Marine Biological Laboratory
R,,,„,eH Oct, 14, 1948
Aeee^ion- No P^* ^- ^* Montgomery
Given By "^'^oods Hole Oceanographic
Institution
Place,
/?6H
^vy^yV^AA^.^*^
U. S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT
COAST GUARD
Bulletin No. 19
THE "MARION" EXPEDITION
TO
DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
UNDER DIRECTION OF
THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD
1928
SCIENTIFIC RESULTS
PART 1
The Bathymetry and Sediments of Davis Strait
DA!
NOBLE G. RICKETTS
PARKER D. TRASK
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1932
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. - Price 500 (paper cover)
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword -- V
Chapter I
Introduction 1
Description of vessel and api)aratus 1
Personnel 3
Narrative of the ex])edition 4
Chapter II
The bathymetry 53
Introduction 53
Description of apparatus and methods 53
Corrections a{)plied to the echo soundings 57
Final results 59
Charts Following page 60
Chapter III
The sediments 62
Introduction 62
General remarks 62
I nterpretation of mechanical analyses 63
Description of sediments 67
The origin of the sediments 70
Characteristics of sediments of ice-borne origin 77
Table 1 ' 78
2 79
3 • 79
4 80
5 81
III
THE NORTHERN PORTION OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN
Figure 1. — This map shows the general location of the region which was investigated hy
the Marion expedition during the summer of 1928. All of the Marion's work was
done between Disko Bay, in west Greenland, and the northeast coast of Newfoundland.
For a more detailed chart of the area actually surveyed, see Figure 39. The latter
shows the track of the ship and gives all the important place names.
IV
FOREWORD
Prior to the loss of the Titanfc, on April 14, 1912, as the result of
a collision with an iceberg in the North Atlantic, no patrol was
maintained in the region of the Grand Banks for the purpose of
safeguarding lives and property against the. iceberg peril, and no
systematic study had been made of physical and oceanographic con-
ditions pertaining to icebergs and their drift in the North Atlantic.
While a patrol of the ice zone was maintained during the seasons of
1912 and 1913 to meet an almost universal demand, arising from the
Titamc catastrophe, for protection against the iceberg menace, it
was not until the season of 1914 that the United States Government
undertook the management of the international service of study and
observation of ice conditions and of ice patrol, pursuant to the Inter-
national Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea signed on Janu-
ary 20, 1914. This was a new and important duty, inaugurating the
entry of the United States Coast Guard into an international service
of iceberg scouting and patrol, and into a field of scientific study and
research not previously developed nor sufficiently known.
The early history of the International Service of Ice Observation
and Ice Patrol represented a pioneering service and purpose not
onh^ to maintain an efficient patrol worthy of the high standards
and traditions of the United States Coast Guard, but also to ac-
cumulate scientific data to afford an intelligent understanding of the
forces of nature having an effect on or a relationship to the iceberg
menace. With the growing importance of a knowledge of ocean
currents, and of the source, characteristics, and drifts of icebergs in
the conduct of this international service, ever}^ opportunity was
availed of and every effort directed, each ice season, toward assem-
bling data and making studies of oceanographic conditions in the
Grand Banks region. The data gathered during the ice seasons
Avere supplemented by observations made during special cruises at
other j^eriods of the year in order to study seasonal changes in ocean
currents and water temperatures. Each succeeding season brought
to light extensiA'e and important data in furtherance of our knowl-
edge of the elements entering into the study of ice conditions, and
strengthening and corroborating opinions held as a result of prior
scientific investigations. Reports of these observations were pub-
lished in the annual bulletins of the International Service of Ice
Observation and Ice Patrol.
With the accumulation and studies made of scientific data since
the inauguration of the Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service, it is
believed that sufficient information is now available to permit of
the publication of a treatise dealing with the subject of icebergs
and their distribution and drift in the North Atlantic Ocean, em-
VI FOEEWORD
bodying conclusions and scientific results of many years of intense
specialized study and research. To broaden the scope of this work
and to o})tain data necessary for a complete analysis and exposition
of the iceberg situation and related subjects, the Marion expedition
was dispatched in the summer of 1928 to carry out an oceanographic
survey of the waters between Greenland and the North American
Continent, with especial reference to a study of ice conditions. The
observations made during this cruise, in addition to being helpful
to the completeness of the treatise on icebergs, have also been made
the subject of separate publications dealing with the bathymetry and
sediments, and with the physical oceanography of Davis Strait,
representing important contributions to the scientific knowledge of
this area. The results of this research work, and of years of study
and observations are being published in three parts under the title of
" The Marion Expedition to Davis Strait and Baffin Bay."
These contributions to our knowledge of the iceberg problem mark
an epoch in the international Service of Ice Observation and Ice
Patrol, and great credit and praise are due the authors. Their work
presents a most comprehensive and valuable reference on the sub-
jects treated, and undoubtedly will form a foundation and a guide
for any future studies or research work which may be undertaken
along similar lines.
F. C. BiLLARD,
Rear Admiral, United States Coast Guard,
Commandant, United States Coast Guard,
Chairman Interdepartmental Board on Interna-
tional Service of Ice Ohservation and Ice Patrol.
THE LEADER OF THE EXPEDITinN
Figure 2.— Lieut. Commander Edward H. Smith, United States Coast Guard leader of
the Marion expedition. At the termination of the World War, Lieutenant Commander
Smith was assigned by the Coast Guard to its ice-patrol service. There he spent 10
years, and it was because of this work that he was chosen to command the Marion
during her Arctic cruise. The instrument is a Greene-Bigelow water bottle — a «<'vice
used to obtain a sample of the water and the temperature from any level to which
it is lowered.
VII
THE " MARION " EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND
BAFFIN BAY
NOIJLE G. RiCKETTS
Chapter I
IXTRODUCTIOX
In 1928 the United States Coast Guard sent the Marion expedition
north into Davis Strait and Baffin Bay to carr}^ out scientific investi-
ofations connected with the international ice patrol. The object of
the expedition Avas to obtain all the information possible regarding
ocean currents, depths, and ice conditions in the region to the north
of that usually covered by the ice-patrol vessels each spring and
summer. The leader of the Marion expedition. Lieut. Commander
Edward H. Smith. United States Coast Guard, has fully worked up
the scientific data that was obtained about oceanography and ice.
The reader is referred to United States Coast Guard Bulletin 19,
part 3, for the report relating to Arctic ice and its drift into the
Xorth Atlantic Ocean, and to United States Coast Guard Bulletin
19, part 2, for the re])ort relating to the oceanography of Baffin Bay
and Davis Strait. The former publication was printed in 1931 and
the latter will be distributed at an early date. The present paper,
constituting part 1 of the Bulletin 19 series dealing with the Marion
expedition, contains a narrative of the Marion's cruise; a report and
discussion of the sounding work accomplished; and a description
and discussion of the bottom samples obtained at some of the places
where wire soundings w^ere made.
DESCRIPTION OF VESSEL AND APPARATUS
The Marion is one of a number of similar vessels which the Coast
Guard had built in 1925 for offshore patrol duty. She is 125 feet
long, with a 23%-foot beam andean 8i/^-foot draft. Her normal dis-
placement is about 220 tons. Her twin screws, each driven by a
G-cylinder air-injection Diesel engine of 150 horsepoAver, could gi^^e
her a maximum speed of about 10i/> knots. When she departed for
the north she carried a total of 9,000 gallons of fuel oil, of wliich
7,000 Avere in her tanks and 2,000 in drums on deck. With this amount
of oil, her cruising radius Avas upAvard of G.OOO miles at a speed of
7% knots. Figure 4 sIioavs the Marion as slie looked just prior to her
departure for the north.
The Marioii's highest compartment Avas the bridge, the afterpart
of Avhich Avas partitioned off shortly before the start of the exi^edi-
tion to form a radio room. Tlie large deckhouse on the next deck
2 MAEION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STEAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
below the brido:e contained the wash rooms and water-closets, the
upper engine room, entries to berthing and messing spaces, and
several lockers used for ordnance equipment, boatswain's stores, car-
])enter stores, and cleaning gear.
The steel deck over the upper engine room had an extension built
out to starboard and the whole served as the platform for the ocean-
ographic work. The main oceanographic platform can best be seen
in Figures 10 and 11. The latter figure shows the water-bottle rack
and considerable detail about the large winch. In addition to the
large winch Avorking some 10,000 feet of ^fo-inch wire rope from the
PERSONNEL ON MARION EXPEDITION. 1928
Figure 3. — The oflScers and crew of the Coast Guard patrol boat Marion just prior to
their departure for the Arctic in July, 1928. The Marion had a complement of two
commissioned officers, two warrant officers, and 23 enlisted men. Sitting left to
right : Boatswain .1. B. Krestensen, Lieut. Commander Edward H. Smith, Lieut N. G.
Ricketts, and Boatswain (T) A. L. Cunningham.
overhanging platform, there was a smaller winch farther aft using
12,000 feet of #2-inch wire rope. The latter was employed for bot-
tom sampling and for taking the loAver levels at the oceanographic
stations, usually at the same time that the big winch was being
operated.
Below the spar deck there was but one continuous deck level. It
contained from forward aft, the following compartments : Forehold,
crew^'s berthing space, three staterooms for officers, engine room,
galley, pantry, furnace room, officer's mess room and ship's office,
coal bunker, water tank, crew's mess room, and the afterhold. Below
EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STIJAIT AND BAFFIX BAY S
this level, under the living and messing spaces, were shallow holds
that were used as niaoazines and storerooms.
A number of extra items of equipment were installed on the Manon
prior to her departure from the United States. The principal ones
were a radiocompass, a short-wave radio set, two oceano<rrai)hic
winches, an electric salinometer. a fathometer, several extra banks
of storage batteries, a si)ccial generator driven by an internal-com-
bustion engine for running the oceanographic winches, and another
for charging the numerous banks of batteries needed for the radio
and the fathometer work. All the ice patrol's deep-sea thermom-
eters, thermographs, Greene-Bigelow water bottles, water sample
bottles, and otlier articles of scientific apparatus were taken on board
for use. One of the items of special equipment was the bottom
sampler. There was amply sufficient apparatus on board for com-
prehensive oceanographic research, including the occupation of a
large number of stations at which serial temperatures and salinities
were determined for the purpose of working out the dynamic currents
of the area traversed.
It was intended to make the vessel self-sufficient throughout the
expedition, so a tremendous load of stores and many spare parts
were carried. Below deck, almost all available spaces were filled
with coal for cooking and heating and with fcod. On deck, around
the rails from stem to stern and completely filling the extreme after
deck space, were lashed no less than 78 drums of petroleum products.
The principal item here was diesel fuel oil for the main engines, but
there were also many barrels of lubricating oil, kerosene, and gaso-
line. A spare electric winch for use at oceanographic stations and
two extra dories were also carried on deck.
At the time of departure from Sydney, Xova Scotia, the Marion
carried sufficient fuel to cruise a total of almost 7,000 miles, and this
figure represented the limits northward to Avliich the ship could
range. Later on in Godhavn, Greenland, Ave were surprised to find
a plentiful supply of Diesel oil, which permitted the oceanographic
program to be greatly extended. In order to conserve fuel the
Marion at the start was operated with only one engine at a time,
alternating motors at the end of each 4-hour watch. In this manner
we cruised along at the slow rate of 6 miles per hour. After
arrival at the northern terminus, Godhavn, and learning of the
available oil supply there, the ship was cruised with both motors and
maintained a higher rate of speed, averaging almost 9 knots.
PERSONNEL
The complement of the Marion during her regular Coast Guard
duty was 3 warrant officers and 18 enlisted men. On account of the
large amount of work of a special nature to be done in the north, just
prior to the start of the MaHon expedition, the personnel was in-
creased to the following : 2 commissioned officers, 2 warrant officers,
and 23 enlisted men. All of the latter were easily accommodated
on board in the large crew spaces, those men for whom no bunks
EXPEDITION" TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN" BAY
were available being SAvimg in hammocks in the crew's mess room.
The enlisted men were distributed among the f olloAving ratings :
Chief boatswain's mate 1
Chief motor machinist's mates 2
Boatswain's mate, first class 1
Quartermaster, first class 1
Radiomen, first class 2
Motor machinist's mates, first class 2
Yeoman, second class 1
Motor machinist's mates, second class 2
Pharmacist's mate, second class 1
Seamen, first class 4
Seamen, second class 6
UNITED STATES COAST GUARD PATHOL BOAT :MA1U0X
Figure 4. — The Marion departed from Boston, Mass., for Davis Strait and Baffin Bay
on July 11, 1928. When she left Sydney, Nova Scotia, the last port where regular
supplies could be obtained, she carried 78 drums of fuel oil and gasoline on deck in
addition to her full capacity of tanks below. She was equipped with spare parts for
practically every piece of machinery on board.
NARRATIA^ OF THE EXPEDITION
After leaving New London, Conn., on July 7, 1928, the Marion
called at Vineyard Haven, Mass., and Boston, Mass. Final j^repara-
tions for the cruise Avere made at the Boston Navy Yard during a
spell of extremely hot weather. At 6.30 p. m. July 11, 1928, the
Marion departed from the United States, heading toward Halifax,
Nova Scotia. Immediate relief from the heat Avas had upon leaving
Boston Harbor. On the foggy run eastAvard across the Gulf of
Maine all oceanographic equipment Avas tested and the personnel was
given practice and instruction in the special duties connected AA'ith
the expedition's Avork.
Halifax Avas reached at 8.30 p. m. on July 13, 1928. Several Brit-
ish Admiralty charts and a few last items of equipment AA^ere pur-
chased on the folloAA ing day. A number of persons experienced in
the Avaters of the Canadian Arctic gave, on request, valuable advice
i-egardiiio- conditions that would probably be met by the Ma/hn in
the waters of the north.
Halifax Avas left on the evenin<r of July 14. and some 24 hours
later we arrived at Sydney, Xova Scotia. F()<>iry weather with
little intermission prevailed durin<i- our run northeastward alon«j: the
Xova Scotian coast. On the IGtli the ship was fueled and loaded
up with fresh commissary stores. All hands sent letters home and
made last purchases of needed articles, for it was realized that no
other truly civilized seaport would be visited for at least some weeks.
Just before leavina' Sydney Harbor, Captain Falk. of the Beofh/'e,
was interviewed on board his ship. He was preparinir to depart Avith
her on a far northern cruise which for several years has been annu-
ally carried out by the Canadian (iovernment. Captain Falk's advice
was extremely valuable, and so were several special charts of north-
ern harbors that he generously presented to the Marlon. His cheer-
ful description of the Arctic summer removed many doubts and mis-
givings, and heightened the pleasant anticipation which animated
the ship's complement Avhen Sydney Harbor was left behind on the
evening of July 16.
Fog enveloped the ship almost as soon as it got outside, and it
remained thick throughout the crossing of Cabot Strait. On the
afternoon of July 17, after the run north across the Gulf of St. Law-
rence was finished, the Marian began skirting the western shore of
Xewfoundland, the first land to be sighted being the high rocky bluff
of Cape St. George. The fog which had surrounded us since leaving
S^^dney, quickly departed and the weather became Avarm and fine.
The setting sun lit up ])rilliantly the colorful slopes of Red Island,
as the Marion passed close b}^ it on a smooth and bright blue sea. The
next day was clear and pleasant at first, but a thickening haze grad-
ually cut off our vicAv of the Xewfoundland mountains and valleA^s.
By midafternoon fog had again shut in thick.
Looking back upon the cruise, one of the most uncomfortable situ-
ations was the night of Juh^ 18, as we chugged heavily into the nar-
row Strait of Belle Isle. Running before a fresh southerly wind in
the dense fog, Ave had left the Avarm Avater of the gulf to enter
abruptly into almost Arctic conditions. The thermograph, Avhich
registered only a fcAV degrees above the freezing point, brought home
only too A'ividly the prospects of colliding Avith an iceberg. There
was little solace to be had in attempting to seek shelter along the
precipitous rocky shore of XeAvfoundland, so Ave kept on, sounding
frequently Avith the fathometer and hoping for better Aveather con-
ditions at daylight.
Throughout the night the Marion cruised northeastward in the
Strait of Belle Isle, sighting nothing the next morning because of
the fog's continuance. Some 15 icebergs Avere knoAvn from reports
received by radio to be in the strait, but fortunately none were
encountered. Thanks to occasional radio bearings, the^ Marion Avas
able to proceed right up under the diaphone of the soutliAvest liirht-
house, and then halfAvay around Belle Isle itself, despite the dense
fog. Xot until the afternoon of the 19th did the visibility clear up
sufficiently to permit the rocky heights of the island to be sighted.
Our arrival at the Atlantic' end of the Strait of Belle Isle marked
the inauguration of a rigorous program of oceanography upon Avhich
6 ' ' MARION ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
all of US Avere now to be busily employed for the ensuin<j: ei^rht weeks
with little cessation. All hands except the two commissioned officers
were green to the station work, and therefore plenty of time was
devoted to patiently instructing the crew in their various duties.
Since the station work was to be pushed from now on, day and night,
as the main task of the expedition, the men were divided into three
watches with a team on each watch consisting, as a rule, of three
members — winchman, recorder, and platform man. Good station
work requires practice, experience, and cooperation from all, as the
slightest blimder or mistake on the part of any member of the team
may mean the loss of a valuable instrument, or errors creeping into
the observations, or, most common of all, undue delay. A false move
made near the end of an oceanographic station often necessitates the
retakino: of the entire set of observations.
BATTLE llAKBUK. LABKADUK
Figure 5. — We entered Battle Harbor, Labrador, on the evening of July 19. 192S. This
is a small fishing settlement on the north side of the Strait of Belle Isle. Here we
saw Eskimo dogs and Arctic mosses and flowers for the first time.
Regular half-hourly fathometer soundings began to be taken for
record as soon as the vessel had passed to the eastward through the
Strait of Belle Isle. Many sounding values had been taken previously
for navigational purposes and for practice, but south of Belle Isle
the charts already contained many plotted soundings and did not
need to be improved by additional carefully located values like the
blanker, less detailed, charts of the north.
The first real oceanographic station of the cruise was close to the
northeast end of Belle Isle (ice patrol station No. 936; see Coast
Guard Bulletin 19, pt. 2), and thence, a line of three stations was
taken to a point just south of Battle Harbor, Labrador. These
afforded the crew good practice in the correct procedure to follow^ in
handling the sounding weights, Avires, bottles, and messengers.
The Marion moored for three hours at Battle Harbor, Labrador,
on the evening of July 19. Our water tank was topped off with fresh
water by placing the Mwrion's forefoot lightly against the harbor's
EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STEAIT AND BAFFIX BAY 7
bank and drawing water with buckets from a near-])y stream. Fresh
water for scriibbin<r clothes was also put into four open barrels on
deck. One member of the enuineer force had to be left in the Inter-
national' Grenfell Association Hospital at Battle Harbor, as he w^as
sulferino- from chnmic rheumatism that had been <j:reatly a<rgravated
by the raw and dani)) climate into which the Maiion had suddenly
come. Throu<rh the aid of the American consulate at St. Johns. New-
foundland, he was later furnished with transportation by conimercial
vessel back to the United States.
There Avas little time to observe shore conditions at Battle Harbor,
but the quickest of inspections sufficed to show that here was an en-
tirely different world from that left behind in New England a few
days previously. In the strait Avliere the stations had just been taken
three small bergs had been sighted, and stranded near Battle Harbor
were two more. The dark rainy weather marred their whiteness,
but brought out strongly their tints of blue and green. This day's
bergs constituted the first specimens of glacial ice ever beheld by the
majority of the crew. The water in the harbor was surprisingly
transparent. Despite the dullness of the day, details of the rocky
bottom and sides of the little cleft of a harbor could be observed in
many places as the Marion nosed about slowly between the two roAvs
of small Avharves.
Ashore, the rounded rocky hills were covered wherever there was
an}^ soil with a rank, soggy growth of grass, moss, and floAvers.
Many of the latter were strange to our southern eyes. All our re-
maining doubts about being on the edge of the Arctic Avere quickly
dispelled by the sight of the port's tiny houses and the fish-drying
stages, about Avhich Avere Avalking the fishermen and the Eskimo dogs
of the little toAvn. At 8.50 p. m. the Mariotrs business had been
completed and Ave stood out to sea to head nortliAvard into the fog and
the rain.
The morning of July 20 brought good visibility. A fcAv bergs were
sighted off the coast in the Labrador current and over 20 Avere seen
grounded along the rocky shore. A nortliAvest gale piped up just
l3efore noon, so the deeply loaded Marion Avas run into sheltered
Avaters and anchored off Domino Harbor, Labrador. Only tAvo per-
sons Avere found at this place — a father and son from XcAvfoundland
Avho Avere spending the summer there catching cod. The surround-
ings Avere uniuA^iting and bleak, for the ground Avas rockier and the
A^egetation less \dgorous than at Battle Harbor, only TO miles farther
south.
In the afternoon the Marion Avas SAvung in Domino Rini to deter-
mine the deA^ations of the radiocompass, the local commercial radio
station transmitting AvheneA'er test bearings Avere required. At 4.50
p. m.. as it Avas still oAcrcast and A^ery A\'indy, the MaHon Avas
anchored at Spotted Island Harl)or. This toAvn Avas considerably
more populous than Domino Harbor, lying across the run from it.
There Avas a hospital of the International (jrenfell Association at the
ncAv village. The hospital i)eople and the natives Avere most cordial
throughout the ship's -t5-hour stay. It Avas here that Ave had our
first taste of seal meat, the consensus of opinion being that it Avas A^ery
good if properly cooked.
In the intervals betAveen boating off fresh water and dumping oil
into the bnnkers from the drums on deck, much information was
obtained about the hard life of the people who live in Labrador
throughout the year. Some of the natives had distinct Eskimo fea-
tures, others showed traces of Indian blood, while still others were
apparently pure white. All talked in an old-fashioned English
dialect.
The people lived in tiny houses and shacks set back a short distance
from a few small Avharves that were built mostly of poles. In sheds
on the Avharves the summer's catch of fish was salted and piled like
cordwood. There were numerous Eskimo dogs about, groups of
which from time to time engaged in howling choruses. The weird
howling could be heard out at the ship's anchorage above the noises
of the wind. Some of the better houses had near them garden patches
from 20 to 30 feet square. These gardens were always fenced off
with poles brought out from the forests of the interior to protect
them from being torn up by the dogs. In them we saw nothing
but a miserable growth of cabbagelike greens.
