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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PORE SER Y DIVISION.
BULLETIN No. 2.

REPORT

FOREST CONDITIONS oe tHe ROCKY MOUNTAINS,

OTHER PAPERS;

WITH A MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF FOREST
ARHAS ON THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN RANGE,

———__o<>o—__——_——

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH.
3 1888,

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
FORESTRY DIVISION,
Washington, D. C., January 6, 1888.
Sir: I have the honor to submit for publication as a special bulletin,
prepared under your instructions, a collection of reports illustrating the
forest conditions of the Rocky Mountains, together with such informa-
{ion as may serve tor a basis in formulating needed forest legislation
with reference to the timber lands of the region which are still held in
the hands of the General Government.
Respectfully,
B. E. FERNow,
Chief of Forestry Division.
Hon. NORMAN J. COLMAN, 7
Commissioner.

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CONTENTS.

TRMAROCUNGUOTA Aa BAS SRO Sees en Seen eee are easeee dees
Extracts from Reports of the Commissioners of the Land Office .....----.----
The Government in its Relation to Forests, by Prof. E. J. James......-.------
Report on the Forest Conditions of the Rocky Mountains, by Col. dean T. En-

FT BA Oe YP te aes Cy a RP ee een Nk ae EU
‘Map showing the location of forest areas and principal irrigation ditches in

wie hocky Mountain ReSiON 2... 2. 22ee.ccse - 2 o-kSs Gacoee eee: Map to face D- 152

Forest Flora of the Rocky Mountains, by George B. Sudworth.......----.----
' Report on the Forests of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San Diego Counties,

Cale cuyeA Do OutriMinnieyin asses A SSeS se Soe nels. os 4 elie ete esis
flrees and Shrubsiot san Diego County, Cali: -) 42) 2225. 9.22... 22 2
The Needs of the Yellowstone National Park, by Arnold Hague, geologist in
CHAR G One e ete eee ee Sn eee aR else wb at seco lS ee meee eho

Summary of Legislation for the Preservation of Timber or Forests on the Pub-

LiCeDomiaines oy Niels MW OlestOMis. Seis Sjace os esate oes bee os See See
The Climate of Colorado and its Effects u on Trees, by George H. Parsons.-...
Snow-slides or Avalanches, their Formation and Prevention, by B. E. Fernow.

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202

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EN TROD U Caro RY.

The following report and papers are designed as a basis for an intel-
ligent conception of the possibilities and requirements of legislative
action on the part of the General Government in regard to some of its
property. They will also, it is hoped, be welcome to the student of the
climatic, floral, and economic conditions of the region to which they
refer, and serve as a historic reference book in the times when the folly
of present days will be judged by those who will suffer its consequences.

The pioneering days are rapidly disappearing before the energetic
push and advancement of railroad building and settlements; and with
the changed conditions of life, in communities instead of in isolated log
huts, a change in the manner of life and its adjustment to the demands
of civilized existence is called for.

The development of the Rocky Mountain region during the last
seventeen years is indicated by the growth of its population. The pop-
ulation has increased from 263,236 in 1870 to 900,000 in 1886, while
the assessed valuation, exclusive of mining property, has risen from
$96,507,000 in 1870 to $330,000,000 in 1886. This growth has been ob-
tained, no doubt, partly through the liberal policy which the Govern-
ment has pursued in regard to railroad grants, to mineral claims, to
land entries, etc.

Of the enormous amount of public lands given free or at nominal
prices to settlers, miners, and to encourage development, amounting to
about 630,000,000 acres, a proportionate share has fallen to the region
in question. lor educational purposes it received 22,963,403 acres or
34 per cent. of the total grant. Of the 50,000,000 acres or so of railroad
grants, outside of the rights of way, 4,500,000 acres at least must be
debited to the region for its 2,060 miles of land-grant roads. Under the
desert-land act 1,193,548 acres were given up at $1 per acre. Under
the timber-culture act, 389,991 acres have been entered in the region
under consideration.

In addition to these grants a liberal use of the timber on the public
domain, for all legitimate purposes which would aid the settler in build-
ing up and improving his settlement and the railroad companies in
building their roads, has been permitted.

But whether the continuance of such Javish liberality after the pioneer
existence is passed has not already been, and may not become still more
in future, detrimental to the best interests of the region in question, as

well as of the Pacific coast region, which should have been included in
this discussion ; whether a change from the present policy in regard to
the remaining public domain would not better answer the purposes of
the community at large—these questions now call for deliberate inves-
tigation.

That this need of a change of policy exists, especially in regard to the
timber lands occupying the mountain regions of the Rocky Mountains
and the Pacific slope, has been claimed and urged for many years by
competent officers as well as by well-informed citizens.

The reasons brought forward for such a change in regard to the Gov-
ernment timber lands are partly of an organic, partly of a moral char-
acter.

In the present classification of lands, special regard to the existence
of timber on the land is only given in California, Oregon, Nevada, and
Washington Territory, where timber land not fit for cultivation may be
sold in tracts of 160 acres, to any one person, at $2.50 per acre (act June
3, 1878), forbidding, however, the purchase for purposes of speculation,
the land only to apply to the exclusive use and benefit of the purchaser,
and the title not to inure to a third person. It is well known that this
act has not been of much practical value, and does not furnish relief to
the settlers for whom it was designed. Under this act nearly 1,000,000
(986,158) acres have been sold and are held by large corporations
mostly. .

The valuable timber lands in the Southern States have been mostly
disposed of at private sales for $1.25 per acre, under the act of June 22,
1876, by which the public land policy, which had been stated to be that
of holding the land for actual settlers, was repudiated. In Alabama
this avowed policy sustained another blow from the act of March 3,
1883, by which the distinction of mineral lands was wiped out; and
thus the door was opened for speculators, who have not failed to take
advantage of the chance, and have bought many millions of acres of
valuable timber for a small price.

In the Rocky Mountain States and Territories, as well as in all other
parts of the United States, all bona fide residents are permitted (act
June 3, 1878) to fell and remove for building, agriculture, mining, or
other domestic purposes, timber or other trees on the publiclands which
are mineral and subject to mineral entry only, and on the land entered
under homestead acts, and they are also allowed to clear for the pur-
pose of cultivation and improvements only, not for sale, before the
patent accrues to them, any timber on their entries.

In addition to the grants of right of way and the land grants of alter-
nate sections under the general right of way act and other acts to aid
in construction of railroads, the railroad companies are allowed ‘to
take from the public lands adjacent to the line of said road the timber
necessary for the construction thereof,” this right to cease at the expi-
ration of five years after location, and, of course, after construction,

9 :

This permission has in practice been construed by the railroad compa-
nies into a license to cut timber wherever, whenever, and for whatever
purpose they saw fit, before and after construction.

That the timber on the public domain had a special value, and also
that it needed, like all movable property, to be looked after and pro-
tected, was recognized by the act of March 2, 1831, under which, for the
care and custody of the timber on the public domain, a system of
agencies under the supervision of the Solicitor of the Treasury was es-
tablished. When, in 1854, the management of the timber interest was
transferred to the General Land Office, and the registers and receivers
were expected to act as timber agents without additional pay, an ex-
ceedingly loose construction as to the right to take timber, and naturally
a lax enforcement of any laws, prevailed until 1877. In fact, until 1876
the collection of stumpage, when found out, was the only penalty for
timber stealing, and a regular revenue, payable quarterly at the disere-
tion of the receivers, was attempted to be collected from the saw-mill
men without any sanetion of law. From the year 1872 until 1877 an-
nual appropriations were made for this service, amounting in the aggre.
gate to $48,000 ($45,624.76 expended).

In 1877 the Commissioner of the Land Office instituted a service of
special agents, and in 1878 a special appropriation of $25,000 was nade
.“¢to meet the expenses of suppressing depredations upon timber on the
public lands.” The system of special agents was gradually enlarged
and. the appropriations increased, with the results during the last seven
years as exhibited in the table below.

Depredations on the public timber during seven years.

Estimated value of tim-
ber reported stolen. Amounts k Agents employed.
actually re-| Appropria-
Year covered, LNOLOS) SO) 2 =| =
: partly by | protection Mouths
Market. | Stumpage. ssiomiig é service. |Number.| em-
; ployed.
ctl eer ie. CASE Ade rosSeHpaabosnce $891, 888 $225, 472 $41, 680 $40, 000 17 (2)
OBA emereammaaat siiee ncicmeceecisicieciee 2, 044, 278 511, 069 77, 365 40, 000 31 (2)
OR
Ge abM Reet yy eye Bees eae ok 8, 144,658 | 1,709, 824 27, 741 75, 000 ; e ; 12
GY Sy tee A Tage is ee 7, 289, 854 | 1, 093, 178 52, 108 75, 000 ; ee ; 12
TTR ok Sache Ce ae ee ees ae nee 2, 862,530 | 489, 255 49, 451 75, 000 ; ae : 8
LBSG Rens chet en ea ee 9,339,679 | 1,726,516] 101,086 75, 000 ; ay ; 12
Rete ea SOC EO Ce Hert ACI CERISE 6, 146,935 | 1, 138, 320 128, 642 75, 000 26 12
f MO} Res Seiee cc come emer 36, 719, 852 | 6, 893, 634 478, 073 455, 000 2a

* Actual number of agents employed for shorter periods.

With more and more urgency have the Commissioners of the Land
Office, the officers to whose care, under the Secretary of State, this prop-

Note —During the thirty-three years from 1855 to 1888 the sums recovered from trespassers amounted
in the aggregate to $491,172,

erty is intrusted, insisted that under existing laws and conditions not
only is it impossible to protect the property of the people against theft
and devastation, but the need of the settler and the requirements of the
industrial pursuits being disregarded by the law, the users of timber are
by necessity forced to become depredators if they wish to satisfy their
needs. That such must be the case may be inferred from the fact that
within the last seven years, since 1881, over $36,000,000 worth of timber
has been reported as stolen, not to speak of the large amount of depre-
dations which must have been left undiscovered.

While the Government might have donated this timber, or timber and -

land, to those who have needed it—although the need of home consump-_
tion has presumably had a less share in these spoils than the greed of

lumbering monopolists—it must be a matter of shame and reproach to

us to have in this manner allowed the spoliation of the public property;

certainly a state of affairs, which allows such robbing of its partners

from year to year, does not speak well for either the wisdom of the laws

or the morality of the community. 3

In addition to these spoliations of its direct material value, the public
timber domain has suffered untold damage by reckless, willful, or care-
less firing, and in every respect the management of this part of our na-
tional inheritance reflects discredit on our much-praised business
capacity.

Tt has been claimed that the fault lies with the existing laws, and this
charge has no doubt good foundation. The charity which the Govern-
ment has extended, in allowing free use of its property under certain
conditions, the settled community now would gladly exchange for a fair
bargain, in which the consumer pays for what he uses, and gains aright
as against a mere privilege.

Any one who will take the trouble to trace, year by year, the ex-
pressions in regard to this interest of the nation, in the reports of the
Secretary of the Interior and the Commissioners of the Land Office, will
be astounded that no hearing has been accorded to them which would
lead to a proper management of this interest.

Recommendations for a change occur from year to year, dating back
earlier than 1880, but they have become more and more urgent since
then as the need has become more urgent. HUxtracts from the reports of
the Commissioners of the Land Office will be found further on.

The Secretary of the Interior, in 1880, after devoting over six pages
to the subject of forestry, says:

Iregret to say that in spite of the repeated recommendation of the passage of a law
to facilitate the prevention of the wasteful devastation of the public timber lands,
and to enable the Government to dispose of timber to settlers and miners, as well as
for legitimate mercantile purposes under such regulations as would prevent the in-
discriminate and permanent destruction of our forests, almost all the legislation that
has been had upon this subject consisted in acts relieving those who had committed
depredations in the past of their responsibility and protecting them against the legal
consequences of their trespasses, ete,

And Secretary Lamar, in 1835, repeating his recommendations in 1886
and 1887 :

The subject of the preservation of timber on the Government lands has been sug-
gested to Congress repeatedly in the reports of my predecessors. Perhaps its frequent
repetition has rendered it commonplace, until it has come to be recognized as a part
of routine report. Its importance justifies its repetition. That the timber is rapidly
disappearing is an indisputable fact. Much is wasted and destroyed. Its effect on
rain-falls, the flow of our rivers, and the healthful character of climate are subjects
worthy of consideration. Itsimportance and necessity for agricultural, domestic,
and mechanical uses requires no portrayal. Good government, while not forgetful
of the present, should use some care for the future. Both on account of its present
importance and its future necessity, this subject is worthy of your thought.

And further, speaking of the timber act of 1878:

Its enactment was suggested, doubtless, by the fact that settters in a new country,
surrounded by woodland, could not and would not suffer in a rigorous climate for
want of fuel and shelter ; that the necessary industries of a frontier would not submit
to the pinchings of a famine in the midst of abundance. But while it was necessary
to recognize the inevitable, the recognition was not properly guarded, and waste and
greedy speculation seems to have resulted from the law.

Any timber for the uses named in the statute may be cut, under its provisions, by
any resident of the Territory on any mineral lands of the Government, in the Territory
of his residence, without compensation. Individual avarice and corporate greed,
thus invited, with hasty eagerness, vie in accepting the bounty, and unless checked
by wholesome modifications of the law, will soon cause all the mineral lands to be
stripped of their forests. Railroads pass through many of the Territories; along their
routes wealthy companies have been organized, mills erected, and the most valuable
timber accessible is being rapidly cut off. That which is ‘‘ every one’s property is no
one’s care,” and waste and extravagance are the natural consequence of negligent
legislation.

The last report of the Commissioner of the Land Office (1887) contains
a chapter illustrative of the manner in which a small minority has been
for a long time defrauding the nation unchecked. Any citizen who feels
himself a part of the great government ‘of the people, for the people,
by the people” will do well to ponder over these pages of disgrace.

Such is the moral aspect of our present conditions in regard to the
land laws and to the reasons for a change in our forest policy. The or-
ganic reasons are those which compel us to consider the forest cover of
the mountains as of more importance than merely to supply material
for the present.

Under existing conditions not only is it made difficult for the resi-
dent population to supply itself with the needed lumber in an honest
way, but the danger of doing so in contravention of the law entails an
enormous needless waste. Acres of timber are felled in anticipation of
possible use, and rot on the ground, because their haulage may become
too risky, or the depredator finds it difficult to dispose of the property,
and so it is left to furnish food to the ever-recurring annual fires, which
destroy also not acres but miles of standing timber, and no legal dis-
position of the burnt timber may be made.

That those who may cut timber legally on mineral lands, or home-
Steads, or timber entries on the Pacific slope have no interest except to

satisfy a present momentary need, and clear the land regardless of any
consequences to future supply, or proper management, or forest con-
ditions, utilizing only whatever part of the trees they may readily use
or require, leaving the balance in the most wasteful manner on the
ground, is attested by those acquainted with the manner of timber-cut-
ting in those regions. Any sign of intelligent and systematic manage-
ment which would insure a full utilization and continuity of the same
is, of course, absent and is not encouraged by present regulations under
the existing laws, and local supplies are waning inmany parts. While
in view of the needs of local supply for mining operations, especially in
mines yielding low-grade ores, which cam not bear the burden of heavy
charges for the importation of their timbering, this is an undesirable
prospect, a much more serious danger is threatening the community at
large in and around these mountain regions.

The climate, as will be seen from the paper of Mr. Parsons included in
this report, is, in many parts of the region, not favorable to tree growth;
at least not to the germination of seeds of coniferous trees, which form
there the natural growth, except under specially favorable conditions,
while broad-leaved trees of economic importance are not naturally found
in the region, or only in small quantity. These unfavorable conditions
are, by the act of man, made still more unfavorable. The wholesale
clearing which is practiced lays bare the thin soil to the influence of
drying sun and wind; fires that sweep over the ground without hind-
rance destroy the thin mold and whatever seedlings may have been on
it, and thus natural recuperation of the forest is made impossible, and
any attempt at artiffcial reforesting is almost precluded. Barrenness
and desolation is, as a rule, the result, except that in more favorable
situations the quaking aspen, of little economic use, may find a foot-
hold, covering the nakedness of which nature has become ashamed.

If, in view of so much graver consequences, it-were permissible to

allude to it, I would impress upon those who take a delight and a pride
in the charms with which nature has endowed our country, vying with

the finest scenery of Europe, that the beauty of the once verdant mount- —

ain sides is being ruthlessly and needlessly destroyed, and with such
general equanimity is this devastation considered that we may soon sub-
stitute in our dictionaries the word ‘“‘Americanism” for “ vandalism.”

What the graver consequences are can be readily understood by those
who have studied the history of deforestation and forest devastation in
southern France, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, and those far eastern coun-
tries which compare somewhat in climatic aspects with the region in
question.

Not only is the forest cover of the mountain crests destroyed when
it might have yielded continuous supplies, but at the same time agri-
culture in the valleys below is first endangered and then made impossi-
ble.

In a region which, like most of the plains of Idaho, Montana, Wyo-

ming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, and southern California.
requires for agricultural purposes the aid of irrigation, regularity of
water-supplies is all-important. This is being tampered with when the
eround is laid bare on the mountain sides, allowing the rains to run off
as from a roof and permitting the snows to melt and their waters to
pour down in torrents at a time when more than enough water is on
hand and the husbanding of the supplies for a later season is highly
desirable. |

Other consequences, such as an increase of snow-slides and land-slides

and the washing of débris into the valley have begun to make them-
selves felt and it can only be a guestion of time when we must reach
such a state of things as was brought upon the mountain districts of
France, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, and which is too well-known to be
rehearsed again. I will only mentionthat after entire communities had
been impoverished by the action of torrents due to deforestation the
Governments found it necessary to interfere, or rather, interference com.
ing too late, to assume or aid in the work of reforestation. Thus in
France it was found that 783,000 acres needed to be restocked for
reasons of public utility, besides the securing of 1,900 miles of torrents.
One hundred and three thousand one hundred and thirty-eight acres
of mountain land are reported already as put in condition by the Gov-
‘ernment at a cost of $4,365,750, outside of the cost of expropriations,
etc. To this must be added $1,116,643, which have been given to com-
munities and private owners in aid of similar works, and a further ex-
penditure of round $34,000,000 is expected tobe necessary. Altogether
it is estimated that $30,000,000 have been expended to correct the evils
brought on by foolish disregard of nature’s laws. [or the year 1887
the appropriation for these purposes amounts to $794,000, the total ap-
propriation for theforest department of France being in round numbers
$5,000,000.

The public Jand commission in 1883, recommending necessary changes
in existing land laws, says: “The timber lands should be sold. Will
not private ownership, self-interest, best protect this class of lands?”

If the history of the countries just cited, if the forest lands in the
older settled parts of our own country, have not shown that this is a
fallacy, we may never expect to learn from experience.

While the existing system of espionage and police may be “ unpopu-
lar and un-American,” as it undoubtedly is, it exists, not because
there is no other choice than sale, but because there are no adequate
provisions made to satisfy the requirements of lumber for actual and
commercial use, thus forcing the population to depredations. Settlers
and consumers of wood can not be expected to go to the woods and cut
their sticks when wanted, as in the pioneer days. They must have an
opportunity to supply their wants in a business manner, as they do in
all other needs of civilized life, through the agency of a middle-man—
in this case the lumberman or the saw-mill man—nor, with the absence

of stability in our population, can more than a temporary or an ephem-
eral interest attach to forest property for the individual.

It isnot the forest that is valuable and would appear worth his pro-
- tection to the individual, but the-timber which the forest yields. As
soon as that is gone the value and the interest is gone for the individual.
The interest which the community has in the forest is transcendant.
The continuation, reproduction, and protection of the forest cover is of
importance to the. continued welfare of the community, especially in
the mountain forests, and they will therefore be in safer hands with the
community at large, with the state.

Let it not be overlooked that the state is not only the representative
of communal interests as against individual interests, but also of future
interests as against the present; that the forest is a kind of trust, of
which the usufruct belongs to the present, and that to draw upon its
capital is a perversion of the trust and can only be excused by direst
necessity. Every other civilized country has found out after severe pun-
ishment that private interest is not sufficient to protect this class of
lands; that state ownership or, what is more objectionable and less
effective, state supervision of private forest lands, is indispensable in
those regions where the forest subserves other functions than that of
mere material supply.

Whether or not interference of the state in the management of one of
the most potent factors of national welfare is un-American has been
fully discussed in the paper contributed by — E. J. James, well
known as a writer on economic subjects.

The report of Colonel Ensign, the facts for which were gathered under
many difficulties for lack of more liberal funds than could be allowed
for this work, will present a clear and tolerably exhaustive picture of
the present conditions (1887) of the region in its economic development
and other aspects, so far as they bear upon the consideration of our ques-
tion and of the forest areas as distributed through its different parts.

It was impossible to include in this investigation the Territory of
Utah, and although the writer of this, at his own expense, visited the
Territory and obtained considerable information which would show that,
if anything, the forest interests of Utah are in a more precarious con-
dition than those of the other parts of the region, this information was
not deemed complete enough to appear as a separate chapter. A short
résumé, however, has been appended to the report of Colonel Ensign.

The map accompanying this report was compiled from the returns
which appear under the description of forest conditions by counties.
It of course makes no pretense at exactness as to boundaries, but simply
gives to the eye an idea of the relative position of wooded areas and of
the principal irrigation ditches.

The question of what constitutes timber land is a perplexing one. As
one or other view predominates, it denotes land stocked with trees
ready for the saw-mill or merely land upon which there is a wood

growth. If to “ what is” we add the conception of “ what ought to be,”
timber land would include also, in a mountainous region at least, all
that treeless area which, not fit for agriculfure or not needed in the de-
velopment of mines, etc., can and should bear a tree growth and pro-
duce a timber crop.

In this connection the report of Mr. Abbot Kinney on the forest con-
dition of the southern counties of California will be read with interest,
showing that the timber lands in which the state should be concerned
do not always contain “timber” of the kind in which the lumberman or
other private owner would interest himself. For the preservation of
favorable hydrologic and agricultural conditions even care of the
‘¢ chaparral” may be of service.

To the student of the forest botany of the region the careful compila
tion by Mr. George B. Sudworth, of the division, will be welcome. The
main effort has been to so arrange and describe all the woody plants of
the region that the layman may be enabled, without much unnecessary
technical terminology, to get acquainted with them; but at the same
time the scientific botanist will find much aid in such a compilation, for
which all authorities have been carefully consulted and, after due sift:
ing, a truthful statement of facts attempted.

As it is the object of this bulletin to aid in forming a basis for intel-
‘ligent forestry legislation, it seemed desirable to note what action had
been attempted in the national legislature looking toward a better
administration of the timber lands of the nation.

Mr. Egleston, of the division, has, for this purpose, compiled a com-
plete reference table to this kind of legislation, from which it appears
that attempts to effect a change have not been unfrequent, although
unsuccessful. No doubt the more pressing interests of the day have
excluded from the halls of Congress proper consideration of the vital
interests of the future.

Since there does exist in the region a Government reserve of timbered
ecountry—though not by any means created with a view to the needs of
forestry—it was desirable to give special information as to its conditions
and its further needs at the hand of Government. No more competent
writer for this task could have been found than Mr. Arnold Hague, for
several years geologist-in-charge of the National Park; a man thoroughly
acquainted with the ground, of broad views, and alive to the important
interests depending on such timber reservations. The letter which he
kindly consented to contrilute, will, it is hoped, stir up an interest in
those who, while in sympathy with the idea of the National Park, can
not rise to the broader conception of national forestry.

A chapter on snow-slides, prepared by the writer, will give an imper-’

fect intimation of what direct dangers may be expected from forest dev-
astation in the mountains, and how to meet them.

The concluding pages, kindly contributed by Mr. Parsons, will be
read with interest by those who, in the plains of the region in question,

SSS

have begun to ameliorate their climatic conditions by the planting of
trees and groves. j

Fully aware that defects in a report like the following must become
apparent to any one who peruses it with interest and finds one or the
other important question imperfectly answered or altogether overlooked
—defects which are due te many different causes, too many to recount—
I still hope that they will not prove such as to overshadow the value of
the work as a whole for the purpose for which it bas been done. Love
and zeal, at least, have been brought by all the contributors to their
work in behalf of the great national interest which is connected with
the “ backbone” of this continent.

B. E. FERNow.

EXTRACTS FROM REPORTS OF THE COMMISSIONERS OF THE
LAND OFFICE.

Commissioner Williamson, in his reports, deals at length and in detail
with the depredations, the deficiency of funds to counteract them, the
feeling of the law-abiding citizens in regard to them, and proposed

changes.
Commissioner McFarland says, in 1881 :
- The existing provisions of law permitting citizens tc fell and remove timber on the
public lands for mining and domestic purposes, as found in act of June 3, 1878, are,
in my opinion, very defective. The only lands from which such cutting is authorized

are the mineral lands.
(1) The mineral lands are to a great extent undefined and necessarily must so re-

main.

(2) Large quantities of timber are absolutely necessary for the development of
mines, while the said act authorizes the cutting thereon of the timber for other pui-
poses. The purchaser of a mining claim has as much (if not a greater) need for the
timber thereon as the agriculturist; and the transportation of timber to the mines
from a distance is very expensive.

(3) The law furnishes no relief to such as reside at a distance from such lands.
The situation is practically this: The settlers on lands devoid of timber need timber
for fuel, building, etc. Very frequently they can not get it, except from the public
lands. If they can not get it legally still they will take it, and when taken solely
for said purposes ib is under circumstances which largely mitigate the technical legal
offense.

While parties who steal the public timber for speculation and profit deserve severe
punishment, those who use it solely for home purposes, under the imperative necessities
above mentioned, should have their privileges accurately and reasonably defined. 1
deem the enactment of some law which will accomplish this end to be very desirable

and in the public interest.

In 1882:

Proceedings for the protection of the public timber are now had under several dif-
ferent statutes, some of a general and others of a more local character. Much em-
barrassment grows out of this diverse legislation, portions of which are also conflict-
ing.
It is my opinion that a general law should be enacted clearly defining the rights of
citizens to take timber from the public lands for prescribed purposes, and providing
penalties for unlawful cutting, removal, destruction, or waste.

Of the various classes of cases of trespass with which this office has to deal, the
most numerous are those committed under cover of homestead entries, fraudulently
made for the purpose of securing the timber on the land. This class of entries does
not seem confined to any one locality, but the fraud is perpetrated wherever there
are public timber lands fe to entry under the homestead laws.

| 24738—Bull 2

18
In 1883:

The present increasing value of timber is an inducement to individuals and com-
panies to make large investments with a view to the control of the timber product
and the further enhancement of prices resulting from such control.

It would, perhaps, be of little moment how soon the public title to lands should
pass to private holders, since that is the ultimate purpose of the laws, if the further
purpose of the laws that public lands should in the original instance be widely dis-
tributed among the people could be secured.

Public notices relative to forest fires have been prepared to be posted, have been of
beneficial effect, but no funds are on hand to do enough in this direction.

In regard to the timber and stone act of 1878, he says:

The restrictions and limitations are flagrantly violated.

Evidence is cumulative that the act is made use of by corperations and wealthy
individual operators to secure fraudulently, for the purpose of manufacturing into
lumber or to hold for speculation, the accessible forests yet remaining in the States
and Territories, thus to be lost to those who would enter and make use of them.

Fraudulent removal of timber on mineral lands, under cover of this
act, is also reported :

Information isin my possession that much of the most valuable timber is being
taken up by home and foreign companies and capitalists through the medium of en-
tries made by persons hired for that purpose. I have found it necessary to suspend
all entries of this class, * * *

In 1854, in regard to the same act :

The developments of the past year emphasize the foregoing statements relative to
the prevalently illegal character of this class of entries. The result of the operation
of the act is the transfer of the title of the United States to timber lands practically
in bulk to a few large operators.

The preventive measures at the commaud of this office foe proven wholly inade-
quate to counteract this result.

Public interest would be served by its repeal.

Speaking of the necessity of some measure by which natural forests

may be preserved at the headwaters of important rivers, the Commis-

sioner Says:

The importance of the subject can not perhaps be overestimated, and it is appar-
ent to me that if anything is to be done in this direction it should be done quickly.
The forest areas of the country are rapidly diminishing, and the timbered lands of
the United States will, under existing laws, soon be cxhausted. To a great extent
such lands are now appropriated by pre-emption and commuted homestead entries,
-made without settlement except that of lumber camps, and without improvement
except the cutting and removal of the timber for commercial purposes. The United
States receives only the minimum agricultural price of the land, irrespective of its
real value, which is usually largely in excess of the Government price.

The low price at which such lands are now obtained stimulates fraud in acquiring
titles and holdings for future speculative purposes, while as soon as reduced to pri-
vate ownership such Jands have their proper market value, and the cost of timber
products to consumers is naturally predicated upon that value and not upon the
Government price at which the lands were primarily obtained.

Commissioner Sparks expresses himself as follows, in 188):

Depredations upon the public timber are universal, flagrant, and limitless. Whole
ranges of townships covered with pine timber, the forests at headwaters of streams,
and timber Jand along water-courses and railroad lines have been cut over by
lumber companies, under pretense of titles derived through pre-emption and home-

—— =

stead entries made by their employés and afterward assigned to the companies.
Steam saw-mills are’established promiscuously on public lands for the manufacture
of lumber procured from the public domain by miscellaneous trespassers. Large
operators employ hundreds, and in some cases thousands, of men cutting Government .
timber and sawing it up into lumber and shingles, which, when needed and _ pur- i
chased by local citizens, can only be obtained by them at prices governed by the {
market value of timber brought over expensive transportation routes from points of )
legitimate supply. ! :

Under cover of the privilege of obtaining timber and other material for the con-
struction of ‘right-of-way ” and land-grant railroads, large quantities of timber have
been cut and removed for export and sale. Immense damage is also inflicted by the |
destruction of small growing trees and the spread of forest fires, resulting from a fail-
ure to clear up the land and dispose of the brush from felled trees, even in the cases
of authorized cutting.

And in regard to the timber-land act of June 3, 1878:

It has operated simply to promote the premature destruction of forests, the ship-
ment of their products out of the country, or for holding lands and the lumber needed
by the citizens at the speculative prices demanded by foreign and domestic corporations |
acquiring a monopoly of the timber lands of the Government at nominal rates through
casy evasion of the terms of the law. |

Why, as a mere business proposition, timber lands worth at lowest averages from
&10 to $25 per acre for the standing trees or, according to accessibility and class and
quality of timber, worth $25 to $100 per acre should be sold by the Government f_r
$2.50 per acre it is not easy to perceive.

The evils developed in its practical operation are inherent in the system and can
be cured only by a repeal of the law by which they are propagated.

And, further, in enlarging upon the importance of forest preservation
in the mountains, he says :

The Government is now expending large sums of money in attempts to substitute
by artificial means the regulation of the flow of the Mississippi River which naturo
had provided in the dense woods originally surrounding the sources of its numerous
tributaries.

That wise and speedy measures should be adopted for the preservation of forests on
the public domain is in my opinion an incontrovertible proposition. To this end
I recommend the immediate withdrawal from appropriation, sale, or disposal of all
the public forests and oflands valuable chiefly for timber, subject to future legislation
for the permanent reservation of designated areas and a more economically-governed
disposal of such timber lands or timber as it may not be necessary indefinitely to re-
serve.

In 1886:

Depredations upon the public timber by powerful corporations, wealthy mill-men,
lumber companies, and unscrupulous monopolists are still being committed to an
alarming extent and to the great detriment of the public at large.

An immense pressure is brought to bear upon the legislative and executive branches
of the Government to the end of securing immunity for past and unlimited privileges
for future spoliations of public timber lands, all ostensibly urged in the interest of
bona fide ‘‘agriculturists” or “miners,” but notoriously in fact to forward gigantic
schemes of speculation and monopoly in the remaining forests of the United States.

Replying to a request for a change of construction, so as to permit
mill-owners to cut timber for their mills on land that might be mineral,
{he Commissioner writes :

The act itself is injudicious and entirely too broad, and its repeal or modification
has been recommended by you (the Secretary) for the reason that its provisions ig-
a pee ;

20 : z3

nore the importance of the preservation of the timber, and invite, ina measure, great
waste and greedy speculation by individuals and corporations. It is impolitic and
unjust in not preserving timber for the use of future settlers and inhabitants, and
permitting it to be taken in large quantities without consideration and proper re-
strictions. It, however, is still the law, and so long as it remains on the statute book
it can be enforced.

The act of June 3, 1878, gives the timber to the miner and settler, but if the saw-
mill men can come in and cut and sell it, they, and not the settlers, will get the ben-
efit of the timber. The interest of the settlers and lumbermen in this matter are not
identical.

But a later circular (August 5, 1886) permits the sale of timber or

lumber to bona fide residents for the legitimate use of the purchasers in_

compliance with the provisions of the act, which means for actual per-
sonal consumption. In this circular the right of existence of saw-mills
using timber cut on Government land is recognized, and while it is im-
posed upon the saw-mill men to keep such records as will show where
the timber they manufacture comes from, and to obtain an agreement
from the purchaser that he will use the timber legitimately according
to the spirit of the act, the door is opened to circumvent the law.

It is also stated that ‘there exists no authority of law for granting
the privilege of cutting timber on the public lands and paying stump-
age therefor ;” that ‘ tiers is no autor ay to disp ose of burned timber
separately from the land.”

In 1887:

Such a record of crime as that shown by investigations made by special agents
during the last two years is rarely to be found. Bold, reckless, and gigantic schemes

to rob the Government of its lands have been discovered and exposed in every State
and Territory containing public lands,

The unavoidable continuance, on account of the early exhaustion of the appropria-

tion to pay witnesses in United States courts, of the important cases against the Sierra
Lumber Company, in California, involving over $2,000,000, and in which two special
agents of this office devoted nearly their entire time for a year in securing evidence
and preparing for a successful prosecution, and of the cases against the Montana Im-
provement Company and Northern Pacific Railroad Company, in Montana and Idaho
Territories, involving an equal, if not greater, amount, is greatly to be regretted.
The delay in these cases can not fail to be exceedingly detrimental to the public in-
terests. The Government, so far as the office is concerned, was fully prepared, and
had every reason to expect that had said cases come to trial judgments would have
been secured for nearly the entire amounts sued for.

During the delay in the prosecution of the above and other important pending cases
the defendants are by no means idle. They not only continue their unlawful depre-
dations on public timber in defiance of all efforts of this office to prevent that course,
but they avail themselves of every such opportunity to destroy the evidence of their
past transgressions and to nullify the efforts of this office.

By the time these cases can again be brought to trial many of the witnesses will
have disappeared and much of the evidence depended upon by the Government will
have been destroyed, necessitating a re-investigation and the securing of additional
evidence in nearly every case, thereby duplicating the expenses of the special agents
in preparing the cases for trial, exhausting the appropriation, and rendering it im-
possible for this office to cause the investigation of the many new and flagrant cases
of trespass which are brought to its attention. The appropriation for this branch
of the public service is altogether inadequate for the purpose.

!
;
|
.
P
{

The wholesale destruction of public timber on odd sections of public lands within
the granted limits of unconstructed railroads, or of roads which failed to comply with
the provisions of their grants, continues to an alarming extent. The delay of Con-
gress in declaring the forfeiture of said grants is, in this particular alone, of great
detriment to the public interests. Irresponsible parties are rapidly denuding such
lands of their valuable timber, rendering the lands, in many instances, barren wastes
and utterly worthless.

To secure proper enforcement of the laws and punish willful and persistent viola- -
tors a force of at least fifty special timber agents, at an annual expense of $150,000,
ought to be employed. I have, liowever, estimated for $125,000 as a minimum, below
which a reasonable efficiency in the service can not be obtained. Vastly more can be
accomplished in one year with a sufficient appropriation than can be accomplished in
several years with smaller annual appropriations aggregating a larger sum.

The area of timbered lands in the United States is disappearing at a ratio that ex-
cites grave apprehension, while timbered agricultural lands in the public States and
Territories generally may be regarded as practically exhausted. The necessity for
clearing land of its timber preliminary to making a farm is exceptional. It is want
of timber and not its surplusage that afflicts settlers on the public domain. The
struggle to accumulate great private fortunes from the forests of the country has re-
duced forest areas to a minimum. What is left atthe heads of rivers and streams and
on mountain sides should be preserved as of infinite importance and value for climatic
effect, the natural regulation of the flow of waters, and to prevent the relapse of large
agricultural districts to a desert condition.

When timber had to be cut and burned as a necessity in clearing land for cultiva-
tion there was no cause for increasing the price of land because there was timber upon
it. This is not the present situation. The remaining timber lands, asa rule, are
worth little or nothing except for the timber, and their value for timber is being rap-
idly enhanced as transportation facilities increase and timber areas decrease.

The appropriation of $75,000 for the prevention of depredations on the public tim-
ber is TOTALLY INADEQUATE. The vast fields to be covered, stretching from Florida
to Alaska, can not be supervised by twenty-five special agents, nor can the determined
efforts of timber depredators, many of them corporations with millions of dollars at
their command, to despoil the forests of the country, be met by puny attempts to check

their unlawful and disastrous acts. The service is more than self-supporting, and
draws no money from the Treasury that is not more than returned to it by fines and
recoveries. It is no part of an intelligent or defensible policy to make timber depre-
dations a source of revenue. The object to be attained is to save the forest lands from
unlawful destruction, and if this can be accomplished by appropriating the whole of
the receipts derived from trespass prosecutions there should be no hesitancy in allow-
ing the administrative department the aid, at least, of the amount it recovers. My
estimate for the next fiscal year is $100,000 for this purpose, a modicum only, I must
say, of the amount that could be beneficially and profitably expended.

Three years ago my predecessor recommended an appropriation of $400,000 to pro-
tect the public lands from unlawful and fraudulent appropriation. Since that period
the need of such protection has increased with the intensified demand for public land
holdings for monopolistic and speculative purposes. Yet Congress at the last session
allowed but one-fourth of the sum regarded as requisite under the preceding adminis-
tration of the Government.

Both Congress and the Executive, not less than political parties, annually assert an
intention thatthe public lands shall be preserved for actual settlement. No public
demand is greater than that land monopoly shall not be fostered by the Government.
Yet at the vital point where these words are to be put into action, Congress fails to
place in the hands of the executive branch the means to redeem these public promises
and to prevent the indiscriminate waste and misappropriation which has for years
dishonored the public-land system, and through which great areas of lands needed for
actual settlement pass into the hands of speculators, syndicates, and corporations.

=
—— 2222S

——

See serene
ee

ger oe
1, PhGr [

THE GOVERNMENT IN ITS RELATION TO THE
FORESTS.

By HE. J. JAMES, PH. D.,

Professor of Public Finance and Administration in the University of Pennsylvania.

The forests of any large country bear a peculiar relation to national
prosperity. They not only constitute a large proportion of the natural!
wealth of a nation, but they form the indispensable basis of a fourish-
ing agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial industry. They are,
moreover, one of the most important elements in determining the eli-
matic conditions of any given region and, through these, the distriba-
tion of population, of industrial pursuits, and of disease and health.

According to the census report of 1880 the value of the forest crop
of the United States for that year exceeded $700,000,000. To obtain an
adequate idea of the relative importance of this product i5 will only be

necessary to institute a brief comparison with other branches of indus: °

try or wealth. The value of the forest products was equal to one-third
of that of all farm products whatsoever sold, consumed, or on hand in
the year 1879. It exceeded by over $160,000,000 the total assessed
vaiue of all the farming property in the six New England States, and
by a somewhat smaller figure that of the farms of Virginia, North and
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. It would have
purchased, at its assessed valuation for the purpose of taxation, the
entire property, personai and real, of all the citizens of the States of
Vermont, Delaware, Florida, Arkansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Nevada,
and Oregon, and of al! the Territories besides, and still have left a bal-
ance nearly equal to the same kind of property rated in the District of
Columbia.

If to the value of the total output of all our veins of gold, silver,
coal, iron, copper, lead, and zine were added the value of the stone
quarries and petroleum obtained, and this sum were increased by the
estimated value of all the steam-boats, sailing vessels, canal-boats, fiat-
boats and barges plying in American waters and belonging to citizens
of the United States, it would still be less than the value of the forest
crop by a sum sufficient to purchase at cost of construction all the canals,
buy up at par all the stock of the telegraph companies, pay their bonded
debts, and construct and equip all the telephone lines in the United

a a

| = —

States. This sum of $700,000,000 exceeds the gross income of all the
railroad and transportation companies in the United States, and, if we
leave out New York and Pennsylvania, it would suffice to pay the pub-
lic indebtedness of all the other States in the Union, including that of
all the counties, townships, school districts, and cities within those
States. In a word, we have to do here with an interest ranking third
in the line of importance, even from the mere view of dollars and cents,
counting manufacturing of all kinds first and agriculture second.

If forests, therefore, were of no more consequence than as the source
of the wealth which their annual yield represents, they would be worthy
of special attention and care on the part of every community which
would be considered thrifty and far-sighted. |

From the very inception of government on this continent down to the.

present time our towns, counties, cities, States, and, since its establish-
ment, the National Government, have devoted much attention and put
forth great efforts in various forms to promote the development of ag-
ricultural and manufacturing industry. |

By offering lands on easy terms, by giving premiums for excellence
of products, by encouraging the importation of improved breeds of live
stock, by promoting the use of fertilizers, by free distribution of seed,
by the establishment of experimental stations, of model farms, of agri-
cultural schools, and of fairs, by exempting land from taxation for a
certain length of time, and by many other means, the endeavor has
been made to enlarge and improve agriculture.

By the establishment of a so-called protective tariff, by bounties,
by exemption from taxation, by direct grants from the public treasury
or by subscriptions of private parties, by a system of patent rights,
by premiums, by expositions and exhibitions, and by the establish-
ment of technical schools and similar means in many directions, we
have labored to diversify and enlarge our manufacturing industry.

More especially have we tried to secure that fundamental condition
of a highly civilized state, general and rapid means of transportation
and communication. We have expended untold sums in the improve-
ment of our highways and water-ways. Country roads, turnpikes of
many different kinds, railroads, canals, we have practically constructed
at the expense of the public Treasury. We have laid out large sums in
the improvement of our rivers and harbors in order to faciliate our com-
merce. We have establisbed and maintained at a large cost to the
general Freasury a Federal post-office, which performs many of the fune-
tions of an express company.

But not only for transportation, agriculture, and manufacturing has
the Government actively engaged in-a promoting and fostering way. It
has passed laws for the preservation and increase of various forms of our
natural wealth. Most, if not all, of the States have undertaken to pro-
tect game and fish from the ravages of private individuals. They have
enacted laws which have for their object the limitation of what was un-

til recently an unrestricted right to kill as much game and to catch as
many fish as any one could. The General Government has gone even
further ; it investigates the habits and history of the clam, the oyster,
and the lobster, with the purpose of supplying information which will
promote their successful and profitable cultivation. It has undertaken
the business of stocking the rivers and lakes, even the shore waters of
the ocean, with fish. By these and other means it seeks to preserve the
sources of natural wealth from the devastations of selfish persons or
to render them more valuable. .
Our forests, on the other hand, from which we are drawing a larger
amount in natural wealth than from any other source of supply, or in-
deed from all other sources together, we have so far done practically
nothing either to protect or to cultivate. While thisseems strange when
we contemplate the forests, as we have done, merely as a source of raw
material for our mechanical industries, it will seem the more remarkable
when we consider how much more important the forests are on other
and widely different accounts. Although they are the chief source from
which we draw all our building materials, yet even if they should cease
to yield sufficient to satisfy our wants in this direction, we could perhaps
secure enough for this purpese for generations to come from the untold
and untouched wealth of other countries, though at a vastly increased
cost. We would resort, morever, in the face of a growing scarcity of
timber, to other materials for our building, such as brick, stone, iron,
and other metals. The value of the product of lumber was, for the
census year, $233,268,000. This would be transferred, of course, to for-
eign countries, if the supply of lumber should give out in this country,
but it might at least be possible to get as much lumber as we desired
from outside sources by restricting our demands within narrow bounds.

The fuel supply of the country would, of course, be very much di-
minished if our forests were cut off and none others should take their
place. In the census year, three-fifths of the people of the United States
used wood as the ordinary domestic fuel, and the total value of wood
used for fuel purposes amounted to nearly $325,000,000. At the same
time, if wood should get scarce other material could be found to take
its place as fuel. Coaland peat, natural gas, petroleum, and many other
and perhaps some now unknown substances, might be substituted in
place of the forest products for fuel. |

Other articles for which wood is in demand, among which as most im-
portant may be mentioned fence posts and fencing material, handles,
wheel-stock, wood pulp, baskets, boxes, etc., might all be supplied by
other material, though at a considerable sacrifice in cheapness and, in
some cases, convenience.

It is to be said, however, in this connection, that in spite of the in-
ventions or application of substitutes for wood, the demand for the lat-
ter shows no tendency to decrease in an advancing community, since
the growth of population and the ever-multiplying wants of an expand-

SSS eee ee

ing industry more than keep pace with the substitution of other materi-
als, and a rising price of wood is likely to be the result. |

But forests occupy an entirely different position from all other forms
of natural wealth, and a far more fundamental one. They determine,
to a very large extent, climatic and hygienic conditions, and, through
these, the prosperity of industry and the distribution of disease and
health. The functions of forests in modifying climate and soil are so
fully and ably presented inthe various reports and bulletins of the De-
partment of Agriculture, and in the proceedings of the various Forestry
Associations, that the merest summary of the important facts will suffice
for our present purpose.

Whether the presence of forests actually increases the total amount
of rain-fall within any great region may still be a subject for dispute,
but all authorities agree that forests produce a much more equable dis-
tribution of moisture throughout the year than exists where they are not
found. Ina treeless district, particularly if it be hiily, the rain glides
off into the rivulets and into the rivers, scarcely moistening the ground
below its surface. The burning rays of the sun, or the sweeping blasts
of air, cause the rapid evaporation of what may remain here and there
on the surface or may have penetrated a little way into the soil. A
few hours after the rain there are almost no signs that rain has fallen
at all. On the contrary, where there are forests the interlaced roots
of the trees and the mass of leaves above them act as a sponge, which
absorbs the water and holds it long enough to enable it to perform its
service of quickening animal and vegetable life. The water oozes and
trickles down through this spongy substance, and flows slowly away to
feed the springs and streams. The modifying action of great forests
on the distribution of moisture is both direct on the immediate region
lying about them, and indirect on distant localities, owing to their influ-
ence on the character of the streams and rivers which drain their areas.

Where streams are not thus protected and modified at their sources
by forests they may become the cauSe of almost as much injury as ben-
efit. Owing to the fact that the water flows off so rapidly, the streams
become at one time raging torrents, sweeping everything before them
and inflicting an amount of damage which it requires much of the time
elapsing between floods to make good, while at another they dwindle
into insignificance, scarcely furnishing water enough for the flocks and
herds along their banks. Where the forests have been cleared from
the sources and banks of historic rivers the result has been an entire
change in the character of the streams. The history of the Rhine,
Rhone and Danube, in this respect, is full of instruction for us, and if
alternating periods of drought and disastrous floods can not always be
directly traced to the removal of the forests, their aggravation and
frequency has been shown, even in this country, to be due to such re-
moval.

This influence of forests on the character of our streams is a much

more important subject than it seems to a careless observer. It affects
navigation, and through that the whole transportation system of the
country. A river which is navigable only at high water, orfor a part of
the season, is of little value as a channel of commerce, and can scarcely
be considered an active competitor with such an agency as the railroad.
And yet to such acondition are many of our great streams being brought,
and we are now called upon to spend large sums of money, on the one
hand in dredging and cutting in order to utilize a decreasing amount of
water in the dry season, and, on the other, in building dykes and em-
bankments against ever-increasing floods from the melting snows of
spring-time or as the effect of protracted rains.

The character of the streams has an important if not a controlling in-
fluence upon our manufactures. A system of factories and mills, which
would spring up spontaneously along a water-course regularly and
equally supplied with water, is rendered impossible if this stream be-
_ comes a mountain torrent during one quarter of the year, and an all but
dry bed during another, even if in the two cases the same quantity
of water falls during the year and flows off through this channel in the
course of atwelvemonth. Such a state of things necessitates a resort to
more expensive means of water supply, or to auxiliary power of another
kind, which again means increased cost of production and a rise in the
cost of living for every member of society.

Irregularity of streams also affects agriculture, and not only indi
rectly, through the industries above-mentioned, but directly as well.
The decreased volume of water during the period when the least rain
falls diminishes the humidity of the atmosphere and affects powerfully
the quality and variety of crops which may be raised, while the in-
creased volume at high water cuts into and carries away enormous
quantities of the soil from the farms lying along the banks of the
streams, even when it does not by its overflow spread ruin and devas-
tation through the adjacent valleys.

A striking illustration of the extent to which a stream may be
changed by the deforesting of its headwaters and shores is afforded
by the river Schuylkill, from which Philadelphia draws its water
‘supply. The current has become for a large part of the year so shal-
low and sluggish that it is no longer able to rid itself, as it once did with
ease, of the impurities which are poured into it, aud the quality of the
water is deteriorating at a more rapid rate than the stream of impurity
is increasing. This result can be due only to a change in the character
of the stream itself.

The fundamental importance of forests is, if possible, still more evi-
dent in mountainous and hilly districts. Their existence in such situa-
tions is the absolutely essential condition, we will not say of obtaining the
necessary rain-fall, or preserving the necessary moisture, but even of
maintaining the soil itself. Without forests a soil can not be made, or
preserved, on our mountain-sides. The action of frost and of rain

easily sweeps away every vestige of soil and leaves only the bare rocks
as the basis of agriculture and the sources of streams. The soil thus
carried away chokes up the streams and finishes the work of destroying
their navigable character, which was so surely begun when the disap-
pearance of the forests aiaheca their broad and equable currents into
mountain torrents.

Forests, moreover, have a powerful influence upon the init con-

ditions of life, owing partly to their effect on temperature and moisture,
and partly to their effect on the purity of the atmosphere. Careful ob-
servations have proved that if the moisture of the atmosphere rises
above or falls below a given degree certain diseases become more prev-
alent and fatal. Forests act as regulators to diminish excessive and to
increase insufficient moisture. The beneficial influence of pine forests
on pulmonary diseases is universally recognized.
’ In a word, then, the forests are an absolute necessity. If we would
have the advantages referred to, with many others not discussed, we
must have the forests nearus. Mild winds, humid atmosphere, equable
climate, regular rivers, a flourishing agriculture, an expanding industry,
are things we can not import, and they are all things which depend for
the very possibility of their existence on the presence of forests, and
extensive forests, within the bounds of our own country and distrib-
uted where they will do most good.

The experience of the race and the investigations of science agree in
testifying that there is a certain ratio which the forest land of any given
country (varying of course with the country and even with different
parts of it) should bear to its other lands, and that if the forested re-
gion is allowed to sink below that ratio, either through carelessness or
a selfish desire to get all the advantage out of the resources of a coun-
try for the present generation, regardless of the interests of posterity,
the result can be only an impaired industry and declining’ prosperity.

Even if alltheland of a country were good agricultural land, the plan
of clearing it entirely off in order to put it under cultivation would be
strikingly like the old folly of killing the goose that laid the golden egg ;
for not only would no increased yield of agriculture occur as the result
of such a policy, but a greatly-decreased return would probably be the
result, diminished to the lowest point and ending in the utter destruce-
tion of agricuiture and all other industry in one common ruin.

The importance of forests then for the national welfare being admit-
ted, the question remains to be considered, What is the condition of our
forests, and what action should be taken in their behalf? It must suffice
in regard to this to refer to the facts contained in the various census
reports, the bulletins of the Department of Agriculture, and the numer-
ous other publications in which the past condition, present state and
future prospects of our forests are discussed. ‘The evidence is ample
and conclusive that we are making fearful inroads on our forest stores,
We are eutting off a much larger crop than can possibly be replaced by

natural growth within the period when, at the present rate, we shall
have cleared the original forest off the ground. We are doing almost
nothing in the direction of cultivating forests; nay, we are not even
protecting from devastation the young trees which might replace the
forests if they had a fair chance for growth.

It is not the farmer—who only clears the forest in order to sow his
crops, nor the lumberman—who fells the trees for the purpose of send-
ing the lumber to market, nor the railroad—which calis for our forest
trees for its ties, nor even the settler—who wants fuel to keep him warm,
who are the enemies of our forests. All these at least obtain from this
moderate destruction some return for themselves and society which is
great and visible, though not always commensurate with the damage
they inflict by their careless and wasteful methods. Fire, however, and
browsiug animals of all sorts inflict a damage on the growing forests
for which there is either no return at all or one so insignificant as not
to be worth mentioning. These two agencies, between them, keep mill-
ions of acres free from trees which would soon be covered with dense
forests if they could be protected from such spoilers for a few years.

It is estimated on good authority that within fifty years, at the present
rate of cutting, and with the present wasteful methods of management,
the great bulk of our valuable forests will be gone, with almost no pros-
pect of seeing them, replaced by a new growth possessing anything like
the value of the present one. To put it mildly, we are using up our
forests at a much more rapid rate than we are replacing them. Weare
already beginning to experience some of the most serious evils of such
a policy in a growing scarcity of valuable timber and in the changing
character of our streams, soil and local climate. And these evils are
bound to increase with every year of continuance in this line of action.

Such being the case, the question as to efficient remedies becomes all-
important.

Before mentioning the various measures of relief to which I believe
that it would be wise to have recourse, and which I think will in their
main outlines have to be adopted before long, if we are to avoid the
losses which will inevitably accompany our present policy, [ wish to
call attention to some important distinctions in terms. I would empha-
size the fact that tree-planting is not forest-culture. The two are quite
distinct in their methods, in the persons who manage them, and toa
large extent in the purposes which they subserve. The term tree-plant-
ing I shall apply to the system of planting trees which a farmer may
carry On in connection with his agricultural operations from a variety of
motives, such as beautifying his farm and house yard, shading his cat-

tle in the fields, protecting them or his fields from the blasts of winter by
cultivating wind-breaks, planting them along the water-courses to keep
the soil from being carried away by sudden freshets, ete. Forest-cult-
ure I shall apply to the regular system of cultivating extensive tracts
of country with a view to securing as large and valuable a stand of

trees as possible. This also may be done from a variety of motives, as
when done by government or corporations with a view of affecting the
climate and preserving the rivers and soil of the mountains, ete. The
difference consists chiefly in the fact that in the one case tree-planting is
done as a mere incident with a view of enhancing the value of other
forms of property with which it is intimately connected, while in the
other case it is the chief business, and the ground is given up entirely
to this one crop and is managed with reference to its prosperity. The
former can be done, of course, by every farmer or owner of alot which
he devotes chiefly to other uses, while the latter can be done only by
those who give up their whole land to this one purpose. Tree-planting,
however extensive it may become, can never take the place of forest
cultivation. The former would, of course, be done only by people in
places where they live and cultivate the fields, while the forests must
be kept up often on sterile and, for agricultural purposes, good-for-noth-
ing soil, where no farmer could make aliving. To secure, moreover, the
meteorological advantages of forests and the indirect industrial benefits
which flow from their regular maintenance, it is absolutely necessary in
certain conditions that they should cover a large extent of contiguous
ground, stretching often for miles. It is evident that such work can not
be done by a small farmer in the time and with the means usually at
his command.

Another point must be insisted upon, and thatis that forest preser-
vation does not at all mean that trees shall not be cut down, but simply
that they shall be cultivated just like any other crop, and not wasted;
that they shall not be taken away before they are ripe for use, except
for some special reasons, and that the conditions necessary, for repro-
duction shall be steadily maintained from year to year. This means,
oftentimes, that care must be exercised not to allow the stand of trees
to be cut off entirely or all at once, since this sometimes so changes the
whole character of the soil and climate as to make it impossible to re-
cover the ground with any reasonable expenditure of effort. It is from
this wholesale and inconsiderate cutting that such immense damage is
being done in all mountainous regions by the clearing of the forests
from the hill-sides. The soil is left exposed to the free action of the frost
and rain and is carried off in such quantities as to leave only the bare
rocks, on which nothing can take root. Even if the soil should not be
carried off, the beating rain and driving storm, the scorching sun and
biting frosts will dry up, freeze out, drown out, or sweep away what-
ever seedlings might spring up there. The judicious cutting of a for-
est in a climate like that of the Atlantic or Pacific coast regions, says
Dr. Sargent, entails no serious or permanent loss. A crop ready for
the harvest is gathered for the benefit of the community. Trees which
have reached their prime are cut instead of being allowed to perish
naturally, and others take their place. In this way the permanence of
forests is secured while their fruitfulness is kept at the maximum, if we
cousider, say, a century as the unit of time.

Now, I believe that our own brief experience confirms that of the va-
rious European countries and is in full harmony with the a priori de-
duction drawn from a study of the problem, viz, that a wide and inten-
sive care on the part of the Government is indispensable to insure the
preservation of the necessary forests. As already shown, our Govern-
ment has never taken it for granted that any branch of industry would
flourish to the desirable extent if left to itself. Much less likely is for-
estry to flourish, if left to itself, than other branches. A very short
glance at the history of our forests is sufficient to show why they have
been disappearing so rapidly.

The farmer has cleared off, perhaps, as many acres as the lumberman,
it may be more; but he has cleared the ground for the purpose of cul-
tivating it, and iene it is undoubtedly true that in some localities he
has.pursued a short-sighted policy and cut off an excessive amount of
the forest, yet on the whole most of the clearing he has done has been
of a character that has contributed to increase the total wealth, present
and prospective, of the community. This can not be said to the same
extent of the lumberman, who has often cleared the forests from ground
which was really good for nothing but to grow forests. Until a very
recent period it was possible to get possession of forest lands for a mere
song. A company having once put up its mills, found it for its interest
to use up the supply of material as soon as possible and then to change
the location of its works. Such enterprises had little interest in the
welfare of the region within which the mills were situated, for they did
not expect to stay longer than was necessary to make use of the wood
which was suitable for their purposes. ‘They cared still less for the in-
terests of the dwellers in the valleys of the water-courses which their
policy was converting into entirely different sorts of streams. They
hoped to make more money by cutting down the trees as rapidly as
possible and then moving on than in any other way, and as it was money
alone which they were after they did what promised to give them the
biggest and quickest returns. From their stand-point it was all right,
and just what everybody else in society would have done if he had had
the chance, but it was none the less ruinous to the interests of those
who were affected by it, The feeling of the injured had little chance,
however, to concentrate itself against any one, as the aggressors were
often far removed from the scene of operations which affected them,
and the injured were, moreover, ignorant of the true cause of ‘their
losses. In a word, it is to the pecuniary interest of the lumberman to
cut as fast as he can, since the more he cuts the more money he
inakes, and if thé supply gives out he can move on to where there is
plenty of it. What does he care even if the supply will come to an
end in twenty or twenty five or fifty years? That is a long way off,
and after him the deluge. Now, I think that no one can doubt that it
was a Short-sighted policy for our States and the nation to be so free
with their timber resources as to hand them over without control of

SSS SSS

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ESSE

Ee St a Se

any sort into the hands of private parties to do with them as they
chose. The nation never thought of doing anything of the sort with
its streams, They were looked upon from the very first as things in
which all had an interest and which the Government should protect in
the interest of the whole. But with that curious inconsistency which
characterizes all men more or less in their political and social relations,
but especially the Anglo-Saxon, while we prescribed punishments for
all who polluted or filled up or diverted our streams, no matter how con-
venient it was for them to do so, no matter how much they may have
saved or made by so doing—we have had nothing to say to him who was
slowly drying up the very sources of the streams by cutting away by
wholesale the trees that protected them.

It must seem to a disinterested student of human affairs a strange
thing that a Government will protect the farmer by its police foree
against the thief who would take a bushel of corn, but will do nothing
with him who steals away the fertility of his field by drying up his
water supply; or, indeed, will prevent a brother farmer from turning
aside a portion of the stream which has always flowed through his farm,
but will say nothing to him who causes the whole stream to dry up and
disappear at one time, and reappear at another as a raging torrent
threatening to sweep away his most valuable acres; or will protect
him against the assault of a bodily aggressor, but do nothing with the
man who steals away his health by altering the whole character of his
air and climate.

Strange it would seem to be that aGovernment will establish an agri-
cultural school where the scientific side of agriculture can be studied,
experiments made on crops and soil, ete., and spread abroad at public
expense the results of such experiments, and yet make itno part of the
duty of such a school, nor offer any inducement toany one to undertake
the investigation of forestry, which underlies and conditions the very
possibilities of a flourishing agriculture. Strange that it will spend
large sums of money in growing and distributing freely to farmers seeds
of various kinds of plants, while it has as yet done little or nothing to-
ward the same kind of thing in regard to trees, the growing of which
under some sets of conditions would be as profitable as that of any of
the new kinds of crops which it would introduce. Strange that it will
establish agricultural fairs and offer premiums for excellence in all
branches of agricultural work and yet not notice a work which is of
vital and fundamental importance to the whole industrv of the country.

All this however is spilt milk. What has been done has been done
and can not be helped. Its consequences may perhaps be obviated
somewhat. What has been left undone has been left undone, and we
can not remedy the evil except by inaugurating a different policy.

The first step is for the Federal and State governments to remove
the timber lands which still belong to them from the list of lands for
entry or sale, and, after a thorough examination as to what forests are

of climatic and industrial importance, to keep them under the control of
the Government. There are in the older States perhaps few such lands
of any considerable extent, but such as there are should be retained
in public possession and managed in the interest of the whole.

As to the lands which have passed into private possession it 1s more
difficult to do anything, and I think that better resulls can be achieved
by adopting a line of action, which I shall outline presently, than in
trying to restrict or control lands which have finally passed over into
private possession.

To insure the most SauIpIbtE success in this work of protecting and
promoting the growth of forests it will be necessary to have hearty co-
operation between the State and nationalgovernments. <A word,there-
fore, may not be out of place in this connection as to what fe State
governments may properly do in this direction, though they can accom-
plish but little unless the Federal Government does its part.

One of the first and most important measures which the individual

States may wisely adopt is to take some steps which will attract public
attention to the vast importance of the matter, and which will interest
the great mass of the people in some active work of their own in con-
nection with the subject. This can be done, I think, by some general
plan of encouraging tree planting on the part of our farmers. To do
this in any satisfactory way it is necessary to devise some method of
reaching the great mass of people and fixing their attention, if it be
only for a short time. This, I think, can be secured by the establish-
ment in the proper manner of a State holiday, to be called Arbor Day,
and insisting, so far as possible, on its general observance by all the
people in the State. But this of itself would not be enough. Men
must be provided whose business it should be to make a thorough study
of the subject of forestry in general and the business of tree planting
in particular; as to the kind of trees it would pay best to plant in each
locality, the methods of culture, the influence of trees on the farm, etc.,
and who should go to agricultural fairs and farmers’ meetings, and im-
part the instruction which the average farmer is wofully in need of.
They should also go into the teachers’ institutes, especially in the rural
districts, and try to interest the teachers in a matter which they would
have rare opportunities to urge upon their pupils, who will shortly be
the controlling element in the State. Means of publication should, of
course, be amply provided, so that they could reach with their publica-
tions and lectures every farmer in the State. These lecturers should
make it a special point to show how a wood-lot or even isolated trees
may be utilized so as to return the largest yield to the farmer.

The State would find it for its interest, also, to establish nurseries
where seeds of trees or young trees could be obtained at a noiinal
price, or for nothing, as experience might demonstrate to be the best
plan. Premiums also should be offered for the best groves or groups,
or samples of trees of vartous kinds, for the best utilization of tree pro.

24738—Bull 2 3

a :

ducts, ete. For, in the long run, this element would determine how
large a per cent. of the farmers would really go into the matter.

It nay be objected to this plan that it is not necessary, since farmers
are alive to their own interests, to lead them to take up any such thing
of themselves. ‘This, I think, is entirely amistaken notion. In the first
place, under present conditions it is very questionable whether it would
pay farmers to take up tree planting on a large scale as a mere matter
of dollars and cents. They know very little of the subject. It would
cost entirely too much to get the education necessary to make such a
thing profitable for any farmer to undertake it on his own account.
On the other hand, if the necessary information was brought home to
him by a skilled expert in such a form as to be thoroughly intelligible
to him, it might pay him well to engage in it. Moreover, it is a well-
known fact that if a custom once creeps into a farming community and
naturalizes itself, so to speak, among a few of the best farmers, it often-
times takes root and grows, when if it had not come so recommended
and pushed by strong public influence it might never have come at all.
The introduction of nearly all public improvements amply proves this,
It is as well established, for instance, as anything can be in agriculture,
that at a certain period in the development of the industry of the coun-
try the introduction of improved breeds of live stock will result in
enormous profit. But the larger part of the agricultural regions of
this country, although they have long reached that period, still worry
along with the old style of spindle-shanked draught horse, the long-
nosed swine, and the scrub cow. Nearly every good thing is the result
of the determined effort of public-spirited citizens, or of the Govern-
ment, or the pushing commercial spirit of the manufacturer or mer-
chant who has made or bought something which he wants to sell. Of
these means the Government offers, so far as forestry is concerned, in
the long run, the only sure and permanent one, as in nearly every other
sphere of education.

But this knowledge itself which is to be distributed must first be ae.
quired; for it is safe to say that it is not now in existence. To acquire
it will cost considerable money and many years of effort if the private
individual is to do it alone and at his own expense. It can be obtained
only as the result of careful experimentation on the growth and culti-
vation of all the different kinds of trees which will grow in this climate,
and which are of any considerable value. This can be best done in con.
nection with a regular school of forestry, where all the problems relat-
ing to kinds and values of trees, growth and cultivation, management
of stretches of woodland, the effect of forests on climate and health,
their economic aspects, and the other countless elements of this great
subject of forestry are thoroughly studied. Such a school of forestry
might and should be established in connection with the several agricult-
ural colleges and experiment stations which have been so liberally en-
dowed in all the States by the Federal Government, and which will be

.35

undeserving of their name if they fail to give instruction on a subject
so vitally connected with agriculture and the general interests of the
country as is forestry.

