennule distinctly four-jointed (pl. XIII, fig. 91a) in the type speci- 
men, first segment forming less than half the length of the organ, sec- 
ond segment longer than the third, last segment about as long as the 
second, slender, tapering and tipped with sete; antenne attaining the 
tip of the third antennular segment. The first pair of legs (pl. XIII, 
fig. 91b) are robust, but less so than in the preceding species; they 


428 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


extend forward in the natural position about to the tips of the antenna; 
they have the basal segment subquadrate, the hand or propodus less 
robust than the carpus, with a serrated digital process; dactylus short. 

The second, or first free, thoracic segment is about two-thirds as long 
as the third; this in turn is about equal to the fourth and to the fifth seg- 
ments; while the sixth and seventh segments are progressively some- 
what shorter. The second pair of legs are scarcely more slender than the 
following pairs, and the basal segments are not curved around the base 
of the first pair. 

The uropods (pl. XIII, fig. 91¢) are short, and biramous; each ramus 
two-jointed. The outer ramus is more slender than the inner, half its 
length, and bears a long bristle at the tip. 

Length 2.5"™; color white. 

The first specimen of this species was dredged along with Z. limicola 
in 48 fathoms, soft mud, Massachusetts Bay!, off Salem, in the summer 
of 1877, and a second specimen apparently of the same species, though 
differing somewhat in the antennule, was collected on the shore at 
Provincetown! during the summer of 1879. Unfortunately only a single 
specimen was obtained in each case, but it is very distinct from the 
other species of our coast. It does, however, closely approach Tanais 
islandicus G. O. Sars,* but appears to differ in the first pair of legs, 
which Sars describes as follows: ‘“‘Pedes primi paris validi, manu sat 
dilatata, carpo vix angustiore, digitis palme longitudinem equantibus 
vix forcipatis.”. These legs are in our species distinctly chelate, and the 
dactylus is much shorter than the propodus (see pl. XIII, fig. 91b). He 
further says: “Uropoda sat elongata, biramosa, ramis, ambobus biar- 
ticulatis, valde ineequalibus, exteriore ne 3?” quidem interioris longitu- 
dinus partem assequente.” In our species the outer ramus of the uropod 
is about one-half as long as the inner. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 


The whole number of species enumerated is forty-six, three more than 
were included in my recent paper on New England Isopoda in the Pro- 
ceedings of the United States National Museum. Their geographical 
distribution, especially on our coast, is summarized in the lists below. 

The following eleven species have as yet been found only south of 
Cape Cod: 


Seyphacella arenicola. Cirolana concharum. 
Actoniscus ellipticus. Nerocila munda. 
Cepon distortus. AXgathoa loliginea. 
Bopyrus species. Livoneca ovalis. 
Erichsonia filiformis. Tanais vittatus. 
Krichsonia attenuata. 


*Archiv for Mathematik og Naturvidenskab, Bind ii, p. 346 [246], 1877. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 429 


The following nineteen have been found only north of Cape Cod: 


Gyge Hippolytes. Astacilla granulata. 
Phryxus abdominalis. Cirolana polita. 
Dajus mysidis. Alga psora. 

Janira alta. Syscenus infelix. 
Janira spinosa. Gnathia cerina. 
Munna Fabricii. Leptochelia limicola. 
Munnopsis typica. Leptochelia rapax. 
Eurycope robusta. Leptochelia filum. 
Synidotea nodulosa. Leptochelia cceca. 
Synidotea bicuspida. | 


The remaining sixteen are included in the following list as found on 
both sides of Cape Cod, but the letter N. is used to designate such species 
as are common north and rare south of the Cape, and Ss. signifies that the 
species is common at the south but rare northwards. 


Philoscia vittata, s. Epelys trilobus, s. 

Jera albifrons. Hpelys montosus, N. 
Tiyarachna species.* Spheroma quadridentatum, s. 
Chiridotea ceca. Limnoria lignorum. 
Chiridotea Tuftsii, N. Anthura polita, 8. 

Idotea irrorata. Paranthura brachiata, N. 
Idotea phosphorea, N. Ptilanthura tenuis. 

Idotea robusta. Leptochelia algicola, s. 


The eleven species included in the following list occur also on the 
coast of Europe. The British species are marked B. 


Gyge Hippolytes, B. Astacilla granulata. 
Phryxus abdominalis, B. Limnoria lignorum, B. 
Jeera albifrons, B. /Eiga psora, B. 

Munna Fabricii. Tanais vittatus, B. 
Munnopsis typica. Leptochelia algicola, B. 


Idotea irrorata, B. 


The number of Isopoda included in the present paper is considerably 
less than are known to inhabit Great Britain, being only about two- 
thirds as many as are included in Bate and Westwood’s work, together 
with such additions to that fauna as have come to my knowledge since. 
As has been seen, eight, or nearly one-fifth of our marine species, are 
identical with those of Great Britain. The number of genera is much 
more nearly equal. Thirty-one marine genera are enumerated in the 
present paper, and of these sixteen are also British. The remaining 
fifteen do not appear to be represented on the British coast, but their 
place is filled by perhaps a rather greater number of genera. Of the 
families, neglecting the Oniscide as not properly included in the present 
paper, we come to the Bopyride, which have as yet been but little studied 


“The only specimen yet known is from twenty-one miles east of Cape Cod. 


430 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


on this coast. Five species only are enumerated here, two of which are 
also British, while Bate and Westwood enumerate twelve. A closer ex- 
amination of the group may very likely add considerably to the present 
list. 

The <Asellide and Munnopside, which Bate and Westwood would 
unite, have seven marine species belonging to six genera in our list, and, 
rejecting Limnoria, this number corresponds well with the British list 
of four genera and six species; one species, Jera albifrons Leach, is 
identical, as are three of the genera—Jwra, Janira, and Munna. The 
more typical forms of the Munnopside have not yet, as tar as I am 
aware, been recognized in British waters. 

The Jdoteidw are more numerous on our coast and appear to be more 
‘diversified than in Great Britain. I have regarded our eleven species 
‘as belonging to five different genera, while Bate and Westwood include 
the seven British species in a single genus. The most conservative 
could hardly class our species in less than three genera to one English 
genus, and, judging mostly from the figures and descriptions, I should 
be inclined to reckon three, or at least two, English genera to five on 
our coast in this family. One genus and species, [dotea irrorata Edw. 
(Say), is identical. Of the Arcturidw a single representative has only 
recently been discovered within our limits, while three species, of the 
same genus as ours, are mentioned by Bate and Westwood, and Steb- 
bing has since added two more species. 

A single species of Sphewroma is the only representative on our coast 
of a family numbering no Jess than five genera and thirteen species in 
Bate and Westwood’s volume. If the last two of these species be united 
as sexes of the same, and Dynamene rubra and viridis be also united, as 
suggested by Stebbing,* there are still left eleven representatives of this 
family in England to one on our coast. Our species is closely related 
to the British Spheroma serratum Leach. Limnoria lignorum White 
is the only known representative of its family on both coasts. 

The Cirolanide and Agide, which are classed together under the lat- 
ter name by most authors, have only four representatives in our limits, 
belonging to three genera. Two of these genera are also found in Great 
Britain, where they contain no less than seven species, one of which, 
Aga psora Kroyer, is identical on the two coasts. Cirolana truncata 
Norman is not included in Bate and Westwood, but these authors men- 
tion three other species belonging to as many genera in this group, 
making five genera and ten species from Great Britain to only three 
genera and four species in our waters. The Cymothoide are represented 
in our list by three species belonging to three genera, while Bate and 
Westwood say of this family, ‘No specimen has hitherto been satisfac- 
torily determined as having been found in our own seas.” The Rev. A. 
M. Norman, however, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History 
for December, 1868, p. 422, mentions and briefly describes Anilocra medi- 

* Jour. Linn. Soc., Zool., vol. xii, p. 148, 1874. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 431 


terranea Leach, taken from a ‘small fish in rock-pools at Herm in 1865.” 
This genus has not been found on our coast. . 

Of the three genera and three species of Anthuride@ in our list two 
genera are also found in Great Britain, and it is possible that one species 
may yet prove identical. The Gnathiidew are more difficult of compari- 
son on account of the confusion that has existed in the sexes, and the 
larvalforms. Ourspecimens seem to be all referable to a single species, 
doubtless congeneric with the British species, the number of which may, 
perhaps, by a liberal estimate, be placed at three. 

In the Tanaide, the genera are the same as in Great Britain, and two 
of our species, Tanais vittatus Lillj. and Leptochelia algicola Harger, are 
found on both-coasts. There remain a second species of Zanais on the 
British coast, and two species of Leptochelia (Paratanais of Bate and 
Westwood) against four species of Leptochelia on our coast, as the remain- 
ing representatives of this family. The genus Apseudes should probably 
be taken to represent a family not yet found on our coast. 

We have, therefore, the following list of marine familes, with the 
genera in each, that are identical on our coast and thatof Great Britain. 
The species have been already indicated in a preceding list: 


Bopyride: Gyge, Phryxus, Bopyrus. Two species. 
Asellide: Jeera, Janira, Munna. One species. 
Idoteidz: Idotea. One species. 

Arcturide: Astacilla. 

Spheromide: Sphezroma. 

Limnoriidze: Limnoria. One species. 
Cirolanide: Cirolana. 

ZEgide: Alga. One species. 

Cymothoide. 

Anthuride: Anthura, Paranthura. 
Gnathiide: Gnathia. 

Tanaidz: Tanais, Leptochelia. Two species. 


Further details of geographical and also of bathymetrical distribution 
are presented in the table on pages 139 to 141, in which the first column 
Shows the least depth in fathoms at which each species has been collected 
on our coast; the second the greatest depth; and the following eighteen 
eolumns are for different localities, which may be further explained as 
follows: The Carolinas include Charleston, S. C., Fort Macon, N. C., and 
Norfolk, Va.; New Jersey includes Great Egg Harbor and Atlantic 
City, N. J., and Fire Island Beach, on the south shore of Long Island; 
Long Island Sound includes Savin Rock, New Haven, Stony Creek, or 
Thimble Islands, Saybrook, New London, and Norwalk, Conn.; Block 
{sland includes Watch Hill, Block Island Sound, and the deeper water 
off the island; Vineyard Sound includes also Buzzard’s Bay, Nantucket 
Sound, and off Nantucket Island; Cape Cod Bay includes Province- 
town and Barnstable; Massachusetts Bay includes Salem, Nahant, Glou- 


432 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


cester, and Annisquam, Mass.; the Gulf of Maine includes all outside 
of the line of 50 fathoms between Cape Cod and Nova Scotia, and ex- 
tending seaward to include George’s Banks; Casco Bay includes Cape 
Elizabeth and Quahog Bay; Bay of Fundy includes Eastport Harbor 
and Grand Menan, while species collected at greater depths than 50 
fathoms are reckoned also in the Gulf of Maine, and the same is true 
of those from that depth off Nova Scotia; Nova Scotia includes also 
Banquereau or Quereau, Eastern and Western Banks, Miquelon Island, 
and the Grand Banks. Species occurring on the north shore of the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence are credited also to Labrador. In the last column 
of the table the general habitat of each species is briefly indicated. 


433! 


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434 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


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MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 


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436 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 

The present list includes only such works and articles, relating wholly 
or in part to Crustacea, as have been quoted, or otherwise used, in the 
preparation of the preceding paper, and is chiefly intended to aid in 
consultation of the authorities quoted. A fewof the titles are necessa- 
rily given at second hand, as indicated by quotation marks in the list. 
The references to these works occurring throughout the article are also 
inclosed in quotation marks, usually with an accompanying mention of 
the author from whom they are taken. In all other cases the references 
have been made directly from the works quoted. A considerable nmn- 
ber of authorities have not been referred to, and are omitted from the 
list, because at present inaccessible, and, for many of the most import- 
ant works that I have been able to consult, [am indebted to the liber- 
ality of Professor S. I. Smith, who has given me the free use of his library 
and afforded other material aid in the preparation of the article. Ihave 
also had free access to the libraries of Professors Verrill, Marsh and 
Dana. 

In this list, as throughout the article, the number of the series of 
various scientific publications is indicated by Roman numerals in cap- 
itals. As far as possible references have been made to the original 
paging, sometimes with that of the separata added in a parenthesis, 
and, in the following list, a parenthesis is used to denote that the paging 
is, or is supposed to be, that of the separata. 

Agassiz, Alexander. Letter to C. P. Patterson, Superintendent Coast Survey, on 
the dredging operations of the U. 8. Coast Survey steamer ‘ Blake” during parts 
of January and February 1878. < Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 
vol. v, pp. 1-9. Cambridge, 187¢ 


78. 
Andrews, A. [Limnoriaterebrans attacking telegraph cable.] < Quarterly Journal 
of Microscopical Science, II, vol. xv, p. 332. London, 1875. 


Audouin, Jean Victor, and Edwards, Henri Milne. ‘‘ Résumé d’Entomolegie, ou 
d’Histoire naturelle des animaux articulés, complété par une iconographie de 48 
: ; a ] s 
planches. [2 vols.] Paris, 1828-29.” 


Audouin, Jean Victor, and Bdwards, Henri Milne. Précis d’Entomologie ou @’His- 
toire naturelle des animaux articulés. Premiére division, Histoire naturelle des 
annélides, crustacés, arachnides et myriapodes, complété par une iconographie. 
[8vo, 70 pages, 48 plates.] Paris, 1829. 


Audouin, Jean Victor. Description de Egypte ou recueil des observations, et des 
recherches qui ont été faites en Egypte pendant expedition de ’armée Frangaise. 
Explication sommaire des planches de crustacés de l’Bgypte et de la Syrie. Pub- 
liées par J. C. Savigny. Histoire naturelle, tome i, pt. 4, pp. 77-98. Paris, ‘‘ 1830.” 


Bate, C. Spence. On the British Edriophthalma. < Report of the British Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science, 1855, Reports on the state of science, pp. 
18-62, pl. xii-xxii. London, 1856. 


Bate, C. Spence. On Praniza and Anceus and their affinity to each other. < An- 
nals and Magazine of Natural History, III, vol. ii, pp. 165-172, pl. vi-vii. Lon- 
don, Sept., 1858. 

Bate, C.Spence. Crustacea. [In] List of the British marine invertebratefauna. By 
Robert McAndrew. < Report of the British Association for the Advancement of 
Science, 1860, Reports on state of science, pp. 217-236. London, 1861. 


MARINE ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND, ETC. 437. 


Bate, C. Spence. Carcinological gleanings, No. ii. < Annals and Magazine of Na- 
tural History, III, vol. xvii, pp. 24-31, pl. ii. London, 1866. 


Bate, C. Spence, and Westwood, John Obadiah. A History of the British sessile- 
eyed Crustacea. [2 vols. 8vo.] London, 1861-1868. 


Beneden. See Van Beneden. 


Bos, Jan Ritzema. Bijdrage tot de kennis van de Crustacea hedriophthalmata van 
Nederland en zijne Kusten. [8vo., 100 pages, 2 plates.] Groningen, 1874. 


Bosc, Louis Augustin Guillaume. Histoire naturelle des Crustacés, contenant leur 
description et leurs mers; avec figures dessinées d’aprés nature. [12mo., vol. ii, 
296 pages, 18 plates.] Paris, An x (1802). 
a 


Buchholz, Reinhold. Zweite Deutsche Nordpolfahrt ‘‘in den Jahren 1869 und 1870, 
unter Fiihrung des Kapitiin Koldewey.” B. ii, Part viii, Crustaceen, pp. 262-399. 
pl. i-xv. Leipzig, 1874. 


Buchholz, Reinhold. Mittheilungen naturwiss. Vereins v. Neu-Vorpom. u Riigen, 
i, pp. 1-40. See Miinter, Julius. 


Bullar, John Follett. The generative orgaus of the parasitic Isopoda. < Journal of 
Anatomy and Physiology, vol. xi, pp. 118-123, pl.iv. London and Cambridge, 1876. 


Bullar, John Follett. Hermaphroditism among the parasitic Isopoda; reply to Mr. 
Moseley’s remarks on the generative organs of the parasitic Isopoda. < Annals 
and Magazine of Natural History, IV, vol. xix, pp. 254-256. London, 1877. 


Catta, J.D. Note sur quelques Crustacés erratiques. <( Annales des Sciences natur- 
elles, Zoologie, VI, tome iii, pp. 1-33, pl. i-ii. Paris, 1876. . 


Coldstream, John. On the structure and habits of the Limnoria terebrans, a minute 
crustaceous animal destructive to marine wooden erections, as piers, ete. < Edin- 
burgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. xvi, pp. 316-334, pl. vi, 1834. 


Cornalia, Emilio, and Panceri, Paolo. Osseryazioni zoologico ed anatomische sopra 
un nuovo genre di Isopodi sedentari (Gyge branchialis). < Memorie della Reale 
Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, II, tom. xix, pp. 85-118, pli-ii. Turin, 1861. 


Cuvier, Georges. Le Réegne Animal. See Edwards, Henri Milne, and Latreille, 
Pierre Andre. 


Czerniavski, Voldemar. Materialia ad Zoographiam Ponticam comparatam. 
“Transactions of the first meeting of Russian Naturalists at St. Petersburg, 
1868.” pp. 19-136, pl. i-viii. ‘ 1870.” 


Dalyell, John Graham. The Powers of the Creator displayed in the Creation. [3 
vols., 4to, 145 plates.] London, 1851-1858. 


Dana, James Dwight. Conspectus Crustaceorum, &e. Conspectus of the Crustacea 
of the Exploring Expedition * * continued. Crustacea Isopoda. < American 
Journal of Science and Arts, II, vol. viii, pp. 424-428. New Haven, 1849. 


Dana, James Dwight. On the classification of the Crustacea choristopoda or tetra- 
decapoda. < American Journal of Science and Arts, II, vol. xiv, pp. 297-316, 
New Haven, 1852. 


Dana, James Dwight. Report on the Crustacea of the United States Exploring Ex- 
pedition, under the command of Charles Wilkes, U. 8. N., 1838-42. Washington, 
Text [4to, two parts, 1618 pages], 1853. Atlas [folio, 96 plates], 1855. 


Dekay, James E. Zoology of New York or the New York Fauna. Part iv, Crus- 
tacea. [4to, 70 pages, 13 plates.] Albany, 1844. 


438 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Desmarest, Ansleme Gaetan. Malacostracés. < Dictionnaire des Sciences natur- 
elles, tome xxviii, pp. 188-425 [56 plates]. Paris, 1823. 


Desmarest, Ansleme Gaetan. Considerations générales sur la classe des Crustacés, 
[8vo, 446 pages, 56 plates.] Paris, 1825. 


Dohrn, Anton. Untersuchungen iiber Bau und Entwicklung der Arthropoden. 
4, Entwicklung und Organisation von Praniza (Anceus) maxillaris. < Zeit- 
schrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Band xx, pp. 55-80, taf. vi-viiil.—5. Zur 
Kentniss des Baues von Paranthura Costana. < Tom. cit. pp. 81-93, taf. ix. 
Leipzig, 1870.—7. Zur Kentniss vom Bau und der Entwicklung von Tanais. 
<Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir Medicin und Naturwissenschaft, Band v, pp. 293-306, 
taf, xi-xii. Leipzig, 1870. 


Duvernoy, George Louis. Sur un nouveau genre de l’ordre des Crustacés Isopodes 
et sur l’esptce type de ce genre, le Képone type. <Annales des Sciences natu- 
relles, Zoologie, II, tome xv, pp. 110-122, pl. iv B. Paris, 1841. 


Duvernoy, George Louis, and Lereboullet, Auguste. Essai d’une monographie 
des organes de la respiration de V’ordre des Crustacés Isopodes. < Annales des 
Sciences naturelles, Zoologie, II, tome xv, pp. 177-240, pl. vi. Paris, 1841. 


Ebner, Victor von. Helleria, eine neue Isopoden-Gattung aus der Familie der 
Oniscoiden. < Verhandlungen k. k. zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft, Wien, 
Band xviii, pp. 95-114, pl. i. Vienna, 1868. 


Edwards, Alphonse Milne. Sur un Isopode gigantesque des grandes profondeurs 
dela mer. <Comptes Rendus, tome Ixxxviii, pp. 21-23. Paris, 1879. 
Translated in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, V, vol. iii, pp. 241- 
243, London, 1879. ; 


Edwards, Henri Milne. ‘‘Résumé d’Entomologie” and Précis d’Entomologie. See 
Audouin, Jean Victor. 


Edwards, Henri Milne. Annotations in Histoire naturelle des animaux sans ver- 
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‘440 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


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od 


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a as volume the paging from 200 to 263 is incorrectly printed 300-368. The separata are paged 
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‘448 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


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29 F 


450 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


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TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


XIV.—Report on the Marine Isopoda of New England and adjacent waters, by 


SCE Manger. iesisocc) sce cc tc cis Seccic eee ee cea een eee eee 297 
TSOP OG Biles oia( os icjecwee Se sins eons neues as cice els ecescu seme eee eee eee 297 
Synoptical tableiof familiesinsssss ssaeee ce aoee aeleeee cece eee eee 304 
OniscidD so-so ee ee eae Dee oes saw eae hos eee wet eee 305 
Bopyrideisssoeig ss he ese aan sca Seen erste dms Helin toeen sooo 311 
Asellidae 5.25 cs. sees ccsccetoaGynae ocleclewiecice Geist ee chine Dee eee 312 
IMmnNOpsid mi assess seo nciekicisieis sacldie were Susisiowisins: octoa eee ets 328 
Td Oberdeoe a ee clot stinks oie sereetals oe esis emoicind oetiaa edocs am ates 335 
IAT COLIETE come iyo oe or oeiereie Se Seale J swic seer ero eee reer 5 eee 361 
Spl Bromide = kiss'shacvs cialis =: twice tae ee PPO eke oe ois te Sel doe 367 
EAMMOLITG Baa a/a's ereelais aise wislelare'aie cic ce wioi dese S viesie S) aeieteee eee 371 
Grrolani dea sssosAe ecscvses o eviesysssie Sai.b. os Conese «2 cere ae cae ete 376 
Yo Cos SRO ci One COR EELS CH OUA SEO ORME ni occabs aren dao jen c 382 
Cy mothoid eye. <2 Jas. sooe hese ee oes cic caesar a eee eee 390 
AMGRUTICBL soe selcecrs ease esse cae cle eco Sole a[a/alaletne atelensatere ae eye 396 
Gratin deer ieeie sles cialis inci sine oreo -erae eens midetetee me panes ces 408 
Mama Wire 5 fee saie ae sistas, <iciciiels ais, s1s sec dale sed oss cae a wredaresyat Boeo GIs: 
Geographical distribabion: . 26.0 sscces o- eee ce ces cecnicelscaeaeeeee 428 
ISHOlAUGHOLIL eS apes eieceis ss5e15 0s cssiceeets occa cose ococeeee cent 436 
Tablerofscontentspresescteses sac oas vs osc ieisio niciele't oem asters eee neers 451 
Explanation of the plates ..........-......--. dhictorseie e oapa el teenebee are 453 
Pe PA De hGa LANG pies ate tal ee ceeieisie ce ec ein ain) ciaisie aoha coat eetee te t e 459 
451 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 


PLATE I. 


FIGURE 1.—Philoscia vittata Say (p. 306); dorsal view, enlarged six diameters; 
natural size indicated by cross at the right. 
2.—Scyphacella arenicola Smith (p. 307); dorsal view, enlarged about twelve 
diameters; natural size indicated by cross at the right. 
3.—Actoniscus ellipticus Harger (p. 309); dorsal view, enlarged ten diame- 
ters; natural size indicated by line at the right. 
4.—Jera albifrons Leach (p. 315); female; dorsal view, enlarged about ten 
diameters, 
5.—The same; maxilliped from the left side, exterior view, enlarged twenty- 
five diameters; P, palpus; 7, external lamella. 
6.—The same; maxillx, enlarged twenty-five diameters; a, outer, or second, 
pair of maxille; b, inner, or first, pair of maxille; i, inner, e, outer 
lobe. 
7.—The same; inferior surface of the pleon of a female, 
8.—The same; inferior surface of the pleon of a male. 
(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) 


PLATE LE. 


FIGURE 9.—Janira alta Harger (p. 321); dorsal view, enlarged five diameters; 
natural size indicated by line at the right. 
10.—Janira spinosa Harger (p.923); dorsal view of female, enlarged six 
diameters. 
11,—Munnopsis typica M. Sars (p. 330); dorsal view of male, enlarged about 
two diameters; 6, maxillipeds; m, basal segment; J, external lamella; 
2 and 3, second and third segments of palpus of maxillipeds; c, outer 
maxille; d, inner maxille#; e, one of the second pair of legs of the male; 
Jf, one of the natatory legs; g, abdominal operculum of the female, 
external view, 
(Figures 9 and 10 were drawn from nature by O. Harger; figure 11 is copied from 
M. Sars, drawn by G. O. Sars.) 


1 GpeNd LD) a 


FIGURE 12.—Janira alta (p. 321); a, maxilliped; P, palpus of maxilliped; J, external 

lamella; 6, mandible; P, palpus of mandible; d, dentigerous lamella; 
m, molar process, enlarged twenty-five diameters. 

13.—The same; inferior surface of the pleon, a in the female, } in the male, 
enlarged ten diameters; a, single opercular plate in the female; 
b, external; c, median plate of operculum of niale. 

14.—Munna Fabricii Kréyer (p. 325); female; dorsal view, enlarged about 
twenty diameters; natural size indicated by line at the right. 

15.—Eurycope robusta Harger (p. 332); female; dorsal view, enlarged six 
diameters; natural size indicated by line at the right; a, antennula, 
enlarged twenty diameters; 6, maxilliped; c, mandible; d, one of the 
first pair of legs, each enlarged twenty diameters; d', propodus and 
dactylus of the first pair of legs, enlarged about thirty-eight diameters; 
e, propodus and dactylus of the second pair of legs, enlarged twenty 

453 


454 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


diameters; f, one of the sixth pair of legs; g, uropod, each enlarged 
twenty diameters. 
(Figure 14 was drawn from nature by Mr. J. H. Emerton, the others by O. Harger.) 


PLATE DV: 


FIGURE 16.—Chiridotea ceca Harger (p. 338); dorsal view, enlarged nearly four 

i diameters; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

17.—The same; a, antennula; 0, antenna; each enlarged twelve diameters. 

18.—The same; a, maxilliped from the right side, external view; 1, external 
lamella; m, maxilliped proper; 1, 2, 3, first, second, and third segments 
of the palpus of the maxilliped, enlarged twenty diameters; b, one of 
the first pair of legs, magnified twelve diameters; c, uropod from the 
left side, inner view, showing the two rami articulated near the tip. 

19.—The same; pleopods of second pair from the right side, anterior views, 
enlarged ten diameters; a, common form in males; }, rarer form in 
male; s, elongated stylet, articulated near the base of the inner lamella; 
¢e, form in the female. 

20.—Chiridotea Tuftsii Harger (p. 340); female; dorsal view, enlarged five 
diameters; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

21.--The same; left maxilliped, enlarged twenty-five diameters; e, external 
lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2, 3, segments of palpus. 

22.—The same; pleopod of the second pair, from a male, enlarged twenty 
diameters; s, elongated stylet, articulated near the base of the inner 
lamella. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger. ) 


Pa ACE, AVS. 


FIGURE 23.—Chiridotea Tuftsii Harger (p. 340); a, ancennula; }, antenna; ¢, leg of 

the first pair; d, leg of the fourth pair; all enlarged twelve diameters; 
e, left uropod, or opercular valve, inner view, enlarged ten diameters. 

24.—Idotea irrorata Edwards (p. 343); dorsal view, enlarged two diameters ; 
natural size shown by the line on the left. 

25.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; c, left uropod or opercular valve, 
external view; all enlarged six diameters. 

26.—The same; a, right maxilliped, enlarged twelve diameters, 1, external 
lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2,3, 4, segments of palpus of maxilliped ; 
b, pleopod of the second pair from a male, enlarged eight diameters, show- 
ing stylet, s, articulated near the base of the inner lamella. 

27.—Idotea phosphorea Harger (p. 347); dorsal view, enlarged about two 
diameters; natural size shown by the line on the right. 

28.—The same; a, antenna, enlarged six diameters; b, maxilliped, enlarged 
twelve diameters, showing, /, external lamella; m, basal segments; 1, 2, 
3, 4, segments of the palpus of maxilliped; ¢, leg of the first pair; d, leg 
of the second pair, both enlarged six diameters; e, right uropod, or 
opercular valve, inner view, enlarged six diameters. . 

29.—The same ; pleopod of the second pair from a male, enlarged eight diam- 
eters; s, stylet articulated near the base of the inner lamella; s’, distal 
end of stylet reversed and enlarged thirty diameters. 

(Figure 24 was drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton, the others by O. Harger.) 


Pus AGTUE Viele. 


FIGURE 30.—Idotea robusta Kréyer (p. 349); dorsal view, enlarged two diameters ; 
i natural size shown by the line at the right. 
31.—The same; a, antenna; b, leg of the first pair, each enlarged six diam- 


eters; c, left uropod, or opercular valve, inner view, enlarged four 
diameters. 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 455 


FIGURE 32.—The same ; a, maxilliped, enlarged twelve diameters; 1, external lamella ; 
1, 2, 3, 4, segments of palpus; 0, maxilla of the outer or second pair; 
ce, pleopod of the second pair from a male, enlarged six diameters; 8, 
stylet articulated near the base of the inner lamella. 
—Synidotea nodulosa Harger (p. 351); dorsal view, enlarged four diam- 
eters; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 
34.—The same; a, antennula; f, flagellar segment; b, antenna; ec, leg of the 
first pair from the right side; d, right uropod, or opercular valve, all 
enlarged ten diameters. 
35.—The same; a, maxilliped from the right side, showing, l, external 
lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2, 3, segments of palpus, enlarged 
twenty diameters; b, maxilla of the outer or second pair; c, maxilla of 
the inner or first pair, both enlarged twenty diameters; d, pleopod of 
the second pair from a male, enlarged twelve diameters; s, stylet 
articulaped near the base of the inner lamella. 
36.—Erichsonia attenuata Harger (p. 356) ; dorsal view, enlarged three diam- 
eters, natural size indicated by the line at the “sti 
(Figures 30 and 36 were drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton, the others by O. Harger. yi 


PAS Be ave 


FIGURE 37.—Erichsonia attenuata Harger (p. 356); a, antennula; 6, antenna, each 
enlarged twelve diameters; c, maxilliped, showing, 1 external lamella, 
enlarged thirty diameters; d, uropod, or opercular valve, enlarged 
twelve diameters; e, pleopod of the second pair from a male, enlarged 
fifteen diameters; s, stylet, articulated near the basé of the inner la- 

“mella; s/, distal end of stylet, enlarged fifty diameters. 

38.—Erichsonia filiformis Harger (p. 355); dorsal view, enlarged five diam- 
eters, natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

39.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; ¢, leg of the first pair; d, uropod, 
or opercular valve, each enlarged twelve diameters. 

40.—The same; a, maxilla of outer or second pair; b, maxilla of inner or first 
pair; c, mandible, showing molar process, m, and dentigerous lamella, 
d, all enlarged a diameters, 

41.—The same; a, maxilliped, showing, /, external lamella; m, basal segment, 

and 1,2, 3,4, segments of palpus, enlarged thirty Shenciane b, pleopod 
of the second pair from a male, enlarged fifteen diameters ; 5 stylet, ar- 
ticulated near the base of the inuer lamella; s’, distal end of stylet, 
enlarged fifty diameters. ; 

42.—Epelys trilobus Smith (p. 358); dorsal view, enlarged ten diameters; 
natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

43,—The same; a, maxilliped from the left side, enlarged twenty diameters ; 
1, external lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2, 3, segments of palpus of 
maxilliped; 6, pleopod of second pair from a male, enlarged twenty 
diameters; s, stylet, articulated near the base of the inner lamella; 
s’, end of stylet, enlarged fifty diameters. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) 


Para Vild ie 


FIGURE 44.—Epelys montosus Harger (p. 359); dorsal view, enlarged six diameters, 
natural size indicated by the line at the right. 
45.—The same; a, antennula; /f, flagellar segment; b, antenna; ¢, maxilliped 
from the left side; 1, external lamella; m, basal segment}; 1, 2,3, seg- 
ments of palpus; all the figures enlarged twenty diameters, 
46.—The same; a, leg of the first pair, enlarged twenty diameters; }, right 
uropod or opercular valve, enlarged fifteen diameters. 


456 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


FIGURE 47.—The same; pleopod of the second pair, from a male, enlarged twenty di- 
ameters; s, stylet, articulated near the base of the inner lamella; 8’, 
distal end of stylet, enlarged sixty-six diameters. 

48.—Astacilla granulata Harger (p. 364); female; dorsal view, enlarged four 
diameters, natural size indicated by the line at the right; a, antennula 
of male; b, fourth thoracic segment of male; ¢, inferior surface of pleon 
of a male, showing opercular valves; all the figures enlarged four 
diameters. 

49.—The same; a, flagellum of antenna, enlarged twenty diameters; a’, por- 
tion of inner margin of the same, enlarged one hundred diameters; |, 
one of the first pair of legs, upper surface, enlarged twenty diameters. 

50.—The same; one of the fourth pair of legs, enlarged twenty diameters. 

51.—The same ; inner surface of left opercular plate, or uropod, froma female, 
enlarged twenty diameters. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) e 


Pa AE Xe. 


Figure 52.—Astacilla granulata Harger (p. 364); a, maxilliped; m, basal segment; 
1, external lamella; b, outer maxilla; c, inner maxilla; all enlarged 
twenty diameters. 

53.—Spheroma quadridentatum Say (p. 368); dorsal view, enlarged five 
diameters; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

54.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; c, pleopod of the second pair, from 
a male, showing stylet, s, articulated near the base of the inner lamella; 
all the figures enlarged ten diameters. 

55.—Limnoria lignorum White (p. 373); dorsal view, enlarged ten diameters ; 
natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

56.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; c, maxilliped; d, maxilla of the 
outer or second pair; e, maxilla of the inner or first pair; f, mandible, 
all enlarged twenty-five diameters; e’, distal end of outer lobe of first 
pair of maxille, enlarged sixty-six diameters. 

57.—The same; a, last segment of pleon, with attached uropods; dorsal view, 
enlarged ten diameters; », uropod with dotted adjacent outline of last 
segment of pleon, enlarged thirty diameters; ¢, first pair of pleopods; 
d, pleopod of the second pair, from a male, showing stylet, s, articu- 
lated to the inner lamella; both figures enlarged twenty diameters. 

58.—Cirolana concharum Harger, (p. 378); lateral view, enlarged about three 
diameters. 

(Figure 53 was drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton, 55 by Prof. S. I. Smith, 58 by Mr. J. 
H. Blake, and the others by O. Harger.) 


Pal AG eX 


FIGURE 59.—Cirolana concharum Harger (p. 378); dorsal view, enlarged about three 

diameters. The natural size is shown by the line at the right. 

60.—The same; antennula, enlarged ten diameters. 

61.—The same; a, antenna enlarged ten diameters; b, maxilla of the outer or 
second pair; ¢c, maxilla of the inner or first pair; d, mandible from the 
right side, inner view; p, palpus; m, molar area; the last three figures 
enlarged five diameters. 

62.—The same; a, maxilliped from the right side, exterior view, showing, J, 
external lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, segments of the palpus; 
b, leg of the fourth pair; both the figures enlarged five diameters. 

63.—The same; uropod from the right side; inferior view, enlarged five di- 
ameters. 

64.—Aga psora Kroyer (p. 384); a, dorsal and b ventral views of a young indi- 
vidual... The central line indicates the length of. the specimen, natural 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. ADT 


size, which is here enlarged three diameters. Adults attain about the 
size of the figure. : 

FiGurReE 65.—Nerocila munda Harger (p. 392); dorsal view of the type specimen, en- 
larged about four diameters, The natural size is shown by the cross on 
the right; @, uropod, enlarged six diameters. 

66.—Agathoa loliginea Harger (p. 393); type specimen; a, dorsal, and b, ven- 
tral view, enlarged four diameters. Its natural size is shown by the 
line between the figures. 
(Figure 59 was drawn by Mr. J. H. Blake, the others by O. Harger.) 


ign Dp as NB Oe. Ie 


FIGURE 67,—Livoneca oyalis White (p. 395); a, antennula; 6, antenna; c, mandibular 
palpus; each enlarged twenty diameters; d, one of the first pair of legs; 
e, one of the seventh pair of legs; f, uropod; each enlarged ten diam- 
eters, 
68.—Anthura polita Stimpson (p. 398); dorsal view, enlarged four diameters. 
The natural size is shown by the line at the right; a, antennula; J, 
antenna, each enlarged ten diameters; c, leg of the first pair; d, leg of 
the third pair; e, right pleopod of the first pair, interior view, showing 
inner ramus without cilia; f, pleopod of the second pair from a male, 
showing stylet articulated to inner lamella; each of the figures ¢ to f 
enlarged eight diameters; g, lateral view of pleon, enlarged six diam- 
eters. 
69.—The same; a, maxilliped, enlarged twenty diameters; b, maxilla, enlarged 
twenty-five diameters; b’, distal end of the same, enlarged sixty diam- 
eters. 
70.—Paranthura brachiata Harger (p. 402); dorsal view, enlarged about three 
diameters; natural size shown by the line at the right; a, antennula; 
b, antenna, enlarged eight diameters; c, right maxilliped, enlarged six- 
teen diameters; d, maxilla, enlarged sixteen diameterss d’, distal end 
of the same, enlarged fifty diameters; e, leg of the first pair; f, first 
pleopod from the right side, inner view, showing ciliated inner lamella; 
g, pleopod of the second pair from a male, showing stylet articulated to 
the inner lamella; figures e to g enlarged eight diameters. 
71.—Ptilanthura tenuis Harger (p. 406); male; dorsal view, enlarged about 
four diameters; a, inferior view of the head and first thoracic segment, 
enlarged eight diameters; the flagellum of the antennule omitted; 3}, 
maxilliped; c, maxilla, each enlarged fifty diameters; d, first right ple- 
opod, seen from within, showing ciliated inner lamella; e, second left 
pleopod, showing stylet s articulated to the inner lamella in the males. 
72.—The same; one of the first pair of legs of a male, enlarged sixteen diam- 
eters, 
73.—The same; female; dorsal view of the head, enlarged twenty-five diam- 
eters. 
(Figure 71, excepting b-d, was drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton, the others by O. Harger.) 


PLATE XII. 


FIGURE 74.—Ptilanthura tenuis Harger (p. 406); a, antennula; b, antenna; each 

enlarged twenty diameters, from a male. 

75.—Gnathia cerina Harger (p. 410); male; dorsal view, enlarged ten diame- 
ters. 

76.—The same; a, antennula; 4, antenna, each enlarged thirty-eight diame- 
ters; ec, mandibles (J, left, », right), enlarged thirty-eight diameters ; 
d, first leg or first gnathopod from the right side, enlarged twenty-five 
diameters; all the figures from the male sex. 

77.—The same (p. 411); female; dorsal view, enlarged ten diameters, 


458 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


FIGURE 78.—The same; a, one of the first pair of legs or first gnathopod of a female, 
enlarged thirty-eight diameters; 6, one of the first pair of legs in a 
young, parasitic individual, enlarged sixty diameters; c, pleon, with 
the last and part of the penultimate thoracic segments of a female, 
dorsal view, enlarged twenty diameters; d, pleopod of a young, pari- 
sitic individual, enlarged sixty eee é, pleopod of an adult male, 
enlarged sixty diameters. 

79.—The same; young male; dorsal view, enlarged twenty diameters. 
80.—Leptochelia algicola Harger (p. 421); male; lateral view, enlarged 
twenty diameters; natural size indicated by the line above. 
(All the figures were drawn fon nature by O. Harger.) 


PAPA EH Xora: 


FIGURE 81.—Tanais vittatus Lilljeborg (p. 418); dorsal view, enlarged eight diame- 
ters, The transverse bands of hairs on the pleon are not sufficiently 
distinct. 

82.—The same; one of the first pair of pleopods, enlarged thirty diameters. 

83.—Leptochelia algicola Harger (p. 421); female; dorsal view, enlarged 
twenty diameters; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

84.—The same; ¢, antennula; 8, one of the first pair of legs; both from a 
female specimen and enlarged twenty-five diameters. 

85.—The same; hand, or propodus and dactylus of the first paix of legs, 
enlarged forty-eight diameters, showing the comb of sete on the pro- 
podus. 

86.—The same; uropods of a male, enlarged seventy diameters; 6, basal seg- 
ment; i, inner six-jointed ramus; 0, outer ramus. 

87.—Leptochelia limicola Harger (p. 424); female; dorsal view, enlarged 
twenty diameters; natural size shown by the line at the right. 

88.—The same; a, antennula; 6, antenna; c, leg of the first pair; d, leg of 
the second pair; all from the female sex and enlarged twenty-five 
diameters. 

89.—Leptochelia rapax Harger (p. 424); male; dorsal view, enlarged about 
twelve diameters. 

90,—The same; hand, or propodus and dactylus of male, enlarged sixteen 
diameters. 

91.—Leptochelia coeca Harger (p. 427); type specimen, female; a, antennula; 
b, leg of the first pair; c, uropod; each enlarged fifty diameters. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO°THE, REPORT ON THE MARINE 
ISOPODA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS, 


{In the following index the first reference for the names of the families, genera, and species here de- 
scribed is to the page on which such descriptionis made. The list of authorities, being alphabetically 


arranged, is not indexed.] 


Abdomen, 298. 
Actaeia, 309. 
Actoniscus, 309, 305. 
ellipticus, 309, 428, 433, 
Mga, 383, 377, 378, 387, 431. 
concharum, 378. 
emarginata, 384. 
entaillée, 384. 
polita, 381. 
psora, 384, 429, 430, 434. 
#igathoa, 393, 391. 
loliginea, 393, 428, 434. 
" Bgida, 382, 300, 303, 377, 430, 431. 
4£ro-spirantia, 305. 
Alitropus, 391. 
Anceus, 409, 410. 
americanus, 410, 411. 
elongatus, 412. 
Ancoral legs, 300. 
Andrews, A, on Limnoria, 375. 
Anilocra, 391. 
mediterranea, 430. 
Anisocheirus, 416. 
Antenne, 298. 
Antennule, 298. 
Anthura, 398, 301, 397, 431. 
brunnea, 398, 401. 
carinata, 401. 
gracilis, 398, 401. 
polita, 398, 406, 429, 434. 
Anthuride, 396, 301, 303, 361, 431. 
Apseudes, 304, 414, 416, 431. 
Arcturids, 361, 303, 397, 430, 431. 
Arcturus, 361, 363. 
Baffini, 362. 
Armadillide, 314. 
Armadillo, 305. 
Armida bimarginata, 343. 
Artystone, 390. 
Asellids, 312, 303, 314, 371, 372, 480, 431. 
Asellodes, 319. 
alta, 319, 321. 
Asellotes homopodes, 371. 
Asellus, 301, 313, 415. 
communis, 314. 
Grénlandicus, 315, 319. 
Astacilla, 361, 297, 301, 363, 431. 
Americana, 364. 
granulata, 364, 362, 429, 434. 
longicornis, 362, 363, 366. 
Basis, 300: 


Bate, C.Spence, on the incubatory pouch, 302. 


Bate, C. Spence, on terminology of crustacea, 300, 


Bate and Westwood, on Zro-spirantia, 305. [302, 
Anceus, 409. 
Anthura, 398, 
Anthura gracilis, 401. 
British Isopoda, 429. 
Idotea tricuspidata, 345. 
Jeera albifrons, 318. 
Limnoria, 372. 
Paranthura, 402. 
Taniis, 416. 
Tanais Edwardsii, 422. 
Bathynomus giganteus, 383. 
Bopyride, 311, 377, 429, 431. 
Bopyrus, 312, 431. 
abdominalis, 812. 
Hippolytes, 311. 
Mysidum, 312. 
species, 312, 428, 433. 
Brevoortia menhaden, 391. 
Bullar, J. F., hermaphroditism in Cymothoida, 391 
Cancer maxillaris, 410. 
Carpus, 300. 
Cepon distortus, 311, 428, 433. 
Ceratacanthus, 393. 
Cheetilia, 336. 
Chela, 300. 
Chelura terebrans, 371, 376, 419, 423. 
Chiridotea, 337, 300, 335, 336. 
cceca, 338, 335, 340, 429, 433. 
entomon, 337. 
Tuftsii, 340, 429, 433. 
Cirolana, 378, 376, 383, 431. 
concharum, 378, 298, 428, 434. 
polita, 381, 429, 484. 
truncata, 430. 
Cirolanida, 376, 303, 382, 430, 431. 
Cleantis, 336. 
Cecidotea, 314. 
Coldstream, J., on Limnoria, 372. 
Conilera, 376, 378. 
concharum, 378. 
polita, 381, 
Cordiner, C., on Astacilla, 363. 
Coxa, 300. 
Crossurus, 416. 
vittatus, 416, 418. 
Cuma, 415. 
Cymothoa, 383, 391. 
cstrum, 377. 
ovalis, 395. 
pregustator, 391. 


AG0 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER: OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Cymothor, 377. 
Cymothoide, 390,300, 303, 371, 382, 480, 431. 
Dactylus, 300. 
Dajus Mysidis, 312, 429, 433. 
Dana, J. D., on Asellide, 314. 
Desmarest, A. G., on Idotea tricuspidata, 345. 
Digital process, 300. 
Dohrn, A., on Anceus, 409. 
the incubatory pouch, 301, 303. 
Tanaide, 415. 
Edriophthalma, 297. 
Edwards, H., on Idotea tricuspidata, 345. 
Limnoria, 371. 
Tanais, 416. 
Epelys, 357, 301, 337. 
montosus, 359, 429, 434. 
var. hirsutus, 360. 
trilobus, 358, 429, 434. 
Epimera, 300. 
abdominal, 392. 
Erichsonia, 354, 337, 361. 
attenuata, 356, 335, 428, 434. 
filiformis, 355, 428, 434. 
Eurycope, 3382, 329. 
cornuta, 333. 
robusta, 332, 429, 433. 
Flagellum, 298. 
Fleming, J., on Astacilla, 363. 
Gadus, 386. 
Gammarus Dulongii, 416. 
Gegenbaur, C., on Tanaida, 415. 
Gelasimus pugilator, 311. 
Geographical distribution, 428. 
Gnathia, 410, 297, 302, 357, 431. 
cerina, 410, 429, 435. 
termitoides, 410. 
Gnathiid, 408, 300, 301, 303, 431. 
Gnathium, 410. 
Gnathopods, 300. 
Goodsir, H. D.S.,on Astacilla, 363. 
Gribble, 375. 
Gyge, 431. 
Gyge Hippolytes, 311, 429, 433. 
Helleria, 305. 
Henopomus tricornis, 322. - 
Hesse, E., on Anceus and Praniza, 409. 
Hippoglossus, 382, 386, 
Hippolyte Fabricii, 311. 
polaris, 311 
pusiola, 311, 312. 
securifrons, 311, 312. 
spinus, 311, 312. 
Husley, T. H., distinction of cephalic and thoracic 
Ideotea marina, 344. [segments, 302° 
Idotea, 341, 337, 431. 
acuminata, 344. 
Basteri, 343. 
bicuspida, 352. 
coeca, 338. 
entomon, 345. 
liformis, 355. 
irrorata, 343, 342, 348, 429, 430, 433. 
marina, 344. 
marmorata, 352. 
metallica, 349, 350. 
montosa, 359, 


Idotea nodulosa, 352. 
pelagica, 343, 345, 346. 
phosphorea, 347, 342, 346, 429, 433. 
pulehra, 352. 
robusta, 349, 342, 429, 433. 
tricuspidata, 343, 345, 346 
tricuspis, 344. 
tridentata, 344, 345. 
Tuftsii, 340. 
variegata, 343. 
Idoteide, 335, 301, 303, 361, 397, 430, 431, 
Idothea balthica, 344, 346. 
nodulosa, 351. 
pelagica, 344. 
robusta, 349. 
Tlyarachna, 334, 329, 335, 429, 433. 
Incubatory pouch, 301. 
Ischium, 300. 
Isopod, length of, 302. 
Isopoda, 297. 
aberrantia, 303. 
Jera, 314, 301, 313, 430, 431. 
albifrons, 314, 318, 429, 430, 433. 
Baltica, 315, 318. 
copiosa, 315. 
Kroyeri, 315, 318. 
maculata, 315, 318. 
marina, 315, 318. 
nivalis, 315, 318. 
triloba, 358. 
Janira, 319, 313, 430, 431. 
alta, 321, 299, 429, 433, 
laciniata, 324. 
maculosa, 319, 322. 
spinosa, 323, 429, 433. 
Johnston, G., on Astacilla, 362. 
Kinahan, J. R., on Actawcia, 309. 
Kriyer, H., on Anthura carinata, 401, 
Munna, 325. 
Tanais Edwardsii, 422. 
Labium, 300. 
Labrum, 300. 
Lamella, external of maxillipeds, 299. 


Latreille, P. A., on Idotea tricuspidata, 345. _ 


Leachia, 361, 363. 
granulata, 364, 366. 

Leach, W. E., on Gnathia, 410. 

Leacia, 361, 363. 

Legs, 300. 

Leidya distorta, 311. 

Leidy, J., on Bopyrus species, 312. 
Cepon distortus, 31L 

Leptochelia, 420, 301, 414, 415, 431. 
algicola, 421, 429, 435, 
caeca, 427, 429, 435. 
Edwardsii, 416, 421, 422, 423. 
filum, 426, 429, 435. 
limicola, 424, 429, 435. 
minuta, 416. 
rapax, 424, 423, 429, 435. 

Leptophryxus Mysidis, 312. 

Ligia, 305, 310, 311, 415. 

Lilljeborg, W., on Jeera albifrons, 318, 

Limnoria, 373, 313, 371, 419, 430, 431. 

lignorum, 373, 423, 429, 430, 434, 
terebrans, 373. 


ALPHABETICAL, INDEX. 


Limnoria uncinata, 374, 376. 
xylophaga, 371. 
Limnoriade, 371. 
Limnoriide, 371, 303, 431. 
Lironeca, 395. 
Livoneca, 394, 383. 
ovalis, 395, 300, 428, 434. 
Lockington, W.N., on color of ldotea pulchra, 353. 
Loligo Pealii, 394. 
Macdonald, J. D., on Tanais vittatus, 417, 419. 
Mancasellus, 313. 
Mandibles, 299. 
Maxille, 299. 
Maxillipeds, 299. 
Mayer, P., Hermaphroditism in Cymothoide, 391. 
Meinert, F., on Idotea tricuspidata, 346. 
Merus, 300. 
Mesostenus, 334. 
Metzger, A., on Jiera albifrons, 318. 
Micropogon undulatus, 396. 
Mobius, K., on Jera marina, 318. 
Molar process, 299. 
Montagu, G., on Oniscus gracilis, 401, 
Miiller, F., on Bopyridz, 303, 311. 
Leptochelia and Paratanais, 420. 
® olfactory set, 298. 
Tanaide, 303, 415. 
Tanais Edwardsii, 423. 
Mullet, 394. 
Munna, 325, 313, 450, 431. 

Boeckii, 325, 328. 

Foabricii, 325, 429, 433. 
Munnopside, 328, 303, 314, 430. 
Munnopsis, 329. 

typica, 330, 334, 429, 433. 

Nerocila, 391. 

munda, 392, 428, 434. 
Norman, A. M., British Cymothoide, 430. 
Ocelli, 298. 
Olfactory setz, 298. 
Oniscida, 305, 303, 311, 314, 
Oniscoidea, 314. 
Oniscus albifrons, 315. 

Balthicns, 344. 

ceruleatus, 410. 

entomon, 344, 

gracilis, 401. 

marinus, 318. 

praegustator, 391, 

psora, 384, 386. 

Operculum, 302, 336. 
‘Ourozeuktes, 377. 
Palemonetes vulgaris, 312. 
Palpus, 299. 
Pandalus borealis, 312. 
Montagui, 312. 
Paranthura, 402, 398, 431. 
arctica, 405. 
brachiata, 402, 429, 435. 
costana, 405, 
norvegica, 404, 
tenuis, 406, 407. 
Paratanais, 416, 420, 431. 
algicola, 419, 421. 
coeca, 427. 
forcipatus, 423, 


461 


Paratanais limicola, 424, 427, 
Peduncle, 298. 
Pereion, 298, 300. 
,Pereiopods, 300. 
Pleon, 298, 301. 
Pleopods, 301. 
Philoscia, 305. 
vittata, 306, 429, 433. 
Phryxus, 431. 
Phryxus abdominalis, 312, 429, 433. 
Hippolytes, 312. 
Pill-bug, 298, 305. 
Platyarthrus, 308. 
Pomatomus saltatrix, 396. 
| Porcellio, 305. 
Praniza, 409, 410. 
cerina, 410, 412. 
ceeruleaia, 410. 
Reinhardi, 413. 
Propodus, 300. 
Ptilanthura, 405, 398. 
oculata, 408. 
tenuis, 406, 429, 435. 
Raia, 386. 
Rathke, H., on Crossurus, 416, 417. 
Respiration, 302, 303. 
Rostrum, 302. 
Salve-bug, 384. 
Sars, G. O.,on Eurycope, 332. 
Tyarachna, 334, 
Munnopside, 329. 
Munnopsis, 331. 
Sars, M., on Idotea tricuspidata, 346. 
Jera albitrons, 318. 
Munnopside, 329. 
Munnopsis, 331. 


| Schiédte, J.C., on Anthura, 397. 


Artystone, 390. 
Cymothoe, 377. 
Scyphacella, 307. 
arenicola, 307, 428, 433. 
Scyphax, 307. 
ornatus, 309. 
Serolids, 504. 
Smith, S. I., list of Bopyride, 311. 
Limnoria xylophaga, 371. 
Scyphacella, 307. 
Sow-bug, 298, 299, 305. 
Spheroma, 368, 301, 367, 372, 430, 431. 
quadridentatum, 368, 429, 434. 
serratum, 430. 
Spheromide, 367, 303, 481. 
Stebbing, T. R. R., on Astacilla, 362. 
British Arcturide, 430. 
Dynamene rubra and yirk 
dis, 430. 
Tanais vittatus, 417,419. 
Stenosoma filiformis, 355. 
irrorata, 343. 
Stenotomus argyrops, 396. 
Stimpson, W., on Anceus americanus, 410, 413. 
Asellodes, 319. 
Cirolana concharum, 381. 
Cirolana polita, 381. 
Praniza cerina, 412, 413. 
Tanais filum, 426. 


462 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Synidotea, 350, 337. 
bicuspida, 352, 429, 433. 


nodulosa, 351, 299, 347, 429, 433. 


Syscenus, 387, 383, 391. 

F infelix, 387, 429, 434. 

Tanaida, 415. 

Tanaida, 413, 298, 300, 302, 303, 304, 431. 

Tanais, 416, 297, 301, 414, 415, 431. 
Cavolinii, 416, 419. 
Dulongii, 416. 
Edwardsii, 416, 421, 423. 
filum, 420, 421, 423, 426. 
hirticaudatus, 418. 
islandicus, 428. 
Savignyi, 423. 


| Tanais, tomentosus 418, 419. 


vittatus, 418, 417, 420, 428, 429, 431, 435. 
Telson, 301. 
Templeton, R., on Zeuxo, 416. 
Tetradecapoda, 297. 
Thorax, 298, 300. 
Tylus, 305. 
Uropods, 301. 
Verrill, A. E., on Chiridotea Tuftsii, 341. 
Venus mercenaria, 359. 
Westwood, J. 0.,on Anisocheirus, 416, 
White, A., on Limnoriada, 37L 
Willemoes-Suhm, R. v., on Tanais, 418. 
Wood-lice, 305. 
Zeuxo Westwoodiana, 416. 


rds 


Hit 


PLATE IL. 


FiGURE 1.—Philoscia vittata Say (p. 306); dorsal view, enlarged six diameters; 

natural size indicated by cross at the right. 

2.—Scyphacella arenicola Smith (p. 307); dorsal view, enlarged about twelve 
diameters; natural size indicated by cross at the right. 

3.—Actoniscus ellipticus Harger (p. 309); dorsal view, enlarged ten diame- 
ters; natural size indicated by line at the right. 

4,—Jexra albifrons Leach (p. 315); female; dorsal view, enlarged about ten 
diameters. 

5.—The same; maxilliped from the left side, exterior view, enlarged twenty- 
five diameters; P, palpus; lJ, external lamella. 

6.—The same; maxille, enlarged twenty-five diameters; a, outer, or second, 
pair of maxille; b, inner, or first, pair of maxille; i, inner, e, outer 
lobe. 

7.—The same; inferior surface of the pleon of a female. 

8.—The same; inferior surface of the pleon of a male. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) 


Report U. S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Isopods. Plate I. 


Riess sa)! 2 
of Mating hee 


PLATE II. 


Figure 9.—Janira alta Harger (p. 321); dorsal view, enlarged five diameters; 
natural size indicated by line at the right. 
10.—Janira spinosa Harger (p.323); dorsal view of female, enlarged six 
diameters. 
11.—Munnopsis typica M. Sars (p. 330); dorsal view of male, enlarged about 
two diameters; b, maxillipeds; m, basal segment; J, external lamella; 
2 and 3, second and third segments of palpus of maxillipeds; ¢, outer 
maxille; d, inner maxille; e, one of the second pair of legs of the male; 
f, one of the natatory legs; g, abdominal operculum of the female, 
external view. 
(Figures 9 and 10 were drawn from nature by O. Harger; figure 11 is copied from 
M. Sars, drawn by G. O. Sars.) 


Report U. S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Isopods 


Plate II. 


| 


Fig 9 


‘I 


Wor 
a i 1 


my 
wali lect 
meen 


Vy ‘ 
ee 
ai 


Wave E Wik Guay 


Ce aa ie ; ‘ ver : ae Mat : A 
eetay? eg. i) ' r A Tae f F ; a". My WRT Sagi 
Nee: ao ‘ '. ‘ - iar) yve } ad 
bolt tats | 


etn 


PLATH III. 


Figure 12.—Janira alta (p. 321); a, maxilliped; Pp, palpus of maxilliped; J, external 
lamella; 6, mandible; P, palpus of mandible; d, dentigerous lamella; 
m, molar process, enlarged twenty-five diameters. 
13.—The same; inferior surface of the pleon, a in the female, } in the male, 
enlarged ten diameters; a, single opercular plate in the female; 
b, external; c, median plate of operculum of male. 
14.—Munna Fabricii Kréyer (p. 325); female; dorsal view, enlarged about 
twenty diameters; natural size indicated by line at the right. 
15.—Eurycope robusta Harger (p. 332); female; dorsal view, enlarged six 
diameters; natural size indicated by line at the right; a, antennula, 
enlarged twenty diameters; b, maxilliped; c, mandible; d, one of the 
first pair of legs, each enlarged twenty diameters; d’, propodus and 
dactylus of the first pair of legs, enlarged about thirty-eight diameters; 
é, propodus and dactylus of the second pair of legs, enlarged twenty 
diameters; f, one of the sixth pair of legs; g, uropod, each enlarged 
twenty diameters. 
(Figure 14 was drawn from nature by Mr. J. H. Emerton, the others by O. Harger.) 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Isopods. Plate III. 


Fig. 12. Fig. 14. 


PLATE IV. 


FIGURE 16.—Chiridotea ceca Harger (p. 338); dorsal view, enlarged nearly four 

diameters; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

17.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; each enlarged twelve diameters. 

18.—The same; a, maxilliped from the right side, external view; 1, external 
lamella; im, maxilliped proper; 1, 2, 3, first, second, and third segments 
of the palpus of the maxilliped, enlarged twenty diameters; 6, one of 
the first pair of legs, magnified twelve diameters; c, uropod from the 
left side, inner view, showing the two rami articulated near the tip. 

19,—The same; pleopods of second pair from the right side, anterior views, 
enlarged ten diameters; a, common form in males; b, rarer form in 
male; s, elongated stylet, articulated near the base of the inner lamella; 
c, form in the female. 

20.—Chiridotea Tuftsii Harger (p. 340); female; dorsal view, enlarged five 
diameters ; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

21.—The same; left maxilliped, enlarged twenty-five diameters; e, external 
lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2, 3, segments of palpus. 

22,—The same; pleopod of the second pair, from a male, enlarged twenty 
diameters; s, elongated stylet, articulated near the base of the inner 
lamella. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Tsopods. Plate Iv. 


No.956. 


\) 


g No.964. 


‘4 : A 


oy r a eon * tots fl xe 
PF EMRE RE IT CE ie i Ie TEs 
ys i fa 7 co ts - Boa | 

, ita a eae 


Le 


yen 
Ki ARs 


ryt, 


Buea 8 
Bae MAUR ke 


/ r i" FA Mh j 


eo 


tad BRU Bias 7 


if LNW oa, ort} i 


PLATE VY. 


FIGugBE 23.—Chicidotea Tuftsii Harger (p. 340); a, antennula; b, antenna; c, leg of 

the first pair; d, leg of the fourth pair; all enlarged twelve diameters; 
e, left uropod, or opercular valve, inner view, enlarged ten diameters. 

24,—Idotea irrorata Edwards (p. 343); dorsal view, enlarged two diameters ; 
natural size shown by the line on the left. 

25.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; c, left uropod or opercular valve, 
external view; all enlarged six diameters. 

26.—The same; a, right maxilliped, enlarged twelve diameters, J, external 
lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2, 3, 4, segments of palpus of maxilliped ; 
b, pleopod of the second pair from a male, enlarged eight diameters, show- 
ing stylet, s, articulated near the base of the inner lamella. 

27.—Idotea phosphorea Harger (p. 347); dorsal view, enlarged about two 
diameters; natural size shown by the line on the right. 

28.—The same; a, antenna, enlarged six diameters; b, maxilliped, enlarged 
twelve diameters, showing, J, external lamella; m, basal segments; 1, 2, 
3, 4, segments of the palpus of maxilliped ; ¢, leg of the first pair; d, leg 
of the second pair, both enlarged six diameters; e, right uropod, or 
opercular valve, inner view, enlarged six diameters. 

29.—The same ; pleopod of the second pair from a male, enlarged eight diam- 
eters; s, stylet articulated near the base of the inner lamella; s’, distal 
end of stylet reversed and enlarged thirty diameters. 

(Figure 24 was drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton, the others by O. Harger.) 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Isopods. Plate V. 


-— aut 


“yg \! 
yi, Pf. Tt 
7 
ao 
i. 
- ie 
ae 
3.” 
aon 
(a bh : a 2 . ype ' 7 4 ip ay f i : ‘ I 
Sr. oa cy Vikehies: watts Of aig nl ae 
% i io z i 


Pat, petal iy ate | ey my “335 Lite! 


at a 
seid Erin wliee> Veaiy. ‘ Vv 


fy 
bet stabs oli ay | 
ee fant: Pat WALA) 

Pie, a Te ' ' ah cin : : ‘ iy, 
an no a has i i 

niesulsty i ‘ih ee. 

rah] ia tate wilt art ay ' y 

f ; Acrea pila si i ay ‘ip ; a 4 na : AL 
| pinning” tT ~ “it ot) ae 

D Bai annette ; AS i pn Ai af i ., o 7 a i a 4 

“Yo atti ry oe sing bile ae 10 ie tite a rive is ylapioners: ye ee x ne \) h 


ft). hoye eat ny “ Sartori), Ne bir 0 met benyian 
1 anty. de i pate phvnanits ey lurve boyvalad 
: ey a wastlouuil ke gti 
anal, ond) feyeuelyn 5 perdi Lay Nita) af i 
fins shah a it 
(outa ay wr he skye sis 


i Y teal ao shit baht. 
im dt if ort: ti ‘buduna: ‘ghd ye ha r ‘on 
40 SER nba a ae salary i 


PA AVIUE Velie 


FIGURE 30.—Idotea robusta Kroyer (p. 349); dorsal view, enlarged two diameters ; 

natural size shown by the line at the right. 

31.—The same; a, antenna; b, leg of the first pair, each enlarged six diam- 
eters; c, left uropod, or opercular valve, inner view, enlarged four 
diameters. 

FIGURE 32.—The same; a, maxilliped, enlarged twelve diameters; 1, external lamella; 

1, 2, 3, 4, segments of palpus; b, maxilla of the outer or second pair; 
c, pleopod of the second pair from a male, enlarged six diameters; 8, 
stylet articulated near the base of the inner lamella. 

33.—Synidotea nodulosa Harger (p. 351); dorsal view, enlarged four diam- 
eters; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

34.—The same; a, antennula; f, flagellar segment; b, antenna; c, leg of the 
fitst pair from the right side; d, right uropod, or opercular valve, all 
enlarged ten diameters. 

35.—The same; a, maxilliped from the right side, showing, /, external 
lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2, 3, segments of palpus, enlarged 
twenty diameters; ), maxilla of the outer or second pair; c, maxilla of 
the inner or first pair, both enlarged twenty diameters; d, pleopod of 
the second pair from a male, enlarged twelve diameters; s, stylet 
articulated near the base of the inner lamella. 

36.—Erichsonia attenuata Harger (p. 356) ; dorsal view, enlarged three diam- 
eters, natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

(Figures 30 and 36 were drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton, the others by O. Harger.) 


Report U. S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Tsopods. Plate VI. 


NN, ; . 
My 
Wma 


534 


a ne 
LS eae he 


Moe Mt 


Bs) 
ges 
% of 
wa 
Riper thy 


PLATE VII. 


FIGURE 37.—Erichsonia attenuata Harger (p. 356); a, antennula; b, antenna, each 
enlarged twelve diameters; c, maxilliped, showing, J, external lamella, 
enlarged thirty diameters; d, uropod, or opercular valve, enlarged 
twelve diameters; e, pleopod of the second pair from a male, enlarged 
fifteen diameters; s, stylet, articulated near the base of the inner la- 
mella; s’, distal end of stylet, enlarged fifty diameters. 

38.—Erichsonia filiformis Harger (p. 355); dorsal view, enlarged five diam- 
eters, natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

39.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; ¢, leg of the first pair; d, uropod, 
or opercular valve, each enlarged twelve diameters. 

40.—The same; a, maxilla of outer or second pair; b, maxilla of inner or first 
pair; c, mandible, showing molar process, m, and dentigerous lamella, 
d, all enlarged thirty diameters. 

41.—The same; a, maxilliped, showing, J, external lamella; m, basal segment, 
and 1, 2,3, 4, segments of palpus, enlarged thirty diameters; b, pleopod 
of the second pair from a male, enlarged fifteen diameters ; s, stylet, ar- 
ticulated near the base of the inner lamella; s‘, distal end of stylet, 
enlarged fifty diameters. : 

42.—Epelys trilobus Smith (p. 358); dorsal view, enlarged ten diameters; 
natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

43,—The same; a, maxilliped from the left side, enlarged twenty diameters ; 
1, external lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2, 3, segments of palpus of 
maxilliped; b, pleopod of second pair from a male, enlarged twenty 
diameters; s, stylet, articulated near the base of the inner lamella; 
s’, end of stylet, enlarged fifty diameters. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Tsopods. Plate VII. 


No. 784 No. 783 


a ; Lal a ee Chere Sf 


JS) ee 4 a 7 


aN 1 
6) 


ait d ¥ 


4 


gesra le diya | 


PLATE VLE. 


FIGURE 44.—Epelys montosus Harger (p. 359); dorsal view, enlarged six diameters, 

natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

45.—The same; a, antennula; f, flagellar segment; b, antenna; c, maxilliped 
from the left side; 1, external lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2,3, seg- 
ments of palpus; all the figures enlarged twenty diameters. 

46.—The same; a, leg of the first pair, enlarged twenty diameters; b, right 
uropod or opercular valve, enlarged fifteen diameters. 

Ficurk 47.—The same; pleopod of the second pair, from a male, enlarged twenty di- 
ameters; s, stylet, articulated near the base of the inner lameila; s’, 
distal end of stylet, enlarged sixty-six diameters. 

48.—Astacilla granulata Harger (p. 364); female; dorsal view, enlarged four 
diameters, natural size indicated by the line at the right; a, antennula 
of male; b, fourth thoracic segment of male; c, inferior surface of pleon 
of a male, showing opercular valves; all the figures enlarged four 
diameters, 

49.—The same; a, flagellum of antenna, enlarged twenty diameters; a’, por- 
tion of inner margin of the same, enlarged one hundred diameters ; 5, 
one of the first pair of legs, upper surface, enlarged twenty diameters. 

50.—The same; one of the fourth pair of legs, enlarged twenty diameters. 

51.—The same ; inner surface of left opercular plate, or uropod, froma female, 
enlarged twenty diameters. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) 


Report U.S. I’. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Isopods. . Plate VIII. 


No.943, No.937. 


Fig. 46. 


Wo, 495 No.965, 


No. 494 Wo.936. 


j Vida! F T } fa : , : i i a i: i if 
y u i , ‘ ' 4 _ ‘ 
7 ‘y mit : : ‘ ; f ; 
fi 7 ive ' jl 7 — ’ it , 7 
t : i a ’ 7 mi “i 
ny a ; ; 7 i ; " : ‘ mara ‘vA 
: ‘ . I D I ' _— i H 
’ ; ci, ; Pov ' an 
: ) 4 ; ta f 
ri » i 
5 i i my ‘ f : i : : ie 
f 1 j * ee 
“0 ~ 7 ni M 7 
" t) " 4 
i ' Y 6 ei Po cee ah i r 
xe ‘ yas ae : ; i it 
; 5 Roce ‘ \ 
mt 7 ' v4 a . = } 
ie t ’ 7 ; 7 " ’ } 
eee iU eLearn!’ yt Le, ae 
; i Gr r 1 roy a ; if 
_ yy tithes ina i ory | iy, hi ogy ah By tee : : 
i ad PEM Gd bis dds iY jain ha ; 
ee Gerry ae oe i ee 
OT ee eT ui 
j, q * eA Ie i 1) Fi i y D fh : 
| “0 ee Th La LE Le eRe Ray Or oeT a | } a 
: rl : A po x “0 A : y : H ! 
f ng tay nyt la Seiya i ty i it 
’ , | * 
Z oe) ay Ph) if i 
; 7 ets i | , ; 
MDS Ca Acabe TL yAgty, te os wd) Ki ae ; ee 
; ‘ Pas | ' ; ; y i 
LON TSE TRS SY Se ee ne 
Se ee Pea ly Lad fa AT | 7) ee Ae a yee | 
| , ; Pget ion ; : 1 ae ¥ ae iM 10) % A 48, i 
RRL? A ee Ta ee LU er pen Lr trea 
hy af iy! very ey i Vi , Ai i 
OT ee ee a ee £ oii) Ub hes : F 
i ' Vali ete) heel IE aw) ; i NE pone i its ( A 
, ee) Oy ny ee , ‘ i . 
Sol a te fac a Ae be hy 8 by Ie athe vty f ic apie On a ait i) 
a Ms ; me a ce : 7 i on: 
Se ete WALT Ty vi ry bd ai j ae ia , ne hh Aer, any mits ‘ : 
ry ; oe fit ‘ ; “4 
a ee wT) ht ) os 
; ; : 
m5 ve ‘hy a 
; ‘ ‘ 1 t ee cn 
; : + a i i : oe 
} vu i a ; 
laa : 
' es - on ; 
. ; ; : i 
rath 4 ; ee 
ji et le ' 


‘ 4 
' tow i F - 
: : i : - 
‘i a J ‘fs i 
: ral A os 
o- x 1 
” 
ei r bw +f on g 
; 7 ; - ; 
' U) j th 
i y 
{ ‘ : ] 5 
, ; ov , ; 
f A ! 4 j nt 
7 : ' ? 
; f red 
- , ' i 
aa t y rt 1 
: ' i : i 
: yuab 5 S 
i a vi Vi 
eee : ‘ : i 7 7 


Pe Ag Exe, 


FiGureE 52.—Astacilla granulata Harger (p. 364); a, maxilliped; m, basal segment; 
l, external lamella; b, outer maxilla; c, inner maxilla; all enlarged 
twenty diameters. 

53.—Spheroma quadridentatum Say (p. 368); dorsal view, enlarged five 
diameters; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

54.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; c, pleopod of the second pair, from 
a male, showing stylet, s, articulated near the base of the inner lamella; 
all the figures enlarged ten diameters. 

55.—Limnoria lignorum White (p. 373); dorsal view, enlarged ten diameters ; 
natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

56.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; c, maxilliped; d, maxilla of the 
outer or second pair; e, maxilla of the inner or first pair; f, mandible, 
all enlarged twenty-five diameters; e’, distal end of outer lobe of first 
pair of maxill, enlarged sixty-six diameters. 

57.—The same; a, last segment of pleon, with attached uropods; dorsal view, 
enlarged ten diameters; b, uropod with dotted adjacent outline of last 
segment of pleon, enlarged thirty diameters; c, first pair of pleopods; 
d, pleopod of the second pair, from a male, showing stylet, s, articu- 
lated to the inner lamella; both figures enlarged twenty diameters. 

58.—Cirolana concharum Harger, (p. 378); lateral view, enlarged about three 
diameters. ; 

(Figure 53 was drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton, 55 by Prof. 8. I. Smith, 58 by Mr. J. 
H. Blake, and the others by O. Harger.) 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Isopods. Plate IX. 


Re ahah toh hh 


“ af Aa i aay ; i rant fh r 


i re iti bi i 
Pity ce | 


én ts iA ae ti | i | 
| cal IF eeu) oe, | : 
Snir, WAN ; mare Ba ear 4) LD | " ' Bins 


Ajear 
4 


PLATE. 


FIGURE 59.—Cirolana concharum Harger (p. 378); dorsal view, enlarged about three 

diameters. The natural size is shown by the line at the right. 

60.—The same; antennula, enlarged ten diameters. 

61.—The same; a, antenna enlarged ten diameters; 6, maxilla of the outer or 
second pair; ¢, maxilla of the inner or first pair; d, mandible from the 
right side, inner view; p, palpus; m, molar area; the last three figures 
enlarged five diameters. 

62.—The same; a, maxilliped from the right side, exterior view, showing, J, 
external lamella; m, basal segment; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, segments of the palpus; 
b, leg of the fourth pair; both the figures enlarged five diameters. 

63.—The same; uropod from the right side; inferior view, enlarged five di- 
ameters. 

64.—iga psora Kroyer (p. 384); a, dorsal and b ventral views of a young indi- 
vidual. The central line indicates the length of the specimen, natural 
size, which is here enlarged three diameters. Adults attain about the 
size of the figure. 

FIGurRE 65.—Nerocila munda Harger (p. 392); dorsal view of the type specimen, en- 
larged about four diameters. The natural size is shown by the cross on 
the right; a, uropod, enlarged six diameters. 

66.—Agathoa loliginea Harger (p. 393); type specimen; a, dorsal, and b, ven- 
tral view, enlarged four diameters. Its natural size is shown by the 
line between the figures. 
(Figure 59 was drawn by Mr. J. H. Blake, the others by O. Harger.) 


Plate X. 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Isopods. 


Fig. 66. 


Fig. 60. 


Fig. 59. 


No.906. 


Fig. 61. 
Nos, 


Fig. 63. 
No.905. 


x “gas! Mos ied ed 
i n if 


byte oh es i 
arigt ti ; 


rt) mr 


PEE 


ie via 


mis hi 
eck haha Tae 


Hg 


he aa arate 


PLATE XI. 


FIGURE 67.—Livoneca ovalis White (p. 395); a, antennula; b, antenna; c,mandibular 
palpus; each enlarged twenty diameters; d, one of the first pair of legs; 
e, one of the seventh pair of legs; f, uropod; each enlarged ten diam- 
eters. 
68.—Anthura polita Stimpson (p. 398); dorsal view, enlarged four diameters. 
The natural size is shown by the line at the right; a, antennula; ), 
antenna, each enlarged ten diameters; c, leg of the first pair; d, leg of 
the third pair; e, right pleopod of the first pair, interior view, showing 
inner ramus without cilia; f, pleopod of the second pair from a male, 
showing stylet articulated to inner lamella; each of the figures ¢ to f 
enlarged eight diameters; g, lateral view of pleon, enlarged six diam- 
eters. 
69.—The same, a, maxilliped, enlarged twenty diameters; 6, maxilla, enlarged 
twenty-five diameters; b’, distal end of the same, enlarged sixty diam- 
eters. 
70.—Paranthura brachiata Harger (p. 402); dorsal view, enlarged about three 
diameters; natural size shown by the line at the right; a, antennula ; 
b, antenna, enlarged eight diameters; c, right maxilliped, enlarged six- 
teen diameters; d, maxilla, enlarged sixteen diameters; d’, distal end 
of the same, enlarged fifty diameters; e, leg of the first pair; f, first 
pleopod from the right side, inner view, showing ciliated inner lamella ; 
g, pleopod of the second pair from a male, showing stylet articulated to 
the inner lamella; figures e to g enlarged eight diameters. 
71.—Ptilanthura tenuis Harger (p. 406); male; dorsal view, enlarged about — 
four diameters; a, inferior view of the head and first thoracic segment, 
enlarged eight diameters; the flagellum of the antennulx omitted; b, 
maxilliped; c, maxilla, each enlarged fifty diameters ; d, first right ple- 
opod, seen from within, showing ciliated inner lamella; e, second left 
pleopod, showing stylet s articulated to the inner lamella in the males, 
72.—The same; one of the first pair of legs of a male, enlarged sixteen diam- 
eters. ; 
73.—The same; female; dorsal view of the head, enlarged twenty-five diam- 
eters. 
(Figure 71, excepting b-d, was drawn by Mr. J. H. Emerton, the others by O. Harger.) 


Report U. S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Isopods. : Plate XI. 


ali 
a 


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Beis - 


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PLATE XII. 


FiGgurE 74.—Ptilanthura tenuis Harger (p. 406); a, antennula; 6b, antenna; each 

enlarged twenty diameters, from a male. 

75.—Gnathia cerina Harger (p. 410); male; dorsal view, enlarged ten diame- 
ters. 

76.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna, each enlarged thirty-eight diame- 
ters; c, mandibles (1, left, 7, right), enlarged thirty-eight diameters ; 
d, first leg or first gnathopod from the right side, enlarged twenty-five 
diameters; all the figures from the male sex. 

77.—The same (p. 411); female; dorsal view, enlarged ten diameters. 

78.—The same; a, one of the first pair of legs or first gnathopod of a female, 
enlarged thirty-eight diameters; b, one of the first pair of legs in a 
young, parasitic individual, enlarged sixty diameters; c, pleon, with 
the last and part of the penultimate thoracic segments of a female, 
dorsal view, enlarged twenty diameters; d, pleopod of a young, pari- 
sitic individual, enlarged sixty diameters; e, pleopod of an adult male, 
enlarged sixty diameters. 

79.—The same; young male; dorsal view, enlarged twenty diameters. 

80.—Leptochelia algicola Harger (p. 421); male; lateral view, enlarged 
twenty diameters; natural size indicated by the line above. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) 


Report U. 8. F. C. 1878.—Harger. 


Marine Isopods. 


Plate XII. 


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No.908. 


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PLATE XIII. 


FIGURE 81.—Tanais vittatus Lilljeborg (p. 418); dorsal view, enlarged eight diame- 
ters. The transverse bands of hairs on the pleon are not sufficiently 
distinct. 

82.—The same; one of the first pair of pleopods, enlarged thirty diameters. 

83.—Leptochelia algicola Harger (p. 421); female; dorsal view, enlarged 
twenty diameters; natural size indicated by the line at the right. 

84.—The same; a, antennula; D, one of the first pair of legs; both from a 
female specimen and enlarged twenty-five diameters. 

&5.—The same; hand, or propodus and dactylus of the first pair of legs, 
enlarged forty-eight diameters, showing the comb of set on the pro- 
podus. 

86.—The same; uropods of a male, enlarged seventy diameters; 6, basal seg- 
ment; 7, inner six-jointed ramus; 0, outer ramus. 

87.—Leptochelia limicola Harger (p. 424); female; dorsal view, enlarged 
twenty diameters; natural size shown by the line at the right. 

88.—The same; a, antennula; b, antenna; c, leg of the first pair; d, leg of 
the second pair; all from the female sex and enlarged twenty-five 
diameters. 

89.—Leptochelia rapax Harger (p. 424); male; dorsal view, enlarged about 
twelve diameters. 

90.—The same; hand, or propodus and dactylus of male, enlarged sixteen 
diameters. 

91.—Leptochelia coeca Harger (p. 427); type specimen, female; a, antennula; 
b, leg of the first pair; c, uropod; each enlarged fifty diameters. 

(All the figures were drawn from nature by O. Harger.) 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Harger. Marine Isopods. 


No.948. 


XY.—REPORT ON THE PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND 
ADJACENT WATERS, 


By EpmMuND B. WILSON. 


“It is intended to give in this report an account of our present knowl- 
edge of the spesies of Pyenogonida known to occur upon the coasts of 
New England and Nova Scotia, comprising descriptions and figures of 
all the forms, and an account of their geog eae aud bathymetrical 
distribution. Although the work is mainiy systematic, and has been 


done with special reference to supplying a basis for satisfactory deter- 

minations of the genera and snecies, and. their distribution, it has been 

thought best to give also a brief cenoral account of the structural pecu- 
ec 3% Fi 


liarities and general natural history of the group. In so doing I have 
drawn largely from the works of several other writers; and especially 
from those of ne Anton Dohrn, who has made a cae study of the 
anatomy and embryology of these animals. It should be bornein mind 
that the structure of the Pycnogonida is, as yet, not well understood, 
and that further research is needed to fully explain the anatomy and 
systematic relations of this peculiar and perplexing group. To make the 
report as complete as possible, it has been made to include not only. the 
collections of the Fish Commission, but also those made by various other 
parties since the year 1864. The parties referred to were as follows: 
Expedition of 1864, Professors A. E. Verrili and S. I. Smith ; Expedition 
of 1868, the same with the addition of Professor H. E. Webster and Mr. 
Geo. A. Jackson; Expedition of 1870, Professor Verrill with Mr. Oscar 
Harger and Mr. C. H. Dwinelle. The Pyenogonida from these sources, 
with those of the Fish Commission collections, are at present preserved 
in the Peabody Museum of Yale College, where they have been studied. 
I take pleasure in here expressing my great obligations to Professors 
Verrill and Smith; I am also indebted to Professor Carl Semper for 
specimens of several European species. 

The Pycnogonida form a small and very natural group of articulated 
animals, which are all marine, have a very wide geographical distribu- 
tion, and are found at all depths from low-water mark down to many 
hundred fathoms. Although forming a small and inconspicuous group, 
they possess a special interest from peculiarities in their structure and 
development; and though some of the species have been carefully 
studied by competent observers, opinion is yet divided as to the exact 


position they should occupy in the zoological system. By some writers 
463 


464 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


they are referred to the Crustacea, by some to the Arachnida, while 
others place them in a group distinet from both. In some respects they 
must be regarded as intermediate between these groups; and hence 
to trace their homologies, especially those of the appendages, is a 
matter of considerable difficulty. Some of the hairy species bear a close 
general fesemblance to spiders, which has given rise to their common 
name of sea-spiders. Their anatomical structure is, however, very differ- 
ent from that of the spiders, and in their sluggish movements and para- 
sitic habits they are still more unlike those active and predacious ani- 
mals. Most of the species cling to other animals, such as sponges, sea- 
anemones, and particularly tubularian and other hydroids; upon these 
animals they probably in part feed, sucking their juices by means of the 
large proboscis or rostrum, though their food apparently consists also 
of more solid matters. They are remarkable, as a whole, for the reduc- 
tion of the abdomen, and the great development of the legs, which some- 
times have an extent equal to nine or ten times the length of the body; 

he abdomen is always aborted, so as to often appear like a mere tuber- 
cle, and, with the exception of one or two forms where it is bi-articulate, 
itis not divided into segments. The body shows exteriorly four seg- 
ments, exclusive of the rostrum and abdomen; these segments expand 
lateraliy into prominent processes, which may readily be mistaken for the 
basal joints of the legs, to which they give attachment. The abdomen 
arises from the posterior segment, from which it is not, as a rule, sepa- 
rated by segmentation. It is usually directed more or less upwards ; 
at its extremity is the anus, usually in a deep cleft. 

The most anterior pair of appendages, which are wholly wanting in 
afew forms (Pycnogonum, etc.), are here regarded as antenne, a view 
which seems to me to be justified by their position and the origin of 
their nerves; by many writers they are, however, considered to be post- 
oral, and as probably representing mandibles. In the higher forms 
they are three-jointed and usually forceps-like or ‘chelate, in other 
genera two-jointed, and a recently described genus (Tanystylum), with 
the antennz composed of a single joint, completes the transition to 
those forms in which antenn have quite disappeared. It may be here 
mentioned that antenne are invariably present in the larva, so far as 
known; and that they are then always three-jointed and chelate, their 
subsequent disappearance in certain forms being apparently a case of 
‘‘retrograde development.” Below the antenne is the large proboscis - 
or rostrum, at the extremity of which is the mouth; this is triangular 
in shape, and is sometimes furnished with three denticulated organs not 
very unlike the jaws of a leech. Within this rostrum is a large cavity, 
continuous posteriorly with the @sophagus, and containing a compli- 
cated apparatus for masticating food; this consists of a great number 
of chitinous bars lying transversely in the wails of the cavity and giving 
attachment to numerous sete, usually bifid at their tips, which extend 
forward toward the mouth. Posterior to these are found in some spe- 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 465 


cies, according to Zenker, horny denticles by which food may be still 
further comminuted. The homologies of the rostrum are not well 
understood. It is regarded by Huxley as representing the coalesced 
chelicersze and pedipalpi, like that of the Acarina; and Latreille states 
that in a large species of Phowichilus from the Cape of Good Hope he 
found longitudinal sutures in the rostrum, so that it appeared as if con- 
sisting of the ‘“Labrum, lingua and two jaws united together.” Other 
writers have regarded it as the head, etc. It seems to me that a study 
of the embryology does not confirm these views, for the rostrum in its 
early stages presents no trace of sutures or other evidence of its com- 
posite nature, but arises as a simple protuberance between the bases of 
the antenne. Posterior to the antenne, and at the sides of the rostrum, 
are, in many genera, a pair of so-called ‘palpi,’ which are composed of 
five to nine joints, and are sometimes furnished with plumose hairs that 
undoubtedly have a tactile function. The third pair of appendages, 
which are wanting in the females of certain species, have been termed 
‘ovigerous legs,’ from their office, in the male, of bearing the egg- 
masses, it having been formerly supposed that the females never pos- 
sessed them. This term is, however, inappropriate when applied to the 
female appendages, and it seems preferable to term them accessory legs, 
as certain writers have done, at least until their homologies are better 
understood. The legs proper are eight in number, and are, as already 
mentioned, remarkable in many species for their great length. They 
are composed of nine joints, of which the last, or dactylus, is claw-like 
and forms, in some species, a sub-cheliform hand with the preceding 
joint or propodus. In certain genera the dactylus is armed with two 
movable auxiliary claws, articulated to its upper side near the base; 
their presence or absence forms a valuable generic character. 

The stomach always sends out long prolongations into the legs and 
antenne, and sometimes, also, rudimentary ones to the palpi and acces- 
sory legs. These diverticula exhibit active peristaltic movements, which 
drive the food rapidly back and forth and thoroughly distribute it. The 
movement is plainly visible in some species of Nymphon, and is an inter- 
esting sight. The stomach-walls contain numerous muscular fibres and 
are somewhat glandular, but no liver or other special secretory organ is 
known to exist. The circulatory system is very simple and has been 
detected in only a few species. It consists of a tubular dorsal vessel, 
with lateral paired openings for the ingress of the blood. Claparéde 
figures in “ Phowichilidium” cheliferum a distinct aorta, which divides 
anteriorly into two trunks, emptying into the bédy-cavity. I have ob- 
served in Nymphon grossipes a dorsal pulsating organ, which I believe to 
be the heart. In the same specimen the perivisceral circulation was also 
seen. No special respiratory organs have been observed with certainty, 
though Phanodemus and Oomerus were described as possessing tracheal (?) 
openings; it seems improbable that this is their true nature, more 


especially since the trachee which should communicate with them have 
30 F 


466 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


not been detected. The nervous system is well developed, consisting of 
a supra-cesophageal ganglion connected by commissures with a series of 
four large ventral ganglions. The former lies immediately beneath the 
oculiferous tubercle, to which it sends large nerves; and from it are also 
derived the nerves of the antenne, palpi, rostrum, and accessory legs 
(Zenker). It seems probable, in view of the different origin of their 
nerves, that the accessory legs are not, as often supposed, branches of 
the first pair of ambulatory legs, but that they represent a pair of dis- 
tinct appendages. Moreover, they are sometimes distinctly separated 
from the first pair, which is notably the case in a peculiar genus from 
Japan, apparently belonging to the genus Ascorhynchus Sars. 

The sexes are separate, and the reproductive organs extend far out 
into the legs; their orifices are upon the lower side of the second joints 
in all the legs. Ieference has already been made to the habit of carry- 
ing the egg-masses, followed by the male. These egg-bearing forms 
were long supposed to be females, but it has been conclusively shown 
by Cavanna, and subsequently by Dohrn, that they are males. The 
same faat was also noted in one or two species by Semper and Hoek. I 
have been able to confirm this in nearly all of our species by examina- 
tion of the contents of the reproductive organs. In the fourth joint of 
each leg, in the male, is a large glandular organ, discharging by a num- 
ber of openings arranged in an irregular row along the inferior side of 
the joint. Dohrn surmises that the secretion of this organ serves as a 
cement by which the eggs, when discharged by the female, are glued 
into a ball and attached to the accessory legs of the male. 

Kroyer, Dohrn, and others have carefully studied the embryology. 
The eggs are collected into round masses upon the accessory legs and 
thus carried about by the male until after the escape of the embryos so 
that his body, is often covered with the curious young. Segmentation 
of the yolk is complete. Prominences then appear: upon the lower 
side of the embryo, one of which ultimately becomes the rostrum, and 
. the others form three pairs of appendages, representing the future an- 
tennie, palpi, and accessory legs. The condition of the larval antennz 
has been already referred to. In most forms the embryo escapes from 
the egg with only these three pairs of appendages; but a species of 
Pallene, studied by Dohrn, passed through no metamorphosis, leaving 
the egg provided with the full number of appendages. 

The species of the genus Phowichilidiwm are remarkable for passing 
their early larval stages within the digestive cavities of certain tubula- 
rian hydroids (Hydractinia, etc.), six or eight of them sometimes living 
together within a single polypite. How they take up residence in the 
body of their involuntary host has not been observed, but they have 
been seen to escape by crawling out through the mouth. 

The Pyenogonida, as a whole, have never been very carefully studied 
by systematic zoologists, though the observations of Dohrn, Quatrefages, 
Zenker, and others have given us a tolerably full knowledge of their 


PYCNOGONIDA GF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 467 


anatomy and, in some cases, of their embryology. The systematic work 
has, with few exceptions, been unsatisfactory and confusing, owing to 
the paucity of generic and specific characters, the great variation of 
some species, the difficulty of obtaining large series of specimens, and 
the want of detailed descriptions. Though the specific characters are 
well marked, the general resemblance is so close in certain genera 
(6. g., Nymphon, Phovichilidium) as to render close examination neces- 
sary for the proper determination of the species. For this reason it is 
quite impossible to determine, from the descriptions, to what species 
some of the older names should be applied; and hence, as a rule, only 
such references are given in the synonymy as refer to figures or full 
descriptions. 

The North American species have hitherto received little attention. 
Leach described an Ammothea from Carolina, and Stimpson another 
species of this genus from Puget Sound. Thomas Say described, in 
1821, from Charleston, 8S. C., the genus Anaphia, of which he had one 
species (A. pallida) represented by three specimens. In 1853, Stimpson 
enumerated five species in his “ Invertebrata of Grand Manan,” of which 
four were described as new. In addition to these, three or four species 
are mentioned, accompanied in some cases by brief notes, in papers 
by Professors Verrill, Smith, Packard, and others. The ‘“ Pasithoe” 
described by Dr. Gould (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 92) is inde- 
terminable. With two exeeptions, the species here described were fully 
figured and characterized in a preliminary paper by the author, entitled 
“A Synopsis of the Pycnogonida of New England” (Trans. Conn. Acad. 
Sci., vol. v, pp. 1-26). 

The genera known to me are included in the following table, those 
occurring on the New England coast being indicated by an asterisk. 
it should be noted that the table is in part compiled from descriptions, 
some of which are very imperfect. In cases where I have been unable 
to find the exact characters, an interrogation mark is placed after the 
name. There is need of a revision of the present genera, which can 
only be effected by the study of a large collection from all parts of the 
world. 

J have been unable to ascertain the characters of the genus Gnamp- 
torhynchus recently described by Bohm, and have therefore not included 
it in the table. 


A. Antenne present and chelate. 
a. Palpi present. (Nymphonide). 
b. Auxiliary claws present. 
(1). Accessory legs 11-jointed. Palpi 5-jointed................ *Nymphon Fabr. 
(2). Accessory legs-9-jointed. Palpi 8-jointed............... * Ammothea Leach. 
(3). Stigmata present (?) Accessory legs 3-4(?) jointed. Palpi 3-jointed. 
Phanodemus Costa. 
bb. Auxiliary claws wanting. 
(1). Accessory legs 11-jointed. Palpi 10-jointed..........-.. Decolopoda Eights. 


‘468 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


aa. Palpi wanting. (Pallenide). 
b. Auxiliary claws present. 


(i); Accessory legs 9-jointed|.-- 2222-2 o-2 cee se- see eeeeeeee * Pallene Johnston. 

(2). Accessory legs 5-jointed....-........--2-- ---. * Phoxichilidium M. Edwards. 
bb. Auxiliary claws wanting. 

@b)seAccessory legssml jointed ease eee ae eee * Pseudopallene Wilson. 

(2). Accessory legs 6-jointed ..............-----.------*Anoplodactylus Wilson. 

(3). Accessory legs ? — jointed. Stigmata present (?).....-.--- Oomerus Hesse ? 


B. Antenne present, simple. 
a. Palpi present. (Achelida). 
b. Auxiliary claws present. 
(1). Antenne 3-jointed. Accessory legs 9-jointed. Palpi 8-jointed. 
Oicebathes Hesse. 
(2). Antenne 2-jointed. Accessory legs 10-jointed. Palpi 9-jointed. 
* Achelia Hodge. 
(3). Antenne I-jointed. Accessory legs 10-jointed. Palpi 6-jointed. 
Tanystylum Miers. 
(4). Antenne 1-jointed. Accessory legs 10-jointed, Palpi 9-jointed. 
Carniger Bohn. 
bb. Auxiliary claws wanting. 
(1). Antennze 3-jointed. Accessory legs 10-jomted. Palpi 10-jointed. 
Eurycide Schiddte. 
(2). Antenne 2-jointed. Accessory legs 9-jointed. Palpi 5-jointed. 
Pariboea Costa. 
(3). Antenne 2-jointed. Accessory legs 8-jointed. Palpi 9-jointed. 
Ascorhynchus Sars. 
(4). Antenne 2-jointed. Accessory legs 10-jointed. Palpi 9-jointed. 
Parazetes Slater. 
(5). Antenne 2 (?)-jointed. Accessory legs 6-jointed. ‘‘ Palpi 3-jointed.” 
(1) Pephredo Goodsir? 
C. Antenne wanting. 


a. Palpi present. (Pasithoide). / 
b, Auxiliary claws present. 
(1). Accessory legs 9-jointed. Palpi 8-jointed .............--.. Pasithoe Goodsir. 
(2). Accessory legs 9-jointed. Palpi 7-jointed .........-.-..-..-.- Endeis Costa. 


bb. Auxiliary claws wanting. 
(1). Accessory legs 10-jointed. Palpi 9-jointed. 
(2) Rhopalorhynchus Wood-Mason. 
aa. Palpi wanting. (Pycnogonida). 
(1), Auxiliary claws present. Accessory legs 7-jointed ....Phoxichilus Latreille. 
(2). Auxiliary claws wanting. Accessory legs 10-jointed. 
* Pycnogonum Brunnich. 
(1). It is impossible to ascertain from Goodsir’s original description exactly what 
are the characters of this genus. 
(2). I cannot distinguish Colossendeis Jarzynsky from this genus. 


The family characters must be regarded as still doubtful. Originally, 
all the forms were included by Latreille in a single family, the Pycnogo- 
nide. Subsequently those genera with antennz were separated as 
Nymphonide. Dr. Semper has divided the latter into the Nymphonide 
with chelate antenne, and the Achelide with simple antenne; and in 
my ‘ Synopsis” (I. ¢.) those genera with chelate antenne, but without 
palpi (Pallene, Phoxichilidium, ete.), were characterized as Pallenide. 
A further division seems to me necessary, in the removal from the Pyc- 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 469 


nogonide of those forms which possess palpi; and for this group the 
name Pasithoide may be used. The families will then stand as follows: 


A. Antenne present and chelate. 


al PIGPLCSOMG sc cis owe cie swab 6c eee nee cin as Soca cwn'e cel <nidbace skincd VQ p ROTENEES 

A DISWATUUMM OF ce a dsicioiss slosisias cine ctneeeeesisotie ns aicme oscceematac ceca Pallenide. 
PeaeAvtooence Present, SUNS... <2--\.. ocgeecepeeee ro -= tees sos edn ebeceeeeeen Achelida. 
C. Antenne wanting. 

al MISpLeseNithecciss siete esses s a 14 Ae ee ricees cecie cele 2.0 nelson Pasithoide. 

Pa lMIeW AN iN Pesce cacie<ci-ie= Je eicacts ee neater ee tean eee tel= <foicia coat Pycnogonide. 


This arrangement is, it is true, somewhat artificial, but it affords a 
convenient division of the genera, and may, for the present, be retained. 
Following, is a systematic account of the genera and species. 


Family I, PYCNOGONID ®. 
PyYCNOGONUM Briinnich. 


Body very broad and stout. Antenne and palpi wanting. <Acces- 
sory legs ten-jointed, wanting in the female. Legs stout, dactylus with- 
out auxiliary claws. 


Pycnogonum littorale (Grim) O. Fabr. 

Phalangium littorale Strém, Séndmér, p. 209, Pl. I, fig. 17, 1762. 

Acarus marinus Pallas, Misc. Zool., p. 188, Pl. XIV, figs. 21-23, 1766. 

Pycnogonum balenarum L., Syst. Nat., ed. XII, I., p. 1028, 1767.—Chr. Fabr., 
Ent. Syst., vol. iv, p. 416, 1794.—Latreille, Hist. Nat. des Crust. et des 
Insectes, Tom. vii, p. 332, 1804.—Gen. Crust. et Insect., Tom. i, p. 144, 1806. 

Pycnogonum littorale O, Fabr., Fauna Grénlandica, p. 233, 1780.—Abilgaard 
in O. F. Miiller, Zool. Dan., Volumen 3, p. 68, Pl. CXIX, figs. 10-12, 1789.— 
Cuvier, Régne Animal, Arachnides, Pl. 21, figs. 1 to 1d.—Milne-Edwards, 
Hist. Crust., vol. iii, p. 537, Pl. 41, fig. 6—Johnston, Mag. Zool. and Bot., vol. 
i, p. 376, Pl. XIII, figs. 1-3.—Kroéyer, Nat. Tidss., Iste Bind, 2det Heefte, p. 
126.—Isis, Jahrg. 1846, Heft vi, p. 442,—Voy. en Scand., Laponie, etc., Crust., 
Pl. 38, figs. 4a-e.—Norman, Rept. of the Brit. Assoc. for the Advancement 
of Sei. for 1868, p. 5301.—Whiteaves, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Nov., 1872, p. 
347; Rept. of a second Deep-sea Dredging Exp. to the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
[in 1872], p. 15 [Montreal, 1873?].—Mdébius, die wirbellosen Thiere der 
Ostsee, p. 153, 1873.—Hoek, Niederliindisches Archiv fiir Zool., Band iii, 
3tes Heft, p. 236, Pl. XV, figs. 1-3, 1877.—Verrill, Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 
x, p. 38, 1875.—Smith and Harger, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. iii, p. 10, 1874.— 
Wilson, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 4, Pl. I, figs. 1a-b, Pl. II, figs. 3 a-b, 
July, 1878. 

Pycnogonum pelagicum Stimpson, Invertebrata of Grand Manan, p. 37, 1853.— 
Verrill, Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. vii, p. 502, 1874. 

? Pychnogonum littorale Nicolet, in Gay, Historia fisica y politica de Chile, 
Zoologia, p. 308, Pl. 4, fig. 8, 1854. 


PLATE I, FIGURES 1 TO 3. 


Body very broad and flat. Lateral processes with scarcely any inter- 
val between them. Neck somewhat constricted, but broad and stout. 
Each segment has a prominent conical tubercle in the median line 
above, and one or two less prominent ones on each lateral process. 


A470 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Oculiferous tubercle prominent, broad and rounded. Eyes black 
widely separated, remarkably small. Abdomen slender, decidedly 
clavate, truncated at the extremity. Rostrum large, slender, basal half 
slightly swollen, outer portion attenuated, truncated at the tip. There 
is a slight constriction near the middle and another near the extremity, 
which give it a distinctly sinuous outline. 

Accessory legs very small and slender, composed of nearly equal 
short articulations, the first five of which are somewhat shorter than 
the others; the terminal joint is pointed and slightly curved; the outer 
joints bear a few small stout spines. 

Legs very stout; the three basal joints are short and thick, the first 
with two or three obtuse prominences above; fourth about twice the 
second, with one or two prominent tubercles at the distal extremity 
above; fifth similar, but not so much produced distally ; seventh joint 
or tarsus very short and nearly triangular ; eighth (propodus) narrow, 
somewhat curved; dactylus nearly half as long as the propodus, very 
stout. 

Many of the joints bear very short hairs, which are densely set on. 
the inferior side of the tarsus and propodus. The entire surface of the 
animal is covered with very small rounded tubercles, which give it a 
scabrous appearance. Color light yellowish brown to dark brown, the 
legs often blackish near their extremity. 

Length 16 millimeters; extent 38 millimeters.* 

This species has a wide range. Phillippi records it from Naples, and 
it appears to be common along the whole northern coast of Europe. 
Nicolet described and figured a form from Chili which is certainly very 
closely allied to, if not identical with, ours, and Mr. Henry H. Selater 
informs me that he has received specimens of a variety of this species 
from Japan. Dr. Boéhm reports a single specimen from Kerguelen 
Island. On our coast it ranges, so far as now known, from Long 
Island Sound to the Gulf of St. Lawrence ( Whiteaves), though its oceur- 
rence south of Cape Cod is exceptional. In the Bay of Fundy it is 
not uncommon under stones at low-water mark, and it extends down 
to 430 fathoms. It is sometimes found clinging to actinias; at Hast- 
port, Me., 17 specimens were taken from Bunodes stella, growing on the 
rocks near low-water mark; and off Cape Sable, N. 8., they were found 
in considerable numbers attached to the base of Bolocera Tuedic. ; 

A comparison of specimens from the Gulf of Maine and from Hast- 
port, Me., with specimens from Valentia, Ireland, received by the mu- 
seum of Yale College from the Rev. A. M. Norman, leaves no doubt of 
their identity. Stimpson’s P. pelagicum is evidently only the immature 
form. 


In my “Synopsis” (1. ¢.) reference was made to Dr. Hoek’s observation of the pres- 


ence of accessory legs in the male and their absence in the female of this species. As 
ee ee ee ee ee ee eee eee 


*The length includes the rostrum and abdomen. The extent is the distance from 
tip to tip of the outstretched legs. 


, 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 471 


it has been recently shown that in all cases where accessory legs are possessed by only 
one sex, this is the male and not the female, this observation was, of course, correct ; 
though Dr. Hoek did not extend it to the other species examined by him. 


Specimens examined, 


Number. * 


nD 
' =| 
Locality. & 
2 
ix} 
Fy 
Long Island Sound; 50 
off Race Point 
Rock. 
Nantucket Shoals. ..} 18-21 
Massachusetts Bay; 
1 mile south from 19 
Gloucester. 
Gulf of Maine; 134 90 
iniles 8. E. from 
Cape Ann. 
14 miles N. E. from 35 
Cape Ann. 
29 miles E. from | 110 
Cape Ann. 
27 miles E. from 85 
Cape Ann. 
Gulf of Maine; | 52-90 
Cashe’s Ledge. 
E. from George’s | 430 
Bank; 41° 25’ N., 
65° 42.3! W. 
Eastport, Me.; off | 20-25 
Cherry Island. 
Eastport, Me.; John- 12 


son’s Bay. 
Eastport, Me 


Eastport, Me......-. 

W. from Brown’s 
Bank; 42° 49 N., 
66° 19’ W. 

About 26 miles S. E. 
aon Cape Sable, 


About 39 miles 8. E. 
from Cape Sable, 
N.S 


About 44 miles S. E. 
from Cape Sable, 
N.S. 


91 


88 


| 


Specimens. 
\ When ‘col- |p... a. Dry. 
Bottom. vactedk Received from— Tre 
No. and sex. 
4 | = 
Shells, grav- | —— —, 1874 U.S. Fish Com. | 1h Owe Ale. 
el, rock. 
Seappoccesaer Septi— STA eee Oe ate | litem stlaetl| PANG 
Rocks, sand..| ——-—, 1878 |..-.do .....--.. 1 ese sea PANG 
Soft mud... -.| ——- —, 1878 |....do ......... Ht One aces Ale. 
Stones, gravel, ——- —, 1873 |.. =O) saelactne oie giles, aes Oy | Alc. 
Soft mud. ...| ——-—, 1878 |..-.do .......-. 4.9) se cases Ale 
Sandy, omuds a) —> 18718) endo een ene Digi DO aeeee| AUG 
gravel. 
Rocks i... | ——— —, 1873 |.-..do0 -.--..:-- 1 OP siete Ale 
Ssasobscs comsac! Sep Low lS sane Ore scnc ceek | to Cheaters PAG 
Peon ender rake |e at BTN SO recta meee 
Rocks!<cce- <1 ——-~ —, 1872 |..-.do ......-.. | 
—- —, 1872 |....do ......--. 
| ————$. — , 1872 |.--.do........-- 
——- —, 1870 | Expedition ’70| 6 
Aug. 18,1868 | Expedition ’68|) 4 
—, 1864 | Expedition ’64 | 17 
Ses agTUOaegse ——— —, 1864 | Expedition 64; 1¢ Alc. 
Hard. 5.5=52 — —,1877| U.S. FishCom | 20,1592 ...] Ale 
Rocks. ......| ——- —,1877 |.--.do ..---.--. ZiGiy bs Qiee asa 
Very fine sand| ——- —, 1877 |....do .-.-..--- Ve Ow seo tee Ale 
dose feene pel os 1877) | a td ae ee 2) Gi, BIO) 52 Ades 


Family 1, ACHELID A. 


TANYSTYLUM Miers. 


Body broad and stout. Antenne rudimentary, one-jointed. Palpi six- 


jointed. Accessory legs ten-jointed, present in both sexes. 


dactylus with auxiliary claws. 


Tanystylum orbiculare Wilson. 

Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 5, Pl. II, figs. 2a to 2 f, Aug., 1878. 
?? Pasithoe umbonata Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 92. 
Pallene, sp., Smith in Report on the Invertebrata of Vineyard Sound, p. £50 (544). 


Puare III, Figure 11. 


Legs stout, 


Body orbicular, deeply incised between the lateral processes, which 


are in close contact. 


Oculiferous segment extremely broad, neck not 


472. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


evident. Oculiferous tubercle large and rounded. Eyes black. Abdo- 
men rather large, tapering, truncated, and slightly bifid at the extremity; 
it usually projects vertically upward. 

Rostrum very large, rounded-conical, little constricted at the base, 
somewhat shorter than the body. 

Antenne rudimentary, consisting of a single knob-like joint, which 
is thinly covered with hairs. 

Palpi slightly longer than the rostrum; the first, second, fourth, and 
fifth joints are nearly equal, and about as long as broad; the third and 
sixth are nearly equal, and about twice the others. The outer joints are 
somewhat hairy, the terminal one most so. 

Accessory legs about half as large in the female as in the male. In 
the latter the basal joint is somewhat swollen and about as long as 
broad. The second, fourth, and fifth are nearly equal, and longer than 
the third ; the remaining joints are short, decreasing in size to the last, 
which is very small. In the male the proportions are nearly the same, 
but the third joint is proportionally longer, and all of the others are 
more robust. The three outer joints are nearly globose, the terminal 
one minute. This joint bears, in both sexes, two spines, one of which 
is sometimes bifid at the tip. Other spines occur on the four preceding 
joints and are sometimes bifid. 

Legs rather stout, sparsely hairy, the fifth and sixth joints having, 
above, alternate depressions and elevations, producing a deeply sinuous 
outline; each of these elevations bears a number of hairs. The three 
basal joints are very stout and short; the three following are each 
about equal to the three basal joints united; tarsus nearly triangular, 
with two or three stout spines below; propodus strongly curved, with a 
series of stout curved spines on the lower margin, on the upper side 
hairy; dactylus more than half the propodus, stout and curved; auxil- 
lary claws about half as long as the dactylus. 

Color of alcoholic specimens light yellowish brown. Length 1.5 milli- 
meters; extent 6.4 millimeters. 

The egg-masses are three or four in number and of a light yellow color. 
In some specimens the embryos had escaped from the eggs; they closely 
resemble those of Achelia, described on p. —, and the antenne are large 
and chelate. 

This genus, recently described by Miers from specimens collected at 
Kerguelen Island, is interesting from the extreme reduction of the an- 
tenn, thus offering a transition from the Achelide to the Pasithoide. 

T. orbiculare extends from off Martha’s Vineyard to Virginia; it is 
almost invariably found upon Hydroids or Ascidians growing on piles 
of wharves, etc., and down to 14 fathoms. 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 473 


Specimens examined, 


| 
. a Specimens. 
5 we 5 ae When col- TABOR ae Dry. 
2 Locality. E Bottom. ezedk Received from— me 
S = No. and sex. 
A & 
Off Point Comfort, |........ Mudizeeeceee —— —,1877|S. F. Clarke..-| 14,19 ..... Alc. 
Va. 
ADTGRPDTOOKLYN NG Viea~ 3 | cnc ccisic-|'s+cecc salen sce [peseeeeneias cc DACA Batons. <1] leeeees eee Alc. 
New Haven, Conn ..|........ On) piles'32-4| SSeS see ase 8.1. Smith. .... TO) oceans Ale. 
ATi Masher jusilamide | 10-12) |). 222) econ July 13, 1874 | U.S. FishCom.| 19........-. Ale. 
Sound. 
OL Sa Ott SCONIN SLON: CONN ee assis oie] (2 oc cceteseinisisciela= ee UGH ES nnaekbecesocsee WiOrs ses eee Ale. 
ATOM mVAneyardisoundmsse||s 14) |e .es elie see: Ul || coc) bchesonee eh 2 Oe Ale. 
UT! || (Qi? A VEN es) abies | BRE Geo ee sondco sceecsod sacuboesecce-|!socn (Ol) oaeeecse 6¢,72,20.| Ale. 
yard. 


ACHELIA Hodge. 


Body broad. Antenne small, two-jointed, not chelate. Palpi cight- 
jointed. Accessory legs ten-jointed, present in both sexes. Legs stout; 
dactylus with auxiliary claws. 


Achelia spinosa (Stimp.) Wilson. 


Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p.7, pl. ii, figs. la to 1h, Aug., 1878. 
Zetes spinosa Stimpson, Invertebrata of Grand Manan, p. 37, 1853. 


PLATE I, FIGURE 4; PLATE II, FIGURE 8. 


Body nearly orbicular, deeply incised, segments not apparent. Lat- 
eral processes separated by a distinct interval. Neck distinct, but very 
broad. Oculiferous tubercle large and prominent, acute. Eyes ovate, 
black. Abdomen very long and slender, bifid at the tip. 

Rostrum large, thickest in the middle and tapering to both ends, 
truncated at the extremity. 

Antenne not quite half the rostrum. The basal joint is about four 
times as long as broad, somewhat swollen near the extremity, where 
there are two or three tubercles, each terminated by a stout hair. 
Second joint rounded and knob-like, with one or two hairs. 

Palpi slightly longer than the rostrum; the first, third, and four 
outer joints are very short, the first somewhat swollen ; the second and 
fourth are much longer and nearly equal; all but the basal joint are 
hairy, the four outer ones only on the exterior margin. 

Accessory legs in the male rather large. The two basal joints are 
short and stout, followed by three longer and more slender ones. The 
remaining five are much shorter, the terminal one very small and nearly 
globular ; it bears two very large flattened denticulated spines; each of 
the two preceding joints has asimilar spine; the outer joints are sparsely 
-hairy, most of the hairs pointing backward. In the female this append- 
age is much smaller and proportionally stouter; the two basal and five 
distal joints are nearly as in the male, but the third, fourth, and fifth are 
much shorter and stouter. 


474 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. - 


Legs rather long; the three basal joints are short and stout, the 
second longest; the three following joints are nearly equal, each about 

as long as the three basal joints united; tarsus small, about one-fourth 

the propodus; the latteris strongly curved and armed below witha series. 
of short stout spines; dactylus about half the propodus, stout and curved; 

auxiliary claws more than half the dactylus. The entire surface of the 

legs and body is scabrous with numerous pointed hairy tubercles often 

tipped with spines; the lateral processes of the body have three or four 

of these tubercles near the exterior margin; the largest are on the basal 

joints of the legs; on the other joints they are much smaller. The legs 

are throughout hairy and most of the hairs are borne on prominent tub- 
ercles. Color of alcoholic specimens ight brown. Length 2.6 millime- 

ters; extent 8.4 millimeters. 

The egg-masses of a male specimen from Eastport, Maine, contain 
embryos recently escaped from the egg. The antenne of these are 
enormously large and strongly chelate. The basal joint bears, at its 
extremity, on the outer side, a long spine. The two remaining ap- 
pendages consist of two basal joints and a long, slender, acute terminal 
one, bearing a spine near its middle. The body is nearly hemispherical 
and without trace of segmentation. Rudiments of the eyes have ap- 
peared. The rostrum is rounded-conical and much smaller than in the 
adult. 

There can be, I think, no doubt of the identity of this form with Stimp- 
son’s Zetes spinosa. Its most closely allied European representative is 
A. echinata Hodge [Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 3d series, 
vol. xiii, No. Ixxiv, p. 115, pl. xii, figures 7-10, 1864], and I at first 
thought it was identical with that species. A comparison of A. spinosa 
with three specimens of A. echinata from Heligoland, received from Pro- 
fessor Semper, shows the two species to be perfectly distinct. The lat- 
ter species has a slender, tapering rostrum of a very different shape ; 
the peculiar conical spinous tubercles upon the legs are much more nu- 
merous, larger, and more slender; the abdomen is much. shorter and 
stouter. Moreover, in A. echinata the second joint, in at least the two 
posterior pairs of legs, has a very prominent, rounded, hairy tubercle, 
projecting from the lower and posteriorside, which is wanting in our 
species. 

_ This species ranges from Grand Manan, N. B., to Block Island Sound, 
though it appears to be peculiarly a northern form, being represented 
south of Cape Cod, thus far, by a single specimen. At Eastport, Me., 
it is very common upon Hydroids, Ascidians, and other animals, and 
under stoaes near low-water mark; in Casco Bay it is also frequently 
found under similar circumstances. A single specimen was dredged by 


the U. 8. Fish Commission, off Block Island, August 30, 1874, 34: 


fathoms, mud, which is the most southern locality recorded, and also 
the greatest depth. 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 475 


Specimens examined. 


‘ a Specimens. 
<I 
iS) Locality. g Bottom. Nibep col: Received from—|—————- yes 
F RB No. and sex. 
A & 
4785 | Off Block Island....| 34 Werth eaesseae Aug. 30, 1874 | U.S. FishCom.} 19-........-. Ale. 
Ram Island Ledge, | L.w. | Rocks...-.-... a VBI GB actiley eee ooodee 17 gy 12190. |PAlle: 
Casco Bay. 
4775 HS mport, MGicseses Wawa s\eeeedO0\e serine — —,1868| Expedition ’68 Ale. 
nee Laws, |---do, — —, 1870! Expedition ’70 -| Ale. 
4780 |.... — —, 1872] U.S. FishCom. Bo || atikey 
4781 |.... ae an 187] Reed ol meee. oe 3, 49,20.| Ale. 


Achelia scabra, sp. nov. 


Body nearly orbicular, without distinct segmentation. Lateral pro- 
cesses comparatively short and stout, scarcely separated from each 
other; all except the posterior pair have two prominent conical spinous 
tubercles on the upper side near the outer margin; there is a similar 
but larger tubercle on each side of the neck, anterior to the first lateral 
process. Oculiferous tubercle obtuse, very large and stout; eyes large 
and conspicuous, black. Abdomen long and slender, constricted in the 
middle, bifid at the tip; along the sides it is somewhat spinous. 

Rostrum large and stout, obtusely rounded-conical. 

Antenne extending to about the middle of the rostrum, very stout; 
basal joint about two and a half times as long as broad, second joint 
very short and stout, ovoid. 

Palpi nearly as in A. spinosa. The hairs upon the exterior margin of 
the distal joints are very stout and close-set. 

Accessory legs also much like those of A. spinosa, and presenting 
similar sexual differences; in the female they are much smaller, and 
with the third, fourth, and. fifth joints much shorter than in the male; 
the terminal joint is, in both sexes, very minute. 

Legs rather long, very rough and tuberculose, so that the outlines, 
particularly of the outer joints, are very irregular; tarsus very short 
and small, propodus stout and curved, dactylus two-thirds the propodus;. 
auxiliary claws very slender and small, scarcely one-fifth the dactylus. 
This latter joint has upon the lower (concave) margin three stout, 
curved, divergent spines, at the basal angle, followed by an irregular 
series of smaller ones. The tarsus is also armed, upon its lower side, 
with a number of spines. 

The whole surface of the legs and body is rough and! scabrous; many’ 
of the larger tubercles upon the legs are tipped with stout es or 
slender spines; but these are nearly wanting on the three basal joints, 
and are everywhere less numerous and conspicuous than in A. spinosa. 
Color in alcohol, dirty white. Length 2.3 millimeters. 

This species, aie I at first mistook for A. spinosa, 18 represented by 
only two specimens, as follows: 


476 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Specimens examined. 


5 g Specimens. 
E Locality. a . Bottom. 6 Aion di Received from—|———___— eee 
7 Ss No. and sex. 
4936 | Cape ae INGENG Vives], 28) Gravel stones} —— —, 1878 | U.S. Fish Com.} 1¢'..........|...... 
15 miles. 
4935 | St. George’s Banks... 45) eens gah stent ——— == 1873! dO teases i Keyes + See asl ee 


The following are the most important points in which it differs from 
A. spinosa: The lateral processes are much shorter and in close contact, 
the three basal joints of the legs almost entirely lack the spinous tuber- 
cles characteristic of that species; the antenne are much stouter, the 
rostrum stouter and less constricted at the base, and the auxiliary claws 
are less than half as large; (this last character affords the readiest 
means of distinguishing the two species.) 


Family II, PALLENIDA. 
PALLENE Johnston. 


Body comparatively stout. Rostrum short, rounded. Antennz ro- 
bust, three-jointed, chelate. Palpi wanting. Accessory legs nine- 
jointed, present in both sexes. Legs very long; dactylus with auxiliary 
claws. 


Pallene empusa Wilson. 
Proc. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 9, Pl. IU, figs. 2.4 to 2g, August, 1878. 


PLATE II, FIGURES 5 to 7. 


Body robust, smooth, distinctly segmented. Lateral processes well 
separated. Neck long, very slender at base. Oculiferous tubercle sub- 
acute, small, but prominent. Abdomen very small and short. 

Rostrum nearly hemispherical, evenly rounded, smooth. 

Antenne sparingly hairy, short and stout. The opposable edges of 
the second and third joints are coarsely toothed, the teeth evenly 
rounded, so that the outline is deeply sinuous. There are about seven 
of these on the second joint, and many more, smaller ones, on the 
dactylus. 

Accessory legs in the male about one-third the legs; the third joint is 
curved and about equal to the two basal joints united. Fourth joint 
considerably longer than the third, suddenly expanding at its distal ex- 
tremity below; the five remaining joints are much shorter and nearly 
equal; the terminal one smoothly rounded at the extremity; each of the 
outer four joints is armed with a series of seven or eight spines; these 
are very broad and thin, with minute slender teeth, which do not extend 
to the*base and are usually terminal; some of the spines are truncated, 
others smoothly rounded at the extremity. In the female the appendage 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 477 
a 


is considerably smaller, the third and fourth joints are much shorter and 
stouter,.and the latter is not expanded at the extremity. 

Legs enormously long, over four times the length of the body, very 
slender near the base, much stouter distally ; the first and third joints 
are short, the second much longer, about five times the first ;. the three 
following are much longer and very stout; the fourth is usually dis- 
tended by the generative organs; tarsus very short and nearly trian- 
gular; propodus nearly straight and very slender; it is very narrow at 
the base, expanding to two and a half times this width, near the ex- 
tremity; on the inferior side, near the base, are four or five stout spines, 
followed by a series of much smaller and more slender ones; dactylus 
slender, more than half the length of the propodus; auxiliary claws 
slender, two-thirds as long as the dactylus. The legs bear a few scat- 
tered stout hairs, most numerous distally. Length 1.5 millimeters; ex- 
tent 13 millimeters. Color in alcohol, white. 

This interesting species is closely similar to the European P. Dre- 
virostris Johnston, the type of the genus, and it is possible that a larger 
series of specimens may prove the identity of the two forms. The Pea- 
body Museum has received, from Professor Semper, three specimens of 
the European species, collected at Heligoland, in the North Sea; these 
specimens agree in having a shorter and broader neck than that of our 
species, and the rostrum is much longer. I think that the species must 
be kept separate unless a series of specimens show intermediate forms. 

New Haven to Vineyard Sound. Several specimens were taken, in 
1874, by Prof. S. I. Smith, from tubularian hydroids growing on the bot- 
tom of an old ‘ship at Noank, Conn. Professor Verrill notes that the 
eyes are, in life, of a bright red color. 


Specimens examined. 


i Z Specimens. 
= Locality. & Bottom. Wien oor Received from——————_ yak 
= S : e 
7, & No. and sex. 
5022 | New Haven, Conn...|-...-....- Ny ek elie a. a ead SseiNmithiss s2|| gn @Ossees= Ale. 
os at Ghrepes Gini Beesasee aaeese aeccsocs —— —,1865 | A.E. Verrill ..| 1......-.----. Ale. 
ight. 
4811 | Noank Harbor, Conn, 3 Minds. cce- —— —, 1874 | U.S. Fish Com.| 4,29,1¢-.--.} Ale. 
BRON OAM OOM: sce ce ace clseclocomsemeee <= -2 —— ISTE F200 sec debcc|. 15 sec eseens Ale. 
4310) | Vaneyard Sound: <2. -|--sccace|ossncs «ocncon. —— —, 1871 |....do ......-... Peo E OG OSI ISS Ale. 


PSEUDOPALLENE Wilson. 


Body robust; neck broad and thick; rostrum more or less acute. 
Antenne three-jointed, chelate; palpi wanting; accessory legs eleven- 
jointed, present in both sexes; legs stout and comparatively short, 
dactylus without auxiliary claws. 

This genus has hitherto been confounded with Pallene, and some con- 
fusion has thus been caused in the diagnosis of that genus. 

In Pallene, as described by Johnston (Mag. Zool. and Bot., vol. i, p. 


478 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


380) the accessory legs are nine-jointed; the neck is constricted and 
more or less elongated as in Nymphon; the rostrum is short and nearly 
hemispherical; and the dactylus bears two very large auxiliary claws. 
The presence or absence of these claws is a good generic character; 
they are always two in number, are movably articulated to the dactylus, 
and are provided with a special set of muscles by means of which they 
are moved. It is to be observed, also, that the peculiar spines upon the 
outer joints of the accessory legs in Pallene are very unlike those of 
Pseudopallene. 

Kroyer figures three species of ‘“Pallene” in Gaimard’s Voy. en 
Seand., Laponie, ete. (P. discoidea, P. intermedia, and P. spinipes). The 
first of these is undoubtedly a Pseudopallene, and probably also the 
other two, but, not having examined specimens of them, I have been 
unable to verify this. 


Pseudopallene hispida (Stimp.) Wilson. 


American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xv, No. 87, p. 200, 1878.—Trans. 
Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 10, Pl. III, figs. 1a to le, July, 1878. 
Pallene hispida Stimpson, Invertebrata of Grand Manan, p. 37, 1853. 


PLATE II, FIGURE 9. 


Body oval, very broad, neck not constricted. Oculiferous tubercle 
small, rounded. Eyes ovate, light brown. Oculiferous segment half 
as long as the body. The second and third segments have, above, two 
prominent conical tubercles, each of which is tipped by a hair. The 
lateral thoracic processes are very broad and are not separated by any 
interval; they bear, on the outer margin, two to four acute, hairy tuber- 
cles. Abdomen twice as long as broad, truncate, hairy. 

Rostrum slightly hairy, acute-conical, as long as the oculiferous seg- 
ment, with a constriction on each side, below, giving it the appearance 
of being articulated at this point. The mouth is terminal and sur- 
rounded by a rosette of filamentary processes. 

Antenne very stout and swollen, hairy, tipped with amber-color, about 
twice as long as the rostrum; claws of chele blunt and rounded; basal 
joints enlarged near their attachment; thé second joint has, on its 
lower margin, a prominent rounded tubercle behind which the dactylus 
closes. 

Accessory legs slender; in the female the two basal joints are short, 
the third longer, the fourth and fifth still longer, sixth about as long as 
the third; the remaining joints are shorter and decrease in size to the 
last, which is spine-like and trifid at its extremity; the four outer joints 
are armed with four or five stout, smooth, curved spines. In the male 
these appendages are considerably longer and more slender, and the 
fifth joint has a prominent rim or shoulder at its distal extremity, as in 
Pallene empusa, which is armed below with a few stout spines. The 
terminal joint is not trifid but simply claw-like; it is attenuated toward 
the tip and abruptly incurved. 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 479 


Legs very stout, the three basal joints short and overlapping each 
other; fourth joint as long as the three basal ones, much distended with 
the ovaries in the specimen described; fifth as long as the fourth, but 
much more slender; sixth still longer and more slender; tarsus very 
short, nearly triangular; propodus tapering from the base, slightly 
curved, armed on the inferior margin with five or six stout curved 
spines; dactylus curved, acute, about two-thirds as long as the pro- 
podus. 

All of the legs bear a number of prominent, conical, spiny tubercles. 
These are arranged in longitudinal rows on some of the joints, particu- 
larly on the fifth and sixth, which thus appear deeply serrate on the 
margin. The entire surface of the body is rough and more or less hairy. 

Color, in alcohol, light brown. Length 3 millimeters; legs 7.5 milli- 
meters; accessory legs 3.7 millimeters. 

I have seen only two specimens, namely: 


Specimens examined. 


B Z | Specimens. 
Oo 
E : . Locality. FE Bottom. ener a Ae Received from—|——— ak 
>] . . 
wi ree No. and sex 
4812 deinen 8 Bey, East- 12 Rocks)-- 32-5 —— —, 1872 | U.S. FishCom.| 19 ......... Ale. 
port, Me ; 
B00 Grand MananwN, By) 50255 |2.cee.cs cee e —— —, 1872 |....do ..\-- 3.05. MS tci@) ace Ale. 


Stimpson first obtained this species from deep water off Grand 
Manan, “on Ascidie callose.” 


Pseudopallene discoidea (Kréyer) Wilson. 
Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 12, Pl. III, figs. 3a to 3¢, July, 1878. 
Pallene discoidea Kroyer, Nat. Tidss., Iste Bind, 2det Heefte, p. 120, 1844; Voy. 
en Scand., Laponie, etc., Pl. 37, fig. 3a—gq; Isis, Jahrg. 1846, Heft vi, p. 443. 
PLATE II, Figure 10. 

Body oval, somewhat narrower than that of P. hispida, lateral pro- 
cesses in close contact. Abdomen pointed, slightly bifid at the tip. 

Rostrum obtuse, slightly hairy, outline of sides convex. 

Antenne stout, but not so much so as in P. hispida; basal joint not 
enlarged near the base. Chelz with the claws acute and finely serrated 
along the opposable margins, second joint with no tubercles on the 
inferior margin. 

Accessory legs of the female short and stout, all of the joints being 
broad and short; fourth and fifth joints longest, terminal joint acute; 
the 7th, Sth, 9th and 10th joints have each a simple spine on the upper 
side. ; 

Legs nearly as in P. hispida, but longer and more slender, particu- 
larly in their basal portion, where the joints do not overlap. 

The legs and body are armed with conical hairy tubercles arranged 
nearly as in the preceding species. Color light yellowish brown. 
Length, 3 millimeters. 


480 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


This species is represented by two female specimens, of which one was 
taken with Caprella on the tangles in 20 fathoms, rocky bottom, East- 
port Harbor, by the United States Fish Commission, August 9, 1872; 
the other is simply labeled “ Eastport Harbor, 1870.” 

This species is very similar to the last, and a larger number of speci- 
mens may show them to be identical. The specimens described pre- 
sent, however, well-marked differences, particularly in the shape and 
armature of the antennie, the shape of the rostrum, abdomen, ete. 
Though not agreeing perfectly with Kroéyer’s figures of P. discoidea, 
there can be little doubt of the identity of our species with it. 


Specimens examined. 


Weiintas Specimens. 
3 Locality. | 8 Bottom. Wee 4d ol- 'Receivedfrom— ae 
8 | 4 x 
a | é No. and sex. 
| 
4922 || Hastporb Harbor, Me)|-----.-.|----<---..-2-- —— —,1870| Expedition,’70 |} 1 9-.....--- Ale. 
AONB) |losccil® sscocedesoe eoee 20 Rocks ...... — —,1872| U.S. FishCom.| 1 9 ......--- Ale. 


PHOXICHILIDIUM Milne Edwards. 


Body slender; neck short. Rostrum cylindrical, rounded. Anten- 
ne three-jointed, chelate. Palpi wanting. Accessory legs five-jointed, 
absent in the female. Legs slender; dactylus with auxiliary claws. 


Phoxichilidium maxillare Stimpson. 


Phoxichilidium maxillare Stimpson, Invertebrata of Grand Manan, p. 37, 1853.— 
Wilson, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 12, Pl. IV, figs. 1a to le, July, 1878. 
Phoxichilidium minor Wilson, op. cit., p. 13, PL IV, figs. 2a to 2b, July, 1878. 


PuaTE III, Figures 12 to 15. 


Body rather stout. Oculiferous segment twice as broad as long. 
Oculiferous tubercle prominent, acute. Eyes ovate, nearly white in 
aleohol. Posterior segment much smaller and narrower than the next 
anterior. Abdomen small and rounded. 

Rostrum stout, usually about as long as the oculiferous segment 
though the length is somewhat variable, nearly cylindrical, rounded at 
the extremity. It is sometimes slightly constricted a short distance 
from the tip; in other cases no such constriction is apparent, and the 
outline of the lateral margins may be slightly convex (P. *‘ minor”). 

‘Antenne stout, almost destitute of hairs. Claws of the chele very 
strongly curved, quite smooth on the opposable margins; the dactylus 
projects somewhat beyond the extremity of the preceding joint, and is 
very thick and strong. 

Accessory legs nearly one-third as long as the legs; basal joint stouter 
than the others; third joint longest; terminal joint strongly curved, 
smoothly rounded at the tip, armed on each side with six or eight simple 
spines directed backward, and below, with three or four stouter ohes; 
the other joints have a few scattered hairs. 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 481 


Legs comparatively stout, remarkably smooth in appearance, though 
with a very few scattered hairs; basal joint nearly quadrate, about half 
the lengtk of the second, which is somewhat longer than the third; the 
three following are nearly equal and longer than the three basal joints 
united; propodus stout and curved, about four times the tarsus; on its 
inferior margin are five stout spines followed by a series of very small 
ones; dactylus stout, more than half the propodus; auxiliary claws 
smalk varying from one-fifth to one-fourth the length of the dactylus. 

Color blackish or sepia to nearly pure white. Length of adult speci- 
mens 2 to 4.75 millimeters; extent of legs 15 to 30 millimeters. 

Most of the specimens from the Bay of Fundy are dark colored and 
of large size, and differ in several other particulars from those taken in 
Casco Bay, at Gloucester, Mass., and other southern localities. These 
differences are so striking that I was led to deseribe the southern form 
as a new species under the name Phoxichilidium minor. Since the pub- 
lication of that description, however, a much larger series of specimens 
has been obtained, which shows conclusively that the two forms cannot 
be separated, ae extreme forms appear very unlike. The southern 
form is almost always white in color, and very small, even when adult; 
it further differs in the shape of the rostrum and antenne, and in being 
more slender in nearly all respects. 

Phoxichilidium femoratum of Northern Europe is closely similar to 
this species, but is figured as being more slender, of a different color, 
and with the propodus and dactylus differently armed and shaped. 
I think it quite possible that they may be shown to be identical, but it 
seems preferable to keep them separate at present. The so-called 
“species” of this genus need revision (though in this respect the genus 
is not wholly without a parallel among the Pycnogonida), and undoubtedly 
a large series of specimens would reduce their number. 

The observed range of P. mavillare is from Gloucester, Mass., to Hali- 
fax, N.8.; and in depth, from low water to 55 fathoms. At Eastport, 
Me., it is very common under stones at or near low-water mark, and fre- 
quently numbers of them cling to each other in a tangled mass. 


Specimens examined. 


3 5 Specimens. 
E Locality. g Bottom. | Meee Receivedfrom— Oy, : 
— 
SS A 
z é | No. and sex. 
4937 | Gloucester, Mass....| L.w. | On piles...-. — —, 1878} U.S. FishCom.-| 127,13 9 ...] Ale. 
40390) °A bout omilesmorth: |i 2o20 2 |iio.. 2-2... — —, 1878 |.--.do .....-... 24 g', 259 ...| Ale 
from Cape Ann. 
Ram Island Ledge, | L.w. | Rocks......- — —,1873]..-.do......... 220,399 ..-| Alc. 
Casco Bay. 
5026 | Casco Bay ..-....... 16 Mando lacesop Oee eo ate ———) —) 1STes ee. dor sete Vif etse cee Ale 
BOLG an OO me sbenmen eae alec nase clos one nsec a ace —— —,1873]....do......... SiS Oe a PANG: 
5025 Portland, WVEG NEE oes L.w. | On piles..-... —— —, 1873 }.-...do ......... Wtotrey dese eine Ale. 
5004 | Grand Manan, N.B .| 50,55 |.............. rw SO tdo2 ae ey iD eeS ORB EE Ale. 
Eastport, Me........ DW" |eceeas ordccece — —, 1868 ‘Expedition, 68 | 149,69 ....| Ale 
Bn Oleic cate celteeesees WES Wis eis tanecia wa cioacse — —,1870} Expedition, ’70| 73,79 ..-.-. 
so GRO Aacoombcici: Ie a otal eect oes ce — —, 1872] U.S. FishCom.| 29,69 ..--. Ale, 
4795 Halifax, N. Sussdencs L.w. | On piles ..... — —,1877|....do......... iL Oi daecs ses Ale, 


ol F 


482 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ANOPLODACTYLUS Wilson. 


Body slender. Rostrum cylindrical, rounded. Antenne three-jointed, 
chelate. Palpi wanting. Accessory legs six-jointed, wanting in the 
female. Neck elongated, extending forward over the rostrum. Legs 
slender; dactylus without auxiliary claws. 

This genus differs from Phowichilidium, which it otherwise closely 
resembles, in the number of joints composing the accessory legs, and in 
the absence of auxiliary claws upon the dactylus. Phowichilidium has 
been made to include several distinct types, among them a form having 
eleven-jointed accessory legs (P. flwminense Kr.), and “ Phoxichilidium 
cheliferum” Claparede, a very remarkable form with the accessory legs 
ten-jointed and distinctly chelate. 

Kroyer’s Phovichilidium petiolatum (Voy. en Scand., Laponie, ete., Pl. 
38, fig. 3) belongs to Anoplodactylus, and probably also Phoxichilidium 
virescens Hodge. 

- Since the publication of my original description of this genus it has 
been pointed out to me that Say’s genus Anaphia (described in 1821) 
may be identical with it. Say’s description was based upon two speci- 
mens which did net possess accessory legs and were probably females; 
hence it is impossible to determine their exact generic characters. 
Nevertheless, their general agreement with the type of Anoplodactylus 
is so close that I think it probable that they are generically the same; 
and, if so, of course the name Anaphia should be used. To prevent 
possible confusion, however, the later name is retained until an oppor- 
tunity is afforded for examination of specimens from the locality where 
Say’s specimens were collected. 


Anoplodactylus lentus Wilson. 

American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xv, No. 87, p. 200, 1878. —Trans. 
Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 14, Pl. IV, figs. 3 a to 3 e, pie 1878. 

Phoxichilidium mazillare Smith, Report on the Invertebrata of Vineyard 
Sound, &c., p. 250 [544], Pl. VI, fig. 35, 1874 [non Stimpson]. 

? Anaphia pallida Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., vol. 2, p. 59, Pl. V, figs. 7 
and 7a, 1821. 

PLATE III, Figures 16 to 18. 

Body slender, lateral processes widely separated. Oculiferous seg- 
ment broad, as long as the two following segments united, not emargi- 
nate between the bases of the antennx. Posterior segment somewhat 
elongated and very slender, the lateral processes directed obliquely 
backward. Neck swollen. Abdomen rather more than twice as long 
as broad, slightly bifid at the extremity. Oculiferous tubercle promi- 
nent, acute, placed far forward. Eyes ovate, light brown to black. 

Rostrum large, longer than the oculiferous segment, somewhat con- 
stricted basally, so as to appear clavate; extremity subglobose. 

Antenne long and slender, hairy, their bases closely approximated ; 
basal joint extending beyond the extremity of the rostrum; chelz stout, 
hairy, claws acute, opposable edges smooth. 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 483 


Accessory legs stout, roughened by minute tubercles, the outer 
joints with many short stout hairs, most of which are directed back- 
ward; the two basal joints are very stout, the first shorter than its 
width, the second about twice as long; third nearly two and a half 
times the second, somewhat clavate, suddenly constricted a short dis- 
tance from the base; fourth half the length of the third, considerably 
longer than the fifth; sixth much smaller than the preceding. 

Legs very long and slender; first and third joints very short; second 
longer and clavate; the three following joints are much longer, sixth 
longest; tarsus very short, deeply emarginate; propodus curved, with 
a rounded lobe near the base bearing five or six strong spines; these 
are followed by a series of much smaller ones; dactylus stout, about 
two-thirds the length of the propodus. Entire surface of the body 
seabrous. Legs with a few scattered hairs, which are most numerous 
on the outer joints. 

The sexes resemble each other closely, but the females do not possess 
accessory legs; the female is, as a rule, slightly larger than the male. 
Length 7 millimeters; legs 30 millimeters. 

This species is nearest to “‘Phoxichilidium petiolatum” Kr., of Europe. 
In the latter species, however, according to the figures, the anterior 
segment is much more slender, and it is emarginate between the bases 
of the antennz, which are thus separated by a distinct interval; the 
posterior segment is represented as stouter and shorter; the rostrum 
more abbreviated; and the propodus of a different shape. Kroyer 
figures the accessory legs with seven joints, probably mistaking the con- 
striction near the base of the third joint for an articulation. 

Common between tide-marks and down to six fathoms in Vineyard 
Sound, where it is found on shelly bottoms ‘“ clinging to and creeping 
over the hydroids and ascidians.” “It is most frequently deep purple 
in eolor, but gray and brown specimens are often met with” (Verrill). 
It is also taken rarely in the Bay of Fundy, there being a single speci- 
men in a vial with Phoxichilidium mazxillare and Pycnogonum littorale 


from Eastport. 
Specimens examined. 


= 
be Speci 
rb) n i mens 
2 Locality. : Bottom. Wen coe |Receivedfrom—| rate 
8 ees a | No. and 
iz | | | sex 
ee eS | 
} | 
4807 | Long Island Sound ..|........ | ction Sd scooagat ees | — —,1874| U.S. FishCom. WE) 5 seine Ale. 
4804 | Cataumut Harbor...:) 4 Eel-grass ..-...- | —— —,1875|....do ......... SY eae BES Ale. 
4800 | Vineyard Sound, Mass) 3-5 Graven ccaceae — —,1871]....do ../...... 80,169 .| Ale. 
pate re odes oar se hee ob] ate oscisiea|'s a 2 Bo EOC a referer += ao ei aiasalcranaaye 206,392 .-- Aas 
Hy ee Rt ese eee 8 Ci Aan aes — —,1875|....do......... 30,79 ..| Ale 
5021 | Wood's: Holl, Mass? |......../...-.- Pees ce —— —,1875|....do......... 1g aaa Ale. 
Eastport, TFG Ese ch fg MSDN le a Mam PUI 1 | bal el ede heer Ale. 
EET SE rv ad Ee SE Re 5 aie ree EE es Fe) RO 


484 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Family IV, NYMPHONIDA. 


AMMOTHEA Leach. 


Body broad, neck scarcely apparent. Rostrum large, tapering. An- 
tenn small, three-jointed, chelate. Palpi eight-jointed. Accessory 
legs nine-jointed ; in the female five-jointed (?). Legs slender. Auxili- 
ary claws present. 


Ammothea achelioides Wilson. 
Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 16, Pl. V, figs. la to le, July, 1878. 


PuatTE IV, Figures 19 and 20. 


Body very broad, oval, segments not evident, lateral processes scarcely 
separated. Oculiferous tubercle prominent, acute; eyes dark; abdomen 
long and very slender, bifid at the extremity. 

Rostrum large, tapering, extremity rounded. 

Antenne about three-fourths as long as the rostrum; basal joint 
narrowest near the middle, somewhat hairy, with one or two prominent 
tubercles, each tipped by a slender spine; chela with the claws very 
slender and strongly curved, armed with a few small spines on the 
opposable edges. 

Palpi slender, longer than the rostrum, sparsely hairy, most so on the 
distal joints; the first, third, and four distal joints are very short; ter- 
minal one shortest; sixth longest; the second and fourth are nearly 
equal and more than twice the basal joint. 

Accessory legs, in all the specimens examined, very short, swollen 
and pellucid, so that the joints could with difficulty be distinguished. 
They are composed of five joints; a very short basal one and four other 
longer ones; the terminal one is tapering, smoothly rounded at the tip. 
It seems probable that these appendages are either those of the female, 
or of the immature male. 

Legs short, rather slender; the three basal joints are short, followed 
by three which are nearly equal and about as long as the three basal 
joints united; tarsus very short; propodus gently curved, with two 
stout spines on the inferior margin near the base, followed by a few 
smaller ones; dactylus nearly two-thirds the length of the propodus, 
rather stout; auxiliary claws two-thirds the dactylus. 

The legs are rough and hairy, the hairs usually arising from tuber- 
cles or swellings. These tubercles are very large and acute-conical near 
the outer margin of the body-processes and upon the first joint of the 
legs; on the outer joints they are smoothly rounded and less elevated, 
often producing a sinuous outline most apparent on the fourth, fifth, 
and sixth joints. 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 485 


Color of alcoholic specimens, light yellowish brown. Length 1.4 
+ millimeters; extent 5.2 millimeters. 

Three specimens only, taken in the Bay of Fundy by the United 
States Fish Commission, in 1872. In general appearance it is closely 
similar to Achelia spinosa. It is apparently nearest to the ““Ammothoa 
brevipes,” of Hodge, described from the Durham coast, though quite 
distinct from that species, so far as can be judged from the original 
figures. The antenne, in our species, are more slender and with much 
smaller spines on the chela, and the proportions of the palpal joints are 
very different; the abdomen is far longer and more slender, and the 
legs are not so spinous. 


Specimens examined. 


j 
; Speci- 
& = mens. 
i 4 | When col- : Dry, 
4 Locality. 8 Bottom. Tate Receivedfrom— Ace 
3 = No. and 
'Z Fy | sex. 
ASIA PBay or Mund yee oo oa.e| esas eine teiaeioiseisl= ole | — —,1872| U.S. FishCom.| 2........ Ale. 
£7191) Grand, Manan Ne Be.|e- << 552 ssns-cinctoce scene | — —, 1872 I aeitikt, goddess Habaseccene Ale. 


NYMPHON Chr. Fabricius. 


Body slender. Neck distinct. Rostrum cylindrical, rounded. <An- 
tenn three-jointed, chelate. Palpifive-jointed. Accessory legs present 
in both sexes, eleven-jointed. Legs slender; dactylus with auxiliary 
claws. 

All the species of Nymphon are slender, some of them exceedingly so. 
The antenne are slender and the claws of the chelz are armed along their 
opposable edges with a series of close-set, slender spines. The sexes 
generally resemble each other closely, the chief differences being found 
in the accessory legs. These appendages are armed, in both sexes, with 
a series of flattened denticulated spines, found upon the seventh, eighth, 
ninth, and tenth joints. The auxiliary claws are usually of small size, 
and sometimes minute. They are peculiarly deep-water forms, rarely 
occurring at a depth of less than twenty fathoms, and sometimes extend- 
ing down to great depths. For this reason almost nothing is known of 
their habits, though their external development has been well studied. 
In certain species the specific characters are extremely variable, as de- 
scribed below. 


Nymphon Stromii Kroyer. 

Nat. Tidss., Iste Bind, 2det Hzefte, p. 111, 1844; Voy. en Scand., Laponie, etc., 
pl. 35, figs. 3a—f.—Norman, Rept. of the Brit. Assoc. for the Advancement 
of Sci. for 1868, p. 301.—Miers, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th series, vol. 20, 
No. 116, p. 109.—Wilson, Trans. Conn, Acad., vol. v, p. 17, Pl. VI, figs. 1a to 
1h, July, 1878. 

Probably Pycnogonum grossipes Abilgaard, in O. F. Miiller’s Zoologica Danica, 
vol. iii, p. 67, Pl. CXIX, figs. 5-9, 1788. 


486 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Nymphon giganteum Goodsir, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xv, No. xeviii, p. 
293, 1845.—Norman, Rept. of the Brit. Assoc. for the Advancement of Sci. - 
for 1868, p. 301.—Whiteaves, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Nov., 1872, p. 347; 
Rept. of a Sec. Deep-sea Dredging Exp. to the Gulf of St. Lawrence [in 
1872]. Montreal, 1873?—Verrill, Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol. vii, p. 411; 
vol. vi, p. 439, 1874. 

? Nymphon gracilipes Camil Heller, Die Crustaceen Pycnogoniden und Tunicaten 
der K. K. Osterr-Ungar. Nordpol-Exp., p. 16, Taf. iv, fig. 15, Taf. v, figs. 1, 2. 


PLATE V. PuaATE VI, FIGURE 29. 


Body very stout, nearly smooth. Neck very short, but deeply con- 
stricted. Oculiferous segment large, longer than the two following seg- 
ments united, stout and swollen anterior to the constriction of the neck. 
Oculiferous tubercle prominent, smoothly rounded. Eyes very distinct, 
black, ovate. Abdomen small, tapering toward the extremity. 

Rostrum rather large, nearly cylindrical though slightly expanded in 
the middle. 

Antenne smooth, rather slender; basal joint as long as the rostrum; 
claws of chele remarkably slender and elongated, gently curved, when 
closed meeting along nearly their whole length; they are armed along 
their opposable margins with a series of small spines, which are more 
erect and much more numerous upon the dactylus. 

Palpi much longer than the rostrum; basal joint stout, very short; 
second and third much longer, nearly equal; fourth and fifth a little 
less and more slender, sparsely hairy. 

Accessory legs stout, slightly hairy; the three basal joints are nearly 
as broad as long; the following three are much longer, the sixth shortest 
and about as long as the three basal joints united; the remaining joints 
are much shorter and more slender, the terminal one acute and claw- 
like, with a row of spines on the inferior edge; the denticulated spines 
vary considerably and are sometimes nearly smooth. 

Legs very long and slender; first and third joints short, about half 
the second; the three following are very long, sixth longest, fifth 
shortest; propodus and tarsus slender, nearly equal, hairy; the former 
is not armed with spines; dactylus long and slender, very acute, about 
three-fifths the length of the propodus; auxiliary claws very small, 
about one-fifth the dactylus. Color, when living, light salmon-yellow, 
the legs often annulated with broad reddish rings. Egg-masses large, 
two to four in number, bright yellow. Length of largest specimens 
15 millimeters; extent 140 millimeters; accessory legs 19 millimeters. 

This fine species is not uncommon; it attains its greatest size on 
muddy bottoms in deep water. Taken at many localities in Massachu- 
setts Bay, off Gloucester and Salem; in the Gulf of Maine off Cape 
Ann; Casco Bay 50-70 fathoms; Eastport, Me. (Professor Verrill); off 
Halifax, N. 8.; Bedford Basin, Halifax; Orphan Bank, Gulf of Saint 
Lawrence (J. F. Whiteaves). It is found on all bottoms, though, as a 
rule, it may be regarded as a ‘“muddy-bottom species.” The observed 


487 


range on our coast, in depth, is from 75 fathoms (Gloucester Harbor, 
mud and sand) to 115 fathoms (27-31 miles E. S. E. from Cape Ann, 
gravelly bottom). 

I cannot distinguish this species from Goodsir’s N. giganteum. 
Nymphon gracilipes, of Heller, is also very closely similar to, if not 
identical with, this species. In his figure, however, the dactylus is 
represented of nearly the same length with the propodus, and it may 
be distinct. The “ Pycnogonum grossipes,” figured in the “Zoologica 
Danica,” is certainly not N. grossipes Fabr., and it seems to me most 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT) WATERS. 


probable that it is to be referred to N. Strémii. 

It is worthy of note that the arch of the upper side of the oculiferous 
segment, when laterally viewed, is very variable, as is also the length 
of the constricted portion or ‘neek.” 


Specimens examined. 


Speci 
i a : mens 
= Locality. EI Bottom. Wiben. ool |\Receivedfrom— Try. 
5 S No. and 
7 Fy sex 
4972 | Gloucester, N.4W. 45 Mud... -----| —— —, 1878) U.S. Fish Com.| 2¢,19.-.] Alc 
64 miles. 
4837 |. Salem, W. N. W. 9 35 eed Oeics wasecf/——- —, 1877 “MOM eect Deedee Alc 
to 11 miles. 
4838 | Salem, W.N. W. 13 | 11-50 | Softmud........ —  —,1877 SOM ASA arose 1g,19..] Ale 
miles. 
4839 | Cape Ann, N. W. 14 90 SONS Kisses cree — —,1877}....do Sainied! Buide es stot Ale 
mniles. 
4973 | Cape Ann, W.N. W. 110 Soft brown mud.| —— —,1878|....do ......... Dee aes Ale 
30 to 31 miles. 
4998 Soest, N.idbhto | 40245 |...do 22.2.2... — —, 1878 FAO oe Rs! 380,19 .-.-| Alc 
7 miles. 
4995 | Cape Ann, W. by N. | 57-68 | Soft mud, con- | —— —,1878|....do ........- Ol ReeeS. Ale. 
43 to 53 miles. cretions. 
4845 | Cape Ann, N.W.4N.| 51 Mud, gravel, |—— —,1877 HOw seo see Cerrina ee Alc. 
11 miles. stones. 
4966 | Cape Ann, N.W.2W.| 53 Mud and stones.} —— —,1878|....do ......... LE eee. Alec 
13 miles. 
4967 | Gloucester, Harbor..| 74 Mud and sand ..} —— —, 1878 £dO oR eaac Oe ae Ale 
4968 | Cape Ann, N. W.4to 42 Mud, clay nod- | —— —,1878}....do......... 2.0) eeaisia Ale 
5 miles. ules. 
4969 | Cape Ann, N. W. by 54 Sand, clay nod- | —— —, 1878 i Orenrcje tacts 1¢,29..| Ale 
W. 6 to7 miles. ules. 
4970 | Cape Ann, N. W. by 75 Sands: casoaccuie. — —,1878}....do ........ Ut cece Ale. 
W. 7 miles. 
4997 | Cape Ann, N. W. 74 | 32-36 | Sandand pebble.} —— —,1878]....do ......... 3d,19..] Ale. 
to 8 miles. 
4971 | Cape Ann, W.N.W. | 115 | Gravel.......... — —,1878|....do ......... Sicmeeeics Alc. 
27 to 31 miles. 
4835 |.Off Isles of Shoals...| 35 Clay, apm and | —— —,1874|....do ........- LOG. eeee Ale. 
sand. 
4833 | Cashe’s Ledge, N. 6 | 52-90 | Rocks .......... —— —,1873}....do......... ab hese ae Ale 
to 15 miles. 
4834 | Casco Bay, Me..-..- 7 Seer kee eee ees — —,1873|....do......... WF. ckwies Ale 
ACB PA ESSE Ce ene er U4 © \lbarsasessGoosssace — —,1873|....do......... UO ceean Ale 
HASH POL OG, 4556 [25 Sok alias adededele sek’. — —,1870| Expedition ’70 
4842 | Cape Sable, N.S., N. 59 Pebbles and sand] —— —,1877]....do .........| 1¢%.....- Ale 
W. 18 to 22 miles. 
4844 | Off alia, N.S., 83 52 Sandy mud ...-. — —,1877 COW ae eee 3 Ole ee Ale 
miles. 
4843 | Halifax, Bedford Ba- 35 Soft mud ........||——. .—, 1877 200 seec— 2 Te Ore ces Ale 
sin. 


Nymphon macrum, sp. nov. 


PLATE IV, FIGURES 21 to 23. 


Distinctive characters.—Antenne extremely slender, with the claws. 


of the chele much curved. 


Accessory legs separated from the first 


488 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


lateral processes by a distinct interval. Terminal joint of palpus very 
slender. Tarsus longer than the propodus. Auxiliary claws nearly 
two-thirds the dactylus. 

Body very smooth and rather robust, for the genus, with the lateral 
processes separated by an inter-space about equal to their width. 
Oculiferous segment constricted, so as to form a short and narrow neck, 
nearly as in the preceding species; there is a slight, though distinct, 
interval between the process bearing the accessory legs and that of the 
- first pair of ambulatory legs. Above, there is a distinct suleus running 
backward from midway between the bases of the antennez. Oculiferous 
tubercle acutish, prominent, situated just anterior to the first pair of 
lateral processes; eyes large, ovate, light colored, surrounded by dark 
pigment. Posterior segment narrow with the lateral processes directed 
backward; abdomen slender and tapering, distinctly bifid. 

Rostrum about as long as the oculiferous segment, nearly cylindrical, 
slightly swollen in the basal half. Antenne extremely slender—more 
so than in any other species of the genus known to me; basal joint 
somewhat longer than the rostrum; chela much elongated; claws, when 
closed, crossing each other at a considerable distance from their tips. 
Both claws are armed with a dense row of spines, which gradually de- 
crease in length toward the tips, and finally disappear, leaving the 
terminal portion bare for some distance; these spines are larger and 
more crowded on the movable claw; on the other, larger spines 
alternate with from one to three smaller ones. In one specimen there 
were 109 such spines upon the movable claw and 154 upon the other. 

Palpi with a very short and stout basal joint, about one-sixth or one- 
seventh as long as the second; the third is considerably less than the 
second, the fourth still shorter, the terminal one less than the fourth 
and extremely slender and straight. The entire appendage is slightly 
hairy. 

Accessory legs resembling those of NV. grossipes; in the male they are 
considerably longer than in the female, the fifth joimt is more slender 
and elongated, and with a strong s-shaped curvature. The outer joints 
bear a few scattered hairs. 

The legs are very slender, especially the outer four joints, and sparsely 
hairy; the proportions of the joints are about as in NV. longitarse, but the 
tarsus is only about 14 times the propodus; both these joints have a 
close and pretty regular series of small, slender spines along the entire 
inferior margin. Dactylus slender and acute, rather more than half 
the propodus ; auxiliary claws very large, nearly two-thirds the dactylus. 

Color in alcohol, light yellowish-white. Length of a large specimen 
9.3 millimeters. Extent 72 millimeters. 

This species is very distinct, and the specific characters appear to 
vary but slightly. It is, in general appearance, much like N. Strdmii, 
but may be at once distinguished by the large auxiliary claws. The in- 
terval between the accessory legs and the first pair of ambulatory legs 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 489 


is a feature which I have not seen in any other species of the genus. It 
has been taken at a few localities in the Gulf of Maine in from 85 (or 
perhaps less) to 115 fathoms. A single specimen is known from Ban- 
quereau, off Nova Scotia. All the specimens, as shown below, are from 
deep water, and most of them from muddy bottoms. 


Specimens examined. 


a g | Specimens. 
a Locality. E-| Bottom. Wwiken/ el Received from— rie 
5 = | (ae 
A Fy No .and sex. 
4960 | Cape Ann, W. N.W. | 90-115 | Mud, gravel,| —- —,1878|U.S. Fish Com. |40',39....--. Ale. 
30 miles. stone. | 
4962 | Cape Ann, W. N.W. |110-115 | Mud and stone | —— —, 1878 |....do ........- SCiela Oractemiete Ale. 
30 to 31 miles. \ } 
4963 | Cape Ann, W.N.W. 85 Mud, stone,|—— —, 1878 |....d0 ...-.0.s- ACM adaecos Ale. 
29 to 30 miles. sand. 
4978 | Off Manhegan Isl-} 5-90 | Mud orsand...|—— —,1874|....do ......... Decale caiemirarie Ala 
and, G. Maine. 
4841 cape Ann, W. 140| 112 |Gravel......-.. — —,1877|....do........- Oe nessa eine Alc. 
miles. 
4965, | Krom. cable of SChoo-| ...<..<<-|i2+<--ces-sacc0n- ATION 2 tO OM a= =n Ole ciemalee USee cwacinawest Ale. 
ner Marion, Ban- ; 
quereau, N. 8S. 


Wymphon longitarse Kroyer. 


Nat. Tidss., Iste Bind, 2det Hefte, p. 112, 1844; Voy. en Scand., Laponie, etc., 
Pl. 36, fig. 2a-b.—Wilson, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 19, Pl. VII, figs. 2a 
to 2h, July, 1878.—G. O. Sars, Archiv for Mathematik og Naturvidenskab, 
Andet Bind, Tredie Heft, p. 366, 1877. 


PLATE VI, FIGURES 30 and 31. 


Entire animal extremely slender. Body smooth. Oculiferous segment 
produced into a very long slender neck, expanding anteriorly for the 
attachment of the antenne. Posterior segment very narrow, lateral 
process directed nearly backward. Abdomen small, tapering. Ocu- 
liferous tubercle rounded, eyes black, ovate. 

Rostrum slender, rounded, shorter than the basal joint of the an- 
tenne. 

Antenne very slender, slightly hairy; claws of chele very long and 
slender, their tips crossing when closed; the spines with which they are 
armed are larger and less numerous than those of N. Strémii. 

Palpi resembling those of WV. Strémii, but more slender and with the 
fourth joint shorter than the third or fifth. 

Accessory legs remarkably slender; the three basal joints are very 
short and nearly equal; fourth nearly twice the length of the first three 
united; fifth somewhat less; sixth equal to the three basal joints, about 
twice the seventh; the remaining joints decrease to the last, which is 
claw-like with a few spines on its inferior margin; spines of the distal 
joints decidedly curved. 

Legs resembiing those of NV. Strémii but much more slender and with 
the tarsus very long, nearly twice the propodus; both these joints are 
very slender, nearly straight, and along their entire inferior margin is a 


490 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


regular series of small hairs; dactylus nearly straight, very acute, more 
than half the propodus; auxiliary claws very small, about one-fourth the 
propodus. The legs are sparsely hairy, the hairs longest near the outer 
extremities of the joints, where they often form a semicircle on the 
upper side. Color, when living, light salmon or nearly white. Some- 
times ‘irregularly and conspicuously striped across the body and legs 
with bright purple; body clear white” (Prudden). Length 7 millime- 
ters; extent 65 millimeters. 

This species may be usually distinguished by its extremely attenuated 
appearance, which is more marked than in any other species of the genus. 
The neck varies considerably, and in some specimens is much stouter 
than in others. 

Common off Salem and Gloucester, Mass., and at numerous localities 
in the Gulf of Maine, off Cape Ann; Jeffrey’s Ledge; off Isles of Shoals ; 
off Casco Bay; Bay of Fundy; St. George’s Banks; off Cape Sable, 
N.8.; off Halifax. The observed bathymetric range is from 16 to 115 
fathoms. It occurs on all bottoms, but is more frequently observed on 
muddy bottoms. The females seem to be more common than the males 


Specimens examined. 


s 2 | Specimens. 
FE Locality. B= Bottom. | ‘Wehen, col: Received from. ea rie 
5 oS | No. : 
5 é | o. and sex 
4849 pale, W.N. W. 9 to 11 33 Sand, mud..| —— —.1877/U.S. Fish Com.| 39........ Ale. 
miles. 
BEB Per O je ck elected mies way 35 Mud, clay | —— —, 1877 |.--.do ........- Soil eae Ale, 
nodules. | 
4852 | Salem, W.N. W. 8 to 9 33 Soft mud...) ——- —,1877|....do -.-..-. rejail gL Qoateretactaee Ale. 
miles. 
4853 pene W.N. W. 4N.13 48 ee TdOr ssc | —=— —, 1877 |.-..do ......... Lgt 29,---5) Ade. 
miles. | | 
4850 Sia, N. about 54] 45 Maid ....s.22 | —— —,1877 |...-do .......-- Spe areata Alc. 
miles. 
4947 Gloneaster N. 10 to 13 45 -2)d2¢do scosth' —— —,1878 |....do ...-....-. MOF eigen Ale. 
miles. | 
4948 Faken ad N..4 W. 63 45 Soft mud....) —- —,1878 |....do ......... Pods Bee ee Ale. 
miles. | 
5023 | Gloucester, N. 53 to 7| 43 |....do.......) —— —,1878|....do ...-.-..- UG. ees Ale. 
niles. | 
4854 | CapeAnn, N. W.14miles} 90 |....do....... as 1878. SEOs eee oe NOS ceecks Ale. 
4860 | Cape Ann, N.W.4N.12|] 75 Mad se sna | —— —,1877 |....do........- Me ecacon es Ale. 
to 14 miles. 
4861 | Cape Ann, N. W.4N. 11 51 Mud, gravel,; —— —, 1877 |..-.do ....-...- 3¢0,19.-..-| Alc. 
miles. rock. 
4941 |Cape Ann, N. by W. 3] 38 Mud 2 = mn -e%|} ay gS see Onee sara Ona Alc. 
W. 44 miles. | 
4943 | Cape Ann, N. W.4 to 5| 38-42 | Mud, sand, |—— —,1878|..-.do......... DOR cena Alc. 
miles. stone. | 
4945 Cape Ann, N. W. by N.| 73-75 | Soft mud ...| —— —, 1878 |....do ......... 2¢',692.....| Alc. 
6 to 7 miles. 
4989 | Cape Sai N.W.4N.6] 54-60 | Sand, mud..|-—— —, 1878 |....do ......... dl Oa oe Alc. 
to 7 miles. 
4990 Gape Ann, W. by N. 3| 57-68 | Softmud,con-| —— —, 1878 |....do ...-..... AOin soeet Ale. 
. 44 to 53 miles. cretions. 
5015 Cape Ann, W.N. W. 27] 90-115 | Mud, gravel, | —— —, 1878 |....do .......-- 1KOR Ree 35 Alc. 
to 31. miles. stone. | : 
4942 Seite Ann, N. W.2N. 43 38 Pebbles, sand|——“\1-—"71878 |... doce ote eee 1¢',19....} Ale. 
miles. 
4992 | Cape Ann, N. 8} miles . 32 Rock, stones) ——  —, 1878)|-- J-do1n -eacace OCR) ee SIMA. 
4993 ene ‘Ann, N. 4 W. 10} 28 Sand, stone -| —— —, 1878 |....do .......-- 1¢,29....| Alc. 
mues, 
5024 Cope Aan N.4 W.73 to| 32-35 | Sand,pebbles —— —, 1878 |....do ..-.....-.- ee oeaEs Alc. 
miles | 
4940 | Massachusetts Bay..... 56 Mud sesh a= = 1873) 55.00 aaceennes a eee Alc. 
4976 | Jeffrey’s Ledge......... 26 Gravel, stone) —— —,;1873 |....do ......... y RO se Alc. 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 491 


Specimens examined.—Continued. 


4 Specimens. 
: iS) When col- p Dry. 
Locality. 4 Bottom. ieedan, Received from. Al 
ey No. and sex. 
Off Isles of Shoals.-.....|.------- siiae ---| —— —,1874/ U.S. Fish Com. ies betrauhg Ale 
Cashe’s Ledge, N.6to15| 52-90 | Rocks -|-— —, 1873 “do A nisercteatee ll remenemae Ale. 
Off Cape Elizabeth ..... UP Npeseisaocddeose| =>. TER edOnsivscne cee OM as eeeis Alc 
Caeo0 ON eeaostcosedocis Ges |leoribeaodccocice Aug. 6, 1873 GQ) seSsenscce Sine emee Ale. 
KQUNwe SA 2 POS mn aes005 OQap S600 ageecoonescoce||—s TEE erat ee eeeee ce Ie oboe Ale. 
‘anhegin Island, E. 2 48 Softmud....] ——  —, 1874 |....do ......... iio Pecoucos. Ale. 
Bay of Fundy ..-.--.-.-|--------}]..-----------./ ——__ —, 1872 |....d0 -.......- UGicee stew ae Alc 
Cape Sable, N.S., N. W. | 88-90 | Sandy mud .| ——  —, 1877 |.-...do ...---... 35,29 Ale, 
27 to 32 miles. 
Cape Sable, N.S., N. W. 59 Sand, gravel,| —— —,1877.|....do .......-- 1 REE ee Ale. 
18 to 22 miles. stone. 
Latitude 42° 44’, longi- 60 | Gravel,stone,] —— —, 1872 |....do ..-.--.--|.s.--eccenn- Ale. 
tude 64° 36’. shale. 
Narrows at mouth of 16 Shale, stone.| —— —,1877]....do ......... Moher asncce Ale. 
Bedford Basin, Halifax. 
Chelecto Light, N. W. 52 Sand, mud../] —— —, 1877 |....do ........- BD eeamed ee Alc. 
y W. 84 miles. 
Onbor harbor, Halifax ..].....--. Rocks ......| —— —, 1899 |-...do ......... esse Ale. 


Nymphon grossipes (L.) Chr. Fabr. 


? Phalangium marinum Strém, Séndmor, p. 208, 1762. 

? Phalangium grossipes Linné, Syst. Nat., ed. xii, i, p. 1027, 1767. 

Pycnogonum grossipes O, Fabr., Fauna Grénlandica, p. 229, 1780. 

? Nymphum grossipes Sabine, Suppl. to the Appendix Capt. Parry’s First Voy, 
age, p. 225, 1824. 

Nymphon grossipes Chr. Fabr., Ent. Syst., Tom. 4, p. 217, 1794.—Latreille, Hist. 
Nat des Crust. et des Insect., Tom. vii, p. 333, 1804; Genera Crust. et In- 
sect., Tom. i, p. 143, 1806.—Kroéyer, Grénlands Amfipoder, S. 92, 1838 [teste 
Kroyer]; Nat. Tidss., Iste. Bind, 2det Heefte, p. 208, 1844; Oken’s Isis, 
Jahrg. 1846, Heft vi, p.442; in Gaimard’s Voy. en Scand., Laponie, etc. 
Pl. 36, figs. la-h.—Stimpson, Invertebrata of Grand Manan, p. 38, 1853.— 
Packard, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 295, 1867.—Buchholz, Zweite 
Deutsche Nordpolfahrt, Crust., p. 396, 1874.—Verrill, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. vii, 
p. 502, 1874.—M6bius, Die wirbellosen Thiere der Ostsee, p. 153,1873.—Wil- 
son, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 20, Pl. VII, figs. 1a-q, July, 1878. 

Nymphon mictum Kroyer, Nat. Tidss., lste Bind, 2det Hefte p. 110, 1844; in 
Gaimard’s Voy. en Scand., Laponie, etc., Pl. 35, figs. 2 a—-f.—Norman, Rept. 
of the Brit. Assoc. for the Advancement of Sci. for 1868, p. 301.—Buchholz, 
op. cit., p. 397, 1874.—Liitken, Lists * * * compiled for the Brit. North Pole 
Exp., p. 164, 1875.—Sars, Archiv fiir Math. og Naturvidenskab, andet Bind, 
Tredie Hefte, p. 366, 1877. 

Nymphon brevitarse Kroyer, Nat. Tidss., Iste Bind, 2det Heefte, p. 115, 1844 ; in 
Gaimard’s Voy. en Scand., Laponie, etc., Pl. 36, figs. 4a—f—Reinhardt, Nat. 
Bidrag til en Beskr. af Grénland, p. 38, 1857.—Liitken, Lists compiled for 
the Brit. North Pole Exp., p. 164, 1875.—[=Nymphum hirsutum Kroyer, 
Grénlands Amfipoder, 8. 92, 1838, teste Kroyer]. 

? Nymphon rubrum Hodge, Nat. Hist. Trans, Northumb. and Durham, p. 41, 
Pl. X, fig. 1, (1865, t. Zool. Rec.). 

? Nymphon gracile Leach, et auct. 


PuaTE VI, FIGURES 32 to 37. PuLatTe VII, FiGuRE 42. 


Body slender, smooth. Oculiferous segment variable; in some speci-. 
mens nearly as short and stout as in N. Strémii, in others much longer 


492 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


and very slender. Oculiferous tubercle very prominent, conical, very 
acute. Eyes black, oval or nearly round. Abdomen small, tapering, 
often bent upward. 

Rostrum large, somewhat variable, but usually shorter than the oct. | 
liferous segment, slightly swollen at the extremity. 

Antenne slender, basal joint about as long as the rostrum; chela 
similar to that of WN. longitarse, but stouter, the claws shorter, slightly 
hairy. 

Palpi slender, with a few small hairs most numerous on the outer 
joints; basal joint nearly quadrate, about one-fourth the second; third 
slightly longer than the first two united ; fourth less than half the third ; 
fifth longer, slender, tapering, somewhat variable, being stouter in some 
specimens than in others. 

Accessory legs very slender. In the female they are, on an average, 
about one-eighth the extent of the legs; in the male about one-sixth. 
The joints have nearly the same proportions as in JN. longitarse, but the 
fourth and fifth joints are longer and still more slender. 

Legs long and slender, proportions of the first six joints nearly as in 
N.Strémii. Tarsus extremely variable in length (Pl. VII, figs. 1b to 19); 
in young specimens it is less than half the propodus, while in some large 
adult specimens it is nearly twice that joint; the propodus is armed, on 
the inferior margin, with a series of slender, slightly curved spines, 
which are longest proximally; dactylus about two-thirds the propodus; 
auxiliary claws less than half the dactylus. The legs are sparsely hairy, 
the hairs often forming, as in NV. longitarse, a semicircle on the outer ex- 
tremities of the joints. Color, when living, light salmon-yellow, the legs 
often banded with reddish or light purple. Length 10.5 millimeters; 
extent 90 millimeters. 

This species is, in most of its characters, extremely variable. Kréyer’s 
N. brevitarse and N. mixtum are undoubtedly, I think, forms of NV. gros- 
sipes. The former are young specimens, with a short, thick neck, very 
short tarsus, and abbreviated rostrum; the latter are those having a long 
slender neck, and with the tarsus from one and a half to two times the 
propodus. From the large collection in the Peabody Museum I have 
formed an almost complete series from extreme forms of N. brevitarse to 
undoubted NV. mixtum, though in none of the specimens of the latter 
species is the tarsus quite so long as that figured in the Voy. en Scand., 
Laponie, etc. The palpi, also, vary considerably with age. 

The variation is due in part to age, but is not sexual, since male 
specimens with egg-masses present the same differences. In some speci- 
mens the oe are tipped with brown, or jet black; in others they 
are white. The terminal joint of the legs is sometimes A 5 tipped 
with brown. 

The following table gives the relative length of the tarsus and propo- 
dus in a series of specimens selected to show the variation. The joints 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 493 


measured are, in all but one or two cases, from the second leg of the 
right side. 


Propodus. | Tarsus. Ratio of 
mm. mm. t. to p. 

- COUR CUROT BE) formate nlnlon eine wie minis wlolnlale mos «in lols «= =)n enemas eelminisinin(= l= 0. 465 0. 249 0. 54 
2 500+ OC ORICIOE DECODES BODE UCOH OED ODED OODE DDE SEB OS bo Hoo Foe ononood 0. 498 0. 332 0. 65 
Seepleaisia hab ala ais o stv cn\cialelcleinicicionc alciviclc.scis's ne ceca au\csinviomeinapic(sieiniai= 0. 930 0. 670 0. 72 

a ie TERE) ces boos beacon o = nONCCUDDODSREUseb Ean SoD05s coccicone 1. 094 1. 094 1. 00 
So Hoc CER DED S ER OO cODe 6 obo S5006 BOSD TEE OBEoEeEScppScobonanecsde 4999) 1.195 1, 20 

Fg GE ies SE fale Soin se ogaldg Se Uau eee cee eee 1. 062 1. 328 1.25 
- Cab coe SSC Ce REDD OSES= CODD DEO SCCOCODOSR EG SREEOECOS SUES HOSE esc: 1, 295 1. 693 1.315 

(OCG TT ZEAATT IO) pO b SORES OR SOSO0 COC ODD SCC U SESE SODEUESSEEE Se BSOCr SOS 1. 228 1. 892 1. 541 


In Pl. VI, figs. 33 to 35, the variation of the neck is shown. All the 
latter specimens are adult males. 

This and the preceding species are the commonest of the group. The 
most southerly locality from which I have seen specimens is Long Is- 
land Sound (two young specimens, 50 fathoms, off Race Point Rock, 
1874); and the most northerly is Orphan Bank in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, dredged by Mr. Whiteaves in 1873; Dr. Packard has re- 
corded it from Labrador. Taken by the United States Fish Commission 
off Salem and Gloucester, 19 to 48 fathoms; Gulf of Maine, off Cape 
Ann, 18 to 90 fathoms; off Isles of Shoals; off Cashe’s Ledge; off Cape 
Elizabeth; Casco Bay, common; St. George’s Banks, 50 fathoms; com- 
mon off Halifax, 16 to 101 fathoms; Bedford Basin, Halifax Harbor, 35 
fathoms, soft, oozy, offensive black mud. In depth the observed range 
js from 12 to 110 fathoms. Like the preceding species, it is found upon 
nearly all bottoms, but it seems to be less of a muddy bottom species, 
and is more often taken on rocky or gravelly bottoms. 

It seems to me not improbable that Leach’s Nymphon gracile is identi- 
- eal with JV. grossipes, though none of the descriptions and figures of that 
species, which I have seen, suffice to identify it with certainty. The 
species of Vymphon from Northern Europe are in considerable confusion, 
and stand in need of revision. 


Specimens examined. 


i z te i Specimens. 
E Locality. A Bottom. i a ao ~ {Received from—|———————_ rank 
2 g No. and sex. 
4891 | Long Island Sound, 50 Rock, shells,| —— —,1874| U.S. FishCom.] 20........-..| Ale. 
te: ot Race Point gravel. { 
ock 
4893 | Salem, W.N. W.9 to 33 Sand, mud...] —— —, 1877]... 
11 miles. 
4904 |....-. CRE... Sees 35 Mnud, clay ...|-—— —, 1877]... 
4905 | Salem, W. N. W. 13 48 Soft mud....|——— —, 1877]... 
miles. 
4892 | Salem, W. N. W.5 to 22 Gravel ...... — —,1877).... 
7 miles. 
4894 |...... Gots Sect ee 20 Rocks .. —  —,1877).... 
ESO) | Sam ip dojss2 42 ascece se 19-20 | Gravel ...... — —, 1877)... 
4897 pyle W N. W. 6to 26 Gravel, stone|/ —— —, 1877 |... 
miles 
4950 | Gloucester, N. 34 to 33 Rocks.......|——-_ —, 1878 |....do....-..-. APysoseies< 2 -|-Ales 
41 miles. 


‘494 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


I 


Number. 


Locality. 


Gloucester, N. 3 to 4 


miles. 