By 2 p. m. on Sunday, Jnly 22, the gale had blown itself out, per-
mitting the Marlon to get under way. A stop was made just seaward
of the mottled black and white rocks of Spotted Island where an
oceanographic station was occupied. Until the 25th the ship was
engaged off Labrador taking two lines of oceanographic stations
located more or less at right angles to the general trend of the coast.
The first line extended seaward 120 miles from Spotted Island, while
the second was taken from a point 120 miles off Bulldog Island to
a point 2 miles off the same. In general, fine weather prevailed
throughout this time. In making the coast about Bulldog Island
we were thi'own upon our own resources, as very few aids to naviga-
tion, like buoys, lighthouses, and beacons are maintained north of
the Strait of Belle Isle. The best aids available consisted of prom-
inent landmarks such as mountain peaks, small islands, and reefs
aAvash.
We Avere somewhat apprehensive as to the behavior of the Mcurion
in " laying to " while the deep-sea observations were being made. It
is quite important not only for the accuracy of the observations but
also for the reliable operation of the Avater bottles that the wire to
which the instruments are clamped remain as nearly A^ertical as pos-
sible. When it is bloAving Avith any great strength, most ships, espe-
cially if high sided, Avith a deckhouse, experience considerable drift
to leeAvard and also forge ahead. On the United States Coast Guard
cutters used on the international ice patrol service this drifting off
causes such a bad slant to the sounding Avire that the station Avork
often has to be abandoned until the wind moderates. Naturally it
Avas very pleasing to find that on the Marion we Avere able to keep
the Avire and instruments perpendicular throughout the station Avork
under all sorts of Aveather conditions. A kick ahead, first on one
motor and then on the other, as she fell off on either side of the eye
of the Avind did the trick, even in a strong breeze and high sea. The
fact that the Marion possessed tAvin scrcAvs made such maneuvering
possible, and this handiness, by the Avay, was only one of the fine
qualities to be displayed by the little craft throughout the entire
expedition.
From Bullcloo^ Island the course led northward alon<r the shore
toward a point near 56° north latitude, whence a 575-niile line of
stations Avas to be rim to the northeastward to the Avest coast of Green-
land in latitude 63° X. About 200 ber<rs, most of them irrounded
alonij: the Labrador coast, were seen while on the run toward the
fifty-sixth i)arallel. In the Labrador current ofl'sliore a few large
ber<i:s were di'iftin<2; southward.
The surface water ranged from -18° to 50° F. throughout the mid-
dle part of the run between Labrador and GreenlancL There was no
ice and no cold surface water in Davis Strait from 80 miles off
Labrador to 85 miles off Litcldenfels, Greenland. The Marion was
engaged on the above-mentioned long line of stations from the eve-
ning of July 2o until daylight on July 31, 1928.
Due to the comjiaratively warm water, the air temperatures were
rather high over Davis Strait, ranging from 42° to 51° F. Cloudy
and overcast weather prevailed most of the time, but it was fre-
quently possible to get observations of the sun through the thinner
parts of the cloud blanket. The w^nds were in general very light,
and there were no storms or general rains, but the ocean swell out in
the middle of Davis Strait was always present.
All hands became thoroughly familiar with their special duties
in connection with the scientific program; nevertheless, the first
really long line of stations was not taken without mishaps. At
11.30 p. m. on July 27, wdiile over the deepest part of the basin
between Labrador and Greenland, we lowered out three Greene-
Bigelow water bottles with the small winch to a depth of 3,000
meters, while the large winch with the heavier wire was being used
to take observations down to 1,200 meters at the same time. When
we started to heave in on the small high-speed winch about 10 meters
of the wire was reeled and then without warning the shaft coupling
connecting the drum to the motor snapped. The 3,000 meters of
wire were " stopped off' '' at the rail and a cut was made back on
the drum. The new inboard end of the /2-inch wire was carried to
the large winch, wdiich had meanwhile finished taking the portion
of the station down to 1,200 meters. It reeled in about 600 meters
when the side flange on the big drum burst outwards, jamming the
drum and the wire against the housing of the apparatus.
Here was a hne mess ! Dark ; rainy ; rough ; all of the hoists
broken down one way or another, and about two miles of Avire with
three valuable instruments dangling over the side. It looked as if
the expedition Avas about over, nevertheless, all hands Avere turned
out and set to work. The first tiling Ave did was to " stop off " the
small /o-inch Avire a second time. After much backing and filling
Avith the engines, Ave got it to the ship's Avindlass, Avhen for nearly
three hours Ave lieaA'ed m Avire, finally getting it all on board and
reeled doAvn on a portable AA'ooden drum. The three Greene-Bige-
loAv Avater bottles Avere recovered Avith their deep-sea thermometers
intact.
In the meantime another group of the crcAV had been Avorking
on the main deck dismantling the spare ice patrol Avinch in order
to take the drum from it to replace the broken one. The broken
drum Avas reinoA^ed after much trouble, not only because it was
68165—32 2
10
tightly jammed by the spreading of the wire, but also because
the drum, being full, was most heavy and cumbersome with the
vessel rolling as it was on the swell. Neither was it a small task
to hoist the spare drum with its heavy shafting from the main deck
up to the top of the deck house, considering the gear with which we
had to work. It was done, however, and by 9 a. m. the next day,
after working the whole night, the new drum was in place and the
wire being reeled on it. At noon we took our next station.
In the cold current close to the Greenland coast a few bergs were
located. A number of birds were on the bergs and a few with
strangely shaped tails were noted soaring about under the gray
clouds overhead. The mountains of Greenland were sighted at
2.20 a. m. on July 31. Throughout the day, glimpses of the high
ruoffred coast were had as the vessel cruised northward toward
GREENLAND CODFISH
Figure 6. — While waiting for the fog to lift off the entrance to Godthaab Fiord, Green-
land, on July 31, 1928, we threw over our lines and immediately began to pull in large
codfish as fast as we could bait.
Godthaab from 8 to 18 miles offshore. It was overcast over the
sea, but clear over the land and in places the sun lit up brilliantly
the streams and the trickling waters proceeding from snow patches.
Our first landfall on the Greenland west coast was truly a grand
and inspiring sight. The piloting along the sunken mountainous
shore was very difficult because of the jutting headlands, the hun-
dreds of bare rock islands, and the outlying reefs which lay pep-
pered about. Aids to navigation, such as we mean by the term, did
not exist, of course, and, added to these conditions, the best chart with
which we could be supplied before we left was only a general one
of the entire west coast. Fog shut in about us just before the entrance
to Godthaab was reached, so Ave anchored off Eaven Island. While
waiting for the fog to lift the crew caught several dozen large cod-
fish like those shown in Figure 6.
MAEIOX
EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
11
At 4.30 p. m. the .ship <2:(>t under way and began to move in slowly
aniono- the numerous islets tliat bhx-k the southern entrance to Godt-
haab Fiord. On our general chart these oltlying rocks and skerries
were clustered like so many flyspecks. Over the land the air was
very clear and somew^hat w^armer than over the cold w^ater just off
the coast. The only snow that could be seen lay in sheltered niches
and clefts on the higlier mountains. No sign was visible of the great
Greenland ice cap. because its western edge lies separated from Godt-
haab by over 50 miles of rough and mountainous country.
AVe were surprised to see so many evidences of plant life upon tlie
near-by rockv shore. Brownish-green vegetation extended in most
places very close to the water's edge, showing that the islets can not
be exposed to as much heavy surf as might be expected from their
location near the open sea. Many soundings were taken with the
GODTHAAB, GREENLAND
Figure 7. — As we approached the village of Godthaab, the Marion fired a national salute
of 21 guns. This was the first honor of the kind from an American man-of-war, in
many years, and the first ever rendered hy a United States Coast Guard vessel in
Greenland.
fathometer in the approach to Godthaab, while the ship was being
carefully conned in with a good lookout for submerged rock ledges
kept from aloft.
At 6.30 p. m. the Marlon stopped off the town of Godthaab, Green-
land, and fired a national salute of 21 guns. The town was amazingly
different from the summer fishing villages seen a few days before in
Labrador. Even from the harbor it w^as seen to be much neater
and more prosperous looking. Here the majority of the buildings
were freshly painted in red and white.
Several hundred natives in brightly trimmed costumes watched
the Marion from points of vantage on the low hills about the town.
Minor Danish officials were brought alongside in a pulling boat from
which they came on board after they had been satisfied that health
conditions on board w^ere good. One of them offered to conduct the
ship to a secure berth. He explained, Avhile piloting the ship around
12
to the landlocked anchorage behind the town, that the higher local
officials, knowing through radiograms sent them of the probable
time of arrival of the Marion, had gone out in a motor boat to meet
the expedition off the north entrance to the fiord. They had missed
sighting our ship due to her coming in among the rocky islets scat-
tered along the little used southern approach to the town. The
official Avelcoming boat returned to Godthaab a short time after the
Marion was secured, and the commanding officer duly exchanged
official visits with the local Danish authorities.
At 8 p. m. the welcome word was received on board that liberty
could be granted. Those members of the crew not having watches
or other duties aboard went ashore immediately and were very hos-
pitably treated by the Greenlanders, a dance being staged for them
as was the case at almost every Arctic village visited.
The CA^ening in the anchorage was calm and beautiful. Due to the
high latitude, it did not get quite dark all night. Bands of the vapor
which rose from the arms of the fiord and from damp spots ashore,
lay in places across the landscape. A crescent moon and a brilliant
planet moved along near the tops of the neighboring mountains.
The anchor watch idled away the time in the strange long twilight
by catching the small-sized codfish that abounded in the fiord. Birds
that seemed to be species of wild ducks could be heard quacking and
splashing along the shore.
The warm sunshine of August 1, 1928, quickly dissipated the mists,
causing the air temperature to rise from 45° F. to 57° F. between 4
a. m. and 2 p. m. In the morning all those who had been unable to
get ashore the previous evening were given an opportunity to visit
the town. From the inner anchorage to the village was about 15
minutes' walk across low rocky hills and grassy meadows which were
marshy in places. The warm sun brought out sweet aromatic scents
from the vegetation, and the only thing that detracted from the per-
fection of the walk and day were the bothersome gnats that fre-
quently had to be brushed aside. As Godthaab was approached it
was noted in several places that men were busy painting already
quite well-painted houses and buildings. Numbers of women and
children were going to and fro in the paths and streets in light fur
clothing. The most striking and gorgeous pieces of apparel were
the high skin boots Avhich the women wore. As a large proportion
of the men were off fishing, the women and children greatly pre-
dominated in the town. One of the many photographs taken during
the morning is reproduced here as Figure 8.
The Government officials at Godthaab advised us in good though
slightly halting English that their town was not only the capital of
the Godthaab district but also of the whole of South Greenland.
From them we learned much concerning the nature of local life and
about the history of the place. There is not room to go into details
here. It is sufficient to say that fishing is the principal industry and
that the town boasts a church, a hospital, several Government houses
for officials, storehouses, schools — including a normal school for
training native teachers from all parts of Greenland — a radio station,
a fox farm, and a large statue of the famous eighteenth century
missionary to the Greenlanders, Hans Egede.
The grass was rank and tall, especially in the vicinity of the houses,
but we saw no gardens. There must have been at least one, however,
MARION
EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BA\'
13
for the colonial a<ient of the district i)resente(l the officers of the
Maiion with a paper ba^- full of fine lar<ie radishes that he had
I'aised. There were no (h)<»s ;d)()Ut the town because the fiords do not
freeze up solidly in winter, and tlie rocky hills bordering the fiords
are not <iood for sled<i:e travel. Due to the absence of the fierce
Eskimo do<rs, it is possible to keep <roats and ducks at Godthaab, and
a number of these creatures were seen wandering about the town.
Besides some local commerce with near-by villages by means of
coasting craft, a number of fine Danish Government steamers make
calls at Godthaab each year. The latter vessels carry official passen-
gers and freight to and frcmi Copenhagen, serving, we were told, all
of the principal Greenland ports.
Our first stop in Greenland brought home to us the fact that the
land is a closed country, open only to certain Danish officials and to
THE WATER FRONT OF (iODTlIAAI5
Figure 8. — The principal industry of this Danish colonial viUage is fishing. The build-
ing in front of which six people are standing is the home and office of the local colo-
nial agent. Godthaab, being the capital of South Greenland, has also a number of
other Government houses, but they are located farther back from the sea.
scientists Avho are vouched for by their own governments and ap-
proved of by the Danes. The natives live like wards of the Govern-
ment on an enormous naturalH^ isolated reservation. Our pleasant
experiences at Godthaab, as Avell as at other places in Greenland,
made us regret that the country is not open to at least the more
adventurous and hardier class of tourists. Each year a certain num-
ber of such people could undoubtedly be induced to visit and examine
the more accessible villages, ice fiords, mountains, and other wonders
of the historic land that was first colonized from the north of Europe
five centuries before Columbus discovered the Xew World.
All liberty was up at noon. Right after dinner the Marion shifted
anchorage to where a small stream from near-by mountains rushed
down into the fiord. The afternoon was spent watering ship and
dumping into the fuel tanks the last of the deck load of barreled
14
Diesel oil. While this work was going on the photograph shown in
Figure 9 was obtained.
In going over the warm, rocky hills to get the above-mentioned
view, two varieties of berries and many low bushes and plants were
seen. This surprised the Avriter greatly, for having read very little
about the true nature of the summer in Greenland he had imagined
it a place of almost continual ice and snow. Those persons unable
to go there but who nevertheless would like to get detailed and
authentic information about any aspect of Greenland should read
The Discover}^ of Greenland and the Exploration and Nature of the
Country, Coi^enhagen and London, 1928, published by the Commis-
sion for the Direction of the Geological and Geographical Investiga-
tions in Greenland. This book and its companion volumes are pro-
fusely illustrated bulletins published in English by the Danish Gov-
'"^^m^
SOUTH GREENLAND TERRAIN
Figure 9. — The rocky land devoid of trees supports in favored places during summer
a brief but rich vegetation. The coastal waters are characterized by irregular sounds
and bays. It v?as from such broolts as the ones shown here that we replenished our
supply of drinking water from time to time.
eminent. They contain an enormous mass of information about
Greenland that has been compiled by scientific authorities wlio are
prominent in their several lines.
At 5 p. m., watering ship was finished and the Marlon got under
way again. She stopped off the town to pick up a member of the
engineer force who, thanks to the courtesy of the local officials, had
been working in the Government machine shop at Godthaab repairing
our broken winch drum with the assistance of a native mechanic.
These two men could converse only by means of signs, but they had
succeeded in effecting the repairs necessary to put the hoist in first-
class condition again.
Meanwhile, on board the Marion^ by dint of lifting with tackles
and crowbars, we had succeeded in getting the 2-ton spare winch
from the main deck up to the top of the deck house. There it was
bolted down in the place from which the small high-speed winch
15
with tlie broken shaft had been removed. The neAV lioist, althouirh
not so fast as the one that had been designed for the job, Avorked well
for the remainder of the cruise. It took Avith the smaller Avire all
the deeper observations and coHected over 50 samples of the ooze
from the bottom of the Labrador-Greenhmd Basin.
At r).45 p. m. Godthaab Avas left behind. The Marion stood out
the north entrance under the pilotage of Xis Lynge, a native Green-
lander Avho had been sent to school in Denmark to study naAdgation
and piloting. AVe learned that many of the brighter natiA^es are
sent to Denmark Avlien young to learn trades and arts Avhich Avill be
useful to them and their countrymen upon their return home.
THE " MARION •' STOrrED FOR OBSERA'ATIONS
Figure 10. — From the starboard side of the main deck house a platform was constructed
which overhung the side. The wire on which tlie instruments were lowered into the
sea ran from an electric winch on the deck house and through a sheave at the head
of a small pair of sheer legs. A Greene-Bigelow water bottle is here being hoisted'
up to the working platform.
At 6.50 p. m. on August 1, .1928, the pilot Avas dropped into his
small motor boat, and the Marion stood out past the Kok Island
beacon to begin a line of oceanographic stations extending offshore
for 170 miles. Early on August 3 the offshore roAv of stations was
completed and a northerly course was set up the center of Davis
Strait. After running north for 150 miles, a neAv row of stations was
started in toAvard the Greenland coast in latitude 65° 20' X. On the
morning of August 5, this other roAV of stations were finished.
The AA^eather since leaA'ing Godthaab had been fine and the sea
almost smooth, except for a confused ground swell. We sighted onlj'-
one or tAvo icebergs and no pack ice. When near the Greenland coast,
however, the weather became fogg}" and misty. Just before the last
station was taken, breakers about a small rocky islet Avere sighted
16
less than 1 mile away. From this last station, some 10 miles south-
west of Cape Burnil, the Marlon headed northwest and then north
across Great Hellefiske Bank, bound for the region about Disko Bay.
The weather iirew worse as the 5th progressed. The ship was
noted to be making ver}^ little progress into the wind, and so she
was anchored at 4.40 p. m. in 24 fathoms of water, just a few miles
jiorth of the Arctic Circle in 66^ 39' N., 54° 20' W. Fishing with
handlines Avas tried here but without success. A moderate gale from
the north blew throughout the night.
OCEANOGRAl'IIIC OBSERVATIONS
FiGiKE 11. — This gives a general idea of a part of the upper deck arrangement on the
Marion. The man in the right foreground is operating the winch which contains about
a mile of stranded steel wire. The water bottles, on the rack to the left, are clamped
at successive intervals to the wire as it is lowered away. The bottles contain the
deep-sea thermometers that record the temperature and also a chamber which holds
about a quart of sea water taken from the depth to which the bottle is lowered.
At 11a. m. on August G the Mctrion got under way and proceeded
northward. The wind moderated rapidly during the afternoon,
which fact permitted the ship to make good progress along her
course. Thousands of gulls and ducks were seen from time to time.
An eider duck that w^as shot from the bridge on this day was pre-
pared and eaten for supper by the officers with much relish.
By 4 a. m. on the 7th the Marion had run off the northern end of
Great Hellefiske Bank and was over deep water. Several large bergs
were sighted at this time, but no more were seen along a 40-mile
line of stations that was taken to the eastward to a position 10 miles
south of the Western Islands in the southern entrance to Disko Bay
The weather was foo^fry most of the 7th from 9 a. m
on, and once
EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
17
more the first warnino- that tlie
Avas had thr()U<>h si<ihtinL^ islaiul
close aboard.
diij) was near the Greenland coast
i and breakers in the foir and mist
READY TO LOWER AWAY
Figure 12. — The water bottle has been clamped to the wire and has
a messenger attached to its lower end. This messenger will be
free to run down the wire as soon as a similar messenger from
the bottle to be placed higher on the wire runs down to strike the
top of the bottle shown here. In this manner the bottles are
successively tripped after an entire string of them is lowered to
the desired depth for observations.
The afternoon was spent running northward from the inshore sta-
tion of the above-mentioned line. As the ship passed the Western
Islands and the Whalefish Islands occasional breaks in the fog per-
18
mitted the position to be fixed by means of bearings of the islets that
were taken from time to time. At 7.48 p. m. the ship ran out into
a clear space and we could see the towering heights of Disko Island
boldly standing up in the sunlight some 8 miles ahead. So deceptive
was its appearance over the glassy Avaters of the berg-studded bay
that the lookout forward thought it was very close when he first
sighted it through the thinning fog bank and excitedly yelled out to
stop the ship as land was right ahead.
Two stations were taken while approaching Godhavn, on Disko
Island, from the southward, the last one being located about 4 miles
off the port. The town, which is the capital of its local district and
also of North Greenland, is perched on a rock bench at the edge of
the sea. Immediately behind it rise great red mountains that are
much cut up by ravines. There were ice domes on the highest parts
I
J
^*Mi .^.^
GODHAVN, GliEENLAXD
Figure 13. — The Marion, on arriving at Godhavn, fired a national salute. This settle-
ment is the capital of North Greenland and it is, like Godthaab, the residing place of
a number of Danish officials. A Danish whale catcher can be discerned to the left
of the flagstaff, moored alongside a 4-mastfd sailing vessel.
of these mountains, but nearer sea level there was everywdiere a faint
tinge of green, caused by the vegetation which reached apparently
almost up to the areas of perpetual snow.
About 100 bergs, some very large and some with much dirt from
the land on them, were drifting off Godhavn in the mouth of Disko
Bay. Though it was 9 p. m., the sun w^^s still over 5° high and
w^ould be up nearly two hours longer. The sun's declination was
much less than it had been a month and a half earlier, but, due to
the comparatively high latitude of Disko Island, there was still day-
light 24 hours per day. In response to a request by radio for per-
mission to enter port, the Danish officials replied that the Marion was
welcome to Godhavn, and gave helpful advice concerning how the
harbor entrance should be approached from the south.
Soon a motor boat was seen standing out from the town. It came
alongside the ship and a welcoming delegation consisting of a pilot,
the scientist at the head of the Danisli Arctic station at Godhavn,
and the. local colonial agents, climbed on hoard. By 11 p. m., on
August 7, the Marion had run in through tlie narrow entrance of
lichen-covered rocks and anchored in the fine harbor, near two Gov-
ernment whaling vessels.
Because of the persistence of daylight, liberty was granted at once
to look over the town. As at Godthaab, the natives were for the most
part dressed in neat sealskin garments decorated with brightly dyed
strijDs of sealskin from which the hair had been removed. They were
most interesting to watch, and apparently the}^ found the sailors
from the Marion equally interesting, for a crowd of them surrounded
each little group of bluejackets that landed and followed the latter
about wherever the}^ went while ashore.
We were told that some 300 natives and 27 Danes now live at
Godhavn the vear round. At the time of the MaHoii)s visit the
GODHAVN, GREENLAND
Figure 14. — Danish flags fly near the weU-kept and red-painted Government houses. A
stone and sod hut of a native Greenlander lends local color to this view across the
inner portion of the harbor.
European population was augmented by the officers and crews of
the tAvo whaling vessels, but these people were to leave for Denmark
late in the fall as soon as the ^weather should become too severe for
further whale catching. There were man}- Eskimo dogs at Godhavn,
for here the winters are cold enough for solid sea ice to form in the
bay. This makes sledging with dog teams much more practicable
than in South Greenland, where the winters are milder and good ice
for traveling can not be depended upon. Shortly before midnight
the natives gave a dance for the crew in the cooper shop, while the
officers were entertained by the colonial agents and other Government
officials in their homes.
The morning of August 8 was very pleasant, with the air temper-
ature around 50° F. The commanding officer exchanged official calls
with the Danish officials, and the latter kindly agreed to furnish the
ship with fresh water and with 1,400 gallons of good Diesel oil. The
20 ' ' MAPaOi:^ ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
latter item Avas an unexpected and most welcome accommodation,
which made it certain that the Marion could visit the iceberg pro-
ducing glaciers at the eastern side of the bay and also complete her
projected oceanographic program at sea at a good speed and Avithout
danger of fuel shortage.