At such a school as this-could be trained the men who could manage
extensive tracts of forest lands in the ownership either of private in-
dividuals or of the State. But all these measures, important and valu-
able as they are, would not be sufficient by any means to insure satis-
factory results at the present juncture. In order to make them of any

permanent value they must be accompanied by a radical and far-reach-

ing policy of governmental encouragement and management.

The States and the nation should encourage the planting and cultiva-
tion of large foresis. Mere tree planting will never meet the require-
ments of the case. Large tracts of contiguous forest land must be
maintained, if we are to get the industrial and climatic advantages
which flow from a well-wooded country. The time has come when it
_ may be profitable for private citizens as a mere means of acquiring
wealth to plant and cultivate forests; profitable, I mean, if they have
the knowledge in regard to local conditions which it should be the
duty of the State to farnish through such forestry schools. To manage
such forests so as to make them profitable requires a high degree of ad-
ministrative talent and trained technical skill such as is rarely acquired
by any great number of men except in connection with a regularly
equipped school. If the trained men are at hand, and can be obtained,
and the evidence is forthcoming that the cultivation of forests is likely
to prove profitable, we may expect to find many corporations or individ-
ual men going into the business from purely pecuniary considerations,
and thus we should enlist private interest in the cause of public welfare,
as we do in other branches of industry.

But though I believe, judging from the experience of foreign coun-
tries and from the probabilities of the case, that we should thus get
many men interested in extending and mainta ning our forests, I do not
think that this will be sufficient. Weshall never have a thoroughly or
even an approximately adequate remedy for the evils which beset us in
this matter until the States and the nation undertake the planting
ard cultivation of forests on a large scale.

In the first place it is evident that in the case of the large percentage
of forests which, on account of meteorological considerations, must be
maintained under unfavorable conditions, such as those remote from
large streams and railroads, which would facilitate transportation, there
can be no sufficient inducement for private capital to seek such an in-
vestnent. Ifthe enterprise will not pay good returns we can not expect
private parties to take it up, and much of the reforesting or new afforest.
ing which is most necessary for climatic reasons is of this character.
It is, moreover, unsafe to have forests of this kind in private hands,
Since there is no foretelling at what moment private interest might lead

to the cutting off of the forest from localities where they could be replaced
only with difficulty, if at all.

Moreover forestry, at the best, is an industry of such peculiar char-
acter that it is very doubtful indeed whether, even under the most
favorable conditions, it can ever attract the investment of private capi-
tal to such an extent as to furnish forests of the necessary size and
quality. It requires, in the first place, a large capital, which of course
cuts off most individuals from any hope of engaging init. It requires,
moreover, the use of capital for a long time with no return at all, and
as most people prefer to risk their money where there is hope of large
and quick profits rather than where there is certainty of no return for
years to come (no matter how sure it may be in the long run), this still
further limits the number of those who are willing to go into the busi-
ness. It requires, moreover, a regular supply of highly trained labor
for the efficient working of the forests, which it is difficult to get unless
there are such schools as before mentioned and a reasonably certain
career for those who prepare themselves for such work.

Another peculiarity of the business, viz, the great value of the stock
on hand after the forest is fairly started, is a constant temptation to
spendthrift owners to clear the ground at once, in order to realize im.
mediately, and where land changes hands so rapidly as in this country
there is of course great probability that it will sooner or later fall into
the hands of such a man, who can do more damage in five years than
a Successor can make good in fifty.

All these considerations justify, on theoretical grounds, the conclusion
to which our own experience points and which that of Europe absolutely
demonstrates, viz, that we can not rely on private enterprise to conserve
the interests of the public in this regard. On the other hand, there are
comparatively few objections to Government ownership and manage-
ment of forests on the ground of efficiency. The characteristics of the
business coincide very closely with those which modern economists have
enumerated as necessary to any business which Government should
undertake. European experience, moreover, has fully demonstrated
that Government management may be quite as efficient as the best pri-
vate management. Indeed the state forests have become the models
which private owners imitate, and they count themselves happy if they
can equal them.* European Governments, after having to a very large

* From recent reports in regard to the German forests it appears that in 1884 Baden,
with a forest area of only 234,000 acres, had a net income of $578,000. Wurtemburg,
with 476,000 acres, had a net income of $1,237,600. Saxony from her 402,000 acres of
timber lands derived a net revenue of $1,588,325, while Prussia, with a large part of
her forest area unproductive and undeveloped, shows a gross income from the State
timber lands of more than $2 per acre. The net income from year to year of all the
German forests—equal in area to the forests of New England, New York, and Penn-
sylvania—is estimated at $57,000,000. This it must be understood is derived under the
most conservative management, which harvests only what yearly grows and spends
considerable sums for improvement of the crop and recuperation of waste areas.

o”

extent followed the advice of the orthodox English economists and got-
ten rid of the forest lands which from time immemorial have belonged
to the state, are now trying to get back large tracts of them into the
possession of the state. The attempt to control privaté owners in the
use of their forests has broken down in Kurope nearly as completely as
it would do here. There is a reason in our society why the state should
undertake this branch of business which does not exist to the same
extent in Europe. We have no old families with vast landed es-
tates handed down unimpaired from father to son which offer a good
basis for forest management. The only person, natural or artificial, in
our society fit to do this is the state. I would not’be understood as
arguing for state monopoly of forests. On the contrary, I think the
state should encourage private individuals to engage in forest cul-
ture on a large scale, but I think that it will never succeed in getting
them to do so to such an extent as to do away with the necessity of
planting and maintaining forests on its own account, which it will need
to do, partly because many of the forests most required will offer slight
inducements or no inducements at all to private capitalists, and partly
for the sake of conducting model forests in connection with its schools
of forestry. The bestif not the only way to secure the development of
private forests, even to the extent which is possible under the best
conditions, is to have the state take the initiative in planting and caring
for forests. The function of state forestry is not merely to secure the
existence of certain public forests, but also, and perhaps quite as much,
to encourage private forests by showing the proper methods of culti-
vation and utilization of forest products. Men do not like to put
their money into an entirely new branch of business. They like to know
that somebody has entered the field, if only as a pioneer, and has
achieved satisfactory results.

It may be said that we have already experience enough to show
that forestry may become a profitable branch of business of private
parties. The trouble is that our experience on that subject is exceed-
ingly small, that it moves very few to enter the business, and our for-
ests disappear much more rapidly than such favorable experience ac-
cumulates.

It is superfluous to say that the State and the United States Govern-
ments should establish and enforce laws which would put an end to the
criminal destruction of our forests by fire and browsing animals.

The whole subject, then, may be summed up as follows:

We are wasting our forests—by the ax, by fire, by pasturage, by
neglect. They are rapidly falling below the amount required by indus-
trial needs, by our water supply, by our tivers, by cur climate, by our
navigation and agriculture. It is high time to calla halt. The devas-
tation of the ax will probably go on in the forests owned by private par-
ties. Other forms of devastation can and should be stopped by rigor-
ous measures on the part of the Government.

Our only hope is to save what forests we have still in the public pos-
session, so far as they are necessary to the prosperity of the country,
by not allowing them to be cut except under such conditions as will
keep the forests in good condition; to encourage tree-planting and
forest-planting on the part of individuals, corporations, and communi-
ties; and above all, as forming the condition on which the rest will be
of any avail, to insist that the States shall undertake the systematic
cultivation of forests in those places where it may be necessary to pre-
serve our streams and climate.

Some one may ask where the Government is to get the authority for
this purpose. In the case of the Federal Government, the answer is

easy. It still owns millions of acres of forest lands, which should in--

stantly be withdrawn from entry and subjected to a searching examina-
tion, by experts, as to its character, reserving permanently to the Gov-
ernment those portions which are of fundamental importance to the
climate, soil, and streams. In the case of the States much of the very
land needed falls into their possession for non-payment oftaxes. Let
the States keep it. Much of the land needed can be obtained at pri-
vate sale for a mere song. Let the States buy it. More, if necessary,
can be obtained by the exercise of the right of eminent domain—let
the States take it. Shall we allow a railway to take land, no matter
how insignificant the line it proposes to construct or how few people it
will benefit, and refuse to the States the right to take land for such a
purpose as this, on which hangs the welfare of our whole people?

In all this we ask nothing more than that the State shall do for for-
estry what it has already done for mining, agriculture, trade, and
transportation, and we ask it not so much in the interest of forestry
itself as a separate branch of industry as in the interest of other indus-
tries whose prosperity depends on the continued existence of forests.

It will be noticed that in the preceding discussion we have not at-
tempted to distinguish particularly between what the National Govern-
ment and the various State governments should do, but have indicated
rather what they should all do, taken as a whole. The particular part
which each should do follows almost as a matter of course from a study
of the relations of the different parts of our governmental system. Some
of the things we have mentioned, most of them, perhaps, should be done
by the States individually. But the Federal Government should cer-
tainly go on with the work it has begun in connection with the Depart.
ment of Agriculture at Washington.

It should continue the work of acquiring and disseminating informa-
tion, and for this purpose should establish experimental forests in dif-
ferent parts of the country, which should be well equipped and placed
under the most skillful direction. It should certainly place a check on
the exploitation of forests on Government lands, and withdraw what
remains of our national timber lands from the clutch of the devastators
and insist on some regard being paid to general interests by those whe

wish to utilize them. If there be no way to get the States to look after
the matter themselves the Federal Government should take some steps
toward reforesting the headwaters of our great navigable streams where
they have been cleared off, and nothing is being done to protect them.
Surely it is as legitimate to expend Federal money to keep the soil from
flowing down our mountain sides and filling up our rivers as it is to ex-
pend money in clearing out their channels when once filled. Itis surely
permissible to expend Federal money to protect the stream itself if us
be proper to stock and restock it with fish.

Our State governments should do the rest, and should begin soon.
The expense of such a system, properly organized and carried out, will
be defrayed ten thousand times by the great increase in national wealth
and national health which will ensue, while the loss incident to a per-
sistence in our present policy will be simply incalculable.

SS ees --
SSS = =

REPOR'?P

ON THE

FOREST CONDITIONS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS,

ESPECIALLY IN TITE

STATE OF COLORADO, THE TERRITORIES OF IDAHO,
MONTANA, WYOMING, AND NEW MEXICO,

EDGAR T. ENSIGN,
Forest Commissioncr of Colorado,
SPECIAL AGENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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GONTEN Ts:

PRE OMe TIOAINGULE TAN ce saan che wewene secede co Sas ote Sas DS. s dee eclectic ee

I.—_GENERAL VIEW.

IO GME Var OF ERELT IRE GON 3 ie Seem e sense le we Seas ace tie cee pa cis ele - cies sie

(a) The Mountaim Systeme <---> 2-2-2 2-222 owe ee «nee on ==
Configuration—Plains— Plateaus—Water-courses.

(CD) GSCI SO Oe Se 50a Sa RATES an Hin elo eee ean Aa aE iee ae I Ieee

(CO) STEN GEOL EY OG UN a etcetera Poa Semi Ae

(ayy eC licen be mee sees ee ate bd oe stay eter Narstel ste e's yee ol tole a aia. Sarate eis sinte

NETO WE Ue Wl CON DIT ONS: ora Sica <csietaiene Gils araiele sini a wavalcjerliciare Pree ere anes
_ JUIOUTEIIIGS: ced asdohs Se la50 Usb She de beee 2 35S50 bAos Saediede sons cooeraas
Agriculture—Mining—Stock-growing—Wool-growing—Manufact-
ures—Stone and marble.
LOPULATION AND VALAIS Joc -e2 oe oe Such Sa Bas i Ma mee ge TN A peek

PESO TI eget) IANO row toeeye ste Os See ye Si ets Paes a I cle la cto 22 isn cn. S wb « rain n elas a¥e =

HGCA DEITANDS AND -VORDST GUPPLUNS: 225 22022 2.22256 cde sgeeicce= sees
Preliminary remarks —Lumber—Railways—Telegraph poles, ete.—Min-

ing—Charcoal manufacture—Fencing—F uel.

JOST CIE AGO O00. 3 se oo oe sere noe oUeS Solon Suc BObeo es =ene Cho ooon
Forest fires—Wasteful use—Snow and land slides—Loss of foliage.

RELATIONS OF FOREST PRESERVATION TO AGRICULTURE ..-..--.--.-------+-

TRETGATION SYSTEMS: 0°... 22 2.2227 Pe Sere crayons Safe peis cial odeee cinie ancl = ates

MOBMSE POLICY 222.922. . 2o 2. SSE 6 Fes OD Me EAA SOO Marmite a

III.—FOREST CONDITIONS OF THE SEVERAL POLITICAL
DIVISIONS.

IDAHO:
Gemeralene iigucse sem ery wee ae bebe owe Oe nas ccs cce naneds decease
Ada County—Alturas Coatie Beas Lake County — Bingham
County—Boise County—Cassia County—Custer County—Idaho
County—Kootenai County—Lemhi County—Nez Perces County—
Oneida County—Owyhee County--Shoshone Cotunty—Wash-
ington County.

Page.

91 4

43 |

MONTANA :
General remarks -.-.. -.--. eS er ne, eee ee
Beaver Head County-—-Choteau County—Custer County—-Dawson
County — Deer Lodge County — Fergus County — Gallatin
County—Jefferson County—Lewis and Clarke County—Madison
County — Meagher County — Missoula County — Silver Bow
County—Yellowstone County—Crow Indian Reservation.

WYOMING: .
General remarks... 2220. -iso5. Sees ee ee ee ee ae eee
Albany County — Carbon County — Crook County — Fremont
County — Johnson County — Laramie County — Sweetwater
County—Uinta County—Yellowstone National Park.
COLORADO:
General remarks 3. >. 22 22220-52222 Set ogee ne Aas ee
Arapahoe County—Archuleta County—Bent -County—Boulder
County — Chaffee County — Clear Creek County — Conejos
County—Costilla County—Custer County—Delta County—Do-
lores County—Douglas County—Eagle County--Elbert County—
El Paso County—Fremont County—Garfield County—Gilpin
County—Grand County —Gunnison County—Hinsdale County—
Huerfano County—Jefferson County—Lake County—La Plata
County—Larimer County—Las Animas County—Logan County—
Mesa County—Montrose County— Ouray County—Park County—
Pitkin County—Pueblo County—Rio Grande County—Routt
County—Saguache County—San Juan County—San Miguel
County—Summit County—Washington County—Weld County.
New MEXIco: |
General remarks). <. 3 22y52- 25 bose. Somes = Sea ea
San Juan County—Rio enna County—Taos County—Colfax
County—Bernalillo County—Santa Fé County—Mora County—
Valencia County—San Miguel County—Socorro County—Sierra
County—Grant County—Dona Ana County—Lincoln County.

TaBLES.—Summarized statement of the forest conditions in the year 1887 of
the several counties in—
BGANO So ecco. net rote eeeee Se ee ca ase ee ceste sas -< Soe ee eee eee

W YOMNN 2S ot oo coe ee ook ace oes ee eee eee Oe ee ee ee
Colorado °c ee Sacn ca oe wae so ee Se ee

Map.—Showing forest areas and principal irrigating canals of the Rocky
Mountain region.

108

139

148
148
148
148
148

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO., May 14, 1887.

Sir: Under dates of April 1 and September 27, 1586, respectively,
commissions were issued to me from your Department, authorizing an
investigation of the forest conditions and resources of the State of Colo-
rado and the Territories of New Mexico, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho,
and an examination of the relations existing between the forests, water-
courses, and irrigating systems of the region, with special consideration
of the Government timber lands.

I have the honor to submit the accompanying report.

Upon receiving authority to conduct the investigation, correspond-
ence was instituted with civil engineers and other well-informed per-
sons in the several counties of the region, and printed circulars were
sent out embracing the following questions:

CIRCULAR A.

(1) What is the extent of forest land in your county, giving approximate number
of square miles; and in what part of the county isit mainly situated ?
(2) What proportion of it is fully stocked; good for timber? What part of it
brush, of promising growth? What part of it made waste by burning over?
(3) What is the proportion of forest to other lands ?
(4) What is the character of the forest growth now remaining, in the size and
kinds of trees ?
(5) What species of trees predominate ?
(G) Name, inthe order of their importance, the principal uses to which each kind
of timber is applied.
(7) What special dangers threaten the forests in your county, as lumbering, con-
sumption by railroads, fires, ete.
(8) What are the chances for renewal after the forests have been destroyed ?
(9) Of what species of trees is the second-growth usually ?
(10) What kinds, if any, follow after the timber has been destroyed by fire ?
(11) Is any planting done? And to what extent, and with or without irrigation ?
(12) Have you noticed any chazges in the volume of water in the streams, as the
trees in their vicinity have been cut off or burned? Is there less water in the streams
than formerly? Have floods and droughts: become more frequent? Is the flow of
water in the streams more intermittent-?
(13) Are any observations on rain-fall kept in your loeality? Ifso, by whom (giv-
ing name and post-office address) ?
(14) Have any avalanches occurred in your section? If so, please give the particu-
lars; when, where, and what, if any, loss of life and property ?
(15) What measures would you suggest for more adequate protection of forest
growth?
45

(16) Give any other information, upon the same general subject, which may occur
to you. So faras possible, give definite and particular answers to the foregoing ques-
tions, and known facts rather than general statements. If there is insufficient space
on this sheet for your answers, supplementary sheets may be used, care being taken
to refer to the numbers on this sheet, so as to prevent uncertainty or confusion,

CIRCULAR B.

(1) Please give a brief and general topographical description of your county.

(2) What is the approximate total number of acres of land in your county, suitable
for agricultural purposes, requiring irrigation?

(3) Is there a sufficient water supply to irrigate that amount? If not, what pro-
portionate amount short ?

(4) What is the approximate number of acres aay under ditch ?

(5) Whatis the approximate number ofacres already irrigated ?

(6) In your county, what is the approximate total length of: (a) lrrigating
Gitches? Main; secondary; small. (b) Mining and milling ditches? (ce) City
water-works (and capacity in galions) ? together with total capacity ofeach, in stat-
utory inches or cubic feet, per second.

(7) Has the volume of water in the streams of your county increased or diminished,
to your knowledge? Is the flow of water in such streams any more or less intermit-
tent than was formerly the case? If you have noticed any such changes, please state
the causes, so far as known to you.

- (8) What effect, if any, in your opinion, do the forests have on the water supply?

(9) What, in a general way, is the extent, character, and location of timber in your
county ?

(10) Please note on sketch (to the best of your knowledge) the situation of the tim-
ber, irrigating and other canals, and city water-works in your county; giving the
timber in black and canals and water-works in red.

(11) What are the principal causes of the destruction of forests in your county, and
what measures would you suggest for their more adequate protection ?

(12) Please give any other suggestions upon the same general subject which may
occur to you. If there is qucu ficient space on this sheet for your answers, supple-
mentary sheets may be used, care being taken to refer to the numbers on this sheet,
so as to prevent Pacer nate or confusion.

It also became necessary to conduct an extensive written correspond-
ence, which extended through a period of about one year. Considera-
ble interest was manifested in the general subject, and much valuable
information was obtained concerning local forest conditions. The facts
collected with respect to the numerous irrigation systems of the region
were not so full and explicit as was desirable, but served a useful pur-
pose in the preparation of my report.

Between the months of April and December, 1886, I visited many of
the principal points in Colorado and the several Territories included in
this examination. By personal investigation and inquiry in the various
localities, I was enabled to obtain much useful information relating to
the subject, and to verify statements derived from other sources.

For most timely and valuable assistance rendered me in this con-
nection grateful acknowledgment is due to ex-Governor Benjamin H.
Eaton, George G. Merrick, esq., Hon. William N. Byers, Capt. Edward
L. Berthoud, C. E., Prof. A. E. Beardsley and Blair Burwell, C. E., of
Colorado; Samuel Ellison, esq., General H. M. Atkinson, H. Hartman, C.

B., and Prof. Ad. I’. Bandelier, of New Mexico; Governor lH. A. Steven-
son and Hon. Milton Kelly, of Idaho; W. bl. DeLacy, C. ., Hon. Gran-
ville Stuart and Prof. O. C. Mortson, of Montana; Tranklin O. Sawin,
C. Ii., Hon. M. N. Grant and Frank Bond, esq., of Wyoming. Many
others, who most generously and efficiently aided mein this behalf, can
not here be mentioned by name.
In conclusion, permit me to say that this work has been one in which
I have taken great pleasure, and though not unmindful of its imperfec-
tions and deficiencies, I trust it will in fair measure meet your expecta-
tions and be of service to the general public.
TI remain, very respectfully, your obedient servant, |
EDGAR T. ENSIGN,
Special Agent of Department of Agriculture. i
|

Hon. NoRMAN J. COLMAN,
Commissioner of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

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FOREST CONDITIONS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.

1—GENERAL VIEW.

The forests of the Rocky Mountain region sustain an important rela-
tion to the western half of the United States, if indeed their influence
is not more widely extended. In the past their value has been wholly
measured by their yield of timber and other useful products, but a more
enlightened estimate is now gaining ground. Itis gratifying to note that
a more just comprehension of their value and importance prevails, and
that the indifference with which their partial destruction has been
viewed is yielding to a desire for their preservation.

These forests are mainly situated upon the lands of the General Gov.-
ernment, and are not subject to State or Territorial control. The
measures in force for their maintenance and protection are extremely
ineffectual.

GEKEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION.

In order to understand the existing forest conditions of this region
it will be necessary first to consider its leading physical features.

The term “ Rocky Mountains ” (originally ‘‘Stony Mountains”), in its
widest sense, includes all the mountains of North America between
the Great Plains and the Pacific Ocean, extending to the Arctic Ocean
on the north and to Mexico on the south. It is the opinion of many
that the same system includes the mountains of Mexico and Central
America. Exclusive of Mexico, the chain traverses the entire region

embraced between the thirty-second and seventieth parallels of north —

latitude. Its greatest expanse is between the thirty-eighth and forty-
second degrees of north latitude, where the system has a breadth of
about 1,000 miles. Its highest peak is Mount Saint Elias, in Alaska,
which rises to an altitude of 19,500 feet above the sea.

THE MOUNTAIN SYSTEM.

For the purpose of the present investigation, the term ‘Rocky
Mountains” will usually be confined to these portions of the system
which are comprised within the State of Colorado and the Territories
of Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, and New Mexico. |

The mountain system under consideration is situated midway be-
tween the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean, and running nearly

24738—Bull 2——4 49

5O
parallel with these has a general course from northwest to southeast.
Itextends through seventeen degrees of latitude, reaching from the
British Possessions to the Mexican boundary. Springing from elevated
plains and plateaus, which range in altitude from 3,000 to 7,000 feet,
the mountains of this system attain their greatest elevation in Colo-
rado, reaching there an extreme height of 14,460 feet above the sea.

The several parts of the system may be deséribed briefly as follows:

Commencing at the boundary line between British America and
Montana, in the western part of the last-named Territory, the Main
Range there takes a southeasterly course for a distance of about 200
miles; then it turns sharply to the west and at the boundary of Idaho
is joined by the Bitter Root chain of mountains, which run in a south-
easterly direction and form the middle portion of the dividing line
between Montana and Idaho. The Coeur d’Alene Mountains, in north-
ern Idaho, constitute the northwest extension of the Bitter Root Moun-
tains.

The Main Range, from the point where it is joined by the last-named
mountains, continues in a southeasterly course on the line between the
two Territories and enters northwestern Wyoming near the southwest-
ern corner of the Yellowstone National Park. Continuing in the same
direction, the Wind River Mountains form an important link in the
ereat chain. At their southeastern extremity they meet the Sweet-
water Mountains, a comparatively short range, trending eastward. The
crest, or dividing line, there turns to the southeast and passes over an
open country or high table-land for a distance of 75 to 100 miles; i
then strikes the Sierra Madre Mountains, the northern extension of the
Park Range of Colorado, which form a portion of the Main Range. In
North and Central Wyoming, the Big Horn, the Laramie and Medicine
Bow Mountains are the most notable adjacent ranges.

The Colorado system commences on the north with the Park Range,
which forms the western boundary of North Park. At the southwestern
angle of the park the main divide turns directly eastward, separating
Northand Middle Parks, and is joined by the Medicine Bow kange at the
northeast corner of the last-named park. Tbe Main Range then bears
to the southeast for a short distance, then turns southwestward and
continues in that direction until it crosses the Park Range a few miles
north of Leadville. The northern extremity of the Saguache Range is
here reached. This range takes a course a little east of south, and ter-
minates about 40 miles southeast of the town of Gunnison, in south-
western Colorado. <A range called in part the “ Cochetopa Hills,” and
running in a southwesterly direction, connects the Saguache with the
San Juan Mountains. The latter, bearing southeastward, terminate
near the southern line of the State.

The principal secondary range in Colorado is the Park Range, which
constitutes the western boundaries of North, Middle, and South Parks,
and is crossed, as before stated, by the Continental Divide. Other im-

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portant ranges in Colorado, upon the eastern water-shed, are the Med-
icine Bow Range at the north, the Pike’s Peak Range in the central
section, and the Sangre de Christo, the Culebra, and Raton Mountains
at the south. Upon the western slope the Elk and San Miguel, or La
Plata Mountains, are the most prominenf.

Thus far and until near the southern limit of Colorado, the Continen-
tal Divide has consisted almost wholly of high and rugged mountains.
It here loses that character, and entering New Mexico bears south-
westward through an open and broken country interspersed with de-
tached mountain ranges.

Returning to the northern boundary of New Mexico, to a point some
distance east of the central portion, it is found that the Culebra Range
is prolonged southward for about 100 miles, or until it reaches the
neighborhood of Santa Fé. There the bold continuous mountains give
way to lesser ranges scattered at intervals throughout the Territory,
but usually conforming to the normal trend of the general system. In-
eluding the mountains of Utah in the general system, the Uintah and
Wakhsatech Mountains are to be mentioned as important branches. The
former are especially noticeable on account of their exceptional east-
ward and westward trend.

CONFIGURATION.

‘The Rocky Mountain region is of such great extent and its topog-
raphy so extremely varied, that an adequate description of it would
far exceed the limits of this report. Its leading characteristics only
can be considered. The subject may be conveniently treated under the
headings—Mountains, Plains, Plateaus, Water-courses.

Mountains.—The mountains of this region are generally massive and
rugged. In their midst are vast solitudes, snow-clad peaks, precipices,
rapid streams, and deep caiions.* Atsome points, however, the mount-
ains rise so gradually from the plains at their base that the traveler
easily ascends and passes over them, hardly realizing that he is crossing
divides which separate great water systems. In still other localities,
lovely mountain parks, wooded heights, and sheltered valleys beautify
and soften the harsher features of the landscape. While the Main
Ikange pursues, generally, a course from northwest to southeast, the
system as a whole is muchinvolved. The comparatively low mountains
and minor ranges of western Montana, and the more rugged mountains
separating Idaho from Montana and Wyoming, culminate in the mag-
nificent peaks and ranges of the Yellowstone Park region. Here lofty
mountains, canons, water-falls, geysers, boiling springs, fantastic rocks,
and other of nature’s strange works combine to make this region the
‘‘wonderland” of America. In the near distance, at the southwest,

“Canon or canyon (Spanish—a tube cr hollow); a deep gorge, ravine, or gulch
between high and steep banks worn by water-coarses; a term in common use in the
United States in the States and Territories bordering upon Mexico. (Fremont.)

the “Three Tetons,” prominent snow-clad peaks, rise above the surround-
ing country.

In Wyoming the principal range follows a tortuous line from the
northwest to the southeast. There is a break in its southern extremity,
and other ranges flank it at various angles upon the right and left,
separated from each other and from the Main Range by high plateaus,
sandy plains, grazing lands, and fertile valleys.

In Colorado the system is compiex in the extreme. ‘The course of the
Main Range is very irregular; other high ridges abut upon or cross it,
and detached groups appear upon either hand. Natural parks of great
magnitude, surrounded by high mountains and each containing the
head waters of an important river, here constitute a marked and agree-
able feature. The mountains, as well as the general level, are higher
here than elsewhere, and the ranges more massive. From almost any
of the snowy summits scores of others may be seen.

The Culebra Range of northern New Mexico is a continuation of the
general system, and is similar in character to the Colorado Mountains.
Many of the mountains in Montana have smooth slopes and rounded
outlives. In other parts of the range they are generally rugged,
many having serrated crests and angular peaks. The sides are often
rocky and precipitous, and the summits, of naked rock, extend far above
the limits of vegetable life.

The “ground plan” of this mountain system is so irregular and of
such great extent that, in the absence of surveys, it is impossible to
determine its area with any degree of certainty. A conservative and
approximate estimate would give it a length of 1,500 miles and an aver-
age breadth of 200, or a total area of 300,000 square miles.

Although the general course of the system is in one direction, the
ranges, spurs, and groups lie at many and varying angles, and present
the utmost diversity of form and exposure.

At the base of the mountains, on the east, are foot-hills and high
mesas,* and these merge into wide, rolling plains. On the west the
mountains are bounded by foot-hills, mesas, elevated plateaus, and
wastes of sand and lava. In many places appear water-courses, canyons,
and valleys.

Plains.—Second only in importance to the mountains are the Great
Plains, which bound the mountains on the east for almost their entire
length and extend hundreds of miles to meet the prairies of the Central
Basin.

The western border of this region, adjacent to the range, varies in
altitude from 3,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea, the greatest elevations
being in Wyoming, Colorado, and northern New Mexico; thence slop-
ing to the north, east, and south, coincidently with the direction of the
principal water-courses.

* Mesa (Sp.) ), ‘the common name for the table lands (which are usually quite arid)
in central and western North America.

pis the

The surface of the Great Plains is usuaily gently rolling, but in some
localities buttes,* headlands, and detached masses of rock vary its
otherwise monotonous aspect. The soil is generally alight mold, from
10 to 15 inches in depth, resting on a bed of sand, gravel, and bowlders.
In some places there is considerable clay mixed with the surface soil.

In their natural condition the plains, mesas, and foot-hills are gen-
erally covered with a short but succulent grass. Some portions pro-
duce sage brush, among which nutritious grasses are interspersed.
In other parts sage brush is the-only growth. A comparatively small
proportion is wholly barren.

Plateaus.—The great plateaus upon the western flank of the mountain
system have a mean elevation of about 7,000 feet above the level of the
sea. They extend from southern Wyoming through western Colorado
and eastern Utah into Arizona and New Mexico, and are there lost in
low desert plains.

By faults in the geologic SEEMOHUES, and by lines of cliffs and deep
canyons, the various plateaus are separated one from another. Their
general level is broken by mountains—single and in groups—buttes
and towering escarpments of rock. Some thirty mountain peaks, rang-
ing in altitude from 10,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea, have here been
noted. The few streams of the region find their way through canyons,
the walls of which are of immense height. Aridity is the prevailing
condition, and vegetation is dwarfed and scanty.

Water-courses.—That the main crest of the Rocky Mountains consti-
tutes the ‘‘Continental Divide” or line separating the eastern and west-
ern water systems is known to all; that there is also a great Transverse
Divide, forming northern and southern water systems, is not so gener-
ally understood. Commencing in the northwestern part of Nebraska,
the divide last named runs westward through central Wyoming to the
southern border of Yellowstone Park; thence southwestward to the
northwestern corner of Nevada.

Hence there are four great basins; one sloping to the northeast,
drained by the waters of the Upper Missouri; one at the northwest,
drained by the Columbia River ; one at the southwest, which is double
and discharges its waters into the Great Salt Lake BaSin and the Colo-
rado River; and one at the southeast, which is drained by the Arkan-
sas and Rio Grande Rivers and their affluents. These several systems
radiate from a common center, and have their sources in the high and
snowy mountains of Wyoming and Colorado. The fact, however, should
not be overlooked, that other and surrounding parts of the Rocky
Mountain region’largely contribute to the volume of water in the prin-
cipal streams.

In considering further the several Oink here outlined, it appears
that at the northeast the South Platte rises in South Pan and the

* Butte (Fr., pronounced bute), an isolated peak or elevation of land in the central

- and western parts of North America (too high to be called a hill or ridge, and not

high enough to be called a mountain).—( Webster. )

North Platte in North Park, Colorado, the two rivers flowing eastward
and uniting in Nebraska.

At the northwest the Big Horn, Yellowstone, and Upper Missouri
Rivers rise within or near the Yellowstone -Park, and find outlet
through the channel of the Missouri. Crossing the Continental Divide
westward, it is found that Clark’s Fork of the Columbia, the Salmon
River, and Lewis or Snake River, also rise in the same region, but, as
tributaries of the Columbia, send their waters to the Pacific Ocean.

In the southwest the principal streams flowing into the lakes of the
Great Salt Lake Basin are the Bear, Weber, and Sevier. The Green
River, which has its source in the Wind River Mountains, Wyoming;
the Grand River, which drains Middle Park, Colorado, and the San
Juan River, which rises in the southern part of the same State, unite
in southern Utah and form the Colorado River of the West.

The Rio Grande and Arkansas Rivers drain the southeastern portion
of the Rocky Mountain region. They have a common origin in the
mountains of Colorado, but the first seeks an outlet directly in the Gulf
of Mexico, while the latter, at a point some 800 miles northeastward,
unites with the Mississippi river.

The Rio Grande, Arkansas, North and South Platte, and their main
affluents, debouch upon high planes which slope rapidly to the south and

east; and while the most of these streams pass through deep canyons
in emerging from the mountains, they flow with a rapid current (de-
scending from 5 to 8 feet to the mile) in shallow channels. Therefore
itis not difficult to utilize their waters for irrigation and other pur-
poses.

In Montana the plains have much less elevation than in the region
southward, and the principal streams, the Upper Missouri and the Yel-
lowstone, following a long and devious course to the junction of the
two, have a gradual descent and sluggish flow ; hence it is not easy to
bring their waters to the level of the adjacent country. What can be
done there by a system of reservoirs which will save the flood waters of
spring and early summer, is a question for the future.

In Idaho, upon the western slope of the range, the principal streams
flow rapidly, through arable valleys, and the waters can be easily util-
ized.

Southward, in western Colorado, the streams, in descending from the
mountains, have a swift current and pass through valleys of much nat-
ural fertility. As they approach the plateau region, farther south and
west, some of them enter profound canyons, and thus are lost for irri-
gating purposes.

ALTITUDES.

The altitudes of the Rocky Mountain region, inclusive of the valleys,
. plains, and plateaus, vary from 680 feet above sea level at Lewiston,
Idaho, to an extreme height of 14,460 feet in the mountains of Colorado.

The average or mean elevation of the several political divisions is given
by good authorities as follows: Montana, 3,000 feet; Idaho, 4,700 feet ;
Wyoming, 6,000 feet; Colorado, 7,000 feet; New Mexico, 5,600 feet.

The approximate mean elevation of the Idaho and Montana ranges
is 8,000 feet; of the Wyoming ranges, 9,000 feet. The mean height of
the Colorado and New Mexico system, south to the latitude of Santa
Fé, is about 10,500 feet.

In Montana two mountains reach an elevation of 8,355 and 10,629 feet
respectively. Eleven peaks in Idaho range in height from 9,100. to
13,691 feet. In Wyoming fifteen of the principal peaks range in alti-
tude from 9,273 to 13,790 teet. The best known and named peaks of
the Colorado system, sixty-seven in number, vary in height from 10,906
to 14,464 feet. Seventy-two other peaks in the same State, between
13,500 and 14,300 feet in height, are unnamed. Two prominent mount-
ains in New Mexico have an elevation, one of 11,200 feet and the other
of 12,202 feet; while Utah boasts of seventy-five peaks above 10,000
and fourteen above 12,000 feet, the highest being Mount Emmons, with
13,694 feet. |

Elevation of timber-line on some of the mountains in the Rocky Mountain region.*

[Laken from Dictionary of Altitudes, U. 8S. Geological Survey. ]

. Timber : Timber
Mountain. line Mountain. line:
|
COLORADO. Feet. COLORADO—continued. Feet.

Arapahoe Peak .....-- SP aise Le nee TOO MN AI Ono SP ealks ahaa acieie ec nyaeeee ee seen 11, 100
Mount Audubon.-.--.. Been stem ale Rete le sZo Massive: Momntaine es a5 -ee see -eeer 11, 607
Bala eMigumibalie tee eee ete series eter DESL OOM | Baie al ewe be Gai seer eile iene te te otste-forar 11, 100
HS Wt AO ERG Dear tere eer 2 Setanta rea a 10M Ee Sr calkes oie oe aay holster hee seiere ae 11, 720
Motmtipy erst iets! ase ie eiece ey sedelr 8: LURAY OS Mo tm bs Owielll te sepsis sete cere ate Sate 11, 600
Crestone ......-..--.- SRS PRM OR Sees 12 LOW |) Wows JBN ION Gosca5cncosoonGoooeace 11, 500
Connie iam assiee sens eee ee TGs ROO Nh Tel IMi@uimnitginy = seas oceeuadscsceekéenc 11, 746
Mount cllbent.2: Sets Seeeie acme eee DS iiles | Mio uimGe keto AltObee sae nee ele siee eer. 11, 817
Mount Engelmann....-...----.<c0--: a. Tel 5.80 aoterman bs anrcale aac eye yee) Some tee 10, 410
Mionmb Mb yams eee en ee SCR ods Sth es 237 Noun sillivenneelse 22.2 sain nae seers eo 11, 549
Monn: Evans SRS tes Ra og nolo JE a is 11, 300 || White Roch Mountain...........-....- 11, 919

PAA Ae OAs sea ose sere venue Pence 11, 100
(Ce ApAl yA EYER ce ce SS ps VEL ae Ls ee 11, 758 MONTANA.
(MoumiGiGuyOb. acs [ea Se a eee 11, 811
Eaimilitom ass: Sse ce ew) Mee eee 1088407) Mount BlackmOnenss-seeessne ene ee seer 9, 550
Mounitiphlanvard’ Jo2h* toc sutra ia se.) 1, 1G Milouncis IDE ERO So! Seo oeaosoebouesrodesoe 8, 784
eS aca ce Pease Gass a 100M eHleCoricte eaks 2c .825. secs eee eee. 9, 442

aveavay Moumbainee sees fe ace eee 12, 080
ites Monmmbam) jo ee ee, 11, 100 UTAH.
Nou Pincolns. 22.5.0. 26). ae eee 12F Oo Galbert sueeale ce ha. cs aes. dene hea 11, 100
i

Capt. E. L. Berthoud, a civil engineer, of Golden, Colo., and a good authority, referring to a mount-
ain range about 8 miles southwest of Georgetown, Colo., says: ‘‘ Across the narrow valley north of
McClellan Mountain, and upon another high peak, the limit of tree growth exceeds 12,400 feet cleva-
tion on the south slope of that peak. Here canbe seen Pinus aristata, some of the trees 2 feet in
diameter and 30 feet high, that retain their hold and slowly increase in size, thus maintaining them-
selves in respectable numbers in spite of furious gales of snow and wind, and an extreme arctic cold.”

SURROUNDINGS.

The “Great Plains” lie contiguous to and eastward of the Rocky
Mountains, but how far to the east they extend—at what point the
“plains” (so long a synonym for sterility) end, and the prairie, or fruit-
ful country, begins, is not easily determined. It is safe to say, how-

ever, that the western portions of Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, the In-
dian Territory, and Texas, partake of the semi-arid condition of the
region of the plains and indeed constitute a part of it, and have iden-
tical interests. Their grazing and farming industries are conducted
upon principles similar to those which govern the like operations of
their neighbors westward, and dependence upon the streams flowing
from the mountains is as marked in one instance as in the other.

Oregon and Washington lie at the northwest. They, also, in their
eastern portions, require water for irrigation. Their great river, the
Columbia, is kept at a navigable stage by the large tributary streams
which fiow from the mountains.

At the west and southwest, the contiguous Territories of Utah and
Arizona fall within the Arid Belt. The needs of their increasing pop-
ulation and rapidly developing industries require that the timber and
water supplies of the mountains shall be maintained in perpetuity.

CLIMATE.

The atmospheric conditions of the Rocky Mountain region, as affect-
ing the life and health of those who are living under their influence,
have been a subject of quite general interest, and thus the leading char-
acteristics of the region in this respect are known to many.

A concise statement of the climatic conditions of the region is given
in the official report for 1885 of Hon. Francis E. Warren, governor of
Wyoming, to the Secretary of the Interior. I take the liberty of quot-
ing as foliows:

Were it not for the heat of the tropical regions, which is distributed over the con-
tinent by atmospheric currents as well as by the thermal ocean and Gulf currents, the
high elevations of the Rocky Mountain regions would be too rigorously cold for hab-
itation. But through these tempering influences they are not only habitable, but
delightful and healthful portions of the continent, far more so than the Atlantic coast,
or the great river valleys which approximate the sea-level on either side of the great
continental divide. The humid tropical winds and the equatorial warm Japanese
currents of the North Pacific Ocean—which are similar to the Gulf Stream of the
Southern Atlantic—reaching the western and southern shores of the continent, pro-
duce the mild and even temperature of these coasts and, with climatic modifications,
extend to the elevated Rocky Mountain regions of the interior.

These modifications are mainly produced by the high snow-capped and almost un-
broken mountain ranges of the western coast—the Cascade and the Sierra Nevada, the
latter of which is covered with dense forests to an elevation of some 8,000 feet, while
still above this lies perpetual snow. These, to some degree, are barriers against the
extension of the warm atmospheric currents of the ocean over the interior Rocky
Mountain elevations. Hence, as these mild winds, heated by the tropical ocean cur-
rents, sweep over the snow-capped mountain ranges, and around their extremities,
and thus pass over vast arid regions in their course to the great Rocky Mountain ele-
vations, they become somewhat tempered, and give to them their salubrious climate.
The moisture that comes upon the mountain ranges, in the way of rain, during the
rainy seasons of the Pacific coast, is slight from January to May.

It may be said further, that the superior elevation of this great cen-
tral platean, its remoteness from the sea or other large bodies of water,

. aie
Peis age

the comparative absence of fogs and rain, and the prevalence of sun.
shine, have conduced to render the atmosphere of this region dry, rare-
fied, and wonderfully clear. Through its medium distant objects are
seen with surprising distinctness. Its curative properties have made
it a famous resort for health-seekers and tourists.

Again, it should be noted that the climatic conditions of different
parts of the mountain region, though having common characteristics,
vary in degree one from another. The great extent of the region, its
varying altitudes, its irregular outlines and configuration, combine to
produce in the various sections diverse atmospheric conditions. Hence
the flora of the country is varied, and in connection with differing soils
the productive capacities of its several parts vary in kind and degree.

A friend notes the difference between the climatic and forest conditions
of the eastern and those of the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains,
as follows:

One of the principal effects of the main mountain range is to cause a much greater
precipitation of moisture, in the form of snow or rain, upon the western than upon
the eastern slope. Within such areas of greater precipitation the forest growth is
denser and the trees larger and better developed than upon the eastern side. The
streams are larger, the water-flow more evenly distributed throughout the vear, vege-
tation more luxurious, and the natural pasture of native grasses is maintained until
late in the year or until snow falls. Upon the eastern side there is greater necessity
for a rigorous enforcement of the laws to save the few remaining forests.

The following communication, lately received from Mr. George Corn-
wall, of Gunnison, Colo., is of interest, as showing the comparatively
humid conditions iach prevail in some HOGALIES upon the western
slope of the mountains:

I send you a tabulated statement of the number of days on which we had rain or
snow for the years 1882, 1883, 1834, 1885, and 1886 to June1. This statement is taken
from the diary kept on my ranch, in the valley of Ohio Creek, 7 miles north of Gun-
nison, elevation 8,000 feet above sea level. The rains and snows come mostly in
showers—very few all-day or all-night storms. We are not in a stormy belt. Please
remember that any report from any portion of Colorado, except the plains, is a local
report, and another report of no more than 5 or 10 miles away might be very different.

Castleton’s or Baldwin’s, 10 miles higher up our valley, would show, I think, double
the amount of rain or snow we have here, and still higher in the mountains the
‘amount of rain and suow would again be doubled.

The climate of this western slope is moist. The prevailing winds are from the
west, starting perhaps from the Pacific Ocean, and, passing over a vast extent of
country, when they reach the western slope of the Rocky Mountains they precipitate
their moisture. Evaporation at our elevation is of course rapid, but on our bottom-
lands we grow all vegetables and grains without irrigation. For grasses we irrigate
thoroughly. Mesa land we have to irrigate.

The preservation of timber as affecting the rain-fall is not an important question
with us. We have almost too much moisture. .

Table showing the number of rain and snow falls at a point near Gunnison, Colo., from
August, 1882, to May, 1886, inclusive.

: 1882. ~ 1883. | - 1884. 1885. 1886.

Month. | pera iet

| Rain. Snow.) Rain. Snow.) Rain.'Snow.| Rain. Snow.| Rain. Snew.

JRUBY ess ee ee eae = ae See eee cen nes see eae peers Uh sei a Leer Ll eee 12
INEDrNALY 2a Sesotho eee eee [seats esa eee Dal isenien Gal ssee | LS ace! 3
MaTGH : Beas oe cece sees = Sone A eee ee Heep Py eee (a) oeesee Ge SSe 5 ilposene 3
Ce eee nn Mea knee Regs Aline 2 Wee) ear fee 7 4 Bele ee 2
IMB Vrs oot Pera SMe PSS SSR San Cocco setae aceieee 4} 2 A | 3 i eae 37 eee
RUNG) eee a2 ook, See ener Mee Bote ae eeme 6.|.----- DA aie Ser Bf) 2. cus eee cee
RU a aa ee ee Ses eee ee eee eee “fe acee \eaeeee (ho a ones | pe te ae eee Pseises een
PAMICUSEs Sek Jeeta each ee a eee Sylessece | _ 10 |--.-.. f abl ecbse | nA Ga ee Pease a rs 53
DSPieMmiboeas se seat eee ener ene see a ee Sas ocee a) ees Le (| BE ee
Wetohere fs o-- fae P oe cea ee idl oaeiae: =| oy) ase 535 jeossce el PREIS feces 5 a (cf
INOVveMmbpent as. =sce see cee eee een eee eae 7 Pee leeosee \Beecee 2 eee \-aaees
Wecembernse = ses a. = acs seeks ORG Se Wana) | eee Fete OU cares aeass eine? 4 | eae [asooee

The following table, kindly prepared by Sergeant Hall, the officer in
charge of the U.S. Signal Service station at the summit of Pike’s Peak,
shows the total precipitation and relative humidity at that point from
the year 1875 to 1885, inclusive:

Total | Relative | Total | Relative
Date. | precipita-| humid- | . Date. precipita-| hnmid-
tion. ity. tion. ity.
| |
Inches. Inches.
WSIS Maz cance ss seas eee see 24.74 UBS4) WAIBBL sae Saas ees sos seme ere 44.49 66.7
STG retook Seen eee eee PBT |e GUS1Gl | ISSO Rees See a See eee 28. 99 78.4
NSE aero eee es Seca ee ose 25. 58 GS fl)! LOSS ae ace Bee oe Sans eee TRS bam 80.1
NSIS esas ee othe cat tee aoe eee 42.99 612.2 ||PISSE Sees ae ee 9. 28 | 77.4
LOY A aS RI a ct ie eS ee ee 39. 82 AOS uh || GeG) 6 isso soo oecedeescsece 30. 48 82.3
TSSOe o=e 5 eee 40. 65 55.3 |
{

Yearly and seasonal averages at Denver, Colo.

{Compiled from thirteen years’ observations. ]

& rs =e matsehe Bs > =~ | na

BR | & Se eee eee Cae Pace pele! | eee

ata Pah eee Maer eae ee |e = = 3

| | oa | ese IN eed Wilbert a tO = S = fe

5) | o = eva joey al lea r= n = Si ia

a 2S) 5 =). = S ra S| Pea a, es a =I Ss =

& 5) © | = + =| = way a, 2 = re)

Season. elas lee) SSE Be SS tee ee ee

> Sy bees heseel) aes = = en ee ACT eS n O | -a

ea fhe = poamen Pickem Bee a= a tel) wor et oer ae a =| =

o 1.48 | § a S OS a) we) ey ae WK) 3) a Ts} >

Se oes Pt Ss ee ee es Py rahi ee sisls

Spa een (anger foe es a= ae Fetes Ss Fash te = S| acbe

Diy Weieey = o a) ofS Esa ee Wis SPSS Eo Sie eS

Alea |e Ps les A |. | 4: Oe eas

Rees, Led
| | Perct.| In
Spring average.----- AT. 2191922 | » 29ST 5 86 25 33 39 20 81; 3.0) S. 1 7.3
Summer average ....| 69.8 | 95.9 | 47.1) 44.9] 4.91 26 37 42 13 | 89) 2.4)8.} 6.1
Autumn average ....| 49.6 | 80.6] 19.8 | 45.5} 2.34] 15] 49] 29 13] - "86 | 22S 526
Winter average .....| 29.8 | 62.2 i—7.3 54.3 1. 84 15 44 36 10| 84 2.1 S. | 6.2
| ol — ' ——
Yearly average. -| 49.1 | 79.2 | 19.7) 48.4 | 14.95 81 | 163 146 56 | 340 2.6 S.45623
| | | | } | | i

> JOSEPH J. GILLIGAN,
Ubserver Signal Service. U. S. Army.

;

os)

Yearly and seasonal averages at Santa Fé, N. Mex.

{Compiled from thirteen years’ observation of the U.S. Signal Service. ]

xe H 5 H om a | d
: rs os o es) a | = S) b
oO i — a = -
= a = 2 = oa Le pee | Mesto
Sb eS Sed eee Se ech ii ae
Season. Ba | Oem asia | ee | ee | rete eee
o aes oc os oS o|ea|] = pS
5, ae) as 2 2s asa ico ire Cis
qg | 8 is! iS e aS eee a =
o 0) S 4 = = ne oO aS iS j=)
i ot aa) A A A 12) ia a)
Perct.| In. |
Spring average...-.--.---------.-------: 46.9 | 36.3 | 1.93 | 36.5) 48.6) 11.9| 3.9 | SW. 8.5
Gimme avelacenes ssc ce. scece-cs seaa~ || 60.4) 4258) 7.56)" 28,3 |) 5003) | 18. 45a) |B: 6.8
ANTRUITIN BOP sooonc canon ponocceaeoce 48.4 | 46.4) 318) 49.1) 33.5) 8.4) 2.9) Var. 6.3
Wein Geman EMD OC a seater sare al (oi terel mime cm rainh 30.2 | 53.3 | 1.90] 41.8) 34.4|14.0] 3.5 6.8
Yearly average....-..----+.------- 48. 44,7 | 14.57 | 155.7 | 161.8 | 47.7 | 3.7 tell
|

The following meteorological data are from observations taken at
the U. S. Signal Service station, Santa Fé, N. Mex. The data for 1881
do not include the month of December for that year. During the years

1883 and 1884 the station was closed:

|
Mean Ba- | Mean tem-| Mean hu- | Direction c

Year. rometer. | perature. midity. of wind. Rain-fall.
Sis smser: 23. 292 47.9 41.8 IN: 9. 89
Sis ee 23. 272 48.6 37. 0 N. 9, 73
HSA (e bute es es 23. 211 48. 0 48. 0 K. 19. 83
IRiDee seas 23.209 48. 0 42.0 SW. 18. 79
GW Seses ses 23. 256 47.6 52.9 EK. 15. 07
TT tases ee 23. 266 47.6 43. 3 Ki. Us US)
NSiSiea= es Pass AO 47.5 42.1 N. 19. 55
Wee): cossoe 23. 299 50. 2 39.8 ¥,. 11.44
LereWesccecn 23. 269 45.4 44. 6 SW. 9. &9
RS Sie eseiere 23. 268 49.7 51.9 SW. Pale C5)
BB 2S eee eee 23. 238 48.3 44,3 7196 10. 37
ISSo Sees eee 23. 297 47.7 538. 4 N. 14. 89

Tor the gubjoined tables I am indebted to the courtesy of General A.

W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer, U.S. Army.

Annual and mean annual temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) at stations of the Signal

Service, U. S. Army.

Pr =
° 3
Peele sy
DQ
Stations. 1873. |1874. |1875. |1876. |1877. |1878. |1879. 1889. |1881. 1882. |1883. 1884. |= |
Ae) a
=) co)
Alea
Northern Plateau:
Boisé City, Idaho .....).--.-|.---.]---- |.--+-|----- 52. 4| 51.4) 48.9) 50.0] 48.6] (1) | 50.0} 6] 50.2
Lewiston, Idaho. .....-|----.|.----[---+ |---+-[---+-]---+-]----- 49.5) 51.1] 51.6] 50.3) 49.4] 5] 50.4
Northern Slope: -
NSaimmiboime, Mts Monta o. 5 Yeon |. Sey Jean alijas eles Maal (esl pei 5 42. 71 39.21 39.1! 3) 40.3
Benton, Fort, Mont....| 42.5] 43.3] 42.3] () | @ | @ | @ | 40.3) 43.6) 44.8] 43.0] 41.5| 8] 42.6
Custer, Fort, Mont ..-.|.-..-)....-|.----[.--.-|-----|---+-|----- 43.0) 45.3] 45:21 () | 40.9] 4] 43.6
Helena, Mont ..-......|--.+-|---+-|-----|--20-|- 2-00 [--ee-[e eee fee ee 43,8) 43.8) 42.7] 40.2] 4] 42.6
Mosramis Hort, Moma: | eo |e seer ae ea| a= SEE alee ereed ame eee: 39. 5) 38.1] . 2) 38.8
Siew TO NOH soos Souelldenoslbaaos losnoe le aooallbesoel seco albeane 42.1} 42. 5} 40.6) 39.8) 4) 41.2
Deadwood, Dak.....--- soso |lsconelloras |lscho-|ooesclestosllaanoc 40.8 () | 42.9) 40.5] 40.5} 4) 41.2
Cheyenne, Wyo..-..--. 44, 8) 45, 5) 42. 5) 44.3) 44. 2) 44.2) 46.5) 42.9) 45.8) 43.9) 42.4) 42.6) 12) 44.1
Middle Slope:
Denver, Colo .-=... --. 48. 1] 49. | 48,6] 49.5) 48.8] 49. 5] 50.8) 47. 4] 50,8) 50.3) 48.8] 49.5) 12 49.3
Pike’s Peak, Culo......)....- 18. 9] 18.2] 19.0] 18.4! 19. 4] 21.9] 17.9] 20.7] 18. 8] 18.7/ 18.3] 11] 19.1
West Las Animas, Colo. Steer aves eee Nae pve eA er aee a GIMP (boro cory ae ome iis | Ly Pel ene oe 49, 6| 48.7 9] 49, 2
Southern Plateau: :
Santa Fé, N. Mex...... 48. 6| 48,0] 48.0) 47.5) 47.6) 47.5] 50.2) 45.4/ @) | 4831 | 9| 47.9

1Record incomplete. 2No record.

Annual and mean annual precipitation at stations of the Signal Service, U. S. Army, com-
piled from the commencement of observations to 1884, inclusive.

Mont as2 eee Oct: 6/1819 | 2. heels eee al ys oe Saye ease legis Sal cya pe teteaoe eeeree
Benton, Fort |

Montes ee Oct: lIS1879=|ee- 5-27 TPE SPA may Ne cay eo Te (') () ()
Custer, Fort

Monte sseee eer. = Dee 5ATSI8 esiie.c ccm Sellise Seo ee ae ee alles eee oe cee ctl | enter | eee
Helena, Mont ..2) Oct.c15 1879 la. c. cen|fe-8 so ae le eet ae alse ence lee qoee ee eee ea. | Sete es eee
Maginnis, Fort,

MONG een SlyeAlaa S825 eee ee | See Seals cae See aioe e de eo ee coer | Cees aes |e ee | eee
Poplar River,

NO Nissgeee sac May. 151882: | S.ok.csalinns sccieal. sce coe allie ere orere | Sesioreeterete | Prerarserarere | ee ete eye eerie
Shaw, Fort: Mont.| -Aprilt 1880) less est caressa al ecb eee le oe eel see = sl ieee al een eee
Cheyenne, Wyo.; Nov. 1, 1870 9. 23 13. 48 10.01 9.71 12.10 S03" |e seh 12. 64

Middle Slope:
Denver. Colo. ..-| Nov. 19, 1871 |...-..-- TREOS S| OME SI U4 Gelb 20 OES elOsaculme tone
RikeisiReakiColoseNove Js8735 | sense oe eee Bees 26.86 | 24.74] 23.87 | 25.58 | 42.87
West Las Ani-
mas, Colo..---- Octac A VS81e | S85 5 See a a oe ree eee | cad ayant Selle fel oes epee
Mean annual.
Stations. Established.| 1879. | 1880. |~ 1881. ; 1882. | 1883. ; 1884. |—
Years. | Inches.
|
Northern Plateau: Inches. | Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches. | Inches.
Boisé City,Idaho.} July 1,1877 | 17.63 | 10.66] 13.56 | 14.43 () 21.05 6 14 59
Lewiston, Idaho.| July 1, 1879 |..-..... 17.41 20. 56 14.74 1, Se PANS Tp 5 18. 05
Northern Slope:
Assinniboine, |

Mort. -Mont--2-| Oct: GlS797 see | Sena espe meee ) 12.76 15103255167. 3 17. 84
Benton, Fort, |

IMOnt=-s 4-5 -ee- Oct. 11, 1879 () () 16. 81 10. 18 13.01 | () 7 12. 50
Custer, Fort,

Monti ssc. -<: Wee =o weiSaleasae eee 19. 65 11. 88 12. 05 13. 84 16. 60 5 14. 80
Helena Montss. (Octal a lS79eleeaenees|eoeer eee 19.94 | 10.32 (1) 19.18 3 16. 48
Maginnis, Fort,

Monte seco sen el vata aS S Oe eee ees ers ees | eet ee Peace 13.29 | 9.00 2 11. 14
Poplar River,

keine 5 eeeee AS May: 1882s bee) Sock eee eee ec paneer 6522 | 10.25 | 2 8. 24
Shaw, Fort,Mont.| April 1,1880-)..-..-2.|..---. -- 14. 77 14. 21 2.64 | 13.64 4 13. 82
Cheyenne, Wyo.| Nov. 1, 1870 7.34 8.38 | 11.88 8.64 | 19.24 | 15.54 14 11. 07

Middle Slope: F
Denver, Colo ....| Nov.19, 1871 10. 86 9. 58 12. 78 14,49 19.49 | 15.07 | 13 14.99
Pike’s Peak,Colo.| Nov. 1, 1873 39. 82 40.65 | 44. 57 28. 82 18. 17 9.28 11 29257
West Las Ani-

mas, Colo...... Oct TASB eee as | ee eee eee eee VE TQ 5S 705) 2 13. 41

| |

1 Record incomplete.

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS.

A ‘well-known writer speaks of the agricultural resources of the
Rocky Mountain region as follows:

Generally speaking, those best acquainted with the West make the largest esti-
mates of its resources and have the most faith in its future. Land, on first sight, of-
ten appears worthless, which experiment afterwards proves to be fertile. I instance
the “Great Columbia Plains” of eastern Washington, where the soil, which varies
from 1 foot to 20 in depth, is, except in the bottom-lands, a very light-colored loam,
containing an unusually large percentage of alkalies and fixed acids. A few years
aco sowing wheat on the soil woul d have been deemed throwing it away; but the
experiment resulted in a revelation, viz, that these 14,000,000 acres of peculiar soil
are probably the best wheat fields in all the world. Other illustrations equally strik-
Ine MMe Dh DE CIVen Ae) Aeon

The arable lands of the Rocky Mountains are mainly in the valleys, which, like
basins, have gathered the detritus of the mountains for ages. The soil is therefore
very deep and fertile, yielding much more than the same area in the East; and in the
southwest two crops a year from the same soil are very common, so that this land
is equal to twice or three times the same area in the East.

Another writes:

Nothing is more surprising than.the material for supporting a population which
continues to be developed in all this region of mountain and plain, which twenty
years ago was considered an inhospitable desert, capable of supporting nothing but
Indians. ; ‘

The State of Colorado, and the Territories of New Mexico, Wyoming,
Montana, and Idaho, have collectively an area of 553,604 square miles,
which is more than are times the area of the Middle au New Ting-
land States.

The extraordinary mining development of this region and its immense
grazing resources are widely known and appreciated, but its agricult-
ural possibilities are, as yet, but little known to the general public,
Inesome localities in the mountains, farming operations are carried on
to a limited extent without the aid of irrigation, but such instances are
exceptions to the general rule. For the growing of crops recourse must
usually be had to artificial water-supply. The extensive irrigation
systems, fully inaugurated in Colorado, and partially so in the adjacent
territories, have already reclaimed for agricultural uses millions of
acres once deemed barren and worthless. The only limit to progress
in that direction will be the amount of available water. Could the
sources of water supply be adequately protected, and storage reservoirs
constructed in suitable places, thousands of square miles in this region
could be gained to agriculture, homes provided for multitudes of people,
and the aggregate wealth of the country greatly enhanced. The capac-
ity of the land to produce crops and the fitness of the seasons to mature
them are no longer unsettled questions.

Note.—More particular statements in regard to irrigation, as practiced in the Rocky
Mountain region, are given in the descriptions of the several divisions as they
occur in this report. The following summary will bring the whole matter into view
at one glance, and on that account it has been inserted here. It will be understood
of course that minute accuracy in such a case is impossible. Approximate estimates
only can be made. But it is believed that the estimates are in no case exaggerated.

Colorado has from 950 to 1,000 miles of main irrigating canals, 3,500 miles of second
class canals, and 40,000 miles of ditches, constructed at a cost of $11,000,000. More
than 1,000,000 acres of otherwise useless land havethus been brought under successful
and profitable cultivation.

Wyoming, in 1884, had seventeen incorporated irrigation companies, chiefly in two
counties. One of these had under its control 60,000 acres of land, and has constructed
a canal 66 miles in length. Another company has begun the construction of a canal
calculated to irrigate 270,000 acres.

Utah, in 1885, had 2,810 miles of main and 7,750 miles of tributary canals, and
656,000 acres under cultivation by this means.

New Mexico is estimated to have irrigating canals and ditches equal in extent to
those of Utah. Two canals are now projected capable together of watering from
3,000,000 to 4,000,000 acres.

In Idaho there are sixty-five land aud water companies reported and there are many
hundred miles of canals and ditches, but particulars are not published. .

In Montana there is a considerable but indefinite amount of irrigation by means of
the smaller mountain streams. One company in Yellowstone County has constructed
a main canal 40 miles long and ditches capable of irrigating 60,000 acres, and an.
other has a main canal 75 miles in length.

The intimate relation of the forests to the water seni necessary for irrigation
will soon force itself upon the consideration of those living in the Rocky Mountain
region, and it is well set forthin a recent statement of Mr. Nettleton, State engineer
of Gulorado’ who says:

“It is estimated that 60 inches of water fail annually on the eastern slope of the
Rocky Mountains in the form of snow and rain;. 80 per cent. of this falls during
the winter and spring months. That which falls late in the autumn and early in
winter is most available for irrigation, as it becomes solid, almost like ice, and melts
slowly under the summer’s sun, affording a steady flow through the irrigating season.
Snows falling in late spring melt rapidly, and the watersrun down the rivers unused.
Although about fifty mountain peaks in Colorado reach an elevation of over 14,000
feet, yet the snow nearly all disappears every season, small quantities only remaining
in small patches here and there. On this account there are at present no glaciers in
the Rocky Mountains. The cold mountains condense the moisture in the country ad-
jacent, thereby robbing the plains of their quota of moisture.

‘“Hence the necessity for irrigation. It is quite easy to foreteli the probable
amount of water for irrigation purposes for. the coming season by watching the
amount of snow-fall in the mountains.

‘Farmers living from 20 to 3) miles from the mountains, or where they can watch
the snow-fall on the main range of the mountains, have learned to gauge their crops
by the time the snow falls and the quantity. if the snow falls early, they expect
water for late crops. If the snow falls principally in the spring months, they fear
short water in summer and fall, and plant or sow accordingly.

‘*There can be no doubt about the influence that cutting or burning the timber on
the mountains has on the flow of our streams. They will on this account become
more intermittent in their flow, which is a drawback to the irrigation interests of the
State. The preservation of the mountain forests should be encouraged.” .

INDUSTRIES. >
AGRICULTURE.

Agriculture is making rapid progress in this region, and is likely to
have greater proportionate development than other industries. Utah
was the first of the mountain Territories to show adequately what could
be done in the way of systematic farming, and the first to adopt proper
methods of irrigation. Her example has been extensively followed,
whenever Reneanio, throughout the region of the mountain and the
plains. During the last year or two western Kansas and Nebraska
and eastern Colorado have received large accessions of settlers who
have opened new farms and grown crops without the aid of irrigation.

Except upon the plains, broad areas adapted to a single crop are not
found. Great diversity of production exists by reason of differences In
soil, elevation, and climate. Colorado Springs, the home of the writer,
has an elevation of 6,000 feet above the sea. The spring seasons of the
year are backward, and early vegetables, small fruits, and other sup-
plies of a like nature are obtained in part from the warm valleys only

a few miles distant but 1,500 or 2,000 feet lower in altitude. As the
season advances nearly the same products are grown at higher eleva-
tions. Upon the farms of this region are raised wheat, oats, alfalfa,
timothy, red and white clover, and other grains and grasses. In the
orchards and gardeng are found the hardier and smaller fruits, includ-
ing many varieties of grapes. At elevations 1,000 or 2,000 feet higher
in the mountain parks and valleys, or upon the Arkansas-Platte Divide,
oats, rye, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, turnips, timothy, and other
erasses, tame and native, are successfully cultivated; usually without,
the aid of irrigation. The foregoing is only an illustration of what is
being done in many parts of the mountain region.

MINING.

The yield of precious metals for the year 1886 is officially reported as
follows:

State or Territory. Gold. Silver.