Gloucester, N. N. W. 
4 to 6 miles. 

Gloucester, N. by E. 
24 to 4 miles. 

Gloucester, N. to N. 
by W. 5$to7 miles. 

Gloucester, N. 4 W. 
64 miles. 

Cape Ann, N. W. 4 
N. 11 miles. 

Cape Ann, N. W. 
W.13 miles. 

Cape Ann, N. W. 4 
to 5 miles. 

Cape eS Wisi NiAW Vi 
30 to 31 miles. 

Cape Ann, N. W. by 
N. 7 miles. 

Cape Ann, N. W. 14 
miles. 

Cape Ann, N. 8} 
miles. 

Cape Ann, N. E. 24 
tmailes. 

Cape Ann, N. N. W. 
15 miles. 

Cape Ann, W. N. W. 
29 to 30 miles. 

Cape Ann, S. W. 14 


miles. 
Oi Isles of Shoals-- 


Cashe’s Ledge, N. 6 
to 15 miles. 

Off Cape Elizabeth. - 

Casco Bay. 


i 


Meas Island, 
N. 8 miles. 


Latitude 41° 25’, lon- 
gitude 66° 25’. 
ieee Manan, N. B. 
Eastport, Mors.o2t 
Eastport, Me., off 
Head Harbor. 
Eastport, Me., John- 
son’s Bay. 
ses aad Harbor, Me. 
Eastport, Me., off 
Cherry Island. 
Eastport, Me ....... 
Bedford Basin, Hali- 
fax. 
date sins QO sa5, cerecteeeeere 


Chebucto Light, N. 
W.by W.9 ) miles. 
Halifax, outer harbor 
Narrows at mouth 
of Bedford Basin. 
Chebucto Light, N. 

by E. 26 miles. 
Halifax, outer harbor. 


Ocihian Bank, Gulf 
of St. Lawrence. 


Specimens examined—Continued. 


a 

a 
= Bottom. 

= 
om 

25-26 | Sand, gravel, 

stone. 

19§ | Sand, gravel. 

19-23 | Sand, gravel, 

stone. 

40-45 | Soft brown 

i mud. 
45 IMT das oceeeee 
50 See gravel, 
53 Rock to mud. 
42 Sand, mud, 
clay nodules. 
38 Mud to rock. 
110 Soft brown 
mud. 

73-75 | Soft mud.... 
90 Mardi acco 
32 Rock, stones. 
18 Roughrock. . 
23 Stone, gravel, 

shells. 
85 Gravel, peb- 
bles. 
33 Gravel, stone 
35 Clay, mud, 
sand. 

52-90 | Rocks....... 
G8a.4| Steet te er ee 

EVinde clea s eye sea: 
18 eiaees aaaiays alos 
64 Mud or sand. 
50 Sand, shells. 

of S54 came eae 
2et00 | iets is 
12 PROCKS aje< seme 
20 sree kacaecs 
60 Bu ts eee 

DDE25 aS Santeccse sere 

"35 | Softmud .... 
26 eNO tek coe 
53 Mud, fine 

sand 
25 Gravel ...... 
16 Stone, shells. 
101 Fine sand ..- 
16 eed Oitenecincs 
20 Shingly ..... 
25 ROCKS cnice 
BS Wo ce Sorcalae seams 


pha are Received from. 
—— —, 1878| U.S. Fish Com. 
— —,1878]....do ......... 
—— —,1878}|....do......... 
— —,1878|....do ......... 
see TSN ST Seed eee ee 
— —, 1877 |....do......... 
— —,1878|....do ......... 
Sen nT STS ee OR eee: 
SS TGS | Se sei Sascnose 
— —, 1878|....do ......... 
— —,1878}....do ......... 
—— —,1878 ....do...... aaa 
—— —,1878)....do .......-- 
— —,1878|....do ......... 
—— —,1878|....do -.....-.. 
—— —,1878|....do ......... 
—— —,1873|....do.....-... 
ee OTE oe 0! come nc ccs 
—— —, 1873 |....do......... 
PASTS PS eS Kot | ececate LO tereeente eieies 
BS ee aera Co bs se 
Jilly U7 Sie) |pine-C0. ae neeesee 
Ang. 27, 1873 |: <.-dos. -.--2 5 - 
UGH 21, LOS) |< 5-OOlanaesaee 
— —,1873]....do ......... 
—— —, 1872)....do......... 
—— —, 1872 )....do ......... 
—— —,1872|....do ......... 
— —, 1868 Expedition 68. 
—— —, 1870} Expedition ’7 
J) Bier 70 Miao sees ae 
Aug. 7,1872| U.S. FishCom 
PATHS Odea |aante 

Aug. 16, 1872 |.... 

— —,1872).... 

ee STO dee 

—- —, 1877 ).... 

= Bl Nec 

ee 18TT Ee: 

a rd ee 

— —,1877).... 
ashy. ses 

— —,1877).... 

— —, 1877)....¢ 

—— —, 1877}.... 

— —,1877).... 

— —,1873}....do ......... 


Alc. 
3a 210 128 Ale. 
6, 23 Gre ace Alc. 

Be Hel cc Alc. 


Ud cccanw cme 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS, 495 


Nymphon hirtum Fabricius. 


Ent. Syst., vol. iv, p. 417, 1794.—Kroéyer, Nat. Tidss., Iste Bind, 2det Haefte, 
p. 113; Voy. en Seand., Laponie, ete., Pl. 36, figs. 3a-g.—Norman, Rept. of 
the Brit. Assoc. for the Advancement of Sci. for 1868, p. 301.—Buchholz, 
Zweite Deutsche Nordpolfahrt, p. 397, 1874.—Miers, Ann. and Mag. Nat. 
Hist., 4th series, vol. 20, No. 116, pp. 108-9, Pl. IV, fig. 3, 1877.—G. O. 
Sars, Archiv for Mathematik og Naturvidenskab andet Bind, Tredie Hefte, 
p. 365, 1877. 

? Nymphon hirsutum Sabine, Supplement to the Appendix, Capt. Parry’s First 
Voyage, p. 226, 1824. 

Nymphon hirtipes Bell, Belcher’s Last of the Arctic Voyages, Crust., p. 401, 
Pl. XXXV, fig. 3, 1855.—Wilson, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. v, p. 22, Pl. V, 
figs. 2 and 3; Pl. VI, figs. 2a to 2k, July, 1878. 

Nymphon femoratum Leach, Zool. Misc., vol. i, p. 45, PL 19, fig. 2, 1814.— 
Johnston, Mag. Zool. and Bot., vol. 1, p. 380, 1837 (teste Hodge). 


PLATE VII, FiGUREs 38 To 41. 


Body very robust, lateral processes scarcely separated. Oculiferous 
segment broad and stout, neck very thick. Oculiferous tubercle much 
elevated, slender, rounded. Eyes ovate, black. Abdomen slender, 
tapering from the middle toward the base and tip. 

Antenne very hairy, rather stout, basal joint slightly longer than the 
rostrum; claws of chelw slender, acute, very strongly curved, when 
closed crossing each other at a considerable distance from the tips. 
The spines, with which they are armed, are rather long, slender, and 
not very closely set; toward the base they become strongly curved or 
even hook-shaped. 

Palpi very stout; basal joint nearly quadrate, half the length of the 
second; the remaining joints decrease regularly to the last. The 
appendage is densely hairy; on the outer three joints the hairs are 
densely plumose. 

The accessory legs differ considerably in the sexes. In the female 
there are three short basal joints, followed by two which are considera- 
bly longer, nearly equal, and somewhat clavate; the sixth is about two- 
thirds the fifth, and the remaining joints become successively smaller to 
the last, which is acute and claw-like, and armed below with a series of 
spines. In the male the appendage is larger and stouter, the fifth joint 
is about twice as long as the corresponding joint in the female, and 
near its outer extremity it is swollen and furnished on each side with a 
dense tuft of long hairs; the spines of the outer joints are scarcely 
denticulated and alike in both sexes. 

Legs comparatively stout, often distended with the generative organs; 
first and third joints about as long as broad; second longer, somewhat 
clavate, longer in the male than in the female; the three following 
joints are much longer, the sixth longest; tarsus short, half the propo- 
dus, which has, below, a series of slender spines; dactylus about two- 
thirds the propodus; auxiliary claws very small and slender, about 
one-fifth the dactylus. All the appendages are thickly covered with 


496 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


coarse hairs, which are most numerous on the outer joints. The body 
is slightly hairy or nearly naked. Color light dull yellow. Adult spe- 
cimens are very frequently covered with rubbish, and living Bryozoa, 
Sponges, Rhizopods, etc., are often attached to them. Length 12 milli- 
meters; extent 73 millimeters. 

This species has not before been recorded from our coast, though 
taken in great numbers off Halifax by the United States Fish Commis- 
sion in 1877. It occurs on rocky, gravelly, or muddy bottoms, down to 
50 fathoms. Sept. 24th, 1877, several hauls made off Halifax in 50 
fathoms, muddy bottom, brought them up by hundreds, clinging to the 
meshes of the trawl-net. <A single specimen was dredged off Salem, 
Mass., in 48 fathoms, soft mud. Many of the specimens had egg- 
masses. In some of these, young were found in various stages of 
growth. In the earliest stage observed (Plate VII, figure 41) the 
body is very large and swollen, without a trace of segmentation. The 
rostrum is short and directed downward. The five anterior pairs of 
appendages are developed, the posterior one rudimentary. The basal 
joint of the antenne bears a long flagellum. 


Specimens examined. 


i 2B Specimens. 
® ve 
iF Locality. | a Bottom. es 5 ries Received from—]|—____ ae : 
2 has No. and sex. 
| | ewe ON es eee | Be 
| 
Off Salem, Mass ..... | 48 Softimiud --.-|/ ——_ — 1877| UuS. Wish Com: 1222 aes2eeee Ale. 
4816 | Chebueto Light, N. 53 Mud, rocks.} —— —, 1877 |..-.do ......--. 75+ .9..--| Ale. 
W. by W. 9miles. 
4818 | Chebucto Light, N. 52 Sandy mud...) —— —, 1877 |..-.do ......-.. 150+ ¢ 2...| Ale. 
W. by W.82 miles. 
4823 | Chebneto Light, N.| 57 | Mud, sand, | —— —,1877 |....do......... 30,59 ..-.- Ale. 
9 miles. | gravel, st. 
4931 | SambroLight,W.by | 42 Gravel, rocks; —— —, 1877 |....do ......-.- I Gi, Oe eeieeGe 
N. 10 miles. | ° 
4827 | SambroLight,W.by | 42 Fine sand...| —— —, 1877 |....do ....-.... PROS Bascsna Alc. 
N. 9 miles. | 
4828 | West from last .....- | 42 Sand, rocks .} —— —, 1877 |..-.do ....-.--- 4 St, TiO) cae Ale. 
4822 | Outer Harbor, Hali- | 25 Rocks! ss. — —,1877 |....do..-..--... P Hoty ble 5 Ale, 
fax. | 


It is, unfortunately, a difficult matter to know whether the name hir- 
tum should really be applied to this form. It is impossible to determine 
from Fabricius’s very brief description of NV. hirtum from the ‘“‘ Norwe- 
gian Ocean”; and hence most writers, including Kréyer, who first fully 
described and figured the species, have referred to it as ‘‘ Nymphon hir- 
tum Fabr.?” Our specimens differ from Kroéyer’s figures in Gaimard’s 
“Voyages en Scandinavie, Laponie,” etc., in several particulars, most 
notably in the form of the antenne and proportions of the palpal joints ; 
Kroyer’s specimens were from Iceland. G. O. Sars, in a recent paper 
(Archiv for Mathematik og Naturvidenskab, andet Bind, Tredie Hefte, 
p. 365, 1877), records, from the same region, a form which he identifies 
with WN. hirtum Fabr. and with WN. hirtipes Bell, but which “viv = N. 
hirtum Kroyer.” It seems to me probable, under these circumstances, 

\ 


gl a 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 497 


that Kroyer’s figures are inaccurate, and that, therefore, the name N. 
hirtwm must be restored. 

The following table is intended to show the general geographical and 
bathymetrical distribution of the species described in this paper. To 
indicate those localities from which I have examined specimens the 
mark of affirmation (!) is used; in cases where the locality is given on 
other authority, the + sign is used. A few of the species occur in the 
deeper waters far to the southward of their ordinary limits; this is in- 
dicated by the + sign. 


32 F 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


A498 


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PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 499 
LIST OF WORKS REFERRED TO IN THIS ARTICLE. 


The following list of works upon the Pycnogonida referred to in the 
synonymy or elsewhere in this paper has been appended to render the 
references more intelligible and easier of access. The list has no pre- 
tensions to being considered a complete or even tolerably full bibliog- 
raphy of the subject, but contains only the titles of such works as have 
been used in the preparation of this report. 


Abilgaard, Petrus Christianus. Jn Miiller, Zoologica Danica seu Animalium 
Danizx et Norvegie rariorum ac minus notorum Descriptiones et Historia. Volu- 
men Tertium, p.68, Pl. CXIX. Havnize (Copenhagen), 1788-9, 


Bell, Thomas. In The Last of the Arctic Voyages, being a Narrative of the Expedi- 
tion in H. M.S. Assistance, under the Command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher, 
C. B., in Search of Sir John Franklin, during the years 1852-3-4. Account of the 
Crustacea by Thomas Bell; Pycnogonide, pp. 408-9, Pl. XXV, figs. 3-4. London, 
1853. 


Bohm, Dr. R. Ueber zwei neue von Herrn Dr. Hilgendorf gesammelte Pycnogoniden. 
<Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft der Naturforschende Freunde zu Berlin, No. 4, 
pp. 53-60, 1879: 


Buchhoiz, Reinhold. Zweite Deutsche Nordpolfahrt in den Jahren 1868 und 1870 
[unter Fiihrung des Kapitiin Koldeway], Part VIII, Crustaceen, pp. 396-7. Leip- 
sig, 1874, 


Cavanna, G. Riassunto di una Memoria sui Pignogonidi.in Bulletino della Societa 
Entomologica Italiana, Firenze, VIII, pp. 282-297. [Original memoir, Studi e 
ricerche sui Pignogonidi, Pte-la, Anatomia e Biologia in Publicazioni del R. In- 
stituto di studi superiori practici e di perfezionamente in Firenze, I, pp. 249-264. 
1876. 


Claparéde, A. René Edouard. Untersuchungen iiber Anatomie und Entwickelungs- 
geschichte wirbelloser Thiere an der Kiiste Normandie angestellt, p. 102, Pl. XVIII, 
figs. 11-14. Leipsic, 1863. 


Dohrn, Anton. Ueber Entwickelung und Bau der Pycnogoniden. < Jenaische 
Zeitschrift fiir Medicin und Naturwissenchaft, Band V, p. 138, Tab. V und VI. 
Jena, 1869. 


Neue Untersuchungen iiber Pycnogoniden. Abdruck aus den Mittheilungen 
der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel, I. Band, I Heft, pp. 28-39. 1878. 


Fabricius, Otho. Fauna Grénilandica, p. 233. Copenhagen, 1780. 


Fabricius, Joh. Christ. Entomologia Systematica emendata et aucta secundum 
classes, ordines, genera, species, adjectis synonimis, locis, observationibus, descrip- 
tionibus. Tomus IY, pp. 416-7. Hafuie (Copenhagen), 1794, 


Gaimard, M. Paul. vide Kroyer. 


_ Goodsir, Sir Harry. Description of a new species of Pycnogon. < Annals and 
Magazine of Natural History, Vol. XV, No. XCVIII, p. 293. 1845. 


Gould, Augustus A. Description of a new species of Crustacean. < Proceedings 
of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. I, pp. 92-3. Boston, 1844. 


Harger, Oscar. vide Smith and Harger. 


500 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Helier, Prof. Camil. Die Crustaceen, Pycnogoniden und Tunicaten der K. K. Oster- 
Ungar Nordpol-Expedition. Pycnogonida, pp. 16-19, Tafel IV & V. Wien, 1875. 


Hesse, M. Observations sur des Crustacés rares ou nouveaux des Cotes de France. 
Mémoire sur les nouveaux Genres Oicebathes, Uperogcos et Sunaristes. < Annales 
des Sciences Naturelles, Cinquiéme Série, Tome VII, pp. 199-216, Pl. 4. Paris, 
1867. 

Mémoire sur des Crustacés rares ou nouveaux des Cotes de France. Descrip- 

tion @’un nouvean Crustacé appartenant a Vordre des Pycnogonidiens et formant 

le genre Oomeére, Nob. < Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Cinquieme Série, Tome 

XX, Vingt-quatriéme article, pp. 1-18, Pl. 8. Paris, 1874. 


Hodge, George. Report on the Pycnogonoidea, in Brady, Reports of Deep Sea 
Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland and Durham, 1862-4. < Natural 
History Transactions of Northumberland and Durham, 1865 [¢. Zool. Record], pp. 
41-2, Pl. X, fig. 1. 


List of the British Pycnogonida with Descriptions of several new Species. 
< Annals and Magazine of Natural History, III Series, Vol. XIII, pp. 113-117, 
Pl. XII and XIII. London, 1864. 


Hoek, Dr. P. P. C. Ueber Pycnogoniden. < Niederlindisches Archiv fiir Zoologie, 
herausgegeben von C. K. Hoffmann, pp. 235-252, Tafel XV und XVI. Leiden, 
Leipsig, Mai, 1877. 


Johnston, George. Miscellanea Zoologica. An attempt to ascertain the British 
Pycnogonide. < Magazine of Zoology and Botany, Vol. I, pp. 368-382, Pl. 13, 
figs. 1-12. 1837. 


Krohn, August. Ueber das Herz und den Blutenlauf in den Pycnogoniden. 
<(Wiegmann’s Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, Berlin, 1855, pp. 6-8. Berlin, 1855. 
Also in Annals of Natural History, Vol. XVI, 1855, pp. 176-7. London, 1855. 


Kroyer, Henrik. Jn Grénland’s Amfipoder beskrivne af Henrik Kroyer. Oversigt 
af de grénlandiske Krebsdyr, ledseget af nogle zoologisk-geografiske Bemezr- 
kninger. < Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs naturvidenskabelige 
og mathematiske Afhandlinger, Afh. VII, pp. 312-326. Kidbenhayn, 1838. 


Bidrag til Kundskab om Pyknogoniderne eller Séspindlerne. < Naturhistorisk 
Tidsskrift, Anden Rekkes, forste Bind, pp. 90-139, Pl. I, figs. lato1b. Kjoben- 
haven, 1844-5. 


Beytrag zur Kentniss der Pycnogoniden. < Oken’s Isis, 1846, Heft VI, pp. 
430-447, Taf. II, figs. la tolf. Leipzig, 1846. 


In Gaimard, M. Paul, Voyages en Scandinavie, en Laponie au Spitzberg et 
aux Férée, Atlas, Pl. 35 to 39. Paris, 1849. 


Lamarck, J. B. P. A. de. Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertébres. Les 
Pycnogonides, Tome Y, pp. 100-105, 2nd. Ed. Paris, 1838. 


Latreille, P. A. Histoire Naturelle, generale et Particuliére des Crustacés et des 
Insectes. Pycnogonides, Tome VII, pp. 330-3. Paris, 1804. 


Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum secundum Ordinem naturalem in Familias 
disposita, Iconibus Exemplisque plurimis explicata. Pycnogonides, pp. 143-4. 
Paris, 1806. 


In Cuvier, Régne Animal distribué d@’aprés son organisation: Les Arachnides; 
Des Pycnogonides, pp. 85-88, Paris. 


PYCNOGONIDA OF NEW ENGLAND AND ADJACENT WATERS. 501 


Leach, William Elford. Zoological Miscellany, Vol. I, pp. 33 and 43, Pl. 13 and 19, 
1814. 


Linné, Carl von. Systema Nature per Regna tria Natur, secundum classes, ordines, 
genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Ed. 12 refor- 
mata, Tomus I. 1766-7. 


Liitken, Christian F. Lists of the Fishes, Tunicata, Polyzoa, Crustacea, Annulata, 
Entozoa, Echinodermata, Anthozoa, Hydrozoa, and Sponges, known from Green- 
land. Compiled for the use of the British North Polar Expedition. Article XV, 
The Crustacea of Greenland, pp. 143-165, Appendix. 1875. 


Miers, Edward J. Report on the Crustacea collected by the Naturalists of the Arc- 
tic Expedition in 1875-76. < Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 4th Series, 
Vol. XX, July No., 1877, Pyenogonida, pp. 27-29. London, 1877. 


Zoology of Kerguelen Island: Crustacea; Pycnogonida, pp. 12-15, Pl. XI. 
October, 1877. 

Milne Edwards. Histoire naturelle des Crustacés, comprenant l’Anatomie, la Phys- 
jologie et la Classification de ces Animaux. Tome III, pp. 530-37, Pl. 41, figs. 
6and7. Paris, 1840. 


Mobius, Karl. Die wirbellosen Thiere der Ostsee: aus dem Bericht iiber die Expedi- 
tion zur physikalisch-chemischen und biologischen Untersuchungen der Ostsee im 
Sommer 1871 auf S. M. Avisodampfer Pommerania. Kiel, 1873. 


Nicolet, H. Jn Claudio Gay, Historia fisica y politica de Chile. Paris, 1854. 


Norman, Alfred Merle. Jn Last Report on Dredging among the Shetland Isles by 
J. Gwyn Jeffries, Rev. A. Merle Norman, W. C. M’Intosh and Edward ‘Waller; 
Part II, on the Crustacea, Tunicata, Polyzoa, Echinodermata, Actinozoa, Hydro- 
zoa, and Porifera. By the Rey. Alfred Merle Norman, M. A. < Report of the 
British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1868, pp. 247-346. Lon- 
don, 1868. 


Packard, Dr. A.S. Observations on the Glacial Phenomena of Labrador and Maine, 
with a View of the recent invertebrate Fauna of Labrador. < Memoirs of the 
Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. I. Boston, 1867. 


Pallas, P.S. Miscellanea Zoologica Quibus nove imprimis atque obscura Animalium 
Species describuntur et observationibus iconibusque illustrantur, p. 188, Tab. XIV, 
figs. 21-23. 1766. 


Philippi, R.A. Ueber die Neapolitanischen Pycnogoniden. < Wiegmann’s Archiv 
fiir Naturgeschichte, Vol. IX, pp. 175-182. Berlin, 1843. 2 


Quatrefages, M. A.de. Etudes sur les Types Inférieurs de /Embranchement des 
Annelés: Memoire sur lorganisation des Pycnogonides. < Annales des Sciences 
Naturelles, 3me serie, Tome IV, pp. 69-83. Paris, 1845. 


——. Observations générales sur le phlebenterisme: anatomie des Pycnogonides. 
< Comptes Rendues, Tome 19, pp. 1152-57. Paris, 1844. 


Recherches sur les Pycnogonides. < Extraits des Procés-Verbaux des séances 
de la Société Philomatique de Paris. 1844. pp. 86-88. 


Reinhardt, J. In Naturhistoriske Bidrag til en Beskrivelse af Grénland, af J. Rein- 
hardt, J. C. Schiddte, O. A. L. Mérch, C. F. Liitken, J. Lange, H. Rink, Tilleg No. 
2, Fortegnelse over Grénlands Krebsdyr, Anneliderog Involdsorme. Kjébenhayn, 
1857, 


502 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


Sabine, Edward. Jn Supplement to the appendix of Captain Parry’s [first] voyage 
for the discovery of the north-west passage, in the years 1819-20. Crustacea, pp. 
CCXXVII-CCXXXVIIJ, Pl. 1-2. London, 1824. 


Sars, George Ossian. Prodromus Descriptionis Crustaceorum et Pycnogonidarum, 
que in Expeditione Norvegica anno 1876, observavit G. O. Sars. < Archiv for 
Mathematik og Naturvidenskab, andet Bind, Tredie Hefte, p. 337. Kristiania, 
1877. 


Say, Thomas. Aun account of the Arachnides of the United States. < Journal of 
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Vol. II, pp. 102-114. Phila- 
delphia, 1821. 


Semper, Carl. Ueber Pycnogoniden und ihre in Hydroiden schmarotzenden Larven- 
formen. < Arbeit aus dem Zoologischen Zootomischen Institut in Wiirzburg, 
1874, pp. 264-68, Taf. 16 u. 17, Also in Verhandlungen der physikalisch-medi- 
cinisch Gesellschaft in Wiirzburg, VII, 274. 1874. 


Slater, Henry H. On a New Genus of Pycnogon and a variety of Pycnogonum litto- 
rale from Japan. < Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 5th series, Vol. 
III, Article XXXII, pp. 281-283, 1879. 


Smith, Sidney I. Jn Verrill and Smith, Report on the Invertebrate Animals of Vine- 
yard Sound and Adjacent Waters with an Account of the Physical Features of 
the Region. [Extracted from the report of Professor.S. B. Baird, Commissioner 
of Fish and Fisheries, on the south coast of New England in 1871 and 1872. ] 
Pycnogonidea, p. 544 (repaged, 250). Washington, 1874. 


Smith and Harger. Report on the Dredgings in the Region of St. George’s Banks, 
in 1872. <(Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 
III. July, 1874. 


Stimpson, William. Synopsis of the Marine Invertebrata of Grand Manan or the 
Region about the Mouth of the Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, pp. 37-38. Wash- 
ington, 1853. 


Descriptions of new species of Marine Invertebrata from Puget Sound, col- 
lected by the Naturalists of the North-west Boundary Commission, A. H. Camp- 
bell, Esq., Commissioner. < Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia, 1864, No. 3, p. 159. 


Strom, Hans. Sdndmér’s Beskrivelse. 1762. 


Verrill, A.E. Results of recent Dredging Expeditions on the Coast of New England. 
No. 3, American Journal of Science and Arts, 3rd Series, Vol. VI, pp. 435-441 ; 
No. 4, l. ¢., vol. VII, pp. 38-46; No. 6, l.c., Vol. VII, pp. 405-414; No. 7, 1.¢., Vol. 
VII, pp. 498-505. 


——. Results of Dredging Expeditions off the New England Coast in 1874, l.c., Vol. 
X, pp. 36-43. 1875. 


Whiteaves, J. P. Notes on a Deep-sea Dredging Expedition round the Island of An- 
ticosti in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. < Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 
Nov. 1872, pp. 342-354. 


. Report of a second Deep-sea Dredging Expedition [in 1872] to the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, with some Remarks on the Marine Fisheries of the Province of Quebec. 
[ Montreal, 1873?] 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


PLATE I. 


Fic. 1. Pycnogonum littorale, 469, male; dorsal view. 

2. The same; ventral view. 

3. The same; a, accessory leg; b, ambulatory leg. 

4, Achelia spinosa, 473; a, general dorsal view; 6, antenna; ¢, spine from acces- 


sory leg. 


PLATE II. 


Fic. 5. Pallene empusa, 476; dorsal view. 


Fic. 


Fic. 


6. 


© 


10. 


79. 


20, 


21. 


22. 


23, 


The same; a, ventral view of rostrum and part of the oculiferous segment; 
ec’, spines from accessory leg. 


. The same; antenna. 


Achelia spinosa, 473; terminal joints of leg. 


. Pseudopallene hispida, 478; a, general dorsal view; 0, antenna; c, spine from 


accessory leg. , 
Pseudopallene discoidea, 479; a, dorsal view of body; 6, antenna; ¢, acces- 
sory leg of female. 


PLATE III. 


. Tanystylum orbiculare, 471; a, general dorsal view; b, terminal joints of leg; 


c, palpus; d, accessory leg of female; ff’, spines from accessory legs. 


. Phoxichilidium maxillare, 480; dorsal view of body. 


The same (smaller southern form); terminal joints of leg. 
The same (larger form, from Eastport). 


. The same; a, accessory leg; b, ova; ¢, antenna. 


Anoplodactylus leatus, 482; dorsal view of body. 


, The same; antenna. 


The same; a, terminal joints of leg; b, accessory leg. 
PLATE IY. 


Ammothea acheliodes, 484; dorsal view of body; r, rostrum; a, antenna; B, 
palpus; d, abdomen; e¢, oculiferous tubercle; s’, etc., lateral processes; J, 
legs; 0 (smaller figure), accessory leg. 

The same; a, terminal joints of leg; 6, antenna; c, palpus. 

Nymphon macrum, 487; dorsal view of oculiferous segment; terminal joints 
of leg; palpus. 

The same; a, antenna; 6, spines from fixed claw; ¢, spines from movable 
claw. 

The same; accessory legs of male and female (both are enlarged to the same 
amount). 

503 


Fig. 29. 
30. 


31. 
32. 


REPORT OF®COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


PLATE VY. 


. Nymphon Strémii, 435; lateral view, natural size, 

. The same; lateral view of body. 

. The same; dorsal view, natural size. 

. The same; a, accessory leg; }, spine from accessory leg. 
. The same; antenna. 


PLATE VI. 


Nymphon Strémii, 485; dorsal view of body. 

Nymphon longitarse; a, dorsal view of body; b, terminal joints of leg; e¢, e, e”, 
spines from accessory leg. 

The same; antenna. 

Nymphon erossipes, 491; a, dorsal view of body; 5, lateral view of body. 


33 to 36. The same; series to show variation in oculiferous segment. 


ov. 


Fia. 38. 
39. 
40. 


41. 
42. 


The same; series to show variation in length of propodus. 


PLATE VII. 


Nymphon hirtum, 495; dorsal view; 7, rostrum; a,antenna; b, palpus; ¢, 
accessory leg; d, abdomen; I, leg. 

The same; a, fifth joint of accessory leg of male; }, corresponding joint of 
female. 

The same; antenna. 

The same; recently hatched larva. 

Nymphon grossipes; antenna. 


Page. 
BNOAMUSET ATI (sicte elsinia(atn)e)nis\cha(aininisieiw'el oiclsis\a via ale sioceisinaie salesmen eae eer eee niciae sos eee nano 469 
Achelia.......... SCD SC SSO R OCOUBEDDOO CECE GUMS oUrIEDDacmpOnciLonuodacoQUaCee elsleleteisieismeieaiajainiarit teats 473 
PAGHOMALOCDINGUM eu enile=cwials ae 02 clncciss owe asaidoceansisisscase aeeeeperineeeem team eine ceaeeeceCe eee 474 
ENCHOM AIRC ADI ler wielule'x's|ninin(ols|e|sinisin'a/eininie «visio es w/e eiu)aiclocminaeinice(isio= nee ee eaneeeneeatee een rete Tee eEe 475 
PNGH ELIS PIN OSB ater ana alcniaanies ails alain ele aie ee'n)s cin siniele vicieiccinielsletela'e.s'alsielal eee nee eee een ee ETE ete 473 
JMUTGUG ED oe woocesoe SUBDUED OO CE DEE OCI BOO EIS OCI ROR CHOU See Gab BebCOOCa Te donbda se dbonoseccomeuicue 471 
PATNINGLN CAs cistcccisecce cnc cncc a Sale ainiaicjnte’eiele(ninielaia'e e'sia/daveinierale re eidiaieai=ineieta = aieicialStaiisteiale eee oe ee 484 
Ammothea achelioides.......-.. Reig wlvinin ow's aims ainlalalolain ie] o/m\sinjaieia(eie/eloia[n\eciaeneenisiaie ee eee eee ie eee 484 
Ammothea brevipes..-..--.--- Galvininin'el Jwivininisivin emin's viuieiaicis eiesisinmiasnejsie/< a <nnicie erie -isaee els Eaeieeee eee 485 
PATINA cn siainiwin oe ane oe wes cas ene nec nen cerwvisem enamine cic s\sealeneccncanaes a acussaseeesias cinch nesiema 482 
JIVE) (YU ee eaepebendd soodouescons oodaacoOsCon adepsdsooneeen SLROpOSdEOUonenAsoSssedadancioc 482 
ANTES EG a ITE ocmectio encased caacee Se Sac e JoccHoE GOS DOOM Doan Jae aemposonoacorocasdone- 482 
FATIODIOOACUYLUS LONGUS sem to cree laine sonieiatae soe clels aielsietesio maser cress BO COR IES OU ene sconeesaseae te 482 
Ascorhynchus.......... SoncEeaseSe Slnlalsininlw'el='w nin ieieje/ale\='~) «!n\ajeiniwieleinlcleioininivinsn nines neniae aeee reeset 466 
CUMTIGET?. acho as cho cadcooa nn cenSDTSesaCaoon mle sie win(aie sin = elela\civiainie(n'alore fatelsieisic\nisieinia|=\ciaeie ieee ane ainsi 468 
WOOSSGNOOIS Moses raceee emcees SPOCECEDOSEOOD SHOE OCB OSU CO BOO REanEAdde cick Hoqsabaadessone 468 
DV GCOLO DOU emtectisan1s isis e(Selascicialelo tase elcivisidea cals clam aisicloclsecies acccasemaceccn eee cae RE een eee 467 
SETHI CL GIS ateataeiatafate cte'aloia Sain a sia’ sleis niaaiac atlas o/siais ayvisie'als s ciete wcid staicie/wia,2:h « Sema elv sens Sas eieeeeen Ween 468 
PVE CI Otee resistin costs cect isisieivecee nasine Ise aclerins as cease oe beSeae as gs oe semen en ee a ee eee 468 
SC ten COMM WM CHUS Este ao sice caiseioissatei esate aslecia cls) iain ical cj=) 'cinlc veld o sete cce meses erence Eee 467 
BING Vata ES OT ete ete Cainafeloletais sieiotcta wis alain a oe leeeta ain) wictsicinein > toeieiare)oleie te ae eicle cle ee vaipls se Sea eae Ae Ree eee 485 
Nymphon brevitarse..............--- SOS PO RISc RC HS ECD OD SOOE DD OOC SOOO BO SEHEABOS se bocenacesofmeboc 491 
EN EID HOD Bt eM ORALIM ee mesilate ale sisiele'aijenicivisle cicisols seine Gl vais sinja'sinteies denan ese Sele eee Eee 495 
Niym phony eigaMbeumM) <a <cjoccc eacsssenecs ase saleew esa sceaeeacicsac sss ccs se ac> se eee cee eee eee eeee 486 
NG VIN NOTECTACIIO!. sa aa. eaiainlnial=(oleina iss size ois meee clas mctcinicineats aisieieia eel see'as sare ee eee ee 491 
NVINPNOMNETACIIPCS\-c acim ac asa:sicceoecinc siceseis aiciess dees vec semis say = ols ae eee ee RE ee 486 
Nymphon grossipes.............- DES Un SUH Doon SHIDO Se deo hopooncedonccodosssecocadedacdnceasbbbeas 491 
EN VND HOTIMN TEST GUM 25 <oje,<eiclels stars «oie a cla wisi ovo Dane acinolem rene eeleecen eer enine aM ae Eonar 495 
RSM NOTHING OS aan. Siecle cisicioc ee ceca e ees cise nal o--"s,a72 sbaleiclerete sie emeie eee nis cee ee eee 495 
EN TINTTLOMPM TC UU Mera =e athe, jainlsiein sininjotmiciein se lei a's ofa Sinai nwa Ms Ree eae e oR Eee EE oct ene 495 
Niu Te HO MULON TEARS elena <iclajsicj see te raielc dnl See eioe siete na alas See eee @ ABSSOATORNOS  GoaERO Sec 489 
ENS aHI DD LOTAINAOTNT Mey cata ys (ease oe cia lero Setacie oes oes dioe mace Rome ER EERE rene ae een denensosenens 487 
IN ye OMT Hert MUaies slo's )oia\cleia ainisie'sia.2 sisie ==. /-1- a2 ainsge siecle s eee meme Nee he omias come BORE Eee 491 
SIN PAIN ERO MAIN DN eretetete es ale rs sia a arala, Ja mele Sinisa) ola sic ee wiciaicietiecsiviee sae nee ee mace esos Spocodnccosasoscte 491 
AN RADE Si) ns 6.50 4G5 Joricoa SS ROO SO COE EEC ORB eA DE CRE RDC E COD CO Ca UC HUA HOoHRE EEE ORaSaaskebecocc ns 485 
ENG yt ips OMNI Cl aspen et siataia sa Sistalalotorcte cise faiatlete eicini= «ac <ia:cfo see eames win ac case eS merle oe eee ene 484 
ENivannD HUN CTO SSE POS eae ss erations oss sar iaisere bee siete cio cis seem emeices aris som ene seuen een sas Jeeves 491 
Nymphum hirsutum............... sialnjainiavia/atuia'n/a/a!ea,='« a'arwraiqiepsetelaaiat sinmlefeial stee = aie s1 ss cee nee eee noon 491 
Wicehathesspmcssseeeeessacsnecescicecce An coceAéacnaee BO DAO EE GOCC DOSE BOLECOSORCCES predocnoononsaor 468 
RIG TUT Bocondanccessocnbe -HOCOB oer COL wnlaleieiaivia\a's\vieioia.cia/alalelatctaiastaeie(cicic stanisiniaisiata cle ela neers aaeeeiea 465 
PRILENG! 2s cee sesscecasaae be wetviaenjete(elalemminie)sinwisie\sinicic semen sonaiae/te = slsas saiclansioen scceeaiscorseenee 476 
Pallene brevirostris....... manieislaialalelelaistatalelaie siais'e w'ainieleincislcietaiaiaiciasiainiseee sono00- Socenss seweeewaeas - ATT 
505 


506 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Page. 
HAM Ene OISCOIUG cs maic pasiees seas omelets = Wi Sinjnin\n(nal~iai=’a/almewlonineileimtelatele ebyweiclnialsi= os ie'wieicic cesar 479, 478 
PRIORITY Ei eors gO Sea b0 San OOO SUDAN OS ROS SSOSe DAS TISASsnoadsScoases! ssLcoshosseeSussaeceses-- 476 
Teal Gin) WR) GD) Ce eaonmnncapareeeceoscoQeecanhSSsSec sac cc5 2eses5 sSSaescccgm-i oases seoneseosoese 478 
Tr ile @ninl Rig mG il essa caannossosas ssocec see 2605 Sedkbasos5605 soso no oes Soeesasas ese osseseececoce+ 478 
Pallene spinipes.-...----- Jnr nee cect eee cence ccc ee wenn nn ences new e ccc enn een wena neces erccses 478 
Tia ent be Se e6 op og SED ABEBA BEAD Cs Doone coUdecHeorserdeseco seosoonassaseesoscesasasacse tes scssscnc- 476 
TMNIRE 23115 peppeennoo eScosoe bs oa0 305 SSSonS Sab gH QOS SSObESSSI55 GoS6 Jo Scere occdse sacosac sancoe senses 468 
LETTE Ses Ganccee no nods pcr coo Ee sSacd a6 Soo Ses0s 99 Same sas sictensesecoescosnod=sctsoccocsedccese 468 
RAGING roe acces sao er clerae acilcees ec cisio cece mise eee meme slesceitss een soca Sa ee eee eee eee 468 
PASH OMIM PON AULA isis ese cleinis cnc c'vsisies ea sic eis cle chee eas anno matinee meiieele eae cies nest eee 471 
PANG Eee aainieie le Sain ase tosis ain emeiae eR ee ee Semon mene wlais/kinicte\ 0\\s w/n(aibelo(olals ania) ieee ee 469 
IEPEOLSTIELG |} eee ee ao A Rn te AR lh a A a a Ne eR 468 
asta POULIN PU OSSIPES s.eimelalatelaleioie tes elata ise ele aie ale elec lacie e viele sielsisielsiefe ein eiatcie =tei=pa ee et 491 
Sestretrny ORIN: LUGLOLAL Oclereferwiersieictels clue afoitis se clei eiwinn oe wninine o elem cicte ere meictelote Ree ie moe ne oe nie te eee 469 
Sep TCAR AT) XU ULIVAS ETN MT AEN LEDS cretale oleate ml elereielol= (minaret erie mielem) eicle lope eleiala ease aieiate Sepa scosasocwcteosaosccas 491 
MBH AN OCS DVS science toeiertnale eet alonieio/s siete atu cle w'e tute Us slelele wicls Hee oles olciaia Se Sea ee en er eee eee ee eae 465 
Phoxichilidium ......... alate tate le fatale tafe tatetel cel ate leatm intel siatate ale atetaiatnre' le slaial=iatele ete miele eee 480 
PioxichiidiimM Cheliferugm jek ieee setae ewes tse ccnechoohessccee (aes ocae ee tee ee eee eee Eee 482 
Pinedo hii dium: f6MOPALOM rs - ter eiare eT aiocele Shaws acces cebens Cabs anceseseces neohome reste ce eee 481 
HORI HINGUM AUMINCHS! «seis oa\2 an sieicinic sisal siemeraia seni cicie| scar ot hetccsdoco cece eee eee 482 
Phoxmeniidium: mMaxiwlare: co scescecsccccsccce scenes Sh tote Dieminle Coe eipicincecicenie nce cere ee eames essacr S00 
PBERIC HIG MINOL proceso sesece see Lees cte et ctste hese cece eee eeee teas Sessa oScuosCO Deen ticacs~- 480 
HAHORICHINGIAM WITESCENS «cae. serene senaccaaseetcsesesces cate. bn clelsemisiare Welclo)=ioleeta eats eee 482 
PHO MIGHUUS cereccee re cesenetcece he meeeaare scorns otaccisiesacrescclsmesrarecesececee sheen tee eee eae 465 
PReUdOpALENG enc aoc cece cts scene tnaame re sein coccis oislncle secitetc cine aeinetemeinelcioa nee ae cet ae ee eee 477 
Psendopallenoe disc0ides:s....52sssecarenceoteeeescscceses SB oc ewalsice scleleias sienna helen siete ae eee 479 
mpeudapallene Hispida..crcccossscecteacessasssausccse 14 seeseacs Fes doe cec sence cesea secede eee eeeeee 478 
Pychnogonum littorale ...... ....-.-----+----- eecwe res cecne can y ecesem cnc ceo cncice aes ceteae serene 469 
PAV ONO LOMUT Dercterwsacschaccsace ce scjdcss Sedcceteedecisgcene tacos ctcesce aeosaeueteec eee ees eeeeeeee 469 
PyCMOCONMM ccc sews ssscacsccecseseccerasccs canes SH aC OT SOE SESE SOR EOS Sec onACE SSSR cosets soscisc 469 
Pyenogonum balenarum..<-.<<s.cssoececceecwciee= SOOCSCA RES OUDS SOON SS KASS SeNOSdaneSsosd sassceo- 469 
Pycnogonum grossipes...-.-..-----sa00 S OhaeEcosongooconsasscese AeBSoSraoksoSsossacsancet aeoosae 491 
PESVEMO SONUMLEOLAIG He ne salts alate selete teen clniwte e osiciceinenieais sem gence meciceceie se awerseeere pobaoasao02 469 
PYAMOL OMIM POlAPICUIN ds asccices sansa cciuices Coecaremeiee cect maeecisceea ce FSSC Boscoccessaca: 469 
RHOPAlOTH YM CHUSEs. ccorse ne nice ee ceirece = SBOE IAB BOC E OCR ECE NGS OWS CO DODO aooomagposoesguanoss= 262 468 
Tan ySbylOM = <.<.0/6 ojatestasteeeteisnte's Siiotats cinta tatecieteaanis neti: PaSGSIACHOnSUACos aoEenaao66cc Becersacces: 471 
Hany Shy UM OLDICWIALG \ateram\evieiosess a 'sissi'cintcecee'e socoddacussencsnasodad wee cecceseceecsenane=cmnm= 471 
COLES SPINOSAcacislsnre nv sciences ce Satacteiceeiser SE COODOL OoOCDD ESESpmDbOdoOoctinSac BRAS RCEUSoticaadoa09 478 


v 


rig 
By 


: Heit 
em " ae ; 


oe b 
ee ie 


eae =. a uf my 


ait 
i: 


iy i pubis ‘di 


it's haa 
aay: parle Ge M 
il bite ue REN 1h 


PLATE I. 


Fig. 1. Pyenogonum littorale, 469, male; dorsal view. 
2. The same; ventral view. 
3. The same; a, accessory leg; b, ambulatory leg. 
4. Achelia spinosa, 473; a, general dorsal view; }, antenna; c, spine from acces- 
sory leg. 


PoADHel, 


Pyenogonids. 


Report U. S. F. C. 1878. — Wilson. 


Pe fa 


aviianl 
A, i 
ae 
i a 


uh bf 


* 
bi 
; 


¥ 
a 
: wneae 


Bp ike, 
7 ‘ge : 


ss 
Pod 
Pe 
a 


ee 
i re 


Oa, ig 
; i An : i Ru i: 


ai oe i. 


i ro a 


ae aw st 


a” 7 


Fig. 5. 


10. 


PLATE II. 


Pallene empusa, 476; dorsal view. 


. The same; a, ventral view of rostrum and part of the oculiferous seep 


cc’, spines from accessory leg. 


. The same; antenna. 
. Achelia spinosa, 473; terminal joints of leg. 
. Pseudopallene hispida, 478; a, general dorsal view; b, antenna; c, spine from 


accessory leg. 
Pseudopallene discoidea, 479; a, dorsal view of body; b, antenna; ¢, acces- 
sory leg of female. 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Wilson. 


Pycnogonids. 


Fig. 5. 


No 1004. 


Fig. 7. 


No.977. 


N0.996, 


Prat i, 


4 
= 
> wm 
Z 
< 7 


: an ne coe 
an ie 
Peary) au 
fa ks 4 


nian 


; _ wh Rg re Ge 
par roe ret 
_ ty ie ; Aa 
CLAP ¢ The : ware 

a inti ,? a 4" i Tih cs, 


De 


re A 
wy ie 
oF Ya : ‘ 
5 me ie bt 
Ov 


a 


Ay 


ae : | 


7 a J es a eh Pw ce 
Betis: iis its hy 
5 a) i My 


vert 7 


8 se ; 
oP py A Bk Qn 
Ti) Cars 2 on 


i) - 


i i 
A TON CAChi nas 
‘ ve ie Rous 


vA : 


Weed an aan 
Rasta yD 
aes a ae 


PLATE III. 


Fic. 11. Tanystylum orbiculare, 471; a, general dorsal view; b, terminal joints of leg; 
c, palpus; d, accessory legeof female; ff’, spines from accessory legs. 
12. Phoxichilidium maxillare, 480; dorsal view of body. 
13. The same (smaller southern form); terminal joints of leg. 
14. The same (larger form, from Eastport). 
15. The same; a, accessory leg; 0, ova; c, antenna. 
16. Anoplodactylus leatus, 482; dorsal view of body. 
17. The same; antenna. 
18. The same; a, terminal joints of leg; b, accessory leg. 


Report U. S. F. C. 1878.—Wilson. Pyenogonids. 


PLATE ITI. 


No.978. 


No.985. 


Fig. 11. 


ae re 
as 
eon 
i 
a 

Fig. 16. 


No.986, 


7 


tNieva paeiatik 


er , a 7 


aay he Sutin y nt whl 
Bt ay loner he 
ra a BT Siac a ; 
Bis, ae » : ee 5 


A es 


ig oe Nena 
_ on ” i ; 


a 
iy 


mai a 


Nt 
hone ye 


PLATE IV. 


ist 


1 wal 
ee palpus; d, abdomen; e, conte tubercle ; 5’, ey laienall processe 
legs; b (smaller ote. accessory leg. 

- 20. The same; a, terminal joints of leg; b, antenna; c, palpus. 

: 21. Nymphon macrum, 487; dorsal view of oculiferous segment; terminal joiz 
of leg; parpus. - ae 

22. The same; a, antenna; b, spines from fixed claw; c, spines from mov: 


” claw. | 
wl 23. The same; accessory legs of male and female (both are enlarged to the same 
Sy “ 


‘ae 


nn ae 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Wilson. Pycnogonids. PLATE IV. 


PUATE CV. 


Fic. 24. Nymphon Strémii, 485; lateral view, natural size. 
25. The same; lateral view of body. 
26. The same; dorsal view, natural size. 
27, The same; a, accessory leg; b, spine from accessory leg. 
28. The same; antenna. 


Report U. 8. F. © 1878.—Wilson. Pyenogonids. 


PLATE V. 


Fig. 24. 


2 
No,998. 
Fig. 26. 
y) \ / \ Fig 28 
( ) ; 
é 
Q oy SS 
VEY 
<< S_S “4 ad x6 
Soa U aN 
\ N 
0) 
\ / a 
J No.990. 


S/ 


No.1010, 


PLATE VI. 


Fic. 29. Nymphon Strémii, 485; dorsal view of body. 
30. Nymphon longitarse; a, dorsal view of body; b, terminal joints of leg ; ¢, e’, e’’, 
spines from accessory leg. 
31. The same; antenna. 
32. Nymphon grossipes, 491; a, dorsal view of body; b, Iateral view of body. 
33 to 36. The same; series to show variation in oculiferous segment. 
37. The same; series to show variation in length of propodus. 


Report U. S. F. C. 1878.— Wilson. Pycnogonids. 


PLATE VI. 


Fig. 30. 
a 
=) Xs 
\ ell 
No.994, 


x5 


‘ Fig. 34. 
Fig. 33 “ 
x6 
Qo a 
ey 
WNo.1009. iY ) 
No.980. 
Fig. 36. 
le Bey, 
XT 
Qo of 
[Ast 
No.1008, 
No.1007. 


WLLL, 


Ys 


\ 
VA 
\ 

Nh, 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
Ay 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 


ee gee 


ce 
“i e 


hb 


VF 


Fig. 38. 
39. 
AO. 


41. 
42. 


PLATE VII. 


Nymphon hirtum, 495; dorsal view; 7, rostrum; a,antenna; 6, palpus; ¢, 
accessory leg; d, abdomen; J, leg. 

The same; a, fifth joint of accessory leg of male; 6, corresponding joint of 
female. 

The same; antenna. 

The same; recently hatched larva. 

Nymphon grossipes; antenna, 


Report U.S. F. C. 1878.—Wilson. Pyenogonids. PLATE VII. 


No.1000. 
: No.995. 


Lar 


aa 


APPENDIX fF, 


THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES, 


GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 


XVI.—THE ENEMIES OF FISH.* 


By BARON DE LA VALETTE ST. GEORGE, 


Professor of Anatomy and Director of the Anatomical Institute at Bonn. 


Read at a meeting of the German Fishery Association, Berlin, March 31, 1879. 
[From Circular No. 3 of the German Fishery Association, Berlin, May 14, 1879.] 


[Translated by Herman Jacobsen. ] 


War is the watch-word of the whole of organic nature; there is a con- 
stant war of all organisms against outward unfavorable circumstances, 
and there is constant war among the different individuals. The seed- 
grain which falls into the ground, the worm crawling on the earth, the 
butterfly hovering over the flower, the eagle soaring high among the 
clouds, they all have their enemies—outward enemies threatening their 
existence, and inward enemies eating their life and strength. 

Hven fish, which claim our special attention, are by no means per- 
mitted to spend their life in peace. Plants and animals endanger their 
very life, and when they have been fortunate enough to escape these, 
man comes and seeks to catch and destroy them with numberless arts 
and tricks. 

Confined to a special sphere of life, the water, they frequently do not 
find in it the necessary conditions of existence. Intheirvery cradle, so to 
speak, that is, in the egg, the tender germs, scarcely awakened to life, 
are threatened by a dangerous enemy belonging to the lowest grades of 
the vegetable kingdom. Thisis the much-dreaded Saprolegniaferaz ; in 
an incredibly short time its long threads envelop the egg, choke it, and 
destroy it. 

The best preventive is an ample and continuous supply of cold water 
of a temperature of about zero, a dim light, and the immediate removal 
of spoiled eggs. Using a brush only destroys the spurs or threads of 
the Saprolegnia and consumes too much time. 

These parasitical plants may prove dangerous even to older fish, for 
I have observed them on full-grown trout. But, as Dr. Wittmark says 
in his excellent treatise on the enemies of fish, the propter hoe and post 
hoc should be well distinguished. I believe that such fungous forma- 
tions are only found in fish which are worn-out or have been weakened 
by sickness, and that in such cases it accelerates their death. It is 
well known to all pisciculturists how important it is to keep all ponds 


2 LE Sg EOL ERC arse? Gea Raa as Deemed iar 2p coe See Oana I Re 
* Ucber die Feinde der Fische, Vortrag des Herrn Freiherrn yon la Valette St. George. 
5 
509 


510 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


or vessels scrupulously clean, and especially keep away all decaying 
anunal matter. 

The higher alge and aquatic plants of every kind may prove hurtful 
to the fish by limiting the extent of water and hindering the free move- 
ment of the fish. Thisis also the case with the so-called ‘‘ water plague,” 
Wasserpest, Hlodea canadensis, which, however, does not deserve this 
name, as it contains much food and develops a great deal of oxygen. 

Among the protozoans which form the connecting link between veg- 
etable and animal life we find a small but very dangerous enemy of the 
fish, namely, the Psorospermia. These are round or oval bodies, often 
possessing a tail, with an internal cellular formation, measuring about 
0.005/", which were first discovered in 1841 by Johannes Miller in the 
socket of the eye of the pike and in small pimples on the skin of the 
perch, the stickle-back, and several fish of the eyounee family. They 
form the contents of small capsules, measuring + to 4’, which are im- 
bedded in the membranes. They have also been Some in the bladder 
of pike and codfish. Recent investigations have thrown some light on 
the origin of these beings. They are products by separation of the so- 
ealled “‘Gregarines,” which develop an ameba without any kernel, 
which again changes to a gregarine. Lieberkiihn has observed the de- 
velopment of the psorosperm into an amceba, and EL. van Beneden the 
change from the ameba to the “ gregarine,” the one in the pike and the 
other in the lobster. So far it has not been ascertained with absolute 
certainty in what way the fish are affected by them. 

It is certain that these parasites occasion the destruction of the tissue 
which surrounds them by producing festering sores, and that fish in- 
fected by them must gradually die. 

Certain formations of a higher group—the infusoria—have also recently 
been accused of being enemies of fish ; some of them, such as the Opalina 
ranarum, in the intestinal tube of the frog, and the Trichodina pediculus, 
have long been known as internal and external parasites. They can 
get in under the outer skin and destroy it. Livingston Stone recom- 
mends the transfer for a short time of fish affected in this way to salt 
water. Itis said that among the mollusks the Tichagonia polymorpha 
does not disdain the spawn of fish. 

We must now turn to a group of animals which has a very bad repu- 
tation, and which, belonging to the worms, are comprised in the family 
of intestinal worms or helminths. This group sends a whole army of 
animals into the field, some only visible through the microscope, others 
measuring inches and even yards, and often possessing terrible weapons; 
they live and find their food in the abdominal cavity, the Se 
muscles, gills, and skin of fish. 

The eel contains no less than 25 different kinds of these parasites, the 
perch 23, the pike 21, the salmon 16, the trout 15, and the carp 12. 

The intestinal worms are divided into four classes, viz, Cestodes, 
Trematodes, Acanthocephala, and Nematodes. 


THE ENEMIES OF FISH. ay | 


The fecundity of some of these worms is considerably increased by the 
so-called ‘change of generation,” that is, the interpolation of generation 
without sexual connection between the regular generation. 

From one of the innumerable eggs of the tape-worm, for instance, there 
develops an embryo armed with six little hooks, which finds its way 
through the animal tissues, settles somewhere, and develops into a tape- 
worm. In the beginning it is inclosed in a bladder, and in this state is 
known as the “‘bladder-worm.” Generally not until it has reached the 
stomach or intestinal tube of some other animal, does the head get free 
and develop the different joints of the tape-worm, in which eggs develop 
in the regular manner. 

In another kind of the helminths, the Trematodes, we also find this 
peculiar manner of propagation. From the embryo worm-like animals 
are developed sporocysts or redia, which again develop little worms with 
tails, the cercaria. These very lively little animals, which frequently have 
bristles on the head, envelop themselves in a capsule and throw off their 
organs of motion. 

If in this condition they enter the stomach of that animal which is 
to be their definite place of abode, the cyst, as I have shown by experi- 
ments years ago, is digested, and its contents becomes a fully-matured 
animal of the Trematodes kind. Before they get so far they may, how- 
ever, pass through several different animals. 

Tapeworms are very frequently found in fish, often in an entirely unde- 
veloped condition, which shows that they were first eaten by some other 
animal aiong with the animal in which they lived. 

Among these must be counted the Ligula, which is frequently found 
in the abdominal cavity of our fresh-water fish, such as the bleak, blay, 
crucian, salmon, trout, pike, and perch. In some parts of Italy this 
worm. is called ‘ Macaroni piatti,” and is considered a great delicacy. 
In storks, herons, gulls, and wild ducks it is found in its more devel- 
oped form. According to Van Beneden it only gets into these birds acci- 
dentally. 

Very similar to the Ligula is the Sehistocephalus, which often fills the 
abdominal cavity of the stickle-backs to such an extent as almost to 
make them burst. When 25 years ago I pursued ichthyological studies 
here in: Berlin, under the instruction of my venerable teacher, Professor 
Peters, I often fed crows and ducks with these worms. These experi- 
ments were made in my student’s quarters in the third story, and were 
therefore attended with considerable difficulties. Von Willemoes-Suhm 
has pursued his experiments in a reversed manner, and has raised the 
embryos with six little hooks from the eggs of the Ligula taken from a 
diver, and from those of the Schistocephalus taken from a gull. Among 
these undeveloped forms we must also mention the Scolex polymorphus, 
which is found in many salt-water fish, and comprises different stages of 
development. 

A very simply-formed tapeworm is found in the intestinal tube of nearly 


512 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


every fish of the genus Cyprinus ; itis called the Caryophyllaeus mutabilis. 
It has only one joint, closely connected with the head, which develops in 
the same fish, and forms the connecting link with a long and varied 
series of maritime forms, which in their youth live in osseous fish, and 
with these migrate into rays and sharks, where they reach maturity. 
These are the Tetraphyllide of Van Beneden, which have four sucking 
disks which are either unarmed or have hooks or stings. To the former 
belong the Hehinobothrium, Phyllobothrium and Anthobethrium; to the 
latter, the Acanthobothrium, Oalliobethrium, and Onchobothrium. The 
Echinobothrium found in the ray has only two sucking disks, but two 
sharp stings on the forehead, and a neck full of long bristles. Next to 
this comes the Tetrarhyncus, which has four hooked trunks. When 
quite young it is found in plaice, and when fully grown in rays and 
sharks. Nearly related to this one is the Triwnophorus nodulocus with 
two pairs of three-pronged hooks, which in its undeveloped condition is 
found in the liver of fish of the genus Cyprinus, and when fully ma- 
tured in the intestinal tube of fish-of-prey. 

The Cestodes found in fresh-water fish are not so numerous and varied 
as those of the salt-water fish. Of the latter there may still be men- 
tioned the Bothriocephalus punctatus of the plaice, and the Bothrioceph- 
alus rugosus of the codfish; and of the former, the Bothriocephalus pro- 
boscideus of the salmon, the Tonia ocellata of the perch, the Tania 
osculata of the “ Wels,” Silurus glanis, and the Tenia torulosa of the 
“Ort,” the Tenia longicollis of the salmonoids, mostly confined in cap- 
sules, and the Tenia macrocephala of the eel. 

The Trematodes may be subdivided into a number of families accord- 
ing to the number and position of their sucking disks. In this way we 
may distinguish the Monostoma, Distoma, Tristoma, Polystoma, Holostoma, 
and Amphistoma. The sucking disks of the lower extremity are some- 
times furnished with hooks as, for example, in the Gyrodactylus. 

The last of this kind is the Diporpa, which in the middle grows 
together with another individual, and then forms a peculiar twin-animal, 
the Diplozoon paradoxum. The monostoma are rarely found in fish. 
They are found in the intestinal tube of the stickle-back (J. carryophyl- 
linwm), and the barbel (MM. cochleariforme), in the gills of the “brachse” 
(I. praemorsum), and in capsules in the small *‘ Marana” (1. Maraenwle). 
Von Nordmann found an incredible quantity of a youthful formation 
(Diplostomum) of the Holostoma living in aquatic birds, in the eye of the 
perch, the burbot, fish of the genus Cyprinus, and in the last mentioned 
aiso in the skin. In the lens of the eye of the burbot, 290 such little 
animals were counted, whilst the vitreous humor contained about half 
that number. This must of course make the fish more or less blind. 

The Distoma are very common in fish. Thus the perch has five dif- 
ferent kinds, and the eel ten. In our fish the most frequent are the 
Distomum globiporum, the D. tereticolle of the burbot, pike, salmon, and 
trout, the D. noduloswm of the perch, the D. torulosum of the “ Wels,” 


THE ENEMIES OF FISH. 513 


the D. ferruginosum of the barbel, the D. macrobothrium and tectum of 
the smelt, the D. lawreatum and varicum of the “ Aesche”, the D. ocrea- 
tum of the herring, salmon, and May-fish, which, when young, lives 
quite free, and is a parasite on larve of worms and small crustaceans. 

Of the Polystoma I will only mention the Octobothrium of the May- 
fish, which lives in the gills like the Diplozoon of the cyprinoids, the 
Gyrodactylus and Dactylogyrus. 

The Acanthocephala are round, tube-formed worms, without mouth and 
intestinal tube, whilst at the head-end they have a trunk with hooks. 
Their embryos have smaller hooks, with which they pierce the intestinal: 
tube of the animals in which they live, principally crustaeeans, then 
wrap themselves up in a capsule, and in that state are transferred to 
other animals, fish, birds, or whales. 

We thus find the Hchinorhyncus proteus when young in small crusta- 
ceans, and when more developed in the perch, the ‘‘ Wels,” the carp, the 
salmonoids, and other fish. It is likewise found in many salt-water fish, 
as the codfish and the plaice; whilst it does not occur in the rays and. 
sharks.* 

Different from the Acanthocephala is the family of the Nematodes, num- 
bering upwards of 1,200 kinds, distinguished chiefly by a more or less 
developed organ of digestion. These Nematodes are very prolific, and. 
exhibit many peculiar phases of development; a change of generation 
does not, however, seem to occur with them, at any rate it has so far not 
been observed. It has been noticed, however, that parasitical hermaph- 
rodites have been produced by free individuals of opposite sexes. There 
may also possibly be a development of the egg without impreguation. 

The Nematodes are very frequent in fish, sometimes half developed in 
capsules, and sometimes fully grown. 

We thus find the Gordius aquaticus, a very long (1 meter) nematode, liv- 
ing in the water, inclosed in land and water insects and their larve, as 
well as in minnows and loaches; and the Cucullanus when young in 
small crustaceans, and when fully grown in the perch and eel. In the 
swimming-bladder of the salmonoids we find the Ancyranthus ; in the 
stomach of the eel, the Filaria denticulata ; in fish of the Cyprinus kind, 
the TLrichosoma tomentosum ; and in the plaice, the Heterakis foveola. 
The large genus Ascaris has also many representatives in fish, forexample, 
Ascaris truncatula, in the perch; A. gasterostei, in the stickle-back; A. 
clavata, in the codfish, trout, and salmon; A. mucronata, in the burbot 
and pike; A. collaris, in the plaice; A. siluri, in the “Wels”; A. acus, 
in the carp, pike, and trout; A. dentata, in the barbel; A. hirsuta, in 
the smelt ; A. obtusocauda, in fish of the Coregonus kind; A. cristata, in 


* As far as can be judged from the very incomplete description, the unusual mor- 
tality of the crawfish noticed in several places (‘‘ Deutsche Fischerei Zeitung,” 1879, p. 
62) might be traced to the Lchinorhyncus, perhaps £. polymorphus Br., E. Milarius, 
Zenker, EF, Astaci fluvialis v. Siebold. When young they live in small crustaceans, and 
when more developed in aquatic birds. These latter would, therefore, transmit the 
infection. 

33 F 


514 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the pike; A. adunca, in the “May-fish”; A. labiata, in the eel; and A. 
constricta, in the sturgeon. 

Diesing mentions a Trichina cyprinorum, but all attempts to develop 
trichina in fish have so far been unsuccessful. Quite recently I have 
made experiments with goldfish, feeding them with meat which con- 
tained trichina, but the trichina passed through the intestinal tube. The 
“ fish trichina” which are from time to time spoken of in the newspa- 
pers are, therefore, probably myths. 

A very dangerous and troublesome parasite is the “ fish-leech,” which 
lives on the skin and the gills of fish, often in such numbers as to tor- 
ment the poor fish. We find the Piscicola geometra on fish of the genus 
Cyprinus, the salmonoids and the pike, the P. respirans on the barbel, 
and the P. fasciata on the * Wels.” The Branchiobdella lives on craw- 
fish, the Histriobdella on lobsters, while others live on salt-water fish and 
mollusks. 

Also among the crustaceans we find a number of parasites which live 
on the blood of fish, the so-called “ fish-louse,” remarkable for a pecu- 
liar regressive metamorphosis during their development. 

The young are very lively and resemble small crustaceans, but when 
they have reached their permanent place of sojourn, only those organs 
remain which are necessary for feeding and propagating. 

Of the very large number of these parasites, I only mention the Hr- 
gasilus Sieboldii on the carp and pike, the Lamprogena pulchella on the 
“orpe,” the Lernwocera on the carp, the pike, and the codfish, the Ach- 
theres percarum on the perch, the Tracheliastes polycopus on the barbel, 
and the Argulus foliaceus on the carp; the last mentioned of which I had 
frequent occasion to observe in my goldfish ponds. These parasites 
‘seem not to do special harm; still I found it advisable to counteract 
their spreading by draining the ponds from time to time and by removy- 
ing the parasites. 

I do not believe that more developed crustaceans, which form an ex- 
cellent food for trout, can hurt the fish-eggs, but there are quite a num- 
ber, such as the Anceus, Cymothoa, &c., which live as parasites on fish. 

Among the insects the water-beetles and their larve, principally the 
Dytiscus, Acilius, and Calymbetes, are justly considered enemies of fish. 
I have seen how a Dytiscus marginalis killed a Mexican salamander six 
inches in length, for whom it was to serve as food, by biting it in the 
neck. The larve of the dragon-fly are also said to hurt the fish. 

In passing to the vertebrates, we find that the fish themselves are dan- 
gerous enemies of their own kind. Not only will it happen that a male 
trout with an utter lack of gallantry will eat the eggs instead of impreg- 
nating them, but many fish, which are considered harmless vegetarians, 
actually turn cannibals, and, especially at a more advanced age, devour 
the eggs and young fish. This is the reason why there are so frequently 
no young fish in goldfish-ponds containing strong and healthy male and 
female fish, whilst those eggs—few in number—which by the water 


THE ENEMIES OF FIST, 515 


flowing through the pond are accidentally carried beyond the limits of 
the pond develop very successfully. 

Arrangements may be made accordingly. To take out the old fish 
after spawning is easier said than done. Although the salmonoids as 
a general rule, that is, as long as they find a sufficient quantity of insects, 
crustaceans, worms and snails, are not very dangerous depredators, they 
love to eat the spawn of fish. Nearly all fish will be guilty of the same 
offense when tempted by such delicate morsels. Trout which have ac- 
quired a taste for such food may prove very dangerous to their younger 
comrades. The fish-of-prey, properly so called, the pike, the barbel, 
“Wels,” burbot, and eel are well known as such, and they are caught 
wherever this is possible. 

Among the amphibia, the water-salamander, the water-toad, ‘ Unke,” 
and the frog should be kept away from the fish-ponds as much as pos- 
sible, because they may inflict great damage to eggs and young fish. 

In order not to pass the reptiles, we wilj also mention among the 
enemies of fish the crocodile and the water-snake. I do not know 
whether our common Coluber natrix likes fish as well as it does frogs 
and tritons. 

All aquatie birds are born enemies of fish. The water-fowl seems to 
be the most harmless of all, although it cannot be trusted entirely. The 
stork is decidedly worse than his reputation. But the most dangerous 
enemies are the herons, which, especially during moonlight nights, do 
great damage. Among the birds-of-prey the Circus rufus, the Pandion 
hatlietus, and the Haliatus albicilla are the most dangerous and powerful 
enemies of fish. A most dangerous enemy is the kingfisher, Alcedo 
ispida. The crow, Corvus corona, also likes fish, and is remarkably 
skillful in catching them. The wagtail, Motacilla flava, and alba, and 
the water-ousel, Cinclus aquaticus, are likewise fond of fish-eggs and 
young fish. 

Among the mammals, the enemies of fish are not so numerous, but 
the few are all the more dangerous. Of the Cetacea, we must men- 
tion the fin-fish, the narwhal, and the dolphin, and of the Phocida, 
the seal. The water-rat, Hypodceus amphibius, and the brown rat, Mus 
decumanus, should be kept away from fish-ponds as much as pos- 
sible. Although the first-mentioned lives on reeds, it does damage 
by undermining the dikes, whilst the last-mentioned most assuredly 
hurts the fish. Brehm has given detailed reports of the great damage 
done to fish by the Crossopus fodiens, which eats the eyes and brains of 
living fish, even those of considerable size. The domestic cat does not 
disdain fish-food, and I have often watched cats lying in wait for fish on 
the banks of ponds. The best known and most dangerous enemies of 
fish are the otters, the Vison lutreola and americanus, the Enhydris 
lutris, and the Lutra vulgaris. The reputation of the last-mentioned 
kind is so bad, that I need not say any more about it, but only recom- 
mend the excellent methods of catching them introduced by Von der 


516 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Borne. Their near relatives, the weasel, Mustela vulgaris, M. erminea, and 
the polecat, M. putorius, cannot be trusted either. 

It must also be mentioned that some members of the bear family are 
fond not only of honey, but also of fish. 

We have thus quickly passed through the whole animal kingdom, 
and have arrived at the last and most dangerous, because most intelli- 
gent, enemy of fish, namely, man. 

Ignorance and covetousness have in many parts of the country re- 
duced the number of fish to a minimum, and nothing but efficient fish- 
ery-laws and rational pisciculture can remedy the evil. The German 
Fishery-Law and the German Fishery Association have opened out a new 
era for the German fisheries. On this foundation, which has been laid 
by the best men of our country, we must all build according to our 
ability. As ourrevered president has remarked, ‘ there should be a 
hatching-box near every water-mill.” Only united activity will bring 
us nearer to our object—to raise the general welfare of our nation. 


XVII.—IS SAWDUST AS SERIOUS AN OBSTACLE TO THE ASCENT 
OF SALMON IN OUR RIVERS AS IS GENERALLY MAINTAINED ? 


By Prof. H. RAascu.* 
[Translated by Tarleton H. Bean. ] 


That the rivers on which there is considerable cutting of timber grad« 
ually become more and more destitute of salmon is an undeniable fact; 
but while it is asserted that the sawdust introduced into the river from 
the saw-mills causes the salmon coming from the sea either to forsake 
its foster stream because of meeting the sawdust, to seek another river 
not polluted, or else, when the fish attempts to pass through the areas 
quite filled with sawdust, then this, by fixing itself in the gill-openings 
or between the gills, causes its death, yet later experience seems to en- 
title us to the assumption that sawdust neither causes the salmon to 
forsake its native stream nor produces any great mortality among the 
ascending fishes. The hurtfulness of the sawdust to the reproduction 
of the salmon is not so direct, but is exceedingly great in this, that it 
partly limits and partly destroys the spawning-grounds of the river. 

The river Drammen, below Hellefos, has for many years been greatly pol- 
luted by sawdust, and the abundance of salmon decreased constantly until 
the fishermen at Hellefos adopted the so-called artificial method of hatch- 
ing, whereby they supplied the river each year with aconsiderable number 
of fry, which, after wandering to sea, returned to the cataract, although 
the quantity of sawdust is the same as heretofore; and one cannot see 
that the ascending fish is in any marked degree affected thereby. The 
case is different when it reaches a cataract where many saw-mills are 
situated, and there meets an insurmountable obstacle to its further 
advancement. Its desperate leap is in vain, and as it is driven down 
exhausted in the water filled up with sawdust, it will undeniably be 
liable to get some of it so tightly wedged in the gills that it cannot get 
rid of it, and death will then sooner or later be the result. To this dan- 
ger the male salmon will be especially exposed near and at the spawning 
time, since the increased length of the so-called notches of the lower jaw 
prevent it from completely closing its mouth. The salmon which are 
not seldom found dead after the spawning time are nearly always males. 
That, at the same time, most of the deaths result from violent struggles 


* Meddelelser tra norsk Jeger-og Fisker-Forening, 2den Aargang, Kristiania, 1873, 


. 56. 
p 517 


518 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


between rivalsis probable. If one could secure for the ascending fishes 
an easy passage over the intercepting cataracts and dams, then certainly 
very few fish would die from getting sawdust in their gills. 

That young salmon bred from a race of salmon which has its own 
river, when they are set free in a strange river and one which is in an 
unusual degh ee polluted by sawdust, will not be prevented Ry this cir- 
ing in the sea, one had a convincing aunsizationi in the great oeneanenn 
instituted last year by Director A. Hansen. In olden times the salmon- 
shoal which had its spawning-place in Soli River could ascend to it 
through the then passablé Soli cataract, but when they, for the sake of 
the increased mill-business, erected above the cataract a dam so high 
that the salmon could not ascend to their spawning-grounds, this salmon 
shoal gradually died out entirely. With the consent of the mill-owners 
Mr. Hansen in 1868 constructed a hatching-apparatus, which in Novem- 
ber of the same year was supplied with impregnated salmon-eggs trans- 
ported from the fishery at Hellefos. On St. John’s Night, 1869, the 
young arising therefrom were liberated from the apparatus into the 
river, partly above and partly below the dam. Last summer a portion 
of the planting returned as young salmon, and according to experience 
gained elsewhere we should wait for the great body of them until the: 
coming summer; because the greatest portion appear to pass the first 
two years of their lives in the rivers and two years in the sea. 

In case one could aid the advance of the salmon around the Sarp eata- 
ract or Soli cataract—and perhaps in this way a few less important 
water-falls—and in connection therewith furnish the Glommen with arti- 
ficially hatched young, one may now be fully assured that the abun- 
dance of sawdust which incumbers both branches of the Glommen, 
which again unite between Sarpsborg and Fredrikstad, will not prevent 
the salmon from going up to the falls, where they will then probably 
soon find access to a rightly constructed salmon-ladder, which would 
help them up to a portion of the great river freer from sawdust. The 
result of Mr. Hansen’s experiment should therefore be a good support 
for the watchful action of the management of our association, which will 
in due time be communicated to the members. 


XVIII.—THE PURIFICATION OF REFUSE WATER. 


By E. REIcHARDT, of Jena.* 


(Translated by Herman Jacobson. | 


It is of great importance, not only for hygiene, but also for pisciculture 
and agriculture, that this whole matter should be more fully investi- 
gated, both theoretically and practically, in order to gain and diffuse 
knowledge. 

I have on a former occasion published a treatise on this subject in 
this journal (vol. 209, p. 1), but, urged from many sides, I will not hesitate 
to reproduce, part of this treatise, embodying all the recent discoveries. 

It is an undoubted fact that refuse of various kinds is in a reckless 
manner thrown into public waters, thus doing injury to public health 
and depriving agriculture of valuable fertilizing matter, and finally de- 
populating brooks and rivers of fish, which form so valuable an article 
of food. 

The objection that this had been so from time immemorial does not 
hold good; no bad habit like this could ever be justified even by the 
usage of ages. Not.even old-established manufactures can claim such 
a privilege, because the progress of industry, based on the progress of 
chemistry, has taught us to make use of a number of hurtful and un- 
healthy substances whose refuse flows into public waters. Any such priv- 
lege, very questionable in itself, cannot possibly include innovations of 
every kind which were formerly quite unknown. 

Every man ought to be held responsible for any injury to public interests 
caused by his business. 

Since the above principle is often carried out very rigorously with re- 
gard to street-cleaning, &c., why should this not be done with regard to 
public water in brooks, rivers, and ponds? If changes in any branch 
of industry, even if these changes only mean an enlargement of the 
business, involve hurtful influences, it can justly be demanded that such 
influences should be neutralized. 

Chemistry is not only one of the strongest levers of modern industry, 
but it certainly falls within its province to remedy all injuries to public 
property caused by industry. Chemical knowledge should not only be 
utilized in a one-sided manner for the benefit of various industries, but 


* Reinigung des Abfallwassers. Von E. Reichardtin Jena. Archiv der Pharmacie, vol. 
xii, Halle, 1879. 
519 


520 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES 


it should also strive to utilize all refuse matter in as complete and satis- 
factory a manner as possible. 

It is a fact which can be observed everywhere that nature utilizes 
refuse matter of different kinds in such a manner as not to injure deeper- 
lying springs, that is, the upper layers of soil or rock absorb the refuse, 
either changing its character or forcing it to enter other combinations, 
so that in both cases the lower strata receive but very little of it. This 
purifying process, which is going on on an extensive scale, is both of a 
mechanical and chemical nature, and presents the best and simplest 
starting-point for discussing this whole question. 


PURIFICATION OF WATER BY REPOSE. 


The success of this purifying process is very clearly demonstrated by 
the glacier water flowing from lake to lake. In a turbid and milky 
condition the icy water leaves the mountains on its way to the plain, 
till it enters a lake often of very considerable depth and extent. Al- 
though the same quantity of water leaves the lake to continue its jour- 
ney towards the plain, it comes out as clear as crystal, whilst long banks 
of clay or sand gradually mark the entrance of the turbid glacier water. 
The same observation may be made inrivers. <A strong current carries 
all the floating particles of clay and sand far down the river, while a 
sluggish current allows them to gather in the bed of the river or on its 
banks, thus purifying the turbid waters. An attentive observer may 
watch the same process in every brook; wherever an indentation of the 
bank delays the rapid flow of the water, numerous particles of mud will 
gather, and many substances injurious to the life of fish are in this way 
removed from the water. This natural process of purifying flowing water 
by allowing it to enter a condition of repose can easily be imitated in an 
artificial way, and should be adopted wherever turbid water enters brooks 
and rivers. 

This is particularly the case in the neighborhood of mines, quarries, 
factories, for instance, beet-sugar factories, &c. It will suffice in every 
case to construct so-called ‘‘mud-catchers”—ponds through which the 
turbid water is led. If the water, as is often the case in mines, flows out 
with the strength of small brooks, 2 to 3 ponds should be constructed, 
one by the side of the other, regulating their depth according to the 
quantity of impure matter in the water. It will also be well to cultivate 
in these ponds aquatic or floating plants or reeds, and to plant willows on 
their banks, as such vegetation aids the purifying process in more ways 
than one. I have often observed that by simply following these rules a 
single pond proved sufficient to purify completely the turbid water flow- 
ing from a mine. In such a pond hardy fish, and even carps, were 
raised. 

From time to time the pond would yield a great quantity of mud, 
which, when taken out during the cleaning of the pond, proved a valu- 
able fertilizer. 


PURIFICATION OF REFUSE WATER. 521 


If the flow of turbid water is not very strong it will be sufficient to 
dig deep water-tight pits, 2 or 3, close together, as shown in the following 
diagram : 


These pits, which should be lined with brick and be cemented or made 
water-tight by clay, receive the turbid water through drain pipes (of 
terra cotta) which bend towards the bottom of the pit. The flow of 
water, however, is broken by a stone projecting from the side of the pit, 
so that below this stone the water is in repose. The pipe through which 
the water leaves the last pit is bent upward, so that any particles float- 
ing on the water, such as oil, &c., may remain in the pit, from which they 
are removed from time to time, and are in this way prevented from enter- 
ing the public water-courses. Such floating particles are specially inju- 
rious to fish, because they are in the habit of collecting anything floating 
in the water; tar, petroleum, &c., may thus prove poisonous. 

By repeated personal observations I have become convinced that even 
lighter organic matter floating in the refuse water has settled at the 
bottom, and that from the third, or even from the second pit, the water 
flowed out perfectly pure and clear. 


PURIFICATION OF WATER BY CHEMICAL PROCESS. 


This method of purifying water will, of course, be influenced by gen- 
eral or local conditions. 

In the first place it should be unlawful to introduce any hurtful mat- 
ter into public waters; and it would be very desirable if the recently 
appointed inspectors of manufactures were to give some attention to this 
question of refuse. As soon as there is a doubtful case, it should be 
submitted to competent chemists or health-officers, making, if necessary, 
a last appeal to the imperial health officer. German manufactures are 
but too frequently carried on in a one-sided manner, excluding the chem- 
ist who is often the only person capable of giving information or render- 

ing aid, especially as regards the greatest possible utilization of all 
- manner of refuse. 

Such utilization is often prevented by the ignorance of manufacturers, 
who, though well versed in everything pertaining to their special branch 
of industry, avoid anything which does not seem to come within their 
unmediate province. It is therefore the duty of the government to take 
this matter in hand by diffusing information and making regulations. 

Kiven large factories simply lead the refuse of soap from the washing 


522 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of wool, &c., into the nearest river. Such a thing could not happen in 
England, where experience has taught people to utilize such refuse for 
the manufacture of soap or gas, &c. It is therefore as great an advan- 
tage to industry as to the purification of the water not to let soapy water 
flow into public water-courses. 

It may justly be demanded of every manufacturer who uses large quan- 
tities of water that he should purify the refuse water, and allow only such 
water to flow into the river or brook which cannot do any harm. The 
water used in working machinery should be kept apart from water which 
in cleaning dyed substances absorbs the superfluous coloring matter; 
this last-mentioned water should be purified, while the former may safely 
be allowed to flow into the river. 

It will also be advisable to see toit that not unnecessarily large quan- 
tities of water are made impure; this will be comparatively easy, as 
a great deal of water may be saved by the modern improvements of our 
machinery. 

In the above I have, of course, only given hints, which will have to 
be specially adapted to every individual case, and which will only be 
appreciated by competent persons. Here is another field of usefulness 
for our inspectors of manufactures. 

No manufacturer should allow refuse water containing free acid or free 
alkali to flow into public water-courses; such strong chemical substances 
should at any rate first be changed to salts, which are far less injurious. 
Lye may mostly be used again, especially if the first strong lye is at 
once employed. 

The simplest, cheapest, and very generally used purifier is lime, em- 
ployed either as quicklime or chalk. Nature employs lime and magne- 
sia as purifiers of the soil. Organic substances combine with them; 
water containing iron loses it; and thus water penetrating the surface 
soon becomes pure, containing only particles of the stratum through which 
it has passed. The purifying effect of lime is still further heightened by 
the circumstance that a large number of coloring substances enter into 
insoluble combinations, not only with lime, but also with carbonated 
lime. These combinations have long since been employed in the manu- 
facture of coloring substances. The effect of the lime does by no means , 
reach its end by its chemical combination with acids, but is continued 
when the lime has assumed the form of carbonated lime. Lime is, there- 
fore, the most effective purifier of all those waters which contain color- 
ing matter. Lime likewise enters into insoluble combinations with al- 
buminous substances, and therefore removes those substances which 
chiefly cause putrefaction. Alum is frequently employed with the lime, 
but its addition should be entirely regulated by the local demand. 

Lime is used in the same kind of pits as mentioned above. The burnt 
lime is placed in the first pit. As soon°as the pit is filled with refuse 
water it is stirred a few times, and the water will become clear in a very 
short time, so that it frequently enters the second pit with but very 


PURIFICATION OF REFUSE WATER. 525 


little coloring or impure matter. The water flowing from the third pit is 
generally so pure that it contains nothing but the superfluous lime and 
the soluble salts formed by it. 

The quantity of superflous lime is generally very small, as lime only 
dissolves in 500 parts of water; but it might nevertheless, prove injurious 
to the fish. It is therefore necessary to lead off the water in open ditches, 
as lime very quickly becomes impregnated with carbonic acid from its 
immediate surroundings or from the air; the carbonated lime is then 
separated, as well as the last remnants of coloring matter. The water 
which has passed through these ditches will thus enter the river in a 
perfectly pure condition, and it is not even necessary to lét it flow through 
such open ditches for any considerable distance. It has also been pro- 
posed to let the pipe through which the water finally flows into the 
river open from below, about the middle of the bottom, so that the refuse 
water might immediately mingle with a great quantity of river water, 
and thus be deprived of anything of an injurious character which might 
have remained in it. 

In most cases, however, the application of lime is sufficient to purify 
the water. In my former treatise on this subject I have entered into 
details, and will here only mention a few instances of purifying water. 
Soapy or fatty matter will generally be separated from the water by 
lime. These, however, are special cases, which were mentioned in my 
former treatise in order to show the value of the method. These lime 
deposits form very valuable fertilizers, so that, according to observations 
made in England, the expenses of this purifying process are fully covered. 
The whole arrangement is not at all expensive, and if once introduced 
it only-requires a little attention to make it pay. Two pits are frequently 
sufficient to purify the water. 

In Saxony the government ordered an investigation* to ascertain the 
number of complaints of water having been made impure by refuse. In 
1877 complaints were made in 140 places and traced to 273 sources. 
Half of all these cases were traced to the weaving industries, especially 
dyeing, bleaching, and wool-weaving; 9 per cent. to the manufacture 
of paper; 8 per cent. to the manufacture of leather; 8 per cent. to min- 
ing industries; 6 per cent. to the manufacture of articles of food; 2 per 
cent. to the manufacture of chemicals. Of the 626 breweries in Saxony 
only 6 were accused of rendering public water-courses impure. 

I found that many brewers have introduced purifying pits in connec- 
tion with their establishments, and have worked them very successfully, 
as the mud obtained from these pits forms a most valuable fertilizer. 
In one case I was enabled to get a better insight into this question and 
to render aid. 

A large brewery was accused of making the water in a large neigh- 
boring pond so impure by refuse water that it began to putrefy, thus 
causing considerable damage to the pond and annoyance to the people 
living near it. A chemical analysis of some of the most turbid refuse 


“GUNTHER, ‘ Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift,” 1879, No, 8. 


524 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


water from this brewery showed large quantities of albuminous matter, 
in fact substances containing nitrogen, and the search for organic sub- 
stances showed 1,000 parts in 100,000 parts of water, that is, 1 per cent. 
The purifying arrangement, containing two pits, which has now been intro- 
duced intothis brewery lets the water from the second pit run out as clear 
as spring water, containing only faint traces of nitrogen and only 5 parts 
organic substances in 100,000 parts of water; in fact, the composition 
of the refuse water differed but little from that of the original water 
employed in the brewery; all that could be noticed was a slight increase 
in the quantity of lime. The water after having been thus purified 
entered the pond at no great distance from the brewery. 

If we compare the experience of this and other countries with the 
actual condition in manufacturing districts located on small streams 
and rivers, it cannot be denied that so far little or nothing has been 
done to prevent public waters from being rendered impure. The above- 
mentioned cases where water has been artificially purified are entirely 
isolated, although the above-described purifying apparatus is neither | 
expensive nor difficult to keep in order. 

It must be acknowledged that even in Germany more and more atten- 
tion is paid to the depopulation of the fishing waters, so that in many 
places suitable regulations regarding the fishing-season have been intro- 
duced either permanently or temporarily. But one of the greatest evils 
has so far been almost entirely ignored, and this is the impure water of 
many streams and rivers, rendered so by many different kinds of refuse, 
whose utilization as fertilizers or for industrial purposes is urgently 
demanded in the interest of economy. It will, perhaps, be difficult to 
make rules which would apply in every case; but so far nothing has 
been done to remedy this evil, and it is to be hoped that soon we shall 
have suitable legislation on this question. 

The basis for such legislation will be found in the following points : 

No impure or hurtful matter of any kind shall be allowed to enter any 
public water. 

In the different industries the impure water, properly so called, shall 
be separated from simple refuse water, and the former shall undergo a 
purifying process of either a mechanical or chemical character. 

Both methods should be under the superintendence of the health- 
officers; investigations are to be caused and directed by the inspectors 
of factories. 

The washing of colored substances in public waters shall be prohibited, 
as it can be done by suitable machinery in a much more efficient manner ; 
the refuse water should, however, be subjected to a further purifying 
process. 

In most cases it will suffice to use lime for this process, and the sedi- 
ments should, if possible, be utilized in some manner. 

The refuse materials from privies should never be thrown into public 
water, as they possess a considerable value as fertilizers, and can be 
much more suitably employed for such purposes. 


XIX.—NOTES ON THE FUNGUS DISEASE AFFECTING SALMON.* 


By A. B. STIRLING. 


It is widely known that a destructive epidemic has this spring ap- 
peared among the salmon of the rivers Eden, Esk, and Nith. The 
mortality among the fish has been so great as to cause considerable 
alarm among proprietors, salmon-commissioners, tax-men, anglers, and 
the general public. 

The newspapers inform us that within three days the watchmen have 
taken out of the Esk as many as 350 dead salmon. All who have exam- 
ined the fish carefully agree in referring the disease to the presence of 
a fungoid growth. 

The other fish in those rivers, as the smolts, trout, eels, lampreys, 
minnows, pike, and flounders, are also said to be attacked in a similar. 
way to the salmon, and fears are entertained that the disease may become 
thoroughly established in the district. 

in these circumstances I have thought it might be interesting to de- 
scribe the condition of some of the fish which have come under my ob- 
servation. In March last, my friend, Dr. Philip Hair, of Carlisle, sent 
me the fin of a salmon which had Ween affected by the disease, and 
requested me to state, if possible, its nature. Unfortunately, the fin 
was in a putrid condition when it reached me, and, as a result of the 
examination, I could only state to Dr. Hair that the disease was proba- 
bly a fungoid one. A few days later I received from Dr. Hair a fine 
specimen of a trout, but it was not stated whether the fish was taken 
alive or picked up dead. It was, however, quite fresh, and the effects 
of the disease were painfully exhibited on the carcass. A hurried ex- 
amination of this specimen enabled me to inform Dr. Hair that the dis- 
ease was due to what I had previously suspected, namely, a fungoid 
growth. 

While examining this specimen I observed, entangled among the 
fronds of the fungus, foreign matter of various kinds, namely, torule or 
yeast-fungus, triple phosphates, fecula, human hairs, hairs of the cat 
and mouse ; also desmids, diatoms, shreds of dyed wool and cotton, with 
other fragments of matter unknown tome. Respecting the torule, I, 
in my letter to Dr. Hair, asked if their presence could be accounted for 


* Notes on the fungus disease affecting salmon, by A. B. Stirling, assistant conser- 
vator of the anatomical museum in the University of Dublin, communicated by Profes- 
sor Turner. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, session 1877-1878, Mon- 
day, July 1, 1878, vol. ix, page 726. 


525 


526 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


by bakeries or breweries in Carlisle, whose refuse might have got into 
the river. 

My letter was published by Dr. Hair in the Carlisle Journal of March 
29 and in the Field newspaper of March 30, and as worded it might 
have been inferred that I regarded the presence of bakeries and brew- 
eries as the cause of the disease. This was of course not intended. On 
April 12th I received two salmon and a trout from J. Dunne, esq., chief 
constable of Cumberland and Westmoreland, all of them in a diseased 
condition. Mr. Dunne requested me to make an examination of those 
fish, and hoped, on public grounds, that I might be able to discover the 
true nature and cause of the disease. 

As a result of my examination of those fish, I sent a preliminary re- 
port to Mr. Dunne. This report was forwarded to the fishery-inspectors, 
and was considered of so much importance that it was published in the 
Times and many of the provincial and local newspapers. Sir Robert 
Christison had also very kindly supplied me with a number of specimens 
from the river Nith, all of them affected with this disease. An exam- 
ination of these has confirmed me in the opinion expressed in the report 
above referred to. All these fish had the disease in an advanced stage, 
being more or less affected about the head, chin, branchiostegal rays, 
and fins in every instance. One salmon had rubbed the chin till the 
lower jaw had nearly separated at the symphysis, the skin was rubbed 
off the branchiostegal rays, and the rays broken. <A trout had the upper 
left jaw bare of skin, the bone worn and hanging loosely attached to 
the cheek, the pectoral fin of the left side in rags, and the rays worn to 
stumps. 

Another salmon had the skin ribbed off the nose and crown, and the 
matted fungus covered the bare parts ; the dorsal fin was quite destroyed, 
the strong anterior rays being reduced to stumps of half an inch in 
length, and the remains of the fin bare, bleached, and without mem- 
brane. Beneath the dorsal fin on each side were spaces extending 3 
inches forward toward the head, and 2} inches backwards toward the 
tail, thickly covered with the fungus. Besides these there were other 
spaces on the sides of the fish from 1 inch to 2 inches in diameter, all 
covered by the fungus, which gave the fish a spotted appearance. 

This fish appears to have been alive when taken, as the skull and 
brain had been punctured by the fisherman. The greater part of this 
fish was cooked; it was very firm and fat, and the three persons who 
made a meal of it pronounced it capital. I tasted a portion of the flesh 
from a part where the fungus covered the skin, and could not detect 
anything different in the flavor from an ordinary fishmonger’s salmon. 

The fungus appears, in the first instance, to attack those parts of the 
fish that are not covered with scales, as the crown, nose, sides of the 
head, chin, throat, and the membranous parts of the fins. From those 
parts the fungus extends by vegetative growth (which seems very vig- 
orous) to those portions of the surface of the body which are covered 


4 


FUNGUS DISEASE AFFECTING SALMON. 527 


with scales. On the sides of the fish, where small patches of the fungus 
were situated on the scales (and no rubbing had taken place), no sore 
could be detected, and the fungus was easily wiped off with the finger. 

I may also mention that all the fish which I received from the Eden 
River, both trout and salmon, were infested with tape-worms of a large 
size, the worms being about two yards in length and three-sixteenths of 
an inch in breadth. One of the salmon had from 60 to 80 yards of those 
worms in the pyloric portion of the gut. Another salmon had three 
varieties of worms in various parts of its alimentary canal—first, in the 
stomach were many round worms, about 4 inches in length, tapering to 
each end, and as thick as ordinary whip-cord in the thickest part of the 
body; many of those worms were entangled among the gill-rays, it being 
their habit to crawl there when the fish dies, and from their presence in 
this situation they are called gill-worms by the fishermen; second, a 
small spiral worm, which attaches itself by burrowing in the outer walls 
of the intestine, in the fat and pyloric appendages; third, tape-worms 
seated within the pylorus and intestine. 

On May 50th I received from Sir Robert Christison a large salmon 
from the Nith. This fish was believed to have been to the sea after 
being attacked with fungus, and was captured on its return. The speci- 
men was a female, and had the roe about one-fourth grown; the viscera 
were very healthy, and no entozoa were found in it. The head of this 
female is peculiar in having a kip on the under jaw, and a cavity in the 
upper jaw to receive it, as in the male fish of the species. The right 
side of the head, including the eyes and nose, was very deeply rubbed 
and the bones injured, but no fungus adhered to the injured part. The 
pectoral fin on the same side had no membrane, the rays being bare, 
broken, and separate from the muscles at their roots. There were sev- 
eral patches on both sides of the fish, from which the scales were rubbed 
off, but no fungus adhered te the rubbed parts. In several of those 
rubbed parts, although the skin was unbroken, a portion of the muscle, 
corresponding in breadth to the external injury, and half an inch in 
depth, was in a pulpy condition; beneath other rubbed spots the muscle 
was quite sound. The dorsal, ventral, caudal, and anal fins were all 
more or less injured by rubbing. No fungus adhered to any of the fins 
except the anal, the rays here being reduced to stumps of an inch or 
half an inch in length, on which a thickly matted covering of fungus is 
seated. The branchiostegal rays are very slightly rubbed, and are the 
only other part of the fish on which the fungus remains. In my report to 
the fishery commissioners in April last I stated that the fish did not die 
_ of the fungus, but of the injuries they inflict by rubbing, in trying to 
rid themselves of the pest. As some objection was taken in regard to 
this statement, I quote, in corroboration of my views, from a letter pub- 
lished in the Field of May 25th last. The letter was written by Com- 
mander Duncan Stewart, R. N. He says: 

“In regard to the disease from which salmon are suffering in some of 


528 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


our rivers, it may be of advantage that I should mention what I ob- 
served in a small river at the head of Castrie’s Bay, in Siberia. I found 
the river rather low, but with plenty of clear running water. But what 
astonished me was to see thousands of salmon in all stages of disease 
and death, some darting away, but soon stopping to rub the side on 
the bottom or on a rock; others were constantly rubbing, others unable 
torub. In those last cases large sores, from the size of a shilling to 
that of a half-crown, of a most filthy appearance, were always present. 
Fish in which the scales had been rubbed off would try to get out of my 
way, but I could kill them with a stick; those with the skin gone would 
rub themselves against my trousers.” 

Supposing this salmon from the Nith had been to sea, and had while 
there got rid of the greater part of the fungus with which it was affected, 
it had returned to the river in such a mutilated condition, and with un- 
healed sores of such a nature as in all likelihood would have ultimately 
proved fatal. Besides, the fact that the fungus was not killed by the 
salt water, but was found in a highly vigorous condition on the parts to 
which it still adhered, gives but small hope of any permanent benefit to 
diseased fish from a visit to the sea. 

The fungus belongs to Saprolegnie, a natural order of doubtful affin- 
ity, said to have the habits of molds and fructification alge. This order 
consists of the genera Saprolegnia and Achlya, which are great enemies of 
fish and other animals preserved in aquaria. 

The filaments of the fungus arise free from the outer surface of the 
epidermic layers of the fish, having neither branches nor articulations. 
They are tubes, the walls of which are perfectly translucent, and in 
their interior, at irregular intervals, are small groups of fine granular 
matter. 

The majority of the filaments are spear-shaped at their upper termi- 
nations, and appear to be barren. 

The prolific filaments, on the contrary, enlarge at their upper extremi- 
ties, and form elongated club-shaped chambers, in which granular mat- 
ter gathers. In the midst of this granular matter small round bodies 
appear, and, those enlarging, gradually develop into spores. The pro- 
lific filaments apparently contain more granular matter, and are of greater 
caliber than the other filaments. They are evidently destined from the 
first to be the propagating media. 

The spores escape by an opening in the summit of the chamber. This 
aperture is not an original opening ; it is produced in a somewhat remark- 
able manner. So long as the spores are unripe and unfit for expulsion, 
a slender continuation of the filament projects from the apex of the 
chamber in a manner similar to the neck of a bottle. At the point at 
which this joins the spore sac there is a slight contraction, which goes 
on gradually increasing in depth. Ultimately, when the spores are 
fully matured, it drops off, and the aperture is formed. The filaments 
forming the mycelium of the plant are tortuous and branched; they 


FUNGUS DISEASE AFFECTING SALMON. 529 


ramify in the mucous and epidermic layers of the fish; they do not pen- 
etrate the corium where there are no scales. In other situations they 
never reach a greater depth than the outer surface of the scales; they 
are tubular. The whole plant, being without septa, forms a single in- 
dividual of apparently indefinite extent. The spores are variously 
shaped at different stages, ovate and kidney being the commonest forms. 
They are very minute, and require a power of 450 diameters to observe 
them well. The cilia are two in number, a longer and a shorter one, and 
are situated at the long axis of the spore. They are difficult to observe, 
and always disappear in permanently-mounted preparations, although 
the spores themselves remain unaltered in all other respects. When the 
fungus is stained with logwood or picric acid, excellent permanent pre- 
parations can be got. It has been stated that the fungus dies with the 
fish. I have not found this to be the case ; on the contrary, all my obser- 
vations have been made from dead fish. Some of the specimens sent me 
from Carlisle by Mr. Dunne were missent to Aberdeen, and returned to 
me on the seventh day after the death of the fish, and yet I have scores 
of permanent preparations from these specimens which show distinctly 
the characteristic form of Saprolegnia ferax. 

I have also found the fungus perfectly identical in all the specimens I 
have examined, which consist of salmon, sea-trout, and river-trout from 
the Eden, and salmon and grayling from the Nith. 

It has also been said that a salt solution destroys the fungus, ‘ which 
melts in the solution like sugar in water.” On the contrary, salt and water 
is an excellent preservative of Saprolegnia; masses of it before me as I 
write have been in a salt solution for two months, and it remains unal- 
tered. Further, the salmon captured in the Nith, which is believed to 
have gone to the sea in order to get rid of the fungus, had the fungus 
growing vigorously on several parts of its body. The fungus must either 
have instantly attacked the fish on its return to the river, or not have 
been destroyed during its stay in the salt water. 

Regarding the cause of the disease, [ can offer no opinion further than 
that some functional condition of the fish seems necessary for the prop- 
agation of the fungus. The germs of Saprolegnia ferax must exist at all 
times and in many places; and, if so, there must be a reason why fish 
are not constantly affected with the fungus and in every river. I am 
persuaded that the condition of the fish is in some way either suitable or 
unsuitable for the propagation and growth of the fungus. Whether this 
arises from too high or too low condition, I am quite unable tosay; but 
I may remark that while some of the fish examined were in the kelt 
stage, others were in a condition perfectly fit for food. 


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XX.—ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FUNGUS DISEASE 
AFFECTING SALMON AND OTHER FISH, 


By A. B. STIRLING.* 


* * * By the kindness of James Tait, esq.,t I received a common 
river-trout and a minnow, both of which were captured near Kelso 
bridge in Tweed River; both specimens were affected with fungus—the 
Saprolegnia ferax. may here mention that [ have noticed several able 
letters, which have appeared in the Scotsman newspaper from time to 
time, in which the writer states that the fungus is only a secondary 
attack, and that a primary disease of an inflammatory kind first affects 
the head and other parts of the salmon before the fungus can settle 
upon it. Ido not for an instant doubt the fact that the writer saw fish 
with sores of the kind described by him upon them, when there was no 
fungus present to cause them. I can only say that, among all the fish 
which I have received for examination, consisting of salmon, sea-trout, 
smolts, common trout, grayling, and minnows, I have not seen one with 
a sore on which this fungus was not present; while on every fish ex- 
amined there were some patches of fungus which could easily be wiped 
off, leaving only a slight stain, and in some instances no mark could be 
discerned, and no loosening and shedding of the scales or ulceration of 
the subjacent surface. Again, in every instance where the fungus was 
rank, long-seated, and felted, sores in every degree, from slight abrasion 
to sloughing, were found under them. With reference to the trout and 
the minnow before mentioned, the trout had fungus seated upon the 
gums of both the upper and lower jaws, which involved both the teeth 
and lips, and had spread upward and backward upon the head, and its 
destructive progress could be easily traced. First, the skin of the lips 
was broken in several places, and shreds of it were hanging loose, to 
which the fungus was adhering; while, as it spread backward over the 
nostrils and crown of the head, the skin and its pigment spots could 
still be seen intact where the fungus was seated, a portion of which had 
been carefully shed aside to expose the skin. On each of the pectoral 
fins a patch of young fungus was seated, and the mucous coat was seen 
through the fungus to be quite entire; the same appearance was seen 
upon the anal fin and scaled parts of the body. The minnow had only 


*Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, session 1878~79, x, No. 103, p. 232. 
Communicate June 2, 1879. 
tOf Kelso. 
531 


532 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


one patch of fungus upon it, which was seated within its mouth on the 
inner margin of the right lower jaw; it filled the mouth, which was dis- 
tended by its growth; and every other part of its body was free from 
fungus or blemish of any kind. 

The reason why most of the fish affected with fungus are first attacked 
by it upon their heads may arise from various causes. All river fish 
present their heads to the downward current of the water, whether they 
are swimining or at rest, and as the spores of the fungus are floating 
down with the stream the heads of the fish are the first parts to come 
in contact with and be affected by them. Further, the mucous glands 
are most numerous and active upon the head of the fish, which is also 
more thickly covered with mucous than other parts of the body, and the. 
spores which fall upon it adhere more readily; and the fins and tail, 
from their continuous waving motion, are more liable to arrest the pass- 
ing spores than the parts of the body from which they spring, and, from 
this cause, are generally affected sooner than the bodies of the fish. 

The number of the dead and dying fish of all kinds removed from the 
river Eden in 1878 by the police, and published by Mr. Buckland in his 
report for that year, show that there were 1,271 salmon, 140 fresh-water 
trout, and 40 brandlings or parr, being over 50 of the large fish to every 
one of the smaller. About 1,000 of the salmon were clean fish, and it 
may be inferred that the trout and parr were also clean, which goes far 
to show that the so-called disease is as much a mechanical as a fune- 
tional one. Further, from documents descriptive of the effects of the 
disease in the river Tweed, in the lower district, during this season, 
1879, which were collected by the police from taxmen and practical fish- 
ermen on the river, I find that the proportion of large fish affected, dead, 
or dying—namely, salmon and sea-trout—is very great compared with 
the smaller fish which were found to be affected in a similar way. The 
smaller fish alluded to consist of river-trout, grayling, smolts, perch, and 
gray mullet. 

From observations of the fungus, and of the fish affected by it, I am 
led to believe that the so-called salmon disease does not depend upon a 
prediseased condition of jhe fish. It is a true parasitic attack, to which 
every fish in any affected river seems to be liable, as every kind of fish, 
irrespective of condition, appears to be a proper nidus for the propaga- 
tion of the Saprolegnia ferav when a living spore from that fungus at- 
taches itself to it. While engaged during the spring and summer in 
the microscopic examination of the Saprolegnia feraz, I observed that as 
the season advanced many of the patches of fungus seated upon the 
fish were barren, consisting of spear-shaped filaments only, having no 
zoosporangia at their apex, and consequently they produced no zoo- 
spores. The filaments were long and very thin, and almost void of pro- 
toplasmic contents, indicating that the plant was losing its force and in 
a state of decay. 

The Saprolegnia ferax, in all probability, is always present in our rivers 


4 


Se a ee al 


ra a ae ee ae 


FUNGUS DISEASE AFFECTING SALMON AND OTHER FISH. 533 


in more or less active condition. It is believed that this fungus has 
two modes of reproduction, namely, by oospores and by zoospores. The 
oospores are few in number, and may be looked upon as ova, and they 
required sexual impregnation. They are called resting spores, from a 
belief that they remain dormant in the water for an indefinite period, 
which may continue for many years; and during this phase of their life 
they may germinate in limited numbers, providing only for the contin- 
ued existence of the species. While in this state of abeyance there is 
no plague of fungus, from the ova only producing neutral or barren 
plants, which bear no fruit or seed. After a period of longer or shorter 
duration, a season, or a series of seasons, may follow, during which an 
unknown influence arises which acts upon the resting spores, by which 
they are stimulated to great reproductive energy, and the plants they 
produce being fruitful, the asexual mode of reproduction commences. 

The zoospores are produced in pod-like cases called zoosporangia, 
which are situated at the apex of the filaments, and may be looked upon 
as fruit or seed. They are the ciliated spores and are the media by 
which the fungus is communicated to the fish. The zoospores are pro- 
duced in great numbers, each zoosporangium containing from 100 to 150 
of them. The oospores or ova are produced in a globular sack, which 
forms at the root-ends of the filaments or upon the roots themselves. 
Those sacks are called oogonia, and each sack contains a few oospores or 
ova, three or four to nine being the numbers I have observed in the four 
instances in which I have seen them in the whole courses of my investi- 
gations. 

Suppose an oospore (resting spore) to be capable of producing, under 
favorable circumstances, a plant carrying 100 filaments, and each of the 
filaments to produce 100 zoospores, 10,000 germs would be derived from 
a single ovum or resting spore, every one of those germs being capable 
of producing a plant as productive as that from which it derived its 
existence ; a multiplication of innumerable millions would be produced 
in a few days, the ciliated spores being as plentiful in the water as snow- 
flakes are in the air during a snow-shower ; and in this way the plague 
of fungus, the so-called salmon disease, is originated. 

I obtained in April the living fungus from a grayling caught by Mr. 
J. Williams, student of medicine, when angling in Keerfield Pool in the 
Tweed, near Peebles. It had been cut in two halves and the tail por- 
tion selected ; it was packed in a tin vessel with wet moss, which had 
preserved the fungus in active vegetative growth, when I received it on 
the morning after its capture. A pale pink bloom was plainly visible 
over the whole surface of the matted fungus, and, when it was held up 
between the eye and the light, a new growth appeared to cover the older 
fungus on its outer surface to about one-eighth of an inch in height. 

When examined under the microscope in water, free ciliated zoospores, 
which had escaped from the zoosporangia situated at the extremities of 
the filaments, were observed in motion ; they moved in a fitful way, by 
shorts jerks, not by a continuous movement. 


534 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Those zoospores were pyriform in shape during the short time they were 
observed in motion; on becoming stationary the cilia disappeared, being 
probably withdrawn into the body of the spore, which then assumed a 
globular form. This change took place in a very short time—not ex- 
ceeding ten minutes—and while under observation minute projections 
became visible on the edge of the spore, which grew into delicate fila- 
ments of considerable length. I have succeeded in fixing the develop- 
ment of the fungus in this state, and it can be seen in various stages of 
growth, all of which were ciliated spores within the space of one hour. 

This, the asexual mode of propagation, is remarkable for the rapidity 
with which it is accomplished. <A few of those ciliated spores become 
attached to any part of either a healthy or a diseased fish ; in one hour 
the cilia will have disappeared and a filament of some length will have 
sprouted from the spore. Thus, in a single day, a fish on which no fun- 
eus could be discerned is to-morrow seen to be affected, and in three 
days is spotted or patched over with fungus from head to tail. 

In the second or sexual mode of production of spores a short pedicle 
is pushed out from one of the sides of a filament, on which a globular 
sack—oogonium—is formed, and within this sack a number of oospores 
are produced, which are spherical in shape and have a cell-wall or en- 
velope, and some are provided with a nucleus in the center. These, af- 
ter impregnation, escape from the oogonia, and are probably capable of 
living in the water for an indefinite period, in a dormant or resting state, 
until the conditions arise which are favorable for their germination. 

It may be asked, how does the fungus affect the fish, and do any re- 
cover from its effects? The fungus produces a local irritation and in- 
flammation of the integument, as is evidenced by the congestion and 
even ecchymosis of the true skin, by abrading of the scales, and in the 
more advanced stages by ulceration and sloughing, affecting the whole 
thickness of the integument and mucous surface. 

Wherever the fungus adheres and spreads, the function of the skin is 
necessarily interfered with. Light, which is so essential to the fish in 
promoting its pigmentary secretions, is cut off from a large portion of 
its skin. Endosmosis, exosmosis, and the secretion of the mucus for 
lubrication are destroyed, and in this way constitutional symptoms would 
be occasioned which, if the disease continued, lead to the death of the 
fish. 

The second question, “Do any fish recover from fungus attack ?” may 
now be answered more hopefully. The fishermen and watchmen on the 
Tweed report having seen several fish with new skin growing over the 
sores upon their bodies, from which this fungus had disappeared, and I 
am inclined to believe that this is so. A male kelt has been sent to me 
by Mr. List, which was taken in tidal water below Berwick bridge. 
This fish is 2 feet in length, and weighs about 3 or 4 pounds; it is 
supposed to have been affected with fungus, and to have completely 
recovered from its effects. No particle of fungus could be found upon 


FUNGUS DISEASE AFFECTING SALMON AND OTHER FISH. 535 


any part of its body, and there was only one raw sore. This sore was 
only five-eighths of an inch in length and three-eighths in breadth. It 
had evidently been larger, and had a smooth healing border. All the 
upper surface of the head and snout were covered with skin, but very 
uneven over its whole surface, from depressions and projections which 
may have been caused by sores which have been healed over, and the 
hinder part of the operculum had an irregular cicatrix of considerable 
size upon it. The breast and belly, from the gill-covers to the vent, 
were blood-streaked and spotted, and there were brownish marks upon 
both its back and sides as if fungus had recently adhered to it. All the 
fins were entire—not one ray was broken—and the fish as a whole looked 
remarkably well fora kelt, and if it had been affected with fungus, which 
I fully believe, its recovery has been almost perfect. 

A salmon taken at some distance up the river, and which is affected 
with fungus, has been taken down to Berwick, and placed in a box.or 
corve, and is now anchored in the river, in the tideway, where the water 
is at all times less or more salt, and at intervals is towed out to sea, 
where the full influence of the salt water acts upon it; and when I last 
heard of it considerable improvement had taken place. Mr. G. H. List 
has paid particular attention to the protection of any fish being affected 
with fungus disease in any of the coast fishing stations; and, after the 
most careful inquiry, no trace of any fish in the least degree diseased 
at any of those stations could be got, nor, as far as any fishermen either 
knew or heard of, was any salmon with fungus upon it ever seen in salt 
water. 

I have tried to propagate this fungus upon dead flies, spiders, and 
other small animals, following the directions of Pringsheim, “ N, A. A. 
L. C.,” 1851, p. 417,* who says: “All that is required to obtain a living 
specimen of this singular plant is to allow the body of any small animal, 
such as a fly or spider, to float for a few days in rain-water exposed to 
the light. By this method a crop of Saprolegnia may be obtained at 
any season.” In this way I got a fungus upon the flies and spiders 
after an exposure of from 12 to 20 days, which, on examination, was 
found to be a common mold, exactly similar to that produced upon a 
solution of gum-arabic, gelatine, and meat infusions. I have tried to 
propogate the Saprolegnia fungus upon minnows, but without success 
hitherto, doubtless because the method adopted did not provide the 
proper means, there being wanting the necessary stimulus which exists 
in the river, or, what is more likely, the life of the fungus itself. The 
minnows were placed in a large glass vessel filled with town water from 
the tap. <A piece of skin with this fungus adhering to it was taken 
from a salmon smolt and placed in the water along with them. In three 
days they had eaten up both skin and fungus, and remained unaffected. 
Several large patches of this fungus were then taken from the skin of a 


* Cited by Dr. Burdon Sanderson in his paper on the “ vegetable ovum,” Cyclopx- 
dia of Anatomy and Physiology, edited by Dr. Todd. 


536 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


salmon and placed in the vessel along with them. In a few days it had » 
all disappeared, and produced no effect. Another method was sug- 

gested by Mr. G. H. List, who also kindly furnished me with material 

for the trial. Pieces of skin with this fungus growing upon them were 

cut from the bodies of dead salmon at the river side, and were put into 

wide-mouthed bottles, which were at once filled with river water, the 

skin not being allowed to dry. On receipt of the bottles the pieces of 
skin, along with the water in which they were brought, were emptied 

into the vessel among the minnows. The water in the vessel was not 

changed for three days, at the end of which time the minnows were still 

unaffected. Fresh water was then put in the vessel, and the pieces of 
skin retained in the water, which was changed every second day for 

eight days. The minnows were not disturbed by the pieces of skin. 

They nestled under them and nibbled every morsel of fungus from them, 

hiding and playing about them until they had to be removed from pu- 

tridity. All the minnows are still alive and are in beautiful condition, 

taking food greedily, worms cut small and crystals of sugar being their 

favorites. They have been kept since 14th May till now (12th July) 

and are as healthy and lively as when put in the vessel. 


ai 


XXL—SICKNESS OF THE GOLDFISH IN THE ROYAL PARK, 
BERLIN." 


BERLIN, July 18, 1879.—A destructive epidemic has broken out among 
the inhabitants of the large goldfish-pond in the “Thiergarten,” which 
rendered it necessary to remove all the fish from the pond last Friday 
forenoon. About two weeks ago the park-guards noticed an unusually 
large mortality among the goldfish. On closer examination it was found 
that the death of these little fish took place accompanied by very pecu- 
liar and regularly recurring phenomena. <A gathering formed on the 
head where it is joined to the body, which soon commenced to fester; 
the head became soft; the body began to swell considerably; the scales, 
which in their natural state lie close and smooth on the body, seemed 
raised up by a festering substance; the lower gills, which are generally 
white, had a dark-red color, and a blood-like secretion oozed out of the 
pores. The poor fish evidently suffered from difficulty in breathing, and 
kept near the surface of the water. This abnormal condition became 
more intensified, the fish finally lost their scales and died after three 
days, often after a few hours. 

The number of dead fish increased from day to day till at last the 
number of deaths amounted to sixty per day. An immediate examina- 
tion of this entirely unheard-of phenomenon was therefore made. Some 
of the dead fish were taken to the Physiological Institute, where a 
microscopical examination revealed the fact that these fish contained 
a large number of living infusoria, which had almost entirely eaten up 
the liver. In other fish, especially those which were particularly 
bloated, the whole inside was a spongy substance, and various phenom- 
ena strongly resembled those generally observed in dropsy of human 
beings. The species of infusoria found inside these fish could not be 
determined, for it is the first time that infusoria of this kind have been 
observed at the Physiological Institute. After the character of the 
sickness had been ascertained, its cause had to be found. It was ascer- 
tained that most cases of sickness occurred in the northern portion of 
the pond, where fresh water is introduced. This portion of the pond 
was carefully examined and found to be full of a slimy substance which, 


. when dried, broke into innumerable fine dust-atoms. 


- The supply of water was of course stopped at once, in consequence 
of which measure the water in the pond has sunk one-half meter. Sci- 


*“ Krankheit der Goldfische im Berliner Thiergarten.” [From ‘‘Deutsche Fischerei- 
Zeitung,” second year, No. 29, Stettin, July 22, 1879.] Translated by Herman Jacobson. 
537 


538 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


entific men will now subject the water to a searching examination. 
This water comes from six springs located near the hippodrome at Char- 
lottenburg, which are under the inspection of Counsellor Hoboecht. 
From the Hippodrome, the water is conducted through pipes to the 
“ Konig’s Platz,” where it supplies the fountains, and from here it flows 
into the goldfish-pond. If impurities have been introduced into the 
water (and this is beyond a doubt), it seems natural to suppose that 
these impurities have originated in the springs themselves, as was the 
case in the Tegel water-works. A scientific investigation will doubtless 
explain why such impurities have got into the water just now, after the 
Hippodrome water-works have been in operation for so long a time. 
Possibly the increased quantity of water taken from the springs has 
stirred up waters which had hitherto been left entirely undisturbed. 
The shutting off of the water has of course also stopped the fountains 
in the ‘‘ Konig’s Platz” for the time being. The taking out of the fish 
from the pond this morning attracted a large crowd. The work itself 
was troublesome and consumed considerable time. Three fishermen 
caught the fish in a large net. The fish were examined at once and the 
healthy separated from the sick. This examination showed the sad 
result that almost 20 per cent. of all the goldfish in the pond had 
become infected. Until the pond is thoroughly cleaned and the whole 
matter has been satisfactorily investigated, the fish will be kept in the 
ponds back of the nurseries, where hitherto some of them have wintered. 
If it is any way possible, attempts will be made to cure the sick fish. 


XXII.—THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE NORWEGIAN LAKES AND 
RIVERS AS A FIELD FOR FISH CULTURE, 


By N. WERGELAND.* 
{Translated by Tarleton H. Bean. | 


INTRODUCTION. 


At the public meeting of the Imperial Acclimatization Society, held in 
Paris February 20, 1862, M. de Quatrefages, vice secretary of the society, 
delivered the following address : 


From Hesiod to Virgil and from Virgil to our day the poets have vied 
with one another in praising the boundless munificence and maternal 
goodness of the goddess which watches over the harvest. But, without 
offense to the beautiful spirit, theiy commendations have been wrongly 
bestowed. Ceres is but a nurse, and that a severe one. She resembles 
Hercules, in that she helps only those who first help themselves. Before 
she makes the furrow fruitful she insists that the laborer shall water it 
with his sweat as an offering, and does not always protect it from the 
scorching or freezing breath of A®olus’s children, nor from Jupiter's 
thunder-showers. 

There is on ancient Olympus a much less exacting and a very differ- 
ently liberal goddess. I refer to Tethys, the old ocean’s bride and mother 
of springs and streams; in other words, the goddess of the water. She 
proves always a tender mother, gives always without numbering, and 
without ever requiring areturn. Of him who cultivates her domain she 
demands neither plowing nor harrowing; she excuses him from all labor 
save that which is necessary to the harvest. Itis perhaps on this ground 
alone that she has been neglected; because mankind has sometimes a 
strange heart which is inclined to ingratitude. It easily disregards 
what is acquired without trouble; it forgets a benefactor whose always 
open, hand and heart have anticipated its desires, but holds better in 
remembrance and higher in esteem one whose benefactions must be ex- 
torted. This is doubtless the reason why the ancient Grecian priests 
lavished upon Ceres the expressions of filial gratitude which rightfully 
belonged to Tethys. 

But one fine morning, as if overtaken with regret, they suffered Venus 
to be born from the foam of the ocean; Venus the goddess of love, fruit- 
fulness made corporeal. This was at once to repair an injustice and to 


* Meddelelser fra Norsk Jwger—og Fisker—Forening, 7¢ Aargang, 1 ste Hefte, 
Kristiania, 1878, pp. 1-47; 2 de Hefte, pp. 101-172. 
539 


i 


540 REPORT OF ,.COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


acknowledge the eternal truths which the somewhat obscure, somewhat 
gracetul, myths of antiquity so often conceal. 

Fruitfulness is, according to universal experience as well as according 
to the highest apprehensions of science, the chief attribute of water. 
Without water the richest soil would remain absolutely barren, while 
the water appears to be sufficient in itself alone to bring forth all kinds 
of living beings. Wherever it collects and remains, even in small 
quantity, life manifests itself in a thousand forms; before the spring sun 
has dried up the water in the ruts of our roads each of these has wit- 
nessed generations of microscopic alge, rotatores, and lower crustacea 
to be born, grow, and die; the smallest pond is a whole world wherein 
representatives of the two organic realms and of the four principal di- 
visions of the animal kingdom contend together; but what is this in 
comparison with the picture which presents itself to our sight when 
we direct it towards our brooks and rivers? 

To see this organizing, life-producing energy which appears to be as- 
signed to water in all its might, one must, however, turn his gaze toward 
the sea; one will then not merely feel surprise but overpowering amaze- 
ment. To produce the marvel, one need not go to the tropical zone, con- 
cerning whose inconceivable fertility the sea-faring ones can narrate ; 
our own coasts are sufficient for the inquirer. 

He will immediately be surprised by a striking fact. In the sea it is 
not the loose bottom which correspouds to our arable land which proves 
itself most fruitful, it is the rock. The harder and firmer it is, the more 
impenetrable it is to all that can be called roots, the more living beings 
of both kingdoms it nourishes. From Belgium to Spain, Brittany’s 
rocky coast is incontestably the richest. If is on its nnalterable, im- 
penetrable granite that the uninterrupted belt of sea-weed extends 
densest and broadest, which gives the soda industry and agriculture an 
importance sufficient to make up for all others; it is here that all de- 
presions, all little creeks with their bottoms covered with loose stones 
transform themselves into shady valleys, where aigve of all kinds and 
all sizes represent the mainland’s moss, greensward, thicket, and 
forest; it is here also where the grass-eating animals, which find 
the most abundant nourishment in the most luxuriant vegetation, are 
most numerous and most fruitful, and thereby themselves give the 
richest nourishment to the greatest number of flesh-eating kinds. But 
all takes place in the water, all is produced thereby and returns thereto. 
The soil amounts to nothing, because the starting point in the cirele in 
which life and death follow each other is always a simple plant fastened 
on the naked rock. 

This evidence of Creative Power which the water displays in itself, 
even to its smallest molecule, and which inereases with the fluid masses, 
must kindle the human soul. With this evidence stand in closest rela- 
tion the cosmogenic speculations of different nations, likewise all the 
theories of spontaneous generation which different men, of considerable 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 541 


merit in other respects, have attempted to put forward contrary to what 
experience has established. 

When the existing continents rose up from the seas in which they 
were born, the greatest portion of the soluble substances which could 
serve for the support of living beings collected with the water in the sea. 
After this time thousands, perhaps myriads, of cycles elapsed, and the 
land without cessation was washed away by rain. That is to say, dis- 
tilled water has not ceased to furnish this immense reservoir with ma- 
terials of the same nature, with organic detritus. 

Hereby it becomes explicable how the river water flowing over a great 
expanse becomes enriched, how the sea water becomes a nourishing 
bath for the beings which it contains. In this manner is explained 
the abundance of the products of all kinds which the waters possess, 
and whose existence seems a paradox; plants without roots nourish 
themselves solely through their branches or leaves; stationary animals 
wait for the occurrence of their food, which is never wanting: free-mov- 
ing animals, which float almost passively, a ball for the wind and waves, 
which scatter them everywhere, find everywhere that which is required 
for their nourishment. | 

But, on the other hand, it holds good in the ocean, also, that where no 
washing off of the solid land can reach, there also life ceases and death 
reigns. The fluid plain has its deserts just as the dry land. 

Such an one is an enormous area in the southern part of the Pacific 
Ocean, separated by Humboldt’s Stream from the coast of South 
America, which has been rightly called the Desert Sea. Here the waves 
rise and fall without moving anything but water; the billow is never 
traversed by any fish, nor the air by the pinions of any bird. That the 
sea, at a certain distance from the coast where the organized matter 
washed down from the dry land sinks to the bottom or is consumed by 
the multitude of living beings, does not everywhere show this unusual 
barrenness, which has so greatly astonished the seafaring ones who 
crossed this region, is so because, by the universal laws which govern 
our planet, there goes on an incessant mixing of all its parts. Even the 
revolution of the land produces streams which flow from the equator to 
the poles and from the poles to the equator, and which carry the waters 
which have washed the Old World over to the new continent, and the 
waves which have washed America’s coasts back again to Europe. 
These streams carry, just as our great rivers, with which we have long 
compared them, elements of all kinds, which are plundered from the dry 
land; furrowing, in a manner, the ocean in all directions, they distrib- 
ute, wherever they extend, fertility and life. 

As the soil is not fruitful unless it is regularly watered, so also is the 
water fruitful only by virtue of the elements which it receives and trans- 
forms from the mainland. The sea sends the mainland rain and dew 
which are indispensable, to it; the mainland sends the sea the nour- 
ishing materials which it needs. Hach of them expects a return for 


542 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


what it gives, and neither the one nor the other has ever refused its re- 
turn. In this manner, receiving and giving without ceasing, both con. 
tribute to nature’s wonderful harmony. 

* When men appeared at last upon the earth, and entered into the great 
circle of mutual influences, originated conditions which were produced 
by the nature. of the surroundings. In the beginning of communities 
were found every where hunters and fishermen exclusively. They desired 
of the earth as of the water only what it produced of itself, and as a 
consequence they required enormous room in which the not numerous 
tribes might find the uncultivated fruits, the fish, and wild animals which 
were necessary for their support, and which often failed. In our day 
still some tribes are in the same condition, and we call them savage. 

Mankind became at length herdsmen; that is to say, they collected 
some useful animals about them; they were raised thereby a round in 
the ladder of civilization. Less exposed to the cravings of hunger, these 
tribes increased and became hordes. But to support the animals which 
they had procured for themselves, men were obliged to move from pas- 
ture to pasture. They remained, therefore, nomadic and barbarous. 

Finally, they learned how to cultivate vegetables, and trees, and plants, 
and soon thereafter how toimprove them; they abode also in one place, 
and became agriculturists. But with the new werk which they had as- 
sumed they were obliged from the first partly to strive against nature, 
partly to call her to their help. To procurea place for rice, wheat, corn, 
or potatoes, the weeds had to be removed; to increase the crops and re- 
new the exhausted ground’s fertility, manuring became necessary. Agri- 
culture was called to life; it secured a steadily increasing population its 
daily bread. They performed their labors through centuries, and the 
experience gained secured steady production ; civilized men live plenti- 
fully, by the million, in a space where a few thousand nomads, a few 
hundred hunters, would starve to death. 

We all see what has been effected in this direction; but what always 
escapes the attention of many is that human industry is directed only 
to the soil, and has forsaken the water. With regard to culture, the 
hunter has altered his condition; the fisherman has become a savage. 
In this respect the most refined European races find themselves, with 
few exceptions, exactly in. the same condition as the tribes of the Ori- 
noco or of Australia; the white does not in any respect excel the negro. 
As his colored brethren have fished he fishes everywhere, always care- 
lessly and without judgment; more numerous and equipped with better 
implements, the civilized white has fished morethan the worse equipped 
black, and has wound up by exhausting the brooks, lakes, and rivers, 
as well as the sea, of both small and great fishes. But good is often 
produced from evil in its climax, and necessity has seldom failed to teach 
mankind wisdom. The diminution of wild animals led undoubtedly to 
the taming of our domestic animals; agriculture was instituted, perhaps, 
in the midst of the pangs of hunger. The decrease of the abundance 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 543 


of fish has brought fish-culture to mind; and at present aquaculture, 
that is, the cultivation of the waters with reference to fish-propagation, 
is about to win its way to recognition and practice as agriculture did 
thousands of years ago. 

k 


GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 


Few countries possess such a wealth of lakes and rivers of all sizes 
as Norway. In his work, “The Kingdom of Norway,” Dr. O. J. Broch 
gives the combined areas of these waters as 7,600 square kilometers, or 
2.4 per cent. of the whole area of the country. Their situation with 
regard to elevation above the sea, in connection with the climate and 
the topographical relations, causes by far the greater portion to be 
especially adapted as a place of residence for the kinds of fishes which 
are universally considered the choicest and most valuable, because they 
contain clear and cool water, in which these fishes thrive best and 
acquire the finest flavor. Of the waters, only a small portion, lying in the 
lowest regions, are unsuited to these better kinds, because of their slug- 
gishness and higher temperature; these are, however, well adapted to 
other less esteemed, but at the same time valuable, species of fishes. 
Most of these waters, in earlier times, when the population was smaller, 
were very rich in fish, and the greater ones were therefore regarded as 
manorial rights, which, as such, were separately liable to taxation. 
Forty or fifty years ago the greatest portion of the waters situated in 
the mountain regions proper, and the rivers generally, were what one 
might call rich in fish, although the abundance, according to the state- 
ments of the inhabitants, was even at this time considerably diminished ; 
but latterly the quantity of fish is steadily and rapidly being diminished 
by the constantly increasing fishery of the growing population, which 
in this country, as everywhere in Europe, urges on the pursuit, and 
especially at a time when it is the most injurious to the continuance of 
the fish supply—the spawning time—because the fish is most readily 
caught on the spawning-grounds. The steadily diminishing abundance 
only increases the demand instead of putting a check thereon. Fishing 
implements were gradually constructed in such manner that the smallest 
edible fish could never escape, and brooks which were the natural haunt 
of young fish were swept systematically from one end to the other by 
fine-meshed nets with careful search, so that only an insignificantly 
small number could reach the age of reproduction. This was, of course, 
not so everywhere in like degree; but over a large part of the country, 
by this mode of proceeding, prosecuted more or less eagerly, has been 
established a scarcity which in places approaches complete absence of 
fish of the better kinds, which were the chief object of pursuit, just as 
in many other European countries. 

The sad result brought about in this manner, which in those places 
had reached its culmination more than thirty years ago, is naturally 


544 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


universally regretted; but the primitive consolation, that the Lord will 
constantly take care of the continuance of the abundance of fish, and 
that this gift was inexhaustible, was so rooted in their apprehension 
that men ascribed the diminution of the fish to the most marvelous causes 
instead of the real one.* Precisely the same thing occurred with the 
most valuable of all our fishes, the salmon, which, however, is indige- 
nous in only a small part of the course of our great rivers. In the be- 
ginning of the century down to the end of its first twenty years, this 
abundance was so great that in many places the servants stipulated 
that they should eat salmon only three days in a week. But this abun- 
dance, by the same mode of procedure as was employed for the fresh- 
water fishes, and owing to other causes arising with the gradually de- 
veloped industry, diminished to such a degree that the capture of a 
single salmon had become in many places in Southeastern Norway a 
rare occurrence, and it fell off to such an extent in many localities that 
the merchants did not think it worth while to keep the implements of 
capture, whereas formerly, when the price of the fish was only 4 to + of 
what it had in the mean time advanced to, good and even rich fisheries 
were a yearly experience. 

Such was the state of things in this country, as well as in many other 
parts of Europe, when in this portion of the world it finally dawned 
afresh upon the consciousness that man’s care, by bringing nature’s 
powers into activity in an inteligent manner, might win from the waters 
a considerable production of fish, a production which, when the business 
iS prosecuted with the requisite energy and care, might become very 
considerably greater than one could have any conception of from pre- 
vious experience. Influenced by his own observation, it occurred to a 
farmer in the year 1842, in the Vosges, in France, to attempt to hatch 
out young trout in order to restore them to a depleted river.t The 


*T have twice in Aal, in Hallingdal, received the explanation that the sea-worm 
was the cause of the scarcity. The first time, in 1840, Vatsfjord was the scene of its 
ravages, and it is said that they had procured castor, with which the water was sprink- 
led around to poison or drive off the worm, but without avail; the fish were absent 
and remained away. I have since had a good opportunity to see who does the work 
attributed to the sea-worm. Near sunset every evening the people assembled from 
every house in the neighborhood, and swept the water with fine-meshed nets, and 
they caught therefore only very few fish in the water, whereas the same little flow- 
ing river was rich in trout weighing three-eighths of a pound to one-half pound. The 
last time, in 1872, I heard that Buvandet, below Rensfjeld, had been the scene. A 
clergyman, one of his assistants, and a couple of farmers, owners of the water, had in 
partnership sprinkled castor to drive off the sea-worm, naturally with the same success 
as before. 

tIt is singular how seldomyit happens that men avail themselves of accidental 
experience. The indication of artificial fish culture is not of rare occurrence here, 
since in many places the same experience is had as in the following case: In 1841, a 
perfectly trustworthy man told me that he, some years before, had been fishing and 
hunting late in the autumn at Gjendinsoset. Impending storms drove the fishermen 
in the greatest haste away to their country district, 5 to 6 miles distant; the nets were 
pulled up in the greatest haste, and the boat placed in the boat-house, while they 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 5A5 


attempt succeeded, and aroused general attention in France, and thereby 
an impulse was given to a new industry, which, wherever the natural 
fundamental conditions are present or can be procured, will bear fruit of 
particularly great value. 

Although, in the last century, this industry has received so little at- 
tention in Europe that it might be regarded as entirety forgotten, it 
has, notwithstanding, been known and practiced for a very long time. 
The most ancient civilized people of the East, the Chinese, practiced it 
steadily to a great extent, and have practiced it from time immemorial. 
One of their proverbs reads, ‘The more fish a country produces, the more 
men it produces.” Artificial culture is so ancient here that it is con- 
sidered to have been always prosecuted, and they have many species of 
fish which are cultivated in every house, in every pond, and which are 
regarded as belonging as much to the household as other domestic 
animals. They belong to the great cyprinoid family, are vegetable 
feeders, and are fed just as regularly as cattle and other quadrupeds. 
The stock is procured by collecting annually the naturally deposited 
spawn or naturally hatched young, and this collecting is a distinct in- 
dustry. In the central provinces, which are drained by the Yangtse- 
kiang, near Kieow-Kiang, in the province Kiangri, in the month of 
April, more than 150 junks of a very considerable tonnage are occupied 
in bringing in cargoes of young, which they transport to and distribute 
in the interior of the country. 

Just as fish culture is carried on everywhere, to a great extent, so the 
provisions of law have constantly received attention, in order that the 
abundance of fish in the natural waters may not be diminished by mak- 
ing them the subject of stringent legislation. It is said that 1,222 years 
before the Christian era, an emperor of the Tscheou dynasty, together 
with his consort, wished to go fishing ; it was in the fourth month, during 
the spawning season. One of the prime ministers, Tschangsype, cast 
himself on his knees before him, and submissively called his attention 
to the fact that he was about to violate one of the most stringent laws 
of his empire, and that by acting thus he might bring destruction upon 
one of the most important of the common means of subsistence, whilst 
he would thereby incur a great responsibility before the tribunal of 
history. The emperor admitted that the minister was right, and de- 
sisted from his intention. 

Fishing in all lakes, channels, and brooks which do not immediately 


forgot to take out the plug, so that the boat might empty itself. On the following 
spring, when the boat again was put in the water, little young trout swarmed in the 
water remaining in the boat, hatched out from the spawn and milt which the im- 
prisoned ripe fish had liberated when they were taken from the nets. Hatching may 
also occur under peculiarly unfavorable circumstances, for it cannot be doubted that 
the water must have been entirely frozen for a long time. To be sure, the boat was 
in the boat-house, which, during the winter, was covered by snow; but the place 
lies over three thousand feet above the sea, and at this height the cold is considerable 
and protracted. 


30 F 


546 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


flow out of or into a great river rich in fish is absolutely prohibited 
during six months of the year, from March to September, in order to se- 
cure the fishes against the rapacity of their pursuers and to insure 
propagation. The maintenance of these provisions and political inspec- 
tion of the waters is presided over by specially selected mandarins and 
private citizens, to which last the state leases fishing privileges by can- 
tonments. These general lessees, called konau-ho, pay a yearly tax to 
the state, and are pledged, 1, to appoint times for planting a quantity 
of young fish in the waters leased by them, corresponding with the ex- 
tent of these waters; 2, to see that communication between their waters 
and the rivers rich in fish is always open at the spawning season, so 
that the fish may come into them to spawn; 3, with a stringent watch- 
fulness to see that no one fishes during the time from March to Septem- 
ber, and that nothing is done which can work injury to the thriving of 
the fish. In compensation, no one is allowed to fish in their canton- 
ments without written permission, which they furnish to companies who 
carry on fishing according to the regulations created by the lessees. In 
rivers of medium size the close season is reduced to three months, and 
in the largest rivers which empty into the sea every one is allowed to 
fish during the whole year. 

Owing to these provisions and the universal household fish-culture, 
fresh-water fish constitute a very large part of the accustomed food of 
the people, and so it has been from time immemorial without this source 
of nourishment ever having threatened to be exhausted.* The ancient 
Romans likewise carried on systematic fish-culture to a considerable ex- 
tent, and their methods have not in the flight of time gone entirely into 
oblivion; but this cultivation was in the main only the enterprise of 
private individuals in inclosed fish-ponds. Universal legal provisions 
having in view the preservation of the abundance of fish in the open, 
generally accessible and public waters, scarcely existed ; because if this 
had been the case it would, like the rest of the Roman laws, without 
doubt have been observed, at least to some extent, through the lapse of 
time, and would also doubtless have prevented the universal diminution 
of the abundance of fish, which in all the most civilized countries of 
Europe exists even down to the present time. The practice of the Ro- 
mans is, however, as remarked, not entirely forgotten ; they have in most 
countries continued to a greater or less extent to maintain fish-ponds, 
and to supply them with young in a manner which may be called artifi- 
cial, in so far as this supplying goes on under direct human supervision, 
and is not left entirely to nature’s care. It has similarly also been prose- 
cuted here in Norway, at one time or another, by certain rich men ; they 
say, also, that the monks at Storhammer have attempted it. It is pre- 
sumably this cireumstance alone which explains the occurrence. in a 
couple of places of a species of fish, the carp, which does not belong to 
our northern fauna, and of another which is indigenous in the eastern 


* Dabry de Thiersant, French consul-general in China, 1871. 


ee 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 547 


part of the peninsula, the pike, so far as is known in a single place in 
western Norway, where it ordinarily does not exist. In a single place 
systematic and artificial fish-culture has been carried on extensively for 
centuries as the sole means of subsistence of a community consisting of 
many thousand individuals, namely,in Laguna di Comachio, near the 
Adriatic Sea south of Venice. But no one thought about imitating this 
business before last year, though the same or a similar opportunity for 
such industry is found in many places in France as well as in Italy. The 
objects of culture here are fish which do not, like the salmon, spawn in 
fresh water, and afterwards reach their greatest development in the 
sea, but which, on the contrary, spawn in the sea, while their young at 
stated times frequent the streams in the shallow lagoons, there to reach 
their full development, chief among them being the eel, which has the 
same habit here in the North as in the South. 

But the commonly-practiced fish-culture of the Chinese, Romans, and 
modern Europeans is restricted chiefly to species of fish of particularly 
great fecundity, which live in sluggish waters of an average higher tem- 
perature, which spawn in spring or summer, and whose eggs are hatched 
without difficulty of any kind in the space of a few days, namely, carp 
and its kindred genera, together with the pike and perch, to which may 
be added the eel, whose young may be easily collected in their migrations 
up the river courses. The choicer species of fish belonging to the many 
different species of the salmon family, the most of which spawn late in 
the autumn or in the winter, have been the subjects of artificial culture 
in very few places. 

The artificial fertilization of the spawn of the nobler species of fishes, 
the salmon, in the manner in which it has been practiced for the last 
twenty or thirty years, was not, however, entirely unknown; for there 
are found printed works which describe it dating from the middle of the 
preceding century and later; but these aroused general attention as 
little as the practical performance of the operation, which took place 
here and there. About the year 1842, when, as before remarked, a 
peasant, Remy, in the Vosges, concluded to attempt the artificial fertil- 
ization and hatching of trout-eggs, the affair first was fortunately brought 
to the knowledge of French scientific men who appreciated its great 
economical importance to the nation, and many of these have since that 
time with the greatest zeal labored to bring, and have also succeeded in 
bringing, the mode of operation to the desired perfection. Among these 
many scientific men Mr. Coste, professor of embryology in the College 
of France in Paris, a member of the French academy, is generally re- 
garded as the one who has labored the most and the most successfully 
for the advancement of this thing, in which duty he was strongly sup- 
ported by the Emperor Napoleon. Since the year 1852, one may regard 
the plan of operation to have been brought to perfection, and since that 
time the business, so far as the salmon-like fishes are concerned, had 
been carried on to a steadily increasing extent everywhere in Europe 
and America, where the opportunity is presented. 


548 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


About the same time the matter awakened attention among us where 
already in many places the abundance of fish was reduced to a minimum, 
a reduction which, moreover, has continued for many years with unabated 
zeal in many places in this country, and even now is continued here and 
there on no small seale. . 

Since the year 1848 the legislature has taken into consideration the 
destruction of salmon-fishing, and has sought by more stringent pro- 
visions to control the instinet of prey. Since 1863 the way has likewise 
been open by it for restraining this mode of procedure in the lakes and 
rivers, since the necessary increase ought to be gained in all the places 
interested. For about the same length of time, by the contribution of 
public funds, artificial hatching has been carried on over the whole 
country, and public attention has been directed to the matter, while 
instruction in the art has been given wherever it has been sought. 

These measures have borne evident fruit, and the country therefore 
owes great gratitude to Prof. H. Rasch, who chiefly gave it the impulse, 
as wellas to his indefatigable assistants in its practical execution. But 
the result has not yet by far reached the extent which it can and ought 
to reach, and which it probably will reach when the matter is taken 
hold of with the energy and care which it deserves. That it is not at 
present greater cannot depreciate the man’s services, which hitherto 
have borne the matter forward; one must much rather wonder that he 
has succeeded in winning so great victories over deeply rooted prejudices, 
and the universal reluctance among people to submit to previously 
unknown restrictions against habitual unrestrained free fishing, the use 
of which they must first see before they can, perhaps rather will, com- 
prehend them. 

But the experience gained through more than twenty years’ practice 
in many countries in America, 4s well as in Europe, has shown that we 
now stand very far from the goal which we can and, therefore, ought to 
seek toreach. We have hitherto in this country confined our operations 
to placing little barriers against improper rapacity; these barriers ought 
to be given the necessary dimensions which are required for the attain: 
ment of the object in the well-understood interests of all. Having, besides, 
to some extent provided for the sowing of the field, they will win there- 
from increased production; but this care has not been sufficiently great 
by far, partly because it is limited to the salmon by ill-advised provisions 
of law, which render difficult, often impossible, that which has the claim 
of the first requisite, the desired abundance of mature spawn; partly 
because they have placed their trust in, and, therefore, to an unreason- 
able degree given their attention to the advancement of, natural culture. 
Moreover, they considered only the production of the delicate young, 
and have liberated these, which cannot be regarded as in much better 
condition to escape the multitudes of enemies than the spawned eggs, 
in the rivers, to be eaten up in masses before they reach any size. 
Finally, they have, for the lake fisheries concerned, not at all considered 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 549. 


that, just as the farmer by manuring can multiply his crops, so by a suit- 
able mode of procedure one may also increase the maintaining capacity of 
the water by looking after the increase of the nourishment from which the 
fish, which are made the object of especial care, get their subsistence. The 
opinion has been much more generally held that this food is injurious to 
the rearing of the cultivated fishes, as it consists chiefly of living fish 
of smallerand commoner kinds, which are regarded as enemies of natural 
culture, as spawn-eating, in competition with all other fishes, small and 
great, and with a multitude of other living animals, four-footed as well 
as winged, and insects of a multitude of species, which culture, as 
remarked, has attributed to it an importance which by no means can 
or ought to be attached to it if one wishes speedily to reach the goal, a 
considerable increase of the abundance of fish. 

Since I have chiefly in view to show the value of the lakes and rivers 
as a field for fish-culture, I shall next take these into consideration by 
showing what ought to be done, so that the kinds of fishes which should 
be the objects of cultivation in them may be produced in the greatest 
possible abundance; and next, what should be done for the fish which 
belong to both the sea and the fresh water, although these last have 
already obtained, and probably by more thorough mades of proceeding 
will further retain, superiority over those in economical respects, and, 
therefore, ought to stand in the first place. Thus I pass on to— 


iis 


WHAT FURTHER SHOULD BE DONE AND WHEREFORE. 


It is known that in natural fish-culture only a very small fraction of 
the quantity of eggs deposited are developed ; therefore, the Lord of 
nature has made their fruitfulness great in proportion to the danger of 
destruction to which the eggs and the young are exposed. I shall here 
confine myself solely to the chief representative of the fishes, which will 
certainly be the especial object of culture—the trout. What percentage 
of naturally spawned trout eggs reach their full development as young 
it has been found impossible to learn with certainty, just as little as to 
what age the multitude which come to life as tiny young ones under 
natural conditions live. Men who have closely studied this matter be- 
lieve that one out of ten or one out of a hundred eggs develop into young 
fish. The rest go to ruin, are buried up, destroyed, or eaten up; per- 
haps the greatest portion disappear in the last mode, for everything 
that lives in the water, large and small, even the fish that lay the eggs, 
eat them as the greatest delicacy.* Trout or salmon roe is the most irre- 


* An experienced American fish-culturist thus describes what happens at the spawn- 
ing-place: 

‘‘When the spawning time approaches the trout seek a suitable place on a gravelly 
bottom in shallow flowing water, especially that originating from springs. When 
they have paired themselves, which takes place only after violent, often deadly bat- 
tles between the males, both go to the chosen place and lie still there if they are not 


550 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


sistible lure (bait) for trout and salmon, as well as other fishes. Such is 
the case in countries with much milder winters than we have. How 
great a portion of the young are eaten in the space of the first year, when 
they stay unprotected in their native place, we have naturally no certain 
knowledge of; it is probable that at least half are eaten or destroyed by 
the above-named causes under the water, as may frequently happen. 
With us, at all events, over the greatest portion of the country, we have 
cold winters, which produce bottom ice, and at least spring drifting 
of the ice to a considerable degree, which as a rule always comes in con- 
tact with and traverses the best spawning places of the trout or other 
salmonoid fishes, which are besides readily laid bare in the course of the 
winter. 

But suppose that the eggs and the young fish endure being locked 
up in the ice without dying, they will by no means endure the drifting 
of the ice or lying bare in the frost. In this way the profit or product 
of natural culture becomes so uncertain that it cannot be depended upon 
to give any result which in any way can or ought to be taken into con- 
sideration. It seems to me that the confidence in the rapid increase of 
the abundance of fish through natural culture fully corresponds with 
the confidence of de farmer who thinks that the garnering of prema- 
ture corn will be sufficient provision of seed for the coming year’s har- 
vest. On the other hand, a long experience has now established that 
one, if he manages things with proper care in all necessary directions, 
may safely count upon about ninety-five young from a hundred eggs, 
and that one can rear these young ones under proper conditions through 
a year with a loss of only five per cent. The artificial culture also is as 
safe, the natural as unsafe, as possible. 

Since this is the case, one has it also in his power by labor and out- 
lay, which are inconsiderable, to procure all the young that he con- 
siders necessary for stocking a fishing-stream with perfect certainty, 
provided one can procure the necessary quantity of eggs; all regard for 


disturbed; but the males are for the most part occupied in driving away rivals, who 
pry around. It is curious to see a little male by the side of a large female. Under 
ordinary circumstances the smaller male respectfully gives way to the larger, but at 
the pairing time the smaller will in an instant attack one three times as large as him- 
self, should he approach to within a few feet of the female; as a rule the male is fully 
occupied in driving away rivals. When these are numerous the female will often 
come to the help of her chosen mate. But after the female has selected a consort 
there is no longer any contest; the disappointed males fly as soon as the consort makes 
a show of attack; they appear to respect the intimate union. The female meanwhile 
forms a nest, which consists simply of a shallow depression 6 to 8 inches in diameter 
and 2 to 3 inches deep. It is constructed in this way: the female thrusts her nose 
down in the gravel and pushes it aside with her tail as she raises her head again. 
This work goes on many days until the cavity is large enough for her. After they 
have laid over the nest for some time the female is ready to deposit a portion of her 
eggs. The male seems to know this instinctively, because whereas he had been busy 
expelling rivals, he is then always at the female’s side, and the instant she lays her 
eggs he allows his milt to flow over them. 

‘“When the eggs are deposited the male forsakes the female, who thereupon covers 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 551 


the natural culture becomes superfluous for the fish species concerned, 
which ought to be the object of cultivation, and absolutely injurious in 
so far as one, from his anxiety to advance this culture, seeks to eradi- 
cate or omit to stock the water with other kinds of fishes which might 
serve the cultivated fishes as food, even if they in any degree concur 
with this about other means of food, for the fishes which one cultivates 
will chiefly be fish of prey, which will develope with a desired rapidity 
only when they have an abundance of other fishes as food. 

The essential condition for abundant production of fish, next to the 
possession of water, is ability to be able to get fish-spawn in the de- 
sired quantity. This ability will always be present in all well-stocked 
fishing waters if no injurious law regulation places an artificial barrier 
by prohibiting the capture of spawning fish at the right season, that 
is, at the spawning time itself. Every trout or salmon yields 2,000 eggs 
per kilogram (two pounds) of its weight. To procure 1,000,000 eggs there 
will thus be required fish of the united weight of about 500 kilograms, 
but few males being required in proportion to the females. After the 
lapse of a year, one will have at least 800,000 young fishes of one-twen- 
tieth to one-tenth of a kilogram each, or 60,000 kilograms in place of 
500 kilograms. If, therefore, the mothers and fathers which are taken 
as spawning fish must be consumed and a portion more are taken under 
the same pretext, this signifies nothing in the face of the certainty of 
having brought back the necessary young which, even as yearlings, will 
weigh fully one hundred times as much. 

It was just to prevent the loss of profit in fishing at the close-season 
that the existing legal enactment for salmon was made. This misun- 
derstanding of real interest, this injurious prohibition will probably dis- 
appear when the pending new proposition for a change in the fish law 
obtains legal validity. Besides, the spawning-fish are always poor food 
in comparison with what they are at other times of the year. In Eng- 
land such spawning fish are considered inedible, and* such will also be 
the case in this country when a greater abundance of fish no longer 


the eggs with gravel by sweeping over them with her tail all that is found near the 
nest. Ifthe female is not satisfied with the covering she will go into the stream and 
push suitable stones backward with her ventral fins over the nest until it is completely 
covered. After a few minutes the male returns to see how the work progresses, eats 
some eggs if he can find any, and departs again. The female, on the contrary, dees 
not go away, but remains at the place and does not forsake it until all the eggs are 
spawned, which occurs in many installments and occupies a long time, often as much 
as three days. The female, as well as the male and all the hangers-on swimming 
around, have meanwhile eaten as many as they could of the eggs. When the first pair 
has left the place another comes on the same errand. The female finds a suitable 
place and begins to prepare a nest. As soon as the first-spawned eggsappear this bus- 
iness is given up and female and male vie with the lookers-on in eating all the roe be- 
fore they again resume work. If one next takes into account that all kinds of water 
fowl] seek after the spawn with great eagerness, that the tender young fish coming to 
life in the spring serve in great portion as food for the larger fishes, it is no wonder 
that there are so few trout in our streams, but a great wonder that any are left.”— 
(Trout-culture, by Seth Green. 1870.) 


552 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


tempts one to take them as food just at the time when they are the 
poorest. 

When no such prohibition exists there will generally be no difficulty 
in finding as many spawning fish as may be necessary, provided the 
water contains the requisite quantity. By proper forming of spawning 
places one can regularly take on them every fish which makes its ap- 
pearance for spawning; if it is not quite ready for that when it is taken, 
it can be set free in the water again; it will again make its appearance 
at the place when the proper time comes. Or one can in the American 
manner construct the spawning places so that one without touching the 
fish, leisurely and at ease in the daytime can collect all the spawn de- 
posited and fertilized the evening before. 

That there will be fish in abundance to supply all the spawn which is 
considered necessary for planting in a stream when it has become 
properly stocked is certain; that natural culture will take place by the 
side of the artificial is thus self-evident. But whether this gives any 
yield of any living fish or not is a matter of entire indifference, except- 
ing in so far that the quantity of spawn deposited in this manner, and 
the possibly small number of young arising therefrom, plainly increases 
the nourishing capacity, since, as remarked, the spawn as well as the 
young will serve as food for a whole multitude of all kinds of fishes. 

After— 

1. Artificial hatching of the multitude of eggs, which is considered nec- 
essary for the proper yearly recruiting of the water, or filling up the 
decrease caused by steady fishing for the fish which have reached a 
suitable size, is required also— 

2. Rearing of the young in an inclosure until they are at least six 
months old, when they will have reached such a size that they them- 
selves nay appear as enemies among a host of enemies whose prey they 
would have become at an earlier age; there is required in aquaculture, 
as in agriculture, proper inclosing of the ground. This must, in the ~ 
scheme here proposed, provide for the hindering or destruction of ene- 
mies which will divide the harvest with the breeder, and take the 
lion’s share or the whole if they are able. Among these, man stands 
first. It is, therefore, a matter of course that the laws must secure 
for the fish-culturist, as well as the farmer, the indisputable right 
to the fruit of his labor, and thus make the proprietorship and right of 
fishing in the water of every condition just as clear and fixed as the cor- 
responding right to the ground in question. 

As long as the right to free and unrestricted fishing in brooks and riv- 
ers is recognized fish-culture cannot pay, because our brooks and rivers 
are just as important for the rearing of young fishes as they are also 
chosen waters in which they may nourish themselves until they become 
full-grown or mature products, which will be indiscriminately fished for, 
and thereby the result of every effort for the increase of the fish will be 
brought to naught. What is needed in this direction this is not the 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 553 


place to develop more fully; I suppose it will be done when the reali-. 
zation of the necessity is sufficiently clear to the public. But even if 
legal enactments contain all the necessary provisions, this will not be 
enough. Law alone is inoperative; it must have living supporters, par- 
ticularly when the temptation to break it is especially great, as will be 
the case when the fishing-streams, rivers and brooks, receive the com- 
plete supply of fish which they can accommodate and sustain. Constant 
and active watchfulness must supplement the protection of the law, and 
the business will with the greatest ease be able to meet the expense which 
must herewith be associated. Where a single individual commands an 
isolated field for fish-culture, the matter is very simple; where the cul- 
ture must be carried on in partnership by more than one, or by many 
interested parties, watchfulness becomes necessary over a greater area 
than for the isolated proprietor’s district. He who cultivates for himself 
alone, independent of others, will see to carrying on the business in the 
manner most profitable for himself, and act in accordance with that ob- 
ject, and, if he does not ‘do this he must blame himself for the possible 
damage or loss. Where many persons are interested, the temptation to 
undertake to feather one’s own nest at the expense of the rest is very 
great, and not every one is able to resist it. In such case the custody 
must be open for inspection, that even the interested parties observe the 
rules of the business, namely, that the catching of fish be judicious, so 
that no improper division may be made, nor the business be injured. 
But in this case it is not sufficient as hitherto to depend chiefly upon the 
men seperately appointed for such inspection. If it is important to have 
fixed legal enactments, or agreements respected, then should every means 
auxiliary thereto, which costs nothing, be brought also into the greatest 
activity, and this activity should not as generally hitherto, be paralyzed 
to the greatest possible degree. 

Where numerous keepers of the law or established custom are ap- 
pointed it is clear that many and very improper advantages can and 
must escape their observation, which, however unavoidable, must be- 
come generally known to other persons among the people more or less 
interested in the matter. Why not seek to invoke such assistance for 
the support of the law when it can be procured without cost? In nearly 
all hitherto established laws of such a nature they have, as it appears, 
made it possible to prevent the public from interesting themselves in 
any way for their support. The specially-appointed inspector was to 
have a share in the fines which were imposed for transgressions; the 
discoverer and informant, who had no such position, received, on the 
contrary, nothing. It appears now as if they, with full knowledge, 
wished to relax the operation of the law to the utmost extent in which, 
with a little appearance of decency, it could exist. That such mainte- 
nance of the law will be secured to a considerable degree by allotting to 
every informant the same compensation can be subjected to no doubt, 
and by such a plan alone can such laws fully acquire their intended 
strength. 


554 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The mode of proceeding hitherto followed made the law almost inopera- 
tive, and encouraged a license in treating it, which it is, or should be, the 
design of the law to destroy. “ No receiver of stolen goods, no thieves,” 
says the old proverb. No fracture of such a law of any importance 
can occur without the participation of assistants, since the law itself now 
does its best to help the receivers by depriving them of that encourage- 
ment to the announcement of irregularities which it grants to the 
specially-appointed inspectors, for whom such encouragement would ap- 
pear less necessary, since they are paid especially to see that the law is 
respected. Were such encouragement granted to those who are not in- 
spectors, the transgressions of the law would on that account alone 
become exceedingly rare, as no one could be certain that a transgression 
occurring would not be reported, which in ninety-nine out of a hundred 
cases must come to the knowledge of many persons whose silence could 
not be depended upon. The objection against encouraging a system of 
informants, which we have heard mentioned as an argument against the 
institution of such a reward, will signify nothing, because an occasion 
for information will then never, or very seldom, arise. 

But, besides the encroachment of men, there is no little multitude of 
animals which will tax the abundance of fishes in somewhat the same 
degree as beasts of prey on the land and in the air reduce the abundance 
of game, and this taxation is in reality very much more considerable 
than people generally have any concepticn of. Otters, loons, ducks— 
especially fish dueks—destroy a considerable quantity of fish, and should 
therefore be persecuted with all means one is in possession of. In the 
same class must be included fish of prey, not merely of the kinds which 
are not objects of culture, but also those of the cultivated species which 
have become so old that they increase annually in size but slightly in 
proportion to the nourishment which they require. The most profitable 
yield from fish culture will clearly be obtained when the fish is regu- 
larly caught as soon as it has reached the age and size at which the 
quick increase begins to fall off. This size will differ in the different 
species of fish, likewise in different waters, according to the greater or 
less wealth of nourishment, and its quality. No general rule in this 
direction can be given; it can only be acquired through experience in 
each separate locality. 

According to experience, a trout consumes daily animal food equal to 
ato Of its weight; this has at all events proved fully sufficient feeding 
for fish maintained in the same way asstalled cattle. They have thrived 
upon it, grown quickly, and become fat. They could of course have 
consumed more ; but this quantity may be regarded as a proper medium, 
especially if one does not include very large ones. A common lake- 


trout which, for example, has reached a size of five kilograms, will thus - 


in the space of a year consume of food of all kinds 365 times 0.05—=18.25 
kilograms, while at the same size and age it will increase scarcely more 
than one-half in the space of a year, or 2.5 kilograms, In the first three 


. 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 555 


or four years its own weight doubles yearly with the same amount of 
food; thus, for instance, a trout during the fourth year which at the be- 
ginning weighs about 0.75 kilogram, consumes about 365 times 0.0075= 
1.85 kilograms, while it will have gained in weight 0.75 kilogram; the 
ratio between the food consumed and the increase of weight is also at 
this age quite particularly more profitable than at a later age, because 
the increase of weight in the last case bears the proportion to the nour- 
ishment consumed of 75 to 185, or 1 to 2.4, and in the first case of 2.5 to 
18.25, or 1 to 7. Even ifthe increase were the same at this age as earlier, 
the proportion would become as 5 to 18.25, or as 1 to 3.6, or in a consid- 
erable degree less profitable than in the younger stages. 

One must also strive to catch the older fish as completely as possible, 
and for this end the spawning time will furnish the best opportunity. 
Whether one will then eat them or put them into a separate smaller 
pond, where they will be easy to catch at any time, for preserving and 
feeding them until they are in better condition, is a matter of taste. 
That fish of prey of other species which possibly may occur ought to be 
exterminated by all means is self-evident. 

For the attainment of a reasonably large profit it is, moreover, as be- 
fore mentioned, necessary, in the greatest possible extent, to improve 
(gjéde) the water which is the object of cultivation. This may occur in 
different ways, depending on how the circumstances may be varied. It 
applies to the whole circle of creation that the lower organisms live upon 
plants, and in their turn serve as food for the more highly organized 
flesh-eating animals; and it is a settled thing that men, by assisting the 
operation of nature, can, to a very considerable extent, and in many, if 
even not in all, directions, promote this activity toward a very consider- 
ably increased production. It will everywhere be in the power of the 
fish culturist, in the same way as is employed for the fishes in question, 
which are the peculiar object of the breeder’s care, to promote the hatch- 
ing of species of fish which feed chiefly on vegetables, in order that sub- 
sequently, when they have reached the proper development, they may 
serve as food for the choicer fishes. 

In the same way one may promote the increase of crustaceans and 
mollusks, which likewise, to a great extent, serve as food for the nobler 
fishes. It will, moreover, in many places be an easy matter, by the 
employment of vegetables, which, in comparison with meat, cost little, 
such as carrots, peas, meal, and potatoes, to feed a greater multitude 
of the vegetable-eating fishes and other aquatic animals than the waters 
of themselves could support. Moreover, one can, if the opportunity 
offers, to a greater or less extent, provide directly for the nourishment 
and food of the cultivated fish by the use of all kinds of animal offal, 
the flesh and entrails of all sorts of fish, birds, and four-footed beasts, 
which have little or no value.* 

By the use of such means, among which cod-roe might, perhaps, be 


*Mr. Seth Green says: “It is more profitable to raise trout than hogs.” 


556 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


used with profit, it is in the power of the fish-culturist to eke out the 
stock of his water to a very considerable degree, which is limited only 
by the existing access to fresh, running water, or, more properly, on the 
renewal of the quantity of oxygen absorbed by the water; by an ade- 
quate renewal thereof, the number of fish may be increased until the 
space becomes as closely packed in proportion as a saufjés (sheepfold) 
usually is. How far one ought to go in this direction experience will in 
every place quickly teach. If more fishes are placed in the water than 
it can support, the leanness of the fish will soon attract attention ; this, 
however, will not occur, because in case of need they will mutually eat 
one another. If the supply of oxygen becomes too small in proportion 
to the need of the abundance of fish, this will quickly and plainly show 
itself also in this, that the fish will seek at the surface of the water the 
wanting vital air and that many will die. Probably only a few waters 
can be found in this country where it will be possible to carry fish-pro- 
duction to this last extremity, since one observes that the superfluity with 
regard to the means of nourishment does not exist except in winter and 
after continued interse cold, which dries up the tributary brooks. The 
difficulty, and in most cases the impossibility, of furnishing the fishes an 
extra food-supply during the winter will restrict stocking far below these 
extremes, which can be reached only by wholly artificial breeding in 
smaller especially constructed ponds, where the fish may be supported 
in the manner which may be most closely compared with the permanent 
Stall-feeding of cattle. But even if one, as will generally be the case, 
finds it most profitable to restrict the stocking of the waters far below 
this measure, they may still receive and support a quantity of fish which 
will considerably exceed what would be considered a great abundance. 

Further, it is important to carry on the collecting in an intelligent man- 
ner. This will not be done until one constructs his fishing-implements 
in such a way that he reaps only the mature fruit; that is to say, that 
he catches all the fish which have reached the size shown by experience 
to be the most profitable, which, as before remarked, may, however, be 
very different, according to the species of the fish which one attempts to 
produce, and the food one may be able to procure for them. To permit 
a portion to escape again, in order to reach a greater size, causes, as 
shown, a greater or less loss in proportion to the shorter or longer time 
one permits them to live after reaching the most profitable size ; to catch 
them earlier also causes a loss, though of less importance. 

But it is important also to harvest the crop at the time of year when 
it is most fully mature, most savory, and of the greatest value, not merely 
on account of its flavor but on account of its greater weight; that is to 
say, in summer from April until the middle of August at the latest for 
all the autumn and winter spawning fishes. The difference of quality 
and weight between the summer and winter is remarkably great; it may, 
in the salmon-like fishes, amount to over the half the weight of the fish 
in its best condition, and so far as the flavor is concerned the proportion 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 55G 


is precisely similar. Professor Rasch states in his book on “The means 
of improving the salmon and fresh-water fisheries of Norway, 1857,” 
that the Duke of Athole has related the following: 

“By consulting my journal I find that I caught this fish marked as a 
spawner (kelt) on the 31st March, with a rod, two miles above Dunkeld- 
Broen, and it then weighed exactly ten pounds. Five weeks and two 
days later I caught it again, and it had, in the short time specified, 
gained the almost incredible increase of 114 pounds, for on its return 
it weighed 214 pounds. The salmon here mentioned was caught and 
marked nearly 40 English (6 Norwegian) miles from the sea. It had 
thus in this time wandered this way back and forth, and still had time 
to obtain the quantity of food which it consumed to produce such an 
increase of weight. There can be no doubt of the trustworthiness of 
this fact, because his grace was extremely precise with regard to his 
marking experiment, and carried for this purpose with him small zine 
tags numbered and furnished with the means of fastening them. Thus 
we find this fish marked number 129, and the date entered in his grace’s 
journal.” 

This observation refers of course to the salmon and not to the trout, 
but there can be no doubt that the last species of fish is subject to the 
same laws as the first, even if not to the same degree. 

Hitherto there has at the same time obtruded itself an important 
hinderance in the way of extensive catching of late fishes in summer, 
namely the difficulty of preserving them in the best condition for any 
length of time. To transport them fresh has been possible only for 
short distances; to salt them so that they will be preserved has also its 
difficulties ; in every case the lake fish loses thereby a good portion of 
its value as a salable article. These circumstances have certainly had 
varying influence in restricting the fishery to the spawning time, since 
the frost has already to some extent made its appearance, although the 
greater ease then of capturing the fish at the spawning places has of 
course been the essential motive of the common people for deferring the 
fishing chiefly to this time. 

If the means cannot be found for preserving fish unspoiled in the 
fresh state for a long time, the profit of systematically prosecuted fish 
culture will be diminished in no small degree in all places some distance 
away from the chief means of transit and the trade centers, and the 
most and best of our fishing streams are thus situated. This is, how- 
ever, fortunately the state of things; it is in our power to preserve fish 
perfectly fresh for a long time by a very simple means which is every- 
where in this country at hand in more than the necessary quantity, 
namely, ice. The plan which has hitherto been employed in shipping 
fresh fish over to England, packing in boxes with loose pieces of ice and 
sawdust, permits, according to the statement of Americans, the trans- 
portation of fish fresh and unspoiled on the railroads to a distance of 
800 kilometers, about 490 miles—that is to say, preserves them during 


558 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


such transportation for twenty-four hours; but this will not be suffi- 
cient. If one, on the contrary, employs a plan recently introduced into 
Canada, and freezes the fish in the proper quantity safe and sound in 
blocks of ice, so that the fish and ice form a compact mass with two to 
three inches of pure ice between the fish and open air, an operation 
which can easily be performed in tin boxes of suitable form by packing 
in a mixture of ice and salt, which gives a cold of 31.45° Fahr., then, 
if placed in an ice-house, or during shipment packed with care in pieces 
of ice and bad conductors of heat—moss, which is found everywhere, 
or sawdust, if this can be had—they will probably be preserved for a 
long time unspoiled, just as safely as the mammoth which for many 
thousand years has lain buried in Siberia’s ice-fields, and which now and 
then comes to light in a perfectly unspoiled condition. 

There is thus nothing that prevents or discourages fishing—harvest- 
ing—from occurring chiefly in summer, when this is associated with the 
least trouble and the least discomfort from cold and bad weather, and 
nothing in the way of preserving fish in the most valuable condition— 
perfectly fresh—as long as it may be found profitable. One has it then 
fully in his power to bring them to market at the time and the places 
when and where it will pay best, even if these are far distant and many 
days are required to reach them. The preservation of the-harvest is also 
just as simple as the preservation of corn and hay. 

I shall next briefly mention the habits of the salmon, which in cer- 
tain particulars differ from those of the lake fishes. 

Ancient, fully trustworthy experience has shown that the salmon, 
like the birds of passage, seek and, with unerring instinct, return to 
the place where they were born, and equally well whether their birth- 
place is a mighty stream or a little brook which the salmon in many 
places cannot penetrate without lying flat on their sides or employing 
accidental floods in order to traverse the shallower places between the 
pools where they can find water deep enough. This last phenomenon 
one has nowadays rarely an opportunity to observe, since nearly all 
these brooks have long since been fished out, so that for many years no 
Salmon have been born in them. I have, however, personally had the 
opportunity of observing this fact in the little river or, more properly, 
brook, which forms the boundary between us and Russia on the south 
side of Varanger Fjord. It may be forded dry-shod, when itis lowest, at 
many places, yet salmon are found in most of the pools quite up to the 
lake in which it has its origin. Every brook, which at least now and 
then has a supply of water so far uniform that the salmon can swim 
over the shallow places, can be made a collecting-place for the salmon 
in any quantity, because one has it in his power to make each of them 
the point of departure for young salmon in every case with little trouble. 
The hatching of eggs may take place wherever a spring, or even a brook, 
supplied with water only in the winter half of the year, is found—in the 
last event, of course, with a little greater cost of construction, which at 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 559 


the same time will signify nothing compared with the profit. The roe 
which one gets to begin with he must procure from other places, and from 
places where good salmon are found; for there are many, sometimes 
considerably different varieties of the greatest difference in value. 
After the lapse of two or three years one will be able to get more at a 
place that he can manage to hatch—under the condition previously men- 
tioned as now existing, the absurd opposition against removal—which it 
cannot be doubted will occur. 

The hatching of salmon-roe is in all respects just as certain as the hatch- 
ing of trout-eggs; of which it is not necessary further to speak. Only in 
one direction is the case of the salmon different from that which applies to 
lake fish. The salmon goes, one or two years after it has been hatched, 
out to sea, and the nourishing capacity of thisis unbounded.* One does 
not need, so far as the salmon are concerned, in any way to limit the abun- 
dance of the eggs which are taken for hatching for fear that the fish will 
not be able to find food enough for their full and complete development. 

But it is not sufficient, as hitherto, to take care of the young till they 
can scarcely be regarded as fully hatched; one must further protect them 
until they assume the wandering habit, and instinctively seek the sea. 
The older method in reality results in destroying at least half, perhaps 
three-fourths, of the young which one has with care hatched out. Of 
course the care of the young long continued will involve an outlay for 
suitable ponds and for the food as well as the tending of the fish; but 
this outlay will amount to nothing compared with the increased abund- 
ance of fish which will spring from it. The mode of procedure hereto- 
fore adopted is perhaps the principal reason why the profit of the work 
hitherto done is so inconsiderable. 

It applies to salmon, without doubt, in a still higher degree than to the 
lake fishes that every attempt to assist natural culture, in order to 
increase the abundance of fish thereby, and escape the labor of hatching, 
is perfectly idle work. For the salmon it is evidently the largest rivers 
that have any importance in this direction; for the lake fish it is essen- 
tially small brooks. But it is just in the largest rivers that the un- 
favorable conditions peculiar to our climate appear most plentifully and 
with the most destructive power, along with all unfavorable cireum- 
stances which in more propitious climates bring it to pass that natural 


“Capt. John Ross, who . . . . . undertook a voyage of discovery to the 
arcti¢ regions, to find the so-called northwest passage, states, in his report on this 
expedition, the following: ‘‘When spring finally arrived after the first Winter, came 
in sight from the ship a great river, on whose shore Esquimaux gathered, to fish. 
They thrust unweariedly the whole day their spears at random down in the turbid 
river, and at every third cast they usually got asalmon. On the vessel there was a 
fishing-net made of coarse materials, brought along for such a case; this was thrown 
out, but was broken by the weight of the fish. A new net of coarser material was then 
quickly knit, and with this 5,500 salmon were taken at one haul. All the empty 
vessels on the ship were salted full, and a large portion, which could not be aceommo- 
dated, were presented to the Esquimaux. This describes plainly enough the un- 
bounded nourishing capacity of the sea. 


560 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


culture in all proportions yields an inconsiderable and even in many 
cases no profit at all. 

It is attempted now, chiefly with the object mentioned, to clear the 
path through the long extent of our large rivers, to which, partly by na- 
ture, partly by art, their approach is obstructed, by the construction of 
salmon-ladders in different places; however, curiously enough, not in 
the place most important of all in this respect in the whole country, a 
place which by itself is more important than most of the other rivers 
combined, namely Sarpen. It might appear that since no increase of 
the abundance of salmon has been gained by the introduction of such 
ladders, and the larger field thereby found for the salmon, owing to the 
increased natural culture, it will be useless to continue such a scheme. 
This is, however, by no means the case. Such a plan must on many ac- 
counts be considered in a high degree profitable, even if it should cost 
what one might regard a large sum of money. 

Access to the hatching of eggs is nowhere unbounded, while common 
interest demands that it should be prosecuted on as large a scale as pos- 
sible. The waters of springs, which may be used for such hatching—and 
it is only those which have pure water, in the greatest possible degree 
free from minerals of all kinds in solution—limit the quantity of spawn 
which can be hatched out, and their occurrence is not particularly fre- 
quent. One may, of course, by appropriate arrangement of apparatus, 
provide for the replacing in the spring-water the oxygen which was 
eradually consumed during the hatching of the embryos, but one has 
no means of removing from the water the carbonic acid generated in the 
place of the oxygen consumed. This will steadily increase by the con- 
tinued use of the water, and quickly reach such a point that the water 
will become deadly for the embryos and the young. Long before such a 
point has been reached the water must be regarded unsuitable for hatch- 
ing. One cannot generally calculate that people who never see, as adult 
salmon, any young which they may have hatched out will interest them- 
selves in such hatching. It is vain to expect that the springs which must 
occur along the upper courses of our rivers will ever be employed for 
the hatching of salmon to the desired extent as long as the way is not 
cleared for them to return to their birthplace and they are retained near 
the mouth of the river for the advantage alone of those who live there. 

If one wishes to advance the hatching of salmon in the greatest pos- 
sible degree, he must, by means of ladders, clear the way to the upper 
sources of the river, and then hatching on a large scale will not fail to 
take place along the extent of the rivers wherever the necessary condi- 
tions are present. The profit hereof will of course substantially fall to 
the residents along the lower portion of the river and along the coast 
outside of its mouth; but some profit will accrue to those resident on 
the upper waters, and this probably sufficiently great to incline them to 
regular hatching. This wouldespecially apply to the men on whose 
rivers sportsmen will be required to buy permission from the owners to 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 561 


catch salmon, a privilege which usually commands a high price. Inland 
residents have probably a legitimate claim* that they should not be cut 
off from permission which probably might be granted them to enjoy a 
portion of the blessing which the sea can give in the form of the best 
fish which find their way from it up through the streams as far as they 
are able to advance, and this somuch the more since the lower residents 
under all circumstances will skim the stream and have absolutely the 
greatest profit from the abundance of salmon which the increased hateh- 
ing must produce. There is also ample reason for building salmon-lad- 
ders wherever it will be practicable to place them, even if regard for 
the promotion of natural culture can or ought to have no weight. Should 
it fortunately happen that natural culture in some peculiarly favorable 
place produce a yield worthy of mention, so much the better, provided 
only that the dependence upon such a yield do not cripple the work of 
artificial hatching—the only mode that is perfectly certain—and the 
work of caring for the young in their tender youth. 

In parenthesis I shall here say a few words about the attempt to hatch 
salmon in lakes, with a view to keeping them there. This is, in my esti- 
mation, a complete misconception of the problem. Jn the first place, one 
cannot, according to my belief, destroy the wandering instinct of the true 
salmon (Salmo salar) by placing it ina lake. It will certainly find its way 
out of this into the sea just as surely as out of a river; the one is just as 
easy as the other, and one cannot destroy instinct. Only by keeping them 
confined in a basin from which they cannot possibly escape ean this in- 
stinct probably be controlled, and this is attended with a danger of their 
leaping out on land and perishing. In the next place, the nourishing 
capacity of every lake, even the largest, is limited in comparison with 
that of the sea. To confine sea salmon—wandering salmon—there, even 
if it were practicable, would also be to subject them to comparative star- 
vation instead of plenty. As regards the Venern salmon, which persons 
have attempted to introduce into our country, it is, in practical and eco- 
nomical respects, precisely the same as our female trout. The fact that 
some have been pleased to call it a salmon does not by any means make 
it a sea salmon, or a true salmon in any respect. So far as flavor and 
weight are concerned it differs in nothing from the female trout in 
Mjésen, and the corresponding large trout in our other larger lakes, and 
it is therefore in my opinion both unnecessary and unprofitable work to 
introduce it into our waters. 