At 1 p. m. the Mamon got underway for Jacobshavn. firing a
21-gun salute before leaving the harbor. The scientist, Mr. M. P.
Porsild, director of the Danish Arctic Station at Godhavn, accom-
panied the ship during her cruise around Disko Bay. He was a
mine of local information and his patient replies to innumerable
questions, as well as his tales about the life of Government agents,
SOUTH SHORE OF DISKO ISLAND
Figure I.j.— Along this coast, from left to right in the picture, there is a continual pro-
cession of icebergs being carried westward into Davis Strait. Many of the hergs
which pass this wireless station eventually find their way to the North Atlantic steam-
ship tracks.
visiting scientists, and natives, were listened to Avith great attention.
Through his kindness our almost complete ignorance of the country
AA'as gradually dispelled and we began to appreciate the true character
of the land Ave Avere so privileged to A^isit.
By 11 p. m. the Marion had finished taking a roAV of stations east-
Avard for 50 miles to the berg-choked entrance of the Jacobshavn
ice fiord. Over 500 large bergs from this fiord Avere sighted during
the run across Disko Bay. The tallest one that Avas passed close to
Avas found by means of sextant angles to be 265 feet high.
The mountainous land behind Jacobshavn could be seen from
the moment Godhavn Avas left. Over these mountains of the main-
land wo could see the brilliant white glare of ice blink caused by
reflection from the <ii'eat dome of the inland ice. The ice itself
was not visible because of its distance and of the intervenin<r moun-
tains, but the evidence of its presence was plainly visible in the sky.
At 11.20 p. m. on Au<^ust 8, the Mnnon was anchored in the little
bottle-necked harbor at Jacobshavn. a town situated less than 2
miles north of the fri'eat ice fiord of the same name. Despite the
hour, the entire populace of about 500 natives seemed to be \\\) and
about. This place now boasts the distinction of being the most
important town, commercially, in Xorth Greenland. It exports
much fish and seal hunting is also an important local occupation.
After presenting the ship's health certificate to the local colonial
agent, we turned in to rest in preparation for a tram}) over the hills
which had been planned for the next morning.
n
.,^#!'^''"* x|>t<^
JACOBSHAVN, GREENLAND
Figure 1G. — This village is located near the great Iceberg fiord of the same name. Its
small harbor, even in summer, is seldom free from glacial ice.
At 8.30 a. m. almost the entire ship's company, followed by a
crowd of native women and children, started out over rocks and
meadows for a point southeast of the town, an Eskimo guide leading
the way. Mr. Porsild, of the Danish Arctic station, accompanied the
commanding officer, talking steadily about Greenland, and as usual
answering all questions in his thorough and cheerful way. The day
was dull and overcast, like the preceding one, but fortunately visi-
bility was again good.
After an hour's walk we reached a high point from which there
was a fine view of the Jacobshavn ice fiord. The whole length and
breadth of it, comprising over 50 square miles, was one jam of ice-
bergs that had calved from the producing glaciers to the eastward.
From the western end of the ice fiord these massed icebergs pro-
truded into Disko Bay. For details regarding the berg production
22
of this and other Greenhmd glaciers and ice fiords the reader is
referred to Smith, Edward H. (1931).^
Upon returning to the town the officers visited the homes of the
Danish officials, where they were very cordially received. These
homes at Jacobshavn were very well furnished and comfortable.
After we had admired the potted roses and asters in a sort of con-
servator}^ by one of the southern bay Avindows of the local doctor's
house, we were led outdoors to see the garden. Here an astonishing
profusion of growth w^as show\n us, considering that we were well
above the Arctic Circle and near where one of Greenland's mightiest
ice streams debouches into the sea. Close to the house all sorts of
flowering plants were growing, and just south of them was a lawn
no bigger than a large rug, yet with seats and a tea table on it.
OFF THE MOUTH OF JACOBSHAVN FIORD
Figure 17.- — An excellent illustration of the manner in which icebergs are discharged
from the mouth of the fiord into DisliO Bay. Every year approximately 1,500 large
icebergs enter the open waters of the bay at this point.
There was a tiny clover patch near by, and beyond it was a vegetable
garden which was said to be cultivated for amusement only and
not as a source of food. All the plants outdoors were entirely
unprotected except for being in sheltered spots inside a yard where
the village dogs could not destroy them.
Cabbages, cauliflowers, tomatoes, potatoes, lettuce, radishes, tur-
nips, and many other things were growing in little beds in the garden.
Due to the very long cool days, these plants in some instances grew
strangely. Some were long and trailing, whereas, if in their home
surroundings, they would have been stocky and sturdy. The toma-
toes and potatoes were not expected to mature, but almost all the
other vegetables were certainly large enough to be useful on the table
at any time,
^Arctic Ice with Especial Reference to its Distribution to the North Atlantic Ocean.
The Marion Expedition to Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, under the Direction of the
United States Coast Guard, 1928, Scientific Results. Bulletin No. 19, Part 3, pp. 1-221,
with 122 figs. Washington.
^'mAEIOn" EXPEDITIOX to DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY 23
At noon, after an opportunity had been g-iven the Danes and the
natives to visit the Marion^ Ave <>ot under way and stood out of the
tiny harbor, so picturesque Avith its kyaks and other native boats
and its numerous small ice masses brou<^ht in by Avind and tide from
the bay. Upon leaving the harbor the massed bergs just off the
mouth of the Jacobshavn ice fiord Avere A'isited. A feAV minutes
Avere spent examining the great ice Avail formed by the congestion of
icebergs and in obtaining from a dory photographs of it like the one
shoAvn in Figure 18.
At 1.45 p. m. the Marion Avas headed for Ata, a small village 32
miles to the nortliAvard on Prince Island, Avhere a native guide to
conduct a party up into the inland ice Avas to be received. From
4.48 to 5.25 p. m. the ship drifted off Ata Avhile the pilot and guide,
a Greenlander named Peter Peterson, made readA'. came out in his
AN ICEBERG JAM
Figure 18. — The Marion cruisins: off the mouth of Jacobshavn Fiord on August 9, 1928,
found the bergs so tightly packed together that not even a ship's boat could penetrate
beyond the outer line. On the average of twice monthly in summer, usually about the
time of the spring tides, large numbers of these bergs float free.
kyak, and Avas taken aboard. At 8.10 p. m. the ship anchored in
Port Quervain Harbor, near the south end of Ekip-Sermia Glacier,
Avhich produces large numbers of very small bergs. This glacier
runs doAvn steeply from the inland ice and is broken up by innumer-
able creA^asses Avhere it passes oa er a rock spur. Apparently only this
breaking up process prevents it from forming large bergs like those
that push seaAvard from the JacobshaATi ice fiord.
The sea Avail of this glacier Avas about A'ertical, and near its center
AA^as a great ice caA^ern, probably the end of a tube serA^ing farther
inland as the conduit pipe for a subglacial stream. A strong milky
current setting out from under the ice Avas carrying aA\'ay rapidly all
the bergs and small ice pieces as fast as they Avere calved. Sliots
fired into the glacier from the Marion's 3-inch gun brought doAvn a
feAA^ tons of ice from Aveakened and OA'erhanging cornices, but the
firing AA-as really Avithout appreciable effect. Spontaneous cahdng, on
24
the other hand, was occurring frequently because of the compara-
tively high temperature of the day and the steady advance of the
glacier into deep Avater along a broad front. When the larger ice
blocks calved off there were thunderous noises and the swells set
up often made the ship roll suddenly and the rocky shores of the
sheltered anchorage resound with breaking waves. Thousands of
sea gulls were resting on the water near the ice front, particularly
about the entrance to the ice cavern. These birds would fly about
w^ith excited screaming Avhenever ice masses crashed down in their
vicinity. Figures 19, 20, and 21 illustrate conditions about the end
of the glacier at Port Quervain.
A GLACIAL SCENE
FiGUKB 19. — The Coast Guard patrol boat Marion anchored at Port Quervain on the west
coast of Greenland in latitude 69° 45' N. This glacier, Ekip Sermia, calves a con-
siderable amount of ice yearly but never in pieces the size of a large iceberg.
At 8.30 a. m. on August 10 the ship w^as left with a few ship
keepers only, while most of the officers and crew were boated ashore
for a hike to the inland ice. The latter is easily accessible at this
point, and it was from here that Dequervain, the Swiss glaciologist,
scaled it and crossed in 1912 to Greenland's east coast. We found
the Avalking inland from the end of the glacier good, but it entailed
much going up and down hill, tiring for sailors, though probably
easy enough for experienced mountaineers.
There were many blueberries near the sea level, but as the altitude
increased the cold i3ecame greater, the soil poorer, and the vegetation
scantier and scantier. About noon the party, most of them now very
lirecl from the rapid pace set by the native guide, began toiling up
25
the steep sloj^e of the inhiiid ice's terminal moraine. Parts of this
slope were covered with snow and ice surfaces inclined at an angle
like that of the roof of a house. These patches of neve were prob-
ably caused by the downslope wind in winter blowing snow off the
ice cap and over the top of the terminal moraine.
As soon as the moraine had been surmounted, the expanse of the
inland ice could be seen rising in a gentle slope toward the interior.
It looked much like a frozen sea, and a strong raw wind, like a cold
sea breeze, was blowing dow^n slope toward the ice margin upon
which we stood. There were some stones and sand on the ice near
the margin and the surface was cut up slightly by small running
streams, most of which disappeared between the ice and the terminal
A GLACIERS DISCHARGE
Figure 20. — Close view of the projecting southern edge of the Ekip Sermia glacier at Port
Quervain on August 10, 1928. This gives some idea of the amount of dirt carried from
the land and of the glacial flotsam in the vicinity of active discharge.
moraine. In some places these streams had cut through the latter,
however, and could be seen rushing down it in little casades.
A half mile in from the ice margin the sand and gravel on the
ice had decreased to a negligible amount. All that could be seen
toward the interior Avas the slightly undulating surface of the ice
cap, still cut up in places by the small brooks of ice water that were
flowing in shallow beds of clean glacial ice.
After a few minutes spent in gazing, the Marion's party turned
their backs to the searching clown-slope Avincl, walked to the ice edge,
and climbed down the terminal moraine. Some distance farther sea-
ward in a bleak but fairly sheltered spot a stop was made to eat lunch.
From this stopping point a slow march was started for the shore at
Port Quervain. In the loAver levels several stops were made in blue-
berry patches, where many handfuls of delicious berries were gathered
and eaten by the tired sailors as they lay sprawled about to rest.
68165—32 3
26
Upon returning to the ship, several members of the crew who had
taken special pricle in the work of the expedition went to the com-
manding officer and requested permission to erect some sort of a
monument ashore at Port Quervain to mark the northernmost point
ever attained by a United States Coast Guard vessel on the eastern
side of North America. Accordingly a Avritten record was wrapped
in a weatherproof covering and placed in a cairn built on top of a
promiment near-by hill. The men amassed an impressive pile of
stones for their purpose and topped it all with a 3-inch brass cartridge
case inscribed " Marion Expedition, 1928."
At 7.05 p. m. on August 10, 1928, the Marion began proceeding
toward Ata, where the guide, Peterson, was returned to his home at
9.10 p. m. This little outpost village consisted of a few tiny houses
built on a rocky lowland at the base of towering mountains. The
A FLANK VIEW OF A GREENLAND GLACIER
Figure 21. — Looking back towards tbe glacier that discliarges at Port Quervain, Green-
land. The steep slope passed over by the ice just before reaching the sea breaks the
glacier up into small pieces. Therefore, this ice stream never produces large bergs.
house of the native outpost manager was visited by some of the offi-
cers, Avho Avere given strong black coffee there in a room Avhich
contained a hard wooden sleeping bench, a few chairs, and a potted
plant on a stand by the window. There were some inexpensive
framed prints on the walls. The outpost manager then visited the
Marion^ accompanied by his wife and grown daughter. The latter,
a tall, splendid-looking Eskimo girl, was dressed in fine sealskin
clothing and wore the bright and elaborately decorated high boots
that are possessed by all native women of any means.
Several bergs Avere grounded off Ata near the Marion^ anchorage.
A little fleet of seal hunters in kyaks Avere soon seen among them,
approaching from Ata Sound. Each tiny boat had a Avhite cloth like
a little square sail at its boAv. We Avere told that these Avere not used
for propulsion, but were for the kyakers to hide behind Avhile stealing
up close to unsuspecting seals. Some of the natives Avere induced to
EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND B AFFIX BAY 27
maneiivei' and throw their spears at objects in the water near the ship
and the grounded bergs. The Greenlanders could dart about very
siviiifuUy in their tiny craft and coidd throw tlieir spears very accu-
rately into pieces of
meat and blubber
from distances o f
about 20 yards.
At 6.15 a. m. on
August 11 the Mar-
ion departed from
the smooth anchor-
age off Ata. She
rounded the south-
ern tip of Prince Is-
land and then pro-
ceeded n o r t h w a r d
into the Yaigat.
The day, like the
preceding one, was
almost calm, with
partly cloud}^ skies
and temperatures
from 40° to 51° F.
The northern end of
Disko Bay and the
Viagat— the same as
the water between
GodhaAii and Ja-
cob s h a v n — w^ a s
studded with hun-
dreds of bergs of
every size.
The run up tin
Vaigat between tlic
heights of Disko Is-
land and Xugsuak
Peninsula was most
impressive, for on
either side of the
narrow^ strait tow^-
ered mountains over
5,000 feet high.
Their tops w^ere
capped with ice
domes, but lower
dowm there was lit-
tle but bare rock.
Low^ vegetation flour-
ished where there was soil near sea level and could be seen in ever-
diminishing quantities as altitude was gained.
The higher parts of the mountains were formed of alternate layers
of red lava and ash. Farther down they consisted of yellowish
BOUND FOR THE INLAND ICE
Figure 22. — During our stop at Port Quervain we took the
opportunity to journej' eastward to the edge of the vast
sheet of inland ice that covers about half a million square
miles of the surface of Greenland. Only the coastal regions
of the great island are free from glacial ice. This view
shows some of the crew surmounting the terminal moraine
of the ice cap.
28
' ' MARION ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STEAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
limestone and sandstone, streaked with almost horizontal seams of
coal. Near sea level, as at Godhavn, the usual rock was ancient
ice-worn gneiss.
From 2,23 to 4.45 p. m. the Marion was engaged taking a series of
oceanographic stations to the southwestward across the Vaigat from
70° 08' N., 52° 37' W. After the last station the Disko Island
shore was skirted southeastward for a couple of miles to where the
Danes were developing a coal mine in latitude 70° 04' N. Near the
mine a muddy torrent roared down from the ice cap on the lofty
plateau of Disko Island. In the yellow water off this stream the
Marion came to anchor at 5.30 p. m., Doctor Porsild having advised
COAST GUARDSMEN AND NATIVES DANCE
Figure 23. — Almost every hamlet at wliicb the Marion stopped honored us with a dance.
The settlement about the coal mine at East Disko on the shores of the Vaisat (lati-
tude 70° 04' N.) was no exception. Note the picturesque sealskin hoots of the Green-
land women.
a short stop to afford the European mining engineers and theii*
families a break in the monotony of an isolated life.
The coal seams about the mine were visited, and the ship was
inspected by the Europeans and a few of the natives of the place.
The Danes hope to produce enough coal at the mine to take care of
Greenland's requirements, making further importation of European
fuel for heating unnecessary, and furnishing work for a number of
natives at the same time.
True to form, the latter got up a dance at short notice for their
sailor visitors. It was held here on a small board platform in the
open. Although the sun was still several hours high, the mining
settlement already lay in the shadow of the rocky heights of Disko
EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY 29
Island to the southward. The sunny berg-dotted waters of the
Vaigat. just north of the vilhige. made a strange and picturesque
background for the dance on the darkening shore. (See fig. 23.)
At 9.15 p. ni. the ship was got underway and headed southeastward.
During the night the shoals off Mudder Bay were passed, and at
7.20 on August 12 the Marion came to anchor at (lodhavn for the last
time. A busy day ensued, Avhich included taking aboard 1,400 gallons
of fuel oil, G50 gallons of water, and saying good-by to new-made
friends. The officers went to a dinner at the Danish Arctic station,
where they were royally entertained by the Porsild family. After
an hour spent in examining the museum and library at the station,
the officers and their hosts went through pouring rain to a sogg^^
field where a soccer game was held. The Maidon^s crew played
against the combined forces of the Danes and natives, proving no
match for them. The local forces won easily over their less experi-
enced competitors by the tremendous score of 26 goals to none.
The evening was rainy and foggy, but the mountains behind the
harbor broke the force of the wind at the anchorage, so a quiet night
was spent on the ship while waiting for the storm raging oifshore
to moderate. Finally, at 12.45 p. m. on August 13, 1928, the last fare-
wells were said, the anchor was hove up, and the Marion and her
complement departed from Godhavn, carrying away many fine
gifts from the hospitable inhabitants of North Greenland. Still
more valuable and more imperishable than the material gifts which
we took with us were the vivid recollections of the kindness and
helpfulness of the people of the Arctic wonderland surrounding
Disko Bay.
We were much interested in a Danish oceanographic expedition
under Commander Kiis-Cartensen, of the Koyal Danish Navy,
which was cruising during the summer of 1928 in the waters of
Baffin Bay. His ship was north at Etah, Greenland, while we were
around Disko Bay, so we failed to meet him personally. Greetings
were exchanged by radio, however, and a package containing sketches
of our track and a description of our work was left for Commander
Riis-Cartensen at the Danish Arctic station just before we departed.
The Marion ran westward and northwestward until about 15 miles
from Godhavn. Then an oceanographic station was taken close to
the land, the first of a row of stations that we hoped to take to the
southwestwarcl for 220 miles to Cape Dier, Baffin Island. A fresh
southeast breeze was still blowing and it was cloud}^ The next day
the weather was worse — fog, then rain, and then more fog. The
southeast breeze increased to gale force, but the Marion kept on tak-
ing her stations and other ol)servations as best she could. Between
4 p. m. and 8 p. m. the gale moderated suddenly to a flat calm, but
the dense fog still persisted. Several bergs and growlers were sighted
during the da3% becoming more and more numerous along the course
as the evening advanced.
At 12.20 a. m. on August 15 the Marion was stopped on the east-
ern edge of pack ice. The night was much darker than the nights
had been some 100 miles farther north at Godhavn, and it was very
fogg}^, but the i^ans of ice close aboard were plainly visible, though
they Avere at first thought to be icel)ergs and growlers instead of pack
ice. At 5 a. m. the fog began to dissipate, permitting a fair view to
30
be had of the ice pack to the westward. At 7.30 a. m. it was clearing
rapidly, and 16 bergs, some in and some east of the flat ice, were
counted within the circle of visibility. At 7.45 a. m. the Marion was
headed on her course to the southwestward, proceeding into the
open pack.
By 8 a. m. visibility was excellent. The sky remained overcast
throughout, but there was no wind all day long. The Marion ran
among the ice cakes, making good a general course of south-southwest.
The pack ice averaged perhaps 10 to 12 feet in thickness and was
of the late summer variety, consisting of small pans from a very
few 3^ards to about 50 yards across. There were almost no open
leads in the slack ice, but in some directions the scattered ice pieces
were less numerous than in others, and these paths of least resistance
AN ICE-CHOKED WAVELESS SEA
FinuRE !24. — This late summer pack ice was encountered in Davis Strait off Cape Dier,
Baffin Island, on August 15, 1928. The further westward the Marion worked the
closer packed this ice became. It effectively stopped all progress when the ship was
still 36 miles from the Baffin Island coast. " This sort of ice was never on the land,
like the icebergs, but represents the melting remnants of ice fields frozen during winter
on the surface of the sea.
were taken whenever they led in the general direction of our objec-
tive. Cape Dier, Baffin Island.
The farther the Marion penetrated to the westward the closer
packed the shattered ice became. The land about Cape Dier could
not be reached because of 36 miles of close-packed ice without leads at
which the Marion was soon vainly pushing, trying to force a way.
Oceanographic stations, soundings, and bottom samples were taken
at regular intervals just as though the Marion were on an ordinary
sea instead of a silent, motionless one, choked with broken pack ice
above which in all directions rose scattered bergs. Sun sights taken
through the light cloud blanket showed that the ship and the ice
were both steadily drifting southward with the cold current.
Early in the day several walrus were seen resting on ice cakes.
One of them was shot with a rifle, but it plunged into the sea, where
it died and sank before it could be captured. Therefore no walrus
^'mAEIOX" EXPEDITIOX to DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY 31
meat was had for the mess, but much seal and whale meat brought
out from the Disko Bay refrion was eaten.
At 5. 07 p. m. a large polar bear and two young ones were seen
eating a seal on a near-by ice cake. The ship worked toward them.
They tried to escape by swimming and running, but tAvo of them
were killed with rifles before they could get away. The third, a cub,
weighing about 200 pounds, remained roaring about in the vicinity of
the dead bears. A dory was quickly lowered and the small bear was
noosed and towed alongside. The two dead bears were hoisted
aboard and then the live one, growling and snarling, was lifted to
the deck by numerous lines slipped about the neck, body, and legs.
On the ship it was overpoAvered and muzzled b}^ many hands, then
dragged forward and thrown into the forehold. After the hatch was
CLOSE TO A TOWERING irEBER(;
Figure 25. — The Ma/rion has just landed photographers on the iceberg, and is about to
back away. The manned dory by the ice cake is for rescue work in case the berg
should break up or turn over. There were numerous icebergs like this one drifting
south with the pack ice in the western portion of Davis Strait. Note the one near
the horizon between the two masts of the patrol boat.
dogged down, the bear was a secure captive, though free to rage
about among the lines, bags of coal, and paint cans of its large prison.
At 7 p. m. the Aveather grew foggy again, but it remained calm.
Every effort made to push to the soutliAvestAvard Avas thwarted by
the ice. The ship lurched and shook Avhen it encountered heavy
floes, and the corners of the ice cakes cracked and thundered as they
scraped aft along the sides. At 8 p. m. the attempt to go soutliAvest-
ward Avas abandoned and the ship AA^as headed southeast in hope of
finding more open Avater. After bucking the ice for some 5 miles aa'o
became Avedged betAA^een floes, from Avhich position no amount of back-
ing and filling could dislodge us. At 10.30 p. m. the engines Avere
stopped and the ship remained drifting quietly soutliAvard in the
grip of the ice until the next morning.