Tdaho....-- BES seis penn cia BS ACR CREE cern enic tehce OOO RIMES Ene tar eRe eee eae $1, £00, 000 | $3, 600, 000
Je ECAR Hes hs NN PMS pct een ICS capes RT Ree eRe Nr eet ime nf an ee 4, 425, 000 12, 490, 000
(COONOTNGIO 3 SE Bis SEE ee os Mie ie ee Ie Pe en Fs ars sis ea es oe NU 4,450, 000 | 16, 900, 000
[Witte oe hoe ee Eos Rael TSENG On ergata Se VEG eet Ue Wie OE Aang rae MRIERSE. oe oe 216, 000 6, 500, 000
Novel Miesd Cobre eect ee eran Game nts Maa nan ane NS Tee SP er 2s Sauna ie 400, 000 2, 300, 000
NV AV ONT Cahier Se Veo ey See cs cele oc i ONE Re a Reel ei oat aia ete (*) (*)

Lotalin Rocky Mountain me Gon oan seen retme =. - ae eee wisan=ck see cee a 11, 291,000 | 40, 800, 000
Percentage of total product in United States ........-..2-..-22eee2eeec ee eee: 32. 4 79.5

* No report.

The copper product of the Rocky Mountain region is given in pounds
as follows by Mr. Kirchhoff, jr., in the pe of the mining statistics
compiled by MF: D.T. Day, of the U.S. Geological Survey:

State or Territory. 1882. 1883. 188 !. 1885. 1886.

MEN N® 2282 See Ee Go See ae nen Geis CRN et So ie ie te Pee aS ee We 46, 667 40 BST Se Ooe eee
TE Gi BIN 5 ee ae a ee 9, 058, 284 | 24, 664,346 | 43,093 054 | 67,797,864 | 57,611, 621
pW Wayornimlorar 3 S2e02 O82 Fee eee 100, 000 DG 2HA CEN ies eatin eRe eer ee mee oe SERRA
Woloradomeeee yee eo Re Meal eras 1, 494, 000 1,152, 652 Pe (WN BY 55 1, 146, 460 409, 306
Uo Ae ERs OSs See ee eae Veet 605, 880 341, 885 265, 526 126, 199 500, 000
MewiMoxcom on Soe eT! 869, 498 823, 511 59, 450 79, 839 558, 385
Totalesasyaeers =. % Reece 12, 127, 662 Biles 944, we 45, 477, 822 69, 190, 743 *69, 079, 312
Total of United States ....... 90, 646, 232 | 115, 526, 053, 144, 946, 000 | 165, 875,000 | 156, 735, 000

Percentage from Rocky Mountain gone iene Be 7
MO SMO Mee see eee sce at ES | 13%, 33 24. 2 Slee 41.7 44

* The decrease of production in 1886 was due partly to labor troubles and partly to unfavorable
market conditions.

The lead product in 1886 for the region may be estimated as follows:

Short tons.
LINER ye ae ES TE AO St ers Sense a ct a 20, 000

@ olgradone sea temen see ree Sate ey Soe er ae 59, 000
lay: 52 Saas see et es Se ee Se a ae: 16, 0006
pl nailer tree mae See Ne okies LAT oe ht Ok 95, COO

_ or about 75 per cent. of the total lead product of the United States.

Coal.—Statisties relating to the production of coal will be found in
another part of this report.

STOCK-GROWING.

This industry has been not only a very important but a very profitable
one. During the last year or two, owing to a variety of causes—mis-
management being a principal one—the leading branch of the business,
cattle-raising, has not yielded much profit. The “range” system of
raising cattle and horses, with its attendant cruelties and losses, is
eradually giving way to more humane and thrifty methods. Improved
breeds are being introduced, and no doubt in the near future the busi-
ness will be placed upon a much better footing than heretofore. In fact,
the immense grazing resources of the region are likely to be more fully
utilized in the future than in the past.

The estimated number of cattle in the Kocky Mountain region at the
beginning of the present year (1887) was 4,919,113, and the value of the
same $104,981,067.

WOOL-GROWING

This is a branch of the live-stock industry which should not be over-
looked. In Colorado and New Mexico it has long occupied a promi-
nent place, and it is gradually gaining ground in the surrounding
Territories. Growing the mutton breeds of sheep is also receiviag at-
tention.

The number of sheep in the region now under review was estimated
to be, on the Istof January, 1887, 7,353,326, and their value $12,477,725. |

MANUFACTURES.

Some of the leading manufactures are those connected with the min-
ing industry, such as the reduction of ores, manufacture of coke, char.
coal, machinery, and castings. Iron furnaces, steel and nail works,
rolling mills, foundries, ete., are mainly centered at Denver and Pueblo.

The following is the product of the works of the Colorado Coal and
Iron Company, at Pueblo, for the year 1886:

Tons.
@oal: shes ae ste bee oo ee oa ee eee eee ese 615, 360
Cale, © sion cose eee ee ee 112, 200
Pig-iron (five months’ run only) -..-.------------------ 9, 323
Spiegeleisen ..-2.----. -. --<. s22--- so === oe se soe eee = n= 982
Steel rails (four months only) /-2-< -<-----=se- 22--- == 5, 872
Merchant bar iron’. 3 2.0 oe See 4, 240
Castings (for their own use only). --------------------- 621
Cast-irom pipe 2..--. .----- .----- +--+ 22 - =n eee ee eee 995
Nails, kegs of 100 pounds each. ...--. -------------+---- 53, 250
Track spikes, kegs of 150 pounds each -..---.---------- 3, 370

Smelting and reduction works are in operation in all of the principay
mining districts. The many minor manufactures and productions of
this country can not here be described, When oue considers the ex-

tensive water-power afforded by the mountain streams, the inexhaustible
coal measufes, and the amount and variety of raw material at hand, it
seems more than probable that the manufactures of the region will rap-
idly increase in number and importance. In view of the great produc-
tion of wool here, it is difficult to understand why cloth and wooien fac-
tories have not already been established.

STONE AND MARBLE.

Extensive and valuable stone quarries have been developed and
worked wherever building operations have created a demand for stone.
The existence of many elegant and substantial public buildings, busi-
ness blocks and residences, constructed of this material, attest the extent
and value of this industry. Fine marble quarries of great extent have
also been discovered at various points, and are receiving due attention

and development,

POPULATION AND VALUES.

An estimate, based mainly upon official reports, of the present popu-
lation of Colorado and the Territories under consideration is, in round
numbers, as follows :

Idaho, 97,250; Montana, 130,000; Wyoming, 85,000; Colorado, 259,-
000; New Mexico, 148,000; Utah, 196,600; total, 906,800, The prin-
cipal towns and their population are as follows:

Idaho.—Boisé City, 3,000; Hailey, 2,500; Ketchum, 2,000; Paris,

1,000. °
” Montana.—-Helena, 10,000; Butte City, 15,000; Missoula, 2,500; Boze-

man, 2,500; Fort Benton, Billings, and Miles City, about 1,500 each.
Wyoming.—Cheyenne, 7,100; Laramie, 5,100; Rawlins, 1,500; Evaus-
ton, 1,800; Rock Springs, 1,200; Douglas, 1,200; Carbon, 1,000.
Colorado.—Denver, 62,000; Pueblo, 12,500; Leadville, 11,000; Col-
orado Springs, 5,800.
New Mexico.—Santa Fé, 7,000; Albuquerque, 10,000.
Utah.—Salt Lake City, 20,768.
The following are the assessed valuations for the year 1887 of real

and personal property, exclusive of mines :

ICED NORRIS ets a see oa en Ne bso tea olekare Sica ote ar'elfavero a re) ayeraleve $20, 741, 192. 00
Montana 2c.) -25 + see walec esc cere n= -e Sara Sie dels eietet a Pte owes ic, Siowmrele\ 60, 200, 000. 00
Ny OWNING screener. ae me ale ach Sa ate crepe cea ents Sera anes ao a hac ees 32, 089, 613. 00
WVOLONAC OR ee iarate cise Ieee oes oo aisjs eS sie os clets aps ela, sta ee tila ebciet 136, 322, 313. 00
ANGLO NGL C Os oe srcteremcttrens Reinders faianeco os cremmponnte lay clarm ae tae Said eiclinigue --- 63, 000, 000. 00
ED Reeag ll se es Seces i eects ec neers oy Nive era ies Mie awit ole) 3 Secic e's cic's’ « sehciste cla cite, 2 35, 865, 000. 00

More detailed statements can be given as follows:

Notgs.—For the purpose of comparison, the estimates of the numbers and value of
farm animals, January 1, 1887, made by the Statistician of the Department of Agri-
eniture, are appended to the assessed valuations,

24738 —Bull 2- a

SSS

—

—SS—

Assessed valuation of the Territory of Idaho for the year 1887.

Territorial |

Estimate of Depart-
: estimate. | ment of Agriculture.
Description of property.
Number. |Number.| Value.
ETOUSES 2 coese acoso sect se aoe = es inc ieee niente nape cre eae erences 132, 922 48,750 | $2, 681, 250
METALS) 3 sia crcharicrss alate erciae Gree oie = atenciepate © eeetsctie State eas Sr eran crate (ae hererates Sree ae | ne ee 2, 436 210, 714
Cattle SOOOSDSba55 005 codenS Sean oo SSn 505 SESS Sacs0500 SosdoNSoSEsEceSss 442,363 | 339, 453 7, 298, 240
SWALINS Gaga soa50d codDOS soasn Oo ados8s Su Sa 0oKONs Boyd oSESoouSDRSOSSeGE 60, 411 28, 100 147, 525
Grain) (bushels) 2-2 saci c ct onaieis amet e se ae aos ae eae Sees QibI4 BOD Cees eed ne aee eee
iPaly,(f008) (pote so scsc ob emcee ee net eee econ cose este tesa aeeaee 342-9145) 5 a. cocecleceemec eee
Railroads (miles) ssekses sete e oc miecS ce ae coerce cere eee 900: ice eecis al acetate

Total taxable property, $20,741,192.

Assessed valuation of the Territory of Montana for the year 1886,

Description of property.

Number.

Territorial estimate.

Value.

Acres of land and improvements ......--..-.---....
Town lots and improvements

TOTSES ee ce he Soe cretviee Snare See Bee Searels See ee sees
Mle Stand: aSSeS {sac csmosecs ose ne ns wee ee eice cee oe eee
SHES De swe oac Goce eee minyacictetee se sng oe bores ce cietreets
CHIH Hes Sees Geers Ae esi eet ars Saree ee ie See ae
Swine. SEAR, cee id ote ts Caan niabi als om ictete eee eon eee

Wagons and carriages
Watches and clocks

Musicalinstruments
Shares of stock
IMerehandisencaccsn see oe ot eee ee ee ese
Capital and manufactures
MoneystandicreditSyenaece ees eae saneeeeeerir eee
Household furniture
All other property

Se ee ee iy

4,115, 457
33, 954
127, 748
2,121
968, 298
663, 716

18, 837 |

$9, 898, 470
8, 997, 460
4, 33, 595

116, 145
1, 952, 728
13, 347, 815
75, 713
493, 716
90, 113
54, 646
103, 971
288, 020
3, 493, 976
296, 700
5, 660, 843
135, 827
5, 737, 131

55, 076, 871 |

Estimate of Department
of Agriculture.

Number.

seee ee cee eee
te ete eee cee

ereces cee eee
essen e sesee-
ees eee seeaee
eeeeus ceeess
seer sce erees
enceouse cence
eeece ee eee eee

Assessed valuation of the Territory of Wyoming for the year 1887.

RO Gal Seas ete eee Se See he eee ee
Description of property.
TEROTS OSI care Sete teres eS eae als ie a rae ee eee
Mine Se hos ee ate ree aS eee eee
Oath) Oe nas neonate cis eee eee seco miceyes = eee
SNEGPis sari t see tases saan eu ee Se eens ao ee
Swine

ail rOaas (miles) sos eae 2 had oe eae a elo ee
Capital in manufactures and trade

Territorial estimate.

Value.

ececce sesece

$6, 535, 088
662, 181
1, 762, 197
18, 775, 310
119, 168

a
eecceeccsece
eee eeececess
ee
wee eee cere
eee
weer ec ee rece
seeesecceses

—_—— ______——

‘Estimate of Department

of Agriculture.

Number. Value. Number.
66, 658 | $2,310, 712 | 82, 500
2, 590 118, 300 2, 850
753, 648 | 10, 186, 360 1, 255, 298
421, 688 637, 433 534, 020
1, 144 6, 010 2, 750

Hi Ne ae eee

Lit Rela or 1, 502, 700

Total assessment, $32,089,613,

Value.

$3, 678, 675
198, 887
28, 815, 365

ee ee

Assessed valuation of the State of Colorado for the year 1826.

Description of property.

Acres of land with improvements
Miles of railroad

Average of merchandise. .....-.--
Capital in manufactures ..---..----------+----.-|....----------
own aol Gilijy NOUS css500 cocososcbosdooSsooeseccllbeeososos Sone
TEI@IRSOR. cescelsocus denoonoeeséouE bos

(GO aS sere aw cis lien ets e arrerayete
_ All other animals ..-......-....-...
Musical instruments.-......-.-.-.-
Clocks and watches.......--.-----
Jewelry and plate......-----.-----
Money and credits .........---..--
Carriages and vehicles. .--..-.---.
Household property .-.-....-..-..-
Bank and other shares ..--....--.--
AM OWN TOAD] DEE Ne caone ooopndDoouedovanaoeoeus\losucdooocdadas

CRO UALAVAIUATIONG ssalacemecice tiene es ces catalloae ee mem ess

State estimate.

—

Estimate of Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

wee ce seo ese eee

Number. Value. Number. Value.
AR 5S4e O38) G4 OMe ON OLG ep atay cree Aare lesa ive sapiee
DAG) ORS ORY ROR SIRT RO cue as Oe he Case OEE
Mer teen Be BNOST(0G10 08 ee eae aoe ees
TUS OP Aula cebegaee ne cl gee mee see ys)
AZ TO OC Se OO wl ae Na aoe renee tee eeiarete
124, 032 4, 663, 327. 00 123, 770 $7, 178. 918
6, 247 385, 529. 00 8, 165 685, 224
845, 038 12, 425, 061. 00 1, 070, 768 23, 768, 479
777, 494 832, 121. 00 1, 149, 178 1, 845, 579
22, 260 67, 205. 00 21, 290 146, 424
2, 230 282035 OOH ae ss ees i lta are eh ees
10, 713 ORGS OO OW eet eet sles wan U EM te oe tetera a
8, 421 DE G6S OO oie ae moa teee eee wee
= AA BSOeSONOON Meee ae ae cance seme nome
Dela eee PAN SIN || Soe men meee celean Joneeseos
se a NOE BONO 00" | see eae teen anaes Na
ee Chante 21689" GAGA OOS peta come Coleen cee cee
ers aes GOO MIG 8200 i Soe aoc cscs saoere sees
BES eS (0 Saeko OW OS O Oat yeiapieds see state erarera tenet rears

1, 269, 836.
1, 801, 640.

124, 269, 710.

To this may be added the mineral production, which fe not taxable, as follows:

Gold...--. Sie EE eRe SiS Nt a eM a ie veg Bea $4, 447, O77
STURGIS Ae See escipay HO SEES res Ao Ce eicne Sire sree iene ts eee 14, 083, 190
Coppers aree. week os es oes eccs es Se A ieee eae aes 43, 907
Wie adore ce tecsactcee shee Wee So cond Sous cesses tee. 5, 143, 566

ERO tie eee Sree rcs iame SS ees enue EE 23, 717, 340

More recent returns give the total assessed valuation of Colorado for 1887, as

$136,322,313.36.

The changes from 1886 are mainly in the following items:

Description of property.

Number.

Value.

3, 650
148, 027
7, 560

1, 500, 000
1, 422, 900
63, 332

$28, 988, 300
5, 042, 480
544, 865

22, 500, 000
38, 311, 652
206, 292

Assessed valuation of the Territory of New Mexico for the year 1887.

neers . Estimate of Depart-
Territorial estimate. On OE gricn ave: :
Description of property. |
Number. Value. | Number. Value.

TORSCS eee ereeeeeneee eeiece ee eae ee ee eee pemooonasos | pesrascoossoc: 20, 786 $745, 944
IMUMUeSt esos sissies sec ce eee ees eeeiseem wer cmeeeemas [Steen eps tee tet pans, | one cemnn pe erece Vert 10, 912 520, 501
Cattle. case Se wtes eco ae ois sisters Heels eee ae nr renee 916,287 $11,003,280 | 1, 220,968 | 21, 824, 801
SHC Pree as sects seeiicew meee ce eeercmemeseaeenosen T0252 815 | see mer cee ae 4, 025, 742 5, 958, 098
SUE eee ER ere os St eines geen ae ens asa ea ora SoReal SaeepS eee 20, 990 131, 555
Coals (Cons) saeceaSone sees oer owen e Sota: BOL O22 cols, seis oh een onl Aa eee eee Oe eee
Railroads x(miles) se esa, cesses e se eeeemeer ne A000 sl Soe Sa: sateen s Sat AR Seo eee ol Sereeroemeeees

Total assessment, $63,000,000.

Assessed valuation of the Territory of Utah for the year 1887.

aaa : Estimate of Department
Territorial estimate. of Agriculture.
Description of property. ;
Number. | Value. | Number. Value.
H Seen Soosocs SoU nGbono basasb onouUnmonucDoECooeSeDe 250, 000 |$10, 000, 000 56,1386 | $2, 466, 490
Wace ee ee Slee thee ieee ete oe ue ad ip ate 31597 | 215, 082
(Gait lO == csos5Scngdde Souos poScaoeocEnobUnDbUCEOOSdoace 500, 000 | 11,500, 000 | 219, 842 4,498, 871 —
SHEEP . --- 22. e ena e cen cee ee nn ew ne een 2,400,900 | 7, 000, 000 | 658, 285 1, 343, 692
GATT Gee enc ere oie cM a ws ere ere irene eee 100, 000 500, 000 | 28,656 | , 237, 052
JReMbTOMGlss (jen) oe ou condo benesS5acuoccsconeousuen ccc Paleo ccc eels teeeroues teeeeeeCeee
i et

Total valuation, $35,865,000.

Il.—THE FORESTS OF THE REGION.
LOCATION.

The forests of the Rocky Mountains, mainly coniferous, are usually
located upon the mountain slopes, at altitudes varying from 4,500 to
12,000 feet above the sea; in some cases the timber line extends to a
height of 12,500 feet. The foot-hills and mesas often have a scattering,
inferior forest growth, and many of the streams which flow from the
mountains are bordered with a sparse growth of cottonwood and a few
other deciduous species native to the region.

AREA.

The forest areas, though large in themselves, are not large as com-
pared with the area of the entire region, which amounts to 640,155 square
miles, nor are they to any considerable extent contiguous. There are
at present no means of determining accurately their bounds and extent.
Approximate estimates only can be given, based mainly upon state-
ments received from residents of the several localities, or from persons
having special knowledge of particular portions of the region.*

According to the best data obtainable, and including in the estimate
all kinds of forest growth, light and heavy, valuable and inferior, the
approximate forest areas, in square miles, of the several divisions are
as follows: Idaho, 15,990; Montana, 26,255; Wyoming, 12,060; Colo-
rado, 16,625; New Mexico, 12,500; Utah, 6,000; or a total in round
numbers of 90,000 square miles or 57,000,000 acres, being 14 per cent.

of the total land area.
OWNERSHIP.

The bulk of the forest land of the Rocky Mountain region is still owned
by the General Government. In New Mexico, through the means of old
Spanish grants, the titles to large tracts of woodland are held by private

*It.is one of the most difficult undertakings, asevery one who hasattempted it knows,
to ascertain with accuracy the timber areas, especially in the great mountain region
of the West. In all of the Territories I found a disposition among the people to
overestimate the timber area, and to call all lands timber lands that had once been
covered with forest growth. Lumber dealersand producers do not like to give figures
to a Government agent, and when they do, are not likely to exaggerate them. There
is no common and recognized standard by which to estimate forest areas.—E. T. E.
69

parties. In Colorado, although the greater portion of the timber lands
have been surveyed, comparatively a small part have become subject to
private ownership. The lands selected from time to time by the State,
under various grants from the United States, have usually been farm-
ing lands, including but little timber. The school sections, and a few
other tracts owned by the State, embrace some timber land. It is diffi-
cult to determine the ownership of the forest lands in this State, to de-
cide which belong respectively to the General Government, to the State,
and to individuals. Although public surveys have been made, the field-
notes and official plats give very limited information respecting the
timber or forest growth; and since the surveys were made forest fires
and operations incidental to lumbering, mining, and charcoal burning
have effected very material changes in the timbered region.

In Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, in all of which large forests exist,
hardly any of the timber lands have been surveyed. It is gratifying to
know that the present policy of the General Land Office is to discourage
or forbid the making of such surveys. The precedent is a good one, as
tending to prevent encroachment upon the forests.

FOREST CONDITIONS.

The Rocky Mountain region embraces a wide expanse of wooded
ranges, foot-hills, valleys, parks, and plateaus. Naked and often snow-
clad crests and peaks, rocky slopes, barren surfaces, deep defiles, and
swift-rushing streams still further diversify a landscape wonderful in
the extent and variety of its natural features.

Upon the mountain ranges are irregular masses of coniferous forest,
separated by wide spaces—the latter treeless, or sometimes clothed with
a growth of Aspen. Bordering the streams are Cottonwood, Willow,
Alder, and other deciduous growths of minorimportance. The‘ parks”
(by which are meant mountain valleys bare of timber or nearly so)
are usually covered with wild grasses or sage-brush. Secrub-oak and
Cedar, Sage-brush, and other shrubs—in rare cases a scattering growth
of timber—are found in the foot-hills, mesas, and plateaus.

This region, though nearly surrounded by arid or semi-arid plains
and plateaus, and subject, more or less, to conditions of aridity, heat
and cold inimical to forest growth, receives in many parts a compara-
tively large precipitation of moisture, and is favored through large por-
tions of the year with abundant sunshine. To these last-named causes
may be ascribed the existence here of relatively extensive forests. It
is believed that but for the scourge of fire, these forests would be at
least one-third greater in extent.

Upon the western slope of the main range the annual rain and snow.
fall are greater than upon the eastern side; hence the larger and more
important forests are found there. Furthermore, the forests of that
portion have suffered less from fire and depredation than those in other
sections. In all parts of the mountain region, northern slopes are the

most favorable to forest growth, as affording maximum conditions of
moisture and minimum evaporation.

The soil in which these forests grow consists, for the most part, of
decomposed rock (or gravel) mingled with sand. A thin surface layer
of humus aids, ordinarily, in the retention of moisture, but in dry sea-
sons it is. a source of danger, promoting the spread of fire.

The surface is usually quite sloping—in many cases extremely so—
and the soil, deficient in clay or other coherent substances, is easily
moved by the action of water. When, therefore, the slopes have been
stripped of their natural covering, the violent rain storms of the region
have a powerful and disastrous effect upon them. The light surface
mold is carried downward to the valleys, more or less remote, and is
soon followed by masses of sand and gravel. The mountain side, which
was formerly clothed with a noble forest, now seamed and furrowed by
the torrents, has become a barren waste—beyond reclamation. Condi-
tions identical with these are very apparent along the front range in
Colorado, and in many parts of the mining districts throughout the
mountain region.

Even in the most favored districts, where the forests have been re-
moved their renewal is extremely difficult. Nature does much in such
cases, however, and though the original species may not be reproduced,
an inferior growth often appears. The extent of natural reforestation
varies greatly in different localities. In New Mexico, with greater de:
grees of heat and aridity than prevail farther north, the second growth
is proportionately less vigorous. Where fierce forest fires have scorched
the ground and destroyed the vegetable mold, the difficulty of reforesta-
tion is usually greatly enhanced. On the other hand, it is alleged that
in some instances the action of fire serves to open the cones or outer
coverings of certain tree seeds, and thus affords them a chance to take
root and grow. It has been said, also, that the ashes produced by a
forest fire enriches the soil, and to that extent promotes the reproduc-
tion of trees. But these are at best only mitigating facts, if they are
facts, attending the almost inestimable loss resulting from forest fires.*

In what has been said above concerning reforestation, reference has
been made to spontaneous growth. While the necessity is great for
restoring to the denuded slopes of the Rocky Mountains their once useful
and beautiful forest covering the expediency of attempting the artifi-

* These are facts only in the imagination of those who wish to find an excuse for
the unmitigated nuisance of forest fires. No cones need the action of fire to be
opened ; a sufficient quantity would be opened by the heat of the sun, without de-
stroying the seeds, as the fire does. No trees need the enriching quality of the ashes,
but their seeds do need very much the vegetable mold, as a bed in which to germ-
inate and to be supplied with the needful moisture which the mold provides, but
which the ashes are not capable of storing up.

The fires, not only of this year, but those of years back, have destroyed the chances
of natural reforestation by seed in many places, because they have destroyed the
proper seed-bed.—B. E. F.

¢2

cial plantiig of large tracts in taat section is doubtful. If men will
cease their destructive operations and extend a protecting hand over
the forest regions, nature will repair in a measure the injuries of the
past. In truth, most kindly healing processes are already begun. The
ubiquitous Aspen, with its light summer foliage and brilliant autumn

hues, gives grateful shade and moisture to wide areas which otherwise

would be barren and desolate. Some abler pen than mine should
apostrophize the Aspen! It is nature’s restorative—the balm poured
upon grievous wounds! No soil, apparently, is too poor and inhos-
pitable to provide for it. It has, however, its limitations. It is a den-
izen of the mountains, and succumbs to excessive degrees of heat and
aridity. The Dwarf Maple, Creeping Juniper, Wild Rose, and other
hardy shrubs are also he!pful in the restoration of denuded surfaces,

In the midst of these minor growths the seeds of the Pine, Spruce, and
other timber trees gain lodgment and find necessary protection.

In all situations where the existing conditions of soil and climate are
favorable the planting of forest trees should be encouraged to the
utmost extent. In valleys, among the foot-hills, upon the mesas and
plains where water is available, and along the streams, irrigating canals
and ditches, this important work should be carried on.

There is no longer doubt that with the aid of irrigation, trees can be
made to grow at any point upon the western plaius. Nay, with a
proper selection of species and judicious treatment, it is probable that
plantations and forests can be established even withont the aid of irri-
gation.

FOREST FLORA.

The forests of the Rocky Mountain region are mainly coniferous,
with scattering groves of Aspen in the mountains, Serub-oak and Cedar
upon the foot-hilis and mesas, and Cottonwood, Box-elder, Dwarf Maple:
Bireh, Willow, and other minor deciduous species along the canyons
and streams.

A full account of the woody plants prepared by Mr. George B. Sud-
worth will be found on page 153 of this report. The more important
forest trees ovcurring in each Territory are also enumerated in the
special part of this report.

LOCAL DEMANDS ON FOREST SUPPLIES.

By numerous letters of inquiry sent to lumbermen and others, in va-
rious localities, efforts have been made to obtain statistics relative to the
consumption of timber in this region. The results, however, have not
been commensurate with the efforts, and the information so obtained
has been quite meager, and shows mostly how little thought or intelli-
geut estimation has been so far given to this important branch of eco-
nomies; how little its importance is as yet appreciated.

13°

One of the questions contained in the letters of inquiry was as fol-
lows:

Is there danger of the timber supply failing?

To this, twelve replies in the affirmative were received and nine in
the negative. Five correspondents stated there was no danger of the

supply failing unless the timber was destroyed by fire, and that the

undergrowth would make good the loss by consumption, and one stated
that the timber would last for a hundred years.

With respect to remedies for failing lumber supply, the following sug- |

gestions were offered :
Import from Oregon.
Ship more lumber from the East.
Protect from fire.
Post notices to prevent setting of fires.
Encourage tree planting.
Plant Oak, Walnut, and Hickory.
Impose heavy penalties for cutting small timber.
Timber should be owned by private parties.

The principal uses made of timber in this region are the manufact-
ure of Inuinber, railway ties and timber, mining timber, telegraph poles,

charcoal, fencing, and fuel.
LUMBER.

Yellow Pine (No. 7),* White Pine (No. 2), and Black Pine (No. 9),
White (Engelmann) Spruce (No. 11), and Red or Yellow Fir (No. 19),

- are the principal timber trees of the region. They furnish most of the

common and a portion of the finishing lumber. Considerable White
Pine (Pinus strobus) from the lake region, Redwood (Sequoia sempervi-
rens) from the Pacific coast, many of the hard woods also, and Southern
Pine are imported for the finer kinds of work.

Approximate estimates, based upon reports received from some of the

principal lumber dealers of the region, make the consumption of lum-
ber for the year 1886 as follows: Native, 46,000,000 feet, B. M.; im-

ported, 13,000,000 feet.

Norr.—These figures can hardly be used to convey an idea of the quantities of
lumber manufactured at home or imported into the region, and unless the large but
quite uncertain quantity of unsawn lumber used in the minesis deducted, they seem
to be far below the actual amounts used, as will appear from the following results of
an independent canvass among saw-mill men and statements of railroad companies.

From these an estimate of between 150,000,000 and 200,000,000 feet of native timber |

and of 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 feet imported would appear to represent more nearly
the amount of lumber consumed in the region.

Idaho.—F ive mills out of six report an aggregate cut of 4,550,000 feet, while an es_
timate places the whole amount of native timber used in the Territory at 17,000,000 to
19,000,000 feet. (See also page 93.)

Montana.—Nine mills out of eleven report an aggregate cut of 19,592,000 feet, mainly
for mine timber, but exclusive of railroad ties and cord-wood, of which large quanti_
ties are cut.

Wyoming.—Only one mill ont of five reports cutting 500,000 feet, and estimating

the cut for the Territory at 8,000,000 feet outside of railroad and mine timber.

=The numbers refer to those used in the account by Mr. Sudworth in this report.

= eee

—

Utah.—Out of five mills replies were received from two, with an aggregate cut of
1,350,000 feet ; one estimates the cut for the PONY at 10, 000,000 cubic feet of mine
timber and 60, 000 cords of fuel and feneing.

This estimate assumes that the cut in Wahsatch and Summit Counties, which is
pices at 2,000,000 feet B. M. lumber, 300,000 cubic feet mine timber, and i2,000
cords fuel and fence material, Peprecente 20 per cent. of the total cut of the Territory.

Colorado.—Out of some eins mills written to, of which several have gone out of
business, thirty have replied, reporting an aggregate cut of 18,820,000 feet for the year
1886. From various estimates by counties, the tota! cut of mill timber ean not be
short of 75,000,000 to 100,000,000 feet, of which 25,000,000 are used in Lake County
(Leadville) alone.

No replies from New Mexico. (Estimation, see page 141.)—-B. E. Fernow.

Notre.—We are indebted to the kindness of Mr. E. R. Murphy, auditor of the Den-
ver and Rio Grande Railroad, and of Mr. J. A. Munroe, general freight agent of the
Union Pacific Railroad, for the following interesting statements regarding the move-
ment of lumber and other wood from outside points to the Rocky Mountain region.

Union Pacific Railroad.—The total amount of lumber hauled into the Rocky Mount-
ain region from points on the line of this road was, in 1886, 53,786 tons (33,616,250
feet, B. M.), and during nine months of 1887, 65,437 tons (40,898,125 feet, B. M.). Of
this amount 24,595 tons (15,371,880 feet), or 45 per cent., were from Oregon in 1886,
and 40,918 tons (25,573,750 feet), or 60 per cent., from Oregon in 1887.

Denver and Rio Grande Railroad.—As appears from the following detailed state-
ment, this road during the same period imported 1,075 tons (672,422 feet, B. M.) in
1886, and 625 tons (390,000 feet, B. M.) during nine months of 1887.

Shipments of lumber and wood over Denver and Rio Grande Railroad te Rocky Mountain
region from points outside.

1887 to Total, 38:
From 1882. 1883 1884. 1885. 1886. GRRE ST to August
5 ip SLarese
Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.
WenVeEsee i ceee sees 2, 844, 300 | 2, 934, 340 802, 900 808, 075 787, 090 961,240 | 9,137, 945
Colorado Springs...-..- 20, 000 17,000 1|\Sere tue, hall toe Seen] ee eee Se eee 37, 000
IRuebploeestens st. seer wee 648, 000 280, 055 550, 090 277,635 | 506, 545 88,390 , 2,350, 715
WlOReNn COs sees eee 14, 800 NGSO00N keer eee 20, 000 2050007 |S fs 70, 800
WanOnRecs eases cesta 82, 000 48, 000 32, 000 17, 300 SOD [eee 216, 355
IS AUN ES ae cinoma terete ce Seach SE Seoe see nl eee eee eee eee 40, 000 | 40, 000
AMISH AD Awe eseee eee 149, 475 108,000; 124, 700 300, 000 645, 710 160,000 | 1,487, 8&5
ID UMOroles22 Soe Se cere |b nase tees D3n/3005 | Sa ee e ie Re S e eeee eees 53, 300
antarC@ lara tacos Se) See ell eee ee | eter ee LOT 6503) 2c. oe =a oa eee 101, 650
HapVvicta. coe ee 235, 000 232, 000 S20K000 bse eee USGy eh) | aacectc= = 942, 350
3, 993, 575 | 3, 688, 695 | 1, 829,690 | 1,524, 660 | 2,151, 750 | 1, 249, 630 14, 438, 000
* Or 4 512,000 feet.
RAILWAYS.

With the exception of forest fires, it is conceded that no one agency

consumes the forests of the country so rapidly as do the railways.
Their lines, of vast extent, stretching in every direction, make enormous
and unceasing demands upon the forests, and it is quite time for the
railroad corporations, as well as for the public, which must suffer by
any impediments to cheap railroad transportation, to interest them-
selves in a better management of forest supplies.*

While it is true that railroad companies legitimately require large
quantities of timber, it is not less true that in many cases they use the
timber resources of the country in a most wasteful and destructive

*See Bulletin No. 1, Department of Agriculture, 1887, Forestry Division, on the
relation of railroads to forest supplies, with appendices.

’
+
‘

manner. Perhaps the most vonstant and serious drain ou their part
is in connection with the demand for cross-ties. For tbis use it is cus-
tomary to cut the smaller and rapidly growing trees, which results in a
wasteful consumption of the trees themselves and a great diminution
of the source of future supply; or else much valuable timber is left in
the woods, the tie cutter taking only such parts of trees as will most
easily yield him ties of the required size.

The information collected with respect to the railway mileage of this
region, and the amount and kinds of native timber used by the sev-
eral roads, is not sufficiently complete to warrant the presentation of
the same in tabular form, and is therefore embodied in the condensed
statements following.

By the courtesy of Messrs. Poor, publishers of Poor’s Manual of Rail-
roads, we are enabled to give, in advance of publication in the usual
way, the following estimate of the railroad mileage in the Rocky Mount-
ain region at the present time. In a letter received from them they say:

From careful examination of the data now in our office, our estimate is as follows

Miles.
HACE pee Fas ee SENOS reece, SI lhe a a has ad oe ne rene 850
INIg inhale cele eS Sey it a ees ee se WS Woah 1,575
VV ONIN eins aii pk oonyete a Eats ee ee te S/S Sale 850
Colorad Oreo). a eee ads eae ak eee URES kl ps Aya ty OEM a ee 3, 650
ING wwe MESA C OF a2 ees age a pa ree ee A al a 1, 238
MSW OV 8 2a 2 Sa ae ice ly NI NE eer OT ER eer mn 1,145

It is possible that before the end of this year there will have been added to the
mileage of the six St ates and Territories named an additional 300 miles of new rail-
road, making the total increase for the year about 1,650 miles of railroad, to which
will be added at least 400 miles of sidings and other auxiliary tracks, or a total of
over 2,000 miles of track within the year.

Assuming this estimate to be correct, there wiil be in the Rocky
Mountain region at the close of the year 1887, 10,008 miles of railroad
track. This would bring the demand upon the forests up to the present
time for construction to not less than 200,000,000 cubic feet, and the
annual demand for renewal and maintenance ty 25,500,000 cubic feet.
Union Pacific Ratlway.—Consumption of native timber. Statements from 8. T. Smith,

general superintendent, Omaha. (Length of road in Colorado, 965 miles. )

August 20, 1886. We have used during the last twelve months in Colorado about
200,000 cross-ties, about 5,000 posts, 2,700 cords of slabs for fuel purposes, and 1,500,000
feet of mountain pine for various purposes.

February 1, 1887. Number of cross-ties and feet of dimension lumber used in the
year 1886 on the following divisions:

= | Square feet

Te 7 >

State or Territory. N umber ON lof dimension

a cross-ties. 5 ,

timber.
GUO Pr alatar seats a Soe te PN ee Ee eM ee dd eee ee Eo Sok hy bei 9,18) | 1, 084, 827
WOTUERING hee SB CORED Orla oO ae oe Se Soe o aE oee SRE aE ES CaEr Oe eee ie eee Seen 41, 844 401, 221
IVVAV OTN OP Reps ents ners Seer Meer NON ER Sa wel a Wiis a aati: elie Td hay to ey 355, 98 1. 800, 282
CORAM OME elpe wercts. cesta ae: Rey ee eh eh me PE A RL Wi SE a 279, 827 ’ 5, 164, 639
SLE ees USE cs CRS AL ie aN ce me ane 686, 827 8, 450, 969

——

ig
f
iV
th
itt
ff
i}

Se er ee

Denver and Rio Grande Railway.—Mileage of road and consumption of native timber.
Statement from C. M. Hobbs, purchasing agent. (Length of road, main line, in
Colorado, 1,161.8 miles; New Mexico, 155.2 miles; Utah, 368 miles. )

Approximate amount of timber required for annual renewals and repairs:

Crossstiestz atin Fic is Che tee eee weeetas number... 1, 023, 376
Sawed timber (B. M.) -..-.-.....:- PES, See feet.. 5,625, 000

Kinds of timber preferred for the several purposes:

For cross-ties, Red Spruce (local name for White Spruce) and Yellow Pine—the
former very much preferred; for bridge timbers and cars, Yellow Pine; for buildings,
Yellow Pine or Red Spruce.

Native timber used in Colorado and New Mexico in the year 1886:

Number of broad-gauge CXOSS-bIES: oe cose tee re areee 60, 000
Number of narrow-gauge cross-ties ...-....---.<----- 740, 000
eet of dimension lumber (B.-Mo)222. 55 see 22s = eo O00S O08

In my opinion there is an ample supply of timber in our State for a hundred years
to come; but the increasing cost of securing if will soon make necessary the use of
some wood-preserving process, at least on the part of railroad companies.

Colorado Midland Railway.—Mileage of road and consumption of native timber. State-
ment of H. D. Fisher, president of Colorado Midland Construction Company.

January 27,1887. The present mileage of the Colorado Midland Railway, now
under construction, and which we expect to finish and operate before the close of the
year, is 250 miles.

The number of cross-ties required for the above main track and the sidings requi-
site for the same will be about 900,000.

The amount of timber to be used in bridges and other construction work is esti-
mated at between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000 feet.

The timber generally used for bridge purposes is Yellow Pine or Red Spruce (local
name for White Spruce); and the same may be said with regard to ties, except that
we endeavor to obtain all the Red Spruce that can be had.

Burlington and Missouri River Railroad.—Statement from G. W. Holdrege, general
manager, of date January 22, 1887. (Length of road in Colorado, 175 miles. )

No Rocky Mountain timber used in 1886.

atlantic and Pacific Railroad Company.—Consumption of native timber during the year
1885. Statement from D. B. Robinson, general manager.

During the year 1885 we consumed in New Mexico 937,240 feet, and in Arizona
2,028,959 feet (B. M.) of native pine. Our principal source of supply is from the Ayer
Lumber Company, at Flagstaff, Ariz. Pine lumber is about the only kind of lumber
we use, and is the only kind that grows either in Arizona or New Mexico to any ex-
tent.

Mileage of road in New Mexico and consumption of native timber during the year
1886. Statement from T. R. Gabel, general superintendent. (I.ength of road in
New Mexico, 191 miles.)

Number of cross-ties (native pine) used in New Mexico in the year 1886, 47,456.

Number of feet of dimension lumber (native pine) used in, New Mexico in the year
1886, 298,755. :

On the western division of this road extensive use has been made of Redwood for
eross-ties and telegraph poles; these ties last about twelve years.

TELEGRAPH POLES, ETC.

The consumption of native timber, especially the White Sprace, for
telegraph and telephone poles, amounts in the aggregate to consider-

”

able. Ina recent communication received from the superintendent of
the Western Union Telegraph Company, at Omaha, Nebr., he says:

We are not now using any native poles, but, for what renewals are made and new
lines built white Cedar poles are shipped from the East—obtained mainly in Mich-
igan and Ohio. In the lines built several years ago pine was used.

The superintendent of the Colorado Telephone Company at Denver
states that telegraph and telephone poles should be cut in winter, when
the trees are not full of sap. Experiments in applying preserving
processes for poles, tarring, charring, etc., have not been satisfactory.
_ The nature of the soil greatly affects durability. There exists also

this practical objection, that as contracts provide that poles shall be
delivered ‘‘at the stake,” for lines of consicerable length preserving
processes are not feasible.
| MINING.

In connection with the mining industry in this region,a great amount
of timber is annually consumed, of which it is impossible to give even
an approximate estimate. But itis larger in the aggregate than one
unacquainted with the facts would suppose. One mining camp in Mon.
tana, Butte City, established only a few years, it is estimated requires
at its present state of development not less than 40,000,000 feet, B. M.,
per year, of round and square timber of large size, not to speak of the
countless number of small trees used for “lagging.” Much of the tim-
ber used in Utah and Montana is now imported from the Pacific slope,
as the home supply of good-sized or accessible timber, especially in the
former Territory, has been exhausted, or timber can be produced more
cheaply by rail from a distance. Much timber is required for fuel and
charcoal, especially the latter, which is used extensively in smelting
operations. The before-mentioned mining camp with its reduction
works consume, it is estimated, 1,000 cords of fire-wood a day, or about
30,000,000 cubic feet of solid wood per year.

CHARCOAL MANUFACTURE.

From the best information obtainable, it is believed that the charcoal
burners of the Rocky Mountain region are doing immense injury to
the forests. They draw their supplies of wood almost wholly from the
public domain, and although they profess to make large use of dead
timber, there is no doubt that the growing forests are largely en-
croached upon by them. A person well informed upon this subject
recently expressed himself thus:

The charcoal burner is the most conscienceless violator of law that we have, cutting
everything down to poles 2 inches in diameter. He leaves behind him barrenness and
desolation. The traffic in charcoal is so exhaustive upon the forests, and so injurious
to the best interests of the State, that wherever permitted it should be done under a
_ license only, by the givirg of a bond, and by the rigid enforcement of conditions and
penalties. There are no reasons why the charcoal burner should longer be allowed to
prey upon the timber and young forest growth. On the contrary, many strong and
urgent reasons exist for limiting his operations,

Efforts were made to obtain statistics relative to the consumption of
timber for the manufacture of charcoal, but, as in the case of lumber
manufacture, the returns were quite unsatisfactory.

In response to the question, ‘*‘What is your principal source of timber
supply for the manufacture of charcoal?” replies were received (mostly
from persons in Colorado and New Mexico) as follows:

In the foot-hills; plenty of pine and pinion.
Foot-hills and ranches.

Purchase from parties who deliver at kiln.

All around the city (Breckenridge, Colo.).
Patented lands and pre-emptions.

Mineral ground.

Abundance of timber, chiefly on onants (N. Mex.).

To the questions, ‘“ What kinds of timber do you mainly use? What
proportion of green timber and what proportion of dry?” the following
replies were received :

Pine and pinon.

All dry wood—it takes too long to burn green.
One-fifth dry ; pifon the best for charcoal.
Pifion; mostly dry—killed by fire.

Pine; 90 per cent. dry, 10 per cent. green.
Aspen ; three-fourths green, one-fourth dry.
Pine; one-half green, one-half dry.

Pinon; equal parts of green and dry.

Serub timber; half dry and half green.

Dead timber and.dry; green too expensive.
Pifion, pine, and cedar; one-third green, two-thirds dry.
Pine; 75 per cent. green.

Concerning the yearly product of charcoal (in bushels) reports were
received as follows:

Colorado:
Lake: County. 2222) tos eoeeas- - tone eee reco ces 2, 000, 000
Conejos County 2.85. 5522 e Se ee sone ae es eee 150, 000
Custer ‘Countys.- #22222 ae ee ere se 150, 000
hio Grande County. 22a. fo 2 oe eee 150, 000
Park: County s:.2225oece oor ae ee 5 oe een 800, 000
Dolores’County 222 2000 22 =e ee ee eee 75, 000
Chaffee County .----- Resa teat. 5 bie) Mert 380, 000
La Plata(County 36.2 22 ie. Gee. 3 HSS eee 73, 000
New Mexico:
Santark’é County 2 2oltt 3.028 Ses eee eee 200, 000

No means are at hand for verifying the above statements; and be-
sides, it will be seen that the figures cover but a small territory. The
Philadelphia smelter at Ketchum, Idaho, has thirty kilos for burning
charcoal; the annual product is not reported.

At least nine-tenths of the charcoal manufactured is used by the
smelters; the remainder is used mostly by blacksmiths and tinsmiths.

A Oclorade manufacturer writes as follows upon the subject:

The largest amount of charcoal is made and used in Lake County; the Leadville
smelters there use daily about 10,000 bushels. Charcoal is made of both dry and
green timber. About three-fourths is made from dead timber, one-half of which is
down. Onecord of wood will yield about 50 bushels of coal. Dry or dead timber, if
sound, will yield more than green, but the quality of the coal will be about the same. *

Concerning the extensive use of charcoal by smelting companies, and
the consequent heavy draft upon the forests, it is reliably stated that
the use of charcoal in smelting is a convenience but not a necessity...
There is in many parts of this region an abundant supply of mineral
coal, of good quality, including dry, bituminous, or coking, and an-
thracite, and its use by smelting companies would simply involve the
employment of more skillful furnace men than are used under the present
system.

FENCING.

Although barbed wire is largely superseding the use of boards for
fencing, there is a continued demand for timber for fence posts, rails,
ete., and as farms and ranches are rapidly increasing in number, the
demand for fencing material is likely to growin proportion. Much
dead timber is utilized in this way. In the mountains, Aspen is often
used for fence rails. For posts, Yellow Pine (here called Pitch Pine),
Cedar (Juniperus), White and Black Spruce, ete., are used. In a few
instances posts for wire fences have been made of bar iron.

With the data available, it is impossible to state the amount of tim-
ber that is annually consumed in this region for fencing purposes. It
is a varying and probably an increasing quantity.

FUEL. :

Inthe mountains, except in the immediate vicinity of coal mines, wood

is the principal fuel, and for this dead and fallen timber is largely used.
Except in the case of Pifion, it is unlikely that growing timber will
suffer greatly from this use, and the greater portion of the Pifion meets
its fate at the hands of the charcoal burners. In most of the towns,
and inthe plains region, mineral coal is furnished of good quality and
at reasonable prices.

Norr.—Since the fuel question is a most important one in connection with forest
preservation, the statistics of the supply of mineral coal are of great interest in this
place. The following notes, therefore, taken from the reports of the Division of Min-
ing Statistics and Technology, U.S. Geological Survey, are here inserted.

In the Rocky Mountain district coal beds are found in a number of geological for-
mations, from the Carboniferous up to and including the Cretaceous.

No detailed information of the entire coal area of the Rocky Mountain region, sim-
ilar to that which has been determined by State geological surveys of the coal basins

“From imperfect returns to a separate canvass, it would appear that the total con-
sumption of charcoal for smelting purposes in the region must be placed at round

4,000,000 bushels, of which the three Leadville smelters take 2,364,000 bushels.—B,
iE. FP.

so -

east of the Rocky Mountains is available, and no reliable estimates have been made
of the areas underlaid by workable coal beds. It has been surmised that the total
area of the coal-fields of this district is between 200,000 and 300,000 square miles, but
this estimate is little more than a guess.

The total production, exclusive of colliery consumption, in each State and Terri-
tory, and corresponding value at the mines in 1886, are shown in the following
tables:

]
Total pro- |
ductionnot| Vaine of
States and Territories. including | coal at
colliery con-- mines.
sumption.

Short tons.| Dollars.

Colorado Jones s Seam e Reese we nosace sons See eee et Seek eee eee Pee oan eae eee 1, 368, 338 8, 215, 524
AN ACMI chee cu nbosb9 cnn seocesos soso5anscocd pseahossebodse ooucsessseacosdsss 829,355 | 2, 488, 065
ING wa MGRICOM nas Soca sence smesocenes tae car eos a ence aera Renee oe eee 271, 285 813, 855
With sere c ice oe colts se sae sini see wie eisai ae wicca eis mene tetera aye aie ero rae ee 200, 000 420, 000
IMOnt ana oes Sake he See See Sees esiee Sacmenetiam Hoe eee nomen ee oor ee sees 41, 846 174, 460
Ud ahve see cack ses sae os dese see, Bose eee eee oboe de sub eewoceoseecens 1, 500 6, 900

Motal eosin. osc tes k sss suk elec cis aS eee Somes Roe ae eee eee See Z, 720, 324 7, 117, 974

In the Rocky Mountain region the production of coal is dependent exelusively upon
the demand of the local trade. This varies not only on account of the growth and
decline of the local industries, but upon the variable freight tariffs which have per-
mitted the importation to Rocky Mountain points of more distant and superior coals
at prices advantageous to the consumer.

Colorado.—The general prosperity of Colorado in 1886 has in no way been better
shown than in the great development of the coal-fields of the State, although this
development was begun too late to show a very great increase in the production for
1886 over 1885. While the mines in the northeastern portion of the State have only
held their own, those of southeastern Colorado have materially increased their out-
put in response to the steadily increasing demand from points in western Kansas and
Nebraska. The greatest amount of new work has been done, however, west of Pitkin
and the Continental Divide, in what is known as the Glenwood field.

Noteworthy discoveries of coking coal have also been made in Gunnison County, on
Ohio Creek, and of anthracite of good quality, ina region where its existence has only
been suspected—the basalt-covered tract southwest of Hahn’s Peak, in Routt County.
The more remote coal-fields, although known to produce excellent coals of varying qual-
ities, have been hitherto neglected, because of the remote prospect of railway com-
munication, which is necessary to bring their product into competition with that
from well-opened mines.

The great activity in railway building in the direction of Garfield, Routt, and Pit-
kin Counties has spurred on the work of opening the coal beds in these counties, in
order to meet the demand which the completion of the three railways now being built
in that direction will bring. The superior quality of the coke made from the coal from
the mines in Pitkin and Garfield Counties, and the accessibility, low altitude, and thick-
ness of the beds in the anthracite districts of Routt County will meet a commercial
demand from the smelting and manufacturing centers of Colorado, and also from
those in the adjoining States and Territories.

Total product of mines operated in the interest of railways iu Colorado for 1886 was
1,115,267 tons; increase of 0.7 per cent. over 1885, The increase in railway produc-
tion is very slight indeed. The coal area has been variously estimated at from 20,000
to 50,000 square miles. The known and partially developed coal-fields cover about

1,000 square miles, while the area of the Laramie, Fox Hills, and Colorado cretaceous _

formations, which are coal-bearing, comprises about one-third of the surface of the
State, or approximately 35,000 square miles,

—_— ==). ee

The coal production of Colorado in 1876 was 117,656 short tons, as against 1,368,338

short tons for 1886 and 1,791,735 tons in 1887.

The average number of men employed, directly or indirectly,in the coal mines of
Colorado is estimated at 3,500.

The State inspector estimates that the average thickness of the ean beds worked
in Colorado is 5 feet 35 inches. He also states that the thickest bed worked is 9 feet
and the thinnest is 2 feet.

The average price paid for mining and loading the coal and doing the necessary
timbering is 89 cents per ton of 2,000 pounds of screened coal.

The average cost of the coal delivered on the cars is $1.74 per ton.

The average value of the coal is estimated at $2.35 per ton, making the total prod:
uct of the State worth $3,215,594.30.

Idaho.—Large areas exist in the Territory underlaid by bituminous coal and lg-
nites. Mines have been opened at Smith’s Fork and on Twin Creek, and what is
known as the Mammoth bed shows local thickness of 70 feet.

A good quality of lignite has been found near Boisé; also on the Snake shee be-
tween Payette and Weiser City. A good blacksmithing coal is also reported on
Sucker River, 22 miles north of Silver City; also several deposits near Lewiston, in
the northern part of Idaho,

Montana.—Much interest has been taken of late years in the coal-fields of Montana
and the development of the coal and lignite beds.

Although the occurrence of good fuel in Montana is a matter of great importance
to the development of the Territory, there has been no great activity displayed in
coal mining in Montana during 1886. The greatest production had been at the Tim-
berline mines, between Bozeman and Livingston, but the production there was seri-
ously interfered with by labor troubles, as a result of which the mines were closed in
July, and no coal was produced during the last six months of the year.

The value of the Territory’s output in 1886, at $3.50 per ton, was $174,460. The
number of men employed can not well be estimated.

New Mexico.—There were no special developments in the coal-mining industry of
New Mexicoin 1886. The field of the largest operations has shifted from Raton to
Gallup and other points near by on the line of the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad in
Bernalillo County, and near the Arizona border.

No new mines have been opened. The production of the Raton district fell from
135,833 tons in 1885, to 87,706 tons in 1886. This fall in production was due mainly
to the increased production of better coal at the Starkville and Rockvale mines in
Colorado, which furnished the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railroad with coal for
shipment and for railway uses. The coal from Raton is used almost exclusively for
fuel by the Santa Fé Railroad. The mincsare located within the Maxwell land grant,
and it is understood that a royalty is paid.

A large amount of the San Pedro coal is coked, the coke being used by smelting
works in New Mexico and Arizona.

Wyoming.—The coal-fields of Wyoming are of great extent and value. They have
been known since 1850, but remained undeveloped until the completion of the Union
Pacific Railroad to Carbon, 100 miles west of Laramie, in 1868. The Coal Measures

are estimated to cover at least 20,000 square miles of the surface of Wyoming, and °

the beds are found for nearly 350 miles along the line of the Union Pacific Railroad,
in every case, where developed, cropping boldly on the surface. In quality, the coal
is a lignite of superior grade, and suitable for all heating and domestic purposes, but
non-coking and useless for gas making.

The entire coal-fields of Wyoming are practically controlled by the Union Pacific
Railroad. The capacity of these beds is indefinite. They would doubtless be able to
supply the whole demand of the far West with a uniformly good coal.

The total amount of coal mined in that region in 1875 was 300,808 short tons, and
in 1885 it was 807,328 short tons.—B. E. Fernow. .

24738—Bull 2——6

DESTRUCTIVE AGENCIES.
FOREST FIRES.

In nearly all portions of our country fire is the most destructive
agency affecting the forests. It does immense harm in the Rocky Mount-
ain region. Annually, during the dry seasons, forest fires break out,
spread with great rapidity, and destroy in a few days the growth of many
years. The aridity of the climate, the resinous nature of the timber,
the prevailing high winds, and the sparseness of population render for-
est fires in this region almost uncontrollable. They are doubly disas-
trous here, for when the mountain slopes are denuded of their natural
covering, restoration is extremely difficult, if not impossible.

The following is taken from the recent report (1886) of Hon. 8, T.
Houser, governor of Montana, to the Secretary of the Interior:

Another loss that has been greatly increased this year by the extended drought is
the fearful destruction of our mountain forests by fires. These fires occur every sum-
mer. They originate generally from carelessness of hunters and campers (white or
Indian), sometimes from lightning. In former years the destruction has been com-
paratively limited. This season they have prevailed generally, covering immense
districts. More timber has been destroyed in the past six months by fire than would
supply the wants of our people for fifty years, and more than will be renewed by
growth in a generation.

By the enactment of laws prescribing penalties for the willful or care-
less setting of fires, and requiring the local authorities to post notices
warning persons against violation of the law, some good has been ac-
complished. It is evident, however, that effective measures for the pre-
vention of forest fires will not be adopted until the people and law-
making powers become fully alive to their necessity. And then the
object can be effected only by a carefully devised system of forest pro-
- tection which will include the active co-operation of local officers,

Acres burned and values destroyed in Rocky Mountain region in 1880.

States and Territories. | Acres, Value.
NGonitaN A. So dke ss eee. bos bce Seccwahiwad «Saab Lae ea eee ae eas ee 88, 020 | $1, 128, 000
Ti El ee hn SI A i ph Re dd eA soe 21, 000 202, 000
WYOMING «22-22. oc oc cece ens ccewecececuscesababceemeiersits=c-==—heer—=nleveWn od 83, 780 3, 255, 000
ital: 34-45. che ha “waite ae Lena Rlaeaioe ole aie tase san ee Eee ee eee 42,865 | 1, 042, 800
(Olt) Foy 0 1s (ee ee ee ie ee ee SA OS HS aenoSadooocdaldbospebdon dade 113, 820 935, 500
INOW. Mie xtG0)72 32s :govrecc wicleeinc > aprele cites Cam ncicis de meieie ie cle mantsletateiemts sini wlsteintereisim'af- 64, 034 142, 075
Total sooo occ wacisia Sotelo Caleta cites win nla ie ratere ects a sis alee nlstetelcistetstelatave eleteiainiatms 413, 519 6, 705, 375
WASTE.

The wasteful methods now practiced in dealing with our timber sup-
plies deserve earnest condemnation and, by the enactment of proper
laws, should be visited with severe ponelbes.

In some instances lumbermen will set mills near large bodies of fine
timber, and with unrestrained greed cut down vastly more timber than

they can use. Again, it is the common practice to use the butts or
larger portions of the trees for sawlogs, while the limbs and smaller
-parts of the trunk are left to waste and to furnish food for forest fires.
In districts where large-sized trees abound it is not unusual, on the
other hand, for tie choppers to cut ties from the upper and smaller por-
tions only, and leave the butts on the ground to decay.

Any laws or customs which allow the cutting of trees and the utili-
zation of a portion only, or permit the cutting of partly-grown trees
(except in forest reserves or plantations, for necessary thinning) are
pernicious, as authorizing wasteful and improvident methods.

SNOW AND LAND SLIDES.

Snow-slides are frequent in the Rocky Mountain region, more espe-
cially among the higher Colorado ranges. ‘They usually occur in the
late winter and early spring months, when heavy falls of snow are suc-
ceeded by sunshine, causing the partial melting of the snow, and giving
it also great weight. The slides or avalanches destroy both life and
property. In some instances entire mining camps have been engulfed.
Slides often start near the crests of the. mountains, above the timber
line, and gaining momentum as they descend, carry every thing before
them. Large trees are swept away, rocks of many tons weight are
torn from their beds, and human beings who are in their path are en.

tombed in the snow, which packs like ice, yielding only to the axe and

pick. Again, the impacted snow, after reaching the bottom of a deep
gulch, will be forced sometimes far up the opposite side, carrying with
it buildings, people, and whatever may be in its way.

Land slides, though not frequent, some times occur. Through the
action of frost, melting snows, or rain-fall—or all combined—masses of
earth and rock are precipitated down the mcuntain side, overwhelming
all beneath. To a beholder, the mass, with its accompanying roar,
smoke, and fire, would seem to have evoked the lightnings and thunder

to aid it in its destructive course. The path of the slide is usually -

marked by a strip of naked rock—of greater or less breadth—called, in
mountain parlance, a “ gouge,” and upon which soil or vegetation is
not likely to appear again. What means, if any, can be devised for
the prevention of these disasters it is hard to say. Stripping the tim-
ber from the slopes, if not an original cause, contributes largely to the
evil effect. Land-slides would hardly be possible in localities where the
soil is sustained by the interlacing roots of a vigorous forest growth.
It has been stated that in some of the Alpine regions stakes are driven
upon the upper slopes of bare mountains to prevent the inception of
snow-slides. Such a plan would hardly be feasible here, as the higher
siopes of our mountains present steep and rocky surfaces of immense
area.

Nore.—It is a well-known fact that in Europe, not only torrents but land-slides as
well as snow-slides are induced and aggravated by the removal of the forest cover,

i
+ |

SSS SSS SSE

but also that their formation has been prevented by reforesting and returfing the
denuded mountain slopes. If in the Rocky Mountains the occurrence of these dan-
gers is not so frequent and disastrous as it has proved to be in Switzerland, Tyrol,
and other European mountain regions, this may be partly due to differences of climate
and geologic conditions. The presumption, however, is that the frequency and ef-
fects of such slides will be duly recorded in our mountain regions with the increase
of settlements and decrease of forest cover. As a proper protection against snow-
slides is even now called for, a chapter on their formation and prevention has been
appended to this report.—B. E. F.

LOSS OF FOLIAGE.

In the early part of the year 1885 extensive belts of conifers along
the Pike’s Peak and Front ranges, in Colorado, suffered a loss of blight-
ing of foliage, which many supposed would result in the death of the
trees.

Inquiry developed the fact that such occurrences, though rare in this
region, were not without precedent, and were probably caused-by sudden
and extreme atmospheric changes. The trees so affected usually regain
their foliage, although it is believed their vitality is impaired,

RELATIONS OF FOREST PRESERVATION TO AGRICULT-
URE.

In all countries the relations between forests and agriculture are more
or less intimate. The ferests receive moisture from the atmosphere,
store it in their recesses, and through springs and running streams send
it forth to water the land. Forests in proper proportion meliorate the
severities of climate, rendering a country habitable for man and adapted
to the growth of fruits and grains suited to his needs. Floods and
droughts seldom occur in a region of forests. Forest products enter
into all human activities, and it may be said that the race could not
exist in the absence of forests.

In the Rocky Mountain region, where arid or semi-arid conditions
prevail, the most important office performed by the forests is the econ-
servation and distribution of moisture. The countries at the base of
the mountains, and surrounding them, would be uninhabitable were it
not for the forests which partially clothe the latter. Were tne mount-
ains wholly stripped of that covering which nature has so wisely be-
stowed upon them, but little moisture would be gathered from the atmos-
phere, violent storms would often occur, and torrents and seasons of
drought would take the place of existing conditions.

In this region the direct dependence of agriculture upon the-forests
is more plainly seen than elsewhere. Except in a few loealities, field
crops, orchards, and gardens are cultivated with the aid of irrigation
systems, the water for which is taken from the mountain streams.
Should the forests be destroyed, the streams, irrigation systems, and
crops would meet a similar fate.

85
The relation existing between the Colorado mountain system with

its forests, and the water supplies for agricultural purposes, is strongly
stated by Prof. Cyrus Thomas, of the Hayden Survey, as follows :

This eastern mountain group appears to have two culminating points or radiating |

centers; the northern, and principal one, lies immediately around the North and
Middle Parks, and forms the rim of these elevated basins; the other lies immediately
southwest of South Park. In the first of these, Blue River, White River, Yampah
River, and North Platte take their rise. In the other, Grand River, the Rio Grande,
Arkansas, and main branch of the South Platte have their sources. The parks actas
huge cisterns for the reception of the numerous little mountain rivulets that flow
down from the surrounding rim, collecting them together and discharging them at
one outlet. Thus, the North Park collects the various streams which form the North
Platte; the Middle Park those that form Blue River; South Park those that form the
South Platte; the San Luis Park those that form the Rio Grande; and the upper Ar-
kansas Valley, whichis a true park, those which form the Arkansas River. Here,
then, we see that five of the great rivers of this vast central region have their sources
close together in this mountain area. Upon the peaks, ranges, parks, and forests
embraced between the one hundred and fifth and one hundred and seventh meridians
and the thirty-eighth and forty-first parallels, an area not exceeding 18,000 square
miles, depend, in a great measure, the agricultural resources of an area of more than
100,000 square miles.

IRRIGATION SYSTEMS.

It may be safely predicted that, within a comparatively few years,
the Rocky Mountain region and adjacent portions of the Pacific slope
will have irrigation systems equal to any the world has ever known.
The discovery that vast areas of land, once deemed sterile and worth-
less, are reclaimable by the application of water has given wonderful
impetus to irrigation projects. Favorable legislation has been obtained,
and various plans to effect the desired object have been well advanced.

By legislative act, in 1881, the State of Colorado created the office of
State hydraulic engineer, and adopted a carefully devised code of irri-
gation laws. Since then numerous irrigation enterprises have been
begun and successfully prosecuted in that State. In many cases incor-
porated companies have been formed for the construction of canals and
reservoirs, and the distribution of water over wide tracts of land. In
numberless other inst.wnees, individuals, under the rule of priority of
use, have made smaller canals and ditches, appropriating water in
accordance with their needs and the existing rights of others.

In the adjoining Territories, especially in Utah, systems more or less
perfect have been introduced, and will be enlarged and improved as the
necessities of the people may require.

The data that have been collected with regard to the location and ex-
tent of the irrigating canals and ditches of this region, changes in the
volume and flow of streams, etc., are given in the tables and maps ac-

companying this report and in the descriptions of the several political
divisions.*

ste = as arene PTA pe Bo

*See note on irrigation, page 61.

if
1
|

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Se ee

FOREST POLICY.

In the State of Colorado, and in the Territories of New Mexico, Mon-
tana, Idaho, and Utah, there are in round numbers 90,000 square miles
of forestland. It is estimated that four-fifths of it still belongs to the
public domain, equal to not less than 45,000,000 acres. To speak of a
management of this domain would convey the erroneous idea that there
exists such a thing as forest management in these mountains. While
private owners may, perhaps, be somewhat careful in the cutting of their
timber, and possibly may take measures to protect it against spoliation
or fire, nothing of the kind can be said of the people’s property.

Under existing laws and regulations with respect to this vast body
of woodlands, it would appear that forest fires have almost undisputed
sway; railway corporations freely use and waste the public timber;
unscrupulous lumbermen fell more trees than they can use; while poor
men, struggling to establish homes, often find it difficult legally to ob-
tain timber enough for their personal use. The few special agents of
the General Land Office, scattered through this wide region, from lack
of numbers and proper system, are powerless to avert forest destruc-
tion. Alleged trespassers are often prosecuted, but rarely convicted.
No forests are saved from fire, and few, if any, from the ax. The policy
of withholding from survey the public timber lands in certain of the
Territories is worthy of commendation, and is likely to prevent, for the
time being, the entry or sale of such lands, but not the spoliation of the
timber on the same.

That the present condition of affairs is, and has been for some time,
noxious and detrimental to the best interests, present and future, of
this region, has been recognized by every honest settler along the
mountain range. While all are agreed that the existing policy is injur-
ious, undesirable, and should be changed, the proposed remedies differ,
often very widely.