Salmon are born in the river, live there a short time in their tender 
youth, and then seek the sea, where they grow with astonishing rapidity. 


* Already the Norwegian parliament has recognized the legality of such a claim as 
fally as it could be done at the time, as it prohibits the barring the way of the fish 
from the beach to the river source. This law, however, in a space of time was for- 
gotten, and industry has been allowed without complaint here and there to block the 
way of the salmon where it was open before. That this happened without complaint 
was probably only because the abundance of fish was already diminished to such an 
extent that this barring of their way made no difference. 


36 F 


562. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


When, driven by instinct, they again retrace their way to their birthplace 
they become on their way along the coast, which they always follow, the 
object of a fishery of the greatest economical importance, because they 
are then in the best condition, which they quickly lose after their en- 
trance into the river, where, according to experience, they take little or 
no nourishment. Residents on the sea-coast are thus in all respects “at 
least as much interested in the hatching of salmon in the greatest possi- 
ble quantity as the dwellers along the river courses. This community of 
interest is not yet comprehended in its full extent. Since the coast- 
dwellers as a rule are cut off from the opportunity of working person- 
ally for the production, or even for the preservation, of the salmon sup- 
ply, they harvest what others have sown, and ought therefore rightfully 
to be obliged, in proportion to their catch, to share in the expenses which 
the hatching of the young salmon in the river-courses involves. A law 
of this kind would be eminently just, and would doubtless in a high de- 
gree advance the profit for all, but first and to the greatest extent for the 
coast-dwellers themselves. 

Law has now established a certain size of mesh for the implements 
for catching salmon. This should gradually be increased so that only 
full-grown salmon of twelve Danish pounds weight, 6 kilograms, and 
upwards, can be caught. The salmon is then four years old. It will 
doubtless be urged as an objection to this that they will thereby lose 
permission to catch the sea-trout. This will certainly become true so far 
as the salmon-nets are concerned. But since the sea-trout are of infe- 
rior value compared with salmon, and one will gain more by allowing 
the salmon to become mature than by catching the small ones, the loss 
of the sea-trout in the salmon-nets cannot be taken into consideration. 
One must resign the capture to the common set-nets. At the same time 
the now legal sale of young salmon 8 inches long should be absolutely 
forbidden; under a size of 16 marks (8 Danish pounds), four kilograms, 
should no salmon be allowed to be sold. Moreover, the necessary active 
attention must be exercised in order that such a provision of law, as all 
others, may be properly respected ; because only in this way will all per- 
sons interested be able to reap the full share, which, according to the cir- 
‘cumstances existing on their soil, rightfully belongs to them. It is evident 
that the coast population have it in their power to capture nearly all the 
fish which come into the rivers, just as the residents on the river banks 
are able to omit the hatching of the young, the plain result of which 
will be that the coast people can get no salmon, since after a shorter or 
longer time no salmon will be found in the sea along the adjacent coast- 
extent. Both categories of proprietors’ interests are thus closely de- 
jpendent each upon the other. It would therefore seem that it would be 
to the greatest advantage of all the fishery-owners in the naturally-united 
districts whose interests are thus consolidated, if the whole matter 
within the district were carried on in partnership, as well with regard to 
the planting as the harvesting. Without the aid of suitable legislation 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 563 


such an agreement could not be rendered feasible; a majority should 
have the right to control the minority; because one or more perverse ones 
are found everywhere, and such associations serving the common use 
should not be checked by a single person or a few persons, whose in- 
terests probably may be of little importance compared with those of 
most of the others. 

In comparison with the cultivation of the kinds of fishes related to 
the trout, whether they be in the sea or fresh water, the cultivation of 
the salmon will always be beyond comparison the most profitable, taken 
as a whole, for all the interested persons in partnership, or for the indi- 
vidual who can secure for himself the greater portion of the profit of 
the planting of the young which he must hatch and rear and then lib- 
erate into the sea. There is of course an important difference in the 
rapidity of growth between different species of lake as well as salt-water 
trout; but if one institute a comparison between the species of both 
kinds of trout, which may be considered to represent the middle class, 
and salmon, the relation will show itself to be as follows: After being 
hatched out in the spring the young salmon remain in the river where 
they are born until the next spring; then about half of them change 
their markings and go to sea. Whether these are stronger individuals 
or one of the sexes is not known. The other half remain in the river 
until the spring following this, then change their dress and go to sea. 
By continued cutture also after the first year a portion of the whole 
quantity of the young hatched out in the course of the winter will 
always go to sea. It is also unnecessary to take account as to which 
year’s fish they represent. Those which forsake the fresh water have a 
length of 6 to 7 inches and a weight of 125 to 350 grams. These young 
have been marked to find out their subsequent growth, and thereby it 
has been found that even in the autumn of the same year in the spring 
of which they went to sea at least a portion of them returned to the 
river, and had then a weight of 1 to 3 kilograms, an average of 2 kilo- 
grams. When they next return from the sea they weigh from 3 to 6, 
or on the average of 4 kilograms, and are then in their third year. The 
next or fourth year they reach an average weight of 8 kilograms, and 
so on, but in a diminishing scale. According to the experience in many 
different fish-culturists’ establishments in Europe and America the in- 
crease of the trout with a good supply of food may be estimated for 
corresponding ages, respectively, at 0.275, 0.650, and 1.500 kilograms. 
Comparing these numbers, the proportion shows itself to be, for the sal- 
mon and trout in question, at the close of— 


Salmon. Trout. 
The second year, average weight... . . 2 kilograms. 0.375 kilograms. 
The third year, average weight... ... 4.5 0.750 
The fourth year, average weight. --.. 8 1.500 


This shows what a considerable value salmon culture has compared 
with trout culture. The yield from the first is, after the fourth year, 


564 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


more than five times as much as the last; and even this will yield a good 
profit, as will be shown later. As is well known, the export of ice has 
in the last ten years steadily increased in extent and economical impor- 
tance in this country. In many places along the coast where, naturally, 
fitting opportunity has offered, ponds are constructed with considerable 
expense for the production of ice alone for export. Nothing is more 
natural than to use these ponds for fish culture along with ice produc- 
tion, to which they are all, to a greater or less degree, adapted, accord- 
ing as the supply of running water and its quality may be. The ex- 
penses which fish culture will occasion are nothing in comparison with 
the cost of procuring ponds by means of damming brook-courses; but 
the yield from fish culture, carried on with care, may be of very great 
importance, especially if circumstances allow one to select salmon as the 
object of culture. It will, at all events, give a very good return for 
the outlay which the apparatus for fish culture and the labor upon it 
demand. 

In the same way as one has found it to answer a good purpose to pro- 
cure ice-ponds at considerable expense, will one in many places where 
the opportunity offers be able, with profit, by damming, to construct 
larger and smaller fish-ponds at such a distance from the sea that the 
production of ice will have no other importance than as a means of pres- 
ervation for the harvested fish. Such an opportunity is offered in many 
places in our mountain districts, where the ground which must be sac- 
rificed to transform it to a lake bottom instead of solid land cannot be 
considered to have any value in comparison with that which it will ac- 
quire by being transformed into a field for fish culture. One has it thus 
in his power, to an extent which perhaps must be called very consider- 
able, to enlarge the field for this culture, already very great in propor- 
tion to other countries, which, as shall be shown later, has a more 
varied economical importance than agriculture on good ground of cor- 
responding extent. 

1 shall next briefly mention— 


sd Ba 
| 


THE FISHES WHICH SHOULD BE THE OBJECTS OF CULTURE; ALSO 
THE KINDS OF FISHES AND OTHER AQUATIC ANIMALS WHICH SHOULD 
BE REARED AS FOOD FOR THESE. 


Since I, as before remarked, have our lakes and rivers specially in 
mind, I shall first treat of the species which live exclusively in fresh 
water, and then of those which live both in fresh and salt water. 

Following the prevailing taste among us, as also to a great extent in 
other countries, the genera and species of fresh-water fishes should 
probably be taken into consideration in the following order: Trout, red 
char, gwiniad, grayling, perch, perch-pike, pike, and crawfish, besides 
those improperly included with the fishes in familiar language. To 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 565 


these some persons would add the bream and lake, which, however, for 
a reason which I shall mention hereafter, I place out of consideration. 

Trout (Salmo ogla, ferox, fario, punctatus) are the most widely dis- 
tributed of all our fresh-water fishes. They are found from near the level 
of the sea up to the snow limit, and at elevations over 1,000 metres 
above the sea they are the only indigenous fish. Just as the localities 
differ in which they occur with regard to temperature and quantity of 
water, its mobility, and the nature of the bottom, so the trout, which 
are considered by naturalists as belonging to the same species, differ in 
form, size, color of the skin and of the flesh, and in flavor. Although 
especially well-flavored in places which are suitable for its thriving, in 
less favorable and turbid rivers it may be of very inferior value com- 
pared with other fish, and it suffers at all events from a circumstance 
produced by its characteristic taste, that one can scarcely find another 
fish from the sea or the fresh water of which one becomes weary more 
quickly. In order that the trout may acquire their flavor, clear cold 
water and a stony bottom are necessary. They thrive of course in 
streams wit a muddy bottom, especially when these have a steady and 
tolerably strong influx of fresh cold water; but then they seldom have 
the same flavor if they should become very fat and large. If the influx 
of water is smaller, and is liable to cease entirely in the summer, so that 
the water in the lakes is considerably heated, they are not suitable for 
trout; and this condition is fulfilled as a rule in all regions of country 
which are situated lower than 250 to 350 metres above the sea-level ; 
also in all smaller lakes. It applies even to the largest rivers rising in 
the mountain-tops—more especially, though, at an elevation less than 100 
metres above the sea-level. Fresh-water trout should, therefore, scarcely 
be made an object of culture in small streams lower than 150 metres 
above the sea-level, or at all events only where the water-course is pretty 
uniformly supplied with cold water the whole year round by inflowing 
brooks or springs. It may of course live, and through bountiful feeding 
reach a considerable size, in comparatively small streams or artificial 
basins in a low country near the sea-level, but it acquires there a flavor 
far inferior to that which it has in elevated regions. 

What particularly influences the flavor of the trout naturalists have 
not with certainty fathomed. It is assumed generally that cold water 
with more stone than mud bottom, and rich in insect larvae, and espe- 
cially in the smaller crustaceans, offers the most favorable conditions for 
this species of fish, especially when the supply of this kind of food, as is 
the case in many places, is so great that the rapacity of the fish is either 
not at all developed or but little developed, as is plainly shown to be the 
case in various waters by the whole form of the fish, and as the vain 
fishing, with baiting arrangements of the most tempting kind in othec 
waters, appears fully to confirm. But even where the supply of food from 
the insect world is smaller, and where thus the preying instinct manifests 
itself, the trout becomes very well flavored if there is only a sufficient sup- 


566 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ply of food and the water is clear and especially cold. The best-flavored 
trout are found therefore in the waters situated the highest, even up tothe 
snow-fields ; but where acertain water contains trout of particular appear- 
ance and flavor, scarcely two are found alike. The trout spawn, as it 
appears, exclusively in running water, especially in brooks which empty 
into a lake or larger river in which they stay, and then press towards 
the head-waters as far as they are able to advance. There is, however, 
a theory that they also spawn in still water; but about this there is no 
positive knowledge. 

The RED CHAR (Salmo salvelinus and alpinus) lives in fresh water from 
the level of the sea up to a height of about 600 metres above it. In 
southeastern Norway it is a rare fish, since it seldom appears at the sur- 
face of the water, and is not easily caught with the implement usually 
employed to catch the trout—the artificial fly. In western Norway, 
on the contrary, it appears to be much more common, shows itself more 
plentifully, and is caught by the fly in greater numbers, than the 
trout. How far north this apples is unknown to me, but it is at any 
rate the case as far as Trondhjen. With regard to flavor the chars vary 
as much as the trout. In southeastern Norway they have as a rule a 
finer flavor than the trout; especially in certain waters in western and 
northern Norway it falls far below this in flavor. 

How far the char can thrive is at present, so far as is known, not 
determined. They appear to thrive best in deep, cool waters, with the 
uniform afflux from bottom springs or brooks. It is strictly a lake 
fish ; it spawns in the same water and does not ascend the brooks 
which empty into or flow out from it; at any rate not here in southeast- 
ern Norway. 

It is a common assumption that the char and the trout do not agree 
wellin the same water. Thestatement has been made that when the char 
is introduced into water where only trout were found before, the abun- 
dance of these was diminished. Although the char certainly may be re- 
garded as a voracious fish like the trout, it appears, however, to judge 
from its whole structure, to be so in a less degree than the trout. The 
theory of a direct war between the adult fishes of both races mutually 
is thus untenable, neither can this reputed opinion be explained. It has 
been supposed that the char destroys the trout eggs and young with 
greater voracity than the trout consumes the char’s. This statement 
appears to me entirely untenable. The trout spawns in brooks wher- 
ever it can reach them, and its young remain in them in their tender 
youth; while the char never frequents the brooks. It can thus not do any 
harm to these eggs or young of the trout. The char, on the contrary, 
Spawns in the very water where its eggs and young are entirely exposed 
to the attack of the trout, and it refuses them certainly just as little as 
other fish eggs and young, its own included. The relation is thus rather 
the opposite of what is supposed. But whatever may be the relation in 
this respect, and even if the supposition were well founded, the admitted 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 567 


relation cannot be taken into consideration where energetic cultivation is 
in question, which does not rely upon natural culture for the preservation 
or the increase of the abundance of fish. In realityit may possibly be that 
the perfectly innocent char has been blamed for that for which the sea- 
worm is held responsible elsewhere, while the real culprit has been man 
and him alone, who has fished with stupidity and rapacity, and will 
not comprehend and confess that he has done his utmost to kill both the 
goose and the goslings, in which he has finally sueceeded; because with 
this explanation it is clear that the more easily accessible trout will be 
captured and diminished in numbers more rapidly than the less accessi- 
ble char. 

If in possession of water in which it is admitted that the char will thrive 
and acquire a desirable flavor, this and the trout may unquestionably 
be raised together. That they will fight for the food at hand is certain 
and unavoidable; but that the char should diminish the abundance of 
the trout is plainly inconceivable if the supply of both kinds is regulated 
by artificial hatching and protection of the tender young in the quantity 
which may be found suitable for the proper stocking of the water in 
proportion to its nourishing capacity. It may, of course, happen that 
one of these kinds of fish will find better conditions for natural culture 
than the other, and thus increase proportionally more in number, but in 
such a case one will have it in his power, by limiting the artificial cul- 
ture of the favorably situated species, to restore the desired proportion. 

The char is considered not only here in South-eastern Norway as the 
finest, best Havored fresh-water fish, but the same value is attached to it 
also in England, France, and Southern Germany, where it occurs in the 
natural or cultivated state. 

GWINIAD (Coregonus oxyrhynchus, lavaretus, fera, vimba) make their 
home in the less-elevated larger lakes and streams, where they, presum- 
ably because of strong persecution alone, for the present reach but a small 
size. Experience in the attempt of introduction shows that it thrives 
particularly well in our more elevated mountain lakes, where it reaches 
considerable size, fatness, and flavor. While it nowadays in this country, 
where it occurs most generally, seldom reaches a size of two to three 
kilograms, in Finland it grows to six kilograms and over. It is gen- 
erally known as one of our best fishes, which one can eat more freely 
without becoming tired of it than trout or salmon. It is not, like the 
trout, what is called a gluttonous fish, or a fish of prey, since its mouth 
is small and not so armed with teeth that it can seize a somewhat de- 
veloped fish, even though of small size. It lives, therefore, on water- 
insects of different kinds, but also, like all the others, on spawn and 
young fishes. Its spawning-time is late in the autumn, and for a spawn- 
ing-place it chooses a stony bottom in shallow water. It is compara- 
tively more fruitful than the trout, since its eggs are of somewhat smaller 
size. 

This fish is admirably adapted for rearing along with the trout and the 


568 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


char in the same water, since it not merely on its own account is well 
worth cultivation, but also because its young are excellent food for the 
larger trout, which the char on its part cannot injure. How high it 
will thrive we have no experience of; the highest place known to me, 
where it is planted and thrives remarkably, lies about 900 metres above 
the sea. It appears thus not absurd to suppose that it will also thrive 
under conditions otherwise favorable. But if one does not wish to make 
this a special object of cultivation, and will regularly hatch out and 
raise a proper number of young in proportion to the area of water which 
he may have control of, he should, however, not neglect to stock the 
water with it as a contribution to the food of other fishes. It will in 
this respect possibly prove to be a kind of fish that will thrive highest 
above its hitherto common place of resort. 

It might, perhaps, be supposed that the planting of the gwiniad in 
such places where the already indigenous fish, the trout, finds so rich a 
supply of food that it does not devour all of it, and thus does not need 
any kinds of smaller fish or young fish as additional food, would effect an 
unnecessary competition about food between the gwiniad and the trout, 
and thereby a diminished profit from the fishery as.a whole. That this 
possibly might become so by thickly stocking with both species together 
cannot be contested. In such a case one obtains restricted planting in 
the aggregate. But I should, however, think that rearing the gwiniad 
by the side of the trout, whereby a variety in fish-food becomes possible 
in places where they have hitherto been confined exclusively to trout, 
will prove a source of real profit. 

The GRAYLING (Thymallus vulgaris) has hitherto been confined to the 
same localities as the red char in the eastern part of the country. It is 
not found westward of the rivers of Laugen, Vormen, and Glommen, 
and the tributaries falling into these. It resembles the red char more 
closely than the trout in form, color, and flavor. It thrives particularly 
in cold clear waters with afflux of larger brooks or rivulets, with a strong 
or even rapid current, against which it at certain times of the year ad- 
vanees, on which account also it is called, in certain places, current- 
gerayling. There appears to be good ground for supposing that it will 
thrive in suitable places as well as the red char; but as far as is known 
no attempt has been made to introduce it into other lakes or rivers than 
those in which it naturally exists, neither has it, so far as is known, 
hitherto been the object of hatching. It has, upon the whole, been less 
noticed, just as it is comparatively rarer, than the red char, wherefore 1 
have taken it into consideration after this. The flesh of the fish is sav- 
ory and very wholesome; it takes the artificial fly readily ; and, finally, it 
spawns in the spring, while the fishes previously named spawn in autumn 
and winter. The first-named quality recommends it as an article of food 
for cultivation in the same degree as the red char; the other recommends 
the grayling as a game fish for every one who, along with the profit of 
fish cultivation, also prizes fly-fishing as a pastime; and the last-named 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 569 


quality makes it just as worthy of recommendation to be bred along with 
the red char where circumstances permit, since it naturally lays its eggs 
in the open water, and the fry proceeding therefrom will serve as food 
for the whole planting of fishes at a time of the year when neither trout 
or char eggs or young are present; while the artificial hatching which is 
necessary for the regular stocking, without requiring special apparatus, 
may take place in May to June in the empty apparatus used for the 
hatching of trout and char eggs. For the nourishing of the young in 
their tenderest youth only is required a particular apparatus of little 
extent and expense. It is just as little a fish of prey as the red char, 
and possesses nearly the same fecundity. 

With these four kinds of fishes the list is complete of the salmonoids, 
or salmon-like fishes, which ought to be special objects of cultivation as 
articles of food. There are still a couple small fishes belonging to the 
same principal division, which also deserve to be taken into considera- 
tion as objects for cultivation ; but since they are supposed to deserve 
to be considered as a natural food for the larger and more valuable fishes 
rather than as food for men, for which, however, to some extent they 
are used in the places where they now occur in any quantity, and since 
they, as it appears, will thrive and reproduce only in larger lakes with 
bottoms of a certain quality, I will refer to them under the kinds of 
fishes that ought to be hatched as food for the larger and more valu- 
able fishes. Should it happen that by such cultivation they will become 
.So numerous that they might also be considered as food for people, so 
much the better. 

Of another chief division of fishes, the spiny-finned, which inhabit our 
fresh waters, I have next cited two kinds to be considered above all 
others, although it is generally supposed that they cannot be compared 
with the preceding in flavor. About this, opinion may be, and is much 
divided. 

Of these I have placed the PeRcu (Perca fluviatilis) first, since this 
species is most widely distributed. Itis found generally more or less 
numerous in nearly all rivers, brooks, and lakes, even up to the spruce 
limit. Whether it will live and thrive at greater elevations is, so far as 
is known, not determined, probably because it is readily eaten by the 
common people in the mountain districts, but is not regarded particu- 
larly by the side of the trout, which is more generally distributed there. 
It bears very different names in the different parts of the country where 
it occurs: Abor, tryte, skjebbe, &c. It lives and thrives in all kinds of 
lakes, small and great, with or without constant afflux, and is just 
adapted, therefore, for cultivation in such lakes in which the previously- 
mentioned kinds of fishes will not thrive properly. It is decidedly a ra- 
pacious fish, and it is supposed, therefore, by fish breeders in Southern 
Kurope that it ought to be excluded from the lakes in which the salmon- 
ide are cultivated. Experience in our country seems, at the same time, 
to show that it cannot be very dangerous to the trout or the red char, 


570 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


since it oceurs up to their present limits, as well as in all waters along 
with both of these, and without, as far as is known, doing them any seri- 
ous injury. It isa slothful, sluggish fish, while the trout is lively and 
particularly quick in its movements. I assume, therefore, that there 
should be no hesitation in raising the perch along with trout and other 
salmonoids, if one cares to cultivate this kind of fish and the opportunity 
to treat it by itself is wanting. The flesh is found by many, when prop- 
erly prepared, to be peculiarly well flavored, especially as a change from 
other fish, and it is highly nourishing. With the necessary supply ot 
food the perch reaches a considerable size, up to one and a half and two 
kilograms ; but if one wishes to gain this size, care must be taken that 
the fish obtain abundant nourishment from other smaller fishes of differ- 
ent kinds. It spawns in spring, May to June, and is peculiarly fruitful. 

The genus of fish most closely related to this is the PERcH PixE 
(Lucioperca sandra), one of our largest lake-fishes, and also one of the 
most savory; it grows toa size of 12 kilograms and upwards. It is 
found at present in only a few of our larger, least elevated lakes; it is 
not found in this country north of Oieren. As far as known, no one has 
attempted to introduce it to other lakes, although there are a great number 
of such in which it doubtless would thrive well. Since the fish is very 
little known, I shall state that its flesh is as white as the cod’s, likewise 
just as free from bones, and it is, although of a somewhat more decided 
flavor most nearly like that of the turbot—rated by most persons who 
know it just as highly as the best cod. Its natural place of resort shows 
that this fish is not adapted to the colder, more elevated lakes, and that 
on this account it cannot be expected to thrive where the conditions are 
particularly favorable for the thriving of the trout. Since it is, besides, 
a predaceous fish, which is considered more voracious than the perch, it 
should not be bred together with trout or red char. While, on the con- 
trary, the gwiniad remains more at the surface of the lake, while the 
perch-pike, by preference, remains at the bottom, there can be no objec- 
tion against planting them in the same lake. That care must be taken 
to supply sufficient food, if one desires a rapid development of this fish 
to a suitable size, is self-evident. It spawns in spring, and is very fruit- 
ful. 

Of the soft-finned fishes, 1 will state that only one species will be 
taken into consideration for cultivation, namely, the PIKE (Hsow lucius), 
the most voracious of all our fresh-water predaceous fishes. It is com- 
paratively little distributed in our country; generally it can be said to 
be only in the eastern parts, where, it is true, it ascends in the great 
rivers to a height of 250 to 300 metres above the sea in the Glommen; 
but in smaller lakes and in the larger western rivers it occurs scarcely 
higher than 200 meters above the sea. In the whole southern and 
western part of Norway it occurs in only a few places, where it ap- 
pears to have been introduced, while in the eastern and northern por- 
tions of the Scandinavian peninsula it is generally distributed far into 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. AV 


the interior; it is found thus in many lakes on the boundary between 
East Finmark and Finland. In the region of the country where the pike 
is indigencus it is a well-esteemed fish, though, of course, not so highly 
esteemed as the trout or the gwiniad. In the portions of the country, 
on the contrary, where it has been introduced, and this applies to the 
region to the west and north of the valley of the river Drammen, and to 
this valley itself, in which last it was introduced not many years ago, 
it is less prized as a means of food. It is, taken on the whole, an in- 
dolent fish, which, however, when it sets out to seize a victim, can move 
itself very quickly. It is thus a dangerous enemy of the trout, and an- 
nihilates this wherever they are found in the same lake, in the regions 
which are favorable for its thriving, namely, the stiller, shallower, 
and thus warmer portions of the same. Syrifjord, at Ringeriket, offers 
a good illustration in this connection. In its tributary, Stensfjord, and 
the shallower portions of Tyrifjord itself, the pike rules, and it is a rare 
thing to get a trout without much walking. In Holtsfjord branch, on the 
contrary, it is much deeper and colder, and in its immediate vicinity 
the trout is the presiding fish; and here it is just as great a rarity to 
capture a pike as it is to catch a trout in the other places. 

With abundant supply of food the pike grows rapidly, and it may 
reach a very considerable size, 12 to 18 kilograms and more. In all 
lakes of lower elevation, for instance such as are liable to want supplies 
in the great drought of summer, the pike may profitably be cultivated 
along with the perch, which is its usual associate wherever it occurs, 
and the pike-perch, which is very nearly as voracious a fish of prey. It 
spawns trom February to midsummer, and is, like the preceding species, 
particularly fruitful ; its own offspring, therefore, constitute a large part 
of its food. . 

The CRAWFISH, like the pike-perch and the pike, frequents the less ele- 
vated watercourses in the eastern portion of the country. Up to a few 
years ago it was not found west of the valley of the Glommen, and in this 
region not higher than a hundred metres above the sea, in the smaller 
and warmer rivulets, brooks, and lakes. In the Glommen proper, it is 
very rare and does not extend up to Mjésen, probably because of the 
greater coldness of the water than in the tributaries. About twenty 
years ago it was transported to Stensfjord. It appears that it has not 
distributed itself there very much. Although comparatively little dis. 
tributed, and thus little known in this country, it is liked by many 
where it is found. It might with ease be transported to many localities 
on the western low-lying rivers and lakes, and its cultivation and fat- 
tening are very easy. 

With these I think that the list of fresh-water inhabitants worthy of 
cultivation for food ought to end. The fishes belonging to the last- 
named principal division (soft-finned), the extensive family of carp-like 
fishes, Cyprinidae, of which many kinds are found in this country, and 
among which the bream in particular is the principal one and the most 


512 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


widely distributed of the largest of this family, I think do not deserve 
especial cultivation, except as food for those previously named, in places 
where any of the cyprinoids will thrive. They all stand—at all events 
those which are now at all abundant in this country—far below all of 
the previously méntioned in flavor, and are distinguished by an abund- 
ance of bones of the finest and most pointed kind, which make it a 
troublesome, sometimes painful, matter to eat them. The carp proper, 
which in more southerly countries has been and now is an object of 
breeding, is found in only two places with us, where it is introduced, 
although it is said that the attempt of its importation in ancient times 
was made in many places, but without success. What value the carp 
may have as a source of food in comparison with the species of fish 
named, I cannot decide. I am inclined to believe that it does not much 
surpass the bream in this respect. Should any one wish to undertake 
to cultivate it, places may be found, of course, where this may be done 
successfully, but it must take place in waters of entirely different quality 
than those in which it is said that such culture was attempted before. 
Low-lying warm waters, deep in places, with muddy bottom are their 
proper haunts. All carp-fishes are very prolific, and live principally on 
vegetables partly rotten. They are thus just suited as food for others— 
carnivorous fishes. 

The same reason which appears to disparage undertaking the culture 
of any genus or species of the Cyprinide* does not, on the contrary, 
apply to the LAKE (Lota), which is a rather generally favorite food in 
the early months of the year wherever it occurs, namely, in all the great 
watercourses of Southeastern Norway up to quite a considerable height; 
in the Glommen as far as Riros. This single fresh-water representative 
of the cod family is a greedy fish of prey, and is possessed of very great 
fertility, so that, on the one hand, it is little adapted for the stocking of 
waters where other more esteemed species of fish are bred, while, on the 
other hand, its natural fecundity is sufficient to maintain the race in proper 
abundance; from which it happens, furthermore, that its haunts have 
such an extent that individuals rarely have any particular interest in 
their increase. Should we ever proceed so far that systematic cultiva- 
tion, for the interest of all, of the abundance of fish in the large lakes or 
larger divisions of our greater water-courses should be practiced, and 
should one then ever consider it of interest to increase the supply of this 
species of fish, it will be very easy, by hatching out the spawn, which can 
be procured with ease in great quantities, to provide for the develop- 
ment of great multitude of young. 

It cannot be open to question that one, by artificial hatching, and by 
protected rearing in their tender youth of the young thus produced, as 
long as the nature and mode of life of each particular species of the 


*Tf one wishes to describe this great family of fishes by the quality most apparent 
to people in general, one should style them the fishes crammed with fine bones and 
with insipid flesh. 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 573 


cultivated fishes require, will be enabled to increase the abundance of 
fish in our lakes and rivers to a very considerable degree. All of these 
waters at one time were much richer in fish than they now are, and it 
is thus a certain thing that, without any care in this direction, they will 
supply nourishment for a considerable increase of a number of fishes in 
the future just as well as they have done in the past. But if one enters 
into the cultivation of fish, it will be just as unreasonable to stop at 
the limits which the natural fruitfulness of the water establishes as it 
would little reward the farmer to neglect to inerease the natural fruit- 
fulness of the soil, especially as it is just as easy, perhaps much easier, 
to produce an increase of the nourishing capacity of the water as to fur- 
nish to the soil the materials which are necessary to increase the crop. 

Such an increase of the fertility of the water may be brought about 
inmany ways. The simplest, as before remarked, will be, along with the 
fishes which are the objects of culture, to hatch out, and in the proper 
degree rear, other fishes, crustaceans and mollusks, as food for them, to 
the extent which prevailing circumstances in every place will allow; and 
these conditions will be found to vary to a considerable extent. Along 
with these means one may naturally also employ artificial—if one will 
unnatural—food, and thereby augment the yield in an extraordinarily 
high degree; but the opportunity of procuring this kind of fish-food is 
in a still higher degree different from increasing living organisms. I will 
therefore, place it out of consideration. 

As fish-food are adapted, chiefly— 

OREKJYTEN, Gorkjyte, Gorkim (Phovinus aphya), which occurs as far 
up as 900 metres above the sea. It may be that it, like the gwiniad, will 
admit of being planted and thrive in still more elevated lakes and brooks 
than those in which it occurs now. One thousand two hundred to 1,300 
metres above the sea-level should be regarded as the limit of the occur- 
rence of the trout, and it is perhaps not impossible to introduce the Orek- 
jyten to this height; ifnot everywhere, at least in certain places, where the 
proximity of the “ Snebrernes” is not too great. 

It multiplies rapidly, and since it spawns in or after midsummer, its 
spawn or young will supply the vonng cultivated fishes of all kinds ata 
time of the year when other spawn and young do not occur. It is at all 
times a cherished food for trout. Where this fish will no longer thrive, 
on account of the elevation above the sea, one has probably no other 
species of fish to plant in its place as food for the larger choicer fishes, 
except young gwiniad (Sik), as far as these will thrive upwards. The 
minnow is regarded in many places in the country, as before intimated, 
as injurious, since it is with reason supposed that it destroys the spawn 
and young of the choicer fishes in great quantities. Thereby it counter- 
acts, just as all other fishes without exception, the natural culture of all 
fishes ; but this circumstance will, as repeatedly stated, lose all impor- 
tance when we, as a fundamental condition for fish-culture, begin by con- 
stantly providing for such a planting of fully-developed young fishes of 


5T4 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. ° 


the kinds which one prizes as objects of especial care, as corresponds 
with the existing nourishing capacity of the water-area. The more min- 
nows which under such conditions occur, and the better they thrive, the 
more profitable for the development of the species of fish which one de- 
sires to produce as the particular fruit of culture. 

A species related to this— 

The Mort (Leuciscus rutilus), occurs in the eastern and southern 
portion of the country in nearly all the waters and rivulets with a cur- 
rent not too strong and with a muddy bottom, up to a somewhat lower 
level than the preceding. It will probably also admit of being planted 
in waters more elevated than those in which it is now found. It is, as 
the most of the genera belonging to the great cyprinoid family, partic- 
ularly fruitful. It spawns in spring, in April and May. There is no diffi- 
culty in the way of its introduction in great numbers, if it be found 
necessary in this way to insure that the supply of this food may not di- 
minish too much, which may easily occur with merely natural reproduc- 
tion, where the spawn as well as the tender young are the defense- 
less prey of every fish, small and large, of other and even the same 
kind. At a still lower height occurs another cyprinoid— 

Lav or LOJE (Alburnus lucidus), which oceurs in large lakes and 
rivers, but resembles the mort in habits and appearance; the most evi- 
dent difference is that it has a yellow iris, while the mért has a red 
one. It spawns on grassy bottoms, at the same time as the mort, 
and might perhaps be introduced to more elevated waters. Both of these 
species feed on aquatic plants as well as aquatic insects. It thrivesthus 
in a less degree than other fishes of choicer kinds, if the insect world 
yields it nourishment. 

The KARUDSEN (Cyprinus carassius) lives in pools and ponds with 
muddy bottoms, up to a height of 150 to 200 metres above the sea-level. 
It will probably easily admit of being transferred to more elevated places 
in still waters with muddy bottoms. It lives, as the two species pre- 
viously named, toa great extent on vegetables, occasionally rotten ones. 
It spawns in May and June, and is very fruitful. The Karudsen may 
reach a very considerable size, even up to one kilogram, and are then 
considered well flavored. 

Of the salmon family occur, as before intimated, in the great Scandina- 
vian lakes, two species, which may be mentioned. 

SLom or Nors (Osmerus eperlanus) and LAKE HERRING or SIKLOJE 
(Coregonus albula) appear abundant in very numerous schools where 
they are found. Both oceur in Mjésen, where the last, at the spawning 
time in autumn, is nowand then caughtin great multitudes, many hundred 
barrels. In Sweden, also, the nors is caught in great abundance at the 
spawning time, which occurs in March to April. The attempt has been 
made to introduce the lake-herring into many of our larger lakes, but the 
attempts hitherto made have, so far as is known, not succeeded. If suffi- 
cient care should be exercised, it might be possible to introduce both 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 0575 


species to many lakes, and to greater heights than those at which they 
now occur; and they will then, even if one may not wish to use them 
as food for mankind, be particularly useful as food for other larger fishes 
which persecute them with eagerness. 

As being closely related to fishes, must another class of animals which 
may serve as nourishment both for larger and smaller fishes not be left 
out of consideration, namely, frogs and toads. Just as the grown an- 
imals are relished by the larger fishes, so are their eggs and tender 
young a favored food for smaller fishes of choicer kinds. To transfer 
these animals from one water to another will, of course, hardly be suc- 
cessful, since they are just as much land animals as they are water ani- 
mals; but nothing is easier than to transfer their eggs or spawn laid 
here and there to basins or waters where it may be of use. 

As is seen from the foregoing brief representation, the ability to pro- 
cure natural food for the larger fishes is all the greater and easier the 
lower the water-basin lies which shall be prepared or preserved for fish- 
culture. This is a very favorable circumstance, because the lower the 
level becomes, the higher the water’s average temperature, and the less 
uniform the water supply, the more voracious, as it appears, become the 
species of fish which may be made the object of successful culture. Even 
the trout becomes in the less elevated warmer waters more of a preda- 
cious fish than at greater heights. Whether this is because of the 
greater wealth of insect food in the elevated regions than in the waters of 
the lowland, or owing to other circumstances, we have as yet scarcely 
any certain knowledge or conjecture about; the fact is in the meantime 
as stated. A commonly received opinion, especially with regard to the 
trout, which, with the exception of the red char, isregarded as the best of all 
our fresh-water fishes, perhaps because it is the most common—is at the 
same time that fish of the salmon family become all the fatter and more 
savory the greater the supply they find of insects, crustaceans, and mol- 
lusks. This supply is meanwhile, as experience teaches, very different 
in different waters. It shows, therefore, of itself thatalso in this direction 
one ought to provide, as far as possible, for procuring himself a supply 
of food by stocking the waters in which fish-culture is prosecuted with 
the species of these kinds of animals which admit of being transferred 
from one place to another. 

The same opinion is stated by Prof. G. O. Sars, in a prize essay on 
Norwegian crustacea, issued as a publication of the university in 1865: 
“One will be able to form a still clearer idea of the enormous numbers 
of these animals if one reflects that they, notwithstanding their small 
size, constitute the chief food of most fresh-water fishes, a fact which is 
sufficiently established by Leydig, who, upon the dissection of very many 
different kinds of fresh-water fishes, always found the stomach’s con- 
tents almost exclusively to consist of entomostraca and copepoda. It is 
thus most highly probable that the good quality of fish in different lo- 
calities largely depends upon the greater or lesser quantity of these small 


576 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


animals, wherefore, even from practical considerations, in the artificial 
fish-culture so zealously carried on in our time, they certainly ought not 
to be left entirely out of consideration. They will especially recommend 
themselves as wholesome and efficient nourishment for the still delicate 
young fishes, just as, also, certain species deserve to be planted in larger 
fish-ponds. These small animals play a still more important role in the 
great economy of nature by filling all the stagnant pools and swamps 
with their countless multitudes.” 

The recommendation suggested by the professor concerning the culti- 
vation of these crustaceans as food for fish-fry was about the same, prac- 
tically, as that attempted by Mr. Sanvedon in the vicinity of Paris m 
1864, ’65, ’66, and ’67, and has completely answered the purpose.* 

The aquatic insects which, after passing through the larval condition 
in the water, take on a winged form, it will perhaps be difficult to trans- 
port from one place to another; it will, however, be worth the trouble 
to attempt it. The animals of the extensive crustacean or crawfish 
family, which live in mud or among the stones at the bottom of the wa- 
ter—which by common people are called Grundaat, because they destroy 
fishing implements placed on the bottom—easily admit, on the contrary, 
of being transported from one body of water to another; and since they, 
with httle care, multiply with great rapidity, there will be no difficulty 
in making a supply of this nourishment ample in the basins which may 
serve as abiding places for the younger fishes. Since these basins must 
stand empty at certain intervals, it is easy to provide that a new after- 
growth of such crustaceans shall take place when the basin again is to 
be used, if the quantity of these should be improperly reduced by a pre- 
ceding stock of fishes. How far the free-swimming crustaceans, which 
sometimes occur in countless quantities even in the most elevated 
mountain streams and throughout the larger rivers, will admit of being 
introduced to waters where they do not occur, is a question well worth 
examination. I have seen the Vormen so full of these animals that it 
appeared as if there were one to two animals in each cubic inch of water, 
at least nearest the surface. 

They think they have discovered in Scotland that the fatness and the 
flavor of the fish in certain waters was really to be attributed to a mol 
lusk, a water-snail, which lives in these waters in great abundance, and 
this species of snail has, therefore, already been introduced into this coun- 
try, but is hardly distributed as far as it is desirable it should be. The 
introduction of these animals into new waters in which they can live is 
not difficult, and since their fecundity is very great, a great wealth of 
food will very quickly be produced for fish whose cultivation may be 
attempted by their introduction. 

Of the species of fish which belong as well to salt as to fresh water 
there are only three, the SALMON (Salmo salar), the SEA-TROUT (Salmo 
eriox and trutta), and the EEL (Murena anguilla). 


* Bulletin de la Société d’Acclimatation, December, 1867. 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 577 


The two first-named kinds have been previously so far mentioned that 
I shall in this place merely add a few remarks. Both are born in fresh 
running water, both remain therein during their earlier youth, and go 
therefrom to the sea, where they quickly develop, after which they again, 
driven by the instinct of reproduction, return to the places where they 
were born. Some have thought that this returning, at all events so far 
as the salmon are concerned, is also caused by the instinct of freeing 
themselves in fresh cold water from certain parasites which infest them 
in the sea in summer; but this appears scarcely probable, since the lake 
and river trout are also attacked in summer by similar animals. The re- 
turn to fresh water takes place earlier in the case of the salmon than 
with the sea-trout, which last, as a rule, first enters the mouths of the 
rivers towards autumn. Owing to this circumstance, one has a longer 
fishing season for the first than for the last. 

It is thought that the salmon and the trout do not agree well, but 
conflict with each other about the spawning-places, so that where the 
trout appears in any great abundance, particularly the large form, erioz, 
there the salmon decreases, and vice versa. It may, however, be some- 
what doubtful how far this observation is founded upon any mutual an- 
tipathy between the races. It may possibly be based upon other cir- 
cumstances; for instance, conditions accidentally more favorable for the 
propagation of one species or the other in different years, which plainly 
will cause one or the other species to occur in greater comparative 
abundance some years after than was the case earlier. 

With regard to flavor, the salmon must generally be preferred to the 
trout, particularly salmon of the better kinds. It has already been 
stated that salmon, like the fresh-water trout, vary considerably in 
quality from one place to another; this is, however, true in a less degree 
with the ocean-trout. In the salmon this may be the case even ina 
very high degree with fish from adjacent rivers, a phenomenon which 
can be explained only by race differences, since fish from the different 
rivers get their development in the sea, where both find equal conditions 
for thriving and fatness. At Christiansand we have a striking example 
of this. While the salmon in Torisdal River is plump and beautiful in 
form, bright in color, and must be called excellent in fatness and flavor, 
the salmon of Topdal River is thin, dark in color, and can be styled noth- 
ing but indifferent or even bad in plumpness and taste. 

In regular culture one has it in his power, among fish as well cattle, to 
select the best races which are known, and it seems to be beyond ques- 
tion that these, transplanted to a new locality, will retain their pecul- 
iarities; because, as remarked, the wealth of the sea is everywhere free 
for all, and supplies all a like abundance of food. What can produce the 
existing great difference in adjacent places is not easy to perceive. 
The only mode of explanation seems to be this, that the rivers possess 
very different nourishing capacity for the tender young, so that they in 
one in a manner are checked, while in the other they thrive greatly. 

37 F 


578 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Should this supposition be well founded, which the attempt of a few 
years with spawn brought from another place will show, then one should, 
in the places which prove to be less favorable, seek to provide the 
remedy for the absence of nourishing capacity for the young by direct 
feeding, and also constantly renew the race by bringing spawn from 
more profitable places. 

But even an inferior race of salmon grows much more rapidly than 
sea-trout, even the larger form, so that the relation between these with 
regard to yearly increase of growth will be not far from the same as 
previously pointed out with regard to the relation between salmon and 
lake-trout. If, then, the mutual antipathy mentioned between the 
salmon and the sea-trout may be only a baseless conjecture, this differ- 
ence in growth from year to year, in connection with the salmon’s re- 
turning to its birthplace earlier in the year, will cause its culture to be- 
come much more profitable than that of the sea-trout, which requires 
just the same labor and outlay for apparatus. It has been previously 
stated that salmon-fishing ought to carried on in such a way that one, 
at all events after hatching has been prosecuted for three or four years, 
will not catch any but grown fish, that is to say, of about 6 kilograms in 
weight. The apparatus which will be required for such fishing will be 
unserviceable for the capture of sea-trout, which only at a comparatively 
advanced age reach such a size. I should, therefore, consider it best to 
undertake the culture of only one of the fishes mentioned, and then 
preferably the more profitable one—the salmon. 

For both these species of fish in question, one is clearly free from all 
care with regard to their nourishment, except during their earliest youth. 
The wealth of the sea in food which they require is certainly boundless; 
at all events, men are able, so far as their insight at present extends, to 
do nothing to increase it, even if it should be considered desirable. 

As regards the EEL, it acts just the reverse of the species previously 
mentioned. It is born, so far as we now know, in salt water alone, and 
migrates from this in early youth, when of the size of a coarse darning- 
needle, up along the brooks and rivulets to the fresh waters, where it 
passes many years of its life. In migrating up into the water-courses 
itis not easily stopped by any obstacle; if the current is stronger than 
it can swim against, the young eel takes to the land, and continues its 
way in compact columns of many thousands on the moist bank. it 
winds even up the trunks of trees in dams, and thus advances where 
one would consider it impossible. The migration takes place, as re- 
marked, in dense multitudes of many thousands. Whether or not eels 
are born in the sea we have no certain knowledge, neither do we know 
whether they are also born in fresh water. 

The journey of the eel-fry up into the water-courses takes place in 
April, May, and June—in different places at different times, probably 
according to the condition of the weather. From midsummer and 
during autumn, especially during the dark autumn nights, the adult 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 579 


eel goes from the fresh waters, where it has passed its preceding life, 
down into the sea, as commonly supposed, to propagate its species, and 
thereafter does not return to the fresh waters, but continues its life in 
the sea, where it is thought to make regular journeys from place to 
place. No one has ever come across adult eels migrating upwards from 
the sea. What causes this wandering out to the sea no one knows. 
The exodus includes both larger and smaller eels at the same time, 
which do not appear to be of the same age or degree of maturity, and 
so there are found simultaneously in the sea both small and large eels, 
as in the fresh waters from which they descend. It is a warm-water fish, 
and therefore is seldom found more than 500 feet above the sea-level, 
but thrives in all kinds of waters, large and small, with or without afflu- 
ents, if they only have a muddy bottom in which they can bury them- 
selves in winter. 

It lives exclusively on animal food—insects, snails, fish, and flesh 
of all kinds until and after it has become putrefied. It is easily 
caught in many ways; the easiest, however, appears to be unknown in 
this country, at all events it is employed very rarely—namely, to cap- 
ture it in so-called eel-traps in its migration towards the sea, which is 
universal over all Sweden. 

It is considered by many a very well-flavored fish, and commands a 
high price. It grows very quickly. While 1,800 young eels are required 
to weigh a pound, one-half kilogram, only 30 yearling go to make up the 
same weight. At the age of three or four years the eel reaches a 
weight of one kilogram. One can cultivate it by collecting the young 
during the migration from the sea, and therewith stocking ponds and 
pools, and if one provides for a supply of food, living or dead, they will 
grow quickly. The mode of cultivation which, however, will presuma- 
bly answer the purpose best will be to place the eels which are caught 
in the river or the sea, fresh or salt, and which may not have reached a 
suitable size, ina separate pond, and then to feed them well with all kinds 
of offal of flesh and fish, to which there must be easy access; if it is a 
little putrefied it will, as remarked, do no harm. They will then grow 
very quickly, and give a good return for their care and food. One must 
in the mean time look out that they do not escape from the pond, by sur- 
rounding them with an inclosure which the eel cannot climb over or 
creep through; otherwise they will in the night, during a heavy dew or 
rain, leave the pond and disappear. A belt of loose sand about the 
pond will prevent them also from escaping, if it has sufficient breadth. A 
pond for such purpose ought to have a muddy bottom and hollows in 
the sides in which fish may conceal themselves and find shelter both 
in warm and cold weather; if one can conduct running water through 
the pond, it will become so much the more profitable. In an extent of 
twenty square meters 150 to 200 eels can be accommodated and thrive 
well, if they simply obtain sufficient food. 

This fish is well adapted for stocking ice-ponds, which, because of a 


580 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


want of aregular water supply or other circumstances, cannot be used for 
salmon or sea-trout. There is no difficulty in planting them. The young 
eels will be found in all rivulets which proceed from waters wherein the 
eel lives, regularly every spring, if one takes the trouble to look for 
them in May and June. They migrate, as remarked, not singly, but in 
dense masses of many thousands, and can be collected with ease. If it 
is necessary to bring them from avery great distance, the transportation 
is not difficult. The eel’s tenacity to life is known, and they are able to 
live many days in water-plants if they are now and then moistened and 
kept in a cold place. 


TV: 


ACQUIRED EXPERIENCE. 


In order that one may form an idea by any means clear concerning 
what profit he may expect from systematic fish-culture prosecuted 
to a different extent in different localities, it is necessary to know the 
results which have been reached from such culture in other places. I 
shall, therefore, communicate below a few instructive illustrations sought 
among a multitude of experiences in different countries and authentic 
sources. 

In the State of New York, in the vicinity of Caledonia, Messrs. Seth 
Green, A. 8. Collins, and 8S. M. Spencer, in 1865 to 1866, constructed a 
fish-farm nearly three-quarters of a mile (1,200 meters) from the source of 
the Caledonia Springs, a brook which originates from springs in the bot- 
tom of its bed, and which at the farm conveys a bulk of water of nearly 
80 barrels, or about 10,500 liters,* per second, or about 9,000,000 heeto- 
liters in twenty-four hours; a respectable body of water, which is com- 
pletely at the disposition of fish-culture. The farm contains an area of 
about 20 hectares, which, in a length of about 800 meters, is traversed 
by a brook. Since the ground is quite level, there is no overflow 
into the brook, whose water, therefore, is perfectly clear; it contains a 
small portion of sulphur and chalk, but these must be well adapted to 
the fish, since the brook has been renowned for its trout, which are now 
numerous in it. The object of the construction of the farm was to rear 
trout for sale as food, but circumstances have caused the operations to 
involve chiefly the bringing in of impregnated eggs, newly-hatched young, 
and one to two years’ old fish for sale for stocking other lakes, brooks, 
and ponds. Many millions of eggs are hatched out annually.t 

The selling prices are: For a single thousand impregnated eggs, $10; 
many thousands and upwards, $5 to $8 per thousand ; for newly-hatched 
young, $30 per thousand; yearlings, $12 per hundred; fishes two years 
old, $25 per hundred, or a little over the price of dead fish for food. No 
more old fish are kept and reared than are necessary to procure the de- 


* One liter = 1.0362 quarts; one hectoliter = 103.52 quarts. 
+tSeth Green: Trout Culture, 1870. Leon Soubeiran: Pisciculture dans ’Amerique 
du Nord, 1871. Raveret Wattell Progrés de Pisciculture aux Etats-Unis, 1873. 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 581 


sired quantity of impregnated eggs. If we estimate that only 2,000,006 
eggs are sold annually at the lowest price, these yield a gross profit of 
$16,000, or $800 per hectare ($80 per rood) of the whole property, which 
can only be in part occupied by them for the necessary fish-culture ponds. 

Mr. Green states that a pear-shape basin of 6.3 meters in length, 1.9 
meters in breadth about the middle, and from 0.15 to 0.64 of a meter in 
depth, with a capacity about 3.6 cubic meters, and with a water supply 
of 1.6 liters of filtered spring water per second is quite sufficient for 6,000 
to 8,000 young after they are completely hatched, when they begin to 
take food of their own accord. 

That a similar pear-shape basin of 94 meters in length, 3.15 meters in 
breadth at about the middle, and a depth 0.15 to 1.26 meters, with a ca- 
pacity about 154 cubic meters, and a water supply of about 374 liters of 
brook water in a second, will be sufficient for 5,000 two-year-old fish ; 
while a similar basin 15.75 meters long, 9.5 broad about the middle, and 
from 0.15 to 1.5 meters deep, with a capacity about 48 cubic meters, and 
a supply of running brook-water equal to that of the last smaller basin, 
is fully sufficient for 2,000 fish in the third year; observe, under the con- 
dition that the temperature of the water is not under 1° (34.25° F.) and 
not over 12° R. (59° F). The fish will die if the temperature of the water 
rises to 16° R. (68° F.), unless there are cold springs in the bottom of the 
basin which will cool off the water. The rule is, the colder the better 
down to the limit stated. 

The hatching is done in a trough 20 feet long, 18 inches broad, and 6 
inches deep, which is divided into compartments 18 inches long by cross- 
pieces 2 inches high, which are secured to the sides of the trough; other 
such cross-pieces are used at pleasure, or when it is necessary to make 
the water deeper. The bottom of the trough is covered with shingle. 
The spring water is filtered in a trough 6 feet long, in which are placed, 
at an angle of 45°, three to four screens covered with flannel, to give the 
greatest possible filtering surface. The loss of eggs in hatching does not 
exceed 6 per cent. 

Later, Mr. Green was appointed superintendent of the fisheries of New 
York State, and he constructed a State hatching-house on the same 
brook—Caledonia Springs—in which are hatched out and distributed 
annually 4,000.000 to 5,000,000 of impregnated eggs and young. * 

Count M. de Causans, on the 10th of December, 1858,t the lake be- 

* One of the herring family, Alosa sapidissima (the shad), which in America is very 
highly esteemed as an article of food, and which, like the salmon, spawns in fresh water, 
had been for some years almost fished out. Mr. Green has in the later years annually 
hatched millions of young of this fish in open water—one year nearly 8,000,000—so that 
now the abundance in imany places has become just as great as it was a hundred years 
ago. The young have been carried from New York State to streams in California, 
where they thrive well, although this fish did not before exist on the Pacific coast. A 
couple of genera related to this fish are found sporadic on our coast. Would it not 
be worth the trouble to attempt the introduction of the dainty shad to our coasts and 


rivers? 
t Bulletin de la Société d’Acclimatation & Paris. 


582 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


longing to him, Saint-Front, in the canton Fay-le-Froidi, department 
Haute-Loire, in France, has a surface of fully 30 hectares, a depth of up 
to 10 meters, and an elevation of 1,200 meters above the sea. It is fed 
partly by numerous springs in the bottom of the lake, partly by brooks 
which flow into it after first traversing the meadows which surround the 
lake; a larger brook, La Gagne, carries the water from the lake to the 
river Loire. The lake contains trout which are much esteemed, and 
which are sold on the spot for 2 frances 50 centimes to 3 franes per half 
kilogram = 1 Norwegian pound. 

Until 1854 they restricted themselves to liberating in the lake a few 
hundred small trout caught in the brooks; but this autumn they took 
pains to procure 30,000 to 40,000 impregnated eggs, which were placed 
in an apparatus constructed for the purpose in the lake itself, to be 
hatched out. In subsequent years this was annually continued in an 
increasing scale, just as persons by cleaning out the tributary brooks 
have attempted the improvement of natural culture. In the space 
of the year 1857 by net fishing they took regularly from 25 to 30 kilo- 
grams of fish of an average size of 300 grams every time. He can now, 
without interfering with the abundance of the fish, sell at least 15,000 
kilograms annually, and his manager, Mr. Millet, thinks that one might, 
without injury, take 200 kilograms per hectare annually. The lake con- 
tains also carp and other cyprinoids, together with an abundance of 
minnows and frogs, which serve as food for the trout. 

The Marquis de Selve has constructed a fish-cultivating establish- 
ment* at Godset Villiers, in the communeCerny, in the department of the 
Seine and Oise, near Paris. It consists of a canal with manifold wind- 
ings, which in a total extent of 12 kilometers (one Norwegian mile), tra- 
verses a nearly horizontal field of 12 hectares, and ends in a larger 
basin from 10 to 30 meters ‘in diameter, and is 5 meters deep; the canal 
is 2 meters in breadth, and is fed by water taken from Cerny canal, 
which from the basin flows out again into the river Essonne. The 
whole inclination from the beginning of the canal to the outlet from the 
basin is only 80 centimeters, but the water supply is sufficient to main- 
tain a suitably strong current; various rather strong springs increase 
at many points the water supply, as they furnish the hatching apparatus 
with the necessary water for the development of salmon and trout. At 
the highest portion of the field are constructed smaller canals for the 
rearing of the delicate young until they have reached such a size that they 
can be liberated in the larger canals. There is abundance of water 
which nourishes an endless multitude of small crustaceans, and the bot- 
tom contains lime, which is of great advantage for the development of 
the common large crawfish. 

In the spring of 1864 was begun a project of digging a couple of kilo- 
meters of the large canal to experiment with trout and the common 


* Rapport par Ch. Wallut, 15 Mars, 1867, Bulletin de la Société d’Acclimatation a 
Paris. 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 583 


crawfish. Young trout were purchased from a hatching establishment 
in Paris; but even the results reached in a few months determined the 
marquis to give his apparatus the full extent intended. In the month 
of October, 1864, therefore, a multitude of workmen engaged in digging 
the rest of the 12 kilometers of canal; in April, 1865, the water began 
to traverse the whole length. The expenses of the scheme (the digging, 
locks and bridges, buildings, purchase of eggs, fish, crawfish) amounted 
to fully 150,000 franes, and the expenses of maintaining, for food, watch- 
ing, repairs, instruments, &c., must be estimated at about 12,000 frances 
per year. ° 

According to the report the establishment was partly three and one-half 
years old, and the rearing of crawfish was carried on for the same length 
of time. Unfortunately, crawflsh grow slowly; it requires eight to 
ten years before they can be offered in the market of Paris. In order 
to shorten this time, 325,000 crawfish of three to four years old were 
gradually purchased and liberated in the canal. These have thrived 
wonderfully, and will admit of comparison, so far as flavor and size are 
- concerned, with the best crawfish from Maas River or from Germany.* 
They have multiplied, and are found of all sizes from one to three years. 
The Marquis de Selve estimates the number at 8,000,000 to 10,000,000, 
which by no means appears overdrawn. Last year already he sold 
many thousand francs worth; this year he expects to sell over 20,000 
franes worth. Since Paris is supplied for the greatest part from Hol- 
land and Germany, an interruption may easily occur in the shipping, 
and a cessation of nearly twenty-four hours brings up the price to double 
or triple what it was. The marquis, who is close by and can obtain in- 
stant information, can take advantage of these accidental pauses, and 
has therefore constantly a reserve on hand for such favorable opportu- 
nities. The marquis, however, cherishes no illusions ; as soon as autumn 
approaches various sacrifices must still be made. To insure the ability 
to deliver a uniform supply he must still for three or four years stock 
his canals with crawfish to the amount of 25,000 franes yearly, in order 
to be properly furnished with spawners. The profit on these purchased 
crabs is only 12 to 15 centimes (2.2 to 2.7 cents) apiece; when those 
born in the establishment are grown, the case becomes entirely different. 
There are sold now about 1,000 crawfish daily. 

Besides crawfish are cultivated also trout and other salmonoids. ‘lhe 
first planting is nearly three years old. On the 18th of August, 1866, 
was caught a splendid trout; it was not weighed to avoid injuring it, 
but from its appearance it must have weighed between 2 and 24 kilo- 
grams at the age of 27 to 28 months; it was sent away living as a pre- 
sent because of its size and beauty. Trout 20 to 24 months old weigh 
from 500 to 750 grams. 

The hatching apparatus is placed in a separate building in connection 


*Crabs are almost as necessary a constituent part of a French dinner as meat or 
fish; if not as a dish proper, then as a means of decoration. 


584 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


with the smaller canals. Three watchmen with large dogs keep off rob- 
bers; besides, many workmen of different kinds are employed. For 
feeding are used two horses weekly at 25 frances apiece, together with 
carrots and other vegetables to the amount of 5,000 franes yearly ; each 
adult crawfish consumes one gram of flesh or carrots daily. The marquis 
has full confidence that the scheme will pay when it comes into full con- 
dition and operation. 

Mr. Livingston Stone, in Charlestown, North America,* arranges from 
his own experience the following propositions : 

1. Under favorable conditions the increase in weight of a trout in the 
third year equals a fifth part of the food it consumes. 

2. For a trout of this age the daily ration of flesh or fish offal ought 
to be about a hundredth part of its weight. 

3. At this age the weight generally doubles in the space of a year. 
With care and abundant food one may reach the same result in 6 months. 
April to September. 

4, All kinds of viscera (lungs, liver, &c.) are adapted for food for 
adult trout. During the first 6 months the cost of the food for the young 
is next to nothing. 

5. Even in summer, fresh trout, packed in ice and sawdust, may be 
shipped a long neee Thus eedatotl they endure railroad transpor- 
tation for a distance of 500 miles (800 kilometers). 

The price of trout in the markets in New York varies from 50 cents 
to $2.25 (1.80 to 4.50 crowns) per pound. 

At many establishments in Auvergne in North France, t the following 
results have been reached. Of salmon, trout, and red char have been 
hatched out 92 to 98 per cent. of eggs rapfedemtagcel according to Professor 
Coste’s pu At the age of 24 to 26 months, trout and red char reach a 
length of .25 of a meter and a weight of 200 to 300 grams; at the age of 
three years they reach a length of .50 of a meter and a weight of 500 to 
700 grams. Four year olds are .40 of a meter long and weigh from 800 to 
1,500 gams. The average loss from different causes is only 5 per cent. 
yearly although the temperature of the water in many places in summer 
now and then rises to 249 O. = 19.2 R. (75.29 F.). 

In Bayern various fish-cultural establisments have existed for many 
years. One of these founded in Miinchen by a fish dealer, Mr. Kiiffer, 
deserves a somewhat detailed description, since it is distinguished as 
much by the simplicity of its construction and the smallness of the space 
on which it is built, as by the profitable results which have been reached. 
It is situated in one of the suburbs of Miinchen, and is fed partly by 
water from the river Iser, partly from a strong spring which comes up 
on the upper side of the river in the establishment itself. Like all springs 


oe Rapport sur de le pr ogres de la pisciculture Americaine par -Raveret Wattel, 1873. 

t The following information is drawn from Traité de pisciculture par M. G. Bouchon 
Brandely, secretaire du Collége de France, 1876. (?) The book is the result of a 
journey made for investigations of the relations with regard to fish-culture in France, 
Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Bayern, Belgium, Holland, and England, 1874. 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 585 


its temperature is nearly constant, 46.4° Fahr. The water of the Iser, 
which is brought in by a little canal, has on the contrary a very varia- 
ble temperature, and just as variable clearness, as a natural conse- 
quence of the extremely changeable climate of Bayern and the river’s 
rising in a high, partly snow-clad mountain region, and its course through 
easily soluble strata of earth. 

The establishment is constructed on a field with little inclination, and 
occupies a surface of not over 150 square meters (15 Ar. —0.15 Maal). 
Highest, but lower than the spring, are placed a series of stone troughs 
for the salmonoids of different ages, and for the small fishes which are 
required for their support, in a series along the wall and covered with a 
movable screen, to prevent the light from shining down upon them, and 
at the same time to protect the fish against thieves or beasts of prey. 
Somewhat lower, different basins are dug out in the bottom for other 
salmonoids from two to four years old; however, with the exception of 
one which is intended for the small fry. These water-reservoirs are 
constructed in the simplest manner possible. The sides are formed of 
planks driven down into the ground; a gate for entrance and exit keeps 
the fish confined; and some holes made in the bottom for shelter, 
constitute the whole of the internal structure, while the arrangement 
is completed by some boards, which partially cover the basins to pro- 
duce a little shade and darkness in them. These basins or bowls have 
a size of 18 to 20 square meters and a depth of 45 to 50 centime- 
ters. The height of the water varies between 30 and 40 centimeters. 
Immediately above the basin intended for the young is a little larger 
basin, likewise dug out in the ground, which has been constructed 
for a variety of salmon peculiar to the waters of Bayern, the Donau 
salmon.* This basin is so constructed that about half of it is under a 
little house, and is there covered by a floor, which can be lifted at 
pleasure, to observe the fishes, catch them, or distribute food to them. 
In this basin are found only individuals from one to three years old. 
The above-mentioned basin for the young differs from the rest only in 
having a supply of water-plants as shelter or cover for the young fish. 
The bottom in all the rest of the basins is covered with larger and 
smaller stones, and care is taken to remove all vegetation as soon as it 
shows itself. 

All these troughs and reservoirs are filled from the spring. The 
troughs receive the spring-water first, and from these it flows down in 
the lower basins. The basin for the young is fed, however, directly from 
the spring with perfectly pure water, which has not been used before. 
The narrowness of the space has made Mr. Kiiffer attempt fish culture 
in a manner which comes the closest to stall-feeding. To show this it 


* This; the hucho, Salmo hucho, is a variety, which like the Venern salmon, Salme 
ogla, never leaves fresh water; it has white flesh and reaches the enormous size of 50 
kilograms and upwards. It has been attempted to transplant it in this country, but 
without success. 


586 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


is sufficient to state that in one of the stone troughs 1.50 meters long, 
75 centimeters broad, 60 centimeters deep, with a water-supply of .675 
cubic meter (— 675 liters) there are six Donau salmon and common 
salmon together, each of which weighs from 10 to 12 kilograms. One 
of the Donau salmon measured 1.20 meters. Born in the establishment, 
it was at the age of a year placed in this little box, and in eight years 
it reached this enormous size. The length of its comrades varied be- 
tween 85 and 110 centimeters; they were likewise born in the same 
establishment. The space was so narrow for them that they for many 
years had found it impossible to turn or to move from the place. Their 
long-continued captivity had made them just as tame as other house- 
hold animals. They were not alarmed when one approached them but 
evidently expected food from his hand. Every female of this age and 
size lays annually 16,000 to 18,000 eggs. 

This is not the only example of the stall-feeding and packing which Mr. 
Kiiffer’s establishment furnishes. To the fish-hatching structure he has 
added an annex in one of the storehouses, where he carries on the fish 
trade. The fishes which he sells each day for consumption he keeps 
living in stone troughs, or wooden tanks lined with zine. The reservoirs 
are furnished with water from the common water aqueduct of the city, 
which does not contain the same water as that with which the fish-cul- 
ture establishment is furnished, but which, however, is perfectly serv- 
iceable. In a stone trough of the same measure as that which contains 
the large salmon there are over 200 trout, weighing from 350 to 450 grams. 
All these fish were lively, provided with a good appetite, and were ap- 
parently in the best condition. One cannot, however, conclude from 
this that such a packing is to be recommended as a rule. 

All the salmonoids in Mr. Kiiffer’s establishment differ in sex and age, 
so as to prevent them from mutually destroying one another. They are 
fed with the viscera of the fishes which are sold for consumption in Mr. 
Kiiffer’s storeroom, and in order that they shall never hunger, the food 
is supplemented by commoner species of fishes, which he places in the 
same basin. Mr. Kiiffer is of the opinion that one must feed to satiety 
if one wishes to see the fish develop and thrive. He feeds them, there- 
fore, twice in twenty-four hours at least, morning and evening. The 
fishes which are intended as food for the rest are reared in a separate 
basin, where they, as it were, get no other food than what they find in 
the water. Those of the fish which live in the same basin with the 
fishes whose food they are sooner or later destined to become, live on 
what these waste. 

Mr. Kiiffer employs forimpregnation the French, or Mr. Coste’s method. 
The apparatus for hatching is the same as is used in many other places, 
but it is entirely covered, so as to completely exclude the light. Some- 
times he is obliged to distribute the eggs in the basin intended for the 
rearing of the young. Under all circumstances he succeeds completely 
in the hatching. The loss during the whole hatching season is just as 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 587 


little with the eggs which are placed in this basin as with those which 
are placed in the apparatus especially constructed for hatching. But 
he does not employ the basin for this purpose unless his hatching appa- 
ratus becomes too small to accommodate the whole quantity of eggs. 

The reservoirs which are to contain crawfish are entirely covered like 
the stone troughs, and get the water directly from a spring and from 
the river. It is highly amazing to see the enormous quantity which Mr. 
Kiiffer has packed together in so small a space. In a division which is 
not longer than 25 meters and 15 meters broad, there were heaped upon 
one another more than 6,000 crawfish. They were so crowded that they 
lay in many layers, one above another. They were remarkable for their 
size and weight; some weighed 250 grams and upwards. The males 
are always separated from the females, and live in a reservoir by them- 
selves. Notwithstanding the narrow space and the little care bestowed 
upon them, only a very small number die. 

In an establishment at Salzburg, which is almost as small as Mr. Kiif- 
fer’s in Miinchen, fishes are fed with minced horse-flesh and the com- 
moner kinds of fishes. They feed 30,000 large and small fishes, which 
are in the establishment, at a daily expense of 44 cents. 

In Amsterdam, where a grand establishment is constructed for fish- 
hatching, chiefly for stocking the rivers of Holland with salmonoid 
fishes, in the winter of 1873 and 1874, from 250,000 impregnated eggs, 
they got 238,000 living young; the loss was under 5 per cent. All of 
these were liberated in the rivers Yssel and Vecht. With regard to 
the increase of the abundance of fish in the larger rivers by means of 
the hatching in this establishment during a few years, it is noticeable 
that the state owns 38 fisheries, which are leased, the amount of whose 
rental is quite considerable ; thus, for example, share No. 2, which be- 
fore 1875 had been leased for 10,000 florins yearly, at the auction sale 
of leases the same year was rented for 35,000 florins. Share No. 12, 
for which previously was given 8,000 florins, was leased for 47,500 florins, 
and so on. These figures speak for themselves; upon the whole, the rent 
is more than triple what it was earlier. 

As universally applicable results from the observations made, M. 
Bouchon Brandely lays down as essential the following rules: 

The depth and extent of the reservoirs and basins ought to vary ac- 
cording to the number and age of the fishes which are to live in them. 
For trout of two to three years, is required a depth of 60 centimeters ; 
for older trout, 1 meter. A greater depth will, of course, do no harm, 
but that mentioned is sufficient. For the young, broad trenches of little 
depth are better than reservoirs. The bottom should consist of small 
stones with water-plants here and there, with the borders planted with 
bushes, which hang out over the water, partly to give shade, partly to 
supply nourishment, since quantities of insects and larve will frequent 
them and fali into the water, where they with greediness will be captured 
by the young. The young of different species of fish, even belonging to 


588 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the same genus, ought to be kept separate; likewise should the young 
of the same species and the same age be separated according to size. 
The development of different individuals is considerably different in ra- 
pidity, and the larger will quickly attack the smaller if they live together. 
The most important thing to observe in a structure for the culture of 
salmonoids is to secure a constant supply of clear water, and the colder 
this is the better. 

Tor the rearing of the young newly-hatched is naturally required a 
larger place than for their hatching. The larger the place one gives 
them, and the purer, the colder the water one has for use, the more cer- 
tain is one that they will thrive well, and that the loss at this most sensi- 
tive age will become the least possible. 

These are a few of a great multitude of examples of more or less suc- 
cesstul fish culture prosecuted on different scales. That there are plenty 
of examples of less successful or even quite unsuccessful culture is self- 
evident. Everything depends in this as in all other practical undertak- 
ings, on how far one properly appreciates the conditions, and does all 
that is necessary in pursuance of them, in order that the affair shall suc- 
ceed; if these things are done, the examples mentioned show that the 
business can and will yield a good profit. Itis particularly the hatching 
of the salmonoid fishes that is unsuccessful, and the reason is easily 
given. They have partly lacked a sufficient water supply, but espe- 
cially the comparatively low temperature of the water in summer, which 
is an irremediable condition for the thriving of the salmon. 

With regard to the quantity of food that fish require in comparison 
with what warm-blooded land animals need, the fish commissioners of 
New York state the following: 

“The food consumed is used by all animals chiefly for the produc- 
tion of motion and heat, because all animals are physical machines, 
which must be furnished with fuel if motion is to be developed, since 
they will wear out with friction if this wear and tearis not compensated 
for by new nourishment. A man or a horse can only perform his full 
quantum of work when his body gets the full nourishment required, 
and on the other hand he can not consume the full quantity of nourish- 
ment unless he works. The dry-land animals are warm-blooded and 
movable; many of them, in natural state, find their food only by hunt- 
ing it; while fishes are cold-blooded, and although they sometimes un- 
dertake long journeys, as a rule they keep themselves still in the same 
place. A trout will remain by the week in the same place in a pool or 
a hole. A pike will lie still like a sunken stick between the rushes, ex- 
cept when it between times plunges off after its prey, after which it 
usually returns to the same place; in the possession of all the senses 
except hearing, in the fullest development, it resumes its condition— 
that of motionless, sleepless attention. 

“The consequence of this is, that while the warm-blooded animals 
use a considerable quantity of. nourishment to produce the high tem- 


OS ———— — 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 589 


perature of their blood, and compensate for the wear and tear occasioned 
by constant motion, the cold-blooded transform nearly all their food to 
an increase of their own size, and grow, therefore, in proportion thereto, 
without using more than a small quantity for maintaining the low tem- 
perature of their bodies, and to compensate for the small wear and tear 
occasioned by their little motion. It is therefore a mistake to feed fishes 
with the flesh of warm-blooded animals, unless it is entirely worthless 
offal, because it is contrary to natural economy. Cattle can be fed up 
and fattened only by a liberal use of the natural means of nourishment, 
whose procuring demands considerable employment of human labor, 
whereby a comparatively large portion is used without corresponding 
increase in growth, while fish, left to themselves or fed in a proper man- 
ner, will consume what in itself costs nothing, and what could not in 
any manner be utilized. They should, indirectly or directly, be fed 
from the water’s domain, whose crop practically is left to perish, with- 
out at present being useful for men. Neither is the flesh of the inhabi- 
tants of the water, when it can be obtained, less valuable for men than 
that of land animals. Pound for pound, it contains the same quantity 
of nourishment and will sustain human life just as well, while under cer- 
tain conditions it is more profitable. It gives the brain and the nerves 
phosphorus, which is not contained in all kinds of food, but which is 
just as essential to complete health as gluten or starch, while it at the 
same time is so much more easily digested than the flesh of land animals 
and birds that it is used as a modified form of fasting, and at certain 
times of the year is more wholesome than the last-named kinds of food. 
A wise economy of the means of nourishment which nature gives will, 
therefore, as the population increases, compel us to turn our attention to 
the harvest which the water can yield.” 


Ve 


ESTIMATED PROFIT AND THE ECONOMICAL VALUE OF THE WATER- 
AREA. 


I shall next, with the guidance which the foregoing results of expe- 
rience furnishes, attempt to show what profit one may expect from fish 
culture in our rivers and lakes, if this business in the future is attended 
to with the care which is now bestowed upon the prosecution of an in- 
dustry of corresponding importance, and this everywhere in proportion 
to the opportunities offered by more or less favorable conditions for the 
necessary attention to the business. 

From the examples cited is seen what also lies in the nature of the 
business, that this culture can be carried on in very different ways, alike 
by artificial rearing and complete feeding in apparatus and basins spe- 
cially constructed therefor through the whole time which intervenes 
before the fish can reach the development one desires ; also, by what one 
might call perfect stall-feeding, by inconsiderable cleanings out in the 


590 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


brooks in which natural spawning occurs, and the formation of spawn- 
ing places, at the time when the spawn is mature; by placing eggs 
in common boxes in open water, which labors, thongh somewhat mutu- 


ally different, must be regarded as of nearly equal importance, and the 


least to which can be given the name of fish-culture. Between these 
two extremes there will be a great multitude of variations of more or 
less extensive cultivation, just as is the case in agriculture, produced 
partly by local circumstances, partly by the cultivator’s greater or less 
ability, information, and aptness. The different waters will, besides, pre- 
sent just as great variations in natural fertility as the soil. Some local- 
ities will be able to be compared with rich wheat-land, while others can 
be considered as only equal to poor oat-land. 

It is worth while also to find out a proper middle course which can be 
depended upon to yield a probably medium result. As a middle course 
for the cultivator’s greater or less completeness, I will adopt a natural 
lake of such situation that the hatching in a regular apparatus, and the 
rearing of the young in separate water-basins through the first summer, 
will take place, which will not require greater outlay or labor than 
can be accomplished by any, even the most indigent, owner of fishing 
waters who interests himself in the business and will attend to it 
with the necessary care, at the same time that the natural means of 
nourishment are sought to be increased by the culture of commoner 
fishes and other aquatic animals which, likewise, any one, even the 
poorest fish culturist, can perform himself or with the help of his half- 
grown children. 

AS a representative of the fishes of medium value, I should select the 
fish most widely distributed in our country, the common trout, just as 
one in agriculture employs barley as a common denominator. The red 
char, in places where it can thrive well and reach its best development, 
will be the most valuable fish, and represent wheat, just as the pike and 
the perch will stand in the series with oats; both extremes will be cul- 
tivated in nearly corresponding quantities, and mutually balance each 
other. 

The selected representative occurs at all elevations above the sea, 
even up to the uppermost limits where fish can live, and is there the only 
kind which occurs. It is a rule, which may be regarded as universal, 
notwithstanding that, as before remarked, each particular lake may be 
considered to have its peculiar variety of trout, in the matter of appear- 
ance as well as taste, that the higher the lake lies the better flavored 
are the trout which live therein. Thus it is this very species which 
Should become the object of cultivation above all others; but against 
this the climate opposes, at these heights, great, in many places insur- 
mountable, difficulties, as it will be impossible for people to establish 
winter residences at such elevations. It is evident, however, that peo- 
ple are able to live at considerable heights if they find it profitable there, 
especially after they have learned to use peat as fuel. There are besides 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 59% 


only a few lakes of any extent which are worth considering, that lie 
higher than the stations where, for a long time, people have had dwell- 
ings, and have thrived well. When, therefore, at some time the import- 
ance of fish-culture has become recognized, it will certainly come to 
pass that the necessary men for regular cultivation will remove to all 
lakes of any importance in elevated districts, so that fish-culture, to the 
extent previously supposed will be carried on, even up to the most ele- 
vated lakes which may be worth cultivating; because, even if hatching 
cannot take place in the lakes themselves, there is nothing to prevent 
obtaining satisfactory results by bringing to these lakes the required 
stock of young from less elevated localities in which the hatching can 
be done with greater ease. Such transportation will, as a rule, be an 
easy and simple thing, since it will not be long, and, as a rule, can go on 
in such a way that one, as often as he wishes, can look out for the most 
thorough renewal of the quantity of water in the vessel in which the 
transportation occurs. 

The next and most difficult question to answer is, how large a plant- 
ing of fish may be considered proper under such a mode of cultivation 
as previously provided? With regard to this I shall next consider some 
of the previously cited data. 

Mr. Seth Green states that two basins with an area, the uppermost of 
22.5 and lowermost of 55.8 square meters, and with a capacity of 15.5 
and 48 cubic meters, respectively, are sufficient for 5,000 individuals of 
one to two years old, and 2,000 individuals of two to three years old fish, 
respectively, with a supply of water through both reservoirs, one after 
the other, of 37.6 liters per second. Since the trout, as a rule, stay on 
the bottom, and only rarely distribute themselves at different heights 
in the water, the spaciousness of the area is more to be considered than 
its cubic contents. To each fish in these basins is thus allotted, respect- 
ively, .0045 and .0111 square meter, and cubic space of, respectively, .005 
and .024 cubic meter, with 5 and 24 liters of water. For each fish in 
the first basin, there is also a surface of, for example, 15 centimeters 
long, and 5 centimeters broad, while the fish at this age can have a 
length of about 10 and a breadth of about 2 centimeters, more or less ; in 
the other basin, each fish has a space of, for example, 20 centimeters in 
length and 5.5 centimeters broad, and it will have a length of 15 centi- 
meters, and a breadth of 3 centimeters or upwards. One perceives, also, 
that fish can live and thrive in a very small space, if the water supply 
and the food are sufficient. According to M. Bouchon Brandely’s state- 
ment, each four-year-old fish has .3 square meter; it is, for instance, 75 
centimeters long and 40 wide, and its size will be about 25 centimeters 
long and 5 broad, while to each fish will be allotted a quantity of .3 cu- 
bic meter, which equals 300 liters of water. The water supply he does 
not mention. The relation concerning the surface and cubic room each 
fish ought to have is thus, according to the two statements, considerably 
different; there can be no doubt that the larger it is the better. 


592 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Butin open water, where the fish must live on what they find in it in the 
form of insects, mollusks, crustacea, and larger or smaller fishes of other 
commoner, chiefly vegetable-eating kinds, probably a considerably 
greater surface room and likewise cubic space should be allotted to each 
one. Since a natural lake, wherein fish can live in our country in win- 
ter, must have a considerably greater depth than the basins indicated, if 
one estimate according to the bottom alone, there will arise a much 
larger space for each fish; but this increase cannot be taken into con- 
sideration except in so far that the commoner fishes, which live in 
schools near the surface of the water, will thereby get the necessary 
space. Since I take it for granted that the young are preserved in the 
greatest possible degree from enemies in the first year only, as long as 
this can be done without considerable expense for building special breed- 
ing ponds, also that one has not the opportunity of procuring other 
kinds of reservoirs for young fishes than such as will freeze to the bot- 
tom in winter, young fishes must be liberated in the water late in the 
autumn when the cold commences—they are then only about one-half year 
old as developed fish. Because of the small size at this age, I think 
that the deaths in the first year become considerably more numerous 
than experience has shown them to be under more solicitous care, and 
that likewise the loss from year to year will become much greater than 
experience has shown it to be with proper care in ponds. I assume, 
therefore, that of 1,000 young about one-half year old, which are liberated 
in the water one autumn, the next autumn only 700 one and a half 
year old fish will live, and of these the following year 550 two and a 
half year old fish; moreover, of these the following year there will be 
450 three and a half years old, while the next year will be found only 400 
grown fish over four years old, which thus in the fifth year become the 
profit of culture. These grown fish I will on the average estimate at a 
weight only one kilogram, though, according to experience, the average 
will reach a considerably greater weight. 

Experience has sufficiently shown that among the fishes, as in other 
classes of animals, individuals differ greatly with regard to the rapidity 
of growth. But this cannot be taken into consideration; one will natu- 
rally catch and sell the fish which have reached the proper size, 1 kilogram 
and upwards, or whatever other size and weight he may find most profit- 
able, without the slightest regard to what age the individuals may have; 
it is essential that one can calculate with certainty the chosen size 
reached by the corresponding ages of the number of fish calculated. 
If this size is reached earlier or by a greater number of fish, the profit 
will become so much the greater. The thing is, not to calculate the prob- 
able profit too high, also the business more profitable than it is likely to 
become, and this is perhaps done here as well with regard to the sale 
from year to year, which probably is placed at too high a figure, as with 
regard to the increase in size and weight of the fishes surviving, which 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 593 


is placed likewise at much too little; both parts in all likelihood ex- 
ceed the probability. 

For each fish that one will calculate to capture in the fifth year of 1 
kilogram in weight I assume that one ought to find in the water (450 + 
550 + 700 + 1,000) divided by 400 =7 fishes of younger ages, as likely 
the fishes of the oldest class, which may be too small, will be compen- 
sated for by younger individuals of greater weight from year to year. 

If one estimates now for each fish, without regard to age, a surface of 
1.5 square meters or 1.5 meters long and 1 meter wide, or for each fish 
of every age a surface five times as great as M. Bouchon Brandely adopts 
for four years old, it should probably be assumed that no crowding can be 
expected to take place; because a lake of the size mentioned may gen- 
erally be considered to have an average depth of at least 5 meters; each 
fish, small and great, thus obtains 7.5 cubic meters or 7,500 liters (Potter), 
or twenty-five times as great cubic space as that considered sufficient 
for adult fish by M. Bouchon Brandely. In a water area of 3 hectares, 
which equals 30,000 square meters, can also be estimated 20,000 fish of 
all ages, and of these one-eighth, or 2,500 adult fishes over four years 
old, of a weight of 1 kilogram and upwards. There is, as remarked, nat- 
urally nothing to prevent taking fish of younger age or smaller size. 

“Many will perhaps even prefer fish of half this weight. I hold, however, 
to the size and age mentioned essentially so as not to estimate the profit 
too high and attainabg in too short a time, at the same time, because at 
the age indicated the fish may be considered fully mature, as after this 
age the common trout, which alone I have here in mind, increases more 
slowly in size and weight, and also becomes less profitable. 

According to the calculated decrease, from year to year, to a number 
of 2,500 fishes of over four years old, will correspond a number of the 
youngest class of about 6,500 individuals in the first year which must 
be liberated in the water to compensate for the decrease of the captured 
adult fishes. But it is not enough only to calculate on the hatching out 
of this number. The most delicate age from the time the hatching out 
can be considered completed with the absorption of the egg-sack until 
autumn, is, according to all experience, the most dangerous time for the 
young, since the death rate is greatest, and here it is assumed that the 
ponds or basins procured for the rearing of the young during the first 
summer are not likely to be of the best kind, and that the attention, at 
all events, at the beginning, is incomplete; as a result of this, the death 
rate must be estimated comparatively high. If one place this decrease 
at about 50 per cent., which will likely be estimating it high enough, 
and add at the outside about 10 per cent. for loss during the hatching 
itself, there will be required at the highest 10,500 eggs each year for 
hatching. 

It is probable that this quantity of eggs will yield a larger number of 
fish than is necessary for obtaining the stated number of adults; but 


this can likely involve no harm, because if it should be evident that the 
38 F 


594 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


abundance of fish will thereby become too great, either with regard to 
the supply of food or of oxygen, it is an easy matter, by the assistance 
of natural means or by the capture of a larger number of fish, to remedy 
the difficulty. It will, probably, under all circumstances, be the best to 
hatch out a greater quantity of eggs than is actually necessary, if there is 
opportunity to retain them, and thereby gain experience as to the water’s 
nourishing capacity in both directions, because the larger the planting 
which can be kept in good condition the greater the profit. To procure 
10,500 impregnated eggs, are required female fish of a combined weight of 
6 to 7 kilograms, and a corresponding number of male fish, weighing 
from 2 to 3 kilograms. This quantity of fish, with the appropriate mode 
of proceeding, will be easy to procure in a not altogether fished-out lake 
of the size mentioned, or even from far-distant lakes, in which case, how- 
ever, it must be bought. After the expiration of the second year, at all 
events, the lake will yield the desired quantity of eggs from the best de- 
veloped of the young first hatched. For the hatching of this quantity of 
eggs, is required 3 to 4 square meters of space in a suitable apparatus. 
Even if one, besides the fish which may be objects of culture, wishes to 
hatch out some gwiniad, chiefly as food for the trout, and therefore in- 
creases the size of the hatching apparatus to 5 square meters of surface, . 
the structure can only become inexpensive if no unnecessary luxury 
is brought into use in a construction. In case of necessity the hatching 
may occur in an open field. e 

Besides this hatching apparatus, as remarked, separate places must be 
procured for the newly-hatched young. This will, as likewise previously 
remarked, everywhere be an easy thing, by the construction of canals 
or small ponds or damming up some little creek, which are arranged so 
that they may be furnished with water from some brook or spring, or both 
together. These ought to be prepared the year before they come into 
use, so that they may be sufficiently stocked with water-insects, and 
erustacea. This requires only a few days’ work and material of small 
cost. 

The hatching of the kinds of fishes which may serve as food for the 
cultivated fishes proper, and which will thrive in a lake, is not difficult, 
Since it may take place in the lake itself with very simple and inex- 
pensive apparatus, and in a very short time, since their spawning season 
is short, and the eggs are hatched in a few days. The collecting of 
the necessary quantity of eggs by the use of likewise very simple and 
inexpensive arrangements is not at all difficult if the lake only contains 
such fish. Neither is the transportation from other lakes associated 
with other difficulties than the transportation of trout eggs; it will 
be necessary only a couple of times. Even if this may give rise to any 
outlay, it will be just as well invested as the outlay for seed-corn for 
fertile soil or the procuring of artificial manure for the land which needs it. 

In three hectares of water, should one, from the fifth year, harvest, on 
the average, 2,500 adult fishes, of 1 kilogram each, or 2,500 kilograms. 


? 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 595 


The price of the kind of fish which I have chiefly in view here, the trout, 
was, even thirty or forty years ago, 2.7 cents per mark—which equals one- 
fourth of a kilogram—in the mountain regions. In the towns it is now 
considerably higher, especially at certain times of the year, and for fresh 
fish; I will, however, place it at 2.7 cents for one-fourth kilogram, which 
equals 11 cents per kilogram, notwithstanding that this article has 
something near the same nourishment as flesh, and the price of flesh 
must be placed at at least double. The value of the mean profit of three 
hectares of water, about 2,500 kilograms, is thus calculated to be $275 an- 
nually, and for each hectare also over $82.50 gross. 

If one estimates that the careful cultivation of the water area men- 
tioned will demand the same outlay for labor, buildings, and implements 
of all kinds as the cultivation of a corresponding area of land, which 
ought to be placing it more than high enough; and if one considers, 
moreover, that the profit of the first year’s harvesting of the water’s 
natural culture covers the labor necessary for the hatching, rearing, and 
care, then will, from the fifth year, the proportion between the yield 
from fish cultivation and agriculture stand as follows: 

In Dr. O. J. Broch’s previously-quoted work, ‘The Kingdom of Nor- 
way,” which at present may be truly regarded as the most trustworthy 
statistical work, the area of the cultivated land is given as 2,700 square 
kilometers, or 270,000 hectares, and the value of the products of the 
land for the year 1865 at $15,750,000, or not quite $55 per hectare on 
the average. According to what experienced farmers in the most fertile 
tracts of our country have stated, this average profit must be consid- 
ered a little higher than in reality is the average profit from land of 

all qualities; while, on the other hand, the estimate upon the yield from 
- fish culture places it lower than it, at all events in many places, may be 
made. The proportion between agriculture and fish culture, also, should 
be as 2 to 3 in equal areas. But even if it must be admitted that this 
estimate is too high, and that some reduction ought to be made, so 
much, however, should be considered established, that fish culture will 
yield a profit which fully equals that from agriculture over equal areas. 

As previously stated, nature has allotted to us an area covered with 
fresh water, more or less adapted to fish culture, of 7,600 square kilom- 
eters, which equals 760,000 hectares, which, besides, we have it in our 
power, with comparatively little expense, to increase considerably, by 
overflowing with water, districts which are and always will be worthless 
except in so far as they are put to such use. With the estimated yield 
per hectare of cultivated water should also—if some time in the per- 
haps not too distant future fish culture shall be prosecuted with the 
Same perseverance and care which are now vainly bestowed on utterly 
poor and ungrateful soil, and in the entire extent whereto nature gives 
the opportunity—the total profit reach as much as $55,000,000 yearly 
and upwards, if the example chosen ean be regarded as a proper rep- 
resentative of the average yield of lakes at different elevations and in 


. 


596 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


different parts of the country. Of this, however, there may be doubt, 
though one in the lower districts of the country, and in many places in 
the southern dnd western portion, will have it in his power, in a very 
considerable degree, to increase the yield by the use of other means of 
food for the fish besides living fish and other water-animals, which at 
the same time are reared in the waters. It is possible that the yield from 
the most elevated lakes, where cultivation to a considerable extent will 
be checked by local and climatic conditions which cannot be overcome, 
will be so far below the stated average that the greater yield of the lakes 
more favorably situated will not counterbalance the reduction in the 
total yield hereby caused. So as not to estimate too high, I will, there- 
fore, only place the medium yield at half of that previously calculated, or 
at $27,500,000 annually. 

But this is, however, only a portion of the profit which carefully-prose- 
cuted fish culture will give; because the salmon fishery, which I here 
only casually and in passing have considered, can—if the opportunity for 
the increase of the abundance of this species of fish is unbounded, above 
what it is now, at all events to an extent whose measure it isimpossible 
to indicate, and when the fishery can be prosecuted everywhere along 
our wide-stretched coast where fishing apparatus can be placed, when 
the abundance of fish has reached its greatest possible increase—in a 
comparatively short time by suitable modes of proceeding gain an im- 
portance and yield a profit which, in all probability, will not fall below 
what the lake fishery alone can yield; and possibly give considerably 
greater profit than this. If one estimate, therefore, the profit of the sal- 
mon fishery, like the previously-reduced value of the profit which the fresh 
waters probably will be able to produce, when the business at some time 
in the future receives the attention and the labor which it fully deserves, 
the probable profit of the cultivation of fishes of the best kinds, which can 
be born only in fresh water, will be estimated low if placed at $55,000,000 
gross yearly. 

This industry may also reach such a development that its gross yield 
may exceed the value of the whole annual import of the country, which 
in a good year amounts to the sum mentioned, and considerably surpass 
the combined profit of agriculture and grazing, which, according to Dr. 
O. J. Broch’s tables in the work quoted, amounted in 1865 to $13,750,000 
+ $22,000,000 = $35,750,000. 

Thus the matter presents itself when regarded in its entirety and under 
the supposition that the work is carried on with the greatest possible 
economy in the same manner nearly as the mass of farmers carry on their 
work. 

I shall next attempt to set forth how fish culture appears when it is 
considered as a means of industrial speculation, as a field for the employ- 
ment of capital, which seeks security and a good interest. In order that 
a speculation of this species may give good returns, the business must 
be carried on to such an extent that the necessary assistants can be 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. D597 


given, as far as possible, continuous employment thereat, since in the 
opposite event, by only employing the labor at different times of the year, 
it will become unnecessarily expensive. As such a size I would con- 
sider a water area of 30 to 40 hectares, combined in one or separated into 
many connected smaller lakes, to be tolerably suitable. I shall select the 
smallest size, in order to make the expenses proportionally larger than 
they will be when a larger area can be had for cultivation; because the 
expenses increase just as little in this, as in other industries, in propor- 
tion to the size of the business. According to the previously-mentioned 
data, should, for the stocking of such a lake, according to the same 
proportion as estimated earlier, be required yearly 10 x 10,500, which 
equals 105,009 impregnated eggs. In order to make the case as unprofi- 
table as it is ever likely to be, I will assume that the lake is so depleted 
that one in the first year must buy a part of the eggs in another place, 
that no profit be had before the fifth year after the beginning of the 
business; at the same time that the price of the product in distant mar- 
kets can be placed at only 3! cents per one-fourth kilogram, which 
equals 13 cents per kilogram, although the price here now is two or three 
times that much; wherewith I shall place the necessary expenses so 
high that no doubt can be entertained of their adequacy. 

I will assume that the business is begun in the month of September, 
since one must be through handling the quantity of eggs which are to 
be hatched out, while at this time, also, as a rule, the harvesting of the 
water’s crop will be past. Hereby the 1st of September becomes the 
proper beginning of the year with reference to fish culture. At this time 
I caleulate as expended: 

For hatching apparatus, building of spawning- 
places, and ponds for the young in the coming 


TCE? 1S ie ea ee SN RRR Sy ae aaa $412 50 
For a dwelling for two laborers’ families....--.- 825 00 
Boats, implements, materials, &c...-.......-.-. 192 50 
Three-fourths of the necessary quantity of eggs, 


three-fourths of 105,000 = 80,000, which easily 
and once for all can be procured by the pur- 
chase of 60 kilograms of living fish inthe course 
of the summer; price and expenses $2.75 per kil- 


OfTam .... .. ae oie ot Sch eci one af oie SR 165 00 
The outlay at the beginning of the work in round 
numbers..... Tey AS So Boe os 4. a es $1, 650 00 
In the first year I assume to be expended: 
For two permanent workmen.............--.-- 550 00 
Implements and materials.............2...... 55 00 
Loss of interest, 5 per cent. of the previous out- 
FA IES PAS IRIS ATR EIS tg ee 1, BIR 50 


6387 50 


598 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


‘For the second year: 


Hor two permanent workmen. .2 22. 0....2. 22 $550. 00 
Implements and matcrials, about...-.........- 48.12 5 
Loss of interest, 5 per cent. of previous outlay 
Bee IO) oc a oe nl ET ee eee eee a2 c.) AERGISTYS 
) $715 00 
For the third year: 
For two permanent workmen .......-..-..---- 550. 00 
Implements and materials, about.............. 30. 75 
Loss of interest, 5 per cent. of previous outlay, 
ie yo 2 ee ce OER LSE Re rae 152. 62 5 
— — 738.37 5 
For the fourth year: 
Hor two steady “workmen's... 3/2Ai 0.9. Pees 550. 00 
Implements and materials, about.............. 42,62 5 
Loss of interest, 5 per cent. of previous outlay, 


(eer TOUS T Oi Fees atlases cttllen eet laced he oes 189, 54 3 
————— 782.16 8 


The combined outlay in advance and loss of in- 

i KEIW SS es eee ees Cs ee 7 oy ER ae ed Ara) 2 4,573. 04 3 
or, in round numbers, $4,675, which is to be considered as the fixed cap- 
ital invested in the enterprise. 

From the fifth year, when the period of preparation may be consid- 
ered ended, and when the regular harvesting may first be supposed to 
begin—though, as repeatedly remarked previously, there is nothing to 
prevent it from beginning earlier, and that possibly with profit—the an- 
nual expenses at a very high estimate may be stated at: 


WO Permanent, WOLKMECH » «<<. <-'q00- =< 206 $660. 00 
Rransienh labor. 1 Summers... <= ccc. --egeaees 330. 00 
Implements and materials....... ee ry heen oy tes 165. 00 
DLOCKMOMICOL 25 famecteN Sees mec ira ee aos 137. 50 
24 per cent. for repairs of buildings and appara- 

tus of a value highly estimated at $2,200... 55. 00 


For packing, transfer, and conveniences 
for selling, 20 per cent. of the gross profit, 


BAO), con's yates sn tcje yn aie 9 gh ak a 687. 50 
ecmiined annual €xpensescccecis os a een ine = = $2, 035. 00 
Gross profit on 50 hectares equals 2,500 x 10, 

which equals 25,000 kilograms x .1375...... 3, 437. 50 
PSH C AMEDD LOUMb: .j- = 22 <2. iy eee Se Se ow ae 1, 402. 50, 


which amount ($1,402.50), divided by the sum of $4,675 invested as fixed cap- 
ital, gives a yearly interest of 30 per cent. 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 599 


But the selling price of the article which is here treated is in the larger 
markets considerably higher than is here calculated, and in a business 
of the kind which is here in view one must assume that they will look 
out to sell in places where a high price can be expected without regard 
to a somewhat prolonged transportation, which only in a comparatively 
small degree will increase the expenses of transfer. The article stands, 
considered as a delicacy, far above meat in price, and it commands in 
Christiania markets 13.75 to 19.25 cents, and often more, per one-fourth 
kilogram, which equals 55 to 66 cents per kilogram for Venern salmon, 
which, as a rule, stand far below our best kinds of mountain trout in 
flavor and value. In France the price varies, according to circumstances 
and the season, between 3 and 6 francs, or 55 cents and $1.10 per one- 
half kilogram, which equals $1.10 to $2.20 per kilogram. Nearly the 
same price as in France applies in north Germany, and probably also in 
England. It will thus be a long time before the price, owing to increased 
production, will approach the amount at which it has been previously 
estimated, because, in order that this may happen, the prices of the 
necessaries of life, such as meat, must also fall to half what they now 
are. 

In the very near future also a higher selling price than that estimated 
certainly will be reached, and it can hardly be doubted that the profit 
previously calculated upon will be obtained from capital which may be 
invested in such industry as is here treated of, even if the yield become 
considerably less than estimated ; and this so much the more certainly 
as the business in the extent contemplated will be able to be carried on 
in due time with far smaller outlay than here estimated. 

If one consider the estimated profit as a product equally of the area 
of water used and of the capital employed in its utilization, for which 
there is probably entire reason, since the water area is the basis of the 
possibility of the employment of capital in the industry here in question, 
the value of the capital which the water demands will advance in pro- 
portion to its extent. In such a division the net profit according to 
the estimate established should be $701.25 on 30 hectares, or $23.375 
per hectare annually. The ratio of interest to principal, according to 
the lawful interest on landed property and fixed possessions, gives this 
hectare a capital value of $467.50. But notwithstanding that the previ- 
ously-given calculation is carried out in such a way that the profit arising 
therefrom must be regarded as a minimum, I will, however, state that this 
must be considered above the average amount, because not all the waters 
will possess a like degree of fertility ; neither will they, because of exist- 
ing circumstances, be able to be cultivated as completely as stated, partly 
because a portion, even if not a large portion, of our fresh waters are 
adapted only for the culture of the kinds of fishes which are considered 
inferior, whose price must be estimated lower than that of trout or red 
char, although at present here in the chief city and the adjacent provinces 
it is often more than double as high as the previous stated price for the 


G00 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


kinds of fishes mentioned. In order to be sure not to estimate it too 
high, I will therefore reduce the average value per hectare to less than 
half of that ealeulated, and place it at $2.20. 

But even if one, moreover, must consider this as a maximum measure 
for the waters in their totality, it is, in consequence of what has pre- 
viously been shown, only a part of the value which must be taken as 
the average price when the combined fresh waters shall be taken into con- 
sideration. Thesalmon fishery, which is, as can be seen, smaller or larger 
simply as the rivers are smailer or larger which flow directly out into the 
sea, must also be brought into consideration. Its yield under thorough 
and careful management must, as previously set forth, in the future 
be counted upon to reach a value at least equal to that which the inland 
fisheries proper will give. The proper average value of our rivers and 
lakes in their whole extent will thus amount to at least $440 per hectare, 
and, for 760,000 hectares, to a sum of over $334,400,000 at such time when 
the people have learned, in some measure, the necessary extent and the 
necessary mode of using the source of prosperity which Providence has 
allotted to them in the rivers and seas. In this way we arrive at the 
conclusion, that— 

The economical value of our rivers and lakes may be increased in the 
future to a total of over $500,000,000 if the same labor and attention are 
bestowed on their cultivation as are now devoted to agriculture and grazing. 

The capital value just estimated for a hectare of water shows what 
outlay can be made with profit in order to put in condition our larger 
bodies of water for the use of fish-culture alone, by damming up in 
places where there may be an opportunity to secure a proper supply 
of running water. The share of the profit calculated per hectare is 
$33.375 yearly. If one starts from the standpoint, that in the employ- 
ment of a sum for procuring a water supply, the half portion of the 
yield at the same rate—$33.375 per hectare—ought to give 5 per cent. 
interest on the capital invested, and besides 3 per cent. thereof for 
the repairs of the necessary dams, about $275 can be invested with 
profit per hectare of the water which thereby may be dammed up. If, 
for example, by the employment of a capital of $11,000 there can be 
dammed up a water area of suitable depth of 40 hectares or upwards, 
there will in this event accrue a yearly profit of $935, which sum gives 
$550 for the interest of the invested capital and $330 for repairs, and a 
surplus of $55 for the increase of the interest or the reduction of the 
outlay. The remainder of the invested capital for the business of fish- 
culture will besides obtain at least 20 per cent., since the outlay in this 
case will not need to be greater than for the previously-caleulated work 
upon 30 hectares of water, or $4,675, to which in this event accrues a 
share of $935. If one combined both investments the whole amount be- 
comes $15,675, on which acerues a profit of $935 plus $550, which equals 
$1,485, which is an average of about 10 per cent. If one assume that the 
same area of water can be dammed for a smaller sum, for example $5,500, 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 6OL 


which quite frequently ought to be able to be done, the yield will be 
about 15 per cent. at least of the whole investment. If there is an oppor- 
tunity to sell the ice which will form on a body of water thus dammed up, 
the profit will clearly become very large; becauseif one only reckons about 
the fourth part of the usually low price, $137.50 per hectare, this gives 
$5,500 in addition to the income. From this it will be seen that the 
time may come when comparatively worthless land to a great extent 
will be transformed into water-reservoirs, to prosecute fish-culture there 
alone. 

It is truly beyond all doubt that the preceding calculations will be 
considered exaggerated or untrustworthy, though it must be difficult to 
show that the profit is estimated too high in weight or in price, or that 
the expenses associated with the business are placed too low in any 
direction. The bulk of the whole production alone—on the average of 
a value of $82.50 or 600 kilograms of unsorted salmon and different kinds 
of fresh-water fish per hectare, for 760,000 hectares equals 456,000,000 
kilograms—is so great that its sale for consumption in the interior of 
the country and for export to foreign countries may appear to be in no 
small degree improbable. Upon closer reflection, however, this improba- 
bility ought to disappear. 

There is here in question a means of nourishment which, everywhere 
in the old and the new world, is placed in the first rank with regard to 
flavor just as it approaches the first rank in nourishing value in propor- 
tion to its weight. With a full supply thereof at a price which is lower 
than that of most other far less esteemed and valuable means of nour- 
ishment, it cannot be doubted that it will be used instead of these, to a 
very considerable extent, by the whole population of the country of all 
classes. How great the consumption will become by its increased use 
alone throughout the country it is difficult to say, but it ought, perhaps, 
to advance to one-half of a kilogram daily per individual among three- 
fourths of the population. Without regard to its increase through time, 
which will be promoted no little by the facilitated access to nourishment 
which this business will produce, the consumption within the country 
should amount to one hundred and eighty times one and a quarter mill- 
ions, which equals 225,000,000 kilograms yearly, or about the half of the 
entire production. 

That there will be found sale in foreign countries at the price caleu- 
lated of what may not be consumed at home, even if very considerably 
more than the half may be left for export, there can be no doubt. In 
the space of two generations Europe has become always more and more 
out of condition to feed its population with its own products. There 
have constantly been imported fertilizers and articles of food, especially 
grain, in large, steadily increasing quantities from other parts of the 
world without this satisfying the constantly growing demand, whose in- 
crease, besides, has just as steadily been counteracted by emigration on a 
large scale. Besides grain, meat has of late years been imported in differ- 


602 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ent forms from the most remote regions of the earth, and most recently ia 
the fresh state and in immense quantities, without thereby causing any 
trace of a tendency towards a decline of the prices of articles of food, 
which, moreover, are advancing just as uniformly as they have been for 
the past decade. Under such circumstances there is probably not the 
remotest reason for supposing that the articles here treated of, if they, 
as remarked, are brought to market in a perfectly fresh state and at a 
lower price than is paid for other articles of food of greatly inferior value, 
will be unsalable even if the whole estimated quantity is marketed 
abroad. In north Germany alone, which can produce but few fishes of 
this kind and quality, there are many millions of people who would pre- 
fer them to other food if they could be had at a reasonable price, which 
for these millions means four to five times what is here estimated. 

But this transportation in the fresh state to a distant place, which, of 
course, is not entirely unknown, but is practiced in a manner which can 
give but little security for the perfect preservation of the article during 
many days or weeks, may perhaps be considered both costly and trouble- 
some. In order to remove all uncertainty in this direction, I shall state 
that carrying of fresh meat from America to England in steamers specially 
arranged for the purpose costs 30 shillings sterling per ton; that is, 
$7,425 per 1,000 kilograms, or seven-tenths of a cent per kilogram; an ex- 
pense which is nothing in comparison with the increase in the calculated 
price which is to be expected in a foreign market. This is the cost of both 
transportation and refrigeration, which requires ice bought where it is 
high and the use of machinery during the whole time of transportation, 
together with expensive fittings of the rooms wherein the transportation 
goeson. The price of refrigeration alone can also not be placed higher 
than half—seven-twentieths of a cent per kilogram—which equals one- 
fifth of a cent per pound for an average period of about fourteen days. 
In all places where fish will be reared, the collection of the necessary 
quantity of ice costs nothing, as it will be done by the persons occupied 
in the business as a whole, and paid for it by the whole year. Salt is 
required for freezing, but it is only changed from a solid, dry body to 
pure liquid brine, and as in this form it can be used for all ordinary pur- 
poses just as well as in the solid food this article also thus costs noth- 
ing. The preserving-house and apparatus for freezing are very simple 
things, which can be provided once for all at an expense which must be 
a very small fraction of what the arrangement of a ship’s room for trans- 
portation by refrigeration of fresh meat represents. 

The expenses of freezing fish and their preservation for a long time 
in a refrigerator during a transportation of eight to fourteen days in the 
frozen state cannot thus possibly be more than the previously-mentioned 
cost of transportation across the Atlantic Ocean; and this expense, 
stated to be seven-twentieths of a cent per kilogram, is only a small 
fraction of the previously-estimated outlay for preserving, transporta- 
tion, and packing, 2? cents per kilogram. 


VALUE OF NORWEGIAN LAKES FOR FISH CULTURE. 603 


The necessary freezing and storing for a long time, and the refriger- 
ating during transportation to places much more distant with the means 
of conveyance of the future, cannot in any way cause a remarkable in- 
crease of price of the product. 

There is just as little probability that the increase of the population 
prevailing in the last decade will in the future become stationary, or in a 
remarkable degree decline, as there probably is that the prices of the 
necessaries of life in coming time will decline in any especially consider- 
able degree in the markets of Europe. But even if such a decline should 
take place, even if it, on the average, and for this article especially, should 
go down to the half of what may be considered at the present a low esti- 
mate, or from $24 cents to 414 cents per kilogram, the product in ques- 
tion must find a sure sale, since, it with an enormous profit against it, 
as was previously brought into consideration, can be sold far below 
this price, and thus, as a delicacy of the first class, must become sought 
in preference to articles of food of inferior account. In order that the 
product which is here in view may lose its rank and value as a delicacy 
it must become common every-day fare—that is, be able to be sold at 
such a price and in such quantities that the great public may have the 
means and the opportunity to eat it four or five times a week. If one 
takes into consideration only a small portion of the population of North 
Europe, say 15,000,000 of people, and assumes that these, on the average, 
when the article is to be had as cheaply as here estimated, will consume 
one-half kilogram twice a week, which is by no means improbable if the 
price becomes as stated—less than half the cost of the commonest kind 
of meat—for this small fraction of the population of North Europe will 
be required annually 780,000,000 kilograms at least; that is, ONE-HALF 
MORE THAN THE WHOLE ESTIMATED PRODUCTION. ‘There is thus cer- 
tainly no reason to fear that the enterprise will fail from want of sale of 
the portion of the product which we may be able to offer for sale. The 
probability is, on the contrary, that many times the quantity will find 
sale at considerably higher prices than those previously brought to notice, 
and this somuch more surely since there is every reason to suppose that 
at the same time when an increased fish production may be secured 
there will be an increase of the population which may be counted on as 
consumers on nearly the same scale as in recent past time. 

With full conviction that the labor bestowed upon the cultivation of 
the water will pay well, I advise every one who may have the opportu- 
nity, to take hold of this cultivation, and that with full energy; because, 
let it be remembered, half or quarter of the work, according to plans 
hitherto employed, and universal Norwegian customs, will give just as 
little profit as importance in this as in other directions. Moreoyer, I 
must recommend that this enterprise, with the intervention of legal 
provisions, be hedged around just as carefully as any other pursuit of 
Similar importance—agriculture, grazing, or cultivation of the woods. 
So long as the hitherto mentioned license can go on uncensured and un- 


(604 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


checked, the enterprise here treated of will come into practice only to a 
very small extent, and to inappreciably little use for people in general ; 
BECAUSE ONLY BY PERSONAL OWNERSHIP, INCONTESTABLE AND 
FULLY PROTECTED BY LAW, OF THE PROFIT WHICH CAN BE EXPECTED 
WILL AFFORD SUFFICIENT ENCOURAGEMENT TO PUT THE ENTERPRISE 
IN THE NECESSARY VIGOROUS PRACTICE IN THE EXTENT TO WHICH 
OPPORTUNITY IS OFFERED. THE BEST AND LARGEST FIELDS FOR FISH 
CULTURE, WHICH TO A GREATER OR LESS EXTENT ARE OWNED IN 
PARTNERSHIP, WILL, WITHOUT SUCH PROTECTION OF THE LAW, BE- 
COME JUST AS POOR AS THEY AT PRESENT ARE UTTERLY BARREN, BE- 
CAUSE NO ENCOURAGEMENT TO ARTIFICIAL AND ENERGETIC CULTURE 
WILL THEN EXIST. PRODUCTION WILL THEN, AS HITHERTO, BECOME 
DEPENDENT ALONE ON NATURAL CULTURE; AND THE EXPERIENCE OF 
A THOUSAND YEARS HAS CLEARLY SHOWN that there is no natural pro- 
duction, however strong and rich this may be, which can stand against the 
greed of men, when this is not checked by the personal consciousness of own- 
ership. 


XXITI.—WHAT DOES A FISH COST ?* 


By CHRISTIAN WAGNER. 


After the tiny, jelly-like fish has left its egg it receives nourishment 
for several days from the adhering yolk-bag, mostly resting on its side 
‘upon a blade of grass as near as possible to the surface. Thence for- 
ward, however, it preys on living aquatic animalcule, and though en- 
joying a life scarcely perceptible by means of a microscope it soon begins 
to hunt for the mite-like water-fleas, the larve of gnats, &c. For some 
time I have been in the habit of keeping, and not only during the breed- 
ing season, small cups and larger dishes for raising different insects, 
which facilitate the observations. 

The goldfish, carp, tench, &c., are quite voracious when only eight 
days old. They consume in three days about as many of these animal- 
cule as their own weight. Higher or lower temperatures are at this 
time of the greatest influence. The warmer the weather the greater is 
the vitality of the fish and the more rapid its growth, if properly fed. 

By continued natural feeding the little fish doubles its size in about 
eight days, and then, fourteen days old, is looking for larger food, which 
now mostly consists of larve of gnats. The consumption of food equal 
to one-third of its own weight per day is still continued; but the growth 
does not progress at the same rate, it only increasing about 100 per 
cent. in the next fourteen days. A fish of four weeks, with sufficient 
food, will, perhaps, in four weeks double its size; then in eight weeks, 
and so forth, at the same ratio, if the winter or other circumstances do 
not interfere. 

Although our predaceous fish, the so-called winter-fish, as pikes (pike- 
perch), trout, &c., down to the little stickleback, sometimes take food in 
rather cold weather, the so-called summer-fishes (carp, tench, bream) 
eat almost nothing in winter time. The colder it is the slower they 
breathe, and though on warm sunny days they occasionally appear near 
the surface, they rarely take adequate food. They are always satisfied 
with the little nourishment contained in the water, which, by breathing, 
is conducted into the stomach—it is true at the expense of their own 
bodies, for in spring-time all these fishes appear more or less emaciated. 
Suppose such a fish, one year old, be it summer or winter fish, to have 
attained a length of about six centimeters, and to represent, accord- 
ing to its weight, a food value of one pfenning [equal to nearly one- 


* Translated by H. Diebitsch from Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung, No. 46, Stettin, No- 
vember 12, 1878. 605 


606 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


fourth of a cent.—TRANSL.| (fifty of such fishes equal one kilogram), 
it has in the coming summer one hundred more warm days for growth. 
It may be taken for granted that the fish in these one hundred days, as 
in the first year of its existence, will consume every three days as much 
food as its own weight, which in the second summer amounts to 334 
times its own weight of feeding matter, worth 334 pfenninge. 

The predaceous fish, as is known, lives on other fishes, even of his 
own species, if not fed with blood, scraps, &c., and consumes food 
matter as valuable or nearly as valuable as itself. In fact, up to the 
second summer the fish represents only 10 per cent. of the value of its 
feeding expenses, having only attained the weight of 120 grams, and 
in the third year, consuming at the same ratio, it costs already 10 mark 
(1 mark nearly 24 cents), and so forth. 

Proceeding on this undoubtedly correct basis, calculation would finally _ 
arrive toanenormous amount. I shall afterwards give a striking exam- 
ple. If the so-called summer-fish in its third year does perhaps not use 
up quite 334 times as much food as its own weight, the winter-fish, on 
the contrary, as it keeps on eating throughout the whole year, consumes 
a great deal more. 

According to my observations, a three-pound pike prefers a one-pound 
pike to a one-fourth pound one, and a pike one-fourth pound in weight 
rather takes another one one year old than a smaller fish or an angle- 
worm, &c. As a special dainty, the frog may be mentioned. In the 
following I shall state facts, and shall prove by figures how dear a fish 
can become, though apparently an inexpensive inhabitant of the water. 

Thad rented a (Grand Ducal) fish-breeding establishment at Varel, 
and a friend of mine, Mr. Krommelbein, placed in one of the ponds, 
which had proved especially adapted, 2,000 so-called Streck-carp, about 
as long as a hand; these are fit for propagation in the fourth year. 

In order to destroy the too great quantity of fry, it is customary to 
introduce small pikes; in this case about 20 were added. As formerly 
done, this pond after three years was to be fished in its turn. When 
informed by Mr. K., I prepared for the 1,800 carp to be received (10 per 
cent. of loss), which, after former experience, ought to have attained the 
weight of 14 pounds each. You will be surprised to hear the result of 
the entire proceeding, viz: Two eatable fishes—pike—of 30 pounds * 
each, a number of two-year-old carp-fry, t one-year-old pikes without 
value, equally small perches, +t and many sticklebacks! The above two 
pikes had made such astonishing growth in consequence of the abun- 
| dant food. 

The summer, like the winter, fish of the same age often differ in size 


* The pikes introduced with the Streck-carp must have been too large, since they 
actually eat up the carp.—[ EDITOR. ] 

+The Streck-carp must have deposited eggs. Have none of the originally introduced 
carp been caught, from which those two, year old must have been bred?—[ EDITOR. ] 

¢ Had these also been introduced ?—[ EDITOR. ] 


WHAT DOES A FISH COST? 607 


in the ratio of 1 to 4, according to their feeding. <A pike of six years 
weighs on an average about 5 pounds; butif its nutriment is abundant, 
as was the case in the carp pond mentioned, a triple weight has been ob- 
tained. What was the expense for these two pikes? From former re- 
sults we know that the same pond had yielded 3,000 pounds of eatable 
fish when stocked with 2,000 carps (without larger pikes), and taking 1 
mark as the value of 1 pound, then either of the two pikes costs 100 
mark per pound ! 

How, during three years, so inany enemies to the fry could originate 
is the question still to be answered, and the answer is quite simple. 
Just as weeds in the field without direct seeding grow in greatest lux- 
uriance, so the hosts of unwelcome destroyers originate in the water- 
basins. If we, for instance, observe ducks swimming among the deposits 
of eggs (either on plants as with summer-fish or on the bare shore with 
others), we will see how they carry on their wings the contents of the 
water when suddenly frightened, the eggs easily adhering to their feet 
and feathers. Reaching other, perhaps more quiet, water they dive and 
get rid of their adhesions, &e. Many kinds of water-fowl, also rats, 
frogs, and other animals, thus distribute useful seed, as well as that of 
weeds, if this expression be allowed. 

Whoever, therefore, wants to breed a certain species of fish, must 
know how to calculate and must thoroughly cultivate the water. The 
water is like the field; where there is no cultivation there is no result 
in either. My experiences serve me as proofs for the statements made 
in 1863 (in Zoolog. Garten zu Frankfurt-am-Main). The area of my prop- 
erty, if used for agriculture, would scarcely support a laborer and family, 
while by pisciculture it gives employment to fifteen men, three horses, and 
a steam-engine. The profit to myself is much greater than any farmer or 
gardener could make of it, for the water is much richer than the field, if 
pools are cultivated like land. The field is my school, the water my field! 

CHRISTIAN WAGNER. 

OLDENBURG, 


APPENDIX @G. - 


THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES, 


APPLICATIONS. 


XXIV.—THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SHAD IN 1878, 


By James W. MILNER. 


A.—STATION ON ALBEMARLE SOUND. 


Encouraged by the success of the apparatus devised by Mr. T. B. 
Ferguson, Commissioner of Fisheries of Maryland, for hatching shad in 
tidal waters, it was decided that a renewed experiment should be made 
in the waters of the Southern States with the improved method. The 
floating boxes had proved inadequate and unsatisfactory in waters with- 
out current. 

The region of the numerous fisheries in Albemarle Sound was selected 
for the point of operations. These, numbering in all about forty, are 
located on the shores of the sound, principally in the northern and 
western region and the mouths of the Chowan and Roanoke Rivers, and 
employ seines from five hundred to twenty-five hundred yards in length. 
Most of these employ horse-power for hauling in the seines, although 
several are fitted with fine steam-engines. They areconsidered as an im- 
portant part of the plantations and estates upon which they are situated, 
and a very considerable amount of capital is invested in the enterprise. 
The preparation of the shore alone is an expensive operation, employing 
many men, diving experts, and explosives, to clear off the snags, cypress 
knees, and stumps which are found in the shallower portions of the 
water. 

The fishing for shad and alewives or herring ardinarily begins in 
March and lasts to the Ist of May, the lower fisheries cutting out sev- 
eral days before the upper ones. [ishing is continued from midnight 
Sunday evening until midnight Saturday. The fishing in this locality 
has hitherto been confined almost exclusively to the seines, although of 
late years pound-nets, or “dutch nets,” as they are called in this locality, 
have been introduced. Pamlico Sound, which is adjacent, is also an 
extensive fishing region. 

The nets visited by our steamers extended from Colerain, on the Cho- 
wan, to Drummond Point, on the northern side of the sound, and to 
Jamesville on the Roanoke, something like thirty fisheries being thus 
available. 

The barges fitted up and used the previous year by Maryland, con- 
taining the improved machinery for shad-hatching, were, with the ma- 
chinery, purchased by the United States commission from the Maryland 


commission and put in working order. On the 19th day of March the 
611 


612 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


revenue-steamer Thomas Ewing, Capt. Alvan A. Fengar in command, 
by instructions from the Secretary of the Treasury, took the fleet in tow 
and carried it as far as Norfolk, Va. One of the barges was left at this 
port to be fitted up as a second machinery-scow. A large tug was em- 
ployed to tow the three barges through the canals, and they arrived on 
March 26 at the headwaters of Albemarle Sound, near the mouth of the 
Chowan River, and were anchored in a protected position adjacent to 
Avoca, the plantation of the Capehart family, which occupies an extent 
of land lying between the rivers Chowan and Roanoke. 

The services of the steamer Lookout, belonging to the Maryland Fish 
Commission, had been obtained for the work of the season. She was 
sent to Norfolk in December of 1877, to secure a harbor not liable to 
be obstructed by ice at the time she might be needed, and by permis- 
sion of the Secretary of the Navy was kept at the navy-yard. She ar- 
rived in Albemarle Sound on the 3d of April. She there rendered 
efficient service under the direction of Maj. 'T. b. Ferguson, whose hearty 
codperation and assistance were of great moment to the United States 
Fish Commission. Several trips of the Lookout from Avoca to Wash- 
ington demonstrated the practicability of carrying eggs and young fish 
with perfect safety, so far as the steadiness of the cones before referred 
to is concerned. Notwithstanding the roughness of the sea, the gim- 
bals in which the cones are suspended insure the horizontal position of 
the surface at whatever angle the deck itself may stand. 

Major Fergusow’s appointment as one of the United States commis- 
sioners to the Paris Exhibition made it necessary for him to break up 
his connection with the United States Fish Commission about the time 
of closing the work on Albemarle Sound. 

Very important assistance was also rendered in Albemarle Sound by 
a small open steam-launch furnished to the commission by the Seere- 
tary of the Navy; indeed, without it, very much less wonld have been 
accomplished. A-+second launch, derived from the same source, was in 
use in addition at Havre de Grace. 

On the morning of the 28th about eight thousand eggs were taken and 
put into some Brackett boxes which we had in our, outfit. The large 
seines in the vicinity were in full operation, the two nearest us being 
those of Avoca Beach and Seotch Hall. These seines were each about 
twenty-three or twenty-four hundred yards in length. Both of these 
beaches are on the great Capehart plantation. To Dr. W. R. Capehart 
and to his father we are indebted for continued aid and active codpera- 
tion, which were essential to the success of our work. The previous year, 
at an outlay of nearly $650, Dr. Capehart made an experiment with the 
floating boxes, but because of the lack of current no adequate results 
were obtained. This year fe had a large tank erected, and using one of 
our pumps with his steam-engine hatched a large number of shad. 

Up the Chowan, within a distance of twelve miles, were three or four 
large seines, and along the northern shore of the sound, in the vicinity 


SHAD PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1878, 613 


of Edenton, N. C., and Drum Point, were some eight*or ten more. At 
several of these fisheries steam-engines are used in drawing the seine to 
shore. The catch of shad was quite limited, thirty to one hundred being 
near an average haul, while the alewives were very numerous. 

On April 1, a general move was made for obtaining shad ova. On this 
day two hundred thousand eggs were taken, and from this time on a 
considerable number of eggs were obtained up to the Ist of May, the 
number reaching 10,387,000. The largest number of eggs taken in any 
one night was on the 15th of April, when eighty-two shad were stripped, 
affording what were estimated at 1,605,000 eggs. On the 17th fifty-nine 
ripe shad were stripped, and on the 18th, seventy-six. 

A singular fact attending the work of gathering spawn was the con- 
centration of the spawning fish upon the Avoca Beach, the one nearest 
to our station; so constant was this that fully four-fifths of the eggs 
taken were obtained at this one point, although the fisheries for twelve 
miles up the Chowan, and for fifteen miles along the northern shore, 
and five or six miles up the Roanoke River, were visited. As usual the 
bulk of the spawn was taken at night, the largest amount being brought 
from the seines coming to shore about an hour after dark; a few are 
taken in the morning, but it seems to be the uniform law that scarcely 
any are taken after broad daylight. Albemarle Sound proves to be one 
of the best localities for shad production that has been tried, as the nu- 
merous large seines are continuously hauled from Monday morning 
(midnight) to Saturday midnight of each week. There is no tide in the 
vicinity, and the hauling is not delayed at any time, as all hours of the 
day and night are favorable. 

The shipment of fish to remoter points began April 11. Correspond- 
ence and a conference with the commissioner of Virginia, Col. Marshall 
MecDonal, and of North Carolina, Col. L. L. Polk, had resulted in their 
assuming the distribution of young fishes to the waters of their States 
at a distance from the vicinity. The first shipment was made to Notta- 
way Mills, Va., into the Nottaway, tributary to the Chowan River, at 
that date. From that time to May 2, when this work closed, 4,926,500 
young fish were distributed; of these, 2,145,500 were put into the im- 
mediate waters; 1,039,000 were distributed in other waters within the 
State, making 3,184,500 young put into the waters of North Carolina; 
1,142,000 were sent into Virginia, while in other States 600,006 were 
planted. The accompanying tables will show the details of the gather- 
ing of eggs and of the distribution of the fish from the Avoca station. 

Although in every respect the region of operations was most admira- 
bly adapted to furnishing a large number of young shad, it proved to 
be rather inaccessible for railroad travel in the distribution of fish. 
Two steamboats connect it with Franklin, a point on the Seaboard and 
Roanoke Railroad, within the Virginia line, and about seventy miles 
distant from our station; but in shipping fish it was necessary to send 
them by the steam-launch to an outside pier where they remained in 


614 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


charge of the attendants until the steamer came. No telegraph com- 
munication could be had nearer than Franklin. 

As already remarked, the seine fisheries of this region are on the most 
extensive scale of any locality in the country; although a single seine on 
the Potomac exceeds any one on the Albemarle Sound in dimensions, 
still the average length of seines in the Albemarle Sound is greater and 
there are more of them. The system of fishing is a very good one, most 
of the seine proprietors finding it possible to employ the same gang of 
hands each succeeding year. ‘This, of course, affords them the advantage 
of a trained and experienced force, which is a matter of much conse- 
quence. 

At the Scotch Hall fishery on the Capehart plantation, where steam- 
engines are used, a system of signals is employed with the steam-whistle, 
through which the men are called to any point necessary, and the posi- 
tion of the seine can be known by the proprietor, while in his office or 
at his home, by the special signals given at different intervals. 

Where the outlay is large-and the labor bill great, as it is at these 
steam-fisheries, it is found essential to have the material in the outfit of 
superior quality, so that there may be little liability of delay through 
breakage or accident. A peculiar line is used at these fisheries, imported 
from Russia, made expressly for the Russian navy, and said to be used 
only in two or three industries in the United States, one the Albe- 
marle Sound fisheries and another in oil-well drilling. 

Some of these fisheries have proved very profitable to their owners. 
One is referred to, the sum of the profits from which for nine years was 
$55,000, A table showing the catch at Scotch Hall fishery for a series 
of years is appended. 

Large shoals of rock-fish or striped bass visit the shores later in the 
year. A remarkable haul made on one of Dr. Capehart’s shores in 
1876 yielded 35,000 fish. Many of these weighed 80 and 90 pounds, and 
365 of them had a total weight of 23,785 pounds, an average of 65 
pounds. This year the run of shad into the sound was very light; only 
one haul of consequence was heard of, this being when 998 were taken 
at Avoca Beach on the 17th of April. 

It may not be generally known that the waters of Albemarle Sound 
are entirely fresh from Roanoke Island to the head of the sound, the 
inlets from the sea being so small that very little salt water is intro- 
duced; the large rivers emptying into it also prevent the tides from 
having much effect upon the water; Pamlico Sound has a larger area of 
salt water. 

Early in April it was announced that large hauls of herring were 
being made in Pamlico Sound; about the middle of April large catches 
were made at the lower fisheries in Albemarle Sound, and from that 
on till the 1st of May the nets were crowded with herring. The run 
was unprecedented, the older fishermen asserting that nothing equal to 
it had ever occurred; one of the nets of Mr. Peter Warren took at one 


SHAD PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1878. 615 


haul 400,000. The northern shore of the sound and the Chowan River 
seemed to be in the direct course of the fish; later they struck the net 
at Avoca Beach; the best haul made at this point was 165,000. Scotch 
Hall, avout three miles nearer the mouth of the Roanoke River, did not 
seem to be in the range of the fish; they ascended the Roanoke in much 
more moderate numbers, though all that the fishermen desired and 
more could be taken. The herring crowded the waters of the sound to 
such an extent that they seemed to drive the shad and other fishes 
away, and the catch of shad became even smaller than it had been. 
The steamers from Franklin came daily freighted with salt and went 
back loaded heavily with salted herring; the prices dropped very 
rapidly until they were offered in some instances at 50 cents a thousand 
at the beach. The women employed to dress the salted herring worked 
night and day, and a large increase of the force was made at most fish- 
eries. It was impossible in these immense hauls to take care of all of the 
fish, and frequently a large surplus was carted away from the beach to 
peed on the fields as manure. 

No satisfactory theory suggests itself for this immense increase in the 
herring. The seines stopped fishing eight or ten days earlier than usual 
because of thisimmense influx of herring, as the prices became lower 
for every additional hundred thousand salted. 

A change in the run of the shoals of fish at different points, from 
year to year, is observed here as it isin many other places and with 
other species of fish. It is impossible to say whether this is owing to an 
alteration in the contours of the bottom from the heavy storms, or to a 
change in the distribution of the food of the fishes, or to a question of 
temperature, but it is a fact that certain shores, which in a series of 
years have gained notoriety for great yields of fish, subsequently di- 
minish in value, and other stations supplant them in this respect. 

The facilities for hatching fish which were at our command were, first, 
the apparatus first used in the season of 1877, namely, a barge, on the 
outside of which levers protruded from air-ports; from the bows were 
suspended buckets, an up-and-down movement being afforded these by 
means of eccentrics, which from their irregular form, with one long side 
and one short side, produced a sudden drop and a slow rise; this appa- 
ratus is the well-known invention of Major Ferguson. Cones were ar- 
ranged along the sides of the housing which covered the scow; two 
large casks were raised on a platform to an elevation higher than the 
top of the cones, and were filled by a pump run by the same engine 
which propelled the shafting. An improvement was made on the cones 
at the suggestion of Mr. F. N. Clark, which obviated the continual at- 
tention required in skimming off foul matter, shells of eggs, and the 
like, which continually clogged the perforations in the inner rim, and 
produced an overflow of eggs and fishes from the cones. By means 
of Mr. Clark’s contrivance the specific gravity of sound eggs, at a 
properly regulated pressure, caused them to remain some distance be- 


616 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


low the surface; the refuse matter, including the Saprolegnia, constant- 
ly flowed off. The engine was worked nightand day. When the stock 
on hand was small the engineers also attended at night to the cylinders 
and cones, but during the height of the season, when everything was 
filled, night and day attendants were required. Some little difficulty 
was at first experienced with the cylinders in time of storm, a very lit- 
tle increase in wind or wave occasioning too much agitation of the water 
and eggs within the cylinders, and our first warning of this danger was 
the loss of over 300,000 eggs, by a strong wind and sea setting against 
the cylinders containing them on one side of the barge. This we were 
afterward able to prevent in part by stopping the machinery and allow- 
ing the wave alone to give the movement to the eggs within the cylinders. 
A screen or breakwater might, however, easily be devised by placing a 
frame work outside the cylinders, reaching a little below the water, and 
nailing or fastening to it either canvas or thin boards; not being pre- 
pared with this device during the present season, it was thought best to 
use the cones to the largest extent before utilizing the cylinders, and some- 
times, when bad weather threatened, we took the precaution to remove 
the eggs and fish from the cylinders to the cones inside the building, if 
any of them happened at the time to be empty, as was explained in my 
report of 1877. Very much Jess loss was experienced by this apparatus 
than could be expected from any form of floating box where only side 
currents are to be depended on. 

Where a continual river current is found, the cheaper floating boxes 
may be used quite as efficiently, except for the greater area required; 
but the larger portion of the shad-spawning grounds being within tide- 
water and where currents are very slight, the great. advantage of this 
certain and constant agitation of the water is readily appreciated. 

As in all artificial propagation of fishes the presence of a skillful expert 
is necessary; trusting the work to beginners and those who have little 
experience and ability in fish-hatching will afford as small results as it 
does with any other apparatus. 

A small experiment was made with the Chase jar. This Mr. Oren M. 
Chase has used at Detroit for the past four years in hatching white-fish. 
It was found to work with quite as much efficiency in hatching shad, and 
it is quite probable that with some modifications to suit the different con- 
ditions of shad-hatching it would be found to excel everything else in the 
concentration of space and hatching a very large quantity of eggs in 
masses contained in quite small vessels. 

A device invented by one of the working members fo the corps, Mr. 
W. T. Wroten, also deserves notice. It embodies the principle of the 
Chase jar, except that instead of applying the current through a rubber 
tube and diffusing it from the center of the vessel it is applied through 
vertical funnels or channels on the sides of the vessel, forcing the water 
in through a narrow space or slot extending round the bottom. This is 
an advantage in the fact that the vessel being made sufficiently small— 


SHAD PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1878, 617 


to contain about fifteen or eighteen quarts—can be carried out in the 
boats, and the spawn as soon as it is impregnated and “rises” can be 
immediately turned into this bucket, where it can receive much better 
care before reaching the hatching station, and the vessel can then be 
placed where a stream of water can be introduced, and the entire opera- 
tion, from the time the eggs are impregnated t6 the time the fish are 
taken out, can be carried on in the vessel without transferring or moving 
the eggs. 

The experimental device of Mr. Wroten is a little crude in its con- 
struction, but with another year’s use, and the improvements which will 
be suggested, it is quite likely to be considered as a valuable acquisition 
to the apparatus for fish-hatching. 

The Maryland yacht Lookout, which was at the station, had also, on 
its forward decks, six cones which were employed in hatching eggs and 
in two efforts to transport large quantities of fish to the waters of the 
Potomac and streams in Virginia and Maryland. 

At Avoca station a few experiments were made in taking herring- 
spawn, with very good success; the variety was the so-called glut or 
small-eyed herring, which here runs high up the streams; the larger- 
eyed herring remaining down the bay—an instance of opposed habits 
in the same species in different regions, as in the Potomac the so-called 
branch herring runs up the streams, and the glut remains in the open 
waters. The eggs were handled in precisely the same manner as those 
of the shad; they had rather a tendency to adhere to the sides of the 
pan or whatever they touched, but still with a little pains were washed 
free, and were put into the buckets to hatch the same way as the shad. 
The young were very minute, and it was impossible to keep them in the 
vessels, because they were small enough to slip through; the wire-cloth 
that we had in use being only twenty-four meshes to the inch. 

About the end of April the large seines began to cut out, the great 
flood of herring making it unprofitable to continue fishing, as the shad 
all abandoned the shores. 

On the 29th of April, the revenue-cutter E. A. Stevens reported for duty 
in affording facilities for our work. As the last seine, the one at Avoca 
Beach, which had proved so profitable to our work, was to cut out on 
the 1st of May, and the steamer Lookout was at hand expecting to carry 
back a large stock of fish and eggs to the Potomac River, it was deter- 
mined to get rid of all the young fish on hand and have the Stevens tow 
the barges as far as Norfolk, if not farther. On the morning of the 2d of 
May the barges were tied behind the steamer, and we started down the 
Sound, lying over at night in the narrow cut south of the entrance to the 
Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal. On the morning of the 4th we reached 
the navy-yard at Norfolk, having had some trouble in getting through 
the shoal passages and cuts with the long string of barges. We were 
tied to the anchor-buoys at the navy-yard, and the steamer returned to 
Albemarle Sound. About four o’clock the same afternoon the revenue- 


618 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


cutter Thomas Ewing arrived with instructions to take one of the barges 
and a steam-launch to Havre de Grace. Captain Fengar, however, oblig- 
ingly consented to take two barges instead of one. The wind rising toa 
gale he put off starting until the next morning; but at an early hour on 
the 5th the cutter got under way with the two barges and one launch in 
tow; the remaining barge was taken into the dock and tied in one of 
the slips at the navy-yard. 

On the 7th the steam-launch of the Franklin was sent alongside, Mr. 
Kullman, a machinist from the steamer, coming with it to act as engi- 
neer; on the evening of this day I came on to Washington, leaving the 
two barges and the steam-launch to be towed up to Havre de Grace on 
the return of the revenue-cutter Ewing. On her second trip this steamer 
left Norfolk on the 9th of May and took the remaining barges and the 
launch in tow for Havre de Grace. Going up the bay they encountered 
a strong wind and sea, and were for a time in considerable danger; at 
about midnight the wind rose to quite a gale and the steamer ran into 
the Great Wicomico River for harbor; the launch, however, parted her 
hawsers and went adrift; as it was impracticable to turn around with 
the two scows, she had to drift along until they were anchored, when 
the steamer went out and found her after some search and took her into 
the harbor. 


B.—STATION NEAR HAVRE DE GRACE, MARYLAND. 


The barges arrived on the 11th of May at Havre de Grace. I had 
been for twenty-four hours awaiting them. They were anchored in the 
Narrows in about the same place they were last year. 

As we were well supplied with steam-launches and facilities for ob- 
taining spawn from the different seines and nets, I coneluded that 
the steamer Lookout could be best utilized by being sent to the Poto- 
mac to work the fisheries of that river, as she possessed considerable 
capacity in the cones on her forward deck for the care of eggs. Captain 
Chester accordingly left with the Lookout on the morning of the 15th 
of May. 

The first eggs were taken on the 17th of May, the number being 
25,000; the total number from that day until the 11th of June obtained 
at this station was 12,750,000. The greatest number gathered in one 
day was 1,940,000, on the 29th of May, from 97 spawners. On the 27th 
65 good spawners, and on the 28th 71 were taken, this period seeming 
to be the climax of the spawning season. 

The first shipment to a distant stream was made on the 15th of May— 
150,000 shad—to the Tombigbee River in Mississippi. The total number 
shipped to other States from this point was 2,535,000; the number put 
in at this station and in immediate waters, 5,105,000; and the number 
put in other streams of Maryland and in the Potomac River, 1,705,000, 
making a total of 9,545,000 fishes. 

Mr. Thomas Hughlett, of Easton, Md., State Commissioner of Fish- 


SHAD PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1878, 619 


eries, took the responsibility of a considerable portion of the State dis- 
tribution and aiforded efficient aid to our work. 
C.—POTOMAC RIVER STATION. 

Captain Chester succeeded in obtaining 1,430,000 eggs on the Poto- 
mac River, a portion of which were put in the river and two shipments 
made to other waters of Virginia. The results of his work are shown 
in the tables. 

D.—GENERAL RESULTS. 

The total number of eges taken for the year at Avoca and Havre de 
Grace stations, and the Potomac River was 24,547,000; from these about 
14,521,000 fishes were distributed, or about 60 per cent., which is of 
course small, the losses before the machinery was complete accounting 
for most of it. 

The success of the work was, however, great enough to meet all spe- 
cial requisitions, and it was deemed unnecessary to establish a station at 
any point further north. A shipment of 150,000 shad was sent on the 
11th of June to Sacramento River, California, going through with great 
success. This is the fourth shipment made to that river by the United 
States Commission in co-operation with the State, a previous one in 1871 
having been made under the auspices of the State alone. 

The results from placing shad into the Sacramento River, where they 
had no previous existence, are of the most encouraging character, as 
the number of shad taken has increased yearly, so that in the present 
year it makes a considerable item in the Sacramento fish market. 

The news of continued captures has also been heard from Louisville, 
Ky., and a few points on the Mississippi River. Shad were taken in the 
month of March at Wetumpka, on the Coosa River. The run of shad at 
Louisville began about the 1st of May, and closed about the 20th; the 
greatest number being taken between the 10th and 18th, as near as 
could be learned by the Fish Commissioner. 


TABLES OF SHAD PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1878. 


Record of shad-hatching operations conducted at Avoca, N. C., on Albemarle Sound, from 
March 28, 1878, to May 1, 1878, on account of the United States and Maryland Fish Com- 
missions. 


| ; 
| temperature of— Wind. Condition of— Bie e * 
| E 
Date. Hour. | ; : i 
C3) our. | 2 ‘ ; | | 3 £ Bs 
Des eee A aed ie q 8 |ala 2 
Meese 2 | . n 
eee S| & z e Ss igizi & 
4 |a a A ic Lh E ale SS 
— | — a Ses | 
) ° ° | 
March 28 ..-.|12 m.| 69 GOR pee. SAWS Warcoadcacs | Cloudy..| Muddy 2] 2 16, 000 
7A) Seal) UREN rire 69 GOMER t -- NE, |ieseceeces IP es| dO' ss aes He Stick Selicdes ce eee 
30.22. 12s GON! (60) ssc. -: NE; :h peteeeseee HG lotdive sasdowssene Se sulle | te 
Biree | 2 mie, || 62.4)... SWe-s Meeene ais Wair y= 2|5do% 5.5: wae) 2.5 1222 
PAtpril | abeeeee 12 m.| 62 GRY eases NW. Gileeeecee cee leeGlt) Sa5e- Oe 20 | 12 225, 000 
a 2s merase GT 8 Ee 2 <2 NEES, boseeeecne isedowene: erdowners 12/14] 188,000 
Bau 2) pms 165 Gina leees ENG eee ae Cloud ys 420i ese 30 | 18 288, 000 
Zee [Deer a 5S ea GO|) 58) |) ENE | teas i ldomeas: dowens: 2| 1 20, 000 


620 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Record of shad-hatching operations conducted at Avoca, N. C., on Albemarle Sound, from 
March 28, 1878, to May 1, 1878—Continued. 


Temperature of: Wind. Condition of— fish. 3 

4 

[-?) Mi g ~ 

Date. Hour. ©: F & & E 2 
| 8] 3 E Sg ale 

S aS $ A i) : = = =| oo 

= a F S a= = Ge 3 a | & oo 

eta eobet (is =p zs PF |a|R] @ 

IN YW WES oac 12, =m. 1 20, 000, 
Gieeee 12v) ym. 6 126, 000 
Ngee 12 em. ave 2 a |cienislepeeee 
Shess. 12° om: 11 195, 000 
Lime 12) sm: 2 13 240, 000 
Os sei. 12 om. i : 16 320, 000 
Ne eeoe 7 a.m. Misty 00) eiy25)| re Bhcllocosonacod 

1:2 om: Clear - -GO)=..5el se. ss]ecrad| eeeee eee 
7 p.m. @loudys-|2-dol-=-4|aee— 5 100, 000 
iB eaae Yh Ghana Walt sos. |2200..,26-|esee| eee aaeenees 5 
12m: Clear Ei feet on| beac aoe dl eseoweee 
iw p.m: Sad oF. 2200) bo-(o| Pee 8 140, 000 
a eee 7 am. OO bee ~J00~ ca aelhees weds =| a)e.c'scceietste 
12 m. Ldowmeres = 200! Sac6uleoee ad beanbe 
7 p.m. AO) eaace -s00\4222aleoee 19 380, 000 
iy boat 7 a.m. Hazy 5dO® <eed|hnae ssp seeaete 
125, om: doje 2 0) en een scee Wnccstas 
{poms BOL 6 aie LU arene ea esllenallosassacsen 
beets 7 a.m. Cloudy. .|-.do PE eRe eee ere 
12) om. “doe eee Peri a yee cat Bar iigjsreisise crete 
7 p.m. ss00\.) 2 cc} Ose = <chasae 83 | 1, 605, 000 
Gerace 4 ‘a.m. Beil Wee ers S00 Scere tsetse | Cee 
12) im: GOK-es2 5 100) dc}e flaps «ee | Meee 
ape, sd 0m saa: eC Olenee| sae 59 | 1, 160, 000 
JU (CRS i am. WEG sae 52 QO cazisl on. a} he sia|eeereteleteeate 
12) 5 mi: LedOnace 300) <2.) <l/-is ol lees 
Th as AEBS BI NTs Bish oseaocoslleconacoace|ssscen soba saeeossool6seaseerllotsocosse~ 
Stee. 7 a.m. Be eres erates resi sea|sase | 2esee eee 
12) fm. 985 | > Sly NOt eeeese | ect e ee Seat. eee Sl oe ees |e aes SOR L ARF 
: Vapexn. is wets elton cee 76 | 1, 465, 000 
190 imOs EO «(4 HOST) IGA OO 2 Cerne as ce Re ee Coe eed aes histheseee 
iby ati Hair... 
7 p.m. sey sce ae 
PAN SSAde qoasms dom eeaiee 
120) ams Cloudy. .|-- 
7 p.m. | eiscsemeine 
lsicen 7 (a.m. Clear 
12m. sdoieens: 
7 p.m. a(0h0) sce 
225k. = i (ame =e0uh ee 
ipAa ata Pet) (keene 
7 p.m. delSatite Jone 
Peesce 7 a.m. .--|Cloudy. - 
12.) an: alee Osan 
Ue Api Haire 
24..... 7 a.m. Cloudy . 
12) ams ~dOi 2828 
Crist 6 PEs SI aeeestecasoclscerachaloacesancaclasssocescc 
2Dn Jelste 7 a.m. Clogdy, s|hs---2---- aise | Rectal reer claret 
12 m. 
7 p.m. 
2655-5. (hPa 
12). "mm. 
7 p.m. 
Pl bese 7 a.m. 
ie mM. 
7 p.m. 
Oe caae 7 am. 
12 m. 
iap.m. 
April 29.....| 7 a.m. 
12 m. 
7 p.m. 
30 ceeee 7 a.m. 
125 ems == --d » act] sed wlowetete 
7 p.m. HedOWe 4... LEO ee eee sce} 651000 
May's) scs: 7 a.m. med One a: 30 5 2cee|Paee | Deen seer 
IPA any Ot acc: JO caeeelieee sé 100, 00 


we 


SHAD PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1878, 621 


Record of shad-hatching operations conducted at Havre de Grace, Md., on the Susquehanna 
River, from May 7, 1878, to June 12, 1878, on account of the United States and Mary- 
land Fish Commissions. 


Temperature of— Wind. Condition of— Tape A 
| | sh. re 
| | o 
=a ee a a | 
Date. Hour. o | | gg | | 8s 
| |agle| 2 3 |3| 3 
1 ee | Sol enn ales . 2 ea oe 
deh Wt fers) aes = = iy & 213 op 
4 in a A | 4 Z = A | <3) 
| | i] | 
ne) Chery fe) | 
DLE AY. Al) Ape cconsol|ccodce sesaee eEeees space ae | aevtecetee jacooocaaes 3580 20 385, 000 
Lee: Marin Al seece| eee le nciste | nce seis Eee ees eens aoe Jnco--2t ae WME eet snSscc 
I a "oases he5 4 eeoone esoaasee eioce as cni|senkicios Sarl isereacoern SeoAloSsellododassocs 
8 p.m. | 56 GE easel Boose ee Calmiees| Cloudy-<\) Clear <\ oes S20. clecineeetetets 
UD crore 7 am.| 50 BBio| (57 |iccecen =) SunOn ores e ele ziyeter | MINOlhy, cas | eens leo cal etntreiets ee 
12 m.| 59 Ya (|| Matiealiesoecace | Fresh.-.| Fair .-..|..do..... Heed baae|neoctanocc 
. 8 p.m. 
1 ScDe 7 am. 
12 m. 
8 p.m. 
UGS BAce 7 @™m. 
12 m. 
8 p.m. 
a Pre 7 am. 
12 m. 
8 p.m. 
pty acre ai A m. 
2 m. 
-m. 
18v2 32 7 a m. 
12) m. 
8 p.m. 
19ose=: 7 a.m. 
12 m. 
8 p.m. 
20.. 7 a.m. 
12) am: || 
8 p.m. 
Choose. 7 a.m. 
12  m. 
8 p.m. 
C7 eet 7 a.m. 
12 mn 
8 p.m. 
Bons sa\- 7 4 m. 
12 m. 
SPDs Nes | ree total ees | ee onl Mie cieetalclel apse Meee ala arsisaee | Pee eis eyoc Be 470, 000 
Ae eee|| eae. ||| V0 ve-r|| Gay VW Seeascee Calm .../ Cloudy..| Clear ...}....|....|.-.----.-« 
12 m.| 73 70 660 Ge seeese ssdOieecee ari} Senae CO senor. eaee eemeerate 
8 p.m. | 665 | 68 (ii pllescoosee 5e0.0: 2 eae edOiee as. domacee Boe lie 880, 000 
25.....| 7 a.m. | 65 68 Git leeesene= Be liteeece |--do - Oe) Baoad BonalleaealbGobcemonc 
12 m.| 74 TO BE eacaosee Bari (Niaocee dope: fit) Benoa eecallesre)| Haconsoocc 
Sis pss je | RR RR Se Se Neos ae eee ee ncios emtaiael| aeaneyatene eh o7, 540, 000 
p41 eset) (ear (aie: in 01 9 ert [eee a a aL ee el ee escd Bocanee ne ona beeabacuococas 
0 i a esol Beene Renin Scere mtd sec een aa mecnececce KOEemOnooe loace Geoallacoosecnan 
Ph belo aenecd| baeeca leemces Seoqnc ed soceeoecacmedcepoese Senne -2-|.08 760, 000 
Mesonc i (ea: So +1 A (ee (es [A Pee Ge, ee eee ee Hl peace ean icnecl Gone tmcosasonc 
BO ms eal 2 || seca econ cel baertcie a5 ocieme seam |sceieecicisectoor ots ees perio eatae eeetetietetet= 
Sapam filles |e oes alli Seca ttas wtoreretetel letter ceietete feme clean eel rererercrerenatced leeoeaee 65 | 1,300, 000 
DO eels Cee eee cae [oc none ccineclewemscre.c yee eeeereee eectes nas | meee eee eee 71 | 1,480, 000 
Paced FaseSeceed Sones Coaeen BEENeS Beppecce csamescces MCS ssrcece Gancacacad soar 97 | 1, 940, 000 
June i1..... 7 a.m. i 
120) om: 
8 p.m. 
AES 7 a.m. 
12 m. 
8 p.m. 
aces 7 a.m. : : ts 
12 m.| 704} 674 | 65 |.....--- aah) asc Pair .-..| Clearing}....|....|---.-----« 
8 p.m. | 68 71 (Wp VWeeces e«-| Calm ...| Clear ..-| Clear ...|.-..| 53 | 1,060, 000 
(6506 7 am.| 71 69 66) Scerecee Slishti=-|iCloudy.-|¢-do.. .--{2--e}eoea|se~ an-m== ° 
12 m.| 76 69 664 le eccce. MWe cSod tbe asec sai Eeeee aa o4 seee peponosocs 
8p.m.| 74 72 GT gesstocac Fresh Clondy--\e- dm sencis-e~ 40 750, 000 
EboLE Man | 72 71 68s ee Bailessoee Jhb rhe peer lee0 WY edecd seca oo isoocoscec 
12 om. | 77 7) |) Xe Baee ese EC Omeren sR Gloud yee enol seme eee a | neren | ates — eee 
8 p.m. | 66 72 (UG eae Strong..| Clear - GOO SF calaaea Hepal bacosecoc : 
Ohcone 7 a.m. | 62 68) |) 66° |)..2- 2525 dot at. HBB YA Toe NecGl) aease bose] bese lsacccos eee 
12 m.| 66 74 (AU Mieeeneenc Fresh d0ms522 Roily == |o5-5|6=--| see 
8 p.m. | 65 74 TAN eerescok Calm Clear Ole eases 20 300, 000 
Uscoa- Waste |e CO || 72) 4) 69) Vcc see Slight Edo sees |e GIA Reed raat [Scococc see 
12 ~6m. | 43 Ta (92) ioceceweles do. Waites oelee OCU pea lesed band |sooceasdac « 


622 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Record of shad-hatching operations conducted at Havre de Grace, Md., §:c.—Continued. 


Date. 


| Ri 


| Temperature of Wind. Condition of— 7 a . 

| z 

Hour. \2 elie | B a | 8 

Jv cesaes IS ly secede areca Po a Me 3 

hel aaa ae S 2 s 2|3 2 

A Ehils” | acs ae = [Fe w a ay 

<{ RM 3 | A AS) A E a cs | g 

i} ° ° : 

8 p.m. | 69 | 72 70) llssencgse Fresh..-| Hazy.-.--| Clear ...|..-.| 12 200, 000 
7 a.m.| 70 71 ite) Eeoecaee Slight ..| Cloudy-..|..do ..-- RR IP oes oe 
1 ate NeegacsSoeseis|osoe2sieodsassllsgac secrete jas (iersrorta-- - =a aeceeeeete 
aw |) 72° | Oka GGrn enue Slight ... Cloudy.. 8! 120, 000 
7 a.m.| 68 70 Cy EE Reese Fresh...; Cloudy.. 2262) conse eee 
1A i 72 Ot eetasece Slight ..| Fair ..../-. a2 -hncicte ease 
8 p.m. | 65 73 TOWN Saemcee Calm ...| Cloudy--|-- 12 200, 000 
7 am.| 65 7A Geese nese SeO Ol aise ies OW -to-/0 1S |e cea quteee 
12/5 mea 69 72 69) oieee cee Slight --|2.do’.--.: we a+ te |asoaneeene 
Sp; mitils 2. 3. (se 28s. lsce ooleeeecne cla eae eee een ele eee 7| 125, 000 
Uf P5306 | poshee| beseballscos-ol|Sooneos oppo boncc\|bososeeccr Sedallocccsccsas 
UP T  eE Sse eee Sheol so seis s- Reese |jawieiate wie = m= ae a SAoclecaosccace 
8 p.m. | 66 | 70 | 68h |..22.-- Fresh. .-| Fair .. 5 80, 000 
Taos | God.) O84}, 166) a5 2- =. - Slight . "| Hazy. ..- zis siall taconite 


623 


SHAD PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1878, 


“SIOT[IS Moly USOHeT, 


“WOsees OY} Jo [ULY yey 
48 JSOMLION WOIZ IOATI OG} WO TTeNbs LavopT 


/ 


*ROX0q MOPOOM WOIF ASO] $3.59 000‘O0T I9A0 
‘q80Mq2ION“N pus YRIOU Woy s_enbs AavoyT 
‘S1O][Ls ULOIT UWA HBT, 
“qUOULATYD 9B WOYey, 

‘FAVA Joos WIWSIA Yo 
perioqous pus “OD ‘q ‘Uo}SuTyseA\ 0} POAoTy 


“proxy UvIpuy Iron 
e1oyous pue peminjgor ‘Surysy jou o19M 
94} pumos ‘ Ar0ysy 8,ueudegqy 0} dn yuom 

‘UL "8 OT 9B JouIveys UT 4UTOg oNOysoOy 4JO'T 


*Yo0IQ oo1sdvo S uy peys Sunos 000‘09 Ng 
“pedvose Ysy pus ox0Ig CUTIES 


‘odii ouot 
qnq ‘peas Of SurSvr0cae ‘ep v siney amo 


‘syTEMIOT 


“BOTBUO,T 


*pourejqo ssaq 


“WOHL} USL 


*suOLssWWOD YsiT punjliinyy pun saynjg payuy ay2 foywnosov uo ‘gzat ‘g aune op ‘QzeT ‘OT Avy wmowf ‘soar opmojog oY, UO suOovLedo Buryony-poYys fo p.00axT 


He earls TAIVOTON maa 
eu ODes or WSVT 
5230) hoboee bopsad so9paal osoeo. sponta cecd |osseccess| somes op--|--- > op = 
SUBSE OCUr GeO Die lace O Die 
Fe eee me go ge ian | ane oeneneaen ss [Sie me OD Ds iene op 
Fee eg el oot bees pee Ee age Nas eed = op SEN ae Yso.iy 
Pe tag ae ae ihe pea etl ogee aha | egeea op ~"  efes 
Ps ae ks Batt Gib £4 T Fgh hae kee eens | \ee ee cal op-- i ge op” 
Picea ee inntoe\ersieic miei ATOR Tae tODe 9 | >= ODE 
oomog8 ULES) PL [aileae tes cae eee OD salleae OD 
ssiece ss Wey iss -----"!\-sApnoro |= -qsenip 
Sate gl ear ae gt Pad te ee Od Fe UNAT |-- StoryS 
SRS SOO E OEE netaeocma lame op: op’ 
See) Sobre eles eS S312) fay ee Bader tay oOo fst 
Sse UL <@0Ss0L | >.> Op=|==> aware) |= =2-- op= 
ek Bi med go [i772 ope|-77* ops-|-=" 9q8rT 
yences OL <i 080) ipo ae OP asta OP as poe CUTBG) 
ediaiwen Seoe ise Psee-feeees ope-|---++ ope|---ysaaay 
Sigin in eie re smi sets oie feet op--|- Apno[g |--- + op- 
sieieisiete um ‘dl ge'c Teo[9 |-"- > op--|-- - mypep 
Seesesecee ae py fettec efor op-*|----- op: 
EpRiegiod Tas ae a Neco e e 
BORCSE ORE ume py [errececee [ete ope|ss- op: 
ercsssiine WE B Thy | EUG CRE IG) OOCDS ays SOL iT 
as OEHHA E NSIS (oy ayo PO S22 Vay ees| OOS ay ay 
oelseince= TL Oa | eee OD ce O Dantes ont O DE 
‘ured TT ‘0g Avy |--->- OD Raia re OD in| pee Oe 
pits uw *d 0g "9 IBID |° °° TVID |*---~ op-- 
SSinis cickeisin’s 9 ieee Se ALON ema ODiaa| p= = (OPre 
Rice UL 8! TT \soy ureye|"---- Op--|--=-- op-- 
ee ur ‘d IL > ATLOIY poaee OPss|= = 4U clk 
rele sinioke tal wud ¢ “OD Apnotg |---ysoap 
gisis's siete pr UL GO lel ose emkODealrs 8 a ODss|" sae Ope 
Eade nia eine ie ears "7 IBETD |°°= IvETH |--- 4qUOSry 
rrisccsenweecesenee oasis lee DTLO|@ lace O DE 
Ora md p |--- Aproyy |->* zeo[D |--- ysouiz 

4 | 2] EF 

es S o 

c z. 

“poyaey ouleg Z 

—Jjo woryIpu0D 


“PULA 


Aad A 
ne 


AS 
a 
a 


3 
ALE ANOLENONNAOCKROS 


- 
onl 
rei 


dddddddddddede 


fT] 


ei 


i 


Aad 


Oke Fe VOM NOM te YOO ir o 


Cj 


Aad Ada, 
re 


ret 


ad 
qo 


Ad 
4 


. 


AAdadedededd de dddddaa A 


Buds od i 


624 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Statistics of fisheries at Avoca, N. C. 


2 
Ky 
Aan 
Date. F 3 
La 
1869. 
March .....- 26 
PATIL: 2-05 26 
ay - 12 
Total... 64 
1870 
March...... 25 
JM ute Soepe 26 
May..-...-. 9 
Total. - 60 
1871 
March.----- 20 
nest woiises 26 
BM eopnocier 6 
Total. - 52 
1872. 
March..-..-. 20 
Aprils. =. 26 
May 2.22: U 
Total. . 53 
1873. 
March... ..- 21 
April. ---.-- 26 
May so ascis- il 
Total... 58 
1874. 
Marehecs== 23 
Aprile sasace 26 
EN fangs beans 10 
Total. 59 
1875 
Marchese se 22 
Gals ago aee 25 
IW iY. Sieceao | Somes 
Motalisa|t. coe. 
1876. 
Maren eesese 26 
prileeee 26 
Mayie~=+-<0- 10 
Total 62 
1877 
March...... 18 
PATS =. see 26 
Mavis S22 5.22 15 
Total. 59 
1878. 
Marche ccsd|s acco 
Acarileee 52 2|\05 5. 
Moupeer sence x 


Shad. 


9, ee March 30, 3,290 


22, 082 2,163 


19,693 | April 11, 2,239 


40,488 | April 11, 7,857 


40,670 | April 5, 17,640 


46,842 | April 9, 6,243 


34, 485 2,561 


2/356 | April 28, 1,610 


12,950 | April 21, 1,365 
1 


24, 240 


4,744 | March 19, 830 
5, 543 


10, 287 


March 30, 1,213 


April 12, 1,241 


Rock. 


Best day’s work. cet 


1,653} May 1, 700 


April 8, 2,800 800 


May 6, 48,100 | *35, 000 
March 28, 1,175 700 


March 30, 300 


De ee eee ee ees 
*Many of this catch weighed 80 to 90 pounds; 365 of them weighed 23,725 pounds. 


SHAD PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1878, 625 


Number of hauls made during one week, 1868, and number of shad caught. 


| 
Date. Second naui| Third haul.| Fourth haul.' Fifth haul. | Total. 
1868. | 

PASENED SO fs coe Sc de aicccle's Ac 1,330 550 693 | 520 4,013 
Seca G aS ee eee 384 860 940 | 1,377 | 3,913 
2s Sacasqsdgeseneemeeceses 1, 329 1, 200 pig! OD ee erica 5, 811 
ee sss ea 2,215 TOE) 3. Soe fe ante, 5, 597 
a ee a oc sire Se eee 2, 722 1, 850 760 | 376 7,317 
EER cnet co settee 2, 900 4, 777 75,8500 vale 10, 579 
otal’ shad: can sh tron erweGk. et aimssiices oc cn cles mateo REE eR aia cra'ccis'o/aw cele numa eteioee 37, 230 


40 F 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


626 


TopMVyy Mea AA (°° ~~" * Avg oyvodevseqg 


IOATY OBUI0JO |°~~" ~~"  qULOg WUIOIOT 
Fay. 28 Otol GU bates IOAIY WeMoyD |-"---"- ~~ HOSTS) MOULTES) | S555 eae 7a BOOAW 
00Cd WT AN |°°"” JOATY Buy qyNOS fC TOATY OTT | OTTASLOTAR T, 
“TOSTIILO P “CH peerage SNL) 0 ieee a al he ee rT _” op Cag | (ao aera a OD Saas 
“SULOTDIN “SEL 777 "* Sipe 2 TAT YION |” any Auodeqqeyy |----- ~~ TOYS ploy 
00) 2 de owe Ope See | BSS eo eae OP ges See seu oeie sakes (0) NESS 
Tayor nrstalay. faa ee BOD ees | i= ee SOS) MOU BS) | Panes ear es cae BOOAW 
A) RU svmloqg, |----77 7" TOA UVMOTO |--" >" IOATY TOVVAHOV[_ |--- °° UIPLAVA LL 
of toe cami | haere as uve09 OUR Yy |----- punog oprwuleq Ty |--- Tle Yo 00g 
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esed “WA punog opremoqTy |---"-~* OATS OMOUGOM: |||=s5 25 1s vcs eae WaTVS 
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“pvorpery 
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Foyer as} ofa), ||P SSoSseS IOATT UEMOYD |°= =" 22555 HOOT) MLO UU SU | aie cin acai eae THA OU 
STB TOU O UNM Clie lel | cies sis Avg exvodesoyg |---7-7777" TOATAT, SOUIBIE! | =" => ease puOW ONY 
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---> TA ISSISSTAL 
Sesieeee op: 
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of appue poys bunok fo uoyngysip fo p.ooay 


627 


SHAD PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1878, 


“AOXIT T'S 
‘O'S *O 
“TUVULIONTIS “AA *O 
OCaSs 

‘0d 
“Soxry W's 
eae ‘WM 


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Eide TOATY | Tddississipl | ° "7 - 777" DOATY HOO 
Sonic ‘keg oyvedesayy |*--- sMoarrexy orynsedg 
oar ccisieisss Keg wreysem |----------- DAT SOT 
Soa IA yueydoyyD |--------- waavyA pRely 
ERR SOGNN AToATy sourve |-- ~*~ ">> LOATY BUPA 
2O SOO ES oe 2<-TODs tase teas LOOL@ OPPO 


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PS ROC ED Ang epoovsued 


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SISO JOATY SBSTIVY.LW 


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peices Aeg exee deen) 


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fee ee TOA OVUL0JOT 
“""" JOAN Yeopuvaeys 
sigcmets sMOLIB NT OTYNSEdG 
See ee TANT 0B U0Og 
segs SMOIIEN 9TNSEdG 
reek IOAN VTYSVYSV IL 
anes TOATY OPLULW 


| -* any vaueqenbsng 


qian TOATZL WIO.L4) 

> LOA PURELEquMyD 
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LIATY OLULOJOT 
Pecan IOANT BILUIBOSAT 
>"> TBAT OOOTYURB Ny 


“= -"""""TOATY OBULOJOT 


hd a Yoo) 9aqyeyoO 
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yoolg momypes 


“""JOATY LoJVMYOV] ET 


~se°-"* WAno1ogsued1sy 
“*7""""Q0BIYD OP OIABTT 


PLOPPOVT 
Pineiiei 99BIX) OP DIARTT 


Teapeqs 
Her ae erqdjopeyry 
uoyneg 
ago apatareet yey 
Fag = ea eIquinypor) 
SUISSO.1D PBOITIEYL 
‘ERR ENT ESE osplig UST 
pier se hp rie TOPSULTUT. 


Sees 25 e0BAy) Op O41 EH 
Sars ouny Sssovult 
LANGSTLVS 
miata no) ae ae = qmourAT*) 
aisisiels TOSHIISE AA 4100 
Rae ees eT OTLO NTT 
Teaos 99BLD OP ILAB EL 
Sage nec Plet TOPSUIYSE AA 
sieeisnnk 90BIX) OP AIARA 
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picts sisi 9DBLY) OP BLARTL 
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psicisir'eicieis SAIN S[TRIOPIT 
OaRconeneaee 9101890 yf 


seseee- yoorg oorsdra yy 
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-- Topsayuny 
iN, BY FPLoqumyy 
TenOLOGsmae.L) 
Sek ae ae taop.loq y 
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“‘DUISSOIO pROITEY 
eyouRroy pur plvoqveg 
Tal eae cee aoa ROOAY 


(9) Use 


op:ttst 
5 Se cleieteie> <5 pur sir 
Srouryyty 


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Se susuvyly 
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Ayonzu9 


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pice a eas purpAreyy 
STOUNTL 
cata a oor te BUBISIO'T 
ili aie an purpAre yr 
Opi sess: 

aie 


op adie 
PRR Sep Sages purpAre py 
-- emeqely 
--- pure Areyy 
Paice stele VUILG.AL A, 


pap sarpy 
LACISSISST AL 
ee i ae ae LINOSslT Ay 


RDO IED Oe sossouuay, 
piso a wiclenere sn pup Arey 
op Cr ea 
SIDING COE tddisstssiqy 


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000 ‘00S 
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000 ‘0S 
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000 ‘0S 
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000 ‘0S 
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000 ‘00T 
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000 ‘os 
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000 ‘oe 


000 ‘0S 
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000 ‘09 
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000 ‘0¢ 
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000 ‘00% 
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seeseeeeseees Opeeee 
SOCCER OEIOOUe op:-*- 


op:-*- 
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Opsses 
“qnoyooy reu1Ve}¢ 
op” 


-- -90RLD Op BALL 
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(0} 0) 
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a eee = ies eee op >>> 
op->* 

OD >: 
Ope 


| 


to Oe oe ee eC 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


628 


00 ‘00L ‘GT | 006 ‘089 ‘9T 
Fa ys CEST bal casi ge clara 1) «A ha SMOLIVN OTNSEdY |-------eovLD Op oTAeH [~~ 7 op---""*| 000 ‘02 000 ‘OZT gasses ese sa Opsee= 
*SUOULUNIG “NY [777 "7" Avge oyvodeseyyD |---- Joan depmoduny |------+--- OT[EASAGYIOO! Fos sce essa cs puelArepr | 000 ‘08 COOKOS en) lgaaeene anes OD een 
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OUR Geo [22-2 es tFs SSOP sa ase5 Ree OR ey OD eSeri lates Le aOR CDG caer) OD aves 000 ‘SST OUONGR Tee ae Asien, cts a ODEs 
‘O°an'S a SMOIIBVNT OLGMISAdG |*~7"-- QoVIY Op VIAR AL (NESS 000 ‘00L OOOs00T=  iansas pees Op:ss= 
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71 Gey | eee TA vureqepy |-*-~- JOA esoodeyyey, |-7----- =" "=" ACY STER) | |e eons ne ae ss BULCO ET || OOOK0G> “Si|eeme mec meni cues sear OD mead 
‘HOSP IVLOG Wie). oo te TOATY BB800D |----°7 =" IOATY YVMOPY J" 7-77" OTTEAS LOG 6) (oom Sa seaels BIDLOIY) | 000 ‘0S (DIR ||PReereamoscs« Opies 
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‘SOUTH "H “MA |" 7°77" LOATYy GseqeAA |---"-- JOA SVLIEQuIy }----°---"* 7° WOW ERY AWG) [24 222 Sek Sour y, (NE Pe Beceroeans. Ops s- 
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TIO A “D'S | LOAN Ged Gog Peary) |---- 7777" TOA UBpex. [= posses SSeeAING STE) || oa se wurporey YON | 000 ‘0S O0Os0E aN = fipessae oases a= op--- 
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UNG S458 ET ETO O S20 rasan yueydoyyH |-----* TAT oeyony], | *------* TMoUOIOGS UE sas eat essen te pueyAreyr | 000 ‘0G 000 ‘0 - @OBI) OP OLART 
A ; J F . *poyueyd “ude 
jo Arequqriyy, meg goed 10 WAOT, 97BYS Ayenjoy | Appeaista9 -uoHey 
—joO oS1vyo UL LeysueLy, gouaT AN OORT 


“ysy Jo TononporyUy 


“‘qsy Jo coqunyy 


‘penulyn0g—'o.p “poys Gunoli fo woyngiysip fo p.ooasy 


FL oune 
PL oun 
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oun 
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OD OD SHI OO OOO AAAIAIAMD 


S18T, ; 


“JoJSULIY JO oe 


XXV.—BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE DURING THE ARTIFI- 
CIAL RAISING OF HERRINGS IN THE WESTERN BALTIC, 


By Dr. H. A. MEYER,* 


PREFACE. 


I have published my observations on the spawning-season of the her- 
ring, on its growth, the influence of the temperature of the water on the 
spawn, as well as some other facts relating to the mode of life of the her- 
ring, in the Annual Report of the Commission for a scientific investigation 
of the German seas for 187476, Berlin, 1878. 

These investigations I have continued during the years 1877 and 1878, 
in the direction pointed out in that report. As it will be some time be- 
fore the next report of the commission is published, and as from a prac- 
tical point of view it will be of interest to make the newly acquired ex- 
perience quickly known, I publish the following preliminary report, con- 
taining the more important results of the last two years’ observations of 
the development of the herring. 


I.—INFLUENCE OF THE TEMPERATURE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
EGGS OF THE HERRING IN SPRING. 


In the above-mentioned report of the commission, the various experi- 
ments are given, which go to prove that very cold water will consider- 
ably delay the hatching of the eggs of the autumn herring. It was still 
an open question whether the same applied to the eggs of those herring 
which spawn in spring, which could only be settled by making the neces- 
sary experiments. This seemed allthe more desirable, as it was a ques- 
tion not only of scientific but also of practical interest. If impregnated 
eggs of those fish of the herring kind which spawn in spring and summer 
can be preserved in a healthy state for a longer time by keeping them 
cold, the artificial raising of fish will thereby be benefited, because then 
it will become possible to send such eggs to distant countries. ° As the 
time which it takes the summer spawn to develop under ordinary cir- 
cumstances is but short, the attempts to import the spawn of valuable 
American summer fish have so far not been successful. 


* Biologische Beobachtungen bei Kiinstlicher Aufzucht des Herings der westlichen Ostsee. 
Von Dr. H. A. Meyer, Berlin, 1878. Translated by Herman Jacobson. o 
6 


630 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


I therefore examined the condition of spring spawn when kept in very 
cold water with the following results: 

For this year’s experiments I used full-grown fish which had been 
caught with hook and line near Bappeln, on the Schlei (Duchy of Schies- 
wig), on the 26th of April. Milt and rve were ejected by these fish into 
porcelain dishes the very moment they were taken out of the water, with- 
out exercising any pressure. The temperature of the water at the time 
these fish were caught was 8°.4 C. (47.12° F.), the saltness midway 
between the surface and the bottom 1 per cent. (specific gravity =1.0076 
at 179.5 C.=63.5° F.). The artificial impregnation was, as in former cases, 
accomplished in porcelain dishes, which during the journey to Kiel were 
often supplied with fresh sea-water, which was kept at thé above-men- 
tioned temperature. : 

The diameter of the eggs, altough they came from different fish, only 
varied between 1.22 and 1.37 millimeters. On closer examination it was 
found that nearly every egg had been impregnated and that their nor- 
mal development had begun. 

The following experiments were made with these impregnated eggs: 

1. A number of eggs were placed in the open water of the Bay of Kiel, 
whose temperature at this time was 11-12° C. (51.8°-53.6° F.), and whose 
saltness near the surface was 1.40 per cent. These eggs were left in the 
water till the young fish were hatched. 

2. Some eggs were likewise hatched in the open water of the Bay of 
Kiel, but after having been impregnated, they were from the 2d to the 5th 
day after this had taken place put in water whose temperature was only 
2° ©, (35.6° F.), in order to learn the influence of cold water on seareely 
developed eggs, and likewise to see what would be the result of suddenly 
placing them in colder water. 

3. Eggs which for eight days had been in the water of the Bay of 
Kiel with a temperature of 11-12° (51.8°-53.6° F.), and whose develop- 
ment had almost been completed. were suddenly placed in water whose 
temperature was only 2° (35.6° F.), in order to ascertain the power of 
resistance to cold of eggs which were near being hatched. 

4, One-fourth of all the eggs were, immediately on their arrival at Keil, 
placed in water whose temperature was only 2° (35.6° F.), where they 
were left, to retard their development as much as possible. 

5. Finally, some eggs were placed in still colder water, in order to 
ascertain the degree of cold which becomes destructive to herring-eggs. 

A uniform temperature suitable for these purposes can easily be ob- 
tained by using wooden boxes similar to refrigerators, especially if these 
boxes are carefully surrounded by non-conductors of heat. The water 
used in these experiments was salt water from the Bay of Kiel. In all 
the experiments the water was changed once a day and fresh water put 
in the vessels after being reduced to the desired degree of coolness. 

At as low a temperature as 2° C. (35.6° F.) it seems quite easy, even 
without taking any special precautionary measures, to keep herring-eggs 


BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE HERRING. 631 


fresh and healthy for a month. Only where a number of eggs had be- 
come ‘pasted together did they begin to mold or rot. Wherever the 
eggs lay at the bottom of the vessel in a single layer it would not even 
have been necessary to change the water once a day during the normal 
period of development. 

In artificial hatching special care should therefore be taken to distrib- 
ute the eggs evenly over the vessel. If this is done their sticking to 
the bottom is no hinderance, but rather an advantage, as the fine sedi- 
ment which forms at the bottom can easily be removed without injuring 
the eggs. 

In the following review of the results of my five experiments I have 
omitted many details, because i would only have to repeat what I have 
communicated in former publications. 

Haperiment 1. 


y 


From the eggs kept in the open water of the Bay of Kiel young fish 
were hatched in 10 to 11 days. 

This agrees with my former statement (Report of the Commission for 
1877, p. 240) as regards the time required for the development of autumn 
eggs in water of the same temperature. These required 11 days at a 
temperature of 10° to 11° C. (50°-51.8° F., and spring eggs, which 
formed the subject of my present investigation, required about the same 
time, having during the first day been in water having a temperature 
of 8.49 (47.12° F.), which afterwards was changed to 11° to 12° (51.89°- 
53.6° F.). 

The young fish after having left the eggs only differed from those 
hatched in autumn in being somewhat smaller. Two of the larger ones 
were measured with the following results (given in millimeters) : 


From the From thelower| From the 
end of the|Leneth of| end of the um-} ‘‘sphincter 
Total length. head to the| the umbili-| bilical bag to/| ani’ to the 
umbilical} cal bag. the ‘‘sphincter| point ofthe 
bag. ani.” tail. 


UGB W..- ooeboeg BpaacesobsQ S600 DNCODCEEE OL MEDBaEee 0. 84mm 1 LOma Sh Wie 1. 48mm 
UO Sp eos beep coeeeebeee sob soo opanbssesodenosese 0. 46m 1. 08=m Bradlee nes ye 


Experiment 2. 


Placing eggs at the beginning of their development for three days in 
water having a temperature of 1° to 2° C. (33.89-35.6° F.), did not injure 
them in the least, but retarded the hatching about four to five days. This 
process of development was therefore not stopped, but merely retarded. 
This slower development must have continued after the eggs had been 
replaced in water having a temperature of 11° to 12° (51.8°-53.6 F.). 

In this experiment the time from the impregnation of the eggs till the 
young fish escaped was fourteen to fifteen days. 


632 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
Experiment 3. 