DaAAm presented a beautiful Arctic scene. We could as well have
been at the Pole itself, except for the distant mountains of Baffin
32 ' ' MARION ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
Island, which in the early morning light were transformed to purest
white and gold. Ice stretched as far as we could see, and the im-
pressiA^eness of our surroundings was further emphasized by the great
stillness j^revailing everywhere. It was plain that attempts to secure
observations near Cape Dier avouIcI have to be abandoned, for the
time being at least. Most of the floes that now surrounded the ship
consisted of heavy pack ice that extended downwards in the water
10 to 15 feet. We were timid about using our propellers, which, of
course, were quite light and very easily bent. Even at their depth
of 7 feet just one lick w^ould be enough to place one permanently out
i
A CAPTIVE IS ABOUT TO BE HAULED ABOARD
Figure 26.- — This polar bear cub was noosed from a dory sent out among ice cakes after
her mother and brother were shot. She was towed alongside, secured with additional
lines, and placed in the forepeak after a stiff fight. She remained aboard from August
15, 1928, until shipped from New London, Conn., to the National Zoo at Washington,
D. C, over a month later.
of commission, and two such bloAVs against cakes of ice miglit sud-
denly leave us helpless in a very precarious position. So we worked
things gently for a Avhile and finally got the ship turned offshore by
placing the stem against an especially heavy floe.
By 4.07 a. m. on August 16 the ice had slackened somcAvhat and the
ship cautiously began AA^orking due soutliAvard. The fog cleared up
early and another fine calm day Avas experienced, Avith much bright
sunshine, especially in the afternoon. Due to the ice and cold Avater
about, the air temperatures remained betAveen 36° and 42° all day,
about 10° colder than aA^erage temperatures experienced around Disko
Island.
MAPvIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAYIS STRAIT AND BAFI IX BAY 33
At 8 a. m., as soon as we were out of the worst of the pack, we
headed northwestward in a final effort to approach close to the shores
of Baffin Island in the present latitude. The air was so remarkably
clear that the lii<2:h land to the southward of Cape Dier and due
Avest behind Cape Walsin<:hani could be seen in detail plainly, though
our observations showed it should be over 40 miles away. Close
packed ice was soon encountered, and it was impossible to make much
progress toward the beckoning peaks, glaciers, and snow fields.
After bucking the ice for two hours, the last attempt to reach Cape
Dier was abandoned and the vessel was headed south-southeast
toward the open water in the center of Davis Strait.
One large polar bear and several seals were seen on the ice, and in
the Avater between the floes thousands of murres and dovekies were
swimming about in pairs. The bear showed up cream-colored against
the dazzling whiteness of the pack ice, just as the three bears of the
previous day had done. No animals were shot because of the addi-
tion of several hundred pounds of bear meat to the larder on the
previous day.
During the early afternoon the ship cruised south-southeastward
through the ice, the floes becoming more and more separated by open
water. When a few miles from the edge of the pack, the ship was
stopped near one of the numerous bergs long enough to permit photo-
graphs of the Marion and the pack ice to be taken. (See fig. 25.)
For some time before making the above stop a slight swell from
the southeast had been noticed. It grew stronger as the edge of the
pack was approached, making loud, gurgling noises about the edges
of the rolling ice cakes. B}^ 5 p. m. the last of the small pans were
left behind. A few bergs were sighted outside the limits of the
j^ack ice, however, and until evening iceblink and damp vapor rising
from the ice and cold water to the westward could be seen.
Ver}^ foolishly, just before the pack ice was left, the hatch to the
forehold was slightly opened to enable the captive bear to get light
and ventilation. It was believed that the weight of the steel hatch
cover, high over the bear's head, would prove sufficient restraint to
keep it a prisoner. In a short time, however, the officer of the deck
saw from the bridge that the bear's head and paws were pr^dng the
hatch cover farther open. An instant later the bear squirmed its
way free and began running about the forward deck. The alarm was
given and officers and men rushed madty forward to keep their prize
from getting away. Four times the bear tried to leap over the rail
into the sea, but each time it was pulled back by the hair on its hind
legs. On one of these occasions it turned and severW bit the hand
of its restrainer before he could let go. An attempt was made to
throw a blanket over the bear's head, but the big cub was too fierce and
quick. It tore the blanket aside, knocking down the man who was
holding it and ripping the back out of his coat. A liA^ely fight ensued
until many men closed in on the bear and by force of numbers held it
helpless until it could be dragged to the hatch and thrown into the
forehold once more.
A little later the bear was securel}- noosed by several lines and
lifted from the hold. It was dragged to a strong cage that had been
constructed of lumber and wire and wedired in amonij the oil drums
34
on the deck aft. Here the bear, which was soon named Marion, was
kept until shipped from New London, Conn., over one month later,
to the National Zoo at Washington, D. C.
She ate very little during this period, practically refusing to touch
any food except slices of her dead mother and brother, of which
she would eat spar-
ingly from time to
time. She was al-
w^ays trying to
scratch and gnaw
her way out, so the
cage frequently had
to be repaired with
new boards and re-
inforced with more
wire. Marion w^as
extremely sly and
vicious and would
make sudden rushes
to surprise and bite
those working about
her cage. The only
time she seemed to
like her captivity
was when the wash-
d e c k hose was
turned on her to
give her a daily
hath. Her bad tem-
per at all other
times was well un-
derstood by every-
o n e, a n cl many
anxious hours were
spent by light sleep-
ers who had visions
of her escaping at
night and seeking
vengeance upon her
abductors by means
of tooth and claw.
Through the calm
clear night of Au-
gust 16 the Marion
ran to the south-
ward in open water,
taking stations,
soundings, and bot-
tom samples, ac-
cording to plan. At 4.30 a. m. on the ITth the southeastern corner of
the pack ice was sighted in 64^ 40' N.. 59° 08' W. The thick pans
here w^ere small and deeply waterworn. Some of them resembled
giant mush rooms raised on short stems a little above the sea surface.
The sea and swell made a noise like the roaring of breakers as it
THERE WILL BE BEAR STEAKS TO NKillT
Figure 27. — One of the seamen is here skinning the mother
of the captive cub " Marion." The skin of this bear was
salted down and brought in excellent condition to the
United States. Lean meat as sweet and tender as veal
was found under the insulating laj^er of fat.
^ ' MARIOX ' ^ EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY 35
lapped at the melting floes. The edge of this last pack ice sighted
during the expedition was skirted for 5 miles to the southeastward,
after which the southerly course could be resumed again without
hindrance.
From 64° 07' X., 59° 05' W., a line of stations Avas taken to the
westsouthwest toward Cape St. David, Baffin Island, for nearly
120 miles. The weather was mostly clear, with fine visibility, while
light westerly airs prevailed. About 4G icebergs Avere sighted during
the day, but the ship was south of all the pack ice that had prevented
a close approach to Baffin Island, 120 miles farther north. Many
astronomical observations Avere taken, and at about 11 p. m., after
the eA'ening star sights had been computed, it Avas thought that the
ship's position was quite Avell knoAvn. Throughout the late afternoon
the heights of Baffin Island had been visible to the westAvard, and
many bearings Avere taken of points thought to be Cape St. David
and Cape Murchison. The station program was continued on
through the night, hoAveA^er, it being planned to take the last station
a safedistance east of BreA^oort Island at 4 a. m.
At 1 a. m. the fathometer shoAved the officer of the deck that the
water was shoaling considerably. He looked around in the darkness
and saw the dim outlines of an island to the northeastward and the
high land ahead seemed to be close aboard. He took the inshore
station at once, not daring to go on any farther. Then a course to
the southeastAvard Avas run.
No land Avas visible at daylight on the morning of the 18th, but
a. m. star and sun sights A^erified the positions carried forAvard by
dead reckoning from the evening before. The chronometer's error
Avas well knoAvn, because radio time ticks were being heard almost
daily. Apparently the land about Cape Murchison and Cape St.
DaAdd Avas charted on our copy of British Admiralty Chart 235
about 20 miles to the southAvest of its true ]:)Osition. This can not be
stated as an absolute fact, due to the slight possibility of unusual
refraction, to the darkness, and to the hurried manner in AAdiich the
Marion had to approach and leaA^e the coast. The fact that an ap-
parent error in the chart was noted should certainly be mentioned
here, however, in order that the land's position may be checked
up in the future by the next expedition passing through the region
concerned.
August 18 Avas a fine clear day Avith moderate northwesterly
breezes. All day long and until 4 a. m. August 19 the ship con-
tinued cruising to the southeastAvard, stopping to take stations CA^ery
25 miles. Numerous bergs Avere sighted until the ship ran out of the
cold current Avith surface temperatures of 37° F. and sot into the
47° F. Avater situated farther out in Davis Strait. The last berg
sighted from this line of stations was passed in 62° 53' N., 61° 35' W.
The greater part of Sunday, August 19, Avas spent running to the
Avestward on a line of stations laid in toAvard Resolution Island.
There Avas a moderate nortliAAest gale almost all day. Late in the
afternoon, Avhile it Avas bloAAing the hardest, an end flange on the
drum of the forAvard Avinch began to bulge out Avith a crack that grew
wider and Avider, and finally prevented turning at all. The manu-
facturer that supplied the hoists for use on the ice patrol in 1927 had
not designed the drum flanges with sufficient strength to Avithstand
the side thrust Avhich occurs when several thousands of meters of
36
wire are tightly wound on the drnni. The same faihire happened to
the other large winch drum on the first long leg of the expedition,
and it also occurred once during the ice patrol of 1927. In the latter
instance repairs were not attempted until the season was over, but in
this case no such delay could be thought of, for we badly needed the
winch for use at the next station, which would be reached in three
hours' time. All hands were turned to reeling off the 2,800 meters of
3^2-inch wire to the large wooden spool upon which it had come. As
soon as the winch drum Avas empty the most resourceful of the motor
machinist's mates set to work repairing the damage by bolting on
pieces of ^^"ii^ch scrap iron bent in the form of arms to strengthen
the drum and to hold on the wire. By 10 o'clock that night the wire
was back on the drum and the winch was in operation taking the next
set of observations.
By 5 a. m. on August 20, the wind had died down to a gentle north-
west air, and the weather remained fine and sunny until 6 p. m. Sev-
eral bergs were sighted during the day. Around noon. Resolution
Island, the northern portal of Hudson Strait, was sighted ahead.
At 2.30 p. m. the last station of the line was taken 20 miles due east
of Gape Resolution. Many observations of the sun were made both
prior to and after the time this station was occupied and all of them
shoAved that the coast about Cape Resolution was apparently laid
doAA^n on our copy of B. A. Chart 235 about 12 miles east of its true
position. This seemed unbelievable, as Ave Avere noAv in fairly Avell-
known Avaters. Unfortunately, bad Aveather on the 22d, Avhen we
were again near Cape Resolution, made it impossible to verify this
possible discrepancy. Abnormal refraction may have throAvn off all
our observations of the 20th by 12 minutes of arc, but if refraction
was normal on August 20, the land about Cape Resolution was cer-
tainly draAvn in on the chart too far to the east.
From the inshore station near Cape Resolution, the ship ran south
for 20 miles and then AA^est about 25 miles to a point V/o miles south
of Hatton Headland, Resolution Island. At 8.45 p. m. a station was
taken off the latter point, the beginning of a line of stations run
soutliAvard across the eastern entrance of Hudson Strait. Through
the mist and drizzle at the station off Hatton Headland the land
appeared to be mountainous and rocky, but the Ioav clouds and the
bad visibility prevented our seeing very far back from the Avater's
edge. There Avere some small patches of snoAv in sheltered places,
even within one or two hundred feet of sea level. The dim twilight
and the mist prevented us from telling Avhether or not there was
much vegetation on the shore.
Out in Hudson Strait, a feAv bergs Avere drifting about strangel}^,
not quietly and imperceptibly as they do normally, but Avith notice-
able turnings and rapid relatiA^e motions Avith respect to each other
and to the drifting Marion. The agitation of the Avaters by strong
tidal currents was further evidenced by the peculiar AvaA^es that had
little relation to the force and direction of the Avind. These strange
waves or oA-erfalls tAvice struck the Marion resounding bloAvs that
made spray dash up to the bridge AvindoAvs, something Avhich Avould
have never occurred in a gentle breeze Avhile drifting in any sort of
normal swell at sea.
By 9 p. m. the station off Hatton Headland Avas completed, and
a course was set through the rain and darkness toAvard the Button
Islands, 30 miles to the southward off Cape Chidley, Labrador. It
was an anxious night for those who knew of the strong currents and
the poor charts, but fortunatel}^ the line of stations was taken with-
out disaster and b}'' 1.15 a. m. on August 21 the Marion was heading
eastward once more, bound for the open sea.
A break in the routine of the cruise now occurred. In obedience
to a radiogram from Coast Guard headquarters, a search Avas com-
menced in the waters east of Resolution Island for the fliers Hassel
and Cramer. Tlie}^ were on a flight from Canada to Mount Evans,
Greenland, and had not been heard from since early on August 19,
when they had reported themselves as about 40 miles eastward of
Hatton Headland. Two full da3^s were devoted to a vain searcli
for these aviators. Later on we learned that they had succeeded
in reaching Greenland before losing their plane.
The 21st was a fine day with full visibility, but the 22d was marred
by moderate to fresh gales and rather rough to very rough seas. At
4.40 a. m. on the 22d, before it had started to bloAv, the eastern side
of Resolution Island was seen again, this time close aboard. There
were many stranded bergs along the rocky coast, but exactly what
part of the island was sighted will never be known,, for the storm
which came up suddenly at this time ended the period of good visi-
bility and forced the Marion to head offshore. Late in the afternoon
the sk}^ cleared and the wind moderated suddenly, but only to pipe
up again to a fresh gale from the south, and to cloud over after three
hours of moderate to strong breezes from the same direction. On the
morning of August 23, after a night of great pitching and rolling the
gale moderated enabling speed to be increased on our southerly
course.
Visibility was so good after the storm that frequent bearings
could be taken of the rocky heights of the Button Islands and Cape
Chidley, 25 miles to the westward. Inshore an unidentified steamer
which was heading nortliAvard looked very lonely and small on the
wild empt}^ waters between us and mountainous land.
Half a dozen bergs and a few growlers were sighted during the
day. According to our observations the Button Islands and Cape
Chidley seemed to be charted on B. A. chart 1422. about 12 miles to
the eastward of their true position, but there must have been some-
thing like unusual refraction affecting our sights, for it is almost
unbelievable that these well-known places can be so improperly
located on the charts in use to-day. The charts on board were evi-
dently still far from perfect, however, for they differed among them-
selves. For instance, the eastern point of the Button Islands was
176° true from Hatton Headland on H. O. chart No. 5380, while this
bearing was 159° true on B. A. chart Xo. 1422.
We had been eating much wdiale meat and salt horse even before
leaving Disko, and now, in Labrador, we hoped to catch or buy some
€od. We had bought a saddleback seal carcass at Ata. Greenland,
but nobody took much of a fancy to this food despite the fact that
it is keenly relished by the Greenlanders. Whale meat if hung in
the rigging for about a Aveek is not at all bad, but best of all were
the steaks from the polar bears shot on the pack ice of Davis Strait.
Meat, it was observed, keeps an exceedingly long time if hung out
in the polar air. Both the whale meat and the bear were eaten
38
three weeks after they had been killed. The whale meat dried up
somewhat toward the last, but the bear meat seemed as fresh as
ever.
Around noon on August 23 an attempt was made to enter Eclipse
Harbor, Labrador, mainl}^ for the purpose of getting fresh water,
but the innumerable rocks and breakers sighted off the north end of
Aulalsivik Island kept the MaHon from entering this anchorage.
From off it the ship ^tood to the east-southeastward 16 miles and
then ran southwestward the same distance into the entrance of the
fiord at the southern end of Aulalsivik Island. Several rocks were
sighted near the coast. A few of them were uncharted and tw^o were
not noticed until they were ahead close aboard. South of the
sixtieth parallel our sights showed the coast to be charted close to
its observed position.
THE HIGHEST PEAKS OF NORTH AMERICA THAT ARE NEAR THE ATLANTIC
COAST
Figure 28. — The Marion is here approaching the Torngat Mountains of Labrador in lati-
tude 59° 42' N. Four of the peaks are marlced on the chart as between 5,000 and
6,000 feet high. They support numerous tiny glaciers, from which mountain streams
originate. One of these streams, flowing into the flord ahead, supplied the Marion
with excellent water for ship's use.
About 2 miles off the fiord entrance there was a submarine ridge
with its higher points just reaching sea level. A few rocks marking
the crest of this ridge could be seen along a line following the trend
of the coast to the NNW. and SSE. Inshore the soundings deepened
again, and remained fairly deep in the fiord. (See fig. 44.)
The land w^as high and mountainous to the north and south of the
fiord entrance. Just to the south of it were the four peaks of the
Torngat Mountains, marked on the chart as 5,000 to 6,000 feet high.
(See fig. 28.) These Labrador mountains did not seem so impressive
as those of North Greenland, possibly because of the absence of ice-
blink behind them and possibly because we were now accustomed
to seeing great mountains close to the sea.
It was difficult to distinguish the fiord entrance from off the coast,
but by running at slow speed and closely observing the shore it was
^ ' MARION ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY 39
at last found and entered. Then a tortuous course inland between
the mountain walls was begun. The fiord was very crooked and not
at all open and crescent shaped as shown on the small-scale chart
which we used. (B. A. Chart No. 1422.) At times it appeared as
though the head of
navigation had
been reached, but
always there would
be a way out around
the spurs and ridges
that projected into
the fiord from either
side. For a long-
time no streams
were seen, but fi-
nally a few tiny
ones began to ap-
pear. At 5 p. m..
when about T miles
in from the en-
trance, a large
brook was noted
rushing into the
fiord on the port
hand. It was fed
by several small
glaciers located
halfway u p t h c
mountains on the
south shore.
The Marion wa^
anchored off i\\v
stream in approxi-
matelv 59° 40' N..
64° 02' W., and
preparations were
started for boating
water aboard.
While the boats
were being lowered
the gentle southerly
breeze increased
suddenly to gale
force, whitening the
water, heeling the
ship over, and mak-
ing it swing and
tug at the anchor
chain. As sud-
denly as it began, i ^ i - ^ ^
the wind squallstopped, but every little while throughout the night
these foehns or williwaws rushed down the mountain slopes and tore
about the fiord. They buffeted the ship but did not harm lier or her
boats which were eiigaged in bringing out fresh water, ihe tiorcl
\ HANGING GLACIER IN THE HEART OF THE
TORNGATS
Figure 29. — While tbe Marion was taking on water from a
mountain brook, some of tbe officers made a trip to tbe
glacier wbicb formed its source. From tbe point near tbe
fiord wbere tbis view was taken, a 2-bour climb Avas neces-
sary to reach tbe nearest ice. Tbe summer day was warm
and pleasant, but in tbe winter tbis uninbabited country
is terribly cold and bleak.
40
MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
was too constricted to allow much of a sea to be built up, and the
duration of the blasts was too short to cause the ship to drag or to
blow off the small boats very far. The only damage done was the
salting up of a few open boatloads of water, which necessitated their
being'emptied and filled up again at the stream. The dry warmth
caused by the com-
pression of the
cl o w n-flowing air
pervaded the whole
locality, causing the
dry bulb to read 72°
F. at 8 p. m., while
at the same time the
wet bulb read only
55° F.
The greatly dis-
turbed local atmos-
pheric conditions
can be realized from
the following ob-
servation. Despite
the dry heat of the
place, several times
we saw^ large snow-
flakes falling. At
first, we did not be-
lieve that snow
could fall with the
thermometer round
the 70° mark, and
w^e supposed the
great white flakes
were some sort of
dow^n torn by the
wind from a species
of plant ashore.
When we caught a
few of the flakes in
our hand and saw
and felt them melt,
however, we soon
changed our opin-
ion. At dusk the
work o f w^atering
ship was suspended
and all hands en-
joyed a good night's
i-est after the stren-
uous 10-day run from Godhavn, Greenland, the last place where the
anchor had been down.
The morning of August 24 was devoted to watering ship, to
striking the last barreled oil into the fuel tanks, and to preparing
THE REMNANTS OF A ONCE EAKGEIi STP.EAM UE ICE
Figure 30. — We climbed over several former end moraines
and finally got to a last steep slope of rock fragments
which led directly to the ice. The heights behind this
small glacier are among the highest of the Torngat Moun-
tains of northern Labrador.
for
the next long run.
Some of the officers started out after break-
fast to walk up to one of the hanging gUiciers that fed the near-by
stream. The day was mostly cloudy, but calm and pleasant, with
veiT good visibility. There were many plants and flowers and quite
a few blueberries along the shore.
It appeared but a short distance up to the glaciers, but it took
about two hours of steady climbing to reach the ice. The ground
became rockier and rockier after the fiord was left, while the vege-
tation became scantier and scantier. Finalh^ the way was over
a surface made up of nothing but angular rock fragments of all
sizes. Their source was undoubtedly the enormous cHffs that rose
above the small glaciers ahead.
Just before reaching the ice, several old end moraines had to be
scaled. In some places glacial lakes not much larger than puddles
were imprisoned between these moraines. Finally a last steep slope
TIIK ■• MARION " IS DWARFED BY HER SURROUNDINGS
Figure ol.- — The mouth of the stream from which water was being boated is directly
over the officer standing in the right foreground. The Marion is anchored a little
to the left of the stream's mouth. Across the fiord are the heights of the southern
end of Aulalsivik Island. Labrador. Note how the stream, which is hacked up into
a tiny lake in the left foreground, disappears into the crevices among the loose rocks.
of rock fragments Avas ascended, and the melting ice of the nearest
glacier was reached. Views taken during this excursion into the
Torngats are shown in Figures 29-33.
The walk back to the ship was accomplished without incident and
at 1.35 p. m. the Marlon got under wa}^ and stood eastward toward
the sea. The country about the fiord just south of Aulalsivik Island
is a real wilderness. No trace of human habitation or visit could be
found. This was in contrast to all the other northern places visited,
for everywhere else at least a few people were seen.
Before leaving the fiord an oceanographic station was taken.
Numerous fathometer soundings were recorded in the fiord and off
its entrance. (See fig. 44.) Attempts to catch fish were made with
hand lines, but none of them met success, possibW because we did
not have the right kind of bait.
68165—32 4
42
MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
A small berg with peaks about 25 feet high was sighted at the
fiord entrance just inshore of the submarine ridge that runs along
the coast. It was approached by the Marlon for the purpose of
obtaining ice. The sea was smooth, except for a very slight swell,
so it was decided to run alongside the berg Avith the ship, instead of
sending out a boat to get the ice.