The present administration of the Land Office has exerted itself to-
the utmost, with absolutely inadequate means, to guard the people’s
property, and the reports of the Commissioner in the strongest lan-
guage make clear the necessity, and at the same time the impossibility,
of protecting from depredation this part of the domain. The impossi-
bility of dealing adequately under the present system often necessitates
dealing unfairly, or seemingly so.*

The following extracts from letters received from representative men,
in reply to inquiries as to the character of the present laws for the dis-
posal of the public lands and the necessity for their amendment, will be
of interest :

The laws are not sufficiently strict to prevent denudation of the forest lands, fraudu-
lent appropriation of timber supplies, and leaving of rubbish to cause forest fires.

There is too liberal construction of the law allowing the cutting of timber for do-
mestic purposes; under it many abuses are perpetrated.

*See summary on page —.

It is difficult in a thinly-settled country to get proof that will convict of setting
forest fires.

In discussing the question of forest management, European examples are not al-
ways valuable to us; the conditions are very different and our difficulties are greater.

The Government should take care of the forests on forest principles.

In portions of the mountain region every alternate section should be reserved for
forestry purposes, including the planting of forest trees.

All timber lands at the heads of streams capable of furnishing sufficient water for
irrigation should be withdrawn from market, and religiously preserved, protected
and, when necessary, replanted.

One-half of the public forest lands should be sold to settlers, and the other portions
placed under the care of experienced foresters and held by the Government forever,

Local forest officers should be appointed, with power to quell fires, make arrests,
etc.

All timber lands should be sold, or else donated to the State, to be disposed of or
protected under the State laws.

In the arid regions timber lands should be donated to the respective States.

The entire control of the forest growth (not the land) should be conferred upon the
State. The State, being more directly interested in the subject-matter, would be
better able te adopt such measures as would conserve its forest resources.

There should be State reserves, with foresters who live in the forests and guard
them from fires and depredation. ‘The timber should be disposed of under regulation,
and for the use only of the people of the State, regard being had always for the pres-
ervation of the forest, so that it be not denuded.

Timber on public lands should be free to settlers, and no restrictions placed upon
lumbermen who cut timber only for home consumption.

Settlers upon the public domain shonld be allowed to use timber from the public
lands for their homes and farms before and after perfecting their titles under the
homestead or pre-emption laws, regardless of the fact that the timber land may be
designated as “ mineral” or “non-mineral.” This distinction is generally imaginary
and fictitious and has no value in point of fact.

Land should be granted to actual settlers only under the homestead law. All other
laws for the settling or disposal of the public domain, including the act relating to
placer-mining claims, should be repealed.

Every settler upon the public domain, when be shall have perfected his title to a
pre-emption or homestead entry, should be allowed to enter at Government price not
more than 40 acres of timber land in the same district, provided his pre-emption or
homestead entry shall not have a natural growth of timber upon it sufficient for its
necessities.

Repeal the pre-emption law, and make it a misdemeanor for a homesteader to seli
timber, or suffer it to be cut, more than is absoiutely necessary for domestic purposes.

A system of leasing the public timber lands within clearly-defined boundaries, with
specific rights and liabilities, under penalties, guarantied by bonds of forfeiture in
case of non-compliance with the terms of lease, wili prove the most efficient means of
promoting the interests of American citizens seeking homes in the Rocky Mountain
region.

Persons cutting Government timber should be required to obtain a permit from the
local land office, with safeguards and restrictions to prevent waste or trespass.

It would be better to allow charcoal-burners and the cutters of mine timbers to
take living timber from the public domain under proper restrictions, than to encour-
age the destruction of the forests by fire, in order that they may cut the deadened
timber as they please.

Railroads should be required to use dead timber if possible; no question of mere
convenience should be considered. Some method of chemical preservation should be
required where ties and bridge timbers are obtained from the public lands.

——

SSS

SSS FP eee Se ES

The timber-culture act isainoperative, and offers facilities for frand.

The good results of the timber-culture law overbalance all objections toit. An in-
spection of eavh ciaim before a patent issues would insure compliance with the law
and prevent fraud.

The following extracts give valuable hints on one side of the question:

[Extract from arecent report (1886) of Hon. S. T, Houser, governor of Montana Territory, to the Sec.
retary of the Interior. ]

There seems, at least in one branch of Congress, a purpose to set aside a large por-
tiom of the forest-clad sections of our Territory for permanent forest reservations,
with a view to protect the fountain heads of the great continental rivers. Under
proper regulations and provisions for needed care such reservations might be of great
use and value. But it must be remembered that there is no timber in this region save
that which grows in the mountains where these rivers rise. If this country is to be
occupied and developed, these forests will, to some extent, have to be put under trib-
ute for various domestic and mining purposes and uses. It must be further remem-
bered that this entire region is metalliferous, and it would not be wise tu exclude
from these forest reservations all explorations for mines.

Owing, no doubt, toa want of knowledge of our peculiar situation and the pur-
poses of the laws of Congress, adopted in 1878, in reference to the cutting of timber
on mineral iands in the Rocky Mountain States and Territories, there have been
many seizures for violation of law during the past summer, and many instructions
and interpretations and applications of the law that have generally been regarded by
our people as unwarranted and fatal to their interests. Under the regulations since
prescribed by your Department it is believed that all conflict and irritation will dis-
appear, unless too restrictive an interpretation or coustruction is attached to the
words of the law confining its operations to mineral lands.

[Extract from the report, for the year 1886, of Hon. E. A. Stevenson, governor of Idaho Territory, to
the Secretary of the Interior. ;

The thanks of the people of Idaho Territory are due to the Department of the Inte-
rior for the modification of rules 2 and 3 concerning the felling of timber, as secured |
by the circnlar of August 5, 1886. The modification was well-timed and is gratefully
received; bunt there are still some regulations in force in the Department that work
ereat injury in the Territories of the Far West. Idaho isblessed with limitless forests
of timber, which are of incalculable value in this western country—a great portion of
whose area consists of barren and treeless plains. To enablesettlers to cultivate and
redeem these desert plains lumber must be readily accessible, else their eftorts to build
homes would be unsuccessful. Many ofthe settlers are poor, having expended their all
in securing their land and in improvements. Under the rules and regulations of the
Interior Department the purchaser must enter into a certain written agreement with
the lamberman, and must, further, file with the mill-owner a certificate, under oath,
that he purchases such lumber exclusively for his own use. This formality must be
pone through with every time a settler desires a little lumber. It is a great incon-
venience. Then, again, it is a matter of expense, for theoath must be taken before
some magistrate qualified to administer oaths, and fees must be paid therefor. To
the poor settler this extra expense is a matter of some consequence. Such mag-
istrates are not often, in this new country, in close proximity to the saw-mills. The
natural obstacles encountered by settlers on this desert land are severe enough with-
out additional ones being put upon them by the Government. It is a source of great
benefit to our country that this land be settled up, and to this end the policy of the
Government should be to remove obstacles from the path of the honest settler, not
seek to retard his efforts by impracticable regulations. There are in this Territory
great forests, sufficient to supply thé home consumption without any apparent effect
on their extent.

From personal observation it is safe to say that the entire local consumption of tim-
ber in this Territory does not equal the growth of the forests. _Let the Government
afford sufficient protection against forest fires, which, through carelessness, annually
consume immense quantities of timber, and protect our forests against the inroads
of scavengers and consumers from other States and Territories, and no fear need be
entertained as to the preservation of the timber.

In conclusion, I may be permitted to say that in my opinion a gen-
eral policy with respect to the public timber lands should embrace the
following features :

(1) The withdrawal from sale, entry, or disposal under existing laws
of all such lands.

(2) The creation by law of a forest commission, to be composed of
three competent persons, and to hold office for a period of five years.
This commission should be authorized and required (a) to adopt ten-
tative measures for the protection and preservation of the public for-
ests; (b) to examine and classify the public timber lands and deter-
mine what portions should be held permanently as forest reserves, and
what portions, if any, should be disposed of; (c) to devise and submit for
the action of Congress a proper system of forest management and ex-
tension, and a plan for the establishment and endowment of a national
school of forestry. Congress to make due provision for the necessary
expenses of the commission.

(3) The enactment of laws for the protection of forests and the plant-
ing and cultivation of forest trees should be encouraged in the several
Territories.

(4) When any Territory shall become a State and shall have instituted
good and sufficient forest laws, there should be conveyed to such State,
in trust, the public forest lands within its borders, for the perpetuation
of the forests thereon.

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ITI.—FOREST CONDITIONS OF THE SEVERAL PO-
LITICAL DIVISIONS.

Note.—For the purpose of obtaining information with respect to the forest condi-
tions of the several parts of the Rocky Mountain region, circular letters of inquiry,
embracing the foilowing questions, were sent to persons in each county :

(1) What is the extent of forest land in your county, giving approximate number
of square miles?

(2) What proportion of it is fully stocked, good for timber?’ What part of it is
made waste by burning over? What part of it brush, of promising growth?

(3) What is the proportion of forest to other lands ?

(4) What is the character of the forest growth now remaining, in the size and kinds
of trees?

(5) What species of trees predominate ?

(6) Name, in the order of their importance, the principal uses to which each kind
of timber is applied?

(7) What special dangers threaten the forests in your county, as lumbering, con-
sumption by railroads, fires, ete. ?

(8) What are the chances for renewal, after the forests have been destroyed ?

(9) Of what species of trees is the second growth usually ?

(10) What kinds, if any, follow after the timber has been destroyed by fire?

(11) Is any planting done and to what extent, and with or without irrigation ?

(12) Have you noticed any changes in the volume of water in the streams, as the
trees in their vicinity have been cut off or burned? Is there less water in the streams
than formerly? Have floods and droughts become more frequent? Is the flow of

water in the streams more intermittent ?

(13) Are any observations on rain-fall kept in your locality? If so, by whom,
giving name and post-office address.

(14) Have any avalanches occurred in your section? If so, please give the par-
ticulars, when, where, and what, if any, loss of life and property.

(15) What measures would you suggest for the more adequate protection of forest
growth?

(16) Give any other information upon the same poner subject which may occur
to you. So far as possible give definite and particular answers to the foregoing ques-
tions and known facts rather than general statements. If there is insufficient space
on this sheet for your answers supplementary sheets may be used, care being taken
to refer to the numbers on this sheet so as to prevent uncertainty or confusion.

Responses to the above were in many instance so long delayed and often so incom-
plete that a laborious and protracted correspondence became necessary. Although
but few correspondents could identify and name, according to their botanical rela-
tions, the several species comprising the forests of their locality, nearly all could give
common names, location, uses, and other descriptive matter.

To obtain further details concerning the forests of the region and their relation to
agriculture and syst2ms of irrigation, letters of inquiry, embracing the subjoined
questions and a plat of the particular county, were sent to county surveyors and
other civil engineers:

(1) Please give a brief and general topographical description of your county ?

(2) What is the approximate total number of acres of land in your county suitable
for agricultural purposes requiring irrigation ?

(3) Is there a sufficient water supply to one that amount? If not, what pro-
portionate amount short?

(4) What is the approximate number of acres already under ditch?

(5) What is the approximate number of acres already irrigated ?

(6G) In your county what is the approximate total length of (a) irrigating
ditches—main, secondary, small; (b) mining and milling ditches ; (c) city water-
works (and capacity in malonay taecthier with total capacity of each, in statutory
inches or cubic feet per second ?

(3) What effect, if any, in your opinion, do the forests have on the water supply ?

(9) What, in a general way, is the extent, character, and location of timber in
your county ? |

(10) Please send sketch, noting (to the best of your kaowledge) the situation of
the timber, irrigating and other canals, and city water-works in your county; giving
the timber in green and canals and water-works in blue. To assist you in answering
this question, a miniature map of your county is inclosed herewith.

(11) What are the principal causes of the destruction of forests in your county,
and what measures would you suggest for their more adequate protection ?

(12) Please give any other suggestions upon the same general subject which mag
occur to you. If there is insufficient space on this sheet for your answers, supple-
mentary sheets may be used, care being taken to refer to the numbers on this sheet
so as to prevent uncertainty or confusion.

Answers to a portion of the above questions were quite generally
returned. The estimates of forest areas, acreage of lands suitable for

irrigation, etc., were, of necessity, approximate rather than exact.

IDAHO.

Idaho Territory is situated in the northwestern portion of the United
States, and near enough to the Pacific to share in the climatic influence
of the warm ocean currents which sweep northward along the western
shores of the continent.

The Territory has an area of 86,400 square miles. It is a vast wedge-
shaped plateau, traversed by numerous streams, which find outlet at
the northwest through the channel of the Columbia. High and rugged
mountains cover large areas in the northern and eastern parts; innu-
merable ranges span the interior, while in the west and south-central
portions are broad table-lands and arable valleys. The Bittér Root and
Coeur d’Alene are the most rugged and precipitous of the mountain
ranges. Their summits are snow-clad throughout the year, as are also
those of the three Tetons, noted peaks in southeastern Idaho. The
highest elevations in the Territory range from 9,000 to 13,000 feet. The
lowest point is at Lewiston, where the Snake and Clearwater Rivers
unite at an elevation of 680 feet.

The published maps fail to convey an idea of the almost numberless
ranges of this region. In a distance of 300 to 500 miles, from east to

west, it is said ‘‘ there is a range of mountains, on an average, every 10
to 20 miles. Sometimes the distance across the range in a straight line,
fron the bed of a stream in one valley to the bed of the stream in the
valiey beyond the range, is not more than 5 to 8 miles, while it is sel-
dom more than 20 miles.”

The many streams of the Territory, fed by perpetual snows, are of
good volume. Their flow is quite regular and constant, reaching its
maximum at midsummer, and shrinking to its minimum in midwinter.
The principal river is the Snake. It rises in the mountains of north-
western Wyoming, flows through southern Idaho, and thence north-
ward along the western border of the Territory to its junction with the
Columbia. The Snake is a magnificent river, of nearly 1,000 miles in
length; the greater part of the drainage system of the Territory is
tributary to it. Other important rivers are the Salmon and Clearwater,
affluents of the Snake.

From a comparatively small portion of southeastern Idado the drain-
age flows into the basin of the Great Salt Lake.

The northern part of the Territory is mainly a region of mountains
and forests, with small prairies and narrow valleys available for agri-
culture. Here also are situated lakes Pend d’Oreille, Coeur d’Alene,
and Kaniska, which vary in length from 20 to 60 miles, and are wide
and deep in proportion.

Other well known lakes of the territory are the Cocolalla, Payette,
and Bear. In southern Idaho are lava fields covering probably 1,000
square miles, extending east and west nearly across the Territory, and
southward to Snake River. To the southwestward of these are exten.
Sive sage-brush plains, reaching to the mountains of Northern Nevada.
It is estimated that within the Territory there are 6,000 square miles of
‘‘mountain, desert, and voleanic formation, entirely unfit for any use
except that designed by nature, being utterly destitute of mineral,
timber, or vegetation.”

The climate of the Territory, modified and softened by warm winds
from the western coast and by the prevalent sunshine, is mild and de-
lightful, notwithstanding the northern latitude.

Though arid conditions prevail to a degree that often render agri-
cultural operations dependent upon irrigation, there is in the mountain
region sufficient moisture to secure a vigorous forest growth.

The finest timber in the Territory is found in the central portion, on
the Payette River and its tributaries. In the swamps, at the junction
of Lolo Fork and Clearwater River, in Shoshone and Nez Perces Coun.
ties, is found Cedar timber (probably Thuya gigantea), the largest trees
of which are 300 feet high, with trunks 6 to 9 feet in diameter. The
wood makes handsome and valuable finishing lumber.

Yellow or Bull Pine is the principal timber tree. It grows on the
lower mountains. The Black Pine or Tamarack is of small size and is
found at elevations of 7,000 to 10,000 feet.

The Red or Yellow Fir grows on both the low and high mountains;
the heart of the wood is quite red in color. The Mountain Mahogany
is common in the Owyhee Mountains (southwestern Idaho). Itis a
small tree, rarely exceeding 20 feet in height, of irregular growth; has
a hard, brittle wood and handsome grain. It is a favorite wood for
canes and is much used for fuel.

Pine and Fir are largely used in the manufacture of charcoal.

There are saw-mills at Lewiston, Coeur d@’Alene Lake, Spokane, and
other points in the Territory. It is estimated that the amount of lum-
ber manufactured during the year 1886 was 50,000,000 square feet, and
that an equal amount of timber was used for fencing and fuel. Much
of the lumber was exported, The importations of lumber, estimated
at 9,000,000 square feet during the year 1886, were mostly cross-ties and
timber for railway uses, which consisted mainly of Fir from Oregon and
Washington.

The bulk of the shingles used are of native Pine. Some Redwood
shingles are brought from the west, but iron and other kinds of pre-
pared roofing are largely supplanting wooden shingles.

Territorial laws have recently been enacted imposing penalties for
the willful or careless setting of forest fires, or failure to extinguish
camp fires, etc. Also by legal enactment an annual “ Arbor Day” has
been designated for the planting of trees throughout the Territory.

Except in a small portion of the Territory north of Salmon River, ir-
rigation is necessary in the cultivation of crops. The conservation of
the mountain streams is of great importance. Millions of acres of land
suitable for agricultural purposes can be made productive only by sys-
tems of irrigation, and these should be encouraged and promoted by a
liberal policy on the part of the Government.

The people of the Territory earnestly desire the continuance of the
desert-land act, under which vast tracts of arid land may be reclaimed
and made valuable. In many of the counties irrigation companies have
been organized and large canals and auxiliary ditches constructed.

ADA COUNTY.
Total area, 3,500 square miles; estimated forest area, 50 square miles.

This county, in which is Boisé City, the Territorial capital, is situated
near the southwest corner of the Territory. Snake River forms its
boundary line at the southwest. The Boisé River divides the county
into two nearly equal parts. The southern portion consists of rolling
lands, too high for irrigation. The northern part is divided by the
Payette River, and has many narrow and fertile valleys.

The only timber in the county is a narrow belt of Pine and Fir on
the mountains of its eastern border, and a growth of Cotton-wood and
Willow along the Boisé River.

Ee Sse et

a SETS

94
ALTURAS COUNTY.

(Total area, 16,700 square miles; estimated forest area, 2,500 square miles. )

This county is bounded on the south by the Snake River, and is
drained by its tributaries. The northern portion is mountainous, while
the valley of the Snake is rolling and consists of sage-brush plains and
almost impassable lava beds. The bulk of the timber is found in the
northwest part of the county, and consists of Yellow and Black Pine,
Fir, and Spruce. Ked Fir and Black Pine are the predominant species.
They do not grow large, nor are they very abundant. Aspen is found
in the mountains, and Cottonwood along the streams.

A little planting is done, with the aid of irrigation.

BEAR LAKE COUNTY.
(Total area, 1,200 square miles; estimated forest area, 40 square miles. )

This county is situated in the southeast corner of the Territory, and
is divided into two unequal portions by the Bear River and Bear Lake.
Streams tributary to the river and lake rise in the mountain ranges
which traverse the eastern and western portions of the county.

About one-half the area of the county is agricultural land. The re-
mainder is broken and mountainous and composed of timber or grazing
lands.

The average altitude is 5,900 feet. The rain-fall is chiefly in spring
and autumn. Crops are cultivated mainly by mears of irrigation.

The timber is mostly situated along the ravines near the crest of the
high range which forms the western border of the county.

There is also some scattering timber on the slopes of the range in the
eastern part. About one-third of the timber is fully stocked, one-third
brush, and the remainder burned over.

The forest growth consists of White and Yellow Pine, White Fir,
Mountain Mahogany, White Cedar, Cottonwood, and Aspen. Pine and
Fir predominate.

Very little tree planting is done except on a few timber-culture claims,
with the aid of irrigation. Small fruits are grown to some extent, and
also some ofthe hardier large fruits.

BINGHAM COUNTY.
(Total area, 13,600 square miles; estimated forest area, 150 square miles, )

This county is also in the southeastern part of the Territory. It is
well watered, the Snake and Bear being the most important rivers.
The surface is greatly varied, and includes mountains, table lands, sage
plains, valleys, andswamps. There isa large proportion of agricultural
and grazing lands,

The little timber there is in the county is situated mainly in the
northeastern part, and in canyons and narrow valleys. It is estimated
that one-half is well grown, and the larger portion of the remainder is

thrifty young Fir (red) and Cottonwood. No forest fires have occurred

for a number of years. On a few timber-culture claims trees are grown

with the aid of irrigation.
BOISE COUNTY.

(Total area, 2,500 square iniles; estimated forest area, 1,100 square miles.)

Boisé county is situated in the central southwestern portion of the
Territory. It has a rolling surface, and is watered by tributaries of the
Payette and Boisé Rivers. Long Valley, about 75 by 15 miles in ex-
tent, and Garden Valley, also of large size, contain rich farming lands.
There are wide tracts of grazing land in different parts of the county.

Some of the finest timber in the Territory grows here, covering from
one-half to two-thirds of the area of the county. The predominant
species are Yellow and Black Pine, Red Fir, and Balsem.

CASSIA COUNTY.
(Total area, 4,300 square miles; estimated forest area, 100 square miles.)

This county occupies acentral position upon the southern border of
the Territory. Snake Liver bounds it on the north, and it is watered
by tributaries of the samestream. The surface of the county gradually
rises from the Snake River south to the Utah line, where it be-
comes rough and mountainous, but interspersed with numerous valleys
of greater or less extent. It is essentially a stock-growing county, and
as such ranks among the first in the Territory. .

The winter climate is cold and changeable. The amount of snow-fall
in the valleys is not very heavy, but immense quantities accumulate in
the mountains, which afford .vast stores of moisture for the growing
crops when the hot days of summer come. There is a great deal of rain
in the valleys during the winter season, or from about the Ist of No-
vember to the middle of April. During the remainder of the year rain
seldom falls, except occasionally a shower about the 1st of July. Con-
sequently no crops can ordinarily be raised without irrigation.

The forest area is very limited and confined almost wholly to the
mountains of the southern portion. Yellow and Black Pine and Balsam
Fir are the principal timber trees.. Good sawing timber, however, is
getting scarce, although there is plenty of an inferior quality to furnish
the county with rough lumber for a long time to come. The supply for
fuel is inexhaustible. Cedar grows abundantly on the low mountains,
and there are large bodies of Pine of small growth farther up on the
mountains and in thecanyons. Thereis some Mountain Mahogany and
Nut or Pittion Pine, both of which make superior fuel.

CUSTER COUNTY.
(Total area, 5,800 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,900 square miles.

This county is centrally located in the Territory. It is broken by
many low mountain ranges. The Salmon River, pursuing a zigzag

course in a northeasterly direction through the county, receives the
waters of eleven large affluents. Lost River and its tributaries water
the southeastern part of the county. The topography of the region is
greatly varied, and agricultural, grazing, and timber lands cover nearl y
the entire area. In the western part of the county are a number of
small lakes. .

Nearly one-half of the county is forest land. Very little, if any, has
been made waste by burning. Pine, Fir, and Cottonwood are the pre-
dominant trees, The timber is inferior, the trees rarely exceeding two
feet in diameter of trunk, Cottonwood is used mostly for fuel.

With the exception of a few fruit trees no tree planting is reported.

IDAHO COUNTY.

(Total area, 9,200 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,950 square miles.)

Idaho County is essentially a mountainous region, the principal por-
tion of the Salmon River Mountains being included within its bounda-
ries, These mountains are in no well-defined range, but are a vast col-
lection of irregularly scattered peaks, overtopping a wilderness of lesser
peaks, all of a rugged and forbidding aspect. The average altitude is
abont 6,000 feet, though many peaks have an elevation of nearly double
that height,

The county is watered principally by the Salmon River and its tribu-
taries. The northern portion is drained by some of the forks of the
Clearwater. Salmon River cuts a deep chasm through the county from
east to west. Its valley is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet lower than the aver-
age altitude of the mining camps scattered through the adjacent mount-
ains, causing a marked difference in climate. In the winter snow rarely
falls before February, and frequently the ground is not whitened during
the year, while in the surrounding mining camps the snow covers the
mountain sides from 4 to 8 feet in depth.

Camas Prairie, comprising an area of six to ten townships on the
western border, is the only agricultural portion of the county.

The forests cover the outer portions of the county. Three-fourths of
the timber-lands are well stocked, one-eighth is young growth, and one-
eighth made waste by recent fires. The principal species of trees are
Cedar, White Pine, Tamarack, and Red and Yellow Fir. Some of the
timber is very large and fine, growing from 1 to 6 feet in diameter. In
the open country considerable tree-planting is done without the aid of
irrigation.

KOOTENAI COUNTY.

(Total area, 4,830 square miles; estimated forest area, 2,400 square miles. )

This county is in the extreme northern or ‘“ pan-handle” portion of
Idaho. The high and rugged Ceur d’Alene Mountains extend through
the central part from east to west. Ilanking this range are lakes Pend

WVOreille, Kaniska, Coeur d’Alene, and others of lesser note. Clark’s
Fork of the Columbia and the Spokane are the principal rivers.

The forest growth, which is pretty well distributed over the county,
consists mainly of Yellow and Black Pine, Fir, Cedar, Cottonwood, Yew,
Alder, and Willow; Pine predominating. A small portion has beer
burned over and made waste. The finest timber of the territory is found
in this county on the waters of the Cour d’Alene, St. Joseph, and
St. Mary’s Rivers, One authority states that on the banks of the first
named thousands of immense trees can be seen, the trunks of which
will measure from 1 to 13: feet in diameter. This has long been known
as the best timbered section of Northern Idaho, and is second only in
importance to that on Puget Sound.

On the banks of Kootenai Lake there is a large body of fine saw-timber.
For miles on either side of Pack River there are bodies of good timber
along ifs course.

The line of the Union Pacific Railroad passes directly through this
region, and a heavy draft is likely to be made upon its timber resources.

A little tree-planting is done in Kootenai County on timber-culture
claims without the aid of irrigation.

LEMHI COUNTY.
(Total area, 3,870 square miles; estimated forest area, 2,100 square miles. )

This county has for its northeastern boundary a portion of the main
Rocky Mountain range. It is watered by the Salmon River, its main
affluent, the Lemhi, and numerous smaller streams tributary to the two
named. Two great valleys, the Lemhi and Pahsamari, and a few lesser
ones, afford some 300,000 acres of land suitable for cultivation.

The heaviest timber is found along the north fork of Salmon River,
and within 35 miles of Salmon City. Pine trees with trunks 3 and 4
feet in diameter, and attaining a height of 60 and 70 feet, are common.
Timber also extends along the mountains on either side of the valleys
occupying the central portion of the county. White and Black Pine
and Fir are the predominant forest trees.

NEZ PERCES COUNTY.
(Total area, 3,100 square miles; estimated forest area, 450 square miles.)

The Salmon River, extending through the county from east to west,
divides it nearly equally.

The average elevation is about 3,000 feet; the lowest altitude in the
Territory (680 feet above sea level) is at Lewiston, in this county. The
climate is mild, and the rain-fall sufficient for the growth of crops. Ag-
riculture and stock-raising are the chief industries.

The timber, which is mostly situated in the mountains along the east-
_ ern border of the county, consists of Yellow and Black Pine, Red and
24738—Bull 2——7

ARES

White Fir, Cedar, and Larch. Much of the timber is large, reaching a
diameter of 3 to 5 feet.
A few forest trees are cultivated on timber-culture claims without the
ald of irrigation.
ONEIDA COUNTY,

(Total area, 2,500 square miles; estimated forest area, 150 square miles.)

This county is situated in the southeast corner of the Territory and
is an agricultural region. ‘There is but little timber, and that is found
in the central and southeastern portions.

Red Fir, Cedar, and Aspen are the predominant forest trees.

OWYHEE COUNTY.

(Total area, 7,430 square miles ; estimated forest area, 300 square miles.)

This large county occupies the southwestern corner of the Territory.
Snake River forms its northern boundary. In the eastern part are ex-
tensive sage-brush plains. Asa whole the county is mainly adapted
to stock-raising.

The only timber reported is a body covering the South Mountain
range, in the west central part.

SHOSHONE COUNTY.

(Total area, 5,200 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,900 square miles. )

This county is situated in the northern part of the Territory. The
Bitter Root and Ceur d’Alene Mountains, which form a part of the
Rocky Mountain chain, constitute its northeastern boundary. Its
principal streams are the Lolo Fork and North Fork of the Clearwater
River.

The greater portion of the county is mountainous, and includes large
bodies of timber. The forest growth consists of Red and White Fir,
Yellow and White Pine, White Spruce, Hemlock, Tamarack, Cedar,
Yew, and several minor species. The timber grows of medium size on
the mountains, and larger on the bottom lands ; portions of it on the
high ridges have been destroyed by fire.

WASHINGTON COUNTY.
(Total area, 2,500 square miles; estimated forest area, 900 syuare miles. )

This county, situated in west central Idaho, is bounded on the west
by Snake River. The Weiser River and other streams water the in-
terior of the county.

Black and White Pine, Red and White Vir, Hemlock and Balsam,
are the principal species of forest trees. Pine predominates. The
heaviest bodies of timber are found in the northern and eastern parts
of the county. The trees composing the forest vary greatly in size, the
trunks measuring from Lto 6 feetin diameter. There is not much brush,
and but little timber has been destroyed by fire.

MONTANA.

The Territory of Montana, having the form of an immense parallelo-
eram, and embracing a superficial area of 145,776 square miles, occupies

a large space upon the map of the United States. It is situated in the -

extreme northern tier of Territories, bordering upon the British Pos-
sessions. The Rocky Mountain chain, constituting the Continental
Divide, passes through the western portion. About four-fifths of the
entire area belongs to the Atlantic slope, being drained by the Missouri
River and its tributaries, and one-fifth to the Pacific slope, being drained
by the headwaters of the Columbia. The mountain range separating
so unequally the two parts of the Territory is comparatively low, and
the contiguity of the region to the Pacific Ocean renders it, to a degree,
subject to the climatic influences governing the western coast.

Three-fifths of Montana, comprising the eastern and central portions,
is a rolling plateau, having an average elevation of 3,000 feet, broken
by mountain spurs, buttes, and headlands, and watered by numerous
streams. It is pre-eminently a grazing country, and is largely covered
with the nutritious bunch grass. In this eastern part, north of the Mis-
souri River, are vast plains. The western two-fifths of the Territory is
mountainous.

As a general thing the mountains of this section are less rugged than
in the Colorado group; although here and there are sharp angular
peaks, yet as a general rule, instead of the rocky, jagged sides and
serrated crests, there are smooth slopes and rounded outlines. The
height of both mountains and valleys, as will be seen from the list of
elevations presented below, is much less than that of the great mount-
ain belt of Colorado and Wyoming, and even that of New Mexico,
Utah, and Nevada.

Elevations in Montana, chiefly along a line running east and west
near the middle of the Territory :

Feet.
Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone. ............ 2, 022
Airadimos Posty on MilloNiVere teacns es (oe ale eee ce ec e oe 2, 388
Hortels eitonper ya a ean ees es Seaetee ee ee 2, 780
OPS OF Ouse DVO Ea a Sno oi cle ere ee an ks em eg ioe cie cio 4,114
Be wiscandee ARS Pass: oc 2 eye eee ees esepe eae sl Sans 6,519

Blackfoot Fork, near the mouth of Salmon Trout Creek .. 3, 966
Blackfoot Fork, near its junction with Hell Gate River .. 3,247

‘Missoula River, near the mouth of St. Regis de Borgia.... 2,897
Summit of Ceur d’Aléne Mountains, at Ceur d’Aléne Pass. 5, 089
Hort: Owen, in. Bitter Root: Valleys. 232. 5-0-3 se 3, 284
Deer Lodge City, in Deer Lodge Valley...........-.----. 4,768
nneldy bear Valleye mear Blelemay c=. o-¢5:. ssc ceo cris 4, 000
limncile Blacktowtror Mullen s Pass so... 25. -2ece ss Gaee 32 6, 283

From this list we see that the western or intermontane basin has
_a depression less than 3,000 feet above the level of the sea; and that
the least altitudes of the eastern slope range from 4,000 to 2,022 feet

Set

100

above the level of the sea. Comparing these with the altitudes of the
other Territories, we find the difference much greater than would be
anticipated. Jor this purpose I give here the elevations of a few peints -

Feet.
Albuquerque, (N.-Mex <2. 32-0 oe eas ae ene eee 5, O32
Santa F6, .N. Mex.2 2 22 Soe Ges once ee eee puree eee 6, 840
Denvers Colon laser see eet se eee FIO Seeger 5, 300
Green River, at the railroad crossing, Wyoming........-. 6, 140
Salt Dake City, Wtah 22323342. 22s eee es eee -- 4,350
The Hombolt Sink, (Utah's.- 202 Se! Soe ee eee 4,017
Fort Laramie; Wyo... 5.22 555 see see ee 4,519
Sweet Water River, at Independence Rock, Wyo-........ 5, 998
South Pass ‘Ciby, Wy Oooo oe oe see ee eee Oe ree ee meee

From this we see that even the lowest point of the Great Basin near
the “ Humboldt Sink” is 1,126 feet above the mouth of the St. Regis de
Borgia, and 733 feet above Fort Owen. This very important fact in re-
gard to the physical geography of this Territory will serve as an expla-
nation of its comparatively mild climate, notwithstanding its northern
latitude.

Probably none of the southern and central ranges reach the line of
perpetual snow. Those in the extreme north are unexplored. It is
said that glaciers flow from some of them.

The western or mountainous portion of Montana is interspersed with
many fine valleys well adapted to agriculture and stock raising. The
principal forests of the Territory are in this section.

The most dense and continuous bodies of timber are found on the
western flanks of the main range, and on the Cabinet, Coeur d’Aléne,
and Bitter Root Mountains, which are contiguous to it, or form the
boundary line between Montana and Idaho. These forests, which ex-
tend to eastern and northern Idaho, are the most extensive and valu-
able of any in the Rocky Mountain region. They guard the sources of
many important streams, and furnish timber supplies for an adjacent
treeless. territory of wide extent. Their careful conservation is of the
greatest consequence. |

The forests of Montana are composed mainly of Yellow Pine (Pinus
ponderosa); White Pine (Pinus flexilis, Pinus albicaulis and Pinus mon-
ticola), Lodge-Pole or Tamarack Pine (Pinus Murrayana); Red or Yel-
low Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii) ; White or Balsam Fir (Abies grandis) ;
Cedar (Thuya gigantea and Juniperus Virginiana) ; and Yew (Taxus brevi-
folia). The Yellow Pine and Red Fir predominate, forming the bulk of
the forests at the lower altitudes. At higher elevations are found the
White Spruce, Tamarack, and Balsam.

The deciduous species most worthy of mention are the Cottonwood
(Populus monilifera and P, angustifolia); Balsam Poplar (P. balsami-
fera); Aspen (P. tremuloides); Box-Elder (Negundo aceroides); and
Mountain Mahogany (Cerco-carpus ledifolius).

Yellow and White Pine, and White Spruce are the principal timber
trees. The first named is the largest and most useful, and furnishes

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most of the building lumber, both common and finishing. In favoravle
situations the trees of this species attain a height of 100 feet and the
trunks a diameter of 6 or 7 feet.

The White Pine is of smaller growth than the Yellow, the wood is
softer and more subject to decay. The two kinds are, however, used
for many similar purposes.

Lodge-pole Pine seems to be a stunted variety of Pinus Murrayana.
It is a slender tree which covers large areas upon the mountains. It
grows to a height varying from 20 to 100 feet, with trunks from 2 to 10
inches in diameter, often forming masses so nearly impenetrable that
trails must be made with the ax. A section from the trunk of one of
these trees measures 24 inches in diameter and has fourteen layers of
annual growth. A lumberman of experience states that good saw-tim-
ber can be had from the same kind of pine where the growth is less
dense and crowded. The smallest kinds are extensively used for fene-
ing, “logging” for mines, and by the Indians in the construction of
their lodges. A similar growth is found in portions of Wyoming and
Colorado.

Cottonwood and Box-Elder border the streams at comparatively low
elevations. The Aspen covers large surfaces which have been denuded
of the original forest growth. It prefers northern slopes and narrow
moist valleys.

Although the forest area of the Territory is large, it is being rapidly
reduced. The destruction by forest fires is almost beyond computation ;
railroads use and transport immense quantities of timber; lumbering
operations cause a large and steady drain upon the forests; while the
consumption of timber for mining purposes is of equal magnitude.

The Territorial laws prescribe penalties for the willful or careless set-
ting of fires, or failure to extinguish them; and county commissioners
are required to post notices annually in conspicuous places, calling atten-
tion to the provisions of the law. Notwithstanding these precautions,
forest fires are frequent and destructive in the extreme.

A recent legislative act provides for rebatements in taxation to per-
sons planting and cultivating forest trees, under certain conditions
named in the law.

Irrigation is practicable at different points upon all streams near the
mountains, and it is stated that by this means crops are cultivated in
every county of the Territory. .

East of Great Falls the Missouri River has cut a channel 600 to 900
feet deep, through the table-lands to the Dakota line. This gives tuits
tributaries a very swift current, although their channels are quite deeply
sunken below the adjacent plains. In the Yellowstone system the
waters flow somewhat nearer the general level.

A number of great irrigation enterprises have been undertaken. The
eanal of the Minnesota and Montana Land and Improvement Company,
in Yellowstone County, is about 40 miles long by 35 feet wide, and 5

102

feet deep. Another large canal, in Choteau County, is 75 miles in length.
Others of similar character are in process of construction. Irrigation
systems are greatly needed for the reclamation, under the desert-land
act, of sterile tracts. The repeal of that act,as proposed, might be 2
serious mistake. .

The numerous valleys of the Territory are remarkably fertile, and, with proper

facilities for irrigation, yield large returns in wheat, oats, barley, and all kinds of
vegetables unsurpassed in quality.

BEAVER HEAD COUNTY.
(Total area, 2,800 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,100 square miles.)

This county is situated in the extreme southwestern corner of the
Territory. It is bordered on the north, west, and south by the main
Rocky Mountain range.. Beaver Head and Big Hole Rivers are its
principal streams. They flow through a long reach of country and find
outlet at the northeast, through the Jefferson River, into the Missouri.

The surface of the county is much broken, and includes many de-
tached ranges and spurs, which, in some instances, are comparatively
high and rugged. There are anumber of arable vaileys, and quite an ex-
tent of rolling, open country suitable for grazing.

Upon all the mountains, except at the highest elevations, there is a
forest growth, but usualiy not dense nor of great value for lumber. The
forests, however, afford timber supplies for the ordinary local uses, and
serve to protect the head-waters of the streams.

Red Fir, Black Pine, or Tamarack, White Pine, and White Spruce
are the predominant species. Black Cottonwood (Populus angustifolia),
which here grows large and tall, borders many of the streams.

Forest fires have destroyed much timber in the county, but as the
winter snows are heavy and the climate not extremely arid, a new
growth of the same species soon appears.

CHOTEAU COUNTY.
(Total area, 26,000 square miles; estimated forest area, 350 square miles.)

The greater part of this immense county, nearly all of which is in the
plains region, is held as an Indian reservation. It is situated in the
north-central part of the Territory, and is watered by the Missouri
River, the Milk, Marias, and other tributary streams.

The small amount of timber the county contains is found upon the
Sweet Grass Hills in the north, the Bear Paw and Littie Rocky Mount-
ains at the northeast, the Highwood Mountains in the southern por-
tion, and on the foot-hills of the main range in the extreme western
part.

The forests are composed almost wholly of an inferior growth of Red
Fir and White Pine, not more than 5 or 10 per cent. of which is good
saw-timber, A scanty growth of Cottonwood lines the streams.

7103

It is stated that forest fires have not been frequent. When they do
occur, the second growth is usually of the same species as the original,

CUSTER COUNTY.
(Total area, 20,000 square miles; estimated forest area, 200 square miles.)

Custer County, situated in the southeastern corner of the Territory,
is another of the “ plains counties.” It is an agricultural and grazing
region, and is watered by the Yellowstone, Powder, Tongue, and Rose-
bud Rivers and their aftiuents.

There is but little timber in the county, and that is found in the south-
western part.

DAWSON COUNTY.
(Total area, 2.700 square miles; estimated forest area, 200 square miles. )

This, one of the largest counties of the Territory, is situated in its
northeastern corner. More than one-half of its area, at the north, is
still held as an Indian reservation. Itis wholly in the plains region.
The Missouri River flows through the central part and the Yellowstone
crosses the southeast corner. The only timber of any importance—and
that very limited in extent—is situated in the piney buttes, in the south-
western portion of the county.

DEER LODGE COUNTY.
(Total area, 5,000 square miles; estimated forest area, 2,400 square miles.)

This eounty lies upon the western slope of the Continental Divide,
The main Rocky Mountain rarge forms its northern, eastern, and, in
part, its southern boundaries. ‘The area of this county is quite equally
divided between mountains and valleys, the most notable of the latter
being Deer Lodge Valley, which is 30 miles long and from 3 to 10 miles
wide.

Numerous streams afford a plentiful water supply for irrigation and
other purposes.

All of the mountains are more or less timbered, the heaviest growth
being found in the northern and southwestern parts of the county.
Red Fir, White and Yellow Pine and Cedar, are the principal species
of forest trees. Fir and * Lodge-pole Pine” (a variety of. the White
Pine) predominate.

One-half of the timber lands is covered with Lodge-pole Pine, one-fourth has trees

of large growth, and one-fourth is brush and burned over. The trunks of the larger
species attain a diameter of 4 to5 feet.

FERGUS COUNTY.
(Total area, 7,500 square miles; estimated forest area, 700 squate miles. )

This county is situated in the central part of the Territory. The
- Muscle Shell River, a tributary of the Missouri, bounds it on the south

104

and east. Its average elevation is about 3,500 feet above sea-level.
One-third of the area is mountainous, and covered with a seanty
growth of timber. The remaining portion consists of long, narrow
plateaus, with deep vaileys and ravines atthe sides. The bottom-lands,
bordering the streams, are of small extent, and in some parts are too
stony tor cultivation. To a great extent the soil is gravelly. This,
in connection with the broken configuration, and prevailing arid eonai-
tions, will greatly limit agricultural operations.

_ The timber lands are situated in the central and western portions of
the county. The greater part are thinly wooded, the forest growth ap-
pearing on rocky ridges, buttes. and the sheltered sides of plateaus.
The predominant species are Yellow and White Pine and Fir. Only
the first two grow large enough for lumber. The White Pine is smail,
and is much used for fencing poles. A seattering growth of Cottonwood
and Box-elder along the streams furnishes more or less fuel.

About one twenty-fifth of the timber area is fully stocked, and one-
fiftieth is brush.

Forest fires have been very destructive. A correspondent, under date
of August, 1886, describes one then prevailing on the Fort Maginnis
military reservation. He recounts the unavailing efforts of citizens to
subdue it, and the utter indifference with which the matter was viewed
by the commandant of the post, who refused to extend any aid in the
premises.

Tree-planting, either with or without the aid of irrigation, is deemed
impracticable. The atmosphere contains so little moisture that trees
sunburn in summer and freeze dry in winter.

GALLATIN COUNTY.
(Total area, 7,100 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,600 square miles.)

Situated upon the southern border of the Territory at a moderate
elevation, and abundantly watered by streams flowing from Yellowstone
Park, this county ranks among the first in Montana for fertility and
productiveness. Its surface is greatly varied, and includes mountains,
foot-hills, and valleys.

Most of the mountain slopes are covered with timber; the trees, how-
ever, do not grow large. Yellow and White Pine and Fir are the pre-
dominant species. Lodge-pole Pine is the most common variety, and
occupies large areas. Cottonwood grows along the streams. About
40 per cent. of the timber land has been burned oyer.

JEFFERSON COUNTY.
(Total area, 2,200 square miles; estimated forest area, 350 square miles. )

This county lies upon the eastern slope of the main range and is cen.
trally situated in the western or timbered portion of the Territory. The

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Jefferson and Missouri Rivers, respectively, form its southern and east-
ern boundaries. It is well watered by numerous tributary creeks.

The timber, coufined mostly to the mountain slopes, is neither very
heavy nor dense. Yellow and White Pine and Spruce (variety not
named) are the principal species of forest trees. Cottonwood borders
the streams. 3

Complaint is made that lumbermen cut large quantities of timber
which they fail to use, leaving it on the ground to decay.

With the aid of irrigation, a few forest trees are cultivated for orna-
mental purposes.

LEWIS AND CLARKE COUNTY.
(Total area, 2,100 square miles; estimated forest area, 400 square miles.)

This county lies directly north of Jefferson and, in common with the
latter, is bounded on the west by the main Rocky Mountain ranye. The
Missouri and Sun Rivers, respectively, constitute its eastern and north-
ern boundaries.

One-half or more of the county is mountainous and more or less tim-
bered. On the sheltered slopes of the mountains, the trees are tall and
straight, varying in diameter of trunk from 4 inches to 2 feet. In
situations where the southwest winds have unobstructed sweep, the
forest growth is scanty and dwarfed. Yellow and White Pine and Red
Vir are the predominant trees and constitute the principal timber. As
in most other parts of this region, Cottonwood borders the streams.

Some claims have been taken under the timber-culture act, trees being
cultivated with the aid of irrigation.

MADISON COUNTY.

(Total area, 4,500 square miles, ‘estimated forest area, 900 square miles.)

Madison County is situated near the southwest corner of the Terri-—

tory. Its areaembraces mountains, valley and grazing land in almost
equal proportions. The Jefferson and Madison are its principal rivers.

The forests, composed chiefly of Red Fir and White Pine, grow upon
the mountain ranges, which have quite geueral distribution throughout
the county. The Fir reaches a size of 10 to 40 inches in diameter of
trunk, while the Pine is much smaller, rarely exceeding 12 inches in
diameter. Cottonwood fringes the streams. About one-fourth of the

forest growth is good timber, one-fourth young trees and brush, and °

the remainder made waste by burning.

It is said that forest fires occur every fall in the dry season.

Trees are grown to a limited extent, and with indifferent success, on
timber-culture claims, with the aid of irrigation.

Some loss of life and property by avalanches is reported.

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MEAGHER COUNTY.
(Total area, 5,700 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,100 square miles. )

This county is situated near the center of the Territory. The Mis-
souri River forms its western boundary. Other important streams are
the Muscle Shell and Smith Rivers. Mountaius, valleys, and foot-hills,
or grazing lands, further vary the surface of the county.

The forests are mostly situated on the mountain slopes, the main
sources of timber supply being the Big and Little Belt, Snowy and Elk
Mountains, and portions of the Highwood and Crazy ranges. The
best timber is usually in the least accessible districts It is estimated
that one-tenth of the forest area is good timber and three-tenths prom-
ising second growth. The remainder is brush and lands made waste
by fire.

Yeliow and White Pine and Spruce are the principal timber trees.
Cottonwood is used to some extent for fuel.

The following list includes the names and location of the different
Species native to this county :

Yellow Pine (Pinus ponderosa), Smith River and elsewhere.

White Pine (P. albicaulis), Little Belt. Mountains.

Lodge-pole Pine, wrongly called Tamarack (P. Murrayana), Little Belt
Mountains.

Blue (or White) Spruce (Picea pungexs), ali mountain ranges.

Cottonwood (Populus monilifera), widely distributed.

Black Cottonwood (P. angustifolia), all large streams.

Balsam Poplar (P. balsamifera), Belt Creek.

Aspen (P. tremuloides), mountain ranges.

Box-elder (Negundo aceroides), margins of streams.

Dwarf Maple (Acer glabrum), Little Belt Mountains.

Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), Little Belt Mountains.

Wild Cherry (Prunus demissa and P. Pennsylvanica), creek valleys.

Black Birch (Betula occidentalis), borders of streams.

MISSOULA COUNTY.
(Total area, 24,500 square miles; estimated forest area, 16,200 square miles. )

This county, of such great extent, is situated in the northwest corner
of the Territory, and upon the western slope of the continental divide.

The Cabinet, Coeur d’Alene, and Bitter Root Mountains and their
outlying spurs occupy a large portion of the western half of the county,
It is watered by the Kootenai, Clarke’s Fork of the Columbia, Missoula,
Bitter Root, Pend d’Oreille and other streams. Flathead Lake, a sheet
of water 30 miles in length by 10 in width, is situated in the northeast-
ern portion. A few other small lakes are found in the same region.
The surface of the county is about one-third mountains and hills, and
the remaining part consists of valleys and plateaus. Agriculture and
fruit-raising are leading industries; many fine orchards have been
grown,

107

The mountains are not rugged and are comparatively low, rarely ex-
ceeding 8,000 feet in altitude. They, as well as the foot-hills, are usu-
ally covered with timber. Some of the low, Kocky Mountain spurs at
the eastward, however, are quite bare. About three-eighths of the
forest growth is good timber; as much more is promising young growth,

while the remainder has been made waste by fire.

The leading species of forest trees are Yellow and White Pine, Red
and White Fir, White Spruce, Tamarack, Cedar (Thuya gigantea), Larch,

and Balsam. In the bottoms and along the streams are found Balm of .

Gilead, Birch, Alder, Willow, etc. The Pines, Firs, and Tamarack fur-
nish most of the lumber supplies. The Yellow Pine grows large, and
is the predominant forest tree.

At higher elevations the White Spruce is the leading species.

SILVER BOW COUNTY.
(Total avea, 576 square miles; estimated forest area, 60 square miies.)

The county of Silver Bow, situated upon the crest of the main Rocky
Mountain range, is one of the principal mining centers of the region.

Mining interests have greatly flourished here, but the forests have suf:
fered in a corresponding degree. The demand for mining timbers and

wood for charcoal manufacture has been so great, that the once valuable

forest lands of the county have been almost wholly stripped. There is
but little, ifany, chance for reproduction of the forest growth. A little
timber still remains in the western part of the county, but is likely
to be consumed during the next three years.

Yellow and White Pine, Red Vir, and White Spruce are the predomi-
nant species. The Fir grows to a size of 6 to 15 inches in diameter of
trunk, and the Spruce reaches an average diameter of 15 inches. Lodge.
pole Pine grows from 2 to 6 inches in diameter. A small growth of
Cottonwood and Willow is found along the streams. A correspondent
writes :

The timber question is a serious one for this part of the Territory. The consump-
tion of timber is so great that the forests of western Montana will be cut off within

the next ten years.
YELLOWSTONE COUNTY.

(Total area, 3,600 square miles ; estimated forest area, 25 square miles. )

There are no mountains in this county, and no forests of importance.
The Yellowstone River forms its southern boundary.

Upon the bottom lands and hills, skirting this river and its tributary
creeks, is found a little timber, consisting of Pine, Cedar, and Cotton-
wood; none of which, unless the latter, attains large size. About one-
eighth of the forest growth is said to be good timber.

CROW INDIAN RESERVATION.
(Total area, 7,200 square miles; estimated forest area, 700 square miles. )

This reservation is in the south-central part of Montana, bordering
On the Territory of Wyoming. The Yellowstone River bounds it on

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108

the north; and the entire area is fairly well watered by the two Big
Horn Rivers, the Nez Perce and Rosebud Rivers and their affluents,
all of which are tributary to the Yellowstone.

Tn the southern part of the reservation are outlying spurs and foot-
hills of the Wyoming ranges. These are covered to some extent with
Pine, Fir, and Spruce timber. The foot-hills of the Snow Mountains,
which encroach upon the western border of the reservation, also bear a
forest growth, but no report concerning the same has been received.

WYOMING.

The Territory of Wyoming, in situation, exterior form, area, and con-
figuration, has much in common with her southern neighbor, the State
of Colorado. Both lie in the northern temperate zone, and cover por-
tions of the great interior plateau where the open country and mount-
ains meet. In both are high and rugged mountain ranges, wide plains,
valleys, and powerful streams. One contains the distribution or radi-
ating center of the water system of the Northwest; in the other is the
distributive center of the water system of the Southwest.

The surface area of the Territory is 100,375 square mniles and its mean
altitude about 6,000 feet above the sea. The main Rocky Mountain
range crosses it in a direction from northwest to southeast. This is
flanked upon either side by minor ranges, groups, and spurs, the most
prominent of which are the Big Horn Mountains in the north, the
Laramie and Medicine Bow ranges in the south, and the Bear, Salt
River, and Teton Mountains at the west.

In the southwestern part, and following the trend of the main
range from northwest te southeast is an area of barren country, about
200 miles in length and from 50 to 90 in breadth. Its northern part
comprises the “* Colorado Desert,” or Green River Basin; the central
portion is mostly sage-brush and sand, and the southeastern part
is known as the “Red Desert.” The surface of this desolate region—
which extends southward into western Colorado and eastern Utah—is
broken by hills, sand dunes, and buttes.

As an offset to this, in the northwestern corner of the Territory is
the Yellowstone National Park, a region remarkable for its grand and
wonderful scenery. Here, amid snowy peaks and vast forests, are the
sources of the Big Horn, Yellowstone, Madison, Green, and Snake Riv-
ers; the first three finding outlet through the Missouri and Mississippi
to the Gulf of Mexico, the next through the Colorado of the West to
the Gulf of California, and the last through the Columbia to the Pacific
Ocean. In this part of Wyoming are also a number of beautiful Jakes,
of which the Yellowstone is the best known.

The North Platte, Green, Big Horn, and Powder are the principal
rivers. Numerous other streams, of greater or less importance, water
the different portions of the Territory.

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The climate, though cool and bracing, as befits a high altitude, is not
rigorous except in the higher mountains. But slight falls of rain or
snow occur during the yeur, so that the aggregate of sunny days is very
ereat. The mean annual rain-fall, including snow, varies from 12 to 15
inches. The greatest humidity is from the middle of autumn to the
middle of spring. Irrigation is depended upon for raising farm prod.
ucts, the rain-fall being insufficient to mature crops, except grass for
grazing purposes,

Stock-raising is as yet the chief industry, though the natural resources f
of the Territory are extremely varied. It is estimated that one- eighth f
of its entire area is suitable for cultivation. ‘

The forests of Wyoming are confined mainly to the mountain ranges.
Some of them are of wide extent, and the timber quite dense and heavy; i
but, as a rule, they are not equal to those of the Territories farther north i

and west. The best timber is found on the southern part of the Big (
Horn Mountains, the central portion of the Laramie Range, Medicine !
Bow, and Sierra Madre Mountains, and the northern spurs of the Uintah i
Range, which extend from Utah into southern Wyoming. Upon nearly i

all of these mountains the snows are heavy, and remain, in part, through-
out the year. The Sheshone, Teton, and Snake River ranges also bear
quite heavy forests. The timber upon the eastern extension of the
Sweetwater range and western portion of the Rattlesnake Mountains
islight and scattering. The widest timbered area is in the northwestern
part of the Territory, covering the Wind River, Shoshone, and other
mountains of the main range, including the groups of Yellowstone Park.

There is considerable timber mostly Yellow Pine, upon the Black
Hills near the Dakota line.

Measurements of the timber limits of various mountains have been made, which
show the heights, in their respective latitudes, above which coniferous trees—the
hardiest of any species—will not grow. The timber line of Mount Washburn is 9,900
feet above sea level, while the altitude of that mountain is 10,333 feet; the timber
line of Mount Hayden, of the Teton range, is 11,000 feet, while its altitude is 13,858
feet above the sea; the timber line of the Wind River range is 10,160 feet, while its
general altitude is 11,500 feet above the sea.

Yellow and White Pine and White Spruce are the principal timber
trees. Many regard the Yellow Pine as the best and most useful tree,
while others think the White Spruce furnishes the best timber for all
purposes.

Lodge-pole Pine (Pinus Murrayana) is the prevailing forest tree in a
wide area along the mountain range north and south of Laramie. It is
also common in the northwestern and other portions of the Territory.
It often replaces the original growth after fires, ete.

Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) has a scattering growth upon the
' foot-hills and low elevations in many parts of the Territory.

The Cottonwood (Populus monilifera and P. angustifolia) fringes many

of the streams.

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110

The entire forest area of the Territory is estimated at 12,060 square
miles, Large portions, however, are thinly stocked and pees parts
have been overrun by fire.

The several species, comprising, so far as known, the forest flora of
the Territory, are named in the following list:

Yellow Pine (Pinus ponderosa, Dougl.).

White Pine (Pinus flexilis, James). °
Black, or Lodge-pole Pine (P. Murrayana, Balfour).
Pinon, or Nut Pine (Pinus edulis, Engelm.).

White Spruce (Picea Engelmanni, Engelm.).

Blue (or White) Spruce (Picea pungens, Engelm,).
Black Spruce (Picea nigra, Link).

Red Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carr).

Balsam (Abies subalpina, Engelm.).

Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea, Mill).

Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana, L.).

Cottonwood (Populus Monilifera, Ait.)

Cottonwood (Populus angustifolia, James)

Aspen (Populus tremuloides, Michx.).

Willow (Salix longifolia, Muhl.).

Green Ash (Frazinus viridis, Michx.).

Box-Elder (Negundo aceroides, Moench).

Scrub Oak (Quercus undulata, Torr).

Mountain Mahogany Cercocarpus ledifolius, Nutt).
Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus parvifolius, Nutt).
Wild Plum (Prunus Americana, Marsh).

Wild Cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica, L. f.).

Black Birch (Betula occidentalis, Hook).

A small tree, not included in the above, is known locally as * Iron
Wood.” It grows along the streams in bunches or clusters, the bark
resembling that of the Red Cherry. It has long, slender stems, which
are often used for fishing-rods. No complete description of this species
has been obtained.

The principal demands upon the forest are for railway timbers and
eross-ties, the manufacture of lumber—for local uses—and timber for
fencing and. fuel. But little if any timber is exported.

Common lumber, used in building, is mostly of the native wood.
Laramie and Evanston are principal points of production of native
lumber. Hard woods and Southern Pine for finishing and flooring are
brought from the East; White Cedar shingles are obtained from the Pa-
cific region. It isestimated that 40 per cent. of the lumber used in the
Territory is imported.

The statutory laws prescribe a penalty of fine and imprisonment for
the willful or careless firing of woods, marshes, or prairies, and satisfac-
tion in damages to any person injured. Forest fires, nevertheless, are
frequent and destructive.

No officers are specially charged with the euforcemeut of the forest
laws, and although there may be violations of the same, the guilty par-
ties are rarely if ever apprehended.

feial

Wyoming is within the ‘arid belt,” and irrigation is depended upon
for the raising of crops. The itillable area of the Territory is estimated
at 12,000 square miles. The land is easily broken and cultivated, being
generally free from stones and other obstructions. In exceptional sea-
sons the natural rain-fall is sufficient to produce a growth of grain and
vegetables, but irrigation ditches and a reliable supply of water are

~ necessary to insure the success of farming operations. During the last

few years many companies have been incorporated in the Territory for
the purpose of constructing irrigating canals and ditches. Many of

these enterprises are now in successful operation. In a period of four

months during the year 1886, within the district comprising the south-
eastern portion of Laramie County, there were recorded the articles of
incorporation of over five hundred canals and ditches, extending over
1,000 miles in length and covering at least 100,000 acres of land. The
works of the Wyoming Development Company, in the same county,
include two canals, 29 and 37 miles long, respectively, and from 20 to
25 feet wide; 19 miles of lateral ditches, from 6 to 12 feet wide, and a
rock tunnel three-fourths of a mile long, with a flow of 1,500 cubic
feet per second. This system, built at a cost of $500,000, reclaims
60,000 acres of desert land.

ALBANY COUNTY.

_ (Total area, 6,922 square miles; estimated forest area, 840 square miles. )

This is a long and narrow county, in the seutheastern part of the
Territory. The Laramie and Medicine Bow ranges occupy large areas
in the north central, eastern, and southern portions.

The North Platte and Big Laramie Rivers are the principal water-

courses. ‘These, together with numerous tributary streams having their

sources in the snowy mountains of the region, furnish an abundance
of water for irrigating purposes.

The forest growth consists mainly of Yellow and White Pine, Tam-
arack or Lodge-pole Pine, Red Cedar, and Aspen. It is mostly eon-
fined to the mountain slopes and foot-hills. The heaviest bodies of
timber are found in the central and southwestern parts of the county.

Between Fort Fetterman and Laramie Peak on the La Bonte and Horseshoe Creeks,
and on the Caspar Mountain, 50 miles west of Fort Fetterman, are large tracts of
good saw timber. Along the North Platte and its tributary creeks are fine growths
of Cottonwood and Box Elder.

Lodge-pole Pine (Pinus Murrayana) is the predominant forest tree
along the range east of Laramie. Yellow Pine is common along the
lower mountains, but does not have a dense growth. It is the largest
and most valuable of the pines. White Pine (Pinus flevilis) grows near
the timber line. <A scattering growth of Red Cedar is found on the
foot-hills. Of the two varieties of Cottonwood native to this region
(Populus monilifera and Populus angustifolia) the latter is the most

prevalent. It is estimated that one-quarter of the entire forest area is

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112

good timber. Upon northern slopes, after the original stock has been
cut or destroyed, a second growth soon follows, consisting of Lodge-
pole Pine, or species similar to the first growth. Forest trees are
planted and cultivated to a very limited extent, with the aid of irriga-
tion.

CARBON COUNTY.

(Total area, 13,526 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,360 square miles. )

This county is in the south central portion of the Territory. Its area
is quite equally divided between mountains and plains. The Laramie
Plains extend across its eastern border, and westward to the North
Platte River. The principal mountain ranges are the Medicine Bow at
the southeast, Sierra Madre at the southwest, and the Seminole and
Rattlesnake in the west central portion. Spurs of the Big Horn and
Laramie ranges penetrate the county at the northeast and north. The
North Platte River, for a distance of about 200 miles, flows through the
interior of the county. Many other streams tributary to the Platte,
and the Powder River at the north, have their sources here. Upon all
the mountains are coniferous forests, of greater or less extent, the most
important being upon the snowy ranges of the Medicine Bow and Sierra
Madre. The forest growth appears at altitudes ranging from 8,000 to
12,000 feet above sea-level, and consists, for the most part, of Yellow
and White Pine, Tamarack or Lodge-pole Pine, White Spruce, and
Aspen. Lodge-pole Pine is the predominant species. It grows from 2
to 14 inches in diameter. At high elevations in the Medicine Bow
Mountains the White Spruce attains great size, the trunks of that
species sometimes reaching a diameter of 6 feet. In sheltered places
along French Creek, on the western slope of the same range, the Aspen
grows very large, the bodies of the trees often being 2 feet in diameter.
About one-half of the forest area is good timber, though not large, the
trees having a tall and slender habit. Immense coal fields exist in this
region and have been partially developed—a condition which ought to
lessen the drain upon the forests for fuel.

CROOK COUNTY.
(Total area, 10,709 square miles; estimated forest area, 400 square miles.)

This county, which occupies the northeastern corner of the Territory,
is in form an exact square, its sides being a little more than 100 miles
in length. Its general surface features are rolling plains, the Black
Hills and other minor ranges and hills occupying but a small portion
of the county. It is fairly well watered for a plains region. The lands
are adapted to grazing and limited farming operations, if irrigated.

The forest growth is scanty, consisting principally of Yellow Pine,

ted Cedar, Oak, and Cottonwood. The Pine is found on the Black
Hills, in the eastern part of the county, and on detached spurs in the

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southwestern portion. The Cedar and Oak have a seattering growth
ov the low hills, and the Cottonwood borders the streams.

A bout one-third of the timbered area is fully stocked. Iorestfires have
been very destructive, and after a fire a second growth rarely appears.
As yet there are only five saw-mills in the county.

FREMONT COUNTY.

(Total area, 20,957 square miles; estimated forest area, 3,300 square miles. )

This is the largest county in Wyoming. It is situated in the north-.
western part of the Territory and extends to both the eastern and west-
ern slopes of the main Rocky Mountain range.

The topography of the region is greatly varied; mountains, plains,
valleys, and swift-running streams are leading features. ‘The Sho-
shone and Wind River Mountain ranges extend from the north along the
west limit of the county to the Sweetwater and Rattlesnake Ranges in
its southeastern corner. The Wind and Sweetwater Rivers and tribu-
taries of the Green run through it, and the Big Horn River forms a
part of its eastern boundary.” In the northeastern part of the county
there is a broken and open country. At the southwest the Colorado
Desert occupies a considerable area.

The most extensive (though not the heaviest) bodies of timber in the
Territory are found in this and the adjoining county of Uinta.

From one-third to one-half of the forest area is fully stocked, good
for timber. Yellow and White Pine, Lodge-pole Pine, Red Cedar, and
Cottonwood are the predominant species. The best timber grows on
the higher elevations. An open growth of Pine and Cedar covers the
foot-hills. Dense groves of Cottonwood are found on the bottoms, along
the Grey Bull and Big Horn Rivers and their tributaries.

JOHNSON COUNTY.

(Total area, 11,121 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,800 square miles. )

Johnson County is in the north central portion of Wyoming, border-

ing on the Montana line.
The Big Horn range of mountains, which is about 100 miles long by

40 to 50 wide, enters at the northwest and extends nearly through the

county to its southern border.

These mountains are quite high and rugged, and carry snew upon
their summits most of the year. The Big Horn River, which forms the
western boundary of the county, and the Powder River, flowing near
its eastern margin, are the most important streams. Many tributary
erecks traverse the county in other directions. The surface of the east-
ern and southwestern pacts is rough and broken. The country lying
at the eastern base of the mountains is undulating and susceptible of
irrigation. The bottoms along many of the streams are from one-fourth
of a mile to a mile in breadth and are well adapted to agriculture.

! 24738— Bull 2——8

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The forest area, which is comparatively large, is confined to the Big
Horn Mountains. The principal species of trees are the Yellow and
White Pine, White Spruce, Aspen, Oak, Cottonwood, Box Elder, and
Willow. The last three grow on the narrow bottoms bordering the
streams. White Pine is the predominant coniferous species. There
are from ten to twelve saw-milis in the county, and the timber is being
rapidly cut. The annual lumber product is about §,009,000 feet, be-
sides 2,000,000 shingles and 300,000 laths; all of which is On local use. |

2 LARAMIE COUNTY. 2
(Total area, 11,200 square miles; estimated forest area, 80 square miles.)

This county occupies the southeastern corner of Wyoming and is the
seat of the Territorial capital, Cheyenne. About three-fourths of its
area is a rolling plain, and, excepting some of the bottom lands along
the streams, it is a grazing region. At the western side the spurs and
foot-hills of the Laramie range of mountains cover a small portion of
this county. The North Platte River flows in a diagonal course through
the central part, and is the principal stream. A number of smaller
rivers and creeks traverse the county.