Placing nearly developed eggs from water having a temperature of 
12° (53.69 F.), into water having a temperature of only 1° to 2° (33,8°- 
35-6° F.), does not injure them. 

For this experiment eggs were selected whose embryo if left in water 
having a temperature of 11° to 12° (51.89°-53.69 F.) would have been 
hatched after two days, whilst now, in water having a temperature of 
only 2° (35.69 F.) they required twelve days. In comparing this result 
with that of the preceding experiment, it appears that further developed 
eggs are more retarded by the influence of cold than those whose develop- 
ment has not advanced quite so far. In the second experiment the 
hatching was only delayed four to five days in spite of their being ex- 
posed to cold water for fully three days; whilst in this third experiment 
they were delayed twelve days, although the eggs were only exposed to 
the cold for two days. The whole time consumed from impregnation to 
hatching was, in this experiment, about twenty days. 


Experiment 4. 


Those eggs which immediately upon their arrival at Kiel were placed 
in water having a temperature of 1° to 2° C. (33.8°-35.6 F.) did not 
develop as evenly as during the first three experiments. 

The first young fish left the eggs on the twenty-eighth day after im- 
pregnation, the majority between the twenty-ninth and thirty-third day, 
and a few even later. If we take into consideration, that during the 
first day these eggs had been in warmer water (8°.4 to 129°=47,12°- 
53.69 F.) and that if immediately on being impregnated they had been 
placed in water having a temperature of 1° to 2° (33.89-35.69 F.) their 
development would have been a few days slower, it may well be supposed 
that in that case they would have required thirty-three to forty days. 

In my former experiments with autumn-eggs a similar delay occurred 
at a temperature of 39.5 C. (38.30 F.). It seems, therefore, that the eggs 
of the spring fish differ somewhat in this respect from those of the 
autumn-fish. This difference, however, is not marked enough to draw 
special conclusions from it. It must be granted that there is a similar 
delay caused by cold in both cases. 


Huperiment 5. 


The period of development was by this experiment shown to imerease 
in length if still colder water was applied. At first, water was used 
having a temperature of 0° (32° F.); with this temperature, the first 
young fish were not hatched till the forty-seventh day, and if we count 
in the first day spent in warmer water, still later. 

The young fish, however, did not seem to be quite healthy, although 
some of them swam about for days in a lively manner. Many retained 
a very noticeable deformity of the back. It could not be ascertained 


BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE HERRING. 633 


whether this was solely caused by the lower temperature; for it 1s prob- 
able that other causes aided in bringing about this result, for example, 
keeping the eggs for more than one and one-half months in small ves- 
sels which could not be thoroughly cleaned; the impossibility of keeping 
the temperature exactly at 0° (32° F.); and, finally, the change of water, 


‘which could only be effected once a day. Ido not maintain that it is 


utterly impossible to produce perfectly healthy fish at a temperature of 
0° (32° F.), for, in repeating the experiment with better apparatus, some 
of the mistakes of the first experiment might be rectified; but a renewed. 
experiment would scarcely seem profitable, because it has been ascer- 
tained as a fixed fact that at a temperature of + 1° C. (33.89 F.) the 
eggs of the herring develop in a perfeetly normal manner, whilst repeated. 
experiments have shown that this is impossible at a temperature of 
only —0°.8 C. (50.569 F.). At this temperature the yolk becomes opaque, 
expands, and finally bursts the shell of the egg. 

In the water of the Baltic, which is not very salty, the dividing line 
lies between + 1° (33.8° F.) and —0°.8 C. (30.569 F.); at any rate, very 
near to zero. 

I have so far not been able to ascertain whether this condition would 
remain the same in the water of the North Sea, which has a greater 
degree of saltness, and whose freezing-point is lower. 

The fact that the spawn of the herring can stand such a low temper- 
ature sufficiently explains why young herrings sometimes make their 
appearance in the Schlei immediately after the breaking up of the ice. 
They can, without any risk, lay their eggs even in very shallow water, 
as no thick cover of ice, which alone might prove dangerous, forms in 
spring. Even those eggs which have been laid earliest do not fully 
develop until the-water has become somewhat warmer. The autumn 
herring never spawns in shallow water, but only where there is a cur- 
rent. In the Western Baltic, therefore, the young herrings will scarcely 
be destroyed by cold. On the other hand, it might be of interest to 
investigate whether currents coming from the Polar Sea during the 
spawning-season of the herring could strike the spawn in northern wat- 
ers, for instance, on the coast of Norway. This would furnish an answer 
to the mysterious problem why the herrings leave certain coasts which 
they had been in the habit of visiting for many years. The surface 
temperature cannot decide the question, but the temperature of the 
water at the depth at which the eggs are found. 

In the above-mentioned report of the commission (p. 241), I have 
mentioned the fact that in the eggs of the autumn fish the yolk dimin- 
ishes in size if the season of development is extended on account of the 
cold. But as the autumn eggs used in former experiments differed in 
size, and the young fish hatched from them in length, it was impossible 
to decide whether those embryos whose time of development had been 
prolonged by the cold had already increased in length whilst in the egg. 
As the spring eggs used in this year’s experiments were all of the same 


634 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


size, it could be proved that the decrease of the yolk is invariably ac- 
companied by an increase of the embryo. The young fish were meas- 
ured, with the following result: 


Millimeters. 
After 7 to 8 days from the time they left the egg............ 4.7 to 6.0 
After 11 to 12 days from the time they left the egg............ 5.2 to 6.6 
After 20 days from the time they left the egg...............- 6.0 to 6.9 
After 28 to 35 days from the time they left the egg........-.. 6.1 to 7.2 


Tf these results are compared with those which are given 1n the report 
of the commission, for young fish hatched from autumn eggs from Kor- 
soer (Denmark), it will be found that these last-mentioned fish were con- 
siderably longer. Their length varied between 5.4 millimeters, when the 
time of development was shortest, and 8.8 millimeters, when it was longest. 


INFLUENCE OF NORTH SEA WATER ON HERRINGS’ EGGS FROM THE 
BALTIC. 


It. 


In order to ascertain the influence of the water of the North Sea— 
which contains more salt than that of the Baltic—on the eggs of the 
Baltie herring, I took some eggs which had been impregnated, on the 
26th of April, at Cappeln, on the Schlei (a fiord of the Baltic), on the 
following day to the aquarium of the zoological garden in Hamburg. 
The North Sea water used in this aquarium at this time only contained 
3.25 per cent. salt, and its temperature was 12° C. (53.60 F.). Here the 
Baltic water was gradually mixed with the North Sea water, so that the 
eggs were not exposed to the full degree of saltness till after forty-eight 
hours. On the 7th of May the first young fish were observed swimming 
about freely, and during the succeeding days they were followed by 
others. The time of development was therefore very nearly the same 
as in Baltic water of the same temperature. The day when the eggs 
were taken to Hamburg was unfortunately very hot, and as the eggs 
were not evenly distributed, but were placed several layers deep at the 
bottem of the vessel, the larger number of them spoiled. But the fact 
that the remaining ones reached their full development about as fast in 
the North Sea water as in that of the Baltic, shows that the saltness of 
the water does not exercise any very marked influence. There were no 
arrangements in the Hamburg aquarium for raising the fish, and this 
first experiment therefore only proves that the eggs of the Baltic spring- 
herring can develop in the North Sea, leaving it an open question 
whether the young fish hatched from these eggs can live and grow to 
maturity in the North Sea. 


IiIl.—RAISING YOUNG HERRINGS FROM ARTIFICIALLY-IMPREGNATED 
EGGS. 


As far as I know, no one has succeeded in artificially raising young 
herrings. My own numerous experiments in this direction invariably 
failed, because the eggs began to mold, and because uo suitable food 


BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE HERRING. 635 


for the young fish could be found. They died, if not sooner, at any rate 
after the yolk had been consumed. The growth of the fish could, there- 
fore, not be observed in one and the same individual, but had to be esti- 
mated approximately from a series of measurements made on different 
fish, which only kept fresh for a short time, and then had to be replaced 
by freshly-caught fish of the same size. 

In the spring of 1878 I at length succeeded in raising young fish, reach- 
ing a length of 72 millimeters, from eggs which had been used in the 
above-mentioned second experiment. My observations confirm, as a gen- 
eral rule, the data regarding the growth of the herring given in the report 
of the commission. There were, however, some differences in the details 
which will justify me in giving in this place a full report of this experiment. 

As has been mentioned before, the eggs were impregnated at Cappeln, 
on the Schlei, on the 26th of April. The second, third, and fourth day 
after impregnation they were kept in water having a temperature of 
only 2° C. (35.69 F.); the remaining time they were kept in the open 
water of the Bay of Kiel, having a temperature of 11-12° (51.89-53.6° 
F.). The entire season of development lasted 14-15 days. A short 
time before the young fish escaped from the eggs the dish containing 
the eggs was placed in an oval wooden vessel, measuring 135 centime- 
ters in length, 95 in breadth, and 77 in height, and holding about 0.7 
cubic meter of water. Half of this water was every day replaced by 
fresh water from the bay, which could fiow off slowly, but continuously, 
through a sponge firmly pressed in a round opening at the bottom of 
the vessel. This sponge served as a filter, hindering the animalcules 
which serve as food for the larve of the herring from escaping. During 
the course of the summer the temperature of the water on the surface of 
the bay increased to 25° C. (77° F.), and in the wooden vessel, which 
was generally protected from the ight and heat by a wooden lid, to 
about 20° (68° F.). The saltness varied between 1.15gnd 2.20 per cent. 

When within two days the greater portion of the eggs had been 
hatched, I did not wait any longer for the remaining ones to be hatched. 
The number of young fish was anyway very considerable. They always 
kept together like a swarm of bees, and when the sun was allowed to 
shine on the water they often came to the surface. 

After one to two days many of these young fish already showed a con- 
siderable increase in length, the largest measuring 9.2 to 9.35 millimeters. 
After three days many had lost the umbilical bag entirely and showed a 
widely opened mouth. After five days food could be recognized in the 
intestinal tract. In some it consisted of a fine-grained greenish mat- 
ter, whilst in most it was composed of embryos of gasteropods and 
bivalves of the smallest kinds of Rissoa, Ulve, Lacuna, Tellina, Cardium, 
Mya, which at this season of the year fill the water of the Bay of Kiel 
near the shore. These embryos can easily be distinguished by their 
small shell, and swim about in the water in avery lively manner. Those 
which were found in the intestinal tract of the larve of the herrings had 


636 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


a length of 0.11 to 0.16 millimeter. Sometimes 20 were found in one 
and the same larva resembling a string of fine beads and filling the 
whole space from the mouth to the “sphineter ani.” The copepods, at 
first of the Nauplius kind, were not quite so frequent among the contents 
of the intestinal tube. | 

When Professor Hensen and I examined some of these larve on the 
10th day after being hatched, we found a small number of colorless and. 
scarcely visible particles of blood. 

After the 10th day the number of our young fish, which had so far 
enjoyed excellent health, began to diminish in a very noticeable degree. 
Finally their number dwindled down so rapidly that I was afraid my 
experiment would be brought to a premature close. The fish did not 
seem to grow much more in length, although some progress could be no- 
ticed in its transformation from a larva to a definite fish shape. But the 
length of the largest one on the 47th day after impregnation was only 

2 millimeters, whilst, according to my observations of young herrings 
raised in the open water of the Schlei, it ought to have been about 17 
millimeters. An increase of only 3 millimeters durmg a whole month 
could certaiply not be called a normal development. The intestinal tube 
was nevertheless filled nearly all the time. 

Hitherto fresh water had been poured into the oval vessel through a 
thick cloth, so as to keep out any enemies of the herring. I now made 
a change in this respect, by pouring the fresh water direct into the ves- 
sel, hoping thereby to give to the young fish more and more varied food. 
I can of course not decide whether the favorable turn which matters 
took was owing to this change, but I know of only one cause of the 
sudden growth of the fish, namely, the largely increased number of 
copepods. 

By this increased growth during the third and following months the 
artificially hatchegl fish at the end of the fifth month reached exactly the 
same size as the herrings of the same age living in the open water of 
the Schlei—which I have mentioned ina former report. This was further 
corroborated by a number of young herrings raised in the Schlei simul- 
taneously with those kept in confinement. 


Age, counted from the impregnation of the egg. 


Growth of the artificially 
raised herrings per 


mm. 
Oneinionphe-s seeitee neers Sekai acide occ skiisiie, JUSTE ee ee i 2718). | . LOSS eeSseeaaee 
ALWiOMMO TENS te ects mncinxlesie's icine sic.cls idle Gace cle cas ulea eee aoe eene ee | 7-8 
(MhneS Monsey cosssece seek ce he ee sc fb ee ee 13-16 
HOMEAMON Chaise serr meer ciet aaa soso nes Choe haee doe eee eee 18-19 


Five months 


BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE HERRING. 637 


Probably it was only the want of suitable food, brought about by filter- 
ing the water through a cloth, which detained a large number of fish from 
their normal growth. *The few, however, which passed this ordeal success- 
fully showed in the most unmistakable manner that they knew how to 
makeup for their involuntary fasting. This is an interesting observation, 
because it shows how much the growth of the herring depends on the 
quantity of food. <A still more striking example of rapid growth was 
exhibited by a few small sprats which were sent to me from Cappeln on 
the 20th of August, 1878.* 

These fish, measuring 30 to 35 millimeters in length, reached a length of 
66" in thirty-five days, whilst they were confined. We, therefore, observe 
in a small fish closely resembling the herring a growth of 25™™ in thirty- 
five days, or 22™" during one month. It is well known that the growth 
oft all fresh-water food-fish varies very much. But the fact, proved by 
actual experience, that salt-water fish, like herrings and sprats, are not 
only retarded in their growth by want of sufficient food, but will make 
up for lost time as soon as food is more plentiful, must be considered as 
another proof that fish of different size may have the same age. This 
will be a welcome statement to those who could not make the occurrence 
of herrings of all sizes at every season of the year agree with the sup- 
position of two, or at most three, spawning-seasons. There is at the 
present time scarcely any doubt that the best-fed fish of the autumn 
spawning are fully equal in size to fish ef the spring spawning—there- 
fore 6 months older—which have been retarded in their growth, but that 
these last-mentioned fish can ata later time reach the size which belongs. 
to their age. 

It is likewise certain that the food of the herring is, as a rule, more plenti- 
ful during some months of the year than during the rest; that, for ex- 
ample with us, on the shores of the Bay of Kiel, there is a very noticeable 
lack of pelagian animals towards the end of winter. Our herrings, there- 
fore, probably grow slower at certain seasons of the year than at others. 

All that can be aimed at is, therefore, to ascertain the average growth, 
more especially as one year may not resemble the other in this respect. 

Although this treatise was to be confined to the growth of the embryo, 
I also made a few observations on the growth of the fins, which may 
find a place here. 

On the 25th day after the fish had left the egg, the dorsal fins began 
to appear, and on the 33d day 11 distinct rays could be seen. Six 
weeks after the fish had left the egg, the dorsal and caudal fins in fish 
measuring 15-19™" had assumed their complete shape; but in the 
former some rays were still wanting, whilst in the latter the smaller half 
of the rays was wanting. The anal fin likewise showed a form resem- 
bling its definite form very closely. The number of.rays in different 
fish of the same age varied very considerably. The shape of the pec- 
toral fins had not changed much, and did not by any means resemble 


*Large numbers of these fish appeared about the same time in the Bay of Kielae 


638 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the adult shape. Of the ventral fins there were only very indistinct 
indications. After ten days more had elapsed—therefore 7 to 8 weeks 
after the fish had left the egg—many of the larve entered the transition 
period. They now measured 25 to 28™™ in length. This is the same 
length as that of the smallest larvee, cf the same age, living in the open 
water of the Schlei, whilst with the autumn herring the transition period 
does not set in until the fish have reached a much larger size. The fish 
which had been artificially raised in the Bay of Kiel had, therefore, pre- 
served the character of the Schlei spring fish. 

The young herrings of the same size which can now be caught in 
large numbers in the Bay of Kiel differ somewhat from the above- 
mentioned herrings in the position of their fins, and to some extent re- 
semble the autumn herring. They are, therefore, certainly not hatched 
from Schlei eggs, but are probably natives of the Bay of Kiel. In my 
former reports I had to leave it undecided whether the Bay of Kiel con- 
tained spawning-places; but now I can answer this question in the 
affirmative. 

On the 5th of May, 1878, and during the following days, there was ex- 
cellent herring-fishing at the mouth of the river Schwentine. 

On the 5th and 6th of May only fully-matured fish containing spawn 
were caught; on the 7th of May some were caught which had spawned, 
and from day to day the number of spent fish increased, until no other 
were caught. 

Also at the mouth of the canal, near Holtenau, the same large and 
full fish were caught. 

This confirms a supposition, which I have expressed in another place, 
that the spring or coast fish have numerous spawning-places in the 
Western Baltic, although none of these spawning-places re of great 
importance. 

KTEL, September, 1878. 


XXVI.—THE PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF THE HERRING 
AND SMALL-HERRING, WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO THE COAST 
OF BOHUSLAN, 


BY A. V. LJUNGMAN.* 


{Translated from the Swedish by Herman Jacobson.]} 


The great importance of the herring-fisheries to the Scandinavian 
countries has led to scientific investigations for the purpose of gaining 
increased knowledge of all those conditions on which the proper man- 
agement and administration of these fisheries depend, and with a view 
of making them as productive as possible. The principal results of 
these investigations which have been carried on in Norway and Den- 
mark have been given from time to time in the “ Tidsskrift for Fiskeri” 
and the “ Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri”; and the author of this little 
treatise hopes to give an account of the Swedish investigations as they 
are gradually progressing. As such a work may be considerably fur- 
thered by observations furnished by those specially interested in the 
fisheries, who have special opportunities for observing, I have deter- 
mined to follow the example of two former contributors to this journal, 
Axel Boeck and G. Winther, and to work up historically and system- 
atically those portions of the various sciences having a bearing on the 
subject towards which important contributions may be expected from a 
large class of people outside of scientific circles, and whose more gen- 
eral knowledge may be of importance for our fisheries. In order to 
enlighten and benefit this class of people, as well as to derive the fullest 
possible benefit of their co-operation, it is important that by a short and 
clear résumé of what has been done hitherto, they should be enabled to 
gain an insight into the condition of our fisheries. 

Among the phases in the life of our salt-water fish whose knowledge 
may be considerably increased by observations and contributions by 
the common people, the visible phenomena accompanying the propagation 
and growth of the herring occupy an important place. And with the 
view of throwing more light on this subject, I wrote this treatise four 
years ago, and have now reproduced. it, embodying all the results of 
recent investigations, especially those of the German Fish Commission.! 

* Om sillens och skarpsillens fortplantning och tilludxt, med serskild hdnsyn till Bohuslins 


skdrgard. Af A. V. LxuNGMAN.—[From ‘Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri,” 5th year, 
part 4, Copenhagen, 1879. ] 

1 Jahresbericht der Commission zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der deutschen Meere in 
Kiel, iv-vi. Berlin, 1878. is 


640 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The coast-herring living in the Skagerack spawns during spring, in 
suitable places on the coast, few of which seem to have been known to 
those authors who have written on this subject. The cause of this is 
probably found in the circumstance that net-fishing, which is best suited 
for catching herrings during the spawning season, is not very common 
in Bohusliin, as nets can only in exceptional cases be used in those places 
where the herrings spawn. An even sand-bottom, free from rocks 
and stones, is very rare on the coast of Bohuslan, and the drag-nets 
which are the best for use during the spawning-season cannot easily 
be drawn across a rocky bottom, which forms the most suitable spawn- 
ing-place. The herrings, however, seem also to spawn on clayey bot- 
toms overgrown with aquatic plants. Good spawning-places are found 
quite frequently farther out along the whole coast of Bohuslin, and it 
is certain that the herrings, though perhaps not in very large numbers, 
spawn in these places every year; at any rate much more frequently 
than was thought formerly, when such an occurrence was considered a 
rare exception.? There has been, even quite recently, a tendency to 
underrate the number of our coast-herring which spawn in spring. 

With regard to the nature of the bottom on which the herrings spawn 
the observations made by different authors all agree. As suitable bot- 
toms we generally find mentioned rocky or stony bottom, sand-bottom, 
bottoms overgrown with alge or other aquatic plants, whilst it is gen- 
erally denied that herrings can spawn on soft, muddy bottoms without 
any vegetation. Mitchell’s assertion, that herrings cannot spawn on sand 
bottoms, * may find its cause in the circumstance that the waves stir up 
the sand on the more shallow banks near the coast of Scotland, which 
would, of course, disturb the eggs; but his assertion, that the herrings 
lay their eggs also on hard, clayey bottom, cannot be properly substan- 
tiated. The assertion that the herrings prefer a bottom overgrown by 
a “peculiar kind of algze,” which “limits the number of their spawning- 
places to very few,” © is likewise without proper foundation. Although 
the herring is, therefore, not limited in the choice of its spawning-place, 
we cannot agree with Valenciennes, who says that the herring spawns 
almost anywhere, in calm weather even out in the open sea.® It is on 
the contrary our opinion that the herring chooses spawning-places which 
are not only suitable for hatching the eggs, but also for feeding and pro- 
tecting the young fish. The herring prefers calm water during spawn- 


2 WRIGHT, W. v., ‘‘ Handlingar rérande sillfisket i bohuslinska skérgarden. Stockholm, 
1843, p. 166.—EckstTrOM, C. U., Ofversigt of Kgl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forhandlin- 
gar, I, 1844, p. 26, 82.—HotmBere ,A. E., Bohusliins historia och beskrifning. II. 
Uddevalla, 1845, p. 215.—Niisson, S., Skandinavish Fauna. IV. Lund, 1855, p. 509. 

3YHLEN, G. V., Nya handlingar rérande sillfisket i bohusidnska skérgdrden. I. Gote- 
borg, 1874, p. 12. 

4The herring, its natural history and national importance. Edinburgh, 1864, p. 294. 

5 The herring, &c¢., p. 29 and p. 32. 

6 Lovmn, S., Handlingar rérande silljisket, p. 160. 

6 Histoire naturelle des poissons, xx, Paris, 1847, pp. 79-80. 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 641 


ing, and when spawning in fiords and sounds generally keeps near the 
land. The choice between neighboring spawning-places often depends 
upon the weather, and it has several times been observed that violent 
and continued storms have compelled the herrings to spawn at some 
distance from the coast in places which otherwise were not suitable; as 
likewise, that in too cold or too warm weather they seek deeper spawn- 
ing-places, for even prior to spawning they prefer an even temperature. 
According to Hkstrom, they also prefer places where there is a current.’ 
It has also been observed that the older and larger herrings prefer those 
spawning-places which are near to the open sea, whilst the smaller and 
younger ones go nearer the coast or higher up the fiords. 

Besides those herrings which regularly spawn at or near the coast, 
there seem to be some which generally spawn in the open sea on banks 
suitable for the purpose, located at a sufficient depth to afford pro- 
tection against any violent commotion of the waves; and it is an old 
conjecture, that those herrings which during long periods have in large 
numbers visited the western coasts of Scandinavia for the purpose of 
spawning, during the intervals visit such banks in the North Sea. As 
those portions of the eastern Skagerack near the cost of Bohuslin which 
are suitable for spawning are limited in extent, are not very well pro- 
tected, and are generally found to havea comparatively small depth, it will 
easily be understood why they have not become permanent spawning- 
places. The supposition that a large race of herrings spawns there 
regularly every year is therefore not in accordance with the actual facts. 

Regarding the depth in which the herrings spawn it seems that they 
generally prefer a depth of a few fathoms; more recent observations 
have proved, however, that occasionally they may spawn at a very con- 
siderable depth (60 to 100 fathoms), and that the eggs may be hatched 
there. It is not certain, however, that such a depth is favorable to the 
raising of the young fish." Along the coast of Bohusliin there are prob- 
ably few spawning-places deeper than 10 to 15 fathoms”, most of them, 
especially those higher up the fiords, being only 2 to 5 fathoms deep. 

It has long been known and has been mentioned among others by 
Pennant and Naél de la Morimére, that considerable quantities of fish- 
eggs are found floating near the surface of the open sea; the Dutch fish- 
ermen even believe that most of the herrings are raised from such float- 
ing masses of fish-eggs (‘“herring-beds”) ; but, as we shall endeavor to 
prove, this cannot be the case, as the eggs of the herring are heavier 
than water and can therefore not float on the surface. In order that 
the eggs may be fastened to suitable objects, the spawning process 
should go on near the bottom, and these so-called “herring-beds” owe 


7 Die Fische in den Scheeren von Mérké, Berlin, 1835, pp. 216, 223. 

8A. BoECcK, “‘Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne.” I. Christiania, 1871, pp. 128-129.—Tidsskrift 
for Fiskeri. VU, p. 39.—Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fisiceri. TI, p. 263-264. 

NA. Kroyer, “ Danmarks Fiske.” III. Copenhagen, 1846, p. 163. 

They are nearly all located near the northern portion of the coast, especially from 
the Vader Islands to Koster. 


41 F 


642 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


their existence probably to some species of codfish, to judge at least 
from the time of the year when they are found.!% . 

Regarding the spawning-time of our Bohuslién coast herring it has 
already been mentioned that it is in spring or from the middle of March 
till the middle of May, chiefly in April.* It must be supposed, how- 
ever, that the larger herrings, especially on the northern coast, occasion- 
ally spawn somewhat earlier, sometimes in February, whilst on the south- 
ern coast the spawning season sometimes lasts till June. Hydrological 
conditions, especially the temperature of the water, exercise a consider- 
able influence on the time when the spawning-season begins; it gen- 
erally begins earlier on the northern than on the southern coast, on the 
outer than on the inner coast; earlier also after a mild winter and par- 
ticularly favorable weather. Cold and especially the formation of ice 
seem to have a great influence on the time of the propagation of the 
herring... No race of herrings, as far as known, spawns about the time 
of the winter solstice, but either so long before this period that the 
young fish may grow to some size before the hardest winter weather 
sets in, or so long after it that the newly-hatched fish soon meet with 
mild weather, or are at least not exposed to the dangers consequent 
upon the formation of ice. The herrings do therefore not spawn on the 
coast of Scandinavia during December and the first half of January, 
nor during the latter half of November.” It is probable that the spawn- 
ing-season of a race of herrings has in course of time been fixed accord- 
ing to the varying occurrences of the food required for the young fish, 
which chiefly seems to consist of young mollusks and small crustaceans.” 
The spawning-season of the herring in a given locality does doubtless 
to some extent depend on the propagation of these small marine animals. 

As those herrings which spawn in March and April are generally 
larger than those which spawn in May, these latter are probably her- 
rings which spawn for the first time.’ The three-year-old herring, which 


13 Verslag van den Staat der Nederlandsche Zeevischerijen over 1860, p. 29—Uitkomsten ver- 
kregen uit de journalen der haring-schepen. Berigt bij het koninklijk Meteorologisch In- 
stituut over 1860, p. 6-7. 

4When speaking of the “spawning-time” of a race of herrings, we always mean the 
time when large numbers of fish are spawning; and no one should be led to consider 
another season as the “‘spawning-time ” because both before and after that time some 
herrings will spawn. 

6P, Duss, ‘ Anteckningar om sillfisket Bohuslin.” Kgl. Vetensk. Acad. Handl. f. 
ar 1817, pp. 35, 44, 

16 Compare Professor KROYER’S excellent remarks (Danmarks Fiske, III, p. 170) re- 
garding the influence of the ice on the spawning-time of the herrings in the Baltie. 

17See note 14, as also NiLsson, ‘‘Handlingar rérande sillfisket,” p. 56. EksTROM, “‘Die 
Fische in den Seheeren von Mork,’ p. 220, 223, and: “Jahresbericht der Commission zur 
wissenschuftlichen Untersuchung der deutschen Meere.” IV-VI., pp. 100, 237, 248, 249. 

18Stockholmslins Kgl. Hushallnings-Sdllskaps handlingar. V1, Stockholm, 1855, p. 197.— 
Boeck, ‘‘Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne,” p. 15. 

19The same opinion has already been advanced by A. W. Mato in “‘ Géteborgs och 
Bohusliins Kgl. Hushallnings Séllskaps handlingar,” 1857, p. 21. 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 643 


do not finish their spawning in spring, are found early in autumn with 
strongly developed sexual organs, and therefore spawn somewhat earlier 
than the other herrings of the same age. Itis chiefly these herrings, 
besides the older and larger ones, which also spawn somewhat earlier on 
the outer coast, and which, therefore, are not so frequently caught in 
nets, which have given rise to the assertion that autumn or winter 
spawning herrings occur on the coast of Bohuslin.?” The sexual organs 
of the herring develop much slower during winter when food is not so 
plentiful; for this reason the spring-spawning herrings have their sexual 
organs developed much longer before the spawning-time than is the case 
with the autumn-spawning herrings. Whenever, therefore, herrings 
are observed during autumn with well-developed, firm and hard roe or 
milt, this is a sure indication that the herrrings will soon commence to 
spawn. The erroneous opinion, which in a similar case has been ad- 
vanced by Strém, Malberg, Lybecker, Nilsson, Kroyer, Loberg, Axel Boeck, 
and others, concerning the spawning of the Norwegian summer and 
autumn herring”', should be a warning example against hasty opinions 
based on insufficient observations or data regarding the spawning-sea- 
son of the herring.” It is also well known from olden times that the 
different age of the herrings has an influence on the varyiag spawning- 
season.” Nilsson thus reports that the young herrings at Skelderviken 
and the coast of North Holland spawn sooner than the old herrings,” 
whilst in the Sound the old herrings, according to Winther, spawn 
sooner.”” It seems that those herrings which spawn during winter and 
spring are, in this respect, the very reverse of those which spawn towards 
the end of summer and during autumn. 

The spawning-time of our Bohusliin coast herrings seems to have re- 
mained the same, at least as far as can be judged with any degree of 
certainty from the more or less distinct notices regarding these fisheries 
in the “ Trangrums-acten” (law regarding the refuse from train-oil refine- 
ries), in the reports of Mr. Clancey, superintendent of herring-fisheries in 


20See my “ Prelimindr berdtlelse for 1874~ 75,” pp. 10-12. 

2H. StrR6M, “‘ Physisk og economist Beskrivelse over Fogderiet Sindmér.” I. Sér6, 1762, 
p. 308.—C. R. MoLpere, ‘Afhandling om Salivandsfiskerierne + Norge” (Kgl. danske 
Landhunsholdnings-Selskabs Skrifter, iii, Copenhagen, 1790), p. 370.—I. L. LyBECKER, 
“ Om Fiskeneog Fiskerierne; Almindelighed samt om Silde-Fiskerierne i Sdrdeleshed,” Copen- 
hagen, 1792, p. 82.—NILsson, ‘‘ Skandinavisk Fauna,” iv, pp. 496, 511.—KRGYER, ‘‘ Dan- 
marks Fiske,” iii, p.170.—O. N. LOBERG, ‘‘ Norges Fiskerier,” Christiania, 1864, p. 93.— 
Borck, ‘‘ Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne,” p. 122.—See, also, G. O. Sars, ‘‘ Indberetning 
om dei Aarene 1870~ 73, anstillede praktisk-videnskabelige Undersdgelser,” Christiania, 
1874, p, 37. 

2 Nearly all similar opinions regarding the spawning-time of the herring and the 
small-herring are also based on the erroneous idea that all successful herring-fisheries 
must necessarily be spawning-herring fisheries. 

%See M. E. Bloch, ‘‘ Oeconomische Naturgeschichte der Fishce Deutschlands.” I. Berlin, 
1782, p. 191. 

% Handlingar rorande sillfisket, pp. 56, 58, 60. 

%6 Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri, iii, p. 12. 


644 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND- FISHERIES. 


Dubb’s “Anteckningar om sillfiskett Bohuslin,” “ Handlingar rorande 
sillfisket,” and in Lkstrom’s and Malmn’s treatises.” 

As has been mentioned before, the coast of Bohusliin is at long inter- 
vals also visited by large numbers of ‘“ genuine sea-herrings,” whose 
spawning-season seems to be towards the end of summer or the first part 
of autumn, as far as can be judged from the reports on the herring-fish- 
eries during the eighteenth century.” Among these “sea-herrings” 
there were found especially on the northern coast a small number of 
herrings whose spawning seems to have occurred towards the end of win- 
ter or the beginning of spring,® but whose relationship could be ascertained 
with a greater degree of certainty than even that of the great mass of 
herrings. It is highly probable that the herrings in question which 
spawn towards the end of winter and generally in the beginning of 
spring belong permanently to our coast and to its race of coast-herrings, 
and are in factits largest, strongest, and, with regard tothe sexual organs, 
earliest developed representatives; it is likewise probable that it is 
owing to the sea-herrings coming from the North Sea that so many more 
herrings were caught in nets during the last fishery-period than later. 
The masses of herrings coming from more distant parts of the ocean 
drive those herrings which are nearer the land towards the coast, where 
both are caught together. The same takes place, though to a less extent, 
with the rich herring-fisheries which occasionally occur in the beginning 
of the year, which also explains the prevalent opinion that in these fish- 
eries herrings resembling the so-called “old” herrings are caught.” 
During the latter part of the last great fishing-period no other fully 
matured herrings were caught but these last-mentioned ones. 

Regarding the spawning-time of the herring, it should here be men- 
tioned that the opinion has been advanced that one and the same her- 
ring could spawn more than once a year, and that therefore one and the 
same race of herrings had two distinct spawning-seasons.*” No con- 


26 « Trangrums-Acten,” Stockholm, 1784, pp. 76,77, 78.—G. C. CEDERSTROM, ‘‘Fiskdd- 
ling och Sveriges fiskerier,” Stockholm, 1857, p. 215.—gl. Vet. Akads. handl., 1817, pp. 
35, 44.—Handl. rér sillf., pp. 64, 66, 90, 117, 120, 126.—Nya handl. ror sillf., I, p. ix, X.— 
Oefvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akads. Férhandl., I, 1844, p. 120. C.N. Exstrr6m, “ Praktisk af- 
handling om liémpligaste séttet att fiska sill, torsk, langa, makrile, hummer och ostron,” 
Stockholm, 1845, p. 8.—A. W. Mam, ‘ Géteborgs och Bohuslins Kgl. Hushallnings- 
Sdliskaps handlingar,” 1856, pp. 9-10; 1857, p. 21. 

27 See my “ Preliminiir berittelse, 1873-74,” pp. 19-21, where all the conflicting opin- 
ions regarding the spawning-time of the so-called ‘old herring” are for the first time 
given in a collected form. 

28 NILSSON, ‘‘ Handl. ror. sillf.,” p. 55.—Skandinavisk Fauna, iv, p. 508. 

29See my ‘‘ Prelimindr berdttelse” for 1873~74, pp. 29-382. 

30M. E. Buiocn, ‘ Oeconomische Naturgeschichte,” i, p. 192.—B. G. E. DE La CEPEDE, 
“* Histoire naturelle des poissons,” v, Paris, 1803, p. 434.—Handlingar rérande sillfisket, p. 
56.—R. PARNELL, ‘“‘ Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society,” vii, Edinburg, 
1838, p. 319.—LHvidence on the operation of the acts relating to trawling for herring on the 
coasts of Scotland, Edinburg, 1863, p. 30.—A. RussEL, ‘‘ The salmon,” Edinburg, 1864, 
p. 86.—See also, KrR6veER, ‘ Danmarks Fiske,” iii, p. 170.—This whole question has al- 
ready been discussed more than two centuries ago, as may be seen from NEUCRANTZ, 
“De harengo exercitatio medica,” Lubec, 1654, pp. 18, 19. 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 645 


vineing proof, however, has been brought forward for these supposi- 
tions, which must rather be considered as unsuccessful attempts to ex- 
plain the fact that herrings which spawn at different seasons of the year 
occur on the same coast, without having recourse to the supposition that 
two different races of herrings live in the same water, exposed to entirely 
similar influences. 

Another opinion has also been advanced, viz, that the herrings only 

spawn every other year. Although it will be difficult to deny the pos- 
sibility of such an occurrence, even merely as an exception from. the 
common rule, or owing to special circumstances, and although it must 
be acknowledged that such a supposition affords a very convenient ex- 
planation of the relationship and occurrence of the so-called migra- 
tory herring (strdksillen),*! it must, on the other hand, not be forgotten 
that there is not sufficient proof for the absolute correctness of the sup- 
position, and that it brings in its train numerous other difficulties. 
Nothing of the kind has ever been noticed in other closely-related spe- 
cies of fish, and it seems perfectly clear that we should not look for any 
such characteristic in a species of animals whose only shield in the 
battle for existence is its fecundity. 
' In the same way it has also been asserted, in order to prove the ocea- 
sionally quite frequent occurrence of so-called “ migratory herrings,” that 
the herrings grow so old that through old age they lose the faculty of 
propagating the species.” But no convincing proof of this assertion 
has so far been brought forward, although it ought to have been com- 
paratively easy to obtain such proof. It is not known how often the 
herring can spawn—in other words, how long it retains and uses its prop- 
agating faculty. A Scotch fishery commission has, however, expressed 
the opinion that the herring does not live longer than the time occupied 
by two to three propagation periods.* 

Some time before spawning commences the herrings which have 
hitherto lived rather scattered, begin to gather in large masses, which, 
with the principal races of herrings, assume gigantic proportions, and 
form so-called “ herring-mountains,” which gradually approach the places 


31 Boeck, ‘‘ Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne,” p. 24.—G. O. Sars, ‘‘ Morgenbladet,” Chris- 
tiania, January 4, 1872, No. 3.—Indberetning om det Aarene 1870~73, anstillede praktisk- 
videnskabelige Undersdgelser,” Christiania, 1874, p. 59.—Compare, also, LOBERG’S entirely 
different explanation in ‘‘ Norges Fiskerier,” pp. 23-24, and my explanation in my ‘‘ Pre- 
limindr Berittelse” for 187475, p. 11.—Although it is natural to suppose that those 
herrings which finish their first spawning very early are so much weakened by it that 
they need an extra year to gain sufficient strength for another spawning—an explana- 
tion which agrees well with the circumstance that the ‘migratory herring” is smaller 
than the large spawning herring—we must, as long as this supposition lacks sufficient 
proof, and as long as the phenomena which shall be explained by it can be explained 
in a much less doubtful manner, nevertheless, reject it. 

2(C. U. EkstTrOn, Oefvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akads. Forhandl.” 4, 1844, p. 26. Praktisk 
afhandling, p. 8.—A. W. Mam, ‘“‘ Géteborgs och Bohuslins Kgl. Hushdllnings-Sdllskaps 
handlingar,” 1857, p. 20.—Ldsning for Fiskare i Bohuslin, Goteberg, 1861, p. 17. 

33 Report of the Royal Commission on the operation of the acts relating to trawling 
for herring on the coasts of Scotland, Edinburg, 1863, p. 28. 


646 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


where they are going to spawn. Occasionally, however, the herrings 
arrive at the spawning-places some time before spawning commences ; 
during a portion of the great fishing-periods, this seems to have been 
the rule, but generally this is not the case, although it happens 
that at the beginning of the fisheries herrings are caught which are 
far from being ready to spawn. The various individuals composing a 
school of herrings do not all get ready for spawning at one and the 

same time, so that the spawning-season of one school generally extends 
over nearly a quarter of a year; the number of spawning fish is small 
at the beginning and at the end, and greatest about the middle of the 
spawning-season. It is therefore an old experience, gained during the 
ereat herring-fisheries in the western portion of the North Sea, that in 
the beginning the fishermen catch more fat herrings, fewer spawning 
herrings, and searcely any herrings which have done spawing; that the 
number of fat herrings decreases in proportion as the spawning herrings 
become more frequent, and that towards the end of the fisheries nearly 
exclusively such herrings are caught which have done spawning, 
together with a few spawning herrings, but no fat herrings at all. This 
last-mentioned kind seems to give way before the spawning herring— 
does therefore not go along to the spawning-place, and is not found there 
whilst spawning is going on. 

The herring generally takes no food during spawning and imme- 
diately previous to it, and as the sexual organs develop at the expense 
of fat, the fish are very lean after spawning. During the spawning- 
season we therefore find, at least with the sea-herring, only very inconsid- 
erable and entirely indeterminable traces of food in its stomach or entrails. 
This is not so much the case with the coast-herring, which finds sufficient 
food even near the spawning places, and which seems to continue to take 
food farther into the spawning-season. 

The approach of the herrings to the spawning-places may certainly be 
delayed or interrupted by unfavorable weather, but when spawning has 
onee commenced the herring blindly rushes forward towards its object 
without being deterred or hindered by anything; for instance, the attacks 
of fish of prey, We. 

It has also been observed that when the herrings begin to approach 
the spawning-places the overwhelming majority are female fish, while 
the very reverse is the case towards the end of their visit to the coast ; 
and a predominance of male fish is said to be a sure sign that the fish- 
eries are approaching their end.** A short time before the beginning of 
the spawning-season small quantities of fish composed exclusively of 
male fish are caught. 

The herrings generally approach the spawning-place at the beginning 
of night and leave it early in the morning immediately after having 
spawned; but during the great fisheries it also happens that the her- 


34 BoECK, ‘‘ Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne,” p. 26; Tidsskrift for Fiskeri, VII, p. 24. 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 647 


rings come to the spawning-places during daytime, and this is said to 
take place particularly towards the end of their visit to the coast. 

Concerning the spawning-process itself, opinions are divided as to 
whether it continues uninterruptedly till finished, or (as with the carp) 
goes on at intervals, the contents of the sexual organs being emptied 
gradually. The latter opinion is advocated by Axel Boeck, who men- 
tions a number of very plausible reasons in its favor, which, however, 
are not altogether convincing. He even goes so far as to speak of the 
importance which this gradual spawning process ought to have for the 
fishermen.** According to information received from experienced fish- 
ermen, two to three weeks would elapse before a school of herrings 
had by repeated emissions ejected all the spawn and roe contained 
in their sexual organs; but this does by no means prove that every 
individual fish spawns at intervals. The fact that the nets sometimes 
contain fish whose sexual organs are only half emptied is not a suffi- 
cient proof that such fish, if left alone, would have retained the pro- 
ducts of their sexual organs till they could find another chance to emit 
them., It is quite probable that miscarriages take place under violent 
shocks or when death is threatened. It must also be remembered that 
by no means all those herrings which at one and the same time approach 
a spawning-place also spawn together, but that a greater or smaller 
number come near the coast which are not quite ready for spawning. 
This circumstance may have led to erroneous or exaggerated versions 
of actual facts. As far as known the spawning process of the great 
schools of herrings is one continuous act. It is certain that the herring, 
when free, does not begin to spawn until the entire contents of the sex- 
ual organs are so loose that the least pressure will make them flow out; 7 
and even if there are intervals in the spawning process these intervals 
must be very short. 

During the spawning process the herrings are packed in a dense mass, 
are in constant and violent motion, move their tails rapidly, press and 
rub against each other or against the bottom, press against the nets, &e., 
all with the obvious intention to facilitate the emptying of the sexual 
organs.” It has been observed that during the emission of the milt the 
sea-water assumes a whitish color, that a peculiar odor becomes percepti- 
ble, and that many scales which have become loose during the process 
rise to the surface. In net-fishing it has also been observed that the 


35 BOECK “‘ Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne,” p. 59. 

3 Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, pp. 26, 27. 

37The products of the sexual organs begin to get loose, especially in the male fish, 
long before spawning commences. With a practical view Dr. Heincke has given an 
excellent table of the gradual development of the sexual organs in the “Jahresbericht 
der deutschen Commission zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der deutschen Meere,” IV- 
VI, pp. 68, 69. 

3° Professor HENSEN, who has observed the spawning of the herring in the Sli- 
fiord (Duchy of Schleswig), says that the roe is freely emitted by the female fish while 
hurrying to and fro over the spawning-place. (Jahresbericht, IV-VI, p. 26.) 


648 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


female fish generally go nearer the bottom than the male fish.*® After 
the spawning process is finished the herring hasten back to the open 
sea, but according to observations made in Scotland, they first gather for 
a while near the surface in the spawning-place.” Together with the roe 
a sticky slime is emitted, which soon becomes hard in the water, and by 
means of which the roe, when it sinks to the bottom, is fastened to rocks, 
stones, and aquatic plants; sometimes the roe even forms large compact 
cakes. 

As the Skagerack herring spawns during the night, and during the 
dark and cold season of the year, the Bohuslin coast offers but few 
opportunities for observing the spawning process. This is probably 
also the cause of the characteristic ignorance of the spawning process of 
the herring displayed by the Bohusliin fishermen. The remarks which 
we propose to make on the phenomena accompanying the spawning of 
the herrings are, therefore, principally based on observations made by 
fishermen in more favorable localities. For comparison’s sake, we will, 
however, reproduce here the excellent description of the spawning pro- 
cess of the herring given by Gisler, which in some respects must still be 
considered the bestofthekind. Inhis “Beskrifning om Strémmings-Fiskets 
beskaffenhet, Norrbotten” (Description of the Herring-Fisheries in Norrbot- 
ten), he thus describes the spawning process of the herring: *! ‘* When 
the herrings approach the coast in large numbers and emit both roe and 
milt, giving a whitish color to the water, the fishermen say that the her- 
rings ‘are shining. When this takes place the following may be ob- 
served: The herrings which have halted, say about one-eighth of a mile 
from the coast, approach the land in large masses, both male and female, 
andemitmiltandroe. Packed closely together they press forward towards 
theland, beat their tails against each other, and cause such violent commo- 
tion that many scales are torn off and float near the surface of the water ; 
a strong and rank odor (edor aphrodisiacus) fills the air, and may be per- 
ceived at a great distance. During this time the fish do not heed seines 
or nets but press against them. In a few moments, about sunrise, the 
roe and milt will give the water a whitish-gray color, extending far out 
towards the deep; as soon as the fish have commenced spawning they 
will go out to sea, seeking those places where several currents meet, 
ejecting roe and milt all the time, till, when they have reached the deep, 
they have grown quite light and empty; they scarcely return to the 
coast that same summer. The roe when emitted is surrounded with a 
gluey juice, by which it is fastened to rocks, stones, plants, and fishing 
apparatus ; lines which have been left in the water near the bottom are 
often covered with roe to the thickness of an inch, and it is quite diffi- 
cult to serape it off. With regard to its spawning process, the herring 

39 Nordish Tidsskrif t for Fiskeri, I, p. 38. 

4 HuGH MILLER, according to W. BRABAZON: “The deep sea and coast fisheries of 
Treland. Dublin, 1848, p.31.—J.G. Bertram: ‘The harvest of the sea.” London, 


1873, p. 170. 
41 Kgl. Svenska Vetenskaps Academiens Handlingar for 1748, TX, p. 113-115. 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 649. 


bears a strong resemblance to other small fish; bream, perch, crucian, 
&¢c., which also press close against each other and cause a great com- 
motion in the water when they spawn. For some days in the begin- 
ning of spring only milters are caught, but as soon as spawning com- 
mences milters and spawners are caught containing loose milt and roe. 
When spawning is over, both milters and spawners seek the deep.” 
After the eggs of the herring have been laid.and have become impreg- 
nated, some time elapses before they are hatched; this time varies accord- 
ing to the temperature of the spawning-place. Thesomewhat conflicting 
observations on this subject seem to point to a varying incubation-season 
for the different races. C.J. Sundevall’s opinion is probably correct, that 
‘fish do not have a regular hatching-time for their eggs like birds.” 
This conscientious observer says that on the coast of Stockholmliin, the 
eggs of those herrings which spawn there, are generally hatched in about 
14 days or a little more, but may, when the temperature of the water is 
higher (say upwards of 68° F.),be even hatched in 3 days.8 Hkstrom 
reports that on the coast of Mork6 hatching takes about 14 days.“ From 
the Sli-fiord, which has been examined by the German Fishery commis- 
sion, it is reported that the hatching of the herring eggs during spring- 
time, when the temperature was, comparatively speaking, high (18 to 20° 
C.=64.49-68° F.) took only about 8 to 10 days.” The same observation 
has been made by Kroyer regarding the herringson the coast of Denmark.” 


2Stockholms ldns Kgl. Hushdllnings-Sdllskaps handlingar, V1, Stockholm, 1855, p. 158. 
SB Kgl. Svenska Vetenskaps Academiens handlingar, I, 1, 1855, p. 17.—See Stockholns lins 
Kgl. Hushallnings-Sallskaps handlingar, VI, p. 195, where it says: The development of 
the eggs progresses rapidly. During August they are often hatched in 3, or at most 
5-6 days. Witha water temperature of 14-15° =57°-59° F., the eggs have been hatched 
in 6-8 days. During May it took 6-8 days to hatch ‘ahermy ” These observations have 
been repeated by WIDEGREN in his treatise ‘‘ Nagra ord om sillfiske samt om sillens eller 
Strémmingens rdtta beredning till handelsvara” (Kgl. Landbruks Academiens Tidsskrift, X, 
Stockholm, 1871.—Tidsskrift for Fiskeri i, VI, p. 68.—Cireulare des deutschen F. ee 
Vereins, 1872, IV, p. 106.—United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Report for 
1873-74 and 1874-75, Washington, 1876, p. 186.—Report on the herring fisheries of Scot- 
land. London, 1878, p. 182.) 

“Die Fische in den Scheeren von Mérké. Berlin, 1835, p. 221. 

#Circulare des deutschen Fischerei-Vereins, 1874, p. 268. Later Professor KUPFFER has 
given the following results of the above-mentioned comission: ‘The roe of the autumn- 
herring, with a lower temperature (48.2°-51.8°F.) and a saltness of about 2 per cent., 
develops in exactly the same time and shows the same phenomena as the Sli-spring her- 
ring with a higher temperature (57.2°-68°F.) and a saltness of only O.5 per cent.; the 
development of the eggs in the Western Baltic goes on independent of the temperature 
of the water and its saltness in about 7 days, counting from the time of impregnation 3 
the majority of the eggs are hatched in 7 days, some of them even in 6 days, although 
the hatching of an indeterminable percentage of eggs may be delayed a few days.” 
(fahresbericht, 1V-VI, p. 31-32).—Dr. H. A. MEYER adds the following information, based 
oh more recent and complete observations: ‘‘ that with a temperature of 38.3°F. the, 
development of the egg takes about 40 days, with a temperature of 44.6°-46.4°F. about 
15, and with a temperature of 60°-51.8°F. about 11 days; but that the influence of the 
temperature on the roe of the spring-herring does not differ from its influence on the 
roe of the autymn-herring.”—Jahresbericht, IV-VI, p. 240.) 

«Danmarks Fiske, III, p. 170. 


650 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


On the southern coast of Bohusliin A. W. Malm made observations during 
April, 1856, which showed that it took the spring-herrings spawning in 
that region about 24 days for the development of the roe ;#” and from Nor- 
way we have Avel Boeck’s observations, which fally agree with this. In 
Scotland the views seem to differ somewhat from ours ; thus Allman says, 
that the development of the roe of the winter-spawning herring occu- 
pies 25 to 30 days, whilst the fishermen say that it generally takes the 
roe of the summer-herring 2 to 3 weeks and that of the winter-herring 4 to8 
weeks to develop ;*° Bertram, however, computes the period necessary for 
developing the egg at 10 weeks.*! 

The newly-hatched young herrings vary somewhat in size according to 
the size of their progenitors, those on the coast of Stockholm measuring 
only 7 millimeters,” whilst those on the west coast of Norway reach a 
length of 10 millimeters.*? 

The newly-born herring with its long and narrow body bears very 
little similarity to its progenitors, and therefore has to undergo consid- 
erable changes in size and shape until it becomes a genuine herring. 
The tender young herring grows very rapidly; higher temperature and 
the larger quantity of food consequent upon it will accelerate its 
developement. 

Prof. C. J. Sundevall therefore feels justified, on the ground of his 
own and Baron C. J. Cederstrém’s observations, in stating that the 
young herring on the coast of Stockholm reach a length of 25 millimeters 
in about two months, 36 millimeters in three months, 50 millimeters in 
four months, 75 millimeters in one and 125 to 150 millimeters in two 
years.” Hkstrém says that the young herrings on the coast of Moérk6é 

47G6teborgs och Bohuslins Kgl. Hushdllnings-Séllskaps handlingar, 1856, p. 10, 11.—Géte- 
borgs och Bohusliins fauna (vertebrates). Géteborg, 1877, p. 579. 

480m Silden og Sildefiskerierne, p. 12-13. 

4 Report of the Royal Commission on the operation of the acts relating to trawling 
for herring on the coast of Scotland. Edinburg, 1863, p. 24. 

50 Evidence of the Royal Commission on the operation of the acts relating to trawling 
for herring, p. 21,33, 34.—MITCHELL, ‘‘The herring,” p. 340.—BERTRAM, “The Harvest 
of the Sea.” London, 1873, p. 168. 

51 The Harvest of the Sea, p. 171.—BucCKLAND finally mentions observations from 
Scotland by Captain McDONALD, according to which the roe of the herring is hatched 
in about 18 days. (Report on the herring-fisheries of Scotland. London, 1878, p. 182. 

62C, J. SUNDEVALL, ‘‘Stockholms ldns Kgl. Hushdlln. Sdllsk. handl., VI, p. 195.—Kgl. 
Svenska Vetensk. Acads. handl., I, 1, 1855, p.18.—The same observation is found in A. 
W. MAM, ‘“‘Goteborq’s och Bohuslans fauna,” p. 579. 

5 BoEck, ‘Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne,” p. 13.—According to the observations of the 
German Fishery Commission, the length of the newly-hatched herring varies from 
5.2-8.8 millimeters. (Jahresbericht, IV-VI, p, 32, 33, 240-248. ) 

54C, J. SUNDEVALL, ‘‘Stockholms léns Kgl. Hush. Sdllsk. handl.,” VI, p. 196-197. Kgl. 
Sv. Vet. Ak. handl., I, 1, 1855, p. 18-19, 21-22., Plate IV. (Jahresbericht der Commission zur 
wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der deutschen Meere, 1V-VI, p. 74, 79, 98, 121, 127, 130, 243.) 

The overlooking of these facts has doubtless been the cause of several mistakes in 
distinguishing young herring from young small herring. 

55 Stockholms liins Kgl. Hushalln. Sallsk. handl., V1, p. 105, 196-197. gl. Sv. Vet. Akad. 
handl., I, 1, 1855, p. 18-19. 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 651 


reach a length of 25 millimeters in one month, 50 millimeters in about 
three months, and 100 millimeters in one year.” 

Professor Miinter, who has observed the life of the herring on the coast 
of Pommerania, thinks that young herrings caught on that coast measur- 
ing 56.7 millimeters were two to three months old.** The data furnished 
by Professor [réyer regarding the growth of the young herrings on the 
Danish coasts agree entirely with Hkstrom’s observations from the coast of 
Sédermantand.*® Professor Nilsson says that the young of the autumn- 
spawning herring reach a length of 75 millimeters in May, but that near 
the mouth of the Laga River young fish are found at the same season 
which were larger and were, therefore, presumably a year older,” and 
that on the coast of Bohusliin, according to assurances given by the 
fishermen, the herrings have reached a length of 25 millimeters towards 
the end of May, 50 millimeters in August (about the middle of the month), 
and next autumn, when the herrings are one and a half years old, 75 to 
100 millimeters ; © which observation has later been somewhat modified, 
the young herring reaching a length of 75 millimeters during the first 
summer, and those small herrings which measured about 100 millimeters 
being called “last year’s young ones.® 

Young herring begin to appear on the coast of Bohuslin already in 
the beginning of May, and with the increasing warmth grow quite 
rapidly, measuring 65 to 90 millimeters” from the point of the lower jaw 
to the root of the tail (a total length, therefore, of 80 to 110 millimeters). 


56 Die Fische in den Scheeren von Morké, p. 221-222. 

57 Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, XXIX, p. 303. 

58 Danmarks Fiske, II, p. 170-171. 

59 Handlingar rorande sillfisket, p. 59.—Professor NILSSON seems to have forgotten the 
spring-spawning race of herrings (Clupea majalis, Nilss.), whose occurrence in this 
region cannot have been unknown to him. 

The observations of the German Fishery Commission on the young of the autumn- 
spawning herring in the western part of the Baltic seem to prove that those fish which 
are hatched in autumn reach the same or perhaps even a greater length in one year’s 
time than those fish which are hatched in spring. (Jahresbericht, IV-VI, p. 248.) 

60 Handlingar rorande sillfisket, p. 45. 

61 Handlingar rorande sillfisket, p. 130. 

See, also, Exstr6m, ‘ Praktisk afhandling,” p. 10, where he says that ‘‘in Novem- 
ber or December the young fish, then nearly a year old, have reached a length of 
75-100 millimeters.” 

&During the latter part of November, 1873, I measured a great many young her- 
ring, which had about that time been caught on our northern coast, and found that 
the total length of one-year-old fish varied from 78 to 109.5 millimeters. Very numer- 
ous and accurate measurements of young herrings, made in the bay of Kiel by the Ger- 
man Fishery Commission, from November 14, 1876, to May, 1877, gave the following 
minimum of totallength, viz: November 14, 84 millimeters; end of November, 90 milli- 
meters; end of December, 100 millimeters; end of January, 110 millimeters; of Feb- 
ruary, 114 millimeters; of March, 135 millimeters; and of April, 138 millimeters. (Jah- 
resbericht, IV-VI, p. 245.) 

Young herring having a total length of 85 to 95 millimeters are, by A. W. MALM, 
considered to be almost two years old. (Géteborgs och Bohuslins fauna [vertebrates], 
Giéteborg, 1877, p. 581.) 


652 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


By measuring a large number of herrings caught on the coast of Bohus- 
lan during the latter part of spring, I have found that the majority of 
herrings in that region may, according to their size, be divided into three 
groups, namely, 1, those measuring 100 millimeters (total length 120 milli- 
meters), Which must be considered as one-year-old-fish ;* 2, those measur- 
ing 145 to 150 millimeters (total length 170 to 175 millimeters), which 
must be considered as two-year-old-fish ; and 3, those measuring 175 
millimeters (total length 200 to 210 millimeters), which are presumably 
three years old, and have fully-developed sexual organs. Occasionally 
I found a fish measuring only 160 millimeters (total length 185 milli- 
meters) which had loose roe,® as well as fish measuring 160 to 170 milli- 
meters (total length 185 to 200 millimeters), which could not possibly 
have become ready for spawning that same year. Larger fish, measuring 
about 200 millimeters (total length 234 centimeters), are probably four 
years old.” As a considerable portion of the food which the herring 
eats and assimilates is directly or indirectly used for the formation ot 
the milt and roe, the growth of the herring in size is, of course, a slow 
process. The circumstance that the spawning season of our coast-her- 
rings extends over a period of at least several months, causing a consid- 
erable difference of age among the young fish, and a difference in their 
ability to seek and obtain food, with other accidental circumstances, 
must be considered as the cause why in one and the same net fish of 
every possible size may be caught.” 

The Bohuslin coast herring seems to spawn for the first time when it 
is three years old, although this must by no means be understood as if 
all fish born in one and the same year must spawn at that particular 

6 According to the extensive investigations of the German Fishery Commission, the 
growth of the young herrings in the southwestern portion of the Baltic is more rapid 
during spring than my observations on the coast of Bohuslin have shown it to be. 
In the above-mentioned part of the Baltic the herring are said to reach a total length 
of 130 to 140 millimeters during the first year, i. e. 10 to 20 millimeters more than my 
observations showed. (Jahresbericht, [V-VI, p. 246.) 

64In reproducing my observations (Prelimindr berdttelse, 1873-74, p. 35) in the ‘‘Jahr- 
esbericht der commission zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der deutschen Meere in Kiel” 
(IV-VI, p. 247), the circumstance seems to have been overlooked that my measure- 
ments do not include the caudal fin, which of course increases the length considerably. 
I have in doing so followed the custom of other writers, amongst the rest AXEL BOECK, 
who does not count in the caudal fin. Modern writers, as well as some of the older 
ones, have followed a different course in this respect. Desirable as uniformity in this 
matter would be, the choice must be left to individual opinions; only for the sake of 
avoiding mistakes it should always be mentioned what length is meant, and this has, 
unfortunately, not always been done. 

6 A. W. MALM’s observations agree with this, as he says that fish having a total 
length of 190 to 220 millimeters ‘‘are presumably in their fourth year,” and that fish 
measuring 300 millimeters (total length) ‘‘are probably upwards of 6 years old” (Fauna, 
pp. 573, 577). 

6 Judging from the observations of the German Fishery Commission, the later growth 
of the herring is not quite so slow as I have mentioned above. 

67 See “ Prelimindr berdttelse,” p. 156. 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 653 


age, for some do not seem to get ready for spawning till they are four 
years old. 

Opinions have been very much divided, both among naturalists and 
persons engaged in the herring fisheries, as to the age at which the her- 
ring spawns for the first time. Professor Nilsson, on the authority of ‘ in- 
telligent fishermen,” supposed that ‘no kind of fish spawns in its second 
year,” and that “ the herring does not spawn till it is five or six years 
old.”. Ekstrém, on the other hand, thinks that those herring which 
measure about six inches (“counted from the point of the nose to the 
caudal fin”) are two years old, and that those measuring 10 to 12 inches 
are about 4 to 5 years old; and also says that the herrings on the coast 
of Bohuslin do not spawn until they have reached a length 7 to 8 
inches (total length). Prof. 0. J. Sundevall, who has observed the growth 
of the herring on the coast of Stockholm lin, thinks that they are ready 
to spawn when three or three to four years old, when they have reached 
a total length of about 8 inches or 200 millimeters.” Awel Boeck is in- 
clined to believe that “the youngest herring which spawns can scarcely 
be less than three, and certainly not more than four years old,” although 
he is not able to give sufficiently strong reasons for his opinion ;! he also 
says that persons who have long been occupied in fishing have informed 
him that the herring, when spawning must be six or six to eight years 
old. Prof. G. O. Sars seems to have followed Professor Nilsson in 
trusting the authorities mentioned by him, and at first fixed the age 
when the herring spawns for the first time at four to five, and more re- 
cently at five to six years ;* although he grants that some favored 
individuals which have just reached the age of four years (that is, 
“Christiania herring” of the preceding summer) may, in exceptional 
cases, be ready for spawning whilst of the five-year-old herrings (the 
“ middle-herring” of the preceding summer) a much larger number have 
reached maturity. 

Of foreign naturalists who have given attention to this question we 


® Handlingar rorande sillfisket, pp. 45, 47, 51, 71.—See, also, the same work, pp. 59 
and 60, where it says ‘‘ when the herring begins to spawn for the first time, it is at 
least 5 to 6 years old.” 

8 Praktisk afhandling, pp. 10, 11.—See, also, the same, p. 5. 

7 Stockholms liins Kgl. Hush, Sdllsk. handl., V1, pp. 105, 151, 161, 162. 

1 Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, pp. 36, 37.—Tidsskrift for Fiskeri, VII, p. 21. 

72 Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, pp. 36, 37.—Tidsskrift for Fiskeri, VII, pp. 20, 21.—In 
the ‘‘ Christiania Morgenbladet” of November 5 and November 20, 1872, Boeck gives a 
fall account of the six years’ development of the herring furnished him by a man by 
the name of Dahl. According to this authority, herrings are on the west coast of Nor- 
way called ‘* Musse” when 1 year old; ‘‘ Bladsild” (leaf herring), when 2 years old; 
“Christiania sild” (Christiania herring), when 3 years old ; ‘‘ Middelsild” (medium her- 
ring), when 4 years old; ‘‘ Kjébmandsild” (merchant’s herring), when 5 years old ; and 
“ Vaarsild” (spring herring), when 6 years old ; distinctions which seem to be of very 
ancient date in Norway. 

7 Indberetning om dei Aarene, 1870-73, anstillede praktisk-videnskabelige Undersdgelser, pp. 
38, 39, 40.—Recently CoLLETT has expressed the same opinion (Norges Fiske, Christiania, 
1875, pp. 191, 192). 

™ Indberetning, 1870-73, p. 39. 


654 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


must mention A. van Lewwvenholk, who thinks that herring spawn when 
only one year old,” and Yarrell, who, in accordance with observations 
made by himself, maintains that during the first year herrings do not 
develop sufficiently to have mature milt or roe. We must also men- 
tion the British Commission for examining the Scotch legislation regard- 
ing the herring seine-fisheries (Playfair, Huxley and Maxwell), which has 
shown that opinions vary much among Scotch fishermen, some sup- 
posing that one, others that three, and others that even seven years 
must elapse before the herring is ready to spawn. The report of the 
commission says: ‘‘ No sufficient proof can be brought forward against 
the assertion that the herring reaches its maturity when one year old.” 
‘There is good reason to suppose that the eggs are hatched in at most 
two to three weeks after spawning, and that six to seven weeks later 
(that is, at most ten weeks after spawning) the young fish have reached 
a length of 3 inches.” ‘Since it is well known that young salmon can 
leave a river and return to it after twelve months eight to ten times 
larger than when they left, and since the herring lives on nearly the 
same food as the young salmon, it seems quite possible that it can also 
grow in the same rapid proportion.” “ Under these circumstances nine 
months ought to be a sufficiently long time to increase the length of the 
herring from 3 to 10 or 11 inches.” “It may well be objected, however, 
that one cannot draw absolutely certain conclusions regarding the growth 
of fish by means of analogy, and it will perhaps be best to leave it an 
open question whether the herring has reached its maturity at the age 
of 12, 15, or 18 months, and consider the last mentioned figure as the 
maximum.”*7 Jn North America naturalists seem inclined to the opinion 
that the herring, like most other migratory fish, does not reach its matu- 
rity till it is three years old.® 

7 Sesde vervolg der brieven, Delft, 1697, sid, 336-337. 

76 British Fishes, 3d edition, I, London, 1859, p. 107. 

77 Report of the Royal Commission on the operation of the acts relating to trawling 
for herring on the coasts of Scotland. Edinburgh, 1863, p. 27.—Evidence of the Roya] 
Commission on the operation of the acts relating to trawling for herring on the coasts 
of Scotland, pp. 8, 9, 17, 23, 33, 34.—Mitchell, The Herring, pp. 30,340.—Bertram, The 
Harvest of the Sea, pp. 169, 170. 

78 M. H. Perley, Reports on the Sea and River Fisheries of New Brunswick. Freder- 
icton, 1852, p. 290.—Fourth Annual Report of the Department of Marine and Fisheries. 
Ottawa, 1872, Appendices of the fisheries branch, p. 131. 

The work of the German Fishery Commission has led to still another view of this 
question, according to which the herring reaches its maturity when two years old. 
Since it has been ascertained that at the age of one year the herring has a total length of 
130-140 millimeters, and that fully-matured herrings have been caught in the western 
portion of the Baltic, having a total length of 160-200 millimeters, Dr. H. A. Meyer 
felt justified in supposing that the growth of the 60-70 millimeters which were lack- 
ing to bring the length to the last mentioned figure and the full development of the 
sexual organs would not require more than one year. (Jahresbericht, IV-VI, p. 247.) 

If, however, further investigations should confirm this supposition, which is by no 
means impossible, I believe, for my part, that such investigations ought to prove that 
such isthe case only with some of the fish born during one and the same spawning-season, 


but that by far the larger number of these fish only reach their maturity at the age of 
three, and perhaps even four, years. 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 655 


According to unanimous testimony, the herring continues to grow 
(though slower) long after it has reached maturity, or the faculty of 
propagating the species; but the assertion that the herring, as well as 
other fish, know no other limit of growth but death is probably not well 
founded.” It is not known how old the herring is when it ceases to 
grow; butit is reasonable to suppose that it has reached its full growth 
at eight years of age. 

It is not known to what age the herring can live, but it is not prob- 
able that it reaches avery high age. Nor has the assertion been proved 
that the herring lives so long that it loses its propagating faculty from 
old age. Interesting attempts have been made to ascertain the age of 
herrings and other fish from the layers composing the scales” or from 
the number of vertebrz in the backbone,” and future histological investi- 
gations will doubtless throw more light on this subject. It must finally 
be mentioned that the above-mentioned Scotch Commission is of opinion 
that, owing to the violent persecutions to which the herring is exposed, 
it will scarcely be possible for it to reach a higher age than three to four 
years and live through two to three propagating epochs.” 

The Bohusliin coast herring occasionally reaches a length of more than 
300 millimeters; but even specimens measuring upwards of 250 milli- 
meters are comparatively rare, especially on the southern part of the 
coast, probably owing to the fact that fishing is there carried on more 
vigorously. The largest specimen which I obtained measured 322 milli- 
meters (370 including the caudal fin), a length which corresponds with 
that given by Ekstrém as the maximum length of the Bohusliin herring,” 
and which exceeds that mentioned by later authors. Collett mentions 
that the largest herring which he could obtain from the boundary waters 
between Norway and Bohusliin had a total length of 364 millimeters ;** 
and Lundberg, in his treatise on the herring, containing numerous meas- 
urements of the herrings in the Royal Swedish Museum, says he could 
not find any specimen longer than 344 millimeters; this was one sent 
from Strémstad by Baron C. Cederstrém.® No large specimens, such as 
are occasionally found in the northern portion of the North Sea, near the 
northern coast of Norway, Iceland, or Northeastern North America, are, 
as far as known, ever caught in the Skagerack. Buckland gives 17 inches 

799A, Vv. LEUWENHOCK, ‘‘Epistole physiologice.” Delphis, 1719, p. 218. 

8% A, Vv. LEUWENHOCK, ‘“pistolw physiologice,” pp. 401, 402.—According to these ac- 
counts the herring can reach an age of at least twelve years. 

81H. HeEDERSTROM, “én om fiskars alder” (Rgl. Vet. Acads. handl., 1759, XX, pp. 
222, 329). 

8 Report of the Royal Commission on the operation of the acts relating to trawling 
for herring, p. 28. 

8 Praktisk afhandling, pp. 5, 10.—During the rich herring fisheries in the beginning 
of 1878, I observed several herrings having a total length of 375 millimeters, and a 
maximum height of 75-85 millimeters. 

4 Norges Fiske. Christiania, 1875, p. 192. 

% Bidrag till Réinnedommen om strémmingen i Stockholms skdrgard. Stockholm, 1875, 
pp. 20, 21. 


656 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


as the length of the largest herring which, to his knowledge, has ever 
been caught on the coasts of Great Britain ;* and from Holland it is re- 
ported that the crew of the vessel De Dankbaarheid, Captain Klaas Dor- 
landt, in 57° 23’ N. L., on the 23d October, 1863, caught a herring meas- 
uring 485 millimeters in length.” 

For the sake of comparison we will here, after H. Baars, give the 
average size of herring caught on the coast of Norway. The average 
length of the “ great herring” is 350 millimeters; of the “‘spring-herring,” 
300-520; of the “merchants’ herring,” 250; of the ‘‘medium-herring,” 
235 ; of the great “Christiania herring,” 200; and of the little “‘ Christiania 
herring,” 180.°° According to Collett, however, the average length of 
the “great herring” is 330-340 millimeters, and that of the “ spring-her- 
ring” about 330, whilst three to four year old “summer-herring,” which 
have not yet spawned, often reach a total length of 270 to 280, and 
“half-erown two-year-old fish” 170 to 190. The largest specimen of the 
“ oreat-herring” kind in the Christiania Museum has a total length of 
378 millimeters.” 

Regarding the propagation and development of the small herring, I 
have not been able to find any information in old writers, and my own 
observations are still so far from eomplete that I deem it best to defer 
their publication. This I offer in excuse of the brevity of the following 
account: 

The fishermen, at least in that part of the coast of Bohusliin where 
herring-fisheries are carried on during spring and summer, are well ac- 
quainted with the fact that the “small-herring” has fully developed roe 
and milt in spring and during the early part of summer, and some fish- 
ermen have even observed their young some time after spawning. The 
spawning of the “ small-herring” may be somewhat delayed or acceler- 
ated by the weather, but seems as a general rule not to have undergone 
any change with regard to the time when it takes place. In the reports 
of P. Clancey, superintendent of herring-fisheries to the Royal Board of 
Trade, we find the following notice, that on the 11th March 1811, small- 
herring containing both milt and roe were caught,” indicating that 
spawning would begin at most 3-4 months later. From this cireum- 
stance we may safely draw the conclusion that it is not necessary to 
suppose an advance in time of the spawning-season of the “ small-her- 
ring,” in order to explain the statements of Nilsson, Wilhelm von Wright, 
Hkstrém, A. W. Malm, E. Uggla, as well as the opposing statement of 
G. von Yhlen, probably derived from M. L. Bloch’s ichthyology, or from 
the supposition that the spawning-season was always contemporaneous 
with the fishing-season. The above-mentioned writers take autumn to 


% Familiar history of British Fishes. London, 1873, p. 122. 

87 Verslag van den Staat der Nederlandsche Zeevisscherijen over 1860, p. 15. 

83 Die Fischerei-Industrie Norwegens. Bergen, 1873, pp. 50, 51, 54. 

8 Norges Fiske, p. 192. 

% G. C. CEDERSTROM, “ Fiskodling och Sveriges Fiskerier,” Stockholm, 1857, p. 215. 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 657 


be the spawning-season of the small herring.®' Mr. G. von Yhlen, su- 
perintendent of fisheries, who at first gave the latter part of autumn as 
the spawning-season of the small herring has done so in accordance 
with the experience of old fishermen, although it is my opinion that 
there is no reason why he should admit the spawning during autumn 
merely as an exception.” 

Prof. 0. J. Sundevall has ascertained that the small-herring on the 
coast of Stockholmlin spawn towards the end of June and in July,® 
therefore somewhat later than on the coast of Bohuslin. yrdyer re- 
ports of his Clupea sprattus, that “they generally spawn in August, but 
begin during the latter half,of June, and sometimes continue till Sep- 
ember.” and of Clupea Schoneveldi, that “in spawners which were caught 
early in spring he found the milt strongly developed,” ® which indicates 
an earlier spawning-season for this last-mentioned variety. 

The small herring found on the northern coast of Germany (Pommer- 
ania, Holstein, East Friesland) is said to spawn in autumn.* On the 
eastern and southern coasts of Great Britain the small herring are re- 
ported to spawn twice a year, viz: during summer” and during winter 
immediately after new year.*® The smail herring found on the coast of 
Iceland spawns during spring.” 

My own observations regarding the spawning-season of the small-her- 
ring show that on the middle coast it begins towards the end of May or 
early in June. It is probable that the spawning-season begins a little 
earlier on the northern and a little later on the southern coast.! The 
small-herring which are caught in autumn and the beginning of winter 
have never very strongly developed milt and roe (a circumstance which 
can be fully and extensively proved by the preparation of so-called 

% Niusson, ‘ Prodromus ichthyologie Scandinavice, Lunda, 1832, p. 22. Skandinavisk 
Fauna IV, p. 521.—W. v. Wricut, ‘‘ Handlingar rorande sillfisket,” pp. 167, 175.—EK- 
STROM, “ Praktisk afhandling,” pp. 9,103.—Oefvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akad’s. Forhandl, I, 
1844, p. 26.—A. W. Mam, ‘‘ Géteborgs och Bohuslins Kgl. Hushalln. Sdllsk. handl.” for 
1856, p. 10. Ldsning for Fiskare i Bohuslin, p. 15.—E. UGGLA, ‘‘ Géteborgs och Bohus- 
lins Kgl. Hushlldn Séllsk. handl. for 1859, Appendix 2, p. 15.—G. VON YHLEN, ‘‘ Gdteborgs 
och Bohuslins Kgl. Hushdlin. Sdlisk. Quartalskrift, July 1867, pp. 51, 52, April 1868, p. 45. 

2G. VON YHLEN, ‘ Géteborgs och Bohuslins Kgl. Hushdlln. Sdllsk, Quartalskrift,” 
July 1871, p. 52, July 1872, p.50. Nya Handlingar rérande sillfisket, I, p. 19. Recently 
Dr. A. W. MAL has communicated observations from the years 1864 and 1865 which 
correct his above-mentioned older observations (Fauna, pp. 582, 583). 

8 Stockholms ldins Kgl. Hushdlin. Sdllsk. Handl., vi, pp. 109, 185-187. 

*Danmarks Fiske, iii, p. 191. 

*Danmarks Fiske, iii, p. 201. Ihave observed similar cases on the coast of Bohuslan. 

%*BLOCH, ‘‘Occonomische Naturgeschichte,” i, p. 207.—L. WITTMACK, Circulare des deutsch- 
en Fischeri-Vereins, 1875, p. 119. 

9YARRELL, ‘British Fishes,” 3d ed., i, p. 116.—J. Coucu, ‘‘A History of the Fishes of 
the British Islands,” IV, London, 1865, p. 110.—E. HoLpswortTu, ‘‘Deep-sea fishing and 
fishing-boats,” London, 1874, pp. 133-135. 

SHOLDSWORTH, ‘‘Deep-sea fishing and fishing-boats,” pp. 133-135. 

*F, FABER, ‘‘Naturgeschichte der Fische Islands,” Frankfurt-am-Main, 1829, p. 180. 

10NTLSSON, ‘‘Skandinavisk Fauna,” iv, p. 521. 


42 F 


658 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


“skinless and boneless anchovies”), but are nevertheless not very thin, 
which shows that they cannot have spawned previous to the beginning 
of the autumn fisheries. The larger small herring which are caught 
during spring and summer are generally thinner and in a poorer con- 
dition.” 

Regarding the spawning of the small herring it ought also to be men- 
tioned that Mr. Holdsworth, who is thoroughly versed in all questions relat- 
ing to the British fisheries, in his well known work ‘‘Deep-sea fishery and 
Fishing-boats” has expressed the supposition that the small herring, like 
the codfish, the mackerel, and (according to Couch) the pilchard’’ and 
other salt-water fish emit their roe on the surface of the water during 
summer generally in the open sea and during winter nearer the coast.% 

The young of the small herring are said to appear on the northern- 
most part of the coast about midsummer or the beginning of July. No 
information can be found in any writers on the subject as to how fast 
the small herring grows, and how old it is when it spawns for the first 
time, }** and my own observations are not sufficiently advanced to draw 
any certain conclusion from them. But as on the 18th of March, 1874, I 
received from Kalfsund several small herrings measuring 96-97 milli- 
meters (from the point of the lower jaw to the root of the tail) which had 
strongly developed sexual organs, and as the majority of those which 
I received from Tjérn during the latter part of spring, measured only 
100-110 millimeters, it does not seem impossible that the small herring 
spawns for the first time when two years old, although this will probably 
only occur with some of the descendants of one and the same spawning- 
season. It is on the whole more probable that the small herring, like the 
herring, does not become capable of spawning till it is three years old. 

The largest small herring which I ever obtained on the coast of Bo- 
husliin measured 149 (counting in the caudal fin, 172.3) millimeters in 
length; but even specimens measuring 140 millimeters are rare. 

For comparison’s sake I will, in conclusion, give a few facts concerning 
the spawning and growth of some fish which are closely related to the 
herring. 

The most important of these, the American herring (Alosa prestabilis 
or sapidissima, the shad), spawns like the salmon, high up the rivers, and 


11 LGBERG, “Norges Fiskerier,” p. 97. 

12Fishes of the British Islands, iv, p. 81.—Holdsworth, ‘‘Deep-sea fishing and fishing- 
boats,” pp. 31, 132. 

108“ Teep-sea fishing and fishing-boats,” p. 135. 

104A little more than a year ago Dr. A. W. Malm gave some information on this 
point, to the effect that young fish measuring 20-34 millimeters (total length), and 
obtained between July 5thand August 15th, are said to be young ones of that same year, 
whilst young fish measuring 42-57 millimeters (total length) and obtained towards the 
end of July or the middle of August, are said to be a little over a year old. (Fauna, pp. 
583-585.) According to Dr. Malm’s opinion, the small herring, which is only half the 
size, may reach about the same length during its first year as the herring which is 
twice as large, and whose young measuring 46-49 millimeters are said to be a year old. 
(Fauna, pp. 580-581.) 


PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF HERRING. 659 


its spawning is thus described: “Gathered in dense schools, the spawners 
and milters move slowly in a circle, the dorsal fins often protruding above 
the surface of the water. Suddenly, as if struck by an electric shock, 
they dart off, and immediately roe and milt are expelled in the water. 
Wherever there is only one couple they slowly swim in a circle, the milter 
holding his head close to the pectoral fin of the spawner.”! Although 
the roe is not loose, it is only a little heavier than the water of the river, 
so that by artifical impregnation it can be kept floating in the current; 
it also differs from the roe of the herring by being entirely free from any 
sticky substance, by which it could be fastened to any object either at the 
bottom or near the surface. With a water temperature of 24° C, (75.29 F.) 
it is hatched in about 60-70 hours, but when the temperature is lower it 
takes longer, requiring about seven days with a temperature of 62.6°- 
649.4 F.1° For a spawning-place the shad prefers either coarse sand or 
a bottom with a rich vegetation.!” The Alosa prestabilis does not reach 
its maturity until it is 3-4 years old, although milters which are only 2 
years old are said to be able to propagate the species.!° When five 
years old they are considered fully grown.! 

The American river-herring (Pomolobus pseudoharengus—« the alewife”) 
seems to reach maturity at the same age as the Alosa prestabilis, but its 
roe when ejected is like that of the herring, accompainied by a sticky 
slime, by means of which it adheres to any objects found in the spawning- 
place; it is hatched at the usual temperatare in about 70-74 hours." 

Our common Alosa jfinta also spawns up rivers and streams, where it 
empties its sexual organs with violent muscular exertions, beating the 
water with its tail, so that during quiet evenings or nights the noise of the 
spawning may be heard at some distance from the spawning-place.! 


Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Massachusetts, for 1869, p. 17.—Slack, 
United States Commission Fish and Fisheries, II, report for 1872 and 1873, p. 460. 

106 Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Massachusetts, for 1867, p. 36.—United 
States Commission, Fish and Fisheries, II, pp. 425, 430. 

107 Slack, United States Commission, Fish and Fisheries, II, p. 460. 

108 Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Massachusetts, for 1867, pp. 23, 40; for 
1869, p. 18; for 1870, p. 5; for 1871, p. 12; for 1873, p. 18; for 1875, pp. 5, 52. 

109 Report of the Commsssioners of Fisheries, of Massachusetts, for 1869, p. 21. 

110 Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Massachusetts, for 1868, pp. 7, 8, 9, 
23; for 1869, pp. 5, 6, 21; for 1874, p. 8; for 1875, p. 52.—United States Commission of 
Fish and Fisheries, II, pp. LIX-LXI. 

11 Report of the Commissioners on Inland Fisheries of Massachusetts, for 1873, pp. 


') 


112 YARRELL, ‘‘ British Fishes,” 3d ed., I, p. 130.—KR6OyYER, “Danmark’s Fiske,” III, 
pp. 317, 318. 


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XXVII.—THE INTRODUCTION AND CULTURE OF THE CARP IN 
CALIFORNIA. 


By RoBert A. POPPE. 


Carp culture in California owes its beginning to the efforts made by 
the late Mr. J. A. Poppe, of Sonoma, in the year 1872, and previously. 
Although yet in its infancy, it promises at an early day to become one 
of the great sources of profit for the agriculturist and small farmer of 
that State. 

The particulars of Mr. Poppe’s visit to Germany in 1872, and his re- 
turn in the same year with several small carp, which he placed in his 
ponds on the “ Palpuli Rancho,” in Sonoma Valley, are facts. well known 
to the majority of people interested in the subject in California. To the 
readers of the reports of the United States Fish Commission, however, 
the circumstances are doubtless vague and uncertain, and it is the pur- 
pose of this paper to give whatever information there is at hand con- 
cerning Mr. Poppe’s trip to Europe, and also to throw some light on the 
question as to the time this well-known European wanderer, the carp, 
first made its appearance in American waters. The subjoined account 
can be relied on as being authentic in every particular, although less 
full and exhaustive than it would otherwise have been had Mr. Poppe 
been spared and given it the care and revision of his long experience. 
Concerning Mr. Poppe, it may be said in this connection that he was 
thoroughly imbued with the future success of carp culture in California. 
He was busy collecting data concerning the carp for publication for a 
long time, but his expectations and hopes were cut short by an untimely 
death. 

The “ Palpuli Rancho,” where Mr. Poppe resided, and where the carp 
were placed on their arrival from Europe, will first demand our atten- 
tion. This farm is situated about six miles from Sonoma, in a southerly 
direction, and contains 684 acres. Of this, 440 acres is high arable 
jand, and the remaining 240 acres is marsh, or what is known in Cali- 
fornia as “tule” land. Sonoma Creek, quite a large stream, navigable 
almost to Sonoma, bounds the “ Palpuli Rancho” on the east, while on 
the west there are the foot-hills and small eminences of the Coast Range. 
' The name “Palpuli,” if universally understood, would afford an index 
of the character of the farm which bears its name. It signifies “ land 
of many springs.” The number of springs on this place is truly wonder- 
ful. Almost every acre has one or more of them, and in many localities 

661 


662 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of a hundred acres there are at least adozen. They make their appear- 
ance on the surface of the ground; sometimes even they seem to come 
out of the solid rock; then, after winding through innumerable channels, 
find their way into Sonoma Creek. No accurate and exhaustive analy- 
sis of the water has yet been made to the knowledge of the writer, and 
consequently it cannot be stated definitely what its properties are. 
Moreover, it is of different degrees of temperature in the different 
springs, in some being quite warm (86°) and in others much less so. 
That in the carp ponds has a uniform temperature of 74°. The water, 
too, is very soft, and contains the salts of sodium, sulphur, and magne- 
sium in solution. 

Mr. Poppe has seven ponds on his farm, all artificially constructed, at 
a cost of much labor and expense. They follow one another closely, 
being separated only by a levee or embankment of 8 or 10 feet. The 
first or upper one is perhaps 200 feet above the level of Sonoma Creek, 
and is 150 feet square. It covers an area before clothed with springs, 
and has an average depth of nearly 5 feet. The embankment at the 
lower end is 10 feet wide and about 6 feet high. The general method 
employed by Mr. Poppein making his ponds is substantiaily as follows: 
The area was first definitely determined, and then plowed up with a 
strong iron-beam plow as deep as possible. The soil was then removed 
with the ordinary road-scrapers, and deposited on the lower end of the 
projected pond to serve as a levee. An alternate plowing and scraping 
was continued until the necessary depth was obtained. On account of 
the presence of the springs, and the consequent accumulation of water, 
the labor of construction was oftentimes anything but pleasant. After 
the pond was completed, a main channel through the center was dug 
out, and an exit under the levee prepared; a board wall was built on the 
inside to prevent the eating out of the embankment by the water. This 
was necessary on account of the prevailing west winds driving the water 
to the east side, and thus destroying it. The water was then allowed to 
rise, and finally passed off through a broad canal to the other side. 
Where this last pond terminated the succeeding one began. The land 
has a sufficient slope to insure a uniform fall of water from one pond to 
the other. 

In a similar manner all the other ponds were constructed. The last 
three are by far the largest and most elaborate. In addition to these 
just spoken of, which are breeding ponds, &c., there are two others, used 
for the temporary reception of the carp prior to their being transported 
to other localities. These ponds are a great deal smaller than the oth- 
ers, but serve quite as distinct and valuable a purpose. It would not be 
convenient to let the water off the large ponds every time a quantity of 
the fish were to be sold; so, on an occasion of this kind, they are taken 
from the receiving ponds with little or no trouble and inconvenience. 

I have now described the carp ponds proper, and yet there remains 
one concerning which something should be said. Nearer the foot-hills, 


CULTURE OF THE CARP IN CALIFORNIA. 663 


and considerably higher above the level of Sonoma Creek, there is to be 
found another pond having a temperature of 86°. The spring which 
feeds it is not more than 20 yards from the others, yet there is a differ- 
ence of 12° in the temperature. This pond has been devoted to the 
raising of gold-fish. They grow remarkably large here, and become very 
fat. 

A bath-house is near this pond, receiving its water from it. Fora 
number of years it has been resorted to by invalids and dyspeptics, who, 
perhaps, not receiving that rejuvenation promised pilgrims by old Ponce 
de Léon from his wonderful fountain of youth in Florida, have yet been 
much benefited, and received decided aid from the warm spring of 
“ Palpuli Rancho.” 

For a number of years this Rancho has been used as a dairy farm ; 
from 1853 to 1875 it was controlled by Mr. Poppe himself, and since 
that time it has been leased to a colony of Swiss dairymen. ‘The soil, 
however, is admirably adapted for viticulture, as the large vineyard 
set out some eight or ten years ago will show. 

With this statement of the location and general characteristics of the 
farm where the carp were placed upon their arrival, 1 turn now to a 
brief résumé of the incidents of Mr. Poppe’s voyage to Europe. 

Mr. Poppe left Sonoma on the 3d day of May, 1872, and San Fran- 
cisco on the 5th for New York, going by way of the isthmus of Pan- 
ama. At New York heembarked on one of the German Lloyd steamers 
for Bremen, arriving there in the usual time without any noticeable 
occurrence. A few days were spent in visiting, after a lapse of thirty- 
three years, the scenes of his boyhood, and in finding some trace of 
his former friends and relatives. After spending a week or so in this 
manner, Mr. Poppe set out on the important business of his journey, 
namely, the procuring of.specimens of the carp. 

Until recently it had not been definitely known where Mr. Poppe pro- 
cured his fish in Germany, he never having given the exact locality 
during his lifetime. Several days after his death, however, a journal 
published in Stettin was received by his family which contains the de- 
sired information. The writer of the article was a companion of Mr. 
Poppe during a part of the journey to the locality. I extract the fol- 
lowing from the journal Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung, December 16, 1879, 
page 412: “The young carp which Mr. Poppe, of Sonoma, Cal., took 
with him to America in 1872 were taken from the ponds of a certain 
miller of Reinfeld, Holstein, who followed the business of carp culture. 
This city is on the line of the Hamburg-Lubec Railroad. The writer of 
these lines accompanied Mr. Poppe at that time to Reinfeld.” 

Here Mr. Poppe procured 83 carp of various ages and sizes. Three 
were very large, two feet or more in length; the others all the way from 
that size tothe lengthof an ordinary steel pen. The large ones, of course, 
owing to the imperfect accommodations, were the first to die, while only 
the very smallest endured the long voyage. The were placed on a steamer 


664 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


for New York, in tin vessels of the capacity of twenty-two gallons each. 
These were of different heights, and so arranged in an ascending scale 
that the water from the upper vessel flowed into the second, thence 
into the third. From the third it was dipped back into the first, and 
this process continued throughout the whole voyage. Mr. Poppe had 
no assistant, but performed all the labor himself, watching through the 
long hours of the night that the comfort of the fish should be enhanced. 
On account of the lack of ice on board the steamer, and Mr. Poppe’s 
consequent inability to keep the water at a sufficiently cool tempera- 
ture, many oi the fish died on the voyage. One after another was found 
dead on the surface and thrown overboard. Upon the arrival of the 
steamer near New York, only twenty were alive. A delay of two days 
was had in New York Harbor, occasioned by some irregularity in the 
quarantine regulations, during which time a dry, stifling wind arose, 
and continued with unabated fury the whole of one night. This de- 
stroyed twelve more of the carp, and when a landing was effected in 
New York there only eight left. These were placed as soon as possible 
in hastily extemporized ponds of the Croton Aqueduct Company and 
left there for three days to become accustomed to their native element, 
which, except in a highly impure state, and under very peculiar circum- 
stances, they had not had since leaving their native land. After mak- 
ing all the necessary arrangements with the railroad companies respect- 
ing the rapid and careful transit of the fish across the continent, and 
not forgetting, in this instance, a large supply of ice, Mr. Poppe left 
New York for San Francisco. In seven days he arrived there with the 
whole number, not having lost a single one in traveling a distance of 
over three thousand miles. In San Francisco there was another delay, 
but on the day following his arrival, being the 5th day of August, 1872, 
three months since leaving San Francisco, he landed his five puny, and 
almost dead, carp in his ponds in Sonoma Valley. Two fish died in San 
Francisco, and one on the sloop to Sonoma, leaving five as the number 
safely landed. These were placed in one of the ponds already described, 
and formed the numbers from which all the others sprang. 

At the time the carp were placed in the ponds, in August, 1872, they 
were in a very precarious condition; the journey, if continued but a 
little while longer, would certainly have killed them. They were about 
as large as an ordinary steel pen, being the very smallest of the 83 
with which Mr. Poppe started from Europe. In the May following, the 
original five had increased to 16 inches in length, and the young 
fish had increased to over three thousand. Since that time the in- 
crease has been very rapid, but the sales have kept pace with it, so 
that no overstocking has as yet taken place. The spawning season 
takes place late in the spring—in the months of April and May. The 
exact time, of course, is uncertain with them, because observations of 
the fish in the ponds cannot be very accurate. The spawn of the origi- 
nal five carp, in May following their arrival (as was said before), num- 


CULTURE OF THE CARP IN CALIFORNIA. 665 


bered 3,000. Their growth and development, also, was proportionately 
rapid. The original carp (two only of which now remain) measure over 
two feet in length and weigh in the neighborhood of fifteen pounds. 
The young have been known to increase rapidly also, in one year reach- 
ing a length of 12 inches and weighing from six to eight pounds. 

The young of the carp have been sold to farmers throughout Califor- 
nia and adjacent States, and some have been shipped even to the Sand- 
wich Islands and Central America. Sonoma County, California, where 
Mr. Poppe resided, has been pretty well stocked with them. Among 
others who are engaged in the business of carp culture in this county 
may be mentioned Mr. Levi Davis, of Forestville; Mr. William Ste- 
phens, Sebastopol; Sylvester Scott, Cloverdale; J. A. Kleiser, Clover- 
dale; Mr. Field, Petaluma; H. T. Holmes, Santa Rosa; A. V. Lamotte, 
Sonoma, and others. Mr. Lamotte, by the way, is the superintendent 
of the “Lenni Fish Association,” a society composed principally of San 
Francisco gentlemen, who have a great desire to encourage fish culture 
in California. At the first opportunity I shall ask Mr. Lamotte to pre- 
pare an outline of the labor of his society for publication in the forth- 
coming report of the commission. 

The southern portion of the State is likewise well supplied with this 
fish. Shipments have been made to San Bernardino, Los Angeles, and 
adjacent counties. Irom all these localities come reports of the success 
of the undertaking. The shipment to the Sandwich Islands was to a 
Mr. Charles R. Bishop, a resident of Honolulu, who has extensive 
grounds and numerous lakelets on his premises for their reception. 
Mr. Bishop has not yet written concerning them, and consequently I 
am unable to say what success has attended their introduction there. 
Mr. Levi Davis, of Forestville, I believe has sold some of the young of 
his carp, but in what quantity and for what price I am unable to say. 
He has occasionally, also, written for the California press an account 
of his labors. 

The carp on Mr. Poppe’s farm are usually, and indeed almost wholly, 
fed with the curd from the dairy. They have, however, repeatedly 
shown a fondness for barley, wheat, beans, corn, pease, and coagulated 
blood. Mr. Poppe was accustomed to say “they would eat anything a 
hog would.” In most ponds they find much of their food on the bot- 
tom, such as vegetable matter, fungus, and other substances. The item 
of expense for food is at most very small where the carp are on a farm, 
for almost anything will do that perhaps but for their presence would 
go to waste. 

As to the probable extent to which carp-culture may be carried in 
California, and what its probable success will be, no one of course can 
be able to say. That it can become profitable, I have not the least 
doubt. The carp, more than any other fish common to us herein the ex- 
treme west, is hardy, prolific, and does excellently in our waters. It canbe 
raised with much less trouble and expense than any other, and is as 


666 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


good if not better than any. In the southern portion of the State, 
which seems destined to become the principal part thereof, it is already 
introduced, and, relying on the evidence furnished us by those who are 
engaged in its culture, the business has already become of more than 
transitory importance. There are hundreds of acres of marsh and waste 
lands in California which by a little labor could be prepared for the cul- 
ture of the carp. An acre devoted to this purpose is the most profita- 
ble investment a farmer could make. Any one making the experiment 
will acknowledge beyond a doubt that the money necessary was never 
invested to better purpose. Besides supplying the market, there is a 
delicious dish for home consumption. 

A prominent writer on viticulture in California is devoting his best 
efforts towards cultivating a taste for the pure native wines of our 
State, and tearing down, if possible, the barriers which have impeded 
its introduction in the East and elsewhere. I myself am acquainted 
with a noted divine who has labored unceasingly to destroy the demand 
for whisky, by cultivating a more refined taste for pure native wine. If 
he can introduce and establish the use of the latter, in moderation, he 
will be doing aservice to his fellow-man. Similarly, anything that tends 
to man’s comfort should be encouraged. If the consumption of carp is 
calculated to increase man’s happiness, let us encourage it by all means. 
In addition to all this, I have said nothing concerning the beautifying 
of our otherwise beautiful landscapes by the establishment of ponds 
all over the State. They certainly add a charm and freshness, and 
make the desert and barren meadow “ blossom like the rose.” 


XXVIII.—ON CARP CULTURE, CHIEFLY IN ITS RELATION TO 
AGRICULTURE,* 


By EBEN-BAUDITTEN. 
[Read at a meeting of the Prussian Fishery-Association at Elbing, July, 1877.] 


Whilst our farmers are making the greatest exertions to increase the 
productiveness of their lands by labor, intelligence, and capital, they 
generally neglect the sheets of water found in their possession, and it is 
high time that attention is given to the waters. Carp-culture may be 
considered as one of the principal means of making the water produc- 
tive. 

In early spring, when all nature awakes from her winter sleep, the 
carp becomes a source of income to the farmer by the sale of fish two, 
three, and more years old. In autumn, when the farmer is depressed 
by cares and anxieties because the summer has brought too much rain 
or too great heat, so that he has not even been able to work his fields 
in a rational manner, the carp, which is not influenced by the above- 
mentioned extremes of the weather, will be the principal source of 
income. 

Whilst it requires a vast amount of care and labor to procure the 
quantity of feed which the cattle need during seven months of winter, 
the carp, so to speak, sleeps all through winter, and may therefore well 
be termed the best domestic animal. 

Carp-culture, i. e., the raising of carp, must be strictly distinguished 
from the keeping of carp when young carp are procured from pisci- 
cultural establishments. Nearly every farm will offer the necessary 
conditions for keeping carp, while carp-culture requires a number of 
ponds, e. g., the pond for the young fry, the pond for the larger (the 
growing) carp, and the pond for wintering the carp. On this last- 
mentioned pond the success of the carp-culture mainly depends; whilst 
the ponds for the young and the growing carp may be shallow, the 
wintering-pond should be 8 to 12 feet deep, and should have some flow- 
ing water even during the severest cold. If the current is so strong 
that the water is always more or less in motion, the wintering-pond 
need not be quite so deep. 

If these conditions cannot be fulfilled, the wintering-pond will never 
afford absolute security, and the result will therefore be doubtful. In 


* Ueber Karpfenzucht, hawptsdchlich mit Bezug auf unsere Landwirthschaft. [From the 
‘Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung,” Vol. II, No. 14, Stettin, April 8, 1879.] Translated by 
Herman Jacobson. 

667 


668 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


such a case it will be advisable to abandon earp-culture and confine 
one’s self to the keeping of carp. We meet with similar cases in agri- 
culture. Many farmers, e. g., will be prevented from raising lambs by 
local causes, while the keeping of a flock of sheep may be profitable. 
If a farmer, therefore, has no wintering-pond, but several small sheets of 
water which have water all during the summer, he will do best in stock- 
ing his ponds (no matter what their size may be) with three-year-old 
carp and a few pikes, at the rate of about 100 to 300 pounds of carp, 
(no individual fish to weigh less than one-half pound,) to the acre. The 
growth and health of the fish depends on the character of the bottom 
and of the water; and in this respect carp greatly resemble the prod- 
ucts of the soil. 

Any pond, no matter whether large or small, which is a few feet deep 
and whose water does not contain too much iron, will in autumn yield a 
rich crop of carp from those which have been placed in it in spring. 
But where the circumstances are more favorable, and where wintering- 
ponds permit the raising of carp one, two, and three years old, carp- 
culture may be carried on successfully. The first pond required is the 
hatching-pond, “ Streichteich.” It should not be too large, from one- 
quarter to two acres, and in it should be placed two or three spawners 
and one or two milters, to which should be added a one-year-old milter 
weighing at least one-half pound. The water should be two to four 
feet deep in the middle of the pond, and the northern and eastern banks 
should be wide, shallow, and well protected, exposed to the warm rays 
of the sun; it will be well to have some reeds and grasses grow in the 
pond. In our province (Prussia) the carp generally spawn for the first 
time at the end of May. In warm weather they spawn a second, third, 
and fourth time at short intervals; and it may be observed, every time, 
that the older fry make room for the younger in the warm and shallow 
water, and go into deeper water, until they are again driven into deeper 
waters by the succeeding fry. 

Small hatching-ponds are preferable to large ones for, Ist, a small 
pond will generally be more sheltered; 2d, in large ponds the wind cre- 
ates larger waves, which frequently cast the spawn on the shore, where 
it dries up when the water recedes; 3d, small sheets of water can be 
better protected from overflowing in violent rain-storms; 4th, large ponds 
will offer greater attractions to the numerous enemies of the carp, e. g., 
the eagles, the herons, ducks, crows, &c., not to mention the otter, which 
is a well-known robber of fish-ponds. 

The larger the sheet of water the more difficult will it be to protect 
the fish against the ravages of birds. The herons are particularly fond 
of the young fry of the carp, but a careful huntsman will soon be able 
to keep them, as well as the ducks, away by shooting a number. The 
eagles and the crows should be caught in traps; but the most danger- 
ous enemy of the carp is the small diver, Podiceps minor, all the more so 
as it is quite difficult to get a shot at him, especially in ponds where 


BAUDITTEN—CARP-CULTURE. 669 


there are many reeds. In the stomach of such a diver which had been 
caught about the end of June last year there were found a large num- 
ber of young carp about an inch in length. At such a tender age they 
fall a prey to this dangerous bird, which, in spite of its small size, may 
cause a total failure of the carp-fisheries. This spring, when the reeds 
were not as yet covering the banks, 5 divers were shot on a pond of 
about 8 acres near Bauditten, but 8 escaped and could neither be caught 
nor shot. Their nests, which are very hard to find, were destroyed sev- 
eral times, and 121 eggs were taken; still they did not cease to build 
nests and lay eggs. 

If every one of these 4 pair hatches 8 young ones, there will be—the 
old birds included—40 divers. And if every one of these destroy 100 
young carp a day, this will make 4,000 a day, or nearly 30,000 a week. 
Wherever, therefore, no other cause can be assigned why a hatching- 
pond has proved a failure, the supposition lies very near that divers or 
other aquatic birds were the cause. 

The frogs also must be kept away from the ponds as much as possi- 
ble. This is best done by drawing their spawn ashore with rakes, and 
then either burying it or letting it dry. The greatest possible calm 
should prevail in and about such a pond; no cattle should graze near 
it, it should contain no pike, and the water should be of equal depth all 
the year round. After having hatched carp for several years, a farmer 
will have fish one, two, and three years old, which must be kept sep- 
arate, carefully arranged according to years. For if small fish are in 
the same pond with larger fish, the smaller ones will suffer. If a small 
fish, e. g., catches a worm, the larger fish will immediately take it away; 
one begrudges it to the other just as it is among men, and the weaker 
has always to give way to the stronger. 

If the hatching ponds contain much food, i. e., if they have good 
water, a clayey and rich bottom, and are not too much crowded with 
fish, the carp will under favorable conditions weigh upwards of two 
pounds in the autumn of the third year. The number and nature of the 
ponds will plainly indicate whether carp should be kept a fourth year. 
In the ponds for the growing carp the pike forms an important ele- 
ment. The common idea that it makes the lazy carp move about, and 
thus gives them the necessary exercise, is certainly erroneous; but the 
pike certainly prevents the carps in these ponds from spawning, which 
would only do harm, and destroys useless fish, e. g., bleaks and crucians, 
which only take the food from the carp. In the hatching-ponds, how- 
ever, the pike is a dangerous enemy. 

Time will not allow me to speak of the cheapest and best way of 
arranging the ponds, which will go hand in hand with the cultivation 
of fields and meadows, and I will therefore close with a few remarks on 
the different varieties of the carp. The following must be distinguished: 

1. The “carp proper,” Edelkarpfen. (So called to distinguish it from 
the crucian.) 


670 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


2. The Bohemian “ mirror-carp,” Spiegelkarpfen. 

3. The Bohemian “leather-carp,” Lederkarpfen. 

The Bohemian ‘ mirror-carp” has been described as a somewhat infe- 
rior fish in an otherwise excellent book; but most critics, even in 
Silesia, agree that it is a very fine fish, growing quicker, having a more 
delicious flavor, and a much hardier nature than the “carp proper.” 
This has been proved by actual experiments here in Bauditten. After 
several vain attempts to transplant the “mirror-carp” to Bauditten 
from Pardubitz, in Bohemia, a number of these fish have at last safely 
arrived here, and last year spawned for the first time. Their rapid 
growth was quite remarkable, for in autumn these young carp meas- 
ured already 8} to 9 inches in length, and when compared this spring 
with the other carp had grown much faster. 

I must finally refer in a few words to one of the most beautiful and 
perhaps most profitable fish, which may likewise be raised in carp-ponds, 
viz, the “gold-orfe,” Goldorfe. Its back is searlet, whilst the belly and 
the sides have a silver color. After many experiments we have this 
year at last succeeded in raising some of these valuable fish in Bauditten. 

It grows as fast as the carp, is as peaceful a fish, of a hardier nature 
than the carp, knows how to avoid its enemies, and always keeps near 
the surface, thus forming a brilliant ornament of any pond. Its flavor 
must be very delicious, as it is served on the imperial table as a special 
delicacy on the birthday of the emperor. 


XXIX.—ON THE CARP PONDS OF NETHER LUSATIA.* 


By Dr. EpM. VECKENSTEDT. 


Nether Lusatia, though not adorned with great landscape beauty nor 
blessed by nature with a rich and fertile soil, still presents many remark- 
able and attractive features. There, on the upper and middle course 
of the river Spree, only a few miles from the capital city of the Ger- 
man Hmpire, a strange people has preserved its nationality. Even to- 
day the nimble Wendin passes us with foreign salutation in fantastic 
attire. Our ponds and canals show many an idyllic picture, and the 
proud high trees are ornaments to our parks such as are rarely found in 
artificial gardens. 

The industry of Nether Lusatia, too, has been more and more devel- 
oped every year. Our ponds not only enliven and beautify the land- 
scape but their object is essentially practical. Carp-breeding here has 
obtained great results. In Hamburg, to mention one instance, the carp 
of the *‘ Spreewald ” has outrivaled the Bohemian carp. 

Cottbus is the place of meeting for the so-called “ Carp Exchange.” 
Every year, on the first Monday of the Cottbus fall market, a busy life 
develops in the Hotel Ansorge there. The fish-dealers from Halle, 
Leipsic, Dresden, Magdeburg, Posen—who name all the places and call 
all the names ?—among them representatives of such firms as Kaumann, 
Berlin, F. J. Meyers,Hamburg, the carp-king Fritsche, &c., have ar- 
rived from all parts of the compass to wait for the carp-barons. With 
this name the first-class breeders are designated, as Mende-Dobrilugk, 
who undisputedly raises the largest carps; von Lowenstein and Faber, 
with a product of 6-800 hundred-weight each; Berger-Peitz, with at 
least 2,000 hundred-weight, &c. These gentlemen meet in a separate 
room as SFfischereiverein, with the expert Mr. von Treskow as their 
president, to discuss the questions of the day and to determine approxi- 
mately the price to be asked for the carps. After this business is 
finished the sale-contracts proper are made. 

The weight of the carps from Upper and Nether Lusatia, represented 
in Cottbus by their breeders, amounts to 8-10,000 hundred-weight; the 
number of fishes to 2-300,000. 

This simple fact alone might occasion a comparison with the results 
of the artificial fish-breeding, for which so Ber interest is shown. It 
is known that since the publications of Professor Coste, of the College 

* Die Gartenlaube, 1877, No. 45, An den Karpfenteichen der Niederlausitz. Dr. 


Edm. Veckenstedt. 
671 


672 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


de France, fish-culture has received much attention, and though the 
splendid success—promising to populate rivers, lakes, and ponds with 
fishes—has only to a small degree been attained for France, yet the 
Hiiningen Muster Anstalt, established by the French Government, dili- 
gently continues its labors under the direction of German officers and 
the Deutsche Fischerei- Verein, endeavors to develop in all circles of our 
population a greater interest in the progress of fish-culture. 

Whether the successes will correspond to the expectations, time only 
can show. So far the artificial breeding of noble fishes (Edel fische) only 
can be considered successful; but it seems that the Salmonide alone, 
though quite a desirable enrichment of our rivers, will scarcely ever 
constitute a cheap food for the people. The Fischerei- Verein will have 
to direct its attention especially to the reform of the laws; for in the 
fish trade a good many things still depend on the option of the individ- 
ual. So, for instance, many eels are at present confiscated in Berlin for 
the lack of lawful size, while in Pomerania, whence 90 per cent. of all 
the eels in the Berlin market come, the same size of fish is not only 
considered marketable, but iron eel-traps are rented to anybody for a 
few cents for catching the fish under the ice, where of course no dis- 
crimination can be made as to size. 

We will now return to Nether Lusatia and rejoice at the results of the 
natural fish-breeding, which, quictly and without noise, like everything 
truly good, in its own way has reached its present height. How many 
prejudices had to be removed, how many notions to be contended with, 
how many experiences to be collected before Lusatia could succeed in 
securing for its cultur-Fisch, the carp, the market over all Germany. 

Let us now go to these ponds and take a glance at the breeding and 
capturing. The ponds, about seventy in number, have a surface of about 
5,000 Morgen (3,500 acres), and yield at present 2,000 hundred weight 
per year. 

Now we will look at one of the small ponds, a so-called Streichteich. 
In this a definite number of milts and roes (males and females) deposit’ 
their spawn. Here especial care is required in the management of the 
pond-bottom, which, by antecedent cultivation, is fertilized and has its 
acids neutralized. It is desirable to have the pond sheltered against the 
noxious influence of the wind; then it must be kept absolutely free from 
pikes, and it is of advantage that its water in great part is derived directly 
from the heavens, for the Himmelsteiche are usually the best Streichteiche. 
If now the bottom was not too poor, and if wind and weather were not 
unfavorable, next spring the strong fry will be transferred into the 
Streckteich, for in fall time this movement is rather dangerous, as young 
carps will never endure dangers of winter when in their transfer 
their scales are injured. This Streckteich must be rich ia nourishment, 
so that the fish grow rapidly to be fit for the Abwachsteich. 

In many cases, however, the fishes have to be placed into a Streck- 
teich of the second order because their growth was insufficient. The 


ON THE CARP-PONDS OF NETHER LUSATIA. 673 


Abwachsteich contains all the ponds the greatest water-surface, and 
only 25-40 carps per Morgen (two-thirds of an acre) are admitted, to 
which one-twentieth of other fishes are added. In this pond the pike 
plays its principal part. Itis, as is generally known, the factotwm of the 
carp-pond. Even if it is legendary that the pike forces the lazy carps 
to locomotion, so as to give them better appetite, yet it is indispensable 
for the destruction of wild fishes, &e. 

As nearly all creatures have to endure the severest diseases in their 
youth, so also the carp has to overcome its greatest dangers up to the 
day it is admitted to the Abwachsteich. Here external enemies are rarely 
dangerous, though otter and sea-eagle claim their victims; yet fishes of 
prey do not injure it, and swan, ice-bird, ducks and divers, frogs and 
toads are only dangerous to the spawn and fry. 

Diseases, too, occur mostly with young carps only; polypes render 
the fish unfit for its full development; tape-worms constrict its intes- 
tines, make it lean, and finally kill it; lice torment it, and produce 
dropsy. But the water itself may become noxious; its inlet and outlet 
must be accurately regulated; a ditch carrying bad water to the pond, 
its sudden rising after a thunder-storm, a lightning-stroke, &c., have 
often done considerable damage to the breed. 

Yet now the autumn day has come on which the capture of the mar- 
ketable carp begins, and we go to the Tewfelsteich near Peitz, the largest 
of the estate. Three weeks before this day the outflow from this pond 
commenced. All the time the greatest quiet has to reign at the places 
deepened for the catching, because otherwise the carps, sensitive to 
sound and timid, would not descend the deep ditehes leading to the 
places of capture, which would render the operation slow and more 
difficult. 

On the day of the fishing itself the drivers begin to wade along the 
ditches with loud noise, until the fishes are collected at the place of 
capture, which has an extent of about one Morgen. Then the ditches 
are closed with (stell) nets and the catching begins. Two Watnetze, 
handled by three fishermen, yield about 100 hundred-weight at every 
draw. The fishes are carried to the scale and spread upon platforms. 
Pikes, Karauschen, Schleien, are picked out, and the small Barsche 
(perches?) used for manuring fields and meadows. 

Four practiced hands throw the carps from the platforms upon the 
scale, and when it indicates one hundred-weight the fishes are rapidly 
transferred to a hogshead standing upon a wagon; three filled hogs- 
heads make a load. In sharpest trot the horses hasten to the Hammer- 
graben (hammer-ditch), where the fishes are loaded into Drébel. Drdbel 
are perforated covered boats, the surface of which is even with that of 
the water; they contain, on an average, 25 hundred-weight, and are 
shipped by hardy sailors to the Schiielochsee. There the fishes are 
transferred into larger Drédbels, containing about 100 hundred-weight ; 
in tow of freight-boats they reach Berlin in about one week ; Hamburg, 

43 ¥F 


674 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Magdeburg, &c., however, not before four or five weeks. All this time 
the greatest attention is necessary. The journey to and through Berlin 
is dangerous on account of the water being either too low or too high, 
and, besides, every evening the whole transport has to be carefully ex- 
amined and every single sick or dead fish to be removed ; and it occa- 
sionally happens that some Droébel go to pieces. 

These astonishing results of the natural fish-breeding are the more to 
be appreciated the more laboriously they are obtained (the manager 
of the Peitz pond, for instance, spends about 100,000 marks), yet Lusa- 
tia shows still better results from the ponds devoted to the raising of 
goldfish. Most interesting are those obtained by Mr. Eckart in Liibin- 
chen, the well-known breeder of the great Madte-mardne. His splendidly 
watered ponds, at present celebrated for the lacustrine pile-dwellings 
feund there, contain in all their brilliancy the goldfish and Orfe, the 
trout and Elvitze, the leather-carp and Mardne ; and when now the Ameri- 
cans are enabled to breed the most valuable of all Mardnes, the Mardne 
of the Madiie Lake, it is the merit of Mr. Eckart, who was the first to 
send embryonized Marine eggs across the Atlantic Ocean. Constant 
study and continued experiments were necessary for his eminent suc- 
cess, and if we want to stock our rivers, lakes, ponds, or aquaria with 
numerous and different species of fish we will have to work incessantly, 
for the conditions most favorable to the several species have in great 
part yet to be found out. 


XXX.—THE CARP-FISHERIES IN THE PEITZ LAKES,* 


That “carp in beer” is a favorite dish in Berlin is sufficiently proved 
by the fact that about 500,000 pounds of this fish are annually consumed 
in this city. It wiil therefore not be out of place to give a brief account 
of the famous Peitz Lakes in Lower Lusatia, which mainly supply Ber- 
lin with carp, and which were well known even in the time of Frederick 
the Great: ; 

The Ural-Baltic plateau, which includes a portion of Lusatia, contains 
a very large number of lakes and ponds. Of these the Peitz Lakes 
are the most important. These lakes, 76 in number, and forming a 
water area of almost 5,000 acres, are a royal domain, and are at pres- 
ent rented to Mr. Th. Berger. They produce a very large number ot 
carps, and the annual fishing days in October, especially that of the 
Devil’s Lake, having an area of about 900 acres, form* important and 
interesting events, genuine popular holidays, not only for the inhabi- 
tants of Peitz and the surrounding country and the people of the neigh- 
boring city of Cottbus, but, because easy of access, likewise to many 
inhabitants of the capital. It must, however, be borne in mind that 
these great fisheries, and each one of the 60,000 or 70,000 carps caught 
during this season, have a previous history extending over a period ot 
about four years; for those well-fed, golden-scaled government fish, 
resembling each other in size and shape as much as eggs, have not 
sprung into existence suddenly like the armed men who rose from the 
dragon-seed sowed by Cadmus, but it required great work and care and 
trouble to develop them so far; and in order to understand all this we 
shall have to become acquainted with the details of this industry, and 
gain some entirely new ideas with regard to the carp and its life. We 
here see not a fish rapidly parting the waves with its fins, and in undis- 
turbed liberty now diving into the deep, now rising to the surface, 
always timid and flying from the terrible fish of prey, but a well-cared- 
for domestic animal, constantly guarded by and accustomed to human 
beings; a very peaceful, phlegmatic animal, with a predilection for 
muddy bottoms and slow-flowing water, growing more comfortable and 
gentle in its ways by its “education,” which has been going on for gen- 
erations, all this tending to make the fish fat and comfortable looking, 
and giving to its flesh a most delicious flavor. 

The life of the carp, which really may be termed a “jolly sort of im- 


~ *Die Karpfenfischerei in den Peitzer Teichen. From a Berlin daily paper. Trans- 
lated by H. Jacobson. 
675 


676 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


prisonment,” commences in the hatching-ponds, varying in size from 
one to ten acres, in which as many as 20 pair of well-developed milters 
and spawners are placed in spring, there to spawn under the genial rays 
of thesun. It is characteristic of the slow nature of the carp not to do 
this spawning business at once like other fish, and so far all attempts 
at artificial impregnation have failed. But if the water during the 

spawning season has been kept at an even height, and the frogs do not 
devour too many eggs, young carps are produced in great numbers, as 
they are very prolific, one pair alone producing several hundred thou- 
sand eggs, from which, even under the most unfavorable circumstances, 
about 25,000 young fish may be counted on. During their earliest 
infaney these fish live on infusoria, as their little mouths will not allow 
any other food to pass. The summer goes by, the new year comes in, 
and in spring the little one-year-old carps—which at this age are very 
suitable for the parlor aquarium—are placed in larger ponds (generally 
covering an area of 30 acres each) at the rate of 369 to 600 fish per acre. 
After they have stayed in these ponds a year, the fish (now two years 
old) are placed in still larger ponds (generally covering an area of 400 
acres each) at the rate of 180 to 360 per acre. After another year has 
passed, the fish (now three years old) are placed in the large ponds 
(generally aboyt 900 acres each), in which they stay another year, and 
reach an average weight of 24 to 3} pounds, and thus attain their 
maturity. 

Loneliness produces melancholy, and in order that the carp may not 
lead a too idyllic sort of dream-life after leaving those ponds where 
they spent their first two summers, and which are absolutely free from 
fish of prey, quite a large number of other considerably smaller fish, 
such as tench, crucians, pike, and even perch—which have been 
specially raised for this purpose in separate ponds—are during the third 
year placed in the same ponds with them. These fish give the carp 
some idea of life in the great world, and by their constant attacks, 
which, however, are generally harmless, bring a little life into the quiet 
society of philosophers, and, to some extent, act the part of shepherd 
dogs. But there are other enemies of the carp which tend to make the 
carp livelier, reminding us of those persons in “Gulliver’s Travels” who 
had constantly to use rattles to rouse the Lilliputians from their day- 
dreams; and these are otters, herons, wild ducks and geese, fish-hawks, 
and human beings—poachers, who rob the ponds during the night. 

Thus the day of harvest comes at last. Three weeks beforehand they 
begin to let the water flow off, and the carps gradually gather in the 
deep ruts or holes of the bottom. On the morning of the great fishing: 
day they are driven into a basin about the size of an acre and about 
one meter deep. This is done by the fishermen, who, armed with purse- 
nets, wade, often with half their bodies in the Pay water, and, shout- 
ing and yelling, drive the fish before them. Slowly the great mass of 
fish comes rolling on, making the water of a dark, muddy color, and 


CARP-FISHERIES IN THE PEITZ LAKES. 677 


throwing great quantities of mud-like clouds in the air.. No one could 
tell that these are carp, for the dark, round backs, which in innumera- 
ple places become visible among the seething mud and water, rather 
resemble eels or similar fish. The whole spectacle, which is quiet in 
the beginning, reminding one of the driving of a flock of geese or a 
drove of sheep, gradually becomes quite exciting, especially toward the 
end, where from 60,000 to 70,000 pounds of carps are crowded together 
in a narrow space searcely 20 paces square. Two simple nets are never- 
theless sufficient to close up the two channels leading into the basin, 
which now resembles a caldron full of boiling mud and water. In this 
turmoil the pikes fare worst, for some of the carps, which, like tame 
steers, seem in the last moment to remember that after all they possess 
considerable strength of muscle, are continually dealing powerful blows 
with their tails, which the sensitive and cowardly pikes cannot stand 
very well, so they endeavor as much as possible to crowd into a distant 
corner. Now the fishing itself commences, and a number of men with 
two drag-nets, each holding about 5,000 pounds of fish, slowly haul that 
quantity on shore. Here everything is activity and bustle. Under an 
open shed we see.a large pair of scales with a 100-pound weight. The 
carps are uninterruptedly brought up from the pond in immense buckets, 
each carried by two stout men, and thrown on boards by the side of 
the scales. With lightning-like rapidity, one fish after another is seized 
by men standing there for the purpose, counting “one, two, three, 
four * * *” until the seales are evenly balanced. Thirty-one to thirty- 
three fish generally make the hundred pounds. The fall seale is then 
immediately seized by two men, while an empty one is being filled, and 
the fish are placed in large casks on one of the many wagons which 
hold at a short distance. As soon as the three casks, which every 
wagon holds, are filled, the wagon is rapidly driven along the turnpike, 
near which the whole transaction takes place, to the Hammer Canal, 
distant about one kilometer (3,280.709 feet), where the fish are immedi- 
ately placed in the holds of boats, which contain water. Hach of these 
boats carries 2,500 pounds of fish. 

Thus the carps are within a few minutes transferred five times, with- 
out having suffered in the least. Near the scales stands, in his rubber 
overcoat, a note-book in his hand, Mr. Fritsche, from Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder, a well known fisi-dealer, called the “‘carp-king,” and, with 
Mr. Berger’s agent, calmly notes down the number of fish to every hun- 
dred pounds, while Mr. Berger himself is busy arranging things, giving 
orders, and satisfying the many private buyers, male and female, young 
and old, farmers and town-people, who have come with bags, sacks, and 
baskets to buy single fish or small quantities up to 200 pounds. Mr. 
Berger also attends to the picking out of other fish, such as tench, pike, 
perch, &¢., which have been caught in the net. A large quantity of 
still smaller fish, so-called ‘*spoon-fish,” because they have to be eaten 
with a spoon, are likewise brought up in these nets, many of them 


678 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


almost mashed by the heavy weight of the carps, and dead a few min- 
utes after they have left the water. These are thrown in large baskets 
and are viewed with eager and longing glances by the many poor people 
standing round, who here, for a few cents, might procure more than one 
good meal, and net Mr. Berger perhaps $24 extra. But woe be unto 
him if he should dare to sell these fish; the inexorable police-officers 
would at once refer him to a paragraph of the fishery law, according to 
which these fish dare not be sold, as not having the required size. 

Meanwhile the hour of noon comes, and the ardently longed-for lunch 
time, doubly welcome on account of the pouring rain and the cold, is 
fast approaching, and Mr. Berger invites his guests to his house near by. 
Among them we see, besides some landed proprietors from the neigh- 
borhood, men of inexhaustible good humor and unlimited capacity of 
stomach, the well known Lusatian anthropologist and reporter of the 
Gartenlaube, Dr. Veckenstadt. In the hospitable mansion we are 
regaled with the products of the chase, snipes, reed-birds, ducks, par- 
tridges, &c., and one of the epicurians present makes the remark, 
which may be taken to heart by all good housewives, that the flesh of 
the pike becomes infinitely more delicious if if has lain in brine for 
twenty-four hours. The fishermen and drivers are meanwhile taking 
their lunch in the sheds near the ponds, and after a short pause the 
work begins anew until late at night, when about 60,000 pounds of 
carps have passed through the hands of the weighers. As regards the 
further transportation of the carps, which are the property of Mr. Frit- 
sche the moment they leave the seales, they first go to the Schwieloch 
Lake, reaching it in five to fourteen days, going through the Hammer 
Canals, the Spree, and the Spreewald. The difficulties of their route are 
considerable, for the water is often so low that the boats have to be 
placed on rollers and conveyed for short distances in this manner. 
Arrived at the Schwieloch Lake, the fish are transferred to larger boats, 
each holding about 10,000 pounds, and, placed in the care of reliable 
persons, they go down the Spree to Berlin, which place they generally 
reach after eight days, or they go still further to Hamburg, where they 
get after a journey of four to five weeks, and other places. The total 
annual rent of the domain is $12,870; the expenses for salaries, wages, 
wagons, &e., amount to about $7,150; so that Mr. Berger must make at 
least $20,000 just to meet his expenses. But it is said that he makes 
a little more! 


XXXI.—MR. CHRISTIAN WAGNER’S ESTABLISHMENT FOR RAIS- 
ING GOLDFISH, AT OLDENBURG, GERMANY.* 


The two most important establishments for raising goldfish in Ger- 
many and Austria are the one belonging to Baron Max de Washington, 
of Poels, near Wildon, Styria, and the one belonging to Mr. Christian 
Wagner, of Oldenburg, of which we intend to give a brief description. 

As the method followed in Oldenburg cannot be understood without 
some knowledge of the location of the establishment, we must mention 
that its 120 ponds are all close together, and with their dikes, &¢., cover 
about 12 acres of bog-land near the river Hunte. The water, however, 
does not come direct from this river, but partly from an artificial stream 
or canal which on two sides forms the boundary of the establishment, 
partly from a neighboring factory, and from the ponds themselve. As 
glance at the accompanying diagram will best show what may be called 
the veins, arteries, and other vital organs of the establishment. 

We intend first to show the manner in which the three channels which 
supply the water are used. The water which comes from the artificial 
stream G is, by means of the injector F, pumped into the open channel a, 
and after it has flowed through some or all of the ponds to the right and 
left it goes through wooden pipes into the ejecting-canals c, on each 
side, and eventually returns to the stream by way of the main ejecting- 
canal b. 

In order to furnish the necessary insect life to the water which has thus 
circulated through a portion of the establishment, it is led by a very 
circuitous route before it again reaches the injector, and mingles freely 
with the main stream of the river, which is fed by the drains from the 
neighboring meadow-lands. 

The water from the factory (which recently has proved very injurious) 
is collected in the reservoir H, and from there flows through subterra- 
nean pipes (indicated by dotted lines) into the channel a, which feeds the 
hatching-ponds Bb, and then goes into the flat “‘coloring-pond” D. After 
having mingled with the spring-water of these ponds it leaves the estab- 
lishment, either through pipes laid in the dike of the pond, marked D, 
or through the main ejecting-canal b. Its temperature (sometimes as 
high as 100° Fahrenheit) cannot be regulated by Mr. Wagner as well 
as that of the water which is pumped in, and which, during the warm 
season, is sometimes raised to a temperature of 123° by means of the 
steam from a 10-horse-power engine. 


*“Nie Goldfischziichteret von Christian Wagner zu Oldenburg.” [From ‘Deutsche 
Fischerei-Zeitung,” second year, No. 29, Stettin, July 22, 1879.] Translated by Her- 
man Jacobson. 


679 


680 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The water which comes from springs at the bottom of the ponds is 
chiefly used for supplying the different spawning-ponds, marked A, and 
the ponds for hardening the skin of the fishes (‘‘ Hauthiértungs-Teiche”), 


PLAN OF THE OLDENBURG ESTABLISHMENT FOR HATCHING GOLDFISH. 


A,A,A. Spawning ponds. B. Rearing ponds. C. Ponds for skin-hardening (?). D. Shallow 
coloring pond. E. Reservoir. F. Injector and machine-house (contains an engine of ten-horse 
power, which is connected with a machine of three-horse power). G, Artificial stream or canal. 
a. Open supply pipes. b. Principal discharging canal. c. Waste-pipe leading into A. d. Kel 
pond. e,e. Tool-houses. 

N. B. The dotted lines, as also the short parallel lines, indicate covered pipes. 


marked ©, for although the spawning-ponds are, by subterranean pipes. 
connected both with the reservoir and with the hatching-ponds near the 


Cc. WAGNER—ESTABLISHMENT FOR RAISING GOLDFISH. 681 


machine-house, these pipes are but rarely used. In case of necessity, 
i. €. when the stagnating spawning-ponds require it, a movable wooden 
pipe is used, through which the water of the stream is pumped into 
every pond whose water needs stirring up. On its way the water be- 
comes completely saturated with oxygen, and its effect on mature fish is 
so quick that they often commence to spawn within an hour from the 
introduction of the fresh water. 

As the bottom of the dikes is composed of very porous soil, the water 
goes from one pond to the other, and the depth of water is about the 
same in all the ponds, any superfluous water being led out through the 
channels ¢ into the main outlet-canal 0. 

Although at times the depth of water in the ponds is only 4 foot, the 
average depth is about 2 feet, increasing to 4 feet near the outlets. The 
extent of surface is of greater importance than the depth of water, the 
average surface of each pond being about 228 square yards. 

The bottom of the ponds is purposely left uneven, and is here and 
there overgrown with aquatic plants, on which the goldfish love to de- 
posit their eggs. 

The dikes between the ponds are generally 6 feet high, while the outer 
dikes are 8 feet high, 10 feet broad at the base, and 3-4 feet at the top. 
As the incline is therefore very gradual, and as the grass tends to keep 
the soil together, the bottom of the dike, though porous, is nevertheless 
firm. 

The chief results of Mr. Wagner’s cultivation of goldfish during sev- 
eral successive seasons are as follows: Many fish commence to color at 
the end of the first year; they are large enough to be sold for aquaria in 
the autumn of the second year, and they may be made to spawn two or 
three times a year, as a large number reach their maturity when only 
twelve months old. 

By good feeding and frequent redistribution of the female fish (not 
allowing the same males and females to be together any very consider- 
able length of time), and by an occasional airing of the water as de- 
scribed above, it has become possible to fix the time of spawning to the 
very day, and to raise a large number of young fish from comparatively 
few spawners. Under favorable circumstances the first young fish are 
raised in March or April, and by adopting the above-mentioned meas- 
ures a second set of young fish may be raised in July or even earlier, 
and a third in August or the beginning of September. 

It is but natural that fish cannot spawn so often during one season 
and at so early an age without many of them becoming prematurely 
barren. These barren fish, which can easily be recognized by a sunken 
appearance of the parts back of the ventral fin, must of course be sepa- 
rated from the others. They can only be sold as ornamental fish. Even 
if the spawning process is not hurried too much, it is an exception if a 
fish is used for spawning more than three years. 

Mr. Wagner’s average spawning stock amounts to about 3,000 fish, 


682 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


which are continually improved by the introduction of Italian and 
Portuguese fish, and by adding the finest specimens which he raises 
every year. 

Of fancy fish his ponds contain, besides a few peculiarly colored speci- 
mens, the ‘‘dolphin,” the “head,” the “double tail” or “narwhal,” and 
the “ telescope-fish.” Whenever Mr. Wagner wishes to produce some 
new fish, he makes some of these monstrosities interbreed, and thus 
obtains novel specimens. 

Although there is no fixed rule, the proportion of females to males in 
the spawning-ponds is generally as 2 to 1; in sorting them great atten- 
tion must. be paid to their quality, age, &e. 

It is likewise important, not only with regard to the old but also to 
the young fish, that (excepting the winter months) they are properly 
sorted and distributed, so that fish of the same size are put together, 
and that sufficient and suitable insect food is supplied for those ponds 
in which the fish are placed when coming from the spawning-ponds. In 
order to secure this food the fish are generally placed in ponds whieh 
have laid dry for seven or eight weeks; and if it should happen that one 
or the other of these ponds has less food than usual, it can easily be 
supplied from one of the neighboring ponds, or in case of necessity from 
the artificial stream G by applying a double hand-pump. 

On this stream depends the supply of water for the twenty hatching- 
ponds near the machine-house; the suction-pipe of the injector rises 
or descends according to the depth in which infusoria and other insects 
are found in the stream. In calm weather they are generally found at 
or near the surface, and farther down during windy weather. Their 
exact place of sojourn can always be ascertained by dipping a glass 
cylinder vertically into the stream, and by observing their position in 
the column of water. 

The insects, however, are not alive when they become food for the 
fish. Before they reach the twenty ponds they have been killed by the 
heat of the water—which in summer is often raised to a temperature of 
100° Fahrenheit by steam from the boiler. Not satisfied with the effect 
of the heat—in high temperature fish breathe oftener and consequently 
take in more food—and this system of what may be called “condensed 
insect-feeding,” Mr. Wagner finds it beneficial to supplement this nat- 
ural food from time to time with artificial food, using for this purpose 
blood, small pieces of meat, and occasionally barley which has com- 
menced to germinate (refuse from breweries). This food is not cooked, 
but simply thrown into the ponds (the blood in smail lumps) wherever 
the water is shallow. 

The results of this Oldenburg feeding system, as regards the growth 
of the fish, are as follows: Some of them double their weight in’a week’s 
time, and under ordinary circumstances the young fish have reached a 
length of 14 to 22 inches in autumn. When properly colored the largest 
are then sold as “glass-fish.” Most of them, however, do not reach a 
salable size till the end of the second summer. 


-C. WAGNER—ESTABLISHMENT FOR RAISING GOLDFISH. 683: 


The artificial coloring of the fish is just as important as their artificial 
feeding, and much time and money has been consumed in experiment- 
ing until satisfactory results have been obtained. The Oldenburg 
ponds are very favorably located with regard to the coloritig process, 
for of the three principal ingredients, viz, iron, lime, and tan, the first 
mentioned is found in considerable quantities, both in the soil and in 
the water; nevertheless it is not sufficient, and has to be artificially 
increased from time to time. 

The German national colors are in great demand, and a fish which 
was originally red and white can by proper treatment be transformed 
into an “imperial fish,” exhibiting the national colors, viz, black, white, 
and red. In spite of the greatest care it will happen that fish are not 
sufficiently colored when they have reached the size of “ glass-fish” ; 
they are then transferred to the large shallow pond D, where they are 
more exposed to the rays of the sun, which possess a strong coloring 
power, but are not without danger to the fish, as they often kill them 
suddenly if the bottom is too bright and shadeless. 

In order to make the fish less tender for handling and transferring 
to the aquaria they are generally for a time placed in the so-called 
‘ skin-hardening” ponds, marked C. The peat bottom of these ponds 
contains little or no sand or clay, but a great deal of iron. The water, 
likewise, contains much iron; and in ponds of this kind the adding of 
lime tends to harden the skin of the fish. This method of hardening 
the skin has made the former slow and wearisome acclimatizing process 
almost superfluous. By applying lime the same result is obtained with 
young eels, which are kept in the pond marked d, and are also sold for 
aquaria. These eels are obtained from neighboring waters, into which 
they come from the Hunte when they ascend that river in May. 

By this simple method the goldfish become so hardened that they can 
be easily handled without suffering injury. Their future welfare (when 
kept in glasses or aquaria) of course depends on the character of the 
water and the food. Mr. Wagner recommends spring or pump water, 
and wherever this cannot be obtained river-water. Rain-water he con- 
siders utterly useless. When the goldfish are kept in glasses or small 
aquaria animal food is almost exclusively recommended by Mr. Wagner; 
€. g., meat, raw or cooked, scraped very fine, worms, insects, larvee, ant- 
eggs, &ec. The aquaria should also contain a few aquatic plants at 
which the fish may nibble. Too much food is injurious, especially in 
winter, when scarcely any food is required. Mr. Wagner considers it 
less injurious to give no food for a whole month than too much food. 
As arule, no more food should be given than can be at once consumed 
by the fish. 

Before Mr. Wagner ships fish to any considerable distance he lets 
them fast for a week, and in this way prevents, as far as possible, the 
water from becoming impure during the journey. The vessel which is 
generally used for transporting goldfish is an oval tub with a perforated 


684 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


bung at the top. As this tub is not completely filled with water, a cer- 
tain degree of motion keeps the water pure and fresh, and in favorable 
weather—cold weather is the best—fish have successfully been sent to 
Denmark,’ Russia, England, Southern Italy, America, &c., without a 
change of water. The journeys are generally not very long, as most of 
the fish are sold in Germany and Austria. The risk and the difficulties 
of transportation are therefore considerably diminished. 

The price of fish of course varies according to age, size, color, and 
kind. The most expensive fish are the so-called “telescope-fish,” which 
are sold at $7.14 to $21.42 a pair; next come the “dolphins” and “heads,” 
which sell at $11.90 a pair; then the “ double-tail” or “narwhal,” which 
are sold at $4.76 to $2.85 a pair; and finally those fish which are valued 
on account of their peculiar coloring; these are sold at $2.30 to $23.80 
a hundred. 

In order to keep up with the constantly growing demand, Mr. Wag- 
ner has been obliged to increase and enlarge his ponds from time to 
time, and a number of ponds which were originally destined for carps 
have been appropriated for goldfish. In 1874 Mr. Wagner had 56 ponds 
and raised 99,500 fish ; in 1876 he raised 170,000 (50,000 of which he ex- 
changed for imported fish); and in 187778 he had 120 ponds and an- 
nually raised 300,000 fish. 

That the Cyprinus auratus does not bear its name in vain, but produces 
a golden harvest for its cultivator, is sufficiently proved by the fact that 
Mr. Wagner has been obliged to constantly enlarge his establishment. 
At the present time he employs a bookkeeper, a night watchman, an 
attendant, and fifteen laborers (not counting the men employed in the 
Berlin salesrooms), all of whom earn a good living, while his own an- 
nual profits are very considerable. The same area used for agricultural 
purposes would searcely feed a single family. 


XXXII.—A REPORT ON THE HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION 
OF THE SHORE COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN, MASS., TO- 
GETHER WITH NOTES ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND ARTI- 
FICIAL PROPAGATION OF THE SPECIES. 


By R. E. Ear. 


A.—INTRODUCTION. 


The recent inquiry into the decrease of the food-fishes of the east 
coast of the United States by the United States Commission of Fish 
and Fisheries, under the direction of the commissioner, Prof. Spencer 
F. Baird, has led to the establishment of temporary stations at different 
points along the coast, where special attention has been given to the study 
of the more important species for the purpose of gathering definite in- 
formation of their relative numbers past and present, their geographi- 
cal distribution, and their habits. Of late the commercial importance 
of what might be styled the great ocean fisheries, together with the 
complicated questions that are continually arising between our own 
government and our more northern neighbor regarding them, has led 
Professor Baird to give particular attention to this subject, with a view 
to becoming more thoroughly acquainted, not only with the habits and 
movements of these species, but also the methods employed in their cap- 
ture and the extent and money-value of the fisheries. 

With this end in view, he selected Gloucester, Mass., as the most suit- 
able location for the Commission in 1878, where he arrived with his 
assistants early in July, and at once began the investigation of the sub- 
ject. During the summer much valuable information was gathered — 
relating to the extent of the fisheries, and many observations were made 
on the natural history of the different species. However, as this was 
not the spawning season for the differeut members of the cod family, 
the only obtainable information on the habits of the fish during this 
period was trom the fishermen, who are usually not considered very 
accurate scientific observers. 

After a careful consideration of the subject, it was decided to continue 
the station through the winter, in order to study the natural history of 
the spawning fish, that visit the shore in immense numbers at this time, 
and also to make experiments with the eggs of the cod and other species, 
with a view to their artificial propagation. Accordingly, the late James 
W. Milner, deputy commissioner, proceeded to Gloucester, to take 
charge of the work and to prepare a report on the whole spices Mr. 


686 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Milner arrived late in August, and remained until the preliminaries 
were arranged and the first eggs had been taken, when the sickness that 
has so recently resulted in his death compelled him to leave for the 
South, in order to avoid the cold and stormy weather of the New Eng- 
land sea-coast. The loss of so enthusiastic and experienced a worker, 
whose efficient labors have aided greatly in bringing the United States 
to the front in all subjects relating to fish-culture, was a severe blow to 
the Gloucester work; had he been permitted to remain, the results would 
doubtless have been more thoroughly satisfactory. 

Owing to the absence of Mr. Milner, the writer has been requested to 
prepare a report from hurried notes made during the winter. Much of 
the data has been obtained from personal observations and experiments, 
either in the hatchery, or at the various fish-wharves, or during visits to 
the different fishing-grounds in the fishing-schooners of the harbor. 
Much valuable information has also been obtained from the older and 
more experienced fishermen and from the files of the local papers. In 
all cases, however, care has been taken to avoid the acceptance of any 
statements and opinions without being fully convinced of their correct- 
ness, and due allowance has been made for the lack of careful and accu- 
rate observations on the part of those interviewed. Many questions 
requiring much more careful inquiry than we were able to make still 
remain unsolved, and many points have been wholly omitted in the 
report for want of sufficient evidence either to disprove or confirm them. 

The report, then, especially in the portions relating to the natural 
history and artificial propagation, must be considered as merely paving 
the way for a more careful and extended study of the subject. 


B.—THE SHORE FISHERIES. 
1.—ORIGIN OF THE COD FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 


Of the many different fisheries in the United States yielding remuner- 
ative employment to large numbers of men, the cod-fisheries of New 
England'are the most important and extensive. Dating back as they 
do even beyond the earliest permanent settlement of the country, and 
being to the struggling colonists often the only unfailing source of sup- 
ply, they were at this time of vital importance to the people. In fact, 
the presence of these fish in the waters of New England had much to do 
with hastening the settlement of the country, and it was doubtless the 
knowledge of their abundance that led the merchants of the Old World 
to send their first vessels to our shores. 

The following facts, gathered largely from Babson’s History of Glou- 
cester and the files of the Cape Ann Advertiser, give briefly the 
origin of. the Cape Ann fisheries and a glance at their condition at inter- 
vals to the present time. Apparently the first that was known of the 
presence of the codfish in this locality was in 1602, when Bartholomew 
Gosnold, in the ship Concord, while on a voyage of discovery to Amer- 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 687 


ica, reached the coast of Maine, and sailing southward passed ‘the 
mighty headland, which, on account of the great numbers of cod-fish with 
which the voyagers ‘pestered their ships there’, then received the name 
of Cape Cod.” From this date foreign merchants, principally those of 
England, fitted out fishing-vessels for America, these visiting points on 
the coast of Maine, and meeting with varying success. In 1622 these 
parties, having found the expenses of the enterprise greater than the 
catch of fish would warrant, began to devise methods of lessening them. 
They soon decided upon a plan whereby the vessels should take out a 
number of men in addition to their regular crews, these to assist in 
taking the fish, and to be landed on the shore after the trips were secured, 
where they were to remain during the rest of the year to clear the soil 
and engage in agricultural pursuits, living chiefly on the natural products 
of the land; and to devote their time during the fishing season to load- 
ing the-vessels that were to be sent yearly to the little colony. Accord- 
ingly, in 1623, a ship left Dorchester, England, and proceeded to the 
usual fishing-grounds, coming later into Massachusetts Bay, where she 
secured the balance of her trip, and, after leaving fourteen men at Cape 
Ann with suitable provisions, sailed for Europe. The same year a pat- 
ent.of the land was granted to the New Plymouth colony, who in 1624 
built a fishing-stage at Cape Ann, the Dorchester fishermen arranging 
to share the patent with them. The following year a man was sent 
from Plymouth to build salt-pans at this place, but, the fisheries proving 
unremunerative, were abandoned by both parties, and the colony was 
broken up, a part of the Dorchester men returning to England while 
the remainder removed to Salem. 

The next fishing interests at Cape Ann were in 1639, when the gen- 
eral court passed an act for the encouragement of Mr. Maurice Thomson 
and others, providing for the establishment of a fishery plantation, and 
granting certain exemptions to fishery establishments, in order to en- 
courage the colonists to engage more extensively in the capture of the 
different species. This seemed to have a beneficial influence on the 
fishing interests of the section, and they gradually grew into a more 
flourishing condition. Butit was not until the beginning of the last cen- 
tury that these fisheries assumed important proportions, and then, for the 
first time, ship-building was extensively carried on, and Cape Ann sent 
a large fleet to Cape Sable and Sable Island for cod-fish. In 1741 
Gloucester owned about 70 sail, and at the beginning of the Revolu- 
tionary War she had 80 sail engaged largely in the bank-fisheries, 
with nearly twice as many chebacco boats fishing along the shore. The 
effect of the war, together with the small catch of the vessels, resulted 
disastrously to the fishing interests, and at the beginning of the present 
century the fleet had dwindled down to 8 sail of more than 30 tons. But 
while the bank or offshore fleet had been so reduced the smaller crafts 
had continued to increase, and there were at this time fully 200 chebacco 
boats, aggregating about 3,000 tons, fishing on the inshore grounds. 


688. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


In 1819 the fisheries were in such a state of depression that Congress 
passed “the bounty act” for their encouragement. This seemed to put 
new life into the business, and in 1825 over 150 sail fitted out for the 
different banks, and by 1847 the fleet had been increased to 287 sail, 
with an aggregate of 12,354 tons, or an average of 43 tons, carpenters’ 
measurement, to the vessel. The Cape Ann fishermen first visited the 
famous George’s Bank fishing-grounds about 1830, and by 1850 this 
locality had become a favorite resort for both the cod and halibut fleets. 

In the spring of 1879 there were 39 fishing-firms at Gloucester, and 
378 fishing-vessels of over 5 tons burden sailing from the harbor. Of 
this fleet 174 sail visited the distant banks for cod, 44 engaged exclu- 
sively in the halibut fisheries, 66 were provided with purse-seines for 
catching mackerel, 8 fished for both cod and halibut, 78 fished along 
the shore for cod, pollock, haddock, hake, and cusk, and the remaining 
8 sailed about in search of squid to supply the bank cod-fishermen with 
bait. Of the 174 offshore cod-fishermen, 130 went to George’s and 
Brown’s Banks, and the remainder to La Have, Quereau, Western and 
Grand Banks. In addition to the above the other towns of the vicinity 
had each small fleets engaged in some branch of the fisheries; so that 
the total number of fishing-vessels belonging to Cape Ann at this time 
reached upward of 415 sail. 

Thus the fisheries of Cape Ann have been continuously prosecuted 
for two hundred and forty years. Small at first, they have met with 
varying success, reaching their lowest ebb about the year 1800, since 
which time they have gradually grown in importance, until to-day Cape 
Ann is the center of the marine fisheries of America; and Gloucester, 
which from its excellent natural advantages early became prominent, 
has continually strengthened itself, until it has come to be the great 
fishery metropolis of the country; and is now, by the aid of laws and 
business customs, which tend to transfer the business from the fisher- 
men to the capitalists and from the smaller to the larger dealers, grad- 
ually absorbing the fishing interests of the State. 

With this large fleet engaged in the various branches of the fisheries, 
and visiting so many different localities, the quantity of fish landed in 
Gloucester is enormous; the cod-fish alone for the year ending June 30, 
1879, reaching 36,665,620 pounds of cured fish, which, at the low average 
of three cents per pound, would have a total value of about $1,100,000, 
This quantity of cured fish represents not far from 91,650,000 pounds of 
round fish, or, on the supposition that the fish average 15 pounds each, 
over 6,160,000 cod in number. These figures, though not absolutely cor- 
rect, probably vary but little either way from the actual number landed 
in Gloucester during the year mentioned. The data from which the cal- 
culations have been made were taken partly from the weekly reports of 
the Cape Ann Advertiser and partly from notes made during my stay 
in Gloucester. 


ee 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 689 


In looking over the history of the fisheries, we find that when the 
.bank-fisheries have prospered the shore-fisheries have been neglected, 
but when for any reason the bank-fisheries have been unprofitable the 
fishermen have resorted to their boats and small vessels for a livelihood. 
Thus, in 1804, when the bank fleet had been reduced to 8 sail, the shore 
crafts numbered nearly 200; but when in 1847 the off shore vessels 
had increased to 287, the chebacco boats numbered scarcely 35, these 
fishing during a portion of the season only. 

We are told that the chebaeco boat originated with the fishermen of 
Cape Ann, and that it derived its name from a river on the north side of 
the cape, where it was first extensively built. These boats were usually 
of about 15 tons burden, rigged with two masts but no bowsprit, and 

had a small forecastle or ‘“cuddy” forward, affording sleeping and cook- 
- ing accommodations for the four or five men that constituted the crew. 
The fishermen often ventured fifteen to thirty miles from harbor in them, 
remaining four or five days before returning to land their catch. 

The first small boats extensively used were known as the Hampton 
boats, from the village where they were first built. These are still used 
by many of the shore-fishermen of Maine and Massachusetts. They 
are open lap-streak boats varying from 12 to 20 feet in length, propelled 
either by oars or by means of two sprit-sails; the masts being movable 
so that they can be placed in the bottom of the boat when not in use. 

The common fishing-dory, now so extensively employed, was little 
used for fishing purposes prior to 1825. It seems to have had its origin 
with the boat-builders of Salisbury, Mass., about 1775, being long used 
as a river-boat, and for lightering purposes, before its seaworthiness be- 
came known. It is a flat-bottom, lap-streak boat, with sharp, projecting 
bow, V shaped projecting stern, and flaring sides, having an average 
length of 13 to 15 feet. on the water-line. Occasionally it is propelled 
by means of a small sail, but oars are more frequently used by the shore- 
fishermen. 

As early as 1828, a few “ pinkies,” and “ square-stern” vessels of 30 
to 60 tons burden engaged occasionally in the shore-fisheries, but it was 
not until 1843, when the halibut-fisheries began to require this class of 
vessels, that any extensive winter fishing was carried on. These vessels, 
after finishing their season’s work in the halibut fisheries, began to fish 
along the shore during the pleasant weather, and it was in this way 
that the winter shore-fisheries originated. This class of vessels rapidly 
increased in number, and by 1855 had nearly supplanted the smaller 
chebacco-boats, though it was not till 1870, or later, that the shore-fish- 
eries began to assume their present important proportions. In the 
spring of 1879 fully 100 vessels ranging from 10 to 60 tons, with 90 ad- 
ditional dories, engaged in these fisheries, and the fleet landed during 
the year ending June 30, about 14,475,000 pounds of round cod-fish, 
besides a great quantity of haddock, pollock, and hake. 

44 F 


690 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


fisheries are soon at their height. The vessels are usually provided with 
dories, taking from three to twelve each according to the size of their 
crews. Such fishermen asare unable to ship on the vesselsnow row or sail 
out in boats. These often endure great hardships, as the wind may rise 
suddenly and drive them out to sea giving them a hard pull of hours 
before they can regain the shore, while an occasional unfortunate fails 
to return. 

The pasture-school is composed of fish averaging probably between 12 
and 14 pounds, some being much larger while others are quite small. 
In the falls of 1877 and 1878 the fishing was unusually good until the 
first of January, the average daily catch per man often reaching 800 
to 900 pounds, while an active fisherman at times caught nearly twice 
that quantity. 

At the present time there are but few towns on the north side of the 
cape extensively engaged in the shore-fisheries, and for this reason little 
is definitely known about the first appearance of the Ipswich Bay school 
of cod-fish in that locality. We cannot even feel certain of the month 
when they reach the grounds, as the fishermen have many and conflict- 
ing opinions on the subject. From the best obtainable information it 
seems probable that cod have visited these waters regularly for many 
years, and that they were formerly taken in considerable numbers by 
the boat-fishermen of the section who rowed out from the shore in pleas- 
ant weather during the winter months. But for a number of years 
these grounds were nearly deserted, and it was not until 1877~78 that 
the shore-fishermen of Gloucester and Swampscott learned their value. 

In January, 1879, after the fish had left “ the pasture” several vessels 
sailed for Ipswich Bay, where they found the cod remarkably plenty, 
returning in a short time with unusually large fares. The news spread 
rapidly and soon all the shore fleet were in the bay, while vessels of 60 
to 70 tons abandoned the other fisheries and fitted out for this locality. 
Vessels from other towns along the shore soon joined the fleet, and by 
the middle of February 104 sail, with upwards of 600 men, were fishing 
within a radius of five or six miles, and 20,000 to 25,000 pounds of round 
fish were sometimes taken in a day by the crew of a single schooner. 

The above number of vessels was reached only during the height of 
the season, and several causes operated to reduce the fleet so that at 
times it was quite small. But allowing an average of 45 sail during the 
entire four months, each vessel carrying six dories, the trawls averaging 
800 hooks each, and we have the enormous number of 216,000 baited 
hooks spread out upon the sandy bottom to tempt the spawning-fish. 
It is not surprising, therefore, that the catch reached fully 11,250,000 
pounds on this little patch of ground between the first of wane and 
the last of May. 

Fishermen are agreed that the individuals composing this school 
averaged larger than those of any school that had previously visited the 
shore. There were almost no small ones among them, the great bulk 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 691 


this seemingly accidental variation, that gives every gradation to either 
extreme, there is a more constant difference in both form and color, due 
perhaps to the peculiar habits and surroundings of the individual. This 
difference is so noticeable that the fishermen can easily distinguish the 
one from the other, and they have come to call the one a school-fish in 
distinction from the other, which they call a shore-fish or “ ground- 
tender.” » 

The school-fish are supposed to be constantly on the move, remaining 
usually in the deep water, where they are very active in the pursuit of 
their prey, consuming such quantities as to keep them in excellent flesh. 
Such fish are usually very shapely, with small and very distinct dark 
spots on a light background, and seem to have the head quite small in 
proportion to the body. On the whole, they are just such fish as would 
be expected from continued activity and good living. On the other 
hand, the shore-fish, or “ ground-tenders,” live constantly among the 
rocks and sea-weeds along the shore, where the water is less pure and 
the food less abundant. They seem to lead solitary lives during a greater 
part of the year, being scattered along different portions of the coast, . 
living upon the little rocky spots, where they feed upon such animals as 
they chance to find; or at times entering the shoaler water among the 
sea-weeds, where they feed upon the mollusks and articulates that are 
often so abundant in such localities. They are generally in poorer flesh 
than the school-fish, having a relatively larger head in proportion to 
their bulk, with larger and less distinct spots on a darker background. 
In addition to these large fish, that for some reason seem to prefer the 
Shore as a feeding-ground, there are many young and immature that 
have not yet joined the school-fish in their migrations. These fish are 
the sole dependence of the boat-fishermen in summer, or from June to 
November, and one must know the grounds pretty thoroughly, and row 
about from one feeding spot to another, in order to secure any consider- 
able number of them. During the months of June, July, and August, 
the fishing is quite limited, being confined to a few boat-fishermen who 
row or sail out daily with hand-lines, returning in the afternoon with 
from 150 to 300 pounds, which they usually sell at fair prices to supply 
the fresh-fish trade. 

Early in the fall the spawning instincts of the fish cause them to grad- 
ually gather from the different parts of the shore to special rocky 
grounds, where they remain until they have deposited their eggs. . At 
such times, being more numerous in these localities, the fishing becomes 
more profitable, so that many small vessels and a larger number of boats 
frequent these grounds, and by the middle of October the daily catch 
reaches about 400 pounds per man. 

Thus far the catch has been composed almost wholly of the young and 
shore fish ; but about the 1st of November the fall school of spawning- 
fish, known as the “ pasture-school,” makes its appearance. All the 
smaller vessels and boats are now pressed into service, and the winter 


692 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
2.—CHARACTER OF THE FISHING-GROUNDS. 


Cape Ann is a prominent headland, dividing the waters of Ipswich 
Bay on the north from those of Massachusetts Bay on the south. Next to 
Maine, it has the most bold and rocky shores on the coast of New England, 
and its rugged granite walls rising to a considerable height above the 
water, present an inhospitable appearance to the approaching mariner. 
This granite ridge, of which the Cape is a part, extends some distance 
from the shore, forming an irregular ocean-bed; and continuing south- 
ward, is broken up into a large number of small rocky islands and 
sunken ledges, separated by deeper channels. 

Among these islands and ledges the shore cod, and other species, find 
a favorite feeding-ground, and the school-fish, though seldom venturing 
among the innermost islands, come yearly in great numbers to the larger 
outer ridges where they remain during several months for the purpose 
of spawning. It is here that the shore-fishermen of Cape Ann find 
their best fishing during the fall and early winter; the fish being known 
as the “ pasture-school,” from the grounds where they are most frequently 
taken. 

Farther east, at a distance of 15 to 20 miles from the shore, and sep- 
arated from the foregoing by a wide channel of clay and mud, is a ridge 
of ground about 20 miles long, known as Stellwagen or Middle Bank. 
This bank lies at the entrance to Massachusetts Bay, between Cape 
Ann and Cape Cod, with an average depth of 15 to 18 fathoms. The 
fishermen often resort to this locality when the fish are approaching or 
leaving the coast, and frequently find good fishing for several weeks. 

To the north of the cape is Ipswich Bay, with its low sandy beach 
and level bottom sinking very gradually until a depth of 25 to 30 fath- 
oms is reached at a distance of several miles from land. The floor of 
this bay is a vast sandy waste, with only here and there a patch of clay 
or rocks, the whole supporting but a small amount of animal life, and 
this limited to a few species. It is essentially a spawning rather than 
a feeding ground of the cod, and large schools visit the bay for this 
purpose during the winter, remaining as late as June. The fishermen 
are just beginning to learn the value of this ground, and in the spring 
of 1879 over 11,000,000 pounds of round fish were taken, mostly by the 
Cape Ann fleet. 

Farther to the eastward, and extending some distance in a northerly 
direction, is Jeffry’s Bank.. This ground is frequently visited by the 
shore-vessels during certain seasons of the year, and good fares are 
often secured. It seems more of a feeding-ground for the fish than 
Stellwagen Bank, and the fishing often lasts during a longer period. 


3.—DIFFERENT SCHOOLS. 


In examining the cod-fish landed from time to time, one cannot but 
notice the great individual variation in the species. - But in addition to 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 693 


being of uniformly large size with a few very large. Of over 5,000, se- 
lected without regard to size at different times during the season, the 
average weight was 203 pounds. 

Fishing continued good in Ipswich Bay until the first of June when 
the school left the shore, being perhaps hurried in their movements by 
a large school of dog-fish (Squalus americanus) that made their ap- 
pearance in the bay about this time. 

After the school-fish leave the shore in summer the fishermen frequent- 
ly resort to the outer grounds, such as Jeffry’s and Stellwagen Banks, 
when they often secure good fares from what they suppose to be a new 
school that visit these grounds for the purpose of feeding. We have 
had little opportunity for examining these fish, but there seems a strong 
probability that they belong to the school that have just left the shore, 
and that they remain on these grounds for a few days or weeks on their 
way to deeper water. 


4.—METHODS OF CAPTURE. 


Two methods only are extensively used by the cod-fishermen of Cape 
Ann. Hand-lines have been used from the earliest times, and are still 
exclusively employed on the rocky ledges during the stay of the “ pas- 
ture-school” in the fall and early winter. A visit to the harbor at mid- 
night in November, when the fall fishing is at its height, cannot but im- 
press one with the loneliness of the scene, for all is quiet and the region 
seems thoroughly deserted. But two hours later the rumbling of wheels 
and the shrill ery of the baitman cause a great and sudden change, for 
if the fisherman is behind time he frequently finds that all of the “sper- 
ling” have been sold. With the first cry of the baitman, lights may be 
seen in the hands of the fishermen as they emerge from the cabins of the 
different schooners, and soon the dull thud of oars is heard and boats 
approach from various quarters, while men and boys come straggling 
down the different lanes and by-paths from their homes on shore. The 
night of the fisherman is over. He secures his bait and returns to his 
vessel, where the other members of the crew are just beginning the work 
of the day. Soon the measured stroke of the windlass and the hoisting 
of sails are heard and the fleet is “under way.” 

If it is calm in the harbor, as it often is at this early hour, one or two 
boats are “ hoisted out,” and with lines fastened to the vessel’s bow they 
tow her toward the outer harbor, where her sails catch the breeze and 
she is off for the fishing-grounds. The boats are now “ paid astern,” and 
the rowers join the other members of the crew, who have assembled in 
the forecastle to eat their morning meal from their private lunch-baskets, 
all going to the common reservoir for their mug of hot coffee that has 
been prepared by the schooner’s cook. Breakfast over, each gathers his 
gear in convenient shape, and after filling his bucket with bait, lounges 
about waiting for the day. The vessel aims to reach the ground just be- 
fore light, and at the first sight of his land-marks or cross-bearings the 


694 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


captain brings his vessel upon some little spot of ground known to be a 
favorite resort of the cod. Each crew strives to be first on the ground, 
which is a small rocky ridge five or six miles east-southeast of Eastern 
Point, with an average depth of 25 to 30 fathoms. After the anchor 
has been dropped the jib and foresail are “taken in” and the dories are 
lowered from the vessel’s deck. Soon the men, following each other 
in rapid succession, are off for their favorite spots, the captain and cook, 
or at times only the latter, remaining to care for the vessel and fish over 
_the rail. It is indeed a lively scene, with 150 dories and upwards of 40 
larger crafts, each striving for the best berth on a little ridge of ground 
not over 50 by 90 rods in extent. 

When the desired knob has been reached, the killick is dropped, and 
the fisherman seats himself upon the middle thwart with his face toward 
the stern, his lines and gaff by his side, and his bucket of bait before 
him. A fisherman uses two lines, each having two hooks, the leads 
varying in weight from three to five pounds, according to the depth of 
water and the strength of the tide. The hooks are now baited, from 
three to six sperling being strung on each, and a line is thrown over on 
either side, being allowed to run out until the lead reaches the bottom 
when it is “seized up” five or six feet, so that the lower hook just clears 
the rocks, with the upper one a foot or two above. The lines are now 
fastened to the inner braces of the boat, and with one in either hand 
the fisherman sits expectant, slowly moving his arms back and forth in 
his endeavor to induce the fish to bite. On hooking a fish, he generally 
stands in the boat, facing the line, which he proceeds to haul quite 
rapidly until the fish is at the surface, when with one hand he holds the 
line, and with the other reaches for his gaff to lift the fish into the boat. 

The best fishing usually occurs in the early morning, though the hour 
may vary and even come in the afternoon; but by one or two o'clock 
the flag is set in the rigging of the vessel as a signal for the boats to re- 
turn, and as they come alongside, the fish are pitched into the common 
pile on deck, after which they are “hoisted in,” and the vessel starts 
for home in order to market her catch before dark. 

The quantity of fish taken daily varies greatly, being dependent upon 
the dexterity of the fisherman, the abundance of fish, and the quality 
and kind of bait used. The largest hand-line catch in a day, as far as 
we can learn, was secured off Pigeon Cove in the winter of 1877~78, 
when a fisherman landed 2,200 pounds of round fish. About the same 
time two men, fishing from one boat in the same locality, landed 3,900 
pounds; while two other boats with similar crews fell only 100 pounds 
behind them.* 

The method of trawling originated with the fishermen of this region, 
probably with those of Marblehead, about twenty-five years ago, and 
has since come into general favor. This method is used almost exclu- 
sively when fishing where the bottom is smooth; though it cannot be 


*Cape Ann Advertiser, 


’ COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 695 


employed on very rough ground, as the trawl becomes fastened among 
the rocks, and is often lost together with all the fish that are on it. The 
trawl consists of a long rope to which are fastened, at intervals of four 
to seven feet, smaller lines called “ gangings,” each bearing a baited hook 
at its free extremity. These gangings are from two to four feet in length, 
and number from four or five hundred to even fifteen or sixteen hundred, 
according to the length of the ground-line. The trawl has an anchor, 
weighing from 8 to 16 pounds, at either end to hold it in position, while 
buoys, connected with these by means of small ropes, float at the sur- 
face to mark their exact location. When using trawls the vessel usually 
carries a dory for each member of the crew save the captain and cook. 
On reaching the grounds these boats are “paid astern,” and as the 
vessel sails at right angles to the wind, they are dropped in regular order, 
each being separated from the other by 30 to 60 rods. Each man now 
takes his position in the stern of his boat, and, after throwing out the 
buoy and line and lowering the anchor to the bottom, slowly pays out 
the trawl as the wind and tide carry him along. When all the trawl is 
out the second anchor, with another buoy and line, is dropped, and the 
man is picked up by the vessel. In case neither wind nor tide carry 
the boat along with sufficient rapidity, the fisherman sculls with one 
hand while with the other he pays out the trawl; or, where two go in 
the same boat, one usually rows so that the trawl may be set in any 
direction regardless of the winds or tides. Thus we have lines often a 
mile in length stretched out upon the ocean’s bottom, with hooks at regu- 
lar intervals of five or six feet, and the cod cannot pass without being 
tempted to take the bait. The trawls are sometimes left in the water 
only a few hours, but more frequently they remain over night, and are 
often taken up well filled with fish. In hauling, the fisherman first rows 
to his buoy, and pulls up the anchor with one end of the trawl attached. 
He then takes his position in the bow of the dory with a trawl-tub be- 
fore him, into which he coils the trawl as it comes from the water, using 
his gaff to take the market fish into the boat, and “ cutting away” all 
large but worthless fish, such as sharks and skates. 

Another method of fishing with the trawl, known as “ underrunning,” 
requires a second buoy-line attached to a small weight on the end of the 
trawl, the other line being fastened to the larger anchor only. By means 
of this second line the trawl is brought to the surface, while the anchor 
remains on the bottom to mark its original position. In underrunning, 
the man stands, as before, in the bow of the dory with a bucket of bait 
in place of the trawl-tub, merely passing the trawl over the bow of the 
boat and again into the water on the opposite side, saving such fish as 
are found and re-bating any hooks that may require it. This method is 
often employed for two reasons: first, because it retains for a man his 
old “ berth” where fish may be plenty; and, second, from the fact that 
in this way the hooks are kept almost constantly in the water, so that 
no opportunities for fishing are lost. 


696 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


When trawlers are numerous and there is a disposition to dishonesty 
or “mooning,” as the fishermen style it, which consists in taking the fish 
from the trawls belonging to another vessel under the cover of darkness, 
each vessel usually anchors near her own trawls in.the evening; but 
ordinarily, when near home, or during stormy weather, the vessels 
seek shelter in the harbor for the night, starting out in time to reach 
their grounds at early dawn. Great quantities of fish are often taken 
on a single trawl, and when a dory has been filled she hoists her signal, 
and a boat is sent out from the vessel to lighten her. The largest catch 
by any shore-vessel during the winter of 1878-79 was made by the 
schooner George A. Upton, of Gloucester, from Ipswich Bay. This ves- 
sel landed an equivalent of 55,906 pounds of round fish as the result of 
two and one-half days’ fishing with eight dories, the trawls averaging 
900 hooks each, selling her trip for $569.56. 

The method of catching cod with gill-nets, though so successfully 
used by the fishermen of Norway, has never been adopted by the fisher- 
men of our coast. Knowing of the profits derived from the use of their 
nets by these foreign fishermen, Professor Baird, who is ever anxious to 
introduce among the Americans any methods that will result to their 
advantage in the prosecution of the fisheries, decided to make experi- 
ments with them at Cape Ann, with a view to their introduction among 
our shore cod-fishermen. Accordingly he secured from parties in Norway 
a set of these nets and forwarded them to Gloucester, to be thoroughly 
tested by the employés of the Commission at that place. They reached 
the hatchery when the pasture-school was on the shore, and were set 
on the favorite fishing-grounds a number of times. But the strength 
of the twine had probably been affected in transit, and the nets proved 
far too frail. The strong tide and rough water caused them to catch 
among the rocks, where they were badly damaged; while numerous 
holes indicated clearly that large fish had torn their way through the 
nets, only such being retained as had become completely rolled up in 
the twine. The nets were always taken from the water in bad order; 
but the capture of 800 pounds on one occasion, even under these circum- 
stances, seemed to indicate that nets of sufficient strength might be 
used to good advantage, at least.on the smooth fishing-grounds along 


the coast. 
5.—THE BAIT QUESTION. 


With so large a fleet engaged wholly in hand-lining and trawling, the 
question of obtaining and preserving bait is of the utmost importance 
to the fisherman, and on its abundance or scarcity depends largely the 
success or failure of his season’s work. Cod-fish, though having the 
habit of snapping at, and at times swallowing, anything that may come 
in their way, are on the whole quite dainty fish, and when one expects 
to be successful in catching them for profit, he must have not only a 
good quality of bait, but also a kind that the fish are known to prefer. 
So peculiar are the fish in this particular, that the fishermen have differ- 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 697 


ent names for the various schools, derived from the kind of bait on 
which they live during the fishing season. We often hear them speak 
of the clam-school, the herring-school, and the squid-school ; and when 
securing bait they will at times pay exorbitant prices for that kind on 
-which the fish are known to be feeding, rather than take an equally 
good quality of another kind at much lower rates. Thus, when the fish 
are feeding on squid (Ommastrephes illecebrosa) the fishermen secure 
squid if possible ; the same is also true of the herring (Clupea harengus), 
the capelin (Mallotus villosus), and other species. But while it is un- 
doubtedly true that during the feeding season the fish take the hook 
more readily when baited with that particular species that they chance 
to be pursuing, and while they always prefer fresh to salt bait, yet we 
think the fishermen in error when they apply the rule with the same 
fixedness to the schools of spawning fish, and that the shore-fishermen 
often lose both time and money by so doing. — It is quite interesting to 
watch the effect of this idea upon the shore-fishermen; for they seem 
fully convinced that, when one kind of bait has been successfully used, 
it is utter folly to attempt the use of any other kind. Thus in the winter 
of 187879, when sperling (young herring) became scarce, the fleet 
waited fully two weeks, hoping that more might be obtained before they 
would supply themselves with either frozen herring or clams. 

In the winter of 1877~’78 the first vessels resorting to Ipswich Bay 
for cod chanced to be fishing with clams, and, as a result, clams were 
used by nearly the entire fleet, though frozen herring could be more 
easily obtained, and were cheaper. Again, in the winter of 1878~79, the 
first vessels resorting to the above locality used frozen herring, and the 
results obtained were entirely satisfactory. Frozen herring were at 
once announced as the bait, and fishermen provided themselves with 
these only. A few, however, acting on the experience of the previous 
Season, had contracted for clams in advance, and were obliged to use 
them. These unfortunates, for such they felt themselves to be, fre- 
quently received expressions of sympathy from the other fishermen, and 
it was the general belief that their catch was much smailer than it 
would otherwise have been. A comparison of the quantity of fish landed 
by one of these vessels with that of a vessel of equal size using frozen 
herring, showed that the bait had little effect on the catch, the trips 
averaging about the same in size, sometimes favoring the one and again 
the other vessel. Later in the season, when frozen herring could not be 
obtained, the vessels went south for fresh herring and alewives (Pomo- 
lobus vernalis and P. estivalis), and it was not uncommon for them at 
times to refuse the herring, and to spend several weeks in search of ale- 
Wives, or again to refuse the alewives and search for herring. 

The principal kinds of bait used in the cod-fisheries are clams (Mya 
arenaria), sperling or young herring, fresh and frozen herring (Clupea 
harengus), fresh and salt squid (Ommastrephes illecebrosa), fresh and salt 
menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), capelin (Mallotus villosus), and alewives 


698 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


(Pomolobus vernalis and P. estivalis). The shore-fishermen of Cape Ann 
use principally clams, frozen and fresh herring (including sperling), and 
alewives. ; 

Clams are used principally during the summer months and at other 
times when bait is scarce. They occur in considerable numbers in most 
of the muddy flats along the shore between tide-marks, being small and 
seattering near the line of high-water, but gradually increasing in both 
size and number as the low-water line is neared. ‘To these flats the fish- 
ermen resort with their clam-forks and baskets during the hours of low- 
water. When they are plenty, an energetic worker can dig from seven 
to nine bushels at a single tide, these making nearly two-thirds of a bar- 
rel of bait; but in the vicinity of Gloucester the flats have been dug over 
so frequently that clams are becoming scarce, and the fishermen are often 
obliged to buy their supply from other places, at an average price of four 
or five dollars a barrel. 

The sperling, now so extensively used by the shore-line fishermen, 
average from five to six inches in length. They make their appearance 
in these waters about the middle of September, remaining until driven 
off by the coldness of the water late in December. We are told that 
they were first used for bait by the Swampscott fishermen about 1840, 
and that the demand did not become general until 1866. The supply 
now comes wholly from Ipswich Bay, where for the past two years the 
fish have been unusually abundant. They are taken wholly at night, 
within a short distance of the shore, by means of dip-nets. The men 
visit the grounds in 20-foot dories, made expressly for the purpose, and 
as soon as it becomes dark a torch is placed in the bow, and two men 
row the boat rapidly through the water, while the third stands ready to 
secure the fish as they are attracted by the light and gather in little 
bunches, keeping just.in front of the boat. A good dipper will often 
catch half a bucket of them at asingle dip. It usually takes but a short 
time to secure all that can be sold, when the boat returns to the shore, 
where a wagon is in readiness to carry the fish to market. Ninety men 
were engaged in this work during the winter of 1878~79, landing and 
marketing about 7,000 barrels of sperling, at an average price of $3 per 
barrel. During the season six men landed nearly a thousand barrels, 
while a single crew of three men caught 20 barrels in one night. 

The fishermen buy only enough bait to last them through the day, 
getting a fresh supply each morning, as the fish soon become soft, and 
when in this condition will not stay on the hook. For this reason they 
are not suitable bait for the trawl, and cannot be used in the offshore 
fisheries. 

Frozen herring usually make their appearance in the Cape Ann 
markets about the middle or last of December, from which time they are 
extensively used as bait by all of the fishermen until April, when the 
weather becomes so warm that they cannot be obtained. The supply 
comes largely from the coasts of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, where 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 699 


the fish are abundant during the greater part of the winter. Many of 
the larger Cape Ann vessels engage in the frozen-herring trade during 
these months, visiting those points where the herring chance to be most 
abundant, and bringing large trips to the principal New England mar- 
kets. Formerly they supplied themselves with nets for catching their 
own fish, and took full crews of fishermen to assist in the work, but of 
late they often find it cheaper to buy the fish of the natives, in which 
case they carry only enough men to work the vessel on the passage. 
The herring are first frozen on the shore, after which they are thrown, 
with a little straw, into the hold, and at times even the cabin of the ves- 
Sel is filled, the crew living in the forecastle. A vessel thus loaded car- 
ries from three to four hundred thousand fish. If the trip is to be sold 
to the fishermen, the vessel is anchored in the middle of the harbor, and 
a flag set in the rigging as a signal that bait may be obtained. The fish- 
ing-vessels are brought alongside of the “‘baiter” and the herring are 
counted out, and quickly transferred by the crews to beds of straw or 
canvas, where they remain in good condition until such time as they 
are needed. The price varies from 25 cents to $1 per hundred, the aver- 
age being a trifle under 50 cents. The fish have an average length of 
nearly 12 inches. In preparing them for bait, they are first slivered, 
and the head and tail thrown away, after which the balance is cut soas to 
make about six baits. A vessel carrying eight dories and fishing with 
trawls requires from eight to twelve hundred herring for a day’s fishing. 

After the season for frozen herring is over, the fishermen often find 
great difficulty in securing bait of any kind. In the spring of 1879 
shore-fishing was almost wholly suspended for several weeks on this ac- 
count. About the Ist of May a small school of herring made their ap- 
pearance in the locality, and the water was soon filled with nets for their 
capture, but the supply was so small as to afford relief to only a few of 
the smaller boats. Later mackerel were purchased from the market- 
fleet when they were cheap, but the price was generally so high that 
the fishermen could not afford to use them. Again, from the 10th of 
May until the Ist of June almost no bait could be found in the locality, 
and the shore-fishing by the small boats was practically suspended. 
The larger vessels started out to seek it elsewhere, and were often obliged 
to go as far as Greenport, Long Island, before a supply could be ob- 
tained. In this way two weeks were often spent in getting enough for 
three or four days’ fishing. The offshore fleets were also seriously hin- 
dered in their work by the scarcity of bait, and usually spent much more 
time in search of it than they did on the fishing-grounds. 

While the season of 1879 has been an exceptional one, owing to the 
absence of the menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) from the Gulf of Maine, 
yet the question of the bait supply has for years been growing more 
serious, and the difficulty of obtaining it has been constantly increasing. 
The expense has also been proportionately increased, until it now seri- 
ously reduces the profits of the business. 