The Marion got alongside a sheer wall of the berg about 15 feet
high, and one of the men on the spar deck began cutting at the ice
opposite his head with a fire ax. Whether the blows of the ax
or the jarring of the berg by the gentle rolling ship was the cause
can not be told, but in a very few seconds a loud crackling was
heard, and the berg calved off several growlers weighing a number
of tons each. There was a great scampering among the ice gatherers
as the heavy masses fell down and disappeared with a roar between
THE PRESENT LOWER LIMIT OF THE ICE
Figure 32. — Another view of the fiord between Aulalsivik Island and the highest peaks
of the Torngat Mountains just to the south. Three tiny lakelets filled with melt-
water from the glacier are visible in the middle distance. Taken on August 24, 1928.
the ship and the berg. The Marion was pushed from the berg bodily
by the ice as it fell, and was pushed away farther as the new growlers
rose to the sea surface after their sudden plunge.
Two stations were taken to the eastward of the fiord just south
of Aulalsivik Island on the afternoon of August 24. Then a course
southward was run to a point off Ramah, Labrador. Here, less than
7 miles northeast of Mount Blow-me-dowm, was started the western
end of a series of stations extending 450 miles to the Greenland coast
off Ivigtut.
Nine bergs were sighted in the cold current between Aulalsivik
Island and 60 miles east of Ramah, Labrador. Undoubtedly several
more would have been seen if the greater part of this run liad not
been made at night.
In general, good weather was experienced on the run east-north-
eastward across Davis Strait. The second day out was overcast with
^' MARION " EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY 43
some rain. Seven hours of strong breezes and gales from the north
blew during the evening of this day, a fine display of aurora borealis
following the gale and rain.
The next da}^ was mostly clear and warm, considering the latitude,
for the dry-bulb thermometer varied from 4G° to 53° F. The next
day out, August 27, was smooth with partly cloudy to overcast
weather. Air temperatures from 48^ to 52° F., were enjoyed due
to the continued presence of surface water of 47° to 49° F.
August 28 was overcast with some fog and rain. Light east-south-
easterly breezes were the prevailing winds. The Marlon entered 42°
surface water near the Greenland coast early in the morning and
had, therefore, lower air temperatures than on the preceding days.
At 7.30 a. m. the fog ended, enabling a view to be had of the moun-
tains of the Greenland west coast between Gl° and G2° X.
ROCKS FROM THE HEIGHTS ABOVE
Figure So. — When we got upon the ice surface of the small glacier among the Torugats,
the source of the enormous piles of rock fragments of all sizes over which we had been
climbing became very plain. They had fallen down from the cliffs surrounding the
ice on three sides. Once on the" glacier they were slowly carried downward to be
deposited during the course of time at its lower end.
At 11.20 a. m. the last station of the line was occupied and the
Marion stood to the eastward toward Arsuk Fiord, having obtained
many soundings at and between stations in the deep water of Davis
Strait. The only trouble experienced with the oceanographic ap-
paratus on the run from Labrador was the loss of the bottom sampler
at a very deep station on August 26.
Considerable difficulty was experienced in identifying the different
peaks and islands along the Greenland coast due to the impossibility
of getting sights through the cloud blanket to locate the correct
position of the ship. At noon it was possible to get sun sights, how-
ever, and it was found that the Marion Avas about 2 miles off the
southeast corner of Sermersut Island. B}^ 1.30 p. m. the ship was
between the sharp peak of L^manak Island and Kajartalik. From
the latter island the ship stood to the eastward into the narroAv waters
between Arsuk Island and Mount Kungnat.
44 ' ' MARION ' ' EXPEDITI0:N^ to DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
At 2.40 p. m. the extremely narrow passage north of the eastern end
of Arsuk Island was negotiated. This passage is less than 40 yards
wide at its most constricted point, and so shallow that many details
of the rocky bottom and sides could be seen from the ship. From
2.45 to 3.15 p. m. the Marion proceeded up the main branch of Arsuk
Fiord toward Ivigtut. Depths greater than 270 fathoms were ob-
tained with the fathometer on this run, although the fiord is only II/2
miles wide. (See fig. 45.) At 3.25 p. m. the Mcmon moored along-
side the Norwegian steamship WagJamJ, which was close to the sea
wall at Ivigtut loading cryolite for Philadelphia, Pa.
THE LARGEST AND RICHEST MINE IN ALL GREENLAND
Figure 34. — At Ivigtut, Greenland, we saw this great open-pit cryolite mine. It has
been in operation for many decades, yet it is still the only mine in the world from
which the mineral cryolite is obtained in quantity. The workings are but a stone's
throw from the fiord, and the floor of the mine is now far below sea level. Winter and
summer, the mineral is mined. The taxes which the Danish Government obtains
from the mining company go far toward paying the administrative costs of the Colony
of Greenland.
After the local government agent had passed upon the health of the
crew and the usual formalities had been complied with, liberty was
granted to visit the cryolite mine and the settlement surrounding it.
We Avere astonished to see the great open mine pit and comfortable
dwellings of the 200 Danes who get out the cryolite with the most
up-to-date methods. Due to the very good wages paid the workers,
the type of men working in the mine is unusually high. The miners
come over from Denmark for limited ]:)eriods, and there is always a
large waiting list of applicants, from which only the best and most
deserving men are selected. No Greenlanders were about at Ivigtut,
because none are allowed to live near by. There were only two
women on the reservation, the Avife of the chief engineer and the
housekeeper of the director of the mining company. We were
EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STEAIT AND BAFFIN BAY 45
royally received by the latter oentlenian, Avliose house up there in
that wild country rivals in its sumptuousness a millionaire's in the
United States. The niinin<r company, we were told, is a very rich
one that pays its few stockholders a handsome ])rofit. The taxes paid
by it to the Danish (lovernment assist in defrayin<r the administra-
tive costs of runniiiii: (Jreenland and permit the maintenance of many
services for the education and iuiprovement of the Greenlanders.
The Marion was inspected with much interest by the Danes, the
live bear, Marian, proving the center of attraction. In the evening
the ship's officers were entertained at a banquet in the clubrooms of
the recreation center ashore. A pleasant time was had conversing
with the mine officials, and much was learned about ice and other
conditions in the southwest corner of Greenland. Figure 34 shows
A SOUTH GREENLAND ICE STREAM
Figure 35. — On August 29, 1928, the Marion took on board a party of officials from the
Ivigtut cryolite mine and cruised up to the head of Arsuli Fiord. Many fathometer
soundings were talsen on this run. After a distance of about 10 miles had been
traversed, further progress was blocked by this glacier which discharges into the fiord
from the inland ice.
a picture of the ciyolite mine that was presented to an officer of
the Marion by one of Ivigtut's amateur photographers.
At 9.15 the next morning the Marion left Ivigtut for a trip up
Arsuk Fiord with a group of mine officials on board. The fiord is
deep and apparently free from hidden dangers to navigation all the
wa}^ up to the glacier which runs into it from the inland ice. The
sea front of this glacier was about 10 sea miles above Ivigtut at the
time of the Marion^ s visit. (See fig. 45.)
There was a small gravel flat along the south bank of the fiord off
the glacier end. Close to this morainal deposit the Marion anchored
in 14 fathoms of water at 10.30 a. m., August 29.
A party from the ship ascended the glacier some distance, walking
oyer the smoothly undulating dead ice behind the gravel flat. The
views contained in Figures 35-38 were obtained at this ,time. The
glacier had an ice cavern extending in from a vertical terminal wall..
46
MARION ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
This cave was similar to the one seen 500 miles farther northward in
the end of the glacier at Port Quervain. It was here in a very active
part of the glacier close to the north side of the fiord. On that side
the glacier produced numerous small icebergs and growlers. During
the Marion'' s stay near Ivigtut a few of the former were seen drifting
down the fiord toward the open sea. The bergs from Arsuk Fiord,
however, are so small that such as succeed in reaching Davis Strait
usually melt in the coastal waters off southwest Greenland before
getting very far.
The active north side of the glacier was extremely rough and cre-
vassed, in marked contrast to the unbroken ice surface without a
vertical terminal wall which lay just behind the gravel flat. Figures
36 and 37 show the characteristics of the two sides of the glacier.
These views also show evidence of recent scourino^ action on the rocks
THE SOUTH SIDE OF THE GLACIEK NEAR IVIGTUT IS DEAD
Figure 36. — We found a muddy stream from under tbe ice flowing across the gravel flat
at the south side of the liead of Arsuk B^'iord. The ice above the gravel flat does not
move appreciably. It is easy to walk over, though it has a few dangerous circular
holes in it which extend down vertically to the roaring waters of the subglacial stream.
just above the present ice level, which would indicate that the latter
may have been considerably higher quite recently. At that time the
glacier probably extended farther down the fiord toward Ivigtut
than it does to-day.
At 12.45 p. m. the ship got under way and stood seaward past
waterfalls, bird rookeries, and mountains, anchoring off Ivigtut at 2
p. m. The weather, which had been overcast but calm and pleasant
all morning, became rainy and blustery during the run down the
fiord. Great gusts of wind began to shake the Marion at her anchor-
age near Ivigtut's seawall. In spite of the bad weather, a line was
run ashore and the Mariovh bow was hauled in close enough to per-
mit Diesel oil from the tank of the mining company to be pumped
aboard through a hose. In addition to the oil, large quantities of
provisions to supplement the Mamon's diminishing supplies were also
furnished the ship by the mining company.
MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY
47
At 6.2U p. m., after the mine's doctor had dressed a minor injury
to the hand of one of the officers, the J/rtWa;? <rot under way. Various
courses were stood through the now shrieking gale toward the nar-
rows north of Arsuk Island. Kain s([nalls made visibility so low
that at times neither shore was discernible from the center of the
iy2 mile wide fiord. Nevertheless, the entrance to the narrows was
located and their passage was again successfully made.
Continuing on 3 miles farther seaward, a sheltered spot was found
in Ekaluit anchorage, where the Marlon anchored at 7.23 p. m. At
this uninhabited spot, under the 4,450-foot height of Mount Kungnat,
the Marlon remained waiting almost three days for the barometer to
rise. It was deemed inadvisable to run for Cape Farewell and
thence across Davis Strait in the face of the unsettled weather con-
rKKMlXAL WALL
Figure 37. — We ascended some distance over the smooth stagnant ice behind the south
edge of the glacier above Ivigtut. This view looks toward the rough ice of the center
and north portions, which is rapidly moving seaward and calving into Arsuk Fiord.
As at Port Quervain, the glacier here had an ice cavern in its vertical terminal wall.
This is doubtless the seaward end of the tube of a subglacial stream.
ditions that prevailed. The time was spent watering ship and pre-
paring everything for the long line of stations that were to be taken
to the Strait of Belle Isle. While at Ekaluit anchorage " working "
parties from the crew picked several bushels of the delicious blue-
berries that grew in the thick mat of low vegetation which covered
the ground in all favorable locations. These berries were served to
all hands for many days. Besides being eaten raw with sugar and
tinned milk, they Avere made into pies and puddings that proved a
splendid addition to the fare.
Other members of the crew jigged for codfish in the near-by waters.
In the latter occupation they were joined by several natives in
kyaks from the village of Arsuk, situated about 3 miles seaward from
our anchorage. Considerable rain fell on the ship, but the moun-
tains, down to a few hundred feet above sea level, were seen when
the clouds lifted to be covered bv a fall of wet snow.
48
At noon on September 1 the barometer registered the low value of
29.16 inches, after which it commenced to rise slowly. At 1.20 p. m.
the ship got under way and stood to sea and then southeastward
toAvard Cape Farewell. Mostly cloudy but moderate weather was
enjoyed throughout the 175-mile run to the southern point of Green-
land. There was some fog over the cold 89° water encountered south
of the sixtieth parallel. A few large bergs were seen but there was
no pack ice in the cold current coming around Cape Farewell from
East Greenland.
From 6 p. m. to 6.24 p. m. on September 2, 1928, the Marion lay
stopped 6 miles off the outer islets and 12 miles west of Cape Fare-
well, taking the first station of the 620-mile line of them that was to
end off the Strait of Belle Isle. Just after leaving this station, the
WHERE GLACIAL ICE MEETS THE SEA
SOUTH GREENLAND
Figure 38. — The Marion is at anchor off the gravel flat at the south side of the head of
Arsuk Fiord. Many small pieces of ice have been stranded by the receding tide. In
the deep water near the center of the fiord, several large pieces of ice which have just
been calved from the active north side of the glacier are drifting westward toward
the open waters of Davis Strait.
clouds broke away to the westward, causing the low sun to light up
brilliantly the mighty peaks of the southern tip of Greenland, the
Cape Horn of the north. The air was so clear that these peaks were
outlined with unearthly sharpness against the dark-gray eastern sky.
There Avere dozens of them visible, rising one above the other with
extreme Avildness. Never before had we seen such sharp alpine horns
and pinnacles. The bright colors of the bare rock contrasted sharply
with the radiant whiteness of the snow fields and snow patches, as it
did with the gray shadows of the chasms and the still darker back-
ground of the steely sky. Off the coast in front of the mountains
was a line of black wave-washed rocks and islets, while between the
shore and us lay the uneasy surface of the cold, blue sea.
Five and a half days were required to make the run to Cape
Bauld, the northern tip of Newfoundland. Twenty-eight stations
were occupied, and many deep soundings were taken with the
i i
MAEIOX ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY 49
fathometer, some of the latter in the center of the basin exceeding
2,000 fathoms in depth. On three (Uiys the wind attained <>ale force,
showino- that the end of the sunnner was at hand. As on our other
southern crossino-s, however, air and surface water temperatures
observed in the center of Davis Strait were still around 50° F.
The first icebergs sighted after leaving the cold water about Cape
Farewell were encountered on September 7, about 70 miles east of
Belle Isle. Almost all of the 7th w^as spent searching for an " ice
island '' several miles long, recently reported by different passing
steamers as being in that vicinity. Xo trace of such an unprecedently
large iceberg for North Atlantic waters was found. The largest
piece of ice that could be located was a tabular berg about 50 feet
high and, roughly, 800 feet square.
Upon reaching Belle Isle on the evening of September 7 we decided
that it would be best, on account of the stormy w^eather, to return via
the east coast of Newfoundland, stopping at St. John's for supplies
and recreation. En route it was further decided to run two addi-
tional lines of stations off the eastern shelf of Newfoundland.
Although these stations were not called for in the original plans
of the expedition they were deemed useful for connecting the investi-
gations, of the Marion expedition with the previous oceanographic
work of the international ice patrol to the southward. The entire
work was completed on September 11 when we took the last station 5
miles off St. John's.
The afternoon of September 8 was spent running southward along
the northeast coast of Newfoundland past the Gray Islands. "When
about 23 miles east of Horse Island a station was taken. This was
the first of the 225-mile line of them that was run to the eastward
over the 1,000-fathom curve. Excellent weather was experienced on
this run.
The last line of stations, which ran in a southeasterly direction
toward St. John's, was started on September 10. A short and sharp
September gale held up the work somewhat, but St. John's was
reached safely at 3.15 p. m. on September 11, 1928.
St. John's is a foreign port and nearly 1.000 miles from the Mario7i''s
base at New London, Conn., but the sight of it caused much rejoicing.
It marked the end of our present arduous labors for the cause of
science and a return to real civilization once more.
There had been only four -days in the past nine weeks that the
Marion had not been underway at sea. The nature of the expedition
had demanded, of course, that we keep driving rather intensively
most of the time in order to complete the work laid out in the few
weeks before bad weather and danger from ice would make it im-
possible. The work of proceeding from station to station and there
repeating the same operations over and over again had begun to
tell on the spirit of the crew. The station work, coming as it does
night and day, gale and calm, rain and shine, is no child's play either
for those on deck or those at the motors. It requires alertness and
knowledge of a ship to hold her up at a station on a dark night with
the wind howling and 3,000 meters of wire out. Under such handi-
capping conditions as these, we had seen whole series of observations
down to 3,100 meters repeated three times, just because waves, or
other patience-trying accidents had caused the premature tripping of
50
the instruments. There Avas little opportunity for amusement or
diversion on a small vessel like the Marion^ so it is small wonder that
during the last month we had sometimes detected long faces on many
of the men who were most eager, early in July, to seek Arctic romance
and adventure.
The American consul at St. John's did his utmost to help us after
our arrival. Everyone we met, in fact, was extremely kind and
cordial. The commanding officer made official calls on the governor
and the ma3^or. Fresh Avater and stores were taken aboard. Hun-
dreds of people came doAvn to the wharf where the Marion was
secured, and once more the caged polar bear, Marion, proved a center
of attraction.
At 4 p. m. on September 12, after a one-day stay, the Marion
departed from St. John's and headed southward. Full speed was
rung up on both motors, enabling us to round Cape Kace by 10.30
p. m. Once past this headland, the Marion was steered toward the
west and home. Fine weather continued on the morning of the 13th,
but during the afternoon there was fog and rain. Throughout most
of the 14th and 15th the ship ran before a northeast gale. Speed
Avas never slackened, and Avitli all four sails set and straining the
noAv lightly loaded ship rolled and tAvisted, steadily covering the
tedious miles.
About noon on September 16 Nantucket Sound Avas entered. It
was very good to feel the Avarm land breezes and to see the green
shores of the United States ao^ain. At 4 p. m. the Marion tied
up to the steamboat Avharf at Vineyard Haven, Mass., the home
of the commanding officer. While he Avas ashore in the evening
croAvds of summer visitors and island residents came doAA^n to look
at the ship.
On September 17 many visitors Avere shoAvn about on board. The
public-school children Avere marched doAvn by classes. After look-
ing at the bear and the various scientific instruments, each class
Avas told of the trip through the northland and shoAvn an imposing
array of souvenirs that hacl been obtained in the land of the Eskimo.
The night of September 17 Avas spent running to the westward.
At 6.25 a. m. on September 18, 1928, the Marion moored to the
State pier in Ncav London, Conn., her home station. The intensiA^e
73-day cruise to the Arctic Avas finally ended.
The bear in the Avell-strengthened bear cage aft Avas shipped by ex-
press to the National Zoo at Washington, D. C, and the scientific in-
struments were dismantled and put in storage ashore. In a few days
all the extra personnel had been transferred and the ship Avas ready
for her regular service again.
The Marion proved ideal for the Avork and could not have been
better if especially constructed for the expedition. She is a fine sea
boat, capable of operating almost anyAvhere in the Avorld. The
fact that not once in all her cruising in the Arctic, thousands of miles
from machine shops and supplies, had there been a breakdown of her
motors, speaks eloquently for the reliability of the machinery installa-
tion. The Hill-Diesel, although heavily taxed Avith furnishing power
for the Avinches at every station, never faltered. The Delco generator
also functioned Avell, but Avhen Ave got started on the lines of stations
we found the extra output from the Hill Avas sufficient to keep the
MAEIOX " EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY 51
Figure 39. — Track chart of the Marion Expedition cruise
52
banks of batteries charged. The Delco was run, therefore, only
intermittently. The most frequent mechanical troubles were with the
oceanographic apparatus and the most serious of these difficulties
have already been described.
The Marion cruised a total distance of 8,100 sea miles, or farther
than from New York to Sydney, Australia. The motors expended
14.000 gallons of oil, the rate of consumption being 1.5 gallons per
mile on one motor at an average speed of 6 knots and 2.3 gallons per
mile Avith tAvo motors at 8.7 knots. The survey covered that 450,000
square sea-mile area of ocean lying between Greenland and North
America which is situated between St. John's and the seventieth par-
allel of north latitude. A total of 191 stations were taken, at Avhich
about 2,000 observations of temperature and salinity Avere made. All
of the tests of salinity Avere made immediately on board by means
of electric salinometers. The fathometer registered 1,700 depths for
chart record and several times that number in actual practice.
The data the Marlon had obtained during the course of her special
duties Avere noAv ready for scientific analysis. Although her northern
adventures were all over, the tale of them recorded in part in the
foregoing pages will live long in the memories of her complement,
whatever may be their future duties and Avherever they may go.
Chapter II
THE BATHYMETRY
INTRODUCTION
Detailed knowledge concerning the depth of ocean basins and
other large bodies of water is valuable to two classes of people :
Those concerned with the navigation of ships and those who, like
the geologist and geographer, desire to learn more facts about the
earth. There is little sea-borne commerce in the Davis Strait area,
so the bathymetrical information contained in this bulletin will
prove of but slight practical value to most mariners of to-day. though
new discoveries and new northern developments in the future may
cause it to be of more value to them at some later date. On the
other hand the detailed depth values discussed here should prove
of considerable interest to geological and geographical workers,
especially to those connected with the field of oceanography.
Dozens of expeditions of discovery and rescue have traversed the
Davis Strait area, and a varying number of commercial vessels have
frequented it annually for centuries. It is astonishing, in view of
this, how few in number are the sounding values which appear on
the charts, and what great areas exist between Labrador and Green-
land in which, apparently, prior to the year 1928, no sounding was
ever taken. Before the development of sonic depth-finding methods
a great expenditure of time and trouble was necessary to obtain good
soundings in deep water. This fact probably explains the lack of
detailed bathymetrical knowledge of the Davis Strait area which
existed prior to the time of the Marion Expedition.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS AND METHODS
The Marion was equipped with a commercial echo sounding device
of the same type as those used on the international ice-patrol vessels
since the beginning of 1928. II: was manufactured by the Submarine
Signal Corporation, of Boston, Mass., and was called a " fathometer."
(See figs. 40 and 41.) This instrument Avas capable of instantly
showing the depth of water up to nearly 100 fathoms by the flashing
of a red light opposite the proper depth value on a circular scale
marked in fatlioms. It was possible to make an easy adjustment
which would slow down the apparatus to one-sixth speed. This ad-
justment automatically cut out the red light and threw in a steady
white light on the disk moving past the depth scale. After this was
accomplished with the aid of ear phones to detect the echoes returning
from the sea bottom, the apparatus could be used to measure the
depth of water up to a maximum, under favorable conditions, of
over 2.000 fathoms.
53
54 ' ' MARION ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
By the above two methods the Marlon recorded some 1,700 echo
souiidino-s in the Baffin Bay-Davis Strait region betAveen July 19 and
September 11, 1928. These soundings were all made along the track
indicated on Figure 39. Such a small number of soundings, of course,
HOW A FATHOMETER MEASURES THE DEPTH
Figure 40.— This illustrates diagrammatically the sound waves go-
in^- out from an oscillator installed in the hull plating of a Imer.