The timbered area is extremely limited. Some scattering Pine is
found on the foot-hills in the western part, and narrow belts of the
Cottonwood along the North Platte, Laramie, Chugwater, and other
streams. There is no timber of sufficient size for the riiannifneeane of
lumber. :

SWEETWATER COUNTY.

(Total area, 10,550 square miles ; estimated forest area, 40 square miles. )

This county is situated in the southwestern part of the Territory and
is, toa large extent, barren and worthless for agricultural purposes.
The northwestern corner includes a portion of the Colorado Desert,
the central portion is mostly sandy and abounding with sage brush,
while at the southeast is the Red Desert. The southern part, border-
ing on Colorado and Utah, is broken and sterile. The Green River
flows through the western part of the county. Small streams start from
the mountains at the northeast, but are scon lost in sandy wastes. The
county is rich in coal, iron, and other minerals, and parts of it afford
good grazing for stock.

There are no forests in the county. <A little Pine and Sprace upon
the northern and southern borders, an open and scattering growth of
Cedar and Aspen on some of the ridges, and a fringe of Cottonwood
along a portion of Green River, comprise the timber supply.

UINTA COUNTY.
(Total area, 12,140 square miles ; estimated forest area, 2,400 square miles. )

Exclusive of Yellowstone Park at the north, Uinta County extends
across the entire western border of the Territory. Three-fourths of

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its area is mountainous. The principal ranges are the Wind River, at
the northeast, and the Teton, Snake River, Salt River, and Bear River
ranges along the west line. The county has some fertile valleys, and
is well watered by numerous small streams flowing from the mountains.

The forest area is large, but the timber is inferior in size and quality.
White and Lodge pole Pine are the predominant species. They grow
tall and slender, the trunks of the largest trees rarely exceeding 15
iaches in diameter. A scattering growth of Red Cedar appears upon

many of the low hills. i

Lumber and charcoal are manufactured here to some extent. Large a
deposits of mineral coal are being worked in the southern part of the ;
county. :

ee
as

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK.

(Total area, 3,280 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,840 square miles. )

= —

This Government reservation is situated in the northwestern corner
of Wyoming, and embraces a section of the main Rocky Mountain
range nearly 60 miles square. The region is noted for its magnificent
scenery. Its snow-clad ranges and peaks are partially clothed with
pine forests, and overlook a number of beautiful lakes of great depth
and clearness. Here are found the sources of rivers tributary to the
Missouri, the Columbia, and the Colorado of the West—great water-
ways which seek the sea in opposite directions. :

The predominant forest trees are White and Lodge-pole Pine. Occa-
sionally, upon the lower slopes of the mountains, the Yellow Pine ap-
pears. Scattering growths of Red Cedar and Aspen are also found
upon the foot-hills, and Cottonwood along the streams.

As this reservation is under the special supervision of officers of the
General Government, it is presumed the forests, as well as other natu-
ral features of the region, will be preserved.

—

Se EES aa

COLORADO.

The State of Colorado occupies a central and commanding position
upon the great interior plateau, and within its borders are grouped the
highestand most rugged of the Rocky Ranges. It has been justly termed
“The Crest of the Continent.” Amid its snowy summits and forest-
clad mountains rise Inany of the great streams constituting the water
systems of the West and South. Its average or mean elevation (7,000
feet above sea level) is greater than that of any ather portion of North
America. The neighboring Territories have a mean elevation as fol-
lows: New Mexico, 5,600 feet; Wyoming, 6,000 feet; Utah, 5,700 feet ;
Idaho, 4,700 feet; Montana, 3,000 feet.

The State is regular in outline, nearly square, and embraces a super:
ficial area of 100,200 square miles. Its two great natural subdivisions,
| plains and mountains, are separated by a north and south line nearly

116

coincident with the one hundred and fifth meridian. Three-sevenths
of the entire area lies east of that line, within the plains region, and is
a high, rolling, semi-arid country, almost wholiy devoid of timber, and
insufficiently watered by the South Platte and Arkansas Rivers and
their tributaries. At the base of the mountains it has an elevation of
5,000 to 6,000 feet; thence sloping gradually to the eastern border,
where the altitude is 1,000 to 1,500 feet less. The western and larger
division of the State includes in its eastern part the Main Range, or
Continental Divide, and almost numberless minor ranges, spurs, and
groups. Between these and the Utah line is a more open country,
broken by extensive plateaus and mesas, detached mountain groups,
isolated peaks, hills, and buttes. Large rivers traverse the region, bor.
dered in places by broad and fertile valleys, and at other points con-
fined within deep and narrow canyons.

‘‘The parks of Colorado are a distinctive and remarkable feature of
the mountain region, apparently the basins of former lakes upheaved
and deprived of their waters by volcanic agency, with their original
shape and situation at the foot of high mountains undisturbed, while
their lowest depths are from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above the level of the
sea. Many of these parks are small, being little valleys at the sources
of single streams, or the beds of small lakes into which several streams
from the surrounding mountains are emptied; yet there are four of
these elevated valleys, the smallest of which extends 20 by 50 miles,
and the largest 100 by 200, equai in size to some of the most important
of the New England States. These are called the North Park, Middle
Park, South Park, and San Luis Park.”

In all these parks are rich grazing lands, and in many of them are
large and productive agricultural areas.

The principal rivers of the State are the Arkansas and South Platte
on the eastern side, which find outlet through the Missouri and Missis-
sippi to the Gulf of Mexico; the Yampah, White, Grand, Gunnison,
and Rio Dolores upon the Pacific slope, tributary to the Colorado
River of the West; and the Rio Grande, flowing southward to the Gulf
of Mexico. All of these rivers have their sources in, and are depend-
ent upon, the central snowy ranges. It is instructive to note the pre-
ponderance of streams upon the western slope, where the forests are
most dense, and where occurs the greatest precipitation of moisture.

The forests of Colorado are situated mostly in the western mouutain-
ous divisions at the higher elevations. _A tongue of timbered land in-
vades the mid-eastern portion for a distance of about 30 miles along
the crest of the Arkansas-Plaite divide; and another tract of wooded
country extends for a short distance into Las Animas County at the
- southeast. The heaviest forest growth is in the north central, central,
and southwestern parts of the State. Some of the finest timber is
found at the southwest, in La Plata and Archuleta Counties. Much of
it grows on high, rolling plateaus; the trees are tall and straight; but

117

litdle undergrowth exists; and should the land ever be cleared, it is
unlikely to revert to forest, and would be suitable for agriculture or

pasturage.
The forest flora of the State is embraced in the following list:

Yellow Pine (Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum).
White Pine (P. jlexilis).

Black or Lodge-pole Pine (P. Murrayana).
Fox-tail Pine (P. Balfouriana var. aristata).
Pifion or Nut Pine (P, edulis).

White Spruce (Picea Engelmanni).

Black Spruce (P. nigra).

Silver or Blue Spruce (P. pungens).

Red or Yellow Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasit).
White Fir (Abies concolor).

Balsam (A. Subalpina).

Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana).

Juniper (J. occidentalis var. monosperma).
Juniper (J. communis var. alpina).
Cottonwood (Populus monilifera).

Black Cottonwood (P. angustifolia).

White Cottonwood (P. Fremontii).

Balm of Gilead (P. balsamifera).

Aspen (P. tremuloides).

Box Elder (Negundo aceroides).

Dwarf Maple (Acer glabrum).

Locust (Robinia Neo-Mexicana),

Mesquit or Honey Locust (Prosopis juliflora).
White Oak (Quercus grisea).

Serub Oak (Q. undulata var. Gambelii).
Wild Plum (Prunus Americana).

Chickasaw or Hog Plum (P. angustifolia).
Wild Cherry (P. Pennsylvanica).

Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus parvifolius).
Black Thorn (Crategus tomentosa).

Willow (Salix lasiandra).

Sand-bar Willow (S. longifolia).

Black Bireh (Betula occidentalis).

Black or Speckled Alder (Alnus incana).

Yellow and White Pine and White Spruce are the predominant
species, and are the most useful for general purposes. The Spruce
(known locally as “ Ked Spruce,” from the color of its wood) grows at
higher elevations than the Pines and is not so plentiful or so easily
obtained as the latter. Its wood is superior to that of the others.
Pinon, though not forming extensive forests, has quite a wide range in
the State, and is largely used for fuel and the manufacture of char-
coal. |

The consumption of lumber in the State during the last twelve
months is estimated at 120,000,000 feet, B. M., two-thirds being native
timber and eae-third imported. For building purposes native Yellow
and White Pine and White Spruce, and White Pine from Michigan
and Wisconsin are largely used. [or finishing and cabinet-work the

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White Pine and hard woods of the central, western, and eastern
States are preferred. Southern Pine is extensively used for flooring.
Redwood from the Pacific coast is used to a limited extent for some
purposes. Red Cedar shingles are shipped to Colorado from both the
east and west. Long timbers for bridges, railway construction, etc.,
are not easily obtained here, nor are they equal in strength and dur-
ability to those procured at outside points. The Colorado Midland
Railway Company has recently made purchases as follows:

Oregon Pine, 3,000,000 feet, B. M.; Texas Pine, 500,000 feet, B. M.;
New Mexico Pine, 2,500,000 feet, B. M.

It is hoped that when more direct railway communication is estab-
lished between this region and the heavily timbered portions of the
Pacific coast the lamber supplies of the latter will be more freely drawn
upon, lessening to that extent the demands upon the scantily timbered
districts of the mountains.

The agricultural interests of the State are rapidly increasing, and
have become of the first importance. The dependence of farming op-
erations upon irrigation systems, and the important relations existing
between them and the streams and forests of the mountains, are nowhere
more apparent than in Colorado. Itis estimated that the entire canal
system of the State embraces something over 800 miles of large canals
completed, about 200 miles projected, and about 4,000 miles of canals
of smaller size. The Del Norte Canal, in the San Luis Valley, is the
largest irrigating canalin the United States. “It is 65 feet wide on
the bottom at the head-gate, carrying water 54 feet deep, with side
slopes 3 to I, making the top width at water-line 98 feet. J’our miles
from the head it is divided, the larger branch being 42 feet wide on the
bottom, and the smaller branch 388 feet wide. There are about 50 miles
of main channel, It carries something over 2,400 cubic feet of water
per second and is calcuiated to irrigate over 20,000 acres. The extent
of territory in the State covered by the entire distributive system is, ap-
proximately, 40,000 square miles, constituting the bulk of the arable
land. The system has cost in construction about $12,000,000.

In mileage of canals and atreage irrigated, Colorado more than
doubles any other State; its works are the greatest, the most perma-
nent, and the most rapidly extending.

This State is the only one which has a constitutional clause requiring
the enactment of laws to prevent the destruction of forests and to keep
them in good preservation. Until within the last three years, however,
but little heed has been paid to that provision. In the summer and
autumn of 1884, by a series of published articles, the attention of the
people was drawn to the urgent need of protecting the forests of the
State and enlarging their area. In November of that year a State for-
estry association was formed, which has done a good work and is still
in active existence. In the winter of 1884~’85, by legislative enact-
ment, the office of State forest commissioner was created, the duties of

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119
the office defined, and the county commissioners and road overseers
throughout the State constituted forest officers in their respective lo-
calities, with special duties relating to the protection of forests. At
the same time acts were passed imposing penalties for the willful or
careless setting of forest fires, for failure to extinguish camp fires, etc.,

and requiring the posting of notices in public places warning persons

against the violation of thelaw. At the recent session of the legisla-
ture (1886-87) the law was made more stringent in some respects, the
State forest commissioner was given a salary and traveling allowances,
and Congress was memorialized upon the subject of transferring to the
State the custody or control of the public forest lands within her limits.
Altogether, Colorado has made very substantial and gratifying prog-
ress in forest matters. ;

ARAPAHOE COUNTY
(Area, 4,700 square miles. )

This county is in the northeastern a irt of the State. It has no for-
est land. Its area consists mainly of gently rolling prairie. The west-
ern half of the county is quite well wirecoll by the South Platte River
and its tributaries. An extensive system of irrigation renders product-
ive large bodies of land.

ARCHULETA COUNTY.
(Area, 1,026 square miles; estimated forest area, 450 square miles.)

This county is situated on the southern line of the State, and near its
western border. Its surface is mountainous, but includes fertile val-
leys: The forest land is well distributed ; every square mile is said to
have timber enough for needed purposes.

The timber is chiefly Pine, of good quality; 12 per cent. is brush of
promising growth; very little has been made waste by burning. The
principal species ne Pine, Cedar, Spruce, Cotton-wood, Pinon, Oak,
Aspen, and Willow; Yellow Pine predominates.

After the destruction of the forests, the chances of their renewal are

slight. On mountain ranges sloping to the north, Ee? usually fol-

lows fires as a second growth.
- No changes are noticed as yet in the volume and flow of water in
streams; Springs and running streams abound.

Indians start fires to drive the game from some places; they also strip
the bark from standing Pine trees to obtain a pulp of sweetish taste that
accumulates between the bark and the wood. It is stated that they
cause more destruction of timber than all other agencies combined.

The water for irrigation purposes is deemed insufficient.

BENT COUNTY.

(Area, 9,070 square miles.)

Bent County lies upon the eastern border of the State, and is wholly

= within the plains region. It is inadequately watered by the Arkansas

120

River and its tributaries. There are no forests in the county. Con-
siderable land is being brought under cultivation, with the aid of irri-
gation.

BOULDER COUNTY.

(Area, 768 square miles; estimated forest area, 275 square miles. )

This county is situated in the north-central part of the State. It is
bordered on the west by the main Rocky Mountain range, and is wel!
watered by streams tributary io the South Platte River. The western
half is mountainous and timbered; about one-third of the timber is
good, and one-fourth burned over, with a young growth following. The
principal arborescent species are, Yellow and White Pine, Spruce, and
Fir. The timber is scattered over nearly all of the mountainous por-
tions of the county, while along the foot of the range it is quite dense.
After forest fires, the second growth usually consists of wild Maple,
Alder, and shrubs.

The eastern third of the county is rolling and valley-land, most of
which is suitable for farming purposes.

CHAFFEE COUNTY.
(Area, 900 square miles; estimated forest area, 500 square miles. )

This county, which occupies a central position in the State, is almost
surrounded by mountain ranges. It contains a large proportion of farm-
ing and grazing land, and is abundantly watered by the Arkansas River
and its tributaries.

About two-thirds of the county is timbered. Near the summits of the
mountains is Spruce, below them Yellow Pine, and in the foot-hills and
mesas Pifion and Scrub Pine; aleng the streams are Willow—(Black or
Narrow-leafed), Cotton-wood, and Aspen. The timber land is mainly sit-
uated along the eastern slope of the Continental Divide, which forms
the western boundary of the county, and in the range of hills between
the South Park and the Arkansas River. The timber in the more open
valleys of the river is largely Pinon, great quantities of which have been
cut and converted into charcoal for the use of the smelters of Leadville,
Pueblo, and Denver. There are a number of saw-mills, and a great
many railway cross-ties are being cut. This consumes the best part of
the timber.

CLEAR CREEK COUNTY.
(Area, 450 square miles; estimated forest area, 200 square miles. )

This is pre-eminently a mountainous county. The mainsnowy range,
with an altitude of 14,000 feet and more, extends along the entire western
boundary. It sends off lofty spurs, many of the peaks rising far above
the timber line, and these, in parallel ranges, traverse the county from

121

west to east. The surface of the county, therefore, is almost wholly
covered with lofty mountains, with narrow valleys between.

The county was originally well timbered, the valleys and mountain
sides, up to the timber line, being generally covered with a fine growth
of Pine, Balsam, and Spruce. Much of this has been cut off, and more
has been destroyed by forest fires, but the supply is thought sufficient
for some years to come, if carefully husbanded. It is believed that the
eareless and willful destruction of timber might be prevented by speedily
and surely punishing offenders.

The amount of water carried by the streams varies somewhat from

year to year, being dependent upon the snow-iall. The average amount
for a given period of years would remain about the same. Owing to
the cutting of timber on the mountains the snow melts more rapidly
than formerly, thus causing a greater flow of water in the early summer
and less later.

CONEJOS COUNTY.

(Area, 1,320 square miles; estimated forest area, 300 square miles. )

This county isin southern Colorado, bordering on the Territory of
New Mexico. The western half of the county is mountainous; the east-
ern half lies in the San Luis Park, the surface having a gradual descent

to the Rio Grande River. About three-eighths of the county is forest

land, located in the range in the western part. Not more than one-
eighth of the forest land is well stocked with timber; one-eighth is cov-
ered with Aspen and one-fifth is made waste by burning. The forest
growth remaining is mostly Pine, with some Spruceand Aspen. Along
the streams in the valleys are found Cottonwood and Willow.

Fire destroys more timber in one year than would be consumed by
other causes in ten. After the forests have been destroyed there is
very little chance for their renewal.

As the trees are cut off or burned there is less water in the streams,
the snows melting earlier in the spring. Itis suggested that the sup-
ply of water might be materially increased by the beaver. This little

animal, by a system of dams and canals, stores immense quantities of —

water in the early summer, which comes down later in the season.
Could the beaver be protected by law on many streams there would be
no need of artificial storage.

COSTILLA COUNTY.
(Area, 1,450 square miles; estimated forest area, 450 square miles.)

This county is also on the southern border of the State. Its eastern
boundary is formed by the Sangre de Christo and Culebra ranges. The
Rio Grande River borders it on the west. The San Luis Park extends
through a large portion of the county.

The forests are situated in the northern and eastern parts, on the
mountains and foot-hills. About one-half of the timber is Pifton and

122

Cedar, one-fourth Pine and Spruce, and the remainder consists of
burned tracts and belts of Cottonwood along the streams. The trees
are generally inferior in size, only a small proportion being suitable for
lumber. :

Fire is the most destructive agent threatening the forests; railroads
next. Some lumber is made, but most of the saw-timber has been con-
sumed. After the forests have been destroyed by fire it is only on the
northern hill-sides that the original growth starts again. Aspen gen-
erally follows after fire. Only in favorable situations do Spruce and
Pine grow again.

During the last twenty years the forest growth in this county has
not been sufficiently disturbed to affect the volume and flow of the
stream.

CUSTER COUNTY.
(Area, 750 square miles; estimated forest area, 200 square miles. )

This county, which lies in the south central part of the State, is bor-
dered on the west and south by the Sangre de Christo and Greenhorn
ranges, respectively.

The forests are situated mainly at the west and south, in the moun-
tains. Some timberis also found onthe north and east sides. In the
western part of the county, at the foot of the range, there is an open
valley, about 9 miles wide, running the whole length of the county. The
only timber there consists of a few Cottonwoods and Willows along the
streams. Pine, Pifon, and Cedar are found on the low hills; at higher
elevations are Spruce, Balsam, and Aspen. Very little has been made
waste by burning. The best timber has been cut off for use at the mills.
The special dangers threatening the forests are fires and lumbering.
On the range a second growth will start, usually of the same kind as
the first. On the low hills, especially after fires, there is no second
growth.

No changes have been observed in the flow and volume of streams at

their headwaters. In the lower lands floods are now frequent from

cloud-bursts or sudden rains.
DELTA COUNTY.
(Area, 1,150 square miles; estimated forest area, 500 square miles. )

This county is situated in the western part of the State, in a region
of plateaus and mesas. The Gunnison and Uncompahgre are its prin-
cipal rivers.

The timber consists of Pine, Pinon, Cedar, and Spruce, the several
kinds being about equally distributed over the slopes of the Grand and
other high mesas along the western, northern, and eastern borders of
the county. There are about 10,000 acres of Cottonwood along the
Gunnison River and its tributaries.

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The average rain-fall is thought to be increasing. The danger of for-
ests being destroyed by fire is not considered imminent, as they are
situated at a high altitude, and where there is considerable humidity.

DOLORES COUNTY.
(Area, 800 square miles; estimated forest area, 150 square miles. )

The surface of this county is much broken. It includes mountain
ranges, high mesas or table-lands, and narrow valleys bounded by box

canyons, or gently sloping hill-sides. It is well watered by the Dolores

River and its tributaries.
The forest lands are situated chiefly in the eastern halfof thecounty.
About two-thirds of the timber is Yellow Pine and Spruce; the remain-

- der is Pifon and Aspen. Only a small percentage of the timber is suit-

able for lumber, the trees being small and stunted. Fires and the con-
sumption for mining purposes are the special dangers threatening the
forests. Itis said that after the forests have been destroyed Nature
speedily reproduces them, the high altitude and moist atmosphere con-
tributing to that end.

DOUGLAS COUNTY.
(Area, 850 square miles; estimated forest area, 300 square miles. )

About two-fifths of the area of this county has a scattering growth
of timber, situated mainly on the north side of the Arkansas-Platte
Divide and in the mountains to the west. The timber on the divide has
been cut, but considerable young timber is now growing. Inthe mount-
ains fully one-half of the timber has been burned. The forest growth
remaining, principally small, rarely exceeds 15 inches in diameter. Pine

- and spruce are the predominant species. Lumbering has been the great-

est destroyer of timber. A new growth is appearing on someof the old
burned tracts. This growth is usually Pine on the south side of the
mountains and Spruce on the north side. |

The volume and flow of water in the streams have been affected by
various means; such as forest fires, or cutting off the timber at the
head-waters of the streams, or of dense growths of timber and under-
brush elsewhere. Wherever the forests have been cleared off, the snow
melts rapidly, giving a heavy flow of water in early spring, and an
insufficient flow in the summer.

EAGLE COUNTY.

(Area, 1,750 square miles; estimated forest area, 300 square miles. )

This county is situated in the northwestern part of the State. The
Surface is mountainous, and includes fertile valleys suited for many
kinds of grain and vegetables, especially those that mature in a short
Season. Mining and stock-raising are the chief industries.

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The forests are found in the eastern part of the county. Two-fifths
are said to be good timber, one-fifth brush, and two-fifths made waste
by burning. The forest trees are of straight and thrifty growth, of
medium size, but mostly too small for lumbering purposes. The White
Pine and White Spruce predominate.

Fire is the special danger threatening the forests. When the forest
is destroyed by fire the ground is usually burned so deeply that all
fertilityis destroyed. Thesecond growth is usually the same as the first;
when the land has been burned. After fire, Aspen grows first, then
White Pine, and later Spruce.

ELBERT COUNTY.

(Area, 5,800 square miles; estimated forest area, 100 square miles.)

The county is situated in the eastern part of the State, in the Plains
region. The western portion is broken, and is fairly well watered by
tributaries of the South Platte River.

The limited amount of forest land in this county is found mostly in
the northwestern part. Lumbermen have cut all the good timber, and
the present forest growth is small and scattering. Pine is the predom-
inant species.

It is stated that floods have become more frequent since the destruc-
tion of the timber.

EL PASO COUNTY.

(Area, 2,650 square miles; estimated forest area, 500 square miles. )

This county occupies a central position in the State. The eastern
half (south of the Arkansas-Platte Divide) consists of undulating
plains, with no timber and very little water. The elevation at the east
line is 4,500 feet, reaching to 6,000 feet in the center, at the base of the
Pike’s Peak range. The western portion, and also that lying north of
a line between townships 12 and 13, south, is very mountainous, reach-
ing an elevation of 14,167 feet at the summit of Pike’s Peak, 9,250 feet
at the crest of the Hayden Divide, and 8,500 feet at the highest point
of the Arkansas-Platte Divide. The western and northern parts of the
county, above an elevation of 5,500 feet, are in most parts well timbered
with Pine, Spruce, Fir, ete. The heaviest timber is found at an alti-
tude of 6,000 to 10,000 feet; that below 6,000 feet is mostly Yellow Pine,
Pinon. Serub Oak, and Cottonwood.

FREMONT COUNTY.

(Area, 1,450 square miles; estimated forest area, 450 square miles. )

About three-fourths of the area of this county is mountainous. The
county is drained by numerous streams, all of which flow into the
Arkansas River. The forest land is situated mainly in the northern
and western portions. There is very little available timber large enough

125

for lumber, and no brush of promising growth. The forest growth is
Pifion and Pine, White Spruce, Cottonwood (on margins of streams)
Aspen, Scrub Oak, Box-lilder and Wild Maple. Pinon and Pine pre-
dominate. The Pinon and Oak make excellent fuel; the former is also
used extensively in the manufacture of charcoal.

Charcoal burning is the principal danger threatening the forests.
The prospects of renewal after the forests have been destroyed are very
poor. In the mountains the second growth is usually Aspen.

GARFIELD COUNTY.
(Area, 7,250 square miles; estimated forest area, 800 square miles. )

This large county is situated in the plateau region of western Colorado.
It is watered by the White and Grand Rivers and their numerous tribu-
taries.

From the Great Hogback west to the head-waters of Roan and Doug-
- las Creeks, are low sandstone hills, covered with stunted Pifion and
Cedar. The divide between Grand and White Rivers bears scattering
bunches of Spruce and Aspen, the latter predominating. Hast of the
great Hogback are large forests of Fir, White Spruce, and Pine; also,
in theimmediate vicinity of White River are grovesof very large Aspen.
Dwarf Pifion and Cedar are found near Carbonate and west to the
great Hogback, on the divide between Grand and White Rivers. The
finest timber is said to be situated in the northeast part of the county,
on the White Pine Plateau. In the higher altitudes there are some
large bodies of timber, mainly White Spruce.

Tire is the principal cause of the destruction of timber in this county.
The law requiring the extinguishment of camp-fires should be strictly
enforced. The statement is made that the Ute Indians, who roam at
large and make their summer headquarters in the best timber, are re-
sponsible for some of the forest fires. The chances for renewal, after

the forests have been destroyed by fire, arefew. Aspen, if anything,
springs up after fire.
GILPIN COUNTY.

(Area, 140 square miles; estimated forest area, 50 square miles.)

This county is situated in the north-central part of the State, upon
the eastern slope of the main range. The eastern portion is rugged
and mountainous, embracing Bear Mountains, South Hill, etc. In the
central and northern part are low foot-hills: the western part rises
to the summit of the range; and the southern part rises from North
Clear Creek 2,000 to 3,000 feet to the summit of the ridge between the
two forks of Clear Creek, which forms the southern boundary of the
county.

- There is but little timber of importance in the county; it has nearly
all been cut off for mining purposes and fuel. That which is now used

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is brought from the extreme western part of the county, at the head of
North Clear Creek. The principal green timber is in the vicinity of
Bear Mountains, but it will not much exceed 1 square milein area. A
new growth, however, is rapidly springing up over about one-third of
the county. Of the forest trees how remaining, White Pine predomi-
nates.

There are no irrigating ditches in the county, and no farming land
except small areas along the creeks and gulches, which in general re-
quire no irrigation. The volume of water in the streams has dimin-
ished to aconsiderable extent and become more irregular in flow, partly
on account of the failure of springs, resulting from deep mining, but
mainly because of the clearing off the forests. As the bare slopes can
not absorb and retain the rain-fall, heavy floods occur at some seasons
(summer) and there is excessive dryness at others.

GRAND COUNTY.
(Area, 1,800 square miles; estimated forest area, 700 square miles.)

This county is situated in north-central Colorado. A large portion
of its area is covered by Middle Park, in which are found the sources
of the Grand River. These streams fnrnish an abundant water supply.
The forests of the county are situated upon the surrounding ranges and
upon themountain spurs projecting into the Park. About three-fifths of
the timber is good for lumbering purposes; one-fifth is brush and sap-
lings of promising growth, and the remainder has been made waste by
fire. A peculiarity of this district is that burned areas are soon retim-
bered with the original species. Sometimes the second growthis Aspen.

The timber here is better than the average of Rocky Mountain tim-
ber, the trees running from 8 inches to 4 feetin diameter of trunk, from
25 to 75 feet in length, and suitable for lumber, shingles, etc. The
principal species are Pine, Spruce (three varieties), Fir (two varieties),
and Aspen; Pine predominates. Most of the timber is at present used
as logs and poles, but little having been sawed into lumber.

¢ At the high altitude of the forests in this county, 8,000 to 11,000 feet
above sea-level, timber growth is necessarily slow. In some parts of
the forests snow lies until June, and in many portions until July. ican
point out areas that had been burned over a few years previous to 1863,
and upon which the new pine growth was then just started, or but a
few feet high, which are now thickly covered with trees 10 or 12 inches
in diameter and from 30 to 50 feet in height. These are in the middle
of the Park. The spruce forests at high altitudes are seldom burned,
and I can not speak so confidently of their reproduction. We have had
no extensive fires for several years.”

There are no irrigating ditches in the county, except a few very small
and short ones belonging to individual ranchmen.

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127

GUNNISON COUNTY.

(Area, 4,000 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,200 square miles. )

This county is irregular in outline, and covers a large area upon the
western slope of the main range. It is bordered on the north by the

Blk Mountains. The Gunnison Riverand its numerous tributaries con

stitute the water system.

The forests are situated mainly on the mountain slopes at the north
and east. The principal trees are Pine, Spruce, Cedar, and Aspen.
About one-fourth is brash, and as much more has been burned over.
No portion is fully stocked. The trees are usually 3 to 18 inches in di-
ameter. Pine and Spruce predominate. Cottonwood and Alder grow
along the streams.

Fire is the principal destroyer of the forests. The renewal is slow
but steady. The second growth is usually the same as the first, except
after fire, when Aspen follows.

No particular change has been observed in the flow and volume of

water in the streams. The entire county is well watered. There isa

heavy fall of snow in the winter, an d copious rain-fall in the summer.
HINSDALE COUNTY.
(Area, 1,440 square miles; estimated forest area, 450 square miles. )

This county is situated in the southwestern part of the State. It is
drained in the northern portion by the head-waters of the Lake Fork

of the Gunnison River and Henson Creek; in the middle part by the

head-waters of the Rio Grande River; and in the southern portion by
some of the tributaries of the San Juan River. The main range, or

_Centinental Divide, crosses the county twice, in an east and west direc-

tion.

Timber grows in all of the valleys (which lie at an altitude of about
7,000 feet) and on the hillsides and mountain slopes, to a height of
11,000 feet. White Spruce, White and Yellow Pine, and Aspen are the
principal species. Sprace and Aspen predominate. Only asmall pro-
portion of the forest trees are large enough for lumber.

No changes are observed in the streams, although without doubt the
forests have a beneficial effect on the water supply. The difference
here between high and low water is considerable, and the rise and fall
is quite gradual. Heavy snows have occurred during the last three
winters, resulting in plenty of water in the streams through the spring

and summer months.
HUERFANO: COUNTY.

(Area, 1,160 square miles; estimated forest area, 250 square miles. )

This county is situated in southeastern Colorado. Upon its north-

_ western, western, and southern borders are mountains and foot-hills

covered, to a greater or Jess extent, with Pine, Spruce, Fir, Cedar, and

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Aspen. These portions also include fertile valleys and fine grazing
lands. In the central parts of the county are low hills, covered with
Piftion and Cedar; also tabie-iands and valleys suitable for agriculture.
In the eastern and northeastern portions are plains, on which are found
scattering Pifion and Cedar. [6 is estimated that one-fourth of the
forest land is fully stocked—good for timber; one-eighth brush of
promising growth, and one-eighth made waste by burning.

Pine, Pinon, and Cedar are the leading species. Brush and dwarf
trees (mainly Cedar) are scattered in clumps over the whole county,
but the heavy timber is mostly in the north and west, on the Green-
horn and Sangre de Christo Mountains. I[iis stated that less than one-
hundredth part of the forest area is Stocked with trees fit for timber.

Forest fires are frequent in the mountains of this county, destroying
great quantities of timber.

JEFFERSON COUNTY.
(Area, 760 square miles; estimated forest area, 175 square miles. )

This county les in the north-central part of the State, to the eastward
of and at an average distance of 25 miles from the main Rocky Mountain
range. In the eastern half of the county are plains and iow foot-hills ;
the remainder is mountainous, and includes the narrow valleys of Coal,
Clear, Bear, Elk, Cub, and Turkey Creeks, and the South Platte River.

“About 400 square miles in the mountains are two-thirds clad with
forest. Not over 150 square miles abound in good timber. About 40
square milesis burned, dead, or wasted timber land ; the rest is cleared
or covered with young Poplar, Pine, or Spruce. The proportion of forest
to other lands is about one-fifth.”

The principal species of forest trees are Yellow, Fox-tail, and Scrub
Pine, White Fir, Douglas Fir, Pinon, Cottonwood, Aspen, Hackberry,
and Box-elder.

‘ Fires have destroyed in twenty years more timber than has been
used in that time for lumber and fuel. The only protection possible is
by a skillful body of forest police, to be established by the State, either
alone, or in co operation with the General Government. Such a police ©
force should not only prevent destructive fires, but should have rigid
supervision of mills sawing lumber on public lands. There should be
penalties for the careless use of fire by hunters, mill-men, and others.
There is a feeling of general indifference, unless aroused by self-inter-
est, concerning such fires. No one should be allowed to waste the
forests any more than other public property.

The chances for the renewal of forests are good, if fires are prevented
from burning the waste and remnants of lumbering and clearing. The
second growth is Aspen, the two kinds of Pine common everywhere,
and Douglas and White Fir. After fires follow Aspen, with low Vine —
Maples and Willows; then common Pine,

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For several years after 1860 I noticed changes in the volume of water
in the streams. Since 1870 1 have observed that a large growth of
Pine and Poplar clothes the burned surface of the mountains on Bear
and Clear Creeks, thus rendering sudden floods less violent than for-
merly. Since 1879 Clear Creek has had a more steady flow. I gauged
that creek very closely from 1860 to 1872. I think the water supply in
the months of August, September, and October of those years de-
creased. This was due, I think, to mining and the lone of timber.

Since that time a slight increase is perceived.

LAKE COUNTY.

(Area, 420 square miles; estimated forest area, 200 square miles. )

This county, of which Leadville is the county seat, is situated at a
high elevation in the mountain ranges of central Colorado. Within its
borders are a number of small lakes; and here also are the sources of
the Arkansas River.

The forest lands of the county are mainly on the mountains forming
its eastern and western borders. About one-fourth of the forest land
is fully stocked, good for timber; one-fourth is brush of promising
erowth, and the remainder has been made waste by burning. Pineand
Spruce are the predominaut trees.

Very destructive forest fires have occurred in this county. After the
destruction of the forests there is but little chance for their renewal.

LA PLATA COUNTY.
(Area, 4,000 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,500 square miles.)

This county, in southwestern Colorado, is 95 miles in extent from east
to west, by 42 from north to south, and is situated on the southern slope
of the San Juan Mountains. Its streams flow southward from fertile
valleys, the principal ones being the Piedra, Los Pinos, Florida, Ani-

mas, La Plata, Mancos, Montezuma, and Dolores. The elevations are
from 4,800 to 14,056 feet above the sea. The general altitude of the ag-
ricultural belt is 6,500 feet. The northern part of the county is rugged
and broken, but the southern slope, dropping into long mesas and broad
valleys, is well adapted to grazing and agriculture.

The northern and western portions of the county are well timbered.
About 65 per cent. of the same is fully stocked; 25 per cent.is brush of

_ promising growth, and the remainder made waste by burning.

The forest growth is Spruce and Fir, large and abundant, in the
mountains; excellent Pine in the middle belt; and Cedar and Pifion in
the south, interspersed with broad stretches of sage brush. After the
destruction of forests, especially when caused by fire, their renewal is
very slow.

The volume of water in the streams of the county has not changed,
| but high water is higher and low water is lower than formerly, due per-
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haps to loss of timber, causing less absorption and a more rapid flowing
off of rain-fall. The forests cause a greater rainfall, and absorb and
more evenly discharge the water supply.

The snow-fall at Durango is often 6 feet in depth, beginning about the
Jst of December and lasting until the 1st of April. In the mountains
the fall in 1%82~83 was 45 feet, beginning on the Ist of October and
lasting until the Ist of May.

LARIMER COUNTY.

(Area, 4,000 square miles; estimated forest area, 700 square miles.)

This county, lying immediately east of the main Rocky Mountain
range, upon the northern border of the State, includes within its limits
North Park. Its sarface is greatly varied, embracing plains, mountains,
aud valleys. From range lines 69 and 70, in the eastern part of the
county, the country rises rapidly to the summit of the Medicine Bow
range, thence falls to the center of North Park, and rises again to the
crest of the main range or Continental Divide. The prominent steeams
are the Little Thompson, Big Thompson, Cache la Poudre, Big Laramie,
and the North Fork of Platte River. |

The heaviest timber in the county runs through the central part, cov-
ering the Medicine Bow range and the northern and eastern slopes of the
Continental Divide. Of the entire forest area about 300 square miles
is fully stocked—good for timber, although the timber would not be
considered first-class for commercial purposes, it ranging from saplings
to trees 2 feet in diameter. White and Black Pine, White Spruce, and
Hemlock are the predominant species. Cottonwood is found along the
streams in the vaileys, and Aspen in places on the mountain slopes.

Forest fires and the consumption and waste for railway purposes are
the greatest dangers threatening the forests. There is very little chance
for renewal after the forests have been destroyed. It is stated that 60
sections of forest land were burned over in the summer of 1886.

LAS ANIMAS COUNTY.

(Area, 6,509 square miles; estimated forest area, 500 square miles.)

This county, situated in the southeastern corner of the State, em-
braces four distinct topographical regions, viz:

First, the Park Plateau, which includes about 800 square miles in the
extreme western part of the county, sloping from the Culebra Mount-
ains eastward to Trinidad. Its elevation is 6,500 to 10,000 feet, and it
consists of asloping plain, broken by numerous canyons into narrow and
rocky ridges.

Second, the Raton Hills, embracing a strip of basalt-covered Mesa,
from 6 to 15 miles wide, and 120 miles long, extending along the south-
ern boundary of the State,-from Trinidad eastward. Elevation 6,000_
to 9,000 feet; area, 1,000 square miles.

131

Third, the ‘* Plains,” comprising an area of 3,000 square miles, in-
cluding nearly the entire eastern half of the county. This is a flat,
nearly level country, sloping to the east. About 95 per cent. of its area
has a rich, loamy soil; the remaining 5 per cent. is sandy. There is no
water for irrigation. Elevation, 4,500 to 5,000 feet.

Fourth, the west-central division, or Purgatoire region, embraces an

area of about 2,400 square miles, mostly of rough, broken prairie. Hle-

vation, 5,000 to 6,300 feet. The drainage is to the northeast, by the
Purgatoire and Apishipa Rivers, through deep, narrow canyous.

The forest lands are situated mainly in the western part of the county. |

There are small forest areas in the Raton Hills, and a’‘ong the canyon
of the Purgateire River. But a small proportion of the forest is fully
stocked—good for timber, and probably one-sixth has been made waste
by fire. ey

The principal species of trees are: On the southern slopes, at about
9,500 feet elevation, Aspen; from 3,000 to 9,000 feet, Yellow Pine and

White Spruce; from 5,000 to 7,000 feet, Pinon and Cedar. On north-

ern slopes, the range of each species is 1,000 feet lower. Along the
Streams are found Box Elder, Cottonwood, and Willow at various ele-
vations ; in the higher altitudes Pine and Spruce predominate.
Lumbering and fires are the special dangers threatening the forests.
Tully one-third of all the Pine timber in the county has been cut and
removed. Destructive forest fires are likely to occur trom the dead tops
and lops of trees cut for lamber and left scattered on the ground, al-
though during the last few vears such fires have been infrequent. After
the forests have been destroyed, the chances for their renewalare very
slight, except in comparatively moist situations above 9,090 feet eleva-

-tion. The second growth is usually Aspen or Serub Oak.

LOGAN COUNTY.
(Area, 3,000 square miles. )

This is a newly organized county, and is situated in the Plains region,
in the northeastern corner of the State. The South Platte River flows

through it. It has no forests. The county is being rapidly settled by —

a good class of farmers, and the subject of tree-planting is likely to re-
ceive due attention.
MESA COUNTY.

(Area, 3,850 square miles; estimated forest area, 275 square miles. )

This county is situated upon the western border of the State. It is
watered by the Grand, Gunnison, and Rio Dolores Rivers, and their
tributaries. ‘The valley of the Grand River, which is here from 8 to 10
miles long and 30 miles wide, constitutes the main body of arable land in
the county. Hast of Grand Junction, the Grand Mesa, 9,000 to 10,000

feet above the sea, and Plateau Creek Valley, 6,000 to 8,000 feet eleva-

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tion, are covered mostly with Grass, Cedar, and Pifon. Th2 county is
broken by deep canyons, but affords good range for stock.

The main body of timber is on Pinon Mesa, the head waters of East
and West and Rio Dominguez Creeks. South of the Grand and Gun-
nison Rivers, Yellow Pine and Spruce abound. <A great part of the
county, outside of Grand Valley, is covered with a scattering growth of
Pine and Pifion. There is but little good timber. Along some of the
streams are found Cottorwood and Box Elder. Aspen is plentiful in
some localities.

MONTROSE COUNTY.

(Area, 2,040 square miles; estimated forest area, 640 square miles. )

This county adjoins Mesa County at the south and east. The Gunni-
son, Uncompahgre, San Miguel, and Rio Dolores are its principal rivers.

The forest land is situated mainly in the central part of the county.
About one-fifth of its area includes good timber. There is no brush of
promising growth, and no portion made waste by fire. The trees are
mostly Pine and Spruce of good size and quality. Aspen, Cottonwood,
and Oak are small.

Lumbering is the special danger threatening the forests. If they are
destroyed it is doubtful if they will ever be renewed.

OURAY COUNTY.

(Area, 190 square miles; estimated forest area, 110 square miles.)

This county is situated in southwestern Colorado, upon the western
slope of the Main Range. The timber is pretty well distributed; it is
said the best is found in the vicinity of Ouray, and in the northwestern
part of the county. The forest growth consists of Yellow Pine, Fir,
Pition, Cedar, Cottonwood, Box Elder, Aspen, and Oak. Spruce and
Aspen predominate in the mountains; on the hill sides, Cedar and
Pinon.

After the forests have been destroyed the second growth, if any, is
usually Cedar and Pinon. It is difficult for trees of any kind to start
after fire has run over the ground.

PARK COUNTY.
(Area, 21,000 square miles; estimated forest area, 600 square miles. )

This county isin the geographical center of the State. A magnifi.
cent mountain park, called South Park, covers a large part of its area.
On the west it is bordered by the Main Range. The principal streams
which find outlet at the northeast are Tarryall Creek and the North
and Middle Forks of the South Platte River.

The forest land of the county lies chiefly upon its westera and north-
ern borders. The timber consists largely of Pine and Spruce, the lat-—
ter predominating. Of the forest area about one-fourth is good timber, .

133

and about one eighth made waste by fire. The remainder is composed
of small growth and brush.

Concerning the effect of forests upon the water supply, it is stated
that many of the small streams which were never known to fail in
187384, and prior to that time, now fail about the last of July or the
- the first of August. It is believed by some that the snow-fall is lighter
than in former years.

PITKIN COUNTY.

(Area, 1,090 square miles ; estimated forest area, 540 square miles. )

This county is situated in west-central Colorado. It is bordered upon
the east and southwest by the Saguache and Elk Ranges, respectively.
It is abundantly watered by the Roaring Fork River and its tributa-
ries.

The forests are well distributed over the county, the heaviest timber
being found in the mountains. Pine, Spruce, Pinon, and Cedar are
the principal species. They vary greatly in size; Pine predominates.

Fire, lumbering, and snow slides have been destructive to the forests ;
as yet railroads have caused little injury. The chances for renewal
after the forests have been destroyed are poor. Scrub Oak, Aspen,
Cottonwood, and various other small trees and shrubs constitute the
second growth. |

No changes have been observed in the volume of water in the streams.
That is largely influenced by the fall of snow in the mountains.

PUEBLO COUNTY.
(Area, 2,350 square miles; estimated forest area, 125 square miles. )

This county, which borders the Plains Region in southeastern Colo-
rado, is drained by the Arkansas River. About four townships in the
southwestern corner are mountainous; the remainder of the county
consists of plains much broken by bluffs or buttes, and deep, rocky
ravines. Most of the county east, southeast, and north of the city of
Pueblo lies in fair shape for cultivation.

The forest lands are mostly situated in fhe valleys of the Arkansas,
Huerfano, Saint Charles, Fontaine qui Bouille, and in the western and
southern parts of the county. A small portion, perhaps one-tenth, is
fully stocked; good for timber.

. Cottonwood is found in the valleys, Pine, Pifton, Cedar and Spruce

in the high lands. The estimated area of forest lands includes the

Cedar Bluffs, which are properly timber lands, and probably more val-

uable than any other, as the wood is used extensively for fencing. The

Cottonwood timber is but little used. In the southwestern part of the

county there are Pine and Spruce, but limited in amount; also some
Oak and Aspen. That portion of the county has furnished the inhabi-
- tants with timber and lumber for more than twenty years.

134

The prospects for renewal of the forests after they have been destroyed
are not promising, especially on the Cedar and Pinon lands. Thesecond
growth is usually the same as the original.

The flow of water in the streams is more intermittent than formerly

RIO GRANDE COUNTY.

(Area 1,300 square miles; estimated forest area, 275 square miles.)

This county is situated in the southwestern part of the State. The
river Rio Grande del Norte enters near the northwest corner and flows —
through the county in a southeasterly direction. The valleys of the
Rio Grande and its tributaries include good agricultural land, and the
most easterly tier of townships are of like character. The remainder,
and especially the western portion, is mountainous and covered with
Spruce, Aspen, Pine, Pinon, and Cedar timber. The narrow-leafed

‘Cottonwood grows abundantly and irae in the Rio Grande Val-
ley, east of the South Fork.

Some years ago the Ute Indians destroyed many forest trees by re-
moving the bark; they also caused many forest fires. Of late years
lumbermen have taken more or less of the timber, and mining opera-
tions have been very destructive to forest growth.

The flow of water in the streams early in the spring is greater than
formerly, probably owing to destruction of the forests, which occasions
early melting of the snows.

OULD COUNLY:

(Area, 6,200 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,050 square miles.)

This county is situated in the northwest corner of the State. Itis
traversed from east to west by the Yampah River. This, with its trib-
utary streams, constitutes its water system. The surface of the county
is mountainous; the valleys for the most part are deep, and from one-
half to one and a half miles wide. Several large parks are included
within its boundaries.

‘The forests are found mostly in the eastern part and in the north-
western corner. The heaviest timber grows in the main range, extend-
ing along the eastern border of the county. About 25 per cent. of the
forest area is good growing timber; 25 per cent. Aspen and Oak-brush,
good mainly for fuel; and the remainder has been killed by fire.

The timber consists of Pine, Spruce, Balsam, Aspen, and, along the
streams, Cottonwood. There are some fine trees, but of medium size.
Pine and Spruce predominate.

SAGUACHE COUNTY
(Area, 3,150 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,175 square miles. )

This county is situated in south-central Colorado. The Sangre de
Christo Range forms its eastern boundary, and the Main Range passes —

135 :

diagonally through the western portion. The San Luis and Saguache
Rivers and Cochetopa Creek are its principal streams.

The timber lands are mainly on the mountain ranges at the north
and east. The forest growth consists of medium-size Pine, Spruce,
Pinion, and Cedar, with Cottonwood in the vaileys along the streams.
About one-tenth of the forest area is fully stocked; good for timber.

Railroads and fires are the principal dangers threatening the forests.
The replacement of forest growth is very slow. The second growth is
usually the same as the original. The adoption of measures for the
prevention of forest fires is strongly urged.

No particular changes in the flow and volume of water have been ob-
served. High water has prevailed during the past three seasons.

SAN JUAN COUNTY.
(Area, 450 square miles; estimated forest area, 100 square miles. )

This county is situated in southwestern Colorado, in the San Juan
Mountains, which form a part of the Main Range. Nearly one-half of
the area of this county is above the timber line. Its elevation is from
8,400 to 14,000 feet above sea-level. It is drained by the Animas River
and tributaries, excepting a small portion on the east, which is drained
by the headwaters of the Rio Grande.

Timber is found on nearly two-thirds of the area below the timber
line, which equals about one-third the total area of the county.

The forest growth consists principally of Pine, Spruce, Balsam, and
Aspen, and is situated in the valleys and on the lower parts of the

- mountains. I ifty to 75 per cent. of the forest is said to be good timber,

_ the trees having an average diameter of 12 to 24 inches. About 20 per
cent. has been made waste by burning. There is very little brush or
new growth. |
_ The second growth, if any, is Aspen. Much of the timber is in-
accessible. That which can be reached is likely to be used, as at present,
for mining purposes and fuel. Lumber for building is now obtained
from the adjoining county of La Plata.

The county lies af so high an altitude that there is scarcely any
agriculture. The land in cultivation embraces about one and a half

acres.
SAN MIGUEL COUNTY.

(Area, 1,375 square miles; estimated forest area, 260 square miles. )

This county lies in southwestern Colorado, its western extremity
reaching the Utah line. Its surface descends toward the northwest.
The principal streams are the Dolores River and tributaries, most of
which flow through cations, with precipitous banks. The San Miguel
Mountains, a high range, form the east and southeastern boundaries of
the county.

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136

In the eastern part of the county is a dense growth of Spruce and
Aspen, about 10 per cent. of the first named being good saw-tim-
ber.

The western part of the county is mostly mesa land, with scattering
Pinon and Cedar, and in some parts a heavy undergrowth of Oak-brush.
White Spruce is the predominant wood in the county.

The timber line varies from 10,500 to 11,000 feet. From the timber
line down to about 9,000 feet the timber is chiefly Spruce and Fir;
from 9,000 to 8,000, Aspen; 8,000 to 7,000, Aspen and Pine; 7,000 to
6,000, Aspen, Pifion, Serub Oak, and Cottonwood. The mesas are
mostly devoid of timber, except occasional groves of Aspen on the
higher ones.

SUMMIT COUNTY.

(Area, 750 square miles; estimated forest area, 275 square miles.)

-This county is situated in the north-central part of the State, on the
western slope of the main range. The forests are located mainly on
the mountain slopes at the east and south, and aJong the streams. The
best timber is found in the mountain region. The forest growth con-
sists of White Spruce, Balsam, Pine, Hemlock, Cedar, Pion, Aspen,
Narrow-leafed Cottonwood, Black Bireh, Alder, and Willow. The
Spruce, Pine, Hemlock, and Balsam grow large enough for lumber.

The speciai dangers threatening the forests are lumbering, railroads,
and the careless use of fire by campers and mill employés. Quite a
large part of the forest on the northeast side of Blue River has been
burned over; also that on the Snake River, a tributary of the former.
It is stated that before the settlement of the county forest fires destroyed
60 square miles of timber. There are in some places promising second
growths, which are usually Pine, Spruce, and Aspen. After fire, Aspen
usually follows, although in many places, on southern exposures, Pine
is the most abundant.

As yet there is no noticeable change in the flow of water in the
streams. The existing forest affords ample protection to the snow from
solar heat, while the high altitude also prevents rapid melting. The
lowest elevation in the county, near Blue River bridge at Green
Mountain, is 7,600 feet.

For the more adequate protection of forests, it is said the people
should be taught the importance of preventing forest fires, and that
notices relating to the extinguishment of camp fires, ete., should be
posted in all prominent places. People are more careless than mali-
cious in allowing fires to spread.

‘‘ Keep up the ery, ‘Preserve the forests,’ and the people will heed it
after awhile; you can net coerce, but it is possible to teach.”

There is no land in the county suitable for agriculture, and there are

no irrigating ditches.

137

WASHINGTON COUNTY.

(Area 2,220 square miles. )

This is a newly organized county, in the plains region of northeast
Colorado. It has no native timber, unless it is a slight growth of Cot-
tonwood along some of the streams.

WELD COUNTY.

(Area, 5,300 square miles. )

This county is situated in the northeastern part of the State. Its sur-
face is mostly rolling plains, intersected by the South Platte, Cache la
Poudre, Big and Little Thompson, and St. Vrain Rivers, and numerous
small creeks. Thereis but little timber in the county except a scatter-
ing growth of Cottonwood along the Platte River, which extends through
the county from west to east. There are small groves of Cottonwood
and fruit and ornamental trees in union colony, Greeley.

NEW MEXICO.

The Territory of New Mexico extends from the thirty-second to the
thirty-seventh degree of latitude, and from the one hundred and third
to the one hundred and ninth parallel of longitude—embracing a super-
ficial area of 122,500 square miles. It has the form of a parallelogram,
with sides 350 miles in length. It is situated upon the southeastern
border of the Rocky Mountain plateaus, and has an average or mean
elevation of 5,600 feet above the level of the sea. The principal surface
_ features of the country are extensive table-lands, or mesas, wide and
sandy plains, mountains, foot-hills, and valleys.

The mountain system, which in Colorado is so intricate, including
scores of rugged ranges and lofty peaks, becomes in New Mexico more
simple. The ranges here are not so massive, are less in number and
elevation, and more widely separated one from another. The mountain
chains, diverging at the northern border, spread fan like over the Terri-
tory, and in broken lines flank upon either side the valley of the Rio
Grande, which traverses the entire region from north to south. De-
tached groups and solitary mountains are seen at many points. Though
all belong to the Rocky Mountain system, they are each distinguished
by local names. :

In the southeastern part of the Territory is the Llano Estacado, or
Staked Plain, an elevated, arid region, which also extends into the ad-
joining State of Texas. The soil here is apparently barren, but pro-
duces abundantly the Mesquit (Prosopis juliflora), a small but deep-
rooted and valuable tree or shrub. The land would yield good crops if
water could be had for irrigation.

Whe general surface of the Territory has an elevation of about 5,000
c feet in the northwestern portion, and thence descends toward the south-

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east, where at the lowest point it is only about 3,000 feet above sea-
levels”

“The fall of the Rio Grande, from the northern border of the Terri-
tory to the point where it cuts the New Mexico, Texas, and Chihuahua
boundaries, is about 3,500 feet. The ranges generally rise from 2,000
to 5,000 feet above the mesas and high table-lands. Mount Baldy, 18
miles from Santa Fé, is 12,202 feet high; Mount Taylor, in the Sierra
Mateo, is 11,200 feet high.

The Rio Grande, Rio Pecos, Canadian, and San Juan are the prinei-
pal rivers of the Territory. ‘The first rises in the mountains of southern
Colorado, crosses the northern border of New Mexico at a central point,
and follows a nearly direct course through the Territory to its southern
boundary. This stream is not navigable at any point within the Ter-
ritory. The valley of the Rio Grande, having an average width of
S or 9 miles and a length of about 400, includes large areas of most ex-
cellent farming and fruit iands. The Rio Pecos, a large affluent of the
Rio Grande, drains the mideastern and southeastern portions of the
Territory, and the Canadian River and its tributaries the northeastern
portion. The western part is drained by the San Juan, Zuni, Gila,
and other affluents of the Colorado River of the West. No lakes of
considerable size have as yet been discovered in the Territory.

The water-courses of New Mexico, compared with those of her north-
ern neighbor, Colorado, are few and of small volume. In the last-
named State at least ten large and powerful rivers rise in the central
mountain region, and, re-enforced by numerous tributaries, pass to and
beyond the borders of the State. In New Mexico but two rivers, the
Rio Grande and Rio Pecos, flow for a considerabie distance within the
limits of the Territory. The two other important streams, the Rio San
Juan and Canadian, flow, respectively, through the northwestern and
northeastern corners of the Territory. The San Juan River, as well as
the Rio Grande, rises in southern Colorado.

‘‘Tt is not uncommon for a river to be considerably larger toward its
source than at its mouth. Many of the important streams that flow
from the Black Hills into the Missouri are lost on their way through
the plains; this is especially the case with rivers in the arid regions of
New Mexico and Arizona.”

The high mountains of the Main Range extend southward into New
Mexico for a distance of about 100 miles, reaching the neighborhood of
Santa Fé. South of this there is a semi-tropical region. “There is of
necessity a wide difference in the extremes of temperature, but with the
exceptions of the cold seasons of the higher lands at the north, the
climate is temperate and equable. The summer days in the lower
valley are sometimes quite warm, but as the dry atmesphere rapidly
absorbs the perspiration of the body, it prevents the debilitating ef-
fect experienced where the air is heavier and more saturated with
moisture. The nights are cool and refreshing. The winters, except in —
the mountains at the north, are moderate, but the difference between

139

the northern and southern sections during this season is greater than
during the summer. The snow-fall 1s small in amount, and seldom
remains on the ground longer than a few hours. The rains fali prin-
cipally during the months of July, August, and September, but their
annual amount is small, seldom exceeding a few inches. When there
are heavy snows in the mountains during the winter there will be
good crops the following summer, the supply of water being more

abundant, and the quantity of sediment carried down greater than —

when the snows are light.”

As a general statement, it may be said that the semi-arid conditions
which prevail in Colorado and the northern Territories of the Rocky
Mountain region, are intensified in New Mexico. The more southern
situation, and the comparative absence of high mountain ranges, forests
and streams all contribute to the aridity of this region. Hon. Edmund
G. Ross, governor of New Mexico, in bis annual reports for 1885 and
1886 to the Secretary of the Interior, very justly urges the pressing
need of constructing, in or adjacent to the mountains of that Territory,
reservoirs for the storage of water. He refers to the droughts and
floods with which this, in common with other parts of the West, has
been afflicted, and suggests that a system of storage basins, near the
head-waters of the various streams, would not only prevent destruc-
tive floods, insure supplies of water for irrigation and reclaim millions
of acres now barren, but that the resulting increase in vegetable growth
and conservation of moisture would also greatly modify the climatic
conditions; that an increased degree of evaporation would be estab-
lished, and the annual rain-fali regulated and equalized. In this con-
nection the aid of the General Government is invoked. I most earnestly
concur in the foregoing. There is urgent necessity for the systematic
storage of water in most parts of the Rocky Mountain region, and
especially in the southwestern Territories. Had the mountain forests
been maintained the need of artificial reservoirs would not now be so
great.

‘The average rain-fall from 1870 to 1885, inclusive, has been as fol-
lows, af the points named, to wit:

Inches.
Hori -bayard), wa tiheisouthn west. 45 ess 90 ecto seeraae eee 15. 30
Kort Union im tine mort hos 3s ayy ke es eat ee ereee 16. 74
NORE WAIMNe Abe ml GNeCEWESU. =. see Ses anit ile eee ey 15. 52

“At Fort Stanton, in the southeast, the average has been about the
same.”

Although the principal forests of New Mexico are confined to the
mountain chains, other parts of the Territory are more or less wooded.
Upon the wide mesas, which form so prominent a feature of the south-
west and western portions, are found scattering growths of Cedar,

Novre.—It is estimated that New Mexico has irrigating canals and ditches equal in
extent to those of Utah, irrigation having been practiced in a rude way in this Terri-
tory long before it came into the possession of the United States. Two large irrigat-

_ ing canals are now projected, one on each side of the Rio Grande, capable of watering

_ from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 acres.

140

Juniper, and Pinon; while the arroyos, or depressions in the mesas,
contain fine groves of Mesquit. In the mountain valleys, gulches and
canyons, are Yellow Pine, Pinon, Dwarf Maple, and Serub Oak. On
the higher ranges, at the north, in addition to the Pines, are found the
White Spruce and Red Fir. Juniper is common on the foot-hills of
this section. The river valleys are lined with Cottonwood, Box-Elder,
several varieties of Willow, Alder, Ash, Sycamores, Cherries, and Mul-
berries. On the southern plains, or wide sandy valleys, the prevailing
growths are Yucca, Madrona, and Palo Verde (acacia). On mountain
slopes the second growth is often Aspen. The elevated plain, which
occupies the eastern portion of the Territory, has no forests, and is prac-
tically treeless. The finest timbered region in New Mexico is in the
southwestern part, and includes the Magdalena, Mogollon, Sierra Di-
ablo, and other high ranges. Large bodies of Pine, Spruce, and Fir,
suitable for lumber, are found here. In the northern mountains, at the
headwaters of the Rio Pecos, there is some excellent timber.

Viewing the Territory as a whole, the Yellow Pine is the most im-
portant and useful tree, and furnishes a large proportion of the native
lumber.

The following is a list of the forest trees of New Mexico:

Yellow Pine (Pinus ponderosa, Dougl.).

White Pine (P. reflera and P. fiexilis, Engelm.).
Black Pine, or Tamarack (P. Murrayana, Balfour).
Pinus Chihuahuana, Engelm.

Pifon, or Nut Pine (P. edulis, Engelm.).

White Spruce (Picea Engelmanni, Engelm.).

Red, or Yellow Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carr.).
White, or Balsam Fir (Abies concolor, Lindl. and Gordon).
Juniper (Juniperus pachyphloea, Torr.).

Juniper (Juniperus occidestalis, Hook. var monosperma, Engl.).
Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana, L.).

Cypress (Cupressus Guadalupensis, Watson).
Sycamore (Platanus Wraghtii, Watson).

Box Elder (Negundo aceroides, Moench).

Dwarf Maple (Acer glabrum, Torr.).

Dwarf Maple (Acer grancidentatum, Nutt).

Ash (Fraaxinus pistaciefolia, Torr.).

Walnut (Juglans rupestris, Engeln).

Black Oak (Quercus Emoryi, Torr.).

Locust (Robinia Neo-Mexicana, Gray).

Mesquit (Prosopis juliflora, D. C.).

Cottonwood (Populus monilifera, Ait.).
Cottonwood (P. angustifolia, James).

Cottonwood (P. Fremontii var. Wislizeni, Watson).

Note.—Estimates of forest areas differ widely for the same region. This results
from the difference in the competency and carefulness of the observers, and from the
fact that there is no accepted standard of estimate. Some include in forest lands not
only those tracts which are densely or mainly covered with trees, but also grazing
lands on which may be found only a few scattering pifions or cedars. The estimates
here given of the forest areas of New Mexico, as indeed all the estimates of forest areas
embodied in this report, are designed to embrace only those which are strictly forest
clad. The constant endeavor has been not to overestimate in this respect.

141

Aspen (P. tremuloides, Mich.).

Willow (Salix flavescens, Nutt).

Willow (S. lasiandra, Benth.).

Desert Willow (Chilopsis saligna, D. Don).

Alder (Alnus oblongifolia, Torr.).

Wild Cherry (Prunus Capuli, Cav.).

Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius).

Mountain Mahogany (C. parvifolius, Nutt).

Black Thorn (Crategus tomentosa, L.).

Spanish Buckeye ( Ungnadia speciosa, Endl.).

Wild China or Soap’ erry (Sapindus marginatus, Willd).
Spanish Bayonet ( Yucca baccata, Torr.).

Madrona (Arbutus Xalapensis, H. B. K.).

Palo Verde or Greenbarked Acacia (Parkinsonia Torreyana, Watson).
Mexican Mulberry (Morus mycrophilla, Buckley).

It has been estimated that the amount of native lumber used in the
Territory in the year 1886 was 5,000,000 feet. About 1,000,000 feet
were imported from Arizona, and used for all purposes, including fin-
ishing. Ofhigh grade Hastern and California lumber, about 50,000 feet
of each kind were consumed during that year. Some 200,000 feet of
different grades were brought into southern New Mexico from northern
Texas during the period named. The consumption of lumber for that
year was comparatively light.

Farming and fruit-growing are carried on quite extensively in differ-
ent parts of the Territory generally with the aid of irrigation. Most of
the ditches, however, are small. In some of the mountain districts crops
are grown without the aid of irrigation.

The Territorial law provides for the punishment of persons who shall
willfully or maliciously set ov fire any woods, marshes, prairies, or other
erounds not their own, or who shall intentionally or by neglect permit
the spread of fire from their own grounds to those of another; also, that
satisfaction in damages may be recovered by parties injured by such

fires. : : :

New Mexico is subdivided into fourteen counties, the relative situa-
tion of which, upon the map, is about as follows:

San Juan. Rio Arriba. Taos. Colfax.
Bernalillo. Santa Fé. Mora.
Valencia. . San Miguel.
Socorro.
Sierra. Lincoln.

Grant. Dona Ana.

142
BERNALILLO COUNTY.
(Area, 8,350 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,450 square miles. )

The Rio Grande Rivez traverses the eastern part of Bernalillo County
from north to south. Its prineipal tributaries are the Rio Galisteo
on the east, and the Rio Jemez and Rio Puerco Rivers at the west. In
addition to the above, there are numerous springs, and a few small
streams of more or less permanence. The Rio Grande is the most im-
portant valley, and includes a large area of agricultural land. To the
westward of this valley the county is rolling and broken by hills and
canyons. It has grass lands and some timber, and is well adapted for
grazing purposes. The Sandia Mountains occupy the eastern and the
Jemez Mountains the central portions of the county.

Upon the mountains named above are situated most of the forests.
About one-fourth of the forest area has good timber, and as much more
has a promising young growth. Open forests of Yellow and White
Pine and Red Cedar extend from the northeastern corner of the county
westward to the Jemez River. The principal species of trees, in addi-
tion to those named above, are Serub Vak and Pinon, the latter pre-
dominating.

But little change, if any, has been observed in the volume of water
in the streams of this county; the flow is more intermittent than in
former years, and floods have become more frequent.

COLFAX COUNTY.
(Area, 7,000 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,275 square miles. )

This county is situated in the extreme northeastern corner of the
Territory. It is bordered on the west by the Main Rocky Mountain
range, and its surface, as a wiole, is greatly varied. Mountains, single
and in groups, hills, buttes, rolling lands, mesas, and valleys are em-
braced within its limits. Numerous streams, the most important of
which are the Cimarron and Canadian Rivers, traverse the region.
This, with the fine growth of grass, makes it one of the best grazing
districts of the west.

The forest lands are situated principally in the western part of the
county and constitute about one-fifth of the entire area. Nearly 10
per cent. of the timber is Pine and Spruce of medium size. The re-
mainder is mostly Aspen, Serub-Oak, Pifon, and Dwart Cedar. Cot-
tonwood grows along the streams.