& 


700 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Professor Baird on learning of this difficulty began a series of experi- 
ments to throw light on the subject. For this purpose he caused a 
refrigerator, with a capacity of fully a ton, to be placed in the laboratory 
of the United States Fish Commission at Provincetown, Mass., where 
by the use of salt and ice he easily obtained a temperature of 18° F., 
and found no difficulty in keeping fish for any desirable period. He now 
suggests a way out of the bait difficulty by the building of large refrig- 
erators in the principal fishing-towns along the coast; these to be filled 
when bait is plenty and cheap, and the supply to be kept until such time 
as it may become scarce. He also suggests the use of small refrigerators 
in the holds of the fishing-vessels, and thinks that by this means bait 
cau be kept as long as desired and as cheaply as by the present method. 

The time has undoubtedly come when this question should receive 
the serious attention of the fishery capitalists of New England, and it 
only remains for some one actually engaged in the fisheries, or for some 
enterprising capitalist, to act upon these suggestions in order to bring 
the plan into general favor. 


6.—DISPOSITION MADE OF THE FISH. 


The two principal markets for the shore fishermen of Cape Ann are 
Boston and Gloucester. The former uses the bulk of the fresh haddock, 
while the latter buys most of the cod, hake, pollock, and cusk. 

In former years it was the custom in all of the fishing-towns along the 
coast for the fishermen to cure their own catch or to land the fish at the 
wharf of some shoresman who would “make” them at his leisure, charg- 
ing from 6 to 84 per cent. of their value for his labor. In either case the 
fish would not be sold till late in the fall, and it was often nearly spring 
before the fisherman received any money for his season’s work. Being 
usually a man of small means he had no money to carry himself and fam- 
ily through the season, and he was obliged to arrange with the merchant 
to supply him with goods until the fish could be caught, cured, and sold. 
In this way the merchant’s bills came to have a value largely dependent 
upon the abundance and price of fish, and, if the season was a poor one, 
the accounts were often worthless. To protect himself against such 
losses the merchant came to charge exorbitant prices for his goods, and 
mutual dissatisfaction was the result. 

Many of the towns still do business in this way, but a few have 
adopted the cash system. Gloucester was among the first to adopt 
this method, and in this way drew a large number of fishermen into the 
town, and greatly increased the size of her fleet. The Cape Ann cod- 
fishermen now receive their money as soon as the fish are landed and 
weighed, and thus many of the evils of the credit system are overcome. 

In addition to this, there is usually so much competition that a fisher- 
man can secure good prices for his catch, and can sell in any way that 
he thinks most profitable. Early in the fall, when fish are scarce, he 
usually sells his fish round, but later in the season he often finds it to 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 701 


his advantage to “ gut” oreven split them before selling. The average 
price paid for cod during the winter of 1878~79 was $1 per hundred 
pounds for round, $1.25 for gutted, and $2 for split fish. 

The method of dressing is often quite interesting to the stranger, as 
the work is carried on with great rapidity. A single dressing-gang con- 
sists of three men, each performing a particular part of the work. After 
the fish have been weighed and pitched into a tub—usually half of a 
hogshead—the “header,” armed with a sharp and pointed knife, seizes 
the fish by the mouth with his left hand, and rests its back upon the 
edge of the tub. He then, with one stroke of the knife, severs the at- 
tachment between the gill-covering and the belly, and inserting it in 
the opening thus made, slits the abdomen to the vent. He then makes 
a cut on either side of the head at the base of the skull, and while its 
back still rests on the edge of the tub, and his left hand holds its head, 
he places his right hand upon the body of the fish, and throws his 
weight upon it, separating the backbone from the skull and tearing the 
head from the body, cutting away any flesh that tends to hold them to- 
gether. The fish is now allowed to fall back into the tub, when the 
“‘ gutter” seizes it and removes the viscera, transferring the livers to 
one barrel at his side, and the ovaries to another, allowing the re- 
mainder to drop down at his feet or to fall back into the tub. He then 
throws it upon a table, where the “splitter” places its back against a 
little strip of wood to keep it from slipping, and holding the fish open 
with his left hand, takes a splitting-knife in his right and cuts along 
the left side of the backbone to the base of the tail. The fish now lies 
open on the table, when with a hard stroke of the knife he severs the 
backbone near its middle, and catching the end thus freed, lifts it slowly, 
and following along its side with his knife quickly cuts it from the body, 
sliding the fish from the table into a tub of water, where it is washed 
before going to the salt-house. Three men will usually dress from two 
to four thousand pounds per hour, the quantity varying with the size of 
the fish. When a large quantity is to be dressed, or when dressing on 
board a vessel, a double gang of seven men is usually employed, the 
extra man, called the idler, pitching the fish into the tubs and drawing 
the water to wash them after they have been split. 

Two methods are employed in curing the fish. By the first they are 
placed in butts, with a quantity of salt, and covered with the strongest 
pickle. Here they must remain for about two weeks in order to become 
thoroughly “ struck,” after which they may be placed on the flakes, when, 
after one or two days’ drying, they are ready for the market, though still 
quite damp and full of salt. This method is employed only on shore, 
and such fish are known as pickle-cured fish, being inferior in quality to 
the kench-cured fish, though they find a ready market in all the inland 
towns. 

In “ kenching,” the fish are salted in piles, either in the hold of a vessel 
or on the floor of a fish-house. Each fish is placed back downward, so 


702 REPORT OF-COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


that, as the salt is dissolved by the moisture from the body, the pickle 
will pass into the flesh and thoroughly preserve it. When properly 
salted, fish may be kept in kench for fully a year, though they are sel- 
dom allowed to remain more than four or five months, as they are liable 
to grow strong and musty. To prepare these fish for market, they are 
first thoroughly washed and scrubbed, and then placed on the flakes, 
where they are allowed to remain until dry. 

A new brand of fish, known as the boneless cod, has been introduced 
within the last few years, and is meeting with a ready sale. By this 
method pickle-cured fish of different species are taken to the boning- 
room, where menand boys are employed in stripping off the skin, cut- 
ting out the fins and bones, and cutting the flesh into convenient shape 
for packing in small boxes for the retail trade. 

A large number of observations have been made to ascertain the exact 
lossin weight of different members of the cod family from the time they 
leave the water until ready for market. From these it is found that 
the pickle-cured cod loses from 60 to 66 per ‘cent.; the haddock, 62.3; 
the pollock, 59.8; the hake, 55.5; and the cusk, 50.5. The additional 
loss of the cod in boning is 21.9 per cent. The details of the above are 
given in Tables V to XII, inclusive. 

In addition to the market-cured fish, that represents the principal 
value of the cod, other parts of the fish are often saved. Indeed, but 
little of either the weight or bulk of the fish is thrown away. When 
considered separately, any one of these parts has a value seemingly 
insignificant for the individual; but when taken collectively, they have 
an importance that cannot be neglected in estimating the money value 
of the cod-fisheries. 

The livers, from which both medicinal and tanners’ oils are made, are, 
next to the cured fish, the most valuable. These are always saved by 
the fishermen, and bring from 8 to 15 cents per gallon, according to the 
season when the fish are taken. They are in the best condition from 
July to September, when a thousand pounds of round fish will furnish 
four or five gallons, yielding from eight to ten quarts of oil, and are 
poorest from January to May, when only two and three-fourths gallons, 
yielding but four or five quarts of oil, can be obtained from a like quan- 
tity of fish. The livers are usually boiled in large kettles, and the oil 
thus freed rises to the surface, when it is dipped offand put into barrels 
for the market. Inthe bank-fisheries each vessel is provided with butts, 
where the livers are kept until the oil has been separated by partial 
decomposition and the natural heat of the sun. This method is known 
as sun-trying. Much of the oil from the livers of the shore-fish is used 
for medicinal purposes, and in the crude state brings about 50 cents per 
gallon, while the sun-tried oil is sold as tanners’ oil, at from 26 to 55 
cents per gallon. 

The ovaries or eggs of the fish come next in importance. During 
‘war times” these brought from $8 to $12 per barrel, and found aready 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 703 


sale, even at these prices, for use as bait in the sardine fisheries of 
France. At that time all the fishermen made a practice of saving them 
when they could be obtained. Of late, owing to a number of different 
causes, the price has declined, and during the winter of 1878~79 the 
fishermen have received only $1.25 for them in a fresh state, and the 
price when cured for exportation averaged only $3 per barrel. or this 
reason most of the offshore fishermen refused to save them, and the 
quantity landed in Gloucester was a trifle under 1,800 barrels, these 
being mostly brought in by the shore fishermen. <A fair average yield 
during the winter, or from September to April, is about one barrel to 
every 4,000 pounds of fish; at other seasons they cannot be obtained. 

The sounds or air-bladders of the fish have recently become quite val- 
uable, and are now frequently saved. They are prepared for the market 
in different ways, depending upon the use for which they are intended. 
By far the greater part are dried, and sold to factories in the locality, 
together with sounds of the hake, where they are made into marketable 
gelatine and used principally in clarifying beer. Some are also put upon 
the market as cooking gelatine, while others are made into glue. Sounds 
are also extensively eaten, and are by some considered a great luxury. 
When put up for this purpose they are pickled and mixed with the 
tongues of the fish, and in this condition bring from $8 to $12 per 
barrel. 

In the offshore fisheries the sounds usually become the property of 
the vessel’s cook, who cuts them from the bone and prepares them for 
market during his leisure hours. On shore this work is usually done 
by men and boys, who cut and scrape them for a certain part—usually 
one-third to one-half of their value. 

From Capt. J. W. Collins, of Gloucester, we have the following facts 
relating to sounds and the sound trade: One thousand pounds of round 
cod yield from nine to ten pounds of sounds; these, when scraped, weigh 
about 64, and after salting, 5% pounds. It requires four pounds of 
green sounds to make one pound of dried. The price paid during the 
year 1879 for dried sounds was from 22 to 35 cents, the prices received 
by the fishermen being as follows: 


Cents 
Grand Bank sounds, pickled, per pound.--...-..............---- 34 
George's Bank:sounds, pickled, per pound........+....-.-----+! 44 
Shore sounds, green, per pound..........-..---.- SEE ores ek ceri) 5 


Cod tongues are also saved, and find a ready sale in the retail markets, 
at from 8 to 15 cents per pound. On the offshore vessels these are often 
cut from the fish as soon as they are taken from the water, the fisher- 
men keeping account of the number of fish caught in this way, and at 

‘night each brings his dish of tongues to the captain, who, after counting 
and crediting them to the fisherman, empties them into the common pile, 
when they become a part of the general stock and are sold at from 2 
to 5cents per pound. On shore they are cut out by boys and men, each 


704 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


person having half of all he gets. An average yield is about five pounds 
to a thousand pounds of round fish. 

Again, the skins, bones and fins, that come from the places where 
boneless fish are prepared, usually bring when delivered at the factories 
an average price of $1 to $2 per wagon-load. I am told that these make 
the finest quality of isinglass. 

The above are the only products that have a market value as mer- 
chandise, but in addition many poor people resort to the dressing- 
wharves during the winter season and cut out the cheeks of the fish, 
the process being known to the fishermen as “scalping.” These are con- 

sidered very fine eating, and many people are in this way supplied with 
excellent food, who would be compelled to go without in case they had 
to purchase. That which now remains after all these different parts have 
been saved is usually thrown into the sea, though at times the farmers 
cart it away to manure their land. 

Thus we see that though small for the individual, when considered 
collectively these minor products have an enormous value for the cod- 
fisheries of the country. But barring those which, though useful, have 
no market value, and considering the marketable ones only, we find that 
in the shore-fisheries, when all of the above-mentioned parts are saved, 
they represent a value equal to 144 per cent. of the total value of the fish 
as it comes from the water. 


C.—NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 


1.—GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 


The cod-fish has perhaps a wider range than any other of our impor- 
tant food-fishes. On the east coast of America it is found from the 
polar regions on the north to Cape Hatteras on the south, occurring in 
vast numbers in the vicinity of Labrador and Newfoundland and on the 
noted fishing-banks lying to the south and west. On the west coast a 
closely-related species occurs, and the cod-fisheries of the Pacific are 
being rapidly developed. In the Old World the cod has a wide geo- 
graphical range, and is very abundant in some localities, the cod-fisheries 
of Norway being among the most extensive in existence. 

It is not our purpose, however, to go into any general discussion of 
the natural history of the cod, but merely to treat of the subject with 
special reference to the species as found in the waters of Northern Mas- 
sachusetts, where it occurs in greater “or less numbers, from the shore 
line to a depth of 90 or 100 fathoms, on all of the rocky spots and ledges, 
during the entire year. It is also frequently found on sand and clay,’ 
but seldom, if ever, remains on muddy bottoms. Cod are most plenty 
in this locality from November to June, when they visit the shore for the 
purpose of spawning, during which time they usually remain in from 15 
to 40 fathoms of water. 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 705: 
2.—CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COD. 


Cod-fish are gregarious in their habits, going in schools of greater or 
less size, and are governed in their movements by the presence or ab- 
sence of food, the spawning instinct, and the temperature of the water. 
When migrating, the schools are quite dense, though by no means like 
schools of menhaden or mackerel. But when they reach the feeding 
ground they seem to distribute themselves over a large area, though 
more or less grouped together in little bunches. This is particularly 
noticeable on the shore, when the fish are moving about in search of 
food, and the fisherman soon catches up all that chance to be on one 
patch of rocks, and must then row to another in order to find a new 
supply. The same thing is seen on western banks, where a vessel 
usually carries dories to distribute her crew over different parts of the 
ground, and often, by setting her trawls in one locality for a day or two, 
seems to catch up all of the fish, and must then “shift her berth.” Fish- 
ermen also cite many instances where the fishing is excellent on a few, 
particular, well-defined spots on different parts of the ground, while 
almost no fish can be taken in other places. 

During the spawning season this tendency to become scattered is less 
noticeable, for the instincts of the fish seem to bring them nearer 
together, and great numbers are often taken in one particular locality. 
Even here, however, the tendency to separate into groups occurs, for 
some boats find good fishing while others, but a few rods away, catch 
almost nothing; and in trawling, some parts of the line have a fish on 
nearly every hook, while other parts take only a scattering one. 

In schooling, both sexes are always found together, whether it be on 
the spawning or feeding ground or on the journey; but the relative 
numbers of each seem to vary greatly, and we have been able to dis- 
cover no invariable rule whereby one can predict with certainty the sex 
that will first appear, or that which will be most abundant at any given 
time during the season. The fishermen have a commonly accepted tra- 
dition that in the spawning schools the females always come first and 
the males later, but this theory is not supported by facts. Observations 
were frequently made on the relative numbers of the two sexes landed 
by the shore-fishermen between September, 1878, and July, 1879. The 
results showed that during the early fall, or before the school-fish had 
made their appearance, the fish were nearly equally divided between 
males and females—first the one and then the other being more abundant. 
When the school-fish first reached the shore early in November the males 
were a trifle more plenty than the females for about a week, but from 
that date until they left the grounds the females were taken in greater 
numbers, sometimes in the proportion of two to one, and at others in 
nearly equal quantities. In the Ipswich Bay school during the first two 
or three days in February there were ten males to one female; by the 


middle of the month the females composed about 40 per cent. of the 
45 F 


706 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


catch, and from this date until the 1st of June’ the males numbered two 
to one. From reliable fishermen we learned that the same was true of 
‘the fish on the offshore banks, and that, though varying greatly in their 
relative numbers, both males and females were always present. 

There is usually a great difference in the size of the individuals taken 
by the fishermen on the shore feeding-grounds in a single day, for the 
young and “ground-tenders” remain on these rocky ledges during the 
entire year, and late in the season the school-fish come in upon the same 
grounds and are naturally taken with them. But when the school-fish 
visit a locality not frequented by the young, as they do in Ipswich Bay, 
there is a noticeable absence of immature fish, and the catch is composed 
-almost wholly of individuals of large size. Thus, in the winter of 187879 
many trips of from twenty-five to forty thousand pounds were landed 
with scarcely a small fish among them, while vessels fishing only a few 
tiles distant found young fish plenty, and there were occasional instances 
where such vessels caught only small ones. Again, though the school-fish 
may differ considerably in size, we have not found one, thought to belong 
to their number, that had not reached maturity. Indications strongly 
favor the idea that the young remain separate from the school-fish dur- 
ing the first few years of their lives, and we are led to believe that, 
though they are often taken together, the occurrence is accidental and 
the young will not follow the old in their migrations until they reach 
maturity, though after this point is reached they seem to mingle freely 
without regard to age. 

The cod-fish sometimes make long journeys from one bank to another, 
and, indeed, from one region to a very distant one. It is, of course, 
nearly impossible to trace their movements at such times, and one can 
usually only guess at the place from whence they come or the distance 
traveled. 

During the winter of 1877-78 an unusually large school visited the 
coast of the United States. At this time cod were more plenty along 
the shores of New England than for many years. Among the fish cap- 
tured at Cape Ann and other points were quite a number with peculiar 
hooks fastened in their mouths. These hooks gave a clew to the move- 
ments of the fish, for they differed from any in use by the American 
fishermen, and proved identical with those used by French trawl-fisher- 
men on the Grand Banks, and indicated that the fish must at some time 
have been in that locality, as the hooks probably came from no other 
place. If the above be granted as proven, the fish must have traveled 
a distance of five to eight hundred miles at least, and, as a portion of 
the school continued well to the southward, some individuals must have 
journeyed much farther. Most of the schools that visit the shore have 
no such tag or mark whereby their former locality may be learned. 
They are thought to come directly in from the deep water and to depart 
by the same route, but where they spend the summer months is not 
known. 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 707 


Cod-fish are probably governed in their movements by the abundance 
and migrations of food, the spawning instinct, and the temperature of 
the water, though the last named seems to exert but little influence. It 
is generally acknowledged by the fishermen that during the feeding 
season fish are plenty only where food exists in considerable quantity, 
and that after ‘‘ cleaning up” one part of the bank they go to another. 
They also follow schools of bait for long distances, living upon them 
until they are broken up or entirely destroyed. Thus they often follow 
the capelin (Malletus villosus) into the shoal water, and even drive im- 
mense numbers of them upon the shore. 

The spawning instinct seems to exert a decided infiuence upon the 
movements of the fish, for we find them visiting the same locality year 
after year during the spawning season, often remaining for several 
months at atime. The fish that visit the waters of Cape Ann during 
the winter, doubtless come in for the purpose of spawning rather than 
for food. This seems clear from the fact that they do not arrive when 
bait is most plenty, nor do they follow any species to the shore. On the 
contrary, the pasture-school usually arrives about three weeks after the 
large herring have left the coast, and remains on the south side of Cape 
Ann, while sperling are abundant in Ipswich Bay. The Ipswich school 
is also the largest after the sperling have been driven away by the cold 
weather, and remains on the sand-flats, which supply almost no food. 
From these facts we are led to believe that food has little influence upon 
the movements of the fish during the spawning season. 

The instinct that leads the spawning fish to seek the shoal water in 
such great numbers is certainly a wise one, for they generally select 
spawning-grounds where the tide runs strong and the water is rough, 
and the large number of individuals is absolutely necessary, that the 
water may be filled with germs for their successful impregnation. If, 
instead of schooling in such numbers during this period, they remained 
scattered over a large area, almost no eggs would be fertilized. 

Again, while food is not essential to the spawning fish, it is of vital 
importance to the young, and it seems a wise provision that these should 
be brought into being where food is abundant, rather than that they 
should be hatched in mid-ocean, where almost no suitable food exists. 

Cod-fish live at a depth varying from a few feet to over 100 fathoms. 
They have occasionally been seen schooling or feeding at the surface on 
the fishing-banks and on the coast of Labrador. In February, 1879, 
there was good fishing in three fathoms of water within a few rods of 
the shore in Ipswich Bay; while in May of the same year large num- 
bers were taken in 110 fathoms from “the channel” near Clark’s Bank. 
They seem to prefer a depth of less than 70, and by far the greater 
numbers are caught in from 18 to 40 fathoms. 

In moving from one bank to another, where the intervening depth is 
much greater, it seems probable that, instead of following the bottom, 
they swim in a horizontal plane, following a stratum of nearly uniform 


708 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


density and temperature. The fishermen of Cape Ann have often caught 
them with 70 to 80 fathoms of line, between Brown’s and George’s 
Banks, where the sounding-line indicated a much greater depth. The 
finding of pebbles and small stones in their stomachs is not an uncom- 
mon occurrence. The fishermen regard these as an unfailing sign that 
the fish have either just arrived or are about to leave the bank. These 
stones may play no small part in adjusting the specific gravity of the 
fish to that of the stratum of water in which they are to move. 

There seems to bea tendency for the large fish to remain in deeper water 
or nearer the bottom than the small, and usually beyond a certain depth; 
the deeper one fishes the larger the fish. Formerly, in hand-lining from 
deck on the banks, the vessels often anchoredin 80 or even 90 fathoms, and 
the catch averaged over two-thirds large; but in hand-lining from dories 
they seldom fish in over 50 and usually less than 35 fathoms, as they 
find it difficult to handle so much line, and the catch runs about two- 
thirds small. The same is true in fishing at different depths at the same 
time and in the same place. Thus, of two men fishing side by side from 
the deck ofa vessel, the one with his hook on the bottom will catch much 
larger fish than the other who lets his line but part way down. Larger 
fish are also taken on the trawl than on the hand-line, for the former 
lies constantly on the bottom, while the latter may be raised to any dis- 
tance above it. 

The size of the species varies greatly with the different individuads. 
The boat fisherman visiting the rocks and ledges along the shore in sum- 
mer catches fish weighing from 2 to 60 pounds, the average being atriile 
under 9 pounds. The school-fish run larger, those on the south side of 
the cape, in the fall of 1878, averaging about 12, and those in Ipswich 
Bay, later in the season, fully 202 pounds. Probably the latter were 
the largest as a school that have ever visited the shore. On George’s 
Bank, where the largest cod-fish are taken, trips are sometimes landed 
where the average weight weuld be fully 40 pounds round, but such 
cases are exceptional. The largest specimen that we have seen was taken 
by the schooner Northern Eagle, Capt. George H. Martin, in Ipswich 
Bay, March 10, 1879, and is now in the collections of the National Mu- 
seum. It measured 5 feet and 2 inches, and weighed 994 pounds when 
landed, probably weighing fully 105 pounds when taken from the water. 

We have also authentic record of a specimen captured off Cape Cod 
in February, 1878, that weighed 107 pounds after being eviscerated, 
which is equivalent to over 125 pounds round. Other instances have 
been recorded in the local papers in the vicinity of Cape Ann, from 
time to time, where cod of unusually large size have been taken; and 
the Cape Ann Advertiser has very recently noted the capture of one 
weighing 180 pounds by a vessel belonging to Newburyport, Mass. 
Whether this was the actual weight or an estimate we have not learned. 

Of the many specimens weighed and examined during our stay in 
Gloucester the average weight of the females exceeded that of the males 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 709 


by nearly 24 pounds—a difference only partially accounted for by the 
presence of the eggs. Whether this would be true for other localities or 
for other years is not known. 

The general form of the different individuals varies but slightly, though 
there is considerable difference in their relative proportions. No exter- 
nal character has been noticed whereby the sexes can be distinguished, 
and even the most trained observer cannot separate them when green 
until they have been opened. The difference in the relative proportions 
is considerable, and the length is not a reliable indication of weight. 
Some fish are short and thick while others are long and slender. Table 
No. IV gives the measurements and weights of a number of fish of dif- 
ferent sizes, and shows fully the extent of this variation. 

The difference in the shape of the shore and school fish seems largely 
the result of food and habits. The school-fish, moving about in pursuit 
of food, becomes thick and plump, so that the head appears small in pro- 
portion to the body, while the shore-fish, subsisting on such food as can 
be found on the rocks, grows thin and gaunt, giving its head a larger 
relative size. 

There is a remarkable variation in the color of different individuals of 
the species. This is doubtless due to surrounding circumstances, or to 
the character of the bottom on which they live, and to the age of the fish. 
The young when first hatched are nearly colorless, with the exception 
of a few dark star-shaped pigment cells, most noticeable in the eyes, and 
sparingly scattered over the whole surface of the body. These increase 
rapidly in number during the first few days on certain portions of the 
body, giving the little fish a.very peculiar banded appearance. At the 
age of six months they are still quite transparent, and the upper parts 
are well covered with minute black dots, more prominent along either 
side of the dorsal fins, and gradually shading off into lighter underneath, 
with the belly nearly white. At this time the fish have a peculiar golden 
tinge, deepest along the back and sides. Traces of the dark bands still 
remain, but these are more noticeable on account of the intervening 
lighter spaces, that seem to extend irregularly downward and backward, 
giving the fish a blotched or mottled appearance. Gradually the young 
fish living along the shore come to resemble more nearly the adult in 
the relative size and distribution of the spots, until at the age of twelve 
to eighteen months there is a marked similarity betweenthem. Butthe 
young continue to live among the rocks and ledges covered with alge, 
and soon begin to show a reddish tinge; this increasing and varying 
with the individual, often giving the fish a deep red color. These red 
fish are known to the fishermen as rock-cod, from the bottom on which 
they are taken. They are usually small, having a weight of only a few 
pounds, but some retain the color until they are of large size, and one 
specimen was seen during the summer of 1878 weighing 46 pounds. 
The ordinary shore-fish or ground-tender is quite dark, with the belly of 
a dirty ash, and the spots usually large and indistinct on a dark back- 


710 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ground. The regular school-fish, on the contrary, is very light, with 
smaller and more distinct spots on a lighter background, and has the 
belly nearly white. Specimens of cod have also been seen in which the 
whole upper surface of the body was of a uniform straw or lemon color, 
gradually shading into lighter underneath. A fine specimen of the 
above was secured in the summer of 1878, and is now in the National 


Museum. 
3.—FOOD OF THE GOD. 


A list of the stomach contents of the cod would be of little value, 
except in throwing light on the food that the fish seem to prefer, by 
showing the relative quantities of the different kinds. A full list, in- 
cluding everything that has been found in the species, would be very 
long, and embrace nearly everything, whether organic or inorganic, that 
chanced to come inits way. Any bright or curious object often attracts 
its attention, and is very likely to be swallowed by it. Thus knives, 
nippers, and even vegetables lost or thrown from the vessel are frequently 
found in the stomachs of the fish when they are being dressed. Stones, 
too, are not uncommon at times, and over a pound has been taken from 
a single fish. The list of fishes, articulates, and mollusks seems only 
limited by the size of the individuals or their ability to escape. But 
while such a variety of food is found in the cod, its principal food is 
limited to a few species of fish and a small number of mollusks. Among 
the former the more important are the herring (Clupea harengus), capelin 
(Mallotus villosus), lant (Ammodytes americanus), and a few others. It 
often follows these fish in their migrations, feeding upon and destroying 
great numbers of them, and at times shows great dexterity in their cap- 
ture. I am told that in the spring of 1879 an immense school of herring 
made their appearance on and moved slowly across George’s Bank, and 
that with them came the largest school of cod that has been seen in 
that locality for a long time. The cod remained constantly among the 
herring, so that, when the latter had passed the fishing fleet, the ves- 
sels were obliged to weigh anchor and follow them in order to secure the 
cod. The cod also drive the capelin into the shoal water, and even upon 
the shores of Newfoundland and Labrador, in immense numbers, and, 
when they have reached the shallow bays, fishermen report the water as 
fairly white from their splashings in their active and eager pursuit of 
their prey. Among mollusks, squid (Ommastrephes illecebrosa) and 
the common bank-clams are their principal food, the former being pre- 
ferred to any other species, and the latter often occurring in such quan- 
tities in the stomachs of the fish that the French fishermen on Grand 
Banks frequently catch a large part of their trip on bait secured in this 
way. 

During the spawning season the cod-fish cease to search for food, and 
give less attention to feeding than at other times, though they will 
usually take the bait when placed before them. That they do not 
search for food is shown by the fact.that the pasture-school remained 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN, (1t 


within a few miles of a large school of sperling without being drawn 
after them; and that the Ipswich Bay school was largest after the 
sperling had left the coast, and remained for a number of months 
on sandy wastes which supported only three species of invertebrates, 
Buccinum undatum, Fusus sp., and Asterias vulgaris, in any consid- 
erable abundance. The examination of the stomachs of several hun- 
dred individuals showed four-fifths of all to be entirely empty, while a 
greater part of the remainder contained only bait picked from the trawls 
of the fishermen. A small number contained fish of one or more species 
that had probably been captured in the locality, while a few scattering 
invertebrates were found. Of the species mentioned as abundant on 
the grounds, not a star-fish and but two shells of one species and one 
of the other were found. But it was clearly shown that the fish would 
not refuse food, for often the stomachs were well filled with bait picked 
from the trawl before the fish were hooked. From 10 to 15 pieces 
were frequently found, and in one case 18 were counted. 

The females when fully ripe seemed less willing to feed than at other 
times, and few were caught with the moving hand-lines; but when the 
trawl was used, thus leaving the bait motionless on the bottom for hours 
at a time, they were induced to bite, and many were taken with the eggs 
running from them. Ripe males seemed to bite readily at any time. 

The young fish, as has been remarked, seems to spend the first three 
or four years of its life in shoal water, among the rocks and alge. Here 
its food consists at first of the minutest forms, and later principally of 
small crustacea, though it often picks up mollusks and worms, and even 
enters the harbors in summer, where it remains about the wharves, 
picking up bits of refuse thrown from the fish-houses. The young fish 
were so plenty in Gloucester Harbor during the summer of 1879 that 
boys often caught 25 or 30 of them in an hour with hook and line. 


4,.— ENEMIES OF THE COD. 


The cod-fish seems to have few enemies. Among fishes its principal 
enemy is the dog-fish (Squalus acanthias). These fish make their ap- 
pearance in large schools on the shores of Northern Massachusetts early 
in May, where they remain until September, moving about from one 
locality to another, and driving everything before them. They are 
probably the most pugnacious of any species in the waters of New En- 
gland, and cod, as well as other fish, ave often brought to market bear- 
ing marks of their sharp teeth and horny spines. The arrival of a school 
of dog fish in any locality is the signal for all other species to leave; and 
in this way the work of the fisherman is often suddenly terminated. 

Halibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris) are also regarded by the fishermen as 
enemies of the cod, and many cases are cited where, in former years, 
they drove them from the fishing banks. In fact, thirty or forty years 
ago, when the halibut were very abundant in Massachusetts Bay and 
in the waters about Cape Ann, but had no market value, they interfered 


712 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


greatly with the work of the fishermen, and often good cod-fishing was 
spoiled by their sudden appearance. At the present time halibut oc- 
eur in much smaller numbers on these grounds, and no such difficulty 
is noticeable. Indeed, it is found that cod occur in greater or less num- 
bers with the halibut on the outer banks, where they seem to live peace- 
ably together; and we are led to believe that it was the abundance of 
the halibut in former times, when they literally covered the ground, 
rather than any hostilities beween the species, that drove the cod from 
the banks. 

Just how the large cod is affected by the presence of the pollock 

(Pollachius carbonarius) we are unable to say, but the young living near 
the shore finds in them its most deadly enemy. Young pollock are ex- 
ceedingly abundant all along the shore during a greater part of the 
year, often moving in large schools as well as singly, and frequently 
many barrels are taken in a single day in each of the many traps along 
the coast. They are especially abundant in the waters off Cape Ann, 
and being exceedingly voracious, attack and devour almost any small 
fish that comes in their way. We have often watched their movements 
in the clear water of Gloucester Harbor, and noted the sudden dispers- 
ion of a school of several hundred young cod of six months’ growth 
at the approach of a single pollock seven or eight inches in length. 

These little fish show great fear of them, and usually remain near the 
long kelps and sea-weeds that are growing on the piling of the wharves, 
and at once dart in among these for protection at the first approach of 
the pollock, reappearing very cautiously only after the lapse of several 
minutes. At times a pollock succeeds in approaching unnoticed, when 
it suddenly darts into the midst of the school and seizes one of the lit- 
tle fish as its prey. Even when of equal size the cod exhibit the same 
fear, and on putting several of each about ten inches in length into a 
large tank of water, the cod sought refuge beneath some strips of board 
that were stretched across one corner, while the pollock swam about 
freely in the water. On being driven from their hiding place they soon 
returned, and it was not until the pollock were taken out that they 
would freely venture from their hiding place. 


5.—REPRODUCTION. 


Evidence is not wanting to show that cod spawn every year, and that 
they deposit the entire number of eggs in the ovaries each season. We 
have examined hundreds of specimens and have failed to find a single 
instance where the condition of the ovaries did not clearly indicate, to 
our minds at least, that such was the case. During the first of the sea- 
son no mature fish were found in which eggs were not present, though 
they often varied greatly in development from very small to nearly ripe. 
Again, later in the season, no spent fish were seen with any eggs remain. 
ing in the ovaries; and no fish were found during the spawning period 
in which the condition of the ovaries did not indicate that the eggs were 


a 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. (als: 


gradually maturing, and would be deposited before the close of the sea- 
son. 

The eggs contained in the ovaries are separated into little irregular 
conical clusters, each connected with the general mass by a slender 
thread that expands into a delicate membrane containing minute and 
diffusely branched blood-vessels. This membrane incloses each of the 
eggs, and the blood-vessels supply the nutrition so necessary to their 
future growth and development. As the eggs mature they gradually 
increase in size, until, when ripe, they become detached from the mem- 
brane, and pass down through secondary channels into one main chan- 
nel leading to the genital opening of the female. 

The first ripe female seen during the season of 1878~79 was found in 
a lot of fish landed from the shore-fish or ground-tenders September 2. 
The eggs were noticed to be running from this fish as it lay upon the 
floor of the fish-house. On opening it was found that it had just begun 
spawning, for a few eggs only, perhaps five per cent. of the entire num- 
ber, were transparent, and a small number of these had separated from 
the membrane and fallen into the channels leading to the genital open- 
ing, while the great bulk were far less mature and represented almost 
every stage of development from green to ripe. 

From this date ripe fish, both males and females, were occasionally 
taken, though they did not become abundant until the middle of Octo- 
ber. Early in November, when the school-fish made their appearance 
on the south side of Cape Ann, the individuals varied greatly in their 
spawning condition ; some were quite ripe and had already thrown a 
portion of their eggs, while others were so green as to indicate that they 
would not spawn for several months at least, though in nearly all the 
eggs had begun to enlarge. By the 1st of December fully 50 per cent. 
of the catch had commenced spawning, but when driven away, probably 
by the unusually heavy storms, in January, a few were not quite ripe, 
and the majority had not thrown all their eggs. 

About the 1st of February the fish in Ipswich Bay were found to aver- 
age fully 90 per cent. males, with the spermaries mostly well developed. 
At this time there was a great variation in the ovaries of the females ; of 
these not more than one in ten had spawned, while fully 60 per cent. 
were still green. By the middle of the month the females numbered 
about 40 per cent., though over half had not commenced to spawn. On 
March 13, 300 fish from this school were opened, with the following re- 
sults: 14 per cent. were spent males ; 53 per cent. were ripe males; 6 per 
cent. were spent females; 14 per cent. were females in various stages of 
spawning, and 11 per cent. were green females. May 10, fully half of the 
females had not finished spawning, and an occasional green one was 
noticed. Even in June, when the fish left the coast, a very few, though 
ripe, had not finished throwing their eggs. 

The results of the above observation prove not only interesting, but 
surprising, for we find the cod-fish spawning during nine consecutive 


714 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


months in the same locality, a period far exceeding that required by any 
other species of which we have any knowledge. 

This fact can be more easily understood when we remember that the 
individuals do not deposit all their eggs in a single day or week, but 
probably continue the operation of spawning over fully two months. 

That this is true there can be little doubt, for when the females first 
begin to throw their eggs only a very small percentage of the whole 
number are ripe, while the balance show every gradation to the perfectly 
green and immature. By frequent examination of individuals in more 
advanced stages, it is found that the eggs gradually continue to increase 
in size as they mature, and that as fast as they become detached from 
the membrane they pass down through the channels to the opening, and 
are excluded from the body, either by the will of the parent or by in- 
ternal pressure caused by the increasing size of the eggs, to make room 
for others. It would be impossible for a fish to retain all or even a small 
part of its eggs in the roe-bags until the last had matured, for the in- 
crease during the development is very great, and the eggs would come 
to have a bulk greater than the entire stomach cavity of the fish. The 
products of the ovaries of a 75-pound fish, after impregnation, would 
weigh about 45 pounds and measure nearly 7 gallons, equal to over half 
of either the weight or bulk of the fish. 

Another proof that the cod-fish deposits its eggs gradually during a 
long period is seen in the fact that few can be taken from the fish at any 
one time. In “ stripping the fish,” at the hatchery in Gloucester, it was 
found that only one quart, or less than 400,000 eggs, could be taken 
from a 21-pound fish in a single day. Allowing the ovaries of this fish 
to contain 2,700,000 eggs, and the time of spawning to be two months, 
the fish must deposit in the natural way 337,500, or nearly a quart, each 
week. 

But by the artificial method, where strong external pressure is applied, 
many more eggs are probably secured at once than would be naturally 
thrown by the fish. Thus the fish must either gradually deposit more or 
less eggs each day, during the entire spawning season, or it must deposit 
at intervals separated by only a day or two at most. 

The schools move about but little during the spawning season, except 
when driven away by enemies or by violent storms. After they reach 
the waters of Cape Ann, fishing continues best in the same localities and 
even upon the same spots until they leave. The individuals, too, seem 
to move about but little among themselves. When the female becomes 
ripe she remains quietly near the bottom, while the male, a little more 
active, often swims higher up. This is indicated by the fact that much 
greater numbers of spawning females are taken with the trawl lying di- 
rectly on the bottom than with the hand-line a little way above it, while 
the males are taken on one as readily as on the other. 

It may not be impossible that the eggs are fertilized while floating 
about in the water some minutes after exclusion, and that the strong 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 715 


tides usually found on the spawning-grounds play an important part in 
distributing the germs, thus making the chances of impregnation more 
favorable. Indeed it may be possible, and, if the spawning goes on 
gradually for several months, seems not improbable, that the immediate 
presence of the opposite sexes during the act of spawning is not neces- 
sary, but rather that the eggs are fertilized mainly by accidental con- 
tact. Observations would seem to strengthen the probabilities of this 
theory; for, if the fish went in pairs, they would often be taken on 
adjoining hooks of the trawl, or one on either hook of the hand-line. 
Such is not usually the case, however, but on the contrary several of the 
same sex are more frequently taken together. 

The eggs have a specific gravity of 1.020 to 1.025, as indicated by the 
fact that they float in salt water and sink rapidly in fresh. The oldest 
fishermen had not the slightest knowledge of this fact, but held to the 
idea that the females deposited their eggs on the rocks, where they 
were visited and impregnated by the males, and left to become the food 
of the various animals so abundant in such localities. They had at 
times noticed the little transparent globular bodies in the water, but it 
had never occurred to them that they were the eggs of any fish. They 
may be found at the surface in common with eggs of the pollock, had- 
dock, and probably other species of the cod family, when the sea is 
smooth ; but when the water becomes rough they are carried to a depth 
of several fathoms by the current, though the tendency is to remain 
near the surface. 

There are many ways in which these eggs may be destroyed. The 
principal loss is probably the result of non-impregnation, for unless they 
come in contact with the milt of the male very soon after being thrown 
from the parent they lose their vitality. Again, being subject to the 
winds and tides, they are often carried long distances from the spawning- 
grounds into the little bays and coves, and are driven upon the shores 
in immense numbers, or left dry by the tides, where they soon die from 
exposure to the atmosphere, or during the cold winter weather are in- 
stantly destroyed by freezing. Ipswich Bay, the most extensive spawn- 
ing-ground in the locality, is especially unfortunate in this particular, 
for the heavy storms from the north and east tend to drive them upon 
the shore, and each breaker as it rolls in upon the beach must carry with 
it many millions of eggs. 

But such impregnated eggs as escape destruction upon the shores are 
subjected to the ravages of-the myriads of hungry animals living about 
the rocks and coves, and many are consumed. One day in January we 
introduced a jelly-fish or medusid, having a diameter of but 14 inches, 
into a tray of eggs in the hatching-room, and in less than five minutes 
it had fastened 70 eggs to its tentacles, often loading them so heavily 
that they were severed from the body by the weight or resistance of the 
eggs as they were dragged through the water. 

By the aid of a microscope, numbers of vorticelli were found upon them, 


716 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


in one case 46 being counted ona single egg; and in addition a peculiar 
formation, thought to be minute alge, was often noticed. Just what 
influence these latter would exert, or whether they would occur in the 
clear water outside the harbor, is not known. Thus, owing to the many 
different circumstances that tend to destroy the eggs, probably but a 
very small number out of a million are successfully hatched, and of the 
young fish but few reach maturity. 

To overcome these difficulties nature has made the cod one of the most 
prolific of the ocean fishes, and we tind not only thousands but millions 
of eggs in a single female. All members of this family contain large 
numbers of eggs, but the cod-fish is the most prolific of all. 

The exact number varies greatly with the individual, being dependent 
largely upon its size and age. To ascertain the number for the differ- 
ent sizes, a series of six fish was taken representing various stages of 
growth from 21 to 75 pounds, and the eggs were estimated. Care was 
exercised that all should be green, so that no eggs should have been 
thrown, and that they might be of nearly equal size. The ovaries were 
taken from the fish and accurately weighed; after which small quan- 
tities were taken from different parts of each and weighed on delicately- 
adjusted scales, and these carefully counted. With this data it was 
easy to ascertain approximately the number for each fish. 

The results obtained are given in Table No. I, appended to this article, 
showing a 21-pound fish to have 2,700,000, and a 75-pound one, 9,100,000. 
The largest number of eggs found in the pollock was 4,029,200, and in 
the haddock 1,840,000. These facts are given in detail in Tables II 
and ITI. 

When the eggs are first seen in the fish they are so small as to be 
hardly distinguishable, but they continue to increase in size until matu- 
rity, and, after impregnation, have a diameter, depending upon the size 
of the parent, varying from one-nineteenth to one-seventeenth of an inch. 
A 5 to 8 pound fish has eggs of the smaller size, while a 25-pound one 
has them between an eighteenth and a seventeenth. 

From weighing and measuring known quantities it is found that one 
pound avoirdupois will contain about 190,000 of the smaller size, or that 
1,000,000 eggs well drained will weigh about 5 pounds. Again, by as- 
suming one-nineteenth of an inch as the standard, or by precipitating a 
known quantity in chromic acid and measuring, we find one quart, or 
573 cubic inches, to contain a little less than 400,000, or that 1,000,000 
will measure between 23 and 3 quarts. ; 

With these facts in mind, it will be an easy matter to estimate the 
quantity of eggs taken for hatching purposes during any given season. 

When the little fish first break through the shell of the egg that con- 
fines them the fetal curve or crook is still quite noticeable, but they soon 
straighten, and are then about five-sixteenths of an inch in length. At 
this time the yolk-sack, situated well forward, is quite large, but so 
transparent as to escape the notice of the ordinary observer. This is 


‘COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. T17 


gradually absorbed, disappearing wholly in about ten to fifteen days, 
and the little fish begins to move about with a peculiar serpentine mo- 
tion, at times darting quite rapidly, and then remaining motionless, as 
if resting from its exertions. It now begins its independent existence, 
and moves about more frequently, apparently in search of food. From 
this date it is impossible to follow them, for none have been confined, 
and it is only by catching large numbers at different seasons and care- 
fully recording their weights and measurements that one is enabled to 
judge of their growth. The habits of the species, that cause them to 
live near the shore for the first few years, furnish excellent opportuni- 
ties for such observations, and many were examined during our stay at 
Cape Ann. 

At the outset the problem becomes difficult, in that the spawning 
period, instead of being limited to a few weeks, as is the case with most 
species, extends over fully three-fourths of the year, and the difficulty is 
greatly increased by special causes that affect the rate of growth of indi- 
viduals hatched at the same time. 

The results were what might be expected; for a table of measurements, 
made late in June, gave an almost continuous series, with only one or 
two breaks, that could with certainty be taken to represent the non- 
spawning period of the fish. But though the gaps were so completely 
closed by the extremes in variation, which seemed to cause even an 
overlapping, making the last hatched of one season smaller than the 
first hatched of the next succeeding, yet there was a tendency for the 
greater number of individuals to be thrown into groups at intervals in 
the series, these seeming to represent the height of the spawning season 
for the different years. The break was distinct between the smallest 
and those of a year earlier, so that, taking the height of the spawning 
season on the south side of the cape to be December, the large number 
of young fry ranging from 14 to 3 inches must have been hatched the 
previous winter, and were consequently about six months old. The 
large number of individuals having a length of 9 to 13 inches indicated 
the normal growth of those hatched a year earlier, or fish of eighteen 
months to be 10 to 11 inches, and their weight 7 to 8 ounces. The next 
group, or the fish thought to be thirty months old, measured from 17 to 
18 inches, with an average weight of 2 to 24 pounds. The fish now be- 
gin to increase more in weight than in length, soon appearing in the 
markets as “scrod,” and by the following summer measure about 22 
inches and weigh from 4 to 5 pounds. 

Beyond this period nothing can be determined, for the variation, con- 
stantly growing greater, now gives every size and weight, with no indi- 
cation of breaks in the series. 

But enough has been learned, if the above be correct, to show that the 
male reaches maturity at three and the female at four years; for the 
smallest ripe male noticed during the season of 187879 weighed 34 and 
the smallest ripe female 5 pounds. 


718 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


D.—HATCHING OPERATIONS. 
1.—OBJECTS OF THE WORK. 


Fish-culture, in its crudest forms, was first employed by the Romans 
and Chinese many hundred years ago; but the fish-culture of the present 
day, by which such excellent results are being obtained, is a science of 
recent growth, and itis only within the past few years that it has as- 
sumed a thoroughly practical aspect. Its present condition is the result 
of a continued series of experiments that have given a degree of success 
far beyond what its most enthusiastic workers had dared to expect. 

The present shad-hatching apparatus, that seems so near perfection, 
is an excellent example; for in this case, though the progress has been 
rapid, the crude apparatus of a few years ago has been replaced by the 
new only after the most careful experiments with the eggs of the species. 
So with other fresh-water and anadromous species; the improved appa- 
ratus for successfully hatching them is the result of many experiments 
and observations. 

But, while the above species have been the subjects of careful study, 
the important marine food-fishes, such as the cod, halibut, and sea-her- 
ring, have remained unnoticed. The great importance of these fisheries 
has led Professor Baird to consider carefully the question of the artificial 
propagation of several of the principal species, and, after studying the 
habits and food of the fish for some time, he decided to inaugurate a 
series of experiments to ascertain what could be accomplished in this 
direction. 

Accordingly, a hatching station was established at Gloucester in the 
fall of 1878 for the purpose of experimenting with the eggs of the cod, 
in order to learn how and in what numbers they might be obtained, the 
kind of apparatus necessary for successfully hatching them, and to what 
extent artificial propagation might be made practicable. The chief aim 
was then to study experimentally the whole subject of hatching in its 
relations to the cod-fish and its eggs, to pave the way for future work, 
rather than to go into any extensive work for the immediate propaga- 
tion of the species. 


2.—PREPARATIONS FOR HATCHING. 


The late James W. Milner, deputy commissioner, arrived early in the 
fall to take charge of the experiments, and Mr. Frank N. Clark, a pro- 
fessional fish-culturist in the employ of the Commission, came soon after 
to personally superintend the work in the hatching-room. Mr. Milner 
remained long enough to see the preliminary apparatus and machinery 
placed in position and the first eggs taken, when he was obliged to 
return to Washington on account of his serious sickness. A little later 
Mr. Clark was called away to look after the interests of the Commission 
in another State, and Capt. H.C. Chester superintended the work in the 
hatchery during the remainder of the season. 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 719 


The building occupied by the Commission during the summer as a 
scientific station was considered suitable, and was retained for the work. 
It is situated at a prominent point, on the southwest side of the harbor, 
on a substantial wharf, with 4 to 6 feet of water at mean low tide. The 
outer end of the building was set off as a hatching-room, the remainder 

_of the lower part being used as a store-house, while the upper part an- 
swered the purpose of an office and laboratory. 

A 4-inch pipe was laid from the hatching-room to a point in the har- 
bor at the end of the wharf, and sunk below low-water mark. The 
outer end of this pipe was fastened to the piling of the wharf, and in- 
eased in a box with wire-cloth openings to keep out the animal life of 
the harbor. The inner end communicated with two 300-gallon tanks, 
placed in an elevated position in the center of the room, to be used as 
reservoirs for the salt water. These reservoirs were tapped from be- 
neath by smaller pipes that extended along the, walls of the building, 
at a height of 4 or 5 feet, with faucets at short intervals, from which 
the water was supplied to the eggs by means of rubber tubing. In one 
end of the room was an 8-horse-power steam-engine, for working the 
pump that brought the water from the harbor to the reservoirs in a con- 
stant stream, the quantity being regulated by the outflow. 

Tt was of course unknown what hatching-apparatus could be success- 
fully used, as no eggs of the cod had ever been artificially hatched; and 
indeed it was not then quite clear to the minds of those in charge to 
which of the three classes, sinking, floating, or adhesive, the eggs of 
the cod belonged. Cones similar to those used in shad-hatching (figured 
in the Report of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1873~74 and 
1874~75, p. 376) were selected as likely to give the best results, put up 
along the sides of the hatching-room, and connected with the faucets 
by the rubber tubing. 

The above constituted the original apparatus of the hatchery, and 
when it had been properly arranged Mr. Milner turned his attention to 

. the methods for securing the supply of fish and eggs. For this purpose 
he selected a 5-ton schooner and a 14-foot open market-boat for visiting 
the fishing-grounds, and, in addition, a small well-boat in which the fish 
could be brought alive to the hatchery. A little later it was found 
desirable to build large live-boxes for confining the green fish until they 
should ripen. 

These live-boxes were 12 to 14 feet long, 6 feet deep, and 5 feet wide, 
made of pine lumber, with 2-inch spaces between the narrow boards, to 
admit afresh supply of water to the fish. When finished they were 
anchored in the harbor beside the wharf, where they remained through- 

out the season. 


3.—MANNER OF PROCURING EGGS. 


The supply of eggs was obtained in several different ways during the 
winter. 


720 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The first method employed was to send men to the fish-wharves daily 
to examine the fish landed and to take the eggs from any ripe females 
that might be found. This practice was soon given up, as the fish had 
usually been dead some hours when they were landed, owing to the dis- 
tance of the fishing-grounds from the harbor, and the eggs had so nearly 
lost their vitality that they could not be impregnated. Only an occa- 
sional lot of fish were found whose eggs could be saved, and few good 
ones were obtained in this way. 

A second method, by which the men went daily in the schooner to the 
fishing-grounds to take eggs from such ripe fish as they might catch, 
was pushed vigorously at first. In this case hand-lines were used, as 
the bottom was too rocky for trawling, and the catch was composed 
largely of green fish, so that few eggs were obtained. 

A third method, which was merely arepetition of the second on a larger 
scale, was more successful in that more fish were taken, and consequently 
more ripe ones found. The plan was to utilize the catch of the fisher- 
men by putting spawn-takers on several of the regular fishing-schooners 
to examine each fish as it came from the water, or as soon as it was 
brought to the vessel, and to bring the ripe eggs to the hatchery in 
pans taken out for the purpose. This method was followed during a 
greater part of the time, and some good eggs were obtained in this way. 
But here as in the former case hand-lines were used, and spawning fish 
were not taken in very large numbers. A visit to the fishing-grounds, 
where trawls were used, later in the season, fully convinced us that as 
many eggs could be obtained in this way as might be needed, for on a 
four days’ trip to Ipswich Bay, in February, many millions might easily 
have been secured. 

The finding of so many green fish Jed to the building of the live-boxes 
at the hatchery, and when these were ready the schooner visited the 
fishing-grounds daily and brought her catch alive to harbor in the little 
well-boat, transferring the fish at once to the live-boxes, where they 
were to remain until they should ripen. These live-cars proved a great 
success, for the fish kept well and ripened rapidly. In this way many 
live fish were kept convenient to the hatchery, where they could be 
carefully watched, and the eggs secured as soon as they had ripened. 
This method entirely overcame the difficulties of bringing the eggs long 
distances and of properly caring for them until they could be transferred 
to the hatching apparatus, and the live-cars soon came to furnish nearly 
all the eggs. 

4.—HATCHING OPERATIONS. 


Two spawn-takers visited the live-cars at intervals of one to three 
days, one taking out the fish with a dip-net, while the other examined 
them carefully, by pressing gently on the abdomen, to see if they were 
ripe. If green, they were transferred to an empty live-box floating be- 
side the other; but when a ripe fish was found it was confined in a dip- 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 721 


net and returned to the water until one of the opposite sex could be 
secured. Thus all the fish were examined regularly every second or 
third day, and when ripe ones were found they were carried to the 
hatchery, where the eggs were taken and impregnated. 

In “stripping” the fish the spawn-taker usually held its head firmly 
in his left hand, with its back against his body and its left side upper- 
most, and, owing to its size and strength, a second party generally held 
the tail and helped to keep the fish in position, while the spawn-taker, 
with his right hand, gently pressed the eggs or milt from the abdomen 
into a large pan placed just beneath to receive them. 

The methods employed in impregnating the eggs were similar to those 
in use with eggs of the shad. They were usually taken in a pan having 
a little water in the bottom and the milt at once added, after which they 
were “brought up” in the usual way, by slowly adding water at inter- 
vals till the pan was nearly full. 

It was found desirable to leave the eggs with the milt for fully half an 
hour before dipping them out, and at times it took even longer for them 
to become well hardened. Several other ways for impregnating the 
eggs were tried, such as taking them in a damp pan and introducing 
the milt directly upon them before adding the water; and of putting 
the milt in the water first, and the eggs later; and again, of introducing 
the two at the same time; but these seemed no improvement upon the 
ordinary method. 

The first good eggs were taken November 13, and when placed in the 
cones were found to remain constantly at the surface of the water, where 
they soon clogged the screen through which the waste water made its 
escape, causing the cones to overflow, and the eggs to be carried over 
the top with the water. The plan of introducing the water at the top 
and allowing it to escape at the bottom was equally unsuccessful, for 
the downward current carried many of the eggs with it, thus clogging 
the screen as effectually as in the former case. The cones in their orig- 
inal condition were thus rendered useless, and the question of so modi- 
fying them as to make them answer the purpose, or of the invention of 
new apparatus, at once became a very important one; and one difficulty 
after another had to be overcome before any degree of success could be 
expected. 

Mr. Milner remained long enough, before leaving for the South, to 
witness this stage of the difficulty, and was the first to suggest an alter- 
ation in the apparatus. This consisted in a modification of the inverted 
cone, so that the water should be introduced through a twisted tube at 
the apex, thus giving it a spiral motion as it ascended, while the outflow 
was in the form of a circle surrounding and just above the inflow, ina 
line with the sides of the cone. On testing, this apparatus was found 
to clog equally with the other, and was soon abandoned. 

In one end of the room was a Clark hatching-trough that had been 
used in ae eggs of the herring. This consisted of a long trough 

46 F 


722 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


about 12 inches square, with numerous partitions dividing it into a num- 
ber of compartments. The whole was placed at an incline, so that the 
overflow of water from one compartment would run into the next lower 
through a little groove at the top of the partition. Mr. Clark introduced 
into each compartment a small wooden box with a wire-cloth bottom, 
each to be placed at an angle with the bottom of the trough, with its 
lower end under the little spout ,that conducted the waste-water from 
the compartment above. With the box thus placed in a compartment 
filled with water, the stream that was kept constantly running would 
fall into its deepest part, and in this way create considerable current in 
the water, the surplus gradually passing out through the bottom and up 
around the sides on its way to the next compartment. 

When the cod-fish eggs were introduced into these boxes they were 
found to have an excellent motion; but of the great amount of harbor 
sediment and mud in the water much was retained in the boxes by the 
wire screens and gradually collected on the eggs, causing them to sink 
to the bottom, where they soon died. This apparatus, though seemingly 
all that could be desired with clean water, was rendered useless by the 
fine dirt that could not be kept out. 

The writer suggested a modification of the copper cone, so that the 
water should escape near the top through an intermittent siphon, the 
end of which should be incased in a large wire-cloth bag, to weaken the 
strength of the current where it met the screen, and cause any eggs that 

might be held against the bag while the water was running to fall away 
when it stopped. This apparatus, like that of Mr. Clark, was rendered 
useless by the sediment in the water; and in addition, there seemed to 
be a corrosion of the copper, due to the action of the salt-water, that 
proved injurious to the eggs. 

The Ferguson bucket, which consists of a cylinder of sheet-iron, with 
a wire-cloth bottom, getting a circulation of water by means of a slow 
rise and quick drop when partially immersed, was tried, with only indif- 
ferent resulis. 

Captain Chester was at this time devising an apparatus akin should 
not only give a certain change to the water, but also partially keep 
the sediment from the eggs. This apparatus is known as the Chester 
bucket. It consists of a tin cylinder 18 inches in diameter and 24 inches 
deep, with four rectangular openings, each 23 inches wide, extending 
from near the bottom to within 5 inches of the top. These and the bot- 
tom of the cylinder are covered with wire-cloth, to prevent the eggs from 
escaping and the dirt from entering. 

On the outside of the cylinder, along one side of either opening, are 
placed strips or pockets of tin, at an angle with the side, and extending 
partially over the openings, so that the adjacent pockets face in opposite 
directions. As the cylinder rotates on its axis, the water is forced in at 
the two opposite openings and out at the others. 

Beneath the wire-cloth bottom are four more strips of tin, radiating 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN, 723 


from the center, and placed at such an angle that the rotation of the cyl- 
inder forces the water against them, and up through the bottom. The 
whole is placed in a trough nearly filled with constantly-changing 
water, and sunk to such a depth that the water nearly fills it. The 
eylinder turns on a pivot, the power being applied from the engine by 
means of shafting, to a horizontal arm firmly fixed to its axis, and is 
kept constantly turning back and forth through an are of 90°, thus 
keeping the water changing, and giving the eggs a tendency toward the 
top center. 

When this apparatus had been thoroughly tested, and found to give 
good results, the cones were taken down, and water-tight troughs placed 
along the sides of the hatching-room to receive the Chester buckets, 
and from this date the hatching operations were conducted with a fair 
degree of success; and while, with pure water, the modified Clark trough 
or some equally simple apparatus might give excellent results, yet to 
Captain Chester belongs the credit of having partially overcome the ex- 
isting difficulties, and of inventing the first apparatus successfully used 
in hatching floating eggs. 

The time required for the development of the eggs of the cod-fish, after 
they are thrown from the parent, varies greatly, being dependent largely 
upon the temperature of the surrounding water. Of those taken Novem- 
ber 13, the first hatched in 13 days; while of those taken December 17, 
the last did not hatch until February 5, thus requiring 51 days; giving 
a difference of 38 days for eggs taken within little over a month of each 
other. The period of 51 days represents an extreme case, and the cir- 
cumstances may be worthy of consideration. These eggs, as above 
stated, were taken December 17 from four fish apparently in good con- 
dition, and placed in a bucket in the hatchery. January 28, the bucket 
was thought to contain too many eggs, and a few were taken out and 
placed in a floating box, with wire-cloth bottom, anchored in the harbor. 
The difference in temperature of the water in the two places averaged 
from one to two degrees. 

Of those remaining in the building, the first hatched January 17, and 
the last on the 23d, making a variation of 6 days. 

On January 25, the first fish were noticed from the harbor lot, and from 
that time they continued to hatch slowly until February 3, when not 
more than 10 per cent. were out, and 2 days later, when the first fish 
were 11 days old, and the eggs 51 days from the parent, a few still re- 
mained unhatched. 

The variation of 11 days for eggs treated in exactly the same man- 
ner, suggests the idea that other elements than temperature may enter 
in to hasten or retard development. One cause, namely, that of the con- 
dition of the eggs when thrown from the parent, may considerably affect 
this period. 

We find with the cod, as with other species, that the first fish hatched 
from a given lot of eggs always seem weak and immature; and again, 


124 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


that the last are usually in the same condition. The first are perhaps 
from eggs that for some rcason have remained in the parent after they 
should have been thrown; the great majority of healthy fish coming later 
probably represent eggs in their normal condition; and the weak ones 
hatching last may be from eggs, that, though not thoroughly matured 
when taken, had just reached that stage where impregnation became 
possible. The time elapsing after the eggs leave the fish before they 
come in contact with the milt may also affect the time of hatching. 

Experiments in these lines would be of practical importance in deter- 
mining how many good eggs could be taken from the fish at one time; 
how often eggs might be taken from the same individual, and, also, the 
most desirable time for applying the milt. 

A table of temperature observations, showing the condition of both 
air and water at the first high and low water after 7 a. m., will be found 
further on. The temperature of the water in the hatchery was always 
from one to two degrees higher, being raised a little in passing through 
the pipes. From this table we find that the average time required for 
hatching eggs, in water of different temperatures, was as follows: 


Days. 
In water having an average temperature of 45° F...............-: 13 
In water having an average temperature of 419 F................ eke 
In water having an’ average temperature of 38° F...............-- 20 
In water having an average temperature of 36° F..............-.- 24 
In water having an average temperature of 349 F...............-. ol 
In water having an average temperature of 33° F................- ot 
In water havmg an average temperature of 319 F........:..-..--- 50 


The water of the harbor reached, and remained for a number of days, 
at a temperature of 50°, but the eggs in the floating box remained unin- 
jured, even though the little fish in them were well advanced, while the 
large cod in the live-boxes within a few feet of them were all frozen to 
death. 

Several attempts were made to hasten the development of the egg, 
by raising the temperature of the water by means of steam-pipes. The 
time of hatching was frequently shortened in this way, but in all cases 
the fish seemed premature and soon died. The failure in these experi- 
ments may be due to the crude apparatus that could not be regulated so 
as to keep the temperature constant and avoid fluctuations. These dif- 
ficulties overcome, it seems not at all improbable that the process of » 
hatching could be materially shortened, and the fish gradually accus- 
tomed to cooler water until the natural temperature of the harbor should 
be reached, when they could be put out. 

The problem of hastening or retarding development in the egg is a 
very important one. Fish-culturists have given some attention to the 
subject, but none have yet succeeded in the invention of apparatus by 
which the water can be kept constantly at any given temperature. 

Ripe fish were found nearly every time the live-boxes were overhauled, 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 725 


from November 13 to early in January, when the fish were frozen. 
Forty-three females were ‘“ stripped” during the season, and the milt 
from 60 males was used in fertilizing their eggs. The total number of 
eggs secured in this way was about nine and one-quarter millions. 

It may be a matter of some surprise that so few eggs should be ob- 
tained from so large a number of fish ; but it must be remembered that 
the eggs ripen slowly through a period of six to ten weeks at least, 
and that but few can be secured at any one time. Probably not over 
200,000 can be taken from a 10-pound fish in a day, while 400,000 would 
be a large average for a fish of 20 pounds weight. After the fish were 
once “stripped” they were allowed to die, as the primary object of the 
experiments was methods, rather than quantities of eggs. In this way 
the great bulk and number of eggs were not secured; but when the work 
shall be resumed for the purpose of increasing the food supply, we see 
no reason why these spawning fish may not, by exercising care, be 
“stripped” over and over again until all or at least a greater part of the 
eggs have been secured, the fish being returned to the live-boxes after each 
operation. Still the supply of spawning fish seems limited only by the 
size of the live-cars, and the above method may not become necessary. 

About the 1st of January the weather became quite cold, and the tem- 
perature of the water on the night of the 3d, for the first time during the 
winter, fell to 30°. On the morning of the 4th, when the spawn-takers 
visited the live-cars, they found that all the fish had been frozen to death, 
and, on examination, considerable ice was noticed in their stomachs. At 
this time the more important points about the treatment of the eggs 
having been learned, and the practicability of artificial propagation fully 
established, it was thought unnecessary to secure a new stock of fish for 
the live-cars, and it was decided to discontinue operations until such 
time as they could be resumed on a steamer constructed especially for 
the purpose. By this means the harbor sediment can be avoided, and 
the fish followed to any locality where they chance to be most plenty. 

The number of fish hatched during the experiments was not far from 
1,550,000. At first, while the apparatus remained so imperfect, the loss 
was great, and nearly or in some cases quite all of the first few lots of 
eggs were killed. But with the introduction of new methods one diffi- 
culty after another was overcome, and the percentage of loss was gradu- 
ally reduced. The manner of caring for the eggs while hatching soon 
came to be better understood, and this too had a decidedly beneficial 
effect; so that, barring the loss resulting from impure water, there was 
a constant gain in the percentage hatched, and the loss during the last 
of the season did not exceed 40, and was frequently not over 30 per cent. 

When first hatched, the little fish remain nearly moti@bless, or, at 
times, indulge in the same spasmodic efforts so noticeable when freeing 
themselves from the eggs. Ina day or two they become more active, 
darting about for short distances in the water, with a peculiar motion 
and considerable rapidity. In a few days they begin to absorb the 


726 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


yolk-sacks, and seem quite vigorous, while the pigment-cells increase 
rapidly, giving them considerable color. When they had reached this. 
stage, they were usually taken to the outer harbor and liberated, to be- 
come accustomed to their future surroundings before the yolk-sacks 
were absorbed, thus giving them the opportunity of seeking their natu- 
ral food when the first instincts of hunger should lead them to desire it. 

The young cod seem more hardy than those of most other species, and 
may be kept for a considerable length of time with small loss. In one 
ease fully 50 were put in an 8-ounce bottle and kept in a room at a tem- 
perature of 50° F., without change of water, for four days, before the 
first ones died. Early in January a number were sent by express to 


Professor Baird in Washington, where they arrived in good condition, 


with no care on the way except that given by the baggage-master on 
the train. 
5,—DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED. 


The difficulty of suitable apparatus for hatching the eggs has been 
fully described. This consisted not only in the invention of something 
suitable for floating eggs, but an apparatus that could be used in im- 
pure water. These requirements, after several unsuccessful attempts,. 
were at last met, and the difficulty partially overcome by the introduc- 
tion of the Chester bucket. 

The greatest source of annoyance, and one that could not be wholly 
overcome, was the abundance of the harbor sediment or dirt in the 
water. The trouble from this source was due largely to location. The 
hatchery was situated at a point of the harbor, with the main channel 
on one side, and on the other a large cove, into which the refuse of much 
of the business portion of the city found its way through the street gut- 
ters and sewers. The location of the hatchery was then unfortunate, in 
that it occupied a position where the main current caused by the 11-foot 
tide, on its passage in and out from the cove, brought a greater part of 
the dirt and filth of the city directly beneath and beside the wharf, 
where much of it was pumped up through the pipes into the hatching- 
room, and found its way to the eggs. 

In addition to this, the violent storms caused a heavy undertow to roll 
in from seaward, and to stir up the mud from the bottom and sides of 
the harbor, so that at low tide the water was often quite thick. This sed- 
iment of course passed up through the pipes, and often resulted in great 
injury to the eggs. It was not unfrequently the case that a lot of eggs 
would continue in good condition until the fish were nearly ready to 
hatch, when a heavy storm would roil the water, and cause the dirt to 
collect on thtem to such an extent as to give them a dull brownish color, 
and from its weight sink them to the bottom, where they soon died. 

Every precaution was taken to thoroughly cleanse the water from these 
impurities before it came in contact with the eggs. Large flannel fil- 


ters were introduced, and all the water made to run through several of 


>? a 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 727 


them on its way to the reservoirs. During stormy weather, when the 
bottom mud was stirred up, the water was often passed through six or 
seven of these filters, but even then the finer sediment could not be kept 
back. Frequently the dirt was pumped up in such quantities as to so 
completely clog the filters that the water would not go through them, 
and at such times they had to be replaced by clean ones every few min- 
utes during the hours of low water. Other methods of filtering were 
also tried with no better success. 

The new Fish Commission steamer, built expressly for this work from 
a special appropriation of Congress, will entirely do away with this diffi- 
culty resulting from impure water, as she can be safely anchored in the 
deep water of the outer harbor where no sediment is found. 

The corroding action of the salt-water upon the copper and tin of 
which the apparatus was made, was also the source of considerable 
trouble. The copper cones were rendered useless on this account, and 
tin was often eaten entirely through in a few days. This difficulty was 
partially overcome by thoroughly painting the cones with asphalt, but 
even then the tin would rust so badly as to seriously injure the eggs. 
All trouble from this source can be easily avoided in future by making 
the apparatus of wood or some metal that is not acted upon by the salt- 
water. Indeed, nickel wire-cloth was used during the latter part of the 
season for the bottoms of the buckets, and found to answer the purpose 
admirably. 

The fact that the cod cannot live in water colder than 30° F. presents 
another difficulty, for it is of the utmost importance that a large supply 
of fish be kept constantly in the live-boxes; and, as the water at the 
surface of the harbor may reach this temperature at any time for several 
months during mid-winter, the fish are liable to be frozen. But with a 
steamer anchored in several fathoms of water in the outer harbor, the 
live-cars by her side could, at the approach of cold weather, be weighted 
and sunk to the bottom until the weather should become warmer. 


6.—EXPERIMENTS WITH EGGS OF OTHER SPECIES. 


While the primary object of the station at Gloucester was for the 
study of the cod, the question of the reproduction of several other im- 
portant species received considerable attention, and much valuable 
information was gathered. Among these species were the haddock 
(Melanogrammus ceglefinus), the pollock (Pollachius carbonarius), and the 
herring (Clupea harengus). 

a. Herring. 


Herring visit different parts of the coast from Cape Cod to Labrador 
at various seasons of the year for the purpose of spawning or feeding, 
and are abundant in some localities during a greater part of the summer, 

In the winter the herring-fisheries of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia 
are very extensive; and formerly the spring herring-fisheries of the 


%28 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Magdalen Islands drew a large fleet to that region. The fall fishing is 
most extensive in the vicinity of Wood Island (near Portland, Me.), and 
on the south side of Cape Ann, where herring “strike in” along the 
shore in immense schools, about the middle or last of September, for the 
purpose of spawning. At such times small vessels, from almost every 
fishing town between Cape Cod and Eastport, visit these localities with 
gill-nets, and the fish are sometimes taken in such numbers as to sink 
the net. At Wood Island alone, in the fall of 1879, the herring fleet 
numbered over 150 sail. 

While preparing for the cod work at the hatchery a small school of 
spawning-fish arrived in the vicinity of Gloucester Harbor, and it was 
decided to make experiments with their eggs. Accordingly, the Fish 
Commission boats were provided with nets, and, for about two weeks 
beginning with October 12, visited the spawning-grounds daily, setting 
their nets in the evening and fishing them over at intervals through the 
night. Ripe males were always plenty, and 50 spawning females were 
sometimes taken in a single night. Many thousands of eggs were se- 
cured in this way, and after impregnation were taken to the building, 
where large numbers were successfully hatched. 

The eggs of this species are adhesive, and when thrown into the water 
by the fish fasten themselves to the first hard substance with which they 
come in contact, this being usually the alge or the rocky bottom. On 
account of their adhesiveness, when taken from the fish for hatching pur- 
poses, they must at once be brought in contact with that particular ob- 
ject on which they are to remain till hatched, as when they have become 
fastened to any substance it is impossible to remove them without in- 
jury. For the purpose of bringing them from the fishing-grounds, a wa- 
ter-tight egg-box was made, with slits or grooves in the sides, to receive 
movable panes of glass, and keep them in position until they could be 
transferred to the apparatus in the hatchery. 

As soon as the fish were taken from the water the eggs were pressed 
from them upon these panes of glass, and, after the milt had been ap- 
plied, were quickly spread over the surface by means of a feather. The 
glasses were then placed in position in the egg-box and the water was 
changed at short intervals until they arrived at the hatchery. 

A Clark hatching-trough (described on page 37) was arranged with 
grooves on the sides of the compartments to receive the glasses of eggs, 
these being three-fourths of an inch apart and placed at an angle with 
the perpendicular. The glasses were so arranged that every alternate 
one should rest on the bottom, with the others half an inch above, so 
that the water must pass over the top of the first pane, under the second, 
over the third, &c., on its way through the trough, thus giving a con- 
stant stream over each pane. A few eggs were taken on wire cloth 
and others on mosquito netting, but the former rusted so badly as to in- 
jure the eggs and the latter collected such quantities of sediment from 


fo) 


the water that the results were far from satisfactory. Those taken on 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 729 


the glass did much better, as the eggs could be washed with a camel's 
hair brush or a feather, and thus kept passably clean. 

The development of the eggs was quite marked, and the line of the 
fish could be distinguished at the end of the third day; the eye could 
be seen on the fifth, and on the sixth a very slight motion was notice- 
able. The average time in hatching was about twelve and the shortest 
ten days. 

The greatest difficulty encountered in this as in other cases was from 
the impure water; but, even under these circumstances, a good many 
were hatched, and the experiments proved conclusively that the artifi- 
cial propagation of the species would be an easy matter if at any time it 
should be thought desirable. 


b. Pollock. 


Large pollock are absent from the waters of Cape Ann from the mid- 
dle of January till early in May, the small ones leaving earlier in the 
fall and returning in April. The young may be taken almost anywhere 
along the shore, but the large fish seem to confine themselves to defi- 
nite localities; and though not particularly abundant during the sum- 
mer at Cape Ann, it is a favorite spawning-ground for the species, and 
during this period large schools visit this shore. 

They begin to grow plenty about the first of October, and by the last 
of the month are so numerous as to greatly annoy the cod-fishermen by 
taking the hook before it can get to the bottom. 

During this season some of the smaller vessels fish exclusively for pol- 
lock, “seizing” up their lines a number of fathoms from the bottom, and 
at times the fish bite as fast as the fishermen can haul them. Early in 
November, a crew of four men landed 10,420 pounds, or about 1,100 fish, 
the result of less than two days’ fishing. Owing to a foolish prejudice, 
the price is always low, at times being less than 30 cents per 100 pounds. 
The average weight of the fish is about 9 or 10 pounds, and during the 
Spawning season the sexes are taken in about equal numbers. 

They seem to spawn while swimming about in the water, and their 
eggs, being buoyant, are found at the surface with those of the cod; but 
they may easily be distinguished from the latter by their smaller size. 
The first ripe female was seen at the fish-wharves October 23. Novem- 
ber 11, a few good eggs were taken, and, after impregnation, found to 
have a diameter of one twenty-fifth of an inch. They were placed in an 
aquarium at the hatchery, and within forty-eight hours the fish could 
be distinctly seen, though no pigment cells were visible. This proved 
that the development of the eggs after leaving the parent was quite 
rapid, and indicated that they would hatch in five or six days at most, 
with water of the ordinary temperature. 

At the time of taking these eggs no suitable apparatus had been 
arranged, and we did not succeed in hatching them; and as no others 
were obtained during the season positive statements cannot be made; 


730 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


but the eggs were well advanced before they died, and careful observa- 
tions up to this point fully convinced us that these eggs are as hardy as 
those of the cod, and that they may be successfully hatched by a similar 
method. 

Table III gives the result of our computation of the number of eggs 
in individuals of different size, from which it will be seen that a 234- 
pound fish has over 4,000,000 of eggs, while a 13-pound one has 2,500,000. 


¢ Haddock. 


It is not many years since haddock were very little sought in the 
markets, and the price averaged only one cent each; but the method of 
smoking them, introduced into this country by the Scotch, has greatly 
increased the demand, and now a ready sale can be found for any quan- 
tity at good figures. At the present time a large fleet of Gloucester 
and Portland vessels are engaged in this fishery during the winter 
months, visiting George’s and other offshore banks, and localities fur- 
ther north where the fish are abundant at this season. The vessels are 
each provided with trawls, and a single crew have been known to take 
nearly 20,000 pounds in a day. 

The fish usually remain on these offshore banks till the winter is 
over, and they do not reach Cape Ann until just before the spawning 
season, which for this species begins about the middle of April and 
continues during nearly three months, the height of the season being 
in May. 

In the spring of 1879 it is thought that two schools visited this coast, 
the first, composed of fish of large size, arriving early in April and 
leaving by the middle of May; and the other, composed of smaller fish, 
reaching the grounds about the 20th of May and leaving gradually after 
the 1st of July, a few remaining during the greater part of the summer. 
When the fishing first began, the fish were several miles from the shore, 
but they continued to “work in,” until there was good fishing at the 
mouth of the harbor for several days, after which they seemed to move 
back again, and toward the close of the season remained on muddy 
bottom, when trawls were extensively used in their capture. 

Early in May haddock were so plenty that one man caught 1,881 
pounds in one day with hand-lines, and about the same time many dif- 
ferent fishermen secured over 1,000 pounds. The males were usually a 
trifle more abundant, though at times the females composed fully half 
of the catch. Thelatter average larger than the former, and some days 
there would be a difference of two pounds in favor of the female. 

The first ripe females were noticed on the 23d of April, and in the 
middle of July an occasional fish had not finished spawning. The first 
eggs were secured May 5, and others were taken at intervals to June 2, 
the total quantity being about 250,000. The method of impregnation 
was similar to that used for eggs of the cod, and the size of the eggs 
was one-nineteenth of an inch. Though the number contained in the 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 731 


larger individuals of the species reaches over 1,800,000 (see Table II), 
the quantity obtained for hatching purposes at any one time was quite 
small as compared with the number taken from the cod or the pollock, 
and the quantity of miltin the male fish was very much less than in 
either of the other species. 

Different methods were employed in hatching the eggs; among oth- 
ers the Clark trough, and a floating box with wire-cloth bottom placed 
in the harbor beside the wharf. Those placed in the former were in- 
jured by dirt, but the floating box was more successful, and of the eggs 
placed in this a number were hatched. The line of the fish could be 
seen when the eggs were three days old, and in five days the fish was 
fully formed, though no motion could be detected. The shortest time 
required for hatching was eight, and the average nine days. 


7.—CONCLUSIONS. 


Up to the time of the establishment of the hatchery at Gloucester, 
so far as we know, no attempt had been made to impregnate and hatch 
floating eggs, and the whole subject involving the artificial propagation 
of so many important species had received little attention from the fish- 
culturists of the world. 

The results of the experiments, during the three or four months of the 
winter of 1878~’79, were all that had been expected, and gave methods 
that will be of the greatest value for future extensive work. The prin- 
cipal points involved in hatching this class of eggs are now fairly under- 
stood, and most of the difficulties in the way of success have been met 
and overcome. 

That the artificial propagation of the species is not only possible but 
practicable is proven by the fact that, under the most unfavorable cir- 
cumstances, a small party succeeded in hatching over a million and a 
half of young cod during a short season; and that the loss of eggs in 
hatching was reduced from 100 to only 30 per cent. in about two months. 

With apparatus made of suitable material, and placed on the new 
steamer now being built for the purpose, we see no reason why the work 
may not be carried on with the utmost success. At Gloucester the 
steamer can be safely anchored in the deep water of the outer harbor, 
away from all dirt and sediment, and can, if necessary, be moved to any 
other place where the fish chance to be more plenty. 

With other species hatched by the Commission the great difficulty has 
been to secure the spawning-fish, from which the supply of eggs could 
be obtained. This has required a large force of men kept constantly on 
the fishing-grounds, and even then the quantity of eggs taken has usually 
been below the desired number, so that the hatching operations have 
often been limited by the number of eggs that could besecured. Again, 
with most species the spawning season for any particular locality lasts 
but a few weeks at most, and the loss of time occasioned by storms and 
other causes frequently interferes greatly with the success of the work, 


732 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


With the cod the case is wholly different, for fish are plenty on the 
New England coast during most of the year, and the spawning season 
at Cape Ann lasts during eight or nine months. 

The supply of spawning-fish can be obtained with little difficulty by 
a single crew, and brought to the harbor alive from any locality desired 
by means of an ordinary market well-smack. 

These fish can be transferred to the live-cars convenient to the hatch- 
ery, to remain until such time as they may ripen. Thus the live-cars can 
be made a source of almost constant supply, and the hatching operations 
can be vigorously pushed during fully half the year; while the number 
of fish that can be hatched seems limited only by the capacity of the 
hatchery, and hundreds of millions of eggs can easily be secured in a 
single season. 

|The young fry seem quite hardy, and can be kept confined a consid- 
erable time and transported long distances with small loss; so that it 
will be an easy matter to carry them to the more southern waters before 
turning them loose in the sea. In this way it is thought that the 
range of the commercial fisheries may be somewhat extended, and a 
large class of people, both fishermen and consumers, greatly benefited. 
When the subject is regarded from the above standpoint, it is clear that 
the artificial propagation of the cod, as well as that of several other 
species, will remove the possibility of the extermination of these spe- 
cies from over-fishing; for the ovaries of 25 good-sized cod-fish, if all 
the eggs were hatched, would furnish more fish in number than are 
taken by the combined fleets of cod-fishermen from all the different 
fishing-ports of the United States during the most prosperous season. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, February 1, 1880. 


E.—APPENDIX. 


TABLE I.—Showing the number of eggs in-cod-fish of different sizes. 


; 2 ; bo 2 % 
ine ae aa celts lie = 
4 |ra fy Sa ogee? Wied ee Bq 
aS Oe eee ee Soa ca. eee 
Number. bal oa * Ze 4 oF SE ag 
~ es om ee) B44 Ro Ra 
4 a a 5 o S58 ..|/sru! 34 oD 
tp 80 ‘0 gS = ad |'g_s = a 
f | 3 3 | ee. |e ee | Bae Le = 
4 E EF | 8 Ble Zi i a 
Ft. In ee Lbs. Oz. O. Te ve mild teen 
«ec ee aa 0-75 | 8 8 
if). aie ele 70-75 | 88 | .6| 8 2 71 11132 : 160 9, 100, 000 
SOdoo dC SUC CCROAIENOR 4 24 51 ya eM! oy 6 13 6 1,131 188.5 8, 989, 094 
See. 8 30 | 2 82 | 26 6| 1,341] 2293.5 3, 715, 687 
Gee Cire eo etccws ce 35 27 2 92 23 2°79 vf 1, 680 240 4, 095, 000 
SES Gand ie 3 4h 92a| 9 98} 2 | 2 og 6} 1.368] 228 3, 229, 388 
Cisne ts eo eee oe 3 3 21 1 1532 | 12 1 14 6 1, 249 208. 17 2, 732, 237 
| | | | 


*No. 1 (a) represents a second quantity taken from the same ovary the following day, and the greater 
number may be partially accounted for by the evaporation of moisture during the night. 
t No. 2 contained a few ripe eggs. 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 


TABLE II.—Showing the number of eggs in haddock of different sizes. 


133 


a = g | ag 643 g oe 
; é e 2 5 3 & 2,8 2 zi Ss 
ot os mt 4 
2 2 E Fercue bes 23 og Sg 
Number. o a bs Sm a 2 Sim Se ae 
e + ~~ = 3 20 ees 5 2 A ° Ron 
=a ee a ee ee ee ef 
50 a ot AS le SES] 28 cia ‘a3 
5 is © rae ° Raa) as S 
1 S = 3 A A Ai A a 
———_A»~— 
In. Ibs. Oz. Oz. Oz. 
i SEE ee 28h 95% 93 § BE 4] 1,950] 487.5 1, 839, 582 
7 oe a eae 264 623 5g + bt 4] 1,479] 369.75 849, 315 
MS ess ccScdeteeee 26 64; | 6h + | 6 4] 1,457] 364.25 856, 156 
7 Ce ee eee 24 423 | 63 3 64 | 5] 1,160] 232 634, 380 
i sdecccasecscecses 99 4 54 + 43 5 970} 194 403, 132 
Gira iiss raha est os 203 335 5 3 | 43 5 960} 192 398, 976 
Bide hsdssessesiicees 1% | 2s 2 Fi 2 5 966 | 193.2 169, 050 
TABLE III.—Showing the number of eggs in pollock of different sizes. 
| a ~ ao ny : } Ge 
- =| e o = 3 
2 Oe lngie: tale re his ee Bol ese cera ae 
Number. % S So reps eee | Or) See SES Eg 
S + 2 a ob ret =| BO eo Aan 
=| | | ei D Sew) SF Sa Et 
tb is aoe ae ia qe @ | g Ebel chy 
v e ate 6 5st ES 5 
4 =e EF | a az |e ilguae (i a 
| | 
Ft. In.| Lbs. | Lbs.0z.| Oz. | Lbs.0z 
75 ee 2 3 3h 233 | 2 2 | Fe 2h. 0 6| 1,727] 287.8 4, 029, 200 
YF) adic aces SOO CCEHCUBOOE 2 84 13 1 23 | | bh 1g 6) 2,043 340. 6 2, 569, 753 
} 
TABLE 1V.—Showing the variation in weight of cod-fish of various, lengths.* 
MALES. 
3 ak: < 
: > | Ee +. 
ae Condition of spermaries. mz re Condition of spermaries. ae 
| ae || a 
A FE | a = 
In. 
16 BVGLYsSMAll saci cisco sceree 
31 PNoarly ripe 22 1.5.60 85-s-sS4ececce0 
DIM AVETvisMialll ss cee sete cee eee See 
AMR ESMalleeccesseecsetecsee coe ccaeeecee 
2EBM | TORRE) eee SSO BDEOH OEM BOERCOMACHERr 
oommieNearlyaripe |... tssteaace-los ot oehSe 
DOMMMAVIGEVARIR AU oe sea ecise cine oece's : 
27 | Well developed 
27 Giny gine lll coacsosqHscpocneeas 
28 | Well developed 
DOME anes nee enacts aecinee sac we cloc oslo ost se 
AL | ScomsecetacsoecaeonsosoLeconcOeeBeeEce 
SORC (OMA Cok eil-sjcceee sc leet cs cessose 
SOmmecewet ice etre at wa seacie Sa catecwdceass 
Omi NEAL y Tip Os aec ee sas tiscccinc acs aia ass 
CTI nee Ope eet yae ee ceie eb etn cco < 
Sle PRipereanescessseseser ter sears ccccce. 
Si? |} Samal Seas See st eco see cez eases e's 
ai SEmeneCcerion Gos sopesocddossatic nc 
314 “Well developed ..22.202D2ITIITIIIT! 245 
Bidilenese edi cccedesssccece mee cacaccsee. 103 || 43 iain RTE sce as eae seo ceseeeeeee 204 
SAD |boccsecebtcosnseeneoccacactiapsaperboae 11 46 | Well developed.......... BOUECodInaC 43 
Som Medinmerecan sane seen eet eon a a5 114 


*The measurement was to the end of middle candal rays. 


734 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


TABLE IV.—Showing the variation in 


weight of cod-fish of various lengths—Continued. 


FEMALES. 
‘ 3 is % 
x | =| = 
to Condition of ovaries. cc tra Condition of ovaries. ae 
FA =| oF FA - =| 
4 e LA | e 
In. Lbs. || In. | 
Tse) Si ell Se aoesosbo gackacaoscosaeesedeoe 23 || 34 | Very small 
19 | Very small... 23 || 34 | Small 
TORY] 3 Soe pees ene lee soaces 24 B44. | dee cine lgaeiantesceh tao 
len | VOL VESTN GU see csintnieie s bein cine sais aise = 33 354 | Small 
QOH feweeinic ke) | b65500h6 Socacesaos sesaasGesad 44 86 | Medium 
Poy eee FeO te eee ee eg 4 86h lias su daswsaedeneawes hue eee 
933" ll. sShoa sanben cogddd oo dee Seanaceanoos. sad 44 387 | Small 
ASM MVELYESMAlLS< oe cc\opicsee cle csee sie secias 43 BONA See 
7A} Neesoce Gl Guar degen boodbe satoonopses soe 52 39 | Medium 21} 
Anes |) WAGON AS bre speposoduoas msdeoes Sue 74 BOs small eo sien ciseiecstseie ie eee ets 184 
DOM erica DOW. ciscinicie see eiscen sae eens 84 BOR Gamctow CLO is iaiaaisieejerstals =rafoltiacclee etal aeterets 20 
DOMME sees Acecicccsassieniscsscccce memento God eh sodas Oy eescoreenoccunnocaaoocdabeoa. 16 
HY) || \We@ageirtl sao oeaceononcasonhocesars 7 dM Ih UB oko nageedopsccacasscadmaouccatatcc 174 
BUD lapSceSensstoncecoscopsongnsceddosanond 7% |; 40 | Medium 204 
WWD) [baosesobbacoasddocadhbcssgece godantienes BY AN” YA Nee sé sesh dpnebassiesasoe eons Asbestiacn: 23 
DO Fa eleisicisideere silence cieisicisiefecie icine eeininieisisia 7% |) 41 | Medium 234 
SI eecle sleleleiwinselulnnin’aisleieimem sla(elalalelaisiaisiee sia 84 41 | Well peveiupet 32 
STi | ee ag. 3 Bs EOL od Se SH Hard las) sack 27 
DUE prema cleceiesina de ersivia stemiac lo siettoeacee ieee 14 EB Ngo seecdaeeszuasosss< 294 
Sige small. oc. cess 84 || 44 | Ripe 314 
314 | Well developed . 10 PE ee aaa ae teeer ese 35 
SA eOMAl - o> cioc.ce al 11 45 | Well developed 39 
SB lleoncaggusicducobancosenpacae: Gacnoaae 11 483 | Small 31 
Se). | SEM SSeS San eae Soap pcbo beac SeOnee 12 504 | Ripe 454 
GBty peopcos Secndscondas=bace9 sebsocdsesear 12 574 | Small 54 
GES) ACI G IDI GaGBAor BOADCIOE OO ASSO CE OT AObe 123 
TABLE V.—Showing the loss in weight of cod from the round to the market-dried fish.* 
; d ied oleae aa | eo || CS 
ee ie ae eee 9 ep eee | 
BB eel SAS Eel po /l ey log Neem ea 
Number. | Sex.| J Ss iF ee! |e a a © £2 
a Be] Be] eye hacia || Ste re] 3 4 gg 
ie aay St se! | gate 2 =F 2 E 5) 
i) o o o e o set oct 5 B =] x 5 
z E i ice ee BE 4 4 A AR | & 
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. Lbs. In. In. Days. 
i pe ee 9 3419 | 188,] 1138 se 45, 48 364 | Jan. 29 22 . 655 
5D BR Br os 2314 | 15%] 1075 he 1a 41 313 | Jan. 29 22 . 576 
i oe ee od 168, | 1033 78, | Empty. +3 7 289 | Jan. 29 22 «545 
7 o 1275 739 18 | Empty. +s 344 264 | Jan. 29 22 . 591 
Beco. o Tel 4 eee Empty, vs | 29$| 23 | Jan.29 22) .585 
Average loss .6023. 
The loss was distributed as follows: 
Loss in splitting ......... SbocorcmnOSaacaE Sao SocileadcoS chacnosgbocneenonoosndavorcooadescsosces -- «4044 
EPSSPNGDIC kel Obete omc ete Daccincien amie TE ae edocs uinOwacie ea taisu Sesiboeeeccben shee rtenteCeeeenee Fe . 1496 
TossiomPflakes)sc...ssoeccececce cece POE cSOa ODO BaCsE Meso ote anda acoceacasapsacsodcoodosonar essence «0483 


* These fish See an average dryness for the year. 
TABLE V (a.)—Showing the loss in weight of cod sl om the round to the market-dried fish.* 


Number. 


< £ 
5 e 
77) 
2 | 2 
eb oO 
3 3 
e = 
Pounds. | Pounds. 
403 93% 
278 14 ; 
18 10 
143 74 
13% 74 
8} 5 
54 34 
3} 23 


Weight, dried. 


ae Ay. cee ae eb % 
6 sz a | ee e 
Paes as 5 e = oe 
Shae og A < = 2a 
a =| a = ‘5 AS 
CHD a 0 4 Sp %o 2 ele 
gRR | $3 B 2. |. .B alleen 
i ct 4 a v7) Ay 
Pounds. | Pounds. | Inches.| Inches.| Days. 
4 | Empty -.-| 47 332 Be tee - 641 
CC eC ee | 414 273 Bills ie . 67 
Fe ep OGnaste-\s 37 244 37 rol . 646 
14 | 35 25 37 fof . 707 
14 343 24 37 fof . 679 
4|Empty..| 294 21} 37| o& | .657 
Te 2G Sear 264 19 37| gf | .643 
sieeceeseee er) ae = 22 17 37) of - 607 
if 


Average loss, . 659. 


* The fish dried as much as in the warmest weather. 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 735 


TaBLE VI.—Showing the loss in weight of *‘ Georges ant in curing, after being split and 
salted on the vessel.* 


E 
a d 
AWS = 
on ; 
- | da| sg oS 
Number. Pa = 5 5 ° 
oleae ean 
C=! 
% | ae | S 3 
Sr] eee tans 
eae, | ey ee Been lite 
In. | Lbs. | Lbs 
ene ce accion = cme lcinectoscisin soo ale einieiaic aoa 'cisloluemiw w ciwioluiviv'eulaleiaie(atste =o cescece 40 | 30,8, | 2532 | .145 
Ch ee ae Be I ee sade «sob eae ae ee 36 | 21y, | 194%; | . 099 
Sonccsce cone SO SDOGO DS COSOC SADIE COD GOL OHO OCOD EDI GODOODONCODOOADG. caccccodse 30 | 11 43) 60119 
(hn sa 5 ccc cclcoSndo sooo Soe Dao ecnoanoSodacodousnocdcououundosdonaeds Ade daccnose 303) Of, | 83] .067 
es AMOGeCOCIE SC ECO SABO DOC EHOBO EC UC OOOO ERC Bn OO ro rononnenccoboses6opocneqeocedse 26 4s | Sf] 124 
Gteeeaseoes Genz age COE DASA SOREOCT OnE SO OBS ADEE Se aece Bo naaa -Ddehoees cooc Ba 24] 5 413} .063 
Average loss, . a5. 
* These fish represent a fair average in dryness for the winter season. 
TABLE VIII.—Showing the loss in weight of market-dried cod-fish in boning. 
Z 
= 
ua | oe 
Number. Fs a Ps 
=] ee 2 
~ ~~ 
a RS) 8 
| Oe ae 
o o 5 
Ee iw 
Lbs. | Lbs. 
a 12 eh Rae gE es te PS bata MI RD 2533 | 2033 | .194 
Piura seine Mes ee SEES SA IN REO So oe oc uh neeececk ecnao ween 10:3 | 83,| .243 
NNN SLAG Brey N NSS icy PU ne nb toa, 8 Aerie es caida da bactence 39] 48 | 234 
See rs ene ee ance e cin ecininaeteeee a acces sone's dele Sadie ea suioniswseeciciecimaceessnee 33; | 28] .286 


Average percentage of loss, .219. 
One quintal of dried fish will therefore make 89 pounds of boned fish. 


TABLE IX.—Showing the loss in weight of pollock from the round to the market-dried fish.* 


| | g a g : ° th S 
Bae Seem te ae eae 
2 = & | Se 8 5 i EI oe. 
Number a 2 S a ae Fe — 2 ea 
Cae Be = eek Wee ial. at tes 22 
"eo eh | "En 22 Sha Ep to 2 tes 
g Shel, Sol Be | ee |) eal She Se eee 
E e BA ao fe Sn ad = | eS ia | = | A a m | py 
pins wi depart Pounds. | Pounds. | Peanas. Inches. | Inches.| Days. 
615 108, 644 | a 33 37 25 30] 9 | .609 
3 43 548 | 3. |Empty..| 343] 23 30| & | .569 
1233 7 55 15, | cdo seein Son 224 30| ff | .587 
1043 63, 313 %s 17; 304 22 30 . 632 
ee 43; 3 10 }4] 26 18 30 . 597 


Average loss, .598. 


* The fish represent a fair average in dryness for the year. 
¥ Young. 


136 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


TABLE X.—Showing the loss in weight of haddock from the round to the market-dried fish.* 


as 
8 
e 
Number. s 
a 
0 
oO 
B 
Pounds. 
of ee ee ee ree 
nae 43 
SMressete 33 
ee Qs 


& Zs 
0 & 
E E 
Pounds. | Pounds. 
43 25 
34 iz 
2 15 
lys 18 


g3 ) : 
nN . 
oe | fe | ee 
So ibs = 2 
53 23 a ee 
=>. ss s a 
B22 By Tr ay 
“a2 2 Ae at 2 
Ss mH Ss cy cs) 
jez ~ 4 
| Pounds Inches. | Inches. 
2 | Empty... 27 214 
me WTA acoa) | Os 193 
| hile douses 214 17 
ay leedos: 18 14 


Time in curing. 


Sex. 


40+09,40 


ge 
loss, 


Percenta 


Average loss, .623. 


* These fish were cured as much as in the warmest weather. 


TABLE XI.—Showing the loss in weight of hake from the round to the market-dried jish.* 


Number. 


Weight, round. 


Average loss, .555. 


2 ou st 
i Ge 
Ey i oH 
i ey +h 
<i a=! n=) 
aE a0 ne 
° Cs) Onc 
= e as 
Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 
Mi O15 fs 
gif ate ed 
3y5 ot 5 
} 16 LL 0 
ié 


Z 3 2 
a3 = 
Se £ 

| #9 a 
De cf 
oO = 5 

re A 

Pounds. | Inches. 
| Empty .- 42 
eaedOeecee 35 
eedOweces Xf 
SAS es 26 
ts 203 


i ED 
= AS 
4 a 
Z =| 
co S) 
a a| 
~ 
i) S 
| =| 
) = 
w H 
Inches.| Days. 
32 30 
274 30 
202 30 
193 3 
16 3 


Percentage of 


loss. 


* The fish represent a fair average for the year. 


TABLE XII.—Showing the loss in weight of cusk from the round to the market-dried fish. * 


Number. 


Weight, round. 


Pounds. 
17: 


1 


Weight, split. 
Weight, dried. 


Pounds. | Pounds. 
ab 10 


13 835 
103% 8 
34 21 tl 
on) a0 


ries or sperma- 


Weight of ova- 
ries. 


Pounds. 
1 


1 


Be Oe 

nA | 

i S 5 

og ~ 

=S r=) 

Oo 

3 

EB A 
re Inches. 

mpty -- 354 
endorse 333 
Bee Se 26 
Boetiesas 23 
edo eee 21 


Length, dried. 


. | Inches. 
28 


Time in curing. 


Days. 
3 


Sex. 


90,0,400,40 


Percentage 


of 


less. 


AO 
=e 
00 bo 


- 526 


pom 
ae 
for) 


- 462 


Average loss, .505. 


* The fish represent a fair average in dryness for the year. 


137 


COD-FISHERIES OF CAPE ANN. 


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REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES 


738 


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XXXIU.—REPORT OF OPERATIONS AT THE UNITED STATES 
SALMON-HATCHING STATION ON THE WCLOUD RIVER, CAL- 
IFORNIA, IN 1878.* 


By LIVINGSTON STONE. 


CHARLESTOWN, N. H., 
December 31, 1878. 
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 
United States Commissioner : 

Sir: I beg leave to report as follows: The winter of 1877~78 was an 
extremely rainy one, and in this section of California it rained almost 
incessantly from the 6th of January till the end of February. In con- 
sequence of these rains the McCloud River rose to an unprecedented 
height, and swept down through the canon which incloses it with terrible 
volume and velocity. When it was 14 feet 9 inches above the summer 
level, it was just even with the floor of the fishery mess-house. From 
that time till the waters began to subside the fishery buildings were in 
great danger. The excessive rise in the river brought down drift-wood 
that had been undisturbed for years, and in immense quantities. This 
drift-wood coming down with great force in the swift current and com- 
posed sometimes of the trunks of huge trees, endangered the buildings 
to a most serious degree. The water was not high enough to carry away 
the buildings by the mere force of the current, although it was in itself 
very powerful, but the momentum of the drift-wood was sufficient to 
carry everything before it. 

During all the time of the high water, the men in charge, viz, Myron 
Green, Patrick Riley, and J. A. Richardson, together with four or five 
Indians who helped them, worked with great resolution and courage. 
During the whole of two days and one night they were in the water, 
sometimes up to their necks, and often in danger of their lives, guiding 
the drift-wood so that it would pass through the fishery premises with 
the least danger. They worked so persistently and skillfully that the 
houses were saved, but everything else was swept away. All the fences, 
flumes, chicken-coops, door-steps, hatching-troughs, filtering-tanks, 
eveything that was on the ground that would float, were carried off. The 
whole of the interior of the hatching-house was cleared out and left as 
clean as the dry bed of a river, which indeed it literally became. The 
damage done to the fishery was so considerable that I applied to the 


*The species referred to in the accompanying report is the Quinnat or California 


salmon—Salmo quinnat. 
741 


742 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for a sum of money 
for the purpose of making repairs. This being furnished out of the de- 
ficiency appropriation voted by Congress in the spring of 1878 for the 
propagation of food fishes, I went to the McCloud River in May and im- 
mediately entered upon the work of putting the fishery in repair. There 
was an immense deal of work to be accomplished to set things to rights, 
and to get the place ready for the season’s operations in hatching salmon- 
eggs. The main things to be done were to place the old buildings as they 
were before the freshet, to build a new building to serve both for a dwell- 
ing-house and a post-office, to replace the fences and flumes, to build the 
spawning-house and the corrals for the parent salmon, to repair the 
current wheel and the two flat-boats that it rested on and to put them 
in place in the river, to build a solid wall of rock from the high land to 
the river to protect the buildings against the force of the current in 
future floods, to build the rack, &c., and to reconstruct almost the whole 
of the interior of the lower part of the hatching-house, every portion of 
which was swept away so clean that not a single thing was left in it, not 
even the heavy grindstone. In order to make as rapid progress as pos- 
sible, I put on a large force of men at once, and began work simultane- 
ously on several of the undertakings just mentioned. The getting out 
of the timbers for the buildings, for the hatching-house floor, for the 
fences, and for general purposes, occupied the time of most of the men 
for two or three weeks. As we have no horses at the fishery, it becomes 
necessary to cut our timbers somewhere on the river above us. The first 
year that we settled here we found enough suitable trees close by, but 
each subsequent year we have had to go higher and higher up the river, 
till this year we found it necessary to go nearly four miles up to find 
such timbers as we required. This involved the consumption of a good 
deal of time, not only in getting the timber but especially in floating it 
down to the fishery, the river being tortuous in its course and very rapid. 
It was over a month before all the timbers were delivered at the places 
where they were wanted, and if it had not been for the very efficient 
help of the Indians, who seemed as much at home in the water as on 
the land, we probably should not have succeeded in getting the logs 
down the river at all. As svon as the timbers were ready, we built the 
bridge and rack across the river to obstruct the ascent of the salmon. 
The demand for California salmon-eggs being now very large, I wished 
to take ten million eggs or more this season, and was, consequently, 
‘anxious to get the rack in as soon as possible. The water was still much 
higher than usual, and the difficult undertaking of bridging the stream 
was made still more difficult this year by the high water. By the 10th 
of July, however, it was accomplished, and the river was closed to the 
upward migration of the salmon. J was the more willing to close the 
stream as early as this because vast numbers of full-grown salmon, taking 
advantage of the high water in the Sacramento River, had escaped the 


SALMON HATCHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878, 743 


nets of the Sacramento fishermen and had already fully stocked the 
upper waters of the McCloud with spawning fish. 

The bridge and rack were hardly completed before the salmon in im- 
. Inense quantities made one of those fierce raids on the rack which I 
have described in previous reports. For two or three hours thousands 
of them threw themselves against the rack with all their strength in 
their fierce but useless attempts to effect a breach in the dam. Finally, 
finding their efforts ineffectual, they desisted and fell back into the deep 
pools below. 

In the mean time, while the dam was being built, work had progressed © 
very satisfactorily in other directions. On the 20th of June, by the aid 
of a Spanish windlass, we returned the current wheel and boats to the 
river. By the 10th of July the post-office building was finished, and the 
fences, flumes, doorsteps, and. most of the smaller things that had been 
injured or destroyed had been repaired or restored. By the ist of August 
the west piazza of the large dwelling-house was finished, together with 
an additional room. All the buildings had been whitewashed or painted. 
The large corral for confining the spawning fish was put in place at the 
fishing-ground, the solid water-wall of rock to protect the fishery-build- 
ings against future floods was nearly finished, the first line of troughs in 
the hatching-house was laid, the current-wheel and flatboats put in com- 
plete repair, the packing-boxes were made, and a new fishing-boat had 
been built. , 

During the first twenty days of August we gave our attention chiefly 
to finishing up the hatching-house and hatching apparatus, building 
the spawning-house at the fishing-ground, making the smaller nets to 
catch and confine the parent salmon in while taking the eggs, and in 
general to perfecting every part of the preparations for taking eggs; 
and I may add here that never since the United States Fish Commission 
began work on the McCloud River have the appointments of the fishery 
and all the arrangements for carrying on operations here been so com- 
plete and entirely satisfactory. From the bridge and rack, which are the 
first steps taken towards securing the season’s supply of salmon-eggs, 
to the minutest points connected with the taking and hatching of the 
eggs, there was hardly a thing left to be wished for, thanks to the liberal 
allowance made by the United States Fish Commissioner of Fish and 
Fisheries for the operations of this station. 

On the 20th of August we took the first eggs of the season, number- 
ing 30,000, and from that time till the 5th of October, when the last ice- 
car was loaded with salmon-eggs for their eastern destinations, our 
time was taken up with spawning the salmon, taking care of the eggs, 
preparing the moss for packing, and making the crates for shipping the 
eggs in. 

Having now given a general résumé of the work which was done at 
the McCloud Fishery in the season of 1878, I will mention a few inci- 
dents which came under my observation, some of which may be worth 


744 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


recording, and, as they are mostly disconnected, I will take them up in 
the order in which they oceurred. 


On the 19th of May, when I arrived at the fishery, the country looked, 


magnificently. All the foliage was fresh and green, owing to the recent 
heavy rains. Azalias, roses, the beautiful golden poppies of this 
region, with a thousand other gorgeous California flowers, were in bloom 
in vast profusion; and so thoroughly saturated with water was the 
earth, from the excessive rainfall of the winter, that it was long after 
the usual time when the desiccating influence of the dry season began 
to show its withering effect upon the vegetation. 

On Sunday, May 26, an incident occurred which, though resulting in 
nothing of importance, seems to illustrate the uncertainty with which 
life in remote and unsettled regions like this is accompanied. About 
midnight we were awakened by the dogs barking violently in the di- 
rection of the hill behind the house. Upon sending them out to see 
what was the matter, they went about ten rods to some thick brush, 
and returned yelping. At the same time we could distinctly hear 
stones being thrown at them. It was dark. There was only one man 
in the house besides myself, and we only had one gun between us. 
With the exception of the hostler at the stage station, a mile distant, 
there was not a white man within three miles. We were in a coun- 
try which we knew was often frequented by desperadoes, and where 
the stage has been robbed six times in a month, and where murders 
are not of unfrequent occurrence. It might be only one or two burg- 
lars in the bushes, but how did we know that they were not a gang 
of cut-throats who were taking advantage of our weakness to over- 
power us, and secure the money which is supposed to be at a govern- 
ment station like this. It was impossible to help thinking that if that 
were the case, how easy it would be for a few determined men to set fire 
to the buildings, and then to pick us off, one by one, as we endeavored 
to escape. That has been the fate of a great many persons in unsettled 
portions of California, and why should it not be ours? I follow out this 
line of thought merely to illustrate the uncertainty which attends this 
sort of life. In point of fact the only result was that we remained awake 
the rest of the night, and in the morning we saw where the men, who- 
ever they were, had thrown the rocks at the dogs. That was all. 

A very natural sequel to this incident took place just a week later, 
and also illustrates the uncertainty which I have just mentioned. About 
nine o’clock one evening we heard a great deal of noise, accompanied 
with some quarrelling among the Indians about a quarter of a mile 
below the house. The noise continuing, two of our men started down 
the road to see what the matter was, and on arriving at the fishery sta- 
ble found one or two men engaged in robbing a teamster who was stop- 
ping there over night. One or two shots were fired by our party, but 
the robbers escaped. We found, however, that the rascals had not only 
robbed the teamster of his money, but had taken from his wagon twenty 


SALMON HATCHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878, 745 


demijohns of whisky, which they had distributed indiscriminately among 
the Indians. The result was such as no one can realize who has not 
been in an Indian country. The Indians were all more or less intoxi- 
cated, were very noisy and quarrelsome, and were inciting each other 
to make a descent on the fishery, and, as they expressed it, ‘‘to sweep 
it clean with the ground.” Our men, in the highest degree indignant at 
this outrageous villany of the robbers, armed themselves for the occa- 
sion and determined to give chase to them that very night. They found 
them about daylight at an Indian lodge, and placing the muzzles of 
their revolvers close to the robbers’ heads, they captured them without 
resistance. One is now in the State’s prison, the evidence against him 
being conclusive. The other was discharged for want of sufficient proof 
of his guilt. This furnishes another instance of our insecurity. It is 
true it resulted in nothing, but had the Indians been sufficiently intoxi- 
cated or sufficiently bold to make an attack on the fishery that night, 
they could have carried everything before them. 

On the 21st of June a post-office was established at the fishery, which 
Inamed Baird, after Professor Baird, United States Commissioner of 
Fish and Fisheries. 

During the first week in July an Indian named Chicken Charlie called 
on me and said his father was going to die soon, and he wanted a coffin 
made. We made the coffin, and after a while, when they supposed the 
Indian was dead, they put him in the coffin and proceeded to bury him ; 
but before they had finished burying him he came to life again, and they 
took him out and waited a while longer. The next time he really died, 
and the following day he was buried over again. 

As soon as the dam was completed across the river, the salmon showed 
signs of being very thick in the river below. On the 11th of July we 
made a haul with the seine, which confirmed our impressions of the 
abundance of the salmon, the number taken at this haul being nearly a 
thousand. About this time the Indians employed at the fishery did 
some very fine work under water in repairing the rack. We discovered 
one day that the salmon, by their violent and repeated attacks on the 
dam, had at last forced a passage-way underneath the rack and were 
escaping. I immediately put three Indians on the break to repair it. 
The water was very cold and very swift, and it would have been ex- 
tremely difficult for white men, unless experienced divers, to do the 
work; but the Indians, diving down to the bottom of the river and 
bracing their feet against the dam to resist the force of the current, 
worked with great skill and perfect self-possession, although remaining 
sometimes a very unpleasantly long time under water. I will add 
here that.the assistance of the Indians during the work which we have 
to do in the water is perfectly invaluable. I do not know how we 
should get along without them, particularly as the snow-water of the 
McCloud is so cold that white men cannot stay in it any great length of 
time. The Indians will remain in it till they get so cold that they build 


746 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


a fire when they come out of the water to warm themselves by, as I have 
often seen them, when the surrounding air is already at 130° Fahrenheit 
from the natural heat of the sun. 

Salmon-jumping.—Soon after the salmon were shut off from ascending 
the river, I frequently took a boat and went out into the river below the 
dam to watch the salmon jumping. On the 21st of July I counted 75 a 
minute (4,500 an hour) jumping in a space perhaps a hundred yards 
long by thirty yards wide. On the 28th of July I counted 100 a minute 
(6,000 an hour). On the 31st of July I counted 145 a minute (8,700 an 
hour). This is the largest number of salmon that I have ever seen 
jumping in the McCloud River in a minute. 

Heat of the sun.—For some unknown reason there are usually one or 
two days, but no more, during the summer when it is exceptionally hot 
in the sun. In 1875 this peculiar day came on the 22d of July, when 
the temperature was 153° in the sun. This year it came on the 26th of 
July. The thermometer on that day in the sun at 4 o’clock p. m. rose 
to 149°. 

The eclipse of the sun.—On the 29th of July an eclipse of the sun took 
place. Ihad told the Indians two months before that it was going to 
happen, and from that time till the day of the eclipse they came to me 
every little while to inquire how many days before the “ grizzly bear 
would eat the sun,” that being their explanation of the darkening of 
the sun at an eclipse. When the day arrived, twenty or thirty of them 
came to the fishery and looked at the sun with the greatest interest 
through pieces of smoked glass which we prepared for them, and which 
enabled them to watch the progress of the eclipse much better than they 
could do in their own way, which is by observing the reflection of the 
sun in the water. It is a great mystery to them how the white man is 
able to predict so long beforehand the coming of the “ grizzly bear 
that eats the sun.” 

On the 25th of March, 1876, an eclipse of the sun occurred, and, at the 
height of the obscuration, an otter came out of the water in front of the 
house, looked around, and disappeared. The Indians remembered it, 
and kept on the watch for the otter during the eclipse this year (1878). 
No otter came; but it was a singular fact that the next day an otter— 
the only one we saw during the season—swam down past the house and 
back again, and disappeared. I think that the Indians who saw these 
otters will always think that an otter, as well as a grizzly bear, is re- 
quired to accomplish an eclipse of the sun. 

The Indian scare-—On the 21st of July an Indian méssenger came in 
ereat haste from Copper City, on Pitt River, about eight miles from the 
fishery, with a letter from the superintendent of the silver mines there, 
stating that alarming rumors had reached that place about large num- 
bers of northern Indians having been seen on the McCloud, and that the 
people there had heard that the Indians were meditating. an attack on 
their settlement, and asking if we knew anything about it. About the 


SALMON HATCHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878, 747 


same time we read in the papers that the Pit River Indians had been 
making hostile demonstrations on their river. Our McCloud River In- 
dians, who by this time had heard of the alarm at Copper City, were 
very muchexcited. We wrote back to the superintendent that we thought 
‘there was nothing in it, and that there was no danger. The next morn- 
ing, however, an Indian squaw told us that the Yreka and Upper Sac- 
ramento Indians were coming down to the McCloud to kill the McCloud 
Indians and what white men there were on the river, meaning ourselves 
at the fishery. We heard farther that Outlaw Dick, who murdered 
George Crooks here in 1873, and Captain Alexander, an Indian of very 
warlike disposition, bad urged the northern Indians at a recent council 
to make adescent upon the McCloud and “clean out,” as they expressed 
it, all the white men and McCloud Indians on the river. To add to the 
excitement, a Piute chief had visited our Indians the past week to stir 
them up to make war on the whites. 

Three days after, a McCloud Indian came down in hot haste from Alex- 
ander’s camp and told our Indiansthat Alexander had gone north to “call” 
his Indians, and that they would be down next month to make war on 
the McClouds. Some of our Indians were very much alarmed, and for 
several days a good deal dejected over this news, and they told us stories 
of ancient fights that they had had with the northern Indians, and how 
the Modocs and Yreka Indians had made war on them and burned their 
children and carried off their squaws. All this occurred just at the time 
when the Sanfrancisco papers were full of the murders and depredations 
of the Oregon Indians, and we began to think that there might be some- 
thing serious in the excitement in our neighborhood. At all events, as 
we had only one rifle at the fishery I thought it prudent to be at least 
better armed, and accordingly telegraphed for arms and ammunition. 
The excitement, however, gradually died away. The Piute chief re- 
turned to his own tribe; the Oregon Indians began to surrender and 
come in to deliver themselves up to the soldiers; the McCloud Indians 
recovered from their alarm, and about three weeks after the first excite- 
ment they informed me that Captain Alexander and his Indians had 
changed their minds and were not coming. This was the end of our In- 
dian scare, and after this we thought nothing more about it. We might 
not have been in any danger whatever. Itis very likely that we were not, 
and yet when a few white men are in an Indian country where the In- 
dians outnumber them ten to one, as in our case, their very helplessness 
creates a feeling of uneasiness if there is only the slightest suspicion of 
danger. We did not know that we were in great danger, but we knew 
that if we were, with but one rifle among us, we were perfectly powerless 
to avert it; and that reflection was an unpleasant one in itself. 

Hot weather.—Between the 8th and 14th of August, inclusive, we 
had a hot week, during which the heat was so continuous and excessive 
that I think it is worth mentioning. The temperature on those days at 
3 o'clock in the shade was as follows: August 8, 102°; August 9, 108°; 


748 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


August 10, 110°; August 11, 110°; August 12, 112°; August 13, 106°; 
August 14, 102°. 

I will also call attention here to the striking contrast between the 
temperature of the air and that of the water. On the 11th of August 
the air in the sun was 134°, and the water was 60°, consequently when 
our men went into the water to work on that and similar days, they ex- 
perienced a change of temperature of 749. This is very trying to the 
health, and some who have worked here in the water have suffered 
very severely from the effects of it. 

Roily water.—About the 10th of August we noticed that the river 
water was beginning to be turbid, and to look in color like the Missouri 
at Omaha. This created no alarm, because we had often noticed, after 
very hot days, that the McCloud water was turbid, the cause being that 
the unusual heat melts an unusual amount of snow on Mount Shasta, 
which swells the smaller streams at the head of the river and roils the 
water. The turbidness of the water, however, continued for several 
days and increased every day till, on the 15th of August, the water 
was so muddy that one could not see more than 18 inches below the 
surface. Then we began to think that there might be some other cause 
for it than melting snows, and horrible visions of Chinamen mining at 
the head waters of the McCloud arose in our minds. Every other good 
salmon-spawning river in California has been spoiled or nearly spoiled 
for the salmon by mining operations, and to think of the McCloud, the 
last hope of the Sacramento salmon being ruined in the same way was 
intolerable. The universal sentiment at the fishery was that if our sus- 
picions were true, “the Chinese must go,” and it would not have been 
difficult to find men enough to carry the decree into execution. 

On Saturday, August 17, I decided if the water did not become clearer 
to send an expedition up the river to ascertain the cause of its turbid- 
ness. On Monday, however, it began to get a little clearer, and con- 
tinued to grow clearer till the 24th of August, when it was about as 
clear as usual. In the mean time I discovered the cause of the turbid- 
ness, which proved to be a very peculiar one at the same time that it 
entirely relieved the Chinamen from our very unjust suspicions. We 
discovered that when there is an unusual amount of melting snow on 
Mount Shasta, the water seeks anew channel through what is generally 
in summer a dry gulch. This gulch, called Mud Creek, is composed of 
fine, white, ashy earth, and when the melting snows on Shasta overflow 
into it, they carry vast quantities of whitish mud into the McCloud. 
This is what made the river so roily; and the reason that it continued 
roily so much longer than usual was because there was more snow than 
usual on Shasta, and the heat for a week was very excessive. 

The salmon.—The salmon, as before remarked, were found to be ex- 
tremely abundant below the dam, and as soon as it was finished they 
gathered there in vast numbers. Indeed they were more numerous 
than I have ever known them to be before at that time, viz, the first half 


SALMON HATCHING ON MCCLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878, 749 


of July. This abundance of salmon continued through the season. At 
first they were very small, smaller than we have ever known them to 
be before, but about the 13th of August a new run came up of very 
large fish. This run with the earlier run of small ones made the river 
swarm with salmon.’ I have never seen anything like it anywhere, not 
even on the tributaries of the Columbia. On the afternoon of the 15th 
of August there was a space in the river below the rack about 50 feet 
wide and 80 feet long where, if a person could have balanced himself, 
he could actually have walked anywhere on the backs of the salmon, 
they were so thick. I have often heard travelers make this remark 
about salmon in small streams, so [ know that it is not an uncommon 
thing in streams below a certain size, but to see salmon as thick as this 
in a river of so great volume as the McCloud must, I think, be a rare 
sight. About this time I kept a patrol on the bridge every moment, 
night and day, and this precaution, though an expensive one, was well 
rewarded, for this vast number of salmon continually striking the bridge 
with sledge-hammer blows were sure, in the course of time, to displace 
something and effect a passage through to the upper side, and when one 
did succeed in getting through, the others would follow with surprising 
rapidity one after another, like a flock of sheep going through a break 
in a fence. If they were not watched a hundred or even a thousand 
could easily slip through unobserved, but by the aid of the patrol, who 
was always provided with material for repairing the dam, a breach (vas 
discovered as soon as it was made, and was repaired as soon as it was 
discovered. This swarm of salmon just alluded to remained at the 
bridge and kept up the attack at one point or another for three days, 
and then fell back to the pools below, where, with occasional renewals of 
their attacks, they remained until they were caught in the seine. 

The spawning season—The spawning season began the 20th of 
August, with the taking of 30,000 eggs from seven fish. Every haul of 
the net brought an enormous quantity of salmon. Without our trying 
to capture many, the net would frequently bring in a thousand at a haul. 
We found very few ripe fish, however, until the 28th of August, when 
the spawning season set in in good earnest, and from this date to the 
last day of taking eggs the yield was very large and remarkably regular. 

This leads me to say that the most extraordinary feature about the 
fishing season this year was that the salmon in the river did not seem 
to be diminished any by our constant seining. We made enormous 
hauls with the net every day, spawned a large number of salmon, and 
gave a large number to the Indians for their winter supply, but always 
the next day the spawning salmon seemed to be as thick as ever. This 
abundance of the salmon was a daily surprise to us. Every day we 
were regularly, though agreeably, disappointed. It was three weeks 
before we made any impression on the spawners in the river. At last, 
about the 15th of September, the females with spawn began to fall off a 
little, but only a little. We had enough eggs by this time, however, and 


750 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


stopped fishing on the 18th of September, not because of any scarcity 
of salmon, but because we did not want any more eggs. We had in the 
hatching-house on the evening of that day 12,246,000 salmon eggs, ac- 
cording to our recorded count, though without doubt over 14,000,000 in 
reality, as our method of counting purposely leaves a large outside mar- 
gin for emergencies. Had we continued to fish and take eggs till the 
close of the fishing season, we could probably have taken 18,000,000 eggs, 
and perhaps more. 

It is a fact worth noticing here, that the salmon were smaller this year 
than usual, the eggs were smaller, and the number of eggs to the fish 
was smaller. I doubt if the female salmon which we spawned averaged 
for the season over nine or nine and a half pounds, while in previous 
years they have averaged twelve or fourteen pounds. Sometimes we 
spawned twenty salmon in succession, of which not more than three out 
of the twenty would vary a half a pound from seven pounds. The 
weights of the salmon which we tagged and set free, given in the table 
below, are a fair sample of the weights of the temales for the whole sea- 
son. ’ 

Table showing the weight of several McCloud River salmon which were tagged with a silver 
tag and turned loose in the river in September, 1878. 


Weight. |) Weight. 

Pounds. | Pounds. 
NO wees clcissancic sbatbas oscninie sicelsin sce craiste Will NOB a cases csaceccesccesasioeenee Goce 7 
INOH2Se Re canoe tete oC See sc E Eee Ee Si | PNOMS 2s Fes o tie atte s Goes ee ese ceeeeeeee 8 
No.3 WN INO 4 cer cecscuesclae's ce cleccentsieeeee cnet nhl 
INO: Sees coset eitbedacete J oaaetee seemless Oi INOMIS eae tt ea ee se eee 9 
INION Dee ate cients sinclar c sicee omic a seictorae 10° || NO: 162.203.0302 co sete ewan Seen eneere 6 
IN ONG eh sattd oak Sa seek wielaelaas ciomeatlsconclet OW Nios 17 2 cent e esas dace co ose es eee ees 7 
PN OW ese eect obec idcui avese ne ceeem eases BW INOu LS) Jac acicacjess cies saat wiaecmcecmemeeee 6 
INOS 6s eee eet he ee ncoetes became ON ENG S19 S25 aise a Se: Se eee 6° 
INONO eee eee oe cua ccceme el seseseneseoeae- Tl INO; 20). sew cesscccccaaanmecocssceeeeeees 9 
INOS OSes Joss cea casa coa es cnsicesecos ses 8 || 
IN Oss Ace oo occa awe sideceu woe cnccineare 6 153 


Average weight, 7.65 pounds. 


It will be seen by the above record that twenty salmon, taken indis- 
criminately, weighed 153 pounds, giving an average weight of 7.65 pounds 
each. The small size of the salmon in the McCloud River this year was 
undoubtedly caused, in whole or in part, by the fishing at the canneries 
on the Sacramento, where the 8-inch meshes of the innumerable drift- 
nets stopped all the large salmon and let all the small ones through. 
The eges when taken proved to be at least a third smaller than those of 
most previous years, and the average number of eggs to the fish was 
about 3,500, against 4,200 last year. 

I adopted a new and rather unique method this year of driving the 
fish to the fishing-grounds. As may be readily supposed, the constant 
drawing of the net over the seining-hole had the effect of frightening the 
salmon off the ground. Of course it was necessary to get them back 
again before they spawned, as otherwise we should have lost the eggs. 
I have hitherto been in the habit of sending a gang of white men and 


SALMON HATCHING ON MCCLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878. 751 


Indians down the river for this purpose. By going over the fish with 
boats, by throwing in rocks, by stirring up the holes with long poles, by 
floating down trees and brush over them, we have usually succeeded in 
driving back the fish that have gone down the river from the fishing- 
ground. This, however, did not enable us to get at the fish that went 
up the river and that lay in the rapids, and particularly in the deep 
holes between the seining-grounds and the bridge above. Here vast 
quantities of salmon collected, which we had never hitherto been able 
satisfactorily to reach. This year I accomplished it in this way: I had 
several Indians go up to the bridge armed with long poles. At a given 
signal three Indians jumped into the foaming rapids below the bridge, 
and by splashing the water with their arms and limbs and making as 
much of a disturbance in the water as possible did everything they could 
to frighten the salmon out of the rapids. On reaching the deep holes, 
where the fish lay collected by hundreds and perhaps thousands, the 
Indians dove down, in the very midst of the swarms of salmon, and, 
stirring them up with their long poles, succeeded in driving them out. 

In order to co-operate most effectively with the Indian divers, I had the 
Seining-boat, with the boatmen all ready in it, stationed just at the point 
where the boat starts across the river with the net. On the beach also, 
where the net is drawn in, the fishermen were stationed at the ropes, 
seven men at the lower rope, and four men at the upper one, ready to 
pull in the seine at the proper moment. On the other side of the river, 
nearly opposite the fishing-boat, was stationed a boatman with a second 
boat, whose duty it was when the net was payed out to pull down close 
to the opposite shore where the net itself could not reach, in order to 
prevent the salmon from skulking there away from the seine. Still lower 
down on each side of the river were men stationed on the banks to 
throw rocks into the rapids below, with the intention of driving the fish 
out of the rapids into the net. 

On these occasions the hauling of the seine was quite an exciting event. 
The Indian swimmers, their dark heads just showing above the white 
foam, screaming and shouting in the icy waters and brandishing their 
long poles, came down the rapids at great speed, disappearing entirely 
now and then as they dove down into a deep hole. As soon as they 
approached within about four rods of the fishing-skiff, the boat shot out 
from the shore, the second boat man braced himself and his oars for a 
quick pull down along the bank. The man at the stern of the first boat 
began paying out the seine, the fishermen on the beach gathered at their 
respective ropes, the men on shore began throwing rocks in the rapids, 
and in a few moments the net was drawn to the beach with an enormous 
mass of struggling, writhing salmon, often weighing in the aggregate 
not less than four or five tons. Then thefishermen sprang into the water 
and examined the fish, taking the ripe ones to the corral and throwing 
the unripe ones back into the river until the net was emptied. Then all 
was quiet again and the men proceeded to take the eggs from the ripe 
fish which they had captured. 


752 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


IT ought to add here that the water is too cold for white men to endure 
swimming and diving and remaining in it as long as is necessary to 
drive the salmon from the rapids. Indeed, the mere work of examining 
and spawning the salmon is altogether too severe an exposure for white 
men, and almost every one of my men gets more or less prostrated with 
sickness the first week of the spawning season. And it is not to be 
wondered at, for we run the seine every night until twelve o’clock, and 
the water and night air are sometimes 80° colder than where the men 
have been accustomed to work during the day. For instance, after 
hewing timbers or building a corral in a sun temperature of 130° in the 
daytime, they will frequently work in the water and night air in the 
evening in a temperature of 50°, their clothes wet through all the time. 
Here the difference in temperature is just 80°. This is obviously ex- 
ceedingly trying to the most robust constitution, and the result always 
is that most of the men get sick the first week, though it is also true 
they usually rally—that is, those who can stand it op all—and are all on 
duty the next week, attacking their work with renewed zeal and vigor. 

The actual spawning of the salmon this year was conducted on the 
same general plan as last year, except that I made arrangements for 
doing the work somewhat more systematically, and on a scale corre- 
sponding to the great number of eggs which we hoped to take, and 
which we actually did take. I think other salmon breeders will be in- 
clined to smile an incredulous smile when I say that we frequently took 
from 700,000 to 900,000 eggs and upwards in one day before four o’clock 
in the afternoon. Yet this my men actually accomplished several times. 
The physical exertion required to do it is enormous. 

On the evening of the 18th day of September all the eggs were taken 
and placed in the hatching-houses in good order, the whole work of the 
spawning season having been done this year, notwithstanding the large 
number of eggs taken, more smoothly and easily than ever before. 

Maturing and hatching the eggs —The maturing and hatching of the 
eggs also passed off more smoothly this year than usual. No disasters 
or drawbacks occurred during the whole season that I remember. 
Everything worked well, and when the time came for shipping the eggs, 
there were as fine a lot in the hatching-houses as was ever collected 
together. There was not an egg shipped, that I am aware of, that had 
been in the least degree injured by fungus, sediment, insufficient air, or 
any other cause whatever. All were in a perfect condition of health 
and vitality. 

In confirmation of the above statement I quote below from some of 
the letters which I received from consignees of the eggs concerning the 
condition of the eggs on arrival at their destinations. 


es 


SALMON HATCHING ON M'CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878. 753 


MADISON, WIS., December 20, 1878. 


DEAR Str: Your receipt for freight on California salmon eggs re- 
ceived this day. 
The eggs were very fine; hatched out beautifully. 
Very truly yours, 
WILLIAM WELCH, 
President Wisconsin Fish Commission. 
L. STONE. 


MountT CARROLL, CARROLL CouNTY, ILLINOIS, 
October 16, 1878. 
DEAR Sir: The two crates of California salmon eggs, of which you 
notified me from California, reached me on the 14th instant. They are 
in fine condition, only about 3 per cent. being found faulty. 
Very truly yours, 
SAMUEL PRESTON. 
LIVINGSTON STONE, Esq. 


GLOUCESTER, MASS., October 18, 1878. 


My DEAR Sir: My man writes me of the safe arrival of the salmon 
eggs in good condition. Out of the lot of 250,000 he picked out 6,000 
bad eggs, 2-4; per cent. 


Yours, very respectfully, 
FRANK N. CLARK. 


LIVINGSTON STONE. 


SAINT PAUL, MINN., October 28, 1878. 


DEAR Str: The California salmon eggs from McCloud River came to 
us in the evening of the 14th, and I am glad to say they open up in bet- 
ter order than any we have ever received before. The packing and car- 
riage were a complete success, and up to this time the loss has not been 
over 5 per cent. 


Very respectfully, ae 
. O. SWEENY. 


Hon. 8. F. Barry, 
United States Fish Commissioner, Smithsonian Institute, 
Washington, D. C. 


PEMBROKE, ME., October 8, 1878. 


DEAR Stir: I received the case of salmon eggs that you shipped to 
me. The eggs were in good condition, there being only 823 dead eggs, 
which is a small percentage. 


Yours, respectfully, 
LORENZO S. BAILEY. 
LIVINGSTON STONE. 


48 F 


754 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


TRENTON, N. J., October 14, 1878. 


DEAR Sir: In accordance with your request of September 23, you 
are informed that the shipment of salmon eggs for the State of New 
Jersey, and others (total, 475,000), was received in due time, and that 
the condition of the eggs on arrival was most excellent. 

Very respectfully, 
HK. J. ANDERSON, 
Commissioner of Fisheries of New Jersey. 
LIVINGSTON STONE, Esq. 


ROCHESTER, N. Y., October 8, 1878. 
DEAR Sir: The eggs arrived at destination October 4. They were 
in very good condition. The first time going over them 4,945 were picked 
out. They are looking well. 
Yours, 
SETH GREEN. 
LIVINGSTON STONE. 


ELGIN, ILL., October 12, 1878. 
DEAR Sir: The California salmon eggs came in excellent shape. 
Very truly, 
W. A. PRATT. 
LIVINGSTON STONE. 


PLYMOUTH, N. H., October 8, 1878. 
DEAR Sir: The eggs arrived here at noon the 7th, in good condition. 
Yours, &., 
A. H. POWERS. 
LIVINGSTON STONE. 


CouNCIL BLUFFS, lows, October 17, 1878. 


DEAR Sir: The 50,000 California salmon eggs shipped me per ex- 
press were duly received on the 14th instant, and in unpacking the same 
I find them in excellent condition. 

Yours, respectfully, 
WM. A. MYNSTER. 

LIVINGSTON STONE. 


The only large loss experienced in the shipment of the eggs this year 
was in the case of a lot of 500,000 consigned to Hon. Samuel Wilmot, 
Neweastle, Ontario, Canada. These, as Mr. Wilmot’s letters which fol- 
low will show, were almost a total loss. There cannot be much doubt \ 
that the injury to the eggs occurred on the express car between Chicago 


_- 


SALMON HATCHING ON M CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878. 755 


and Newcastle. As Mr. Wilmot’s eggs were handled at the McCloud 
River fishery in precisely the same way, were packed in the same way, 
were shipped in the same way, and, in short, received precisely the same 
treatment that the other eggs received, from the time of their leaving 
the parent fish on the McCloud till they were unloaded from the ice-car 
at Chicago, and as all the other eggs went safely, it does not seem pos- 
sible that the injury to the eggs could have occurred west of Chicago, 
because if it had, the same disastrous agency which destroyed his eggs 
must inevitably have affected some of the other eggs, which was not the 
case. It will also be seen from Mr. Wilmot’s letters that the injury could 
not well have occurred after the eggs reached Newcastle. The obvious 
inference then is that the mischief must have taken place between Chi- 
cago and Newcastle. 
NEWCASTLE, October 9, 1878. 

Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 

United States Commissioner of Fisheries, &c., Gloucester, Mass. : 


DEAR SiR: I hasten to inform you, as mentioned in my telegram of 
yesterday, of the loss of the California eggs that you were kind enough 
to have sent to me from the McCloud River. The real cause of their 
death I cannot fully comprehend, but I am inclined to believe that they 
must have got overheated on the road. 

I got a letter from Mr. Stone in September, stating that half a million 
of eggs would be sent me, and that they would be shipped on or about 
28th September, from Redding to Chicago in a refrigerator-car, thence 
by express to their destination, and that the express company would 
notify me by telegram when the eggs left Chicago. I also got a postal 
card from Mr. Stone, dated 23d September, notifying me tltat 5 per cent. 
more than the number of eggs ordered would be added to the shipment. 

The express agent here, on the morning of the 5th instant, informed 
me that five crates of eggs had arrived by the morning train and that 
they were at his office. (This was the first and only notice I received of 
their coming since receipt of Mr. Stone’s letters.) I immediately sent 
my assistants for them, giving them instructions to handle them carefully 
and walk the horses slowly from the office to the fishery (about a mile); 
in the mean time I had my men clean out the hatching-troughs, through 
which a full flow of water had been running for some time, and also 
rinse off the trays, to be in readiness for the coming eggs. I was pres- 
ent at this time, and when the eggs arrived I saw them carefully taken 
off the wagon and carried to the end of the fishery. I then opened the 
first crate myself. Before doing so I examined the manner in which it 
was arranged, which was most satisfactory. The outer covering of the 
inner boxes was well packed with fern leaves, and there was a center 
chamber dividing the two inner boxes, in which a quantity of fresh ice 
still remained. This ice must have been put in only a short time before, 
as some of the pieces were quite large and almost filled up the entire 
width of the chamber. 


756 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Before opening the inner boxes containing the eggs, I pushed a ther- 
mometer into the fine moss round and about the eggs, to ascertain its 
temperature, so that no sudden change would be made in unpacking 
the ova. The moss gave a record of 54°; the air inside and outside the 
building (it was a dark, cloudy day) gave arecord of 54° also. I then tried 
the water in the stream and in the hatching-troughs, and found it, after 
several trials, to show 53° to 535°. This being so very favorable, I set 
to work with the most satisfactory anticipations for success. 

To make matters as equal as possible, I also sprinkled water on the 
inner boxes containing the eggs before unscrewing the slats, and al- 
lowed the water to percolate through the moss and amongst the eggs. 
The ova was then taken out by gently lifting each layer with the muslin 
cloth under them, and immersing the eggs slowly in the hatching- 
troughs ; these were 12 feet long, 12 inches wide, 5 inches deep, with a 
full flow of water running constantly through them; in opening out the 
eggs, ny assistant, who has been with me several years, drew my at- 
tention to the eggs, or the embryo inside, beginning to turn a whitish 
color; this I noticed clearly. In opening and removing the moss, they 
presented a healthy appearance, with the usual dark, red color, but al- 
most immediately began to show a faint opaque white streak along the 
back of the embryo ; some showed it more than others. We got through 
with the operation of unpacking on the evening of Saturday. Some of 
the eggs were placed loosely on the bottom of the troughs, with a couple 
of inches of water running over them; others were placed on hatching- 
trays. A very few, indeed, in removing gave evidence of life or motion 
inside. I picked out a few dozen that showed life and put them by 
themselves; these turned out in the course of a few hours just the same 
as the others, with the opaque white line. As I had a similar loss the 
previous season, I concluded there was no hope for their safety. I ex- 
amined the troughs and trays after night, and found the lines of mor- 
tality more plainly visible, and on Sunday morning I concluded the re- 
sult to be almost a total loss. To-day, whilst writing, I can notice a few 
eggs here and there yet looking as if they were all right, but I fear the 
white fever, not the yellow, has struck them, with no hope of recovery. 
Every day since Saturday I have picked out a dozen or so that I hoped 
were healthy, as they gave some signs of life, and put them carefully 
by themselves, but with the same result—a few hours afterwards, death— 
and to-day I fear we shall have none left. 

Now, the question arises, what has caused this mortality? Has it 
occurred with other lots sent elsewhere? Oram I alone the unfortunate 
one? I hope the latter may be the case, as it would be sad, indeed, if a 
similar fate has befallen all the rest. J am very anxious to learn the fate 
of the other shipments, and will be pleased to hear from you concerning 
them. Whether the cause of death took place before reaching Chicago, 
in the refrigerator-car, or since their redistribution there, I cannot say. 
The facts are, however, just as I have related, and I feel very sad at the 


SALMON HATCHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878, 757 


loss, as I had contemplated sending a number of the eggs to our estab- 
lishment on the Saguenay River, 300 miles below Quebec, from which 
place I distributed some thousands of the California fry, two years ago. 

Tam very fearful now that my expectations in reference to the Cali- 
fornia egg enterprise will be wholly frustrated. 

The first lot of eggs I got from you previous to last fall came to hand 
in the best possible shape, not more than 2 per cent. or 3 per cent. being 
lost till time of hatching out. How matters have turned out wrong 
since [ cannot tell. I may, however, state my belief that last year’s 
loss was undoubtedly from overheating on the road, as the moss and 
eggs were steaming hot when they were opened. ‘This year’s shipment 
did not show that state of things on arrival here. Yet the overheating 
may haye taken place before reaching Chicago, and the replenishment 
of ice may have cooled them off, but the stroke of death did not culmi- 


nate till the opening out and exposure to the air and water here. 
¥* * * * * * * 


THE FISHERIES, NEWCASTLE, ONT., 
November 9, 1878. 
LIVINGSTON STONE, Esq,., 
Assistant United States Commissioner of Fisheries, dc., 
Charleston, N. H.: 

DEAR MR. STONE: I received your favor of 4th instant, in reference 
to the California eggs which you were kind enough to forward (from 
your establishment on the McCloud River) to me in October last, and I 
can assure you that no one can feel more disappointed than I do at the 
loss of them, for I had set my mind upon going largely into the rearing 
of these Pacific salmon. However, the misfortune occurred in losing 
them all save about 1,000, and the question now to be solved is, how did 
the calamity happen? What was the cause of it? 

You ask me certain questions concerning the death of the eggs. These 
I will answer seriatim, and if, from the replies I give you, you can form 
any correct idea why the loss should have occurred, no one will be more 
pleased than myself, as it will not only solve the mystery, but will also 
probably give aclew whereby similar disasters may be prevented in the 
future in connection with getting California ova from you. 

I wrote Professor Baird on the 9th October, giving him particulars 
of the loss, &c. In all probability he has sent you the letter or a copy 
of it. I will, however, recapitulate a portion of it by saying, “that I 
got a letter from you in September saying that half a million of eggs 
would be shipped to me on or about 28th September,” and that, when 
they arrived at Chicago, the express agent there would notify me by 
telegram when they would be expressed from that place. I also got a 
postal card from you, dated 25th September, that 5 per cent. more than 
the original number would be shipped. To make matters short in this 
letter, I have concluded to send you a copy of that portion of the letter 


758 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


referring to the loss, written on 9th October to Professor Baird, in 
which the particulars are minutely given. (See copy attached hereto.) 
You will observe in it that I did not receive any notice from the express 
company at Chicago when the eggs were sent on from there. My first 
knowledge of the ova after your letter and postal card was from the 
express agent here sending word to me that five crates of salmon had 
arrived. This notice was on Saturday morning, the 5th October. I will 
now take up your questions. 

Question. At what hour did the eggs arrive at Newcastle? 

Answer. The express train from the West arrives at 9.25 a. m.; and 
very shortly after this time I was notified of the arrival of the eggs. 

Question 2. What express company delivered them ? 

Answer. The Canadian and American Express Company. 

Question 3. Was there ice on top of the crates and in the ice-chambers? 

Answer. I am not aware of any ice being on top of the crates and 
think there was not, but there was ice in the ice-chambers of the crates. 

Question 4. Was the express-car warm in which they were brought to 
Newcastle? 

Answer. This I cannot answer, nor can the agent here tell me, as the 
cars only stop a moment or so at the station, and no observation was 
taken at the time. 

Question 5. How long after arrival at Newcastle were they unpacked? 

Answer. The unpacking’ commenced between 10 and 11 o’clock a. m., 
and the work was completed about 4 p. m. 

Question 6. Were they likely to grow cooler or warmer in the place 
where they were kept at Newcastle before unpacking? 

Answer. There could be only a very little change, as the day was a 
very dark, lowery one and pretty cool, the thermometer inside and out- 
side the building ranging at 54°; there were no fires on the premises, 
neither was there sunshine. 

Question 7. Did the eggs appear to be dead on being opened, or was 
it after they were placed in the water that they showed that they were 
spoiled ? 

Answer. At the first glance, when moss and muslin were removed, 
the eggs looked bright and red, but upon close examination life and 
motion were only noticed in a few, and my assistant (who has been en- 
gaged in the general work in connection with fish hatching, &c., in the 
establishment for several years) drew my attention to this, stating at 
the same time that he was fearful that they were going to turn out as 
those did last year, as he could see a faint whitish line along the em- 
bryos in the eggs. I noticed this also. This gave us cause to take 
extra care in unpacking. A thermometer was put amongst the moss 
between the layers, which gave a temperature of 54°. The water in the 
troughs stood at 53° to 534°, and the air outside and inside the building 
was 54°. These were very favorable circumstances, and each of us began 
to.remove the eggs, first sprinkling water over the moss in the boxes, 


SALMON HATCHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878. 759 


then gently removing the upper layer of moss with the muslin, and lifting 
up the eggs with the muslin underneath them, and carefully immersing 
the eggs in the trough immediately alongside the packing boxes, so that 
in each case the eggs in the muslin cloth were not carried beyond 3 or 
4 feet before immersing in the water. It was observable that little or 
no life was noticed by movement of the embryos as is usually the case 
when handling them, but the faint opaque white line became more ap- 
parent when placed in the water. I took part personally with my men 
in opening two of the crates, noting the above particulars. The opening 
of the other three crates was performed by my assistants in the same 
manner and with precisely the same results. 

Question 8. Did all the crates open just alike, or were some in worse 
condition than others ? 

Answer. There was no perceptible difference in the crates. My as- 
sistant thought one slightly better looking, but in the end all proved 
alike. 

Question 9. Did any of the eggs appear to have hatched.on the way? 

Answer. I may say, no. There were, however, just half a dozen or 
so that gave signs of premature hatching, but the number was so trifling 
as hardly to deserve notice. 

Having answered your queries as clearly as I possibly can, I hope you 
may glean something from them that may give a clew to the loss. I 
must say that I cannot imagine the real cause. What strikes me with 
great surprise, is how it was that all the other consignments turned out 
so well and mine so badly. The inference would be that the difficulty 
must have taken place at Chicago in reshipping, or on the road from 
that place to this. From what I can learn, the time taken between 
Chicago and here by express is about 48 hours. At what time the eggs 
reached Chicago from Sacramento I have not precisely learned, but I 
think I saw some notice of the arrival of a car load of California eggs 
at that place about the 2d or 3d of October. If this were the case, and 
it was the same shipment by which mine came, no time would have been 
lost between Chicago and here for their carriage. 

The next question arises, how many transhipments were there be- 
tween the places, and could injury have been caused whilst transhipping ? 
Not getting any bill of lading of their shipment at Chicago or upon 
their arrival here, I cannot particularly answer this; but there would 
no doubt be a transhipment at Detroit from the American road to the 
Canadian or Great Western Railway to reach Hamilton and Toronto. 
At Toronto there would be another transhipment from the Great West- 
ern line to the Grand Trunk Railway in order to reach Newcastle. This 
would make two changes of cars (or three if a change was made at Ham- 
ilton for Toronto), with new express carriers at each change, and from 
the great monopoly of the express company, and consequent careless- 
ness of many of its employés, roughness of handling the crates, on 
account of their size and weight, might be the cause of injury, or heated 


760. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


cars (though this could not be the case, as there was plenty of ice in 
the chambers). It may be that these crates have been tumbled out of 
the cars like cord-wood, or barrels of pork, or crates of hardware, and 
the eggs became injured by concussion in falling, and thus killing them. 
Yet Iam doubtful whether this theory will hold good, as it is perfectly 
astonishing the knocking about that eggs sometimes get and yet receive 
noinjury. If the injury did take place from the last-mentioned cause, it 
would be impossible to find out where the blame was to be placed, from 
the many changes in transhipment and no one in particular looking 
after them. In opening some of the crates the layers were very much 
displaced, some being quite to one side, as if forced there by some pres- 
sure or shock. There were no labels or directions on the crates giving 
special instructions for ‘careful handling,” or “keeping this side up 
with care,” so that they may have been carried in the cars or in ex- 
press wagons on their “sides” or “ends.” There was a painted address 
on each, Sam Wilmot, Newcastle, Ont., 105,000 fish-eggs. 

As you will find in my note to Professor Baird (copy herewith), the 
crates were brought from the village of Newcastle, which is about three- 
quarters of a mile from the fishery, in my own wagon, walking the team 
all the way; they were unloaded in my presence and under my direc- 
tions, with every possible care. I opened two of them myself and 
helped remove the eggs, as described, taking, as far as my experience 
and judgment were concerned, every precaution to prevent any possible 
injury to the ova; yet the consequences have been as related. I was 
not present at the opening and laying down of the three last crates, 
being called away to make the customs entries, &c. My assistants, how- 
ever, followed the same course I did with the first crates. About 6 p. 
m. my head man informed me that he was afraid the eggs would all be 
bad; when I saw them a couple of hours later I came to the same con- 
clusion. On the following morning (Sunday) I saw the white mark on 
almost every egg. Now and then an egg was noticed with the embryo 
in it alive, giving rapid, jerky-like motions; these few were picked out 
and put by themselves, but they died too. During the following few 
days the men kept close watch and were constantly looking out to find 
any eges that might prove sound; and out of the whole half million we 
managed to get between one and two thousand that had not succumbed 
to the malady, or whatever else you may call it; these few hatched out 
in about five or six days after, and we have them yet (looking well) as 
the last remnant of the Livingstone consignment. 

In connection with the history of these five large crates, and the one 
large crate of last year, it is strange that they should all have gone in a 
somewhat similar way, whilst the former smaller packages of 10,000 and 
50,000 in previous years all came to hand in the very best of condition; in 
fact, the loss in them was extremely trifling. None of these latter-men- 
tioned good consignments hatched out for five or six weeks after being 
laid down. In the crate of the fall of 1877 there was not one good egg. 


SALMON HATCHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878. 761 


These, without doubt, were killed from overheating, as the moss and 
eggs when opened were steaming hot. The five crates this fall did not 
present this steaming or overheated appearance upon opening, yet this 
opaque white line became visible almost immediately after opening and 
being put in the troughs, and the one or two thousand that we saved 
or picked out from the lot, hatched out in a few days after. This, to a 
certain extent, would show that they must have had more than ordinary 
warmth for their safety; otherwise they would not have hatched out so 
prematurely. 

In order to get every good or apparently living egg from the large 
mass on the trays and in the troughs, we kept them on hand as long as 
we could, in fact till they became unpleasant to the smell; but during 
this time there was no growth of fungus or byssus upon them. The 
embryo or young fry inside (which was quite visible in all of the eggs) 
turned that pallid or opaque white color which always denotes death. 
I sent a lot of the eggs to Professor Baird that he might examine them; 
I did not hear of the result. 

I have packed and unpacked a very great many fish eggs, sometimes 
with losses, but as a rule pretty successfully. The loss with these five 
crates I must confess upsets me; the more so, when you report all the 
other consignments as unusually good. This being the case, my lot must 
have come to grief in some one of the following ways, presuming they 
arrived all safe at Chicago: 

1st. By detention or injury received at Chicago before transhipment. 

2d. By overheating or exposure, or both, in transitu here. 

od. By rough, improper handling of the crates in transhipment from 
place to place and on the cars. 

There was one thing which struck my attention in opening the first 
crate, namely, the perfect state the ice was in in the ice chambers, the 
appearance almost denoting that it had only just been put there; the 
pieces of ice were large, almost filling up the chamber; in others it was 
not so apparent. Iwas under the impression at first that forty-eight hours 
on an express car would have almost melted any ice put in at Chicago, 
yet the weather was cool in the beginning of October, and the ferns in 
the boxes may have kept the ice in the good condition in which it came 
here, 

I must congratulate you upon your success in procuring the immense 
number of eggs you did this season—some 12,000,000, I believe—and I 
have much pleasure in acquainting you of my success at the several 
establishments under my control, the returns from my assistants showing 
up to the present time upwards of 8,000,000 of salmon eggs laid down. 
The salmon, trout, and white-fish season being now in its prime, and 
being busily engaged in collecting the eggs, I cannot yet tell you the 
result ; but I am fearful, the weather having been so very unfavorable, 
we shall not secure the supply we should like to get. 

Let me hear from you, not only on this unpleasant subject of the loss 


762 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH ‘AND FISHERIES. 


of eggs, but on any other kindred matter in fish culture, in all of which 
you are so thoroughly conversant. 
Excuse my very long and somewhat prosy letter, but when details 
are to be given, both time and paper must be sacrificed. 
Believe me to be yours, very truly, 
SAMUEL WILMOT, 
Superintendent Fish Culture for Canada. 


{ may mention here that the supplementary hatching-house did ex- 
cellent service in helping us to eke out the quota of eggs for the two ice- 
ears. For illustration, all the eggs going into the first car had to be 
taken within a period of about a week, because those that were taken 
before that were in danger of being too far advanced to go in the car, 
and those taken after that were likely to be not far enongh advanced. 
The supplementary hatching-house, which matured the eggs eight days 
quicker than the regular hatching-house, by virtue of its warmer water- 
supply, here came very conveniently to our aid by furnishing the ad- 
ditional half million eggs just when they were wanted. 

On the 3d of October the balance of the eggs were sufficiently matured 
to load the second car. About two millions and a half (2,500,000) still 
remained in the hatching-house after both the cars were loaded and sent 
off. These were afterward hatched by Mr. Myron Green and Mr. James 
Richardson and placed by them in excellent order in the McCloud, Pit, 
and Little Sacramento Rivers, all tributaries of the Sacramento. 

Packing and shipping the eggs.—The packing and shipping of the eggs, 
as well as the taking, maturing, and hatching of the eggs, passed off 
more smoothly this year than usual. The packing was done with mar- 
velous rapidity and reflects great credit on all concerned in it, particu- 
larly Mr. James Richardson and Mr. Patrick Riley, who placed the lay- 
ers of eggs in the boxes. Had not the character of the packing, as shown 
by the way in which the boxes finally opened, been made the subject of 
unusual commendation from the parties who were engaged in unpacking 
the eggs at their destination, I should hardly venture to say how rap- 
idly they were packed, lest it might be thought to imply undue haste or 
want of care. I will, however, under the circumstances, state that the 
eges were actually packed at the rate of half a million an hour, and I 
will add my own testimony also, {hat I never saw eggs packed with more 
care, fidelity, and pains, the rapidity with which the work was dispatched 
being wholly the result of experience and skill and the enthusiasm with 
which every one employed did the part of the work which fell to his share. 

The manner of packing the eggs was in general the same as last year, 
the only difference being that this year the packing-boxes were made an 
inch larger both in length and width in order to give more room for the 
eggs. I, however, took especial pains this year to send large measure, 
in most instances giving from 5 per cent. to 50 per cent. more than were 
ordered. 


SALMON HATCHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878, 763 


One circumstance must be mentioned here which, though at first it 
seems unimportant enough, would be attended with the most serious con- 
sequences if not provided against. LIrefer to the diminution of the moss 
supply. Little by little, each year for seven years, we have encroached 
upon the supply of moss within our reach. This year we had to go away 
beyond the Sierra Nevada range to the sage-brush region of Shasta Val- 
ley to get our moss, and I am informed by the moss-gatherers that even 
that source of supply is now exhausted. To a New Englander, at least, 
the question of the moss-supply would seem trivial enough, and if, as is 
very unlikely, he could not get moss within a mile he would be willing 
to go two miles for it if necessary. But the question is not so easily 
settled in a dry country like California, and it is undoubtedly a fact that 
there is not within a hundred miles of the United States fishery on the 
McCloud River an accessible spot where moss can be obtained next year 
in any considerable quantity. It may, therefore, become necessary next 
year to meet the subject in some new manner, probably by shipping the 
moss from the Eastern States or Oregon, or sending an expedition to 
the neighborhood of Lake Tahoe for it, a distance by the traveled route 
of about five hundred miles. 

I will close this report by making a crude statement of the work which 
was done at the fishery the last forty days preceding the loading of the 
second car on the 5th day of October. During this time we caught and 
examined, one by one, nearly 200,000 salmon. We took and impregnated 
at least 14,000,000 eggs. We went over almost daily the 14,000,000 
eggs and picked out the dead ones. We washed and picked over, almost 
sprig by sprig, 220 bushels of moss. Our Indians collected and brought 
in on their backs four tons of ferns for outside packing, sometimes going 
two miles to get them, and we packed and crated, and loaded into the 
car at Redding eight or nine million salmon eggs, in addition to making 
new wire trays, packing-boxes, &c., &c., and doing the thousand little 
things which are constantly coming up to be done at.a place like the 
fishery. All this work required an average of ten white men and twenty 
Indians for the forty days referred to. 

Supplementary to this report will be found the following tables: 

(1.) Table showing the observations taken of wind, weather, and tem- 
perature for the season of 1878. 

(2.) Table showing the daily number of salmon eggs taken and sal- 
mon spawned. 

(3.) Table showing the weights of salmon spawned. 

(4.) Table showing the distribution of the eggs. 

(5.) Catalogue of collection made for the Smithsonian Institution. 

LIVINGSTON STONE. 


764 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF ‘FISH AND FISHERIES. 


TABLE I.—Table of temperatures taken at the United States salmon-breeding station, McCloud 
River, California, during the season of 1878. 


Month. 


June Lsen--= 


duly) else 


Air. = Water. Wind. 
~ 
#9 
8 
Shade. Snn. | . 2 3 Weather, 
z 3 5 2 Be tL 5 C 
SIRs feast peck (bese) oe A 
3 = a a | 6 3 = a =a 
~ on ~ oD x é on ~ oD 
— 
oO Oo ° ° fe) ° ° fe) 
SOSTIOS Ob etal seco56 lagen od bose ocllocesen||GeeedelCescon|aeor ssc Cold rain. 
55 563 ay eee 2 eee 50 50 50M ssecdce Do. 
54 69 BY) |locSeigo||aeacnee 51 OE SBY4 |b ae soeor Rainy, a.m.; clear, p.m. 
60 86 66 TOGH|aeaee 52 55 DAE arcseine Clear. 
62 95 78 120 |ponces 53 56 GY (4 Seo emniae Do. 
58 100 76 124s ess aks 53 57 DOES Eases Do. 
56 93 70 VIG Enos. 54 57 bY (4 BaSRee se Do. 
63 50 66 a eee 54 55 Hones oes Do. 
53 66 625) Seon 50 51 Bil esaeeeer Showers, p. m.; rainy, night. 
52 64 SO} Rees Seo 50 51 51S edeeee Showers, p. m. 
50 67 57 SOnl eee 49 52 OP ees ner Do. 
53 66 64 OSM Aeron 50 53 AB al leoesonee Clear, a. m.; cloudy and 
showery, p.m. 
58 76 68 52 54 D4 ee sasese | Cloudy, a.m.; clear, p.m. 
58 89 2 52 54 BAe Si crease Clear. 
56 92 69 52 56 HOt lS Scone Slightly cloudy, p.m. 
56 98 77 54 57 GY ial oo 
58 103 81 54 56 9G) leasaieeree 
72 | 103 82 55 58 SOM Ee se sa5 Slightly cloudy, p.m. 
64 92 79 56 59 tell eee 
63 99 80 56 59 OSs eisescee 
72 | 103 79 56 59 5Srigkeeeer Slightly cloudy, p. m. 
72 97 80 56 59 58 eee sone 
64 OO UIE Csea* 56 59 83 |toascace Cloudy; after 4 p. m., clear. 
72 | ‘100 76 56 5 8G Geet Clear. 
66 100 76 56 58 O8aeee sacs Do. 
61 101 TALE 56 58 58! |Moaceti se Do. 
67| 86] 76 AO) HS || BB esbocee | Cloudy, a.m. 
62 84 72 56 58 O87) See secre 
67 87 76 56 59 OB leessccae Cloudy, p. m. 
66 96 79 56 59 GC epsceone Clear. 
65 95 78 56 59 GME Seace ee Do. 
63 88 78 57 59 DSuleec seem Cloudy. 
72 103 81 56 59 PeMicneasaae Clear. 
64 | 103 87 56 59 DON teeueene Cloudy, p.m 
66 92 75 58 66 OW testis cere Clear. 
70 94 80 57 59 DS |aesecae Do. 
72 102 80 56 59 st omer Do. 
76 | 108 81 56 50 BM lasoncoce Do. 
62 96 83 57 60 BM leaaaerer Cloudy; rain, p.m. 
56 88 74 57 59 OS aeeeceee Clear. 
66 97 78 55 58 5 |eecemeee Do. 
70 105 79 57 58 OT dl Satomteaoe Do. 
64 98 83 56 59 58 N. Light clouds; clear. 
58 85 72 56 59 58 N. Light clouds. 
58 78 68 56 57 56 N. Do. 
60 86 73 53 57 56 N. Do. 
65 95 73 54 58 57 N. | Clear. 
58 97 73 | 54] 58 57 N. | Light clouds. 
60 97 74 | 55 59 58 | SW. | Clear. 
57 | 100 78 55 59 58 | SW. Do. 
62] 99] 80 56| 594 584 SW. | Cloudy. 
67 85 76 56 593| 583; SW. | Clear. 
62 82 75 56 59 58 | SW. Do. 
67 102 78 56 60 58 N. Do. 
59 104 80 56 60 59 SW. Do. 
61 103 84 | 57 60 59 | SW. Do. 
61 98 84 57 60 59 | SW. | Light clouds. 
62 81 74 | 57 58 57 S. Cloudy. 
75 78 68 15/3) 56 56 NG Do. 
65 93 73 55 58 57 N. Clear. 
64 95 76 55 59 58 W. Do. 
57 ‘97 77 56 60 59 | SW. Do. 
52 95 76 56 60 59 SW. Do. 
57 100 08) 56 59 58 | SW. Do. 
64 97 76 | 56 59 58 SW. Do. 
55 96 78 | 56 60 59 | SW. Do. 
52 102 80 56 60 59 N. Do. 
54 | 104 80 56 60 59 | NE. Do. 
56 101 83 56 604 593) SW. Do. 
62 102 82 56 61 60 | SW. Do. 
64! 991 80 57! 60! 5831 SW. |, Do. 


SALMON HATCHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA, 1878. 765 


TABLE I.—Table of temperatures, §:c.—Continued. 


Air. FI Water. Wind. 
~ 
a2 
Month. mune: Sun, 2s Weather. 
SI ae a dN = 
a a ro & lo C) A 7 a 
~ rar) ~ oO 4 é oD ~ oO 
fo} Oo Oo ° ie) fo} fe) ° 
July 30 52 56 59 584} NE. | Clear. 
5 50 Ou Baecbollodeece N 0. 
Aug. 51) || 56)) 6021) S59n\) Do 
50 56 593} 59) NE Do 
50. 56 60 59 | SW Do 
53 56 60 59 | SW Do 
51 56 60 59 | SW Do 
49 56 |. 60 59 | SW Do 
50 56 59 58 | SW. Do 
51 55 59 58 | SW Do 
49 56 59 58 N Do 
50 56 59 58 | NE Do 
51 56 60 59 | NE. Do. 
50 56 60 59 | SW. Do. 
52 56 60 60 S. Light clouds. 
59 57 60 61 S. Cloudy. 
61 57 59 61 | N. &S. Do. 
50 56 593} 59) NIE. | Fair. 
50 56 58 58 | NE. | Light clouds. 
49 56 58 58 N. Hazy and smoky. 
47 55 58 Sal eeaccses 
49 57 59 DON eeaioteete Clear. 
49 55 57 56 Ss. Cloudy. 
56 54 57 57 | SW. | Light clouds. 
ee 64) 574/ 564|........| Clear. 5 
43 53 57 DOS eee ese. Do. 
48 54 58 57 | NE. Do 
SapeociGacaoa 58 57) SW: Do 
52 56 59 58 | SW. Do 
53 56 60 59 | SW. Do 
59 57 60 59 NE. Do 
54 56 60 59) NE. Do. 
59 57 59 SOU etereretr—r— Do. 
Sept. 50 56 59 58 | SW. | Fair. 
48 56 58 58 N. Do. 
59 56 58 58 ENG Do. 
55 56 58 574, N. Do. 
47 56 58 58 N. Do. 
47 56 58 58 N. Do. 
47 55 58 58 ING Do. 
AD joie ated steetetetel | rae N. Do. 
44 DAs | rcratacte 56 N. Do. 
47 Baa eee ctee 56 N. Do. 
47 53 56 56 N. Do. 
44 53 56 56 SE. Do. 
AOU e534 \oGulpetoon sae eme se Do. 
38 DB Atererereree My |e ecena Do 
37 51 Hy Neocon Coreeece Do 
44 52 54 54 Ss. Cloudy 
Seeene|\eaesos 54 54 Ss. 0. 
40 52 55 5aeleaee ae Fair. 
40 52 55 DAY cree oraratats Do 
42 51 55 Bey ee ascecc Do. 
41 51 55 55 SE Do 
39 51 55 Al Sosuece Fine 
41 51 DD alee pO Sallie tear Do. 
39 50 5Anilby «baal epee Do 
40 51 54 ESM Bornoric— Do. 
ees see's GB) |ehosed Cloudy 
48 52 54 53 S Do. 
49 51 52 51 Ss. Rain 
49 50 S| DLS eremercerets Do. 
47 50 51 HOR Saeeaet Do. 
Oct. 46| 50| 53| 53| N. | Fair. 
44 50 | 54 53 N. Do. 
45 51 54 53 N. Do. 
44; 50)| 54 53 N. Do. 
41| 50| 533| 53| N. Do. 
48 51 54 54 N. Do. 
46 Gee sasellnacicein N. Do. 
Be ala eteletate 54 ccces|' Nb Do. 
37 51 yO eee N. Cloudy 
38| 50| 531... N. | Fine. 
39 50 52 521 SW. | Cloudy 


766 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


TABLE I.—Table of temperatures, §:c.—Continued. 


Air a Water. Wind. 
~ 
yn 
he 
Month. Shade. Sun. 2 = 
=| Seeciamlea es . 
ce shales cl) se been ae 
a = a A | 6 a = 
~ on ~ oo 4 ~ oD 
fe} fe} fe} oO oO fe} fe} 
Oct.12 ......- Ns i) ET GIB |ieesoec 49 | 50 
TE eee AT e520) Si 5200 448 490) 51 
ARO Te ASi li 49ill) | A0ul °49) ane 49 | 49 
Teese 432172) 4651 82-0 37i|) 48 50 : 
TGS oss. 53| 83| 58| 96| 39] 47/ 50 : 
ie eee 40||- 84 | 54) 945 |" 37) 47) 5 : 
Th aoGeeE. 41) 84] 54] 103] 36| 47] 51 : 
19 feo 30 40] 75| 64) 975 | 38) 48%) 51 g 
Dip eee 391 80] 50) 91) 36) 47 53 : 
Dileep AGS || BB edna LOS M420 A751 eee SE. 
DOE er 429i OL i|) STIG 1050 |S 37 47 | 61 50) eS 


Weather. 


Do. 
Do. 


TABLE II.—Tuable of salmon-eggs taken at the United States salmon-breeding station, Mc- 
Cloud River, California, during the season of 1878. 


Date. 


MotalmumbenofLreccrs takenyec-e ser cee semeee tesa eaiselete lee le ma mei=l= ela =i iat 
Total numberof salmon spawned. .....-...---2-eeeeee eee e cece eee cree ne eeee eee 


e ise 
ro) oA 
2g 

Sa as 

Bi Bn 

= $ mo OO 

5 $e 

A H 

30, 000 30, 000 

30, 000 60, 000 

62, 000 122, 000 | 

54, 000 176, 000 
110, 000 286, 000 
152, 000 438, 000 
302, 000 740, 000 
306,000 | 1,046, 000 
444,000 | 1,490, 000 
496, 000 | 1, 986, 000 
682,000 | 2, 668, 000 
348,000 | 3, 016, 000 
374, 000 | 3, 890, 000 
422,000 | 3,812, 000 
582,000 | 4,394, 000 
578, 000 | 4, 972, 000 
740,000 | 5,712, 000 
578, 000 | 6, 290, 000 
714,000 | 7,004, 000 
894, 000 | 7, 898, 000 
722,000 | 8, 620, 000 
858, 000 | 9, 478, 000 
920, 000 | 10, 898, 000 
500, 000 | 10, 898, 000 
648, 000 | 11, 546, 000 
700, 000 | 12, 246, 000 


Number of sal- 


mon spawned. 


Total number of 
salmon spawned. 


3, 600 


—s 


STONE—SALMON FISHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER IN 1878, 767 


TABLE III.—Table showing the weights of salmon spawned on various days at the United 
States salmon-breeding station, McCloud River, California, during the season of 1878. 


[The salmon were weighed after the eggs had been taken from them.] 


AUGUST 28, 1879. 


Sees la S47 aes ee ee a S| eee 
q/Be lg | 22 a | 32 2 182i eS a | Sel =e (Sel g 1e8 
Blea 2 (fel 2 |ea| = | £2 el elie Sef eEe2 
pales (ee ll eee VN ee Atl feel | pee te eee aie 
| | | | 
foyeeee he 12) Se RG 188. \e weal, Ady eT ele Boal | GOiI| Ook em name 7 
2 Ta 13 tf} 23 16 33 8 43 6 | 53 6 | 63 7 73 8 
3 8) 14 8 24 14 34 5 44 8 | 54 | 6 64 GN we 6 
4 8) 15 9 25 14 35 8 45 6 | 55 a 65 85 5. 13 
5 103 16 16 26 11 36 7 46 7 56 11 66 7 || 76 12 
6 9 | 17 6 27 16 37 14 47 ta 57 LW OR TEN) 1 7 
t 5 18 6 28 14 38 7 48 7 58 u 68 1 |) + 18 u 
8 6) aK) 7 29 7 39 9 49 10 | 59 15 69 ay zt 7 
9 16 | 20 14 30 8 40 7 50 16 | 60 7 70 8 || 80 6 
10 9) 21 14 31 8 | 41 17 51 6 | 61 7 qal UA teil 15 
11} 15] | | 
=e | | 
81 fish weighed; average weight, 8} pounds. 
AUGUST 29, 1878. 
1 16 12 15 23 7 33 7 43 5 53 9} 63 8 73 7 
2 8 13 7 24 % 3B4 17 44 5 54 6 | 64 5 74 of 
3 10 14 8 25 8 35 13 45 a 55 6 | 65 6 75 7 
4 oF) 15 6 26 15 36 8 46 7 56 5 | 66 8 76 ia 
5 14 16 8 27 9 37 a 47 8 57 8 || 67 7 77 6 
6 6 | 17 7 28 8 38 9 48 7 58 7 | 68 7 78 11 
7 12 18 7 29 7 39 14 49 Tel 59 7 | 69 5 | 79 5 
8 £f 19 a 30 11 40 5 50 7 60 ti 70 5 | 80 7 
9 8 20 8 31 14 41 o 51 6 61 10 71 ri | 81 8 
10 2 21 7 32 14 42 aly 52 8 ||. 62 6 72 6 2 5 
iat 8 22 17 | 
82 fish weighed; average weight, 84 pounds. 
AUGUST 30, 1879. 
1 14 15 8 | 29 7 42 6 55 6 68 7 81 5] 94 9 
2 9 16 ie 30 8 43 6 56 12 69 8 82 7 95 8 
3 17 17 8 31 7 44 6 | 57 7 70 13 83 6 96 8 
A 12 18 thal 32 6 45 8 58 9 71 9 || 84 8 || 97 7 
5 16 19 7 | 33 if 46 8 59 8 || 2 14 85 7 98 7 
6 8 20] 14 | 34 8 47 8 || 60 6 73 8 86 7 99 8 
7 8 21 10 35 6 48 5 || 61 6 74 8 87 8 100 7 
8 8 22 11 | 36 Uf 49 6 62 11 75 6 88 6 101 6 
9 7 23 8 | 37 7 50 6 || 63 7 76 15 89 if 102 6 
10 8 24 8) 38 6 51 10 |} 64 6 77 14 90 6 103 6 
11 ai 25 6 39 6 52 8 || 65 11 78 8 91 salt 104 8 
12 5 26 7 40 6 53 7 || 66 13 79 9 92 15 105 8 
13 8 27 7 41 9 54 6 67 11 80 7 93 7 106 6 
14 8 28 8 | 
106 fish weighed; average weight, 8 pounds. 
AUGUST 31, 1878. 
a! 17 19 6 37 9 54 7 71 14 88 8 105 4 || 122 a 
2 5 20 9 38 7 55 9 72 13 89 8 106 5 || 128 6 
3 7 21 6 39 8 56 7 3 a 90 7 107 4 124 8 
4 8 22 13 40 17 57 15 74 8 91 9 108 7 |; 125 8 
5 14 23 4 41 6 58 Zo \eko 15 92 wl 109 5 || 126 6 
6 6 24 7 42 5) 59 8 || 76 7 93 7 110 7 || 127 7 
7 7 25 8 43 9 60 ML lfm oll! 11 94 8 111 i 128 7 
8 7 26 3 44 6 61 6 || 78 7 95 6 112 7 129 6 
9 13 27 6 45 6 62 6 79 13 96 6 113 6 130 5 
10 6 28 7 46 tf 63 of 80 7 97 6 114 5 131 6 
iB ul 29 Pf 47 8 64 7 81 5 98 7 115 6 || 132 8 
12 ui 30 6 48 9 65 5 82 16 99 uf 116 12 || 183 17 
13 8 31 12 49 1 66 uf 83 13 || 100 6 Valy/ 7 || 13 8 
14 8 32 12 50 7 67 9 | 84 8 101 5 118 6 135 8 
15} 5 33 16 51 8 68 7 85 6 102 8 119 6 || 136 8 
16 Ul 34 6 52 6 69 8 || 86 6 103 6 120 8 || 137 7 
UW 9 35 iii 53 6 70 WN eee 8 |} 104 7 121 6 || 138 6 
184 8, 36| 5 | | 


138 fish weighed; average weight 73 pounds. 


768 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 
SEPTEMBER 9, 1878. 
Paes eS oe Shah.” teen een Niet eee ae Sesion area = 
O}ryog 3) eo | (3) eo (3) eo o Po oO » o eo oO yo 
=| ro 
a\22| 2122 a S21 2/22) 2 |S2] 2 122] 2 S21 = (ee 
S ) 3 5 v2 3 iY = 3 oO = =| © 2 =| CF) 3 =) (3) 3 =| cs) = 
ae) a) ee fae A |e A |E A |E A |e 
1 7 || eal 7 | 13 7 19 6 || 25° 9 31 7 36 6 41 8 
2 8 8 9 | 14 13 20 % 26 8 32 ut | 37 14 42 6 
3 6 || 9 8 | 15 10 | 21 6 27 8 33 7 | 38 7 43 7 
4 6 || 10 | 6 16 8 ae, % 28 6 35 | 4 39 6 44 1; 
5 5 || 1 | 8 | iby / 5 | 23 8 29 if 35 8 40 8 45 4 
6 6 || 12") q| 18 7 24 6 30 i 
| | | | 


45 fish weighed; average weight 73. 


TABLE Iv. —Table of distribution of salmon eggs from the United States salmon-breeding 


station, McCloud Liver, 


California, during the season of 1878. 


2 
State. Commissioner or applicant. Teer peck Destination. 
California........ BaBaReddin gc ccacesoeee 2,500,000 | 2,500,000 | Sacramento River and tribu- 
taries. 
MUN OL siesias oosietrs | LOT Vier Ave ce Nath cemematsn = <imin 100, 000 100, 000 | Elgin. 
WMO see sei a2<e N. K. Fairbank 100, 000 100, 000 Chicago. 
WOsee a6 Samuel Preston 200, 000 200, 000 Mount Carroll. 
IO Eitdeconelsseaee 18}, 18s SUITE icececactodeoceacoe 250, 000 250, 000 | Anamosa. 
DOWse 22s -te=1 W.A. Mynster .-.- 50, 000 50, 000 | Council Bluffs. 
UG ROS! Anegoooese|| 1s SSO N peas Soceocoseseae 100, 000 100, 000 | Cedar Rapids. 
Maine sce -e-a- == Lorenzo Bailey .---..-------- 15, 000 15,000 | Pembroke. 
Maryland......-.. TB Mergusonsesss-=-=-4-- 1, 000,000 | 1,000,000 | Baltimore. 
Massachusetts...| A. H. Powers ..-.--.---.---- 100, 000 100,000 | Plymouth, N. H, 
D Obese -ce- AS Brackettieas-ses eee 100, 000 100,000 | Winchester. 
Michigan ........ rank iN. Clank:-s---as-4-- 250, 000 250, 000 | Northville. 
Oeseeemon en. George H. Jerome .-..-.--.--. 200, 000 200, 000 | Niles. 
Minnesota ...--.-. Dr. R.O. Sweeny <-+------<- 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 | Saint Paul 
IMUSS OUR See = B. F. Shaw. - sb aehelsces 200, 000 200,000 | Anamosa, Iowa. 
Nebraska...-.... JG ROMBINe see soeeeee sees 100, 000 100,000 | South Bend, DL. 
NeVadaienes sce. AGS Parker ncssescs seen. 250, 000 250, 000 | Carson City. 
New Hampshire | A. H. Powers...---.--.-.-.--. 250, 000 250, 000 | State hatching -hguee, Ply- 
mout 
owe J TeuRey Jancis Wiheshd fale Bil EVO) sh eae ceaeeaae 300, 000 300, 000 | Bloomsbury. 
.seee-----| West Jersey Game Protect- 150, 000 150, 000 | Mrs. J. M. Slack. 
ive Society. 
WO Reece sao Abrams eelO witb )s<-\<lelaaie = 25, 000 25, 000 Do. 
ING WweOLkGe 2-5 = HetwnGReeMwsneeree ss acce sce 100, 000 100, 000 | Caledonia. 
North Carolina’ --| (SiG: Worth. -o.-0- -c-- +. sac 350, 000 350, 000 | Henry’s Station. 
Ohiomessos = | Castalia Springs Association 50, 000 50,000 | Cleveland. 
Pennsylvania ....| James Dutty.-..-.....-+-.-- 150, 000 150, 000 | Marietta. 
Womsses sce 5 INSeuhwWieOkS cceaecssateec cee 100, 000 100, 000 | Corry. 
bodewsland 22-1 CHaReCed) -carinneceseceecee= 20, 000 20,000 | Reedsburg. 
(WitahWere on. ee -- | A. P. Rockwood 50, 000 50,000 | Salt Lake City. 
Waroiminenceas se | Prof. M. McDonald..--...-. = 300, 000 300, 000 | Lynchburg. 
WiestVarginia.-C2S. White .22-5 2 s--c<ccec 500, 000 500, 000 | Romney, W. Va. 
WYASCOnSIN = so ssee | Nyasconsin State hatching- 100, 000 100, 000 | Madison. 
ouse. 
DoF essen IAN Ly tleeiseee eset 100, 000 100,000 | Geneva Lake 
@anadaeeneenee: Samuel Wilmot............- 500, 000 500, 000 | New Castle. 
Mn oland’ss sasee er (Proteus Hy Baird scscscecsemes 100, 000 100, 000 | England. 
France. ...... es eeaatoe Gk eee ea ae ee 100, 000 100,000 | France. 
BETO isc siagias «| eoon5-Orerenchiaccos coor serve 100, 000 100,000 | Holland. 
Genmanivieece so | teeeae CDSs Sa eaee ae ees 250, 000 250, 000 | Germany. 
New Zealand ..-.) Auckland Acclimatation So- 200, 000 200, 000 | Auckland. 
ciety. : 
Total tsee eee ee 10, 310, 000 | 10, 310, 000 


STONE—SALMON FISHING ON M’CLOUD RIVER IN 1878. 769 


TABLE V.—Catalogue of Natural History Collection made for the Smith- 


475° 


sonian Institution in 1878, by Livingston Stone. 


to 500° are all from McCloud River, California. 