They can be seen proceeding to the bottom whence they are re-
flected back toward the sea surface. The hydrophone,, near the
keel picks up the echoes and transmits them electrically to the
bridge, where they are amplified. (Courtesy of Submarine Signal
Co.).
can not give a perfect picture of the bathymetry of a large region
like that concerned, even if very well distributed along caretully
planned lines. In view of the few soundings previously recorded in
the deep water of the area, however, they suffice as taken to give
much more detailed and positive information about the shelves,
slopes, and basins of the region than was hitherto available.
EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY OO
Two things are necessary to make a sounding of value for use on a
chart: First, the geographical position Avhere it was taken must be
known quite accurately ; second, the sounding must be nearly correct.
The Marion soundings can be divided into two groups, a less impor-
tant one comprising those taken in harbors and sheltered waters, and
a more important one comprising those taken in the open sea. In
neither of these groups is the determination position all that could be
desired. The unfamiliarity of the personnel Avith the unlighted and
practicallv unmarked coasts and harbors made accurate determina-
tion of the position of soundings taken inshore most difficult, espe-
THE CONTROL PANEL OF THE FATIIOMETEIl
Figure 41. — This box, usually installed on the bridge, is used
to start and stop the fathometer and to control the fre-
quency and intensity of the signals. There are two scales
on its face, one graduated from 0 to 100 fathoms and the
other from 0 to 600 fathoms. The latter is for use in deep
water. The amplified echoes permit the depth of water to
be instantly obtained from one or the other of the above-
mentioned scales. (Courtesy of the Submarine Signal Co.).
cially in view of the fact that the places were but once visited in every
case, and then always for a very short time.
The soundings taken while cruising in bays and fiords were re-
corded against times in a book by an officer stationed at the fath-
ometer. Another officer cut in the ship's position at frequent inter-
vals on the chart being used. This was accomplished by means of
laying down observed magnetic compass bearings of identified j^oints
and islands from time to time. The bearing observer, by means of
the plotted bearing lines on the chart, could determine the approxi-
mate track of the ship, and, gTiided the times of the recorded depth
values in the soundings book, could later place the soundings on
56
the chart at the proper points along the track Ime. Both the bear-
ings and the depths Avere recorded against times read from the same
clock on the bridge, which simplified matters by making no correc-
tions necessary for time observed on different timepieces.
The inshore soundings obtained are doubtless much more accu-
rately located in some instances than in others; for instance, the
soundings in the Arsuk Fiord region are undoubtedly much better
with regard to position than those taken in the fiord just south of
Aulalsivik Island, Labrador. For the latter place there was no large-
scale harbor chart, and it was noticeable that the fiord was actually
ver}^ different from the shape shown on the small-scale chart of
Labrador which had to be used.
In view^ of the scarcity of recorded soundings on the charts of the
inland waters visited it is believed that the approximately located
soundings, such as those shown on Figures 44 and 45 of this pam-
phlet, will be useful until such times as the regions are carefully
surveyed and exactly located sounding values obtained and plotted.
At sea whenever the echoes from the bottom could be heard
fathometer soundings were made at stations and also at least every
half hour while between stations. The location of these offshore
soundings was another matter from the location of the fiord and bay
soundings. The principles upon which the accuracy of the determi-
nations rest, however, are largely the same. Tlie time as shown by
the bridge clock and the sounding values observed were recorded in
a specially ruled notebook by the different watch officers, each one
taking and recording the soundings made during his watch. The
ship's positions offshore were determined by means of bearings of
prominent landmarks, when available, supplemented by numerous
lines of positions obtained from sextant observations of heavenly
bodies. The latter position lines w^ere the only available means of
locating the position when the ship Avas out of sight of land.
The terrestrial bearings and the lines of position permitted the
ship's track to be drawn on the chart, and the Marion^ s successive
positions on this track, at intervals of 15 minutes, were carefully
indicated by short cross lines. The cross lines marking the hourly
positions were longer than those marking the half hour, while the
quarter-hour cross marks were the shortest of all. The date and
the ship's times from 0 to 24 hours were written at the proper places
along the track, making reference at any time easy and certain.
The soundings taken at sea Avere entered from the soundings book,
and recorded along the track on the plotting charts every two or
three days. The latitude and longitude of the soundings A\^ere also
entered to the nearest minute every Iavo or three days in the sound-
ings book from the plotting sheets. Thus a double record of the
offshore soundings Avas maintained, Avhich remains available for
ready reference to this dav.
The Avriter Avas in charge of the navigational Avork, so the accuracy
of the offshore soundings positions depends chiefly upon how many
properly Avorked-out sights he plotted daily. The longitude should,
in general, haA^e been accurate, for there Avas a good chronometer
on board the Marion Avhich Avas checked up several times each Aveek
by radio time signals from Arlington, Va. All the other officers
Avorked out sights occasionally, and these checked up consistently
with the plotted j^ositions along the track line.
^ ' MAEIOX ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY 57
Had there been no cloiuly weather nor unusual refraction, the
positions at sea wouhl have been very good, as such positions go.
Unfortunately, there Avere frequent periods when bad weather made
the heavenly bodies invisible and a feAV other periods when abnor-
mal refraction was suspected. The accuracy of the track positions
in some places at sea is, therefore, doubtful, though, in view of the
paucity of previous soundings, almost never to a seriously damaging
degree. Throughout all periods when sights were possible, many of
them would be taken, permitting good estinnites and interpolations
to be made for the dead-reckoning positions which had to be relied
on between the fixes — that is, during the bad Aveather periods.
The ship's track Avas ahvays determined graphically by laying
doAvn and running forAA^ard the A^arious bearing and Sumner lines
on large-scale plotting charts that Avere on the Mercator projection.
The regular plotting sheets published by the Hydrographic Office of
the United States XaAy Avere used south of latitude 61° X. Special
charts constructed on board on a scale of 2.75 inches to the degree
of longitude Avere used for tracking farther north, as no regular
plotting sheets could be purchased prior to the departure of the
expedition for latitudes aboA^e the sixty-first parallel.
The observations Avere Avorked out principally by means of Hydro-
graphic Office Publications 203 and 204 Avhen south of the latitude
60° 30' X., and by means of the liaA^ersine-cosine formula giA'en in the
American Practical Xavigator aaIicu farther north. Meridian and
ex-meridian siglits Avere Avorked out during the entire cruise by
means of the methods giA^en in the latter publication.
At least 10 sun sights were Avorked out on each clear to partW
cloudy day. On daA^s that Avere mostly overcast almost as many sun
sights would usually be Avorked out, for, due to the desire to keep
track of the position accurately, the intervals between observations
AAere regularly shortened whencA^er the sun appeared to be in danger
of being obscured for a long period by clouds.
The positions AA'ere carefully determined and checked and are be-
lieved to be free from any gross errors. Considering the number of
siglits and bearings taken and the methods of naA'igation used, they
are probably the best results that could haA'e been obtained.
In general, the positions of the soundings taken off the coast can
be considered as reliable to fairly reliable, possible exceptions being
off Baffin and Resolution Islands, AAdiere unusual refraction may have
prevailed. On the Marion we seldom had positive evidence of un-
usual refraction, such as great distortion of objects near the horizon
and failure of sights taken at close intervals to agree Avell Avith one
another. It is thought that the references in the sailing directions
about the unusual refraction to be expected in the Davis Strait region
can be attributed in many cases to the land's being incorrectly plotted
on the existing charts.
CORRECTIOXS APPLIED TO THE ECHO SOUNDINGS
It is AA'ell knoAA'ii that echo soundings are not accurate as taken.
They have to be corrected for instrumental and personal errors; also
for errors arising from the varying speed of sound in the Avater
column under the ship. The fathometer on the Marion Avas con-
6816.5—32 .5
58
structed on the assumption that the speed of sound in the Avater
cohimn is always 820 fathoms a second. This, as a matter of fact,
never was the truth throughout the entire expedition, it being less
than this value in every case. Therefore, every fathometer sounding
recorded was, theoretically at least, somewhat too great.
The speed of sound in sea Avater varies principally according to
the salinity, temperature, and pressure. The soundings themselves,
by giving at least the approximate depth, furnished a clue regarding
the latter factor, and the first two could be determined with con-
siderable precision from the salinity and temperature values ob-
served at the 191 oceanographic stations which the Mm^on occupied.
For complete information regarding this station data, the reader is
referred to United States Coast Guard Bulletin 19, part 2, The
Oceanography of Baffin Bay and Davis Strait. This pamphlet is
not yet published, but it will probably be distributed in 1932.
The first step in correcting the fathometer soundings was to deter-
mine the speed of sound at each station. This speed was obtained,
after averaging the salinities and temperatures for each 200-fathom
water layer at each station, from the tables on pages 160 and 161
of Hydrographic Manual, J. H. Hawley, Special Publication No.
143 of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1928. The sta-
tions were occupied to various meter levels, but it was possible to plot
the salinities and temperatures to a meter scale, graphically convert
to fathoms, and average conditions by 200-fathom layers in every
case by inspection without any important error.
The United States Hydrographic Office, the Carnegie Institution
of Washington, and the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,
all assisted the writer with information and with advice on how
to attack the problem or determining the speed of sound in the
water columns of Davis Strait. The United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey went over the preliminary soundings correction
work in several of its stages, independently checking a large number
of the speed of sound values shown on Figure 46. Because of this
checking, the writer feels much more confident regarding the accu-
racy and value of this chart than otherwise would be the case.
After the first speed of sound chart was constructed, all the
MaHo7i's oif shore soundings and all the speed of sound values were
plotted on the Mercator projection on two large rolls of tracing
paper, ruled up on a scale of 4 inches to the degree of longitude.
The various soundings were grouped on the new chart with different
speeds of sound varying by 2 fathoms per second. Corrections were
then made in accordance with the table given below :
Speed of sound in tcater colwmi at sounding spot in fathoms per second and
percentage correction to he applied to fathometer readings
a thorns
per
second :
Per cent
Fathoms
per
second :
Fer cent
790
—3.64
808_
-1.46
792
—3.40
810_
-1.22
794
—3.16
812-
— .98
796-
—2.92
814_
— .74
798-
—2.68
816-
— .48
800_
—2.48
818-
- .24
802
—2.20
820_
C)
804_
—1.96
822_
+ .24
806-
—1.72
^ No correction.
i i
MAPJOX ' ' EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY 59
The correction for each fathometer sounding as calculated was
applied right on the large chart rolls to the observed depth values.
In addition. 2 fathoms Avere taken from each fathometer value to
allow for the fathometer constant, a number which was obtained by
comjDaring corrected red-light fathometer and simultaneously taken
wire soundings with each other. The fathometer constant is a sort of
index error of the aj^paratus. It does not vary with the depth or
character of water column, but with the location of the particular
fathometer oscillator and hj^lrophone being used below the water
line of the sounding ship. After the above tAvo corrections w^ere
applied, the shallow Avater or red-light soundings were corrected so
far as possible.
All the soundings in fact Avere noAv better than they w^ere w^hen
first taken, but there still remained personal errors in the Avhite-light
soundings Avhich it Avas possible, in large part, to eliminate. Fifty-
three wdre soundings, over 100 fathoms deep, had been taken at
stations during the course of the expedition, and these Avere now
analyzed in comparison with the partly corrected white light echo
soundings which had been taken simultaneously in the same places.
Some 35 of these w^ire soundings had been fair to good up-and-down
casts taken during moderate Aveather. It was seen that these reliable
checks had rather consistent differences from the partly corrected
echo soundings Avhen the latter were grouped according to the watches
of the different officers Avho had had the deck and taken and recorded
the fathometer readings. It was found that one officer, on the aA^er-
age. had recorded all of his white-light soundings 32 fathoms too
great, AAdiile the three others had recorded them, on the average, only
11 fathoms too great ; 32 or 11 fathoms, therefore, were taken from
all the partly corrected white-light soundings plotted on the chart,
depending upon Avho had had the watch during which they were
taken. This completed the corrections to all of the offshore sound-
ings, and brought them, on the average, as close as possible to the
good Avire soundings and the true depth.
AVhen all offshore soundings had been corrected, the values obtained
in the harbors and inland Avaters were corrected in the same general
manner. These were plotted on special large scale charts of the
areas concerned, the soundings being much too close together in these
regions to permit their being plotted and corrected on the chart rolls
containing the offshore soundings on the scale of 4 inches to the
degree of longitude. Some of the corrected soundings obtained in
inland waters are shoAvn on Figures 44 and 45.
It is hard to say how much ihe fully corrected fathometer values
may vary from the true depth, just as it is to say how far Avrong the
different Avire soundings may be. It is thought that the completely
adjusted fathometer values are correct in at least half of the cases
to within plus or minus 25 fathoms for all depths. There are prob-
ably a fcAv over plus or minus 50 fathoms in error, but this number
is undoubtedly A^ry small.
FINAL RESULTS
One of the last steps in Avorking up the soundings data was to
construct a general chart of the Davis Strait region on the polyconic
projection on the scale of 30,000 meters to the inch. To this chart
60
all the fiill^v corrected offshore echo and wire soundings were care-
fully transferred. Next, the various land areas and the depth values
that had been obtained by others about Davis Strait were entered
on this chart. The charts from which already plotted depth values
were taken include :
B. A. Chart 235, marked '' Small corrections, 1922-3.15."
B. A. Chart 1422, marked " Large corrections, March 16, 1928."
B. A. Chart 2060B, marked " Small corrections, April, 1927."
B. A. Chart 112, marked " Small corrections, September, 1923."
B. A. Chart 263, marked " Small corrections, October, 1925."
Canadian Chart 405. published in Mav, 1928.
H. O. Chart 980, marked ^' Small corrections, January, 1928."
H. O. Chart 2440a, marked '' Edition of September, 1927."
H. O. Chart 2440b, marked " Small corrections, February, 1927."
H. O. Chart 1412, nuirked '' Small corrections, July, 1928."
H. O. Chart 955, marked '' Small corrections, December, 1930."
Besides depth values obtained from the above charts, a number of
corrected echo soundings obtained by the international ice-patrol
vessels just north of the Grand Banks in 1930 Avere used. Also 18
depth values observed by tlie German oceanographic ship Meteor
oft' Cape FareAvell, between 1928 and 1930, were furnished for use
by the Institut f iir Meereskunde an der Universitat, Berlin. Finally,
19 soundings obtained by the nonmagnetic research vessel Carnegie
while south of Greenland, during her last cruise, were plotted. These
last depth values were furnished by the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, D. C. After all available depth values had been entered
on the large polyconic chart, the various contour lines Avere drawn.
Next, the land areas and the contour lines were transferred to a
smaller polyconic chart of the same region. The resulting bathy-
metrical chart is show^n here as Figure 51.
Future expeditions equipped with sonic depth finders will un-
doubtedly modify the details of the above chart, especially in the
areas where there are still few or no soundings. It is believed, how-
ever, that the major details of the depths of the Davis Strait region
have been brought out on it accurately, and it is presented here as
the most important bathymetrical result of the Marion expedition
of 1928.
68166—31. (Face p. 80.) No. I
^^^-^r--^ ■ '-/-A
SOUNDINGS MADE BY THE MARION EXPEDITION
I while: in the: vicinity of ivigtut
I ALL SOUNDINGS IN FATIhOMS
j CAUTION
I LOCAT ON I ~ SOLN'^INCS
''%■
^:^ ARSUK
^ IStAKD
48'4aW.
48°y)X
48''20W.
&r05'N.-]
GREENLAND
WEST COAST
ARSUK nORD.
BASEO'ON A DANISM CHART OF 1866.
48°ipW. 4$V.
e by the Motion expedttloo la and near Arsuk Fiord, Qreenleod
esiect— 31. (Fac«p.80.) NO.S.
Ek sai tt^al fc n vot' — . T;* »a u i . * ;
MAPJOX " EXPEDITION TO DxVVIS STEAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY 61
Figure 40. — Chart showing the speed of sound through the water for sonic sounding
purposes in the Davis Strait region. The figures show the speed of sound in the water
columns of different areas in fathoms per second
Chapter III
THE SEDIMENTS
Parker D. Trask
INTRODUCTION
This paper ^ presents detailed mechanical analyses and brief petro-
logic descriptions of 27 deposits collected by the Marion expedition
to Davis Strait. The practicability of the fundamental constants of
the size distribution of sediments, namely, the median diameter, and
the coefficients of skewness and sorting is discussed. The deposits
contain much ice-borne detritus. Faceted, subroundecl pebbles are
fairly uniformly distributed in the sediments over the entire region.
They constitute 14 per cent of the deposits. Gneiss, quartzite, and
aphanitic limestone are the predominant rock types. The nearest
source of the limestone seems to be in northern Greenland or the
Arctic northwest 500 to 1,000 miles away, but the areal geology of
northern Baffin Land is imperfectly known, and the limestone may
come from nearer regions not yet explored. The texture of the
sediments varies with the configuration of the sea bottom and with
the surface currents and tides. The deposits are relatively coarse
on steep slopes and also in Hudson Strait, off Cumberland Bay, and
on the transverse ridge that separates Davis Strait from Baffin Bay.
The presence of 1 to 4 per cent of frosted, well-rounded sand grains
suggests an eolian origin for some of the constituents. The fine
sediments contain from 20 to 40 per cent calcium carbonate, which
is in a finely comminuted state. Its association with the limestone
rock fragments in the deposit suggests that it is derived from
detritus carried by ice.
GENERAL REMARKS
This paper does not purport to be a comprehensive study of the
sediments of Davis Strait. Its object is to present and interpret cer-
tain data that are available. The writer has been aided by Harald E.
Hammar and M. A. Clark in determining the organic and carbonate
content of the sediments and by John Lucke and F. B. Walcott in
making the mechanical analyses. The description of the mineral
and rock constituents of the sediments are based on hand-lens deter-
minations and, therefore, are not as satisfactory as if they were the
result of microscopical examination.
1 This paper, written by Trask, represents results arising from an investigation on
" The Origin and Environment of Source Beds of Petroleum," listed as project 4 of the
American Petroleum Institute Research program. Financial assistance in this work has
been received from a research fund of the American Petroleum Institute donated by
Mr. John D. Rockefeller. This fund is being administered by the institute with the
cooperation of the National Research Council.
62
Li
MARION ' ' EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY 63
Twenty-seven samples were studied. There were taken along tra-
verse lines of the Marion expedition and afford data for one longi-
tudinal section, 200 miles in length, in the central part of Davis
Strait off Cumljerland Peninsula, five traverse sections on the west
side of the strait between oT'' and 64° X., and single localities from
the middle of Hudson Strait, off Cape Farewell and east of southern
Labrador. The sediments vary in texture, but they are character-
ized by a significant content of faceted, subrounded rock fragments,
resulting from ice transportation. The sampling instrument has an
internal diameter of 4 centimeters and could not procure pebbles
larger than that size. Consequently the total quantity of fragments
in the deposits was not ascertainal)le, but from the depth of pene-
tration and the small proportion of big pebbles collected, it is prob-
able that large rock fragments constitute a very minor part of the
sediments.
IXTERPRETATIOX OF MECHANICAL ANALYSES
Method of analysis. — The results of the mechanical analyses of
the sediments are shown in Tables 2, 3, and 5 and on Figures 47, 48,
and 49. The method of analysis was a centrifuge procedure which
gives the complete size distribution. -
The customary separation of the samples into gravel, sand, silt,
clay, and colloid is shown in Table 3 and the subdivision of the
gravel and sand groups in Table 4. Table 2 shows the fundamental
constants of the size distribution. It is impracticable to present the
mechanical analyses of so manj^ sediments in histograms, but the
important characteristics of the size distribution are indicated con-
veniently by three constants, the median diameter, the coefficient of
sorting, and the coefficient of skewness or its logarithm. These are
given in columns 3, 5, 6, and 7 of Table 2 and on Figures 47 and 48.
Median. — The median diameter indicates the mid-point of the size
distribution. One-half the weight of the sediment is composed of
particles larger in diameter than the median, and one-half smaller.
The median is the most important single constant for describing the
character of a sediment, as it gives a mathematical means of measur-
ing variations in texture. Thus, medians from 50 to 1,000 microns
indicate sands; from 5 to 50 microns, silts: 1 to 5 microns, clays;
and less than 1 micron, colloids.
Coefficient of sorting. — The coefficient of sorting affords a mathe-
matical measure of the degree of sorting of a sediment. It is based
on the first and third quartiles, which refer respectively to the one-
fourth and three-fourths marks in the size distribution. These are
given in columns 2 and 4 in Table 2. Twenty-five per cent of the
weight of the sample is composed of particles larger than the first
quartile and 75 per cent larger than the third quartile. Thus, by
means of the quartiles, the size distribution is divided into four equal
parts called quartile intervals. The coefficient of sorting, ^o^ is
derived from the formula So=-ylQilQ^. where Q^ and Qz are the
first and third quartiles, respectively. If So is less than 2.5, the
sample is well sorted; if it is greater than 4.5 the sediment is
poorly sorted ; and if it is about 3 the deposit is normally sorted.
2 P. D. Trask. Mechanical Analysis of Sediments by Centrifuge, Econ. Geol., vol. 25,
pp. 581-599, 1930.
64
' ' MARION ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
Consequently the coefficient of sorting indicates whether or not
particles of about the size of the median are plentiful. For example,
in sample 2, So is 1.87, which means that 50 per cent of the weight
of the sample is composed of particles that differ in diameter less
than 1.87 units from a certain reference diameter; that is, 25 per
cent of the sample is composed of particles larger than 1.87 times
isA«
SoV
/63
/3S-
^S^
^f"]
«ft*^
^^^*
lJf/5.
ZOO-
'f'
\3
w
©/?
:to8
U^
foo ^
\uia/sivffi
ao
.73
CP
100
^/BO- 500
/ooo
J5Q0
m
jf^%»
cP
-A
Aooo
,/ ^
\
i^'
s
fc. V ^
--aAX^'^^'^
'^^^-.
A^\
'^•^^""^^x^^nX
^^O
^
l\
.'jtfl) 1 \ \
Figure 41
the size of this reference diameter, 25 per cent of particles smaller
than 1/1.87 times the reference diameter; and 50 per cent within the
diameter range of 1.87 units on either side of the reference diameter.
If the histogram of the size distribution were symmetrical, the
reference diameter would be the same as the median, but since
the size distribution of most sediments is unsymmetrical, the refer-
MAEIOX " EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY 65
ence diameter (
of this sami)le
ffers somewhat from the median. Since the median
is 145 microns, the sediment must be a very well-
sorted, fine-ai-ained sand. On the other hand, sample 22, is a
poorly sorted. Hne-orained sand, as /<o is 7.25 and M is 73 microns.