‘Chere is less water in the streams in summer than there was fifteen
years ago. Floods and droughts have become more frequent.

DONA ANA COUNTY.
(Area, 10,260 square miles ; estimated forest area, 75 square miles. )

Dona Ana is the central county of the southern tier bordering on
Texas and Mexico. It is, in general terms, a strip of table land about

143

4,000 feet above the sea level, from which rise a number of mountain

ranges. These ranges are from 20 to 50 miles long, and seldom exceed
10 miles in width. Between them are great plains, from 20 to 80 miles
wide, treeless and almost waterless, but generally covered with grass
aud affording pasturage for stock. The Rio Grande dei Norte flows

through the center of this region, forming a rich alluvial valley about 5

- miles in width and sunken some 200 feet below the surrounding plains.

It ineludes the famed ‘ Mesilla Valley,” a district noted for its fine
fruits and immense crops of cereals. Between the valley of the Rio

Grande and the Organ and San Andres Mountains at the eastward is -

a desolate region known as the “ Journanda del Muerto” (Journey of
Death). With the exception of the valley of the Rio Grande, which
includes some 300 square iniles of alluvial land that may be irrigated,
but a small portion of the county is adapted to the production of crops.

There is but little timber in this county, and it is mostly confined to
the higher portions of the Organ and Sacramento Mountains. Pine,
Tir, Cedar, and Juniper are the principal species growing in the mount-
ains, and forming forests. ‘The first two are ased to a limited extent
in the manufacture of lumber. Pinon, Oak, Ash, Mesquit, Cotton-
wood, and Willow are also native to this region. Oak and Ash are used
in wagon and carriage work.

When the forests are destroyed, there is absolutely ho chance for

their natural reproduction, and the denuded tracts become barren wastes.

GRANT COUNTY.

(Area, 10,090 square miles; estimated forest area, 800 square miles. )

Grant county is in the southwestern corner of the Territory, border-
ing ou Mexico. The northern portion is mountainous, and includes the
sources of the principal streams, the Rio Mimbres and Gila River. The
southern half of the county consists mainly of plain and mesas, and
has an average or mean elevation of about 5,000 feet. The great pla-
teau of the Sierra Madre extends into the southeastern portion of the
county. <A little farming is carried on in the large vaileys, but stock-
raising and mining are the chief industries.

The largest bodies of timber are situated in the Black Range, Mim-
bres, Pinos Altos, and other mountains in the northern part of the
county. The Florida Mountains upon the eastern border, and the Hades
and Peloncillo Mountains in the southwestern portion, are also wooded
to some extent. About one-tenth of the forest area is well stocked.
Pine and Juniper are the predominant species of forest trees and attain
a good size. <A scattering growth of Scrub Oak is found on the mesas
and Cottonwood fringes the streams in some places. The forests proper
are rarely dense; there is bat little undergrowth, and the loss incurred
from forest fires is inconsiderable. In fact, fires in this section are more

destructive to the stock ranges than they are to timber.

144

The demand for lumber causes the consumption of the Pine timber
as fast as it can be reached. Much of the best Pine is situated at points
in the mountains not now accessible, and for the present it is likely to
be spared. After the forests have been destroyed their reproduction
can hardly be hoped for; the region is too arid to favor a new conifer-
ous growth.

LINCOLN COUNTY.

(Area, 24,450 square miles; estimated forest area, 920 square miles.)

This county is situated in the southeast corner of New Mexico. Along
its western border are the Sierra Blanca, Sacramento, Guadalupe, and
other mountain ranges; the central and eastern portions extend into
the plains region. The Rio Pecos River flows through the entire county
from north to south, and midway inits course is joined by its main afflu-
ent, the Rio Honda River, which enters it from the west. That part of
the county east of the Rio Pecos is very scantily watered, a few springs
and wells being the only source of supply. Stock-raising is the chief
industry, for which the county is well adapted. <A large body of till-
able land lies along the valley of the Pecos for a distance of about 200
miles, and along the tributaries of the river for a distance of some 300
miles.

The forests of the-county are confined mostly to the mountains of the
western portion. About one-fourth of the forest area includes good
timber; the remainder has a small growth suitable only for fencing and
fuel. Forest fires have, as yet, done but little damage. Pine, Spruce.
Pinon, and Cedar constitute the bulk of the forests. The first two are
used in the manufacture of lumber. Spruce is found at the greater ele-
vations; it grows large and often forms dense forests. Pinon, ‘‘ Scrub
Pine,” and Cedar are the most prevalent trees. Other trees native to
this county are Oak, Yucca, and Madroiia.

Settlers who have taken timber-culture claims, generally plant Cot-
tonwood, cultivating them in all cases with the aid of irrigation.

MORA COUNTY.
(Area, 3,830 square miles; estimated forest area, 720 square miles.)

The altitude of this county varies from 4,000 feet in the extreme
eastern portion to 7,000 feet at the base of the Rocky Mountain range
in the west, and some of the high peaks attain an elevation of 11,000 to
12,500 feet. About one-fourth of the surface of the county in the western
part is mountainous; the remaining three-fourths extends into the
Plains Region, and is an open rolling country, varied to some extent by
hills and buttes. The Canadian River, passing from north to south
through the central portion, is the principal stream. A number of
creeks and arroyos water other portions.

The heaviest bodies of timber, consisting of Yellow and White Pine —

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145

and Sprace, are found in the mountains. Here, also, are large tracts
eovered with Aspen. The trees of this species grow very straight, are
from 10 to 40 feet in height, and are much used for fence poles. Upon
the lower slopes and foot-hills the predominating species are Pifion,
Cedar, and Serub Oak; the latter sometimes growing to a height of 30
feet. The central portion of the county has scattered groves of Pinon
and Cedar, with patches of Scrub Oak. The bluffs overhanging the
streams are covered, to a limited extent, with Pifion, Cedar, Scrub
Oak, Mesquit, and a Tew Pines. Cotton-wood, Box Elder, Hackberry,
Mulberry, Wild Plum, and Wild Cherry line many ofthe water courses.
The streams of the eastern portion are nearly bare of trees, the groves
ihat onee existed there having been destroyed by the early settlers,

RIO ARRIBA COUNTY.
(Area, 7,500 square miles; estimated forest area, 175 square miles.)

The eastern and central portions of Rio Arriba County are mountain-
ous and well watered. The western portion is occupied by high mesas
and plains, which here constitute the Continental Divide. The Rio
Chama is the principal river traversing the county for any considerable
distance. This and a few smaller streams discharge their waters into
the Rio Grande, which flows through the southeastern part of the county.
The valleys of the streams are fertile, producing fine crops of grain and
vegetables, and yielding different kinds of fruit.

The forests, found mainly in the mountainous districts, consist chiefly
of Yellow and Black Pine, with some Spruce at. the higher altitudes.
The timber is not dense, nor are the trees of large size. Cedar, Pinon,
Serub-Oak, Cottonwood, Willow, and Wild Cherry are also native to
this county.

About one-fourth of the forest area has been made waste by fire, ae
as much more is brush of promising growth. After the destruction of
the forests from any cause their renewal is extremely difficult.

Floods and droughts are more frequent than in former years.

SAN JUAN COUNTY.
(Area, 7,200 square miles; estimated forest area, 250 square miles).

This county has an elevation above sea-level of 7,000 feet. The San
Juan Mountains border it at the north and the Chusea Mountains at the
west. In the central and eastern portions are wide plains and mesas.
The San Juan and Chuseca Rivers and their affluents constitute the
water system of the county.

The Chusca Mountains are fairly well timbered, Yellow and Black

Pine being the predominant forest trees. A Ce growth of Ce-
dar, Piton and Scrub Oak is found on the foot-hills and mesas. Cot-
tonwood, Willow, and Wild Cherry grow along the streams.

24738—Bull 2

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r >

146

SAN MIGUEL COUNTY.

(Area, 11,630 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,300 square miles. )

The northwestern portion of this county, including about one-sixth
of its area, is mountainous; the remaining part is an open, rolling
country, embracing wide plains and extensive mesas. The surface
slopes from the western boundary of the county to the Texas State line
on the east, the average or mean altitude being about 5,000 feet above
sea-level. The Canadian and Rio Pecos Rivers and their tributaries,
which have their sources in the mountains at the north and west, con-
stitute the drainage system.

The most important forests, consisting of Pine and Spruce timber,
are Situated in the mountains. Itis estimated that about one-half of
the forest area is well stocked, that most of the remainder is brush of
promising growth, and that a small part has been made waste by fire.
Scattering groves of Pinon, Cedar, and Scrub Oak are found on the
foot-hills and mesas. Oottonwood grows along some of the water-
courses.

No changes have been observed in the flow and volume of water in
the streams.

SANTA FE COUNTY.
(Area, 2,490 square miles; estimated forest area, 1,375 square miles. )

Santa Fé County is situated in the northern-central part of the Ter-
ritory. It is bordered at the northeast by the elevated crests of the
Rocky Mountain range, which here reaches its southern limit. The
surface of the county is finely diversified. It is a region of mountains,
valleys, mesas, undulating plains, and swift running streams. The
altitude varies from 5,500 feet on the mesas in the southern portion of
the county, to 7,044 feet at the city of Santa Fé, and to 13,000 feet on
Mount Baldy, of the Santa Fé range. The area of the county is quite
equally divided between agricultural, fruit, grazing, and timber lands.
_The temperate climate, fine scenery, and other natural advantages, con-
tribute to render this region most attractive and desirable for residence.
The forest lands are situated mostly in the eastern part of the county.
There is a narrow strip of timber at the south called ‘The Placers,”
extending from the Placers to the east line of the county, and also a
small wooded tract in the southwestern corner. About 30 per cent. of
the forest area includes good timber; 20 per cent. is brush of promis-
ing growth; a portion has been burned over, and the remainder is an
open growth of Pifion, Cedar, and Scrub Oak. Yellow Pine and
Spruce are the predominating species in the mountains in the north-
eastern part of the county; in the more open country at the south and
vest, Pifion, Cedar, and Oak are the prevailing kinds. Cottonwood
and Willow border many of the streams.

147

SIERRA COUNTY.
(Area, 3,200 square miles; estimated forest area, 250 square miles. )

This county is situated in southwestern New Mexico. Its surface
includes mountains, valleys, and mesas. The Rio Grande River, its
‘most important stream, traverses the east-central part from north to
south, and its broad valley embraces a large section of arable land.
_ The county is well watered, and the table lands of the western por-
tion afford good pasturage.

The forests are mainly situated in the Black Range at the northwest.
Pine and Tir are the predominant trees at the higher elevations; Juni-
per and Oak are found on the foot-hills and mesas, and a growth of Ma-
ple and Walnut borders some of the streams.

When the forests have been destroyed they are rarely, if ever, repro-
duced. The second growth is usually Scrub Oak.

The large streams are not as continuous in their flow as they were be-
fore the timber in the mountains was cut off. There are more floods and
longer periods of drought. Many of the small streams have wholly
failed.

SOCORRO COUNTY.

(Area, 16,500 square miles; estimated forest area, 2,050 square miles.)

This county has several classes of lands—the agricultural, which are
found on the Rio Grande and other streams traversing the county; the
uplands or mesas, especially adapted to grazing; and the mountain
ranges, upon which the forests are mainly situated. In addition to the
above, the San Augustine Plains, centrally situated, cover an estimated
area of 2,000 square miles, and are wholly destitute of trees. In the
eastern part of the county is a wide extent of desert, embracing barren
plains, lava beds, treeless mountain ranges, and * Mal pais.”
From one-third to one-half of the county is sparsely covered with for-
ests, if all classes of growth are considered. Along the northern slopes
of the Pinon and Datil Mountains, upon the Magdalena Mountains,
the San Francisco and Mogollon Ranges, and on the higher portions of
the Black Range are forests composed mainly of the Yellow and White
Pine and Red, or Douglas, Fir. Extensive tracts of large Pines are
rare, although there are a few in the western part of the county.
About four-fifths of the entire forest area consists of a small growth of
Pine, Cedar, Juniper, and Oak. Burned tracts of limited extent are
common, but they are usually confined to the scrub growths. Aspen
covers large areas in the mountains. Other species native to the re-
gion are Mountain Mahogany, several varieties of Oak, Walnut, Mes-

quit, Box-elder, Water Maple, Cottonwood, Willow, and Wild Cherry.
| After the destruction of the forests, from any cause, there is hardly
)any chance for their renewal. Tracts burned over ten years ago are
‘Still barren.

hes
hy tay

148

TAOS COUNTY.

(Aréa, 2,300 square miles; estimated forest area, 900 square miles.)

This county is centrally situated upon the northern line of New Mexico.
Its eastern boundary is the Main Rocky Mountain range. The Rio
Grande River runs through the central part of the county, from north
to south. Numerous small streams flow from the mountains at the east-
ward and unite with the Rio Grande. This district is the best watered
of any in the Territory. The western portion of the county is more arid
than the rest, but is well fitted for grazing purposes.

The forest land is situated mostly in the eastern and southern parts
of the county, excepting a narrow strip along the western side. About
five-eighths of the forest area is fully stoecked—good for timber; the
remainder consists of young growth and tracts made waste by burning.
In the mountains are quite heavy bodies of Yellow, White, and Black
Pine, Spruce, and Fir. Aspen also covers large tracts which have been
denuded of the original species. At lower altitudes are Scrub Oak,
Pition, and Cedar, some of the latter being quite large. Cottonwood
(Populus monilifera and P. angustifolia) borders many of the streams,

By a proper system of irrigation, at least one-half of the entire area
of the county could be brought under cultivation. At the present time,
only a very small proportion of the land is cultivated.

VALENCIA COUNTY.
(Area, 7,700 square miles; estimated forest area, 960 square miles.)

This county, which is situated in central New Mexico, extends from
the western border three-fourths of the distance across the Territory.
Near the center it is divided by the Rio Grande River, and at a few
miles west of that pomt it is again intersected by the Rio Puerco River.
These two streams, and the Zuni River io the west, are the principal
water-courses. Portions of the county are very broken and mountain-
ous. The Zufiand San Matéo Mountains at the northwest, and the
‘Manzano Mountains east of the Rio Grande, are the most important
ranges. Although farming and fruit growing are prosecuted to some
extent along the valleys of the streams, the region, as a whole, is better
suited for grazing than for other branches of husbandry.

Extensive forests of Yellow Pine exist in the mountains, both in the
western part of the county and in the Manzano Range to the eastward.
In the last named district the estimated forest area is 280 square miles,
three-fourths of which bears good timber. Saw logs obtained here are
from 2 to 4 feet in diameter. At lower altitudes Pifion, Cedar, and
White and Serub Oak abound. 2

149

UTAH.

As stated in the introduction, a full canvass of this Territory could not be made
on account of deficiency of appropriation, and only the following résumé, therefore,
is given:

The Territory of Utah comprises 84,476 square miles within the thirty-seventh and
_ forty-second degrees of latitude and the one hundred and ninth and one hundred
and fourteenth degrees of longitude, a parallelogram 300 by 325 miles in extent, of
which the northeast corner is cut out, however, by the southwestern boundary of
Wyoming entering with a right angle; the western line of about 70, the southern of
over 100 miles. The country is rugged and broken and is separated into two unequal
sections by the Wahsatch Mountains, which cross it from northeast to southwest,
while the Uintah Mountains in the northeast have an east and west extension. In
the southeast are extensive plateaus, and in the west a series of disconnected ridges,
generally extending from north to south.

East of the Wahsatch the drainage is mostly by the streams which form the Col-
orado, of which the principal are the Grand and Green Rivers, and their tributaries,
the White, Uintah, and San Rafael. These rivers are mostly rapid, not pavigable,
and flow through rocky canyons, whose walls in some places rise 2,000 feet above the
streams. The rivers of the western half have no outlet to the ocean, but terminate
in the various lakes. Of these the largest is the Great Salt Lake in the northwest,
which is 75 miles long and.about 130 broad. It is shallow, contains several islands,
and receives by means of the river Jordan the waters of Utah Lake, 26 miles to the
southeast. Several streams flow into it. It has no outlet and its waters are exceed-
ingly saline, containing about 22 per cent. of salt and having a specific gravity of
1.17. Utah Lake is a beautiful sheet of fresh water, having an area of about 130 square
miles, and closely hemmed in by mountains. The Sevier River, rising in the south-
ern part of the Territory, flows north for 150 miles, receiving the San Pete and other
smaller streams, then bends southwest and forms Sevier Lake, nearly 100 miles south-

west of Great Sait Lake, and about equal in size to Utah Lake. Only that portion.

of Utah which can be artificially watered is really arable, though jands not irrigable

_are being more and more brought under cultivation. Of that part of the Territory
lying east of the Wahsatch Mountains little use has yet been made. It is mountain-
ous; its valleys are about a mile above the sea-level, and it consists chiefly of graz-
ing and coal lands. The settled parts of the Territory lie along the western base of
‘the Wahsatch Mountains, between them and Salt Lake and Utah Lake, in Cache,
San Pete, and other valleys, wherever streams are so situated as to render irrigation
practicable. In the northern part of the Territory the Wahsatch is high, there is a
great accumulation of snow in winter, and the streams are large and numerous. In
the southern part, though the range is nearly as high, the atmosphere is warmer and
there is little snow, the streams are smaller and fewer in number, and there is less
land capable ofcultivation. The isolated ranges in the Great Basin give rise to no
streams of importance, and the valleys are mostly of a desert character. The possi-
ble amount of farming lands in Utah may safely be put at 3,000,000 acres (probably
an underestimate).

The climate of Utah varies with its differing altitudes and exposures. In the lower
valleys itis agreeable and salubrious. ‘The air is dry, elastic, transparent, and bracing.
The Great Salt Lake exercises a mollifying influence on the extremes of temperatures,

_while the dry and absorbent character of the atmosphere relieves the oppression felt
in humid climates at high temperatures. The average humidity in winter is more
than twice as great asin summer. For the year the rain-fall averages 17.3 inches,
40 per cent. of which isin the spring, 9 in the summer, 25 in the fall, and 26 in the

winter. The meteorological registers do not show an increased moisture in the cli-

inate; but Rush Lake covers what was a meadow twenty years ago, and the water

RN a CS SS SS A ere

150

of Great Salt Lake is 10 feet higher than it was in 1863. There has been little gain,
however, during the last ten years. It is a peculiarity of climate in Utah, asin some
other portions of the arid region, that there is a preponderance of rain-fall in the
spring, when it is most needed.

With respect to timber Utah is much like Colorado, combining a treeless plain with
timbered mountain ridges on one side of the Territory. The valleys or plains are
destitute of forest growth, and in early times willow brush was resorted.to for fenc-
ing, adobe bricks for building, and sage brush for fuel.. The valuable timber is found
in the canyons and coves, the mountain sides having mostly only a scrubby growth
of comparatively little account. The Uintah Range, the eastern flank of the Wah-
satch, with San Pete and San Pitch ranges, are generally more or less wooded with
conifers. The western flank of the Wahsatch Mountains has been nearly stripped
of what good timber it may have had, and from that range westward to Nevada it
may be said that the country is destitute of timber. In the southern and extreme
southeastern portions of the Territory there is a thin covering of forests on the mount-
ain ranges, but of an inferior character. Of the timber of Utah it may be said that
the best trees furnish lumber of an inferior quality only. The forests are composed
chiefly of Red Cedar, Red or Douglas Fir, Spruce, with occasional Bull Pine (P. pon-
derosa), and White Pine (Pinus flexilis). More than half of the forest growth of the
Wahsatch Range is composed of this last Pine, of inferior quality. On the Oquirrh
the trees are chiefly Douglas Fir. A scrubby growth of Red Cedar and here and
there Pifion Pine cover the larger part of the mountain sides in the south and west.
They are of little value except for posts, ties, and fuel. For lumber of good quality
Utah is almost entirely dependent upon supplies from the Pacific slope and Eastern
States, yet the total cut of native timber in Summit and Wahsatch Counties has
been estimated at not less than 2,000,000 feet of lumber, 300,000 cubic feet of round
mine timber, and 12,000 cords of fuel and fencing, and this is claimed to represent
only 20 per cent. of the cut in the Territory.

On the whole, Utah ranks very low among our States and Territories in respect to
woodlands, having only 7.6 per cent. of her area which can be called forest. One who
had occasion to make a special investigation of the resources of this Territory, and
supposed to be a competent observer, says: ‘‘It may be stated that Utah seemed very
generally lacking in serviceable material for fencing or building. The country set-
tled for thirty years has drawn upon the near supply of standing timber, so that now
lumber is obtained by great exertion and expense in most of the valley settlements.
The labor and expense of fencing caused Brigham Young to enact the no-fence law,
which enabled the destitute settlers to break ground, irrigate, and raise grain with-
out the provision of any barrier against stock inroads, the cattleman being held re-
sponsible for the damages of his herd. This law in itself is a commentary on the
scarcity of timber in Utah.”

Iron ores occur all over the Territory in great variety. The most important de-
posits known are in Iron County, about 300 miles south of Salt Lake. The ore belt
is 15 or 20 miles long and 3 or 4 miles wide. The ore is magnetite and hematite.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, and other metals also abound in the Territory, and the pro-
duction of the mines is annually increasing. The reported value of the gold, silver,
copper, and lead product for the year 1886 is $7,631,729.

An inexhaustible supply of salt is obtained from the Great Salt Lake, which is con-
stantly fed by salt springs, which abound in the northern part of the Territory and
discharge into the lake.

Stock raising is becoming an important industry in Utah. Much land unfitted for
acriculture is adapted for grazing purposes, and the mountain slopes are covered with
nutritious grasses. Cache Valley, the valley of Green River, and other sheltered
situations, offer superior advantages for sheep husbandry.

If Utah is deficient in timber it abounds in building stones of good quality and
ereat variety and very accessible. Among the best known are the granite, fromthe

151

mouth of Little Cottonwood Canyon, the red sandstone near Salt Lake City, and the
secondary sandstone or oolite of San Pete County. At Logan there is an easily quar-
ried limestone. Marbles of various colors and susceptible of good polish, are found gt
many points, aud at Antelope Island is found, in unlimited quantity, a green and
purple slate, which for roofing and some other purposes is said to be superior to the
eastern slates.

Without subscribing in all respects to the views expressed in the following com-
‘munication, kindly forwarded by Mr. O. J. Hollister, of Salt Lake City, it is here
given in oy as showing in general the manner in which forestry interests are spoken
of:

“Tn the ordinary use of ane word, I should say that ‘forestry’ has no meaning in
Utah. There is on the acclivities of some of the mountains a fair growth of conifer-
ous trees, but where these were accessible through canyons the saw timber has mostly
been cut out and used. Railroads have stripped other accessible parts of the ranges
for ties, and in the mining canyons and districts all the timber has been used in the
mines and for fuel—that is, all that is within reach. Now-they are obliged to reach
out farther, many of them being forced to use the railways to get what they require.
No fires ever run in these Utah woods.*

‘““The natives (Utes) lived more in the valleys than in the mountains. The white
settlements along the mountain streams of course protect the wild lands in their
vicinity from fires. There is no object in preserving these patches of trees as a pro-

tection to the streams, either. The snow-fall on the mountains is very heavy, and °

does not melt and run off in the streams until June and July. The ground in the
mountains is thus kept wet and heavy until the snow begins to fall again. There is
little if any waste of timber. Of course all belongs to the Government, save where
the miners may have patented the lands as mines. Most of the timber of Utah was
originally confined to the Wahsatch and the Oquirrh ranges. The canyons of many
streams admitted the lumberers and saw-mills to the former, and to a less extent, the
range being far slighter, to the latter.

‘In the southern part of the Territory, the varieties—Cedar and Pifon Pine—are
more scattered and scrubby. The more valuable varieties of the Wahsatch and
Oquirrh are the Red Pine, Biack Balsam, and the White Pine. More than half of
the finest growth of the Wahsatch is said to be of the white or inferior pine. The Red
Pine and Black Balsam make a railroad tie that lasts ten years. On the Oquirrh
the trees are chiefly Red Pine. The Scrub Cedar and Pifion Pine are of little value
except for posts, ties, and fuel. The larger trees of the better varieties furnish a
Iumber not technically clear, but the knots are held so fast that they are no great
detriment, and the lumber is practically clear. For many years a great part of the
lumber used in the Territory has been imported from Nevada or Wyoming. Ordinary
rough building and fencing lumber is worth about $25 per thousand ; flooring and
finishing, perhaps $45. In the early settlement of Utah willow brush and even sage
brush were used for fencing. Now the use of barbed wire, strung upon cedar posts,
is almost universal. Very little wood is used for fuel, even the mines, as well as the
railroads, using coal, of which there is a great abundance in the Territory, and also
in Wyoming, near the eastern line of Utah. The native growth of forest exercises
the mind of the people not at all. What trees they have they have planted, watered,
and tilled. The settlements in the lower valleys are collections of orchards, the
streets lined with shade trees. After being once well started, and becoming of some
size, they seem to do petty well even without water. Very little attention has been
given as yet to starting plantations of trees other than for purposes of shade. It is
_aoubttul, perhaps, if the valleys are very well adapted to the growth of trees; doubt-

fulif they would not come to maturity and begin to decay before reaching any great

*The census of 1880 reports 42,265 acres of woodland in Utah destroyed by fire dur-
ing the census year.

152
size or age. One gets that impression from observing the Locusts, the Cottonwoods,
the Box Elders, and the Poplars grown in the towns for shade. But possibly they do
not have as fair.a show for thrifty growth and long life as they would in more secluded
places, where the earth would not be tramped upon their roots, and their bodies con-
stantly marred and bruised. Undoubtedly more and more attention will be given in
Utah to the raising of forest trees as the Territory becomes more thickly settled. But

there is not enough land that can be spared for such a use to ever make it of much
importance.”

FOREST FLORA OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION.

——

By GEORGE B. SUDWORTH,

= :
Forestry Dit on.

The following chapter is intended to embody an account of all the
strictly woody plants occurring in the Rocky Mountain region. These
have been divided into arborescent and non-arborescent species. But
the dividing line must necessarily be an arbitrary one, and undoubtedly
many exceptions could be taken to the species thus termed arborescent,
a large number being little more than shrubs as commonly found, yet
the controlling feature has been rather the capabilities of each species
under specially favorable conditions, such as may occur more or less in
the region under consideration. :

Besides the range of each species within the Rocky Mountain region,
the general distribution of those species not particularly confined to
these limits has been placed in parentheses and given mostly in general
terms. The descriptions of the species do not pretend to be technical
(or even complete), the attempt here made being rather to avoid, as far
aS possible, the use of such botanical terms as will not be readily un-
derstood by the laymen, and to note such characters -as are most apt to
be seen by the casual observer; hence the lack of attention to floral
organs as studied by the professional botanist. An artificial key to the
genera and species has been prepared on the same basis, and it is
hoped will lend some aid to the laymen in studying the flora. A fuller
description has been given only for the arborescent species.

The conifers have been somewhat arbitrarily arranged and placed
first, as in this region at least they are without doubt forestally of
greatest importance; otherwise the order of arrangement followed is
that of Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum. The nomenclature
is that given by Dr. Gray in his Synoptical Flora of North America,
Supplemented by that adopted by Dr. George Englemann, Professors
Sereno Watson, M. S. Bebb, and C. S. Sargent. As regards the com-
mon names used, such contusion exists that it is difficult to determine
which names are most used and most appropriate ; for in many sections
the same name is applied to different species. But itis highly desir-
able for practical purposes that a uniformity in nomenclature should be
al : 153

154

maintained ; and it is with this object in view that the selection of the
first name given has been made.

Information has been derived from an examination of herbarium and
other specimens, as well as from a free use of a large number of forestal
and botanical publications; among them Gray’s Manual, Watson’s
Botany of California, Prof. C..S. Sargent’s Forests of North America,
Coulter’s Manual of Rocky Mountain Botany, together with various
Government reports and current botanical and forest literature. In-
formation has also been derived from the personal observations and
correspondence of Col. E. T. Ensign.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO GENERA AND SPECIES.

J. Leaves without a true stem:

Needle-shaped or scaleslike: 2st ys0.h =5 ee ess oc ae eee CONIFERS.
Sword-shaped, very long, thick, attached toan unbranched trunk... | YuCCAs.

II. Leaves with a true stem and a more or less broad blade... BROAD-LEAVED TREES.
li teavesnone (anomalous) 2222. . cccce- as Sook oo sees oa eee see oe ae 49

CONIFERS.
Leaves in clusters:
2,3 (not regularly 4), or 5, with a delicate scaly sheath at the base: PINus:
Leaves 2 in a sheath:
1 to 2 inches long; cones with blunt scales -....----------- ----2- ----=: 5)

1 to 3 (mostly 2) inches long; cones with prickle-pointed scales
Leaves 3 (sometimes 2) in a sheath:
24 to 32 inches long; cones with delicate prickles .........-....-.------ 8
3 to 6 inches long; cones with strong prickles.......---.-----.----- ---- 7
Leaves 5 in @ sheath:
1 to 14 inches long; cones with delicate prickles ..-.-.-..----..-------- 6
13 to 24 inches long; cones with blunt scales .......-----.---------.--- 3

13 to 2 (exceptionally 24 to 3) inches long@-:--.. ---=------ =) --s-seene 2

2% to 4 inches long (often 4 in a sheath) ; seeds large, wingless..-..--. -- 4

3 to 4 inches long; seeds small, winged ......---------------------+---- 1
More than 5, proceeding from a bud: LARCHES:

14 to\20 leavesin a cliisters2s Seeger | See ers eee eee 20

A0 to 50 leaves in a cluster..<2-...2--. --ses5 << series onset eee ote 21

Leaves single:
Bristling all around the branches; more or less 4-sided and pointed : SPRUCES:

Leaves very stiff, stout, and acutely pointed...---- -----+- --++ e220 +2222 e222 : 12
Leaves moderately stiff, rather slender, awl-pointed :
Cones with margin of scales entire.....-.------+----- +--+ ere ert teres: 10
Cones with margin of scales indented.....----------- --------+----+++-->> 11

Comb-like, or 2-ranked in arrangement on the branches, flat, blunt, notched,
or pointed:
Leaves rather thin, on slender branches; cones hanging, scales persistent:

HEMLOCKS, ete. :

With 3-pointed bracts protruding from under the scales...-----+------- 19

With no bracts protruding from under the scales:

Cones 4 to 2 of an inch long, downy .- .-. ---- -----+ --=-+--220s-+=--" "508 178

Cones 2 to 8 inches long, not downy .-.-- ---------- +--+ ---- 20-7507 777" 18

155

Leaves single—Continued.
Leaves rather thick and stiff, on stout branches ; cones erect, scales deciduous:

: Firs:
With a delicately-pointed bract attached to the back and extending
beyond the end of each scale_..............-.

With bracts not extending beyond the ends of the scales:
Cones cylindrical, slender (2 to over 5 inches long); leaves 1 to 1}
inches long, glossy, and with white lines on

UNNCERSUCO ieee meee Se. ao ati est pa niey il vag eae
Cones broadly ovate stout (2% to 5 inches long); leaves 1 to 3 inches
lonlgm pallevonreen estan cee poe se arias

Cones narrowly ovate (2 to 3 inches long):
Leaves broad, thick, dense, acutely pointed, and attached by a broad

the underside; with a sharp ridge or keel on
the upper side, and tapering suddenly to a
shortmeedile-pomt MEW a-ooe 4s eeec eso

Leaves scale-like, 2 cpposite, overlapping (sometimes 3 in a whorl) on the
branchlets:
Leaves (scales) blunt or only slightly acute; fruit a cone; heart-wood
chiefly brownish: CEDARS, etc. :
Foreing rather long flat branchlets; cones ovate, made up of a few loose
SC EULC Sie eG a cae ghd, pane ee ee
Forming short 4-angled branchlets; cones ball-like, made up of a few
scales, each with a hooked protuberance. ....
Leaves (scales) needle-pointed, or at least sharp-pointed ;. fruit a berry, or nut-
like; heart-wood chiefly reddish: JUNIPERS:
Forming 4-angled branchlets:
Foliage whitish; fruit large, $ an inch in diameter. ..-.--- BAI at
Foliage whitish, but with smaller fruit, + of an inch in diameter.... .._.
Foliage glossy green (or tawny in winter); fruit less than + of an inch
in diameter, with scale-like points.......-..--

BROAD-LEAVED TREES.

Leaves simple; i. ¢., the blade of one piece and not more modified than by
jobes or teeth.

A.—Leaves set alternately! on the branches.
Branches armed:

a. With true thorns; fruit apple-like (not in size): HAWTHORNS:
Leaves smooth, or with few hairs only on the veins; fruit blackish ....
Or with a few hairs generally distributed over the upper surface ;
tube black= purple ecsc. eee ee os ce eee
Leaves downy (sometimes smooth) above; fruit red-orange .........---

b. With thorn-like branchlets; fruit berry-like or a plum:

_ Leaves small, 4 to # of an inch long; fruit berry-like, witb scanty flesh,

Withi2, Deals: BWCIWNHORN]. sss s05 ss. ees ose

Leaves much larger and longer ; fruit a plum, fleshy, without a beak :
PLUMS:

Weaviesrl 0O,cmmehesslomertat ss 2 Sos ote Soe eos Soe eed See

eaves: tovoimehes lone cae. (ht ie see als wa ce ace ee

Scattered (but somewhat 2-ranked) on the branches, thin, very concave on |

43
42

Leaves simpie, etc.—Continued.
Branches unarmed:
Leaves evergreen—thichish, leathery ; densely woolly or minutely downy on
the under surface:
a. Margin more or less indented or sometimes entire:
Fruit an acorn:

Leaves!’ to 2 inches lone (222. 2-555 oe ee eee ee ee eee eee 69
Leaves 2to 34-1nchés lone 4.23. =. can ese eee ee 72
Fruit a tailed seed; leaves 3 to 13 inches long......--...-- pe eernee dl
b. Margin entire and rolled back; fruit a tailed seed ................. 56

Leaves deciduous, thin, not leathery:
Margin entire; leaves very narrow, less than one-quarter of an inch
wide:
Fruit a long (6 to 12 inches) pod.-..---.-... aide Ae bee Sei ee ee eee 61
Margin variously indented, but sometimes entire, or nearly so; leaves
more than one-quarter of an inch wide:
a. With fine (not prickle or bristle pointed) teeth:
Bark bitter; fruit (seed) borne in deciduous catkins, and when
mature, cottony:
Leaves broad, triangle-shaped, or ovate (in 84); branches often
angled ; buds resinous: POPLARS:
Triangle-shaped:

Smooth on both sides......-.-..-- lid hb ee ob ee ee 82(86)
White-downy on the under surface ...--. 2 --.2. == 32> &3
Ovate (exceptionally narrow, lance-shaped); smooth both sides. 84

Leaves narrow, lance-shaped; branches round; buds not resin-
ous: WILLOWS:
Less than 4 an inch wide, mostly 4 to + of an inch..-.-......--.. 80
More than $ an inch wide:
Pale or whitish on the under surface:

Leaf-stems with glands at the base of the blade .-.--- rae 79
Leaf-stems*without clandst <2. 22252522 ee Mase 78
Brownish downy on-the under surtace.... ......-.s.c-see-ee 81

Bark not bitter:
Separating (on trunk) into thin papery layers or sheets; seeds
in a deciduous scaly catkin and with wings:

BIRCHES:
Coppery-yellow; leaves 1 to 14 inches long... -.-...--.---2.2.-2-- 74
Chalky-whites leaves 2 to 3} inches long... <.. 5. 225 Ses gee res

Not separating into layers or sheets; fruit fleshy, or a winged
seed in a persistent catkin:

Leaves unequal-sided (unsymmetrical), mostly entire, but occa-
sionally with small teeth:

Very rough on the upper surface; fruit cherry-like, dry,

SwWeebsc< ccd gatesis- ~~ 555. Lo et ee 63
Smooth above, hairy on under side; fruit a flat winged seed—
samara; belongs under ‘‘coarse teeth” -....- 62
Leaves equal-sided (symmetrical) and always toothed on the mar-
gin:

Rough; freshly-wounded bark exuding a milky juice... -.... 64

157

Leaves simple, ete.—Continued.
Smooth; bark without milky juice:
Fruit fleshy, or at least berry-like:
1-seeded (a stone), globular: CHERRIES:
With mostly rounded teetb on the margin of leaf.....
With sharp teeth on the margin of the leaf:
Dull green on upper surface of leaf; commonly
downy below; teeth straight................
Shiny green on upper surface; not downy below;
teeth more or less incurved:
Green on. thewunder surfaces: 2.0. ..---. sanseseees
Pale on the under surface:
Margin often with teeth of two sizes. ....-..---

Margin with teeth of only one size....-..---..-

3-seeded, pear-shaped: BUCKTHORNS:
Margin of leaf wavy, sometimes with very small teeth,
OUMeATyAeMbIEC aoe ee ee ee ee ee
Margin of leaf always toothed and somewhat downy
on tie under SUbECE 2 5-2. .e2 <2 eee ee ee
Fruit not fleshy nor berry-like—a catkin with persistent

woody scales: ALDERS:

Base or the leat wedme-shapedi. 12 c2ce+. 22-2 sce 45>)
Base of the leaf rounded or heart-shaped. ....... aes eee

b. With coarse (not bristle or prickle pointed) teeth:

Leaves equal-sided; teeth of one size cr of Ie sizes and glandular-
pointed:

Broadly triangle-shaped, not glandular- toothed ; bark bitter :
POPLARS:
Meeth hairy, close, and much incurved.-222- .22-5.---2---2--2
Teeth not hairy, rather distant, and but slightly incurved.. ..
Ovate or lance-shaped, glandular-toothed; bark not bitter: ALDER
Leaves unequal-sided; teeth of two sizes, ED not glandular-
PUlmMbed FW yes faye Se ce heen See Lye = Gone
c. With deeply-cut blunt or peinted lobes, distant-undulate, prickle or
bristle pointed teeth:
Circular in outline, with 3 to 7 (mostly 5) deep, sharp-pointed
lobes; fruit a “ball”: SYCAMORE ........-..
Ovate, etc., in outline; tank an acorn: OAKS:

Leaves very large, 4 to 10 inches in length, with 3 to 6 pairs of

deepibhunitlobests 2302S Aare eo eae
Leaves smaller, mostly less than 3 inches long:

With bristle-pointed, deeply-cut teeth (eccasionaliy with 3 to

5 somewhat equal biunt lobes) .-..-..---...-

With prickle-pointed shallow teeth (sometimes with wavy, but

_ not lobed margin):

Halberd-shaped ; mature leaves usually glossy green on both
sides HA ae ie eee Be ee ns a ere leans A en

SIGIC "ars Sakae eae y wiat lee ca oS SALTY
B,—Leaves set opposite? on the branches:
Margin deeply cut with 3-pointed lobes; fruit (seed) a 2-winged key®:

MAPLES:
Lobes mostly entire, or only occasionally with coarse teeth...°......-..
Lobes always with rather fine sharp teeth .......-.-...----- ...2-. ---e-
Margin entire, or ouly slightly indented with shallow, rounded teeth; fruit
avl-seeded meyers NGHe oi a elo. Voces. ae

85
86
76

Eas

Leaves compound: te., composed of leaflets which are arranged in pairs
(opposite) along a leaf-stem (pinnately com-
pound) as in peas and beans; or, a number of
leaflets radiating from the end of the leaf-stem
(digitate or palmately compound), as in the
Horse Chestnut,

A.—Leaves (not leaflets) set alternately? on the branches.
Branches armed :
With pairs of straight thorns ; ieaflets equal-sided (symmetrical):
Branchlets and leaf-stems thickly set with bristle-like hairs with glands

au the tips, S222 See ia ce pee ae ee 37

Br anchlets and leaf-stems not glandular-hairy :
Thorns pearly white; fruit-pods closely coiled in a spiral .......... 40
Thorns yellowish ; fruit-pods flattened (not coiled).............2... 39
With short hooked prickles ; leaflets unequal-sided (unsymmetrical) ...... 41

Branches unarmed :
Leaflets evergreen ; fruit a pod (contracted between the beans) with red,

white-scarred beans 2-425. 522-6 ea eee 38
Leaflets deciduous; fruit not a pod:
Leaflets uneqnal-sided and often not quite opposite on the leaf-stem.. 33

Leaflets equal sided and opposite on the leaf-stem :
Leaflets 3 ; fruit in clusters, a flat, light-colored seed with a wing all
around (resembles an Elm-seed)............. 28
Leaflets more than 3; fruit berry-like ora nut:
Leaflets tee epenicae fruit a nut with a wrinkled shell. ........ 66 |
Leaflets short- pointed :
Bruits berry-like, red ametlatiolustens: 22sec = ss eee 52
Fruit not berry-like—3 dark, shiny nuts in a 3-lobed husk....-.. 32
B.—Leaves set opposite 3 on the branches.
Wood with a large, white, soft pith; fruit (berries) black, but white with
bloom, clustenedass-=- sek een ee 56
Wood with a small, dark, rather hard pith; fruit (seed a thin-winged
key:
Leaflets 3 to 5; seeds (keys) in pairs, but separable: Box-elder......_. 36
Leaflets more than 5 ; seeds (keys) single; ASHES:
Ieeatlets smooth and, creenon-bobhisitles to 5-— 222. oases eee 60
Leaflets smooth and green above, but more or less downy on the under-
side:
Inner bark of the branches red ; young shoots and leaf-stems rusty-
velvety:
Mature seeds (keys) 14 to 2 inches long.......-..-.--..---.------ 59
Inner bark of branches not red ; young shoots and leaf-stems downy
(not rusty) :
Mature seeds (keys) # to 18 inches long.........--. --oc25 a seen 58

YUCCAS.

(Trees with unbranched trunks apd wood not in aunual Jayers—a mingled mass of |

fibers. ]

Leaves 1 to nearly 3 feet long:
hessithiam + an Inch Wide 22 ee emer ele eee Base e ee oes eee 7
More than + an inch wide (14 to 2 inches) .......... 2.) So eee eee 88

CONIFERAD: PINE FAMILY.

1—Wuite Pins. “Mountatn PINE.” (Pinus monticola, Douglas.)

A large and important timber tree, occurring in northern Montana

and Idaho (also in southern British Columbia, and from Washington
Territory to southern California) between 3,000 and 10,000 feet eleva-
tion, usually occurring on a poor, sandy soil. In northern Montana it
attains, perhaps its most valuable size, 60 to 100 feet high and over 3

feet in diameter. The wood is quite similar to that of the White Pine
of the Northeast (Pinus strobus, Linn.), and is used considerably for
lumber throughout its range.

Description.—Leaves in fives (with small distant teeth) often 3 to 4 inches long.
Cones 5 to 8 inches long (on long stems), slender, cylindrical, yellowish-brown ; pend-
ulous the second year; seeds small, light-colored. Bark pale, rather smooth, break-
ing up into squarish plates. (Distinguished from Pinus strobus by its longer cones
7 and stiffer leaves. )

)2.—WHITE PInE. (Pinus flevilis, James.)

_ Next to the Bull Pine (No. 7) in its general distribution, on dry, rocky,
ridges; and, although its wood is inferior to that of the former, it is
used for many of the same purposes; in parts of Wyoming and Mon-
tana furnishing most of the local supply of lumber for domestic pur-
poses. Generally found growing on eastern slopes at altitudes from
4,000 to 10,000 feet, from Montana (probably much farther north) to
New Mexico; (also in the Guadalupe and Limpia Mountains, western
Texas; the high ranges of Utah, Nevada, northern Arizona, and in the
Inyo Mountains and Mount Silliman, California.) It attains a height
of 50 to 75 feet, with a diameter of 3 feet and over.
_ Description.—Leaves in fives, 13 to 2 (exceptionally 24 to 3) inches long. Cones on
very short stems, oval or rather cylindrical, 3 to 5 inches long and light brown;

“scales spreading widely at maturity. Crown roundish; branches drooping; bark
furrowed and gray.

_3.—HOARY-BRANCHED PINE. (Pinus albicaulis, Engelm.)

A tree of little economical importance, as it rarely attains a useful
‘size. It has a limited range in the Rocky Mountain region, occurring
only on high ridges in northern Montana. (but on the Pacific coast ex-
‘tends from southern California to British Columbia). It grows in dry,

it becomes ashrub; sometimes 40 feet in height and 1 to 14 feet in
‘diameter, though generally smaller where it occurs in greatest abun-
‘dance. Wood light and soft.
159

160

Vescription.—Leaves in fives (and fours), 1} to 24 inches long. Cones 14 to 3 inches -
lone; their few scales thickened at the end and the blunt tip turned up ; scales fall-
ing away after the cone is ripe; purple when young, reddish-brown at maturity.
Bark milky white, especially on smaller branches.

4,.—W1tr PINE. (Pinus reflera, Engelm.)

Only sparingly distributed through southwestern New Mexico and |
southeastern Arizona, usually on rocky slopes between 6,000 and 8,000 —
feet. It reaches a height of 60 to 90 feet, with a diameter of 2 feet; is —
generally a taller and more slender tree than the more northern White —
Pines. The wood is light, hard, very flexible, but little used for lumber. 7)

Pescription. —Leaves in fives (and fours), slender, 2? to 4 inches long. Cones 6 to8
inches long, on thick stems, 4 to 1} inches long, and erect the first year, but recurved

the second. Seeds large, flattened, wingless; sweet as those of the Nut Pine (Pinus
edulis, Engelm). Trunk slender, of ten crooked, with few branches at top.

3.—PINON PINE. Nut PINE. (Pinus edulis, Engelm.)

A small trre, but of considerable importance throughout its range,
extending through southern Colorado, New Mexico, and western Texas, |
generally occupying sand and limestone slopes up to 9,000 feet. Said”
to be found also in southern Wyoming. Varies much in size, from 907)
to 50 feet, but oftener about 25 feet, with a diameter of 1 to 2 feet. The |
wood iednetits soft, and quite durable when exposed to moisture. It
especially valuable for fuel, for which it is extensively used, as also for
manufacturing charcoal, and for fencing; occasionally used for poor
guality of lamber. |

Description.—Leaves chiefly in twos, 1 to 2 inches long, rigid, much curved or]
straight. Cones 1} to 2 inches long, globose; ends of the few scales prolonged into}
a truncate-pyramidal tip; light russet color at maturity. The seeds (nuts) are@
sweet and edible. Generally a low tree with round crown and bushy habit.

6.—FOoOXx-TAIL PINE. Hickory Prine. (Pinus Balfouriana Murrayy|
var. aristata, Kngelm.) |

Rather rare, occurring chiefly in Colorado (but westward through)
Utah, Nevada, and southeastern California) on dry recky ridges between §
7,500 and 12,000 feet. It attains a height of from 30 to 100 feet, with a
diameter of 3 to 8 feet. The wooed is hard, tough, of a reddish colory)
and where found in the mining districts has been much employed for}
timbering mines, and to some extent for lumber. ic

Description.—Leaves in fives, 1 te 14 inches long, curved toward and closely pressimil
the branch. Cones terminal, oval; purple when young, russet-brown at maturif}
24 to 3} inches long, with delicate prickles, which are recurved as the cone matures.

oS)

Bark reddish gray.

7.—BULL PINE. YELLOW PINE. HEAVY-WOODED PINE. (Pinug@
ponderosa, Doug.)

The predominant and most generally distributed tree of the Rock;
Mountain region, and for commercial purposes the most important. 1

TIONS OF THE

ds for fencing and

ood for fence posts

Fire, lu
tion.

None z)

Forest

ater in streams. Effects of forests on the water supply.

» snow-fall and me- | They tend to increase the water supply.

3 annual rain-fall _.| But little in this county; amount of rain-fall or

precipitation determined by the condensation
as caused by the mountain ranges.

le of water largely

ter for irrigation. - -

Forests prevent the snows from melting too rap-
idly in the spring and protect the springs and
rivulets.

oy keep the ground moist and promote rain-
all.

The headwaters of all important streams are
protected and nourished by forests.

ee i ir ay

bir flow is more in- | Forests prevent the snows from melting early in

the spring and keep the streams alive.

.son than was the | All streams are, in a measure, dependent on the
forests.

Counties:

Ada

Altoras

Bear Lako..--
Bingham.

Boia

Casula
Castor

Talo

Kootonal.
Lomlit
Nez Porcon
Onell

Owylivo:

Shioali

Washington

‘Totals .

Beaver Hend
Chotoan
Custer
Dawson

Door Lodgo...

Forgua
Gallatin...

Jefferson

Lowis and Clarke

Madiion -.-...
Monghor
Mianoula

Ivor Bow

Yollowatone

Crow Indian Ro

"Potala ..

~—.-
Albany
Carbon ee
Ci0k

Fromont

Johnson
Laramie
Swootwator,

Uinta

Yellowstono National Park

Totals.

vation ..

| Approximate area,
aquare milen

Y
¢
j
:
|
1

IDAHO.

i
OF THE SEVERAL COUNTIES IN IDAHO, MONTANA, AND

OMING IN THE YEAR 1837.

Charactor of fosest gra

Entire Eatimated
area. |forest Aron
00 fo | Pine and Pirin the mountains; Cottons oodland Willow along the
i ring Rive
10.700 »500 | Yellute sid Black Pine, Red Kir, Spruce, Aipen, and Cottonwood.
1,200 40 | White and Yellow Vine, White Tir, White @edar, Mountain Ma-
| “hogany, Cottonwood, aud Aspon .
15, 000 io | ted Hetranglog iu wie from saplings £0 awe timber), Cedar, and
Cottonwood
», 000 1,100 | Ping, Wir, and Dolson, growing very largelind forming extensive
forunta
4, 1100 100 | Yellow and Black Pinv, Balsam, Pir, Piiod Cedar, and Mountain
| | Ma
| 6,800 1,000 | Pi) id White Fir, ond Cottonwaods timber inforfor in #izo.
9,200 | 1,050 | Wh ‘amarack, Cedar, Rod and Welloy Fir; somoof the tim-
Patel ‘ Jor vory Jargeanil fine |
2,400 | Yollow nud Hack Pag, Fin, Cedar, Cottoniwooi, Yew, Alder, and
; Willow; thabor the finest in the Porniton
2100} White anil Black Ving and Wie; wome Of thie Pine growing very

4,100

9, 000

6,200

000

2,600

15, 000

1,100
20, 000 | ‘ano
20,000 | 200
| 2,700 200
ven] 6,000 4,400
| 7,100 700
4,100 1, 000
4, 200 ‘400
2, 100 100
4,600 noo
6,700 1,100

500 |

670

6,029 BuO
1, 620 1,400
100

10, 700
20, 057
ay) obit yl

11, 200 80

| 12,140

8, 250 1

12, 000

24738—To fee page 152—

na)
450 | Yellow and Blagk Tin
160 | Ping, Keil Hlty Godbary nil Anpon

400 | Yollow ond White Ping, Cadar, Anpen, nnd Mottonwood
|

1,800 | Yollow and White Pino, White

40. Pine, Sprn

4,400) Wohito anid Lod

Tudand White Hr, Oedar, and Larch ; mach
of the Unnber of large alee. i

nor apecton
fsinlock, and Balsam ;

Yow, and several
Land White Iir,

Took, Liamaniek Coilar
White and Blaok Pino, t
Lat Heo nndorgrowuh

1,000 | Red and White Pir, Yellow and White a Spruce, Hom-

| Pine and Fir. --

Red Fir and Black P

| Pine and Fir

Fir and Cottonyrood
| y,
|

Red

ow and Black Pino,
aud Balsam

Pine and Vir...-.--.

| Red and White Virand Pine

| ~
Pine and Fir.

| Pine.

| Pino and Fir...

Tine in the monvtaina; Fi
and Cedar at less elevations.

Yellow Pine

| Pino...

..| Fir for lumber; Cedar for fence posts;
1.

Principal uses to which timber is applied.

Principal causes of forest destruction.

Character of second growth.

cd for the move adequate protection of
forest growth.

mrehae es sugges

Paci
Noticeabfe changes in the flow and volume of fwater in streams,

Pine and Fir for lumber ; Cottonwood for fuel .-.

Fir, Pine,
for fencing.

and Spruce for lumber, mining timber, aud fuel; Aspen

Pine for building; dead timber of different kinds for forcing and

fuel

ir for building; Balsam for fuel

Cottonwooil for fence posts

Pine and Fir for coarse lumber; Cedar for fence posts; Pifion and

Mountain Mahogany for fuel.

Pine aud Fir for common lumber; Cottonyrood for fuel

Pino for lumber; Cedar and Fir for fencing

Pine for building: Tamarack for dimension lamber and fencing;

sand fuel; Cedar fi

Vir for railroad.

hingles.

Pine and Cedar for lumber ; Fir and Tamarack for fencing ; Cedar

for shingles and fence posts.
Pino for building ; Cedar for fence posts ;

White and ¥

ellow Pine
rack for if

char

dead Pine and Aspen for

for lamber; Cedar, Red Fir, and Tama-

‘and fencing; Tamarack for shingles...

Fire, nsnally from carelessness ; some-
times from natural eau

Lumbering aud mining ; tires not very
destructive.

Fires and lumbering

Local consumption only --

Lumbering, railroads, and fire.--..--

Fire, mainly ; some losses caused by
wind tulls.

Fire, lumbering, and railway construc.
tion.

None as yet, the county being nowly
settled.

Generally the same as the original. ---

Same as tho original in most cases ;
“Aspen often fullows forest fires.

Usually the same as the original.

Fir, Pine, and Cottonwood

Samo as the original -
Pine, Red and White Fir

Pine and Fir

Black Pine predominates

Scrub Pine and Cedar, Hemlock and
Spruce.

Forest fires

Aspen

| Enforce more styictly the laws ag

tho forests upiler the care and control of competent

Puy
forestars.
M yee abundant

Prevent fires and

cautions against forest fires <4

lopredations ; encourage tree planting
Use timber econafiically ; encourage the building of wire
A Hees, and restfain stock from running at large.

‘ainst trespassers and

forthe prevenuifn of fires.

“Slloot tho sconsffrels who fire the forests”

Enforce the luws strictly and guard against forest fires -

vide for theit p

-| The streams reach a low stage earlier in the seison than was the

Volume of water in the streams dopenient on tht snov-fall and me-
feordlowioal conditions in The mountains.

one observed, except with direct relation to the annual rainfall

Flow of water in streams quite regular; volume of water largely
determined by the snow-
None noticed, except as causes

Ml.
Ned by the uso of water for irrigation...

Wo special changes noticed during a period of seventeen years -

No changes observed

Less water in stroams whore the trees have beer cut off

Tho streams have diminished in volume and their flow is more in-
termittent.

None observed during a period of three years --

case ten years igo

Effects of forests on the water supply-

They tend to increase the water supply-

But little in this connty; amount of rainfall or

precipitation determined by the condensation
as caused by the mountain ranges.

Forests prevent the snowa from melting too rap-

idly in the spring and protect the springs and
riyulets.

‘hey keep the gronnd moist and promote rain-
fall.

‘The headwaters of all important streams are

protected and nourished by forests.

Forests prevent the snows from melting early in

the spring and keep the streams alive.

All streams are, in a measure, dependent on the

forests.

Tod Hin, White and Yollow Tne and Godiny
ty prevalent -
Vollow nnd White Ping, Mir, Box Wider, and Cottonwood.........

Lodgo-polo" Pine

ve une nnd White Pine (nelading: LodgopoloP ine), Firand Cotton
woul |

Yellow and White Pine, Sprace, and Cottonwood ..

Rod Win, Yellow and White Pine and Cottonwood ....

White and Yollow Pine, Red Wir, and Cottonwood.

Yollow and Whit Mino, Sprice, Hr, Mounthin Mahogany, Aspen,
Cottonswootl, ote

Yellow iat Wilts Pp
amok, Cedar, Larehy,

Yellow and White &
Willow

Pine, Cedar, ant Cottonwood; no foreaty

Pino, Kir, and Spine...

‘ir, Pino, and Spruce

Tine...

Fir and Lodge-pole

Pino and Fir

Pino...

Ping and Spruce

Pine

10 essedonanane

Spruce and Pine...

Yellow Pineand White Spruce

Tir, Spruce, and Ping

Pino in the hilla; Cottonwood |
on the Yellowatons River.

| Pine,

Pine and

Fir and Pine for lumber and mining timber.

Yellow Pine and Fir for Inn)

ir for lumber; Cottonsyood for fuel .-

MONTANA.

and Spruce for buildiog and fencing ; Cottonwood for fuel.

White Pino for small buildings

And fence poles; Cottonwood and Box Elder for fuel.

Fir for building, Pine for fencing and fuel...

pruce forluraber, mii
1 for fel and ebare

Pineands
touwe
Pino for boiling, F

White Pine for lumber, log buildings,
ing and mine timbering.

Ping, Spr
‘oil fo
Pino, Spr
Balt of Gilead for fencing, fu
The demand for lumber, ming
tho supply

tur bridges, fences, ete
nd fencing;
id Fir forlamber; White Pine for feet

nd Fir for butiding and railway

iz limber, fuel, and charcoal; Cot-

Red Fir for
Cotton-

and mining timber;

te.
timbers, and fuel will soon exbaust

Pine for building; Cedar and Cottonwood for fencing and fuel .-..

Lumbering; butlittle danger from firo.|

Forest fires ----

Fires and lumbering.....-.--.

Fire and snow-slides:

Lunibering and railroads .----.-

Fire

Forest fires and mining operations...

Fire at pre!
and Jambering
Fire, Inmbering,

the future.
railways:

Lumbering, mining operations, and
uch:
Fires and lumbering

-| Same as the original, if any--

Yollow ond Whito Pino, Spruce, Red Coday g
oud Hox Wltor f
Yellow iad White Ping, Damarek (or “Lo

pon, Cottonwood,

ANapon
Yollow Pino, Rod Godan, Ok, and Cottonword. «

8,800 | Yollow and White Pino, Lodge polo Pine, Rad Cedar, and Cotton

wood,

Spruico, Aspen, Dak, Cottomyood,

Nox Bilorand Willows,
Pino and Cottonwooi.....

, Cody, Aspon, and Cottonwood.

polo Pino .....,

Yollow and White Pino, Lodge-pole Pine.

Cottonwood. Ted Cedar, Aspen, and

opole” Ping), and, White Pine

Pino and Spruce

| Yollow Pine ...

| Pincand Codar.....

| Pino

Pine for iy
nnd Box k

ors
in for fuel,

Sprace for railroad ties an

WYOMING.

Same as the original apecies..-.....

Pine --

TLodge-pole Pine

Usually the same as the original --

Pino and Spruce ---

Same as the original growth

White Pine -

Spruce and Pine

Generally the same as the first growth_

“None; lifeis too shortin this latitude
to wait for a second growth.

oh
|

Prevent fires by Wandering Tndinns, and the wholesale

cutting of timber by railway companies.

Haye paid agents in cach county, with power to summon
cyaiybody to put out tires.

Fit

‘ish & thorough police system for the prevention of
and depredation,

Say | penalties fay the wasteful use of lumber and the
sutti

of forest fires.
for thompre
ti

ention of forest fires, and officers:

Jefe by Iumber-

yeti
eu! iould Ne strictly guarded

st officers, with authority to suppress fires,
ts. ot

gninst.

rest fires, und the manufieture aud export of

lumber by large ¢ompinies.

The case ie Hopeless, timber being so scarce and the con-
Suimnption o zreaf.

rainst cutting timber and poles for

Enforce thy ws f
Goabagt __urplkes aud setting or carelessly leaving
eS,

A slight increase in volume during the last tio years, caused by a

tor ruin-fall.

one observed; tle strenms are constant and regular in thoin flow

Volume of water diminished and flow more intermittent than for-
merly; chuxed by violout rain-storims and denudation of the forest
and undererow:

No marked chang

8 during the last seven years ---

Water not so plentiful, and droughts more frequent than in former
years. j

None reported.

Where tho timber lias been romoved floods are more common and
the annul water iv is less and more intermittent.
Noue observed during the last twenty years,

Flow of water intermittent and greatly diminished; floods and
droughts frequent.

‘The present seuson (1880) exceptionally dry, the |streams low, and
smillones have disappeared ; chu nob sity the bhange is perma-
nent.

No partionlar changes noticed ...

S.
‘They tend to hi

‘Tho extensive forests in the county maintain

the streams at a good stage at all seasons.

Forests arrest the extreme desiccation of the at-

Mosphere andirapid surface-drainage into the

strean F
Nd the snow on the mountains,

keeping the ground moist and cool, and pro-
moting the condensation of moisture.

Forests of the county not sufficiently extensive

to greatly aifect the water supply.

Porests are essential to a good water supply-

sis ; Cottonwood

Lumber, railway ties, mining timber, fencing, wd telegraph poles

Pine forlumbor; the other kinds for fencing an

Pino for lumber, fencing, and fuel; Cedar for i

wood for fue

Pine and Spruce for lumber; the other kinds fo)
Fencing and fuel; no timber of sufficent size fo!
Fencing and fuel; but little timber suitable for!

Lumber, railway ties, fencing, and other domes

fuel...

eeposts, Cotton-

fencing, fuel, ote...
mber ..

lo uses ..

Lumboring, railways, and fires
Fire ..

Lumbering and fires...

Forest fire:

‘ives, and the reckless destraction of
young trees,

Same as tle original

- Pine—and same as the former growth.

ne as the first.

Pine, in the mountains.-

Usually Pino, if anything
Pine and Cottonwood, ifany....-.--
Same as the original, but yery scanty

growth.
Pine .-

--| Rigidly enfores thi laws agains trespassers ..-

Protection from fire and corporations.

“Shotgnn brigade” -

Protection against fires.

Prevent forest fires, and enforce the law against cutting
tives less than 8 inches in diamoter.

{
Prevent depredations and setting of fires by the Indians

‘This reservation is under the special supervision of offi-

cers of thle Generil Government, and itis presumed the
forests will be preserved.

——

Wo changesnoticed as yot; some think there is nore snow ind rain
than formerly.

As yet, not suflicient timber has been destroye
the streams.

Tiloods and dronglits more frequent than in form
certiinly known, '

Rain-fall and flow of water in smaller streams said tobe increasing
slightly.

to greatly affect

years; cause not

‘There is loss water in streams, and the flow is more intermittent,
where the timber has been cut from the headwaters.

Volume increased, and flow more continuous; cause assigned to the
extensive irrigation systems .

No special change in streams observed ; rains infrequent of late...

Volume of waater greater in some of the larger ssreams, from in-
creased rain-fall; and less in some of the smaller streams, from
destruction of timber at their sources. 4

Bodies of timber tend to increase the rain-fall

Snow in the mountain forests melts more eradn-
ally than ou bare surfaces; and thas forests
prevent floods.

Forests increase the water supply.

Wot snfilcient timberin connty to affect the water
supply.

Forests tend to increase the watersupply; heary
rains and snows follow the timber belts.

i ¢
= : = -
.
"
f

| 4ter in streams.

ise Eee

Iffect of forests on the water supply.

BO hehehe geet iN Bree ites Beneficial; distributing the water through the
LT a summer season.
’Sio of snowin the mount- | To an extent they control the water supply; as
| . forests are destroyed the supply decreases.
Sunt o£ annual snows..-.| Prevent early melting of snow and rapid evap-
oration.
melting of the snows..-..| Water supply governed by the snows; not de-

pendent on the forests.

Forests necessary to a late supply of water.

oe; * Sae We oe ot

Co
oa

‘
=

SUMMARIZED aN
STATEMENT OF THE FORES! CONDITIONS OF THE SEVERAL COUNTIES IN COLORADg AND NEW MEXICO IN THE
3) YEAR 1887.