475°. Trout. September, 1878. 


478°. 
479°, 
480°, 
481°. 
482°, 
483°. 
4849, 
485°, 
4869. 
487°, 
489°, 
490°. 
492°, 
493°, 
494°, 
. Trout. September, 1878. 

. Trout. September, 1878. 

. Trout. September, 1878. 

. Salmon skin. September, 1878. 

. Trout. September, 1878. 

. Rat. September, 1878. 

. Trout. McCloud River, California. July 1, 1878. 

. Trout. McCloud River, California. July 1, 1878. 

. Troyg. McCloud River, California. July 3, 1878. 

. Trout. McCloud River, California. July 6, 1878. 

. Frout. McCloud River, California. June 30, 1878. 

. Trout. McCloud River, California. June 27, 1878. 

. Trout. McCloud River, California. June 30, 1878. 

. Trout. McCloud River, California. June 27, 1878. 

. Trout. Dolly Varden (Indian, Wye-dai-deek-it). McCloud Riv- 


SCS eStore 
ao 


=] 
ie) 


Trout. September, 1878. 
Salmon skin. September, 1878. 
Salmon skin. September, 1878. 
Trout. September, 1878. 
Trout. September, 1878. 
Salmon skin. September, 1878. 
Trout. September, 1878. 
Trout. September, 1878. 
Salmon skin. September, 1878. 
Salmon skin. September, 1878. 
Trout. September, 1878. 
Trout. September, 1878. 
Salmon skin. September, 1878. 
Trout. September, 1878. 
Salmon skin. September, 1878. 


er, California. July 6, 1878. 


584. 


. Salmon skin (female). McCloud River, California. July 14, 1878. 
. Trout. McCloud River, California. July 3, 1878. 

. Sacramento Pike. McCloud River, Cal. July 6, 1878. 

. Trout. McCloud River, California. July 14, 1878. 

. Trout. McCloud River, California. July 14, 1878. 


Trout. Dolly Varden (Indian, Wye-dai-deek-it). McCloud River, 


California. July 14, 1878. 
585 to 591. Salmon skins. (Males, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590). Me- 
Cloud River, Cal. July 15, 1878. 
591 to 596. Salmon skins (females). McCloud River, California. July 
15, 1878. 
49 F 


770 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


596. Trout. McCloud River, California. July 15, 1878. 

597. Trout. McCloud River. July 15, 1878. 

598. Trout. McCloud River, California. July 15, 1878. 

599 to 604. Salmon skins (males). MeCloud River, California. July 
16, 1878. 

604 to 611. Salmon skins (females). McCloud River, California. July 
16, 1878. 

Jar No. 1. Two Dolly Vardens. Clackamas River, Oregon. Winter 
1877 and 1878. 

Jar No. 2. Two Trout, one Dolly Varden. McCloud River, California. 
July, 1878. 

Jar No. 3. Five Trout, one Dolly Varden, one Snake. McCloud Riv- 
er, California. July, 1878. 

Jar No. 4. Birds. McCloud and Pitt Rivers, California. 

611. Trout. McCloud River, California. August 17, 1878. 

613 and 614. Trout. McCloud River, California. August 19, 1878. 

615 and 616. Trout. . Dolly Varden (Indian, Wye-dai-deek-it). Me- 
Cloud River, California. August 15, 1878. 

617. Trout. Dolly Varden. (Wye-dai-deek-it). McCloud River, Cali- 
fornia. September 1, 1878. 

618, 619, 620, 621. Trout. McCloud River, Cal. August 23 and 26, - 
1878. 

622, 623. Salmon heads (male). McCloud River, California. Sep- 
tember 3, 1878. 

624, 625. Salmon skins (females). McCloud River, California. Sep- 
tember 3, 1878. 

627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634. Trout. McCloud River, Califor- 
nia. August, 1878. 


XXXIV.—REPORT OF SALMON-HATCHING OPERATIONS IN 1878, 
AT THE CLACKAMAS HATCHERY, 


By W. F. HuBBaARD. 


CLACKAMAS HATCHERY, OREGON, February 4, 1879. 


To Professor SPENCER F.. BAIRD, 
United States Fish Commissioner : 

I beg to report to you as follows: The first spawn of last season was 
taken September 5, 1878, when we took the spawn from one female 
salmon, the first one we had caught that was ripe. The next was taken 
September 7, when we took two females. In spawning the fish, some- 
times one male would answer for one female; but we almost always used 
two, and sometimes three. When fishing, we always caught more males 
than females. 

September 9 took the spawn from 4 females. 

September 10 took the spawn from 5 females. 

September 11 took the spawn from 7 females. 

September 13 took the spawn from 12 females. 

September 14 took the spawn from 23 females. 

September 15 took the spawn from 22 females. 

September 16 took the spawn from 19 females. 

September 17 took the spawn from 32 females. 

September 18 took the spawn from 27 females. 

September 19 took the spawn from 38 females. 

September 20 took the spawn from 36 females. 

September 21 took the spawn from 43 females. 

September 22 took the spawn from 35 females. 

September 25 took the spawn from 32 females. 

September 24 took the spawn from 20 females. 

September 25 took the spawn from 27 females. 

September 26 took the spawn from 31 females. 

September 27 took the spawn from 24 females. 

September 28 took the spawn from 21 females. 

September 29 the river began to rise, caused by heavy rains, and we 
were not able to do any fishing, although we took the spawn from four 
fish which we had in pens built for the purpose of keeping the fish. 

September 30 we took the spawn from three fish from the pens. 


ae 


772 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The river was still rising, and on the night of the 30th it washed away 
the rack, allowing all the fish that were below to go up the river. After 
that the river stayed high for two or three days, and when it got low 
enough for us to fish again all the fish were gone. 

The number of eggs taken was 2,081,000. 

The number of females spawned was 478. 

There were more than twice as many males caught as there were fe- 
males. 

November 7 the dam which supplies the hatching-house with water 
broke, and we were obliged to take the eggs and young fish out of the 
house. The company has two flat-boats here, and we fastened them to- 
gether and made a place between them for the eggs and fish. On the 
same day we turned into the river 300,000 young fish. 

December 9 the river began rising again, and the current was so 
strong that it killed a good many of the fish, and we saw something 
must be done or we would lose them all. By this time we had had a 
good deal of rain, and all the small streams were fuil of water and we 
were able to turn the water from one of them, which has plenty of water 
in the winter, but is nearly dry in the summer, into the hatching-house, 
and once more the fish were put back into the house; at this time the 
eggs were nearly all hatched. 

December 24 Captain Ainsworth took 3,000 young salmon, which were 
placed in a land-locked lake in Washington Territory. 

December 26 600,000 young fish were turned into the river and Cleer 
Creek, a stream which runs into the Clackamas below the hatchery. 

December 27 150,000 young fish were turned into the river at different 
points. 

January 2, 1879, the last of the young fish were out, 150,000, which 
were also put in the Clackamas at different points up and down the 
river. 

The total number of fish turned out is estimated at 1,203,000. 

The large number of eggs and fish lost is attributed to having to 
move them from the hatching-house to the river and back, and also to 
the high-water while they were in the river, which killed a great many, 

At the time the rack went out there were a great many fish below it 
and had it remained two or three weeks longer, we should probably have 
taken another million of eggs. 

W. F. HUBBARD, 
Assistant Superintendent. 


Respectfully forwarded. 
J. G. MEGLER, 
Secretary O. & W. F. P. Co. 


XXXV.—REPORT OF SALMON-HATCHING OPERATIONS ON ROGUE 
RIVER, OREGON, 1877-78. 


By K. B. Pratt, 


Mr. LIVINGSTON STONE: 


DEAR Sire: In accordance with your request, I will endeavor to give 
you a report of the proceedings at the salmon hatchery at Ellensburgh, 
Oregon, mouth of Rogue River. 

During the summer of 1877, Mr. R. D. Hume, who had just completed 
a Salmon cannery at Ellensburgh, visited the United States fishery on 
the McCloud River, California, and examined the hatching-house and 
the work being done there, and decided he would have a hatchery of his 
own upon Rogue River, in order to keep up the supply of salmon in 
that stream. 

For nearly twenty years salmon had been taken in large numbers and 
salted, anil there was a visible decrease in the number of fish returning 
to the river each year. 

On returning to Ellensburgh, in September, Mr. Hume set about put- 
ting up 2 hatching-house, building it only a short distance from the 
mouth of the river. About 250 salmon were placed in a fresh-water 
pond, which had been dug close by the hatching-house, there to be kept 
until they were ready to spawn, but as there was an insufficient supply 
of water in the pond, many of the fish died, so that by the time they 
commenced spawning there were only about 100 left. Of these, 57 
were females, from which about 215,000 eggs were taken. Just be- 
fore spawning time a large cage, with three compartments, was built 
and sunk in the pond; then the pond was dragged with a net, and the 
fish placed in the largest compartment of the cage. From there the fish 
were caught in dip-nets and examined each day, the ripe females put in 
one division of the cage, and the ripe males in another. Mr. Hume’s 
idea was to handle the fish as carefully as possible when spawning them, 
and to at once return them to the river, so that they could return to salt 
water as soon as they chose. With this idea in view, a contrivance for 
holding the fish while spawning was made, consisting of two pieces of 
light board fastened together on one side with hinges, and straps ex- 
tending around the other side at the ends. In this the females were 
placed on their backs, the straps extending around the shoulders and 
tail, and with a little care they could not escape. The males were held 


by one of the men in his arms; so the necessity for taking the fish by 
773 


774. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the gills was avoided. As soon as the fish were spawned they were 
marked by cutting a piece from the dorsal fin, and immediately returned 
to the river, most of them swimming off quite vigorously. The first eggs 
were taken on November 23, and the last on December 12. The hatch- 
ing-house was supplied with water from a small stream that was con- 
stantly roiled up by the cattle and horses running loose over the country, 
and then the heavy rains swelled the stream to an unnatural size, and 
leaves, twigs, and mud would be swept down into the tank and choke 
up the flannel screens, so that it was necessary to clean them every few 
minutes, and a watchman was kept on duty all night to see that there 
was a good supply of water running through the trough all the time. 
The temperature of the water was sometimes as low as 38°, ranging 
from that up to 549, averaging about 47°. The eggs were from 23 to 27 
days in showing the eye spots, and from 56 to 60 days in hatching, a few 
not hatching till 64 days old. After keeping the young fry from three 
to four weeks they were taken up the river and placed in some small 
creeks 14, 6, and 12 miles from the mouth of the river. Owing to the 
difficulty in keeping a pure supply of water running through the trough, 
and many other adverse conditions, there was a large loss in hatching 
the eggs, probably 30 per cent. 

Again, in transporting the young fry up the river to the small creeks 
where they were planted there was a considerable loss, owing to the 
overcrowding in the tubs and pails in which they were carried. How- 
ever, at least 100,000 healthy young fry were planted in the streams, and 
probably many of those that were thought to be suffocated revived after 
being turned into the stream, for some were seen to swim off after a few 
minutes. 


XXXVI.—REPORT ON AN ATTEMPT TO COLLECT EGGS OF SEBAGO 
SALMON IN 1878. 


By CHarues G. ATKINS. 


1.—HABITAT OF SEBAGO SALMON. 


Within the limits of the State of Maine there are known to be four 

distinct localities inhabited from olden times by fresh-water salmon, com- 
monly ealled “landlocked salmon.” The first of these districts is in the 
valley of the Saint Croix River, mainly in Grand Lake and connecting 
waters, on the west branch or Schoodic River, whence the name “ Schoodic 
salmon.” ‘The second is Reed’s Pond, Union River, Hancock County; 
the third is Sebee Lake and vicinity, tributary to the Penobscot; and 
the fourth is Sebago Lake and vicinity, tributary to the Presumpscot 
River. 
_ Lake Sebago, the principal haunt of the salmon in this district, is 
the second largest body of fresh water in Maine. It has an area of 
about sixty square miles. Its depth is known to exceed 100 feet, and 
is reported to be in places not less than 400 feet deep. Its shores are 
for the most part sandy, but in some places gravelly and stony, and in 
a few places the solid ledge comes down steeply to the water’s edge. A 
large portion of the country draining into the lake is also sandy and 
gravelly, and the streams are generally clear, though considerably dis- 
colored by peat swamps. 

Though in the midst of a country long since settled, the immediate 
shores of the lake are almost wholly clothed with forests of recent growth, 
their sterile character forbidding any extensive attempt at farming. 

Sebago Lake discharges its waters into the Presumpscot River, which 
empties into Casco Bay near Portland. The entire length of this river 
is about twenty-two miles. It descends rapidly, having a total fall of 
247 feet between the lake and the sea, yet in its natural condition there 
was no impediment to the free passage of fish up and down. There were 
many rapids which were doubtless resorted to by spawning salmon. For 
many years, however, the river has been obstructed by many high mill- 
dams, which have entirely prevented the ascent of fish. The descent is 
of course still open, and the fresh-water salmon are occasionally taken 
on all parts of the river. 

The principal affluent of Sebago Lake is Songo River, which drains 
the country lying to the north. Songo River itself is very short, form- 
ing merely the connecting link between Sebago Lake and an extensive 
chain of ponds (so called) above. In a straight line the distance from 


= 


dio 


776 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the lake to the first pond (Brandy Pond) is not over three miles. By 
the course of the river, which is sinuous to an extraordinary degree, the 
distance may be twice or thrice as great. A short distance below Brandy 
Pond the river is crossed by a dam and. lock to improve the navigation, 
which is pursued not only by freight boats, which formerly ran by canal 
to Portland, but now only across the lake to a station of the Portland 
and Ogdensburgh Railroad, but also by steamers conveying passengers 
as far as Bridgton, on Long Pond. Immediately below this lock the 
Songo receives its main affluent, Crooked River, a stream that rises 
nearly forty miles to the northward and follows a very sinuous course 
from a country of granite hills down through sandy and gravelly inter- 
vals. 

The Songo itself affords no spawning-ground for the salmon, almost 
its whole sluggish course being through a low-lying country, and the 
entire fall, except at the lock, being but a few inches. The Crooked 
River, however, is rapid through its whole course, except where here 
and there interrupted by dams and mill-ponds. In old times, doubtless, 
the whole length of this stream formed the breeding-grounds of the 
salmon. At present only that portion is accessible which lies below 
the village of Edes Falls, not exceeding, probably, six miles in length. 
There are, however, in this short distance, many gravelly rapids where 
the salmon spawn. 

Besides Songo River there is but one other stream known to bea 
breeding-ground for the salmon inhabiting Sebago Lake, namely, North- 
west River. Mr. Buck visited this stream in November and found it 
accessible to fish for only about a mile from the lake, a mill-dam inter- 
cepting further progress. At that time the stream was about 20 feet 
wide and 18 inches deep, with a moderate current. 

It is also currently reported that the salmon spawn on gravelly bars 
and beaches in the lakeitself. This is not improbable, though Mr. Buck 
explored Sandy Beach, which is singled out by report as the special 
place for this sort of work, without finding any indications of fish hav- 
ing resorted to it in 1878. 

Besides Sebago Lake itself, the same variety of salmon inhabit Long 
Pond, the most considerable body of water drained by Songo River, 
eleven miles long but quite narrow, having an area of nine or ten square 
miles. The principal breeding-ground of the Long Pond salmon is Bear 
Brook, which comes in from the north near the village of Harrison. 
Doubtless other streams were once frequented by them, but not in recent 
years. 


2.—CHARACTERISTICS OF SEBAGO SALMON. 


First of all the Sebago salmon are distinguished from the sea-going 
salmon on the one hand, and from the Schoodic and Sebee salmon on the 
other, by their size. As exhibiting the result of my own observation in 
1867 and such researches as I was able to make at that time, I extract 


COLLECTION OF EGGS OF SEBAGO SALMON. TT7 


the following from the Maine Fisheries Report for 1867: ‘The average 
of those taken in the fall is, for the males, 5 pounds; for the females, a 
little more than three pounds. A female 25 inches long weighs 5 pounds, 
a male of the same length weighs 7 pounds. Of two males 29 inches 
long, one weighed 9 pounds 14 ounces, the other 11 pounds 4 ounces. 
Some extreme weights may be given. One was taken the past season 
(1867) at Edes Falls that dressed 14$ pounds. The largest on record 
was caught by Mr. Sawyer, of Raymond. Its weight was 174 pounds, 
and is vouched for by Franklin Sawyer, esq., of Portland. These old 
fish are seldom caught with the hook, and of those taken in the spring 
and summer, when they are in season, the average weight would be less 
than indicated by the above.” I have been told of stilklarger specimens 
having been taken, but am unable now to give any authority. Thus it 
will be seen that the Sebago salmon average about one-third the size of 
the sea-going Atlantic salmon and twice the size of the Schoodic salmon. 
‘Iam aware that from the naturalist’s standpoint the matter of size is 
not important, yet with the fish-culturist it is of the very first moment. 
It is not, perhaps, a very reliable characteristic, being so much influ- 
enced often by the character of the range and feeding-ground, but in 
the present case there are reasons for thinking that the Sebago salmon 
have inherited a tendency to rapid growth and the attainment of a 
large size not possessed by those of the Schoodic Lakes; for not alone 
in the Sebago Lake and the Sango and Crooked Rivers are fish of such 
large size found. Those of Long Pond are little, if any, inferior in this 
respect to those of the Sebago, though Long Pond is a much smaller 
body of water than several of the Schoodic Lakes, and is not known to 
offer in depth, in the character of the water, or in food, any special ad-. 
vantages. 

In form and color the Sebago salmon approach more nearly to the sea 
salmon than do the Schoodic or the Sebec fish. In the breeding season 
the males are much brighter colored and the hook on the lower jaw is 
more developed. The males, at least, judging from the few specimens 
measured, are stouter in proportion to their length than any other 
salmon I have ever examined. The single specimen mentioned above as 
weighing 114 pounds was 29 inches long. An average Penobscot male 
salmon of an equal weight would have been 32 inches long. 

The habits of the Sebago salmon are identical, so far as observed, with 
those of other fresh-water salmon. They dwell and feed in the lakes, 
occasionally running into the larger streams after food, and at Spawning 
time, which begins the last of October, they seek the gravelly rapids of 
the streams and there excavate nests, in which they deposit their eggs. 
The old fish abstain from food at spawning time, but young males are 
taken with eggs in their mouths and stomachs. The males are found 
frequenting the spawning-beds when only 6 inches long, retaining still 
the dark bars and red spots on the sides, and these little fish yield milt 
abundantly. The females, however, are not found till well grown up. 


778 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


At the feeding season both sexes take bait and rise to the fly, and are 
taken in Songo and Crooked Rivers and in Sebago Lake. In Long 
Pond they are never taken except at the spawning season, while ascend- 
ing the stream or near its mouth. 


3.—FORMER EFFORTS AT CULTIVATION. 


But very little has been done in this direction. I myself visited Bear 
Brook in 1867 and secured about 8,000 eggs, but, being an utter novice 
in the art, succeeded in apnesnie but a very small percentage, and 
nothing practical ever came of them. Shortly after that Mr. A. B. 
Crockett, of Norway, and a Mr. Holmes, associated with him, secured 
small Wecniies “of spawn several seasons in succession, but itt what 
result is unknown. In 1870 Mr. Brackett, of the Mncecenneers com- 
mission, visited Songo Lock and obtained a number of large fish, which 
he transported alive to Winchester, Mass., and from these were obtained 
several thousand eggs. 

Several years later Mr. Joseph R. Dillingham, of Songo Lock, began 
to take spawn of these fish for the Maine commission. He followed it 
up for several years, but never with any great degree of success. 


4.—ORGANIZATION OF OPERATIONS IN 1878. 


It was evidently very desirable to cultivate on a large scale a variety 
of salmon of such superior character. Previous attempts had been on a 
small scale, and had not demonstrated the existence of great numbers 
of breeding fish, but there were not wanting reasons for believing that 
only efficient means of capture were wanting to develop an ample supply. 
Jt was finally arranged between the Commissioners of Fisheries of the 
United States and of the State of Maine that at their joint expense a 
new attempt should be made by a party well fitted out with all the ap- 
pliances deemed necessary to a thorough trial of the locality. The 
management of the affair was placed in my hands. Iselected Mr. Harry 
H. Buck, of Orland, to conduct the experiment, my own presence during 
the spawning season being impracticable. 

On the 14th of August I visited the locality with Mr. Buck for the 
purpose of selecting sites for fishing ‘and for developing the eggs, and 
deciding other general questions. There seemed to be no doubt, taking 
all the testimony at our command, that the most promising site for fish- 
ing operations was at Songo ileete and it was decided to construct here, 
at the junction of the Songo and Crooked Rivers, a set of pounds, on 
the principle of an ordinary fish-weir, of fine-meshed nets suspended on 
stakes and weighted at the bottom by chains. The main net was to cross 
the mouth of the Crooked River and intercept the ascent of fish and 
lead them into the pounds, which were built immediately below the 
Songo dam, aside from the current of Crooked River, and supplied with 
Songo water. The best evidence we could collect assured us that there 


COLLECTION OF EGGS OF SEBAGO SALMON. 7719 


was no probability of such a rise of either river as would endanger our 
work. Should they stand and prove as efficient as we hoped, we should 
be in position to take almost every fish that entered the river, for all the 
Spawning ground lay above our nets. 

No little difficulty was experienced in fixing upon a convenient site 
for a hatching-house. Mr. Joseph R. Dillingham, whose premises were 
occupied, had a very good hatching-house of small size fed by a small 
spring brook, but our anticipations were so great that his supply of 
water appeared insufficient. After a deal of searching we finally, a few 
weeks later, found an admirable site at the outlet of Trickey’s Pond, a 
short distance to the westward from the lock. 


5.—THE SEASON’S WORK. 


Mr. Buck returned to the scene of operations on the 22d of August 
with a supply of apparatus, and immediately set about the construction 
of the works. The main net was sufficiently advanced to prevent fish 
passing up by us on September 12, the date when, we had been assured, 
the fish invariably made their appearance here. We were ardently ex- 
pecting to see great numbers of them in the lock, where they can always 
be seen if present, and where many of them, it is said, always turn aside 
from Crooked River; but neither on the 12th nor for many days after- 
wards did any salmon make their appearance. Mr. Buck’s diary shows 
that the first one was taken in the pounds September 20. From this 
date they continued to straggle in, one or two at a time, at intervals, 
until the large number of 15 were secured. Of these, nine were males 
and six were females. This was the entire catch. 

But meanwhile disasters had occurred. On October 24 a freshet oc- 
curred which bore down our net until the top line was three feet under 
water. Some salmon undoubtedly passed by at that time. The net 
was again in complete order on the 27th, and so remained until Novem- 
ber 24, when the river had again risen to such a height and brought 
down such an accumulation of leaves, brush, trees, and logs as to com- 
pletely wreck the net. It was again repaired and kept in position until 
December 1, when it became evident that it was a hopeless case, and 
the enterprise was brought to a close. 

Among the reasons for our failure, I place, first, an absolute dearth 
of fish; second, the inability of our fixtures to withstand the freshets. 
The result of Mr. Buck’s observations and other testimony collected 
satisfies me that there was really a very small number of fish in the 
river that season. The net was in place and efficient until October 24, 
nearly six weeks after the date when we were warned to expect the ad- 
vent of the salmon, and during that time neither did they come into our 
inclosures, nor did they enter Songo Lock, nor did they accumulate in 
any considerable numbers below our barrier. Had there been many 
fish in the river they surely could have been seen. The fatal gap of two 
or three days after October 24 doubtless allowed some salmon to pass, 


780 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


but I think not a very great number. It cannot be supposed that all 
the breeding salmon passed up in that brief space so early in the season. 
Yet during a whole month thereafter the net continued in place and 
still no great number of fish to be seen anywhere; and during the whole 
season but two fish were seen in the lock, where they were wont to be 
taken plentifully. Evidently this was a year of scarcity. 

The freshets demonstrated the insufficiency of our fixtures. Had there 
been no greater rise of water than testimony led us to expect, our barrier 
would have remained secure to the season’s close. But the season’s ex- 
perience has given us new light on this point, and in future it would be 
unwise to risk the result of a season’s work on the chance of such fixtures 
being able to stand in the current of Crooked River. 

I do not doubt that some efficient means of taking Sebago salmon in 
Songo or Crooked River could be devised after possibly some more un- 
successful experimenting; but unless there were some better reason 
than now exists with myself to expect a good run of fish, the prospect 
of success would hardly justify the risk. 

In conclusion, I will merely add that I made several visits to the 
scene of operations early in the season, and myself fixed upon the main 
points in the schedule for operations. The plans formed were well car- 
ried out by Mr. Buck and his assistants, and such matters as were left to 
his discretion were judiciously managed. 

I present Mr. Buck’s diary and weather record, which will be found 
to contain many interesting details. 


6.—H. H. BUCI’S DIARY AT SONGO LOCK, 1878. 


August 22, 1878.—Commenced working on behalf of Sebago salmon- 
breeding establishment. Took from Penobscot establishment about 
726 feet of chain, 570 pounds of netting, corks, 1 car for transportation 
of fish alive, 1 punt, 1 pair oars, trays for eggs, 1 shovel, 1 hoe, and 2 
net-bows. 

August 23.—Proceeded to Portland on steamer City of Richmond. 

August 24.—Through courtesy of J. Hamilton, superintendent of the 
Portland and Ogdensburgh Railroad, was enabled to get everything to 
foot of Sebago Lake. As the steamer could not delay, left the freight, 
and arrived at Songo Lock at 3 p. m. ; 

August 25.—Think the water below the lock is more than a foot lower 
than upon the 14th. It is reported to have fallen # inch per day lately. 
Above the lock it is apparently at the same height as upon the 14th. 
Selected as a permanent mark to which to refer the height of water 
above the lock the lowest block of granite in the upper end of the wing 
at the north end of the dam. Selected as a water-mark below the dam 
the top of the largest of a group of stones on the east side of Songo 
River, below the junction. 

August 26.—Made partial survey of the premises, and sent sketch to 
. Mr, Atkins. Freight came to hand, with exception of one tent. 


COLLECTION OF EGGS OF SEBAGO SALMON. 781 


August 27.—Stowed away the car; went to Naples village for sundries, 
and caulked and puttied punt. 

August 28.—Commenced clearing bottom of the stream. 

August 29.—Continued clearing bottom of the stream. 

August 30.—Continued clearing and cut stakes. 

August 31.—Continued cutting stakes. 

September 2.—Continued clearing stream. 

September 3.—Continued clearing stream. Mr. Atkins came, and we 
visited brook 14 miles to westward ; found no water. 

September 4.—Went to Mr. Dillingham’s hatching-house ; found but 
very little water running ; commenced setting stakes. 

September 5.—Continued setting stakes. 

September 6, 7, 8.—Absent on trip to Boston. 

September 9.—Returned from Boston; find water still falling. Mr. 
Mitchell reports having seen two salmon up in Crooked River. 

September 10, 11, 12.—Worked getting net across Crooked River, as- 
sisted by Dillingham and Mitchell. Afternoon of 12th got so far arranged 
that I think no fish can pass. 

September 17.—Completed arrangement of trap on lower side of main 
pound. 

September 19.—This morning found in the trap two brook-trout, weigh- 
ing about 2 pounds and 4 pound, respectively, four or five suckers, one 
bream. 

September 20.—Found in the trap this morning one land-locked salmon 
20 inches long, apparently a female, not in very good condition; one 
brook-trout, about 14 pounds, apparently a female, as was also the one 
taken yesterday. 

September 21.—Steamer Mount Pleasant stopped running to-day; 
water is so low that she cannot pass the lock. Went to Andrew Gray’s 
brook ; found no good site for a hatching-house. 

September 22.—Took from trap this morning five brook-trout weighing 
2 pounds and less; saved two of them, think one of each sex; returned 
three to the stream, one above net, two below. 

September 27.—T wo brook-trout this morning, one of each sex. 

September 28.—One brook-trout this morning. 

September 29.—Took from trap six brook-trout, two fine ones weighing 
4 pounds each, I should think, Called four of the fish males, two fe- 
males. One of the latter got meshed in the dip-net, and was hurt con- 
siderably, so killed her. Found she was very full of eggs, and there 
was apparently nothing in her stomach. 

September 30.—Took four brook-trout this morning; saved all. 

October 1.—Took four brook-trout; saved threeof them. Perry Harri- 
man came this afternoon. 

October 2.—One small brook-trout this morning. Having heard sev- 
eral times that Crooked River was full of salmon above our net, to-day 


782 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


got J. B. Mitchell to go up and explore. He reports having seen two 
brook-trout and large numbers of suckers, but no salmon. 

October 2.—Sam. Shane reported thousands of salmon in a deep place 
below the lock; went down there and saw five large fish, four of which 
I think were salmon. Took two brook-trout from trap at 9 p. m. 

October 3.—Took two male brook-trout this morning. One of them 
had the peculiar formation of lower jaw indicative of male fish, well 
developed; the first instance I have noticed this season. Large numbers 
of fish being reported in the river below the nets, went down this after- 
noon and explored. Looked very carefully the entire length of the river 
and saw six salmon. For the first two miles had a favorable chance to 
see them, as the weather was calm and bright. Took one male brook- 
trout at 9.50 p. m.; think he would weigh nearly 4 pounds. 

October 4.—Got the outside pound completed to-day. 

October 8.—Took one small brook-trout this evening. 

October 9.—Took one male brook-trout this evening. 

October 11.—Took two male salmon this morning, length 19 inches; 
also one fine brook-trout. 

October 12.—One female salmon in morning; one male and one female 
salmon at 9 p. m. 

October 13.—Went to the trap about 2 a. m., and took out two male 
and one female brook-trout. At 9 p. m. got one female salmon 17 inches 
long. Heavy shower last night; did not raise the water any; continued 
to fall to-day. 

October 14.—Two female Salmo fontinalis this morning, and two of 
the same at 10 p. m. 

October 15.—One male Salmo sebago this morning. 

October 18.—This morning found that some one had been trying to 
destroy the nets. The new net across Crooked River was cut or torn in 
several places, and the poles and stakes which supported it disarranged. 
The net above it used for stopping leaves was dragged out and very 
badly torn, then thrown back into the water. An attempt had also been 
made to let the fish out of the inclosure. 

October 19.—One eel about 24 inches long. 

October 20.—At 10 a.m. one female Salmo sebago. Perry thought it 
would weigh 10 pounds. 

October 22.—Three female and one male Salmo fontinalis. 

October 23.—One male salmon; three female brook-trout. 

October 24.—One male brook-trout in evening. Last night we had a 
very heavy storm of wind and rain, and this morning Perry made the 
usual round and thought everything was in proper condition. Found 
that Crooked River had risen 4 inches. During the forenoon it con- 
tinued rising and was very thick with brown earthy matter; probably 
immense numbers of leaves came with it below the surface. Our plans 
with regard to the direction of the current were found wrong. Instead 
of rushing on and expending its force in the cove (on the north of the 


COLLECTION OF EGGS OF SEBAGO SALMON. 783 


lock), turned and ran down throughout the entire length of our net. 
The net for leaves was not, therefore, in position to get more than half 
that came, and they went into the main net in large quantities. We 
also supposed there would be an eddy at the east end of the main net, 
and so had not braced it very securely upon the lower side. About 
noon we noticed the leaf-net had partly discharged its contents into 
the main net, and that the braces upon the lower side of the latter were 
beginning to give way. Immediately got all the spare line to be had 
and stayed the hedge to the shore as thoroughly as possible, but could 
not save it, and by 10 o’clock p. m. it was pretty thoroughly wrecked. 
To prevent a recurrence of the accident, think it will be necessary to 
have two strong nets for leaves and a windlass upon the bank for draw- 
ing them alternately. Songo River, above the dam, has risen 4 inches, 
and its flow through the lock and our inclosures east of lock amounts 
to nothing in checking the force of Crooked River at the main net. 

October 25.—Water continued to rise in Crooked River and reached its 
height at evening. Did not rise any more above the dam. Our main 
net seems to be whole and in position, except that the top line is about 
3 feet under water—its whole length nearly. There has been no outward 
current (or, at most, very little) through our traps since the first of the 
rise. 

October 26.—Repairs progressing rapidly as possible under the direc- 
tion of Perry Harriman. I have been unwell and not able to work for 
several days. 

October 27.—Got the.main net in place again to-night; found one or 
two small holes, but it was not much damaged. 

November 1.—Swept the main pound to-day for the purpose of turning 
the brook-trout up into Crooked River. We should have had forty-five 
on hand, but only found six, and could not account for their disappear- 
ance otherwise than by supposing that they went out when the attempt 
was made to release the fish. The record showed that ten salmon had 
been taken, but we found thirteen in the pound. 

November 3.—Found one salmon in the trap this morning. Have not 
been able to see any fish from the pier for several days. Reports have 
come in of Crooked River being “full of them,” and Perry Harriman 
and Dillingham went.up to-day, but did not see any. 

November 9.—Have seen no fish for a week.- The three females in the 
pound have begun to spawn at its lower side, or at least the fish are doing 
a good deal of work there. ‘There has been ice in Crooked River all of 
the past week, and more or less on all of our nets. 

November 12.—One male salmon last night. 

November 14.—To-day went up by land to Edes’s Falls and examined 
Crooked River pretty thoroughly for fish and their work; saw fifteen 
Salmon and forty-two nests or ridds. I think most of them were made 
this year; many of the nests seemed to be in an unfinished state, as 


784 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


though the fish had been speared before completing them; found two 
boats arranged for spearing. 

November 15.—Went to Sandy Beach and Northwest River; saw no 
fish; saw no sign of fish having spawned at Sandy Beach. There is a 
small brook at the north extremity which is said to have been dry pre- 
vious to the recent rains. A native said he had not seen any fish there’ 
this fall; subsequently, Sam. Nason said only brook-trout were speared 
there. Explored Northwest River from the mill to the lake; saw 10 
nests apparently made by land-locked salmon. At this time, in places 
where there is a moderate current, the stream is about 20 feet wide and 
has an average depthof 18 inches. When the millis running, the stream 
is raised about 6 inches; in time of freshet the volume is more than 
double ; judge the distance from the mill to the lake by stream to be 
about one mile; direct line, one-half that distance. 

November 16.—Visited the old mouth of Songo River; saw no signs 
of fish having been there. There was no current coming from it, and 
the water thereabouts is very shoal. 

November 19.—A man on the canal-boat said the net had been cut near 
the bottom, and we pulled it up and examined it to-day; found it in 
good condition. Took one small brook-trout this afternoon—a male 
with milt. 

November 20.—Took one male salmon to-night; was in bad condition ; 
evidently had been struck with spear; gave some milt. 

November 24.—Wet and rainy weather has kept Crooked River grad- 
ually rising for several days past. We have kept the nets in good con- 
dition, but last night leaves, pine foliage, and drift and brush of all 
kinds began to accumulate in the upper net. We went out about mid- 
night and drew it up, cleared and returned it, but to no purpose. We 
left it about 3a. m., and by daylight it was full again and badly wrecked. 
We cleared it the best we could and secured the main hedge as thor- 
oughly as possible. 

November 25.—Water continued rising, and this morning the whole of 
our works except the main pound and upper trap were completely 
wrecked. Do not think any arrangement of nets of ordinary strength 
could have been kept in place. Passed the day clearing the wreck ; 
could not get the main net, but cleared away stakes, braces, &c., so that 
we hope it has gone nearly to bottom. 

June 25, 1880.—After the wrecking of the works above described, we 
cleared out two or three boat-loads of brush, drift-wood, &c., and gotevery- 
thing in place again about the 27th of November, and kept on exploring 
the river for fish and watching the traps until December 1, when word 
came to abandon the enterprise, and we stored everything with Dilling- 
ham. (The apparatus was afterwards transported to Bucksport.) 

At Trickey’s Pond we left a small house, 11 by 15 feet, on the land of 
L. L. Crockett, and he says it may stand there without paying rent. 

Before we began to get any fish, I feared that we should not find it 


i 


COLLECTION OF EGGS OF SEBAGO SALMON. 785 


worth while to open the hatching-house. Wrote to Mr. Atkins and re- 
ceived orders to take eggs when we had caught fifteen female fish. 

As the season advanced found we were not likely to get that number, 
and the few on hand were allowed to deposit their eggs in our inclosure 
just east of Songo Lock. 

The following table shows the length and weight of the spent fish 
released December 1: 


Males. Females. 
e | 
Length. Weight. Length. | Weight. 
Inches. Pounds. Inches. | Pounds. 
22 54 | 184 23 
15 14 | 164 2 
21 33 184 2a 
20 33 | 184 28 
143 14 | 203 34 
174 2 293 8§ 
17 Fe a eaep ac trt en). sa flee ieee ee 3 
16 ie. ty Pull epseistcpeintats win coh Gee eos: gspeiael| Prose sees ee Oe et 
19 erate oe winlatajele) metal iefesalslareininte atclcisle aichote oho siete nial ete eel jenera otaial ciate mate anes 
| } 


7.—OBSERVATIONS ON TEMPERATURE AND WEATHER AT SONGO LOCK, MAINE, 1878. 


Temperature. 
Songo Crooked) 
Date. AoE nye held Wind. Other phenomena. 
Sh TS) | TSE Sty telah eh | 
si] a] al] e| a; &] a | 
bod Sol © - - ~ cr 
Ang. 26 | 59 | 72 | 70 | 68 | 70 | 67 | 70 | Southerly, light........- --| Clear. 
58 | 77 | 73 | 69 | 71 | 68 | 70 | Southerly, light........... Clear. 
28 | 57 |..--| 65 | 70 |..--.| 68 |....| Southerly, light .......... Clear; cloudy towards evening. 
29 | 63 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 69 | 71 | Southerly, light........... Cloudy morning; then clear. 
30 | 63 | 81 | 79 | 70 | 72 | 70 | 72 | Gentle northerly, p.m_.... Clear. 
31 | 61 | 79 | 74 | 73 | 74 | 72 | 73 | Gentle northerly .........- Clear. 
Sept. 1} 66 | 73 | 79 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 72 | Light southerly. .......... Rainy a.m.; clear p. m.; thunder 
shower in evening. 
2{| 70 | 79 | 741 72 | 74 | 72 | 74 | Light southerly........... Partly cloudy; thunder shower 
at 6 p.m. 
Gu) (83 Sach Se) eh leeeel Cole eeclstsiliadhy" on aspeeesecean Partly cloudy. 
4) 72 |.-..| 61 | 71 |.-..| 73 |..-.| Southerly and easterly....| Rainy and foggy. 
* 5 | 61 | 64 | 66 | 71 | 71 | 70 | 70 | Calm Cloudy, foggy, and rainy. 
GARG sees alee = gd oc sO92 ll tec|ie as ciceee eee cis oe cree aman cee 
AON EOSH 00 6e | 6S:| 40 GGIIhOT, |pcnecame ene ose 
AG COM eG nde! GON) TOMI GTs)|\ 69) || emer meie= sees aie ee ave oer Cloudy. 
12 | 65 | 69 | 71 | 70 | 71 |..-.| 70 | Southerly and easterly ....| Very wet, with occasional show- 
ers. 
13 | 67 | 74 | 71 | 71 | 71 | 70 | 70 | Southerly and easterly ...| Very wet, with showers. 
14 | 62 | 71 | 65 | 69 | 70 | 68 | 69 | Northwest, fresh.-......-. Clear. 
15 | 58 | 69 | 59 | 68 | 69 | 67 | 68 | Northwest, fresh.......... Clear. 
LGH 45) 6451 57) (651,67, Gi | 64 | Southerly..°... 22. 6" .-o-ce Clear. 
fae ole Oda MOON BOON (MGs NGO! |G) || oa one <e.<2 weeteges eee eee Clear. 
18 | 57, |.78 | 73 | 66) 68 | 68 | 65 | Southerly. ...-.--.-...-2.. Clear. 
19 | 56 |.-..| 65 | 68 |....) 64 |....| Northerly a. m., southerly | Clear. 
ee pam: 
AON OOM PSO e eS TeCOn|tGS GOD G0! leu. +l-- Steerer weet Clear 
PAG GOR | reser leadeh OCA Wee ardl OTA (reid ic cece 2 1-= <2 Sure Clear. 
22 | 56 | 70 | 57 | 67 | 67 | 67 | 67 | Northwest, fresh....-.._.. Clear. 
23 | 40 | 65 | 56 | 63 | 65 | 61 | 63 | Southerly, light........... Clear. 
24-\-40-|. ---|' 60:63) |2= =. 60") _-.| Southerly, light: --22-2--2- Clear. 
OM ROSA Oh NOOu | NGS} FGI G0!||K63, || 4-2 <1\- eee pees eemeeenee. | Clear. 
AO ROR GOn OS) GS a1 GGn|nG3:/ (65) |a~ 5 1-3 as tee coon ee ce oer Cloudy all day; shower at 5 p.m. 
27 | 48 | 63 | 51 | 63 | 63 | 59 | 60 | Strong northwest .........] Clear. 
Pash Al BD GPT GE! GI BiG I G(R Reine ERIE Se ..| Clear. 
On etal Oln| esas eee Otel Mees (bSnl Southerlyerses cesses een) Glear: 
30 | 40 | 66 | 61 | 59 | 63 | 53 | 57 | Gentle northerly,a.m..... | Clear. 


786 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


7.—OBSERVATIONS ON TEMPERATURE AND WEATHER AT SONGO LOCK, &¢.—Cont’d. 


Temperature. 


Songo Crooked 


Other phenomena. 


| Clear; foggy morning. 


Clear. 


| Light rain; clearing at night. 

| Clear; cloudy evening. 

| Clear; cloudy morning. 

| Cloudingup towards night; thun- 
der shower in evening. 

Clear. 

Clear. 

Cloudy a. m. ; 

| Clear. 

| Clear. 


rainy p.m. 


| Clear in a. m.; clouds and rain in 
p.m. 

Clear weather. 

Clear; foggy forenoon. 

Cloudy. 

| Cloudy. 

Clear. 

Clear, 

Clear. 

Cloudy 
.m. 

Cloudy. 

Clear. 

| Clear. 

Cloudy. 

Clear. 

Clear. 

| Rainy. 

Clear. 


; commenced raining at 6 


Clear. 

| Clear. 

Cloudy, with spits of snow. 
Clear. 

34-inch snow nearly last night. 
Clear a.m. ; cloudy p.m. 


| Snow in a.m. 


Clear. 
Clear. 


Clear. 


Rainy. 
Clondy, with showers; 1,,-inch 
rain last night and to-day. 
Cloudy. 
| Commenced snowing and raining 
middle of p, m. 
Cloudy and wet. 


Air. | River| River " 
Date. | water. | water. Wind. 
d/dja/ald|jale 
ets) \ eal | © ind | re ~~ rc 
| | S 
Oct. 1 48 70 | 67 | 61 | 62 | 56 | 60 | Light southwest .......-.. 

2| 46 | 68 | 65) 61 | 62 58 | 60 | Fresh sonthwest.--.---.-- 
3 | 57 | 72 | 64 | 62 | 63 | 59 | 62 | Light fortherly........--.| 
CEU GY ies [B91 S| G22 |) OE) Ge Bee soee conor cosbasossccos se 
5 | 40 | 65 |.--..| 62 | 63 | 59 | 61 | Southerly and westerly, | 

| | | light. 
6 | 50'| 53 | 50 | 61 | 61 | 56 | 56 | Northeast veering to west. 
7 | 39°) 58 | 52 | 59) 60 | 55 | 58 | Southerly....-..-......... 
Salgole 62a vote COsGON SG: ROB bea asc deen eet or 
9 | 49 | 59 | 67 59) 59))|/56 85%) Westerly 252 ---e-. <= 
10 | 49 | 55 | 51 | 58 | 58 | 53 | 54 | Strong northerly.......-.- 
LT RBOM eee |eeeel| OO) sec eloee cole Licht soubherly: --. see. 
12 | 42 | 46 | 48 | 55 | 55 | 52 | 50 | Northeast .............-.. 
13 | 48 | 60 |....| 53 | 54 | 48 | 50 | Strong northwest .......- 
14 | 42 | 61 | 53 | 53 | 54 | 50 | 52 | Westerly a.m.; southerly 

| | | -™m. 
15 | 42 | 66 | 64 | 34 | 55 | 50 | 52 ae =e Sigebe curiae teeeesecee 
16 | 50°] 66 | 61 | 55 | 56 | 52 | 54 | Fresh southwest.......-.. 
17 | 49 | 66 | 65 | 55 | 56 | 54 | 56 | Southerly....- SR op eato aos 
18 | 58°) 63 }) 60 | 57 | 57 | 56'| 57 |) Southerly. .-.---.--.-..--- 
19 | 56 | 58 | 50 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 58 | Southwest ..........--..- 
AH lo nsalleeca sod leaecl bed soon lace -||agaacocaeenpocuusdopssauac55 
21 | 50 | CY} BE) WB |) HF |) G2 WV GBS || aa Socongcnossaobussoade 
SZC Sa eaeed Ds Wie 1 | ae CA a ne Re Aa 
23 | 46 |....|....| 54 |... | 58 |.-..| Easterly .......-.-..----- 

| | 
24 | 52 | 50 | 50 | 54 | 54 | 53 | 53 | Strong northeast.c...-.-- 
7 | See | eee (ses eee 52) isola eee eee etic ase se eee 
Paes al Meee see | 52! |Lt eel HOON) gael eeeee eames coe seeeee sar wee 
Bra bsay Meese S Tel bs, 12 6: 50b ceils ck a weeks Sele m eee aed 
28 | 46 | 53 | 41 | 52 | 54 | 50 |....| Strong northerly...-.-..- 
295) 28: 150) 40.) 500). 2. -) ASh i toe eemetemsce n= a ieee eerie - 
30/1387 |=) 42) 49) 202/471 522) Southeasterly-.----2---/--- 
S| A Ole |e 4a i eee AG Ya aaa ee ae RS eerste 
aN ORys TBE) EO BD CERN ADI AG AO oe ene ope psopebosesadseo- 

PAN BACAR ET NA Beh ne be) ly be a ae ec oeSHnerooses- 
3 | 39 45 | 33 | 48 | 48 | 45 | 43 | Westerly ......-..-.--.-- 
Aa e205 | Bee 20040. eten |e 0b eran PNOTtHOL aes cme eee msc aa 
PAD Sodtieatl |) 2S) basal ee eRe Mote he Speacoooonessee 
Gala SS ieee AON Sea PeO Tess cl Northerlyseceaseeese ne a. 
Fi Lan ae ee eda a tel aos ll Northerlysessseseeeseeeee: 
8 | 28 |... | 30 | 40 |..-.| 32 |....| Strong northerly.......... 
GPE | oSneliseesl CU Sg 874 |e ssiee seco cooosauSsHEoUnoooS soos 
LOM PSZN Bose seectoo |tece| oo sallesoegocerb se sosseoscdeesses 
TN 53 PA eee alle ese (ed ieee [acs Light southerly..-.---...-. 
PSOE See AOU SOE SA sa leek avec see seaene 5 
MEY || 8335 loool C8) BUD Seca! BIO Nase: |leeseoceomesopsoncd copseooese 
143/39" Eaeele=tel) SOs oa1-|Bo aeNoLbherlyiee eee eeses sees 
15 | 20)).--.|.--.| 38 |5222) 32)|.2- || Light’southerly,-~---.2-: 
16%) 267) 22) 5222) 138") 2-22! 32) 2.2.) bight southerly: 3-<---.--2 
UW Ne soalCll) aallosasl| BU) eooal) BO loon gkoaccsasccnbonoseseseace 
1 al scice Ree soe Ge eal ghar cel eta soe ace eeEe arecaneice aeroce 
I CE EBS | eeae! GE leas |) Gialoses ) ORS d hy ooo oe Ssea Soe 
20 | 35 |. Bale) |e 300252) Northerly2t=--s--7 = 52 
PAG S22 = 0522| 39) ee ed4ds| soos! NOL WeSstinsacese tema = 
22 | 38 |.... 39) ee |\086) | saer | Mastenhys cesar eer ae ae 
23 | 44 |... GM etal as y All eee ere arse So AE ice Oe Ooe SEE 
2A esecllonod lace “gates Seen lee eNerthenlyeensereet esa 
ON eeOn| sa eie|a=-| (00) |oese|*o0)|s2o4)| NOKUNer yee. sceaes sehiceee 
28 | 36 = : | 38 |....| 36 |....| Southerly............--.-- 


a 


COLLECTION OF EGGS OF SEBAGO SALMON. 


i 


187 


General summary of observations on temperature alt Songo Lock, Me., from August 26 to 
November 28, 1878, inclusive. 


Air. 
7am. 1lp.m 6 p.m. Max. Min. 
a way 0 |e nn |e er an (ne |e . ; 
Date. a | 2 |e" S| 8 1h Be Neca eaeales 
a ie a) n | 5 
38 Be aa est g | 38 | ao! | aa lane ees 
oF o s= oe = am] oa On lied ) 
ge| & |s2| & |82] & |s52/ 8h] e3 | 82 
oo) 6 |ee| 8 heel # |2 |e cee 
oe) ee Se ieee eer ey Goan 
Zz 4 12 4 (4 | 4 ja la |e. te 
1878. | 
PANIOUIN bietoseieise staln'e cess slate 6 60. 16 5 75. 60 6 71. 66 30 81 28, 57 
Dep lemPeD asses ac se clear « 26 57. 23 21 69. 33 24 64. 96 20 80 28 39 
Ootover! cas se esse eee sacks 30 | 46.23 21 60.38 | 23 55. 04 3 72 29 28 
INGVeOMDOE csc sace cesses teehee 23 30. 87 5 43.40 | 8 37.12 2 57 6 14 
1 1 
Songo River water. 
7 a.m 1lp.m | Max Min. 
: Es : o . ls F ; 
Date. She Sor |Setheae ey Sia eMle 
She Za | Eb oo A oh 3 ey i) ray 
35 d o6 CO) op Witte Ws oo es 
oil) or 2 = 2g o| oA ® 
pie |e Olea | 8S.) a. eae rom eny 
eae S tile a oF | Sh! SF |) Sh 
eee, i den eo. a) | a leanne 
b > 3 | 3 3S 
4 <q A 4 AR A |A 4 
1878. 
ANT ERUENT 5 55 = oon ae peepopnuaguoU USE ecasseade Sue 6 70 5 71. 60 31 74 26 68 
September 26 57. 04 21 67. 48 2 74 30 59 
OCTOD ER ease ree oc oii oSce cots esas. cme sees] OO 55. 73 21 58. 09 4 64 31 43 
November 23 40. 60 5 45. 20 1 49 15 38 
Crooked River water. 
7a.m 1lp.m. Max Min. 
ee| Sarl ; a an ue ate ’ 
Date. Slexeee S|. S| arenes 
b= 3 ob | Set A ob 3 Cay o ony 
os is 38 © a , | °3 3 a|°s 
ge) & |g2| 8 |ee| gelos| ge 
ea) 8 |g) 8 ie he oles 
Be Ge BA eo 1 Sees nl eee 
A 4 A + A a A |G 
'y 
6 69 5 71. 20 31 73 26 67 
25 65, 24 21 65. 57 2 74 30 53 
29 53, 13 21 56 3 62 31 46 
23 35. 69 5 40. 40 1 45 17 36 


Dns alt 
nd 


A 


eee oe Methas WAR 


, ) a <peeialenial Renpterie 
a oe = 5 de 


ie : a 
7 


ne : : 
a : : : 


et e 4 . , *T as = 
i ; ey oy a Oye de OO Gan 
wale 


rent at te org ee ae 


oe 
" PoE pg 
" Ja : ; . Va. 9 


S « 
pe 
, * 
ma tos _ ~ 
%e E ES 
% 2 bs = 
' = =) S 
i 
aa 
is , 
on 
Nf : 
< 5 Bs 
_ = Et > = 
& t rae pe 
t 3 
fs 3 
j RS 
+ ‘ 
a . lA Gee Eedild sw i eweOe. POPES eRe FP PO- 0 Ge e's i ae 


ore 


XXXVU.—REPORT ON THE COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF 
SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS IN 1878-79. 


By CHARLES -G. ATKINS. 


1.— PREPARATIONS. 


The preparations for the capture of the breeding fish this year were 
almost identical with those of the year before, and the work proceeded 
on the old basis until late in the season, when we were compelled to 
resort to new expedients, which will be detailed below. 

For the incubation of the eggs more extensive preparations were 
made. The ill-success of many of the lots of eggs sent out the previous 
* season warned me not to depend on the old hatching-house, which evi- 
dently did not command water enough in a dry winter to forward two 
millions of eggs and nourish them properly. It was not easy to find 
a Satisfactory remedy. The water of the old hatching-house was spring 
water. There were numerous other small springs in the neighborhood, 
but none of those yet discovered could be led into the old hatching- 
house, and no one of them afforded alone water enough to supply a half 
million of eggs. Grand Lake Stream affords water of the very best 
quality, but unfortunately the facilities for using it are very poor. At 
the dam which commands the outlet of Grand Lake there is, in the 
spring of the year, a head of perhaps 6 feet, but in the fall, sometimes 
less than 2 feet, and any hatching-house located low enough to take 
this water in without artificial raising, at a low stage of the stream, 
would infallibly be flooded at time of freshet. Nearly equal and gen- 
erally similar disadvantages attached to every site along the stream. 
It was, however, finally decided to put in a temporary hatching-house 
on the west bank of the stream at the first fall below the dam. Even 
here we had a fall of but little more than 10 feet, and liability to flooding 
by spring freshets, but the facilities for taking our supply of water from 
the stream were better than at the dam; and it was hoped that every 
year we should have the distribution of the eggs completed and the old 
hatching-house free for the reception of the 25 per cent., reserved foe the 
stream, before the spring freshets should come. 

The new hatching-house was a very humble structure, only 20 feet by 
10; but there were placed in it three troughs, each 17 inches deep, 


which had an aggregate capacity of nearly a million of eggs. Wire 
789: 


790 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


trays were employed about 12 inches square, nested in frames carrying 
20 trays per frame—the identical apparatus used at this establishment 
in 1875 and yearly since. The water was taken from the open stream 
through a covered plank conduit, with the expectation that very pure 
water would thus be secured. It was afterwards found that the little 
brook that flows from the old hatching-house through a swampy piece 
of land discharged its waters into the stream above the new house in 
such a way that, instead of mingling at once with the water from the 
lake, they crept down along the shore almost by themselves, as far as 
the -hatching-house. It thus came about that whenever the brook was. 
in flood its turbid waters crowded the pure water of the lake away from 
the conduit, and took entire possession of the hatching-troughs, making a 
very dirty piece of work of it. It is not known that any harm resulted 
beyond the extra work involved in cleaning up and the unpleasant ap- 
pearance of the fixtures. But steps have been taken to avoid such an 
occurrence in future by continuing the conduit out under the water of 
the stream far enough from shore to avoid receiving any part of the 
brook water. It will be seen that this new hatching-house, though of 
the greatest service as supplementary to the old one, could not wholly | 
take the place of the latter, which alone afforded facilities for hatching 
out the reserve forthe stream. IJ therefore turned my attention to the im- 
provement of the old house. In the first place, it appeared advisable to: 
secure, if possible, better aeration of the water; for this end the situa- 
tion was a very unfavorable one. The spring issued from a gravelly bank, 
at an elevation scarcely above the level of alarge swamp, through which 
the overflow oozed away. We had the year before cut a wide and deep 
ditch, nearly half a mile long, for the outflow, so that there was no 
longer danger of the house being flooded by fxeshets, but this did not 
enable us to lower the #roughs from their original elevation. We could 
not curb the spring and thus raise a head, because of the danger that 
the water wowd then find a new outlet through the loose gravel and be 
lost to us altogether. The available head was thus scarcely a foot. The 
best ‘that could be done was to construct above the hatching-house a 
narrow, circuitous drain or canal, about 10 feet wide and nearly 70 feet 
long, through which the water should flow with a surface air-exposure 
of about 140 square feet, before entering the hatching-house; to have all 
the overflows and passages, from canal to feeder and from feeder to 
hatching-trough, at the surface rather than submerged; and to intro- 
duce in all the troughs occasional dams which should bring all the water 
repeatedly to the surface and expose it to the air in wide and shallow 
currents. 

Careful search also revealed a very considerable leak around one end 
of the hatching-house dam. This was finally, though not without some 
difficulty, completely stopped. No other change of importance was made 
in the general hatching arrangements. 

The summer, and more especially the early autumn, were rather dry 


CULLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS. 791 


seasons, and both the lake and the springs were at a low stage. A 
careful measurement of the amount flowing through the troughs at 
the old hatching-house indicated’ but a trifle over four gallons per min- 
ute on the 23d of August, 4.164 gallons per minute on the 28th of Sep- 
tember ; on the 9th of November, after the leaks were stopped, this had 
risen to 8.4-7 gallons per minute; on the 16th of November, to 12.86 gal- 
_ lons per minute. 


2.—FISHING AND SPAWNING: 


The progress of the season’s work is sufficiently portrayed by the fol- 
lowing extracts from my note book, and interpolations. 

August 23, 1878.—All reports agree in representing the fishing last 
spring and early summer to have been uncommonly fine. Fish were 
plenty, and of unwonted size and fatness. At the dam all the gates. 
are now open, and a lot of logs fill the large pools below our works 
and partially obstructs its outlet. Consequently the water at our cateh- 
ing and spawning ground is unwontedly high (not high in lake, how- 
ever). At the dam, in the upper end of the sluice-gate-way, that is, on 
the upper edge of the rollway, the water is 10 inches deep. At our 
gauge, on the pier above the dam, the water stands at 2 feet 2 inches 
exactly, with calm air and still water. 

September 28.—Arrived yesterday from Bucksport (second visit). The 
nets were put across the stream and the head of the tannery canal about 
the middle of this month. 

September 29.—The water being very clear and air still, I looked care- 
fully all along the lower side of the dam, but not a single Schoodic sal- 
mon was in sight. I went up to the pier where the water gauge is, but 
saw nothing there. I think that evidently the fish are coming in slower 
than hast year. On October 6, 1877, I found them very plenty below the 
dam, but then several hundred had been put in from the canal by Mr. 
Munson. The water is some lower than last year (nearly 3 inches lower 
than October 8, 1877), and only one gate is now open instead of three at 
that time. Water has fallen nearly 5 inches since August 23. 

Verified the elevation of the water gauge on the pier above the dam, 
and found it to agree exactly with the position laid down in Mr. Buck’s 
notes last fall; that is, the 4-feet mark is on a level with the lower side 
of a drill hole on the south face of a large bowlder, lying in the water 
near the east shore, “ about 225 feet above the dam.” 

October 1.—A gain carefully looked about the dam, but saw no Schoodic 
salmon. Have not seen one since I came here. 

October 31.—Fish have begun to descend below the dam, and nightly 
come down to our net. Munson thinks them very plenty in lake, from 
what he has seen above the dam and been told by boatmen. He saw 
some work in the gravel by fish at the head’of our ma n lead on the 28th, 
but not much done yet. 

Nove:nber 1.—I see three nests begun at head of our main lead, but 


792 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


none elsewhere. Got all ready for the capture of fish. Shall not begin 
sweeping yet. Fish captured every night after this date. See appended 
“« Statement of Fishing.” 

November 4.—Don’t see any new nests above the dam yet; but the 
old ones, three, are enlarged every night. No new work of consequence 
in the main lead. I saw yesterday four or five nests in three feet of 
water, along the west side of the pool below the dam, in precisely the 
position where I saw them last year. 

November 6.—At 8 p.m. I explored the main lead and_ two first 
pounds, and found not asingle salmon; never knew such a thing before ; 
yet quite a number are just above the gate. Varnum counted 10 there. 
I think they are mostly males. 

November 7.—Scarcely any more spawning operations in our main 
lead. Two partially-made nests in pound ©, our principal inclosure. 
Above the dam I can count, close together, 13 nests, most of them 
pretty complete; these are in the swift water above the sluice-gate. 

Began taking spawn this afternoon, and find very few ripe females, only 
8 out of 54. Total catch of fish to this date, 246, of which 54 are females. 

We found among the salmon one gravid female togue—the first time 
such an event has occurred at this establishment. Her spawn was milted 
with salmon milt, but all afterwards perished without giving any certain 
indication as to the cause. — 

To prevent the fish stealing their nests in the swift water above the 
gate, I propose to surround this spot on the upper side by a drop-net, 
and put in some small pounds to entiap any fish that may venture upon 
the forbidden grounds. This was put in operation the next day, and 
from November 10 to 17 over 500 salmon were captured on this spot 
and placed belowthedam. Though sharply followed up, the fish succeeded 
in doing a great deal of nest-digging there. The first nests dug were 
completely obscured by new ones. Further, quite a number of fish are 
spawning above all our nets, especially at a gravelly shallow on the site 
of an old coffer-dam, about 300 feet above the main dam. In former 
years there has always been some spawning above the dam, but never 
to an extent approaching their present operations. I attribute their 
behavior this year to the low stage of the water, which has never been 
equalled at this date in any year within my experience. To get below 
the dam, the fish must pass through the sluice-gate, adown an inclined 
“rollway” about 40 feet long. At the head of this rollway the water is 
about 10 inches deep, but it flattens out to less than 3 inches at the 
lower end, so that a fish of ordinary size cannot go down without rub- 
bing upon the plank flooring of the rollway and being pushed partly 
out of water, to which they appear to be much averse. 

November 16.—So many fish are beginning to spawn above the dam, 
that to-day we put ina set of pounds at the old coffer-dam, entirely 
closing the stream at that point. This evening fish are entering our 
new pounds in great numbers. 


COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS. 1793 


The fish are remarkably backward in development. Of 385 females 
examined up to this date, only 139 (36 per cent.) have yielded spawn. 
To-day we found among the fish caught last night at our lower works 
7 ripe females and 50 unripe. 

November 17.—Very good success with our new trap at the coffer-dam. 
We find in it this morning 113 female fish and 36 males. Ninety-seven 
females and 54 males were also taken last night at the lower pounds, 
making a total of 300 fish last night—all Schoodic salmon. The 
weather was clear and calm. 

I think, however, that the new trap is somewhat defective in form, 
especially at the entrance, and that many fish, after once entering the 
first pound, find their way out again. Some also broke through the net 
last night, and so escaped. All the fish captured here this morning 
taken in a salmon-car to the lower pounds, by dragging the car through 
the sluice at the dam. 

At one o’clock to-day, the sun shining, I saw two female fish in the 
act of spawning close above the dam, turning on their sides and flap- 

ing after their usual manner, with no male in sight. Two hours later 
I find the same two and one other female spawning near, and still no 
males near. I made these observations very carefully, and have no doubt 
of their entire accuracy. There is no sort of difficulty in distinguish- 
ing the sexes. I have often watched them on the same spot. 

November 18.—Another clear and calm night has given us 246 fish, 
of which 187 were taken in the new trap. The majority of the females 
handled to-day are pronounced unripe. All the eggs taken previous to 
this date have been placed in the old hatching-house, and 155,000 eggs 
are now there. To-day we place 67,000 in the new house. 

November 19.—Last night was stormy, with sleet and snow, and much 
westerly and northerly wind, which continued all night. Total catch of 
Schoodic salmon, 201; three-quarters females. 

November 20.—Last night the wind was very light, and varied from 
northeast to northwest; cloudy and clear by turns through the night; 
288 fish caught, of which 271 came from the upper trap. 

November 21.—A rainy evening and fresh northerly wind, clearing at 
midnight, brought us in last night 187 fish. 

November 22, a. m.—Clear and calm last night, and we took 306 fish; 
the best catch of the season. 

In the appended tabular record of fishing will be found notes on the 
weather of each night during the fishing season. So far as the indica- 
tions go, they seem to be in favor of the conclusion that stormy weather 
deters the fish from running. 

Among the fish handled to-day was one small one, 12 inches long and 
weighing 11 ounces. This is an unusual size, of which a few are taken 
each year. Only two of them have been seen this fall. One of the 
largest of the females handled to-day, a full and ripe fish, measured 22 
inches in length, weighed before spawning 4 pounds 1 ounce, and yielded 


794 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


15 ounces spawn. I think this a small yield of spawn for so large a fish. 
Another female to-day, 19 inches long, weighing 2 pounds 1 ounce after 
spawning, gave 14 ounces spawn, which counted out 2,068 eggs. The 
average yield is much less than this. Up to this date we have taken 
450,000 eggs from 386 female fish, an average of 1,166 per fish. This is 
amuch higher average than any preceding year, the fish averaging 
larger than usual. There is always a slight uncertainty in the estimates 
of the number of eggs, but the error from this source is probably not 
over 5 per cent. 

The backwardness of the fish this season is more evident now than 
ever. Less than half of our female fish have yielded their eggs, and the 
number of eggs taken is less than ever before at this date. We have, 
however, over 500 gravid fish on hand, besides the catch of the last twe 
‘nights. 

November 22, p. m.—On examining the fish taken during the last two 
nights, we find 241 ripe out of 406 females. They add 243,000 to our 
stock of eggs, and will add 25,000 more on second handling. 

November 25.—The catch of fish has fallen off rapidly since the 22d. 
Only 38 taken last night. Evidently the season is drawing to a close. 

To-day’s work adds 445,000 to our stock of eggs, and brings the total 
thus far up to 1,170,000, with some hundreds of females yet on hand ; 
948,000 are now deposited in the new hatching-house, and the remainder 
will be placed in the old house. 

To-day we have taken 445,000 eggs. This unusual feat was accom- 
plished by six men working all day, without weighing or measuring any 
of the fish handled. That gives an average of 74,000 as a day’s work 
for a man, or, say, 7,400 per hour. This would be accounted very slow 
progress with sea-going salmon, either of the Atlantic or Pacific. But 
the Schoodic salmon are among the least prolific of fishes, and to get 
the eggs taken to-day we had to handle over a thousand salmon. The 
work of putting the eggs in the trays took over four hours in addition. 
1 find that the best working party at the spawning-shed consists of five 
or six persons—one to dip the fish and pass them to the spawn-takers, 
one to keep the tally, three to take spawn, and, perhaps, one more to 
wash and care for the eggs. In addition to these, it will require one 
man to carry the eggs to the hatching-house, and another to place them 
in the troughs, and, if the fish are weighed and measured, another man 
will be required for this. The weighing and measuring have been done 
this year, as usual, every day except when the work pressed too much. 
The general results are tabulated below. 

December 3.—This afternoon we began sending off the parent fish. Up 
to this date all caught have been kept in our inclosures. All unripe, and 
all awaiting manipulation, were kept in the inclosure below the spawn- 
ing-shed. After the final manipulation they were placed in a roomy in- 
closure above the spawning-shed. Having now, as is supposed, taken 
all the fish possible for this season, there is no objection to setting the 


COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS. 795 


old fish free in the lake. With the purpose of securing them as far 
as possible from destruction, and affording the best facilities for feed- 
ing and recovering their condition, we take them in salmon-cars from a 
mile and a half to two miles up the lake and there set them free. The 
cars used are fishing “‘dories” sunk in the water, with grated apertures 
at either end, the same used on the Penobscot. From one to two hun- 
dred of these Schoodic salmon can be transported in one of them at each 
trip. The weather, fortunately, has been mild for several weeks; other- 
wise we might be unable to force our way far up the lake by reason of ice. 

December 4.—To-day we finished taking spawn by giving the final 
manipulation to the last fish. We have taken in all 1,723,000 eggs. 

December 6.—Al1I the nets and chains were taken out of the water to- 
day, except a net to guard the passage of the dam by any returning fish. 

Grand Lake is not yet frozen over. Big Lake and the other lower 
lakes are also open, and the steamer continues to run between this 
stream and Princeton. Ordinarily the lower lakes close about the 18th 
of November; and this year there have been two interruptions to navi- 
gation. On the night of November 15 those lakes froze over and so 
remained for a week, and once since then they have been frozen over 
for a single day. 

December 9.—Last night the thermometer dropped to 12° F., and 
ice formed on Grand Lake as far as we can see from the outlet. Within 
six days the temperature of the water in the new hatching-house has 
fallen from 40° to 32° F., and we do not expect to see it often above 
34° until spring opens. 

A good many of the fish that we carried up the lake have come back 
and got into the canal, and others are hanging about near the dam, just 
above the net set to intercept their descent. I think they are nearly all 
males; I looked carefully at about 50 of them and do not see one that I 
think is a female. 

December 11.—A warm rain, with a southeast wind, breaks up the ice 
in Grand Lake and carries off the snow. There is quite a flood in the 
brook at the old hatching-house and the water rises to within 3 inches 
of the tops of the hatching-troughs. A good deal of sediment is depos- 
ited in the troughs and on the eggs in both houses, but they can be 
easily cleansed by the careful hands of Mr. Munson. Grand Lake has 
risen to 3 feet 64 inches on our gauge; it has been steadily rising since 
November 16, when it stood at 1 foot 9 inches. 

December 13.—The last of our nets removed from the water to-day. 
No fish to be seen about the dam, and I think most of them have re- 
turned to the lake. 

December 14.—The wind blew strongly from the northeast throughout 
last night, and the lake being open, and the temperature low (15° F.), 
the rapidly-forming ice-crystals were driven down to the dam, where 
they were piled up in a mass that clogged the gates and came hear 
being the cause of a serious calamity. At 6.30 a. m. it was discovered 


796 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


that the water in the stream was very low; that it had actually ceased 
to flow into the hatching-house, and that from the hatching-troughs 
themselves it had leaked away, till they were only half full and half the 
eges were in the air. The air of the hatching-house was far below the 
freezing point. Ice coated the frames, and the upper layers of eggs in 
several of the frames appeared to be frozen. The situation was alarm- 
ing. The greatest exertions were made to free the gates of the dam 
from the ice blockade, and in half an hour we had the satisfaction of 
seeing the water flowing through the hatching-troughs as usual. An 
examination into the condition of the eggs a few hours later dispelled 
our fears. Not more than a hundred were killed. I suppose that those 
which appeared to be frozen on the first examination were merely en- 
cased in ice, or possibly the outer shell was frozen, the interior of the 
egg remaining untouched. At any rate, they all thawed out without 
"Joss, except the few mentioned. These losses were confined to the outer 
edges of the upper and more exposed trays. It would probably have 
taken some hours longer for the freezing temperature to have pene- 
trated to the interior of the frames of eggs (each frame held 20 shallow 
trays piled one above another). Had the stoppage of water continued 
for six or eight hours, I question whether the loss from. freezing would 
have been much more serious than the injury that would have resulted 
from confining the eggs for the same length of time in a trough filled 
with stagnant water. It is therefore doubtful whether, even in this cold 
house, there would be any advantage in a tight trough. In a house 
kept always above 32° F. in temperature, I think a leaky trough would, 
without doubt, be the safest, and I would advise that pains be taken to 
provide some small leak, so that in case of stoppage of the water the 
troughs may be drained and the eggs left exposed to the air. In a coy- 
ered trough drying would proceed very slowly, and the eggs would be 
in no way harmed by contact with air, so long as they neither froze nor 
died. Such an occurrence as the clogging of the gates of the dam hy 
ice can only occur when the lake is open, and at the same time a very 
strong wind accompanies extreme cold, a conjunction of circumstances 
not likely to come about very often. 


3.—THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGGS. 


As soon as the lots of eggs successively reached a stage of develop- 
ment, suitable for the determination between impregnated and non- 
impregnated, they were subjected to a close scrutiny to determine their 
condition in this respect. In working upon smaller lots, a sample, num- 
bering 20, taken at random from the eggs as they lay upon the trays, 
was placed in a shallow testing-box, perforated with 20 holes. Holding 
this up so that a strong light shone up through the bottom, we could 
see the condition of the eggs with great distinctness. Several trials were 
made with each lot, not less than 100 eggs being examined in any lot, 
except in case of some experiments embracing less than 100 eggs in 


COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS. 197 


all. In the larger lots, however, this was found to be too tedious a 
process, and resort was had to another. A whole tray 01 eggs was held 
up to a window so as to throw a strong light upon the under side, and 
all the eggs were so lighted up as to make their condition plainly dis- 
cernible. A whole row, or two or three whole rows, next to the frame, 
were critically examined and the unimpregnated counted. Each row 
being known to contain on an average 40 eggs, the ratio of impregnation 
was speedily arrived at. In this way, in the largest lots, 2,000 and more 
were examined, and it is believed that the result obtained must be very 
nearly correct. The result of the examination was fairly satisfactory, 
but did not indicate so good a ratio of impregnation as I had hoped. 
Exclusive of the experimental lots, it ranged from 74 to 93 per cent., 
and averaged, by careful computation, 90.1 per cent. At Bucksport, in 
former seasons, with sea-going salmon, an average of 96 to 98 per cent. 
was attained. The reason for the inferior result at Grand Lake Stream 
is not apparent, but is most likely connected with these too-well attested 
phenomena: first, that the Schoodie salmon, far more than the Penobscot 
salmon, are subject to diseases which affect the eggs before they are laid, 
so that often a large percentage, and sometimes the entire litter, is 
damaged past all remedy when laid; second, that unlike the Penobscot 
salmon, the Schoodic fish often came into our hands while yet unripe, 
and therefore liable to be prematurely pressed. 

The percentage of non-impregnation would account for a loss of 
172,300 eggs. The shrinkage up to the time of dividing and shipping 
the eggs was 253,000, as deduced from the number shipped and turned 
out to hatch. Probably the actual deaths were not far from the latter 
number. Aside from the ordinary pickings of white eggs, there were 
some entire lots which perished. These were all experimental lots ex- 
cept in one instance. <A lot taken on the 28th of November, number- 
ing 103,000, was a total loss. There was nothing unusual in the appear- 
ance of these eggs until December 14, when it was observed that there 
were small circular white spots in a great many of the eggs; these were 
near the embryonic disk in all cases, and in most cases directly over it, 
moving about with the disk as if attached to the yolk. At this date, 
the eggs of the embryonic disk were just beginning to expand. Ina. 
few days it was observed that the lines showing the progress of the 
growth of the embryo were less regular in this than in other lots. If al- 
lowed to remain in the water, the white spots enlarged and the eggs soon 
decayed. They were, therefore, picked out as fast as they appeared, the 
examinations being made every three days. From 1,000 to 8,000 were 
taken out at a picking, and on one day the number rose to 15,000. By- 
the 9th day of February 80,000 had been taken out, one by one. They 
were then removed to the new hatching-house, when, in the month of 
March, about 5,000 of them hatched into weak fish. Unfortunately, the 
record does not throw any light upon the causes that led to this failure, 
but I have a suspicion that the eggs were kept too long in contact with 


798 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the milt, which I have found is sometimes fatal. The eggs and milt 
were this season kept in contact much longer than I[ have ever practiced 
before, with the hope that a more complete impregnation would thereby 
be secured. The latter object was not attained, and I now believe that 
a minute is as good as an hour of contact. With the above-named 
exceptions the eggs were to all appearance a healthy lot, and the ship- 
ments were made in a very hopeful spirit. 

The water in the new hatching-house fell, during the month of Novem 
ber, from 48° F. to 38°. December 14 it stood at 52°, and thenceforward 
through the winter between 32° and 33°. The development of the eggs 
placed therein was, therefore, very slow. The water of the old hatch- 
ing-house, however, was about as warm as usual, ranging from 44° to 38° 
in December, from 41° to 39° in January, 39° to 37° in February, 39° to 
38° in March, 38° to 34° in April. The eggs placed in this house early 
in the spawning season came forward rapidly, and were ready for ship- 
ment early in February. It was decided to take the 25 per cent. reserve 
out of these, and, therefore, but 150,000 of them were shipped. These 
were sent to Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, Febru- 
ary 10 and 11. The remainder of the shipments were made from the 
eggs that passed the winter in the cold water of the new hatching-house, 
and so much colder was the water and so much more backward the de- 
velopment of these eggs than I had anticipated, that not until April did 
they reach the state at which I thought it safe to pack them up. 


4,—DIVISION AND SHIPMENT. 


There were left at time of shipment, as nearly as could be estimated, 
1,470,000 eggs; 370,000 of these were retained for hatching, and the 
balance, 1,100,000 were sent away—616,000 on account of the United 
States Fish Commission, and 484,000 on account of the States of Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. The distribution is given 
more in detail in Table IV. 

It has been the practice, rarely omitted at this establishment, to 
remove the unfertilized eggs from each lot before packing it up. At 
the stage suitable for packing, the unfertilized eggs are very tender, and 
a moderate agitation suffices to turn most of them white, when they can 
be easily removed. This was generally done at the time of packing, 
but in some cases a few days before. The packing-boxes used this year 
were from 1} to 34 inches deep. The eggs were, as usual, enveloped 
in mosquito-netting, between layers of wet sphagnous moss. Between 
the packing-boxes and the outer cases was a space of about 3 inches, 
filled with chaff, dry moss, or sawdust. The cases generally left Grand 
Lake Stream in the afternoon, and were carried on sleds to Princeton, 
where they passed the first night. The second day they went to Calais, 
and there passed another night. The third day (two days from starting) 
they took the railroad train at St. Stephen, N. B., and from this point 
the journey was generally uninterrupted. 


COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS. 799 


The eggs endured the journey in most excellent condition, and very 
encouraging reports were received from most of the consignees. Out of 
thirty lots shipped, sixteen were reported as arriving in ‘“ good” con- 
dition; three, ‘very good”; one, ‘‘splendid”; one, ‘excellent, and very 
superior”; only four were reported in inferior condition. ~ The promise 
of an unusually successful issue was very flattering, but it was only 
partially fulfilled. 


5.—HATCHING AND PLANTING. 


The eggs that were reserved at Grand Lake Stream suffered least loss 
in hatching. Out of 370,000 but 22,000 were lost, and had the unfertil- 
ized been all removed, as in the case of those shipped, the loss would 
have been much less. The young fish were apparently healthy and 
vigorous. They were, as usual, set free the last of April and early in 
May, in the shallow waters around the shores of Grand Lake, and a few 
in Grand Lake Stream. 

Next best were the eggs that were hatched at other points in New 
‘England. The poorest results were obtained from the eggs that were 
shipped to the farthest points. The total number of fish planted is 
reported at 1,145,665; this indicates a total loss of 324,335 after shipment, 
which, considering the careful removal of the unimpregnated eggs, is 
not quite satisfactory. I am disposed to locate in the Grand Lake 
establishment the causes which led to the greater part of this loss. 
Though unable to point them out with certainty, I think I am on their 
track and shall be able to ferret them out. The details of the distribu- 
tion of the young fish are givenin Table V. In the other tables, not yet 
referred to, will be found records of temperature, of fishing, of spawning 
operations, and of measurement of the parent fish. 


REPORT OF-COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


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FISH AND FISHERIES. 


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| 
| 
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COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS. 805 


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IWMWIDIG— A AIAVY, 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


806 


ONOWGReM je corse eek Ayunog sseqoqud, tu ees mara OUT UCATIS | 000 FB 1 OSU HW ‘dL | 9D Ssoqogn¢ ‘eAojy 
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807 


COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS. 


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| 


808 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


a 
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COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS. 


809 


TABLE VI.—Observations on temperature and weather at Grand Lake Stream, 1878 and 1879. 


| 
Temperature. 
| fe | 
| } ¢g gq S 
Date. | Pas aes ms Wind. 
te VRE? eae 
fee: [ees 
| E ulen Ee aiG 
A | a | 
| @ | ala leas 
| é | fol | ~ rion | 
l re = Sane | (a 
| | 
1878. 
Oct. 1, 39 70 59% 614 47 Southerly; lightin morning, gentle} 
| | | through’ day. | 
2| 54/71 | 60 | 624) 48 | A.M, light NW.; p.m., light S. 
le by E. in evening. 
3 | 55} 70 | 61 | 633) 484) Light N. by W., dying away at 
| night. 
4} 51 | 67 | 614) 633) 483) Fresh N. by W. or NW.; light 
morning, and calm evening. 
5 | 48) 61 | 61 | 62 | 483) NW.; fresh in morning, strong 
| through day. 
6| 45 | 57 | 60 | 603) 483) A. M., very light NE.; i Daa 
| hauled to light N. and Ww. , dy ing 
| entirely away at night. 
Uf |) CEE ae) a) Gi EW AGED css pease oeeo ace segoeedase 
8| 42) 56 2 59 | e Soars SERS SARA DAE de Fae Aaa 
9) 47 | 58 | 58 | 59 | 48 |...... OG) cosehce soonuconseaodenaaceal 
TAS) EES PA ei Beh | CEE VG Seo coepepeobeacesncodemsecadc 
Mit 874011587054.) 56s 490) Northi 22.55. 285es20-GGecee <2. See 
LAR SSN lO2n OLN SOG) R489) UMass eclen pa aoe tai 
TSO) | OOM os mote ea Se NOT Gn see e nists ri sscsrmacasi-ince— see 
14 41 | 60 | 51 54 | 48 | West SOOUaSEAGSO DE ACh aD BeSDSoerer 
toy eo Reval os leans as. stages ss ceetes toe 
Th |) Bi) Heb |) is Sy) Ss | Ronin eso scecomcon eaosdeeoedees: 
18 | 55 69 55 | 57 | 48 | South.....-.--2-2.ceeeeeeeeeeee 
60 | 55 | 57 | 57 
20 | 44 | 46 | 55 | 55 | 48 
21} 42 | 56 | 53 | 54 | 48 
22 | 40 | 59 | 53 | 54 | 48 
23 37 | 46 | 53 | 53 | 47 
24 | 49 | 50 | 52 | 53 | 47 | 
25 | 49 52 | 52 | 53 | 48 
26} 46 | 55 | 52 | 52 | 47 
27 | 45°| 50°) 52 | 52 | 47 | 
28 | 48 | 46 | 52 | 52 | 47 | 
29 | 28 | 36 | 47 | 49 | 47 
30 | 22 | 37 | 46 | 47 | 46 
31 | 46 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 47 
Nov. 1| 38 | 44 | 484! 49 |... 
2| 84 | 53 | 48 | 49 | 464) Souths very light eres te- ocssces 
3] 39 | 42 | 48 | 49 | 463) Northwest cs. hes escielns. os 
4} 21 | 39 | 45 | 463) 46 | SE., light till 3 p. m.; then NW., 
| | | fresh. 
| | 
| | 
5; 18 | 29 | 423) 423|..-.| NW., strong all day -.......-..... 
6; 20 | 35 | 41 | 42 |....| NW., strong, dying away at night. | 
7| 14] 388] 40 | 414)....| Soutien Fen tle ose eee ace: 6 
8 | 28 | 30 | 403) 393) 46 | NW. , fresh in a. m., strong i inp. m.- 
9} 28| 81 | 494| 433! 453) NW, fresh or gentle.........----- 
10 | 27 | 33 | 39 | 39 is _.| NE. to NW., strong BA SAAS ESAS 
1) 285138 38 | 393)....| Northerly in a.m; ealm in p.m. 
12 | 40 | 46 | 40-) 41 | .| S.E., gentle; late in p.m. changed | 
| to SW. 
13 | 24 | 42 | 40 41 | southerly, light]-2epeeseere eee 
| 
14] 27 | 35 | 39 | 40 CV ieee ee 
15 | 23 | 33 | 38 | 39 |.... NW. light, calm at evening .-..--- 
16} 20) 37 | 374) 39 |_.-.))S., light : all’ Cay soe be eee eee ae 
17 | 30 | 41 | 38% 394). _. Variable; westerly, easterly, very 
| light. 
18 | 25 | 34) 38 | 39 |..-.| Southeast, gentle-2tt222+- eee 
19) 81 95 87 B74 Ab; GONG: fresh -eeee eee 
%0 | 34/38 | 373, 3 .| N., gentle to-light .............--- 


Other phenomena. 


Fo 
@ eae: 


gy till 9 a.m.; some thin 
but sun four-fifths of 


time.* 
Clear all day; cloudy evening. 


Foggy till 84 clear rest of 
day. 


| Clear all day. 
Do. 


a. Mm. 5 


| 

| 2 
| Cloudy till middle of p.m.; per- 
| fectly clear rest of day. 
| 


| Cloudy. 
| Clear. 


Cloudy. 
| Rainy. 
| Cloudy. 


Halt reloiine 
Do. 


Clear mostly. 

| Clear a.m., cloudy p. m.; snow 

began at 3 p. m., cleared at 53; 

3 inches. 

| A little snow in a. m., cloudy rest 
of day. 

Clear all day. 

| Clear a.m., cloudy p. m. 

Snow began to fall at 8 a. m.; con- 
tinued all day; 5 or 6 inche Ss. 

Snowing very lightly all day. 
Partly clear, partly cloudy ; fully 
clear at sunset and after. 

Clear a.m., cloudy p.m. 

Lightraini in a.m. , cloudy in p. m.; 
cleared in evening. 

Light rain from 10 a.m. to 5 Dp. 
m.; clear morning and evening. 

Mostly clear. 

Clear. 

ees mostly. 

Clear. 


Cloudy, snow and sleet in evening 
and ‘all night. 
apne snow and some sleet all 


Giety, with very light rain. 


810 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


TABLE VI.—Observations on temperature and weather, §c.—Continued. 


| : } 
Temperature. | 
ee ne 
| a | | 
| S. |2 | 
as is : | 
Date. | f $s 20: Wind. Other phenomena. 
| BS Bc) Ao 
<q a) 2 
; salted _ ig } 
a1 a/ al] ia | 
fad | &] es | & iS 
~ | d/l |o | 
1878. | al 
Nov. 21} 33 | 36 | 38 | 39 -| N. to NW., light; dying away in | Clearinmorning, butsoon cloudy, 
| | | p.m. , and cloudy rest of day till sun- 
| | | set; after that clear. 
22 | 30 | 35 | 3883] 393)....| NE., light; increasing at evening. | Cloudy all day; slight rain in 
| evening. 
23 | 47 | 49 | 393) 403'..... Southerly; light to gentle .-......| Cloudy, with occasional light rain. 
24 | 37 | 41| 40 | 41 |_...| NW. to W., light..----.-..-+--2-. | Clear. 
25! 30/40 39) 40 |....) Westerly a.m., southerly p.m....| Clear am., cloudy p.m.; snow in 
| | | evening and nearly all night. 
BG le 30536) N89" 40. kN scbeoshe secre eee | Clear. 
Di) PAY 54 87") 89! 122 22) Westerly =--2--- 2222 -e2 paces: | Do. 
28 | 31 | 32 | 393] 403/....| Southeast and southwest ..-..... | Rain since 103 last evening and 
nearly all to-day. 
29 | 30] 98 | 38 | 39 |....| NW., strong -----.---:------------| Clear. 
30 | 30 | 36 | 383) 39 |..-.| NW.., light a.m., strong p.m ..-.. Mostly clear. 
( \ t | ! 
SSS == = ; == = = 
Temperature. 
| | 
ae ES | 
la ole 
| ‘9 |'9 
| IS oF o 
|  |Eglee 
Air. 38/28 : 
Date. | Re tent re Wind. Other phenomena. 
@ Of) 3 on 
BE HA 
jo-4 | ors 
= 5 
| Fe 
|iearwetlins 
Sie | 
a | | 
é | = | 
1878. ee | 
Mec el Gul esos 44g Wrosterluin ccc ceececeacien acer moereaeraae | A.m., clear; p:m., cloudy. 
Dieeass| Sauda | SOUUHOLLY = tee eae cee teleee nee emieeinae er POLO 
Bees AQUIAS NT South eas borlys ccs. oeee cneeieteceieseeraa scene Clondy, rain; heavy rain last 
night. ‘ 
ah loeace | sa) CES i Rimmed tbroiires=55555-5554 sonesgsseqsqce- Cloudy ; some rain. 
Saieoonl ose aeNorhherlys Ont esas. seenaeeeee eee eer Cloudy. 
6 | 25) 37 | 43h! Westerly, sentle...-0-----0-22-cceessseesnes A.m., cloudy; p.m., clear. 
YOlgosee o4 |:424| Northwest, gentle......--,---------+----<-- 
Si leeloniteoa) +20) Nonbhiwestet lesion ack caceeceee ns eesaeine ee 
9| 12/ 314) 42 | Westerly, light to gentle..........---...--. Cloudy. 
10 | 23 | 324) 42 | SE. and SW., gentle to strong.=:-:......---. A.m., SNOW. | 
Td {), 745) 136) | 420) SHvand |S: strong oo. cee. sets se miei nelsee = Rained heavily all last night, and 
Hie [eu : moderate rain through days 
125} 29) 1936) 439) Northwest ates heres eee aeeepeiesleeriaat Cloudy. 
13 | 21 | 33 | 43 | Northwest, strong --.-.:--------- eps anbEngos Cloudy, mostly. 
14} 15 | 32 | 42 | Strong, NW., through night and a.m.; p. | A. mm, clear; p.m., cloudy. 
| m. changed to easterly. 
15 | 27 | 33 | 414) Light, southerly .-.....----------.--------- Cloudy; snow early a. m. 
16923) | 33) 414) Strong, northerly See -e a ceuewclee eee eae Cloudy till evening. 
17 | 13 | 33 | 38 | Gentle, westerly ...-..-.....-.----.-------- Clear. 
18 AM eye net eee eee ae er ee OR te oe aasqodd 
19M) Melt) (32: 384!" Noxtherly ...cssce. see seeeeeeneeeenen see es Clear. 
ZOMeLOn oon! (09!) Westerly... sseecseeee saaeneeeeens=ere Do. 
21} 2! 32 | 40 | Snow, calm a.m Mostly cloudy; gale in night. 
22 | 38 | 33 | 403) Southeasterly.....-- | Mostly cloudy. 
Zon eLOMES 22 BOea) WICSLOLLY) -o acer cos queeeee eee cena esarl== = Clear. 
DUO MOUEOM ESD oe seb one Soe a eae oes Do. 
2bn |store 32 | 40 | Southwesterly --...--....-...---.- Do. 
Piel pocbalh Oleic ain eeeaees GOOG Sa 8 n nisc ron ive doce meee ee ace Do. 
Di, BURR Z Gs See RL a alate IRMA i WE SA 8 a Re aN Do. 
28ileel ou gon | e4lall PNOLEROTIY. | osc ss clenie clap eemmneleemers a= Do. 
Po Wala sie S031 7g ek RE a a a ep A SE Do. : 
Be eee Deiat talon emseineteraicis ie asin athe anpcernia saimee rae sicfe'se cleats Cloudy; snow in evening 
BU M5 gt TAD es ee ee es ans ee ne So RAS eae Clear. 


COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC. SALMON EGGS. 811 


Date. « 


1879. 


dan. 


Feb. 


COIS OP whe 


TABLE VI.—Observations on temperature and weather, §c.—Continued. 


Temperature. 
; | 
et |. 
is 
|}3 3 
Ad|4 3] 
Bee ; 
Air. 32/¢ 8| 
‘SS \—24 Wind. Other phenomena. 
[2 80) 3 ko 
Sina 
\a4)3- 
& |e 
B fe | 
ae | 
Gree sel Northerly, Wshts 2. oo s.cs tes ccltelewstenice dace Clear. 
0 |.-.-, 40 | Southeasterly, light Cloudy to snow. 
ides Ah mNorbheast, ireshie socks eceee cose ees So retell Snow. 
J) sose| Zab eked bellied Wpeeaasemeeeenconees cobeose ..| Clear. 
1Sa a= |840e) Northerly squalle:.soocscsecreessaasesscc sa. Do. 
1 PT ee | CO Gade. sa Gada Srin gannoaS ODasocdaqascadscmessacd| 
ope. 's=ce 2 9 Ue EE eases eee aS meneorecc Go Os Co sbEorarad 
12 |. AQ mouth enlyeacsccens see eee eae | Cloudy and snow. 
Gh 2a seid al sere eters SpogcobacoseescqEaocSaoAearoaser 
WS AQN eNortherlygeccesateneecorceceeetese cine | Clear. 
a NS fore AQ) es icine GON eS costae aise asco a ee ee ae esi eters Do. 
= eect UN be eace San 5c5 bode Bo BeS es eag ec CCSOSBEaenbasee Do. 
Silo: PA0g|Soeene eran aes | Cloudy. 
18 |....| 40 | Northwest | Clear. 
OM ee) SO uloreo ae AO cee ee yeas gaaieiaioclecit ts on ae| Do. 
—10 |.--..| 39 | Northeast ....... --| Cloudy. 
—16 |....| 39 | Northerly | Clear. 
20.|....| 40 | Southerly Snowy to clear. 
a ee hes ese oe eee Clear. 
Cie etl OO MPM ASDOLLYG ae ete oe eo eietee nem coke ai arte cals Snow last night; clear. 
—20'|....| 39 | Easterly and northerly..--.....--....-..... Clear. 
9) |:=-.| 39 | Northerly and westerly.....--..---..---.... Do. 
shh SORPNOT UN Gast oe sscna rns eerateiey eerste ceiae aoe | Show; clear. 
6; 22a -399! Northerly to southerly on car -o-=-'-/-c.< sees Clear. 
AD ||seod| GW bao sosesesercnEteoskosns coocoogueEee Relielelass | Snow. 
de emerl SON SOLON Cull OL LDCL Lieto vere ietere metalcore creole Clear. 
EG ese | PB OW Samet las athafeaslaciene luce ce ceice seve s oa ae same. Cloudy and little snow. 
Ilsy 4s 6Y) Woo S Ape sadn] oom Pone Be oS OU ASH DAC OOLOGCSRAGeUses| Do. 
Ud) eas} oO) NOLUL WSU, MLOS Ds cite -1sise cataetsee steer <i ee | Cloudy to clear. 
asus Pet hl amare Oye es Sno soe Seeacwssmaeecwtec esis cscs Clear. 
leoos Bit) | Boceoa DON Fae a rts seas lo gmiaeteeaarcionet er Do. 
Sieses | NOok TON OLUNOL ya. asia s(A-e ea eee as | Clear to snow. 
AONE =e s)9389) |oeaes MOMs dene aa cs nace emcee eee Snow to clear. 
2S; esc! BOrlesceee LON ee ee oan ee eee col Mostly cloudy; clear evening. 
ZOMEse ROOK nesters SS seme xaeloomataa oases ieee oe | OleaT: 
TONE 2 BO Meera aiaiava (emia iaielahsi= siatslete a ttatata rater ravers: apcbot arava, Do. 
DS ise SO Mae ore eta ciene o oiniaterhlc Guta ceoeicioe Suse cerameeinc e's Do. 
10 |- 39 | Northerly or northwest -............--..... Do. 
2 BONG as GON Asche eisaiteneee mn aeeaee ea see Do. 
— 7 |....| 38 | Southerly and southeasterly ..----......... Snow. 
10 |.--.| 38 | Northerly and northwest .-.....-.......... | Clear. 
9 | | 384) Southerly and easterly.........-.-.-...--- . Clear to cloudy. 
40 |.--.| 37 | Southerly and southeasterly ...---......2.. | Rain. 
Sn leeeeloty | INOTGHOrLY, << << .-2 em sc cernte c wiate'n ecgecon secon) Gib, 
atten teary (il MN OLLELW CS bts, 2.2) 2c co eile ee emieloamaen nels 0. 
=) ceo) Bie aaee dot apes r bieintareva lore e ele emer: eeebos 
2 |.-.-| 39 | Northerly and westérly.-.--.-- wistcl(s Leonel | Do. 
8 |. 383) Variable.._..-....- Sap nRoaosenco noes Mostly clear. 
12 |....| 384) Northeast | Snow storm. 
AP eee toOx | INOLUNDELLY) occ cme = = fepstomacsosHooaseoaS: Clear. 
dh le ced) Ghee! LEIS) ly geno p SoBe AMOR ao AS OSeOAe sop eosoaeto With snow. 
figlaec ROOM NOrun erly Cale) = 0/2 .:s-niseelelaneeiee eee ere | Cloudy and snow. 
3 |- 384 Northerly, fresh ce bs ance ee | Clear. 
--ee|----| 384] Southwesterly and sontherly....:.....-.... | Clear to cloudy. 
17_|----| 39 | Variable, snow squalls.....:...-.-......... | Partially clear. 
—5 BOM NOR On Vipecs 2 Acca serie a cee eee eee nee | Clear. 
I9 |. 39 | Hasterly to southeast .........----.--...... Cloudy to hail, to rain, snow last 
| night. 
20) ean OOMPNOLENOASLOLLY, .\. oicyso2 ~i- woonaaacmeeee eee Snow to clear weather. 
meee eee | OS, NOLEN OLY ge -ci.c «2 soa scicnsscce es eo eee eee Clear weather. 
0 |..-.| 38 | Variable, and very light Cloudy. 
NOR soe: |TOSe | PNOLGHORLY Lights... ces ceseseceneomee semen Clear; a little snow last night. 
Pil Geee Weer Wesnoe COPE ee oec an bchucs See ee ee eee Clear. 
Zip eaae|Looe|POOUtMOL yas cscs ss.c econ SOpSaCOndeobnoKaae Clear to cloudy. 
20 |....1 384] Northerly ......... BEeBoccooscect Benmeee ae Clear. 


812 


Date. 


i" 


Apr. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


TABLE VI.—Observations on temperature and weather, §:c.—Continued. 


Temperature. 


Other phenomena. 


snow. 


Clear, followed bY one 
1es light snow; 


Four or five inc 
clear evening. 


| Clear. 


| Clear morning; hail and rain at 
night. 

Rain. 
Do. 


Clear. 
D 


0. 
Clear ; 
night. 


a very little snow last 


| Clear. 


Do. 
Snow storm, six inches at 6 p.m. 
Clear. 
Clear weather. 
Clear. 
Clear to snow. 
Clear to cloudy. 
Snow storm, nine inches, 
Clear, a.m. ; cloudy, p- m. 
Cloudy, a. m. ; clear, p.m. 
Light snow, a.m. ; Clear, , p.m. 
Cloudy. 
Clear. 
Cloudy. 
Foggy and wet. 

Cloudy to rain, with thunder and 
lightning. 
Rain to snow ; 

ning. 


cleared off in eve- 


| Clear. 


Ke) 
28 
igAg| 
Fails 3, 
Air. 32°25) ; 
m co & Wind. 
HA e8 
= ye 
- 
male | 
é i 
—2 | | 38 | Northerly to southeast. -........--...-...--. 
P7ihea0e | Sk WN ontheas beans cok ho sscenceacc ee Pane e aoa 
{ | 
8) BS) | AH asberly a. scemec.caccecesciscerecietiserstos 
SoA IEEE ROO) eeenise COs cmcebcis ena sen oe cme iecinamo weer a 
PAE ered OL os eno Ree OSree Sap eCTae encs ee Ber DEE ae see 
30 | IBSSalMbastenlyc see scene Uae ean ae nee ee eee 
22 |.._.| 38 | Northetly «..02+s.s2ecseteeeeete coo 
i ea Bip ULE Se BSC (ae ame Ey Rm Ries AGE PFET a ie me 
Bears Jepea) oy) Wortherie and westerly, light.......-...... 
BO} ee oon NOLIN eLlyeee we eae <c a5 soe a ee ee ee 
15 |. 38 | North and northwesterly ..--..............| 
16 |. asileNontheasteemees ss ces a mee moe en eee 
22, |....| 38 | Light, northerly and westerly..--......... 
SA Feral BG: i eevainiciavste neeeisebemitttics sitiarc cin neeis eee wate ee eal 
14 BB) PAW CSLOIV ees note cate nscenwianscenace yacck 
2 |.---| 38% Southerly and easterly..........-....-.---. 
16 |....| 38} Southerly, a. m. ; northerly, p.m.........--. 
22k ese hOo! | HAS LOLLY: <1 ecmeaien se/sciicteceeeree Sere oe 
15,}. DOr SSE oS Se wel ere stele ener ees aera ne Ratmeem eee 
33 : CTOR [Reese Rak Mee se ice rename METIS 
3015.24 BO slits iho ay Sees ee ey Se Peg ek aim 
Zig eel O8s|  AStOL) i= so aos sa ceee see = erecee eee aeenee 
OF} IIe BBs Wiesterlyaicceecens coe ns acetate eee 
Dimrse ko; WW Hasterly oc sacs cies Beene eee eee 
37 30) eeeeee CON oe taet 2 4 ee eae ae 
37 |-- SO Northeast o52. sense Seana anes eee 
36 |....| 34 | Northeast tonorthwest.................--. 
22) eee 00) NOLL aNOGWeSbe- = sem seer sceneee ee - 
20s eeecovial INOTUNOR yas .2 2 anece coerce reece eee er cmer 
Ie Bee Por |) ANIGuINGE Ste ee Seaeeosper sasscosee: Seer 
4:4) Ke eelliteh | pp oe con aes eouanoseecees aes secremoe sess a6 acc 
ZOLee > 1838) | SNOLGHEL Ys cass on -scee acer eneteeeeee ere 
28 es. LOSt evar ble: enils ejacen ery acne ce Seesmic « 
Gh) llodaoll pion pen oranda eens os Gesococonneoebaneceescnboae 
34 38))(UStrongimortherly (oo-e2- 42.2550 ee eeeeeeee 
Vhs IG RN DT aa a RE ce ie OEE OE, CP 
OH marae MeNOLUN OAS: ae eee ce eerie nee see eee eee eae 
28 |....| 38 | Northerly, with snow squalls .............. 
oe ee ae Southwest or westerly .2--.--=---------s1s.- 
re EES BN y de ae eens ares SUC ke 
26 38 | Northerly Sime eI ee CRE Dinas oe eee 
36 |.-..| 384 Rresealy gentlen!. -2scisei7cs sence 
BB ies. SAGR Ic 1 Weim Seno mene, 7. ciel 
aooee 38 | Noes tomprthesstre-ccee aces eee eee 
PAM lle ST PNOLihenstpe dn aoe. | sane mee meen nee 
4leoaa|| ality! (Cian aya kad hy ee oqoecoooncde aasecescodce 
35 We Tiel lec cheek C1 Ot 5 Sete ice ot eee re 
36 ROLE | OREO 0 WEE aes ys sorter p tae ce yar) alley se 
40 | 37 | Northeast to heavy*north .......-...-..--.. 
34 |. of) | Stroncenorihenlyeeeneeeeeeee eee ee see 
34 |.. 37 | Light, southerly ss... ecsece ce dee liens 
38 ieee eye dO (5. re Riles 
40 PI ESSU SLAC bySOMLMWeS bse ceeeee eee nent eter eer 
ADE EE top|. Licht, Southeast = soscesseeeeaeeecenieceeeee 
46 | 38 | Easterly 2 OR WAT es enee eee seer tiaar 
47 38. Southeast: 2222 ¢-.<... 0s See. em Came epee he 
46 Seal eNionwmind loses cose eae see oe amen eee mee 
41 |FSRe MN OUEHOD Ys -i2.-.2. scence cece he ciascisccis asin 
enrol etoret= BO eect hatcinaaics gasses seas ananananen ee suai 


Snow, a.m. ; clear, p.m. 
Snow storm, five inches. 
Cloudy ; snow, p.m. 
Mostly cloudy. 
Cloudy to clear; 
Clear weather. 
Clear. 

Clear weather. 
Snow storm. 


snow squalls. 


Clear. 
Fair weather. 


Clear to snow. 
Cloudy; cleared off at night. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 


Clear. 


Cloudy. 


Do. 
Rain all day. 


Clear, a. m.; thunder shower, 


|) Gpam: 
Clear. 


a a ee 


COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOODIC SALMON EGGS. 813 


TABLE VI.—Observations on tempqature and weather, §-e.—Concluded. 


Temperature. é 
me) We 
e lg 
| Ss |s | 
Ag | o 
Bods 
Air. }a 3)? 3| 
Date. =o = ‘sy Wind. Other phenomena. 
ka = 3 =) 
a (a 
2 
i Aid| 
Wess lic | 
~ fe | 
1879. 

May 40 | 25.4) 5. | 8) leceort GooceaaassoseenoocoonaSoSseSqoRoanbosee 
Ge (ae | Sit) GY) US i ae A RARE Risin Ce 
(| oe S| emia CTS in © <a Noe Irae eC OR ok Fh ao em 
aN adn em. POOR secs ecco sae nct acs sclsieieerceboeree sees oscos 
SMe ees OO dts scisam losis at=isic/eteisieels clewiojsiSectesee meen one seis 
Oi Bere | Secs BON Saree Hateecia semeieistoea erie mes mecimesas cer niacctioce 

i) eee ETS | ew ee ap Seen ae Saree 2 kee en eee 
2 Lily eee ee BOS |S aon coeweceusaucueuaeeecenee Raub Sena eee 
7 | Ren eae Cr EN Ree ts ia es Ee Re 
Ts cael eee BOR ccccccecesccaceccacwecinecccuresescctoosSees 
TE One GEE A) Pees ce cemicwicies ascrenscee ner eeeenneaeeen ee 
16} Sessa epee CN SRO RB O OEE AGS DEC Soeo USN aco o Cosa bens CBRes one 
3 [fea baee 40 Eee we me sasetcscsce maces sncaccscncecenecced 
TO oe alesis AOR tee emerson enaise ase aisanicisisicm ce nisisiciceeinten 
BRS les eoal asec CA aria a6ac Goo SOUS OES CUDOSIEEBOGOUEE CHSC nS OUOOO Ee 
2 eee eee Pol booosocoqcacoacccue SsAooodgongbeqnod Ssadodene 
20H Soeiectecs.s “4 = =[=i=i=]al=\elulstntalaleim elnlwreee sielu'e/s[cinlc am ain'e=\s\=is/a\0'e\c/a/s 


CE 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


814 


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waist Neeeeediice 88. | To BLY |-02)) Q'68)| 0g, | 22: fooslaresesirecsieersmaleseniacressh ssl ty leg | gpl fe leet s=-|e2o| Lege |G le eee ee cen eee err 
cil [ee ol Repae| fecaaee mae a Al a Ae A NE INAS hare eos pees eiceieel road pened ite a Roe | SranlaRE TA NA SR Seale 25 [bv yy Hefei acs Peart Salsa tady 
gl (oa Naa aa otal Noahs al oseh aa ial OS Be GABE BS oe] PS Bl oR SOR IOS) ren aaateaeacoe Roe | peas 17 SO ABU OB es See oes IE |] YG fo 9 eee eos = Wienlaynr 
eee eee es eal or eee LON Cla lefoe NOL, |G Reel Sake igi overlie gear ce wl as eel pagal Sie Gta hOvelocly jamin |reae WG LCE Sa a ae eee aaa pes ALeNAG oT 
Se Dal aa a eee ES IT ee i IG ais. 1g, Pees ees cme codociog at ooolocioo soneenocamap ee || te lay lee |peosecteoc| @aa {| are aie rete cena Ee ATOR UU 
“6L8T 
RIGanOe | ORO Steel laren se WAT ph |b | ecnel te joie | 2 Fee eg Soe ol eee SSaSIEG Weal 67 || Te [PSPS 5I Cache | ite) (Posse See oarSoOaCo Grim eM eYaL 
ex heed een eed enlarsy On etOy lcSe lOpnG mi Leven NaGrl nen Tarp hOsniccor koe en L | $9 | LG | €°8E | 0€ GGANOS 1 See cee ersten es man LOCULOAONT 
Bees (iter ane (Vaasa cl ae 9y | 0€ | 48h |G |-L°Lh] TS | OF | 0g | $29 | & | 6G | Te | LFS | Te | az Ob WANS) 1] Tee eee TT TRE | Na Pal| ILE ne Se OSS sag SSS SP EE aYG) 
‘BL81 
— | | ¢ —~={ == a — ——— =~ = 
S| leh ei tsi}! tS) val Ne) ts) ] ts! |] fehl Is} va Ne) | te} i) ts) its} si a oO va) ls! eto} tel) tele dey Aa oO A 
ic) i) oO 2 oD 4° oO 2 Ac eo ffs 4° ie Ry Ass a {Ss 4° ie 4° is?) Pe & ee AS 4° is 4° 
mie | 8 ie 8 jee] 8 a] 4 2 G jpol Sis 3 ® 5 |8o] B |so| % ® | io G |pol & |eo 
@ s ® o |r) oo D (o) y Oo |Ehe| o : © oe str] © cr] y ) co) are} oO ol 
@ 4 @ |gol & a @ |go] & B 2 |gol'S |gol & a 2 |gol @ |ge 
: S ‘ Bis ¢ fy iy Bo ? i i Bs ¢ Bo 9 : Bo! ¢ Bo 
Pa DH aD Bo 2H Loa 
@ far} far) oO @® oO 
a 3 i is! i 's! 
—— ae : ‘oved 
‘Ut | ‘xe | ‘ue, UL XV "ULB ), UL “XU utd T UWL 'e YL UL ‘XU urd "Ue J, 
anor ‘OSNOY-SUIOJVY Plo ye 109e AA “WIROI}S JO IOV A “ITW 


-Suroyey' Mou ye Toye AY 


. 


‘amsnjour “GLgT ‘Avy 07 Q1eT ‘aqopg wouf ‘uvang ayvT puvsy yw saunpouadua, wo suoynasasgo fo h.immiUns [9.1WO— TTA ATA, 


_ = eS a 5 a a eR 


XXXVIII.—DO THE SPAWNING SALMON ASCENDING THE SACRA- 
MENTO RIVER ALL DIE WITHOUT RETURNING TO SEA? 


By Horace D. DUNN. 
[ With notes by Livingston Stone. ] 


A. 


[Communication from San Francisco, Cal., September 26, 1876. 


Prof. SPENCER F. BArRD, 
Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.: 

Str: I am the author of the article lately published in the San Fran- 
cisco Bulletin on fish-culture, which was sent to you by B.S. Redding, 
esq., fish-commissioner of the State of California. Mr. Redding has 
kindly loaned me his copy of the United States Fish Commission Report, 
1872~73, and at his suggestion I write you. I have been a resident of 
California since January, 1850, and during the last ten years have taken 
great interest in its fisheries. As a consequence I have been much in- 
terested in the article of Mr. Livingston Stone on the Sacramento salmon 
in the report. In some particulars my experience differs from that of 
Mr. Stone, and on this account Mr. Redding has asked me to write to 
you. 

On page 180, Mr. Stone states that all the Sacramento salmon die 
after spawning. No doubt great numbers do, but a very large portion 
of the run return to sea again, as before the close season between 
August 1, and November 1, was established it was a common occurrence 
to find spent salmon in market between the dates named. These salmon 
were very much emaciated, had no scales, and varied in color from a 
rusty black on the backs to a faded brown on the belly. Some were of 
a dirty white color all over, as if they had been parboiled. 

In regard to the quality of the Sacramento salmon, I think they com- 
pare favorably with those caught in Maine. The mode of treatment | 
here of salmon is simply barbarous. The fish are caught in drift-nets 
in the Sacramento River, near Rio Vista, about eighty miles from this 
city. They, as a rule, lie in a boat for sgveral hours exposed to the 
sun before being brought to the steamer’s wharf. There they lie in large 
heaps for several hours more, and are dragged on board and put in large 
heaps again. AtSan Francisco the fish are dragged ashore and roughly © 
thrown into wagons, and on arrival at the markets experience the same 
treatment again; as a consequence, the salmon have been dried and 


heated and much bruised before they are sold to the consumer, and their 
815 


816 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


flavor and firmness of meat much impaired. Treat the Maine salmon in 
the same way and its best qualities would be gone. 

Our salmon do take bait readily in the salt water at the mouths of rivers 
and creeks, and in the bays along the coast. At such places fly-fishing 
is generally not successful. 

I have had several conversations with Mr. Redding about his obser- 
vations of the San Joaquin salmon and of your desire to procure a 
species of salmon that can be successfully introduced into the waters of 
the States south of the Potomac. It seems to me that the San Joaquin 
salmon will not be as good for such purpose as the salmon which fre- 
quent the rivers which empty direct into the Pacific along the California 
coast from Monterey north. This last variety makes its appearance at 
the mouths of the coast streams from the middle of October to Novem- 
ber, awaiting the annual winter rains to swell the streams, up which 
they go to their spawning-beds. The spawning takes place in December 
and January, the spent fish returning to the ocean in February and 
March. These fish, in good condition, have been caught weighing 25 
pounds. As salmon spawn at set times, regardless of change of loca- 
tion, the coast species would arrive in the rivers of the Southern States 
when the streams would be swollen with winter rains, the water of a 
low temperature, and such enemies as blue-fish, Spanish mackerel, &e., 
withdrawn to warmer waters near the Florida coast. The rivers, also, 
being higher than in summer, would, with the colder weather, insure 
the salmon a better chance for successful spawning than would be the 
case with the San Joaquin salmon, which would be in the rivers in Au- 
gust and September, and easily caught, which is not desired until the 
rivers become fully stocked. 

I would also call your attention to a fish commonly called salmon- 
trout, which visits our coast rivers about the same time the salmon do, 
probably two weeks later. This fish is trout-shaped, being longer and 
rounder than the salmon, and of proportionately less weight. This fish 
spawns as late as February, and possibly early in March, after which 
they return to the mouths of the streams and to the ocean in the early 
part of April. They have been caught weighing 20 pounds, from 8 to 
10 pounds being a common weight. I think this variety would do well 
if introduced into Virginia and the two Carolinas. They are a very 
game fish, flesh before spawning a faint cream-color, changing to white 
when returning to sea. A 7-pound fish in good condition measured 313 
inches long, while the largest run to about 40 inches. This variety of 
fish stock the coast streams, where the mountain trout have been com- 
pletely fished out. They are, however, fast disappearing under the 
effects of netting, giant-powder, and spearing, and promise to become 
extinct within the next ten years unless protected by law from such 
dangers. 

Apologizing for so long and disjointed a letter, I remain your obedient 
servant, 

HORACE D. DUNN. 


DO SPAWNING SALMON DIE WITHOUT RETURNING TO SEA.817 


B. 


[Notes on letter of Mr. Horace D. Dunn to Prof. Spencer F. Baird, dated San Fran- 
cisco, September 26, 1876. By Livingston Stone. ] 


In the first part of his letter Mr. Dunn says that on page 180, United 
States Fish Commission Report, 1872 and 1873, Mr. Stone states that “all 
the Sacramento salmon die after spawning,” and criticises this.statement 
as follows: ; 

“No doubt that great numbers do, but a very large portion of the run 
return to sea again, as before the close season between August 1, and 
November 1, was established it was a common occurrence to find spent 
salmon in market between the dates named.” 

Now, Mr. Dunn, undoubtedly without designing to, has misquoted 
what I said. By referring to page 180, of the report referred to, it will 
be seen that I did not say that all the Sacramento salmon die after 
spawning, but limited my statement to the salmon of the McCloud 
River. Indeed, in reference to the Salmo quinnat dying in the California 
rivers I took particular care in my report to say that my remarks ap- 
plied only to the salmon of the McCloud and upper tributaries, because 
these salmon I was familiar with, while I was not familiar with the habits 
ef the Sacramento salmon of other portions of the river. The exact 
words of the statement on page 180, of the report are as follows: 

“Soon after this they (the salmon) become foul, diseased, and very 
much emaciated, and in the McCloud River, at least, they die a short 
time after spawning.” 

This statement I am prepared to support by evidence collected since 
that time, and by the testimony of many others who have had oppor- 
tunities of observing the McCloud River salmon with particular refer- 
ence to this peculiarity. 

The fact further mentioned by Mr. Dunn in confirmation of his state- 
ment that spent salmon were frequently seen in San Francisco in the 
fall is no evidence in regard to the McCloud River salmon, for no sal- 
mon in any stage were ever sent from this river to the San Francisco 
market, while it is a fact within my own knowledge that spent salmon 
were formerly sent to market from the vicinity of Cloverdale and also 
from Tehama. My own opinion on the subject, confirmed by five sea- 
sons’ observation on the McCloud River, is that the Sacramento salmon 
which spawn near the sea are, many of them, able to return to the salt 
water, but that the salmon which spawn as far away from the ocean 
as the McCloud River and upper tributaries of the Sacramento are 
too much exhausted after spawning to find their way back to the sea 
alive. 

The remarks of Mr. Dunn, farther on in his letter, in regard to the 
quality of the flesh of the Sacramento salmon, and also in regard to 
taking them with a hook and line, I entirely agree with and approve of. 
Ido not, however, attach as much importance as Mr. Dunn does to the 

52 F 


818 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


distinction which he makes between the coast salmon of California and 
the San Joaquin salmon. He says that the coast variety is better than 
the San Joaquin fish for introducing into the Atlantic rivers of the 
South, because they spawn in December and January, which would be 
more favorable months for the salmon to ascend the rivers in. 

Now, I am inclined to think that the coast fish are the same variety 
as the San Joaquin fish, and that salmon do not spawn at set times, re- 
gardless of change of location, as Mr. Dunn asserts. 

On the contrary, I think that the spawning season is a mere accident of 

place, and that if the California coast salmon should be introduced into 
the Atlantic rivers they would adopt a time for spawning suited to their 
new location which would be entirely independent of the season at which 
their progenitors spawned on the Pacific coast, and consequently it would 
make no difference as far as the favorableness of their spawning season 
was concerned whether it was the coast salmon or the San Joaquin salmon 
that were introduced. 

The suggestions in regard to the introduction of the California sal- 
mon-trout into Hastern waters, with which Mr. Dunn closes his letter, 
is, I think, a very valuable one. This fish, the local name of which is 
salmon-trout, is a large and excellent variety, and is certainly fast dis- 
appearing. If it is not practicable at present to transport any of them 
to the Atlantic States, some effort ought to be made at once to, at least, 
protect and increase them where they are. 

In conclusion I take the liberty to say that Mr. Dunn’s contributions 
on fish-culture to the newspapers have been of a high order of merit, 
and rank among the best specimens of newspaper literature on the 


subject. 
LIVINGSTON STONE. 


XXXIX.—PRESENT STAGE OF THE SALMON EXPERIMENT 1 
TASMANIA, 


By Morton ALuport, F. L. S., F. Z. S., &e. 
(Read November 12, 1877.) 


[Papers and proceedings and report of The Royal Society of Tasmania, for 1877, 
pp. 109 to 114.] 


Though grilse weighing from 3 to 7 pounds have, during the last four 
years, been taken in the Derwent, how is it that no mature salmon—that 
is, fish weighing from 15 to 30 pounds, have been captured? This isa 
question frequently asked both here and in the neighboring colonies, 
but it will be necessary before attempting to answer it to refer to whatis 
known of the early life-history of the salmon in Europe and Tasmania. 

It has been ealculated by able British authorities that in specially 
good salmon rivers, such as the Tay in Scotland, not more than one egg 
in every 1,500 deposited ever becomes a salmon, the diminution in num- 
ber taking place chiefly during the earlier stages of life, and especially 
during the journey of the smolt to the sea, and the first few weeks of 
their residence there, though even the grilse appear liable to have their 
number considerably decreased by the attacks of marine enemies before 
their return as veritable salmon. 

The limited number of mature salmon we can yet have in the Der- 
went might, therefore, alone account for their non-capture, but we must 
add to that disadvantage the want of adequate appliances to ensnare 
large-sized fish. The chance of taking one with the rod is infinitesimal 
while the fish are scarce, the fishermen scarcer, food very abundant, and 
the difficulties with which the angler inthe Upper Derwent has to con- 
tend great. The one or two fine-meshed seine nets worked down the 
river, though well adapted to scrape out smolt, are quite unfitted for the 
capture of salmon, as they are shot so as to leave a considerable space 
between the net and the shore, and take so long to haul that the wary 
old salmon would, before the end of the net ene the land, pass round 
one or the other, fae SO escape. 

The majority of the 18 or 20 grilse caught have been taken in an 
ordinary grab-all net, having a mesh of such a size that only the fish of 
from 3 to 5 pounds weight can mesh themselves, and no larger salmon 
is at all likely to be taken by the same net, as in this method of fishing 
it is essential that the fish should be able to get the gill covers through 
the mesh, or by backing it can at once free itself. If a grab-all net, 


having a mesh of two and a half inches from knot to knot, was used, 
819 


820 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the chance of catching amature salmon would be largely increased, pro- 
vided only such mature salmon are there to be caught, which has yet to 
be proved. 

We know that in our own waters the capture of sea-going salmonoids 
was at first, that is in the year 1869, confined to a few smolts only, and 
these were taken in the small meshed seines after strong freshets had come 
down the Derwent in the end of October and the beginning of Novem- 
ber. In subsequent years, and always in the same months, many of 
these fish came to the hands of the salmon commissioners till the river 
was very properly closed to the seine-nets above Hobart Town, and 
many more of the same fish were doubtless taken of which the com- 
missioners knew nothing. The capture of these smolts was in several 
seasons followed by the taking in December, January, and February, of 
salmonoids intermediate in size between smolts and grilse—that is, weigh- 
ing from three-quarters of a pound to one pound and a half—and it was one 
of these fish taken in December, 1869, of which Dr. Giinther wrote thatit 
presented all the characteristics usually found in the true salmon (Salmo 
salar). : . 

Time passed on and one grilse was taken-in December, 1873, followed 
by two or three others in subsequent years, and in the beginning of 
January, 1876, between two or three hundred of the salmonoids inter- 
mediate between smolts and grilse were taken at a few hauls of the 
seine-nets on the open sea beaches, some distance below Hobart Town, 
since which the river has been wisely closed still lower down. 

Eight of the last-mentioned fish, taken at random, were carefully ex- 
amined and dissected, and of these eight, six proved to be unmistakably 
true salmon (Salmo salar), while the remaining two exhibited character- 
istics common to both the true salmon and the salmon trout (Salmo 
trutta), so that their species could not be positively determined. We 
next come to the comparatively frequent capture of grilse this season in 
one place, and by one small net ill-suited for the purpose. And so far 
therefore, the sequence of events has been marvelously regular, and ex- 
actly what was to be expected if all went well. Yet it is not absolutely 
certain that this regular sequence will be followed by the crowning tri- 
umph in the shape of the capture of a 50-pound salmon, though the 
probabilities are greatly in favor, of such a capture being soon made if 
proper means are used to effect it. 

It is certain, from the life history of our salmonoids, as already detailed, 
that the smolts descending the Derwent find ample food and sufficiently 
salt water in the estuary immediately below Hobart Town to carry them 
on to the stage referred to as intermediate between smolts and grilse, 
after which stage we altogether lose sight of these fish for a time, dur- 
ing which they probably go with the floods of autumn and farther out 
on to the open coast, for when we next see them it is as grilse in early 
spring (August and September), and they then appear to be working 
their way up the Derwent estuary and following the myriads of indige- 


THE SALMON EXPERIMENT IN TASMANIA. 821 


nous small fry, which are then constantly hatching out. As the female 
of these grilse taken in early autumn invariably exhibit the ova consid- 
erably more matured than when taken in the spring, there can be no 
doubt that they are finding their way to the fresh-water spawning-beds, 
and would reach them in the early floods of winter, though among the 
wealth of suitable streams running through scores of miles of uninhab- 
ited, mountainous, and inhospitable country we have never yet (except, 
perhaps, in one instance) been able to ascertain the exact locality of such 
spawning-beds. 

It is quite possible that the grilse after spawning, and on its return 
with the last of the winter floods to salt water, requires some greater 
change and a longer journey seawards than when it was passing from 
the smolt to the grilse stage. And, if so, it may have to encounter more 
formidable marine enemies than on its first journey, or some unfavora- 
ble physical features of our coast of which we, as yet, know nothing. 
Unfortunately, the most scientific ichthyologists and the most practical 
fishermen are still equally ignorant of the precise habits of the mature 
salmon when at sea, and experience can alone prove whether the final 
stage is to be successfully reached, and, if so, when? 

During the last few years, and since the commencement of the salmon 

experiment, large numbers of specimens of our coast fish have been 
forwarded to and examined by Dr. Albert Giinther, of the British 
Museum, whose determination of the species proves that many of our 
fish are not merely representatives of but identical with British forms, 
such, for instance, as the John Dory (Zeus faber), the horse-mackerel 
(Trachurus trachurus), the dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris), the sprat (Clu- 
pea sprattus), and the conger (Conger vulgaris). Aud this fact goes far 
to show that there can be no vast difference between the physical fea- 
- tures of the Tasmanian and British coasts. 
If, therefore, there is any truth in the doctrine of natural selection and 
_ survival of the fittest, we may rest assured that as the grilse are rapidly 
increasing in number, some few out of the thousands sent time after 
time to sea will be able to adapt. themselves to their altered circum- 
stances, escape their foes, and find their way back as salmon. After 
the second migration is accomplished, the increased speed and cunning 
of the fish will materially improve its chance of successfully overcom- 
ing the dangers of all subsequent journeys. 

For each of the grilse which have been taken in one minute spot of 
the wide estuary of the Derwent, by a net ill-suited for the purpose, 
there must be hundreds, and more probably thousands, passing of 
which we hear and see nothing; and if this is true of the grilse after the 
manifold risks to which they have been exposed on our coasts, what 
must be the number of smolts that have passed down the Derwent, and 
what the still greater number of fry in the earlier parr stage on the 
gravelly rapids of some tributary or tributaries of the Upper Derwent? 
Can we set such numbers down at less than hundreds of thousands ? 


822 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


And yet, marvelous to relate, not one single parr has yet been seen (so 
far as the salmon commissioners are aware) in the fresh waters of the 
_ Derwent or any of its tributaries; and this is more amazing, because 
these fish take the worm or artificial fly with the greatest readiness, and 
would have been almost certain to make their presence known to any 
angler in their immediate neighborhood. 

A writer in Queensland, a few months ago, also referred to this extraor- 
dinary absence of the parrs, and used it as a powerful argument against 
there being any salmon in Tasmania; but he went rather too far, and 
used the same argument to prove that the migratory salmonoids, which 
he admitted were taken in the Lower Derwent, were only salmon trout, 
ignoring the fact that the parrs of the salmon trout (identical in appear- 
ance and habits with those of the salmon) were equally remarkable for 
their apparent absence. If amongst the dozens of suitable tributaries 
of the Upper Derwent we are unable to find a trace of these hundreds 
of thousands of salmon parrs, which it is impossible to doubt must be 
there, we need scarcely be surprised at our inability to light upon the 
mere handful of mature salmon which we are yet likely to have in the 
wide waters of the deep Derwent estuary. Some day an errant fisher- 
man on one of the small streams about or beyond the lakes, such as the 
Clarence, the Pine, the Nive, or the Cuvier, where nobody ever thinks 
of fishing now, will probably drop on such myriads of these parrs as will 
enlighten us as to the supply of grilse below, and the knowledge so 
gained may lead to the obtaining fresh supplies of ova for the stocking of 
our Northern and Western rivers, because the parrs never move far from 
the original spawning-place before assuming the smolt dress; and their 
detection would enable us in the following winter to watch for and take 
the parent fish on their certain return to the same spawning-beds. 

Before concluding, it may be as well to refer to the one instance in 
which it is just possible we have hit. upon the spawning-bed of a true 
salmon. In the early part of the past winter a pair of large fish were 
observed spawning in the Plenty, and were netted by the bailiff in 
charge at the ponds after the bulk of the ova were deposited. 

The female, after having parted with the greater part of her ova, 
weighed more than twenty pounds, and the male weighed nearly nine- 
teen pounds. Mr. Read, one of the salmon commissioners, examined 
these fish carefully, and both he and the bailiff are of opinion, from the 
external appearance of the fish, that they were true salmon, or at any 
rate belonged to one of the two migratory species. 

After stripping the remaining ova (almost oné thousand in number) 
from the female and applying the artificial process of impregnation, both 
fish were returned to the river. 

Subsequently a few of the naturally-deposited ova were, with judi- . 
cious forethought, taken from the rid, placed in one of our hatching- 
boxes mentioned, and then kept carefully separated from other ova. 

The artificially-impregnated ova failed, but that so. prudently taken 


THE SALMON EXPERIMENT IN TASMANIA. 823 


from the rid has hatched out; and an examination of both the eggs and 
the newly-hatched fry has very materially strengthened the impression 
in my mind that these fish were salmon, for the eggs were not only larger 
than any we have yet taken in the colony, but had exactly the pink 
tinge which characterized the salmon eggs received from England. The 
umbilical sac attached to the newly-hatched fry is longer in proportion 
to the width than that of the trout, and this was a marked. peculiarity 
in the fry hatched from the imported salmon eggs. It is quite true that 
there is considerable diversity both in the size and color of the eggs of 
the brown trout (Salmo fario); but the size of the eggs in that species 
by no means depends upon the size of the fish, as large eggs are often 
found in small fish; and no cause can yet be assigned for this diversity 
in size, but the difference in color clearly depends on the quality of the 
fish, the red-fleshed fish invariably producing red eggs, and the white- 
fleshed fish the pale straw-colored eggs. As an actual fact, none of the 
originally imported salmon-trout or trout eggs approached in size either 
these eggs taken from the rid in the Plenty or the imported salmon 
eggs; and very great interest will therefore attach to the subsequent 
stages of the fry now hatched, because, if they are true emigrants, that 
fact must be made manifest when the deciduous silvery scales which first 
hide the parr marks are put on, and the young fish assume the smolt 
stage, though it may even then (as long since pointed out) be difficult, 
if not impossible, to determine accurately to which of the two migratory 
‘species the smolts may belong. 

A few days after the foregoing was written, namely, on the 15th day 
of October last, a strong freshet came down the Plenty, during which a 
school of about a dozen salmonoids found their way into the water- 
course which supplies the ponds, being evidently bound seaward. Mr. 
Read was so much struck with the difference between these fish and 
trout-fry of the same size that he preserved two of them in spirits and 
forwarded them to me for examination. Externally, both fish presented 
the characteristics of true salmon, and upon dissection the number of 
pyloric appendages was found to be sixty-two in one and sixty-five in 
the other—numbers which prove these specimens to have been salmon 
and not salmon-trout. This capture, therefore, lends additional force to 
the presumption thatthe 20-pound fish taken in the Plenty was a salmon. 


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XL.—CORRESPONDENCE CONNECTED WITH THE TRANSMISSION 
OF EGGS OF THE QUINNAT SALMON AND WHITEFISH TO AUS- 
TRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, 1877, 1878, AND PRIOR YEARS.* 


AUSTRALIA. 
Sir Samuel Wilson to the Melbourne Argus, published November 30, 1877. 


Sir: The shipment of salmon ova which I received from California 
by way of Auckland arrived in very good condition. Only about 6 per 
cent. had perished during the voyage, and as there had been two trans- 
shipments, this was a very small proportion of loss. On the arrival of 
the ova at Sydney, they were taken out of the ice-house on board the 
San Francisco mail-steamer and transferred to the City of Adelaide. 

The ova were packed in layers in a box or ice chest, about 3 feet by 
- 4 feet, and about 2 feet indepth. They were placed between two pieces 
of thinly-woven cotton stuff, about 7,000 in each layer, and a layer of 
moss about 2 inches deep between each two layers, and also above and 
below the eggs. Six inches of ice was placed over the ova, and the bot- 
tom was pierced with holes to allow the escape of water from the melt- 
ing ice. The ice was renewed every 12 hours on the voyage from Syd- 
ney to Melbourne. The box had an inner lining, inclosing about 4 
inches of sawdust to act as a non-conductor, and which answered the 
object sufficiently well.’ 

The weak points in the packing were the use of cotton stuff, which 
rots and gets mouldy, while the moss remains green and fresh, and also 
that the ova were too closely packed together. For a short voyage this 
matters little, but in a long distance the difference is great, as when one 
egg loses vitality it soon decays, and the byssus, or fungus, which quickly 
forms, attacks all the ova within reach, which adhere to each other, and 
although little altered in appearance these ova invariably perish in the 
hatching. 

On the arrival of the ova at Sandridge they were removed, and taken 
by train and wagon, well packed on an elastic cushion of straw, and 

opened at the spring on Ercildoune estate, where the hatching-boxes 
_were ready for their reception. On the pads covering the ice being 
taken off, a layer of moss, fresh and green as if newly gathered, was to 
be seen covering the ova. On this being removed, the eggs were visible 


“For the purpose of completing the record, begun in the report for 1875-’76, vol. 4, 
I give some letters relating to sendings prior to 1877.—S. F. B. 
825 


826 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


through the thin net-like web which covered them, and at once it was. 
evident, to my great delight, that they were in splendid preservation, 
and far advanced in hatching, the eyes of the young fish being clearly 
visible. With little loss of time the ova were transferred to the gravel 
of the hatching-boxes, which had been prepared with great care, by be- 
ing screened to insure a uniform size, and by boiling to destroy insect 
germs which might be injurious to the ova. All were got into the 
-hatching-boxes the same evening, except one layer of about 7,000, 
which were left under the ice till next morning. About 6 per cent. of 
dead eggs were taken out at once, but many were adhering in clusters, 
most of which I knew could not live, but which looked healthy enough 
at the time. 

The next morning over 100 young (Asien were hatched, and ae 
were lively little fellows even at that early stage of their existence. 
When touched with a feather they would start off and swim round in a 
circle, and settle down again amongst the gravel. On the remainder of 
the ova being transferred to the hatching-boxes several of the young 


fish were found to have hatched out during the night, and during the 


day 400 or 500 made their appearance. 

The ovum of the American salmon is larger than that of the British 
species. It measures almost exactly a quarter of an inch in diameter. 
It is of a transparent pink color, and is nearly globular, being slightly 
elongated. The young fish is about aninch long, and it has attached to 
it the umbilical sac containing the yolk of the egg, which is a clean 
transparent red color, and seems quite as large as the egg from which 
it has emerged. This sac contains the food of the young salmon for 
three or four weeks, and is gradually absorbed, becoming smaller as the 
young fish grows. 

The hatching process is effected simply by placing the ova on a layer 
of gravel, over which a stream of water is allowed torun. The temper- 
ature of the water is a most important point, and I selected a spring 
from its being of a uniform degree of cold and from its freedom from 
sediment, which by settling on the egg interferes with the supply of 


oxygen necessary for its vivification. As the supply from the spring is | 


limited, being only four or five pints per minute, I had a pipe laid down 
from the creek supplying two filters which are used to increase the sup- 
ply. The water from the pipe can be shut off entirely when its tem- 
perature is too high, but for so far the difference has not been great be- 
tween the water from it and that of the spring. The permanent tem- 
perature of the spring is 55° and the pipe supply has risen on hot days 
to 62°, but the young fish did not seem to suffer in the slightest, and 
those in the warmest water are further advanced. The hatching went 
on favorably, but a large number of the eggs arrived at a certain stage 
and failed to produce live fish. Sometimes after a struggle the head 
would appear, and the little creature would perish in the effort to emerge 
from the shell. In others, after the eyes were plainly visible, the living 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 827 


principle became extinguished, as shown by the ovum becoming white 
or opaque. The fish which were hatched, however, were strong and 
healthy. For a time the dead eggs picked out were over 3,000 a day, 
and prospects were rather gloomy, but circumstances proved that it 
was more from the conditions to which the ova had been subjected be- 
fore their arrival that the losses were attributable than to their treat- 
ment after landing. 

The total shipment was supposed to be 50,000 ova, but from a rough 
count the number received was estimated at 55,000. When the eggs 
were opened, one layer of about 7,000 ova was put in each box. The 
combined stream runs through the boxes irom one to eight, the first 
boxes getting the fresh, cool water, and having the best chance, the 
water heating 2° in passing through the boxes in hot weather. When 
the hatching was nearly finished, a very marked difference was observ- 
able in the number hatched in each box. No. 1 had only about 1,000 
live fish out of 7,000 eggs. These eggs were on the top nearest the 
ice. The next layer in No. 2 had probably 3,000 fish out of 7,000 ova. 
_No. 3 was the best of all, and there were probably 6,000 live fish out of 
7,000 ova. Nos. 4, 5, and 6 were pretty equal, and hatched over 50 per 
cent. The eggs in No. 7 hatched out much earlier, but the percentage 
of loss was above the average. No.8 opened a day later, and the lowest 
layer of eges hatched out very quickly, having the warmest water, and 
produced probably 5,000 fish. 

It will thus be seen that the different lots of eggs, when treated 
exactly in the same way, varied very materially in the number hatched, 
showing that the causes of this difference were to be looked for in the 
treatment of the ova when first taken, or in the mode of packing, rather 
than in their management after their arrival in Australia. 

After the young fish were fairly hatched but few losses occurred, 
probably not 50 in the whole number. Of the ova, only about 500 
remained to hatch on the 24th, and that day, although the hottest of 
the season, did not appear to injure the alevins, as the young fish at this 
stage are called. The number of live fish is now about 28,000, which is 
a not unsuccessful result. Had the ova arrived a week earlier, probably 
three-fourths, could have been saved. If they had been a week later, _ 
probably they would have been a mass of putrefaction from the fish 
hatching out, as happened with the first lot of .20,000 California ova 
which I had brought over three years ago. 

Success in most things is the result of good arrangements, made with 
a thorough knowledge of the subject, and combined with favorable 
circumstances, where these are beyond control. The result in this case 
shows what a narrow line may lie between success and failure. 

The question now becomes, What is it best to do with these 23,000 
young salmon? While they are in the alevin stage the losses are com- 
paratively slight, little feeding is required, and they only require to be 
kept from enemies and allowed a good supply of cool water. When the 


828 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


sac is absorbed they become perfect salmon in miniature, but with a 
different coat, and can do well for themselves in the open river, being 
quick and active in eluding their enemies. In my opinion they cannot, 
then, be too soon turned out into suitable streams. 

The streams really well suited to the salmon in Victoria are few in 
number, and are only to be found on the slopes running to the southern 
coast from the Cape Otway or the Gipps Land Ranges. The Snowy 
River and the Gellibrand River are probably the two best for this pur- 
pose, but the rivers running through the Gipps Land Lakes into the 
sea may probably suit the Californian salmon, which can bear higher 
temperature in the waters and seas which it frequents than the species 
found in more northerly latitudes, and I am not unhopeful that even the 
Yarra, and the headwaters of the streams south of Mount Macedon, may 
be found not entirely unfitted for the purpose. 

But it will be asked, How are the young salmon to get from Breidoulne 
to the Gellibrand, to the Snowy River, or even to the Yarra? This dif- 
ficulty has been pained by actual experiment. By the aid of ice to keep 
down the temperature, and a force-pump to aerate the water and main- 
tain the needful supply of oxygen (without which no life can exist, 
whether of vegetable or animal nature), the fish can be carried for 24 
hours or more with every chance of success. The Yarra, or the creek 
at Wooling, near Macedon, is within six or seven hours’ traveling. The 
Gellibrand River is within 18 hours, as I have proved by carrying 
successfully a few young trout and salmon from Tasmanian ova with a 
very small percentage of loss. The Gipps Land Rivers are further 
away, but with a steamer like the Victoria, within 25 hours the feat 
might be accomplished, and the experiment, which has been successful 
so far, might be carried to a successful result, or, at any rate, as far as 
human enterprise might conduce to that end. Would it be too much to 
to ask that the government steamer Victoria should be allowed to convey 
a portion of these young salmon to the Snowy River and the Gipps 
Land Lakes? 

Since writing the above I have heard from Ercildoune, and the report 
is—During the last 24 hours six ova have died, and seven alevins. The 
fish are beginning to develop the gregarious instinct, and are collecting 
in large crowds, and continue to do well. 

I remain, &ce., 
SAMUEL WILSON. 

OAKLEIGH HALL, 

Last St. Kilda, Melbourne. 


Editorial of Melbourne Argus of December 1, 1877. 


The suggestion with which Sir Samuel Wilson closed his very interest- 
ing letter in our yesterday’s issue on the subject of the introduction of 
the salmon into the colony—viz, that the government should give the 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 829 


services of the Victoria to complete the work already so far advanced— 
is eminently reasonable. When private liberality and enterprise have 
done so much towards the conferring of a great benefit upon the 
country, it would be churlish to a degree if the state were to refuse to 
assist in the little that still remains to be done. Sir Samuel imported 
the ova at his own cost, and hatched them out in his own hatching- 
boxes, and it only now remains to transport the 23,000 infant salmon 
that form the magnificent result of his labor and outlay to waters suit- 
able for their growth and increase. The Victoria could not be more 
usefully employed than on -this errand. It would only be a matter of 
20 or 30 tons of coal, and some extra wages. Probably £100 would 
cover the whole cost. Further, if there is anything that the railway 
department can do to further the. distribution of the young fish, that 
also should be done, promptly and cheerfully. When the history of 
fish acclimatization in Victoria comes to be written, there will be several 
of our older colonists who will be entitled to warm commendation for 
their exertions in the cause. About twenty-one years ago Mr. Edward 
Wilson showed what could be done in the matter by transferring the 
cod from an affluent of the Murray into an affluent of the Yarra, thus 
giving this noble fish an entirely new habitat of great extent. A little 
later Mr. Learmonth introduced the same fish into Lake Burrumbeet. 


J. C. Firth to the Melbourne Argus of January 9, 1878. 


Srr: My attention has been drawn to a letter appearing in your 
issue of November 30 from Sir Samuel Wilson, detailing his operations 
relating to the hatching of some 50,000 salmon ova recently received in 
Victoria from California. Every one will be pleased at so successful a 
result, and grateful to Sir 8. Wilson for the care he has taken with so 
valuable a consignment after it reached his hands. 

It is, however, I think, to be regretted that Sir 8S. Wilson, through 
inadvertence or some other cause, omitted to state to whom the colony 
of Victoria is indebted for so great a boon as the Californian salmon. 
As I have had opportunities of becoming acquainted with the matter, 
I will, with your permission, supply the information so innocently omit- 
ted by Sir 8S. Wilson. 

In June last Sir Samuel applied to me to procure 50,000 salmon ova 
from California. I informed him that, though almost too late, [ would 
write the Hon. Spencer F. Baird, chief of the United States Fish Com- 
mission at Washington, by the next mail. 

I wrote Mr. Baird, acquainting him with Sir S. Wilson’s request, and 
asked him, if possible, to confer a lasting obligation on the colony of 
Victoria by sending 50,000 salmon ova. In due course, Mr. Baird 
courteously replied, acceding to the request, should the lateness of the 
order permit of its execution. By next mail I conveyed this intimation 


830 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


to Sir S. Wilson. On November 2, 1877, the mail-steamer brought the 
50,000 salmon ova for Victoria. 

It will be seen that this noble gift’ of salmon is due to the generous 
good-will of the people of the United States, directed by the high-minded 
and courteous chief of their Fish Commission, the Hon. Spencer F. Baird. 
No charge whatever is made beyond the cost of transport and packing, 
and even this has not yet been made. When we consider that the 
United States has constructed expensive fish-breeding establishments 
on the M’Cloud and other rivers, which are kept up by large annual ap- 
propriations by the Legislature of the United States, for the purpose of 
stocking their own rivers with fish, the noble generosity of their gifts 
of salmon ova to New Zealand and Victoria, the colonies of a foreign 
nation, will be fully appreciated, and I trust you will pardon me for 
thus supplementing Sir 8. Wilson’s letter. 

I regret, also, that Sir S. Wilson should have felt it necessary to com- 
plain of the imperfect manner in which the ova had been packed in 
California. This packing had been done by the officers of the Fish Com- 
mission at the M’Cloud River, whose experience ought to have enabled. 
them to pack the ova in such a manner as to secure success. That they 
have done so is evident from the fact that about 95 per cent. of the ova 
arrived in good condition. Sir S. Wilson will, I think, regret that in 

this instance he “looked a gift-horse in the mouth,” and found nothing 
worth a complaint even then. 

Regarding Sir 8. Wilson’s statement that this consignment of ova 
narrowly escaped destruction, because in about two days after arrival 
most of them hatched, I may say that during the last three years the 
United States Fish Commission have presented one million salmon ova 
to this colony, the whole of which have been distributed throughout the 
colony by me, one-third of which I have personally placed in the hatching- | 
boxes and shingle-beds of this part of the colony, and in every instance 
T have noticed that two days after the removal, of the ova from the low 
temperature secured by the ice the retardation ceased, and within forty- 
eight hours of the increase of temperature from 35° Fahrenheit to 60° or 
65° the hatching process was nearly completed. 

JI regret, also, that Sir S. Wilson has published no acknowledgment 
to Mr. A. S. Webster, of Sydney, a gentleman whom I had requested 
to see the ova transferred from the Californian steamer to the first Mel- 
bourne steamer in case no person had been sent by Sir 8. Wilson to 
take charge in Sydney. To the admirable manner in which Mr. Web- 
ster carried out my instructions the safe arrival of the ova in Melbourne 
is largely due. To the agents in California, the proprietors, captain, 
and officers of the California mail-steamer City of Sydney, in my ca- 
pacity of president of the Auckland Acclimatization Society I have for- 
warded and published the thanks of the Auckland council. I have on 
this and all similar occasions taken care that the services of every 
helper in this good work have been duly recognized and published, not 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 831 


merely on the ground of policy, to secure future co-operation, but be- 
cause they have well deserved recognition. Of my own humble services 
I say nothing beyond this, that the cost of transit from San Francisco, 
cost of ice, ova, and ice-chests, provided in Auckland, have been de- 
frayed by me, which I pray you to permit me through your columns to 
present to the people of Victoria as my contribution to the great work 
of introducing salmon into your noble colony. 
I am, &e., 
J. C. FIRTH. 
AUCKLAND, Decemb. 27. 


Sir Samuel Wilson to S. F. Baird. 


ERCILDOUNE, BURRUMBEET, March 16, 1878. 

Str: I have learned from Mr. Firth, the president of the Auckland 
Acclimatization Society, that 50,000 salmon ova which were received by 
me from New Zealand have been supplied by the liberality and generosity 
of the United States Government, and I now, on behalf of myself, who 
carried out the experiment to a successful result, and on behalf of the 
colony of Victoria, which will, I hope, benefit greatly by the acclimati- 
zation of such a valuable fish as the salmon, beg to offer my best thanks 
for the very valuable consignment of ova, and for your care and trouble 
in sending them so safely. 

I have to request that you will convey to the Government of the United 
States the warm appreciation by the people of Victoria of the noble and 
generous spirit which prompts them to support so liberally an estab- 
lishment calculated to do so much good to the human race. On behalf 
of this colony I tender them my most hearty thanks. 

Jt will interest you to know that the ova arrived, after their long voy- 
age and transshipment at various ports, with a loss of only 6 per cent., 
and out of 50,000 about 28,000 were hatched successfully. The bulk of 
these were distributed safely in all the rivers and streams likely to suit 
them in the colony, and, from their capability of resisting high tempera- 
tures, they promise to succeed admirably, so far as can be judged at 
present. The next report of the zoological and acclimatization society 
will contain a report of the experiment, and I shall do myself the honor 
of sending you a copy. 

I should much like to introduce here some of your Salmo fontinalis and 
Coregonus albus, if the ova are procurable. I observe that the latter has 
not hitherto succeeded in New Zealand. 

I have just received a small quantity of English salmon ova (Salmo, 
salar), which, I hope, will succeed as well as your S. quinnat. 

I have the honor to be your obedient servant, 
SAML. WILSON. 


832 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
Sir Samuel Wilson to S. F. Baird. 


OAKLEIGH HALL, HAst St. Kinpa, 
Victoria, Australia, July 22, 1878. 

DEAR Sir: I have the pleasure of acknowledging the receipt of 
your letter of 24th May, and have to offer my best thanks for your con- 
tinued kind offers of salmon ova for this colony. I have been making 
inquiries as to the temperatures of the waters of the Murray River, 
which is the largest stream in Australia, and from what I can gather it 
will, I think, be found suitable to the Californian salmon. To be success- 
ful, the thing should be done on a large scale, and not less than 500,000 
or 1,000,000 ova obtained for it. As the undertaking would benefit three 
colonies it should be a joint affair, and would be rather too heavy for 
any individual to attempt to carry through. I intend to propose the 
matter to the governments of the three colonies interested, and hope 
that it may be taken up by them. 

Regarding the Salmo fontinalis ova, which you so kindly offer to send, 
the best way will be to place them in a box similar to those in which 
the salmon ova were sent here, but smaller, with a supply of ice inside 
the box. The case should be sent in the ice-house of a steamer to Lon- 
don or Liverpool, thence by rail to London, to be placed in an ice-house 
till forwarded by the Peninsula and Oriental Company’s steamer in their 
ice-house, or by one of the new fast line of steamers to Melbourne. This 
will obviate the dangers of freezing in crossing the Continent. 

Be so good as to consign the eggs to Messrs. Robert Brooks & Co., 
Cornhill, London, who will follow instructions and forward them to me. 
They will also attend to their forwarding from Liverpool should there 
be no steamers direct to London. Should there be no ice-house, a large 
box of ice would do very well instead as far as England, as the weather 
is then cold. 

You do not mention the Coregonus albus, which is a very desirable fish 
to acclimatize, but which may need lower temperatures than our waters 
here. 

I have the pleasure to inform you that the council of the Zodlogical 
and Acclimatization Society have, in token of their appreciation of your 
very valuable services to the cause of acclimatization, awarded to you 
their silver medal, of which you will have official notice from the secre- 
tary. 

I shall send you a report of the different attempts that have been 
made to introduce the salmon here, which will appear in the next volume 
of the society’s proceedings, now in the press. 

The shipment of English salmon ova by the Chimborazo was almost 
a complete failure. I received three boxes containing about 1,700 ova, 
but two of these only produced one live fish. The third box con- 
tained fine, large pink ova, but there were only 320 in it, and of these 
200 looked well, and 150 live fish were hatched. From some cause they 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 833 


all died but 32, which are still alive and doing well. The remainder, 
about 52,000, that went on to New Zealand, were nearly all bad, but a 
few hundred were hatched. Ihave not heard how many survived. The 
English trout ova, by the same shipment, came to New Zealand in good 
order, but they are the large species Salmo fario ausonii, of Giinther, and 
prove too large for many of our streams. We want here your smaller 
variety—the S. fontinalis or the S. fario gamiardi—the “burn trout” of 
the Highlands of Scotland. 

I cannot close this letter without again expressing my admiration of 
the generosity and public spirit, in a cosmopolitan sense, which is dis- 
played in the kind manner in which you, as the representative of the 
United States, have so freely supplied ova of your valuable fish for the 
purpose of stocking the waters of Australia and other countries, and I 
only wish that we had something of equal value to offer in return. 

Pray accept my best thanks on behalf of the colony, which is greatly 
indebted to you, 

And believe me to be, yours, very truly, By 
SAMWL WILSON. 


P.S.—Any expenditure incurred I shall be happy to liquidate on hear- 
ing the amount. 
S. W. 


NEW ZEALAND. 
J.C. Firth to 8S. F. Baird. 


AUCKLAND, April 11, 1877. 


DEAR Sir: I have duly received your valued favors of December 21 
and 19th January, and have read their contents with a great deal of 
pleasure. 

I thank you for your cordial and generous offer to supply a further 
quantity of salmon ova, if necessary, under certain conditions detailed 
in your letter of January 19. 

I have now the pleasure to inform you that the council of Auckland 
Acclimatization Society, of which society the membershave done me the 
honor to elect me president for the current year, are desirous of obtain- 
ing a further supply of salmon ova on terms of your letter before cited,* 
and I have the honor to ask you to be good enough to cause to be for- 
warded tous atthe proper time, through ouragents, Messrs. Cross & Co., 
of San Francisco, 200,000 salmon ova. 

KR. J. Creighton, esq., New Zealand agent in San Francisco, will also 
interest himself in seeing that every facility be offered by the mail steamer.. 

About a month ago I located the last batch of young salmon for the 
season. 


* Payment of actual expenses of obtaining and forwarding eggs.—S. F. Barrp.. 
53 F 


834 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


As you may perhaps feel a little interest in knowing what sort of a 
country it is that you are so much benefiting, Linclose you a copy of the 
account of my last ‘salmon excursion.” 

I am, dear sir, yours sincerely, 
J.C. FIRTH, 
President of the Auckland Acclimatization Society. 
Hon. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 
Chief Commissioner of United States Fisheries. 


Same to the same. 


AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND, October 24, 1877. 

DEAR Str: Iam duly in receipt of your favor of August 6, and thank 
you for your kind accession to my requests on behalf of the Victoria 
and Canterbury societies so far as circumstances will permit. 

I am pleased“to have to report that in one of the rivers, the Rapurapu, 
in the shingle-beds of which I last year placed a large number of the 
salmon ova you so kindly sent, a great success has been achieved ; large 
numbers of young salmon 5 inches in length being reported as swarm- 
ing in the river for miles. 

I am, dear sir, your obedient servant, 


J.C. FIRTH. 
Hon. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 


Commissioner United States Fish Commission, Washington. 


Robert Houghton to 8S. F. Baird. 


SAN FrANcrisco, November 1, 1877. 
Hon. Professor BAIRD, Washington: 


DeEaR Sir: Ihave to thank you for the shipment of 500,000 salmon 
eges to New Zealand, per Cross & Co., San Francisco, on the 10th 
ultime. Fortunately the shipment was successful, Mr. Hooper, of Cross 
& Co., having attended to the matter personally, as, owing to misdirec- 
tion, Mr. Stone’s letter to me did not reach me until yesterday, when, 
having been told about it, I applied personally at the post-office. No 
doubt the delay was occasioned by Cross & Co.’s business troubles— 
that firm having more pressing matters to attend to. 

On the 24th ultimo, Mr. Pratt, secretary to Mr. Stone, called upon me 
and informed me of the shipment; he also gave me memorandum of 
account and receipt of payment for $750, being $1.50 per 1,000, as no- 
tified by you in previous correspondence.* At Mr. Pratt’s suggestion, 


* This amount represented the supposed extra expense to the United States of ob- 
taining, developing, and packing the eggs for shipment, the condition of the dona- 
tion.—8. F. BarrD. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 835 


in the absence of Mr. Stone, I paid the money into Myron Green’s pub- 
lic account with the Capital Bank, Sacramento, and notified him of the 
fact. I did so because I was anxious to save expense to the acclima- 
tization societies necessarily incurred by remitting to Washington, and 
because Mr. Pratt assured me that it would be equally agreeable to the 
United States fish commissioners, who otherwise might be called upon 
to transmit an equal amount from the Capital. 

I trust this explanation may be satisfactory. 

The shipment was carefully packed in ice in a refrigerator, and as the 
commander of the City of Sidney had taken two parcels of eggs previ- 
ously, no doubt every pains will be taken to have it landed in good con- 
dition. Besides, he was promised a bonus by Mr. Hooper. 

I regret exeeedingly that the white fish ova, shipped last season, 
failed, not through any want of care or attention here, but on the other 
side. A portion of the first shipment was hatched out at Christchurch, 
but, through want of proper precaution, they were swept out of the 
breeding-ponds one night by a heavy rainfall. The second parcel went 
safe, having been three weeks in ice in San Francisco. They were 
landed in good condition in Auckland, were sent a tedious coasting 
voyage of 700 miles, and landed sound at Invercargill, but, the small 
steamer intended to take the eggs to their ultimate destination having 
been wrecked, they all died from exposure. This experiment, however, 
clearly demonstrates that whitefish eggs may be sent to New Zealand 
under unfavorable conditions, and with care be hatched out. I should 
be extremely desirous of seeing another attempt made, leaving the eggs 
at Auckland on the arrival of the steamer, where the experiment would 
have a better chance of succeeding. 

The salmon are thriving admirably. 

I remain, yours, very sincerely, 
ROBERT HOUGHTON. 


[ Telegram. ] 
Livingston Stone to 8. F. Baird. 
CHARLESTON, N. H., January 28, 1878. 


Received $750 for New Zealand salmon eggs, and $25 from Stone & 


Hooper for 10,000 salmon eggs which went to France. 
L. STONE. 


James Hector to S. F. Baird. 
COLONIAL MUSEUM OF NEW ZEALAND, 
Wellington, December 13, 1877. 
DEAR PROFESSOR BartrRD: You will be glad to learn that the last 
shipment of salmon ova, which reached us in the beginning of Novem- 
ber, has been a most complete success. 


836 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The boxes were distributed as suggested in my letter of the 28th of 
July, and from the eight centers over forty distinct river systems have 
been successfully stocked. From all quarters the most favorable reports 
have come in, generally to the effect that 90 per cent. of the ova produced 
strong fish that survived the early stages; even rivers in the King or 
rebel Maori country have been stocked, and the natives take a great 
interest in protecting the fish. Only in one case—Dunedin—is there a 
report of mortality among the young fish, the reason of which is not 
stated. 

It must be satisfactory to you that your simple and inexpensive ar- 
rangements have produced such good results, considering the large sums 
and the many years (sixteen) that have been spent in the endeavor to 
introduce Salmo salar into this colony and Tasmania, as yet without any 
certainty of success. 

Everything is now ready for the whitefish ova, which I hope will 
arrive next month. They are all to be placed in Le Dun Lake. 

IT remain, yours, very sincerely, 
JAMES HECTOR. 

Professor BAIRD, 

Washington. 


J. O. Firth to 8. F. Baird. 


AUCKLAND, December 17, 1877. 
Prof. 8. F. BAIRD: 

At request of Government of New Zealand, I inform you I have sue- 
cessfully distributed throughout colony 500,000 salmon eggs. Thanks 
to care of gentlemen in charge, eggs arrived in splendid condition. 
Had insulated chests and tons of ice in readiness; by working through 
night on arrival of steamer had all placed on board; each provided with 
arrangement for drainage and ventilation; one-half by rail across island 
by steamers to the south; remainder by steamer to east coast; 50,000 
to Sir Samuel Wilson for Victoria. From Nelson, Greymouth, Welling- 
ton, Napier, Christchurch, Dunedin, Invercargill, and Victoria 95 per 
cent. hatched. 100,000 by government apportioned Auckland; 10,000 
at our establishment near city; 40,000 on shingle in country of Maori 
King. At request of most powerful supporters, Punier, where last year 
placed a large number; 50,000 placed in Mangakahia River—fine river 
for salmon, through wooded country, cold water from high ranges, through 
little falls, long rapids, deep pools; ova placed on shingle. Disappointed 
that order for Auckland and Canterbury (250,000) overlooked. 

J. OC. FIRTH. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 837 


T. F. Cheeseman to 8. F. Baird. 


AUCKLAND ACCLIMATIZATION SOCIETY, 
Auckland, December 17, 1877. 

DEAR Sir: I forwarded a short note by last mail acknowledging the 
safe reception of the consignment of salmon ova so liberally forwarded 
by the United States Fish Commission, and conveying our best thanks 
for the same. I have now the pleasure of informing you that the ova 
have turned out even better than those sent last year, the hatching hav- 
ing been in every way successful. Our share of the consignment was 
divided into three portions ; the first, containing about 40,000 eggs, was 
taken to the upper part of the Puniu River, an affluent of the Waipa, 
which is the principal tributary of the Waikato River. It is estimated 
that 38,000 healthy young fish have been hatched out in this locality. 
Another lot of 50,000 was placed in the Northern Wairoa River, and has 
hatched out almost as well as the Puniu portion. The remaining 10,000 
have been treated at our fish-house near Auckland, where we have now 
slightly over 9,000 healthy young fish. 

You will have doubtless received particulars from Dr. Hector respect- 
ing the ova sent to the southern provinces. I believe that the result 
there is also very encouraging. 

1 can now only again express our sense of the deep obligations under 
which you have placed us, and beg to remain, 

Yours, obediently, 
T. F. CHEESEMAN, 


Secretary. 
Professor BAIRD, 


Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, Washington. 


J. C. Firth to S. F. Baird. 


AUCKLAND, December 17, 1877. 
Hon. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 


Chief of the United States Fish Commission, Washington : 

DEAR Sir: I have great pleasure in informing you that, at the request 
of the Government of New Zealand, I have successfully distributed 
throughout this colony the 500,000 salmon ova so generously presented 
by the United States Fish Commission to New Zealand. The boxes of 
ova arrived at this port, thanks to the care of the gentleman in charge 
of your establishment at the McCloud River, in splendid condition. The 
circumstance of the ova boxes being stripped from their crates in San 
Francisco, to get them into the steamer’s ice-house, renders it necessary 
to provide each ova box with chests properly insulated. All these, 
together with some tons of ice I had in readiness, and by working 
through the night on the arrival of the mail steamer, I had all safely 
inclosed in the insulators, each provided with a simple arrangement for 


838 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


drainage and ventilation. Idispatched one-half by rail across the island, 
thence by steamer to their respective destinations south. Two days 
after I dispatched the remainder by steamer down the east coast. I also 
dispatched the 50,000 to Sir Samuel Wilson for Victoria. I have since 
received advices that each parcel had arrived in perfect safety and con- 
dition at its destination, viz: Nelson, Greymouth, Wellington, Napier, 
Christ Church, Dunedin, Invercargill, and Victoria; and that about 95 
per cent. had hatched into healthy fry. The 100,000 ova apportioned 
by government to Auckland I then located; hatching out about 10,000 
at our fish establishment near this city ; 40,000 I placed in a fine shingle 
river in the country of the Maori King, at the request of his most pow- 
erful supporter. This river (Puniu) is a tributary of the Waikato 
River, where I had last year placed a large number of salmon ova and 
fry. The remainder (50,000) I placed in the Mangakahia River, which 
I think a fine river for salmon, flowing, as it does, through a wooded 
country, fed by streams from high ranges, with clear, bright, cold water 
rippling over shingle beds, rushing over little falls, now dashing through 
a long rapid, and anon loitering in deep and placid pools. Backed by 
a party of strong and willing hands, after a most toilsome, but exciting 
and pleasurable, ascent up this beautiful river, I placed the ova, securely 
guarded from all their enemies, in the shingle beds of the river. I was a 
little disappointed that our order for Auckland and Canterbury (250,000) 
had been overlooked, but I doubt not you had good reason for doing so. 
Yours, truly, 
J. C. FIRTH. 

P. S.—Excuse this scrawl, as it is written on the desk of a small river 
steamer by which I am conveying 8,000 fine, healthy salmon fry up 
river.—J. C. F. 


Same to the same. 


AUCKLAND, February 4, 1878. 

DEAR Sir: Since my letter of January, I have been greatly pleased 
to learn that the whole of the last shipment of ova—500,000 to New 
Zealand, 50,000 to Vietoria—have been located in both colonies with 
great success. 

I am so impressed with the genuine international courtesy displayed 
by you in sending about a million salmon ova to New Zealand, the gen- 
erous gift of the United States to the colony of New Zealand—a de- 
pendency of a foreign nation—that I have written to the colonial secre- 
tary, the Hon. Colonel Whitmore, asking him to bring your goodness 
under the notice of his excellency the Marquis of Normanby, governor 
of New Zealand, with the view of asking the imperial secretary for the 
colonies, the Earl Caernarvon, to convey the thanks of the colony to 
the Government of the United States for their munificent gift of salmon 
ova to New Zealand. In due course you will probably hear more of it. 


aE ee ee 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 839 


The 50,000 ova you were good enough to forward to Victoria came 
duly to hand, and were forwarded by me in insulating cases (your own 
boxes being stripped of all covering to get them into the steamer’s ice- 
house at San Francisco). By means of abundant supplies of ice and the 
precautions I had taken, and with the assistance of Mr. A. 8S. Webster, 
of Sydney, the ova arrived in perfect order at Melbourne, where they 
were taken charge of by Sir Samuel Wilson, the gentleman who was to 
bear the whole cost of the experiment. 

Judge of my surprise at reading in the Argus, the leading journal of 
Victoria, a letter from Sir 8S. Wilson, in which he ignores you, Mr. Web- 
ster, and myself. I inclose you this letter and my reply to it. 

Sir S. Wilson is, I believe, annoyed at his having overlooked your 
services, or at my having called attention to it. It does not matter 
which, as you will probably receive proper acknowledgments by the 
same mail in which this letter goes in. 

Having distributed nearly the whole of the ova you have so kindly 
sent, at my own personal cost, and with an infinite deal of pleasure to 
myself, and my third term of office expiring on March 5 next, I shall 
not have another opportunity of officially communicating with you. You 
may rest assured of my warm sympathy for you in your great and good 
enterprise. 

I am, dear sir, yours, 
J. C. FIRTH. 


The Hon. SPENCER F. BATRD, 
Chief of Fish Commission, Washington, D. C. 


R. J. Creighton to S. F. Baird. 


SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., February 5, 1878. 

DEAR Sire: In reply to your inquiries regarding the shipment of 
salmon ova from San Francisco to New Zealand and Australia, I regret 
that I am unable to give you the details as fully as I could wish, owing 
to my inability to follow it throughout. 

The City of Sydney, with 500,000 eggs from McCloud River, sailed 
hence October 10, 1877, at noon. The eggs were deposited in an ice- 
chest made specially for the purpose by the Auckland, New Zealand, 
Acclimatization Society; but it was found after the ship sailed that the 
waste of ice was so great it would hardly last the voyage; and Cap- 
tain Dearborn took the boxes out and deposited them in the ship’s 
ice-house, surrounded by ice, where they remained the residue of the 
voyage. I attribute the success of the shipment in great measure to 
Captain Dearborn’s care. It was impossible to pack the eggs in the 
ship’s ice-house at the outset as they arrived too late; the ice-house 
was full before they were put on board. 


840 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Arrived at Honolulu October 18, where there was several hours’ de- 
tention; arrived at Auckland November 3. Here the eggs were trans- 
shipped, save the parcel of 50,000 for Victoria to the order of Sir Samuel 
Wilson, which remained on board. The City of Sydney arrived at 
Sydney on the 8th of November, and here a transshipment tcok place, 
the eges for Melbourne being transferred by a steamer sailing for that 
port. Iam not aware what detention took place in Sydney, but the 
voyage would be about thirty hours or two days. Atall events the eggs 
were properly cared for, and arrived at their ultimate destination in 
sound condition, for I observed from a Victoria newspaper that they 
had been hatched out successfully. This, I should say, is the longest 
voyage yet made by California salmon eggs which preserved their 
vitality. 

Reverting to the New Zealand shipment, I inclose extract from Auck- 
land Weekly News, November 20, 1877, which fully explains the prep- 
arations made for the transportation of the eggs in ice to the various 
parts of the colony. Captain Dearborn informed me that the transship- 
ment and repacking were accomplished inside of two hours, and the eggs 
sent across the isthmus, seven miles by the railroad, to the steamer on 
the western harbor sailing for southern ports. The ordinary time of the 
coasting steamers (writing from memory) is: To Nelson from Ouehunga, 
the port of departure, 2 days; Nelson to Wellington, 24 hours; Nelson 
to Greymouth, 1 to 2 days; Wellington to Napier, about 30 hours ; 
Wellington to Canterbury, 1 day; Canterbury to Dunedin, 1 day; 
Dunedin to Southland, about 24 hours. 

I give the time approximately ; it certainly was not under this. It 
should be borne in mind that the eggs passed through the tropics and 
arrived in New Zealand and Australia at midsummer, when the heat is 
ereat. The distribution in New Zealand was specially trying, owing to 
the frequent transshipment and handling. For example, the consign- 
ment of 50,000 eggs for Freymouth would be landed at Nelson and 
transshipped to another steamer going down the coast. As the English 
mail was forward, little or no detention would occur at Nelson, but there 
is always a weather risk on the west coast of the middle island. How 
that matter was I am unable to say. 

Again, the consignment of 50,000 for Napier would be landed at Wel- 
lington, put on board a government steamer, and carried north along 
the east coast, the steamboat traffic being chiefly on the west coast of 
the north island. No time would be lost, however, on this line. A 
further transshipment for Southland would take place at Dunedin, the 
larger class of boats not going so far south as Foveaux Strait. It was 
on this section that the whitefish eggs perished. 

As I remarked at the outset, I am unable to follow this distribution 
closely. I infer from what Captain Dearborn tells me, and a note from 
Mr. Firth, that the original programme was carried out, and as I have 
not heard any reference to failure or miscarriage I: have confidence in 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 841 


stating that the distribution was successful. The eggs have hatched 
out beautifully, and every promise is given that the noble streams of 
New Zealand will be stocked with California salmon, thanks to your 
kind co-operation and the liberality of the United States Fish Commis- 
sion. 

Several years ago Scotch salmon were hatched out in Otago, but the 
experiment was considered a failure as none of the fish returned, whereas 
salmon-trout became plentiful, having been introduced at the same time. 
By last mail I observe a statement to the effect that two of the Scotch 
colonists of Otago had seen a salmon in the shallows of a Southland 
river recently, from which it is presumed that the fish are returning. 
Should any further evidence be given on this point I shall apprise you 
of it, as it is one of very great interest in the practical work of acclima- 
tizing food fish. 

Relating to the shipment of whitefish last year, I need hardly par- 
ticularize. They arrived in New Zealand in good order, and a portion 
of the eggs were hatched out in Canterbury, having been transshipped 
at Auckland, but were lost owing to ignorance regarding their habits, 
as the little fellows get up and swim the moment they are hatched out. 
The remainder were lost through a series of misadventures, and gener- 
ally from want of preparedness. Great care was taken at this side, the 
second shipment having been nearly three weeks in the Pacific Com- 
pany’s ice-house here, and besides being packed in ice were frequently 
drenched with water of the temperature of the eggs. The boxes were 
occasionally turned while in the ice-house. This relieved the pressure 
on the lower layers. I received most valuable assistance from Mr. Wood- 
bury, foreman of the State fish-hatching establishment, San Leandro, 
to whom the credit of preserving the eggs is wholly due. 

The shipment of 500,000 whitefish eggs for New Zealand this season 
fortunately went by the City of Sidney, Captain Dearborn. The crates 
were opened and the eggs examined in the ice-house by Mr. Woodbury 
and myself, and were in good condition; whereas a shipment from Mr. 
Clarke, packed in the same way, for the California and Nevada State 
fish commission, was baked. The cause was overcare in the express car. 
The eggs were kept near the stove, whereas it should be generally known 
that they cannot be kept too cool in transit across the continent. 

We unscrewed the lids, ascertained the temperature, and gave them 
a good drenching; then replaced the lids and packed them in ice. Two 
days afterwards I had the boxes surrounded by ice, and saw them placed 
in the ship’s ice-house, to prevent the possibility of an accident. I put 
two tons of ice on board for the ship’s use, packed in the Auckland So- 
ciety’s ice-chest, to avoid disturbing the eggs as much as possible. I can 
only hope that they will arrive safe. 

I informed the New Zealand Government by cable of the consignment, 
and wrote the colonial secretary and Mr. Firth fully on the subject, giv- 
ing the latter valuable hints regarding the mode of hatching and feed- 


842 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


ing the young fish from Mr. Woodbury. I also arranged for a telegram 
to Canterbury and Otago, informing them that 50,000 eggs were at each 
of their disposal if prepared to receive them; but requested Mr. Firth 
to hateh all out in Auckland if there was the slightest risk of losing any. 
The steamer sailed on January 21, at 11 p. m., and will probably make 
a short run. I shall advise you of the result. Apologizing for this ram- 
bling letter, 
I am yours, very truly, 


ROBT. J. CREIGHTON. 
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 


Washington, D. C. 


Extracts from the Fifteenth Annual Report of the Canterbury Acclimatiza- 
tion Society for 1878.* 


“In February the society received 20,000 ova of the whitefish (Core- 
gonus albus) through the New Zealand Government from America, but 
we regret to state that only 12 were hatched, out of which only 8 sur- 
vived. These were taken to Lake Coleridge and liberated in a small 
tributary by the chairman, Sir J. Cracroft Wilson. 

“The 240 young salmon remaining in the fish-house from last season 
were liberated in the river Heathcote by the chairman, and during the 
year reports have been received of salmon having been seen and caught, 
and little doubt remains about their success, some having been taken 
12 and 14 inches in length, and sold among some trout.” 

“ Correspondence with agents and others in America have been insti- 
tuted, whereby the society may anticipate the arrival of a variety of 
suitable game and fish from California and the Eastern States, as also 
seeds of the sugar maple and other useful and ornamental trees. The 
hearty thanks of the society are due to Prof. S. Baird, Commissioner of 
American Fisheries, and also to Livingstone Stone, esq., for the great 
interest taken in furthering the wishes of the society. R. Creighton, 
esq., of San Francisco, had also taken a great interest in procuring 
‘prairie chickens’ for the society, but owing to circumstances his at- 
tempts have proved unsuccessful. But steps have been taken which 
may prove a success next season; our thanks, therefore, are due to him 
for what he has done.” 


From the Report of the Auckland Acclimatization Society for 1877~78. 


SALMON.—At the last annual meeting the council were instructed to 
make arrangements for a further supply of Californian salmon ova, and 


*The | Fifteenth Annual Report | of | Canterbury | Acclimatization Society, | as 
adopted at the annual meeting of the society, | held at | the Commercial Hotel, Cathe- 
dral Square, | Christchurch, N. Z., | together with | the rules and list of subscribers. 
| — | Christchurch: | Printed at the ‘‘ Press” office, Cashel street. | 1879. (8vo pam- 
phlet, pp. 16.) 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 843 


accordingly one of their first acts was to forward to the United States 
Fish Commission an order for 200,009 ova, 50,000 of which were after- 
wards reserved for the Canterbury Society. Subsequently Sir Samuel 
Wilson, of Melbourne, asked that 50,000 should be obtained for Vic- 
toria; and the order was consequently increased by that number. A 
most courteous reply was received from Professor Baird, promising that 
the ova should be forwarded, if the usual appropriations were made by 
Congress; but in the mean time the New Zealand Government deter- 
mined to introduce a consignment of 500,000 to be divided among the 
various acclimatization societies in the colony. The result was that 
the Fish Commission forwarded the government order, together with 
the 50,000 for Victoria, the share of the Auckland Society of the half- 
million ova being fixed at 100,000. As in previous years, the consign- 
ment was supplied by the McCloud River establishment. Excellently 
packed there, it was conveyed to San Francisco, and shipped by the 
Pacific Mail Company’s steamer City of Sydney, arriving in Auckland 
in the best possible condition. 

In anticipation of the arrival of the ova, the government had made 
arrangements with the president—Mr. J. C. Firth—to superintend the 
transshipment of the portions intended for the Southern Provinces. 
Under his instructions, double boxes, with the interspaces filled with 
sawdust, and furnished with ice-racks at the top, were prepared ; and 
on arrival of the City of Sydney, the ova boxes were rapidly transferred 
from the steamer’s ice-house to these cases, and then shipped south by 
the steamers Rotorua and Wanaka—arriving at their final destination 
in superb order. 

The disposition of the 100,000 ova retained in Auckland was as fol- 
lows: 10,000 were placed in the hatching-boxes in the Domain; 40,000 
were then taken by Mr. Firth to the Puniu River, at the special invita- 
tion of the Ngatimaniapoto chieftain Rewi, and safely deposited there. 
Returning from thence, Mr. Firth then conveyed the balance (50,000) to 
the Mangakahia River, the chief affluent of the Northern Wairoa. In 
this stream the ova were also very successfully placed. In all the local- 
ities the hatching was very satisfactory. In the Domain 9,000 fish 
were hatched out of the 10,000 ova deposited; and although it was im- 
possible to ascertain the exact proportion of fish produced at the 
Puniu and Mangakahia, the result was evidently not far different. In 
every respect the consignment must be considered as being most suc- 
cessful. 

The council have now to tender the warmest thanks of the society— 
or, to speak more correctly, of the whole community—to the United 
States Fish Commission for their liberality in presenting the ova. Dur- 
ing this season and the two preceding ones, nearly a million of salmon 
eggs have been forwarded to New Zealand, for no portion of which has 
any charge been made, save the actual expenses of packing and transit 
to San Francisco, &c. This alone would be a gift of no inconsiderable 


844 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


magnitude; but when, in addition, it is considered how great are the 
benefits in an economic point of view that must result from the suecessful 
establishment of so valuable a food-fish as the salmon in our rivers; it 
is difficult to estimate the extent of our obligations to Professor Baird 
and his ecoadjutors on the Fish Commission, or to place too high a value 
on their active and zealous co-operation. 