In specimen 2 a ranae of only 1.87 times the reference diameter
accounts for 25 per cent of the sediment, but in sam])le 22 it requires
Figure 48
7.25 times the reference diameter to comprise 25 per cent of the
deposit. The latter sediment, therefore, is very poorly sorted; that
is, it contains much clay and much coarse sand or gravel.
Skewness. — If only So and M are given, the relationship of the
reference diameter to the median is unknown. The coefficient of
skewness, which is a measure of the diss^mimetry of the size distri-
66 ^' Marion" expedition to davis strait and Baffin bay
bution fills this need. Various coefficients of skewness are used,
but the formula Sk = QxQ^/M- is very satisfactory for size distri-
butions in which the quartiles are known. If R is the reference
diameter, then B=MV^ = Qi/jSo=jSoXQ^. Thus, if the three
fundamental constants, M, So, and Sk or log Sk, are given, the
significant features of the mechanical composition of the sediment
are at once apparent, for by multiplying the median by the square
root of the coefficient of skew^ness one obtains the reference diameter,
and by dividing or multiplying this by the coefficient of sorting he
gets the first and third quartile, respectiveh\ However the main
object of the skewness is to determine the approximate position of
the mode of the size distribution; that is, the diameter correspond-
ing to the apex or crest of the histogram.
The coefficient of skewness is a ratio of the increase in diameter
in the second quartile interval to that in the third quartile interval.
For examiDle, in sample 1, Sk is 3.65. This means that the ratio of
increase of diameter between the median and the first quartile is
3.65 times that between the third quartile and median; because,
from M to Q^ the diameter rises from 5 to TO, which is a fourteen-
fold increase, and from Qs to M it goes from 1.3 to 5, which is a
fourfold augmentation. The second and third quartile intervals,
each represent 25 per cent of the weight of the sediments, but the
ratio of increase in diameter for the two intervals is 14 to 3.9, or
3.65. From this it is evident that in this sample the maximum
sorting occurs on the fine side of the median; that is, the mode lies
in the third quartile interval.
The coefficient of skewness is a ratio varying about unity. Con-
sequently, when one compares the dissymmetr}^ of two samples, one
of which has the mode in the second quartile interval and the other
in the third, he obtains an erroneous impression unless the logarithm
of the skewness is given. For example, values of Sk of 0.67 and
1.5 refer to the same degree of dissymmetry; but unless one is very
familiar with reciprocals, the similarity of the two ratios is not
evident. However, if they are given in their logarithmic form,
namely —0.18 and +0.18, respectively, their equivalence is at once
apparent. For this reason the skewness is given as log Sk on
Figure 48.
The interpretation of the coefficient of skewness may be briefly
summarized as follows: If Sk is greater than 1.0 or log Sk positive,
the maximum sorting of the constituents lies on the fine side of the
median ; if Sk is less than 1, or log Sk negative, the maximum sort-
ing is on the coarse side of the median ; if Sk is about 1.0 or log Sk
near 0, the maximum sorting corresponds approximately with the
median; and the greater the divergence of Sk from 1.0, or log Sk
from 0 ; the farther the maximum sorting lies from the median.
Practicability of fundamental constants. — In order to illustrate the
practicability of these three fundamental constants let us take sample
1, in which %I is 5, So is 7.35, and Sk is 3.65. From these three con-
stants it follows that the sediment is a coarse-grained clay; that it
is very poorly sorted; that the greatest concentration of particles
occurs in the clay group relatively far from the median on the fine
side; that 25 per cent of the sample is larger than 70 microns in
diameter, and 25 per cent is smaller than 1.3 microns.
i i
MAEIOX ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY 67
Furthermore, these three constants afford a mathematical basis for
comparin^r sediments with each other. They demonstrate clearly
differences in general texture. de<j:ree of sorting of entire sample, and
position of maxinuun sortin<r within the deposit. They, of course,
are not substitutes for a complete analysis, but they do give most of
the important features of the mechanical composition.
DESCRIPTIOX OF SEDIMENTS
Texture. — The sediments are characterized by the plentifulness of
rock fragments. Table 3. column 2, and Figure 49 show the distribu-
tion of gravel in Davis Strait. Sample 27, located more than 500
miles south of the other sediments, is the only deposit in Avhich no
rock fragments occur. The average gravel content of the sediments
is 14 per cent and the maximum is 29 per cent. The distribution of
rock fragments is random in nature, which indicates that gravel is
fairly uniformly scattered over the sea floor in this region. Samples
15 and 16, lying in deep water far from shore, contain only 4 per
cent gravel, but until this relatively low content is supported by addi-
tional evidence one hesitates to infer a decreased gravel content in
the central part of Davis Strait.
The variation in texture of the sediments, as indicated by the
median diameter and coefficients of sorting and skewness, are shown
in Figures 47 and 48. The presence of large quantities of gravel in
some samples makes the coefficient of sorting large, and masks the
sorting of the sands. The longitudinal series of samples lying in
400 to 700 meters of water off Cumberland Peninsula, with the excep-
tion of sample 1, which lies in a deep depression, are well-sorted, fine-
grained sands, having median diameters ranging betAveen 135 and
260 microns. Similarly, sample 19 in 575 meters of water in the
middle of Hudson Strait and sample 26 in 462 meters off Cape Fare-
well, Greenland, are well-sorted, fine-grained sands. Likewise, the
deposits on the two sections eastward from Cape Murchison lying
in 200 to 250 meters of water are well-sorted fine-grained sands.
Sample 8, however, in 290 meters, although containing a fairly large
amount of very fine-grained sand (21 per cent) has 12 per cent of
clay and 22 per cent of colloid ; consequently it is an extremely poorly
sorted, fine-grained sand.
Sample 15 in 1,500 meters of water, at the seaward end of the sec-
tion southeastward from Cape Murchison, is a somewhat poorly
sorted, medium-grained silt. Similarly, the three samples forming
the section eastward from Resolution Island, lying in water 700 to
2,300 meters deep, are silts. They contain 30* to 45 per cent clay
and colloid and are fairly poorly sorted.
The texture of sediments eastward from Aulalsivik, at the north-
ern tip of Labrador, varies considerably. Sample 20 in 65 meters
of water relatively near shore is a fine-grained silt, having a median
of 7 microns; specimen 21 in water 152 meters deep, about 10 miles
seaward, is a medium-grained clay having a median of 2.3 microns;
and sample 22 in 1.650 meters of water, 125 miles farther off shore,
is a poorly sorted fine-grained sand having a median of 73 microns.
The maximum amount of sorting in the last sample is in the fine-
grained sand group.
68
MARION ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
The section eastward from Mount BIoav Me Down, 50 miles south
of AulalsiA^k, is restricted to the continental platform. The sedi-
ments consist of fine-grained poorly sorted sands and, except for
sample 24, contain about 25 per cent of clay and colloid. Sample 27
in 855 meters of water, 150 miles off the southern coast of Labrador,
i^ a normallv sorted fairly fine-grained silt. Similarly sample 1
FKiUltE 40
on the slope into a depression 2,000 meters in depth off Cumberland
Peninsula is a fine-grained silt.
Frosting of sand grains. — All the samples contain frosted sand
grains. The greatest amount of polishing occurs in the medium-
grained sand group (250 to 500 microns), but some of the coarse
and fine sands are frosted. The relative amount of polished grains
EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY 69
in the medium sand subdivision is shown in Table 5, cohunn G. A
scale of 1 to 3 is used: 1 indicates less than 5 per cent of the constit-
uents are frosted; 2, between 5 and 10 per cent; and 3, betAveen
10 and 15 per cent. P^xcept for samples H and 9, which are used
as standards and which contain about 15 per cent of polished grains,
the quantity of frosted components was estimated by inspection. As
this polishing occurs chiefly in the medium sands, the percentage of
frosted grains in the whole sediment may be estimated roughh^ from
column 5, Table 4, and column G. Table 5. The maxinnnn amount
of polishing occurs in sample 11) from the middle of Hudson Strait,
in which about -1 per cent of the sample consists of frosted sand
grains. Most of the sediments contain 1 per cent.
If one Idiots on a map the relative frosting of the medium-grained
sands as shown in column 6, Table 5, he will see that the amount of
polishing tends to decrease toward the middle of Davis Strait; sam-
ples 7, 15, 16, 22, and 27, all situated far from shore, contain rela-
tively few frosted grains. Sample 26 off Cape Farewell, on the
other side of the strait, similarly, is deficient in polished constituents.
Descrlptfon of rock fragments. — The rock fragments range in size
from less than a millimeter to about 3 centimeters. Larger pebbles
probabl}^ occur, but presumably not to any great extent, from the
point of view of percentage composition of the sediments; because
large fragments are not common and most of the pebbles are less
than one-fourth inch (7 millimeters) in diameter. None of the
fragments are well rounded. Xearly all of them are faceted and
most of the edges of the facets are polished. The degree of round-
ing varies considerably, but the limestone pebbles are l)etter rounded
than the others.
The dominant rock types are gneiss, quartzite, and gray and bull
aphanitic noncrystalline limestone; hornblendite and various types
of granitic rocks are common; basalt occurs sporadicalh^ ; and an
eroded pelecypod shell was found in one sample. Some of the frag-
ments classified as limestone probably are dolomite, as they effervesce
but slightly in cold hvdrochloric acid. The distribution of the rock
types in the A^arious sediments is summarized briefly in column 5,
Table 5, and on Figure 49. Gneiss or quartzite occurs in practically
every sample; except for the sediments off Cape Murchison, lime-
stone is almost universally present; hornblendite and granitic rocks
are less common, but their distribution is general; basalt is restricted
to deposits south of Hudson Strait; and the pelecypod shell w^as
found in sample 24 off the north coast of Labrador.
Cahruim carlo nate content. — The distribution of calcium carbonate
in the sediments is shown in Table 5 and on Figure 50. The fine-
grained deposits are fairly rich in CaCO;;, most of them containing
from 20 to 40 per cent. The well-sorted sands ofl' Caj^e Murchion have
less than 5 per cent and the distribution of CaCOs along the longi-
tudinal section off Cumberland Peninsula is variable. Samples 2 and
4 contain less than 5 per cent but adjacent samples have about 15
per cent. The Spearman coefficient of correlation, p,^ between the
3 See R. E. Chaddock. rrinciples and Methods of Statistics^ Houghton Mifflin Co., New-
York, pp. 800-305, 1925.
70
calcium carbonate content and the third quartile diameter for all 27
sediments is 0.61 it 0.09, but if the anomalous sample 8 is omitted, it is
0.71 ±0.07. This indicates a fairly good relationship and shows that
in general the calcium carbonate content increases as the sediments
become finer.
Organic content. — The organic content of recent sediments is con-
vientlj^ estimated by multiplying the nitrogen content by 11. This
is not an exact procedure, but it is a rapid means of procuring a rough
approximation.* Table 5 and Figure 50 show the distribution of
nitrogen in the sediments of Davis Strait. Except for sample 20 ad-
jacent to the north coast of Labrador, the nitrogen content ranges
between 0.05 and 0.09 per cent. This indicates that the deposits
contain about 1 per cent organic matter, which compared with tho
content of other marine sediments is very low.
■ As a rule the ignition loss aids the estimation of the organic
content of sediments, but the samples from Davis Strait contain so
much calcium carbonate that it is not of much assistance for these
deposits. HoAvever, it is included in Table 5.
THE ORIGIN OF THE SEDIMENTS
Texture. — The sediments of Davis Strait are complex in origin.
They contain a considerable quantity of ice-borne debris; the pres-
ence of frosted sand grains suggests wdnd transport; the large
amount of very fine calcium carbonate particles may possibly (but
not probably) be due to chemical precipitation; and the uneven sea
floor and differential current action cause great variations in the
texture of the deposits.
The submarine topography is the dominant factor governing the
texture of the sediments of Davis Strait. Even though considerable
quantities of ice-borne rock fragments are distributed throughout
the deposits, the mechanical composition of the sediments is in-
fluenced greatly by the bottom configuration. Along the longitudi-
nal series of samples adjacent to the Cumberland Peninsula, the
sediments are coarsest on the highest point on the section and they
become progressively finer as the water deepens on either side. The
median decreases from 260 microns in a sample in 418 meters of
water to 5 microns in 1,270 meters on the north, and 135 microns
in 625 meters on the south. Sample 5, having a median of 163
microns lies in 420 meters, but it contains only 12 per cent gravel
compared with 26 per cent in adjoining samples, and if the gravel
is discounted, the two sediments have aproximately the same texture.
The samples along the lines eastward from Cape Murchison,
similarly, vary in texture with the topography. Deposits that lie in
200 meters have medians of about 200 microns; sample 11, in 250
meters has 155 microns; sample 14, in 263 meters, 131 microns;
sample 8 in 290 meters, 85 microns; and sample 15 in 1,500 meters,
21 microns.
Sample 19, in Hudson Strait in 575 meters, has a median of 208
microns. This shows clearly that it is not depth of Avater that is
*P. D. Trask, Sedimentation of tne Cliannel Islands Region. California. Econ. Geol.,
vol. 26, pp. 36-42, 1931.
' ' MARION ' ' EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
71
the controllino- factor, for this sediment lies in water nearly three
times as deep as do the samples off Cape Murchison, yet the deposits
have the same texture. Similarly the sediments east of Resolution
Island show that the bottom configuration influences the deposits
more than depth of Avater. The normal progression of decrease in
Figure 50
texture with increasing depth of water is interrupted by sample 17
on a relatively steep slope in 950 meters of Avater. The median of
sample 17 is 62 microns, but sample 18 situated nearer shore in 250
meters less Avater, has a median of 20 microns. The section east-
ward from Aulalsivik. likewise, demonstrates the relative lack of
influence of depth of Avater on the texture. Samples 20 and 21 lying
72 ' ' MAEIOX ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
ill less than 150 meters of water have medians of 7 and 2.3 microns,
respectively, but sample 22 on a fairly steep slope in 1,650 meters
has a median of 73 microns. Samples 23, 24, and 25 lying in about
200 meters of Avater in a region of uneven sea floor have medians
of 44 to 162 microns.
The plienoinena mentioned above demonstrate that the texture of
the sediments is strongly influenced by the submarine topography.
However, in reality it is the motion of the sea water above the de-
posits that governs the size of the particles that accumulate in the
sediments. The movement of the deep water is deflected and ob-
structed by submarine slopes and ridges. In this manner relatively
strong currents are produced over many exposed slopes and ridges.^
In fa^t, the relative coarseness of the deposits is a measure of the
intensity of the movement of the lower part of the sea water.
Currents. — Smith and Mosby's *^ detailed investigation of the cir-
culation of the water in Da^is Strait, shows that a strong westerly
current sAvings around Cape Farewell and up the west coast of
Greenland. At various intervals as far north as latitude 75°, parts
of it bend westAvard and slowly cross Davis Strait, where they join
a strong southerly current, coming from Lancaster Sound. This
southerh^ current continues down the east coast of Baffin Land across
Hudson Strait and soutliAvard along the coast of Labrador. The
dynamic topographic map of this region shoAvs that in general the
movement of Avater is parallel to the trend of the submarine slopes
and scarps and that it is relatively rapid over steep slopes. The
greatest intensity of circulation is in the upper layers of the Avater ;
but the coincidence of the relatively rapid movement of the upper
part of the sea Avater with the coarseness of the deposits off Cape
Farewell, off Cumberland Peninsula, and on the continental slope
off Kesolution Island and northern Labrador, demonstrates that in
these regions the loAver part of the sea Avater, especially that bathing
the sea bottom, move Avith significant velocity. HoAvever, the
moA'ement of the deep Avater may be due to tides and not gradient
currents.
The extremely fine sediments in the relatively shalloAv Avater off
Aulalsivik lie in regions in Avhich the dynamic gradient of the sea
water is slight. This indicates that the circulation of the surface
Avater is sIoav. The deposition of sediments having medians of
7 and 2.3 microns, in Avater less than 150 meters deep, demonstrates
that the loAver part of the Avater also is quiescent. The Ioav gravel
content likeAvise argues against strong current action. A similar
explanation accounts for the large quantity of fine particles in
sample 8, about 100 miles northeast of Cape Murchison.
The coarseness of the sediments of Hudson Strait indicates that
they are Avashecl by strong currents. Even though they lie in 575
meters of Avater they are very Avell sorted and have a median of 208
microns, AAdiich indicates that they are a medium to fine grained
sand. Smith and Mosby's dynamic topographic map indicates only
a slight circulation of Avater in this region, but it refers to move-
- See P. D. Trask. Op. cit., pp. 28-33.
« Edward H. Smith and Olav Mosby, The Physical Oceanography of Davis Strait,
pt. 2 of Bulletin 19.
EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STItAIT AND BAFFIN BAY 73
juents due to <iratlieiit forces and not to tides. The liydrographic
charts issued by the United States Xavy show currents of 5 knots in
both directions throuoh Hudson Strait, The coarseness of the sedi-
ments demonstrates that these currents extend with significant velo-
city to the bottom of the Strait.
Sinuhirh^ the dynamic topographic map indicates a relatively slow
movement of water over the well-sorted fine-grained sands northeast
of Cape Murchison. Weeks ^ rei:>orts a tide of 25 to 35 feet in Cum-
berland Bay which lies northwest of this area. A tide of such
dimensions necessitates a considerable forward and backward move-
ment of water. As the sediments east of Cape Murchison are in the
l)ath of such oscillations, in water only 200 meters deep, it is evident
they should be coarse.
Rock fragments. — The occurrence of gneiss, quartzite, and granitic
rocks in the sediments is easily explainable, as the geologic maps and
reports of Greenland, Baffin Land, and northern Labrador ^ clemon-
strate the prevalence of pre-Cambrian metamorphic and granitic
rocks throughout this area. Basalt occurs on Disko Island, which
if not the source of the occasional basalt fragments, at least indicates
the presence of basic eruptives in the general region. Kindle ^ men-
tions the occurrence of Pleistocene shells in the lower part of the ice
cap in west Greenland in latitude 74°. The eroded Pelecypod shell
in sample 24 may have such an origin.
HoAvever, the Avidespreacl distribution of noncrystalline limestone
is not so readily explainable. The land on both sides of Davis Strait,
in the region from which the sediments come, is mapped as consist-
ing almost entirely of pre-Cambrian formations. Crystalline lime-
stones are plentiful in certain i^arts of the pre-Cambrian, but the
noncrystalline aphanitic character of the limestone fragments in the
deposits indicates they originated elsewhere. Excluding the sedi-
ments east of Cape Slurchison, limestone occurs in almost every
sample, and is the dominant rock type in most of the deposits.
Source of limestone. — The ubiquitousness of the limestone and its
plentifulness in the deposits indicates that a very significant propor-
tion of the rock fragments carried by the ice consists of limestone.
The question is from Avhere did the limestone come.
Drift ice on the Avest side of DaA^is Strait is estimated by Smith ^^
as consisting of less than 2 per cent berg ice and more than 98 per
cent pack ice. Shelf ice, extending from the shore seaAvard; the ice
foot, that part of the shelf ice attached to the sea bottom ; and anchor
ice, originating on the sea bottom near shore, haA^e opportunity both
^ L. J. AA'eeks, Cumberland Sound Area, Baffin Land, Can. Geol. Surv. Sum. Rep.,
1927 C, p. 86, 1928.
8 Robert Bell, Report of Exploration of Hudson Strait Region, Can. Geol. Sur. Sum. Rep
1897 (Ann. Rep. 10) A. pp. 75-83, 1898.
Geologic Map of North America, U. S. Geol. Surv, 1911.
O. B. Boggild. The Geology of Greenland, Greenland, Publ. Com. Dir. Geol. and Geog.
Investigations in Greenland, C. A. Reitzel, Copenhagen, pp. 185-231, 1928.
L. J. Weeks, op. cit., pp. 84-95.
Lauge Koch, Stratigraphy of Greenland, Dissertation for Doctorate, published by
Levin and Alunksgaard, Copenhagen. 1929 (contains good bibliograi>hy).
Geological Map of World, Preus. Landesanstalt, Berlin. 1930.
» E. M. Kindle. Ice Borne Sediments in Canadian and Other Arctic Waters. Am. J. S.
v. 7. p. 277, 1924.
" Edward H. Smith, Arctic Ice, etc., pt. 3 of Bulletin 19, p. 190.
68165—32 6
74 ' ' MAEIOX ' ' EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
of transporting rock fragments and of forming part of the pack
ice. HoweATr. the proportion of the pack ice of such origin is
probably very small. Bergs on the other hand, are derived from
glaciers, most of which contain considerable debris. Thus even
though the pack ice occupies a much larger volume than the bergs,
the bergs probably contribute many more rock fragments to the
sediments.
Smith ^^ estimates that TO per cent of the bergs that flow dow^n the
west side of Davis Strait are derived from glaciers in the vicinity of
Disko Island near latitude 70° ; 20 per cent, from glaciers flowing
into Melville Bay, about latitude 75° ; and the remaining 10 per cent
mostly from northern Greenland and the northern archipelago. A
large number of bergs originate on the east side of Greenland, and
flow around Cape Farewell and up the west coast of Greenland, but
only a few cross Davis Strait and flow southward in the Labrador
current.^- The Labrador current, although somewhat interrupted,
extends across the mouth of Hudson Strait; consequently bergs or
pack ice coming through Hudson Strait, in all probability do not
flow northward in Davis Strait. Therefore, limestone from the
Paleozoic formations in the vicinity of Hudson Strait presumably
is not deposited in the sediments of Davis Strait north of latitude
62°.
Boggild ^^ found no limestone fragments in his detailed investiga-
tion of the bottom deposits off the east coast of Greenland between
latitude 70° and 74°. This leads one to believe that the bergs arising
north of this region carry practically no limestone. Very little non-
crystalline limestone is reported from the east coast of Greenland
south of this area.^'^ Sample 26, lying off Cape Farewell in the path
of the bergs arising in east Greenland, contains no limestone. Conse-
quently one infers that almost none of the limestone in the sediments
of Davis Strait comes from east Greenland.
Koch's ^^ authoritative treatise of the stratigraphy of Greenland
does not mention the occurrence of limestone in the vicinity of Disko
Bay. However, he does state that the Agpat formation of early
Algonkian age consists of quartzite, amphibolite, marble, dolomite,
and clay shales which are more or less metamorphosed. This forma-
tion outcrops at intervals from Nugsuak, slightly north of Disko Bay,
to Inglefield Gulf in North Greenland. From Koch's description
of the formation one gathers the impression that the amount of non-
crystalline aphanitic limestone this formation would supply the
glaciers flowing into Disko Bay, would not constitute a large propor-
tion of the rock fragments carried by these glaciers.