: alte ; COLORADO.
i | Approximate area, ———
ae | ~ “square miles. { = ee — — ==
Counties. es Character of foreat : a —— a ’
| growth. Prodominant specie re eae,
a he Forest, es- | ECIES Principal uses to which timber i# appli Jove } Lar Sa
LEER! timated | W fa which timber tiapplied. | Principal causes of forest destruction Character of second growth. ensures suggested for the more adequate protection of { |
ohn } forest growth. Changes in flow and volume of water in streams, i
| | ——= == — 2 | Bo fffvct of forests on the water supply.
Archuleta --..-.----. ------ 1,026 | 450 | Excellent, tallandlarge. Pine, Cedar, §) a il
ik OS RS ET ce , Spruce, Cottonwood, Oak, | Yellow Pino ; ae }
Boalder a ion, Aspen, Willow. , | Pine for building, fences, bridges, railroad tis, and fuel; Ged: , | 2 >
pyiltrscse ie haan ruce, and Fir; good White Pine, 4to#inches; Yellow Pine, | Pine and Fir. Pcanaad Oak for fence-posta and apriculthral implem@ats, 2 Fire the greatest danger..------------ Aspen and Scrub Oak rictly enfores the laws, both State and (See a —-
; ..| Yellow P: nce-posts and az ements. 5, both State i = ro
cman 00 | 500 | Pine, Spice, Pifton, Fir, Aspen, and Cottonwood ~ eae ea BS ow Pine forlomber; White Pine for poles and shingles; Red | Lumbering, mining, and railroads -...) Sameas first erowth Ree eemenb ar tic ea Sr PAMELA Ree athcosscccc. = | Beneficial
ee ail youd 2-------- s 5 a ion ...--- Spracarr eS tt ae a tigid enforcemen| 0 laws... ee s : ------..--) Beneficial; distribnting the wate: oo
Clear Creek. 450 200 | Mainly Pine, Spruce, and Balsam --.. -.- Sraptil Gans reliant or railway ties; Pine for lumber, and Pinon for | Lumber, | charcoal manufacture, and) Pine, Pinon, and Cedar. f Wenbofiicials todo their a Sat Hisher water in spring, from earlier meltingof snowin tho mount ee suey Guevenihe
; , Boo ee § eee rcadl een Bi ieeanict sees overn! RRSP R Per reel ease yA extent they control the wate :
Gongjo: 320 | 300 | Spruce, Pine, Cottonwood, Quaking Aspen, and Willow é: ig and mining timber ..- SA eas =| ee TIE soncot y and prevent tres. None, exoopt as caused by variation in amount of anual snows..../ Pata ang destroyed the Hntseran eee me
| , and Willow. ------ pas ; ooh a HB : r aie el} Biaventi burly , ily deereas
Costilla.---- -| 1,850] 450 | Spruce, Aspen, Pine, Pifion, and Ged ; ine for lumber; Spruce for railroad ties, piling, etc.; Quaking | Fires and railroads Quasars Ke for the setting of fires.......] Greator flow in early anmmen, from earlienmelting RS eae ae oe oN SORIA
| ' } abe PineandSprucein the mount. | piAghe 10" fence-poles; Willow for making rlams, -- ing Aspen. Leep fires out and provide severe ies f Ss Ing ofthe snows...) Wator supply governed by 4
| | | PSEC ng for building: Spruce for railroad tics aud fencing; Pinon | Fires, railroads, and eaw-mills After fi : FecReoe Reese wTlltully ov careleanee ee oe ee See | No matortal change note) .-..: PA RUMIG RIUM ES TOreateS eae a aS,
Custer 750 | 200 | Pinon, Pine, Spruce, Cedar, Balsam, and Quaking Aspen TRE nie aera Dee Hose, paSLem ane eolton wGod forente : HEUER UIE casctice Fen Aree aa Wa 2G en ales eae penalties for sett at SoUReaMaMMRR Ss svcsnste==-=--cocc== | Forests necessary to n late supply of water.
| Fi aking 4 5 oil Svagseoraeee Dae eeas ‘ 5 2. Gad. bigh reward for e No chingo vet noticoablo; when the timber does disappon Thr F
Delta 1, 150 | 500 | Yellow Pino, Spruce, Cedar, and Cottonwood ae Higa Fn eset ea See for fence-posts; Quaking As: | Fires and Iumbering.----------- ---- Piney Samiee salen yard Quovisel Ree ete Ps and droughts will be itt order. Hoes disappear, floods | ho more trees the more water,
olore: 50 1S 4 cay -| Yellow Pine and Spruce for lu ‘Aspen onthe range. ei force the law in regard to putting ont camp-fire: ’
Dolores 800 | 160 | Spruce, Axpon, Yellow Pinto, and) Pion ay. /eccesececeeeseeeeeeee>| «= PONT Peeing Spruce forlumben; Cederforfonce-posts; Cotton: | No danger at pressnt; timlerinacces: Pine cicalamodetie weds + Pires .-.---| Ta the lowlands floods moro froquent than formerly—froin cloud: |
Dongl: } Spruce for lumerand mining timber; Ai sible. Fe ee fT RI Feo ST CE a
jonglas ----------- 850 400 | Pine in the valley; Pine and Spruce in i! | ‘coulenDinon townie ning timber; Aspen for fueland char | Mining (chiefly) and fires..--...-- Ata tentanuns) anti = _—_ | None perceptible in fhe faw years sinve settlomont, . a
Robles eee ee | 4,750 400 | Xyhita Pineand WilteRpe pu spvonnsnins Building, malvoatl ter) and bridge timber Z oa lati ae Past 22) | Voluniol ofswaton protean Grr n ieee | ; Shae Teltn | Des anowe Anas
z oath 300 | White Pine and WhAtO Spructcceseeeccsceeeescssepescssseceseeeee ee pana Mey et umbering and railvoads .-.-----..--. Pino on southern slopes; Sprice at Stop therailroads and lumbormon from stealiny tho t punbor star greater, ayingg €6 miorY snows nn no sews fm) Forests tnoruaso to water supply
sed for lumber, o i P orth. ore stealing tho tim: | Di ad, fr Poor en Torn F vy:
SCE 2 | fea ‘ for railroad ties aud es OF IN, and fuel; Pine used mainly Fires meswase=oesees Sameus original when land not bi ee P i z Iulia J, from effect of forest fires, andicloaring of hoadwators | Porests in the Miner ae .
= Eee bess 100 | ‘Trees small; unfit for timber... jst hes CUIaEe eRe nn tbumed;| Abolish tariffon lumber; pass stringent laws, with severe | Some docrea: ; oresta in the monntains aot astesorvoirs, hold
ne: ee aoa le sas Tineard Speucatroen illite enim .. b onalties, for setting fing or allowing it to eseapos, form Sonie decrease mm the water supply. -- ea plan au tee :
: 600 | Scattered Pine and Spruce, with some Pinon; Cottonwood on | ig, Tailroud ties, Dridges, ete . Pine Se eS tat cea ee Bets as
stremns. we | Lumber, bridge ti ar, + : seco seeneeeeeneeseeees -----.. | {Hang all the mill men, and all who should atto o | Be =
Fremont 1,450 PAA nmber, bride timber, railroad ties; dead Sprive for telegraph | Lumibering; railroads, and fires....... To altmnitad extant; mama na tho orizic (UREA REET Toma etcd oY Ritompeto}y Hoails inva, Uacom mons ou aaa Ram Caer caualng Toss of |
jecceeeecneeneeeecene 145i 450 | Pino, Pinon, anil Cedar. ..--20s00000eeeee eee eeeeeeeeeeeeseee-+e++s| Pifion and Pine ker nal growth; Aspen follows fire, tore stringent laws, and! their better enforcement... Dinhiished volume and more intormittont flow thn f |
Garileld 7,251 -0; Pino, Pi , a ine for lumber and railroad ties; Pi fh ; r : ! OW thn formorly......| Moro sa moro ral and snow, or
artield 7,250 800.| Sprnco, Pino, Pinon, apd Come ssecess-seste..-c+.+0-+-------------| Pinion and Cedar... pee teens n\ties); Einon}fon‘dharcoal! <-- Charcoal burning JAapan) sere eee ees? | \eainl Aistnibution Cee RS
Z 4 r Daas building; Piton,C Z oe if E < ; wsenwes| Ni cinl changos note i , .
Gilpin 140 50 | White and Yellow Pine, Spruco, nud Balsqmn...sese.<-+----+-+0ee- alien ma ae. ng; Pition,Cedar, and Quaking Aspen for fencing and | Fire by the Ute Indians .---.----.---.| Quaking Aspen. Ae a hangos noted, nntoss LE feiEUABHoots are moro frequent | 4 tof forosts ix to rontler the water sup:
Sandee F Ni a aC NEY oe SEES h Pine for minin; ea; ji ar a P E | -| Tnorease of flow in sma roa 7 ' | stant ant regular = :
Grand 1, 800 700 | Pine, Spruce (thres varieties), Ir (two varleties), Aspen Pinoand Spruce. For honses, stabl Erne other Pines for general building... Fire, saw-mills, and railroads ..--..-.. Various kinds of Pine | Ge ne of Haw it sual WLe saa sab | inoronso the water snpply, os:
Gunnison 4, 000 2 P Orit r a bs, stables, corrals, bridges, fe | Fire . Miminished wud moro frregular......... 1 DW vi
H 1,200 | Pines Spruce, oud Quaking Aspen on mouitainy; Cottonsvood and | Spruce and-Pine ives an ple in fences, «te, used in shape of Fire Mainly samo as original ...- 4 lee ae t | They provent heavy floods and excessive dry:
b | a Sprniet Litt ts en on ee Not, as yot, onough denudation of forest to altvot tho wator supply yet :
Flnsdalo o2ssccoseveaovaseeee 1,440 | : Pees i, Aspen, Cedar, and Alder qsed a littl GL | Same as the first growth... > f pply
x ae 460 | White ond Rod Sprace, Yellow Pino, and Quaking Aspen ..-...-- Sree GRerne Ae pitnutants tas ‘ a le fur fuel. Coal cesses ah puting of tirnbon Hing boon so slight iat no dideronce ia noe
merfand.---.----++--------- if 28 Ping, Spruce, Co D 5 "4 for lamber and mine timbers; Red § t a foud in flow and volume of w: i r ,
Jem we 1, 160 250 | Pine, Spruce, Cedar, Pitton, an Quaking Aspen... Pine, Pion, aud Cedar...--_. Ae eet d ti ae Ce ae ae cme he eT a CE a ‘ "ee
efforgon....----++ ie. Soe 700 176.1 Pino; Redan WHI | jet anil vailrond ties; Cedar for fence posts; Piton | Lumbering ; ; ea Mi crs serene eres seceecuaae Ht |
> 75 | Pine, Red an jite Sp 6, Quaking Aapen, Or v and Cottonwood for fu ering and fires ......-.....-.... Pino and Quaking L)
| Awpen, anil Cottonwood ....|,2.-2+ce--eeseeeeee eee Pine the most valuable for lumber; next, Red Spruce, used for | Fireandw: ee D
420 200 | Conifer of medium size many purposes; other Sprices, Box Elder, aud Cottonwood i for | Fireand wasteful modes of lumbering. | Pine, Spruce, Quaking Aspen, WAiow,| Hatablishment of forest i an < i ieeasiemal bea te eR nc ent Ur a
Es mil y M1 BLA caeeecenscaee Sefanasennseeeneeen tives Pino and Spruce.--..--- Se ra oieahinrorttiee=Inaivenaatieee } | ete. rigid) xnpervision of wills cuttin Hires an | 1809 to 1872, in August, Soptermbon, aM OMabor, doorons0; sine lmnneensteonnuinalonnvapaenttont aad Grand
a Plata... Boe 4,200) 1,600 | Pino, Whitt and Red Sprnce, Cedar, Pition) and Gottonwoo ..-.--. | pine | p ties fencing and tnel ponte enol econ ranknga gf 2 eres cuuneonll burning can eee eee. I < me HouleaMerONy ten ayRUESL) on an ePNADIRE Ys
Larimer --- 4,000 | 700 Aiite, Zedlows onde Inee RING eRe mone: Colton ese | ino Aud Sprtice for Turabon and xarond ties; othiee Kinds for Fue Tambering, railronds, and fires Same na original; after firo, A. Wentnen (neers nna Nusiapgosiaotioed Ree.
‘On thostredms; i u okey Ci rool |... .. I White Pi mae . Z i t3 i r fire, Aspen...) Wiinrd aeninst fire and wasteful onttin, ‘vide for 180 ig! or liglo (
: pice’ {ite Pine tor railroad ties ; Wick: anil Wellhw Pino for building; | Wires andrailroads the pe griwn timber, and preserve the Jove for uno | Tigh water hon au low water THER foe of tinny caustig | Conan wrenten water fll, avorbing nnd. mor
Las Animas . 6,500 500 | Red and Whito Spruce, Pine, Pinon, Guay, and Cottonsrood ea ace : c a) MAR ioctl Agus ropetly uxecnite the forest li F eter ae Parent oat era eR vou altioyehi thowippys
C p , Cal mil Cottonwood -..--_- Spruce and Pine Pine and Whi' 3 ; MY 10) Tibor on tho Tage! haa caused the wator | Porests tilicen more 7
5 and White Spruce for} Ps Pan ant, ¥ " supply to-bo lim (tow-after tle ‘J bm Ure Coplons fall of moisture,
zt pruce for lumber; Red Spruce f ate J py frer Che middle of dino, | ahteld the anowa {ro t a
| 2] telegraphypoles; Cedar for fence posts. for joists, piles, and | Lumbering andifiro ..----..---.------ Sime cs thee growth: Aspen andj MMe Preerenn to ronturs, provent ices, sell Uirabon | None othor thin tor ; ma Tuo wma Mig auosyal icann madi in cleo,
3, 850 | Spruce, Godar, Scrub Oak, Pion, and Quoting Aapon Collar and Piton Sipaneas Fea hen ‘crub Oak follow fires ands toindividuals, and exempt same from taxation iporary changes have Deon observed wf I a Mare RTGS TMOG TOES DaReD
2 ath ot + ay RTS Die Sl aap Be pe ag weeeaass Spruce for building; Cedar, Pinon, and A Baal Ne TORTTT LEASE See hate ols,
2, 040 AAD pian Shale Codi ek BREMEN B i ( spen for fencing and fue. | Tory PorMANONt thy water supply, and: ins
ine, Spruce, Cedar, Aspen, Cottonwood, ahd Oak. sacevas|| Bing, Spruce, Cedarvand| ei q 3 : 3 ue BS es he vieoes ; \ LE iy water supply, and in
Aspen: ‘ u inginndi sp ey forlamber; Cedar for fence posts; Aspenand Cot- | Lumbering Si Mi. A ee ounty newly ottled'; no olin gia) qua Removal of forgate causes more rapid molting
100 Ti || wabaw Live, Balonaneeley CaUTMEN OME ttonsebn) Wow atldent | renee ‘or fence poles. oO pat pul original; Cottonwood af | Kegulate and restrict lumbering operations 0 changes notford as yor = ‘of snows, ond more intormittentilow of water.
2400 ah Pang M HHL : , i |e Nea. : walbasy Pine for Wilding ; Spruce for buiding and miviog ; Cedar for | Luuwbering and fi d |
1 5 bo, AUDAT! BlzG ence posta; Aspen for fe 7 a ; ga Rik penceeececec | Cedar and Pino d - i |
Spruce .-.----- pen for fence rails mn for fuel. ir an 2) ‘om plia h re vaste by Yi
Pitkin sea a iaraeatelan can cota spruce rae aee Bireiudalusedeoy analer andaohaieg RED Taal rea tule STS A cae ae é ae om TO Runeyone waste by sawmills; | None reported; floods and droughite Infréqgont ieee fe nt jprovent Snel melting of snows, and
5 q H > . ee pies By Baesennd ine or Spruce; af. ; ; | Koop tho spriugaalive
Paeblo ..-- 9,350 Pin@------eee-e--eee-+e------,| Pine for building and mine timbering; Cellar for fencing Risoplntabarinia aa et es on Sree Secor of A pe tenU 80 wot watondh atrcama¥nld ERUMMEMIotormitentthwntor |i cn
tsi accu eases ace oa URE EL cee eects lo oc Ln 2) 5 ring, and snow-slides ....| Scrub Onk, Quaking Aspen, Cotton. | Sav » kotling out of fire, or other ‘
we 14800 ‘ Pine for lumbor; Cedar and Pifton; for fence posts, fucl, cto --.--- tt 416. ig Asp on. PE Tr ce aatting put of fire, or other wan: | of snow 1 OE wontalis; droughts
Spruce and Pine.---... m16;8 rap growth, & WorlWencourage init promote by Hberal legitie | The amallor stveanis wre wor intormfttent fu fw
Pi ag ese eae mm the planting and culture of forest tre
| Bom pruce ... | Bemus race fot Tanners aking Aspen orf ro | Increased flow in carly spring, owlnye to: a titober Thoy bold tho snow lite, notil water is neoded
Jake al Cor oor fie Se y 5 Rise *, for Iigntion:
d Pino and Pinon... ae Pino aus rate ut sutra arti ni renter Lente settlers, | No changes noticed; county newly settled )...-- Groen inane rainfall,
San Miguel ma ; Moamall growth .| White Pine and Balsam... rnd He at fo at NL Dy railroads. ......,| Scarcity uf water onl droughts to TAMA; sine then an Hi
‘ A 260} Spruce and Agpon in ena part; seattone Pinon, Cedar, and Tu th nedraerrcor dca a Tl cormanelinie nen I Fewer eee oun t L baa penne try, yeni
Batam: ‘Onle in the wont H \ \ ehethnsman fo the future expect to draw upon La Pate | No known changes; ALrentos waveruel mount of snow fall
* 750 275 an Na Att Sprico, Balsam, eats Temlock, Cedar, Pinon, Ss eT EEO are ee ee No aay A Ne ut ASHI 8 RRR ALY xt Br At ‘
Weld ... 9, 360 No Haking Aspen, Juniper, Cottonwvooi ¢e. i ; prucs and Pine for lumler, fencing, and fuel; Quaking Aspen | Rai i tise 1 OUR Maar Sa see a - i oty instant coniunantion of molAtura; and dn:
a No forost land In county; Cotton wool ’ “ (dry) the best for domestic purpos Ge apen roads, Iumbering, and fires ..---.. aking Aspen; 3 ; vise wintst tall
‘ood wlore the atveams, and some | Cottonwood . eal lie wetwtitttanemisse ees SUS S08. it Qnaine pens ww Ppa a aay ein tho imaports sof preventing fires, | No lange HOLE eens ener eee e es ceee I Nbnoy. Bucautay At county supplied by snow 4
F Aran var ‘) u | 2a wate
Totals......s.s.s------| 100,200 10, 626 peatral ih Stock from ranuing at large The irrigation ayatamea fo the county regite And equatize, tow | 1 arad fore stu dndoubtedly affver the water sup:
ES (ors ree } | dreatoxtout, the flow and volume of WAtoe in Hie stron, ply.
z +. Se = i
Nore. —The connties of Arapahoo, Bont, Logan, and Washington, in tho Stato of CBiontaffntah no forests, and avo not included in the above list. - oe i | P
—— x. NEW MEXICO.
— ° |
5,350 1,450 | Yellow and Whito Pine, Pinon, Red Ged | —-
1, Re ab Oak. ..- .... 7 “ 3 } = {
gare Millet + all Gik seat ca aR ae ae Sornb Oak Pius fin Mulauerin sand mine timbering; Cedar for posts; the | Forest fires Pin aS a rs —— —— pes
Dona Ana 10, 260 10 | Dian, Bir, Coder, orf Covlar, Scrub))ake, and Cottonwood... Pino and Pinon .-....---.-- | Pinw and bruce for umber, railway ties, telegraph poles, log | “Tho man with df eee Bee aNicoaee Pes pel aar ere ncen-w| Baral torn formers bor tain RR =
ees a Une tacakd 2 no, Bin, Codun, " y , houses, 5 3 REE LUP ign Content e3, log man with an ax," an Ch Eaeeeeae eet cs
Teh W Ales unipor, Pifon, Oak, Ash Mesqut, Cottonwood, | Pino, Cedar, and Pinon.....-- Pee nua eerraa jcciaay elves fap) fencing. i, sea ites ; ao Sette = eet ha illegal use by corporations and burn: | Teas water fn rnidaummer than in fortwo years, and floods and | ‘Choy tond to Ineroaso tho volumo of wator In
Joni 4 ae 7 ; Cedar, ‘ires set by Indians and othera..---- i s ‘“ ra : hy the Indians. droughts more counion. tho stroams.
Janipar, and Pinon for fencing and fuel; Oak and Ash for ear: a sn otuers Pine and Scrab Oat, when any at al RLOg LY Mt IBM ora penalties to the fring of | Wiioro tie muuntain alopen havo bvon loft bare, the aprings and | ‘Cho atutaln forests collect the clouds which
10, 090 800 - | timber, with liberal reward for evidence to convict. stream have dunivished groauly in volome, 4 yield rain to feud thostroars,; wateris always
Pi i ; i Y
nae EASES Gach .| Pine and Juniper Pine fortumber Juniper for fence-posts and fuel; Oak and Cotton- | Lunibering; timber too scattering to | Hardl h yah geen the auows in the mountains fire
o on, Cedar, Oak, Yui iv wood for fu ; y - ering ; 0 scattering rdly any chance foraseecond growtl 3 A Mind's
1 Fuses, Pinon, “Sorub Pine,” and eo foe balding: Pinon and Cedex for fenctag andi) Uonstimeecis niniog | aot uno ginal a fs COed Ts Zeid te
3, 830 720 | ‘Yellow nnd White Ping, Sprace, A s- 5 pea original growth been tensive planting to keep the growth equal to the con- | Teputed Increase in flow of cortald amall atreamn aacribed to the | Lhoy preserve the water supply; planting of
Mosquit, Ui 10 Spon, Pion, Cedar, Scrub Oak, Pino ....--.--------+- Pi i f | sumption. tranping of cattle in their beds, thos beoglog the water to the | trees along the roorginsof streamsand ditches
silt, Gottonwood, Box Eller, Habkterry, eG: paesonsat OL Oy adie and railway purposes; Cedar for foncn posts; Railroads and Jamberin + snelnct: provents rapid evaporation,
7,500 Tisil Arellaw manele Eke sae Spruce for fenoe poles, Pinon for fuel. 5 E-- oer | sutttoned to bo a alight increase in volomo of waterSnthostroams..| Forests attract tlhe rain clouds 100 store
Fellow an Mack Ding, Sprce, Ciday pinion, Sorub Osk, Cot: | Pino and Spruce ....----.o.. | Toildins, railway timber, fe } Mrammence ln the timber belts, and follow then
2,400 1,876 | Yellow Pino, Spruce, Cedar, Piney Soeh os a By er, fencing and fuel.-- Lumbering and railroads ---. Pine and Spruce, if an: . and the water-conrsoy,
Willow. » Cedar, Pinon, Serak Oa ttonwood, and | Yellow Pine, Codar, and Pi- | Pine tor lumber and railway ties ; 5 cnet SAG strain Inmbermen and railway contractors. ..-.-...----| No changes noticed in the annual dixcharge; moro floods than for-
200 250 er fe eee RAS Sue SeaeT aaa Tock Mmm en pete ne nmaberney mad elsoedh Samo as the original, ifany..--..-.--.) Government agents shonlil act more promptly in pro- | Sere jal chino pes observellisiy-s>.0=2+--emmmeeet
11, 630 1,800 | Pine, Spruce, Pion, Cedar, Sorab Oat, RSS ee i LET a a rt
4 V ellow ins, Sproce, and =s+ iam meatal ,
Pierce: oe aa) Pine ein Tuntnen, Pifon, Oak, Ma Pan uaRes and Fir Aatanted sre moet cae | Government should offer more induce ‘the |
AS 2 : esas i ultivation of trees.
y for fuel Principally brush... Fae at ‘
2, * . *, supervision on the part of the General Gororn- | Tho small streams have dina) ppeared, and the flow of large ones is
, 050 malidy Aya Tein geneal Fir, A sede Juniper, | Pino, Spruce, and Cedar Pinelfeelinni bes Gedkvonadn renal Ke Re fot a0 continuous aa in former years: more foods and longer F
a ooo | vataels, Guten: tt Willow sh Tldor, Water ineifor lumber. Cedarand Juniper forfencliEy Oak: fr saxriago | Fire, rallways, and Jowbering »--<.-—-| Tere ef ecall Deut Badly stringent laws for the protection of timber,and thelr ST Oy PPMP rcs cRe reper ee
: How. WW hiteand Bliok Pinay 8p ; i i Jn foreement u
| Sorul Oak, and Cottonwood. spe Yellow Ping and Pinon........ Pine and Spruce for lumber; Cedar for fence posts; Pi ‘ 3 ' |
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OF THE

ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION

SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE LOCATION AND EXTENT OF ve } f" is / ae ; 4) :
FOREST AREAS AND IRRIGATION DITCHES IN 1885. | ACES gu Wl nee Ae ia a a eeeT a, a0 38 | shanest
COMPILED FROM COUNTY RETURNS Sage Alas ere a |
BY
COL. E. T. ENSIGN, Forestry Agent of the
Department of Agriculture.

REFERENCES :
ForestLands shown in green,

Main Trrigating Canals shown inred lines.

“Wells

/ Delawat

PHOTO. LITH. BY A HOEN & CO. BALTIMORE, MD.

161

is among the hardiest of the Conifers, and grows in the most arid and
bxposed sites, usually oceupying southern exposures. It occurs at ele-
vations between 4,500 and 6,500 feet. It does not attain as large a size
in the Rocky Mountains as in the California Sierras, although in Mon-
a sometimes reaching 100 feet in height, and 6 to 7 feet in diameter.
“The wood is quite resinous, of a reddish color, with a handsome grain,
and is largely employed for lumber, railroad ties, mining timber, and
somewhat for interior finish.

~ Description.—Leaves in threes (often in twos), 3 to 6 inches long, brush-like at the -
ends of the branchlets; persistent three years. Cones 2 to 3 inches long (or more),
"eray-brown, with strong prickles. Bark very thick, in old trees, 3 to 4 inches.

38.—Curmvanva Pine. (Pinus Chihuwahuana, Engelm.)

- Somewhat rare and of limited range; found on rocky slopes of south-
western New Mexico (extending into southern Arizona and northern
New Mexico), at elevations between 5,000 and 7,000 feet; 30 to 70 feet
Thigh, 14 feet in diameter. Wood light and strong.
q Description.—Leaves mostly in threes (twos and fours also), 2} to 3} inches long:
ones on stems 4 to ? an inch long, 14 to 24 inches long; dark brown, with short del- —
_ ieate prickles.

9—Puack Pins. LopGe-PoLe Pine. TamMARAck. (Pinus Mur-
. rayana, Balfour.)

Rather abundant throughout the Rocky Mountain region, extending
estward and northward, but more common in the northern portion, |
forming large forests of pure growth. It is said, however, to attain its
greatest size in southern California—60 to 100 feet, with a diameter of
ver 3 feet.*

Usually found growing in slightly moist or ane gravelly soil between
.060 and 9,000 feet elevation. The wood is soft and light, not unlike
mat of the White Pines; employed to some extent for iuiibee railroad
les, and much for “ lagging ” In mines. —

_ Description.—Leaves in twos, 1 to 3 inches long, but chiefly 2 inches, with fine
‘tecth. Cones 2 to3 inches long, reflexed, and with delicate recurved prickles. Bark
very thin and scaly, grayish-brown. Crown conical. Resembles the Serub Pine

(Pinus contor ta, Doug]l.), but distinguished from it by having longer ape wider leaves,
as well as by a much thinner bark.

10.— Ware SPRUCE. SINGLE SPRUCE. (Picea alba, Link.)

_ Alarge and important timber tre ee, growing in rather wet soil on the
borders of ponds and streams, reaching over 100 feet in height and 2 to
o feet in diameter. In the eagles Mountain region it occurs only in
northern Montana, and attains its greatest size in the Flathead region

work, but whep well seasoned and protected with paint can be used 4

|
‘

162 :
at altitudes of 2,500 to 3,500 feet. (From British Columbia and north-—
ward the range of this species extends along the northern boundary of—
the United States to Maine and northward.) Extensively used for lum-~
ber, and as such not distinguished from that of the Black Spruce (Picea |
nigra, Link.), with which it is much associated in its northern distribu- |
tion. :
Description.—Leaves + to 2 of an inch long, stiff, erect, or curved. Cones nearly q
sessile or on stems +5 to + of an inch long; 1 to 2 inches long, cylindrica! or oblong ; 7
scales with entire margin.

11.—ENGELMANN’S SPRUCE. WHITE SPRUCE. RED SPRUCE. (Piceaq
Engelmann, Kngelm.) |

The most valuable timber tree in the Rocky Mountain region, form- 7
ing large forests. It ranges from New Mexico to Montana (westward)
and north of the United States boundary), usually seeking dry gravelly |
ridges between 5,000 and 11,500 feet; in Colorado, where it attains its]
greatest size, occurring at elevations from 9,000 feet up to the timber’
line; 100 to 130 feet in height, and over 3 feet in diameter; but at the:
highest limit of growth only a prostrate shrub. The wood is tough,
strong, and elastic. Nearly all the rough and dressed lumber used in
the Rocky Mountain region is of this spruce. It is best adapted toinside9

outside; is said to warp and crack too much for good shingles. The]
wood is also largely used for fuel and charcoal. Bark valuable for tan-
ning. =
The spruce forests in the Rocky Mountain region are very important |
in holding the snow and preserving a flow of water in the streams. |
Thus the snow is often retained as late as the Ist of August; and the}
growing season for these trees does not average more than two months, ]

Description.—Leaves § to 34 of an incb long, strongly keeled, and awl-pointed. |
Cones ovate-cylindrical; 13 to 22 inches long, and ? to 1 inch in diameter; on stems ]
to 7 of an inch long; reddish brown when mature; scales thin, horny, rhomboidal, 7
with truncate tip, which is entire. with two to three small teeth, or rounded, 4
Branches mostly short and small. Bark scaly, grayish, or reddish-purple.

12.—BLUE SPRUCE. WHITE SPRUCE. ‘ BALSAM.” (Picea pungens,
Engelm.) |

A local and somewhat rare tree occurring in central Rocky Mount
ain region—Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah—between 6,600 and 9,000-4
feet. It prefers a damp soil, and grows rapidly in such situations, at
taining a height of over 100 feet, with a diameter of 3 feet or more. The |
wood is light, soft, weak, and probably of little value. The trunks
taper too rapidly to be cut into lumber to advantage. ,

Description. —Leayes 4 to 3°; of an inch long, rigid, 4 angled, needle-pointed. Cones
light reddish-brown, 34 to 4 (often 5) inches long, by 1} inches in diameter; scales”

very thin, rhomboidal. truncated, with wavy, irregular, or entire margin. Bark gray-
4 © ‘a

f° 3 | 163

ish on large trees, very thick and furrowed ; that of the branches rather smooth and
glossy. A beautiful tree, of fine ornamental appearance, with more or less silvery-
_ white foliage and sharply-tapering crown.

13.—Bausam Fir. BAtM-or-GinEap Fre. (Abies balsamea, Miller.)

A rather small tree growing in damp or swampy sites of the Rocky
Mountains of Idaho and Montana (found also in northeastern United
States and north of boundary). Itis a short-lived tree, and owing to
the small size, lack of strength, hardness, and durability of its wood
of little importance as a timber tree; 50 feet in height, and 1 foot or -
more in diameter; at high elevations much reduced in size.

Description.—Leaves sessile, + to 1 inch long, narrow, flat, with small notch at the
tip and white lines above, a silvery tinge below; thickly spreading, somewhat regu-
_ larly in spirals on all sides of the branches, but on horizontal twigs, crowded chiefly
on the upper side. lLeaf-scars oval, prominent, lasting. Cones 2 to 4 inches long,
_ 1 to 14 inches in diameter, upright on short footstalks (upper branches), cylindrical,
_ tapering slightly; scales blue-purple, broad, roundish, entire, each with an accom-
' panying outside bract. Branches chiefly in whorls of about five.

Pe a | ee, we) en

14.—Batsam. (Abies Subalpina, Engelm.)

A tall, slender tree much isolated and rarely forming forests. Gen-
erally growing in gravelly soil of slopes and canyons between 4,000 and
_ 12,000 feet elevation. Itoccursinthe mountain ranges of Utah, and from
- Colorado to Montana (westward to Oregon and Washington Territory,
-and north of United States boundary). It seldom attains more than

100 feet in height, and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. The wood is very
soft and light, possessing little strength.

Sree |

POs TA

Description.—Leaves of the lower branches usually long, narrow, and blunt, in
_ tworanks; those of the upper young branches shorter, much broader, thicker, acutely
' pointed, attached by a broad base, dense, somewhat in two ranks; whitish beneath;
* 7 to ld inches long. Young branches with longitudinal ridges.

a ae

‘i 15.—GREAT SILVER Fir. WHiTE Fir. (Abies grandis, Lindley.)

q A very large and important timber tree occurring in Bitter Root
- Mountains, Idaho, and in ranges of northwestern Montana (also on Pa-
cific coast from latitude 40° to boundary of United States and north-
ward); 250 to 300 feet high, with a diameter of 4 to 5 feet. It pre-
fers bottom-lands and northern and western slopes below 4,000 feet,
but producing the largest timber in the former situations. It is per-
haps of greatest importance in the northern Pacific region, where it is
said to attain its largest dimensions, and is employed considerably for
lumber. The wood, however, is light, soft, and quite inferior to that of
_the Douglas and Sitcha Spruce.

Description.—Leaves 4 to 1} inches long, narrow, flat, channeled, blunt, with a
“small notch at the tip, comb-like in arrangement, an upper and lower horizontal
vank on each side of the branchlets; leaves of lower rank much longer: glossy and
with two white lines beneath. Cones solitary, 2 to 54 inches long, cylindrical, on
iE ery short footstalks ; scales very broad, entire. Bark scaly and brownish.

164 ase ‘

16.—Wuite Fir. BALSAM Fir. BLAck BALSAM. (Abies concolor, ©
Lindl. and Gordon.) : 4q

Found in New Mexico and southern Colorado (westward in central —
Utah, northern Arizona, southern California to Oregon). It is most :
abundant along the Pacifie coast, occupying moist slopes and canyons, os
between 3,000 and 9,000 feet elevation. It commonly grows toaheight —
of 100 feet, with a diameter of 4 feet and over. The wood is soft, very a
light, and little used for lumber, except in temporary constructions, ana
for domestic purposes. —

Description.—Leaves 4 to 2, sometimes 3 inches long, thick to thin, flat, blunt to
-awl-pointed, or slightly notched at the tip; in two ranks, chiefly on the upper side
of the branchlets; pale green, whitish beneath. Cones nearly sessile, 22 to 5
‘inches long, and 14 to 24 inches in diameter; ovate, cylindrical, pale green, dull pur-
ple, or light reddish brown; scales to 14 inches broad. Bark light gray. Branches
quite regularly in whorls.

17.—WESTERN HEMLOCK. (Tsuga Mertensiana, Carriére.)

A Western representative of the Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga Cana- q
densis Carr.), but much larger and with finer-grained wood. It ranges
from western Montana westward to the Pacific coast, and north of the ~
United States boundary; southward on coast thrcugh northern Cali-
fornia, forming large forests at elevations between 1,000 and 4,000 feet. ~
Itis quite adaptive in point of soil conditions, thriving on poor dry ridges, 5
but prefers a moist soil. Probably reaches its greatest development in |
Oregon and Washington Territory; 180 feet high, and 6 to 8 feet in ©
diameter. The wood is rather heavy, hard, and quite free from resin, but 7
somewhat lacking in strength;. employed to some extent for coarse
lumber, while the bark supplies an important demand for tanning.

Description.—Leaves flat, very narrow, 4 to ? of an inch long, blunt at the top,
tapering suddenly to a slender stem (petiole). Cones ovate-cylindrical, } to 3? of an
inch long, light brown, with delicate pubescence; sscale few (and much longer than

those of Tsuga Canadensis). Crown roundish to somewhat conical; branchlets numer-
ous, slender, drooping.

18.—Tsuga Pattoniana, Engelm.

An alpine species having about the same range as the Western Hem- %
lock (Tsuga Mertensiana, Carr.). It occupies dry slopes and ridges be- J
tween 2,700 and 10,000 feet, but is reduced to a shrub as it approaches —
the timber-line. The wood is light and soft.

Description.—Leaves + to ? of an inch long, about four-angled, rather sharp-pointed,
or blunt tapering to a stem at base. Cones 2 to 3 inches long, cylindrical-ovate.
Bark thick, much cracked, reddish-gray; branchlets pubescent.

19.— DOUGLAS SPRUCE. “RED SPRUCE.” YELLOW FIR. RED FIR.
OREGON PINE. (Pseudotsuga Douglasii, Carriere.)

A remarkably large and one of the most important timber trees,
quite generally distributed throughout the Rocky Mountain region ~

Lend

gy e. Cote

165
_ (along the Pacific coast and north of the United States boundary). Itis
largely associated with pine, forming pure growths only in a few local-
ities, and then of small extent. It grows from the sea-level to 10,000
feet, attaining from 200 to 300 feet in height and 10 feet in diameter.
The wood is hard, strong, and’ durable, being especially valuable for
large timber and coarse lumber, where durability and strength are
needed. :

Description.—Leaves, comb-like in arrangement, 4 to 14 inches long, slender, flat,

_ with stems, rather blunt-pointed ; whitish on the under surface. Cones 2 to 4 inches
long, 1 inch in diameter; somewhat cylindrical or ovate, with a fringe of three-
pointed bracts from among the scales. Seeds reddish brown on one side, white on
the other. Bark grayish brown: when young, smooth; in old trees rough, deeply
furrowed, and sometimes over 1 foot thick.

20.—WESTERN LARCH. TAMARACK. (Larix occidentalis, Nutt.)

A western representative of the northeastern Tamarack, but a much’
larger, and in some respects a more valuable, tree. It is found in:
western Montana (also ranging westward in Oregon and Washington:
Territory and north of the United States boundary), usually occupying:
moist slopes between 2,500 and 5,000 feet. It is almost always asso-
_ ciated with other species, and rarely, ifever, forming pure growths. In
Montana it attains its most valuable size, reaching a height of 100 to
150 feet, with a diameter of 4 feet or over. The wood is heavy, very
hard, strong, and durable, and is employed somewhat for iumber, but
chietly for posts, ties, fuel, ete.
Description.—Leaves 14 to 20 in a bundle, 4 to ? of an inch long, narrow, somewhat
_ four-angled, slender at the base, pointed at the tip; pale green. Cones ovate-globose,
_ 2 to 14 itches long, by 2 of an inch in diameter; solitary, erect or bent down; scales
few, 4 of an inch long, roundish, loosely overlapping, squarish or notched at the tip,
_ shining on the back; an elliptical, finely-toothed, acutely-pointed bract extending
_ from the base and beyond the point of each scale, chiefly the long points only being
_ visible beyond the ends of the scales. Larix Huropaea and Lyallii also have an ex-
_ tended bract, but of different form. Branches, short; lower ones horizontal, upper
' Ones ascending. Young shoots smooth, with many round black buds.

21.—Larix Lyallii, Parlatore.

A strictly alpine species, of small size, growing in dry rocky situa:

_ tions of northwestern Montana (and westward) at elevations between

5,500 and 7,000 feet; generally much scattered and associated with

| other conifers. The timber is little used, on account of its inferior size
and the usually inaccessible positions occupied by it.

Description.—Leaves $ of an inch long, 40 to 50 in a bundle, very narrow, on young
shoots single and longer. Cones 2 inches long, ovate-oblong (only immature speci-
: mens examined) and 1 inch in diameter; deciduous, greenish purple; margin of
scales woolly-fringed ; awl-pointed bracts from: among and longer than the scales,

the broad bases of the bracts being visible. Much branched; young shoots and buds
elothed with a whitish wool. :

ST ea ae

166

22.—CANOE CEDAR. RED CEDAR. YELLOW CEDAR. (Thuya |
gigantea, Nutt.)

A large-sized tree and one of great economical importance. It occurs
in northwestern Montana (and from California to Washington Territory
and north of the boundary), growing chiefly in moist, but sometimes in
dry, situations up te an elevation of 5,000 feet. In the northern Pacifie
coast region it-reaches its most valuable dimensions—100 to 130 feet, and —
6 to 9 feet in diameter. The wood is soft, light, and lacking in strength,
but furnishes excellent material for inside wor k, as well as for coarse
lumber, shingles, staves, ete.

Description. REN short, scale-like, pointed, somewhat closely overlapping, and
forming short internodes; ne glands or tubercles (or very obscure); bright to glau-
cous green. Cones 4 of an inch long, ovate, of few scales, clustered at the ends of
the branches, drooping; seeds winged all around. Crown narrow, pyramidal;
branches spreading and somewhat drooping. Liable to be confounded with the
California White Cedar (Libecedrus decurrens, Torrey).

23.—Cupressus Guadalupensis, Waison.

Little is known of the economic importance of this tree, as it isa com-
paratively new species, discovered in eastern Arizona in 1880. It oceurs
in southeastern New Mexico, eastern and southeastern Arizona, and —
southward, forming dense forests on rocky sites of from 5,000 to 8,000
feet elevation. It commonly grows toa heightof 40 to 70 feet, and 2 to ©
4 feet in diameter. The timber is light and straight-grained, and splits —
very readily; the heart-wood resembles that of the Red Cedar very ~
closely. In mining districts it has been employed considerably for
wood and charcoal.

Description.—Leaves small, scale-iike, opposite, appressed, overlapping, and form-
ing short 4-angled branchlets, whitish (glaucous), free from pits or glands. Cones
globe-like 1 to 14 inches in diameter, composed of from 6 to 8 thick, plate-like scales
with large curved bosses, crowded on short, strong, footstalks. Bark dark red and
fibrous, showing bright vermilion surface when newly scaled off. Closely grown, it
is a tall and straight tree, but shorter and with greater ambitus when isolated.

24:—JUNIPER.* (Juniperus pachyphloea, Torrey.)

A tree 30 to 50 feet high and 3 feet or more in diameter, occurring in ~
southern Arizona, New Mexico (in the mountains of western Texas. and
southward into Mexico). It is confined chiefly to dry slopes and ridges
between 2,000 and 3,000 feet, and in its mountain range is the principal
juniper, especially in Texas. The wood is light, soft,and easily wrought.
Fruit an important article of food among the Indians of the South-
west.

Descripiion.—General aspect white. “Leaves in threes, overlapping closely, rather
sharp-pointed, ridged on the back, with a gland in the center; very glaucous. Fruit r
solitary, globe-like, 3 of an inch in diameter, brownish, white with bloom, sweetish, ~
borne at the ends of short erect branchlets, the latter somewhat four-angled.

* See non-arborescent Junipers, page 197.

167

—95.—“RockyY MOUNTAIN JUNIPER.” (Juniperus occidentalis, Hooker,

var. monosperma, Kngelm.)

A scragegy, stunted tree, occupying low, dry hills between 3,500 and

7,000 feet elevation. It ranges through southern Colorado, New Mex-

ico (and westward through southern Arizona to southern California).

In some localities it forms pure growths, but is chiefly associated with
the Nut Pine (Pinus edulis) and Juniperus pachyphlea, together forming
the principal timber growth of the hilly sections; 25 to 30 feet in height,
and 14 feet or more in diameter. Wood rather light and soft, but very ~
durable in contact with the soil, and employed largely for fuel and
fencing.

Description.—Leaves in twos (alternate cpposite pairs) and threes, fringed. Ber-

ries blue-black or copper-colored, resinous-fleshy ; one to two, or more, grooved seeds
in each berry. Branches short, horizontal, and often from the ground.

96.—RED CEDAR. SAVIN. (Juniperus Virginiana, Linn.)

A valuable tree, and one of the most widely distributed of the North
American Conifers. Itis a very adaptive species, but the character of
the soil has much to do with its success as a timber tree; in bottom-
lands it reaches a height of nearly 100 feet, with a diameter of 3 feet or

more, while in dry, barren soil it is a small, slow-growing tree, or litile

more than a shrub. In the Rocky Mountain region it occurs chiefly in
the mountains of Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho (alsothrough

eastern United States and north of the boundary). The timberis light,

soft, and possesses remarkable durability in eontact with the soil. It
is employed principally for posts, ties, and cabinet work.

Description.—Leaves scale-like, in twos, sometimes in threes, mostly in alternate
opposite pairs, of two forms: on young plants and shoots, needle-pointed and some-
what spreading; on mature branchlets, awl-pointed and closely overlapping; bright
glossy green to tawny brown in winter; midrib indistinct. Branchlets slender, four-
angled. Berries small, ovate, smooth, but with few small, scaly protuberances ,
whitish with bloom.

27.—YEW. (Taxus brevifolia, Nutt.)

A somewhat rare and small tree as it occurs at its eastern limit in the
tocky Mountains of western Montana and Idaho. In its more westerly
range, however (through Washington Territory and Oregon to central
California), it attains a much larger size, 40 to 70 feet in heightand 14 to 24
feet in diameter. It generally prefers a moist, rich soil, and on the Pa-
cific Coast is much associated with Lambert’s Pine and the Douglas
Spruce. The wood is hard, durable, and very elastic, and is used con-
siderably for fence posts, tool-handles, bows, ete.

Description.—Leaves scattered, ? to 1 inch long, narrow, flat, curved, sharp-pointed,
riz bed above, on yellowish footstalks; yellowish glossy green above, whitish (glaucous)
below. Fruit solitary, borne on the under side of the branches, amber-red or yellow-

ish brow Branches long, slender, and pendulous; bark yellowish.

RUTACEA: RUE FAMILY.
28.—SHRUBBY TREFOIL. Hop-TREE. (Ptelea angustifolia, Benth.)

Chiefly a shrub, or sometimes a small tree 15 to 25 feet in height,
with very slender trunk, usually growing on hillsides in dry, gravelly
soil, through southern Colorado (extending southward into Mexicoand
Texas). Rarely attaining sufficient size to be of economic value. The
wood is heavy and hard..

Description.—Leaves compound, composed of three leaflets, which are given off at
the end of a slender (leaf) stem, 1 to 2 inches long and i to linch wide, lance to
oblong-lance-shaped, usually tapering to a point at either end; margin entire or
with shallow rounded teeth; smooth, old leaves shiny. Fruit (much like that of the-
elm) surrounded by an early orbicular, thin, veiny wing, 4 to 2 of an inch in diame-
ter. Bark dark brown and often thickly dotted.

RHAMNACEA: BUCKTHORN FAMILY.

29.—BLUE Woop. Log Woop. PURPLE Haw. (Condatia obovata,
Hooker.)

A small tree or shrub, at best seldom more than 10 to 30 feetin height
and with very slender trunk—3 to 6 inches in diameter. It is found in
southern New Mexico (southern Arizona and southwestern Texas, where —
it is said to reach its greatest development), especially along streams..
Abundant and in many localities forming dense, impenetrable thickets.
The wood is hard and very heavy.

Description.—Leaves + to # ofan ineh lony, by ; to4of an inch wide, chiefly broad
at the top end (obovate), tapering to a long point at the base; rounded at the upper
-end, or with a lance-shaped point. Branches with smooth thin bark of a dull white
or grayish color; branchlets spine-like or terminating in a small sharp spine. Fruit
a globular berry (drupe) with scanty flesh and large hard stone; a short point or
beak (the persistent. stigma) adheres to the end.

30.—“INDIAN CHERRY.”* (Rhamnus Caroliniana, Walter.)

A small tree, 15 to 30 feet in height, with a trunk 6 to 10 inches in
diameter; or sometimes reduced to a slender shrub. It is found in the
mountains from Colorado to Montana (eastward it ranges from western
Texas to northern Florida, and northeastward through the valley of
the Ohio River to long Island, New York). It prefers the rich soil of
bottom-lands and along streams; probably reaching its Jargest size in
Texas and Arkansas. The wood is rather light and hard, but not strong.

Description.—Leaves 3 to 6 inches long, 1 to 27 inches wide; oblong lance-shaped
or ovate-oblong; with rounded base and rather short point; margin wavy, nearly
entire or with very small teeth; Jeaf-stems hairy. Fiowers and fruit borne in the,
axils of the leaves, the latter black, somewhat pear-shaped, and with three large
seeds; sweet and edible.

* See Rhamnus in list of shrubs, page 190.

169

31.—BEARBERRY. BEAR WooDd. SHITTIM Woop. (hhamnus
Purshiana, De Candolle.) |

A shrub or smail tree, 6 to 25 feet in height, and from 4 to 12 inches
‘in diameter. It oceurs in northern Montana and Idaho (also along
the Pacific coast from northern California to Washington Territory).

Generally associated with conifers in canyons and low places. The
wood is light and hard, but brittle, being of little importance. The
bark, however, has of late become an important articte of of commerce,
being extensively employed for officinal purposes under the name of
Cascara sagrada. |

Description.— Leaves chiefly alternate, elliptical, 14 to 34 inches long, 14 to 1¢ inches
broad, finely toothed on the margin, and somewhat downy below. The fruit is
berry-like, black, 3-lobed, larger at the top, 3-seeded, and borne in clusters on rather

long stems from the axils of leaves; about + of an inch in length. Young branches
and stems of tlhe leaves woolly.

SAPINDACEAI: SOAPBERRY FAMILY.

32.—SPANISH BUCKEYE. (Ungnadia speciosa, Kndlicher.)

A shrukor small tree, 20 to 30 feet in height and 6 to 12 inches in
diameter, found growing abundantly on moist bottoms and rich slopes
of southern New Mexico (western Texas, and northern Mexico). The
wood is soft, rather heavy, but lacking in strength. The fruit and leaves
are said to be poisonous. °

Description.—Leaves compound, composed of from 3} to 54 pairs of leaflets,
which are on very short stems, ovate, lance-shaped, and with a rather long point;
the margins have fine, or large and distant teeth; in length the leaflets vary from 2
to 4 inches and from 2 to 1% inches in width. Shell of fruit thin, smooth, brown,
strongly 3-lobed, containing as many dark, shiny nuts about 4 an inch in diameter.
The flowers appear in advance of the leaves in small lateral clusters. Young shoots
and leaf-stalks downy.

33.—WILD CHINA. SOAPBERRY. (Sapindus marginatus, Willdenow.)

A rather large and somewhat important tree, occurring in southern
New Mexico (and Arizona; eastward through the Gulf States to the
Atlantic coast). It grows chiefly in mountain valleys and river-bottoms,
attaining its largest size in eastern Texas, 10 to 60 feet in height, with
a diameter of 4 to 14 feet. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong; it
Splits easily, and is extensively used in the manufacture of cotton
baskets. :

Description.—Leaves compound; leaflets nine to eighteen, arranged in opposite

pairs or alternate, lance-ovate, hooked, unequal sided, unsymmetrical; veins promi-
nent above. Fruit globular, berry-like, borne in the axils of leaves.

170

MAPLKES.

34.—DWARF MAPLE. (Acer glabrum, Torrey.)

As indicated by its name, this species is seldom more than a shrub 3
to 6 feet high; occasionally it reaches a height of 10 to 20 feet, with a
diameter of 4to 6inches. Itis widely distributed throughout the Rocky
Mountain region (on Pacific coast to British Columbia), growing along
water-courses, in sheltered canyons, and on moist slopes; said to reach
its best development in western New Mexico and eastern Arizona.
The wood is heavy and hard. It isa very hardy tree and considerably
used for ornamental planting. ;

Description.—Leaves somewhat kidney-shaped, 3-lobed to 3-parted ; divisions them-
Selves somewhat 3-lobed, middle one wedge-shaped, short, broad, margin sharply cut
and toothed; smooth both sides. Generally branching from the ground.

35.—Acer grandidentatum, Nuttall.

A small and rather rare tree, found growing along water-courses in
western Montana and southern New Mexico (also in eastern Arizona
and central Utah). It is seldom more than 20 feet in height and 4 to 10
inches in diameter. The wood is heavy and hard. a

Description.—Leaves heart-shaped or cut straight across (truncate) at the base,

somewhat deeply 3-lobed ; divisions sharp-pointed and mostly entire, but occasionally
with few coarse teeth; velvety on the under surface, or sometimes smooth,

306.—BOX-ELDER. ASH-LEAVED MAPLE. (Negundo aceroides, Mench.)

One of our most widely-distributed forest trees, occurring throughout
the Rocky Mountain region at elevations between 5,000 and 6,000 feet
(east of the Rockies to the Atlantic coast, and north of the U.S. bound-
ary), preferring the more southerly ranges. It is adapted to a variety
of soil conditions, but generally attains its best dimensions on moist bot-
tom-lands and along streams. Commonly 30 to 60 feet in height and 1 to
3 feet indiameter. As an ornamental tree itis quite popular, being easily
handled and reaching a desirable size in a comparatively short time. *
The wood is of rather an inferior quality, being light, soft, and lacking
in strength. It is little used for manufacturing purposes, except occa-
sionally for interior lumber, and to some extent in turnery, cooperage,
and for paper-pulp.

Description.—Leaves compound, composed mostly of 3 (sometimes 5) leaflets, which
are ovate, pointed, often with entire margin, but usually coarsely toothed, and strongly
veined; smooth or occasionally downy on the under surface. The flowers appear in
advance of the ieaves, and hang down in green, tassel-like clusters. The seeds are
usually very abundant, and have long, curved, veiny wings, and hang in thick clus-
ters on long slender stems. Young branches greenish.

“It is also desirable as an admixture in forest planting, the heavy foliage furnish-
ing a good soil cover.

171
LEGUMINOS: PULSE FAMILY.

87.--Locust. (Robinia Neo-Mexicana, Gray.)

Usually a small tree, 20 to 25 feet, with a diameter of 3 to 6 inches; or
a shrab under 6 feet in height. It occurs in southern Colorado, south-
western and western New Mexico (and in Arizona and southern Utah
between 4,500 and 7,000 feet elevation). It is said to reach its best de-
velopment in the valley of the Purgatoire River, southeastern Colorado..
At high elevations often reduced to ashrub. The wood is heavy, very
hard, and strong.

Description.—Leaves composed of from 44 to 94 pairs of elliptical leaflets, which are
more or less clothed with a whitish silky down, especially prominent on very young
jeaves. Leaf-stemsand branchlets thickly set with stiff, straight, glandular hairs, as

also are the pods. The latter are flat, often jointed, and vary in length from 4 to 32
inches, with a width of not more than } aninch; the end of the pod terminates ina

curved awn. Tworather strong thorns + to $ an inch long) at the base of each leaf-
stalk. Flowers showy, purplish.

38.—FRigo.tto. (Sophora secundifiora, Lagasca.)

- Chiefly a shrub, forming dense growths along streams or growing

sparingly on rocky hill sides; as a tree it is seldom more than 30 feet
high, with aslendertrank. It extends from the mountains of New Mex-
ico to the Gulf coast of Texas, and where large enough to be available
its hard heavy wood is highly esteemed for fuel. Very ornamental in
appearance. :

Description.— Leaves compound, evergreen, with from 33 to 54—scarcely opposite—
pairs of leaflets; the Jatter 1 to 24 inches long and 3 to 1 inch wide, elliptic-oblong
or ovate, with a wedge-shaped base and a usually rounded apex; margin entire,
smooth, offen shiny above; leaf-stems with a groove on top, and when young vel-
vety, as are the flower-stems. Pods thick, woody, silky, with 1 to 2 speherical or
elliptical (rarely 3 or 4 fertile) joints, which are ? of an inch in diameter and contain
one or two red, very hard-shelled beans, bearing a deep white scar. They are said
to have produced poisonous effects in persons who have eaten them, although the
Angora goats feed upon the leaves of the plant and often swallow the beans without
injury; but the shells of the latter are rarely, 1f ever, crushed by the animal’s teeth.

o9.—MESQUIT. ALGAROBA. HoNEY-Pop. Honky Locust. (Pro-
sopis julifiora, De Candolle.)

A tree of great economic importance. It is found in southern Colo-
rado, and through New Mexico (to southern California; occuring also
in western Texas, southern Utah, and Nevada, Mexico, and southward).
Along streams and in valleys it sometimes forms forests of considerable
extent, though never attaining a height of more than 50 feet, with a
diameter of 1 to 25 feet; commonly much smaller, and in dry rocky situa-
tions, especially those subject to annual burning, reduced toashrub; but
the root system is then enormously developed—locally termed “ under-

E72

ground forests”—and furnishes a cheap and valuable fuel. The tim-
ber is heavy, very hard, and possesses remarkable durability. It is
employed chiefly for fuel, tie-timber, and fencing, but somewhat for
heavy wheel stock and in the manufacture of charcoal.

Description.—Leaves compound, twice pinnate, single or in clusters, with a pair of
stiff, straight, yellowish thorns + to $ inch long at the base of each leaf-stalk or
cluster; leaflets } to 12 inches long, by 345 to $ of an inch wide, elliptic-oblong to lance-
linear. A cup-shaped gland at the end of the main leaf-stem, (where the usually
single pair of smaller stems (pinnze) with leaflets is given off). Pods somewhat flat-
tened, straightish or curved, 3 to 74 inches long, + to 4 an inch wide; composed of 12
to 25 lobe-like joints (containing as many seeds), and terminating in an awl-point ;
young pods covered with a dense velvety down, yellowish-white when mature. They
have a sweet taste, and are often used for fodder.

40.—SCREW BEAN. ScREW-POD. MxEsquit. ToRNILLA. (Prosopis
pubescens, Benth.)

A small tree or shrub growing on gravelly or sandy bottom-land,
through New Mexico (in western Texas, through Arizona to California;
southward into Mexico); said to attain its largest size within the
United States in the valleys of the lower Colorado and Gila Rivers—
20 to 25 feet in height, and 6 to 12 inches in diameter. The wood is
heavy, very hard, and brittle, but exceedingly durable, and is used for
fencing and fuel. Pods sweet, sometimes used for fodder, and for flour
by Indians. i

Description.—Leaves essentially as in Prosopis juliflora (No.39), with a pair of
straight pearly- white thorns at base of each leaf or cluster; leaflets elliptic-oblong,

often with a short fine point (probably less variable in size than those of the preced-
ing species), + to $ an inch long, and 75 to ¢ of an inch wide. Pods cylindrical, 1
to 24 inches long, § to + of an inch in diameter, straightish or crooked, closely coiled
in aspiral; clothed with a fine velvety down; light brown at maturity. Branchlets

with white longitudinal (decurrent) lines proceeding from the bases of the thorns.

41.—Oat’s CLAW. (Acacia Greggit, Gray.)

Often a shrub, or a low much-branched tree, 20 to 25 feet in height and
sometimes 10 inches in diameter, growing abundantly on the dry table-
lands and in the low canyons of southern Utah (Dr. Palmer), New Mex-
ico and Arizona (extending to California; also in northern Mexico and
western Texas). The wood is heavy, very hard and strong, furnishing
good fuel. Large trees often hollow. .

Description.—Leaf-stems short, giving off 2 to 3 pairs of smaller stems (pinne) which
bear 3 to 6 pairs of very small (4 to 4 of an inch long) oblong-ovate (broader above)

unequal-sided leaflets, with a rounded or abrupt apex, downy. Pods smooth, flat,

curved, 3 to 6 inches long, and + to 2 of an inch broad; usually with constrictions
between the seeds; the latter flat, obicular, and dark brown. Branches sparingly
armed with short hooked prickles, or occasionally unarmed, sometimes with whitish

lines.

173

ROSACEA): ROSE FAMILY. CHERRIES AND PLUMS.

4?,__- W iD YELLOW OR RED PLUM. CANADA PLUM. HORSE PLUM.
(Prunus Americana, Marshall.)

A small thorny tree, abundant, and forming thickets in dry or moist
situations. Itis seldom more than 15 to 30 feet high, witha diameter of
3 to 10 inches. In the Rocky Mountain region it is found chiefly in
central Colorado, but has a wide range through the eastern United
States and north of the boundary. It reaches its largest size in east-
ern Texas. The wood is heavy, very hard and tough, and is used oce-
casionally for fuel, light tool-stock, ete. The fruit is often large, edible,
and with a pleasant taste when fully matured. Sometimes cultivated
or used for grafting stock. ‘ |

Description.—Leaves 2 to 3 inches long, ovate, pointed, coarsely or finely toothed
on the margin; smooth and with prominent veins when mature. Fruit somewhat

spherical to ovoid in shape, 4 to i inch in diameter; dark, with reddish tinge and
yellowish areas.

43.—CHICKASAW PLUM. Hog PLUM. (Prunus angustifolia, Marshall.)

Supposed to be a native of the eastern slopes of the southern Rocky
Mountains, here found at elevations up to 7,000 feet.- (But by cultiva-
tionit has become widely distributed eastward to the Atlantic coast,
south of Pennsylvania.) It is a small tree, 20 to 30 feet in height, with
a trunk 4 to 10 inches in diameter, or in some situations reduced to a
shrub. It prefers a rich, moist soil, and is found growing chiefly along
water-courses and the borders of rich woods. The wood is rather heavy,
but soft and brittle. Cultivated considerably for its fruit.

Description.—Leaves 14 to 2 inches long, thin, smooth, lance-shaped, with fine, sharp,
incurved teeth on the margin. Fruit $ to ? of an inch in diameter (borne on short

stems), spherical, yellowish red, and with little bloom; thin-skinned, sweetish.
Chiefly shrubby and inclined to be thorny.

44._WILD RED CHERRY. PINCHERRY. PIGEON CHERRY. (Prunus
Pennsylvanica, Linn.)

Commonly a very small tree or shrub as it occurs in the Rocky Moun-
tains of Colorado. In its eastern range through northern and central
United States it becomes somewhat larger, but seldom more than 15 to
00 feet in height, and 6to12Z inches in diameter. The wood is soft and
light, and where large enough is occasionally cut for fuel. Fruit used
sometimes for medicinal purposes. .

Description.—Leaves 2 to 34 inches long, ovate, lance-shaped, long-pointed, fincly
and sharply toothed on the margin; thin, shiny, green above and below. Fruit
small, globular, very dark red ; flesh scanty andsour. Bark reddish brown. —

45.,—OREGON CHERRY. (Prunus emarginata, Walpers.)

A tree sometimes 20 to 30 feet in height, and 4 to 10 inches in diam-
eter, occurring abundantly along streams and in moist valleys of the

174 :

mountainous portions of northern Idaho and western Montana (on
Pacific coast and north of United States boundary), reaching elevations
from 3,000 to 4,000 feet; but at high altitudes reduced toashrub. Re-
markable for the density of its growth, covering quitelarge areas. Va-
riety mollis (Brewer) is the form commonly met with in the northern
Rocky Mountain region. The timber is light, soft, and brittle.
Description.—Leaves oblong-ovate, or lance-shaped, chiefly with a blant apex, ta-
pering to a short stem; with small, rounded teeth on the margin, and woolly pubes-
cence on the under surface. Fruit small, globular, red or blackish, with bitter astrin-

gent taste; not edible; stone with a grooved ridge on one side. Bark much like that
of the common cherry tree of cultivation. Notable for its slender, straight trunks.

46.—WILD CHERRY. (Prunus Capuli, Cavanilles.)

A rather small tree, growing in light, rich soil of canyon bottoms,
and ranging through Arizona, New Mexico (western Texas, and south-
ward), usually between 5,000 and 7,000 feet. It is a very prolific spe-
cies, but does not attain its largest size in the United States ; commonly
not more than 30 feet in height, with a trunk 3 to 10 inches in diame-
ter. The wood is heavy and rather hard.

Description.—Leaves 1 to 34 inches long, ovate to lance-shaped, sometimes with
rather long tapering point; finely and sharply toothed on the margin ; smooth, paler
ou under surface. Very young shoots and leaf stalks downy. Fruit globular, 3 of an
inch in diameter, dark red, with large stone and scanty flesh; edible.

47.—WILD CHERRY. (Prunus Demissa, Walpers.)

Chiefly a small shrub as met with on the western slopes of the Rocky
Mountains of Montana. In its more westerly range on the Pacifie coast
it becomes larger, sometimes 30 feet in height, and 6 to 12 inches in
diameter, usually preferring rich valleys. The wood is heavy, hard, ©
but brittle.

Discription.—Leaves ovate to oblong-ovate, tapering suddenly to a point, rounded
or heart-shaped at the base; sharply toothed (teeth straight) on the margin; com-
monly downy on the under side and dull green above. Fruit purplish or dark red,
with sweetish-astringent taste ; edible.

45.—CHOKE-CHERRY. (Prunus Virginiana, Linn.)

Chiefly a slender shrub, but sometimes a small tree 10 to 15 feet in
height. A widely-distributed species, occurring generally throughout
the northern Rocky Mountain region (also eastward and north of the
United States boundary), usually preferring moist positions. The wood
is ight and rather hard.

Description.—Leaves thin, usually sinooth and shiny above, paler beneath, 1 to
nearly 5 inches long, mostly broad-ovate (wider near the top) to oblong, tapering F
suddenly to a short point at either end, sometimes heart-or wedge-shaped at the
base; margin finely cut with sharp teeth (often of two sizes). Flowers (white) and —
fruit borne in a rather long cylindrical cluster (raceme); the latter when ripe $ to —
4 of an inch in diameter), dark red, very astringent, though with more or less pleas- —
ant taste.

175

49.—Canotia holocantha, Torrey.

An anomalous shrub, or small tree, 10 to 20 feet high, and entirely

~ without leaves. It occurs on the dry plateaus of Arizona, and proba-

bly in New Mexico. The wood is heavy and hard, but of little useexcept

for fuel.

Description.—The branches are straight, spine-like, and peculiar for their smooth
green bark with black scars. The seeds are borne in a solitary, erect, woody pod (L
inch long) with thin, sharp point, at maturity splitting open at the top, thus forming
10 bristle-pointed teeth; seed small, flat, dark, with a thin wing attached to one end.

50.—MouUNTAIN MAHOGANY. (Cercocarpus ledifolius, Nuttall.)

A low tree or shrub, rarely more than 35 feet in height and 2 feet in
diameter ; usually much smaller—10 to 20 feet. It generally grows on
dry rocky slopes between 6,000 and 8,000 feet elevation, and is found
in the mountain ranges of northern Idaho, western Montana and Wy-
oming, Arizona, and New Mexico (it occurs also on the Pacifie coast
from Washington Territory to southern California). The wood is dark,
exceedingly heavy and hard, but not strong. It furnishes the most
valuable fuel of the Rocky Mountain region, and is extensively em-
ployed in making charcoal.

Description.--Leaves 4 to 14 inches long, narrow lance-shaped, sharp-pointed ; mar-
gins entire, and commonly rolled back; thick, leathery, slightly resinous; smooth

above, downy on the under surface ; evergreen. Seed with a hairy tail 2 to 3 inches
long. Usually a low and much-branched tree; crown dense.

51.—MOouUNTAIN MAHOGANY. (Cercocarpus parvifolius, Nuttall.)

Chiefly a shrub, but sometimes attaining a height of 20 to 30 feet,

with a diameter of 6 to 12 inches. It generally occurs on dry gravelly

soil at elevations between 6,000 and 8,000 feet, ranging through the
Rocky Mountains of Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, where it is
said to reach its largest size (southern Arizona and southward; also
on coast of California and southward). Like the preceding species, it
affords excellent fuel, and where large enough is used considerably for
this purpose.

Description.—Leaves % to 14 (commonly 4 to 3? inch) long, on short stems; mostly
wedge-shaped at the base, rather voarsely toothed at the upper end, which is rounded
or sharp-pointed ; young leaves with silky hairs above, with age less prominent or

wanting; whitish on the under surface, with fine, dense wool; evergreen. Seed
with a hairy tail 2 to 24 inches long, sometimes 34 to 4 inches.

502.—WESTERN MOUNTAIN ASH. (Pyrus sambucifolia, Cham. and
Schlecht.)

Chiefly a shrub 6 to 10 feet high, or occasionally a small tree 20 to 25
feet, with a trunk sometimes 8 or 10 inches in diameter; usually con-
fined to deep swamps and the banks of streams. In the Rocky Mount-

ain region it extends from New Mexico to Colorado (westward to Cali-

fornia, north to British Columbia and northward ; eastward along the

176

northern tier of States to the Atlantic), attaining its largest size in }
latter range. The wood is light, soft, and of no special value except for —
fuel. ]

Description.—Leaves compound, composed of from 34 to 73 pairs of leaflets, the lat-
ter varying in length from 1 to 3 inches, and in width from } to nearly 1 inch (ex-— ;
ceptionally 13 inches wide); mostly ovate-oblong or lance-shaped, and tapering sud- —
denly to a short point at either end, or rounded at the top; margin sharply toothed
(sometimes with teeth of two sizes), smooth. Fruit abundant, in flat clusters, berry-
like, red, globular, 4 of an inch in diameter; together with the bark sometimes used —
officinally. :

BLACK-FRUITED HAWTHORNS.