In the next place, special acknowledgments are due to Mr. J. C. Firth, 
the president of the society. Upon this gentleman devolved the whole 
of the arrangements for the reception of the ova and the transshipment 
of the portions intended for the Southern Provinces and Australia. 
Special expeditions were also made by him to the Puniu and Manga- 
kahia Rivers, for the purpose of depositing the ova; and he has person- 
ally attended to the distribution of the fry hatched in the Domain fish- 
house. The entire cost of the transit of the ova from San Francisco, 
and its distribution throughout the colony, together with that of the 
journeys alluded to and all other expenses connected with the Auck- 
land portion, have been also defrayed by Mr. Firth, so that the consign- 
ment has been absolutely without cost to the society. The council are 
convinced that but for Mr. Firth’s energetic labors and careful oversight 
the enterprise could not have resulted in so satisfactory a manner. 

Thanks are also due to the following gentlemen, many of whom have 
afforded valuable assistance: To Messrs. Cross & Co., Mr. Edwin 
Hooper, and Mr. R. J: Creighton, who attended to the shipment of the 
ova at San Francisco; to the Pacific Mail and Union Steamship Com- 
panies, who very liberally made no charge for freight ; to Captain Dear- 
born and the officers of the City of Sydney, for the care bestowed on the 
ova during the voyage to Auckland; to Captains Kennedy and Mae- 
Gillivray, with their chief officers, Messrs. Cromarty and Gerrard, for 
Similar attentions on board the Rotorua and Wanaka; to Mr. G. S. 
Cooper, under colonial secretary, who afforded valuable assistance in 
many ways; to Mr. W. Seed, the secretary to the customs, who kindly 
granted the use of a steam-launch to convey the ova for the Mangakahia 
River; to Mr. A. V. Macdonald, the railway officials, and the Waikato 
Steam Navigation Company, who gave every assistance in their power 
towards the conveyance of the Waikato portion of the consignment, 
making no charge for transit; to the proprietors of the steamers Dur- 
ham and Ruby, for the free conveyance of the young salmon to the 
Thames River; to Messrs. J. H. Smith, Tremain; A. Kay, E. Mitch- 
elson, Uloth; Major Jackson, Cowan; D. McGregor, H. Wilson, J. Wil- 
son, Waymouth; Captain Lowrie, and many others, for their hearty 
assistance in contributing to the success of the enterprise. 

A pleasing feature, and one worthy of record, is the great interest 
taken in salmon importation by many of the Maories. It has already 
been mentioned that a share of the ova was forwarded to the Puniu 
River at the special invitation of the eminent Ngatimaniapoto chieftain, 
Rewi, not very long ago engaged in open warfare against the European 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 845 


settlers. Not only did Rewi, together with his kinsman Te Puke, afford 
every assistance during the work of depositing the ova, and most hos- 
pitably entertain the party at his settlement, but he has also taken the 
young fish under his special protection, giving orders that if any should 
be caught in the Maorie eel-weirs or fishing-nets they shall be immedi- 
ately restored to the water. Similarly the well-known northern chief, 
Tirarau, rendered considerable assistance to Mr. Firth while conveying 
the Mangakahia portion of the consignment. 

With reference to the salmon importation of 1876, it is satisfactory to 
report that young fish have been repeatedly seen. In August last, 
numbers of fry, about five inches in length, were noticed in the Rapur- 
apu stream, an affluent of the Upper Thames; and only a short time 
ago comparatively large fish, undoubtedly salmon, were observed at 
Omahu, on the Thames River itself. 

WHITEFISH (Coregonus albus).—A box of ova of this valuable lake 
fish, taken from a large consignment received by the government from 
the United States Fish Commission, was placed in the hands of the so- 
ciety for treatment, but unfortunately proved a complete failure, only 
nine fish hatching, and of these all but two died shortly afterwards. 
The council trust that a future attempt will be more successful, as it is 
a fish that would probably do well in Lake Taupo, and possibly also in 
Tarawera and other of our lakes. 

Brook Trout (Salmo fontinalis)—Mr. T. Russell, who has done, and 
is doing, so much for acclimatization in New Zealand, has, through his 
agent, Mr. Hugh Craig, of San Francisco, forwarded to the society a 
box of 5,000 ova of this little trout, said to be one of the best of the 
Western American species, both as an article of food and as affording 
capital sport to the fly-fisher. The box did not arrive in as good condi- 
tion as could have beeen desired ; but nevertheless 400 young fish were 
successfully hatched. They have since been liberated, half the number 
in a tributary of the Waikato near Cambridge, and the remainder in the 
upper part of the Kaukapakapa stream, Kaipara district. 

CATFISH (Pimelodus Catus).—Two consignments of this well-known 
fish have also been introduced from America by Mr. T. Russell. In all, 
140 living fish arrived, which have been liberated in St. John’s Lake. 
Of late years considerable attention has been paid to the distribution of 
this species in the United States. It is said to do well in small lakes, 
ponds, mill-dams, and even swamps ; to be good eating, easily caught 
by hook and line, and to be not destructive to the young of other fish. 

It should here be mentioned that the entire cost of these importations 
is borne by Mr. Russell, who has certainly earned the warmest thanks 
of the society for the services he has so unostentatiously rendered to the 
colony. 


846 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
From a New Zealand paper, published toward the close of the year 1877. 
ACCLIMATIZING SALMON. 


Our readers are already aware that some months ago the Auckland 
Acclimatization Society requested the United States Fish Commissioners 
to be good enough to forward 200,000 salmon ova from their establish- 
ment on the McCloud River, California, to aid in stocking the rivers in 
this province. Subsequently the Canterbury Acclimatization Society, 
and Sir Samuel Wilson on behalf of the Victorian Acclimatization So- 
ciety, requested the Auckland society to obtain 50,000 ova for each 
applicant. By the August mail, Mr. J. C. Firth, president of the 
Auckland society, received a letter from the Hon. Spencer F. Baird, 
chief commissioner, in which he very courteously offered to supply the 
number of ova wanted should the supply of eggs be sufficient to warrant 
it. After that the New Zealand Government requested Mr. Baird to 
dispatch 500,000 salmon ova for New Zealand. These are expected by 
the mail steamer to-day. By Parliamentary papers we observe they 
are intended to be distributed as follows: Auckland, 100,000; Napier, 
50,000; Nelson, 50,000; Greymouth, 50,000; Wellington, 50,000; Christ- 
church, 50,000 ; Dunedin, 59,000; and Makarewa (Southland), 100,000. 
In reference to the distribution of the coming ova, Mr. Firth has re- 
ceived the following letter from the colonial secretary’s office: 


“COLONIAL SECRETARY’S OFFICE, 
‘Wellington, 1ith October, 1877. 


“Sir: I have the honor, by direction of the colonial secretary, to in- 
form you that Professor Baird was, on the 28th July last, requested to 
be good enough to have the next shipment of salmon ova packed, if 
possible, in cases containing 50,000 each, of which two cases are intended 
for your society. This shipment may be expected to arrive by the next, 
or at latest the following, San Francisco mail, and I am to request that 
you will be prepared to receive it immediately on arrival of the steamer 
at Auckland. I inclose a copy of the papers which have been laid be- 
fore Parliament on the subject generally, for the information of your 
society.* Should it appear to you that any additional expenditure for 
supply of ice, or on any other account, to insure the chance of success 
for the shipments to southern societies, I am directed to request that 
you will kindly make such arrangements and incur such expenditure on 
behalf of the government as may, in your judgment, appear necessary 
to attain the object in view. 

“T have, &e., 
“G. S. COOPER. 

“J. OC. FIRTH, Esq., 

“President of the Acclimatization Society, Auckland.” 


Mr. Firth, who was busily engaged in making preparations for the 
reception, preservation, and safe distribution of the 300,000 ova for 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 847 


Auckland, Canterbury, and Victoria, when the above letter came to 
hand, at once heartily acceded to the request of the colonial secretary. 
His great experience enabled him to make the necessary preparations 
which, under ordinary circumstances, secure success. It must be under- 
stood that the ova boxes are transmitted from San Francisco in the ice- 
house of the mail steamer, by which means the hatching of the ova is 
retarded. If the ice were to run short during the voyage, or the boxes 
to be exposed to the sun for even a short time after leaving the mail 
steamer, the retarding effects of the cold would be destroyed, and under 
the influence of the high temperature here premature hatching would 
take place in the boxes, and the whole experiment prove a disastrous 
failure. The ova boxes, as we have stated, are simply placed in the 
ice-house of the steamer on being sent from San Francisco, and on 
arrival here it is necessary that a separate case be provided for each 
box of ova to safely convey the ova to their destination. These cases 
were made in accordance with the plan which Mr. Firth’s experience 
has shown him to obtain the largest measure of success. A large num- 
ber of boxes have been prepared for the immediate reception of the ova 
on its arrival here. Each of these boxes is provided with an internal 
division, which admits of packing three inches of sawdust between the 
outside of the case and the internal division. In the open inner space 
is placed the ova box, which is protected from the heat on the sides by 
the sawdust, and on the top of the ova box is placed about five inches 
of ice to keep the ova cool and moist, and in the bottom are perforations 
for carrying away the water from the melting ice. The ice thus placed 
on the top of the ova is protected from the heat by pads containing a 
thick packing of sawdust. The ova box having been placed in position, 
the ice on top and the sawdust pads on the top of the ice, the lid of the 
outer case is then closed and securely fastened, which makes the affair 
complete. By a very simple arrangement the two very necessary 
requisites—ventilation and drainage—are provided. It is perhaps 
necessary to say that not only has increase of temperature to. be pro- 
vided against, but also any risk of concussion must as far as possible 
be avoided. 'To secure this latter, a simple and effective means of car- 
rying the boxes has been designed by Mr. Firth, which will prevent any 
concussion during the transference from ship to wharf, in their final 
transport down the sides of the ravines or up the shingle-beds of the 
rivers to their final destination. Mr. Firth also provided a number of 
boxes to contain a reserve supply of ice to guard against the exhaustion 
of ice in the ova-boxes. These boxes are constructed so that there is a 
three-inch space between the inner and outer boxes packed with saw- 
dust. The inner box is then filled with ice, and covered with a sawdust 
pad, as in the case of the ova-boxes. The box-lid is then closed and 
fastened, and there is very little doubt that the ice so stored will be 
available in case of need. 

Mr. Firth’s experience warrants him in thinking that the most suc- 


J 
848 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


cessful way of hatching out ova is the natural process on the shingle- 
beds of rivers. In confirmation of this, Mr. Firth has received intelli- 
gence of the salmon having been seen in the various rivers in which ove 
was placed, but the experiment made in the Rapurapu River, one of the 
upper branches of the Thames, is the most successful and interesting. 
In that river, for miles above and below the point where Mr. Firth de- 
posited the ova upon the shingle-bed last November, swarms of young 
salmon have been seen five inches long. There can be very little doubt 
that the great experiment now being undertaken will, with previous 
efforts, successfully establish the king of fish in the rivers of this colony. 

After transmitting each box to Victoria and the south, Mr. Firth will 
take 40,000 ova to the Upper Puniu. Rewi, the Ngatimaniapoto chief, 
having some time ago requested Mr. Firth to meet him in the King 
Country to see if any of the rivers were suitable for salmon, Mr. Firth 
accordingly went up and selected the Puniu as one of the most suitable 
of the Waikato system of rivers. A parcel will also be taken to the 
Upper Thames. A box will also be hatched in the society’s hatching- 
boxes in the domain, and the remainder will be placed by Mr. Firth in 
the Mangakahia River and another stream which fall into the Northern 
Wairoa. These northern rivers have been selected by Mr. Firth during 
his recent visit to that part of the country. It is hardly necessary to 
add that the society are satisfied that the only proper way to secure 
success in the important experiments is to concentrate their operations 
upon the three most important river systems in this province—Waikato, 
the Thames, and the Northern Wairoa—rather than by placing small 
quantities in the innumerable creeks all over the country. If success is 
achieved, every suitable stream in the country can be stocked at leisure 
without difficulty from one or other of the rivers named. The future im- 
portance of the salmon-fishing industry, the foundation of which Mr. 
Firth and the Acclimatization Society are now laying, can hardly be 
estimated. 

When the steamer arrived it was found that a less quantity of ova 
was on board than was expected. There were eleven boxes of salmon 
ova, containing, it was estimated, about 550,000, which are distributed 
as follows: For Auckland, 100,000; for Napier, 50,000; for Nelson, 
50,000; for Greymouth, 50,000; for Wellington, 50,000; for Canterbury, 
50,000; for Dunedin, 50,000; for Southland, 100,000; for Victoria, 50,000. 
No time will be lost in distributing through the Auckland streams and 
rivers the proportion assigned to this district. Mr. J. C. Firth, who con- 
tinues to be so energetic in this kind of public usefulness, left on Wed- 
nesday morning for Te Awamutu, in which neighborhood some of the 
eggs are to be deposited. It is intended to deposit 30,000 in the Puniu. 
There will be deposited some 50,000 at various points in the upper waters 
of the Waikato, and the remainder, about 20,000, in the Rapurapu, one 
of the tributaries of the Upper Thames. It is satisfactory to be able to 
state that the ova have arrived in excellent condition, and for this re- 


° 
TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 849 


sult thanks are due to Professor Spencer Baird, chief of the Fish Com- 
mission of the United States, and to Mr. Livingstone Stone, the com- 
missioner for the Pacific States, who bestowed the greatest pains in 
packing the consignment for shipment. 


Robert Houghton to 8. F. Baird.. 


SAN FRANCISCO, September 11, 1878. 


DEAR Sir: I have just received a letter from the New Zealand Gov- 
ernment, in reply to a communication from me, in which they state that 
they will take one million whitefish ova on the terms stated by Mr. 
Clark, namely, 60 cents per 1,000 f. 0. b. at San Francisco, and that Mr. 
Clark undertakes personally to superintend the shipment at that port, 
provided his actual expenses across the continent are defrayed jointly 
by the State fish commissioners of California and Nevada and New 
Zealand. In my letter to the government, however, I inclosed express 
charges which they appear to have overlooked in their letter to me, but 
this item should be included in the bill by Mr. Clark, to whom I send a 
copy of the letter. 

I have forwarded your note of acknowledgment of remittance from 
the colony. : 

I am, dear sir, very truly yours, 
ROBT. HOUGHTON. 

Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD, &c. 


S.C. Farr to S. F. Baird. 


CANTERBURY ACCLIMATIZATION SUCIETY, 


Christchurch, September 13, 1878. 
The Hon. SPENCER F. BArrp, 


United States Commissioner Fish and Fisheries, Washington : 

DEAR Sir: We are very anxious to introduce into Canterbury some 
of the most useful game and insectivorous birds from America, and it 
was resolved at the last meeting of council that I should communicate 
with you upon the subject, and feeling assured that you will help us in 
the matter I take the liberty of asking you to kindly inform us which 
are the best, with something of their habits, best season for procuring 
them, and probable cost delivered on steamer at San Francisco. I am 
convinced this will be an intrusion upon your valuable and much occu- 
pied time, which I trust you will pardon. 

I am also directed to inquire if you could secure for us in the season 
100,000 ova of the silver trout? Ifso, at what cost delivered on board 
steamer at ’Frisco. 

You will, I have no doubt, be pleased to hear that the salmon are doing 

54 F , 


850 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


well with us, especially so in one of our rivers, Waimakiriri, some having 
been taken 9 and 10 inches in length, and, of course, returned to their 
natural element to mature. 

Here permit me to offer a suggestion in repacking of ova. It occurred 
to me, when unpacking the ova received from the Fish Commission, that 
an undue pressure presented itself in the center of each box, at which 
place the greatest loss was experienced, the ova being compressed thus 
[drawing], and void of any appearance of vitality, while those protected 
somewhat by the sides of the box from like pressure were all right. To 
prevent such a disaster, I thought if small twigs or laths, about the 
same substance as the ova is, in diameter, were‘laid crosswise, so as to 
divide the box into compartments, and thus support the screen and 
moss, might probably prevent it. [Drawing.] | 

Thave taken part in unpacking the ova received by us, and have no- 
ticed the same thing in each case; therefore venture the suggestion. 

In reference to the packing, I consider (with the exception of the 
above mentioned) nothing could have been more systematic or precisely 
executed, hence the success. 

Apologizing for thus imposing upon you, I am, dear sir, yours faith- 
fully, 

S. C. FARR, 
Honorable Secretary. 


CHRISTCHURCH ACCLIMATIZATION SOCIETY. 


An adjourned meeting of this society was held yesterday afternoon 
at the Gardens. Present, Hon J. 'T. Peacock, chairman; Drs. Nedwill 
and Poweli, Messrs. Hill, Boys, Carrick, Jameson, honorable treasurer; 
Farr, honorable secretary; Johnstone, Foreday, Haumer, and Blackis- 
ton. 

The secretary said since last meeting he had received £20 from the 
Auckland society, balance of the £70 refund on account of the Califor- 
nia salmon ova. 

A telegram was read from Dr. Hector, requesting that the majority of 
the whitefish might be sent to Lake Coleridge as soon as they were fit 
for carriage, a few to be kept by the society for experimental purposes. 

The curator, who was present, said that only about half a dozen of 
the fish were now alive. He had put some muslin in the boxes to re- 
tain the food; this had caused the boxes to overflow, and the fish had 
been thrown on to the floor of the breeding-house. 

A very general regret was expressed that such a mishap should have 
occurred, and which had all the appearance of having resulted from 
very great carelessness. 

The secretary was instructed to telegraph the fact to Dr. Hector. 

In reply to Mr. Boys, the secretary said about 200 of these fish had 
been hatched out. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC, 851 
Robert Creighton to S. I. Baird. 


SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., January 15, 1878. 
8. F. BARD : 


Thanks for the contribution of food-fish for New Zealand. I have 
forwarded your letters and telegrams to government, at New Zealand. 
Clark shipped ova on the 11th, and to-night they have arrived and are 
on the City of Sydney, and will sail to-morrow, 21st of January. I have 
sent a cablegram to the Government of New Zealand. Shipment of sal- 
mon arrived safely and have proved a great suecess. Ithink New Zea- 
land is now fully stocked with salmon, at least to such an extent as to 
render further shipments of ova unnecessary for some time to come. 
Small parcels of eastern trout have been sent from time to time and 
have been successful. I attach greater importance to whitefish than 
any other, because of delicacy of flesh and commercial value. New 
Zealand is a country of lakes and rivers peculiarly adapted for white- 
fish. I hope that this consignment will survive better than last year. 

ROBT. CREIGHTON. 


Robert Creighton to S. F. Baird. 
[Telegram. ] 


SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., January 19, 1878. 
S. F. BAIRD: 
Whitefish eggs arrived in good order. Shipped per steamer City of 


Sydney. Sails 21st instant, 
CREIGHTON. 


James Hector to S. F. Baird. 


COLONIAL MUSEUM OF NEW ZEALAND, 
Wellington, April 27, 1878. 

My DEAR PROFESSOR BAIRD: I have been away for the last two 
months and find that you have not been informed of the result of the 
whitefish shipment of January last, which reached Auckland on the 
15th February. I inclose a copy of my report to government, of 8th 
March, which you should have received by last mail. You will see that 
the experiment has been so far successful as to prove that these fish can 
be introduced with proper care into the most distant part of the col- 
ony. The partial failure must be attributed to some error during the 
transit. If due to overpacking with moss, as suggested by some, I 
don’t see how any could have survived. On looking through the pa- 
pers I find that Mr. Creighton states, as follows: 

‘The entire shipment of whitefish ova for California and Nevada, 
from Northville, Michigan, packed precisely as those for New Zealand. 


852 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


by Mr. Clark, and coming in the same car, were spoiled in transit; on 
being opened by Mr. Woodbury and myself they stunk and were putrid. 
They had been placed near the stove by the express agent to prevent 
them freezing. Ours had been less considerately treated and arrived 
(in ’Frisco) sound and lively, as I had proof, every box having been 
opened and examined by Mr. Woodbury in my presence. We then as- 
certained their temperature and gave them a drenching with water at a sim- 
ilar heat, screwed them up, reversed their position, and placed them upon 
and under ice in the Pacific Mail Company’s ice-house.” 

It is evident, therefore, that the ova were all right so far; whether the 
treatment I have underlined was judicious you will be able to judge. 
My own impression is that the mischief commenced toward this end of 
the journey. Don’t you think it would be better to pack them in tin 
boxes inside the wood? The wood boxes were quite sodden and rotting, 
and four of them had the lids loose. The holes, top and bottom, seem 
also a mistake, as they promote drainage of the melting ice-water 
through the ova and may cause them to hatch. Holes on side and bot- 
tom would be better. Also, I would suggest that each piece of screen 
carrying ova should be stitched on a light frame resting on corner- 
pieces, so as to take the weight off the bottom layers and to prevent sag- 
ging in the central part. But I hope to get authority to ask you to 
repeat the experiment, when I will write all my suggestions at length. 

The shipment of S. salar from Great Britain has been again a failure. 
Vifty thousand ova were packed in fifty-six boxes! Most of them seem 
not to have been impregnated, and at most only a few hundred hatched 
out. This is a great contrast to the success of the California salmon. 

Yours, very truly, 
JAMES HECTOR. 

Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 

Washington. 


J. OC. Firth to S. F. Baird. 


AUCKLAND, N. Z., May 2, 1878. 


DEAR Sir: I regret to have to inform you that the half million white- 
fish ova which you were good enough to transmit to this colony, and the 
transshipment of which at this port the New Zealand Government in- 
trusted to me, have turned out badly so far as yet known. I think, 
probably, that the ova and moss were too much compressed—the moss 
being very hard and the netting adhering, the ova presenting the ap- 
pearance of having been crushed. In the box left at Auckland all but 
30 ova were dead, and these only appear to have escaped by reason of 
there being less pressure at the sides than elsewhere. Mr. Creighton, 
our secretary, appears to have taken every precaution to secure success. 
Captain Dearborn, of the City of Sydney, Halifax mail line, and his offi- 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 853 


cers, did all in their power to secure success. The government of this 
colony will doubtless furnish you with full particulars. 

Of the 30 only 9 hatched; 6 of these died immediately ; 2 died yes- 
terday—only one remaining alive. 

You will be glad to learn those fine healthy salmon from your ova 
have been seen a week ago, about 15 to 18 inches long, in the river 
Thames, not far from the point where I placed them two years ago. 

I am, dear sir, yours truly, 
J. C. FIRTH, 
President A. A. Society. 
I send newspaper with account of whitefish. 


W. MM. Hvarts to 8S. F. Baird. 


DEPARTMENT OF STATE, 
Washington, D. C., April 20, 1878. 
SPENCER F. BArRD, Esq., 
Commissioner, &e., Washington, D. C.: 

Str: Linclose herewith for your information copy of a note of the 
18th instant, from the British minister at this capital, and of its inclo- 
sures, relating to the manner of the shipment under your direction of 
salmon ova to New Zealand. 

I am, sir, your obedient servant, 
WM. M. EVARTS. 


Sir Edward Thornton to W. M. Evarts. 


WASHINGTON, D. C., April 18, 1878. 

Sir: In compliance with an instruction which I have received from 
the Earl of Derby, I have the honor to inform you that the governor of 
New Zealand, at the instance of his ministers, has requested that the 
thanks of the colony may be conveyed to the Government of the United 
States for the very handsome and effective manner in which salmon ova 
have been shipped to New Zealand by the Fishery Commission of the 
United States, under the direction of the chief Commissioner, the hon- 
orable Spencer F. Baird. 

I have the honor to transmit herewith copy of the dispatch and of its 
inclosure upon this subject from the governor of New Zealand to the 
secretary of state for the colonies. 

I have, &e., 
EDWD. THORNTON. 


854 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
The Marquis of Normanby to the Earl of Carnarvon. 


WELLINGTON, February 1, 1878. 


My Lorp: I have the honor to inclose a memorandum which I have 
received from my government, by which you will see that they are 
anxious to convey the thanks of this colony to the Government of the 
United States for the very handsome and effective manner in which sal- 
mon ova has been shipped to this colony by the Fishery Commission 
of the United States, under the direction of the chief Commissioner, the 
honorable Spencer F. Baird. 

I venture also to express a hope on my own part that your lordship 
will see no objection to adopt the course proposed by my government, 
as I think that the action of the American Government has evinced such 
a feeling of friendship and generosity towards New Zealand in a mat- 
ter in which deep interest is taken as to demand a special mark of 
acknowledgment and thanks on the part of this colony. 

I have, &c., 
NORMANBY. 


CO. S. Whitmore to the Governor of New Zealand. 
MEMORANDUM FOR HIS EXCELLENCY. 


Ministers desire respectfully to inform his excellency the governor 
that the half million salmon ova which arrived by the mail steamer 
from San Francisco in November last have been successfully hatched 
and distributed to the various rivers in the colony, and that, by infor- 
mation which has reached the government from various directions, it has 
been demonstrated that owing to the extreme care with which the ova 
was packed in America the very satisfactory result of about 95 per cent, 
of live fish has been obtained. 

In addition to the half million sent at the request of the government 
an equal quantity has been sent to the various acclimatization societies 
in the colony, and this handsome gift of salmon ova has been made to the 
colony without charge, except cost‘tf packing and transit, by the Fish 
Commission of the United States, under the direction of the Hon. 
Spencer F. Baird, as chief commissioner. 

Ministers venture to think that so generous an action on the part of a 
foreign nation is worthy of being acknowledged in a special manner ; 
they would therefore respectfully ask his excellency to bring the matter 
under the notice of Her Majesty’s Government, through the secretary of 
state for the colonies, in the hope that Her Majesty’s Government will 
permit a communication to be made to the Government of the United 
States of the thanks of the colony of New Zealand for the generous and 
valuable gift of a million salmon ova to the colony. 


C. 8S. WHITMORE. 
WELLINGTON, February 1, 1878. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 895 
S. F. Baird to Wm. M. Bvarts. 


UNITED STATES COMMISSION, FISH AND FISHERIES, 
Washington, April 23, 1878. 
Str: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 
20th of April, with the inclosures, and, of course, feel much gratified at 
the appreciation manifested by the Government of New Zealand and 
the Foreign Office in London of the efforts made by the United States 
Fish Commission to supply desirable food fishes to a sister country. 
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
| SPENCER F. BAIRD, 


Commissioner. 
Hon. WILLIAM M. EVARTS, 


Secretary of State. 


The following is the substance of an official document relative to the 
introduction of Quinnat salmon, published by the New Zealand Gov- 
ernment in 1878. Although its substance is contained in the preceding 
correspondence, it embraces many facts relative to the California salmon 
of mucn interest, and worthy of reproduction. 


H.—11. 


CALIFORNIA SALMON AND WHITEFISH OVA, (PAPERS RELATIVE TO 
THE INTRODUCTION OF). 


Presented to both Houses of the General Assembly by command of His Excellency. 
Noot, 
The Under-Secretary to the Hon. Spencer Baird. 


WELLINGTON, 31st May, 1877. 
Sir: With reference to the offer which you kindly made in your let- 
ter of the 7th ultimo, addressed to Dr. Hector, I have the honor to re- 
quest that arrangements may be made for the transmission to this col- 
ony during next season of 500,000 of the ova of the Californian salmon, 
and 250,000 of the ova of lake whitefish (Coregonus albus). 
I have, &c., 


G. S. COOPER. 
Professor BAIRD, 


Commissioner United States Fisheries Commission, Washington. 


856 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
No. 2. 
Dr. Hector to Professor Baird. 


WELLINGTON, 28th July, 1877. 


DEAR Sir: I am directed by government to ask you to be good 
enough to have the next shipments of salmon ova packed, if possible, in 
cases containing 50,000 ova each, in order to facilitate their transit to 
the different districts throughout the colony. 

The government proposes to distribute the ova as follows: 


AIC Kam OS 620. Cie See et aN | Nin ea Ate a teen ek SR 2 
INVER sees actos, fo Soe Pe a Sr eens s i 
INGIS Omar tee ho Lee A ee A Pe A 1 
RCE GVIRINOULEE oe fo hah oh or oie ssins ny asia HR chee a cae it 
SNe EI OUEOn eee cite Sener ee lee # Sratate have Sloe ee 1 
CC bhrishelmrclicg wives. ec clot ckusese he Sia cise ies meen ae ete eee a 
ED ure clue eemee aU ne ete cotth BIW) MI Spa eae) ea ee A ae ib 
IVICA OW. wrote ctcva'ciaie' 20 cic =e cttncelsercle b crane te cieteren eee 2 
10 = 500, 000 


I have, &c., 
JAMES HECTOR. 
The Hon. SPENCER F. BAIRD. 


No. 3. 
Professor S. F. Baird to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


WASHINGTON, 10th July, 1877. 


Str: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of 
the 31st of May, asking for 500,000 eggs of the California salmon and 
250,000 of the whitefish, to be sent to New Zealand during the present 
year. 

This request I shall take pleasare in supplying, and in the mean time 
beg to be advised of the proper address of the packages, and whether 
they shall be subdivided into smaller quantities. Of course I can only 
promise them conditionally—in the event of nothing untoward happen- 
ing to the fisheries. 

I have, &c., 
SPENCER F. BAIRD. 

The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 857 
No. 4. 
Mr. W. Arthur to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


DUNEDIN, 25th September, 1877. 

Simm: The Acclimatization Society of Otago had intended procuring a 
supply of American whitefish ova this season from the States. 

In the course of our inquiries, however, we were informed that the 
Colonial Government of New Zealand had already taken up the matter, 
and were going to import a variety of the ova of Salmonide, and that 
a portion was to be forwarded to Otago. 

Under these circumstances, the society will gladly await the govern- 
ment experiment, and give any assistance in its power to secure success, 
and 

I have, &c., 
W. ARTHUR, 
Acting Secretary Otago Acclimatization Society. 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


No. 5. 


Cireular. 


To the SECRETARY OF ACCLIMATIZATION SOCIETY: 


Sir: I have the honor, by direction of the colonial secretary, to inform 
you that Professor Baird was, on the 28th of July last, requested to be 
good enough to have the next shipment of salmon ova packed, if possi- 
ble, in cases containing 50,000 ova each, of which case is intended 
for your society. 

This shipment may be expected to arrive by the next, or, at latest, the 
following San Francisco mail, and I am to request that you will be pre- 
pared to receive it immediately on arrival of the steamer at 

I inclose a copy of the papers which have been laid before Parliament 
on the subject generally, for the information of your society. 


To Mr. Firth: 

Should it appear to you that any additional expenditure for supplying 
of ice, or any other account, is required to insure the chance of success 
for the shipments to southern societies, 1am directed to request that 
you will kindly make such arrangements, and incur such expenditure 
on behalf of the government as may in your judgment appear neces- 
sary to attain the object in view. 

I have, &c., 


G. S. COOPER. 


858 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
No. 6. 
Myr. J. C. Firth to the Under Secretary. 


[ Telegram. ] 
AUCKLAND, 2d November. 


Preparations for safe distribution of salmon ova completed. Shall 
send ova-boxes and ice-chests for Nelson or Greymouth, Wellington, and 
Christchurch per Wanaka; those for Napier, Dunedin, and Invercar- 
gill per Rotorua. Make prior arrangements for forwarding ova for In- 
vereargill from Dunedin if mail arrives to-morrow. I wish to convey 
to King country and Upper Thames. Pray ask minister to authorize of 
running of locomotive to Newcastle on Sunday morning. 


NOs te 
Mr. Frederick Huddlestone to the Under Secretary. 


NELSON, 16th October, 1877. 


Str: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of 
the 11th instant, wherein you inform me that a shipment of 50,000 sal- 
mon ova may be expected by the Nelson Acclimatization Society by the 
next or, at the latest, the following San Francisco mail. 

In reply, I have to request that you will be good enough to convey 
the thanks of this society to the government, and inform the Hon. the 
Colonial Secretary that the ponds will be ready for the reception of the 
ova before the arrival of the next mail, and every care will be taken to 
hatch the fish. 

I have, &c., 
FREDERICK HUDDLESTONHE, 
Hon. Secretary Nelson Acclimatization Society. 


The UNDER SECRETARY, 
Colonial Secretary’s Office, Wellington. 


NOSES. 
Mr. James Payne to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


GREYMOUTH, 25th October, 1877, 
Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your letter of date 
and number as per margin, and to inform you that this society will have 
all its hatching-boxes and ponds in perfect readiness to receive the sal- 
mon ova on its arrival. 
The boxes have been cleaned from all trout, and are available at any 
moment. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 859 


I am further directed by this society to request that its claims for por- 
tion of the whitefish to arrive be recognized, and that you will be good 
enough to put such upon record. 

This society acknowledge with deep gratitude the attention of the 
government in securing salmon ova for it. 

I have, &e., 
JAMES PAYNE, 
Hon. Secretary Grey District Acclimatization Society. 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


No. 9. 
Mr. S. C. Farr to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


CHRISTCHURCH, 18th October, 1877. 


DEAR Sir: I beg leave to acknowledge receipt of yours of the 12th 
instant, covering papers for our information, for which receive our most 
sincere thanks. 

I have, &c., 
S. C. FARR. 

The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


No. 10. 


Mr. W. Arthur to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


DUNEDIN, 1st November, 1877. 
Str: I have the honor to acknowledge your letter of 11th ultimo, re- 
garding a box of American salmon ova to arrive soon. In reply, I have 
to state that the Otago Society has given the necessary instructions to 
Mr. Deans, the curator, to make his preparations for accommodating 
50,000 ova in our hatching-boxes. 
I have, &e., 
W. ARTHUR, 
Acting Secretary Otago Acclimatization Society. 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


No.,41. 
Mr. Henry Howard to the Under Secretary. 


SALMON Ponns, Wallacetown, 20th October, 1877. 
Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 
11th instant, informing me of the expected arrival of salmon ova, and to 
inform you that everything is ready for its reception. 


860 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


I should feel thankful if the government could give such directions to 
the railway authorities at Invercargill as would prevent any unnecessary 
delay in its transit from Bluff to the Makarewa station. 

I have, &e., 
HENRY HOWARD. 

The UNDER SECRETARY, Wellington. 


No. 12. 


The Under Secretary to Mr. Henry Howard. 


Str: With reference to your letter of the 20th instant, relative to 
preparations being made for the reception of salmon ova at the Maka- 
rewa ponds, I am directed to inform you that the railway authorities 
have been instructed to give you every facility in the transit of the ova 
from the bluff to its destination. 

You had better place yourself in communication with the station- 
master at the bluff on the subject. 

I have, &c., G. S. COOPER. 


No. 13. 


The Hon. Mathew Holmes, M. L. C., to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


WELLINGTON, November 2, 1877. 


Str: On behalf of the Oamaru Acclimatization Society I beg to thank 
you for the manner in which you were prepared to meet their applica- 
tion for salmon ova for that district, and am sorry to find that all the 
shipment now on its way from San Francisco was promised before my 
application was made. 

As further shipments are to follow, I now beg to apply for two cases 
salmon and two cases whitefish ova, out of the first shipment to arrive 
from America, for the Oamaru Acclimatization Society. 

I may state that suitable provision has been made to receive and hatch 
the ova, and that Mr. Young (one of the most successful in this line) 
has undertaken to conduct the experiment. 

I have, &e., 
MATHEW HOLMES. 

The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


No. 14. 
Mr. J. C. Firth to the Under Secretary. 


[Telegram. ] 
AUCKLAND, November 6, 1877. 


I have shipped per Rotorua, sailing this evening, one case of fifty 
thousand salmon ova to Williams, Napier, with one chest of ice in re- 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 861 


serve. Same quantity ova and two chests reserve ice each to Travers, 
Wellington, Farr, Christchurch, Perkins, Invercargill, and have wired 
advice of shipment to each party. Did Greymouth ova arrive? 

J. C. FIRTH. 


» 


No. 15. 
My. J. C. Firth to the Under Secretary. 


AUCKLAND, November 20, 1877. 

Str: I perceive by your telegram of yesterday that some misappre- 
hension exists as to the quantity and distribution of the salmon ova re- 
ceived by the November mail-steamer. 

By way of putting the matter fully before you, I may state that in an- 
swer to my letter of 11th of April to the Hon. 8. F. Baird that gentleman 
arranged to send 200,000 ova for the Auckland Acclimatization Society, 
and, in answer to a subsequent request of mine, a further shipment of 
50,000 for the Canterbury Society, and 50,000 for the Victorian Society. 
On receiving your letter of the 11th October, asking me to receive and 
provide for the safe distribution of the 500,000 salmon ova the New Zea- 
land Government were expecting to arrive by steamer on November 3, 
or at latest by next mail-steamer, and, knowing that the ova-boxes are 
shipped from their crates in San Francisco so that they may be placed 
in the steamer’s ice-house, [ immediately set to work to provide a double 
chest (the interspace packed with sawdust) for each ova-box expected 
(16 in number), with the necessary ice-boxes for a reserve of ice. I had 
provided also 2 tons of ice as a first installment, if the whole 800,000 ova 
arrived. These preparations were fully completed on November 2, when 
the mail-steamer arrived at Auckland. On her arrival I found that 11 
boxes only had arrived, consigned on ship’s manifest to Auckland Aceli- 
matization Society. I could learn nothing of any for the New Zealand 
Government. 

I had a staff of 8 men on the wharf, but the difficulty of getting the 
ova-boxes out of the ice-house, where they lay imbedded in tons of ice, 
was so great that I had not completed the packing of the 11 boxes till 
5 o’clock on the morning of the 3d November, though I and my men had 
been hard at work all through the night. 

Not wishing to disappoint the more suitable localities in the south, I 
arranged to ship some of the Auckland ova to Christchurch (in addition 
to their own parcel), to Dunedin, to Invercargill, and Napier, to be re- 
turned to us on receipt by government of the ova ordered by them. I 
therefore placed on board the Wanaka steamship, before 7 o’clock a. m., 
November 3, 4 boxes with reserves of ice for the three places first named, 
intending to ship to Napier by the Rotorua on the 6th. When on my 
return from Onehunga, the secretary of our society, having obtained his 
advices, waited upon me with a letter from Messrs. Cross & Co., our San 


> 


862 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Francisco agents, advising shipping 11 boxes salmon ova for the Auck- 
land Acclimatization Society, and inclosing press copy of a letter from 
Professor Baird’s deputy at Redding, in which there fortunately hap- 
pened to be a copy of the names of places to which the 10 boxes were to 
be sent—identical with Dr. Hector’s list of 28th July, 1877—embodied 
in the Parliamentary papers you sent to me (with one for the Victorian 
Society). I then found that for some reason or other the United States 
Fish Commissioners had not forwarded the Auckland and Can 
bury orders. Lat once telegraphed Captain McGillivray, of the Wanaki 
steamship, to deliver the two boxes marked ‘‘ Christchurch” to Nelson 
and Greymouth. On the 6th I dispatched per Rotorua: 

1 box to Napier, } 

1 box to Wellington, 

1 box to Christchurch, 

1 box to Invercargill, \ 


+ 


t With 7 ice-boxes in reserve. 


Per Wanaka— 
1 box to Nelson (as above), ) 
1 box to Greymouth (as above), | 
1 box to Dunedin, 
1 box to Invercargill, \ 


8 


Leaving for Auckland 2; and -}; for Victoria Society (not included in 
government order.) 

Having made every arrangement at great expense and much personal 
inconvenience for the safe reception and proper dispersion of the full 
quantity of 800,000 ova, I must confess to a little disappointment at be- 
ing therefore rendered unable to stock the Auckland rivers to the num- 
ber and extent I had intended. 

Since the arrival of the mail steamer on November 2, I have been 
actively engaged in carrying out the work you intrusted to me, of pack- 
ing and transshipping the ova to southern ports, and in placing the 
Auckland portions in the King country to the south, and in the Wairoa 
River and its tributaries to the north. 

From telegrams I have received, I am pleased to think that the work, 
arduous though it has been, has not been in vain. 

Pray pardon the length of this letter, as I could not permit any mis- 
apprehension as to the proper disposal of the ova to exist in your mind 
without endeavouring to remove it. 

I have, &c., 


+ With 5 boxes ice in reserve. 


J. C.. FIRTH, 
President of the Auckland Acclimatization Society. 
G. S. CooPER, Esq., 
Under Secretary, Wellington. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 863 
No. 16. 
Mr. J. C. Firth to the Under Secretary. 


AUCKLAND, 21st January, 1878. 


Sir: I beg toinform you that I have successfully deposited the 100,000 
salmon ova placed at the disposal of the Auckland Acclimatization So- 
ciety, as follows: 

40,000 in the Puniu River, in the King country, the chief Rewi Mania- 
poto co-operating with me and assisting me. 

8,000 in the river Thames. 

7,000 in a small stream near the chief Tiraraw’s settlement, Wairoa 
North. 

7,000 in the Mangakahia River, near the Hikurangi stream. 

36,000 in the Mangakahia River, near Te Wero’s settlement. 

About 95 per cent. of these hatched out, and, though the occurrence 
of a fresh in the Mangakahia River interfered somewhat with the suc- 
cess of the enterprise, I have no doubt that a very fair measure of suc- 
cess has been attained. 

T inclose (1) duplicate receipt from Mr. Myron Green for $750, paid by 
Mr. Creighton to United States Fish Commission, for package and transit 
charges of 500,000 salmon ova, and (2) letter from Prof. Spencer F. Baird 
confirming same. For this sum Mr. Creighton drew upon me, which I 
honored, and was subsequently refunded a like amount by the Treasury 
at Wellington, £164 1s. 3d. 

I have to thank you for the very eflicient aid you have rendered me 
in the distribution of the half million ova. 

I have, &c., J.C. FIRTH. 


G. 8S. CooPER, Esq., 
Under Secretary, Wellington. 


No. 17. 
Frederick Huddleston, Esq., to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


NELSON, 7th January, 1878. 

Sir: I have the honor to report for the information of the government 
the success that has so far attended the introduction of American salmon 
ova into the rivers of this district. 

The ova arrived from San Francisco on the evening of Sunday, the 4th 
of November. On Monday morning I opened the box said to contain 
50,000. I found eight layers, each about a quart, and packed between 
a thin material like scrim, and each layer separated by moss. I caused 
all the dead eggs to be picked out (about 1,500). The sound ones were 
then put into the hatching ponds, and the ponds covered with boards to 
protect the eggsfromthesun. On Friday, the 9th November, the first fish 


864 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


made its appearance, and by Monday, the 19th, all were hatched out, 
with the exception of about 1,000 bad eggs. They were thus left undis- 
turbed until the 8th December, when, finding they had begun to feed, I 
caught about half of them and turned them into the Wairoa River, close 
by the railway bridge. On the following Saturday, 15th December, the 
remainder were caught and placed into two large tin-lined cases and sent 
by rail to Fox Hill, from which place they were taken by spring convey- 
ances over Spooner’s Range, a distance of about fourteen miles, and 
placed into the Motueka River, with a loss only of about fifteen on the 
road. 

I estimate the total number turned out at about 25,000, and the bad ova 
at about 2,500. It will thus be seen that the box contained little more 
than half the estimated quantity, viz, 50,000. 

The ova was certainly most carefully and beautifully packed, and the 
arrangements for supplying ice were exceedingly good. Great credit is 
due to the shippers, and it would be well if Dr. Buckland and others in 
England interested in the acclimatization of fish would take a lesson in 
packing ova from our American friends. 

In conclusion, I hope the government will continue the good work so 
well commenced until salmon is established in New Zealand waters 
beyond a doubt and our rivers well stocked. 

I have, &ce., FREDERICK HUDDLESTONE, 
Hon. Secretary Nelson Acclimatization Society. 


The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


No: 18. 
Mr. W. Arthur to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


DUNEDIN, 16th December, 1877. 


Sir: I have the honor to inform you that the box of American salmon 
ova (supposed 50,000) arrived here safely by the Taupo on the 7th, and 
contents transferred to the breeding boxes of the Otago Acclimatization 
Society with as little delay as possible. The supply of ice was not ex- 
hausted, and the ova were in very good condition, only four or five per 
cent. having gone bad. I am sorry, however, to say that after being 
four days in the hatching-boxes many of them died, but others are 
healthy, and some are hatching out. 

The society will be glad to hear soon as to when the supply of white- 
fish ova may be expected for our lakes. Our accommodation is limited, 
and besides the salmon ova we have a great number of young trout 
recently hatched out still in the hatching-boxes. 

I have, &c., W. ARTHUR, 
Acting Secretary Otago Acclimatization Society. 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 865 
No. 19. 
The Hon. J. A. R. Menzies to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


WYNDHAM, 25th January, 1878. 
Sie: I have the honor to inform you that Mr. Howard reports that he 
has placed the folowing numbers of California salmon fry in the rivers 
named : 


Hines tT) rE Giese: sina Grate oj cca esata a (ay Safe Seber ejstete ain 2 Oc sient eee 35, 000 
MUTA AVN UAT ee Pe oics's wiie/o ay ak sis sieehe cue sraiaiceeiniats meine ceisler 10, 000 
TPE Glew aE O Wid \o< - sro sie wfc alias ett eatatahe oa cnovata ice teteteyal = elereneie fete ae 18, 000 

ANG Giallo (ere teeny 2 ciave ny, ore wnls ace SRE PeIbel mio ers cial ee spot ges ar elon 63, 000 


He retains for the present about 800 fry in the ponds. Mr. Howard 
remarks that only 25,000 fry were available from the ova contained in 
the second box he received, that box, as you may remember, having been 
transshipped in Auckland, by mistake, tothe Rotorua, whereby it reached 
the ponds above a week later than the other box, the hatching of the 
ova of which seems to have produced 80 per cent. of fry. 

Mr. Howard also says “the young fish are exceedingly healthy and 
strong, and the arrangements for the transport of the ova from America, 
though simple, were almost perfect.” 

Have you any intelligence of the dispatch of the English salmon ova 
ordered ? f 


I have, &e. 
ad J. A. R. MENZIES, 


Chairman of Commissioners of Salmon Ponds. 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


No. 20. 
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary to His Excellency the Governor. 


WELLINGTON, lst February, 1878. 


Ministers desire respectfully to inform his excellency the governor 
that the half million salmon ova which arrived by the mail steamer from 
San Francisco in November last have been successfully hatched and dis- 
tributed to the different rivers of the colony, and that, by information that 
has reached the government from various directions, it has been demon- 
strated that owing to the extreme care with which the ova were packed 
in America the very satisfactory result of about 95 per cent. of the fish 
has been obtained. 

In addition to the half million sent at the request of the government, 
an equal quantity has been sent to the various acclimatization societies 
in the colony, and this handsome gift of salmon ova has been made to 
the colony without charge, except cost of package and transit, by the 

50 F ° 


866 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Fish Commission of the United States, under the direction of the Hon. 
Spencer I*. Baird, as Chief Commissioner. 

Ministers venture to think that so generous an action on the part of a 
foreign nation is worthy of being acknowledged in a special manner. 
They would, therefore, respectfully ask his excellency to bring the matter 
under the notice of Her Majesty’s Government, through the secretary of 
state for the colonies, in the hope that Her Majesty’s Government will 
permit a communication to be made to the Government of the United 
States of the thanks of the colony of New Zealand for the generous and 
valuable gift of a million salmon ova to the colony. 

I have, &c., 
G. S. WHITMORE, 
Colonial Secretary. 
His Excellency the GOVERNOR. 


No. 21. 
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary to Mr. J. C. Firth. 


WELLINGTON, 6th December, 1877. 


Sir: Referring to the correspondence which has taken place on the 
subject of the salmon ova supplied by the American Fish Commissioner, 
and which reached New Zealand by the November mail, I have the 
honor to inform you that communications have been received from all 
the acclimatization societies to which consignments were sent, stating 
that the importation seems likely to turn out perfectly successful. 

It gives me great pleasure to offer you the thanks of the government 
for the readiness with which you undertook the arduous task of attend- 
ing to the shipment on its arrival and for the judicious arrangements 
you made for the distribution of the portions assigned to southern socie- 
ties. There can be no doubt that to those arrangements is largely 
attributable the success which has attended the experiment. 

I have, &c., 
G. S. WHITMORE. 

J. CO. FirntTH, Esq., Auckland. 


No. 22. 
Myr. J. C. Firth to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


AUCKLAND, 11th February, 1878. 


Sir: I have the honor to thank you for your letter of 6th December 
last, conveying the thanks of the government to me for my services in ~ 
distributing the salmon ova recently presented to this colony by the 
United States Government. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 867 


I have also to thank you for bringing under the notice of his excellency 
the governor the act of genuine international courtesy displayed by the 
Government of the United States in the noble gift of one million salmon 
ova to the colony of New Zealand, and for the information that his ex- 
cellency has communicated with the secretary of state for the colonies, 
requesting that the Government of the United States may be thanked 
on behalf of this colony. 

I have, &c., 


J. ©; RRR EEE 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY. 


No. 23. 
Mr. R. J. Creighton to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., 19th January, 1878. 

Str: I have the honor to inform you that I have consigned to your 
government from the United States Fish Commission, per favor of Pro- 
fessor Baird, 500,000 whitefish eggs, which I hope will arrive in good 
condition and hatch out. I inclose Professor Baird’s letters and tele- 
grams to me on this subject; also, telegrams from and to Mr. Clark, 
deputy fish commissioner at Northville, Mich. In further explanation, 
however, I may state that I wrote to Professor Baird on this subject 
several months ago, and expressed a desire of obtaining, if possible, 
another supply of whitefish eggs for the colony, in consequeuce of the 
failure of previous shipments. I explained to him the geographical 
position of the leading settlements, and the risk of failure in distributing 
the ova on arrival about midsummer along such an extended seaboard, 
and he promised that the next consignment would be left to my discre- 
tion in that regard. 

Accordingly I have written to J.C. Firth, esq., president of the Auck- 
Jand Acclimatization Society, requesting him to take charge of at least 
250,000 eggs, and hatch out the same in the breeding ponds at Auck- 
land, from which stock the North Island lakes should be supplied. It 
is necessary that there should be running water. I should be gratified 
if, in addition to Lake Taupo and other lakes on the line of the Waikato, 
the Wairarapa could be speedily stocked with this valuable fish. The 
lesser lakes could be attended to subsequently. 

I have likewise telegraphed to the Christchurch and Dunedin Accli- 
matization Societies, requesting them to put themselves in communica- 
tion with you; but I am of the opinion that only these leading societies, 
and perhaps Nelson, should be supplied with eggs, and these only if, 
upon examination in Auckland, the eggs could fairly stand the journey. 
In any contingency, or if there should be a doubt of the eggs spoiling, 
I should recommend that the entire consignment should be hatched at 
Auckland, and the young fish thence distributed over the colony. But 


868 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


as there is always a reasonable feeling of pride in such matters, the so- 
cieties named are entitled to the utmost consideration consistent with 
the preservation of this valuable contribution to the food fish of the 
colony. One hundred thousand eggs might be shipped to Canterbury, 
100,000 to Dunedin, and 50,000 to Nelson. This would dispose of the 
entire shipment, which is in ten (50,000) boxes. 

In this connection I have consulted several gentlemen experienced in 
the American fisheries, and they unhesitatingly place whitefish as the 
most valuable of all fresh-water fish, ranking as a food fish above all 
other varieties. They are prolific, grow to a large size, and are equally 
good for food fresh or salted. Should they be successfully acclimatized 
in New Zealand, the colony will derive an immense return for the small 
outlay incident to introducing them. 

I have taken advantage of the refrigerator-box of the Reena So- 
ciety, in which the late consignment of salmon ova were shipped, and 
filled it with ice in lieu of the ship’s ice-house, which Captain Dearbour 
has placed at my disposal for the whitefish. This will economize ice 
and give a more reasonable certainty of the consignment arriving safely. 
I may here state that Captain Dearbour, of the City of Sydney, takes a 
very deep interest in this work of acclimatization, and, I think, deserves 
‘some recognition by the government. 

I have also consulted Mr. Redding, Fish Commissioner for California, 
from whom, and his Deputy, Mr. Woodbury, I have received every pos- 
sible aid. I need not, however, encumber this communication by inclos- 
ing my correspondence with these gentlemen. 

The fact that I received intimation of this shipment by telegram on 
the 5th instant compelled me to wire a message through by cable to pre- 
vent the possibility of the consignment failing for want of preparedness 
onarrival. It was addressed to the premier. As I was not in funds to 
meet this and other disbursements on account of the colony, I have drawn. 
for the amount, as per vouchers and statement of account annexed, which 
please honor. I also inclose statement of account from Mr. Clark, to 
whom you will be good enough to remit the amount by return mail, ap- 
prising me of the fact. You will observe what Professor Baird states 
upon this subject—and I would respectfully suggest that the government 
convey to him an expression of their appreciation of the interest he has 
taken in the acclimatizing of food fish in New Zealand. 

I have acted in this matter without instructions, but in the belief that 
my conduct will meet with your approval. 

I would suggest, in conclusion, that the government in future would 
prevent risk of loss by apprizing me when they order fish eggs from the 
United States Commission. I had no knowledge of the last order for 
salmon until after the ship sailed, and it was by a mere accident that the 
entire consignment was not left behind. 

I have, &c., ROBT. J. CREIGHTON. 

The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY, 

Wellington. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 869 
[Inclosure 1 in No. 23.] 
Professor Baird to Robert J. Creighton, Esq. 


WASHINGTON, 5th January, 1878. 

Sir: Mindful of the desire of New Zealand to obtain an additional 
supply of whitefish eggs, I arranged with Mr. F. N. Clark, of Northville, 
Mich., for half a million, and to bring them forward to a proper stage for 
shipment. I am informed that the eggs are now ready, and he has been 
instructed to forward them to you at once. They are to be put up in ten 
packets of 50,000 each, so as to be more conveniently divided. 

It may be well for you to confer with Mr. B. B. Redding, Commissioner 
for California, in regard to the proper treatment of these eggs. They 
are not quite so far advanced as those of. last year. 

Mr. Clark’s charge for these eggs is $1 per thousand, or $500 for the 
lot, exclusive, I presume, of packing and expressage. If you have not 
this amount on hand you can collect it at your earliest convenience from 
the colony and send it direct to Mr. Clark. My own appropriation did 
not permit me to incur so large an expense during the present season. 

It is possible that for greater security the eggs may be shipped in two 
lots at intervals of two or three days, so that if one is lost the other may 
not be. 

Presuming that you have ample instructions from New Zealand as to 
the distribution of these eggs, and leaving it to you to attend to their 
specific assignment, 


I have, &c. 
nae SPENCER F. BAIRD, 


Commissioner. 
Kh. J. CREIGHTON, Esq., 


Agent for New Zealand, San Francisco, Cal. 


[Inclosure 2 in No. 23.] 
My. k. J. Creighton to Professor Baird. 


SAN FRANCISCO, 15th January, 1878. 


Str: Accept my best thanks for your letters and telegrams, and the 
valuable contributions of food-fish for New Zealand which you have 
been good enough to make on behalf of the United States Fish Com- 
mission. | 

I have forwarded your letters and telegrams to the New Zealand Gov- 
ernment, which will not fail to appreciate your kindness. Mr. Clark 
telegraphed me of the departure of the ova from Northville on the 11th, 
and I expect their arrival to-night or to-morrow. I have made arrange- 
ment for their shipment per City of Sydney, which sails for New Zea- 
land and Australia on the 21st instant, and have apprised the govern- 
ment by cablegram of the consignment. Mr. Clark’s bill for the eggs 


870 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


will be forwarded to the colony, and a remittance direct made by the 
government. I shall write to him to that effect. If I had been in 
funds, I should have had pleasure in paying the amount at once. 

Iam happy to say that the shipment of salmon ova arrived at its 
destination safely, and has proved a great success. I think New Zea- 
land is now fully stocked with salmon, at least to such an extent as to © 
render further shipment for some time to come unnecessary. Small 
parcels of eastern trout have been sent and are successful; but I attach 
greater importance to the acclimatization of whitefish than to all the 
others, as well from the delicacy of the flesh as from its commercial 
value. New Zealand is a country of lakes and rivers peculiarly adapted 
for it. I can only express a hope that this consignment may fare better 
than the consignment of last year. 

I have, &e., 
ROBERT J. CREIGHTON. 

Prof. S. F. BAIRD, Washington. 


[Inclosure 3 in No. 23.] 
Myr. Frank N. Clark to Mr. R. J. Creighton. 


NORTHVILLE, Micu., 11th January, 1878. 


‘ Srr: Lhave this day shipped you two crates (500,000) of whitefish 
eggs for your government, and telegraphed you to that effect. Please 
have your government report condition upon opening of the same, to me. 


I have, &e. 
il fae FRANK N. CLARK. 


[Inclosure 4 in No. 23.] 
Mr. R. J. Creighton to Mr. F. N. Clark. 


San FRANCISCO, CAL., 20th January, 1878. 

Str: I have pleasure in acknowledging the safe arrival of ten boxes 
whitefish eggs for New Zealand from your fish-hatching house. They 
arrived early Friday, and were opened and examined by Mr. Woodbury, 
foreman of the State hatching house, San Leandro. They are in good 
condition, and promise to arrive safely at their destination. I have had 
them packed in ice in the ice-chest of the mail steamship City of Syd- 
ney, which sails on the 21st. They will remain in ice all the voyage, and 
be hatched out prompt on arrival. 

I regret that the consignment to the State Fish Commissioners of Cali- 
fornia and Nevada was valueless, as on opening them they were all found 
to be dead and stinking. They had been placed near the stove in transit; 
hence the total failure of the shipment. As it is impossible to freeze 
fish-eggsin the express car, owing to the fact that a stove is always kept 
alight, I should suggest that in future consignments instructions be 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 871 


given that they be kept as cool as possible. The instructions on the 
commissioner's crate not to let the eggs get below Zero appears to have 
been literally followed. The sawdust packing was at blood-heat when 
opened by Mr. Woodbury. To the absense of this special instruction I 
attribute the safe arrival of the New Zealand consignment, and a parcel 
of trout from Wisconsin. 

I forward Professor Baird’s letter to the New Zealand Gavcunnent in 
which he intimates that your charges for the eggs would be $1 per oa: 
sand and packing. You did not send me an account, but I presume this 
to be correct. The communication with the colony is monthly. I have 
requested the New Zealand Government to transmit the amount direct to 
you, and inform me of the fact. I likewise forward your letter to me 
with a request that the government should report the condition of the 
eggs upon opening the same. 

Ican only express the hope that the consignment may arrive at its des- 
tination in as prime condition as it leaves San Francisco. 

I have, &e., 


ROBT. J. CREIGHTON. 
¥. N. CLARK, Esq,, 


United States Fish Commissioner, Northville, Mich. 


No. 24. 
Mr. R. J. Creighton to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


SAN FRANCISCO, January 20, 1878. 

Sir: I have the honor to state, in reference to my previous letter, 
that I have had a conversation with the members of the State Fish 
Commission, and learned several facts of great practical value in refer- 
ence to the propagation of whitefish, which I have embodied in a letter 
to Mr. Firth, of Auckland, in the belief that the Auckland Acclimatiza- 
tion Society will have the task of hatching out the bulk, if not all, the 
whitefish eggs. I am unable to copy the letter in time for this mail. 
Should the suggestions given therein be acted upon, I have no doubt of 
the success of the experiment. 

I have further to request that you will cause the request in Mr. 
Clark’s letter to be attended to. As Mr. Clark did not send any state- 
ment of account, I infer that the $1 per 1,000 mentioned by Professor 
Baird covers cost of package. It may not be the case, however. If so, 
$500 is due the Fish Commission at Northville, and should be remitted. 
I have sent two tons of ice—not three, as I originally intended. I think 
two tons will be ample. I may mention that I received very great as- 
sistance from Mr. Woodbury, who came a long distance twice in very 
inclement weather, to examine and repack, after drenching the eggs 
with water at proper temperature. I should be pleased if the govern- 
ment would authorize me to thank him for his gratuitous help. 


872 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The accompanying telegrams and correspondence give the history of 
the transaction. It will be observed from my reply to Mr. Clark that 
the New Zealand shipment was fortunate in not sharing the same fate 
as those consigned to the State Fish Commissioners of California at 
Nevada, which perished by the way. 

I have, &c., 


ROBT. J. CREIGHTON. 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY, 


Wellington, N. Z. 


No. 25. 
Mr, J. CO. Firth to the. Under Secretary. 


[Telegram. ] 


AUCKLAND, February 15, 1878. 


Mail steamer arrived last night at seven o’clock. I shipped on board 
Hawea eight boxes containing your hundred thousand whitefish ova— 
packed ice in two insulating chests with hundred weight ice in reserve. 
Hawea cleared wharf at half-past eight. Owing to having no informa- 
tion of dimensions of ova boxes, I could not pack the remaining two 
boxes containing one hundred thousand ova. These I forward per 
Rotorua. Creighton sends full instructions, which I will wire you to-day 
for information of Southern Society. Creighton’s exertions well deserve 


the thanks of the government. 
J. C. FIRTH. 
G. S. CooPER, Esq., 


Under Secretary. 


No. 26. 
Mr. J. C. Firth to the Under-Secretary. 


AUCKLAND, April 19, 1878. 


Sir: I have this day forwarded one box whitefish ova said to contain 
50,000 ova, properly packed in ice in insulating box, and one box con- 
taining ice in reserve. I inclose Mr. Creighton’s instructions. Having 
fully acquainted you of all matters relating to this shipment of white- 
fish ova, it is not necessary for me to enter into any recapitulations. 
My account for cost incurred will be forwarded to you shortly. 

I have, &c., 
J. C. FIRTH. 

G. S. COOPER, Esq., 


Under-Secretary, Wellington. 
(Nore.—This box was forwarded from Wellington to A. M. Johnson, 
Christchurch, on 22d April.—J. H.) 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 873 
[Inclosure in No. 26.] 
Myr. Creighton to Mr. J. C. Firth. 


SAN FRANCISCO, 20th January, 1878. 


My DEAR Sir: Since I wrote to you re whitefish, as per inclosure, I 
have learned some facts which are of interest relative to the artificial 
hatching of them, from the State Fish Commissioner (Mr. Redding), 
and the foreman (Mr. Woodbury), which you should know. 

1st. Mr. Redding declares that it is almost essential that they should 
be hatched out at the first point of landing, owing to their delicacy. 
They will thrive anywhere if the water is deep enough, their food being 
small crustacea adhering to rocks in fresh water lakes, having a current 
running through them. They should have asandy and gravelly bottom. 

2d. They are much more difficult to manage than salmon, and, until 
recently, little was known of their habits. They lose their sacks in ten 
days at a temperature of 35°, and earlier at a higher temperature. It 
will be necessary to feed them three days afterwards, or perhaps earlier, 
if they are to be transported any distance. The Fish Commissioners of 
Wisconsin discovered this year that whitefish could be fed with blood 
for an indefinite period, and in the San Leandro hatching establishment, 
and at Lake Chabot in this State, the same experiment has been tried 
with success. Mr. Woodbury, therefore, suggests that you keep twenty 
of the fish in the hatching trough and feed them with blood, which can 
be squirted into the water with a syringe and thoroughly mixed. This 
would serve a double purpose. It would establish as a fact what is 
now experiment, that whitefish may be fed upon coagulated blood, and 
also give you a permanent stock for purposes of spawning, by which 
your society might derive no little profit. The Fish Commissioners 
here are very anxious in regard to this matter, and I would be glad 
if you could give it a fair trial and report the result. As fish culture is 
now becoming a leading industry, the economic side of the question will 
readily suggest itself to your mind. 

3d. Whitefish, as soon as hatched out, rise and swim, unlike trout 
and salmon, which lie dormant. The little fellows are, therefore, carried 
down the trough with the current, and, unless fine wire screens are 
placed across it to intercept them, they are almost certain to be lost. It 
was in this way, I suspect, the Christchurch Society lost their whitefish, 
and not by a fresh during the night, as reported. No. 18 mesh (eighteen) 
will keep them in. They should have as much back-water as possible 
to swim in. In ten days, as I have said, they lose their sack, at a tem- 
perature of 35°, but, as they may lose it earlier, it is necessary that a 
register of the daily temperature of the water be kept, and food be fur- 
nished as above described. 

4th. In the interest of science and acclimatization, should any por- 
tion of these eggs be sent south, I have to request that you communi- 


874  REFORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


cate these facts to the persons in charge of them for their guidance. 
One way and other I have written a decent volume in this connection, 
and cannot possibly duplicate or quadruple these notes, which are in 
the rough. I have not written on this subject to the government, which 
must depend upon your society and similar bodies for the propagation 
and distribution of the whitefish. 

I may remark here that the acclimatization of whitefish is in its in- 
fancy, and much has yet to be learned regarding it. It was thought, 
less than four years ago, that the eggs could not be sent across this 
continent. Several parcels failed, but at length a few. were hatched 
and placed in Lake Tahoe, in the north. This was less than three 
years ago, and now the fishes which come to the sandy, pebbly banks 
on the Californian side of the lake are being netted and sent to Virginia 
City Market. They spawn, it is believed, the third year. Last year 
ten men and two teams were employed by the lake commissioners to 
cut a road several miles through the snow to place whitefish in another 
Northern California lake, and Lake Tulare in the south, warmer than 
Taupo, and about as large, has been stocked. The entire shipment of 
whitefish ova for California and Nevada, from Northville, Mich., packed 
precisely as those for New Zealand by Mr. Clark, and coming in the 
same car, were spoiled in transit. On being opened by Mr. Woodbury 
and myself they stank and were putrid. They had been placed near 
the stove by the express agents to prevent their freezing. Ours had 
been less considerately treated, and arrived sound and lively, as I had 
proof, every box having been opened and examined by Mr. Woodbury 
in my presence. We then ascertained their temperature, and gave 
them a drenching with water at a similar heat; screwed them up, re- 
versed their position, placed them upon and surrounded thém with ice 
in the Pacific Company’s ice-houses. I telegraphed to Mr. Woodbury, 
and brought him twice from a considerable distance, by road and rail, 
in extremely wet weather, to assist me, and as it was a labor of love, I 
am anxious that he should, at least, have honorable mention. I should 
also remark that Woodbury has invented a hatching basket, in which 
30,000 salmon eggs may be hatched with certainty. It occupies about 
two feet square, and would, I think, be a great assistance to you. I 
don’t know the price, but it is trifling, and I thought I would mention 
it to you. IfI can get one by next steamer, I will send it down. 

Perhaps it would not be trespassing too much upon your kindness to 
ask the secretary of your society to make copies of this letter, or so 
much of it as may be necessary for their guidance, and forward one to 
the Christchurch, Dunedin, and Nelson societies; or send one to the 
government requesting them to communicate the same to those bodies. 

I dare say 1 have nearly wearied you, but I know your enthusiastic 
love for acclimatizing such natural products as animals and fishes as 
may be useful to man, and therefore presume upon your time and pa- 
tience. I forgot to say that whitefish take bait. They should be closely 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 875 


protected for, at least, four years. The wire screen referred to in para- 
graph 3 should be higher than the water to prevent loss of fish by 
overflow. 
I have, &e., : 
ROBT. J. CREIGHTON. 


No. 27. 
Mr. J. O. Firth to the Under-Secretary. 
' 
[Telegraw. ] 


AUCKLAND, 16th February, 1878. 


Since writing last I find I can push on preparations at the hatching- 
house, and will therefore take charge of one box. The other goes on 


by Rotorua. 
J. C. FIRTH. 


G. S. COOPER, 
Under-Secretary. 


No. 28. 
Mr. J. CO. Firth to the Under-Secretary. 


AUCKLAND, 18th February, 1878. 


Sir: Whitefish ova turned out very badly in the box you wished me 
to take charge of. All destroyed but thirty. Some of these died in 
hatching, others died soon after. Two fish living; eight ova yet to 
hatch. Cause of destruction, too many in one box and too much com- 
pression. Shall I forward the second box or open it here? 

J. C. FIRTH. 

G.S. CooPER, Esq,, 

Under-Secretary. 


No. 29. 
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary to James Hector, M. D. 


WELLINGTON, 15th February, 1878. 


Str: As you are already aware, a shipment of 250,000 whitefish ova 
sent from San Francisco by the United States Fishery Commission has 
arrived by the City of Sydney at Auckland, and has been transshipped 
with the mail on board the Hawea. 

L should be much obliged if you would hold yourself in readiness to 
take charge of the ova on arrival here, and to proceed with them to the 
Bluff, and superintend their deposition in Lake Te Anau, taking with 
you, if necessary, an assistant from the staff of the museum. 


876 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The necessary instructions have been sent to the railway officers at 
‘Invercargill to co-operate with you, and rendering every assistance in 
the transport of the ova. 

I have, &c., . 
-G. S. WHITMORE. 
JAMES HECTOR, M. D., F. R.S., C. M. G., 


” &e., &e., Le. 


No. 30. 
James Hector, Esq., M. D., to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


WELLINGTON, March 5, 1878. 


Str: I have the honor to report that, in accordance with your instrue- 
tions, I have distributed the cases of whitefish ova received by the last 
San Francisco mail in the following manner: 

Hight boxes, each containing 50,000 ova, were received in Wellington 
by the steamship Hawea on the 19th ultimo, packed in two large ice- 
chests, two boxes having been left in Auckland. The four ova-boxes 
half filled each chest, the space above being filled with broken ice and _ 
non-conducting pads. The chests stood on the fore-hatch, which is a 
convenient and safe position, but liable to the objection that the ova-’ 

- boxes have to be moved at every port, and that they might be influenced 
by the vibration of the steam-winch. Y 

At Lyttelton one chest was opened, and two of the small ova-boxes 
were left with Mr. G. S. Farr, honorary secretary to the Christchurch 
Acclimatization Society. I should state that one of these boxes had the 
cover loose. The space in that chest was filled up with ice and blanket- 
ing, and at Port Chalmers it was delivered, with the two remaining 
ova-boxes, to Mr. Arthur, of the Otago Acclimatization Society, with 
instructions to hand one of them to Mr. Connell, or his agent, for the 
Oamaru Acclimatization Society, on application. 

The other chest and the spare ice, of which I got a fresh supply at 
Dunedin, were then transshipped to the steamship Wanganui, the sail- 
ing of which had been delayed twenty-four hours through the liberality 
of the owners—Messrs. Houghton & Co. Notice having been previously 
given, a special train was awaiting my arrival at the Bluff, but the 
steamer being later than was expected there was a little delay at Inver- 
cargill, so that it was not until 1 o’clock p. m. that we reached the EI- 
bow. 

The two chests, one containing the spare ice, and the other the ova, 
weighing about 600 pounds, were transferred to an American wagon 
with leather braces, and, having covered them with blankets and our 
tent, a start was made at 2.30 p. m. 

The arrangements for the conveyance of the ova from the Elbow to 
Lake Te Anau, upon which the success of the experiment so much de- 
pended, had been made by Captain Hankinson with great judgment. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 877 


Traveling at about 4 miles an hour, by sundown we reached Centre 
Hill Station, and halted to rest two hours, until the moon rose. At 11 
p.m. we again started, guided by Mr. Connor—the road, and especially 
the fords, being difficult to find in the dark. By daylight the first ford 
of the Mararoa River was reached, and we again halted for an hour, and 
repacked the chest containing the ova, filling it up with all the ice that 
was left, and leaving the spare ice-chest, and so lightening the load. 
At 11 a. m., on the 23d, we arrived at Messrs. Hankinson’s Station and 
obtained fresh horses, and by 3p. m. the most difficult part of the road, 
which is that crossing the mountains bounding the east side of the lake, 
had been overcome, and the journey safely accomplished. By previous 
arrangement the hatching-troughs had been prepared by Mr. F. Han- 
kinson, so that with his assistance no time was lost in unpacking the 
ova, and by 6 p. m. the operation was completed and the result of the 
experiment ascertained. I regret to say that this was not very satis- 
factory, as out of the four boxes of ova three were almost completely 
destroyed by the growth of white fungus, and the.young fish, which had 
evidently been hatched out for some time, were reduced to a pulpy jelly. 
In the fourth box, in which there was only a slight growth of fungus, a 
considerable number of the ova were found in sound condition, and 
hatched out rapidly as they were transferred to the trough. The trough 
was not placed actually in the lake, but in a small stream fed by a spring 
close to the shore, the temperature of the water being a little below 50° 
Fahr. After completing the arrangements I returned to Messrs. Han- 
kinson’s Station, leaving Mr. Burton, taxidermist to the Colonial Museum, 
in charge of the young fish, with instructions to camp beside them, and 
tend them until they were sufficiently advanced to turn out in the lake. 

I should state that the supply of ice proved to be quite sufficient, more 
than 50 pounds being left in the ice-chest at the end of the journey. 

The reason of the failure of the ova was evidently defective treatment 
during some part of the long journey from Lake Michigan. Each box 
contained four layers of eggs placed between layers of gauze-net and 
moss. The ova-boxes, which were 11 inches square by 5 inches deep, 
had several holes bored in both top and bottom, and the only sound ova 
were in the top layers, and out of reach of these holes. I may state that 
this was also found to be the case in one out of the two boxes left at 
Dunedin, the other being a total failure. 

At Christchurch, also, a few sound ova were found in a similar posi- 
tion in one of the boxes. 

Iam inclined to think that the ova-boxes, when placed in the ice- 
chests, should have been surrounded with ice instead of having it only 
on the top, as, if great care was not taken to cool the ice-chests thor- 
oughly before the ova-boxes were placed in them, it is obvious that the 
temperature of the ova-boxes would be at first considerably raised, while 
at the same time the water of the melting ice would drip through the 
holes and saturate the contents, and so cause the ova to hatch. 


878 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The white fungus growth,which was found so abundantly in most of 
the boxes seemed to spring from that portion of the moss in contact 
with the layers of dead fish; but one of the boxes was nearly free from 
it, except in the bottom layers, and in that the moss was green and 
springy. It is probable, therefore, that the decay of the moss and the 
growth of the fungus commenced after the hatching out and death of 
the young fish, and was not the cause of the failure. From the cireum- 
stances that the other boxes which were opened at Christchurch and 
Dunedin were in the same condition, it is to be concluded that the fail- 
ure of those taken to the Te Anau Lake was not due to the long and 
rough land journey to which they were subjected, so that with the ex- 
perience now gained, and with some modification of the method adopted 
in packing the ova-boxes, so that they may be thoroughly surrounded 
with ice, I feel confident that future consignments can be safely conveyed 
to our large Alpine lakes, where they have the best chance of thriving. 
The ova that escaped destruction were those which were protected from 
the drip of the melting. ice, and were therefore comparatively dry, and 
in such a position that they were at the same time kept at a low tem- 
perature by the ice resting immediately abovethem. It did not appear 
to me that too much moss had been placed in the boxes, which has been 
suggested as a reason for the failure, but, when the fungus had grown, 
the moss was necessarily crushed into less space and formed into a sod- 
den mass. At the same time I would recommend that in future experi- 
ments the gauze on which the eggs are spread should be stretched on 
light frames supported at proper intervals by intermediate corner pieces ; 
but these and other suggestions I will defer for another report upon the 
subject, after conferring with Mr. Firth at Auckland. 

The experiment on this occasion has been so far successful that a few 
hundred fish, at least, will be turned out in Te Anau Lake, and I have 
recommended that the fish hatched in Dunedin, of which there are about 
a thousand, should be sent to the Wanaka Lake, and the small number 
(about a dozen) obtained at Christchurch to Lake Coleridge. 


I have, &ce., 
JAMES HECTOR. 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY, 


Wellington. 


{Inclosure 1 in No. 30.] 
Mr. S. Herbert Cox to Dr. Hector. 


TE ANAU, February 20, 1878. 
Str: You will be pleased to hear that the whitefish are doing very 
well. They are all hatched out and are feeding well on the blood which 
they are having given them. 
But very few have died, and, if cold be an essential to their existence, 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 879 


it has been cold enough to-day for almost anything. Burton says he 
would be afraid to turn the fish into the lagoon now, as the distance is 
rather far, so they will, I presume, be let loose in the lake about Satur- 
day, ifit is calm enough. 

I have, &c., S. HERBERT COX. 


[Inclosure 2 in No. 30.] 
Mr. W. Arthur to Dr. Hector. 


ACCLIMATIZATION SOCIETY, 
Dunedin, 10th July, 1878. 


Str: You will be sorry to hear that our American whitefish experi- 
ment has failed. I suppose we had about 1,000 young fish which throve 
very well at the breeding-ponds. The last I know of them is that Deans 
started with the whole lot for the Wanaka before they had reached that 
age and size which, in conversation with you, we all agreed to be most 
prudent before turning them out. He got as far as the Teviot, but they 
had nearly all died or escaped during the night into a creek where the 
cans were put. Both Maitland and I knew nothing about it until Deans 
returned, or we should certainly never have sanctioned so rash a step. 
- I hope aes in the Te Anau will get on better, and be the means of 
stocking our deep lakes. 

I have, &c., W. ARTHUR, Secretarf. 


No. 31. 
Mr. A. M. Johnson to the Hon. the Minister for Public Works. 
AMERICAN WHITEFISH. 


TROUTDALE FARM, OPAWA, 
Christchurch, 6th February, 1878. 


Str: If you should receive any whitefish 0Va, will you kindly consider 
my application for a portion. 

I have every facility for fish culture, and have fle) season hatched out 
about 70,000 ova (English trout and American salmon). 

My Bemblianinent being a private one, I am not in receipt of public 
moneys in the shape of subscriptions, licenses, and fines, like the various 
acclimatization societies, although I have to compete with them in the 
sale of young fish for stocking purposes; therefore, I trust you will see 
that I have an equal, if not a greater, claim on your consideration. 

I may also add that the English brown trout, English perch, and the 
American brook-trout (Salmo fontinalis) were first introduced into New 
Zealand at my expense. 


I have, &e. 
shel! A. M. JOHNSON. 


The Hon. the MINISTER FOR PUBLIC WORKS. 


880 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
No. 32. 
Mr. A. M. Johnson to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


TROUTDALE FARM, OPAWA, 
Christchurch, 23d April, 1878. 

Str: The whitefish ova received to-day by the Rotorua I regret to 
report as all hopelessly bad, with the exception of three. 

From the appearance of the ova the failure most probably arises from 
the eggs having been obtained too long, or kept without ice before the 
starting of the steamer. 

It is quite possible that a further supply might be obtained this sea- 
son, if instructions are sent by the outgoing mail so that the order could 
reach the collector direct from San Francisco. The actual cost of eggs 
in America is not much. I have had out many lots of trout ova, and 
seldom paid more than $4 per thousand. 

With a view to increasing the chances of success in future similar 
shipments, I would suggest that the lids of the ova boxes be screwed 
down instead of nailed, a larger number of holes made in the lid, and 
the inside of the boxes slightly burnt. 

Again thanking you for your kindness in forwarding me the ova, 

I have, &c., 
, A. M. JOHNSON. 

The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY, WELLINGTON. 


No. 33. 
Sir J. Cracroft Wilson to Mr. 8. C. Farr. 


CASHMERE, 2d April, 1878. 


Str: I have the honor to report the following circumstances in con- 
nection with the fry of the whitefish : 

On the 26th of February you reported that you had opened the two 
boxes supposed to contain 20,000 whitefish ova, a present from the 
United States Fish Commission to the Government of New Zealand; that 
there were a few of the ova hatching out, but that the majority of 
them had hatched on the voyage from San Francisco or Auckland, the 
fry from which were dead. Finally, about 20 eggs produced fry in the 
hatching-boxes of the society. Two of these died previous to Sunday, 
the 17th of March. On that day, in consequence of a hot wind from the 
northwest raising the temperature of the water to 62° Fahr., six more 
died, and it was evident the remaining twelve would not survive such 
hot weather. | 

On Wednesday afternoon, the 20th of March, I started, according to 
promise, by the 4.20 p. m. train for Coalgate station, taking with me an 
American vehicle, a pair of horses, two servants, one small fish-can, 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 881 


with an aerating ball and tube, containing the twelve surviving fish, 
two large fish-cans filled with fresh artesian-well water, a four-gallon 
block-tin bucket, and 6 packets, each containing ten ounces muriate of 
ammonia, and 6 packets, each containing ten ounces of niter, prepared for 
the trip by Dr. Macdonald, of Lyttelton. The whole party was franked 
by the general government, and the thanks of the society are due to all 
the railway authorities in Christchurch. 

Having taken up my position in the guard’s van with one servant, 
nine parts of water were placed in the four-gallon bucket, and three 
packets of muriate of ammonia and three packets of niter being added, 
the mixture was well stirred. The thermometer was then placed in it, 
and it fell, ina short space of time, to 34° Fahr. The thermometer having 
been withdrawn, the can containing the fish was placed in the bucket. 
The servant kept continually aerating the water in the fish-can, and 
thus, without changing the water or interfering with the mixture, we 
arrived at Coalgate station at 7.15 p. m., the temperature of the mixture 
during the journey never having exceeded 38°. 

After giving the fry fresh water and preparing the freezing mixture 
as before, four of us started in the American trap, Mr. James McUraith 
having kindly volunteered to accompany and show me the new road, 
which skirts the swamp known by the name of Dr. Turnbull. We, how- 
ever, lost our way, and nearly two hours of our valuable time. As we were 
approaching the hotel at Windwhistle, we were joined, according to ap- 
pointment, by Mr. F. E. Upton, who, on horseback, piloted us to Snow- 
den, the residence of Mr. W. Gerard, where we arrived between eleven 
and twelve o’clock, midnight. 

Having partaken of some refreshments and given the fry fresh water, 
we were supplied with another pair of horses by Mr. Gerard. Mr. Upton 
having taken Mr. Mcllraith’s place in the vehicle, we continued our 
journey towards Mr. Cotton’s house, on the border of Lake Coleridge, 
which we reached about 3 o’clock a. m. 

Owing to a cold northwesterly wind which had prevailed all night, 
there was a considerable surf rolling onto the shores of the lake. We 
therefore thought it advisable to liberate the fry in asmall rivulet about 
two hundred yards from the lake. Previously to liberating them we 
took the can into a stable, lighted a candle, and satisfied ourselves that 
not one of them was dead or injured. We then retraced our steps to 
Snowden, and took possession of our beds about 5 a. m. Thursday, 21st 
March. 

Lamentable as is the outcome of this handsome present from the 
American Fish Commission, I congratulate the Canterbury Acclitimasa- 
tion Society on the fact that nothing was left undone to insure success. 
Ice was prepared according to Dr. Hector’s instructions, and taken by 
you on board the steamer which conveyed the boxes of ova to Canter- 
bury, but it is evident that the ice, en route from San Francisco or Auck- 
land, must have failed, and the ova hatched out only to die. 

56 F 


882 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


In conclusion, I cannot help making a few observations. The fry of 
the American whitefish are evidently more delicate than the fry of any 
other fish known to me, and I am persuaded that not a fry would have 
reached Lake Coleridge alive had it not been for the freezing mixtures 
and the great cold we experienced after reaching Windwhistle. 

It is greatly to be desired that all the parties to whom the boxes of 
this consignment of ova were trusted should write detailed reports as 
to results, which reports, if printed and circulated, might help us to dis- 
cover some means of rearing to maturity these far-famed fish. 

One thing is very certain, that they cannot succeed in any place in 
New Zealand not situated in the mountains. 

Trusting that the council will admit that I have faithfully fulfilled the 
promises which [ made to them respecting these fish, and that the Gov- 
ernment of New Zealand will be satisfied with the endeavors of our so- 
ciety, 


IT have, &e. 
art J. CRACROFT WILSON, 


Chairman. 
S. C. Farr, Esq., 


Secretary Canterbury Acclimatization Society, Christchurch. 


No. 34. 
Myr. R. J. Creighton to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., 18th February, 1878. 


Str: I inclose herewith letter from Mr. Clark, of Michigan, relative to 
the shipment of whitefish eggs per City of Sydney, for New Zealand. 
From it I gather that the charge for the eggs and packing, as per Pro- 
fessor Baird’s letter, will be $500, at $1 per thousand, which amount you 
will be good enough to cause to be forwarded to Mr. Clark. 

I hope the consignment arrived in good order, and has been hatched 
out and distributed successfully. Whitefish is more highly esteemed 
than salmon where it is known. It is difficult to acclimatize it, but 
should the colony succeed, it will add a valuable food fish to its other 
attractions for settlement, and solve a difficult problem for scientists. 

Professor Baird has written to me for the history of salmon acclima- 
tization in New Zealand, so far as the California salmon is concerned, 
and I was only able to make a very fragmentary report in relation to 
the last shipment. He is solicitous of obtaining full information for his 
annual report to Congress, and lays great stress upon the New Zealand 
experiments, similar shipments to Germany having entirely failed. I 
have, therefore, to request that you will cause a report to be forwarded 
to me, supplemental to that made by me, showing the date of arrival of 
the eggs at the several ports of the colony; by what conveyance, and 
the time occupied in transshipping and handling them; how packed dur- 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 883 


ing the coasting voyage; proportion of eggs hatched out in each proy- 
ince, and how the young fish were distributed. I approximated the 
time on the coasting voyage, but I was ignorant of the success, if 
any, except in Auckland, the newspapers of which contained a general 
statement that the eggs distributed by Mr. Firth had hatched out. I 
trust this information will be supplied by return mai. It may not be 
too late for Professor Baird’s report, and will complete my otherwise 
imperfect one. 

I observe by the London Times, that Sir Julius Vogel sent out a con- 
signment of salmon ova from England, per steamer Chimborazo, via 
Melbourne. 

The result of this experiment will be of great interest to the United 
States Fish Commission, and to the California State Fish Commission, 
to both of which New Zealand is under great and lasting obligations. 

I would, therefore, esteem it a favor if you would advise me, in due 
course, of the success had in introducing British salmon, and the rela- 
tive cost of the two sources of acclimatization. 

As the Sacramento salmon may now be said to be introduced perma- 
nently into New Zealand, details regarding its habits, &e., will be inter- 
esting and of value to the colony. I therefore append extracts from the 
biennial report of the California fisheries commissioners, presented to 
the State legislature recently, bearing upon the point. It will be seen 
that it possesses many special advantages over the British salmon, and 
for commercial and food purposes is decidedly superior. On economic 
grounds alone, the acclimatization of this excellent food fish is an event 
of very great importance. I likewise extract the passages relating to 
whitefish and catfish (the latter introduced, I understand, by Mr. Thomas 
Russel, C. M. G). 

I have, &e., 
R. J. CREIGHTON. 


[Inclosure in No. 34. ] 


Extract from Biennial Report of the California State Fisheries Commis- 
sioners, 187677. 


SALMON (Salmo quinnat). 


1. Before the discovery of the gold mines in California, nearly all of 
the tributaries of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers were the spawn- 
ing beds of the salmon. Soon after mining commenced the sediment 
deposited by gold washing covered the gravel bottoms of the streams. 
The fish found no proper place on which to deposit its eggs, and after 
three or four years became extinct in those tributaries. The instinct of 
the fish leads it to return from the ocean to the stream in which it was 
born for the purposes of reproduction. If this place, for any reason, is 
rendered unfit, it will not seek a new and appropriate place. In 1850 


884 REPORT CF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the salmon resorted in vast numbers to the Feather, Yuba, American, 
Mokolumne, and Tuolumne Rivers for purposes of spawning, and many 
places, such as Salmon Falls, on the American, were named from the 
abundance of these fish. On the Yuba River, as late as 1853, the miners 
obtained a large supply of food from this source. At the present time 
no salmon enter these streams. It would be safe to estimate that one- 
half the streams in this State to which salmon formerly resorted for 
spawning, have, for this purpose, been destroyed by mining. As min- 
ing is the more important industry, of course, for this evil there is no 
remedy other than by artificial means to increase the supply in those 
tributaries that are still the resort of these fish. The principal spawning 
grounds remaining are the McCloud, Klamath, Little Sacramento, and 
Pit Rivers in the northern part of the State, and the San Joaquin and 
Merced in the southern. The short streams entering into the ocean 
from the coast range of mountains from Point Conception, in latitude 
34° 20’ north to the boundary of Oregon, are also spawning grounds for 
salmon. The fish of the coast streams deposit their eggs in January 
and February, during the winter rains, when the streams are full, while 
the salmon of the tributaries of the Sacramento and San Joaquin spawn 
in August and September, when the water is at its lowest stage. The 
salmon of the short coast rivers do not average as large as the Sacra- 
mento salmon, but they are probably the same fish, with habits modified 
to suit the streams to which they resort. 

2. The Salmo quinnat readily adapts itself to alifein fresh water, and re- 
produces its kind where it has no opportunity to goto the ocean. When 
the dams were constructed on the small streams that go to make the 
reservoirs of San Andreas and Pillarcitos—which supply the city of San 
Francisco with water—as also when the dam was constructed on the 
San Leandro, to supply the city of Oakland, the young of the salmon 
that had spawned the year previous to the erection of these dams re- 
mained in the reservoirs and grew to weigh, frequently, as much as ten 
pounds; these reproduced until the reservoirs have been stocked. As 
the supply of fish increased the quantities of food lessened, so that the 
salmon have gradually decreased in weight until now, after nine years, 
they do not average more than two pounds. From the fact that, when 
food was in abundance, they grew to weigh from eight to twelve pounds, 
and that, as they increased in numbers, they averaged less in size, but 
still continued to spawn and produce young fish, it would seem that the 
Sacramento salmon may be successfully introduced into large lakes in 
the interior of the continent, where, in consequence of dams or other 
obstructions, they would be prevented from reaching the ocean. The 
history of this fish in these small reservoirs shows that all that is requi- 
site for their successful increase is the abundant supply of food, to be 
found in large bodies of fresh water. Salmon, fully mature, weighing 
two pounds, and filled with ripe eggs, were taken, in September, 1877, 
in the waters of San Leandro reservoir. These fish were hatched in the 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 885 


stream which supplies the reservoir, and by no possibility have ever 
been to the ocean. ‘The San Leandro is a coast stream, not exceeding 
fifteen miles in length, and empties into the Bay of San Francisco. It 
contains water in the winter and spring, at which time, before the reser- 
voir was constructed, the salmon sought its sources for the purpose of 
spawning. There was never sufficient water in the months of August 
or September to permit the fish to reach their spawning grounds. After 
the construction of the reservoir, large numbers of the salmon that came 
in from the ocean in January and February were caught at the foot of 
the dam and transported alive and placed in the reservoir above. The 
descendents of these fish thus detained in fresh water and not permitted 
to go to the ocean, have so far modified the habits of their ancestors 
that they now spawn in September, instead of in January and February. 
Inasmuch as these fish spawn in the McCloud, in the headwaters of the 
Sacramento, and at the sources of the San Joaquin, in the Sierra Nevada, 
in September, and in short coast range rivers in January and February, 
and as, when changed to other waters, their eggs ripen at a time when 
the conditions of their new homes are most favorable for reproduction, 
they show a plastic adaptability, looking to their future distribution, of 
much practical, as well as scientific, importance. 

3. The statistics hereafter given of the temperature of the water 
through which the Sacramento and San Joaquin salmon pass to reach 
their spawning grounds, show that they swim for hundreds of miles 
through the second hottest valley in the United States, during the 
hottest portion of the year, where the mean temperature of the air is 
92° Fahr., and of the water 75°. These statistics have been obtained 
from the record kept by the Central Pacific Railroad Company, and are 
for the months of August and September of the years 1875-76-77. They 
are of importance as showing that the Sacramento salmon will enter rivers 
for spawning purposes where the water is so warm that the eastern 
salmon (Salmo salar), if it were to meet it, would turn back to the ocean. 
They are also of importance as illustrating the probability that there 
are many streams on the Atlantic coast, from the Potomac to the Rio 
Grande, into which this fish could be successfully introduced. 

4, Mr. Livingston Stone, deputy United States fish commissioner, 
in charge of the government hatching establishment on the McCloud 
River, reports officially that in his opinion, all of the salmon of that 
river die after depositing their spawn. This is possibly true ; but it does 
not account for the fact that in the spawning season the McCloud con- 
tains grilse and fish evidently three, four, and five years old, unless 
we are to imagine that some salmon, after being hatched and going to: 
the ocean, remain there two, three, or more years without returning to 
the parent stream for purposes of spawning. Beyond doubt the salmon 
that spawn in the coast streams go back to the ocean, as they are fre- 
quently taken in the lagoons at the mouths of these rivers on their 
return. Somewhere on the tributaries of the Sacramento or San Joaquin, 


886 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


there are salmon that do not die after the act of spawning, for they are 
frequently taken in the nets of the fishermen in the brackish waters at 
Collinsville and Rio Vista on their return from their spawning grounds. 
If it were a fact that the Sacramento salmon so widely differed from 
other fish that it spawned but once and then died, it would detract from 
its value. This subject is one of importance, but at present the facts 
are so obscure that we have made considerable effort to obtain the 
opinions and the result of the observations of the men who are practi- 
cally engaged in the taking of salmon in the Sacramento River. 

5. The following, from the letter of a fisherman who has pursued the 
business of taking salmon for the San Francisco market during more 
than fifteen years, gives some facts and his theory, based on his obser- 
vations. In reply to an inquiry on the subject, he says: ‘As to the 
return of the seed salmon to the sea after depositing the spawn, I am 
inclined to the opinion of Mr. Stone, so far as the greater part ofthe 
female fish is concerned. I think very few of these, but many, though 
not all of the males, return. I should judge that 5 per cent. of females 
and 20 per cent. of males might be an approximation. I express this 
opinion diffidently. It is based on the style of fish caught in the lower 
part of the river (from Sacramento to Collinsville). After about the 
20th of September, of the fish then dropping down, the nets catch but 
few, for the reason that the net is drifting with the current and the fish 
are doing the same thing, and in consequence, as a rule, the two do not 
come together, and the greater part of the return fish escape. When 
the run is upward, the net drifts with the current, and the fish swim 
against it, and the rule is reversed. The percentage named above is 
not that of return fish caught, but of fish that I estimate may have re- 
turned, judging by the very few return fish that are caught. It is 
a very cloudy subject to all fishermen. I have heard, perhaps, a thou- 
sand discussions on the river, at all times of day and night, at the head 
of the ‘ drift,’ among men of the largest experience—men right in the 
teeth of the business—men born to a boat and net, and grown gray and 
grizzled in their use—upon the point you raise, and the average conclu- 
sion always was that nobody quite knew how it was. Of one thing I 
am convinced, to wit, that return fish need no protection from the drift- 
ing gill net. Not one fish in ten could be caught in that way. No such 
thing as a run of salmon down the river ever occurs. The normal posi- 
tion of salmon is head to the current. Though drifting with the current, 
his head is toward it. In the light (or darkness) of these facts, you 
see how difficult it is to say, positively, what proportion of these 
‘fish that have delivered seed return to the ocean. No man can 
say positively that the mass do not return. That some return is be- 
yond doubt of a reasonable nature. If they all perish, it is certain 
that many survive long enough to reach the fishing grounds lying 
in the bays nearest the ocean. But I fail to see why the value of 
the California salmon is affected by the fact (if it is a fact) that the 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO-AUSTRALIA, ETC. 887 


fish never spawn but once. I have a theory of the salmon of this river. 
It may not be scientific, but it is mine, and I can give reasons for it. 
It is this: The female salmon seldom or never spawns but once. The 
exceptions to the rule, if any, are few, and the second product of these 
exceptions is found in a salmon differing slightly from the mass of fish 
found in the river. <A goodly, though not the larger, part of the male 
salmon that have assisted in reproduction return to the ocean, and 
‘live long and grow broad, and return to the river many times. On 
their return these fish constitute that class far above the average size. 
They reach 30, 40, 50, and even a greater number of pounds in weight, 
while the average weight for which our meshes are sized is from 16 to 
20 pounds. The female spawn is not ripe for delivery, nor the male fish 
sufficiently mature for milting, until they have made repeated trips be- 
tween the ocean and the river. The yearly broods return periodically 
and in regular cycles; the youngest fishes arrive earliest in the season, 
which begins about the Ist of November, and do not penetrate far the 
first time. In the order of their birth, the other broods arrive and return 
to the sea until in August and September, the great seed run, consist- 
ing of mature fish, always on time, always urgent in their movements 
and purposes, passes up to, the headwaters. Salmon of different ages 
are always coming in and going out to sea. The older the fish the 
longer his stay in fresh water. The younger the fish (after he once 
leaves for the ocean) the more of flirting about the bays and brackish 
water near the mouths of the river, with short excursions up the river. 
The foregoing is the outline of a theory, though it is derived from, and 
apparently justified by, known truths in the history of the Sacramento 
salmon during the last twenty years. I believe it to be correct; that is 
to say, that in any year representatives of the brood of any other year 
not yet extinct enter the river, and that not one-fifth of the fish that 
enter the river in any given year go to the headwaters that year, but 
thatemore than four-fifths return to the ocean, and, consequently, that 
of all the fish that come into the river each year, but one-fifth go to the 
headwaters for purposes of reproduction.” 

6. The habits of the Sacramento salmon, while on their spawning 
grounds in the McCloud River, have been closely observed by Deputy 
United States Fish Commissioner Livingston Stone, and the result of 
his investigations has been published by Congress in the report of the 
United States Fish Commissioner, Spencer F. Baird. Buttittle is known 
of their habits while in the ocean. They probably feed on shoals not 
many miles from the shore. They are occasionally taken in the nets of 
fishermen in the ocean not far from Golden Gate. Many grilse, and a 
few mature fish, make their appearance in the Bay of San Francisco 
in December, and remain several weeks feeding upon smelts and other 
small fish. During this period thousands are taken with hook and 
bait on lines from the Oakland pier and other wharves. Many more 
are also taken in the nets of fishermen. After leaving the salt water 


888 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


of the bay, they go to the brackish waters, where the currents of the 
Sacramento and San Joaquin meet the tide from the ocean. After 
entering the fresh water of the river they cease to feed. No food has 
ever been found in all the tens of thousands caught in the Sacra- 
mento. As it is of importance to obtain a knowledge of the habits 
of the salmon while it remains at the mouths of the rivers, playing back 
and forth between brackish and fresh water, before it makes its long and 
perilous journey to the head of the stream, we select from our corre- 
spondence extracts from a letter from Mr. Samuel N. Norton, of Rio 
Vista. Mr. Norton is a practical fisherman of many years’ experience, 
and the record of his close observation is of much value. He says: “I 
will give you a synopsis of one year’s trip with the salmon, showing the 
general habits of the fish in all years while remaining in or passing 
through that part of the Sacramento River lying between its mouths 
and the point where the Feather River empties into it. For this pur- 
pose the Georgian Slough, the Three-mile Slough around the head of 
Sherman Island, the San Joaquin River between these sloughs and the 
bay, and the Montezuma Slough leading into the northern arm of Suisun 
Bay from the Sacramento River, are considered as mouths of the river, 
with like functions and processes as the main trunk of the river. In- 
deed, some of the best fishing ground, at certain seasons, is found in 
the Montezuma, Three-mile, and San Joaquin. To commence with an 
anachronism, the spring run begins in the. fall! In November and De- 
cember a very few small (as fishermen use the word—say twelve or 
fourteen pounds each) bright salmon appear in the river, and if no rains 
occur, or only slight rains,.an increase in their numbers is noticed, yet 
they are always very scarce in those months. There are never enough 
to half supply the local demand of the San Francisco and other home 
markets. At first, in November, we pick up occasionally on their return, 
the last’ dregs of the old seed run which occurred during August and 
September. These are usually male fish, very dark, ill-conditioned, 
lank-jawed, disconsolate looking fellows, who through misfortune, in- 
competency, or other cause—to me not more than presumable—seemed to 
have failed in their mission up the river, or to have fallen into disgrace. 
The last of these soon disappear. The bright ones are the avant cou- 
riers of the great spring run, which thus, as I said, begins in the fall. 
With the first heavy rains the fish that have penetrated the river recede, 
or, as we say, back down before the thick muddy stream, retreat to tide- 
water in the bays, and remain there reconnoitering and waiting a steady 
river current. Now is the time for good fishing in the bay and just in 
the mouths of the river. The fish are not very plentiful, but none being 
caught within the river proper, there is a great demand and great price 
against a small area of fishing ground, where all that had before pene- 
trated the river are now concentrated. When the river becomes steady, 
that is, neither rising nor falling, the fish start up again, no matter how 
high the water may be, and by the varying moods of the river in sudden 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 889 


rise or fall, is the spring run mainly governed. Sudden rise or fall alike 
will check them. Thus it often happens that for many weeks the fish 
will be taken in numbers at Benicia and Collinsville, in smaller numbers 
at Rio Vista, and none at all farther up. Again, there have been sea- 
sons when a steady run commenced in the early part of January, and 
by an almost uniform rate of increase reached its culmination in May. 
But this is exceptional. The spring run may be stated as commencing 
in November and ending in July, and having its greatest strength in 
May. Under the most favorable conditions the months of November 
and December might be classed ‘very scarce ;’ January and February, 
‘scarce;’? March, ‘not scarce;’ April ‘plenty ;’ May, ‘ very plenty ;’ 
June, ‘not scarce;’? July, ‘scarce’ Under unfavorable conditions, 
November, December, January, and February would have almost none 
at all; March, ‘scarce;’ April, ‘not scarce;’ May, ‘plenty;’ June, 
‘scarce;’? July, ‘almost none at all.” In defining the terms here 
adopted, let them be applied to the product of the labor of 
two men with their boat and net per day: ‘Almost none at all, 
would mean two fish per week; ‘ very scarce,’ two fish per day; ‘ scarce,’ 
six fish per day; ‘ not scarce,’ eighteen per day ; ‘ plenty,’ thirty-six per 
day; ‘very plenty,’ seventy-two per day.’ There are times in the height 
of the run when a greater number than is here named might be caught 
with ease; but these are exceptional. In the great run three years ago, 
three hundred salmon per day might be caught with ease; but in no 
other year, since the Anglo-American occupation, has there been such 
arun. Itmust not be understood that salmon can be caught at all times 
by fishing for them, even in the most limited numbers above stated. 
There are times when one could not be caught in a month, if life were 
at stake upon it. I only intend to give a fair idea of the average 
business. You will readily deduce from it that there are not more than 
two months, during the spring run, when fish can be caught in excess 
of the demand for home consumption. After the subsidence of the 
spring run, in July, they are often found in great numbers near the con- 
fluence of the Feather River with the Sacramento. They have a taste 
for variety, it would seem, and the marked difference between the cool, 
muddy water of the former, and the warmer, limpid, and clear stream 
of the latter, affords them great satisfaction. During the first half of 
August, the mature seed fish start for the spawning grounds. All 
along the line, from the ocean to the most advanced posts along the 
river, the word (if fishes have words—if not, then wag) is onward and 
upward. They are on business, and on time; they do not shy much, 
nor stop for trifles; they rush at a drifting gill-net determined to do or 
die, and, of course, generally die if the net is sound. The run of August 
and September, I have before described. As for the few belated fellows 
that are about in October, they might as well be caught as not—and so, 
my year is out.” 

7. At the time our last report was made, Mr. Charles Crocker had 


890 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


requested us to cause to be hatched, at his expense, and placed in 
streams that do not reach the ocean, a half million of Sacramento salmon. 
One-half of these we determined to put in Kern River, which empties 
into Buena Vista and Tulare Lakes, and the other half in the Truckee 
River, which empties into Pyramid Lake, in the State of Nevada. The 
quarter of a million of eggs sent to Kern River, where their hatching ~ 
was to be completed, unfortunately were lost. At the point of the river 
selected for hatching the water contains too much alkali, it is supposed, 
and all the eggs died within twenty-four hours from the time they were 
placed in the hatching troughs. The other quarter of a million, sent to 
the Truckee, were successfully hatched out and turned into that stream. 
They will go to Pyramid Lake the present season. They should return 
during the summer of 1878, and we are confident they will be taken in 
the Truckee weighing five or six pounds. Pyramid Lake is a body of 
water forty miles long, and averaging ten miles in width, and has no 
outlet. It contains an abundance of food. This experiment will dem- 
onstrate how large the Sacramento salmon will grow, with plenty of 
food, when confined entirely to fresh water. 

8. Since the organization of the commission, we have caused to be 
hatched and placed in the streams of this State 8,350,000 young salmon. 
These include 1,000,000 paid for in 1875, and presented by Ex-Governor 
Leland Stanford. As the salmon is our most important food-fish, we 
deemed it of the most importance to keep up the supply. The numbers 
of fishermen are yearly increasing, as are also the numbers of persons 
who are consuming the fish. As railroad facilities are increased, and 
reach new points, the market becomes extended. The sea-lions and 
seals at the outlet of the bay, being preserved and protected by law, are 
also increasing. They now number thousands, and as each requires 
from ten to thirty pounds of fish daily, it was a serious question whether 
we could keep up the supply by the addition of 2$ millions artificially 
hatched each year. Since our last report, a salmon “cannery” has been 
established on the Sacramento, at Collinsville, and another opposite the 
city of Sacramento. This Collinsville canning establishment reports as 
having canned this year 8,542 cases, of four dozen cans in a case, equiva- 
lent to 34,168 fish, weighing 546,688 pounds. 

Under the enlightened superintendence of Prof. Spencer F. Baird, 
United States Fish Commissioner, the Sacramento salmon is being widely 
distributed to streams throughout the United States. The government 
establishment on the McCloud River annually hatches from six to ten 
million eggs. These are distributed to all States having appropriate 
waters, whose legislatures have appointed fish commissioners. From 
this source the State of California has received, as a donation, a half 
million fish each year since 1874. In addition, we have expended a large 
part of our appropriation annually, in payment for the hatching of one 
or two million young fish, which, through the kindness of Professor 
Baird, have been furnished at the actual cost of hatching. The intro- 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 891 


duction of more than 8,000,000 young salmon into the headwaters of the 
Sacramento, since the organization of the commission, in addition to the 
natural increase, has had the effect to keep up the supply, and to reduce 
the local market price of these fish. It is reported that the “cannery” 
at Collinsville has purchased all the salmon itcould consume during the 
past season at from 25 to 40 cents each. 

9. Over-fishing, the absence of any close season, and no effort at arti- 
ficial increase, has at last had an effect on the salmon of the Columbia 
River, in Oregon, and complaint is made that this river, once thought 
inexhaustible, has begun to fail in its accustomed supply. This decrease 
has been so marked during the season, that the “canners” have been 
compelled to pay from 30 to 50 cents each for salmon. In the absence 
of legislation, the canning companies on this river have subscribed 
$20,000, which has been placed under the control of Mr. Livingston 
Stone, deputy United States Fish Commissioner, to be expended in ar- 
tificial hatching, and restocking that stream. Fortunately, intelligent 
legislation in California made provision for continuing the supply of fish 
in the Sacramento before there was any marked decrease by over-fish- 
ing. Itis not disputed that the salmon were more numerous in the 
Sacramento before their spawning grounds on the American, Yuba, 
Feather, and other rivers had been destroyed by mining. After the fish 
were destroyed in these tributaries, the supply of the State had to come 
from the other tributaries of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, on which 
there was no mining, and these latter streams furnished the normal sup- 
ply. Before these became exhausted, the natural increase was supple- 
mented by artificial hatching. 

10. In this connection a fact, of much practical as well as scientific 
importance, may be stated as showing the advantages in numbers to 
be obtained by artificial hatching in comparison with the increase, by 
natural methods. In 1876, Mr. Myron Green, foreman for Mr. Living- 
ston Stone, United States deputy fish commissioner, at the McCloud 
River, having observed in the river a favorite gravel bed where many 
salmon were depositing their eggs, carefully dug up the gravel and 
several thousand eggs. He separated the eggs from the gravel, and 
placed the former, after counting them, in the hatching-boxes. After 
twenty-four hours, he found large numbers of these eggs turning white, 
showing that the milt had failed to come in contact with the eggs. After 
throwing out all the eggs not found to be fecund, there were left 8 per 
cent. of the whole number gathered, which were found to be fertile. 
When the eggs and milt are artificially brought in contact out of the 
water, it would be carelessness or inexperience that would prevent 95 
per cent. of the eggs from being fertilized. 

11. The following tables will show the number and weight of salmon 
transported on the railroads and steamboats from the Sacramento and 
San Joaquin Rivers to the cities of San Francisco and Stockton, from 
points on the river below the cities of Sacramento and Stockton, from 


892 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


1st November, 1874, to 1st August, 1876; and from Ist November, 1876, 
to Ist August, 1877. They do not include the catch of the fisheries at 
Tehama or near the mouth of the Feather River, nor do they include the 
fish taken on the upper waters of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, nor 
the salmon brought to market by fishermen in their own boats; there- 
fore, to the totals should be added, at least, 25 per cent., to show an 
approximation of the actual catch. 

12. In our last report, after adding 25 per cent. to the statements of 
the catch which we obtained, we showed the total weight as transported 
from the same places, from 1st November, 1874, to Ist August, 1875, 
to be 5,098,781 pounds. Adding the same percentage to the totals in 
the above tables, and they show the catch from 1st November, 1875, to 
ist August, 1876, to be 5,311,423 pounds; and from 1st November, 1876, 
to Ist August, 1877, 6,493,563 pounds. 

13. This shows a gain of more than a million pounds in the legal 
catch over any year since the organization of the commission, and may 
be ascribed to the fact that our waters are now beginning to feel the 
beneficial effects of the millions of salmon hatched artificially and turned 
into the headwaters. We have no means of ascertaining the weight of 
fish taken out of season, but estimate that between Ist August and 1st 
November of this year, not less than 2,000,000 pounds were taken in 
defiance of law. 


CLOSE SEASON FOR SALMON. 


14. We are informed that a determined effot will be made to induce 
the legislature to alter the time of the close season, so that fishing for 
salmon may be permitted in August and September, and that the close 
season may be changed from these months to July. With this object 
in view, it is reported that the proprietors of the present ‘“ canneries,” 
and capitalists, who have in contemplation the construction of other 
“canneries,” have been obtaining the evidence of fishermen, to present 
to the legislature to show that July is the proper month when fishing 
should not be permitted. 

15. As we have shown, in July the spring run of fish has about 
ceased and the fall run but commencing. It is one of the months when 
fish are most scarce. To permit unlimited fishing during all the months 
in the year except July, would have the effect of exhausting our rivers 
of salmon within ten years. It is a simple proposition that if some of 
the ripe fish are not permitted to reach their spawning-grounds, they 
cannot reproduce naturally, neither can the United States nor the State 
obtain eggs from which to restock the river by artificial hatching. One 
of the fishermen who was approached with the object of obtaining his 
testimony in favor of a change to July, wrote to the commissioners, 30th 
September, as follows: “The close season should never, on any possible 
pretense or persuasion, be pressed outside the months of August and 
September to give opportunity for fishing in those months. Right there 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 893 


is the life of the matter. The regularity, multitudes, and urgency of the 
seed run, the consequent ease and certainty of the catch, the fine 
weather for work, all present a weighty temptation to both catcher and 
eanner.” The object of a close season is, that some of the fish may be 
permitted to reach the headwaters to spawn. If they are not allowed 
to do so the race will soon be extinct. Cupidity and desire for imme- 
diate profit should not be permitted to influence legislation with the ul- 
timate result of the extinction of the last fish. The interest of the pub- 
lic is that the fish be continued in the river. A change in the law that 
will omit August and September from the close season cannot but result 
in material and permanent injury. 


TEMPERATURE OF AIR AND WATER. 


16. The following statistics will be found of much importance. They 
exhibit the temperature of the water and air at two stations, each on 
the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, taken for three years during 
the months the great army of salmon are passing up to their spawning- 
grounds. They will show conclusively that the Sacramento salmon lives 
for weeks, if not months, in water much warmer than any other fish of 
the same family. They also show the strong probability that these fish 
may be successfully introduced into rivers in still lower latitudes than 
those of which they are native—without doubt into the waters that flow 
into the Gulf of Mexico, and with many prospects of success into the 
rivers of Europe emptying into the Mediterranean. 


REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


894 


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TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 895 
ILLEGAL FISHING. 


17. There is a prevalent opinion throughout the States that it is the 
especial duty of the fish commissioners to act as local police in each 
neighborhood and prevent violations of the law in relation to fishing 
during the close season. Much time is consumed in answering questions 
on this subject and informing correspondents by letter that it is the duty 
of every citizen to see that the law is obeyed. We believe the law which 
prohibits the catching or having in possession salmon from Ist August 
to 1st November has been more extensively violated during the present 
year than ever before. It is true the fish are not sold openly in the city 
markets, but we are informed that the fishermen have erected salting 
establishments and smoke-houses in various by-places in the sloughs 
between the Sacramento and San Joaquin, where the work of salting 
and smoking has been prosecuted more extensively than in any previous 
year. We learned that the canning establishment of Messrs. Emersen 
Corville & Co., at Collinsville, only made a pretense of ceasing work on 
the 1st of August, and that they secretly persisted in violating the law. 
We caused them to be arrested and fined, upon which they quit work 
and promised hereafter to obey the law. The canning establishment 
near Sacramento was also reported as at work during the close season. 
The proprietors have been indicted by the grand jury of Sacramento, and 
will be fined, if found guilty, during the next term of court. It is well 
known that salmon, during the spawning season, are unfit for food. The 
fish canned, salted, or smoked at this period, if consumed or sold, will 
have the effect of giving the Sacramento salmon a bad reputation in the 
market. For this reason the “canners” on the Columbia River cease 
work on the Ist of August in their own interest and without any re- 
quirement of law. It is useless for the State to hatch fish and turn them 
into the river if there is no time in the year when they are permitted to 
reach their spawning grounds for purposes of reproduction. It wouid 
seem that when the State expends money in filling the river with valua- 
ble fish for the benefit of the public, and especially for the benefit of fish- 
ermen, that there should be sufficient intelligence and public spirit 
among local officers and the fishermen themselves to see the law obeyed 
and give the fish an opportunity to keep up the supply. If the commis- 
sioners are to expend the appropriation in prosecuting violations of the 
law, there will be no money to pay for the hatching of additional fish. 
Many of the fishermen acknowledge the justice and ultimate benefit of 
an observance of the law and obey it, but very properly complain that 
their work ceases, while those who violate it reap a greater benefit. 

18. The following extracts from a letter received by the commissioners 
from a fisherman who has followed the business of catching salmon on 
the Sacramento and San Joaquin for the San Francisco market during 
twenty years will illustrate that, at least, the more intelligent and 
thoughtful of these men acknowledge the necessity of an observance of 


896 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the law. His letter also gives facts of importance as to the habits of 
the Sacramento salmon. Writing from Rio Vista, August 17, 1877, he 
says: “I understand the ‘cannery’ has shut down, but the greed for 
salmon is so great I would not trust them without watching. As tothe 
fishermen, they will be salting them all along the banks of the Sacra- 
mento and Lower San Joaquin (as far up as the mouth of the Moke- 
lumne) unless special means are taken to prevent it. The Three-mile 
Slough, leading from one river to the other, around the head of Sherman 
Island, is also fine fishing ground, and more retired from public obser- 
vation than any other. Many of the fishermen started off with their 
tanks, &e., the very day the ‘cannery’ was reported to have stopped. 
Many of them are energetic, restless men, and the idea of doing some- 
thing sly or contrary to law gives zest to their labor. Right here, where 
I write, a few boards have been thrown up shed-fashion by a party I 
need not now name. You may well believe salted salmon will be under 
it if some stranger does not prevent it. You may rest assured that the 
people who reside here will not be known as the initial instruments in 
punishing any one for the violation of the salmon laws, although there 
are many who feel it ought to be respected. No doubt public feeling 
and practice will occupy about the same status at Collinsville and wher- 
ever salmon fishing is a business. As I wrote to you the other day, now 
(August) is the time to protect the salmon. In review of long experi- 
ence and observation I opine that of all the salmon passing in the 
months of August; September, and October, more than 90 per cent. pass 
between August 10 and October 1. The seed run is always on time, not 
being like the spring run, accelerated or retarded by the different moods 
of the river, caused by the winter and spring rains. If, during the last- 
named period (August 10 to October 1) the law was rigidly enforced, 
you would find seed enough for home use and a good part of all creation 
besides. Indeed, I think that one month out of the thickest of them, 
say August 20 to September 20, would be quite sufficient, and therein I 
differ with you in opinion, no doubt. But you have not, perhaps, ob- 
served in person, as I have, the multitudes and urgency of the run at 
that time; and thisis almost uniform—it has not varied in time ten days 
in twenty years. Now, during the period of four or six weeks, the 
State, in view of the magnitude of the producing interest involved, ought 
surely to provide, beyond peradventure, for the enforcement of the law. 
The statute names the taking or possession of salmon a crime, but in 
the public mind this crime is only an illegal act. You cannot force 
sentiment by act of the legislature. ‘The absence of sentiment excuses 
the citizens’ apathy, and between ignorance and cupidity the salmon 
will suffer unless special agents of the State do for the public what the 
public have not yet quite learned they ought to do for themselves. 
Strangers are the best agents for this business. Citizens living in a 
fishing neighborhood do not feel like subjecting themselves to the enmity 
and revenge of a rough class by complaint. And, again, in this salting 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 897 


business, the criminal acts are beyond observation, except by express 
intention, as the fish are caught chiefly in the nigbt, and the salteries 
are usually situated away from public highways and thoroughfares.” 
19. We have expended a part of the appropriation in prosecuting of- 
fenders against the law, but the field is so large and the profit so great 
that but little good has been accomplished. The more fish hatched and 
placed in the river the more numerous the fishermen, and the greater, 
apparently, the desire to make a profit from a violation of the law. As 
has been stated, unless the fish are allowed, in their season, to reach 
their spawning grounds, the rivers will be exhausted. Until the fisher- 
men realize that the object of the law in creating a close season is the 
perpetuation and increase of the numbers of fish the law will continue 
to be violated. We see no remedy at present except, hereafter, to de- 
vote a larger portion of the appropriation in preventing illegal fishing 
and in prosecuting offenders against the law. This will require the use 
of a part of the appropriation which should be devoted to increasing the 
number of fish placed in the river. If it is expected that the commis- 
sion shall employ special means to enforce an observance of the law, and’ 
_ also employ attorneys to prosecute offenders, it is necessary that the ap- 
propriation should be increased. It is not now sufticient for these pur- 
poses, and also for the hatching of any large quantity of salmon with 
which to keep pace with the increased fishing and the increasing num- 
bers of sea-lions. We have consulted with many of the fishermen, and 
they admit that the law creating a close season should be obeyed, pro- 
vided all be made to obey it. It is but proper to say, however, that 
they at the same time urge that the close season for salmon (August 1 
to November 1) is too long a period. In correspondence with one of 
these men, who has made a business of fishing for salmon on the Sacra- 
mento and San Joaquin for many years past, as to the necessity for an 
observance of the law, he says: “I do not wish to be known as urging 
the enforcement of the law, or as a special informer against any party 
who has violated it. My reasons for this reservation affect alike my own 
peace and safety and that of many persons whom I know have no worse 
intention than to earn a living and obey the law, provided that others 
less honest are prevented from violating it with impunity. Your idea 
of a patrol boat, or boats with officers, is the correct one, and I firmly 
believe that if by this or other means the prohibition were strictly main- 
tained from Benicia upward, wherever there are practical fishing grounds, 
during the period of one month at the right time, that the perpetuation 
of salmon in our rivers would be abundantly secured. Between the 10th 
of August and Ist of October more than 90 per cent. of the seed run 
passes, and has not failed to pass during twenty years of my observa- 
tion. If the whole of the seed run is not wanted for seed, they ought 
not to be so used, for the fish is just as good food then as at any other 
time, only the wastage is something more, the spawn being larger. On 
the Columbia River I understand that the fall run is almost or quite 
o7 F 


898 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


worthless. Notso on the Sacramento. Well, we may be proud of our 
river; it is the paradise of the salmon, and they seem determined to 
resist the devils—who also seem determined to drive them out—better 
than could be expected; but they will need help in the future. The 
nets for taking them are being multiplied and improved. The fishing 
grounds are better known than formerly. Such obstructions as snags 
in the river bottom are less common—many of them having been broken 
off or taken up by the nets and put out of the way, or covered by sedi- 
ment, so that a wider and longer sweep may be taken by the drifting 
net. Altogether, the salmon is sure to be exterminated, fight he ever 
so persistently, unless we help him. Surely the State can aftord to guard 
him effectually one month in the year. The cupidity of the fish specu- 
lator, who only cares for the greatest number of cases he can pack and 
ship, should not be allowed to influence the statement of that time. Let 
it be somewhere between the 10th of August and the 1st of October. 
By the way, it seems to me that at the extreme upper waters, on the 
spawning grounds, the fish should be protected during their entire stay, 
excepting as needed solely for the purpose of artificial hatching. But 
of this you are a better judge than I can be.” 

20. While not agreeing with this intelligent fisherman as to the pro- 
priety of shortening the close season, we fully concur as to the absolute 
necessity of a patrol to prevent unlawful fishing while the salmon are 
passing up to their spawning grounds. We also concur in his sugges- 
tion that the salmon should be protected on their breeding beds. The 
most important spawning ground left in this State is the McCloud River, 
in Shasta County. Its banks are mainly composed of lava and lime- 
stone, and, so far as known, they contain no mines. By some inadvert- 
ence or intentional manipulation, this county was exempted from the 
law creating a close season for salmon, and the fish are persistently taken 
in this county for market while in the act of reproduction on their 
spawning beds. We respectfully urge that Shasta County be reincor- 
porated in the law, and that no salmon be allowed to be taken there 
during the close season except for purposes of artificial propagation. 

21. The Chinese and others continue to use nets of a mesh much finer 
than is allowed by law, and the young of all kinds of salt-water fish that 
spawn in the bays and estuaries are persistently caught, dried, and 
shipped to China. The records of the custom-house show that there 
were shipped to China, from San Francisco, during the year ending Ist 
July, 1877, dried fish and dried shell-fish valued at $293,971. 

22. We have caused several arrests to be made for violations of this 
law, but it is impossible for the commissioners to act as local police on 
all parts of the bay and rivers, and we see no remedy except in increas- 
ing the penalties for violations of the law, involving even, if necessary, 
the destruction of the nets, when used out of season. Unless in some 
way the wise provisions of the statute are compelled to be observed, we 
can see no reason why our present abundance of fish will not decrease, 


TRANSMISSION OF.SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 899 


as they have decreased in other States, in consequence of the disregard 
of wise enactments made for their preservation and increase. Ordinarily, 
salmon should reach their spawning grounds on the McCloud and Little 
Sacramento by the 20th of August. As will be seen by the statistics 
heretofore stated, the catch was never so great as during the past fishing 
season. At the commencement of the close season, Ist August, the river 
was filled with fish, yet they were not permitted to reach their spawning 
places. Mr. Myron Green, the deputy in charge of the United States 
fish-hatching establishment on the McCloud, reported, 15th September, 
that there were ten salmon in the McCloud in 1876 to one in 1877. Up 
to that time but 5,000,000 eggs had been taken, while nearly 10,000,000 
had been taken in a corresponding period in 1876. The fish were, in the 
Lower Sacramento, more numerous than ever before, but they were 
caught, canned, salted, and smoked, in defiance of the law. It is esti- 
mated that the “canneries” took 50,000 after the 1st of August, and 
that there were salted and smoked on the banks of the sloughs and other 
by-places at least 100,000 more. If this is to continue, the government 
hatching-works will have to be removed to the Columbia, and we will 
be compelled to import eggs from some other State, even to keep up a 
partial supply of salmon in the Sacramento River. 

23. In addition to making the penalties more severe for violations of 
the law, we would recommend that the law be so amended that it shall 
be made a misdemeanor to fish for salmon with nets or traps between 
sunset on Saturday and sunrise on Monday of each week. This would 
give the salmon the freedom of the river one day in the week, do no 
injury to the fisherman, and go far towards continuing the supply in our 
rivers. 

WHITEFISH (Coregonus alba). 

24. In January last we received from the United States Fish Commis- 
sioner a donation of 300,000 eggs of the whitefish. These were success- 
fully hatched under the superintendence of Mr. J. G. Woodbury, at the 
State hatching-house at Berkeley, and the young fish were distributed 
as follows: 75,000 in Donner Lake; 50,000 in Sereno and other lakes 
near the Summit, in Placer County; and 175,000 in Lake Tahoe. In- 
cluding 25,000 placed in Clear Lake in 1873, and 25,000 in Tulare Lake 
in 1875, there have been planted in the waters of this State 350,000 of 
these valuable food-fish. We believe they have lived in Clear Lake, 
also in Tulare. It was reported in a Lake County paper that a white- 
fish was taken in ClearLake on 10th April, 1876, which measured a foot 
in length. We have no positive information that they have found a con- 
genial home in Tulare Lake, but have heard reports that a few have 
been seen. As these fish can only be taken with a net, and as these are 
rarely used on these lakes, their waters will have an opportunity to be- 
come fully stocked before they are extensively fished. There can hardly 
be any doubt but they will succeed in Tahoe and other lakes near the 
summit of the Sierra—the climate, water, and food being not dissimilar 


900 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


to those of Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior, in which they are 
indigenous. These fish live upon small crustacea, found on the rocky 
and gravel bottoms of lakes. They grow to weigh an average of one 
and a half pounds, and constitute the most important food-fish of the 
people living near the great lakes. Professor Baird, in his report to 
Congress, says: ‘ Few fishes of North America will better repay efforts 
for their multiplication.” We are promised a further supply of eggs 
during the present winter, and shall continue receiving eggs, and hatch- 
ing and distributing these fish to all the mountain lakes that are acces- 
sible during the winter months. 


CATFISH (Pimelodus cattus). 


25. The seventy-four Schuylkill catfish imported in 1874, and placed 
in lakes near Sacramento, have increased to a vast extent. They already 
furnish an important addition to the fish food supply of the city of Sac- 
ramento and vicinity. From the increase we have distributed 8,400 to 
appropriate waters, in the counties of Napa, Monterey, Los Angeles, 
Fresno, Tulare, Santa Cruz, Shasta, Solano, Alameda, San Diego, Yolo, 
Santa Barbara, and Siskiyou. These, should they thrive and increase 
as they have in Sacramento, will furnish an abundance of valuable food 
in the warm waters of the lakes and sloughs of the interior, and replace 
the bony and worthless chubs and suckers that now inhabit these places. 
It may be proper to call attention to the fact that these fish have be- 
come so numerous in the lakes near Sacramento that they can now be 
obtained in any quantity for stocking other appropriate waters in any 
part of the State. 


No. 35. 


Dr. Hector to Professor Baird (April 27, 1878). 
[See page 851. ] 


No. 36. 


Mr. R. J. Creighton to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., April 15, 1878. 

Str: I have received the inclosed letter from Mr. Clark, and in reply 
explained that the Government of New Zealand had not put me in funds 
to meet the payment of $500, but that I had forwarded his claim and 
a reply could not possibly be expected before the incoming mail arrived. 
I trust this matter will have been attended to. I regret to learn through 
the newspapers that the last shipment of whitefish failed. I think it 
was unfortunate that an attempt was not made to hatch them out in 
Auckland. In all probability sufficient would have been saved to stock 
the lakes. All experts here declare that the eggs should be hatched out 
where the ship first touches. The young fish can be fed on blood and 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 901 


taken anywhere over the country. Itis a mistake to suppose that white- 
fish will not thrive in Taupo or Waikare. They are thriving in Lake 
Tulare, Southern California, the water of which is at least of as high a 
temperature as either of the Auckland lakes; and they thrive at San 
Leandro, Alameda County, which is quite as warm as the central heat 
of the North Island. There should be no local jealousy or feeling in a 
great national enterprise like acclimatizing food-fish, and I cannot divest 
myself of the idea that the order of the government for the distribution 
of eggs after such a perilous journey was given with the view of concil- 
iating local opinions. Doubtless it would be very agreeable for gentle- 
men in every important section of the country to have an opportunity 
of hatching out these fish, and watching over them until their waters 
had been fairly stocked, but the risk of failure is too great. The accli- 
matization of whitefish is still a difficult problem. Their acclimzatiation 
in New Zealand would bea feat, apart from its economic results, of which 
the country might well be proud. 

Should the government resolve upon testing the experiment next year, 
I will take precautions against failure such as the fish-packing establish- 
ments of the Union suggest. 

I have, &c., ROBT. J. CREIGHTON. 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY, 
Wellington, N. Z. 


No. 37. 
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary to Prof. S. F. Baird. 


WELLINGTON, 20th June, 1878. 


Sir: Mr. Creighton informs government that the sum of $500 is due 
on account of the transshipment of whitefish ova, and the matter is also 
referred to in your letter to Mr. Creighton, of January 5th, but no ac- 
count has been sent for the amount. Mr. Creighton, in his letter to the 
government, states: ‘Mr. Clark did not send any accounts; so I infer 
that the $1 per thousand mentioned by Professor Baird covers the cost 
of package. This may not be the case, however, and if so, $500 is due 
to the fish commission in Northville.” 

Under the circumstances it is desirable that the payment should be 
made through you, and I beg, therefore, to inclose bill of exchange for 
the amount, $500, with a voucher form, and request that you will be 
good enough to pay the money and procure a receipt from the person 
to whom the money is due, as it is not clear if “Mr. Clark” and the fish 
commission in Northville are one and the same. 

Apologizing for having to trouble you in this matter, 

I have, &¢., G. S. WHITMORE. 

Prof. SPENCER F. Barr, 

Washington, D. C., U. 8. 


902 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
No. 38. 
‘ Phe Under Colonial Secretary to R. J. Creighton, esq., San Francisco. 


WELLINGTON, 20th June, 1878. 

Sir: I have the honor, by direction of the colonial secretary, to ac-. 
knowledge the receipt of your letter of the 15th April, in which you 
inclose one from Mr. F. N. Clark, of Northville, and ask that a sum of 
$500 may be remitted to that gentleman. 

As you name no one in your letter, and as it is not clear on what ac- 
count and for what service the $500 is claimed, the government have, in 
order to avoid any possible mistake, remitted the money to Professor 
Baird in a letter, a copy of which is inclosed for your information. 

I have, &c., 
G. 8S. COOPER. 


No. 39. 
Mr. J. C. Firth to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


AUCKLAND, 7th June, 1878. 

Sir: Referring to your letter of 11th October, 1877, asking me to un- 
dertake the transshipment of half a million salmon ova, expected by 
the next San Francisco mail steamer from Professor Baird, of the United 
States Fish Commission, and authorizing me to incur the necessary ex- 
penditure to insure the success of the importation, and having now 
received final accounts, I have the honor to inform you that the total 
expenditure incurred in this behalf has amounted to the sum of £195 
17s., minus £22 5s., cost of sending ova to Sir Samuel Wilson = £173 12s. 

These charges are heavy, but I am happy to learn from various sources 
that perfect success has been obtained, which would not have been se- 
cured under a less liberal expenditure. 

Having taken the keenest possible interest in the great work of estab- 
lishing American salmon in this colony from the first, my personal serv- 
ices have been most cheerfully rendered, and I beg you will permit me 
to present the above sum of £173 12s. as my contribution to the good 
work of introducing so valuable a food-fish in New Zealand. 

I have further the honor to inform you that I have frequent reports of 
the success of the experiment, young salmon in various stages being re- 
ported to me as seen in nearly all the rivers in this provincial district, in 
which I placed the ova or fry. 

I have, &c., 
J. C. FIRTH. 

The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY, Wellington. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 903 
No. 40. 
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary to Mr. J. C. Firth. 


COLONIAL SECRETARY'S OFFICE, 
Wellington, 20th June, 1878. 

Str: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of 
the 7th instant, reporting the perfect success which has so far attended 
the last importation of salmon ova from America, and informing me that 
your total expenses in connection with the ova amounted to £173 12s., 
which sum you desire to present as your contribution to the good work 
of introducing so valuable a food-fish into New Zealand. 

I can only again tender you my thanks on behalf of the government 
for your very successful exertions in this cause, and, at the same time, 
say that while they regret your refusal to allow them to reimburse you 
for the expenditure you have incurred, the government feel that the col- 
ony is deeply indebted to you for your generous aid in the introduction 
of American salmon. 

I have, &c., G. 8S. WHITMORE. 

J. C. FIRTH, Esq., Auckland. 


No. 41. 
Professor Baird to Dr. Hector. 


UNITED STATES COMMISSION FISH AND FISHERIES, 
Washington, 12th June, 1878. 

DEAR Dr. HECTOR. Yours of the 27th April is to hand. I had been 
prepared for the account of the failure of the whitefish eggs, having 
been previously advised to that effect. 

If you wish to renew the experiment this year, I will send Mr. Clark 
through to San Francisco in charge. He can then see that they are 
properly packed in the vessel. 

If you want any more salmon eggs, let me know in time. 

I have, &e., 
SPENCER F. BAIRD, 


Commissioner. 
Dr. JAMES HECTOR, 


Wellington, N. Z. 


No. 42. 
Extract from private letter from Mr. R. J. Creighton to the Hon. James 
Macandrew. 


Mr. Clark made a proposal to me, which I consider highly favorable 
to the colony, and I promised to submit it, which I do through you. It 


904 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


is this: ‘‘ He is willing, if an order be received by him for several million 
whitefish eggs, jointly from the New Zealand Government and the State 
fish commissioners of California and Nevada, to furnish the eggs, 
carefully packed, at’65 cents per 1,000, and further, to insure their safe 
delivery at San Francisco for shipment to the colony and deposit in our 
lakes and rivers here; he would come across the continent in charge, 
on receiving his traveling expenses to and fro, asking nothing whatever 
for his time—this extra to be borne proportionately by the colony and 
California and Nevada.” I think the proposal is an extremely liberal 
one. New Zealand might procure 1,000,000 whitefish eggs in this way 
for a trifling sum, under conditions which would insure the absolute sue- 
cess of the experiment. I have no doubt I could arrange matters with 
the fish commissioners of these States. I should state that Mr. Clark 
explained that to insure success the order for the eggs should be in by 
October, or early in November. The order passing through Professor 
Baird, came at a time when the eggs were in a too advanced state. The 
ova should have been packed at least a month earlier. As it was, the 
Pacific-coast shipment all went back en route, and I saved our lot by 
the best of good luck. 


No. 45. 
The Hon. the Minister for Public Works to Mr. R. J. Creighton. 


PUBLIC WORKS OFFICE, 
Wellington, New Zealand, 17th August, 1878. 
DEAR SiR: Referring to your private letter to me of 8th July, in 
which you inform me that Mr. Clark has offered to supply whitefish ova 
at 65 cents per 1,000 f. 0. b. at San Francisco, and that Mr. Clark un- 
dertakes personally to superintend the shipment at that port provided 
his actual expenses across the continent are defrayed jointly by the 
State fish commissioners of California, Nevada, and this colony. 
The Government of New Zealand will be glad to bea party to this 
arrangement, and will take 1,000,000 ova on these terms. 
If Mr. Clark will forward his account along with the ova, the amount 
will be remitted to him in due course. 
Thanking you for the interest and trouble which you have taken in 
this matter, 
I have, &c., 
J. MACANDREW. 
R. J. CREIGHTON, Esq., 
Evening Post Office, San Francisco. 


TRANSMISSION OF SALMON EGGS TO AUSTRALIA, ETC. 905 
No. 44. 
Professor Baird to the Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 


UNITED STATES COMMISSION FISH AND FISHERIES, 
Gloucester, Mass., 29th July, 1878. 

DEAR Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your let- 
ter of the 20th of June with the accompanying check for £104 3s. 4d., 
being the amount of indebtedness to Mr. N. W. Clark for eggs of white- 
fish furnished by him at my request for the use of the New Zealand 
Government. The charge was for the cost of collecting and keeping in 
the hatching-house one month, so as to bring forward the embryo, and 
for packing and shipping; and of course the price of one dollar per 
thousand was merely nominal. 

I greatly regret that, after all, the eggs arrived in an unsatisfactory 
condition; but, if you desire to renew the order, I think I can promise 
better results. 

I have sent the account to Mr. Frank N. Clark, a son of the deceased N. 
W. Clark, for his signature, and on receiving it will forward it promptly 
to you. 

I have, &c., 
SPENCER F. BAIRD, 
Commissioner. 
The Hon. the COLONIAL SECRETARY, 
Wellington, N. Z. 


No. 45. 
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary to Prof. Spencer F. Baird. 


COLONIAL SECRETARY’S OFFICE, 
Wellington, 21st October, 1878. 

Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of 
the 29th July, and to thank you for your offer to endeavor to procure a 
‘better result than was before obtained should this government think fit 
to renew the order for whitefish ova. 

An order for 1,000,000 ova had been sent to Mr. Clark through Mr. 
Creighton, an old New Zealand colonist who is settled in San Francisco, 
before your letter arrived, and it will, therefore, be unnecessary that 
the government of this colony should avail itself of your kind offer to 
send a shipment of ova this season. 

I have, &c., . 
G. S. WHITMORE. 


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XLI.—CORRESPONDENCE CONNECTED WITH THE TRANSMISSION: 
OF EGGS OF THE QUINNAT SALMON AND OTHER SALMONIDA 
TO EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IN 1878 AND PRIOR YEARS. 


GERMANY. 
H. Bartels to 8S. F. Baird. 


IMPERIAL GERMAN COMMISSION FOR THE 
CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, 
GERMAN PAVILION, CENTENNIAL GROUNDS, 
Philadelphia, October 19, 1876. 
Professor BAIRD, 
United States Building: 

Str: I have the honor to inform you that the Prussian minister of 
the agricultural department has notified me by a cable telegram that 
he accepts, with his greatest thanks, your very kind offer for sending 
eggs of the Californian salmon to Prussia, and he begs you to forward 
_ these eggs to the address of the “‘ Fischzucht-Anstalt, Hameln, Province 
Hannover.” 


I am, yours, very respectfully, 
H. BARTELS. 


H. Bartels to 8S. F. Baird. 


IMPERIAL GERMAN COMMISSION FOR THE 
CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, 
GERMAN PAVILION, CENTENNIAL GROUNDS, 
Philadelphia, December 23, 1876. 

In reply to your valued favor of the 22d instant, I beg leave to inform 
you that, about the forwarding of salmon eggs to Germany, it will be 
the best you write officially to his excellency the Prussian minister of 
the agricultural department, Dr. Friedenthal, in Berlin, who will give 
the necessary information to Hameln. 

For losing no time any more I have already communicated to the 
minister your very kind offer, so that the necessary information can be 
given to the agency in Bremen for accepting and forwarding the eggs 
immediately on their arrival in Bremen; therefore it will be sufficient if 
you will be kind enough as to inform the minister when you send the 


eggs and by what steamer they will be shipped. 
907 


908 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


I shall leave here next week and shall give me the honor to call on 
your office in Washington, where I have business for some days. 


I am, yours very respectfully, 
H. BARTELS. 
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 


Washington, D. O. 

Closing this letter I have received a letter from the minister, Excellenz 
Friedenthal, who informs me that he has communicated to the magistrate 
of Hameln, Hannover, your kind offer. Will you please inform the 
magristat at Hameln when the salmon eggs will be shipped and by 
what steamer. 

Yours, HB: 


The German Minister to S. F. Baird. 


IMPERIAL GERMAN LEGATION, 
Washington, 21st March, 1877. 

Sir: In the letter you directed on the 6th of February last to the 
minister of the agricultural department of Prussia, you were kind 
enough to offer to Dr. Friedenthal some eggs of the California salmon, 
provided Congress would continue the appropriations, and that the 
Prussian department would pay the cost of packing and shipment. 

Dr. Friedenthal has now requested me to express to you his warmest 
thanks for this kind offer, and to beg you that, if possible, 50,000 embryo- 
nated eggs of the California salmon may at the proper time of this year be 
forwarded to the “ Fischzucht-Anstalt in Hameln, Provinz Hannover.” 

I beg you, sir, to be kind enough to inform me if, and when, such 
transportation would be possible, and to inform me also of the expenses 
aforesaid, in order to be restituted by this legation. 

Accept, sir, the renewed assurances of my high consideration. 

SCHLOEZER, 
German Minister. 
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD. 


H. E. Rockwell to the German Minister. 


WASHINGTON, D. C., March 22, 1877. 
Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge, in behalf of Professor Baird, 
who is temporarily absent from the city, the receipt of your letter of the 
21st, and to say that a memorandum has been made of the request con- 
tained therein for 50,000 eggs of the Californian salmon. 
On the return of Professor Baird you will doubtless receive a suitable 
response to your communication. 
Respectfully, H. E. ROCKWELL, 
Secretary. 
Baron SCHLOEZER, 
German Minister,,Washington, D. C. 


TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF QUINNAT SALMON, 909 
Fred Mather to Si F. Baird. 


STEAMER ODER, IN NORTH Sra, 
October 23, 1878. 

My DEAR PROFESSOR: Last evening at seven I delivered three boxes 
ef eggs to the agent of the N. G. Lloyds at Southampton for Paris. 
They were in perfect condition, but I regret that I did not put a caution 
in each box concerning the temperature. 

The eggs were down to 42°, and if they plunge them into water from 
15° to 20° higher it may be fatal. 

I wrote a caution to Mr. Wattel by mail but fear that the eggs may 
reach him first. The other eggs are in equally good order. 

I telegraphed Dr. Finsch from Southampton, as per request by letter 
from him received there, ‘“ all good.” 

Package for Southport sent with request to divide with Mr. Moore. I 
repacked those in moss and don’t know condition. Also for the aqua- 
rium, two Menopoma, present from Blackford; five horse-feet (all I could 
get), and three tortoises, Emys picta and Pseudemys rugosa, all alive. 

I find such good accommodations for soles in the Oder that I had a 
plan to leave Bremen on the 27th and return in her to Southampton 
November 5, but Dr. Finsch says that Mr. von Behr wants me to go to 
Hameln on Weser. Still I may do it if time and soles permit. 

Very truly, 
FRED MATHER. 

Prof. S. F. BAIRD, 


Washington, D. C. 


Fred Mather to 8S. F. Baird. 


BREMEN, GERMANY, October 24, 1878. 

My DEAR PROFESSOR: I arrived at Bremerhaven at 9 a. m. and de- 
livered 100,000 eggs for Holland to Mr. Garrell on telegram order from 
Mr. Heck, whom Mr. Bottemanne informed me by letter, received at 
Southampton, would meet me. He will arrive at night. 

Dr. Finsch and Director Haack met me. The eggs were in splendid 
condition, and people have flocked to see them. To-morrow I go to 
Hameln with eggs, and hope to sail for England on Saturday or Sunday 
next. Ihave not get given up the hope of getting back in the Oder, 
but will go to Cunard office, London, to see Mr. Franklyn or learn if he 
is in Liverpool. 

Will keep you advised of all movements, and if soles are not ready 
will come back in Oder without waiting, as last year’s experience in that 
line was bad. 

Very truly, yours, 


FRED MATHER. 
Prof. S. F, BAIRD, 


Washington, D. C. 


910 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Extract from the Weser Zeitung of October 25, 1878. 
[ Translation. ] 


When we made a detailed report relative to the first transport of Cal- 
ifornia Salmon eggs to Europe last year (No. 11062 and 11063, Ist and 
2d November, 1877), we unfortunately could record but a partial suc- 
cess: of 300,000 eggs, only 25,000 arrived in a perfect state. This 
was the lot brought over in the chest constructed by Mr. Mather, and 
described in last year’s report. The rest of the eggs, which had been 
packed in moss and gauze, which Mr. Mather was not authorized to 
repack after his plan, were all spoiled, as, in consequence of the heat 
produced by the decay of the moss, all the eggs had been hatched. In 
spite of this failure, the problem of transporting salmon eggs over great 
distances has been brilliantly solved. The second transport of 250,000 
California salmon eggs, which arrived to-day, in the Lloyd steamer 
Oder, Captain Leist, has confirmed the views formerly expressed. The 
eggs, just arrived, like last year’s, come from the United States breed- 
ing establishment on the McCloud River, in California, about 200 miles 
from Sacramento. They left the latter city in an ice-car of the Pacific 
Railroad, September 28, and on reaching Chicago were taken in charge 
by Mr. Mather, who was commissioned to escort the sending to Europe. 
Mr. Mather repacked the eggs in his chests, which had been improved 
since last year, and embarked on board the Oder, which, after a quick 
and pleasant passage, arrived in the Weser this morning at about nine 
o’clock. Mr. Mather was received by Mr. Finsch, who has repeatedly 
represented the German Society of Fish-breeders, also by Mr. Haack, di- 
rector of the Imperial Fishbreeding Establishment, in Hiiningen, both 
congratulating Mr. Mather most sincerely and heartily upon his brill- 
iant success, which was immediately announced by telegraph to the 
highly-deserving president of the society, Herr von Behr-Schmol- 
dow. According to the orders of the managers of the society, 45,000 
eggs will be transferred to Hiiningen, to go eventually to the Rhine; 
115,000 to the renowned breeding establishment of Mayor Schuster, 
near Freiburg (Baden), for the Rhine and Danube; 2,000 to Bonn and 
Miinden (Hannover); 30,000 to the establishment in Hameln, for the 
Weser, and 58,000 have been sent off to Berlin this evening, where they 
are to be subdivided among various smaller establishments, under the 
management of the well-known fish-breeder, Max von dem Borne; the 
Mark, part of Silesia, Saxony, and Mecklenburg being the recipients. 
Besides the eggs intended forGermany, Mr. Mather brought over 100,000 
for Holland, 100,000 for France, and 15,000 for England; all of which 
arrived in an equally good condition, the loss amounting to scarcely $ 
per cent.; that is no more than would be the case in breeding establish- 
ments. After this success there is no longer a doubt that salmon eggs 
can be carried just as well to Australia. The California salmon (Salmo 


TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF QUINNAT SALMON. 911 


quinnat) is a different species from ours, and shows its peculiarity in its 
development. It has been previously remarked that the young fish, 
though only just hatched, possesses much more vitality than our salmon. 
It is more vigorous, lively, and voracious than ours. It is then not as- 
tonishing that the Californians developed themselves very well in Hiin- 
ingen, and grew with surprising rapidity. The little one-year-old fishes 
which Director Haack keeps in a pond for the sake of observation and 
study are already a span long, quick and lively, whose well-being in our 
rivers is not to be doubted. A considerable number have been trans- 
ferred to the Rhine, Danube, and Weser. The new sending will now 
supply our rivers with the stranger in much greater quantities, and we 
owe this to the society of fish-breeders, whose beneficent efforts deserve 
a much more lively sympathy, as also to Prof. Spencer F. Baird, in 
Washington, the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries of the United States, 
who presented to the society, and consequently to Germany, this valua- 
ble sending. 


Deutsche Fischerei- Verein to S. F. Baird. 


BERLIN, December 14, 1878. 


DEAR Sir: We cannot allow our seventh circular of 1878 to cross the 
Atlantic without offering our special tribute of thanks to that kind friend 
in America who has enabled us to proclaim in Mr. Haack’s report (No. 
11) that the introduction of Salmo quinnat into German waters and 
its domestication may henceforth be considered as in a manner accom- 
plished. Be pleased, therefore, to accept our renewed assurance that we 
are fully alive to a sense of your unvarying and helpful courtesy. 

Mr. Mather’s skill has again obtained a signal triumph. Very few losses 
occurred on the road. We may confidently hope that a few weeks hence 
nearly a quarter of a million young Californian salmon will be lustily 
permeating the various river highways of this country. The Danube 
and its tributaries have claimed our special attention, inasmuch as they 
possess no migratory salmon and seemed to wait for the arrival of one 
so constituted as the quinnat. 

We should hail the day, dear sir, when we might be permitted to offer 
you, for the benefit of American rivers or lakes, any inhabitants of our 
waters unknown beyond the ocean. 

You will receive copies of a prospectus lately published for the inter- 
national fishery exhibition of 1880, to which we beg to draw your very 
especial attention. As we said in our November circular, when forming 
the scheme of that exhibition, we reckoned chiefly upon the willingness 
of America to send specimens of that gigantic progress which piscicult- 
ure and other cognate matters have there achieved. 


912 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Thanking you again and again, we remain, dear sir, yours very sin- 


cerely, 
The committee of the Deutsche Fischerei-Verein : 
von BEHR. O. HERMES. 
G. von BUNSEN. P. MAGNUS. 
W. PETERS. L. WITTMACK. 
MARCARD. FASTENAU. 
V. BAUMBACH. FINNOR. 
F. JAGOR. GREIFF. 
K. FRIEDEL. 
FRANCE. 


Society @ Acclimatation to 8. F. Baird. 
(Cable message received at Halifax, October 9, 1877.) 


COMMISSIONER FISHERIES, 
Halifax, N. 8. 
Envoyez eufs. 


SOCIETE D’ACCLIMATATION. 
11 Paris. : 


Drouyn de Lhuys to 8. F. Baird. 


SOCIETE D’ACCLIMATATION, 
Paris, le 19 octobre, 1877. 

MONSIEUR: La société d’acclimatation a regu avec la plus vive recon- 
naissance Voffre si généreuse contenue dans votre lettre du 20 septembre 
dernier et je m’empresse d’étre auprés de vous, en cette circonstance, 
Vinterpréte de tous ses remerciements. 

introduction du saumon de Californie dans beaucoup de nos riviéres 
aurait une trop haute importance économique pour que la société d’accli- 
matation ne soit pas fort heureuse de pouvoir en tenter Vutile essai. 

Un de nos agents sera chargé d’aller recevoir les ceufs, dont vous avez 
bien voulu nous annoncer, par le télégraphe, la prochaine arrivée a 
Southampton. Ces cufs seront confiés aux soins des personnes les plus 
compétentes, et rien ne sera négligé en vue de mener a bonne fin la trés- 
intéressante expérience qu’il va nous étre permis d’entreprendre, grace 
& la libéralité du gouvernement des Etats-Unis. 

Veuillez agréer, Monsieur, ’assurance de mes sentiments de haute 
considération. 

Le Président, 


DROUYN DE LHUYS. 
Monsieur SPENCER F. BArrp, 


Halifax, Nova Scotia. 


TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF QUINNAT SALMON. 913 
Raveret- Wattel to S. F. Baird. 


Socritkh D’ACCLIMATATION, 
Paris, october 29, 1878. 

MONSIEUR: J’ai la satisfaction de vous informer que nous verrons de 
recevoir, dans les meilleures conditions possibles, le généreux envoi que 
vous avez bien voulu nous faire encore, d’ceufs de saumon de Californie. 

Ces ceufsS ont immédiatement été confiés’ & ceux de nos sociétaires la 
plus en situation de leur donner de bons soines, et une large part a été 
réservée au ministére des travaux publics (service des péches) ; le bon 
état dans lequel ils nous sont parvenus nous donne tout lieu d’espérer 
une réussite complete. 

En vous réitérant expression de la reconnaissance de la société pour 
votre concours si bienveillant, je vous prie, monsieur, d’agréer la nou- 
velle assurance de mes sentiments les plus respectueux et dévoués. 

Le sécrétaire des séances, 

} RAVERET-WATTEL. 


Hon. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 
Président de la commission des pécheries nationales 
a Washington, Etats-Unis. 


Louis de Bebian to Fred Mather.* 


COMPAGNIE GENERALE TRANSATLANTIQUE, 
55 Broadway, New York, February 13, 1878. 


DEAR Str: Your favor of 11th at hand. I shall be pleased to take the 
case of salmon eggs free of charge to Havre. The steamer will sail early 
in the morning of the 20th, therefore case must be here on the 19th. 
Mark case to the consigner’s address in Havre, and send it to me with 
all charges prepaid. There is an ice-box on our steamer belonging to party 
who ship “ fresh beef” and I will endeavor to get him to allow me to 
put the case in there, where no doubt it will be in good condition on its 
arrival in Havre. Mark ease distinctly and notify me of its shipment to 
me, and I will send receipt to you and consignee in Havre. 

Yours truly, 
LOUIS DE BEBIAN. 

Mr. FRED MATHER, 

271 High Street, Newark, N. J. 


P. S.—If case is destined for Paris we can notify our agent in Havre: 
to forward, you guaranteeing charges between Havre and Paris in 
case receiver refuses. 


*In connection with a proposed sending of eggs of land-locked salmon. 


58 F 


914 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


THE NETHERLANDS. 
H. Caeaux to 8S. F. Baird. 


NETHERLANDS AMERICAN S©EAM NAVIGATION COMPANY, 
27 South William Street, New York, August 31, 1877. 


SPENCER F. BAIRD, Esq., 
United States Commission Fish and Fisheries, 
Halifax, Nova Scotia: 

DEAR Sir: In reply to your esteemed favor of the 27th instant, I beg 
to inform you that the steamers of our line are appointed to leave this 
port for Rotterdam as follows: Steamship Rotterdam, September 13 ; 
steamship W. A. Scholten, September 27; steamship Maas, October 11; 
steamship P. Caland, October 25; steamship Schiedam, November 1. 

There is no direct steamship communication between New York and 
Amsterdam. 

Thanking you for your courtesy to our government, 1 remain, with 
great respect, yours, very truly, 

H. CAZAUX. 


0. J. Bottemanne to S. F. Baird. 


BERGEN-OP-Zoom, 7 November, 1877. 

DEAR SiR: Inclosed you will receive the report of the assistant di- 
rector of the zodlogical garden at Amsterdam to me about the S. quinnat 
eggs you presented to our government. Iam very sorry that itis such a 
total failure. The chief of the department (finance), whom I hold my 
commission under, has taken the necessary steps already, by his colleague 
of the interior, to make a proper acknowledgment to the United States 
‘Commission tor the truly magnificent donation. 

Mr. Mather had telegraphed from New York tthe starting ; this enabled 
me to prepare in time. The 23d I wired to Southampton, in order to 
know the quantum Mr. Mather was bringing (your letter of the 9th of 
October only reached me the 26th), and received an answer on the 24th. 
Having no time to spare to run over to Bremerhaven, I had arranged 
with Dr. Westerman, the managing director of the zvdlogical garden, 
that the asst. director should go to take charge of the eggs at Bremer- 
haven. In the gardens, I may say, all were in high glee. Mr. Noord- 
hoch Hegt telegraphed the time of his arrival, and so the whole board of 
directors was present in the breeding-house, to be driven off in less than 
ne time as soon as the first box was opened, by the terrible smell; it 
was really a pity. As the report is pretty exhaustive, I will say nothing 
more here. 

When going to Amsterdam, to make my arrangements for the eggs, I 
touched at Leiden, and got from Professor Buys (secretary of the board 


TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF QUINNAT SALMON. 915 


of commissioners of the sea fisheries) all the yearly reports sinee 1870, 
which I forwarded to your address in Washington by bookpost in the 
latter days of October last, and I will take care to send the same every 
year aS soon as published, which is commonly not before September; 
rather late. At the same time I forwarded two pamphlets of Mx. de 
Bont, one French, one Dutch. This gentleman, who belongs to the 
board of directors of the zoélogical garden, is amateur pisciculturist, 
has always superintended the fish-breeding establishment, and is lately 
very successful. 

In our rivers we find in the fall, September and November, the salmon 
almost and entirely ready to spawn, but at the same time there are in 
September commonly a few, later on more, and now nothing else but 
heavy salmon, averaging about 25 pounds, which we eall “winter sal- 
mon ;” in England, I believe, ‘‘fresh run salmon.” The ovary in those sal- 
mon are so minute that they were formerly entirely overlooked, and so 
this salmon was declared to be sterile. When I investigated our rivers 
in 1869 and 1870 with Mr. Pollen, we found this to be not so. We gath- 
ered the roe and milt for a period of more than a year, and so we got 
the successive development from the winter up to the spawning salmon ; 
and this proved that the winter salmon was not sterile. We proved 
also that the Salmo hamatus was nothing else but the male Salmo salar 
in breeding time, and that the gray and dark colored red-spotted one 
was nothing but the female in the same condition. After spawning she 
became just as silvery as a spring salmon and the male lost his hook be- 
fore he died. Up till now it is still an open question “ what makes the 
winter salmon come into the river the same time the others come into 
spawn?” She is not ready to do so before next fall, and in the spring 
there is caught once in a while a salmon with worms hanging out of his 
head, emaciated, and in terribly poor condition: a fish that in good con- 
dition would weigh 25 pounds does not weigh more than 11 or 12 pounds; 
the body, always broader than the gills; is so much shrunk that the 
gilis protrude considerably. Almost invariably are those that have been 
so-called winter salmon, drifting seaward, which is proven by the fact 
that the first caught are always high up in the river and later on in the 
tideway, but we never catch many, and in later years but few. Now, as 
to what winter salmon is, I gave the following explanation : 

The salmon is bound to come into the rivers for reproduction, but if 
they all came at the same time, viz, in the fall, being all in nearly the 
same state of development, they would altogether reach to nearly the 
same height in the river and be compelled to spawn there and then. Of 
course there was not place enough for the whole lot, so the one would 
root up the nest of the other, and it would be a wonder if the whole 
progeny was not destroyed. No, says mother nature, not so. Yow go 
so much earlier in the river; and you so much; that leaves you time to 
go so much farther, and in this way you will all find a good place to 
spawn, and so you will find spawning-beds all along the Rhine up to 


916 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Schaffhausen. Now this looked to me a very good solution of the ques- 
tion, but what in the case? At Basel we find just as well and at the 
same time the salmon in prime spawning condition and the winter sal- 
mon; this upsets my whole theory, unless I am able to prove that the 
salmon caught in spawning condition at Basel has been a round year in 
the river, which is not probable and which I don’t believe, as being in 
too good condition for that. If you have an opinion about this I will 
be very glad to know it. 

Oyster culture is taking here such a swing that it is becoming a na- 
tional interest. The board has proposed to exhibit next year in Paris. 
As soon as the decision is known I will let you know. I think to go there 
anyhow. Whenever you come across, either to France or England, try 
to stop here too. When arriving in England, by leaving London via 
Queensborough-Flushing for the Continent, it takes about eight hours to 
cross the North Sea, and from Flushing one hour per rail to get here, 
and from here you are within 25 minutes on the route Amsterdam, 
Brussels, or Paris. 

Offering you my sincere thanks for your great liberality in sending the 
esss, 

I remain, dear sir, yours respectfully, 
C. J. BOTTEMANNE, M. D., 
Superintendent of Fisheries, Netherlands. 
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD, 
United States Commissioner Fish and Fisheries, 
Washington, D. C. 


Report on the salmon eggs sent by the United States Government to the 
Netherlands.* 


On the 24th October, Mr. Bottemanne, superintendent of fisheries in 
the Netherlands, wired to us that the steamer Mosel, with destination 
for Bremerhaven, has arrived at Southampton, and that Mr. Fred Ma- 
ther had under his care four crates, with one hundred thousand eggs. 

At the same time Mr. Bottemanne sent us a letter to Mr. Fred Mather, 
to authorize the undersigned to receive the above salmon eggs. 

Immediately we made here all preparations to place the eggs on ar- 
rival, and I went to Bremerhaven to receive them. I waited there for 
the steamer bringing down the passengers from the Mosel, and the 26th 
October, about eleven o’clock in the forenoon, I met Mr. Mather and 
received the four crates destined for the Netherlands. I found there 
Messrs. Dr. Haack, direetor of the Imperial German Institution at 
Hiinningen; Dr. Finch, director of the museum in’ Bremen; Mr. 
Schiever, superintendent of the breeding station at Hameln. They all, 
came for the same purpose. We agreed to move the crates unopened, 


“Made by the Koninglijk Zodlogisch Genootschap Natura Artis Magistra, Amster- 
dam. 


TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF QUINNAT SALMON, 917 


and, not to lose a moment, to start immediately. We had them landed 
and brought to the railway station at Geestemunde. 

While waiting there for the custom-house officers and the starting of 
the train, we perceived that a milky stuff of a nasty smell was running 
out of the crates. We took the precaution to buy a hundred weight of 
ice to keep them cool, but it proved useless. 

On arriving at Bremen, we agreed, by general consult, and as there was 
some time left before any of us could start for our different destinations, 
to open one of the crates and the interior boxes. We did so at the sta- 
tion, and found the first crate for the Netherlands all spoiled, except in 
a corner where there were a few eggs in apparently good condition. 
All the interior, however, was heated up to about 70° or 80° Fah. 
There were a few eclosions with some of the fish still alive. The whole, 
however, gave the impression that the enterprise had failed, the fault 
being the packing, which, perhaps quite sufficient for a short journey 
of a few days, was not adequate to a transport of three or four weeks. 

As the only direct train to go to Amsterdam started at one o’clock at 
night, I resolved to let my four crates quiet and proceed with them im- 
mediately in order not to lose 24 hours, as I could reach Amsterdam 
next morning. Mr. Schiever did the same and left the same night to 
his destination close to Hanover. Dr. Haack, who had to go further, 
resolved to remain in Bremen for the night and we proceeded together 
to a hotel, where he opened his crates. The contents proved to be in 
much the same condition as those of the crate opened at the railway 
station, the heat of the boxes’ interior being 80° Fah. The best eggs 
were taken out of the box and put separate, and it took about four hours 
to do one crate. 

It seems that Mr. Fred Mather had received orders to leave the sal- 
mon eggs quiet and not open them at all, as the gentleman who sent 
them off from California expected they would arrive safe in Europe. It 
is to be regretted that this was the case. Mr. Mather had opened one 
case in New York, and took the trouble to bring over the contents in a 
case of his own construction. The result was truly magnificent—out of 
25,000 eggs, shipped in New York, only about 400 were lost. Through 
the arrangement with slides, the eggs lay in single layers and could be 
taken out very easily and cleaned, there being some space left at the top 
and the bottom. Ice could be brought close to the eggs without touch- 
ing them, and the mean temperature was kept without much trouble at 
from 41° to 45° Fah. As I have said, the success was wonderful and the 
arrangement was perfect, without incurring much extra cost. As these 
eggs belonged to the lot for Hiinningen, Director Haack had the means 
of putting the eggs saved from the crates in a few trays, which were 
empty in the above named box. What will bethe result of these I can- 
not say here, but I have no doubt Director Haack will report on them 
later. : 


918 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


With my four crates I proceeded further to Amsterdam where I ar- 
rived 27th October, just 24 hours after receiving them in Bremerhaven. 

What I expected proved true; the contents were all spoiled through 
heat generated in the interior. The thin pieces of white cloth where 
the eggs lay between were so rotten that they could not be taken up, 
but broke on being touched. <A few of the eggs in some of the corners 
were still in what seemed a sound condition; the great mass was a white 
rotten mess with a very offensive smell. We tried to save the best 
and let them cool off slowly and put them afterward in water. Some 
eclosions followed, even at the moment the eggs were uncovered, but 
most of the apparently good eggs burst on being touched; a few hun- 
dred only came in the water, but those were all dead next day, except 
two or three eclosions which died also shortly afterwards. _ 

It is very much to be regretted that this most liberal trial of the 
United States Government to enrich our European rivers with some of 
the valuable products of their waters has this time failed. For many 
reasons it is to be hoped that the Government will repeat this trial once 
more next year, and that they may have occasion to make use of this 
intelligent case of Mr. Fred Mathers. I have not the least doubt that 
if he can make use of the boxes with slides, as used by him this time 
for a small number of eggs trusted to his care, success must follow for 
any number, and a great boon will be bestowed on Europe for the intro- 
duction of a new population on many of its rivers. 

Amsterdam, 28th October, 1877. 

J. NOORDHOCH HEGT, 
Adj. Director of the Royal Zoological Society. 


/ 


The Minister of the Netherlands to S. F. Baird. 


NETHERLANDS LEGATION, 
Washington, January 28, 1878. 


Str: I have the honor to transmit to you the thanks of the Govern- 
ment of the Netherlands for the valuable gift of 100,000 eggs of the 
California salmon, made last year by you to Mr. Bottemanne, commis- 
sioner of fisheries on the Scheldt and the waters of Iceland, and to ex- 
press the hope that, though the hatching of these eggs in Holland has 
not succeeded, through various causes relating, aS it is believed, to the 
packing and handling of this collection on the sea voyage, this cireum- 
stance may not prevent you from having the experiment made again 
this year under more favorable auspices. 

I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant, 
VON PESTEL, 
Minister Resident of the Netherlands. 
Prof. SPENCER F. BArrp, 
Commissioner Fish and Fisheries, 
Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 


TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF QUINNAT SALMON. 919 
CO. J. Bottemanne to S. F. Baird. 


BERGEN-OP-Zoom, September 4, 1878. 
Prof. SPENCER F. BarrD, 
Washington, D. C., U. S. A.: 

DEAR Str: Your favor came to hand in due time, and beg to inform 
you that the sailing days of the Rotterdam steamers where the eggs 
may go by are, September 28, Schiedam ; October 19, Scholten; No- 
vember 9, Caland. Between each of those is a smaller steamer, but 
neither of those have a proper ice-house, so they are of no use. 

The captains of the Scholten and Caland Vl give instructions to before 
they leave. I missed the captain of the Schiedam at Rotterdam, but 
Vl write to him. I have not seen the accommodation on board the 
Schiedam, but the directors say she has the best of the three; still the 
place on board the other two is in my opinion well suited, too. 

The captains will be instructed that in case you give them instructions, 
they have to obey yours punctually without taking any regard of mine. 

In case neither of those dates of departure suit, and there is a 
steamer for Bremerhaven leaving at better time, having proper accom- 
modation for the eggs, you are free to ship thereby on my account. In 
this case it will be necessary that you provide them with instructions. If 
you can manage to ship by the Rotterdam line I think we have better 
chance of success, as the captains of those steamers, if on no other ac- 
count, will take an interest in the affair on my account. The directors, 
too, are interested, so it seems, as they are willing to deliver the eggs at 
Rotterdam free of cost. One of the directors, Mr. Plate, isin New York 
now; a very nice gentleman he is. 

IT am convinced that the whole trouble of last year was nothing else 
but that the eggs have not been kept cool enough and so come out too 
soon. 

If you can do me the favor please advise them a couple of days before 
the departure of the steamer where the eggs are to go by, as it will give 
me a chance to await the arrival of the ships in port. 

The New York address of the company is Funch, Edye & Co., 27 
South William street. 

Oyster culture is quite a success this year. The catch of spat on the 
tiles and shells is very plentiful; the season for it is ended just now. It 
is really worth the while seeing, and whenever you come to this side of 
the water be sure not to missit. Of course as long as I am here, I am 
at your disposal. 

With kind regards, I remain, dear sir, your obedient servant, 

C. J. BOTTEMANNE, 
Superintendent of Fisheries. 


920 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 
CO. J. Bottemanne to S. F. Baird. 


BERGEN-OP-ZooM, October 30, 1878. 

DEAR Sir: October 20 I dispatched a letter to Southampton, 
addressed to Mr. Mather, care of the agents of the Bremen Lloyd 
steamer Oder, begging to wire me his arrival there. For what rea- 
son I don’t know, but I did not get a message. As you know in 
country places, newspapers are behind, and so I knew only the 23d the 
Oder arrived the day before in England. Immediately I wired to Am- 
sterdam, not being able to go myself, and Mr. N. Hegt, the same gentle- 
man who went for the eggs last year, started in the afternoon for Bremen, 
but failed to meet Mr. Mather. He got the eggs and started with them 
with the first train, and arrived in Amsterdam at noon October 26, 
where I met him in the Zoo, and unpacked the eggs. They looked very 
healthy. 

The number in the three boxes we made 85,000, out of which we picked 
that day and the next morning, 3,000 bad ones, and so we had Sunday 
morning 82,000 on the trays, splendid looking. Towards evening, when 
I had to leave for home, I looked them over and found about 70 bad ones 
more. I did not hear since from Amsterdam, but if anything was wrong 
they would have written or telegraphed, so I conclude all is going 
right. ' 

As things stand now we may consider the transport as a splendid 
success, and I am very much obliged for your kindness and the trouble 
taken. Of course in due time you will receive an official acknowledg- 
ment. 

Mr. Hegt not meeting Mr. Mather, leaves me in the dark about the 
costs, and not having any address of Mr. Mather in Germany Iam obliged 
to address you about this. Please let me know at your earliest conven- 
jience and Vl remit by post-office order. 

I remain, dear sir, yours, very truly, 
C. J. BOTTEMANNE, 
Superintendent of Fisheries. 


O. J. Bottemanne to S. F. Baird. 


BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, 27 Janvier, 1879. 


DEAR Sir: Your favor of November 12, 1878, duly received. I am 
sorry I had to delay the answer so long, but different reasons prompted 
me thereto. 

On the arrival of the eggs, which I found to be irregular in size, their 
temperature was 8°, the water 12° Celsius ; slowly we rose the temper- 
ature of the eggs up to the water. 

They came out very irregular, the first about the middle of Novem- 
ber and the last had not absorbed their sack a week ago. 

In the first time we lost many by smothering, not being able to get 


TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF QUINNAT SALMON. 921 


their head out of the shell. When the head came first it was all right, 
but if the sack burst through the little fellow seemed to have not power 
enough to clear the shell. The first impression was the shell was hard- 
ened somehow so they did not open far enough to admit an easy exit, 
but afterwards I felt inclined to believe it was weakness of the fry caused 
by the comparatively high temperature of the water, the weather being 
very mild at the time. 

The eggs that came out later, when the temperature of the water had 
gone down considerable, we had less trouble with, till it gradually left 
off entirely. After all were out, the loss in fish became small, going 
down to ten and less per day. By sharp watching many were saved 
by helping them out of the shell when this burst. 

I had a good deal hunting round to find a suitable place to deposit the 
fry. December 26, I fixed the place for the first lot of 10,000. January 4, 
when I came with them, the river had only risen about 15 feet; still the 
place held good and the water was pretty clear; had gone down already 
about 3 feet. 

The transport took place in tin cans of one-half meter diameter and 
about one meter high. In the middle of the slanting top is a large 
round hole fitted with aninverted cover. The bottom of this cover and 
the slanting top of the can are perforated with small holes. In the top 
are fastened three tubes, 1 inch diameter, reaching about half way down 
the can. In one of them, reaching down farther and by netting prevent- 
ing the fry of getting in, is a tin pump screwed in. Once in awhile this 
pump is applied; the water runs in the middle cover and on the top of 
the can, is prevented from running off by the sides of the can being run up 
as high as the cover, and so the water runs through the little openings 
back in the can, which is only filled half with water and is aerated in 
this style. 

In the front of the can is, a little under half the height, a top-screw; 
this serves to change the temperature of the water in the can, if neces- 
sary. ‘The water out of the river is put on the top, where it leaks through, 
while at the same time the water in the tin can runs off by taking the 
screw out. 

The 10,000 fish were put in five cans at 6 a.m., and we had them in 
the river in a shoal, gravelly place at 1 p. m., with the loss of not a 
single one. Temperature of the cans 4$°, river 6° Celsius. January 
11, 20,000 made the same trip in 6 cans under a sharp frost. The cans 
were covered with straw and a basket and had hot-water stoves between 
them in the cars; and by transporting them to the river, temperature 
14°, river 14° Cels. Had to chop a hole in the ice to get the fry in. 
Loss, a dozen. January 18, about 20,000 went the same way, also in 6 
cans; the weather thawing, no stoves used; river full of floating ice; 
temperature cans and river alike, 14°; loss 4 couple. River gone down 
considerable—about 5 feet. The place of deposit of these 50,000 was 
in the river Maas, opposite the city of Venlo, in Limburg, Netherlands, 


922 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND en 


near the railway bridge. After the first lot was put in, they have been 
noticed many days. 

I selected that river because salmon is almost extinet and very bad 
for seining, having a clear gravel bottom, with very shoal water almost 
the year round, only in open winter or the spring a sudden rise two or 
three, and is even then not half as muddy as the Rhine. 

In Gelderland, near Apeldoorn, I found a splendid brook with a fall 
at, the end of three or four meters. No mills on, nor fish in it, only some 
sticklebacks, and teeming with food. 

A few ponds were dug in the lower ground aside of the brook, which 
were fed by a screen and pipe through the dike. On the 7th of Janu- 
ary, 5,600 were putin the ponds; sharp frost; northeast gale; two and 
one-half hours by rail, one-half by cart. In the cart only with a couple 
of hot-water stoves with them. Loss, ten in the two cans; pumps 
frozen. The fish cannot get away. Thereis plenty of pure spring-water 
and plenty of food. I put them there to see how they will thrive in 
captivity. In the Zod at Amsterdam are left now 1,000 to be kept 
there and fed, and 4,000 which I intended to place in the ponds of the 
Loo, near Apeldoorn, the King’s summer residence and his favorite 
place. He is principally there. The fry would have been put in long 
since, but first his marriage, and now the death of our very much 
lamented Prince Henri, prevented me to ask his permission. 

You see thus we have not been doing so bad after all; out of the sound 
eges packed out (82,000 we put on the trays) I have got about 62,000 
fry deposited. Of wnimpregnated eggs we found only a couple; of twin 
fish and crooked-backs about 300, and a few with water bellies. Size of 
the fry 26-30 days after birth, 4 and 45 centimeters, quite a lot of them. 

I suppose it is settled now that eels are oviparous and not viviparous. 
Can you give me anything about Professor Packard finding the sperma- 
tozoa? Was the eel caught in fresh or salt water? What success you 
have got with your cod-fish hatching? Somebody has told me the 8S. 
quinnat does not go to sea, but stays always in the rivers. What isthe 
temperature of the water on the breeding places in McCloud River, 
California? 

Did Mr. Livingston Stone find out something about the so-called winter 
salmon I wrote about to you last year? 

The American oyster is taking in England so much that our mer- 
chants had to come down in price, although our oyster is much superior 
to the American; ours sell for £4 or £5 sterling per 1,000. 

Tam afraid a great many will have been killed by the frost we have 
had. Theromometer now at 0 since yesterday. Barometer stationary 
at 775, noon. rom yesterday has slowlyrisen. Wind light, east; ex- 
pect more frost yet. 

If the English demand for American oysters keeps up, you had better 
look out, otherwise you'll be out before long. The French is a bad, poor 


TRANSMISSION OF EGGS OF QUINNAT SALMON. 923 


thing, and the Portuguese is no oyster at all. I prefer our mussel to 
either of them. 
I hope you will have this in hand before the meeting in February of 
the Fisheultural Society. 
With kind regards, yours truly, 
C. J. BOTTEMANNE, 
Superintendent of Fisheries. 


Official report on California salmon bred in the zodlogical gardens at Amsterdam for the 
Netherlands Government, 


EGGS LOST. 
| 
Temperature | , A 
Date. emperature| Quantity. | Date. eeu erauure Quantity. 
1878. | 1878. 

Ociobertw 265 -5.-5-26> 6. On arrival .. 3,000 ||} November 13............. Celsius 9° 600 
Ween soooboD soos Celsius 12° 428 eee ecia 9 496 
Pec coached 12 453 |) Less seeeescice 9 490 
Sen noSenneeaoe 114 520 Gpeeeeee soe 9 396 
Oh oAeESaap Soot 11 1, 850 || Wiscnanaaecoce = 9 420 

INOVeDIher eles secciece san 114 985 I eSoscdacceebo 9 380 

Qe seesciscescers 114 672 OR eee aces 9 360 
Boscte seen 11 820 20 ccsae cepa 9 370 
Se eee 11 800 ALS eee esoaaca 8 350 
He SSR REA o ae al 1, 100 22 ann seaeciciee = 8 170 
eee ee er 104 1, 300 Ogike Saree | 8 250 
WiwclziniSareisinais ate 104 1, 450 4 eee Ease) 8 87 
So. Sascesec eel 10 1, 480 2D eetea ener 8 280 
orem ocaacoacs 10 1, 006 26% Sceces scces 8 126 
AQAe ase pictssiaca e 10 840 —— —- 
Lil S Se gasses: 94 620 22, 497 
12) sscieetee ease 9 610 
FISH LOST. 
Temperature /Onantity. Date. Tener Quantity. 
1878. 1878. 

November 27 Celsius 8° | 113 || December 25 Celsius 449° 8 

28 8 49 44 5 
8 47 27 44 8 
8 45 28 43 8 
7h 16 29 4h fi 
ves 5D 30 5 10 
72 | 75 31 5, 38 
ves 51 1879. 5 31 
7 24 | January 
Tk 24 5 24 
| 45 5 14 
ti 47 5 24 
{ie | 14 5 20 
Tae 31 5k 17 
7 23 5) 16 
64 14 5 23 
64 11 4h 16 
6 2 4h 23 
6 8 4h 17 
6 2 4 9 
5A 8 4 13 
£4 9 43 7 
5s 2 4 10 
5 8 4 12 
5 8 4 *290 
5 8 
5 15 1, 410 
5 6 

| 


* Twins, hunchbacks, &c. 


924 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


FRY DEPOSITED. 


1879—January 4. Maas, near Venlo, Limburg.......--..2.-6-- <0 02 - nee enn cummin ae tans noes 
January 8. Zwaanspring, Gelderland. - ~~. < -. 5 ooo ooo cee cee n nm ceee nn -caemensencnes 
January 11. Maas, near Venlo, Limburg 
January 18. Maas, near Venlo, Limburg 


RECAPITULATION. 