Koch ^^ in 1918 mentioned the prevalence of granitic rocks in the
vicinity of Melville Bay ; but later ^" he reports the probable exist-
ence of the Agpat formation in this region, because he mentions its
"Op. cit.
12 E. H. Smith, op. cit, pp. 74-78.
" O. B. Boggild, Samples of the Sea Floor Along the Coast of East Greenland, 74% to 70
N. L.. Med. om Gronl. v. 28, pp. 17-85, 1909.
" See footnote 8.
15 Op. cit., pp. 14-15 and 54-58.
16 Lauge Koch, Den II Thule-Ekpedition til Melville-Bugten og Gronlands Nordkyst,
1916-1918, Geografisk Tidskrift Bind 24, Heft vi, 1918, p. 221.
1" Lauge Koch, Stratigraphy of Greenland, 1929, p. 14.
75
occurrence between Umanak Fiord and Ino-lefield Gulf. He thinks ^^
the southern border of the Paleozoic geosyncline of north Greenland
coincides with the present border of the inland ice. If this is true,
it means that tlie alaciers floAvino- into Melville Bay probably do not
carr}^ Paleozoic limestone fragments. The Agpat formation, as was
mentioned previously, does not seem to be a likely source of un-
metamorphosed limestone. Consequently one infers that the bergs
from Melville Bay probably do not carry man}^ limestone fragments.
Paleozoic limestone is plentiful along the north coast of Green-
land, and limestone also occurs in numerous places in the northern
archipelago. According to Smith, ^^ bergs from these tAvo regions
form 10 per cent of the bergs of Davis Strait. One can not assume
that the rock debris they carry consists entirely of limestone frag-
ments, but since the glaciers that produce limestone-bearing bergs,
flow over a limestone terrain it is probable that the concentration of
rock fragments in the ice overlying such areas w^ould be greater than
that in ice overlying a gneiss or granite region. Therefore the lime-
stone transported by the bergs from north Greenland and the north-
ern archipelago may constitute more than 10 per cent of the rock
fragments in the sediments of Davis Strait. Pack ice from limestone
regions, and bergs from Disko and Melville Bays presumably con-
tribute some limestone to the deposits, but if they do not add enough
to account for the large quantit}^ of limestone in the sediments, one
must consider the hypothesis that more than 10 per cent of the bergs
of Davis Strait have sources other than Disko and Melville Bays.
Further study of the problem is needed to solve it satisfactorily.
It w^ould be especially advantageous to know the types of rock frag-
ments carried by the berg-forming glaciers.
Comments of Lauge Koch. — The question of the origin of the
limestone fragments in the sediments was referred to Dr. Lauge
Koch, who has spent many years in Greenland. He kindly replied
as follows i^*^
Along the west coast of Greenland from Cape Farewell to at least 70° North
latitude noncrystalline limestone is entirely absent. The whole of west Green-
land as far as Disko Bay is made up of gneisses, granites, etc., with the exception
of a small area, near Cape Farewell, of red sandstone (age probably pre-
Cambrian) which may here be left out of consideration. I think we know the
land from Cape Farewell to Disko Bay so well that we are safe in concluding
that noncrystalline limestone does not occur along this whole stretch, nor do
the moraines of the inland ice in any place seem to indicate the presence of
limestone-bearing formations below\the ice cap.
From 70° North latitude northward to Cape Alexander (the westernmost
point of Greenland) there is not the slightest indication of noncrystalline lime-
stone. The moraines of the inland ice are here less well known, but everywhere
where they have been examined — I may here speak of my own investigations
along practically the whole coast — the moraines contain no sediments. (An old
statement about the finding of a block of red sandstone in the vicinity of the
inland ice east of Umanak has not been confirmed.) In the interior of the
Umanak district crystalline limestone and marble of undoubted pre-Cambrian
age occurs in association with granites and gneisses.
As you no doubt know, Disko Island, parts of the Nugsuak Peninsula and
the regions north thereof, including parts of the Svartenhuk Peninsula, are
18 Op. cit, pp. 66-67.
1® Loc. cit.
-"Letter of Mai. 4, 1931.
76
partiallj^ made up of sediments up to 1,000 meters thick, consisting largely of
sandstones and shales. If limestones are present here, they form at any rate,
only quite subordinate beds and are highly arenaceous. As far as I remember,
limestone is not mentioned in the literature concerning this region. The age of
the sediments is late Cretaceous to lower Tertiary (mostly Senonian, Paleocene,
and Eocene, with plant beds).
Along the stretch between Cape York and the Humboldt Glacier we find
sediments more than 1,000 meters thick, consisting of conglomerates and sand-
stone, greywacke, and dolomite (Thule formation, age late pre-Cambrian),
but it is characteristic of this formation that it contains no limestone what-
ever, only dolomite. On Inglefield Land south of Humbolt Glacier we find
in two places within the sandstone series of the Thule formation, thin beds
with traces of lime, but here the Thule formation is overlain by 2O0 to 300
meters of limestone (age lower Middle Cambrian and Ozarkian).
North of Humboldt Glacier, the greater part of Washington Land and the
southern part of Hall Land consist of limestone (age Cambrian up to and
including Silurian) ; the thickness is at least 800 meters.
On crossing to Baffin Land, which I do not know personally, we find around
the southern lakes west of Frobisher Bay extensive, but probably very thin
beds of limestone, presumably of Ordovician age. The Danish " Godthaab "
expedition in 1928 went ashore for a few hours on the east coast of Baffin
Land, as far as I remember in about 67° North latitude, and from this place
brought back some few sediments, which, as far as I recollect, consisted mostly
of shales, but also, I think, contained some limestone. In the northern part
of Baffin Land sediments likewise occur, chiefly sandstone (Tertiary), and
farther toward the interior of Lancaster Sound we find the old localities with
Ordovician and Silurian limestone. North Devon is very little known, but
on the west side sediments probably occur. As is well known, Schey found
limestone, representing several of the Paleozoic formations, in Jones Sound.
As you will see, it seems quite impossible that the limestone on the bottom
of Davis Strait has come from west Greenland. A transport of limestone from
Kane Basin during the maximum of the glacial epoch is not quite improbable.
There is no doubt that the entire eastern part of Kane Basin has been built
up of Cambrian and Ozarkian intraformational limestone, and that these for-
mations, because of their softness, have been removed by erosion. On Carey
Islands in Smith Sound, which are exclusively made up of gneiss, I have
found loose blocks of dolomite, but they must have been transported by
glaciers or icebergs.
As to conditions along the west side of Baffin Bay and Davis Strait I must
speak with the greatest caution. It is possible that the older Paleozoic beds
formerly may have had a far wider distribution on Baffin Land, from which
they have been removed and during Pleistocene time transported by glaciers
into Davis Strait. Recently, however, it has been pointed out. no doubt rightly,
by an Indian geologist, that as a rule glaciers do not carry morainic material
very far. In this connection we may consider the formation of the Newfound-
land Banks. It seems not easy to explain that the material of which the New-
foundland Banks consist was transported by icebergs all the way from Disko
Bay. Experience seems to show that icebergs rather soon discharge the mo-
rainic material they may contain. Usually morainic debris occurs either on
top of the bergs or in the form of very marked stripes in the bergs. These
bands naturally form weak points, and when warmed by the sun appear as
furrows and cause the bergs to split along these stripes.
It is doubtless quite right that morainic material is not transported very
far by icebergs. But there may be other explanations. I do not know how it
sounds in American ears that Baffin Bay might represent a subsided area, in
ether words that the area of Baffin Bay has once been a land area. In Stratig-
raphy of Greenland I have pointed out that in my opinion there are slight indi-
cations of a geosyncline in the present area of Davis Strait. In this connection
I may mention the rather deeply subsided late Algonkian sediments both near
Cape Farewell and in the Cape York district, as well as possibly in the vicinity
of Disko Bay. But the development of the geosyncline in Davis Strait seems
not to have continued.
I am afraid it will be very difficult to explain the presence of these large
quantities of pure limestone on the bottom of Davis Strait. That they should
77
originate from Disko Bay or Umanak Fjord, I would consider quite impossible.
Nor does it seem probable that they orij;inate from Kane Basin. In such case
an exceedingly strong erosion in connection with an improbably long transport
toward the soutli by the aid of icebergs must have taken place here during
glacial times. A transport from Baffin Land seems on the basis of our
extremely slight knowledge of the geology of this region to be the most natural
explanation, provided we will not exiilain the process by the aid of considerable
subsidences round Davis Strait, Wegener's theory, etc.
Frosted sand grahis. — The frosted well-rounded grains of sand
that constitute a very minor part of the sediments, may be of Eolian
origin, but they also may be produced in water by attrition. The
apparent decrease in plentifulness of polished constituents away from
shore accords with the Eolian hypothesis. However, even if these
frosted grains are of wind origin, the follow^ing questions arise : Were
they blown to the neighborhood of their final resting place, either
through air or along the surface of the ice; were they blown onto
ice and then transported to their place of burial; or w^ere they carried
relatively long distances through the water by currents? Unfortu-
nately, iiasufficient data are available to answer these questions.
Finely divided calcium carhoriate. — Calcium carbonate forms a
large part of the fine constituents in most of the sediments; but it
has not been practicable to investigate this finely divided CaCOg.
It may be a chemical precipitate, it may result from w^ind-blown
calcium carbonate dust ; it may be a deposit-like clay resulting from
particles suspended in the water, or it may be ice borne.
In view of the apparent absence of a local limestone source it seems
that the ice-borne origin is more probable. This is also supported
by the observation that the sediments off Cape Murchison are de-
ficient in limestone fragments and that sample 8 from the same
region contains a large amount of fine constituents, but almost no
CaCOs. It would appear from this that the source of debris in the
Cape Murchison sediments is to a large extent the adjacent coast of
Baffin Land and only to a small degree, floating ice from distant
areas. Sample 20, off Aulalsivik, contains no limestone rock frag-
ments, and although it is a fine-grained deposit, it contains little
CaCOg. In other parts of Davis Strait, limestone is a plentiful con-
stituent of the gravel and also calcium carbonate particles form a
significant part of the fine fraction of the deposits. Furthermore,
because of its softness, limestone is readily abraded by ice action;
therefore, one would expect that a considerable quantity of finely
divided CaCOs would be trajDped in adjacent ice. If this were
carried out to sea it would form a deposit relatively rich in detrital
CaCOs. Thus, the ice-borne origin of the calcium carbonate is in
accord with all the known facts. Whether or not it is the true
explanation will depend on future work.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENTS OF ICE-BORNE ORIGIN
Two factors dominate the formation of sediments of ice-borne
origin; one the heterogeneous nature of the detritus brought by the
ice, and the other the action of tlie currents. The debris brought by
the ice is very poorly sorted, and if it falls in a region in which
currents are w^eak, the coefficient of sorting of the deposits will be
78
very large and the coefficient of skewness may differ greatly from
unity. If, however, the detritus falls in a region of strong current
action the deposits will be well sorted, that is, the coefficient of sort-
ing will be small; but the skewness will be much larger than unity
because of the plentifulness of rock fragments, which cause the first
quartile to be large. These qualities of the coefficient of sorting and
skewness may not be unique for deposits of ice-borne origin, but
they should aid in the determination of the manner of formation
of sediments of unknoAvn derivation. However, as has long been
recognized, the presence of faceted subrounded rock fragments is an
important diagnostic criterion of an ice-borne origin.
Table 1. — General description
Sample No. '—
Station
No. 2—
Serial
No. 3—
Latitude
Longi-
tude
Depth
(meters)
Description
Davis Strait, longi-
tudinal section:
1
1016
1019
1020
1021
1022
1024
1025
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1037
1041
1042
1044
1050
1051
1053
1060
1058
1056
1054
1081
1098
601
599
609
604
607
612
605
610
1577
1579
614
1580
615
1578
1576
600
608
611
1575
602
613
603
1571
1572
1573
1574
1570
67
66
65
65
65
64
64
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
62
61
61
61
60
59
59
59
58
58
58
59
52
13
12
54
37
23
35
7
56
52
48
44
41
29
17
19
26
32
32
53
40
48
27
55
33
52
32
55
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
60
61
62
62
63
62
62
59
59
60
62
64
63
63
59
60
61
62
44
51
20
47
26
5
4
3
6
46
25
11
44
21
43
5
30
32
26
5
43
52
38
48
54
54
52
50
36
1,270
700±
570
448
420
510
625
290
210
210
250
200
201
263
1,500
2,300
950
700±
575
65
152
1,650
190
149
102
462
855
Gray clay and pebbles.
2
Gray silt, sand, and pebbles.
3
Gray fine-grained sand and peb-
4
bles.
Do.
5 .
Gray sand, silt and pebbles.
8
Do.
7
Do.
Cape Murchison:
Northeast—
8
Do.
9 - -
Gray fine-grained sand and peb-
10
bles.
BufE fine-grained sand and peb-
11
bles.
Gray fine-grained sand and peb-
12
bles.
Buff sand, silt, and pebbles.
Southeast-
is
Do.
14
Do.
15
Gray clay, silt, and pebbles.
Resolution Island,
east:
16
Gray clay and pebbles.
17
Buff sand, silt, and pebbles.
18
Buff fine-grained sand and peb-
Hudson Strait:
19
bles.
Do.
Aulalsivik, east:
20
Gray clay, silt, and pebbles.
21
Gray clay.
22
Gray silt and pebbles.
Mount Blow Me
Down, east:
23
Gray fine-grained sand and peb-
24
bles.
Do.
25
Gray clay.
Cape Farwell, south:
26.
Do.
Southern Labrador,
east:
27
Do.
1 Writer's sample number. ,. ^ ^. , , , • o -.i a at^^k,-
2 Station number from Marion expedition. See oceanographic station table m Smith and Mo^Dj ,
op. m cit.
i Serial number in writer's general collection.
' ' MAEIOX ' ' EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY 79
Table 2. — Mechanical analyses
Statistical constants
Sample Xo.
1
Q,
2
M
3
Q3
4
So
5
Sk
6
LogSk
7
Davis Strait, longitudinal section:
1 -
70.0
210.0
430.0
1050. 0
228.0
1100.0
230.0
- 250.0
1500. 0
715.0
800.0
430.0
1100.0
184.0
92.0
35.0
248.0
175.0
390.0
16.0
12.5
300.0
190.0
340.0
345.0
340.0
22.0
5.0
145.0
190.0
260.0
163.0
185.0
135.0
85.0
210.0
222.0
155.0
200.0
182.0
131.0
21.0
5.9
62.0
20.0
208.0
7.0
2.3
73.0
44.0
162.0
125.0
180.0
9.3
1.3
60.0
73.0
133.0
95.0
28.0
35.0
1.3
125.0
131.0
60.0
127.0
65.0
62.0
5.0
1.5
1.4
3.0
120.0
2.9
.62
5. 7
4.5
47.0
5.1
60.0
2.4
7.35
1.87
2.42
2.81
1.55
6.37
2.56
13.90
3.46
2.33
3.64
1.84
4.12
1.74
4.30
4.83
13.35
7.62
1.80
2.35
4.50
7.25
6.50
2.69
8.24
2.38
3.03
3.65
.60
.87
2.06
.82
.91
.44
.05
4.24
1.90
2.00
1.36
2.16
.67
1.04
1.51
.09
1.31
1.08
.95
1.47
.32
.44
.61
1.13
.63
.61
-fO. 55
2 - -
-.22
3 - -
-.06
4 . - --
+.31
5 .
-.09
6 -----
-.04
-.35
Cape Murchison:
Northeast—
8 - - -
-1.25
9 . -
+.63
10
+.28
11
+.30
12 . - ---
+.13
Southeast—
13
+.33
14..
-.18
15 - . -
+.02
Resolution Island, east:
16.
+. 18
17 - --.
-1.04
18
+.12
Hudson Strait:
19
+.03
- 02
Aulalsivik, east:
20
21
+• 17
22
-.49
Mount Blow Me Down, east:
23
-.35
24
- 22
25
+.05
Cape Farewell, south:
26
-.20
Southern Labrador, east:
27 - --
-.22
Explanation: Qi, first quartile; ^I, median, Qs, third quartile; So, coefficient of sorting; Sk, coefficient
of skewness; Log Sk, logarithm of coefficient of Sk.
T-\BLE 3. — Mechanieal analyses
Size fractions
Sample Xo.
1
Gravel,
1-30 milli-
meters
2
Sand,
0.05-1
millimeter
3
Silt. ' Clay,
0.005-0.05 0.001-0.005
millimeter millimeter
4 5
Colloid,
0-0.001
millimeter
6
Davis Strait, longitudinal section:
l._
9
8
15
26
12
26
10
18
29
21
23
13
26
20
71
64
62
72
46
63
39
62
69
59
75
21
9
6
5
8
14
12
9
4
7
14
34
7
8
4
4
7
8
12
3
2
4
3
3
3
12
16
2 -. - -
6
3
4-. - - , .
2
5
4
6
-
Cape Murchison:
Northeast—
8
22
9
2
10
1
11
4
12
1
Southeast—
13
2
14
2 79 14
2
15
4 30 41
13
80
MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY
Table 3. — Mechanical analyses — Continued
Size fractions
Sample No.
1
Gravel,
1-30 milli-
meters
2
Sand,
0.05-1
millimeter
3
Silt,
0.005-0.05
millimeter
4
Clay,
0.001-0.005
millimeter
5
Colloid,
0-0.001
millimeter
6
Resolution Island, east:
16-
4
15
12
8
3
1
18
11
16
15
18
0
17
38
30
74
10
4
39
36
58
34
17
28
8
48
36
20
26
18
28
10
16
4
27
23
11
12
5
7
5
20
17
17 - -- - - -
20
18 - - -
14
Hudson Strait:
19 ...
6
Aulalsivik, east:
20
12
21 - .
36
22
12
Mount Blow Me Down, east:
23 - -
16
24
3
25 - -. .
49 1 12
17
Cape Farewell, south:
26
Southern Labrador, east:
27 .._--..
60
10
10
50
7
20
Table 4. — Details of sand and gravel
Sample No.
Davis Strait, longitudinal sec-
tion:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Cape Murchison:
Northeast—
8
9
10
11
12
Southeast —
13
14
15
Resolution Island, east:
16
17
18
Hudson Strait:
19
Aulalsivik, east:
20
21
22
Mount Blow Me Down, east
23
24
25
Cape Farewell, south:
26
Southern Labrador, east:
27
Coarse
gravel,
3-30 milli-
meters
4.3
5.5
4.1
9.5
8.1
17.2
6.0
9.5
20.0
4.7
18.4
2.8
19.4
0.0
2.1
2.3
9.1
2.7
3.2
2.9
0.6
9.1
2.3
6.5
2.6
9.4
0.0
Fine gravel
1-3 milli-
meters
5.1
2.2
10.9
16.5
3.3
9.1
4.0
8.6
9.0
16.3
4.6
9.8
6.5
1.8
2.0
1.9
6.2
8.9
4.7
0.0
0.9
8.7
9.9
12.2
0.0
Coarse
sand, 0.5-1
millimeter
1.2
1.0
7.3
12.3
2.0
5.1
4.4
2.6
4.5
9.8
6.3
8.7
6.5
0.7
2.2
1.4
4.2
3.0
8.3
0.7
0.7
3.6
3.0
5.2
5.8
5.2
0.0
Medium
sand, 0.25-
0.05 mill-
meter
1.6
2.6
14.8
13.1
4.4
6.4
3.6
8.5
12.0
8.5
17.1
0.9
3.5
1.6
5.2
4.2
25.4
0.7
0.7
5.4
4.4
7.1
7.7
12.0
0.2
Fine
sand, 0.125-
0.25 milli
meters
5.4
49.1
33.8
27.3
53.4
22.6
34.0
21.0
33.4
35.6
19.4
37.4
18.7
51.7
11.2
4.8
14.0
12.0
32.3
5.4
1.3
19.6
17.2
37.2
22.1
32.3
3.0
Very fine
sand, 0.05-
0.125 milli-
meters
11.6
18.2
8.3
8.9
12.6
11.6
17.7
11.6
16.0
11.8
24.8
11.6
21.0
26.4
12.9
9.1
14.7
11.3
8.3
3.1
1.2
10.5
11.8
8.5
13.5
11.4
6.8
Marion" expedition to davis strait and Baffin bay 81
Table 5. — General (hitti
Sample No.
1
Per cent
ignition
loss
2
Per cent
nitrogen
3
Per cent
CaCOa
4
Rock type
5
Relative
frosting
of grains
6
Davis Strait, longitudi-
nal section:
14.0
5.8
7.9
3.9
8.0
11.3
9.5
4.6
2.0
2.2
4.5
2.4
3.2
3.3
10.1
11.4
15.5
18.2
5.7
8.7
20.5
12.8
15.0
8.1
9.1
10.6
16.7
0.07
.08
.08
.08
.08
.06
.08
.09
.04
.04
.09
.05
.08
.05
.08
.09
.08
.06
.06
.20
.08
.06
.07
.07
.07
.06
.06
20
1
15
4
13
20
20
3
4
2
3
1
2
3
16
20
21
40
15
6
28
22
42
20
17
24
30
Quartzite, limestone, gneiss
1
2
Limestone, granite, hornblendite
Granite— quartzite
2
3
3
4
(ineiss, lirasetone, hornblendite
Granite— limestone -.- --
2
5
3
6
Limestone— Gneiss, granite
3
7
Limestone— hornblendite, granite.- .
Granite— quartzite- - -
1
Cape Murchison:
Northeast—
3
9
Limestone, gneiss, granite.- .. . .
3
10
Quartzite, gneiss— granite, limestone.
Gneiss, granite— limestone. .. -
3
11
2
12
Quartzite, gneiss .. - .-.
3
Southeast—
13
Gneiss— quartzite ..
2
Quartzite
2
15
Limestone— gneiss, quartzite
Limestone, hornblendite
2
Resolution Island, East:
10
2
17
Tvimestone— quartzite -.
2
18
Gneiss, granite, limestone .--
2
Hudson Strait:
19
Limestone— gneiss, quartzite, basalt.
Granite
3
Aulalsivik, East:
20
21
Gneiss..
2
22
Limestone— granite, gneiss
1
Mount Blow Me Down,
East:
23
Hornblendite — basalt, limestone,
quartzite.
I>imestone— basalt, shell, granite
Gneiss — limestone .. . . .
2
24
2
25
2
Cape Farewell, south:
26
Gneiss, quartzite .. .
1
Southern Labrador, east:
07
2
Rock types given in order of decreasing plentifulness
small quantities.
Types preceded by a dash are present in only
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