Wggs received... ..----. oc ce soe we we seen ne mewn ene seen ne en cee n ne wenn ena nnseasnes 85, 000 
GOS LOSb << oo. maw enn wo nei = we = eee ie we nae enn olen eee inne a es enn eles = in elo = fom 22, 497 
IY OSG: = <2 sic ce wie win cies wie nie cw enemies ween ae el= (=e sims we mimiae = mixin = =iaie ninim ole inion = (= = see miele sinie ola 1, 410 
Tab Geyer Soe ee agaaeenossesecsccos BocuEsSSUOneSs cer bocce SaSHoSESSeuOESsbeS Heese see ssosess ce 56, 000 
Mnyekepitor thorl00l esses saa eee tae serene nem enne saree eee earache eee eee 4, 000 
Pry itoibeikeptin the ZoclogicaliGard entsseneasccesesrisstecsssenicesieeesiee)cem= cea =—e ene eae 1, 093 

Total ce jsasccacise wees mcatioe secs ce delsts ce te tcae tee ciecececeoserscisce aces saecacenerceeeteets 85, 000 


November 10. The first fish broke shell. 
November 26. Last fish out shell. 
The few fry that died between November 10 and November 26 are put 
in with those of November 27. 
Bergenop-Zoom, January 28, 1879. 
C. J. BOTTEMANNE, 
Superintendent of Fisheries. 


XLI.—SUMMARY OF REPORTS FOR 1878, BY STATE FISH COM- 
MISSIONERS RESPECTING THE INCREASE OF FOOD FISHES 
BY ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION.* 


MAINE. 


Atlantic salmon.—The results of our salmon planting have been most 
satisfactory, as exhibited on the Penobscot, Androscoggin, St. Croix, 
and Medomac. On the Penobscot the yield has been very large. Per- 
haps no better summary can be given than the paragraph we here quote 
from the Bangor Commercial : 

‘‘The salmon fishers must now cease their fishing, as the close time 
for this season commenced to-day. Therun has, in the main, been quite 
large. There was a time early in the season when they reached the 
remarkably low price of 8 cents a pound at Bucksport, but, as a rule, 
the prices have been good. A good deal of money is brought to the 
Penobscot Valley by this important industry.”—July 15. 

Since July the number of salmon on the east and west branches has been 
reported to us as very large by the riverdrivers. Parties of excursion- 
ists have likewise represented young salmon as being very numerous, and 
annoying much by their numbers, and rising to their flies when fishing 
for trout. On the St. Croix the yield was large for that river. It may 
be remembered that in 1873 we transported 10,000 salmon fry to 
Vanceboro, which we turned into the St. Croix at that place. In 1874, 
50,000 salmon ova were hatched for us in the hatching-house of the 
Dobsis club, and turned into the St. Croix tributaries. We think the 
inference is fairly deduced that these contributions have materially 
added to the stock of the river. On the Androscoggin a good many 
salmon have been taken the last two or three years. Mr. Ambrose T. 
Storer, the fish warden at Brunswick, writes under date of August 25, 
1878: “TI have tried to ascertain the number of salmon caught on the 
Kennebec, but was unable to learn the exact number, but think it 
larger than usual. Mr. Trott caught seven in one day. I don’t know 
how many have been caught inthe small rivers tributary to the Andros- 
coggin, but on this river the number caught by our fishermen was four- 
teen, which is more than has been caught before for some years. I 


*The report of the commissioners of New Hampshire for 1878 contains an excellent 
summary of general results of fish culture by the States, from which numerous extracts 
have been made and inserted under their respective headings. The selections for 


this article have been made by Mr. C. W. Smiley. ; 
925 


926 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


have been hoping to see the fishway completed.” Another gentleman 
writes: “ Brunswick, July 6, 1878. I have the pleasure of informing 
you that a fine large salmon has been the admiration of many of our 
citizens, playing around above the falls near the short bridge. He was 
so tame that some one undertook to catch him by a spear or hook, and 
by that means wounded him, so that he was this morning found dead. 
Of course no one knows who did it, but it was learned with manifold re- 
gret though his existence establishes the fact that we have young 
salmon in our river. Now, if we had good fishways in good condi- 
tion on our falls, there is no doubt but that we would have a plenty of 
these beautiful fish in our river.” Still another, under date of July, 
1878, says: “Can anything be done by us to enable you to have our 
fishways made more practicable ?” 

On the Medomae, “large salmon have been seen jumping in the basin, 
above the dam, where such a sight has not been witnessed before for 
forty years.” (Twelfth report of the commissioners of fisheries of the 
State of Maine, for the year 1878, p. 8-9.) 

Alewives.—We transported seventy alewives in cans from Bucksport 
to Enfield, part way by wagon and the rest by railroad, on the 17th of 
May. The 10th of September the first school of young fry were seen on 
their way down to the Penobscot; two other schools followed at inter- 
vals of afew days. These fish, it is estimated, will make their first 
return from the ocean in two years. (Twelfth report of the commis- 
sioners of fisheries of the State of Maine, 1878, p. 17.) 

We quote from several of their recent reports, as follows: 

Maine says: “The salmon fisheries of the State have been largely 
productive, that of the Penobscot being reported as greater than for the 
last twenty-five years. The take of alewives in those parts of the State 
where fishways have been provided and the fish protected was likewise 
very large and remunerative. The most gratifying feature of this year’s 
experience is the wide interest awakened in the State in fish culture 
among all classes, as evidenced in the extensive demand for brook- 
trout, land-locked salmon, and black bass to stock waters for private 
enterprises, as well as for towns and counties. The black bass we apply 
in all cases as an antidote to the worthless pickerel. It costs more to 
feed a pickerel than any other fish; it costs more to make a pound of 
pickerel than a pound of any other fish; the pickerel consumes every- 
thing that swims or that it can swallow; it is very destructive to young 
water-fowl. 

‘“‘ Wor the last four or five years large numbers of young salmon have 
made their appearance in the Penobscot River below Bangor. Even 
the Kenduskeag River, below Morse & Co.’s mill, has been full of them. 
Large numbers have been taken this year below the dam of the Holly 
Water-Works, at Treat’s Falls, and in Barr’s Brook, by both men and boys. 
In dipping for smelts in Brewer, sixty young salmon were picked from 
among the captured smelts in the course of two hours and returned to 


REPORT OF STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS, ETC. 927 


the water. They were recognized by an intelligent bystander and their 
distinctive marks pointed out, when all parties immediately took a deep 
interest in protecting them. One man, in fishing for suckers in the 
Kenduskeag, with coarse line and baited hook sunk on the bottom, 


’ caught sixteen young salmon in two hours, and carefully returned them 


to the water again. The Bangor Commercial says: ‘On visiting his 
weir yesterday in Marsh River, Mr. Reuben Hopkins found one hundred 
and forty young salmon in it, varying from 8 inclres to 1 foot. He 
turned them all loose in the river. We learn that these young salmon 
are found in all the weirs in the river in large numbers.’ 

‘The salmon fishery of the Penobscot is estimated to be the largest for 
many years, so much beyond the product of years past as to leave no 
doubt in the minds of the most incredulous that the work of restoration 
by planting and protection is an entire and unmistakable success. Many 
of the salmon were of very large size. 

“Of one of the large fishes the following paragraph, cut from the Bel- 
fast Journal, will be read with interest, as conveying some important 
facts in relation to their growth and habits: ‘In our issue of May 3, 
we made mention of a very large salmon caught at Cape Jellison, Stock- 
ton, by Josiah Parsons, and purchased by Frank Collins, of this city. 
The fish measured 50 inches in length and weighed thirty-three and one- 
half pounds. Attached to the fish was a metallic tag, numbered 1019, 
indicating that it was one liberated from the Bucksport breeding works. 
The tag was forwarded to Mr. Atkins, the superintendent of the works, 
who keeps a record of all fish used for spawning purposes and then lib- 
erated. We now chronicle the record of the fish as learned from a letter 
from Mr. Atkins to Mr. Collins. He writes that the salmon was libera- 
ted at Bucksport, November 10, 1875. It was a female fish, 394 inches 
in length, and yielded five pounds and six ounces of spawn, or about 
16,000 eggs. After spawning it weighed sixteen pounds. He judges 
that in the preceding May (1875) the fish weighed twenty-five pounds; 
thus the fish in two years had grown nearly an additional foot in length 
and eight and a half pounds in weight. One important fact in the habits 
of the salmon has been demonstrated by the use of these tags, and that 
is that the fish, after it becomes large, does not visit the river every 
year, as was formerly supposed, but only every second year. Those 
liberated in the Penobscot in 1873 were caught again in 1875, and those 
let loose in 1875 are now being caught. One dollar premium is paid for 
every tag thus found. Among others of the large fish, one was taken 
at Veazie, by Mr. Albert Spencer, weighing 38 pounds. The salmon 
presented by our worthy mayor, Dr. A. C. Hamlin, to Mayor Prince, of 
Boston, and which was captured at Sandy Point on the Penobscot, was 
said to have weighed forty pounds when first taken. A very good run 
of salmon has visited the St. Croix the last year.’ (New Hampshire 
fish commission report for 1878, pp. 25, 26, 27.) 

‘In 1873 some thousands of young salmon were turned loose by us in 


928 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the St. Croix at Vanceborough. In 1874, 50,000 fry were hatched and 
turned into Dobsis stream for us by the courtesy of the Hon. Harvey 
Jewell, of the Dobsis club. The inference is but fair that these contri- 
butions to the stock of the river had a marked influence in adding to 
the number that constituted the good run of this year.”. (New Hamp- | 
shire fish commission report, 1878, p. 27.) 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


Atlantic salmon.—More salmon were seen during the summer at Amos- 
keag Falls than were noted in the fish-way at Lawrence; and a pair of 
very large ones, estimated by Mr. Kidder at sixteen or seventeen pounds 
each, were seen about September 1, and a similar pair were seen by Mr. 
Powers, jumping the falls above the hatching-house, September 15. (Re- 
port of the fish commissioners of New Hampshire, 1879, p. 4.) 

‘Atlantic salmon, 7 inches long, of the planting of 1876, were so plen- 
tiful up to about the middle of August that it was impossible to fish 
without frequently hooking them. Mr. R. R. Holmes actually hooked 
three at one cast, and remarked that the river was alive with them. In 
August they began to disappear, and at this date very few are seen. 
On the 6th of November I dipped up a small Atlantic salmon, about 3 
inches long, at the outlet of the hatching-house brook, which must have 
resulted from last year’s run of salmon in this river, as there has been 
no plant since 1876, which, as above stated, have grown to the length 
of 7 inches.” (Report of the fish commissioners, New Hampshire, 1879, 
j OP kl be) 

Quinnat salmon.—‘The California salmon fry turned into the river in 
1878 were very numerous up to the last of July, and had grown to the 
length of about 3 inches. On the 20th of June they were so plenty as 
to be seen in numbers in any locality near the hatching-house.” Report, 
p. 11.) 

Salmonide.—“L. D. Butler, of Woodbine, writes March 23, 1877: 
‘The California salmon, planted in our streams last February a year ago, 
are now from 7 to 9 inches long. One of the former plant was caught 
that weighed one and a half pounds.’ 

“A. A. Mosher, of Spirit Lake, writes March 13, 1877: ‘The fish you 
sent us last year are doing wonderfully well. They are now about 7 
inches long and take to these waters.’ 

“Large numbers of letters and newspaper paragraphs of this kind 
are in the possession of the commissioners, and these are given only as 
samples, while great numbers of people have given testimony as to havy- 
ing seen and caught the young fish. 

“Mr. HE. Bush, station agent, reports the catching of a dozen salmon, 
weighing two and a half pounds each, in the North Fork of the Ma- 
quoketa. 

‘“‘'The principal of the high school at Marion reports catching a half 
dozen, weighing from one and a half to two pounds each. 


REPORT OF STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS, ETC. ° 929 


“Dr. French reports having seen one at Davenport that ould weigh. 
two and three-fourths pounds. 

“George Brown caught two in Wapsic that would weigh one and @ 
half pounds each. 

‘Mrs. H. Ruble has in her pond at North McGregor a number of , 
Penobscot salmon, three years old, some individuals of which will, it is 
estimated, weigh ten pounds. They have never been out of the pond 
they are now in, and, notwithstanding their confinement in fresh water, 
are perfectly healthy and hearty, and as fine a sight as it is possible to 
conceive of”’ (New Hampshire fish commissioners’ report, 1875, p. 31.) 

“As the salmon did not loiter, but passed quickly over, it is fair to 
conclude that hundreds passed up unnoticed ; and this conclusion is con- 
firmed by well-authenticated reports of the large number seen at Man- 
chester as well as all along the Pemigewasset. 

“Mr. Tomkinson, of Livermore Falls, counted twenty ascending the 
rapids in about two hours. Indeed, so common a thing was it to see 
them scaling the falls, that the White Mountain stage frequently stopped - 
on the bridge to allow the passengers to see them. Mr. White, of Bos- 
ton, who spent the summer at the Profile House, reports having Beets in 
one pool, thirteen large salmon from 24 to 3 feet long. 

‘The report shows that forty-seven salmon were found in the fish-way 
during an examination of thirty minutes a day for twenty-eight days. 
If we assume the running time at twelve hours a day, the total number 
that passed over would be in this proportion, 47 by 24=1,128 salmon, 
to which must be added a certain number that passed over in October. 
Taking the weights as roughly estimated, we may say that about one in 
seven were rather small fish, of about eight pounds; one in seven were 
large fish, of fifteen sounds: or more; and the great majority, or five i in 
seven, were medium salmon, of ten e twelve pounds. 

“The following table will’ show the dates at which the batches of 
parrs were put in the river and their respective ages up to the spring of 
1877 


Put in the river. 1873, spring. | 1874, spring | 1875, spring. | 1876, spring. | 1877, spring. 
Spring 1872, 16,000 parrs .....- 1 year old...| 2 years old..| 3 years old..| 4 years old..| 5 years old. 
Spring 1873, 185,000 PALES jseoe se eee Re eee 1 year old ..| 2 years old..| 3 years on 4 years old. 
Spring 1875, 230, OOOiparrs*ss222<|0 22.52 sake NS | LAR Seba ates 1 year old...) 2 years old. 
Spring 1876, 400,000 DALIBY Soc s|sccseesosecess(Ssoneteue cee | Lo eS 24 eee | 2 year old. 


“The few salmon of fifteen to eighteen pounds that ran up may have 
been of the batch of 1872; the smallest, of six and eight pounds (includ- 
ing those of the October run) may have been late or under-fed fish. 
Evidently the bulk of the salmon were of the plant of 1873, because the 
sixteen thousand parrs put in the year previous could not by any calcu- 
lation have furnished one-fifth of the adult salmon that returned in 1877.” 

59 F ja 


930 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


“PLYMOUTH, February 22, 1878. 
“SAMUEL WEBBER, Esq. : 


‘DEAR Sir: It is with pleasure that I answer your inquiries in regard 
to the salmon that came up the Pemigewasset River this season. And 
_ at the same time allow me to congratulate you upon the complete suc- 
cess that has attended the labors of the Massachusetts and New Hamp- 
shire commissioners in their attempts to restock our beautiful river with 
the king of fish, the Salmo salar. 

“The work is no longer an experiment, but an assured success, as not 

a Single salmon has been seen in the Pemigewasset until this year since 
the erection of the dam at Lawrence some thirty years ago. That they 
have returned this year in large numbersis beyonda doubt. And this fact 
must be a source of congratulation to the gentlemen who had charge of 
the work of transferring the young fry from the hatching house at Win- 
chester to the head waters of the Pemigewasset and Baker’s Rivers, as they 
no doubt will remember the discouragement and even ridicule they met 
with from the time they would leave Winchester until the cans were 
emptied into the river. It is impossible to say at what time the first 
salmon made their appearance at Livermore’s Falls, as no one was look- 
ing for them. 
- “Onmy return from New Brunswick the last of June, I learned that the 
salmon were passing the fish-way at Lawrence. I immediately requested 
the Messrs. Tompkinson, at the falls, to watch for them. The first one 
was seen about the Ist of July. It was a full-grown fish about 3 feet 
in length, and for several weeks following there was hardly a day but 
what they could be seen in their endeavors to pass over the falls. I 
have counted from eight to ten in an hour, but do not think they were 
different fish, for it was very seldom that one would pass the rapids at 
the first attempt. Many of them would make leaps of 10 to 15 feet and 
pass up, but if they fell short of that they would be carried back into 
the pool below. It is impossible to say how many passed the falls, but 
there must have been some hundreds. They were seen all along the 
river as far up as the Woodstock dam, but as far as I can learn, and I 
have made careful inquiries, none have been sent above that point. 
The young salmon went many miles above there this season. 

‘“Full-grown fish, that is, from 2 to 3 feet in length, were seen by 
many from the bridge in this village during July, and at the falls as 
late as November. 

‘There must be more stringent measures taken to prevent the de- 
struction of the small salmon by fishermen, as they were taken by hun- 
dreds this season. 


“T remain, respectfully, yours, 
“EK. B. HODGE.” 


We have given Mr. Hodge’s letter exactly as received, but other ad- 
vices lead us to believe that the heavy rains of the first week of Sep- 
tember, 1877, carried away so large a part of the dam at Woodstock as 


REPORT OF STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS, ETC. 931 


to give a free passage to the large salmon, thus allowing them to ascend 
the river nearly to the Profile House, as stated in the report of the 
Massachusetts commissioners. 

Mr. Tompkinson’s letter is interesting as giving positive details of his 
observations, and from it we quote as follows: 

“The first of our seeing the salmon go up through the Livermore 
Falls was in the early part of July, 1877, when our attention was called 
by Mr. Hodge to see if we could see any salmon going up the falls. 
The first day we saw seven, at four different times during the day, 
stopping only about ten to twenty minutes each time. This was the 
first day we began to look for. them. We reported the same to every 
one that came along. Almost every day afterward, for about six or: 
seven weeks, there were salmon seen. The largest number in one day 
(seen by my brother) was twenty. I myself saw five go up in forty-five 
minutes. Wenever lost much time in watching for them, as we could 
not afford to lose any time, for we have so much work on hand. I saw 
eleven on another day in about two hours. On another day my brother 
saw seventeen in about two hours. We never stopped a whole day to 
watch at one time, but state what we have seen. The above were seen 
about the 20th of July. The largest one my brother saw was nearly 3 
feet long, and he was within 8 feet of it when he sawit. * * * 


‘‘ Yours, most truly, AL asc a 
“J. R. TOMKINSON. 


We must now go back a little in our dates to connect the thread. of 
our story. Early in June we were notified by Mr. Brackett, of the Mas- 
sachusetts fish commission, that salmon were passing up the fish-way at 
Lawrence. 

The dam at Lowell had recently been rebuilt, discarding the old fish- 
way, but running the north end of the dam on to a gently-sloping ledge 
in such a manner that it only needed to take off one flash-board to leave 
an easy passage 10 feet wide, with 12 or 16 inches depth of water, over 
a fall of about the same height, and the fish found no difficulty:in passing 
it; so that on the 13th of June we were notified by Mr. Kidder, the keeper 
of the gates and locks of the Amoskeag Company at Manchester, that 
he had secured for us the first salmon seen at Amoskeag Falls for thirty 
years. We had requested Mr. Kidder to look out for the first fish that 
came up and let us know, and he had done so literally. The fish was a 
male, apparently of four years of age, two feet four inches in length and 
a half inch in depth, and weighed eight pounds and five ounces. 

Mr. Kidder unintentionally transgressed the law in his anxiety to 
please the commissioners, but his fine was settled by his many friends 
in. Manchester, and the salmon that followed were allowed to pass ‘free 
of toll.” Within a week from the capture of this first one a report was 
brought us by Conductor Colby, of the Concord Railroad, of a large’ 
salmon having been seen at the mouth of Martin’s Brook, four miles 


932 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 


above Manchester; and almost daily after that date we heard of them 
farther and farther up the Merrimack River. (New Hampshire fish 
commission, 1878, pp. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.) 

“In addition to the above record there was a full run of salmon, 
which commenced October 11 and ended October 30. These fish, so 
far as seen in the way, were from six to ten pounds in weight. Much 
larger ones may have passed over, as Mr. R. R. Holmes saw one 3 feet 
long near the hatching-house, at Plymouth, the lst of November.” (New 
Hampshire fish commission report, p. 6, 1878.) 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


Schoodic salmon.—Some of the land-locked salmon received from Maine 
were turned into Halfway Pond in Plymouth. The returns received from 
many of those who had charge of these fish are very favorable. It is 
quite certain that they are well established in Halfway Pond. And in 
Mystic Pond, situated in Medford and Winchester, where they were first 
introduced, they are appearing in considerable numbers. On the 11th 
of September a land-locked salmon, 224 and a half inches long and 
weighing three and one-quarter pounds, was caught in Lower Mystic 
Pond by a boy while fishing for perch. The boy, not knowing what it 
was, sold it to J. P. Richardson, of Medford, who forwarded it to the 
commissioners for identification. A careful inspection of the pond, made 
in October, showed quite a large school of them, weighing from two to 
eight pounds each, at the mouth of one of the streams entering the 
pond. The large fish are probably the Sebago salmon, put in about six 
years ago. One of the persons making the inspection hooked one of 
them; but, being in a small cloth canoe, barely large enough to carry 
one person, and having the fish on a light fly-rod, he found it impossible 
to get him into the boat; and, in attempting to reach the shore, the sal- 
mon recovered himself, and with a sudden leap left hook, line, boat, and 
fisherman behind him. (Thirteenth annual report of the commissioners 
of inland fisheries for the year ending September 30, 1878. 8vo. pamph., 
Boston, 1879, paper, p. 13.) 

Atlantic salmon.—Our experience with young salmon in the Merrimack 
shows pretty conclusively that they do not go down to the sea until the 
third year. The salmon put in the river in 1876 have been carefully 
watched, and were found to be very numerous all along the river, espe- 
cially near the mouths of trout brooks, showing no disposition to change 
their quarters until about the middle of last August, when they began 
slowly to move downstream. (p. 18.) 

Atlantic salmon, 7 inches long, of the planting of 1876, were so plenti- 
ful up to about the middle of August, that it was impossible to fish with- 
out frequently hooking them. Mr. R. R. Holmes actually hooked three 
at one cast, and remarked that the river was alive with them. In Au- 
gust they began to disappear, and at this date very few are seen. On 
the 6th of November I dipped up a small Atlantic salmon, about 3 inches 


REPORT OF STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS, ETC. 933 


long, at the outlet of the hatching-house brook, which must have re- 
sulted from last year’s run of salmon in this river, as there has been no 
plant since 1876, which, as before stated, have grown to the length of 7 
inches. (p. 19.) ; 

Quinnat salmon.—The California salmon-fry turned into the Merrimack 
River in 1878 were very numerous up to the last of July, and had grown 
to the length of about 3 inches. On the 20th of June they were so plenty 
as to be seen in numbers in any locality near the hatching-house. (p. 
19.) 


Condensed report of Thomas S. Holmes, of fish found in the Lawrence fish- 
way from May 1 to August 1, 1877. 


May 31. Two salmon, 12 to 18 pounds each. 
June 2. Two large shad. 
3. Three large shad. 
4, One salmon, 12 to 18 pounds. 
10. Two 12-pound salmon. 
11. One 8-pound salmon. 
12. Two 6 to 8 pound salmon. 
13. One 10-pound salmon. 
14, One 8-pound salmon. 
15. One 8-pound salmon. 
16. One 10-pound salmon. 
19, One 18-pound salmon. 
20. One salmon. 
22. One 8-pound salmon. 
. Three 12-pound salmon. 
. One 10-pound salmon. 
. One 12-pound salmon. 
. Two 8-pound salmon. 
. One 10-pound salmon. 
July 1. One 12-pound salmon. 
2. Two 10 or 12 pound salmon. 
3. Two 10 or 12 pound salmon. 
4, Four 10 to 15 pound salmon. 
6 
7 


oS) 


ii 


io’) 


bo b b bo bo 
on) 


© 


. Five 8 to 18 pound salmon. 
. One salmon. 
9. One 12-pound salmon. 
2. One 8-pound salmon. 
From this to the 23d no salmon. 
25. Three 8 to 12 pound salmon. 
30. Two large salmon. 
(Extract from the twelfth report of the fish commissioners of the State 
of Connecticut, 1878, pp. 10, 11.) 


934 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


STaTE OF MASSACHUSETTS, 
DEPARTMENT OF INLAND FISHERIES, 
Winchester, Mass., October 12, 1877. 


My DEAR Hupson: The rise in the river has promehe another run 
of salmon, which are now passing over the fishway at Lawrence. There 
seems to be no end to our success on the Merrimack. 


Yours, with sincere regard, . 
BK. A. BRACKETT. 


RHODE ISLAND. 


Atlantic salmon.—We have to report that a good many salmon have 
been taken in the past two years that we have record of, and no doubt 
many more unreported. 

The largest weighed ten pounds, and was taken at the foot of the falls, 
at Pawtucket, last June. Smaller ones were taken in the Pawtuxet, 
between the first dam and Pontiac, and a number near Westerly, below 
the first dam on the Pawcatuck; none larger than two and one-half 
pounds. (Eighth report of the fish commissioners of the State 6f Rhode 
Island, 1878, p. 4.) 


CONNECTICUT. 


Atlantic salmon.—Under date of June 18, 1878, Mr. D. W. Clark writes 
from Saybrook, Conn. : 

“The first salmon caught this season was taken in a gill-net, April 30, 
and weighed 12 pounds. From that time to May 25 salmon were 
cought more or less nearly every day. Since May 25 they have been 
more scattering, so that from that date to June 18 but three have been 
taken. The above number does not include any that the pounds have 
liberated when caught, but those only which have gone to market. 

“The average weight of those caught has been about fourteen pounds. 
The whole number taken up to this date in the towns of Saybrook and 
Westbrook is forty-five, of which three-quarters were caught by gill-nets 
on the river and one-quarter in seines on the river and pounds on Long 
Island Sound.” 

Under date of July 12, 1878, Mr. Clark again writes : 

“T give you full results of the season of 1878. The salmon caught by 
the pounds and put back into the water may be given as about twelve, 
and the whole number caught by pounds as about thirty. In the river 
the salmon caught by gill-nets were almost all taken while the water was 
thick with mud in freshet. Experience this season proves that the gill- 
nets are not sufticiently strong for taking salmon, nor are they of the 
right-sized mesh. The fishermen found many.torn places in the nets, 
which had the appearance of being caused by salmon. When these fish 
are caught the nets are hanging slack in the wattr and the fish are caught 
by many folds of twine. But when the current is strong and the meshes 
are all drawn the salmon easily break through. 


REPORT OF STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS, ETC. 935 


“T have been unable to obtain the number of salmon caught by gill- 
nets in Lyme, but the dealers estimate them from seventy-five to a 
hundred.” 

The commissioners have authentic evidence that the greater portion 
of the salmon caught were sent out of the State. Not less than three 
hundred and twenty-two were sent to the New York markets, and they 
are reported as weighing about twelve pounds apiece on an average, and 
to be superior to every other salmon in the market. From all the facts 
which the commissioners have been able to gather, they feel no hesitation 
in asserting that over jive hundred full-grown marketable fish were caught 
in and near the river during the past season, and with the exception of 
the few reported as returned to the water from the pounds, every one of 
them was destroyed ; a most lamentable example of reckless improvidence 
and wastefulness. (Thirteenth report of the commissioners on fisheries of 
the State of Connecticut, 1879, pp. 5, 6.) 

About a dozen salmon, weighing each from nine to eighteen pounds, 
have been taken in the Connecticut River or the pounds west of its 
mouth during the past season, but no information has been given your 
commissioners of even one having succeeded in passing above Portland. 
Great numbers of the young, from one to three years old, in good con- 
dition, have been seen in different parts of the river and some have been 
taken, specimens of which have been sent to your commissioners. 
(Page 10.) 

NEW YORK. 


Trout, &e. 
DEPOSIT, October 26, 1877. 
SETH GREEN, Esq. : 

DEAR Sir: Yours of the 15th instant received. I have not had an 
opportunity to observe the condition of the brook trout placed near the 
head of the Oquago Creek, but those we placed in a little tributary 
near this place are doing well, and there are no reasons to doubt that 
the others are doing equally well. They were about 3 or 4 inches long 
when I saw them. The trout placed in the lake two years ago and last 
spring have not been heard from. I do not think there has been any 
fishing specially for them. There is no reason why they may not do 
well, as the water, depth, and bottom are adapted to that kind of fish. 
The black and the rock bass put in the lake six years ago last spring 
have increased wonderfully. A great many fine bass have been caught 
this fall, ranging from one-half to three pounds six ounces, the largest 
that has been taken. There will be fine fishing next year. A few have 
been taken in the Delaware; they probably came from the lake, as they 
were caught below the mouth of the outlet. We have succeeded in hay- 
ing a law passed removing the eel-weirs, which will make it an object 
to stock the river. I think it would be advisable to place a quantity of 
young bass in the river at this point this coming winter and spring; it 
would be better to place them in after the spring ice-freshet, if possible, 


936 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


as they would not then be liable to be driven down the stream and killed 
by the ice-jams. The west branch of our-river is equally as good as the 
waters in the main river at Port Jervis, where large quantities have been — 
taken in the last three months. I should be pleased to hear from you, 
if you have any advice or suggestion. I shall take the first opportunity 
to examine into the condition of the trout in the creek, and will inform 
you if I find anything new. 
Yours, respectfully, 
F. STURDEVANT, M. D. | 
- (Tenth annual report of the New York commissioners of fisheries, 1877, 
p. 49.) 
COOPERSTOWN, October 20, 1877. 

Friend GREEN: 

DEAR Sir: Mr. Jarvis informed me that you would like to know 
about the fish we put into the streams and lakes. The salmon-trout are 
increasing very fast. One man took in one day, a-trolling, seven trout, 
the smallest weighing two pounds, the largest six pounds. Another man 
caught eight, and had a number of more near the boat, all in the same 
day. This was in June; and hundreds of smaller size were seen. The 
brook trout are all right and are doing well; also black bass. One man 
took four at once catch, and lost a number of more. We shall want 
some more whitefish and trout this winter. Hoping this will find you 
well, I remain as ever, 

Your friend, 
A. W. THAYER. 

(New York fishery commissioners’ report, 1877, p. 47.) 


CoRNING, N. Y., October 20, 1877. 
SETH GREEN, Esq.: 

DEAR Sir: Yours received, and in reply I would say the trout re- 
ceived from you are doing nicely in all the streams, and we expect to 
have fine trouting in this section again. The black bass are multiplying 
very fast in the Chemung River, and fine strings are taken below the 
dams here. The State dam is 8 feet high, and proves an obstacle that 
a fishway would overcome. The canal will probably be abandoned in 
another year; if not, the canal commissioners will be required to comply 
with the law. 

Yours, respectfully, , 
J. H.. Wee. 
~ (New York fishery commissioners’ report, 1877, p. 46.) 
Black Bass. 
OSWEGO, October 16, 1877. 
SETH GREEN, Esq.: 

DEAR Sim: Your postal card of the 15th instant, making inquiries as 

to what has been heard from the fish shipped us from the New York 


State hatching-house received, and I reply that the Susquehanna River 
stocked with black bass seems to be well stocked. There were a few 


REPORT OF STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS, ETC. 937 


caught last year, but this year, I presume, there has been taken tons of 
them in the river within eight miles each way of this place. It does not 
seem possible that the fish put in here could have produced as many 
fish as there seems to be in the river. There seems to be no end to the 
bass. I have only been out once this year, and then a gentleman and 
myself caught 35, several of which would weigh at least two pounds each. 

There have several been caught that weighed as high as three pounds 
and over. 

As to the trout in the small streams, I cannot tell what they will come 
to yet, as it has not been long enough yet. 

Yours, respectfully, 

BARNEY M. STEBBINS. 


(Tenth annual report New York fishery commissioners, 1877, p. 47.) 


Atlantic salmon. 


‘*PEEKSKILL, N. Y., March 11, 1878. 

“} wish to mention the capture of a salmon, a true Salmo salar, in 
the Hudson, about two miles north of our village. It was taken on the 
flats this morning, near the mouth of Snake Hole Creek, just below 
Iona Island, in an ordinary seine, while its captors were hauling for 
perch and other small fish. it measured 33 inches in length and 

weighed but 84 pounds, being in very poor condition, and presenting 
_ the appearance of having recently spawned. Small fish of this species 
have been taken through the ice during the past winter in T-nets, but 
nothing approached this in size. I regret my inability to forward you 
the fish, but it was disposed of before I saw it. Am I justified in sup- 
posing it to be one of the fry introduced into the upper part of our 
rivers a few years since?” 

This confirms the observations of Mr. Atkins, that the salmon which 
spawn in the fall and winter of each year return to the salt water the 
year following, and again return to the fresh water the next year; so 
that while one stock of spawners will ascend the rivers in the even 
years, as in 1874, 1876, 1878, &c., another body of fish comes up in 1875, 
1877, 1879, &c. (New Hampshire fish commission report, 1878, p. 29.) 

Shad.—Forest and Stream says: ‘*Syracuse papers of the 10th instant 
are congratulating Mr. Seth Green upon accumulating evidence of his 
success in cultivating shad in Lake Ontario. Very recently a fine male 
shad, weighing five and a half pounds, was caught in a gill-net, six or 
seven miles out in Lake Ontario, off Port Ontario, at the mouth of Sal- 
mon River. The fish is the largest of its kind yet caught in the lakes, 
and is one of those placed in its waters by Mr. Green in the year 1872. 
The attempt to introduce this fish in fresh water was an experiment. It 
is now no longer in the list of experiments, but a matter of certainty. 
The fish have been caught at various points on the lake ever since the 
fry were put in, and appear to grow as rapidly and possess all the quali- 
ties of the shad that are caught from salt water. (New Hampshire fish 
commission report, 1878, p. 29.) 


938 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


NEW JERSEY. 


Atlantic Salmon.—No attempt has been made to capture any adult 
salmon which may have returned to our river, and it was not expected 
that they would make their reappearance until four or five years after 
they were placed in the stream. In the spring and summer of 1877, 
however, six or seven fish were taken in shad nets at different points on 
the river. They were medium-sized fish, averaging about ten pounds, 
but had evidently been to the sea and had returned to the river to de- 
posit their eggs. This was deemed highly encouraging, and the next 
season was looked forward to with much anxiety by those who were in- 
terested in fish culture and who appreciated the immense importance of 
the success of the efforts to establish this valuable fish in the rivers of 
the State. On the 5th of April, in the present year, a magnificent sal- 
mon was taken in the Delaware River, within two miles of Trenton. 
This fish, which was three feet five inches in length and weighed twenty- 
three and a quarter pounds, came into the hands of the commissioners 
and was by them forwarded to Prof. Spencer F. Baird, at Washington, 
who addressed the following letter, to one of the commissioners : 


“ UNITED STATES COMMISSION FISH AND FISHERIES, 
‘Washington, D. C., April 11, 1878. 

‘DEAR Sir: You have rendered the United States Fish Commission 
a very great service by sending on the specimen of Delaware salmon as 
advised in yours of the 6th of April. It reached me in good condition 
Tuesday, and I have already had the pleasure of exhibiting it to the 
President, and the greater part of his Cabinet, and a number of members 
of Congress who are interested in such matters, and who came to wit- 
ness the realization of the efforts made toward stocking the Delaware 
. With this noblefish. I shall have a plaster cast made, colored from nature, 
and the specimen itself will be prepared and kept in aleoholin a jar of suit- 
able size. I am waiting the result of a conference of some experienced 
salmon fishermen as to whether this is to considered as a fresh-run fish 
from the sea, or a fish that has been in the river all winter, as is quite 
frequently the habit of salmon. The slight development of the hook of 
the jaw is rather an indication of the former supposition. 

‘“‘Krom the size of the fish, I incline to refer it to the lot of Rhine 
salmon of which about 500,000 eggs were imported in 1873, but which, 
owing to the unprecedented heat of the weather in Germany and on 
board the vessel, arrived in poor condition, only about 5,000 surviving, 
and being hatched out at Dr. Slack’s place at Bloomsbury. These were 
introduced into the Musconetcong, and doubtless made their way to the 
sea. A fish of this weight would require five years for its growth. 

‘“‘T hope you will continue to gather all the data possible in regard to 
the occurrence of salmon in the Delaware, and that you may be able to 
detect among them some of the California salmon, which should be mak- 
ing their appearance. 


REPORT OF STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS, ETC. 939 


‘“‘] am happy thus to open a communication with yourself as one of 
the commissioners of New Jersey, and shall take pleasure in acting with 
you in the promotion of the common work of stocking our rivers with 
useful food-fish. 


Yours, truly 
eognas “SPENCER F. BAIRD, 


“ United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. 
“To EK. J. ANDERSON, 
““ Commissioner of Fisheries, State of New Jersey.” 


During the shad season, which closed below Trenton June 10, and 
above Trenton June 15, 1878, a number of salmon were taken by shad 
fishermen at different points on the Delaware. It has been impossible 
to procure information of all that were taken, but a sufficient number 
were reported to warrant the assertion that from fifty to one hundred 
were taken before June 10. All of those reported to the commissioners 
were larger fish than any of those taken in the preceding year, and 
ranged in weight from 12 to 29 pounds, only two or three weighing less 
than 15 pounds. After the shad seasog closed and the nets were taken 
from the water, there was nothing to interrupt the progress of the 
salmon from the sea to the headwaters of the stream, and doubtless 
many passed up and deposited their eggs, since the commissioners are 
informed of a number of large ones having been seen at different points 
in the river between Trenton and Port Jervis. 

In the Raritan River, one large fish was taken near New Brunswick 
in the summer of 1878; but none have been reported as yet from the 
Passaic and Hackensack Rivers. 

The facts above stated concerning the presence of salmon in the Dela- 
ware were deemed to go far toward demonstrating the success of the 
efforts to convert that river into a salmon stream. (Report of the 
commissioners of fisheries of the State of New Jersey, 1878, pp. 15, 
16, 17.) 

New Jersey makes a very favorable report of the general progress of 
fish culture. Shad are increasing in numbers, and very greatly in size 
and quality; and salmon have made their appearance in the Delaware, 
as mentioned by the Maryland commissioners, nine haying been taken 
this year, though their report does not say whether they were Penobscot 
or California salmon, both of which have been planted. Two were taken 
at Neweastle in May; two at Riverton in May; one between Borden- 
town and Trenton in May; two at the Delaware Water Gap in October; 
one in October at Carpenter’s Point, the extreme northwest corner of 
New Jersey, and one in the Bushkill in November. The fisherman 
who took the two at the Gap was ignorant of the species till informed 
by Mr. A. A. Anderson. The taking of the five last mentioned, in the 
fall, and so far up stream, some sixty or one hundred miles above tide, 
shows that they were seeking spawning-grounds at the headwaters of 
the river, and, if of the California variety, except the last, at the usual 


940 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Season of their spawning. Whether others have been taken by persons 
ignorant of their kind, we know not. It is fair to suppose, however, 
that not all those that returned from the sea were taken. Many, meas- 
uring from 6 to 12 inches, have also been caught the past season with 
the hook. 

The commissioners also report an enormous increase from the black 
bass that they have previously distributed in various waters, and ex- 
cellent fishing obtained from this source. They have distributed nearly 
10,000 of these fish this year, besides 4,230,000 shad-fry, 400,000 smelts, 
and 250,000 California salmon, and are now earnestly at work on fish- 
ways. (New Hampshire fish commission report, 1878, pp. 29, 30.) 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


Atlantic salmon.—The Free Press, of Easton, Pa., under date of Novem- 
ber 10, 1877, says: 

“We referred briefly yesterday to a salmon being captured in the 
Bushkill, and have since verified the report. 

‘The fish was discovered in Groetzinger’s mill-race, on the Bushkill, 
at the foot of Fourth street, andgits unusual size immediately attracted 
the attention of a number of people, who resorted to various devices for 
its capture. Hooks and lines were used, and it was hooked but broke 
loose. It was also shot with bird-shot. This did not kill it. It was 
finally shot with a rifle by a young man named James Young, the 
bullet passing into its body and stomach just at the junction of the head 
and body, and the strange fish was secured. Mr. Young presented his 
prize to his uncle, Mr. J. E. Stair, and it was very generally believed to 
be a salmon. Mr. Stair appreciated its important bearing on certain 
mooted points of the history and habits of this fish, and, in the interest 
of fish culture, thoughtfully placed it at the disposal of Fish Commis- 
sioner Howard J. Reeder. 

“The point at issue with scientific men, referring to salmon, is whether 
this fish placed in rivers as far south as the Delaware and Susquehanna 
will, with the instinct of their class, return to the grounds where they 
were hatched, and as nothing but experiment will prove this, the im- 
portance of all evidence bearing upon the controversy will be realized. 
At different times during the past four years a great many thousand 
Salmon eggs and salmon fry have been deposited in the Bushkill and 
Delaware Rivers, under the supervision of Commissioner Reeder, and 
at various times reports have been circulated of salmon of considerable 
size being caught at Bordentown, Trenton, Carpenter’s Point, and other 
points on the Delaware, ranging from five to eight pounds weight; but, 
unfortunately, these have fallen into the hands that did not perceive 
anything in the fact beyond the table, and their evidence was lost to 
the scientific world. But this fish is a fact, and in official hands will be 
irrefutable evidence that the stocking of our rivers with the most valu- 
able fish in the world is not visionary, but practicable.” (Report fish 
commissioners Pennsylvania, 1878, p. 9.) 


REPORT OF STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS, ETC. 941 


MARYLAND. 


Atlantic salmon.—We were not hopeful of any results from the intro- ° 
duction of the salmon of Maine, as it has been known only in the coldest 
waters. We, therefore, devoted our attention rather to the salmon of 
the Pacific slope, which, on the contrary, were known to ascend rivers 
in which the water at times reached a very high temperature. Contrary 
to our expectations, the true salmon have returned to the Delaware 
River in some abundance, a great many adults having been taken during 
the last two years in this river. On the night of the 11th of May Mr. 
Frank Farr, one of the gillers of Havre de Grace, who had been in the 
habit of furnishing us with the ripe shad taken in his gill-net, secured 
the first adult Atlantic salmon of which we have any record taken in 
Maryland waters. This fish was a female, measuring 3 feet 44 inches, 
and weighing about seventeen pounds, fresh run from the sea. 

The fish was captured off Spesutie Island, having been entangled in 
the gill-net, which was much torn; and Mr. Parr, who captured it, is 
confident that at least one other fish accompanied the one taken, but 
made its escape. 

The gillers are in the habit of having their nets much torn by stur- 
geon, and no doubt have attributed to them many casualties which may 
have been occasioned by salmon. (Report Fish Commissioners Mary- 


land, 1879, p. xiv.) 
VIRGINIA. 


Salmon.—‘ To us in Maryland of more importance is the reappearance 
in the Delaware of salmon of both varieties, the Salmo salar, of the 
North Atlantic, and the Salmo quinnat, of the Pacific. I have received 
authenticated accounts of the capture of one weighing eight and a half 
pounds, at Newcastle; one weighing eight and a quarter pounds, at 
Riverton; and one weighing nine pounds, taken between Bordentown 
and Trenton; and have myself seen a large female Penobscot salmon, 
with the mature eggs running from her, which was taken at Easton in 
the act of spawning; and there have been several others reported, even 
weighing as high as twenty pounds. These indications of the success- 
ful introduction of salmon into the Delaware, commenced two years prior 
to the establishment of a fish commission in Maryland, strengthen our 
hopes and confidence in the result of our efforts. More important to us 
still than the accumulated evidences of the laws which govern the mi- 
grations of the salmon are the proofs which have been added during the 
year that these laws are as surely applicable to the migrations of the 
shad.” We cannot spare space to quote further from the very fwl and 
interesting report of Major Ferguson, and can only say that the hatch- 
ing-house at Druid Hill Park is working very successfully on salmon and 
trout, while outside the commissioners are devoting their chief attention 
to shad and smelts, with every prospect of success, which another year 
will manifest in all probability. 


942 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


Commissioner Moseley, of Virginia, says: “Tn the fall of 1876, our 
limited means being devoted to trout and land-locked salmon, we turned 
over the State’s quota of California eggs to the Maryland commission. 
In return, that commission hatched and deposited, of young salmon, dur- 
ing the winter of 1876-77, in the Shenandoah, 78,400; in Occoquan, 
16,000; and in Goose Creek, Loudoun, 32,000. Besides, a very large 
portion of the above hatch was deposited in other tributaries of the Po- 
tomac; in the fish of which stream the people of this State have a com- 
mon interest. It is no longer deemed a problem that this salmon will 
flourish in our waters and return by instinct to the stream in which it 
spent its infancy. Several have been caught in the Delaware and Sus- 
quehanna Rivers, the first streams in which they were placed, weighing 
from ten to fifteen pounds. In May last a fish weighing four pounds 
was caught in James River, at Bosher’s Dam, nine miles above Rich- 
mond. The fisherman, never having seen such a fish before, brought it 
to Manchester, where gentlemen familiar with the Salmonide recognized 
it as one of that family. No doubt it was a California grilse, one of the lot 
put in James River in 187475, at Lynchburg, by Dr. Robertson, which 
had straggled back before its time. It is probable that more of them 
may make their appearance pext spring. Of the large number of these 
fish placed in James River by the commission, in the winter of 1875~76, 
we hear that early in April last several were caught, from nine to ten 
inches long, twelve miles above Norfolk. They were said to be moving 
in solid column and with great rapidity oceanward, and only the few 
that fell out of line were captured in fyke-nets.”. (New Hampshire Re- 
port 1878, pp. 27, 28, 29.) 


MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 


Shad.—The report of Kentucky has not yet come to hand, but the re- 
port of Iowa states that “shad were caught at several places on the 
Ohio River, the most notable case being at Louisville, Ky., where the 
catch during the run was reported at from forty to one hundred per 
day.” This was in May and June, 1877, and a letter from Prof. Spencer 
F. Baird, United States Commissioner, to Forest and Stream, vouches 
for the fact that “‘a specimen sent him was the genuine white shad.” 
Other letters to Forest and Stream state that 600 genuine Atlantic 
shad were caught at Louisville during the season, and trace them to the 
young fry planted, in behalf of the United States Fish Commission, by 
Seth Green in 1872; viz: 30,000 in the Alleghany River, at Salamanca, | 
N. Y., and 25,000 in the Mississippi River, near Saint Paul ; and 200,000 
planted by the United States Commissioner in July, 1872, also at Sala- 
manea. ‘In 1873, 100,000 shad-fry were placed in Greenbrier and New 
Rivers, in Virginia, and about 55,000 in the Monongahela, in Pennsylva- 
nia, and the Wabash, in Indiana; and these may or may not have con- 
tributed toward the supply met with at Louisville. The latter is pos- 


REPORT OF STATE FISH COMMISSIONERS, ETC. 943 


sible, if the assumption of a four years’ period is correct. If five years 
are required, then we must look to the stock of 200,000 in 1872 exclu- 
sively.” (New Hampshire Fish Commission Report, 1878, p. 33.) 


CALIFORNIA. 


“« Shad, in their season, are becoming quite numerous in the Sacra- 
mento River. The experiment of their importation to this coast has re- * 
sulted satisfactorily. The river is of proper temperature, and furnishes 
an abundance of food for the young fish before they go to the ocean. 
There can be no doubt that the first shad brought from the Hudson 
River in 1871 have been to the ocean, returned and spawned. No shad 
were placed in this river during the years 1874 and 1875; yet shad two 
years old were quite numerous this year, and they must have been the 
product of the first importation. 

‘Tt may be safely asserted that we now have shad born in the Sacra- 
mento. As it is illegal to take this fish prior to December of this year, 
probably there has been no systematic fishing for them, yet numbers 
have been accidentally caught in traps and nets; probably not less than 
1,000 were thus taken during the winter and spring of 1877.” (New 
Hampshire Fish Commissioner Report, 1878, p. 35.) 


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XLI.—CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 


By Cuas. G. ATKINS. 


1.—_SCOPE OF THE PAPER. 


Tt is proposed to limit this paper to the consideration of the construction, 
fitting, and management of the simplest houses and apparatus suitable for 
the hatching and rearing of salmon up to the complete absorption of the 
yolk sack, that being the time when it is customary to turn the young fish 
out to shift for themselves; and it is hoped that the instructions given will 
be so plain and yet so complete that a person previously entirely ignorant 
of the whole business can without further direction set up an efficient 
establishment. No attempt will be made to explain the construction of 
the more elaborate devices that have lately come into so general use, since 
these devices have for their main purpose the saving of space in establish- 
ments where large quantities of eggs are to be developed up to the shipping 
point, and few or none to be hatched out; though some of these are also 
available for hatching, and to a certain extent for the rearing of the young 
fish. 

For the most part the same apparatus and management are applicable 
to Atlantic and land-locked salmon, Pacific salmon, and brook trout. The 
Atlantic and land-locked salmon, both in the egg and in the sack stage, 
are so closely alike as to be practically indistinguishable. Indeed, the 
latest conclusion of special students of the Salmonide is that they all belong 
to the same species, Salmo salar. Be this as it may, their habits and re- 
quirements during these early stages are, so far as known, identical. On 
these fish my personal observations have been mostly made, and to them, 
therefore, the instructions of this paper may be considered as more especially 
applicable. Yet the difference between the treatment they require and 
that applicable to Pacific salmon is so slight that all the rules laid down 
may, it is believed, with perfect safety be followed in the management of 
the latter, except in certain minutiz, which depend mainly on the greater 
size and hardihood of the Pacific salmon, partly on their adaptation 
to warmer water, and when not specially mentioned will readily suggest 
themselves to the common sense of the operator. Similar observations 
may be made with reference to the brook trout. The same apparatus, 
with some possible change in management, will answer also the very best 
purpose in the hatching of lake trout. 

60 F 945 - 


946 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


2.—WATER. 


The first thing to be sought is an ample supply of wholesome water, on 
a site where it can be brought completely under control and the requisite 
» fall secured. In this matter there is quite a range of choice. The very 
best is the water from a stream fed by a clean lake taken a short distance 
below the outlet of the lake, with an intervening rapid. Such water is 
commonly quite even in volume and temperature, and comparatively free 
from sediment and harmful impregnations. It is cold in winter and warms 
up slowly in spring, giving assurance of a slow and normal development, 
which is more conducive to health and vigor than a very rapid development. 
The passage down a rapid, though by no means an essential point, will 
further improve this water by eeeiae it highly with air. After this, I 
would choose the water of a brook that 5 is fed largely by springs, so as to 
insure constancy in the supply and some moderation of the temperature on 
warm days; but it is better to have the water flow a long distance in an 
‘open channel before using, and, if possible, over a rough and descending 
bed, that it may be well aerated, and in cold weather somewhat cooled 
down from the temperature with which it springs from the ground. 
Thirdly, choose pure spring water; but in all cases where this is necessary 
provide a cooling and aerating pond, that you may have the original warmth 
of the water subdued by the cold of the air before it reaches the hatching 
troughs, and that it may absorb more or less air by its wide surface. 
Lastly, choose ordinary river or brook water, as clean as possible. These 
kinds are considered inferior to spring water by reason of their liability to 
floods, drought, muddiness and foulness of other sorts, and in cold climates 
to anchor ice. The water of a stream that has its source in a not very 
distant lake or spring is not considered ordinary river or brook water, 
but is advanced thereby into the first or second rank. Between these 
different sorts there is of course an infinite number of gradations. If lake 
water cannot be obtained, it would be of some advantage to have a supply 
of both spring water and brook water, depending for ordinary use on the 
brook water or a mixture of the two, and on the spring water for emergen- 
cies, such as the freezing, drying, or excessive heating of the brook, floods with 
accompanying muddiness, ete. Avoid water that comes from boggy and 
stagnant ponds and marshes; for though excellent water, capable of bringing 
out the most vigorous of fish, may sometimes be had in such places, yet 
when not supplied by springs it is dependent for its freshness and good 
qualities upon sufficiently copious rains, and if these fail, as they are liable 
to, the water may become foul and unfit. The best time to select a site 
for a hatching establishment is in time of extreme drought. If the site in 
question has at that time an ample supply of pure, sweet water, the first 
requisites are fulfilled. But if such an examination discloses any lack in 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 947 


this respect, the site must be rejected. It would be well, also, to visit the 
place in time of flood and, if in a very cold climate, in severe winter 
weather, to know what dangers are to be guarded against on those 
scores. 

The volume of water necessary will depend on several circumstances, 
mainly on the following: 1st, the proposed capacity of the establishment; 
2d, the temperature of the water; 3d, its character as to aeration; 4th, the 
facilities existing in the house for the aeration and repeated use of the 
water. With water of the highest quality and low temperature and with 
unlimited facilities for aeration, possibly a gallon a minute or even less 
can be made to answer for the incubation of 100,000 eggs of salmon. As 
the temperature rises or the facilities for aeration are curtailed, a larger 
volume becomes necessary. In case of spring water, cooled only to 40°, and 
aerated only by exposure to air in a pool of about a square rod surface, with no 
facilities in the house for aeration, and with the eggs and fry crowded in 
the troughs at the rate of 4,000 per square foot, 4 gallons a minute is the 
least that can be trusted to support that number, (100,000,) while 6, 8, or 10 
gallons per minute would be much better. While the minimum is, as stated 
above, possibly less than a gallon a minute, no novice can be advised to trust 
to less than 3 gallons per minute for each hundred thousand eggs or fish under 
the most favorable circumstances. These statements are about as definite as 
can be made. The question of volume must be decided for each case accord- 
ing to the peculiar circumstances existing, and the novice must first acquaint 
himself with the mode of arranging the fixtures in the house, and es- 
pecially with the means and facilities for aeration, for which directions 
will be given below, and then study the possibilities of the proposed site. 
It should be borne in mind that the volumes of water stated above are 
strictly minimum quantities, meant to apply to the very lowest stage of 
water that can possibly occur during the hatching season. 

If the water supply is to be drawn from a small brook or a spring, it 
will be necessary to measure the volume carefully. The following is an 
easy and accurate mode, applicable to most cases. Take a wide board 
one inch thick, (or two or three of them carefully jointed or matched,) and 
bore a smooth inch hole through the middle of it. With this make a 
tight dam across the stream so that all the water will have to flow through 
the hole. If the water on the upper side rises just to the top of the hole, 
it indicates a volume of 2.3 gallons per minute; a rise of half an inch 
above the top of the hole indicates a volume of 33 gallons per minute; 
2 inches rise, 5 gallons per minute; 3 inches, 6 gallons per minute; 6 
inches, 8 gallons per minute; 12 inches, 12 gallons per minute. If two 
one-inch holes are bored, the same rise will of course indicate twice the 
volume. The volume vented by holes of different sizes is in proportion 
to the squares of their diameters ; thus a two-inch hole vents four times 


948 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


as much as a one-inch hole. A cylindrical tube whose length is three 
times its diameter will vent 29 per cent. more water than a hole of same 
diameter through a thin plate or board. 


3.—SITE. 


A satisfactory supply of water having been found, it is next necessary 
to select a site for the hatching-house that combines in as great a degree as 
possible the various desiderata, of which the most important are, first, 
facilities for creating a head of water to provide for the requisite fall into 
and through the troughs ; second, security against inundation; third, if in 
a cold climate, security against too much freezing; fourth, general safety 
and accessibility. 

The fall required in the hatching-house cannot be stated very definitely, 
but it can hardly be too great. The minimum for the most favorable 
cases is as low as three inches, but only under the most favorable cireum- 
stances in other respects will this answer, and even then it is subject to 
several very serious disadvantages. It is only admissible where there is an 
ample supply of aerated water, and the troughs are very short, and there 
is absolutely no danger of inundation; and the disadvantages are the im- 
practicability of introducing any aerating apparatus and the necessity of 
having the troughs sunk below the floor of the hatching-house, which 
makes the work of attending the eggs and fish very laborious. 

A fall of one foot will do pretty well if there is entire safety from in- 
undation. This will permit the troughs to be placed on the floor instead 
of below it, (a better position, though still an inconvenient one,) and some 
of the simpler aerating devices can be introduced. Better is a fall of three 
feet, and far better a fall of six feet. The latter will allow the lowest 
hatching-troughs to be placed two feet above the floor, to the great relief 
of the backs of the attendants, and leave ample room for complete aera- 
tion. Of course the necessities of the case are dependent largely upon 
the volume and character of the water. If there is plenty of it, and if 
it is well aerated before reaching the hatching-house, there will be no 
occasion in a small establishment of additional aeration in the house, and, 
therefore, no need of more than three feet fall, and, except for convenience 
in working and for guarding against inundation, one foot fall is enough. 

As to liability to inundation, actual inspection of the premises at time 
of floods will generally suggest what safeguards are needed. If located 
by a brook-side, the hatching-house should not obtrude too much on the 
channel, and below the house there should be an ample outlet for everything 
that may come. By clearing out and enlarging a natural water-course 
much can often be done to improve an originally bad site. 

In a cold climate it is an excellent plan to have the hatching-house 
partly under ground, which will protect it wonderfully against outside 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 949 


cold. When spring water is used there is rarely any trouble, even in a 
cool house, from the formation of ice in the troughs; but lake, river, or 
brook water is, in the latitude of the northern tier of States, so cold in 
winter that if the air of the hatching-house is allowed to remain much 
below the freezing point, ice will form in the troughs and on the floor, if 
there is any leakage, to such an extent as to be a serious annoyance, and 
sometimes, if not watched, will form in the hatching-troughs and extend 
so deep as to freeze the eggs and destroy them. Stoves are needed in such 
climates to warm the air enough for the comfort of the attendants; but 
the house should be so warmly located and constructed that it may be left 
without a fire for weeks without any dangerous accumulation of ice. The 
easiest way to effect this is to have the house partly under ground; but if 
the site does not permit this, the same result can be brought about by 
thorough construction of the walls and by banking well with earth, saw- 
dust, or other material. In warmer climates no trouble will be experi- 
enced from this source. 


4.—DAMS AND CONDUITS. 


In some cases the best way to get the requisite head is to throw a dam 
across the stream and locate the hatching-house close to it. The dam will 
form a small pond which will serve the triple purpose of cooling, aerating, 
and cleansing the water. But unless the character of the bed and banks 
of the stream be such as to warrant against undermining or washing out at 
the ends of the dam, it is best not to undertake to raise a great head in this 
way. With any bottom except one of solid ledge there is always great 
danger, and to guard against it when the dam is more than two feet high 
may be very troublesome. If there is any scarcity of water, or if it be de- 
sirable for any other reason, for aerating or other purposes, to secure a con- 
siderable fall, it is better to construct the dam at some distance above the 
hatching-house, on higher ground, where a very low dam will suffice to 
turn the water into a conduit which will lead it into the hatching-house at 
the desired height. 

The conduit is best made of wood. A square one of boards or planks, 
carefully jointed and nailed, is in nearly all cases perfectly satisfactory. 
For an ordinary establishment a very small conduit will suffice. The vol- 
ume of water that will flow through a pipe of given form depends first, 
upon the the size of the pipe, and second, upon the inclination at which it 
is laid. A straight cylindrical pipe, one inch in diameter, inclined one foot 
in ten, will convey about eleven gallons of water per minute. The same 
pipe, with an inclination of one in twenty, will convey eight gallons per 
minute; with an inclination of. one in fifty, five gallons per minute; with 
an inclination of one in one hundred, three gallons and a half per minute; 
with an inclination of one in one thousand, one gallon per minute. A two- 


950 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


inch pipe will convey about 53 times as much water as an inch pipe; a 
three-inch pipe nearly fifteen times as much. A one-inch pipe with an 
inclination of one in 1,000 will convey water enough for hatching 25,000 
eggs; with an inclination of one in fifty, enough for 100,000 eggs; with 
an inclination of one in twenty, enough for nearly 200,000 eggs. A square 
conduit will convey one-quarter more water than a cylindrical pipe of same 
diameter. If there are any angles or abrupt bends in the pipe its capacity 
will be considerably reduced. It should be remembered that if the water 
completely fills the aqueduct it is thereby entirely shut out from contact with 
air during its passage, whereas if the pipe be larger than the water can ‘fill 
the remainder of the space will be occupied by air, of which the water, 
rushing down the incline, will absorb a considerable volume and be thereby 
greatly improved. It will therefore be much better, when practicable, (and 
this includes nearly all cases,) to make the conduit twice or thrice the 
size demanded by the required volume of water. If the bottom and sides 
be rough, so as to break up the water, so much the better; and the wider 
the conduit is of course the more surface does the water present to the air. 
Tt is not at all necessary to cover the conduit, unless from its position it is 
exposed to inundation or to pollution by the visits of mischievous animals 
or other agencies, or unless, as may sometimes, but rarely, occur, the water 
would be in danger of freezing up. If the water comes from springs or a 
spring brook, or a lake or pond, there is no danger on that side, unless the 
aqueduct is a very long one; on the contrary, the spring water will only 
receive a wholesome cooling down. 


5.—_AERATION. 


This is perhaps the most important branch of the whole subject. The 
water which fishes breathe is but the medium for the conveyance of air, 
which is the real vivifying agent. Without air every fish and every egg 
must surely die, and with a scanty supply the proper development of the 
growing embryo becomes impossible. Water readily absorbs air whenever 
it comes in contact with it, and the more intimate and long continued the 
contact the greater the volume it will absorb. The ample aeration of the 
water to be used in the hatching-house has already been mentioned as a 
desideratum of the first importance, and some of the devices by which it 
is to be secured have been incidentally alluded to. But a little more 
remains to be said. 

Water from either a brook or river that has been torn into froth by 
dashing down a steep bed has absorbed all the air that will be needed in 
ten or twenty feet of hatching-trough, and demands no further attention on 
this score. But if the water must be taken from a lake, a spring, or a 
quict brook, its burden of air is much less and is liable to become so reduced 
before it gets through the hatching-house as to be unable to do its proper 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 951 


work. It is therefore desirable to adopt all practicable means of re-inforcing 
it. If the site of the hatching-house commands a fall of five feet or more, 
the thing is easily done. LEither in the conduit, outside the house, or in 
the hatching-troughs themselves, a series of miniature cascades may be 
contrived. The broader and thinner the sheet of water, the more thoroughly 
it is exposed to the air, and if, instead of allowing it to trickle down the 
face of a perpendicular board, we carry it off so that it must fall free 
through the air, as in Figure 1, both surfaces of the sheet are exposed 


and the effect doubled. When the circumstances permit, it is best to in- 
troduce these in the conduit, which, as already suggested, may be made 
wide and open for that purpose. If the aeration cannot be effected outside 
the house there is still opportunity inside. Two long troughs may be placed 
side by side, leveled carefully, and the water be received in one of them 
and pour over into the other in a sheet the whole length of the trough, 
which, of course, would be a very thin sheet, and very effective. In the 
hatching-troughs themselves, also, there is an opportunity for aeration, 
either by making short troughs with a fall from one to another, or by 
inclining the troughs and creating falls at regular distances by partitions or 
dams, each with its cascade, after the fashion already described. 

The only serious difficulty is encountered where the ground is very flat, 
so that the requisite fall cannot be obtained. In this case the best that 
can be done is to make a very large pool, several square rods at least, 
outside the house, and make all the conduits as wide as possible, so that the 
water shall flow in a wide and shallow stream. 

Tt will of course be borne in mind that the better the aeration the smaller 
the volume required to do a given work; and on the other hand it is 
equally true that the greater the volume the less aeration is necessary. 
When so large a volume as six gallons per minute for every hundred 
thousand eggs is at command a comparatively low degree of aeration will 
answer. But so far as known the higher the degree of aeration the better 
the result, without limit, other things being equal, and it is therefore 
advised to make use of all the facilities existing for this purpose. 


952 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


6.—FILTERING,. 


Before the introduction of wire or glass trays for hatching fish-eggs it 
was customary to lay them on gravel, and under these circumstances it was 
absolutely necessary to filter all but the purest water. ven ordinary 
spring water deposits a very considerable sediment, which might accumu- 
late upon the eggs to such an extent as to deprive them of a change of 
water and thereby smother and destroy them. When the eggs are deposited 
on trays, however, even though their upper sides be covered with sediment, 
underneath they are clean and bright, and remain in communication with 
the water beneath the tray, though of course the circulation of water 
through the tray is not perfect. The trays, moreover, offer the best facilities 
for cleansing the eggs as often as may be necessary, and establishments for 
the hatching of eggs of the salmonide do not commonly receive them 
until they have arrived at the stage when they can be safely subjected to 
whatever washing and disturbance may be desired. It is not, therefore, 
deemed necessary to introduce any considerable devices for filtering water 
which is naturally very pure, as are lake and spring water commonly when 
not subject to intermixture with surface water during rains. There are, 
however, so many cases in which it is necessary to use water subject to 
constant or occasional turbidness that some directions for filtering are 
indispensable. 

In the first place, let the water from the conductor be led into a deep 
tank, which may be termed the “settling tank,” where the coarser and 
heavier dirt will sink to the bottom. This may as well be located outside 
the hatching-house, and for a small establishment a hogshead sunk in the 
ground will answer. From the settling tank the water should be led into 
a filtering trough inside the house, as shown in Figure 2, which exhibits 


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p *g 
3 
Q 
S 


7 


Mm 


Matching 
a povg la 


Matche 


Match: 


Fig. 2 
one out of many convenient arrangements. This trough may be just the 
length of the head or distributing trough alongside which it lies, or may 
be much shorter, four feet answering well where little work is demanded 
of it. For depth and width 15 to 18 inches are convenient dimensions. 
If the water is introduced near the middle of the filtering trough the 
current may be subdivided, part going to the right and part to the left, 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 953 


each part through its own set of filters, as shown by the arrows. This 
makes the single long trough equivalent to two shorter troughs, and since 
the shorter trough would be amply long to receive the requisite screens, 
the filtering capacity of the trough is thus doubled. When either the 
volume or excessive turbidness of the water demands an extraordinary 
capacity in the filter, the water may be introduced at several points by 
means of an additional long distributing trough placed alongside the filter- 
ing trough, as shown by the dotted outline in Figure 2, and each of the 
separate currents be subdivided as already described. In this way six 
separate sets of filters may be introduced into a single trough 12 feet long. 
The filters to be used with the foregoing arrangement are made by stretch- 
ing woolen flannel on wooden frames. The best device consists of two separate 
frames, one fitting inside the 
other, (without nails,) as in 
Fig. 3, and holding stretch- 
ed between them a piece of 
flannel considerably larger 44% 
than the frame, to allow for E= 
shrinkage and for a margin 
to close the interstices on either side and at the bottom between the frame 
and thetrough. This filterslides down into the trough obliquely, between two 
pairs of cleats on op- 
positesides,asshown ======= 
in Rig. 4. Sirips of _ 
wood half an inch —— ee 
thick are suitable for === Sf 


Fig. 3. 


the construction of <= . eee 
these frames, giving SSS SS 
a total thickness of Fig. 4. 


one inch to each filter, and if it is desired to save room, the space intervening 
between the frames may be as narrow as half an inch, so that it is possible to 
get eight filters into a single foot of the length of the trough. They should 
slide easily into place, so that they may be removed whenever necessary to 
clean them. Thecloth can be removed from the frames and washed or dried 
and brushed. There should be a large surplus of them on hand, so that a 
clean one for immediate use should always be ready. The filters should not 
come quite to the top of the trough, so that if they become completely clogged 
with dirt the water may flow over their tops to the hatching-troughs; for 
dirty water is much better than stagnation. It is better to have flannel (or 
baize) of several grades of fineness, and pass the water through the coarser 
ones first. If leaves and other coarse rubbish are liable to enter the filtering- 
trough they must be arrested by a coarse grating of wood or metal above each 
set of filters; it is better to stop all such coarse material outside the house. 


954 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The filters will of necessity obstruct the water somewhat, and a slight 
head be created by each one,—perhaps an inch each will be a rough 
approximation to the truth. Allowance must be made for this by having 
the filtering-trough several inches higher than the hatching-trough. But 
do not draw the water away from the lower sides of the filters so as to 
expose them to the air, for the water will pass through much freer when 
it is backed up nearly as high on the lower side as on the upper. The 
number of filters to be used depends upon the amount of foreign matter in 
suspension in the water, and can only be determined by observation and 
experiment in each case. 

Another mode of filtering sometimes resorted to, either alone or in 
connection with the flannel screens, consists in passing the water through a 
bed of gravel; but the method already described will answer every 
purpose and is much easier of application. 

As already remarked, there are many places where it is a waste of effort 
to filter the water, but the advantages of cleanliness are so great that every 
one who proposes to use water liable to become at any time muddy is 
advised to put in the necessary troughs, or at any rate to leave space for 
them. If, however, a hatching-house has been already fitted up without 
any provision of this sort, a set of filters can be fitted into the upper part 
of each hatching-trough and be just as effective as if in a trough by 
themselves. 


7.—HATCHING-TROUGHS AND FITTINGS. 


We come now to the hatching apparatus proper, the troughs and trays. 
Whatever may be the advantages derived from the use of very compact 
apparatus, some forms of which allow us to mature 30,000 eggs to every 
square foot of trough room, they do not pertain to the hatching out and 
rearing of the fry. For this work nothing has yet been found better than 
a long, straight, shallow trough. Ten feet is the length I would recom- 
mend as most desirable. In no case have them longer than fifteen feet. 
In passing down a well populated trough fifteen feet any ordinary volume 
of water will be deprived of so much of its air and oxygen that a new supply 
is needed, and if necessary to make further use of this water it is best to 
let it fall in a thin sheet into another trough set a few inches lower. In 
some cases, where the water as introduced into the house is deficient in 
aeration, it is best to make troughs as short as five feet, or, what will 
amount to the same thing, (though a less convenient and less satisfactory 
mode,) incline the trough from one to two or three inches for every five 
feet in length, and check the water and keep it up to the proper height 
in different parts of the trough by a series of transverse partitions or dams. 
Under ordinary circumstances, with well aerated water at the start, a 
trough ten or fifteen feet long may be set perfectly level. 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 955i 


Figure 5 shows the interior of a hatching-house supposed to have a 


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He 2 
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ee ft eye 
eriiiisiuestinetasscees! 
os zt Ht 


Hi 
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i 


al 


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ib 
I 


956 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


capacity of 150,000 Atlantic salmon, or say 100,000 to 125,000 Pacific 
salmon. ‘The troughs are about ten feet long and six inches deep, arranged 
in pairs (except the one next the wall) with walks between. These troughs 
are placed upon the floor, but when circumstances permit well aerated water 
to be brought into the house high enough, it is better to place them two or 
three feet above the floor. This is, however, entirely a question of con- 
venience for the attendant. The water used is supposed to be unfiltered, 
and is therefore received in a deep and wide head trough, which will serve 
as a settling tank. From the head trough the water is delivered by 
wooden faucets to the hatching-troughs, the fall at this point affording 
an opportunity for aeration, which can be improved by letting the water 
fall on a slanting board, from the edge of which it will fall in a thin sheet 
into the trough. It is important to have the faucets all exactly on the 
same level ; otherwise those which are lowest will, unless carefully regulated, 
rob the others of their share of the water. The style of faucet represented 
is very convenient and safe, but a 
plain spout of lead or wood, three 
or four inches long, and closed by a 
slide on the upper side, as shown 
in Figure 6, is just as good and 
easier made. Avoid any kind of 
a faucet that is liable to be acci- 
4 dentally closed, like a molasses 
faucet, an occurrence that I have 
“ known to be followed by very 
serious results. The bore of the 
faucet should not be less than one 
Fig. 6. inch for a trough a foot wide. 

A very convenient outlet for a hatching-trough is formed hy a two-inch 
lead pipe set into the bottom of the trough and running down through the 
floor. The water is maintained at the proper height by a movable parti- 
tion, or dam of thin boards sliding down between cleats nailed to the sides 
of the trough, as shown in Figure 5. The height of the water depends 
- upon the number of pieces brought into use at any time. These boards 
must be carefully jointed and fit nicely between the cleats, that there be no 
waste of water. A dam of the same sort should be used to hold the water 
at several points in an inclined trough. 

The troughs should be fitted throughout with light board covers from 
two to four feet long, with cleats or other fittings convenient to lift them by. 
The faucets may be covered by a box, as shown in Figure 5, on the second 
trough. Screens fine enough to shut out all vermin should be placed at 
both ends of the trough. 

Almost any kind of easily worked wood may be used for building the 


1 


CE 


AC 


i 


Lys 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 957 


troughs. White pine is the favorite wood in northern sections. Arborvite, 
(Lhuja occidentalis,) known in the north as white cedar, is unfit; water in 
which shavings of this wood have been soaked is deadly to grown trout. 
Caution should also be used in employing the southern white cedar, or 
cypress, (Cupressus thyoides,) red cedar, or savin, (Juniperus virginiana,) 
or any other odorous woods. 

Inch boards are heavy enough for troughs not more than six inches 
deep, whatever their length or width. For deep distributing or filtering- 
troughs use plank an inch and a half or two inches thick. 

All the wood-work about the troughs should be varnished with several 
heavy coats of asphaltum varnish, thoroughly dried in before the wood is 
wet. This makes a smooth, shining black surface, very easy to clean. 


8.—WIRE TRAYS. 


The practice of covering the bottom of the hatching-trough with gravel 
and depositing the fish eggs directly upon that has deservedly become 
nearly obsolete. Its principal disadvantages are, that it is impossible to 
spread the eggs evenly on such a bed; that there is great danger of suffo- 
cation by sediment because of the absence of any circulation of water 
beneath the eggs; that the operation of cleaning them is tedious in the 
extreme, and that the gravel seriously interferes with moving the fish 
about in the trough or even dipping them out. 

The receptacle for the eggs which in one form or another has come into 
general use is a shallow tray, made by attaching wire-cloth to a narrow 
wooden frame. In its original form this was known as the “ Brackett tray,” 
and that name properly applies to the sort recommended below. The promi- 
nent advantages of this piece of apparatus are: first, the more perfect cir- 
culation of water amongst the eggs, insuring a better supply of the air 
demanded for their healthy development; second, almost entire safety from 
suffocation by sediment; third, the facility with which the eggs can be 
cleaned and moved about in the trough or be taken out for cleaning and 
examination. These advantages are so great and save so much labor that 
the wire tray is almost indispensable. 

Trays of the following construction will be found most serviceable: 
Make the frame of any easily worked wood, (“white wood,” the product 
of the tulip-tree, Ziriodendron, is firstrate.) Half an inch in width and 
thickness are the best dimensions of material. Stouter frames would be 
likely to float the wire, whereas it is better that they should sink. The 
completed frame should be 12} inches wide. This precise width is chosen 
because it is best fitted to receive wire-cloth one foot wide,—the size found 
to be most eligible. Ifthe cloth were cut of the full width of the frame there 
would be many projecting rough edges, which would be an annoyance by 


958 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


scratching up everything they came in contact with and would be con- 
stantly rusting. Trays of this width fit well in troughs 12? inches wide. 
Their length may be equal to their width, as I prefer, or greater. 

The wire-cloth heretofore commonly used is woven of annealed iron 
wire, in square meshes. This answers admirably when the wires are 
from } to + inch apart, (not wider than + if brook-trout eggs are in 
hand,) so long as the fishes remain in the egg. But as soon as hatched 
they begin to poke their heads and tails down through the meshes, or some- 
times their sacks are drawn through, and being unable to extricate 
themselves, they perish miserably. If, therefore, square meshes are to 
be used they should be very small,—not over =); inch wide. This 
sort of wire-cloth has, however, still this slight drawback,—that while 
the eggs are hatching the picking must be done in the trough, or if 
the trays are taken out the young alevins must come out into the 
air also. There is not, to be sure, much danger of injuring the fry by 
exposure for a moment to the air, but a good deal of extra care is involved, 
and it is much better not to have to take them from the water at all. 
These little troubles are all avoided by using cloth with a long mesh, (see 
Fig. 7,)—for Atlantic and land-locked salmon a mesh + inch wide and 
& to 2 inch long,—through which the soft bodies of the fishes easily slide 


as soon as they have broken the shell, while the whole eggs are retained 
upon the trays and can at any time be lifted out withoug eins the fish. 
Any one who is so situated as to get wire woven to order had better adopt 
the long meshes, woven of wire as small as can be well worked, which may — 
be left to the judgment of the weaver. If, however, this cannot be had, then 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 959 


choose common wire-cloth, 12 wires to the inch or finer. The article 
sold at all the hardware shops for window screens is very suitable; being 
already painted thoroughly it requires but a single coat of asphaltum 
varnish to fit it for use. 

All iron wire must be protected from rust by painting or varnishing in 
a most thorough manner. The commonly used material for this purpose 
is asphaltum varnish. The so-called paraffine varnish, a coal-tar product, 
is much inferior. It is very uneven in quality, but generally dries very 
slowly and has a penetrating and disagreeable odor. It is best to have the 
wire-cloth cut of the proper size, rolled perfectly flat, and then varnished 
with two or three coats on the edges that are to lie against the wooden 
frame. The rest of the varnishing can be done after the wire is attached 
to the frames. Two good coats, very carefully laid on, is the least that 
will answer for iron not previously painted, and three coats are much to 
be preferred. For nailing to the frames use tinned tacks. 

There is, after all, a good deal of trouble in securing a thorough spreading 
and adhesion of the,varnish, and it is much to be hoped that some better 
material will soon be discovered. I have tried iron wire, tinned after 
cutting up, and for a single season it has worked well; but I fear the tin 
will not be permanent enough. Brass wire, nickel-plated, is admirable 
but expensive,—costing about 60 or 70 cents per square foot. Jor the 
present, therefore, iron wire is recommended. ‘There should always be a 
surplus of trays, so that if any of those in use are found to rust badly they 
can be exchanged for newly varnished ones. 


9—ARRANGING THE TRAYS FOR WORK. 


The trays must not be placed on 
the bottom of the trough, but on a \ 
support raised a little distance above 
the bottom. As it is very desirable 


Lid 


to have the trough as free as possible \\ 

from obstructions, it is best to pro- \ ; 

vide a temporary support for the \\ g 

trays, like that shown in Figure 8. \ Ze). 
Take a long, narrow strip of wood a AK Uy 


quarter of an inch thick and drive Fig. 8. 

through it, at proper distances, nails one inch Jong. Set the points of the 
nails a quarter of an inch into the floor of the trough and the top of the strip 
will then be three-quarters of an inch above the floor. On two of these sup- 
ports, placed at a distance of a quarter or half inch from the sides and run- 
ning the whole length of the trough, rest the hatching-trays. Supports 
touching the sides of the trough will not answer, because they form, with 


960 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


the trays and the sides, narrow crevices into which the young fish may 
wriggle, to the great danger of being crushed to death. After all are 
hatched the trays are no longer of service, and the support can then be 
taken out without injuring the fish, leaving an unobstructed floor. 


The trays which rest on the supports just described need no legs. To 
use a trough to its full capacity, however, another series of trays, resting on 
the first series, is neces 


AIK 


Fig, 10. 
second, The trays used in these upper series must be provided with legs 


half an inch long, obtained by driving four nails into the under side of the 
frame. (See Figures 9 and 10.) This keeps the trays half an inch apart, 
the proper distance when there is a space of three-quarters or an inch un- 
der the lower trays. It is, however, recommended to partially close the 
lower space at first by a few movable cleats, which can be removed when 
the fish begin to come out of the shell and accumulate on the floor. These 
precautions are to guard against a too free flow of water underneath the 
trays, where it would at that time be wasted, and perhaps leave a scanty 
supply for the eggs above. Asa 
further precaution, with the same 
end in view, if the trays do not fit 

ae Seat the troughs pretty closely they may 
aaa aa manana i be placed obliquely, so that two op- 

cia oe posite corners will preventa draft of 
water down theside. (See Fig. 11.) 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 961 


10.—CAPACITY OF THE TROUGHS. 


The trays may be placed close together, allowing merely space enough 
to admit the fingers when handling them. Each tray should receive a 
single layer of eggs. They will count, of Atlantic salmon, about 2,000 per 
square foot; of Schoodic salmon, about 1,800, and of California salmon, 
about 1,200 per square foot. Allowing for all the waste space, a trough 
ten feet long with a single series of trays will hold about 13,000 eggs,* 
a very light stock. On two series of trays there would be 26,000 eggs— 
a fair stock—and on three series of trays, 39,000 eggs. The latter num- 
ber would give us, after hatching, about 4,300 alevins for every square 
foot of trough-floor. With plenty of well-aerated water, a person with 
some experience will have no difficulty in bringing as heavy a stock as this 
through in safety. Indeed I have known a stock of over 5,000 per square 
foot to be brought through without serious loss. If the fish would lie 
evenly distributed over the floor there would be no difficulty, but at cer- 
tain times they are seized with a perverse inclination to collect together in 
heaps, and, if they remain so a long time, those underneath are suffocated. 
Therefore, though it is wonderful how much crowding they will endure, 
the novice is advised not to attempt more than two series of trays, or 3,000 
fish per square foot of trough. 


11.—SCREENS. 


If the trough is level there will be no occasion for any dams or barriers 
until the eggs are hatched, but, as something of the sort is needed to keep 
the alevins well eibaied it 1s better to Sandie for it in the beginning. 
At regular distances, not more than five nor less than two feet apart, attach 
to the opposite sides of the trough pairs of cleats, as if for a dam, such as 
has already been described for the outlet. Connect these opposite pairs of 
cleats by a low cross-piece or sill about half an inch high. As soon as the: 
fish begin to move about a fine wire screen can be Stee down between 
the cleats until it rests upon the cross-piece; this is shown near the lower: 
end of the front trough in Figure 5. The screen should not be coarser 
than twelve wires to the inch, and finer still will be better. Wherever 
dams occur in the trough or at its outlet the fish must be kept away from. 
them by similar screens 
placed a few inches above 
the dams, or by one of 
another pattern, shown in 
Figure 12, which may be 
termed a safety screen. 
This form is worthy of 
special recommendation. 


* Eggs of Schoodic salmon referred to when not otherwise specified. 


61 F 


962 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The water passes through from below upward, and the weight of the fishes 
constantly tends to keep them away from it and assists them to clear them- 
selves if once drawn against it. Ifthere isa very strong current this is the 
only safe screen. It is nothing unusual for young fish to get against an 
upright screen and, the current being pretty strong, be unable to get away 
from it, and if the screen be too coarse their sacks are often drawn through, 
to their almost certain destruction. The safety screen should be sunk an 
inch or two below the top of the dam. 


12.—TREATMENT OF THE EGGS. 


If the foregoing instructions for the erection and fitting of the hatching- 
house have been judiciously followed, the task of caring for the eggs and 
young fry will not be a very difficult one, but will nevertheless demand 
constant alertness. 

When eggs are received from other stations, it is important to lose no 
time in opening the package and ascertaining their condition. If the eggs 
are packed in moss, plunge the bulb of a thermometer into the moss under 
several layers of eggs, taking care to admit the least possible amount of 
outside air; cover it up and wait fifteen or twenty minutes, when it can be 
examined and the general temperature of the package ascertained pretty 
nearly. If it is within six degrees of the temperature of the hatching- 
water the eggs may be immediately placed on the hatching-trays. If, 
however, the temperature of the moss is six degrees higher or lower than 
the hatching-water, it is better to drench the boxes with water of inter- 
mediate temperature, several times if the difference be very great, to bring 
the eggs gradually to the temperature of the water. After this the sooner 
the eggs are placed on the trays the better. If it is impossible to avoid wait- 
ing, (over night, for instance,) let the packages stand in a room of safe and 
uniferm temperature, (hatching-house or cellar,) but never let packages of 
eggs stand in water. If the eggs are packed in the mode now commonly 
adopted, between folds of mosquito net and layers of moss, first remove the 
upper moss carefully and then lift them out, a whole layer at a time, on the 
cloth on which they lie, and turn them into a pan of water, from which 
bits of moss, &c., can be picked out or rinsed off. An even distribution 
of them on the trays will be facilitated by measuring them out in a meas- 
ure holding just enough to cover a tray. 

Once deposited on the trays the necessary work is comprised in a simple 
routine. The dead eggs and fish turn white and must be removed before 
they taint the water. It is better, but not essential, to have a table or 
sink to do this work on, and a broad shallow square or oblong pan to set 
the tray of eggs in while picking, that they may not remain long out of 
water. ‘This pan will also be convenient to rinse the eggs in, should they 
become very dirty. At any time after the eyes of the embryo become 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 963 


black a good deal of rough handling can be practiced without the slight- 
est harm, and they can be safely shaken about upon the tray until 
thoroughly.washed. A pair of tweezers will be needed to pick out the 
white eggs, and I would recommend a home-made article, shown in Figure 
13, consisting of two pieces of wood tacked together and tipped with 


Fig. 13. 


wire loops. They are much easier to the hand and altogether better than 
metallic tweezers. In water of 46° F. the dead eggs should be removed 
daily ; at 45°, every two days will answer; at 40°, every three days; at 

3°, once a week; but these are maximum periods and should never be 
overstepped. 

If the eggs are neglected, the first result is that the dead ones begin to 
decay and taint the water, rendering: it unfit for the healthy eggs. In 
the next place, if left long enough in the water, the decaying egg is at- 
tacked by a fungoid growth, of which the technical name is Achlya pro- 
lifera. ‘This is what is commonly termed “fungus,” though some writers 
have applied the term “fungus” to a totally different plant, a kind of 
Conferva or slime, which is either colorless or green, grows in long fine 
threads, and where too much light is admitted to the trough multiplies often 
to such an extent as to provea nuisance, but never is troublesome in a dark- 
ened trough, and never, so far as known, feeds on animal matter. The 
Achlya, on the contrary, feeds on animal matter, and, so far as my own 
observations go, always on dead and decaying animal matter, never attack- 
ing a living egg. It grows in long white threads which radiate from the 
object upon which it is feeding, giving it a woolly appearance. It grows 
rapidly, spreads over all surrounding objects, and may do harm to good 
egos by shutting off the circulation of water from them and thus exposing 
them to the poisonous exudations from the decaying substance. The 
presence of this growth in a hatching-trough isa sure sign of neglect ; 
for, if the dead matter is removed before decay sets in, Achlya will never 
make its appearance. 

The screens and filters must be daily or oftener examined to see that they 
are not choked up, for a few hours’ stoppage of the flow might have disas- 
trous results. If any emergency arises requiring a stoppage of the water for 
several hours, before the fish have broken the shell, it can be safely done 
if, at the same time, the water be drawn off from the trough, for which 
purpose a movable plug should be put in the bottom of every trough. 
Eggs are not injured by exposure to the air for however long time, pro- 
vided they do not freeze nor get too warm nor dry up. But after the fish 
are hatched of course this cannot be done. 


964 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


The height of the water in the hatching-troughs should be carefully 
attended to, so that it be high enough to have a current over the upper 
trays but not high enough to let the bulk of the water flow over the tops, 
depriving the lower layers of their share. If through neglect this rob- 
bery takes place, a lot of eggs with white stripes across them will be found 
some day, and close examination will show that the trunk of the embryo 
in each one is white, opaque, and dead—sure symptoms of suffocation, 

The trays must be carefully watched, and those that rust be exchanged 
for newly varnished ones. ‘The change is easily made by turning the new 
tray bottom up over the eggs, when, by a dexterous movement of the hands, 
the two are inverted and the eggs fall upon the new tray. This should be 
done over the broad pan, but the knack of doing it with very little 
spilling is soon acquired. 

Strong light should not be allowed to shine for any great length of time 
on the eggs. Total darkness is as good as anything. But if covers are 
provided for the troughs, the house may be kept well lighted, and no 
harm will come from leaving the covers of a single trough off long enough 
to do any necessary work. In examining and picking the eggs, too, they 
may be brought into a strong light. Butsunshine should never touch them. 


13.—TREATMENT OF THE FISH. 


After the eggs are all hatched the trays may be removed from the 
troughs. The principal thing to be looked after now is that the fish do 
not crowd up in heaps and smother each other. As soon as they begin to 
move about a great deal the screens described above should be put in place 
to prevent their congregating too much. If it becomes necessary to move 
them about in the troughs, to disperse improper gatherings, or to get them 
away from a spot that it is desirablg to clean, it can be easily done by means 
of a sweeping board, (Fig. 14.) This 
effective implement is simply a thin 
board, a little shorter than the width 
of the trough, with the lower corners 
cut away as shown, so that they cannot 
touch the sides of the trough and 


perchance catch and crush the young fry. It depends for its efficiency on 
the fact that if a surface current is created in the trough in any direction 
there will be a corresponding bottom current in the opposite direction, and 
if this bottom current be moderately strong it will sweep along the young 
fish with it. To move the fish down the trough the sweeping board is 
placed in about the position shown in the cut and moved up the trough. 
If the young fish are to be set free this must be done as soon as the 
yolk sack is absorbed, which will be from three weeks to three months after 


CHEAP FIXTURES FOR THE HATCHING OF SALMON. 965 


they are hatched, according to the temperature of the water. It is better 
to be too early than too late in this matter. For the young fish is well 
able to take care of himself, and in fact will sometimes begin to feed some 
days before the sack has entirely disappeared, while we know not how 
serious may be the result of two or three days’ hunger. To remove them 
from the trough a scoop nearly as wide as the trough, made of a wooden 
frame with a shallow bag of mosquito net attached, after the fashion of 
Figure 15, will do good service. If the 
troughs are raised above the floor of the ‘% 
hatching-house the fish can also be drawn 
out on the outlets with water into a pail. 

It is sometimes desirable to keep fish over night ready for an early 
morning start on a journey. This can be accomplished by taking a long 
box that nearly fits a hatching-trough, knocking out the ends and supply- 
ing their places with wire-cloth fine enough to hold the fish. When the 
time comes to put them into the cans they can be poured in from the box. 
When several cans are to be filled the fish for each may be put into a 
separate box. 


14.—CONCLUSION. 


In conclusion it is urged upon every person attempting the management 
of spawn and young fish that, however careful the construction of the houses 
and fixtures, the necessity for constant watchfulness is not to be escaped. 
There is no insurance so good as frequent and careful inspection. Especially 
in case of a severe storm or uncommonly cold weather, the attendant should 
be on the alert early enough to watch for the coming of danger and avert 
it. Nothing must be taken for granted until the establishment has demon- 
strated its security. Experience will show how far vigilance can afterward 
be safely relaxed. 

Another matter that cannot be too strongly urged upon the attention of 
fish-culturists is the importance of complete neeanil of all occurrences at the 
hatching-house. Not only the receipts of spawn and its condition, the 
losses occurring from day to day, and the shipment of young fish should be 
promptly, fully, and carefully entered upon the record-book, but the tem- 
perature of the air, the temperature, volume, and condition of the water 
should be regularly observed and recorded, and occasional notes made 
regarding the hatching and behavior of the fish, the presence and progress 
of maladies, if any occur, and any other phenomena of importance or 
interest. In no other way can the results of experience be so well pre- 
served and made available, and it is much to be regretted that it has not 
been the practice of all fish-culturists to keep such records. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Page. 

il, SOyae) CPE ee So cocscoeneooe cone ce CoOC ene Hasnes sesece dboEqeseScosoresse 945 
BWR Pee Ge Se RON nOeH ooo ee ato eee Rene an Panes Soa nepacoséaschsadesocoscecs 946 
Ss OI yes ae eae a a BOAO bes BASE ne Se HERA OPS Broke Ghee Saeco sobs ceeScacocds 948 
AseDams and Conduits... 2. sere = se asa een saeco en oniec ==) eee eee 949 
5, UNS ESWC 1 eps ar ead eet ee ee ETN Preis em ee eh SSeS eeaGo Gecoco cess 950 
GAM TITOPIDG ic cess do =o 'cao2 ocetes Bacead cen eee oP ateek bees cess eee ae 952 
7. Hatching-troughs and fittings..-.. BREESE HORA Co Seas senene sage ctOs ofe> 954 
Gi Via) ne slgae ab dobecoss eaecbo poee cs non eds H5ess6 caohoo cooses donpagoSécccsec 957 
9, Arranging the trays for work ...--. ye Saisie elena: =e eis Sele cal siee le feelers 959 
1Owe@anacthy Of the: troughs: 2225 = 2.6 2 oars seegres ae eee 961 
ily. ORN agers ate ae ee, oe eee eR Res oe RE OR Soa: Sas Sec. sbaosSesooce> 961 
1eeiireabmenb Omune CPOs as. sass cns ean m oe cele eee ee ie te alee 962 
#3) breatment of the tislis-4222-\45-42are ss eect escent Beer eee eae 964 
PAPA@ONGIISION 6 caf esas eAse acca flbetheet as esa ects 2a sete ar ee setae 


966 


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XLIV.—ON THE NATURE OF THE PECULIAR REDDENING OF 
SALTED CODFISH DURING THE SUMMER SEASON.* 


By W. G. Fartow, M. D. 


Prof. 8. F. BARD: 

DEAR Sir: At your request, I have made an examination of codfish 
for the purpose of ascertaining the cause of the peculiar redness which 
is found on the dried fish during the hot and damp weather of summer. 
The red fish, as is well known, putrefy comparatively quickly, and this 
fact, taken in connection with the disagreeable, and, in fishes, unusual 
_ color, renders them unfit for the market, so that, in seasons when the 
redness prevails, dealers suffer a loss which is certainly considerable, 
although exact statistics with regard to the amount are wanting. 

For the purpose of examining fresh material, and in order to make a 
personal inspection of the drying apparatus and storehouses, I went to 
Gloucester in the beginning of September, 1878, at which date the 
weather was hot and damp, and the codfish then being prepared for 
market were largely affected by the redness, the cause of which it was 
my object to discover. With the assistance of Captain Martin, of the 
United States Fish Commission, [ was able not only to procure an abun- 
dance of the red fish for study, but also to examine several different 
buildings used in salting and packing fish, as well as a schooner which 
had just returned from a voyage to the banks. 

Before speaking of the immediate cause of the redness, I may say 
that all persons of whom I made inquiry agreed in stating that the red- 
ness makes its appearance to such an extent as to be troublesome only 
during the hot weather, and that it disappears with the return of cool 
weather. I ascertained farther that the redness in most cases does not 
appear until the fish have been landed from the vessel. In some eases, 
however, the fish become red while in the vessel, but this happens only 
when the weather has been unusually hot at the time of catching. 

A microscopic examination shows that the redness is owing to a very 
minute plant, known to botanists by the name of Clathrocystis roseo- 
persicina. The plant consists simply of very minute cells filled with red 
coloring-matter and imbedded in a mass of slime. The cells, as usually 
Seen, are arranged without order, but under the most favorable condi- 
tions of observation they are found to be grouped in spheroidal 
masses. In relation to the botanical characteristics of the plant noth- 
ing more need be said in the present connection. Its development has 
been studied by several well-known botanists, who agree I in n considering 


~ * As observed more particularly at Gloucester, Mass., during the summer of 1878, 
939 


970 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


it closely related to Clathrocystis wruginosa, a common species growing 
in fresh-water ponds, which has lately come into public notice in conse- 
quence of the so-called pig-pen odor which it exhales when decaying. 
The Clathrocystis in question belongs to the lowest group of plants, 
the Schizophyte, many of which are the cause of decomposition or putre- 
faction of different animal and vegetable substances. Clathrocystis 
roseo-persicina is very widely diffused, being known both in Europe and 
America. It is found in summer along our shores, and at times is so 
abundant as to cover the ground with a purplish tinge, as one may see 
in the marshes near Lynn. It is also known in dissecting-rooms, where 
it grows in tubs in which bones are macerating. Wherever found it 
does not flourish nor increase rapidly at a temperature below 65° Fahr. 
The next point to be considered is the manner in which the Clathro- 
cystis is communicated to the fish. An examination of several different 
packing-houses and the wharves on which the fish are landed showed 
that the Clathrocystis was present in large quantities on the wood-work 
of all kinds; on walls, floors, and the flakes on which the fish are 
laid. How it might have been originally introduced into the build- 
ings is a question easily answered when we consider how abundant the 
plant is on the marshes in the vicinity of Gloucester. It might have 
been brought in on the boots of fishermen, on sea-weed, on grass, or in 
other evident ways. Once in the buildings it would grow and increase 
on the damp wood-work, which contains usually more or less animal 
matter coming from the fish in process of drying. Why the plant is 
found at times on board the fishing-vessels themselves admits of expla- 
nation in two ways. It will easily be seen that, when it is common in 
and around the buildings on the wharves, it would be carried on the 
feet of fishermen on board the vessels. But there is also another 
reason why it should be found on the vessels. Large quantities of salt 
are of course used in packing the fish in the hold of the vessels. The 
two kinds of salt most commonly used by the fishermen of Gleucester 
are the Cadiz and the Trapani. I procured specimens of both kinds 
and submitted them to microscopic analysis. The Cadiz salt has a 
Slight rose-colored tinge; the Trapani is nearly a pure white. The 
microscope shows that the reddish color of the Cadiz salt is owing to 
the presence in considerable quantities of precisely the same minute 
plant which is found in the red fish. The Trapani is a much purer salt, 
and the Clathrocystis, if it is found in it at all, exists in very small 
quantities. What must happen then is plain. The Cadiz salt, as it 
comes into the hands of fishermen, is already impregnated with a con- 
siderable quantity of the Clathrocystis. It is sprinkled in large quan- 
tities upon the fish as they are packed in the hold of the vessel, and if 
the weather is warm enough for the favorable growth of the plant, 
which, fortunately for the fishermen, is not the case in this latitude 
except for a short period, the fish must inevitably be affected during 
the voyage. As soon as the fish are landed, the circumstances are 


REDDENING OF SALTED CODFISH. 971 


much more favorable for the rapid growth of the Clathrocystis. The 
temperature is higher, more salt is added, and the fish are exposed 
either in buildings or on flakes which are themselves more or less covered 
by the red plant. 

I have endeavored to ascertain whether a similar trouble arising from 
the growth of Clathrocystis has been observed in the fisheries of other 
countries, but I have not been able to obtain any information on the 
subject from the botanists who are best informed in these matters. 
Such questions, however, are not often discussed in scientific journals, 
and the trouble may perhaps be known to fishermen, although it has 
not yet, as far as I know, been called to the attention of scientific men. 
In Norway, where the cod-fisheries are of great extent, we might expect 
the redness to occur, but we must remember that in the region of Ber- 
gen and northwards the temperature is rarely high enough to favor the 
rapid growth of Clathrocystis. 

Having ascertained the cause of the redness, let us consider the 
means of preventing or diminishing the evil. Nature herself, in be- 
stowing upon the New England coast a cold climate, has practically set 
a limit to the trouble, and has enabled the inhabitants of our coast to 
carry on the business of curing fish with a degree of success which 
would be quite impossible in a more southern latitude, no matter how 
abundant the fish might be. In attempting to diminish the trouble in 
New England, we must bear in mind that the disease, if we may call it 
so, is transmitted to the fish from the wood-work and drying-apparatus, 
and, in some cases at least, from the salt used. The question, in short, 
is how to get rid of the pest already established in our fish-houses. 

To speak, in the first place, of the treatment to be pursued in purify- 
ing the drying-establishments on shore: The conditions of life of the 
Clathrocystis are such that it could be killed by a temperature equal to 
that of boiling water, by applications of strong solutions of carbolic 
acid, of the mineral acids, &c. As a matter of fact, however, it is very 
doubtful whether the application of boiling water or of steam, if pos- 
sible, would be serviceable. It is difficult so to saturate the different 
parts of a drying-house with boiling water as to be sure that the differ- 
ent parts have really been raised to the boiling point. Generally a 
great part of the wood-work fails to reach anything like a temperature 
of 212° KF. The application of carbolic acid, or the mineral acids, 
is expensive and troublesome, and, unless judiciously managed, the 
remedy might prove worse than the disease. What is wanted is some 
means so simple that it can be applied without trouble and without 
much expense. It is useless to try to eradicate the trouble completely ; 
one can only expect to diminish it perceptibly; and for the purpose I 
can think of no practical way better than scraping, painting, and fre- 
quent washing with hot water. In midsummer the houses used for 
curing fish are not always kept as clean as they should be. Unpainted 
wood is generally used, and every one knows how difficult it is, by 


972 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


washing, really to clean wood which has been softened by the action of 
salt substances. The wood-work of all kinds, floors, walls, &c., should 
be thoroughly scraped several times a season. At present this is not 

_the case, for one sees at Gloucester many gratings on which wood- 
mosses (lichens) have begun to grow, and even attained considerable 
size, proof positive, to any one who knows how slowly such plants grow, 
that no thorough scraping nor cleansing has been attempted for a long 
time. I should recommend that everything made of wood used in the 
curing should be painted at least once a year with white paint, and that 
it should be washed at frequent intervals with hot water. It is easier 
to paint than to scrape wood, and wood-work which has been painted 
white can be cleansed by washing with hot water with a thoroughness 
which is never the case with unpainted wood. Rough, unplaned wood 
should never be used, as the roughnesses are sure to be filled with a 
growth of Clathrocystis in course of time. Everything should be smooth 
and painted, so as to give as little possible chance for the lodgment of 
foreign matter, and so that washing can be surely and quickly accom- 
plished. Iron or metallic instruments, of course, should be frequently 
washed and scoured, but Iam inclined to think that the cleanliness of 
these is better cared for than in the case of wood-work. 

With regard to the fishing-vessels themselves, apart from the salt 
which is used (which will be considered presently), not very much can 
be said. They are not generally exposed to as high a temperature as 
the wharves and buildings, and in them the Clathrocystis does not often 
develop to a marked extent. What has been said about the painting 
and seraping of wood-work applies, however, with practical modifica- 
tions, to vessels, but, of course, at sea one cannot be as neat as on land. 

There remains the important question with relation to the salt used. 
As Ihave before said, I have carefully examined specimens of Cadiz 
and Trepani salt, and I have no reason to suppose that the specimens 
examined were other than fair samples of what are in general use by 
fishermen. Microscopic examination shows conclusively to my mind 
that the Trepani is more free from impurities, and that the Cadiz salt 
contains a decided amount of the Clathrocystis, which, when communi- 
cated to the fish, is so detrimental to its sale. Judging from the exam- 
ination which I have made, I should certainly advise the use of Trepani 
salt as less likely to produce the redness in the fish themselves. Ihave 
no means of ascertaining how the amount annually saved by using 
Cadiz salt instead of Trepani compares with the amount annually lost 
by the “red fish.” If it is the case that more is saved by the use of 
Cadiz salt than is lost by the unmarketableness of “red fish,” then, of 
course, it will be useless to advise the use of Trepani salt. 

I have delayed transmitting to you my report in the hope that Imight 
learn something concerning the prevalence of ‘red fish” in Europe, but 
having made numerous inquiries without obtaining any information 
having any economical bearing, I present the results at which I have 


REDDENING OF SALTED CODFISH. 973 


arrived from my own examination of the subject, without being able to 
add to it the results of the experience of others. The question, after 
all, is one of dollars and cents, but looking at it abstractedly, as I have 
been obliged to do, I think that my statement of the cause of the trouble 
and of the examination of the two kinds of salt most generally used 
Should furnish useful hints to those who, from their occupation, are most 
directly interested in the matter. 
Yours, respectfully, 
W. G. FARLOW. 
CAMBRIDGE, MAss., 
June 22, 1879. 


Nore.—With regard to the presence of Clathrocystis roseo-persicina 
in salt coming from the Mediterranean, perhaps the following may have 
some significance: .n the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, series 2, vol. 
9, p. 112, is an article entitled “ Extrait @un Mémoire de M. F. Dunal, 
sur les algues qui colorent en rouge certaines eaux des marais salins ~ 
Méditerranéens.” In this article an attempt is made to explain the 
presence of a red substance in the salt works at Villa Franca. M. Dunal 
denies that the redness is owing to the remains of the crustacean Arte- 
mia salina, and maintains that the redness is due to a minute plant, 
Protococcus salinus Dunal, found in the bottom of the tanks. It is not 
impossible that the P. salinus of Dunal may be what is now known as 
Clathrocystis roseo-persicinia. The development of the last-named spe- 
cies has occupied the attention of several botanists and zoélogists, and 
the reader interested in such matters is referred to Cohn’s Beitriige zur 
Biolagie der Pflanzen, vol. 1, part 3, p. 157, and to an article on “A 
peach-colored Bacterium,” by Prof. E. Ray Lankaster, in the Quarterly 
Journal of Microscopical Science, vol. 13, new series, p. 408, and to articles 
by the same writer in subsequent numbers of the same journal. 

Besides the Clathrocystis which was found on the red codfish at Glou- 
cester, another form of microscopic plant was observed, which deserves 
at least a passing notice. Small colonies of cells, destitute of coloring 
matter and arranged in fours, were not unfrequent on the infected codfish. 
The absence of color and the arrangement of cells in fours at once 
suggests the genus Sarcina, of which S. ventriculi is found in the fluids 
vomited in certain diseases of the stomach, in the lungs, and occasionally 
in other tissues. The species in question, however, differs materially 
from S. ventriculi. The individual cells are larger and the colonies are 
irregular in outline and not arranged in regular cubes as in S. ventriculi, 
nor does the membrane inclosing the cells contain any silicate, as is said 
to be the case in that species. Treated with strong acids, as nitric acid, 
the cells at once expand and soon disintegrate. On seeing the species 
on codfish, the first thing that struck me was the strong resemblance 
which it bore to Gleocopsa crepidinum Thuret, except in the absence of 
coloring matter. The G/eocopsa is common on the wood-work of wharves 
at Gloucester near high-water mark, and it might easily have been com- 


974 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 


municated to-the fish. When growing and in good condition, however, 
it always has a brownish or yellowish-brown color. The species on cod- 
fish was always colorless, and yet it seemed to be alive and in good con- 
dition, and I am inclined to reject my first belief that the form was a 
discolored Glaocopsa crepidinum, but think it rather an undescribed 
species of Sarcina. My stay at Gloucester being short, and having other 
things which demanded my attention, I was unable to make any con- 
tinued observation on this curious form, which may be described as 
follows: 

SARCINA? MORRHUZ n. sp. Cells colorless, cuboidal, 5-8" in diameter, 
united in fours and surrounded by a thin hyaline envelope. Colonies 10-20™ 
in diameter, formed by division of the cells in three dimensions. Colonies 
heaped together in irregularly-shaped, lobulated masses. 

Has.—On putrifying codfish, in company with Clathrocystis roseo-perst- 
cina, Gloucester, Mass., September, 1878. 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX.* 


A. Page. 
Abstract of patents in Great Britain 
(LH) poe RO eee cee BeOH NB OnOeeE 17 
Alcambnocephalar. coccccannc<cs oie 513 
JAGIIIN TD ccoesho Abedas SeoDEd easaneEso 528 
Additional Srecr raters on the fun- 
gus affecting salmon (Title) ...-.. 531 
Aerating and cooling water ....... 881 
JAGVAIWOM EGAGSS & SEB Soa SCO DOU BE COE 950 
Agriculture and carp-culture ...... 667 
Aimsworth, Captain -........-..--- 72 
ATT ANESCA-WalCl = -oceclesnicce s- -in—e 177 
Albemarle Sound Station ........--. 601 
Alewife, experiments with -....-... 105 
Alexander Captaite--ceccweces--- 747 
Milena, Chygubniis bs 6Sehe6qoquccd cane 68 
Allport; Morton) 2sceiscccse casos. 819 
WMMaSaahN tik) Spice ass eiensaee sock xd 659 
SAPIGLSSIMAJ=joise mele) cals cise = =i 658 
Alphabetical Index to the Report 
on the Marine Isopoda ......---. 459 
Amelnn JOhans accor scincicieesace se 241 
American Fishery Commissioners.. 100 
freshwater fisheries ----. 98 
LIGIBAITE Sonos anoood Sect 658 
TEMES) 6 ooon6 Bycode nose 3,15 
refrigerator, the. .....--. 92 
America’s superiority in the fishing 
DUSINESSescricchiosercc.cicc acceso 114 


PAINS WIMiaxqnes secu cts orice atacteinmcisaciaiae 53 
Amsterdam, report of the Zodlogi- 
cal Garden of, on California sal- 


MOD soSo 55s een Enno COCCOO ACEO Cone 923 

ASDC 55 Sonn meeoOoed Ebod Seneoe 189, 193 

J, ee SH epaeeReeereaaeae tb 

104 dl oR ce SSR COOHE DHE BOGE 754, 939 

TARO 1p 18 nogenoomoc cece 257 

SCHOO] sacosscse cs cosas 152 

Anderssen, Joakim .......----.... 47 

PAV OAM Oy Cee sere Sintey a win) wie aie aya 138 

Annual migration of the herring. -193, 204, 

212 

quantity of herrings-....... 235 

Apparatus, auxiliary...--..--..... 293 
for hatching floating 

GARGS) sono coho adoo ness 723 

AP PONCE AWEt ss cnccecccwesttecsce 2 


APPCNGLD! ce cocwe ccs csicicaie eee 41 

©) sacccete sa nee seen eacee 73 

UDA ecencenoe soo dec: 255 

19) Geneseo ococagogceeessce 295 

IR BeIORD Goneco one Saticdas 507 

Gyemcascicen sehen omen 609 

FO sais ccewlismaseitaaete vistas 967 

Aquaculture -s-6-25--eee eee ee 543, 552 

Aquaria in Horticultural Hall ..... 98 

Aquarinmitorstudyj= esses eee 103 
Aquatic animals to be reared as food 

for cultivated fishes... ..564, 575 

birds, enemies of fish...... 515 

plants in fish-ponds..-.... 121 

Arctic pteropod (Limacina) -.----. 277 

Area for fish planting, how large?. 591 
Argentine Republic, exhibition at 

Philadelphiaieescascce-2 sees soe 51 

PANT GOTH AS ALIN all etettete letersi aerate 973 

Arthur. Wie ssese. 256-256 857, 859, 864, 876 

Artificial propagation successful. - 731 

ASCOTMISH Sec con scccse seca eccismaeees 513 

Aspidophorusseesss- eseeee eee eee 268 

Astrophy tons)! ssc5 .ct sce nese eee 273 

AtholesDmkevotee sas. sn ee eee ea 


Atkins, Charles G - ..775, 780, 789, 927, 945 
Attacks threatened on the McCloud 


SLDHOM casei. aeiairocoes Sas 744 
Auibents Lie MiGB jaa. 22 seccnetsenees 223 
Australia; correspondence — con- 

nected with the transmission of 

eggs of salmon to, &c..--.------ 825 
Austria; exhibition at Philadelphia 50 
Average prices of fish..........-.- 55, 56 

B. 
Baarsy Heo. a sectererem acc yeee eee 656 
Baileys Oren ZO) Sie aaa 753 
Baird, Prof. Spencer F -.... 47, 57, 58, 102, 
103, 685, 696, 700, 726, 741, 
753, 755, 771, 815-829, 842, 
844, 856, 860, 861, 869, 905, 
909, 913, 918, 938 
Bait, preservation of ........-...-.. 700 
Question uhessesseseeer eres 696 
Lobe fresh ecee eee seeeeee 141 
Balvictanna sc se6 2550 Sasser eee 117 


*¥For a special index to the report on New England Isopoda by Harger, see page 459. 


975 


976 


Page. 

Baltic fishery, management of. .... ilil7/ 
Sea, scientific investigation 

Obbeee iene facia jacssce nee 283 

Je SVE 1 Rk a a cen 907 
Basis for carrying on the Bohusliin 

salt-water fisheries......-.-.-.-. 143 
Bavaria, fish culture in ..-........ 584 
eam =tr awe. sane Sener 258, 263 
Bean, arletonthiye assesses ese 7a, 517, 539 
PBebiam Wwoursidecse= sass sesso eee 913 
Beerenvtislersa-co- ee toe ees 260, 266, 268 
Jojslany, JelGie WON ea seccos needs sono tNe) OAKl) 
Benefit from fishery exhibitions - .. 43 
BEL eer pb ein esoes tesa trae saree 671 
Bervenrexdt bition] saeees see eee 43 
BET OCIA NE Leer = sce eels socio 675 
Bergersposten, a Norway daily pa- 

DOT aera eta teres oremicrsie me crciacln tet 241 
Berlin, sickness of the goldfish in 

(tile) xevAee a nse co ceteecmes sconce 537 
Bermuda, exhibition at Philadel- 

Dit aya tee ac eae cee eee 52 
Berthelotse -s5- oe secee ee eee ees 188 
BELLAMY Ji Gyeencsee eo cce sees 152, 648, 650 
ISG, JEL Se SsceneaneS eee eens cmce 152 
Biological observations .-.... ----- 629 
DishoprChugles Mecece us 226 ase osk 665 
Blackford, Eugene... .----- 53, 54, 67, 78, 92 
iBlochwaee ss ee a 183, 189, 194, 205, 643, 656 
Block Island, the fishermen’s peti- 

THOS ae fae ab nep ies eben ea be ae 35, 38 
Blood, meat, &c., as food for gold- 

SAY srt ACO ete eins aes a ee NS 682 


Boeck, Axel .... ..-- 107, 147, 150, 169, 174, 
189, 194, 198, 201, 208, 
‘224, 227, 232, 639, 643, 
641, 645, 647, 650, 653 
470 
Bohus lin, fisheries of....-....-. 143, 149, 
150, 157, 160 

herring fisheries, history 


Of sae ana gee ae ee 221 
BontiwMrsidesecccene cscs cns ee se 915 
Oneless: COd soe cenc ces sence 702 
Bordewich .& Coss sae see eee 81 
Borne, Max von dem........-..--. 516, 910 
iBothnocephalus 2.2. tees eee fone 512 
BOtamieO Es es.) 230 eB aks 50 
Bottemanne, C. J ......-....909, 914, 916, 

918, 920, 924 
Bottom of the sea to be investi- 
RIEL a Koo oodd SoeSoe 156, 179 


on which the herrings 


640 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page. 

Bottom water, to secure specimens 
Ofc s aonaence ae re eee eee 293 
Boubert,/Govermoress-sees see 65 
Bounty act:s.csct ccs eee 688 
Boys, Mr ...... SoS uen boeCEs seseoc 850 
Brackett, Hu A. ccc. oo. sees 32, 778, 931, 934 
Brandely, G. Bouchon -.. -...584, 587,591 


Brazil, exhibition at Philadelphia. . 51 
Breakwater at Block Island no 
benefit to its fisheries ...... -.... 33 


Breeding and capturing of carp... 672 
Brehm <n jo. 0l ssictceste on oes 515 
Broch Drs Od saaseseeee eee 543, 595, 596 
Bronlund; Mr. ..25. 32 sess eceeiesee 71 
Brooks & Co., London 2222-2 sse-ee 832 
Brown, George... <5 22 -ees se eee 929 
Bruny Ao. 5 so sdceseasae sees 71 
IN Eh opereretainis stab side Saree LO 
Buck, Harry Hl 2 scn5c2 seer 776, 778 
diary at Songo Lock, 1878 .- 780 
ibuckland Whyee sae ssee 152, 167, 532, 650, 655 
Bunham’ & Morrell =222 5 -1eese eee 53 
Bush, Hiz.c< dbase ce sooeseemeee 928 
Butler) iD osco55 25s -socteeenienee 928 
Buys, Professor ssc.-- - ssseee ees 914 
C. 
Caermarvon,eHantl esses s52 sees 838, 854 
Calculation about cultivating fish. 597 
California, exhibition at Philadel- 
Phia. 2-252 ss -<eepsete 53 
shad..in =-22 22 secs 943 
Canada, exhibition at Philadelphia 52 
Canadian patents.---..-..----..-.. 16 
Canterbury Acclimatization Society 
forvli87 Sic cose. nosso eee eee 842 
Cape Ann, codfisheries at....--. -- 685 
Capehart; Dro W..Ri.-so2 esos sees 612 
Capelin and alewives as bait -----. 697 
Cape of Good Hope, exhibition at 
Philadelphia Asa.ses) 252 see 51 
Capture of breeding Schoodic sal- 
MONs eee ssee ee a= eee 789 
OL COU se sees eee 693 
Carbonnier da ?22 2 5.2 sse-i ee ee 
Carp-culture and agriculture ...--. 667 
introduction of, in California. 661 
profitable in California ----.. 665 
Caryophyllaeus mutabilis.-..----. | 512 
Cash system in the fish trade..--.. 700 
Casts in plaster of fishes -.-----.-- 99 
Catalogue of natural history cotlec- 
tion by Livingston Stone ... ---- 769 
Cataract in rivers...... -.-.-.---2 517 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page. 
@anching herrings) 5.22. = 5-2. .2e 246 128 
Catch of 300-500 barrels of mackerel 110 
Catfish in California ......-....-.. 900 
@ausans, Count'de..---.. =~ = -o-m-- 581 
Causes of the decrease of the her- 

TIN OPA SHOMES meses ee 206, 215, 217 
Civehwie, Isl Rao 660 gestca gigsoc Seonoe 914 
Cederstrém, G. C ....165, 174, 177, 190, 192 

208, 644, 650, 655 
Cepede, B..G. Eb. delame:..- 2-25 644 
Cessation of herring fisheries, peri- 

OIG Saco SoS USeEe CCE CerEeae 151, 222 
Characteristics of the cod....-.--. 705 
Character of the fishing ground 

(@aperAmm) ese cesses tseiae =< 692 
@harleseX c= oo s.-se essays sss 231 

mC hase: Oren, Mi. x) /ejaic oe) seiaiaiso ie 616 
@hebacco boats 5----\-ss5- cise 689 

> (Clagegeinpiny WG las So se6esasa5ecrece 837 
Chemical process for purification 

OR WaibOR Sai oy a ao ot oa ehe oa aie 521 
Chester, Captain H. C ..-.--. 618, 718, 722 
Cheater bucket, the ----.- -...-.-. 726 
Chicago, exhibition at Philadel- 

Whi aie Se eyes ss = ara een tose se 53 
Chicken Charlie, an Indian.-...--. 745 
Chile, exhibition at Philadelphia. . 51 
China, exhibition at Philadelphia - 51 
Chinese fish culture....--.-..---.. 545 
Christ Church Society ...- ...-.-.- &50 
Chrispianm by, Kamo=- sects co oe 23 
Christiania Museum ...--- -..-----. 656 


Christison, Sir Robert ...-.. -....526, 527 
Christophersen, W., Consul-General 39 


Clackamas Hatchery...--..-.----. 771 
Clamsraspaltececen seen eee. 2s eeee 697, 698 
Clark. Die Wiese s ache esea Sneaiaas 934 
rank Nie soucsec 615, 718, 753, 867, 

70, 874, 882, 900 

Clark’s hatching-trough ... ....-.721, 728 
@lam@Oyi c= occ. ssc sone eeeaeees 643, 656 
Clathrocystis roseo-persicina ..---. 969 
aeruginosa ..----.-.- 970 

Clausson, Peter, the historian -...225, 229 
Clione, whale-food.........-<-...- 277 


Close season for salmon in Califor- 


TONE EEO SINT nee nea ee aes 892 
Coal-beds and fossils searched for at j 
BeerenWslandetysoseree cutis secs 268 
(CCRIENIEIT ae a ooose cen. os aaa seen 263 
Coast-fishery on the Baltic ....-.--- 118 
Coast=-hemings..-. 222222241. -..2 189, 640 
Codsenemiesiofthes. s82502-<---ks 711 
COLOTIO Lees oe etek ltt. oo Saice 136 


62 F 


Page. 
@od; food of the) secu. 42522 ase 710 
hatching operations of...--. 718, 720 
Inverse S2 asi ois tslcia oa eae 702 
reproduction of ...........--- 712 
tongues salable ......-...---. 703 
Codfish, American method of treat- 
ING: eek eee a steaes 70 
salting prohibited ..-...-- 70 
near Beeren Island ...---- 269 
the Spitzbergen ......-.-. 276 
Cod-fishery on the Baltic......--.. 135 
Cod-fisheries at Cape Ann, Mass... 685 
Cohn’s Biologie der Pflanzen .----- 974 
Colby, railroad conductor .-...---- 931 
Cold injures some fish and provis- 
1OUS = 2. Stee owe eee aCe 93 
Collecting fish in an intelligent 
IMANMOL 8 7s anise che cea ehenet ne 596 
Collett; Robert... =.22-2> 22-55-2222 0008006 
Collus)\CapbiJaWisa--eeeeteee eee 703 
Collinssiirank = 2245-2 eee eee 927 
Columbia River, operations on .-... 105 
C@ommussionan Kiely = sea. seeee eee 284 
Connecticut fish reports. .---..-.-- 934 
Conmelll Mir yo oe meinem eee 876 
Consumption and production of 
HSN oS Sos a/ae:cicpmane se eee 603 
CooperiGaiSie.. 322 a.caeetesee 844, 846, 857 
Mei aes actos 860, 862, 872, 875 
Coppericonesi: j25\a565-e 556 eee 721, 722 
@oste! Professor.=...3-4sss6- 152, 547, 671 
Coste’s method of impregnation... 586 
Cottbus, the carp-exchange -..-... 671 
Cotton) Mir: 22.222. hese 881 
Couche Shain ete cee eee 194 
CoxmiSvHerbertitoe seeeee te ere eee 
Graig, Hugh. Saeieese see ee eee ~ 845 
Crania of various nationalities. - -277, 278 
Crawiish; the. 2.22. ssa eees 571 
rearing, Of. oo — = eee 583 
Creighton, R. J ..---. 833, 839, 842, 844, 851 
ARS abE 867, 869, 871, 882, 900 
@rocker, Charles -- 222-25 2eee ene 889 
Grockett; A. Bitese ee een een 778 
DO RPI Acces 784 
Cromarty, Mr.c.. ossssen pee ees 844 
Cross, 6&2 Cops 5-25-04 eeasce sae 833, 834, 844 
Crossopus fodiens eses-seee ete soee 515 
Crustaceans, etc., raising of, as food 
for cultivated fishes........---.- 555 
Cunningham & Thompson ..--..--- 68 
\;Cundyasifood: for carp=-s2224-52=2- 665 
CUring MIsthie. us hc See eee ae 701 
Cnrrent-meter....05.222s-sneeoses 285, 293 


978 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page Page. 
Currents, different strata of ....-.. 284 | Helshardt 223.0s2sc 22-2 Spee 674 
ObetNe, Seal seas eae L744) @ieckimankhih We csesee cena sci eeee 155 
@uvier Clap yee. 4 oe l eect de 53 | Eckstroém -.....--.-174, 198, 211, 640, 645, 
Crmpmumidiaser ce ate Soe 5 ee 572 649, 651, 655 
@yprinus auratus --.222/s02--2e1-eee 684 | Eclipse of the sun..........-.-... 746 
D Economical value of the water- 
j areal (Norway) sc os ee eee eee 589 
Dams and conduits for salmon Hdel-Carpfen 2-eseessc5 eee 669 
hatching ese eecen eee seen 949 | Edinburg, Royal Society of.... 525,531 
Danielson, Dr-..-.-..----.-------- 261 | idlund; Professor. ./.2. e222. seeee 125, 178 
Daivas Mevils i <2 =e /cis -sctoceapeees 665!) Hel the?) 5. uh atte 578 
Dearborn, Captain ....-.. 839, 844, 853, 868 tLAPSSac2 Se, See C eee 57 
Decoys, patents) ftorks.-42- 4 os oe- 3, 11,17 | Eggs for Holland, France, &c..-.... 910 
Wecreasojof dish eoses vee oewee eee 102 of cod, destruction of .......-. 715 
Deep-sea research. ......---.------ 295 how to procure -...... 719 
Deep-water temperature ....-.--.- 248 TOM eT: Ofe ss se eee 716, 732 
Welicacy-herming ass sees ahi ee 13 of Sebago salmon, attempt to 
Merby WarlWOt ecco cr nae ce elon 853 collective aseasee oes 775,778 
Deserts of the sea ----.-.--. soSSiue 541 | Electricity and light, effect on her- 
Deutsche Fischerei Verein ---.---- 911 PING 2sen's See ee ees eee 164, 165 
Development of mankind.-.---..- 540, 541 | EWensburgh Hatchery ..---..-.---- 773 
Development of Schoodic salmon Elodea Canadensis-.-.-.--.---.---- 510 
CGOSr isocse et tee tate e 796 | Emersen, Corville & Co.-.--..-.-..- 895 
ADvebiischy, Esso 7. 6 eeets see eee G05) unemies Of tish=nos-s- os]-eeeeee 509 
DESI Spee eet enici sac ena ae cetes 514 ernin se seateae eee eee 183 
Dillingham, Jos. R .-.--.-.--- 778, 779, 781 thelcod=¢-24al. eves 711 
IPMOIO VOOR SaeaeSsoscerbopeeodeeogs © DIA] lOrokedbicin jopMKINI) S625 coc6 sano oe 11,15 
[DIMOTP Aas sebel sanismesecese sSoeee 512 | Epidemics among the fish. .----.-- 217 
IDPS OO ese rey Sob eeeigonaee Caceon er 512 | Ergasilus Sieboldii-..---. - Ras es = 514 
Distribution of salmon and trout.. 107 | Erik, the Pomeranian king --....-. 225 
shad in 1878..---. O11; 626))|(-Enartss Hon sWe Mie seceee eee 853, 855 
Wobsis Clube? sa4. see sess eee 925 | Experiments with herring eggs--.. 631 
ModoeWiallltam eda sn ee 38 | Experiments with other than shad 
Mohan Dr vAMtoOn =). eas: 152, 463, 466 CP SVE eeignianon nomen Sasa acs 727 
Mone PelenT yess esse ee seas 70 KF. 
Dorlandt, Capt. Klaas...-.-.------ 656 
POH Ue ier a deterty aot on 1934 EDO WEES cers arses se eres atest enerete 657 
Drift ice) il es 264, 271, 272, 273, 275 | Fagerheim’s net factory ...--....- 68 
Driving the salmon ........-....-- 751 | Fall of water for salmon Tetohines 948 
Dronynidep hwy seeseceneee ee eee 912 | Fancy fish...-....---.------------ 682 
Druid Hill Park hatching-house-. 53 | Farlow, W. G ..-------.-.-------969, 973 
IB aS oto) ea tete, wee 198,211, 148, 154 642 | Hare, Wiranke 0. cates eee 941 
Duhamel du Monceau.--...-....--- 177 G 8........----------------- 876 
IB TOTTI Ry AIM oth CAN AD! 2 973 SoC... see 2 C49 FESO SSO ese 
iD ern ehH eee en elie mae AN AA 526,529 | Fauna of the Baltic ...--.--..---. ally; 
itureaelorace 1). Jc2e eee 815, 816 | Feather-star (Antedon) ....-..--.. 278 
Dwwimelile aCe. eo. rc 2 ae .remtns) aoe 463 | Feddersen, A ..---.-.----.-------- 43 
Dyrenforth, Robert G.........-. . 3,17 | Fengar, Capt. Alvan A-....-..---- 612, 618 
Dytiscus marginalis .............. 514 | Ferguson, T. B......-.-. 47, 57, 58, 611, 941 
E Fertility of the sea ...-..-----.--- 540 
; Hieldo® Petaluma 22e-eeseseeeeere 665 
Marl], Relies ecccns << gaee aoe eiten 1685); HinschisD re. 52 =. 5a eer 909, 910, 916 
Earnings of fishermen ........---- 204 | Firth, J. C ..829, 833, 836, 839, 844, 852, 860, 
Hiben-Bandittenseec 200 5. seers 667 861, 863, 866, 872, 875, 902 
Echinorhyneus proteus.........--.- 513 | Fish Commission ....-.-... 463, 474, 493, 612 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page 
Fish culture in Canada -.........-. 761 
Fish dinner at the Philadelphia 

exhibibioniemsnes sas tee see eee aoe 80 
IBHSMYONEMICS/ OF weccee secs oes ee ce 509 
ish=foodesstwesseat secee saseae ess 573 
Fish-hooks, patents for...... -- 3, 11, 16, 18 
ibh-leache Sse Sess ccs Sees lse 514 
Rish-lOUS@hssneosocecs esse eos: 514 
Bishsmarketsiese. cscs cote sk 54 
Fish not sold living in the United 

SURUG opener dceor to eae seme ae ae 
HISHIONINLEY).422 52 s222 bos = Ss oc cn's 515 
Fish-ponds for keeping fish alive... 71 
Fish, preservation of--....-...--.. 9,13 
Fish, some kind suffer from great 

COM emer aniesaaehice stewie e acicice a 93 
Fish supply decreasing ....---.---. 543 
Fish-traps, patents for-....--- 5, 11, 16, 18 
Fishways, patents for. ...-.--- 5, 11, 16, 20 
Fishways desired in Maine......--. 926 
Fisheries, the, of North America.-..54,75 
Fishery expositions.-.....--.-..... 41, 47 

commission, a parliament- 
alyier soe esec cess: 233 
Fishes eating their own fry -..---. 119 
Fishes worth cultivating.......... 564 
Misinnie doryseccsses sooo sete. &89 
Hishinomillegaileesscclscscs esses | (COD 
Fishing laws in China .....-....-.. 546 
Fishing, patents for .-..-.-...-.. Sy 
Fixtures for hatching salmon ..-.- 945 
Hloating Netse: aes cs. 2-'sos<)s— 52 69 
WlOais ep avenues Onsen l--- 5, 11,18 
Food an essential condition for her- 

MME 5 ooocooae 6 Dobos DobOOE 181, 197, 217 
Food consumed by animals...-.. -- 588 
Hood tom hermin gp ssce es csne soe 175, 197 
Food of the young herring......-. 127 


Food of trout, quantity necessary. 554 


Food, patents for preservation of .. 9,13 
Horchhammer 2225. .2---- S56565 Se 155 
GOLEM ay eeN Us Aemaa Soe. sale seinieeeis 850 
OTM AMONUOMICE tacos oe) salen ae 178 
Fox, Shipley, and John Krider ..-. 53 


France, exhibition at Philadelphia, 50 


Societé d’Acclimatation... 912 
Branichune Mieyoaenis cio c<s0 52's 909 
Prederick IE of Norway-.------..--- 226 
Free acid or alkali to be prohibited 

in waste watercourses ......----- 522 
Freezing fish for transportation --. 558 
whole cargoes of fish .--. 64 

Prone He Ae Oo. yn cca icn smc esas 67 
2 hee ae ne Mere 929 


979 


Page. 
iresh ish! onviceses cose. 71,75, 89, 90 
TAC OmUNO mcewec cee ses “ic 
Fresh-water fisheries in America... - 98 
Freshet on the McCloud River-..-. TAL 
Priedenthal rs saek. ec cecie se se 907 
Pirielew sci seems cco soeee seme eticaets 281 
ETIbSCHS, fa Seee et aaase ne es cceeee 671, 677 
Frozen herring as bait ........---. 698 
Holton markettteescessceseees sone 54,77 
Koneh, Edve dks Coess-se ee seee aaa 919 
Fungus disease, notes on the ...-.. 525 
how does it affect the fish. 534 
G. 
Gaimard? 2225 co casenc ss oe eae ees 265 
Garrell Mi. 2 St S.cossn cee tess eee 909 
Geographical distribution of the 
COdMeso soos eee 704 
location influences 
the herring. .* 2. - 180 
Gerard Ws occacesseceocecessee 844, 881 
German Commission of the Centen- 
Tal roesens access Sees 907 
Fish Commission ....-.... 639 
Fishery Commission - . . .509, 516, 
651, 654 
Ocean, scientific investi- 
DAMONO Lace ene aes 283 
Society of Fish-Culture.. 283 
Germany, exhibition at Philadel- 
Pe OL Suk: ee Sees ERG CGC 51 
the market for northern 
fishing products -.-.-. 44 
Gill-nets for cod ...--..--- Rabo DS 696 
Gulpini sfoess2 cece eo cee eo inceeee 189, 193 
Gisler eee me ce erecta 170, 171, 173 
description of the spawning 
DLOCESS; WU Wise eset eee 648 
Gloucester fisheries -...... -...... 55, 685 
Going out of the herrings.......-. 196 
Goldfish pond at Palpuli Rancho -. 663 
raising at Oldenburg ....- 679 
sickness of the z.=-<. 222. - 537 
Gold-orfe ss. 3a, See ance ee saele 70 
Gonatus ame@nust--e- eee sass oe 263 
Goodales Ji Gres 2 tee ee cea eoee 53 
Goode, Prots Ge brownl. sce. cesssee 64 
Gordius aquaticusi:-- s+. esseeeesee 513 
Gosnold, Bartholomew.---.....-.. 686 
Gomi DT oo 2 Soa cerwicta cyanea 467 
Government’s aid to fishing inter- 
GIS GeSeBECoeeeDaoabe cates se Sede 45 
Grambergy Pe Acs a 5-2 cents eae ee 235 


980 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
Page. Page. 
Grayling, the (Thymallus vulgaris) 568 | Hegt, Noordhoch ............ 914, 918, 920 
Great Britain, exhibition at Phila- Height of the water .............173, 179 
delphia). seaae cee dl |, Heincke; recto 5-- ae eee 647 
fishing patent issued Heligoland, observations at ...... 291,292 
IM oo eee eases 17 | Henry V., king of England ...... e225 
(Cneging Wiad a6 ceosos soos 741, 891, 899 | Hensen, Professor.......-.....--.- 647 
Seth .47, 57, 58, 104, 359, 551, 555, 754 Herring, age when first spawning. 653 
Greenland shark-hunters..---..... 271 age when full grown. --... 655 
Gries: Captaimseccacce «ce sae seo ee 258 and small herring at the 
Grouping for the judge’s work in coast of Bohusliin -.... 639 
Philadelphiays ss.4 sso cesses 47 beds... oceo oe eee 641 
Groups of fishes, differently divided, 186 TiSheTies =. c0- ee ee eee 224 
Growth in fishes, rapidity of....... 592 fishery in the Baltic...... 124 
Gnitestream, Sacra aseeee ane ee 173 food from the polar cur- 
Gumbneninnmwcce cee cies Sele ene 533 TENUS aoe sseie soe eee 216 
1D ARS Saco de weoeeon Eres 820 fry to be spared.......... 125 
Gwiniad, the (Coregonus)......... 567 in Albemarle Sound...... 615 
4 Herrings chased AWAY os eee eee 205, 217 
: disappeared entirely at 
Haack Mireetony 92.40. ce sec ees 909 Bohus lan 222s 230 
Haddock-eggs, hatching ...--.. .-.- 731 on the coast of Sweden -. 124 
levity, Ike I ewbiysy Soe eo ocee Bee eee 525, 526 raising young from artifi- 
Hakon Hakonsson, King....--.--. 222 cially impregnatedeggs, 634 
aiibaibie eee smwiccers eoae sek omeee 262, 7h | ea soins ics Gittord eseeee eee seeeeee 68 
lamin or ANC xcee -.s-c nie ceemene 927 | High barometer and fishing -...... 167 
emamertestiesce nse ok eee see 258) 267: |euind, (Prot. cevoule.-ce sae 182 
PAN G-TIM OS Woeetaiaaiceis se sie ces a eelete 138 | History of the codfisheries ........ 686 
for catching cod .-.-.-. 693 | Hobrecht, Counsellor ---......-2-- =, 038 
furnish cod more uni- Hodges. iB aie ganas eae eee eee 930 
fONMEeesece wacees eee 36>); Holdsworthysss--e- eee eee eee 657, 658 
Hankinson, Captain -..---.-.....- 876 | Holland, fish culture in -.....---.- 587 
EfansenyDIR6CGLOnEAl seen saeeenaeeee 518 | Holmberg, A. E.. -...222, 229, 231, 237, 640 
Hanssen, Frederik -........-:.--.- 69" | Holmes, (HT iee eee soe eee ee 665 
Elarcer Oscar eee ees ee eee oll 463 Hon. Mathew..-.--------- ) 3660 
Harpoons and spears, patent for. -.6, 11, 16, Witesappocenceceedeass so (ie 
18 TRAE) cictol= een seo tas ieee 928, 932 
Harriman, Perry...---- biel a aie Fata 781 | Honolulu, carp imported into..-.. 665 
Hatching apparatus on the McCloud Hooper, Eidwitsss esr see eee eee 834, 844 
very complete ...-...- (43) | Hopkins, eulben)) 2s s<see see 927 
ADDING) Soe = came aces 552, 559 | Houghton, Robert -......--.----- 834, 849 
establishments.......-..- 103 &1C0..n 2. oon soso 876 
MOUSES) soe ctencne sat Oss DS, |) ELowards Eleniy ceases sees eee 859 
of salmon, cheap fixtures Hubbard Wi Hiteeer et ses catineaee eee 
POF So oncies--sesadncees, | GAD) Muddlestone, Mredoneky:s-c oe aes 858, 863 
operations of cod -...-. 7135720) eudson\ Minigame sees rose eee 934 
station on the McCloud Hughlett, Thomas .-.--:----cssou. Ole 
PNGLOT 8 ose coe ace sae 741, Hume UR. D coo... sa2 = ve nseaeeeeee 773 
hatching young fishes for Hiumingen). 232... ..\+.2).3645sseeee 672 
propagation .......... 1090) Humleye ee .n</2 52-5 ea eeeeeenee 654 
Havre de Grace Station -..-....... 618 
ISR H OE WN Swit = So5scosHease Seek 746, 747 r 
Hector, Dr. James .. 835, 850, 851, 856, 875, | ‘‘Ice-bear”, sloop from Nordensk- 
876, 881, 900, 903 jold’s expedition... -cess-- eases 274 
Pederstrom, Ef c cases ee seas c 655, | Ice-roach,.the .... 2.22.3 -€s--saee 278 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page 
Ichthyocolla, &c., patents for....- 10 
Mewalishing 22.2 os occnccces 895 
Implement for the Baltic coast fish- 

GUI OS ¢ nc teest eee cya see ans wae e ee 123 
Imported fish products.-.-..---.. 87, 86, 87 
TMpPrecnatione ese a= ac ames =a = 586 
Improvement of fisheries......--.. 120 
Iniprovements in boats, implements, 

SECar Noes he mais as 59 
in fish-culture ad- 
VASE )2 cee ls tee 549 
Index to the report on the Pycno- 

GOUGH Sass dhoooonoEsod abeas ase 505 
Imdiamyscanes thei -emem asses === 746 
Indian’s work in the water.... ----. 745 
Influence of the weatherin general, 172 
Infusoria eating up the liver of 

fOWGNTSIO) 3 e5 Sodgonecasn cod bono. 537 
Insects as food for goldfish........ 682 
Iron, lime, and tan for coloring 

ONCE oo 50e 6500 o4éss6 Go 56s0e= 683 
ISHII S286 GaSe cen e460 BOCoLD ooe oe 53, 70 


Italy, exhibition of, at Philadelphia 50 


fish-culture in, for centuries. 547 
J. 
Jackson; George Av... 525.. --22- 463 
Majomiqscecccc seecte-son) Old 
obmsonegAlE Mis. Seyecciecisscctocte = ot 872, 879 
Jacobson, Hermann. - .43, 47, 117, 143, 241, 
509, 519, 667 
Prof. Dr... -293, 537, 539, 675, 679 
Japan, exhibition at Philadeiphia- 51 
Jarvis; Mies t es ocecea; etc. s 936 
VICSSCD ee seatee es oereneeteeele evecare 183 
K. 

Kearstems Grcact/oct aichlesetesicic ceiciees 283 
IS SUMIMN ele eats cose cece s 671 
Keay tt Aves s2feise a tcasas Seijeeaccceae 844 
Memipe Day, Oo CO. ssiascsaocce coe 53 
Keni Gln Oye accom cyseecee seas 701 
Kennedy Captain <2... 22225. --.- 844 
iRiddemeMr asses vis aseccc2 see's 928, 931 

Kiel, Untersuchung der deutschen 
IMNIGENOE 2 aaree Stee e =o cos So cc5, fee SOOO OOS 
Killing, cleaning, and curing fish. - 69 
Kinds\ and prices of fish..--...---. 78 
J ROKSSISY Gs Orel [con ES Rs ae pe ee 665 
Kirommelibeineee +2 <aice ssrasice. os. 606 
Kroyersase<- 194, 198, 210, 213, 466, 452, 496, 
641, 643, 649, 651 
ECT ek Ae ea ee a 584, 585, 587 
KunpitersProtessor ..---- sense ~ 649 


1B) Page 
Bacaze-D wher sa -c1) 5 <-\< ee 152 
Ma C6PSASeeew ae ie l- teins us ajaiereisietaiere 139, 194 
Wake, thei Geota))\sescsesyes sees eee 572 
1S O MKS \oee5e5 G56500 oood Soce 101 
herring (Coregonus albula)- 574 
WMamottewAn Visssnccscccce coutoeat 665 
Landing of the herrings -..- .----- 215 
Wigtreille: case tac asses 465 
Lau, the (Alburnus lucidus)..-.----. 574 
Lauretz Madson in Aalesund .----- 70 
Lawrence fishway, fish foundin -.. 93 
earmoubhiyy Mate cee tae eee 829 
Ihederkarpfeneisse cose eee oe ea) 
Leeuwenhock, Van -..---- .-:--- 210, 654, 
655 


Legislation and administration of 
figheries)2 2295-2225. 144, VAD 

proposed as to the 

management of im- 


Purenwater ease se 524 
Wests Capuaineecssst eects eee 910 
Lenni Fish Association -.... -.-..-.- 665 
Mesirisipomaninarece-yss-s ss eeeeee 269 
WWewes, Wi Keer Bron erica ieeets 52 
IDGyy/Gbiine Se SUbs BOSE eb aSolbose deed 575 
Liberia, exhibition of, at Philadel- 

Phila sass8 Seececseeceeeeeeeee ss 51 
Wieberkithne 222. io-)-1 asics se se 510 
Life on board a fishing schooner... 108 
Wioulatsecess ana csiscteser seers 511 
JLT KCIIR) Booeob cosas ccoas sSecc¢ 77 
ime as purer 22-2 e-ceae eee 522 

deposits are valuable fertiliz-  * 
(le pace ses becoSueKobaS aosc 523 
imertrony Russia -ssee. sss seee 614 
Bish; Gee. oo. cinco soe eee OOa ood 
Livers, number per barrel....--... 250 


Ljungman, Axel Vilhelm -143, 147, 148, 219, 


221, 639 
d D0} Ys) oe Sere 198, 200, 208, 643, 658 
boew, "Dr: Oscarsst st... -iesescmeae 283 
Lorenz; J. Rosc2c52032 -seonecssoce |) CO 
WovéniSes 242i eee cose seeee ee 198, 640 
Lovenhjelm, Count OL Ge Alia dae 237 
Howensteiness-) tase ae eee eee 67 
Lowzxie;: Captain s2 2223 Vee eee. 844 
Lundbeck, Rev. O....-. poo Me 194, 198, 218 
Bee aS Seen A 231, 235 
humdi bere 2eestece scsnisceae oases 655 
utrasyulearise ts se ee eee ec cces 515 
Lybecker -: 2 .- 198, 200 
Lycodes, a rare avohte Aan: _ 263, 265, 
273 


yman, Walliams 222) scene ee (il 


982 


M. Page. 
Macandrew, Hon. James ..-...-... 903 
Macaroniipiabile=----.------ 22-2. 511 


M’Cloud Hatching Station in 1878. 741 
Mac@ulloch J 222. 224.22 - cee es 4456 

Bap AS ee coon Ihe) ieee iste: 
Macdonald, iN ne siioae aoe sissies 844 
McDonald, Captain -.---.--....--- 650 
McDonal, Col. Marshall ...--.-.... 613 
Macdonald Wrasse eee 881 
Macgillivray, Captain ...... ..-.-.. 844 
Mc Greg onwD karescenel pear eeenee 844 
Wiclibeinln, Hewes = 235555 55c4gsasee 881 


IMaiekerel seas sa ae a ee eee 64 


catching with purse-seine. 108 
submitted to public in- 
SpechlOniena---e eee eee 1il 
Mertienmanane sectseetyan eietsmeiakone 674 
Magnus Hakonsson ...-.---....... 223, 231 


Maine, exhibition at Philadelphia. 53 
State Fish Commissioner’s 


TOPOL Neseisee es oo eelq ciate 925 
Maker a5 Il pSOM= soe semeceee see 68 
IMIGNDOL LS cee tisms sc sec ate cio ticimeveieisie 643 
Malm, A. W..--- 151, 198, 210, 642, 645, 651, 
656, 657 
IManunesseiisiteaens cece cee ceiee ae 15 
American patent --...... 15 
English patent .......... 15 
Markets for haddock, cod, &c -.--. 700 
Marstrand, as fixed station-....... 226 
exported annually 600,- 
000 tons of herring -. 228 
the second city of Nor- 
RIN, Goeeno oscar SesH 229 


Martin, Captain -..........-. 183, 708, 969 
Maryland, exhibition at Philadel- 


Dhiakosccercccessces 53 

Fish Commission .--.--. 612 

fish Teporises.- sss asses 941 
Massachusetts, exhibition at Phila- 

delphiaeae-eseeee 52 

fish reports from--.. 932 

Mather, Fred. -.----. ....909, 910, 913, 917 


Maturing and hatching the eggs on 


mem MicCloud) = 225es ecacteeeseeee 752 
Maximum and minimum tempera- 

Ube BRD ON ASS S6 bat eca cosacser 289 
IM acy Glee sae iis co a miele mene 654 
Mepler, SiGe ose e tenn. Wea eaeee 772 
Melbourne Argus, editorial of - ... 828 
Mende-Dobrilugk. ----.. 0.22.6 222. 671 
Menhaden, &c., for oil and guano .- 63 
Menhaden, &c., as bait............ 697 
Menzies: Han, J.-A. Riese eee 865 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page. 
Meteorological observations for the 
fisheries: eee ee 155 
observation ....... 737-740 
Meyer, Dr. He A=22 2 155, 176, 283, 286, 290, 
293, 628, 649, 654 
Meyers, F. J. (Hamburg).-.-....... 671 
Migrations of herring..........-.. 163, 197 
Migratory fish acs 43.05s6 o-eeteee 118 
INCRHIN GS-6 cee eee 191, 645 
Miller grt oh eer eee eee 648 
Millet i. 2ss.2 2c Senin ee eee £82 
Milner, James W ........ 611, 685, 718, 721 
Minnows not affected by the fungus 536 
Mississippi Valley, fish reportsfrom 942 
Mapchelil (cis 2 tulsa an noe ae 640, 650, 654 
Ji dB! Sepa eon ae Coreen 781 
Mixedth errnin Ose. e e eee eee 203 
Mitehelson, Bie sae ee aeee eee 844 
Mobius Kes. see eee 181, 182, 283 
Mobint 322). 202 52¢ essere eee 155 
Moreniére, Noel de la ....-.......- 641 
Mortality among fish......---.-.-. 525 
Mort, the (Leuciscus vutilus) --.-- 574 
Mosely, Comm teases ee = eee aero 942 
Mosher, (A.A 25. 222. er eceseieeee 928 
Moss gathering: 2520. .tsc.s scene 763 
Miud=catchers ee meee] ease ee eee 520 
Muller Johannes! oeeseeeeeee eee 510 
Munson; Mri. 22ss. sc cescoesecie es ao 
Miimter. 2. 2c s-ccse cece eeeonne 166 
PYrOLessOr |. = S.2cce:ce sche sel OL 
Murray: & Co.2 2. cecetessseaeeen 53 
Muselesias food 222. ->,.csc5 --ceeoae 71 
Museum of New Zealand ...--..-... 851 
Minster, WiAcs ccccccee ce meceeae 754 
Mythical causes for the cessation 
ofthe fisheries 2. s-e ase neenees 206 
N. 
Natural fish-breeding -......-.-..-- 672 
history of marine animals. 295 
history, of theicod]=-s->-2— «04 
history of the herring - ---- 126 
SCLON CORRE ee selen a= =-1aeeeete i61 
Ned will,Dreetesent. os. 4 2eeeees 85 
INematodessemeee cscs sateen 513 
Netherlands, exhibition at Philadel- 
phia, -..9-. see -eenee 5] 
salmon eggs for-.----. 916 
Nether-Lusatia, carp ponds in...-. 671 
Net-fishivg on the Baltic ...---.----. 138 
Nets and seines, patents for....6, 12, 16, 24 
Nets are destructive during the 
spawning season...-...----..--.- 126 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page. 

IN@UCRANEZS sc 5s .crcs:ccenicis 165, 176, 198, 644 

New Hamshire, fish reports from -. 28 

New Jersey fish reports -..--.-..-..-. 938 
New York, exhibition at Philadel- 

PHL). ae sieves lel eos 53 

fiShenePOLtsy. cee tase ee 935 

NTeh Olas Ve Pope sseciccmce cee selocee 224 


Nilsson, Professor . ..151, 183, 189, 190, 194, 
205, 208, 640, 643, 651, 656 


IND Persie ace eet aoe en eee 62 
Noel de la Moreniere ...<-. ..-...-- 194 
Nordenskold’s expedition.----..---- 274 
Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri---.... 43 
Nordland and Troms6 districts . ..253, 254 
Normanby, Marquis of..--...---.. 838, 854 
Norrkoping exhibition --..-...-.-- 43 
North America as a market for im- 
ported fish pro- 
ucts sss sea neces 3 
fisheries of......... 54, 75 
North-Sea water influence on her- 
rings’ eggs from the Baltic ...--. 634 
NOGKOn, msamiilell N= eee emieee ese cael 888 
Norway, exhibition of, at Philadel- 
Phid) cs aeiese sss cca 48 
Norway’s mode of treatment of fish. 89 
NOGWeSTany DOatS=- = eee seems 101 
deep-sea expedition in 
Meh eee sees Case 257 
dried and pickled fish 
little used in America 82 
lakes, fish-culture in... 539 
INGOT WOOGN ia SON sss eee =e ae 53 
Notes on letter of Mr. H.D.Dunn-. 817 
on fishing, &c., of Schoodic 
salmoneeecee Seosicesee en dol 
on the fungus disease -...---. 525 
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland 
fiSheries\s. cw 25case es Sess ene see 64 
Number of eggs in haddock -..--.. 733 
O: 


Objects exhibited at Philadelphia - 48 
Observations, hasty ones lead to 


mistakes -...-.--- 145 

on fishery exposi- 

GIONS sojcinis sirens 43 
Odoraphrodisiacus-.--=.-----.---- | |648 
Cuma, Mies nee a Save sieve Sen c= le 224 
Offal, thrown overboard, poisons 

the fishing grounds -...--:-----. 36 
Ohio exhibition at Philadelphia - -. 53 
Oil made from herrings ---.. -..---- 232 
Oil-preparations of fish more liked 

HT VATHOLIC As sips xia i= ie melee —ctemniesee 81 


Page. 
Oldvherring’. 35. cies d-seeceasjsece 644 
Olof, the Salut. cea se a. sate e chet eee 
Odspores and zoospores .-..------- 533 
Opalina rananume-s- 2 eee eee 510 
Oregon exhibition at Philadelphia- 53 
Oyster and lobster fisheries in the 
United States .----. ----- 75 
Clams; & C3. eee eases 63 
cultunes SCiee es Seen eee 108 
culture, patent for .... --.7, 12, 26 
dred@eseassa cece seers 29 
Takes; stjc0s odes nae ose ose 29 
WOT Cmipode anqnod eSebSoase 29 
theeAm erica == stsen lect 922 
Ps 
Packard, Professors. --- 2-2... 467, 493, 922 
Packing and shipping the eggs at 
McCloud! River << --- =-- 762 


fish in ice or freezing them 91 
Paralyzing by electricity, English 


patentWior 25. -cees9e eee ese 12, 29 
Parasitesiof® fishes'-=--225 soc sane 510 
Pamellesstiscs sen ceeoe sss ser 177, 644 
Parsons) JOSlahee esse sen oem ee 
Pasture-schooleees Stes cc sian eer 690, 691 
Patents for freezing-...--- -.---2=. 94 

for preserving and for salt- 
ingHishw ee soke ace eee 75 
issued jes. sae 3 
Rayne, James). 2 scee esse olen eee 858 
Reacocks Elona dryly cemeteries 850 
Pearce, | Captalls se tee ose seese 108 
Pease or eggs of the fish .......... 702 
Peitz Lakes, carp fisheries in.----- 675 
Pennamtiee as yess eee ee eae eeeae 641 
Pennsylvania exhibition at Phil- 
adelphia --......- 53 
ASHI TepoLtseeesy see 940 
Penobscot, Me., price ofsalmoneggs 107 
Perch) thes22sscsteects- 2 ashes 569 
iPerch-pikey theless s-sise. ese eee 570 
Rerleye Mai. sooo oaes oe eee 173, 654 
Pestel;, von'i22scc22.ceeye Se 918 
Peters) Brofessones=-- eens see 511 
Petition to the United States Fish 

Commission So -c.s2es-cles- 5/2242 35 
Philadelphia exhibition .......--.- 47 
Phillips; Bi2s.554 845226 ho52-cse2 47 


Photographs of fishes-.-.. .-....-- 99 
Physical causes for the cessation of 


thedfisheries 222. -5-eeen- cd ol Ls 
Pike, the (Esox lucius)....-.--.-.-. 570 
12 vin agi) eee Saori Sase Seeceneoaasoos 689 


Piscicola geometra......---...---- 


984 


Page. 
Pisciculture, patent for... ....7, 12, 16, 30 
Pits, water-tight .-.-.. ..-..--...- 521 
Plan of the Oldenburg establish- 
ment for hatching goldfish .....-. 680 
Planting of Schoodic salmon ...... O88 
awa )hs sts Seen oeeie eae ues 654 
Polar current’s boundary -....-.....259, 266 
Polk Cole Tees Soa cs She eee: 613 
Pollen; Mrvjc--2s2220- 2 tet Ae 915 
Pollock-eggs not hatched --..-.--- 729 
Poliystom ace sec eiae eee Soe tee 513 
Pomolobus pseudoharengus..-.--. 659 
Pompanos.+-<sschse asset eee cee 79, 80, 99 
IROndS S252 2222 cael Sac sa ecescisiee ss 57 
fORPIShean Ost C Osea seei= eee 564 
1810) 0) deh dntd: Vaden ee ocEeee aemeEaecors 661 
IROVEDIGAN =224 suerte eee POOL 
Population of Bohuslin improving 237 


Portugal exhibition at Philadelphia 50 
Post-oflice ‘‘ Baird,” at the McCloud 


HISHOLY pees <.heteeeissela ee om ae cee HAD 
Potomac River Station .......----- 619 
IRoundene tere caac emcee seer 61 
HOWE DT cetcs teteccce ees occece SOU 
Powers, Mineses a aetiesecee sce cee oa eee 
1Piy Is Ie osoooo Se eace Deebos dase 773 

Wi seA esc Ms ce Sonne see 754 

VT ee So ee Sees eee R34 
Premium for exported herrings..-. 23 

ipreparinpycodtish sasese eee nes 139 

fish in Nova Scotia -.... 66 

Preservation of fish, patent for.... 9,13 

Preston; Sammelis-2 = sos-se2 22) 25-5 753 

IPTICe TOLCOdMe es hese sana an ieeaee 701 

OGG Me aie (OU Clana e aks see 580 

fish iver acel2 a2- 2-1-1 200,201 

herring variable.......... 133 

WRU S Bat seoosdoao ssscoc 584 

packed mackerel ..---.--- 112 

rin ce wa vol scm ae soe ee 927 

Principal fish on the Swedish coast 

Of the Baltic! 322 s/-a2sjseecccece= 118 
rm oshelmecs sos, aac csncmmasicece 535 
proctor, straskads COmsessescecece 67 
Profit from fish-culture-.-.-...-.-- 596 

of hatching, probable --...-- 106 
Progress in fishery recommended -. 242 
Propagation of cod, artificial... -- 685 

food fishes...-... -- 507, 609 
Propagating process of fishes not 
(HO) los) GuIsVHOEOl- Sook ao deeeor coe 119 


Propagation of the fungus -....--- 535 
Proprietorship and right of fishing 
tombe securedss. saci sae eae 552, 604 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page. 
Protectivelaws4.--2--)- oe oseee eee 100 
Protection of fisheries against men 
and animals/Soe cee on sete eaee £54 
Protococeus (Salanus?-=--4---.seee" 973 
IPSOLOSPerMig cece op eeeecee eee 510 
Pteropods (Limacina arctica)-..-.. 261 
Purification of refuse water....... 519 
IPUTIty IN CIP Lts 22s e eee eee eee 521, 523 
IPUTSO-SCING:. Sano dec .os cee eee 60, 112 
introduction of ....-.- 68 
in Sweden, Germany, 

SCV olok. Beas 113 
Pycnosonidals..-ss sees = eee 463 
Q. 

Quatrefages =>. cee o = seveineeeee 466, 539 
Quenselil.- 222 ca cecacaeceiosseeee 194 
R. 

FPA GC sis citrate ee tons eee eee ee 51 
Rasch; Perot sbeseeessecee ees 517, 548, 557 
Raveret-Wattels..sssco54-e eee 913 
Read, Mrs 52 ccc0 ciacteisocanytes emo 
Receipts for salmon eggs ---------- 753 
Red' Char thes. sc. scesa senor ee 566 
Reddening of salted codfish--..--- 969 
Redding. 1B: B2---- Heesepoaeis 815, 868, 873 
Reeder, Howards Jieeess- ose eee 940 
Reels, patentdor. sse-.e5- eee 7, 12, 30 
Refrigerator, the American ......-. 92 

Refuse or old brine not to be toler- 
ated in salting-houses-..---..... 130 
Regulations for salmon fisheries... 141 
ReichardtyW. esac see tee 519 
Reindeer skilled sees sees e eee 280 
Remy, a peasant in the Vosges.... 547 
Repairs to be done on the McCloud. 742 

Report of the California State fish- 
CTIOS ) 22545. secon eS eee 883 


on the American fisheries -.- TD 
Marine Isopoda of 


New England....- 297 
Pycnogonida...-... 463 
Repose for purification of water... 520 
Reproduction of the cod ..-....--- 712 
Reptiles enemies of fish.......-..- 515 
Result of the Loffoden fisheries in 
Ukerice 4+ oe mm ES 253 
Results and tables of shad propaga- 
drondn A878: Joo Jssah sees eee eee 619 


Rewi, an eminent chieftain..844, 845, 848 
Rhode Island fish reports..-...---. 934 
Rhodichthys regina.....--....--.- 204 


| Richardson, J. A o2cceeee oe. eee 741, 762 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page 
Riehardsons J. jeaceeeien co. a= toc 932 
TMU yt NETIC eereetaealajela)sieinis mice scl 741, 762 
Robbery on the McCloud Station... 744 
TAG) SEMUKEI) Soo cop coa6se Sopp eceoeboe 942 
Rockfish on Dr. Capehart’s shores. 614 
inackwollHerbimessasisesccss=+ 522.) (908 
Rods, patentsfors-- 32-2. 35 525. 8,13; 31 
Rogue River Hatching..........-.- 773 
Ii@Why WENO 53550 sonceo a seencosos 748 
Ronne, C. E., Belgian consul... -- 65 
oss, Captn JON 2 22-- jee5-—------ 559 
Rowing apparatus, a new .... ---.- 71 
Royal Society of Tasmania-.----.- 819 
uulble yy Mirsh 5s cc\jocse ye aie cares 929 


Rules for fishing on the Swedish 


COAStB EA aaseassesciecicee ce osc 122 
VUSSe ls Aloe amisisesete <c-c.e Aotee ees 644 
RUSSO EN esis ne lc eee cco sc 845, 883 
Russia, exhibition at Philadelphia, 50 
IRMSSIAM) Ca VIA) et See eee cee 3 

s. 

Hah ICUS! soe-ss-6)sciccassess ase e 69 
St. George, Baron de la Valette.... 509 
Nalmonhamabus): -ssceeesesscee neat 915 
CUUMMMTMaiteee sees seaicee cae 741 
Saat nioasoskye san et eee 915, 937 
Salmon seesscteice sec sees reese 166 

acclimatizing in New Zea- 
Jang ae Pee oso 
close season for Gulifornia., 892 


eggs spoiled on their trans- 


portation to Canada = 775 
ain digwilya sears ee 758 
toiGermamy <2. -222-- 907 
treatment of ..--..-..- 962 
EpIdemi Ce eer sasecee see 525 
fishing with lines ....-. ..- 140 
Wilbh Metsi.s2qossteeysreee oe 141 
hatehine 0522. Pits ce ase 945 
at Clackamas..... 771 
on Rogue River... 773 
Ibalalee 26.2 2) ose Sees 561 
vast numbers - ane 748 

is furnished in nnmape 
cheaper by Americans..-. 100 
JUMPIN Geeeeiosascseseescas | 240 
Waders 0 oss Sais Sos ees 560 

ova, proposed distribution 
of, in New Zealand -..-.-.. 856 
returns to its birthplace... 558 
number caught -... 2... ---- 763 
trout of California.....--. 816, 818 
Salt, amount) of... 2. 22. 284, 285, 286 
and fresh-water species of fish, 576 


985 


Page. 

Salting the common Baltic herring, 1380 
Saltness of the water .---..-..-..- 176 
Salt solution preserves the fungus. 529 
to be used for Baltic herrings. 131 


Salt-water fisheries of Bohusliin..145, 150 


Sanderson, Dr. Burdon.-.---..--.--. 535 
San Joaquin salmon ..........-.-. 816 
SHAOGO Shgodeds seam eons. soSdculse 576 
Saprolecniaisee. seeetaeee ieee nee 616 
feraxy iis. ckee see 509, 528, 531 
Sars.. ..---- 107, 157, 176, 180, 189, 194, 201 
203, 210, 249, 257, 496, 575, 653 
Sawdust an obstacle..--..--..---- 517 
Sawyer, Eranikdin! 22s ecreee eee eed, 
Saxon investigation) 222...) -=s-== 523 
Schiever, Mo .s5s ssc ee aes 916 
Sebistocephalusi-eeee-)-eeeeeeeeeee 511 
Schoodie salmon egys, collection, 
WC., In 187879 ee eee 789 
Schoodic salmon eggs, shipment of. 798 


in\Mass222> sso-e8 932 


Schloezer, German Minister -.---.-- 908 
Schools of mackerel and men- 
haden® .fs se Soe ce esis eee 109, 110 
Schuster» Mayoncsssecieee aes 910 
Scientific investigations are the 
GOIN, CLE-RLIRNIE) os6ee5 Hieeo tone cos 143 
Sclater, Henry Hi <..22 22-2 .5--1ese- 70 
scolex polymorphus ..---...---. 2 511 
SCOUbMOVIIVeSUCIy ee osetia aaa see 665 
Screens for salmon hatching --..-- 961 
Sea misheries:. <.55 2-2 ohem/-ccmniee 73 
Nea-SpIder: So \ Sse were cce cs so eee Oe 
Sea-worm, the cause of the Bch 
of fish - eS ameter cet e(-cefc err 544 
Sebago sainnart APES 28 See ta se 2.7%, 776 
Seed Wi tetete ccciot sca slate sinve cleats 844 
Selve, Marquis de... -.-..-.--.- 582 
Semper, Prof. Carl -. - 463, 468, AT7 
Sexual and a sexual ibaa’ of propa- 
Pablo Sos e.ce sei- as aa 
Shad-hatching =: 2.4520 oss eae 611 
Shad in Lake Ontario....2...----. 93 
introduced into California 
Wabersinoste ep aeeeseecsee OLOM 
Shiadior stam sil de? See sere 104 
Shad-ova, number of...-.-..----- 613, 618 
Phaerecnk ser see eee eis een = 51 
Share of the fishermen-..-....--.- 109, 112 
Siberia, sick salmon in Castrie’s 
IB dyin oot ere ae clean eerie tele 528 
DilvertrOwh == 25 Soee neler 849 
Simpson; Joseph: 222s 2: ---- 2s =- 63 
Sinkers, English patent for........ 13 
Size of eels, marketable. ......-.-. 672 


986 


Page. | 
Size of mesh in salmon-net--..-.-- 562 
youne herrimes=-_=2)2.2--- 650, 651 
Skin hardening ponds. .-.-.--.----- 683 
Skins, bones, fins, &c., of cod are 

51D) OU Se Mapa Ameo SI eee Re AE, 704 
Skulls, undisturbed. ..22 2222-222. 277 
eles MOPS asic ea kok Sace een Hens 938 
Slime, formless organic -..-..--.-.. 182 
Slom, the (Osmerus eperlanus) --.. 574 
Small herrings among the large 

MUS Sach aaa seb Qoueea asa daS aace 202 
Small herring, spawning of the--.. 658 
Small hooks injurious to cod ...-.- 35, 36 
Smeerenberg, south of Spitzbergen 276 
ley CaWisce nse amet thee eee 925 
pomirtin lene eee re cep caret 844 

BrOfsg sa lesee: a. ae bare AG ay, 
NENG s TO rs BN = oes onde Ve Soa 209 
Snow melting on Mount Shasta.... 748 
Society for promoting the Norwe- 

SIAN MSHETICS, 52.42. se acs waco sce 241 
Solar radiation on surface water... 288 
Sonderburg, station at ........-.- 287, 288 
Songo Lock, failure at .-.......... 779 
Soundings near Beeren Island ._.-- 270 
Sounds of the fish =>. 2..-.<5- nce 703 
Spain, exhibition at Philadelphia... 50 
Spawners and milters at Loffoden . 249 
Spawning-herring fisheries ...._-.- 204 

of cod long continued... 713 
of herring, time of...--. 195 
places of herring, when 
approachedmes) sss e—— 646 
process of the herring... 647 
salmon ascending the 
Sacramento, do they 
all die tos cess eee 
season on the McCloud 
RVOIy sce aga eee 749 
time of the herring -...644, 657 


Specific gravity increases with the 
depth eee teaser eh a eee 285 


mpencer, Albert. 222. 5et naa. nos 927 
Sperling or young herring as bait. 697 
Spiced herring 22... 2.6.5.2 eo] 130, 134 
Spieveliicarpfen 2222255. 25 see gcse 670 
Spitzbergen, northwest coast of... 273 
PGONRnshys sass oS eee 77 
Spring-manometer ..-............- 294 
Squalusiacanthias 2 2.2-...°0./327- 711 

AMET CANS ee eee ee see 693 
Souidvas: baitimsassees. Su. Bose 697 
POLED tel IS) Eee ey eh a Sa Op 940 
Stanford, Governor Leland... -..- 890 


State hatching-house for New York. 581 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page. 
Statistics of the Loffoden fisheries 
for 1878.2. 224222 s ee 245, 253 
Steamers for carrying fresh provis- 
10N8, (6&0. 232) s2 eee 94 
preferable for fishing --.. 69 
Stebbins, Barney M:....-.......-- 937- 
ptegerin Kiel -22. 25.2) 0 5.4 eee 287 
Stephens, William ---:-/.2..//2222 665 
Stewart, Commander Dunean....-. 527 
Soirling, ALB eae e eee eee 525, 531 


Stone, Livingston .- -.510, 584, 741, 753, 763, 
773, 815, 817, 922, 834, 835 


Stones in the trawl-net--......-..- 272 
Storer -Amibrose miss e: eee 925 
SIROMINY moos cc5o SHoceSop Seasesaee 5 tides: 
Stmppine thencodeees.: asses === 721 
Sirom, ProtsEteesee- 173, 180, 198, 199, 203, 
210, 211, 214, 643 
Strémming, a kind of herring.----- 124 
Struggling fish on  trawl-lines . 

frighten away others.-.-.--...----- 35 
Sturdevant, EMD) 2 322" eee eee 936 
Styffe, CG. 722222 S..-- 222s eee 224 
Sudreau, Meo o3 2. 22. cee Soe ace 80 

Suggestions for meetings of fisher- 
MeCN eee he sce ee ee eee 44 
Sundevall, Prof. C. J--.-157, 198, 649, 650, 
653, 657 
Svendborg exhibition -..---...---- 43 
SvVenSSONi--¢ pete See eee 201, 205 
SNCS MONS a5 so 5Sccsadsssoecc0- 221 

Sweden, exhibition at Philadel- 
phia cc: c0ss tse eas 49 
incorporates Bohusliin... 230 
Sweeny hs Oke see sec ise eeeeee 753 

a 

Table of contents of Atkins article 
on salmon hatching. ------ 966 

of contents on the Marine 
Tsopoda, passe eeee ae 22 e 451 

of distribution of salmon eggs 

from McCloud Station dur- . 

Wye? Weiss see oagsop 2co5 cess 768 

of salmon eggs taken at the 
McCloud Station. -...----- 766 
of specific gravity ..-----=:- 286 
of temperatures at Sonder- 
iburo; and Kael=2= os -eeeee 288 

of weights of salmon spawned 
at the McCloud Station.... 767 


Tables of fishing, spawning, &c., 
operations at Grand Lake 
Stream, Maine.-....---- 800-814 


by 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX, 


Page. 
Tables showing the loss of weight 
of fishes when market- 

drieda ae Says 734, 735, 706 
of temperature at the sal- 
mon-breeding station on 


the McCloud River..-.--. 764 
Tackling, English patent for-..---. 13, 33 
MAONM A eeiar fale. Js 5 oc wna- eicele oais 512 
Tag found on a large salmon .------ 927 
MaNitiewe) ANOS, 22 /eoi2s 21a ctelsic/) arserciwees Sal 
Ma PeaWiOLM spect taraca~ oa csioe a dll 


Tasmania, exhibition at Philadel- 
Phila Ge = 3.o 6s .s2ceisess 52 


salmon experiment. ---- 819 

Taste of salmon where covered with 
TUMOURS Gags son one eeeee pee aarmaad 526 
MaxesrOneis tan S sf -ssese eee 253 
Maka OM NOTIN Cees ale | teresa 226, 231 

Temperature, influence of the, on 
the herring eggs.. 629 

observations at Songo 
Mhocks. 555 ses cece 785 


of the air, influence 
on the herrings -. 166, 167 
Of therainee =. acces 246 
of the Sacramento... 894 
of the water -178, 247,748,752 
Temperatures of German Ocean and 


the Baltie Sea .....-.--- 286, 288, 290, 292 
Tethys, the ocean’s bride..---.---. 539 
Metraphivillidepesnaccacie cee aoeecete 512 
AV OL CAny Wis...22 cone esac 936 
Theories regarding the migrations 

ONE qiavey lokevaeayes $A Oe Bee eee 218 
Thiersant, Dabry de -----.-------- 546 


ARR OMPSOM 22-2 Bese en aee seek sree 68 


Mhomson; Mauriceime--cesess=seeo- 687 
homes @amdidad 2eseees eee = 281 
Thornton, Sir Edward ....-------- 853 
Tichagonia polymorpha-.-.--...--- 510 
Time for hatching cod eggs---..--- 724 
of the visits of the herring... 201 
Tin-cans, hermetically sealed, rec- 
OMiMe nt Cdweyseyse: £ ols, os ta are 70 
dlomicamsony Mir). is Soa ae oe gOL 
Transprums-acten ....-.....----- 643, 644 
Transmission of eggs of Salmonidx 
UO O10) 12) - eee 907 
Transport of fresh fish -.......---- 557 
Transportation and freezing of fish, 
Cost; Of t2 5: Senos 602 
Oieoldhsht= esas 683 
Trawlers injure the fish and glut 
UMC MAN GC hie tis 5 =) 2)2. sapere es 63 
Mrawlelimesnmyurious:--..--.-.---- 30 


987 


Page. 
Trawling, origin of, at Cape Ann.. 694 
PRIA WLNOb oH 6 cya cietan toasts nseeeeee 61 
Treatment of the salmon eggs - .--- 962 
Trematodes' 244-4 -\5% «jj estas 511, 512 
MreskoOws -VOMee+=.s 252 «se eeeee mee ral 
Trichina cyprinorum (?)....--....-. 514 
Trichodina pediculus ...-..---:-.- 510 
Trott; Mire <2. < .sisiece se'- = sereerte 925 
Troughs and fittings for salmon 
NatGhin gy... as aces l= soe eee 954 
Trout; the... .22<: sche wsesee 565 
Proub-culiune neat ee eae 103 


Turkey, exhibition at Philadelphia, 50 


U. 
WEAR Iiceeoos coscad dscccogosdese 656 
Underrunning in trawl-fishing -... 695 
Underwood, W. & Co...--..--...- 53 


United States Commission of Fish 
and Fisheries. .649, 659, 


661, 685 

exhibition at Phila- 
deliphian 232254225 52 

fisheries, estimate of 
yearly profit of -- 84 
LOpniorns 1G 18) Secdo bacon cboScotess 881 

WE 

Walenciennes):---=-o..se5 se clne ee 164, 177 
Value of the Norwegian lakes....539, 595 
Wanebeneden, iby). asceee eee 510, 511 
Variation in weight of codfish. ...- 733 
\Wiieoypbnal, When oe eaenesaeuedcocs cose 792 
\Weisis (CGini! Gseemeepeecemasocc = 220 
Veckenstedt, Dr. Edm ..-...---..- 671, 678 
Wiedeler,Berent Chrs.2---- -sc--s- =e 
\Vormrelll, TARO t\e Hee eeeoessen cosc 463, 477 
Viborg exhibition ........-.-..--- 43 


Victoria, exhibition at Philadel- 


JUNE SeeScamaneeareenescioe abccoc u2 
Naroinia fishyre ports) =. ss.ee eer 941 
WorelSSir Julius j2sos.ces-e eee 883 

W. 

Waoner, Christian:.---5----- 605, 679, 683 
Wagner's goldfish raising -........ 679 
Wraillenn a My io-5-Se.25e5 onenee 54, 67,75 
WV eillhoiih CSE cee eeeaesae sschcorsna’ . Bisy 
Warren. ever cc.c.s==1- eee seuias 614 
Washington, Bar. Max de....--. - 679 
Water-area in Norway .----- Rare 543 

Colon Of. = 3529 eee eee 176 
Water for hatching, condition of... 946 
Water, purification of refuse .--.-. 519 


988 


Page. 
Wiater-plaguGweios 5252005 2 Jeece: 510 
MUIC ES phic! oO BO eSd Cee ao ee sea 515 
Wiater-snalll ose. oS oS bok 576 

Water-supply in the goldfish pond 
BENCOP DOG a 52/1) .cin clone aatsceeae 537 
Wattel, Raveret ....-...-.-.. 580, 584, 909 
Ways; Hoc scencts ds sce dcesse 936 
Weasel, the -2<i..\sccne. Asectss 3s 516 
Weber, Samuel’sssi esses soe 930 
Webster (AG Saocsne an seeeiaase eee COU GSo 
Webster, Prof HB -.S-c.sen5.2- 463 

Weight of Sebago salmon when 
released: S222 SoS 785 

of some salmon tagged 

and returned in the 
McCloud River ....--.- 750 
Wrelehy swWilliamys 3225 s2- acl seas 753 
Wrorceland Nise es oeence case ester 539 
Weser-Zeitung, extract for........ 910 
Westermann, Dris- So 2f.csecs ce. 914 

Western Baltic, raising of herrings 
BMMUNG) ecm alee ses Sst Le sbces eases 629 
What does a fish cost? ...--..----- 605 
iWiheeler, Charles Hunn; -2-5--- 22-2 53 
Whitefish in California .-.--.-.... 899 
White islam dias caeei ccan seecee ast 4; of) 
Whitmore, Colonel -..... 838, 854, 866, 876, 
905, 903 


Widegren, H .. 
Wiese, C 


By SoS I IZie Tile 


) 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Page. 
Willemoes-Suhm, Von ...... ...... Bil 
Williams, /J 225225 (eases 533 
Wilmot, Hon. Samuel............754, 762 
Wilson}sbdmund iS 32228222 463 
Hdward 225262222 eee 829 
Ws and. J¥,252 soy eee 844 
Sir Cracroft -..-..--.-428, 880, 882 
Sir Samuel --...--. -...825, 828, 831 
Winds have the most important 
* influence on fishing.-.--. ...... 168, 173 
Winds, influence on currents .----- 285 
Wiuter’s influence on herring fish- 

QLl€S sisees 22 i55c.855 sea eee 151 
Winther: G22 2 S.ceetee eee 189, 639 
Wire.tmays/.2 25.04. 3522/2 eee - 957 
Wittman; Dr 22. cheer eee 509 
Woodbury, Mr ..--.-.- 852, 868, 871, 873, 899 
World’s Exposition in Philadelphia, 

18765 5.0) Somene corsets eee 47 
Wright) W. von 222 .-22c-cs-s eee 198, 656 
Wirotens: 2 ison soecmcct eee oe eee 617 

Yi 
Varreul 5542 28-5 acerca eee 654, 657, 659 
Wihlens | GoW sass) saee eee 640, 656, 657 
Young, James) <<<. o-2e4e2 ss eee 940 
Young salmon, treatment of. ...--- 964 

Z. 
70) | "Benker net tsa) eee ee 465, 466 


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