53.—Crategus rivularis, Nuttall.

A shrub or small tree sometimes attaining a height of 10 to 20 feet,
with a diameter of 3 to 10 inches. It occurs in the mountain ranges of
Idaho, Montana, Utah, Colorado, to southern New Mexico (Pinos Altos —
Mountains), forming impenetrable growths along water courses and on-
the borders of swamps (it is found also in eastern Oregon, Washing- |
ton Verritory, and north of the United States boundary). The wood is —
hard, heavy, and tough. -

Description.—Leaves ovate to lance-ovate, 1 to 3 inches long, ? to 2 inches wide,
more or less wedge-shaped at the base, blunt or sharp-pointed; entire margiti often —
with fine and coarse‘teeth, but chiefly confined to the upper part; smooth above, or
with few delicate hairs, especially on the veins; pale below. Fruit blackish, ? inch ~
in diameter. Thorns few, rather short and thick, 4 to 14 inches long; seeds (nutlets) ©
prominently ridged on the back. Generally much branched.

54.— Crategus Douglasu, Lindley.

The most westerly of the thorns, occurring in Idaho, western Mon- —
tana (and from northern California to Washington Territory and north ~
of United States boundary). Sometimes 30 feet high and 10 inches in ~
diameter. It prefers a somewhat moist sandy soil, forming dense ~
thickets along streams and in valleys, reaching its largest size on the ©
Pacifie coast (Oregon) but chiefly a shrub in the Rocky Mountain region. —
The wood is heavy, hard, and tough, being locally used for wedges, —
mauls, ete. .

Description.—Leaves 1} to 4 inches long, % to 23 inches wide, oblong-ovate to —
broadly ovate, with rounded, somewhat wedge-shaped, or sharply-tapering base; ~
rounded or sharp pointed; entire margin sometimes with fine sharp teeth, or more
often with large teeth above, which are themselves entire or finely toothed; smooth ~
on the upper surface, or with few delicate silky hairs; pale beneath. Young branch-
lets aud leaf-stalks woolly. Fruit 2 of an inch in diameter, black-purple, sweet, ~
edible; often collected and eaten by the Indians; seeds (nutlets) strongly ridged on ~
the back. Thorns short and strong, ? to 1? inches long.

55.—BLACK THORN. PEAR THORN oR Haw. (Crataegus tomentosa, ©
Linn.)

One of the most widely distributed of the North American Thorns,
varying much, and in size from a low shrub to a tree sometimes 30 feet

177

in height and 1 foot or more in diameter, often forming dense growths
along streams and in valleys. Itis found in southwestern New Mexico,
southwestern Colorado (eastern Washington Territory and Oregon;
also ranging through the eastern half of the United States and north
of the boundary). The wood is heavy and hard, but rather brittle.

Description.—Leaves varying in length from 1; to 44 inches, and from 1 to 3 inches
in width; oval to broadly ovate or slightly oblong-ovate, sharp-pointed or rounded ;
at the base tapering sharply, somewhat wedge-shaped, or rounded; margin usu-
ally cut with large teeth (sometimes lobe-like), which are themselves finely toothed
(doubly serrate); upper surface smooth, or more or less downy, asare the leaf-and
flower-stems. Fruit globular to slightly pear-shaped, 2 to nearly ? of an inch in diaim-
eter, light red or orange-colored; edible. Thorns 1 to 23 inches long, thick and
sharp.

CAPRIFOLIACEA: HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY.

56.—ELDER. (Sambucus glauca, Nuttall.)

A large shrub or tree, sometimes attaining a height of 20 to 25 feet,
with a diameter of 6 to 1Zinches. Itis found abundantly in the Wah-
satch Mountains of central Utah, usually along valleys in a dry soil,
but is met with chiefly on the Pacific coast, extending from Mexico to
British Columbia and northward. The wood is light, soft, and little
esteemed. As an ornamental tree it is quite popular, being used con-
siderably for this purpose.

Description.— Leaves compound, with 23 to 43 pairs of ovate or oblong lance-
shaped leaflets, which vary in length from 14 to 44 inches, and in width from
# to 14 inches; base of the leaflet acute and often with unequal sides (uniqui-
lateral); apex usually with long thin point; margin sharply tcothed; generally
smooth (but sometimes slightly pubescent). Fruit in a flat-topped cluster, black, but
covered with a dense white bloom—a striking characteristic. Pith of young branches
white.

OLEACEA: OLIVE FAMILY.

57.—‘*SINGLE-LEAF ASH.” (Fraxinus anomala, Torrey.)

Abundant on shady hillsides and plateaus. A small tree, rarely more
than 20 feet in height and 3 to 6 inches in diameter, occurring in south-
ern Utah and southwestern Colorado. The wood is hard, heavy, and
coarse-grained.

Description.—An anomalous species, lacking the usual compound leaf peculiar to

other ashes. Leaves simple, opposite, 1 to 2 inches long, ovate, orbicular or heart-.

shaped (chiefly the latter), often with a broad notch at the end, mostly rounded above
or with short point ; margin entire or with shallow, rounded teeth ; sometimes smooth,
but usually more or less downy on the under surfaces, as are the leaf-stems and young
shoots, but more densely so. Seeds $ to {of an inch long, ovate, pointed at the base,
rounded and with notch above, strongly veined in the center. Young shoots often
strongly quadrangular, with thin raised ridge (wing) at the angles.

24938 Bull 219 os

178
58.—(Fraxrinus pistaciefolia, Torrey.)

A small but rather abundant ash occurring along streams and on
rocky plains, often growing in the crevices of rocks where there is but
little soil. It ranges through southern New Mexico (southern and east-
ern Arizona; also in southern Nevada, in the mountains of western
Texas, and south into Mexico). Thirty to 40 feet, with a diameter rarely
more than 1 foot. The timber is heavy, coarse-grained, and decays rap-
idly, but is apparently useful for many of the same purposes as the
eastern White Ash; sometimes employed for wagon-stock, handles, ete.

Description.—Leaves compound, with from 23 to 33 pairs of leaflets, the latter vary-
ing much in size and form; 1 to 44 inches long, + to 2 inches wide, ovate to narrowly
iance-shaped ; margin sometimes entire, but chietly with short, shallow, distant teeth ;
smooth above and below, but latter surface often downy, the veins always more or less
so, as also are the young shoots and leaf-stems. Seeds 2? to 12 inches long, narrow,
with a spatulate wing at the end, which is rather broadly notched, rounded, or with
sharp point; abundant. Branches round.

59.—RED ASH. (Fraxinus pubescens, Lam.)

A rather small tree, 30 to 40 feet in height, with a diameter seldom
more than 143 feet; very rare in the Rocky Mountain region (being found
chiefly in the northern and Atlantic States): generally growing along
water-courses and in swampy situations. The wood is rather heavy,
hard, and strong, but large timber is often brittle and much inferior to
that of the White Ash, though occasionally used for the same purposes
as the latter.

Desecription.—Leaves compound with 34 to 44 (commonly the former) pairs of leaf-
lets, varying in length from 3 to 5 inches, and in width from 1 to nearly 2 inches;
ovate to oblong—lance-shaped, with rounded base and rather long, thin point; margin
chiefly entire, but sometimes with shallow or indistinct teeth; smooth above and
woolly beneath; leaf-stems and young shoots rusty-velvety. Seed 13 to 2 inches long,
narrow and pointed at the base, broadening into a narrow wing above | of an inch or
less in width. Freshly parted bark of the branches reddish.

60.—GREEN ASH. (Fracinus viridis, Michx. f.)

A middle-sized tree of considerable importance on account of its
adaptability to various situations, though in its natural state found
mostly in rather moist soii of bottoms and along streams. It occursin
the eastern Rocky Mountain ranges of Montana, Wahsatch Mountains
(in central Utah), and in the ranges of eastern and northern Arizona
(eastward it is found along the Atlantic coast and north of the United
States boundary‘. Forty to 60 feet in height and 1 to 13 fect in diameter.
The wood is heavy, hard, and strong, often coarse-grained, and although
generally inferior in quality to that of the White Ash, it is used as a
substitute for the latter.

Description.—Leaves compound, with 2} to 4} pairs of leafiets, which are 2 to 5}
inches long and from } to 1? inches wide; ovate, oblong-ovate to lance-shaped, often
with long tapering point, sometimes rather wedge-shaped or rounded at the base;

179

margin entire, with acute or blunt teeth, or sometimes with teeth only near the
point; smooth and green both sides, but with fine, close down on midrib below.
Seeds 1 to 1% inches long, + to 4 (commonly ¢) of an inch wide, slender and sharp-
- pointed at the base, broadening into a lance-shaped or spatulate wing above; ridged
Branchesround. Young seedlings smooth and straight.

BIGNONIACEZ: BIGNONIA FAMILY.

61.—“* DESERT WILLOW.” (Chilopsis saligna, D. Don.)

A small shrub or tree, 10 to 25 feet in height and 4 to 10 inches in
diameter, growing only near water, and preferring a light sandy soil.
It occurs through southern Arizona and New Mexico (west into south-
ern California, east into Texas, south into northern Mexico). The
wood is light, soft, and much like that of the Black Walnut, but lighter,
and very suitable for cabinet-work, though large trees are apt to be
hollow and useless for lumber.

Description.—Leaves alternate, 1} to 54 inches long, commonly less than 4 inch Ww idle;
linear to linear-lance-shaped, usually tapering to a very slender point at either end.
Flowers large, (2 inches long) white or purplish. The seeds are borne in a long slen-
der pod (like the Catalpa bean), 6 to 12 inches long; seeds small, flat, and with a thin
brush of whitish wool at each end.

URTICACEA: NETTLE FAMILY.

62.—WHITE ELM. AMERICAN ELM. WATER ELM. (Ulmus Ameri-
cana, Linn.)

A large tree, attaining a height sometimes of over 100 feet, with a
diameter of 4 to 6 feet. It occurs sparingly in the northwestern Rocky
Mountain region (but has an extended range east of the Rockies to the
Atlantic and somewhat north of the United States boundary); very
adaptive to different soils, but preferring moist bottom-lands, where it
reaches its largest size. The wood is heavy, rather hard, and tough,
often very difficult to split; in its eastern range used considerably for
coarse lumber, flooring, staves, wheel-stock, and fuel. When employed
for lumber, it requires care in seasoning to prevent it from warping
badly. Often used as an ornamental tree.

Description.—Leaves 2 to 4 inches long, oval or oblong (broader above), tapering
suddenly to a short, narrow point; base rounded (unequal-sided—peculiar to elms);
margin sharply cut with teeth of two sizes; smooth above, hairy below, though often
becoming smooth. Fruit (samara, 4 inch long) with thin wing all around, borne on
drooping stems in small clusters; ovate, with a notch at the apex closed by. two in-
curved teeth; margin of the wing with hair-like fringe. Branchlets and buds smooth.
_ Large tree, with thick, grayish, and deeply furrowed bark ; with room, producing low

trunk, and a broad, inolis branched crown; slosh Brawn: the jatter is contracted
and the trunk tall and straight.

180

63.— WESTERN SUGAR-BERRY. HACK-BERRY. PALO BLANCO. (Cel-
tis occidentalis, Linn., var. reticulata.)

A rather small tree, usually growing along streams in high mountain
canyons, or in less favorable situations reduced to a shrub. It occurs
from the mountains of southern Arizona through the Rocky Mountains
to eastern Oregon; sometimes 30 feet high, with a trunk 18 inebes in
diameter, but mostly witha short, thick trunk, and branching near
the ground, thus furnishing bat little good timber, although the latter is
sound, heavy, hard, and desirable for turnery. The wood is not gener-
ally distinguishable from that of the type which is found farther east.

Description.—Leaves thickish, 1 to 2} inches long and 3 to 14 inches wide, mostly
heart-shaped, with an acute apex, sometimes ovate lance-shaped; base often with
unequal sides (oblique); margin entire or sharply toothed; upper surface rough, with
fine, sharp teeth pointing toward the apex; usually with soft pubescence below or
roughish on the veins, which are peculiarly joined into a net-work (reticulate).
Fruit globular, cherry-like, reddish-yellow (purple with age), + of an inch in diameter,
with large stone and scanty flesh (sweetish) ; on slender stems, } to 4 of an inch long
from axils of leaves. Young shoots hairy. Resembles an Elm in its general appear-
ance.

64. MEXICAN MULBERRY. (ddorus microphylla, Buckley.)

A small tree, sometimes 20 to 25 feet high and 6 to 10 inches in di-
ameter, or reduced to ashrub. It occurs most commonly in the mount-
ain canyons of southern New Mexico, where it probably attains its
largest size (also in western Texas and Mexico). The wood is hard
and heavy, but of little use, except for fuel as the trunks are generally
much distorted, flattened, and twisted.

Description.—Leaves small, 1 to 1} inches long, 4 to 1 inch wide, ovate-heart-shaped,
sharp-pointed, margin sharply toothed; rough, with short bristly hairs above and
below; leaf-stems and young shoots velvety. Fruit small, often sweet and pleasant.
Bark much broken, except in young trees. Milky juice exudes from a freshwound.

PLATANACEA): PLANE-TREE FAMILY.

65.—SYCAMORE. (Platanus Wrightui, Watson.)

A middle-sized tree, 40 to 60 feet in height and 1 to 2 feet in diameter,
abundant in the mountain canyons of southwestern New Mexico, and
in some localities being the predominant species (it occurs also in
southeastern Arizona and in Mexico). The wood is light, soft, and
brittle.

Description.—Leaves alternate, rounded in outline, 5 to 7 inches broad, deeply cut
into 3to 7 (chiefly 5) sharp-pointed lobes; usually a deep sinus at the base; young
shoots and leaves densely clothed above and below with a velvety down, which is
more or less persistent with age. The seeds are packed in aspherical head—‘“ ball ”—
which is # of an inch in diameter, 3 to 5 of these balls borne on a long pendent stem.
The trunks are often crooked and more winding than other species of Platanus.

181

JUGLANDACHEA: WALNUT FAMILY.

66.—WALNUT. (Juglans rupestris, Kngelm.)

A tree of considerable economical importance, occurring quite abun-
dantly in the rich soil of mountain canyons at elevations between 5,000
and 8,000 feet, ranging through southern New Mexico (Arizona and
along the coast from southern to central California; eastward through
western Texas); 30 to 60 feet in height and 1 to 2 feet in diameter.
The wood is hard and heavy, but brittle, with a dark rich brown color,
and nearly or quite as valuable for cabinet-work as that of the Black
Walnut of the Hast.

Description.—Leaves compound, with from 5 to 10 pairs of leaflets, which vary
in length from 2 to 32 inches by 4 to 1 (chiefly } to #) inch wide; lance-shaped
to somewhat broadly so, pointed or rounded at the base, and narrowing to a usually
long thin point ; margin finely toothed ; young leaflets velvety, as are the buds, shoots,
and leaf-stems; with age the former almost without the down, except on the veins.
Fruit small, velvety when young, becoming more or less smooth at maturity; glob-
ular or slightly ovate; 4 to 1 inch in diameter, with a very thin husk; shell smooth,
wrinkled ; sweet and edible.

CUPULIFER4: OAK FAMILY.

67.—SCRUB OAK. (Quercus undulata, var. Gambelii, Engelm.)

Often a low shrub, or rather small tree, rarely more than 50 feet in
height (exceptionally 75 feet) and 14 feet in diameter, occurring abun-
dantly on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, in the
high mountains of southern New Mexico and Arizona, where it probably
attains its largest size. (It is also found in the Wahsatch Mountains of
central Utah and in the mountains of western Texas.) The timber is
heavy, hard, and strong, and rather tough when young, but it is im-
portant chiefly for fuel and tan-bark, as the large trees are too often
hollow and defective for lumber.*

Description.—Leaves 1 to 5 (mostly 1 to 3) inches long, and $ to 3 inches wide,
ovate (larger at upper end) or oblong in outline ; margin with bristle-pointed coarse
teeth, or rather deeply cut into from 3 to 5 somewhat equal lobes, with rounded
ends; young shoots, leaf-stems, and under surface of leaves clothed with velvety
yellowish down. Acorns, mostly solitary, sometimes in pairs, ovoid or oblong with
sword-shaped point, 2 to ? of an inch in length, and 2 to 4 an inch in diameter, some-
times quite enveloped by the closely scaly and downy cup.t A variable variety, and
for the present purpose no attempt is made to describe in any but general terms
the many forms that probably belong here.

638.—BURR OAK. Mossy-cuPp OAK. OVER-CUP OAK. (Quercus macro-
carpa, Michx.)

One of the largest and most important timber trees, extending farthest
west and northwest of any of the eastern Oaks. It is somewhat rare

*Itis a useful tree, furnishing desirable soil cover and shade for denuded hillsides.
+ Trunk and branches often much twisted.

182

and much smaller as it occurs on the eastern foot-hills of the Rocky
Mountains of Montana than in its more eastern range—central, north
central, and northeastern States; here, being especially well developed
on rich bottom-lands and prairies, sometimes reaching a height of 100
feet with a diameter of 4 to 6 feet. The wood is heavy, hard, and
tough, and the most durable of any of our oaks. In its Rocky Mount-
ain range it is scarcely of any economic importance, but eastward is ex-
tensively employed for carriage- and wagon-stock, agricultural imple-
ments, lumber, tie-timber, posts, ete.

Description.—Leaves ovate, broader above or oblong in outline, tapering rather
sharply at the base, 4 to 10 inches long, and 2 to 6 inches wide, more or less deeply
lobed (3 to 6 pairs), the latter entire or with shallow blunt teeth or sub-divisions;
young shoots minutely downy, as are the young leaves above and below, though
usually becoming smooth on the upper surface at maturity. Acorns large, broadly
ovate, solitary or in pairs (on strong footstalks an inch long), nearly or quite envel-
oped by a thick, scaly, mossy-fringed cup, together ? to 14 inches long and ? tol inch
in diameter.

69.—“* EVERGREEN OAK.” “Live OAK.” (Quercus oblongifolia
Torrey.)

A small tree of little economic value, found along the foot-hills of the
mountain ranges of southern Arizona and New Mexico (southward
into Mexico; also on the foot-hills of the San Gabriel Mountains, south-
ern California). Twenty to 40 feet high, and $ to 23 feet in diameter.
The wood is very heavy and hard, but brittle; the largest trees are apt
to be hollow, and hence seldom used except as fuel.

Description.—Leaves evergreen, leathery, 1 to’ 2 (exceptionally 3) inches long, and
4 to 1 inch wide, chiefly oblong, sometimes ovate-oblong, rounded or slightly heart-
shaped at the base, rounded or pointed at the tip ; margin entire or with afew shallow,
distant, and usually sharp teeth; smooth above, minutely downy below, but less so
in old leaves; young shoots and short leaf-stems velvety. Acorns sessile, or on very
short stems, solitary or two to three together, ovate or oblong, 4 to ?, sometimes 1

inch long; cups hemispherical, with tuberculate scales.

70.—WHITE OAK. (Quercus grisea, Liebmann.)

A tree 40 to 60 feet in height and 1 to 15 feet in diameter, or a low
shrub, ranging through the mountains of southern Colorado, southern
New Mexico, at elevations between 5,000 and 10,000 feet (westward
through southern Arizona to Colorado River, southern California, and
southward through northern Mexico). Jather rare in parts of its
range. The wood is exceedingly heavy, hard, and strong, but the large-
sized trees are too often hollow and almost useless for timber.

Description.—A variable species presenting many forms, the position of which is
difficult to determine; approximations to closely allied species are especially fre-
quent in the shape and character of the leaves. Leaves }? to 24 inches long, and 4
to 1 inch wide, ovate, oblong, or narrowly elliptical in outline, rounded or somewhat
heart-shaped at the base, pointed or rounded at the apex; margin entire, undulate~
toothed to that with sharp or prickle-pointed teeth (var. pungens, Engelm.); young

183

shoots and short leaf-stems downy, as is also the under surface of the leaves; mostly
smooth above. Acarns sessile, or on short stems, oblong, ? to Linch long, and nearly
4 an inch in diameter ; cups hemispherical, 4+ inch broad; scales tuberculate.

71.—Buack OAK. ‘MOUNTAIN OAK.” (Quercus Emory, Torrey.)

A tree 40 to 50 feet in height and 1 to 3 feet in diameter, or a shrub
at the eastern limit of its range; it occurs abundantly through the
mcuntain ranges of southern New Mexico (eastern and southern Ari-
‘zona, and western Texas) at elevations between 5,000 and 7,000 feet;
rarely if ever found on hills or far from streams, preferring the fine
gravelly or sandy soil of open canyons. The wood is very heavy and
brittle, of a poor quality, and little esteemed, except for fuel, the large
trees often becoming hollow or otherwise defective.

Description.—Leaves thick, # to 2} inches long, 4 to 14 inches wide, ovate, ob-
long-ovate, often approaching halberd-shape, with an acute point, and chiefly (some-
times rounded or with strongly) heart-shaped base; margin entire, but mostly wavy,
with distant, shallow or rather large prickle-pointed teeth; mature leaves usually
dark glossy green both sides; when young minutely downy, as are the young shoots
and short leaf-stems, but the latter more densely so. Acorns mostly sessile—some-
times with short stem—ovate, with arather sharp and prolonged point, $ to ? of an
inch long, and # of an inch in diameter; cup hemispherical, 4 inch broad, with close,
smooth scales. Acorns abundant, sweet, edible. A tree with a scraggy appearance.

72.—(Quercus hypoleuca, Engelmann.)

A small but very handsome tree with evergreen foliage, found in the
high mountain ranges of southwestern New Mexico, Santa Rita Mount-
ains, southeastern Arizona (southward into Sonora, and in the Limpia
Mountains of Texas), at elevations above 6,000 feet, usually preferring
rocky or gravelly sites in deep canyons and valleys. Commonly 15 to
20, occasionally 50, feet in height, with a diameter of 2 feet; the
trunks usually large for the height. The wood is heavy, very hard, and
Strong, but large-sized trees are often defective. In localities where it
can be grown it would be a popular ornamental free.

Description.—Leaves thick, commonly 2 to 34 inches long and $%o01 inch wide,
lance-shaped, with rounded, slightly heart-shaped or acute base, the upper end usually
tapering to along thin point; margin rolled down, entire, or wavy, with few indistinct
or shailow teeth--sometimes sharply toothed; young leaves downy above, always
densely woolly below, but with age becoming smooth and dark green above; stems
downy. Acorns usually sessile or sometimes with short stems, ovate, $ to #of an

inch long; cups hemispherical, with thin, downy scales. Trunk and branches gener-
ally gnarled and twisted.

73.—CANOE BiRcH. WHITE BIRCH. PAPER BIRCH. ( Betula papyrifera.*
Marshall.)

A rather large tree, growing chiefly in rich woodlands and along water-
courses, and extending farther north than any other American decidu-
ous tree. It has a limited range in the Rocky Mountains region, being

*See Dwarf Birch in list of shrubs, page 196.

*
i ee i i

i84

found only in the Mullen Trail of the Bitter Root Mountains and in the
region of Flathead Lake, Montana (eastward it ranges through the
northern tier of States to the Atlantic coast, and far north of the United
States boundary from the Atlantic to the Pacific). Sixty feet or more
in height, with a trunk 2 to 3 feet in diameter. The wood is Very close-
grained, hard, and strong, being employed quite extensively in turnery,
in the manufacture of paper-pulp, and for fuel. The tough durable bark
separates readily into layers, and is often used for making canoes, ete.

Description.—Leaves, ovate to broadly ovate, 2 to 3} inches long, 13 to 2} inches
inches wide, with a rather long, narrow point. mostly abrupt or heart-shaped at the
base (sometimes slightly wedge-shaped), smooth and dark green above, paler and
with few hairs on the veins below. Seed small, with two thin wings, borne ina

cylindrical scaly catkin 1 to 1g inches long. Young branchlets often with numerous
dots. Bark of the trunk chalky-white.

74.—BLACK BrrcH. ‘ WESTERN POGUE-BIRCH.” (Betula occidentalis,
Hooker.)

‘

Usually a small tree, 20 to 30 (exceptionally 60) feet in height and 4
to 1 foot in diameter, growing abundantly in moist soil of mountain
eanyons and along streams in the Rocky Mountains from northern New
Mexico to Montana (also on the Pacific coast from the Sierra Neva-
das of central California to Washington Territory and north of the
boundary). It often forms dense thickets, a number of stems growing
close together, and producing a useful local supply of straight timber
for fencing, as well as for fuel. The wood is rather soft, but strong.
The bark separates readily into layers, and is sometimes used for canoes.

Description.—Leaves generally quite small and thin, 1 to 13 inches long and 1 to
1 inches wide, ovate-lance-shaped to broadly ovate—sometimes orbicular—with an
acute, rounded, abrupt, or wedge-shaped base, and with a short or sometimes rather
long point; margin cut (occasionally lobed) with glandular-pointed teeth; mostly
smooth, or with few close hairs below; young leaves hairy; leaf stems slender, $ inch
long. Fertile catkins oblong or cylindrical, 2 to 1 inch long, with hairy three-pointed
scales (bracts); seeds with thin broad wing on two sides. Branches thickly dotted
with resinous spots, especially on the recent wood. Bark close, dark to light brown;
when newly parted, pale copper-yellow. -

ALDERS.

75.—“ WHITE ALDER.” ‘“ CALIFORNIA ALDER.” (Alnus rhombifolia,
Nuttall.)

A small tree, seldom more than 30 feet in height and 1 foot in diame-
ter, or reduced toashrub. It is found in northern Idaho and along
the valley of the Flathead River, northwestern Montana, growing mostly
on the banks of streams (westward it ranges along the Pacifie coast
from southern California to British Columbia). The wood is light, soft,
and brittle.

185

Description.—Leaves 11 to 3 inches long, ovate (sometimes broader above), or
oblong-ovate, blunt or with sharp point, wedge-shaped at the base; margin with
small teeth of two sizes; smooth (or nearly so) above, more or less downy on the
under surface. Catkins bearing the- seed (nutlets) oblong, 4 to } inch long; seeds
small (;; of an inch long), ovate, very broad at upper end, and with a wing-like,
thickened margin.

76.—Alnus oblongifolia, Torrey.

One of the largest deciduous trees of the southern Rocky Mountain
region, growing abundantly on nearly al! the mountain streams and
very close to the water. It occurs in the ranges of southern Arizona,
extending to New Mexico as far as the Rio Grande (southward into
Mexico, and also in ranges of southern California). Torty to 60 feet,
with a trunk from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. The wood-is light, soft, and
brittle, decaying rapidly, and of little value except for fuel.

Description.—Leaves commonly 14 to 34 inches long, and 1 to 2 inches wide (excep-
tionally 4 to 6 inches long), lance- to oblong-lance-shaped (sometimes ovate), apex
acute or with a long narrow point; base wedge-shaned ; margin (often rather coarsely)
cut with glandular teeth of two sizes; slightly hairy below, especially on the veins,
smooth above; leaf-stems $+ to 4 inch long. Fertile catkins ovate-oblong, 4 to ? inch

long; seeds (nutlets) ovate—very broad above, about 7/5 of an inch long, with a nar-
row wing-like margin. A handsome tree.

77.—SPECKLED ALDER. HOARY ALDER. BLACK ALDER. (Alnus
incana, Willdenow.)

A shrub or small tree, 15 to 20 feet in height, with a slender trunk;
seldom more than 3 to 6 inches in diameter. It occurs along water-
courses and on the borders of swamps in the Rocky Mountain region,
ranging from Colorado to Montana and northward (extending eastward
to the Atlantic; also in Europe. A well-marked variety of this species
(virescens, Watson) is found in the mountain ranges of the Pacific coast
from southern California to British Columbia and northward). The
wood is light and soft, and is used quite extensively for fuel in brick-
making.

Description.—Leaves 2 to 4 (exceptionally 5) inches long, and 14 to 34 inches wide,
oval to broadly ovate, with rounded or heart-shaped base and more or less pointed
apex; margin finely toothed, or with coarse teeth, which are themselves cut with
smaller teeth; young leaves velvety on both sides, but with age becoming pale, and
retaining the pubescence only (or chiefly) on the under surface (variety virescens has
leaves smooth on both sides) ; leaf-stems and recent shoot rusty downy. Fertile cat-

kins ovate, $ to inch long; fruit flat, orbicular, with thin margin mostly on two,
sides. Bark of brances reddish or grayish brown, with numerons light-colored dots.,

SALICINEA: WILLOW FAMILY.*

18.—Saliv amygdaloides, Anderson.

A small tree, found throughout the Rocky Mountain region on the
banks of streams (also eastward through the northern United States) ;

*See Willows, in list of shrubs, page 196.

186 | :

10 to 30 feet high and 6 to 10 inches in diameter. The timber is soft,
light, and weak.
Description.—Leaves lance-ovate, 2 to 4 inches long, $ to 1 inch broad, margin

finely and sharply toothed; pale or whitish beneath; footstalks (petioles) without
glands.

79.—Salic lasiandra, Bentham.

An important willow for commercial purposes, several well-marked
varieties of which having proved quite satisfactory osiers. Abundant
on banks of streams in Rocky Mountains of Colorado and northern
New Mexico (on the Pacific coast from central California to and north
United States boundary). Generally more common and much larger
tree than the preceding, although the wood is not materially different;
in favorable localities it reaches a height of from 25 to 60 feet, with a
diameter of 14 feet or more.

Description.—Leaves 1 to sometimes 64 inches long, lanceolate, with long thin
point, finely and sharply toothed on the margin; smooth above, pale or whitish
on the under surface ; footstalks glandular at the upper end. The old bark is rather

strongly furrowed, and is of a grayish or brownish color; the young branches are
glossy yellow, and in habit not unlike the Weeping Willow.

80.—SAND-BAR WILLOW. (Salix longifolia, Muhlenberg.)

A small but widely-distributed species, occurring throughout the
Rocky Mountain region (also in eastern United States and in the Pa-
cific States). It is commonly found growing on the moist banks of
streams and on sand-bars, in some cases forming thick growths. In
the central Pacific coast region it is said to attain its greatest develop-
ment, but it is a small tree, rarely more than 25 to 30 feet high and $ to
1 foot in diameter. The wood is light and soft.

Description.—Leaves 3 to 4 inches long, ;'y to $ (commonly { to {) of an inch wide,
linear to lance-shaped, long-pointed, tapering at the base, sessile or with short stems;
margin entire, or with very small somewhat distant teeth.—Two or three varieties
of this species occur, which differ from the type chiefly in the form of the leayes and
pubescence.

81.—( Salix flavescens, Nuttall.)

A tree of 20 to 25 feet in height and 6 inches to 1 foot in diameter,
found on the banks of streams in the mountains from New Mexico to
Montana and Idaho (also occurring in central Pacific coast region.) It
reaches its largest size in the southern Rocky Mountain region. The
wood is light and lacking in strength; a variety of this species, called
the Black Willow, and confined to the Pacific coast, has tough, strong
wood.

Description.—Leaves 2 to 3 inches long, 1 to 1} inches wide, ovate or lance-shaped,
tapering at the base; with age becoming smooth and a dull green above, below
whitish or with yellowish-brown pubescence,

187

POPLARBS.

82.—QUAKING ASPEN OR ASP. AMERICAN ASPEN. (Populus
tremuloides, Michaux.)

One of the most widely distributed of our forest trees, but of little
value as a timber tree, yet of considerabie importance for quickly cov-
ering mountain and hillsides denuded by fires, thus furnishing the neces-
sary conditions for the growth of other longer-lived and better timber.
Twenty-five to 50 feet in height, and 14 feet or more in diameter. Itis
found abundantly throughout the Rocky Mountain region (northern
United States, north of boundary, in south central and Pacifie coast
region,) at elevations between 6,000 and 10,000 feet. The wood is soft,
light, weak, and little used except for light fuel and in the manufacture
of paper-pulp; the poles occasionally for fencing.

Description.—Leaves 1 to 3 inches long, rounded-ovate, short-pointed, somewhat
wedge or heart-shaped at the base; smooth on both sides, margin with fine teeth;

footstalks slender and flattened at right angles to the plane of the leaf. The bark is
chiefly smooth and of a grayish-white color.

83.—BALSAM POPLAR. BALM-OF-GILEAD. TACAMAHAC. (Populus
balsamifera, Linn.)

A large tree occurring in the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Idaho
(it also extends eastward through the Northern States and north of the
United States boundary). It generally prefers and thrives best in moist
situations along water-courses, often attaining a height of 60 to 80
feet, with a diameter of 3 to 6 feet. The wood is quite similar to that
of the Big Cottonwood (Populus monilifera, Ait.), and a good substitute
for it in more northern localities.

Description.—Leaves ovate, gradually tapering to a point, finely toothed on the
margin, smooth above, whitish below. Branches round; large buds, coated with
resinous gum, which is sometimes used in officinal preparations.

Variety candicans, Gray, of this species is found in Colorado, north-
ward, and eastward, but is quite unknown in the wild state, being
chiefly, if not entirely, introduced in the above range; very common.
The wood is considerably heavier than that of the type.

Description.—Leaves usually larger, heart-shaped, densely white beneath, and with
hairy footstalks.

$84.—BLAcKk COTTONWOOD. “BITTER COTTONWOOD.” (Populus
angustifolia, James.)

Rather abundant throughout the Rocky Mountain region (also in
southwestern Dakota and eastern Arizona); less common in southern
part of its range, but one of the least valuable deciduous trees of the
region. It grows in damp situations, along the borders of mountain
streams, at elevations between 6,000 and 10,000 feet. A considerably

188
smaller tree than the better known Big Cottonwood, seldom reaching a
height of more than 30 or 50 feet, and 14 feet in diameter. The timber
is very light and soft.
Description.—Leaves smooth both sides, chiefly ovate-lance-shaped (sometimes nat-
rowly lance-shaped), with a long tapering point, mostly rounded at the base, or some-

times tapering slightly at the base; margin with small rounded teeth. Branches
round, with smooth bark.

85.—COTTONWOOD. CAROLINA POPLAR. BIG CoTTOoNWoop. NECK-
LACE POPLAR. (Populus monilifera, Aiton.)

The common cottonwood along the eastern base of the Rocky Moun.
tains (and eastward to the Atlantic Coast). Itis abundant on all the
water-courses, and valuable chiefly for the rapidity of its growth. The
timber is of little commercial importance, yet it is considerably used
for cheap lumber, light fuei, and in the manufacture of paper-pulp;
unless well protected, it decays rapidly when exposed to the weather.
In western towns this tree is largely employed as ‘a shade tree, as it
reaches a desirable size in a comparatively short time, and is therefore
often preferred to other trees. It grows to a height of over 100 feet,
and 4 to 6 feet in diameter.

Description.—Leaves broadly triangle-shaped, somewhat heart-shaped or truncated
at the base, long-pointed; margin with blunt incurved, hairy teeth. Young branches
angled, but becoming round with age.

86.—COTTONWOOD. WHITE CoTTONWOOD. (Populus Fremontii, Wat
son, var. Weslizeni, Watson.)

This species is found in southern Colorado, through New Mexico
(western Texas, Arizona, southern California), and is the prevailing Cot-
tonwood of the arid localities; rather abundant along streams in open
country, but quite rare on precipitous sites. It is a large tree, com-
monly attaining a height of 50 to 80 feet, with a diameter of 3 to 4 feet.
The wood is soft and light, but supplies the ordinary fuel of the region.

Description.—Leaves broadly triangle-shaped, sharp-pointed, somewhat wedge-
shaped or truncate, and with more or less broad shallow sinuses at the base; margin
with a few distant, blunt (occasionally incurved) teeth. . Young bark yellowish, bat
becoming gray with age.

LILIACEA: LILY FAMILY.

[The plants belonging to this family are termed endogenous or inside growers, the woody stems
being made up of a mingled mass of fibers, and not marked by annual rinzs as in the pines, maples,
elms, ete.—exogenous or outside growers. ]

87.—SPANISH BAYONET. (Yucca elata, Engelmanp.)

A small tree, with a trunk usually not more than 10 to 15 feet in
height and 4 to 7 inches in diameter. It is commonly met with in the
dry gravelly soil of table-lands, ranging through western Texas, Ari-
zona to Utah (probably in New Mexico), and southward into Mexico;
wood light, soft, and brittle.

Je)

- Description.—Leaves 1 to 2 feet long, very narrow, % of an inch or less wide, thick,
stiff, terminating in a needle-point ; margin with a narrow white border and more
or less with thread-like filaments ; base of the leaves much expanded, usually smooth.
Flowers white, 1 to 2 inches long ; fruit, a woody, oblong-ovate or cylindrical capsule
14 to 2? inches long and 1} inches in diameter, obtuse at the base and beaked at the
top ; seeds rather large, thin, and flat, § to inch wide:

88.—SPANISH BAYONET. MEXICAN BANANA. (Yucca bacatta, Torrey.)

Sometimes a tree 20 to 30 feet in height, with a trunk 1 foot or more
in diameter, or at the northern limit of its range a stemless plant, bear.
ing only a tuft of leaves. It occurs through New Mexico to southern
Colorado (westward into southern California, southward into northern
Mexico, and also in western Texas), in the latter range often forming
quite extensive forests on the plains. The wood is of little economic
value. The fiber of the leaves is strong, and when properly prepared
by maceration is soft and pliable, furnishing an excellent material for
making ropes, for which it is considerably employed, as well as by the
Indians in making horse-biankets aud mats. Fruit sweetish, edible, and
locally an important article of food.

Description.—The trunk is more or less set with dead leaves, which are broken down
at the base. The mature leaves are thick, stiff, lanced-shaped, and from 1 to nearly
3 feet long, with a width of 14 to 2 inches, broad at the base, narrowing, broadening
acain midway, and terminating in a long keen spine-point; margined with rather
coarse threads, curved backward, usually rough or sometimes smooth, and concave
above. The flowers are large and showy, 2 to 3 inches long; fruit hanging down, 2
to 4 (sometimes 5) inches long, ovate, oblong or cylindrical, usually with a beak: pur-
ple; seeds blackish, + to # inch broad, triangular, flattened on two sides,

SHRUBS NOT BECOMING ARBORESCENT.

As far as known, the following list of shrubs comprises those that
rarely, if ever, become arborescent; and the chief object in introducing
them here is to complete, as far as possible, a full enumeration of the
woody plants of the region. Plants woody only at the base have been
mostly excluded. The annotations added may in some cases assist the
reader in recognizing the species.

BERBERIDACEZ: Barberries.
BERBERIS REPENS, Lindl. One foot or less in height: found throughout the Rocky
Mountains, also on the Pacific coast; wood yellow.
BERBERIS FENDLERI, Gray. Three to 6 feet: southern Colorado and southward
(westward to southern California).

ZYGOPHYLLACEX.

CREOSOTE-BUSH, Larrea Mexicana, Moric. Four to 10 feet: southern Colorado (to
California; also in Texas): strong-scented ; foliage evergreen, dense; flowers
ye.low ; fruit beaked.

CELASTRACEZ: Staff-tree Family.

PACHYSTIMA MyRSINITES, Raf. Low; Rocky Mountain region (northward and west-
ward); foliage evergreen, forming dense clumps on timbered slopes.

RHAMNACE®: Buckthorn Family.*
BUCKTHORNS:

Rhamnus alnifolia, L’Her. Two to4 feet: Wyoming (westward and eastward).
Fruit black, berry-like; 2 to 4 seeds (nutlets).

Rhamnus Californica, Esch. Southwestern Colorado and New Mexico (to Cali-
fornia and northward to the valley of the upper Sacramento River). As
it occurs in the Rocky Mountain region it is a low, spreading shrub (with
young branches and under surface of the leaves white-woolly), but in Cali-
fornia becoming a small tree 20 to 30 feet high: foliage evergreen; fruit
black-purple, with scanty flesh and 2 to3 seeds. (Introduced among the
shrubs, because the Rocky Mountain form is never arborescent. )

NEw JERSEY TEA:

Ceanothus velutinus, Dougl. Two to 3 feet: Colorado, Utah (and northwest-
ward): leaves thick, entire, resinous above; often velvety below. Var.
levigatus, (Torr. & Gray) with leaves mostly smooth below, is commoner
than the species.

Ceanothus ovatus, Desf. Two to 3 feet: Colorado and Wyoming: leaves with
smal] glandular teeth.

*See arborescent species, page 168.
190

;

ee pres aoe

191

New Jersey TeA—Continued.

Ceanothus sanguineus, Pursh. Four to 12 feet: on tributaries of Missouri River
in Rocky Mountain region: branches reddish.

Ceanothus Fendleri, Gray. One to 2 feet: New Mexico to Colorado: branches
grayish, spiny; leaves small, white-silky below.

VITACEX: Vine Family.

WILD GRAPE. Vitis riparia, Michx. Colorado (abundant in Atlantic region): leaves
with 3 long-pointed lobes; fruit more or less with bloom.

VIRGINIA CREEPER. Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michx. Colorado (and throughout east-
ern United States): fruit blackish ; 5 leaflets, crimson in fall. “American |
Ivy. ‘‘ Woodbine.”

ANACARDIACEZ: Cashew Family.

Smooth SumacH. hus glabra, L. Three to 12 feet: Colorado, Utah, Idaho (east-
ward to the Atlantic): fruit in dense mass (thyrse), crimson, hairy.

Poison Ivy. Porson Oak. Rhus Toxicodendron, L. Climbing: Colorado, Wyo-
ming, Utah (eastward to Atlantic): 3 leaflets; fruit whitish ; poisonous
to the touch.

RuUS AROMATICA, Ait., var. trilobala, Gray. Two tod feet: abundant in Rock Mount-
ain region (and westward): 3 leaflets; strong-scented.

Rosacea: Rose Family.

MEADOW SWEET. Spirea betulifolia, Pallas. One to 2 feet: head-waters of Misssouri
River in Rocky Mountain region (westward to northern California and
northward beyond the United States boundary ; eastward to Alleghanies) :
flowers purplish; bark reddish. Var. rosea (Gray), has rose-colored flowers :
Wyoming, Idaho (to Oregon and California).

NINE Bark. Physocarpus opulifolia, Maxim. Three to 10 feet: throughout the
United States: flowers white, in flat clusters; bark grayish, loose, parting
in layers.

PHyYSOCARPUS TORREYI, Maxim. Lower and with leaves smaller than in the pre-

: ceding : Colorado to Nevada, *n the mountains.

CHAMZBATIARIA MILLEFOLIUM, Maxim. Western Wyoming to California: flowers
large, white; stout, much branched, glandular-hairy.

HOLODISCUS DISCOLOR, Maxim. Four feet or more: New Mexico, Colorado (and
westward to Pacific), flowers white; hairy, spreading, and with gray-
brown bark. Var. dwmosa (Maxim.), 1 to 3 feet, with smaller leaves aud
less spreading.

SALMON Berry. Rubus Nutkanus, Mocino. Three to 8 feet: Colorado to Montana
(westward to the Pacific; eastward to northern Michigan): glandular-
hairy ; flowers large, white; fruit large, red, pleasant.

RUBUS DELICIOSUS, James. Three to 4 feet: Colorado: flowers very ‘large, white ;
fruit large, purple, not agreeable.

WILD KED RAspBerRy. ubus strigosus, Michx. Two to 3 feet: New Mexico to
Montana (in Nevada; eastward through northern half of the United States)
fruit red, pleasant; stiff-bristly ; wood dying down every two years.

Back RASPBERRY. THIMBLE BERRY. Rubus occidentalis, L. Three to 8 feet: New
Mexico to Wyoming (westward to the coast; eastward to Missouri, thence
throughout Eastern States): stems with keen, hooked prickles ; fruit black-
ish, pleasant.

192

PURSHIA TRIDENTATA, DC. Two to 5 (exceptionally 10) feet: Rocky Mountain
region (and from Arizona to Southern California): spreading, much-
branched, with gray or brown bark; young branches hairy; leavessmall,
crowded, wedge-shaped, 3- to 5-lobed, white-woolly below ; upper surface
of leaves with sticky glands; with pungent, balsamic odor; fruit velvety.

COLEOGYNE RAMOSISSIMA, Torr. Southern Colorado (to Nevada and Arizona) ;
spiny, spreading, much-branched, bark grayish; leaves leathery and with
delicate hairs; flowers yellow, conspicuous.

CLirF Rose. Cowania Mexicana, Don. One to 6 feet: New Mexico to Southern
Colorado (also in northern Mexico and northern Utah): much-branched;
bark whitish, stringy; flowers yellow; seed (akene) with tail 2 inches
long.

EARLY WILD Rose. Kosa blanda, Ait. One to 3 feet: Eastern Montana (and east-
ward through northern half of United States): with few delicate (or no)
prickles ; flowers pale rose-color.

Rosa Sayi, Schwein. One to 2 feet: common from Colorado to Montana (eastward
to northern Wisconsin): thickly set with prickles; flowers solitary.

“Rosa ARKANSANA, Porter. One to 6 feet: New Mexico to Montana (eastward to
the Upper Mississippi) : usually with closely-set prickles ; flowers ciustered,

Rosa NurkANna, Presl. One to 4 feet: northern Utah to Montana (westward to Ore-
gon and northward): thick stems with strong, straight to curve prickles ;
flowers single, 2 to 3 inches broad.

Rosa FENDLERI, Crepin. Four to 8 feet: New Mexico (western Texas, Sierras, Cal-
ifornia, and northward beyond United States boundary): with delicate
straight or curved prickles; flowers small, single or clustered.

Rosa Woopsu, Lindl. One-fourth to 3 feet: Colorado (to Missouri) and northward
through western Montana (and north of the United States boundary to the
Saskatchewan), plains and valley : with delicate or curved prickles; flowers

; single or clustered, 14 to 2 inches broad.

Rosa GYMNOCARPA, Nutt. Three to 10 feet: northwestern Montana and Idaho (also

on the Pacific coast): prickles straight, delicate ; flowers single or few.

JUNE BERRY. SERVICE BERRY. (Amelanchier alnifolia, Nutt.) Three to 8 feet:

New Mexico to Montana westward to California; eastward to the Missis-
sippi): smooth or woolly; flowers white, in cylindrical clusters; fruit
ten-seeded, purple, edible.

PERAPHYLLUM RAMOSISSIMUM, Nutt. Four to 6 feet: southwestern Colorado (Utah,
California, and Oregon): exceedingly branched; bark gray; flowers sin-
ele or two to three tugether; light rose; fruit glube-like, edible,

SAXIFRAGACEZ: Saxifrage Family.

Mock ORANGE, SYRINGA. Philadelphus microphyllus, Gray. Southern Colorado and
southward: flowers single, or two to three together; white, conspicuous.

JAMESIA AMERICANA, Torr. & Gray. Two to 3 feet: New Mexico, Colorado (and
Utah): spreading, slim-branched shrub ; branchlets hairy, as are the leaves
below, but whitish; flowers in loose clusters.

FENDLERA RUPICOLA, Eng. & Gray. Southern Colorado and southward: erect,
smooth, or hairy; flowers single, or two to three together; white.

WILD GOOSEBERRIES: .

Ribes Leptanthum, Gray. One to 4 feet: Colorado, New Mexico (and in Sierras,
California): branches stiff; thorns single or in threes, large; flowers yel-
low, one or two together; fruit smooth.

Ribes divericatum, Doug]., var. irriguum, Gray. Five to 12 feet : Colorado to Or-
egon: spreading; thorns single or in threes; flowers white, on 2- to 4-flo w-
ered stems; fruit smooth, dark purple, pleasant.

‘
ele Al els ll

: Sew

a 193

WILD GooseBEeRRIES—Continued.

Ribes oxicanthoidis, L. One and one-half to 3 feet: Colorado to Montana (and
north of the United States boundary; eastward through Northern States
to the Atlantic): thorns single or in threes; flowers greenish; fruit pur-
plish, smal], smooth, pleasant; two to three berries on a stem.

Ribes rotundifolium, Michx. Northeastern Rocky Mountain region (and east-
ward to the Atlantic): fruit smooth, 1 to 3 berries on a stem.

Ribes Cynosbati, L. ‘Two to 3 feet: sources of the Platte River, Colorado, Wy-
oming (and eastward through the Northern States): spiny; fruit large,
burr-like, with long prickles; purple, edible.

Ribes lucustre, Poir. Rocky Mountain region (and westward to California ;
eastward through Northern States to Labrador): young stems densely -
prickly ; fruit small, gla ndular-bristly, not pleasant. Variety parvucun,
Gray, is smaller, nearly smooth, and commoner westward than the type.
Swamps.

WILD CURRANTS:

Ribes prostratum, L’Her. Nearly recumbent: Colorado to Montana (and north-
ward; also in Atlantic region): fruit Jight-red, glandular-bristly ; gives off »
disagreeable odor when bruised, hence, ‘‘ Fetid Currant.”

Ribes Hudsonianum, Richards, Wyoming, Montana (and northward to Hudson’s
Bay): much like the preceding, but with white flowers and dark-red smooth
fruit.

Ribes cereum, Doug]. New Mexico to (Washington Territory) Montana (and
Dakota): minutely hairy and often gluey ; flowers (calyx tube) waxy-white ;
fruit smooth, reddish, sweet. Variety pedicellare, Gray, has longer fruit-
stems than the type: in Montana.

Ribes viscosissimum, Pursh. Idaho, Montana (and California): hairy, glandular,
and sticky; fruit smooth, black. ;

Ribes floridum, L. Two to 3 feet: southeastern Colorado (and in the Great Lake
and Atlantic regions): leaves with yellow resin-dots; fruit black, sweet-
ish. ‘‘ Wild Black Currant.”

Ribes sanguineum, Pursh. Two to 12 feet (Colorado and California): some-
times white-woolly and glandular; flowers numerous, drooping, rose-red ;
fruit dark, tough, dry. Variety variegatwm, Watson, small; flower clus-
ters not drooping, white.

Rubes aureum, Pursh. Five to 12 feet: Colorado and northward (westward to
the Pacific coast; common in cultivation eastward): flowers yellow, fra-
grant; fruit blackish. ‘‘ Missouri Currant.” “ Buffalo Currant.”

CORNACEX Dogwood Family.

DwarF CorNEL. Cornus Canadensis, L. Colorado and northward (eastward through
northern United States): stems about half a foot, from a creeping trunk; flow-
ers surrounded by four whitish leaves <involuere); fruit bright red.

RED-OsSIER DOGwoop. Cornus stolonifera, Michx. Two to 6 feet: same distribution
as preceding ; young shoots bright red; white flowers in flat clusters; fruit
white to lead-colored.

CAPRIFOLIACEZ: Honeysuckle Family.

RED-BERRIED ELDER. Sambucus racemosa, L. Three to 10 feet: ‘‘across the conti-
“nent,” inswamps: pith of young shoots brown; fruit red.

SAMBUCUS MELANOCARPA,” Gray. New Mexico to Montana (westward to Oregon
and California): pith of shoots brown ; flowers white; fruit black.

“See arborescent species, No. 56, page 177.

24738—Bull 2——13

194

COMMON ELDER. Sambucus Canadensis, L. Four to 10 feet: southern Rocky Mount-
ain region (and eastward to the Atlantic from Canada to Florida): pith of
shoots pearl-white ; fruit blackish with some bloom.

‘* HiGH-BusH CRANBERRY.” Viburnum pauciflorum, Pylaie. Twotod feet: Colorado
and northward (eastward in northern regions): smooth or hairy; fruit
clustered, globular, red, acid, edible, flat-seeded. In cold situations.

““WoLF-BERRY.” Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Hook. Colorado and Montana (north-
ward and eastward): low, stout; flowers small, white to pinkish, hairy
inside ; fruit white. :

SNOWBERRY. Symphoricarpos racemosus, Michx. ‘‘ Across the continent” (common
generally in cultivation) : slender; flowers smaller and less hairy than in
preceding species; fruit large, white. Variety pauciflorus, Robbins, low,
more spreading, with few flowers: in mountains of Colorado (to Oregon,
Vermont, and northward).

SYMPHORICARPOS OREOPHILUS, Gray. Mountains of Colorado (Utah and Arizona,
to California and Oregon): flowers 4 to 4 inch long, much larger than in
preceding species.

HONEYSUCKLES (Two to three flowers in the axils of the leaves):

Lonicera Utahensis, Watson. Mountains of Montana (Utah, Oregon, and north-
ward): erect; flowers ¢ of an inch long, straw-colored ; berries red.

Lonicera involucrata, Banks. Mountains of Colorado (and California to Alaska;
eastward into Canada): erect, 2 to 10 feet; flowers yellow with sticky
hairs; two blackish or purple berries~often joined.

Lonicera ciliosa, Poir. Mountains of Montana; northward and southward to
Arizona and California: twining ; one or two pairs of the topmost leaves
joined into one piece; flowers yellow to crimson ; berries orange to red.

CoMPOSITZ: Composite family (Sunflowers, Thistles, Ete).

THOROUGHWORT. Eupatorium ageratifolium, D C. Three to 7 feet: southern Colo-
rado to Texas: branches chiefly herbaceous.

GROUNDSEL-TREE. JBaccharis salicina, Torr. and Gray. Three to 12 feet; Colorado
to Texas: sticky, with resinous exudation.

TETRADYMIA CANESCENS, DC. Northern Wyoming to New Mexico (alsoin Arizona,
California, and British Columbia): clothed with a close persistent white
wool; leaves narrow, 1 inch long ; flowers yellow; branches close and upright.
Variety inermis, Gray, has shorter leaves and closer branches ; more com-
mon than the type.—Under 2 feet, as are the following.

TETRADYMIA GLABRATA, Gray. Colorado(and from Utah to California and Oregon ):
clothed with a white loose wool, which is not persistent ; branches spread-
ing; leaves 4 inch long; flowers yellow.

TETRADYMIA NUTTALLII, Torr. and Gray. Wyoming and Utah: white witha persist-
ent wool and armed with stiff spines; branches short and close; flowers
yellow.

TETRADYMIA SPINOSA, Hook. and Arn.. Two to 4 feet: southern Wyoming to Ari-
zona (also in southeastern California and eastern Oregon): branches
spreading widely, densely white-woolly, and with curved or straight spines.

ERICACEX : Heath Family.

BLUE BERRIES:
Vaccinium occidentale, Gray. One foot or more: Uintah Mountains, northeastern
Utah (and iu Sierra Nevadas, California): leaves bluish ; berries small,
blue-black, with bloom,

195

BLUE Berries—Continued.

Vaccinium caespitosum, Michx. Less than } foot: Rocky Mountains from Col-
orado northward (to Alaska, and eastward in Labrador, and the White
Mountains, New Hampshire; growing in tufts: berries rather large, blue
(bloom), sweet. Variety, cuncifolium, Nutt, is 4 to 1 foot: mountains of
Colorado (to California, British Columbia, and Lake Superior).

Vaccinium Myrtillus, L. One foot or less: Colorado, Utah, and northward (to
Alaska): branches angled, green; berries black.—‘‘ Whortleberry,” ‘‘ Bil-
berry.” Variety microphyllum, Hook., 3 to 6 inches, with leaves § to 4 of an
inch long, and berries reddish at first.

“BEARBERRY.” ‘‘KINNIKINNICK.” Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Spreng. New Mexico (to
California, to New Jersey), and northward: creeping; foliage thick, ever-
green; berries red.

WINTERGREEN. Gaultheria Myrsinites, Hook. Colorado and Utah to Montana
(northward and westward): procumbent, tufted; foliage evergreen, with
aromatic flavor; berries scarlet.

BRYANTHUS EMPETRIFORMIS, Gray. One-half a foot or more: western Wyoming,
Montana, (and northward) : leaves crowded, evergreen ; flowers, rose-colored.

Patz Lauren. MWalmia glauca, Ait. One to 2 feet: Colorado and northward in the_

Rocky Mountains (eastward through the northern United States): cold
bogs; branchlets two-edged; leaves evergreen, white beneath, margin rolled;
flowers large, lilac-purple.

LaBprapor Tra. Ledum glandulosum, Nutt. Two to 6 feet: northern Idaho and
western Montana (also in the Pacific region and British America):
leaves 1 to 2 inches long, persistent, with resinous dots below, fragrant
when bruised ; flowers white.

OLEACEZ: Olive Family.*
FORESTIERA NEO-MEXICANA, Gray. Six to 10 feet: southern Colorado to New Mex-
ico (also in Texas): branches warty: leaves 1 inch long; flowers incon-
spicuous; fruit dark, cherry-like.

= . CHENOPODIACEZ: Goosefoot Family.

GREASEWOOD. Sarcobatus vermiculatus, Torr. Twoto 8 feet: southern Wyoming and
southward (also in the Great Basin to the Upper Missouri): spreading,
scraggy ; branches stiff, with white bark; leaves narrow. Most abundant
of the shrubs called ‘‘ Greasewood.”

ELAEAGACEZ: Oleaster Family.

IXLAEAGNUS ARGENTEA, Pursh. Six to 12 feet: Utah to Dakota (and eastward to
~ Canada): young branches with rusty scales ; flowers yellowish inside, fra-
grant; fruit cherry-like, mealy, edible, with an eight-grooved stone.
BUFFALO BERRY. Shepherdia argentea, Nutt. Five to 18 feet: in the mountains from
Mexico to Montana (and: northward to the Saskatchewan River, British
America; westward to the Pacific coast ranges): spiny; leaves silvery;
berries scarlet, almost stemless, acid, edible, with flat shiny seed.
CANADIAN SHEPHERDIA. Shepherdia Canadensis, Nutt. Three to 6 feet: in the moun-
tains from New Mexico to southern Montana (also ranging eastward from
the Columbia River to the Atlantic) : young branches, leaves, and yellow-
ish flowers rusty-scaly ; berries yellowish, red, tasteless.

* See arborescent species, page 177.
7} oO

196

CUPULIFERE: Oak Family.

Dwarr Bircu. Betula glandulosa,* Michx. One to 6 feet: Rocky Mountain region
(and northern—latitude 40°—California to Washington Territory; east-
ward through the Northern States to the Atlantic, and north of the United
States boundary): peculiar for its small, rounded leaves, and resinous, gland-
ular spots on the young branches. -

BEAKED HAZEL-NUYT. Corylus rostrata, Ait. Two to 5 feet: Colorado to Montana
(westward to Washington Territory, northward and eastward to the Alle-
ghenies): hard-shelled nut inclosed by a leafy cup, which terminates in a
beak.

SALICINEE: Willow Family.t

WILLOWS :

Salix cordata, Muhl.; var. Mackenziana, Hook. ; var. vestita, Anders. ‘‘ Diamond
Willow.” Ranging through the northern part of the United States from
the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward to the Arctic coast.

Salix Nove-Angliv, Anders. ; var. pseudomyrsinites, one to 3 feet; var. pseudo-
cordata, Anders., not tall: mountains of Colorado and Montana (northward
to the Saskatchewan and Mackenzie Rivers). i

Salixzirrorata, Anders. Six to8 feet: central Colorado (mountains near Golden,
Manitou, and Empire City): leaves 3 to 4 inches long, 4 inch or less wide ;
year-old twigs white with bloom.

Salix monticola, Bebb. Eight to 12 feet: central Colorado (Golden, Georgetown,
Empire City), marshy situations in the mountains: very dense shrub ; leaves
3 to 6 inches long, 1 to nearly 2 inches wide.

Salix rostrata, Richards. Northern Idaho and Montana (to Vancouver Island,
northward to the Saskatchewan, eastward to New England): with some-
what the habit of low bushy tree.

Salix chlorophylla, Anders. One and one-half to 6 feet: Rocky Mountains (and
northward to the Saskatchewan ; also in the Wahsatch Mountains, central
Utah, and in the Cascade Mountains, Oregon, and Washington Territory),
at an altitude of 11,000 feet: straggling, year-old twigs shiny chestnut.
‘‘Green Willow.”

Salix candida, Willd. Rare; 2 to 5 feet: bogs and foot-hills of the Rocky
Mountains ; noted near Cutbank Creek, Montana, and in Colorado: young
shoots with white wool; older twigs shiny red; leaves 2 to 4 inches long,
4 to 3 inch wide.

Salix glauca, L., var. villosa, Anders. Three to7 feet: low meadow and foot-
hills of the Rocky Mountains: a spreading shrub, with leaves 2 to 4 inches

long and entire margin.

Salix desertorum, Richards. One to 2 feet; leaves 1 inch long and less than
1 inch wide, white-woolly beneath, with a prominent yellow midrib (in

variety MWolfiii the leaves finally become smooth, and are nearly the same
color on both sides): a scraggy shrub, forming clumps on mountain slopes
of the Rockies considerably above the timber line.

Salic arctica, R. Br.: var. petr@a, Anders. Colorado, (California, and far north-
ward): creeping, the half-buried branches sending up twigs 2 to 3 inches
long.

Salix vestita, Pursh. Old Marias Pass, northern Montana, at altitudes of 6,000
to 8,000 feet (also in Canada and Labrador): procumbent, sending up
branches 2 to 3 feet high, and forming massy growths in rocky places some-
times 10 feet in diameter.

*See arborescent species, Nos. 73, 74, pages 183, 184,
+ See arborescent species, Nos. 78 to 81, page 185,

197

WitLows—Continued. |
Salix reticulata, L. In the Rocky Mountains (and northward to the Arctic

coast): a dwarfed species with twisted and buried stems, the leaves rising
only a few inches above the ground.

CONIFERZ: Pine Family.

COMMON JUNIPER. Juniperus communis,* L. Four to 10 feet (or with care and

cultivation occasionally becoming arborescent): in the Rocky Mountains
from New Mexico to Montana (eastward through the Northern States and
northward throughout British America; native also in Europe). With
somewhat erect and spreading branches; leaves in threes, } to ¢ of an inch
long, narrow, needle-pointed, whitish and concave above: berries } of
an.inch in diameter, densely white with bloom. Bark of branches with
ridged scales. Variety Alpina, Linn., differs from the type in being quite
or nearly prostrate, forming mat-like growths with its widely extended
branches ; leaves } to 2 of an inch long, broader, curved, and less spreading :
chiefly northern in the Rocky Mountains and eastern United States. Con-
siderably used as an ornamental shrub.

CREEPING JUNIPER. Juniperus Sabina, L., var. procumbens, Pursh. Abundant in

the mountains from Colorado to Montana (westward to the Pacific coast
eastward through the Northern States to the Atlantic, and north of the
United States boundary): a prostrate shrub of considerable importance in
the forest economy of the region, as by its abundance it retains the snow,
and thus preserves a much-needed supply of water in mountain streams.
Foliage dense ; prostrate branches taking root; often scaly with persistent
dead leaves; berries 4+ to 4 of an inch in diameter.

* See arborescent Junipers, Nos. 24, 25, 26, page 166.

THE FORESTS OF LOS ANGELES, SAN DIEGO, AND
SAN BERNARDINO COUNTIES, CALIFORNIA’

By ABBOT KINNEY, California.

The term ‘ forest,” as it is understood in the older States, is appli-
enble in only a limited extent to the natural tree and brush growths of
southern California.

Upon the mountain heights alone would the Eastern man feel himself
to be in a furest. No account of the forests of southern California
would, however, be complete without a description of all the natural
tree and brush growths found here.

As has been said, there are no forests, properly speaking, in the
valleys or on the plains. The growths in these portions of the country
consist of the following: On the plains, near the sea, and near rivers or
damp swampy places, Willows grow inrank dense groves, and furnish
a large amount of fire-wood. The Sycamore strays down the canyons
and water-courses to within sound of the ocean breakers. It is only
used for fire-wood. :

In the valleys large groves of Oak occur; these trees are from 20 to
40 feet apart, and are often magnificent old monarchs, most picturesque
and attractive. Quercus lobata, or the White Live-Oak, forms the larger
part of the groves, but the Red Oaks, Quercus chrysolepis, and Quer-
cus agrifolia, with their dark-green, glistening, holly-like leaves, are
the most attractive. These are scattered through the groves and can-
yons. The oak groves resemble the plantations of the most beautiful

!'This short report by Mr. Abbot Kinney, now chairman of the California State
Board of Forestry, was prepared for this Division in the spring of 1886, in the hope
that by aiding such work the then incipient forestry interests of California might be
fostered. It has been printed in the report of the California Board of Forestry, and
is here produced because it serves to show how even the preservation and protection
of natural brush lands may become a subject of solicitude on the part of States and
communities. The report was accompanied by an incomplete paper on the trees and _
shrubs of San Diego County, for which has been substituted a complete list, prepared

by Mr. Sudworth, of the Forestry Division.—B. E. F, — <3

198

’

199

English parks. The magnificent trees spread a generous shade over the
fields of wild flowers and grasses. Grain is often planted under the oaks
and matares well, only a little later than that in the open plains.

It is a great regret to every lover of nature to see such characteristic
beauty, so difficult to recreate, rapidly disappearing. The broader
canyons, when there is enough good soil, are enchanting.

As we leave the sea, the water-courses, or more properly flood-courses,
of the country are covered by Cottonwood trees (Populus Fremontii
and Populus trichocarpa). ‘These, like the Oaks, frequently form beau-
tiful parks on the damp lands where they grow. One of the hand.
somest of these groves is at San Jacinto, in San Diego County.

In the great Colorado Desert and on its edges are found several use-
ful stunted trees that form in favorable locations considerable planta-
tions. These are the Iron-Wood, Mesquite, the Screw-Bean, and the
Pinon Pines. The last three bear edible fruit, which is collected by and
forms the main support of the desert Indians.

In the Mojave Desert a tree cactus grows which is being made into
paper, on a large scale, by an English company. This is the Yucca
brevifolia. It grows about 20 to 39 feet high, and forms the same
erove-like plantations so frequent in this dry country. In the mount-
ain canyons opening on the desert side grow the striking California
Palms, Washingtonia filifera.

The edible Oak acorns, the nut of the California Walnut, and the
fruit of the desert trees spoken of form important possible sources of
food.

Speaking generally, it must be borne in mind that the plains and
deserts of southern California are devoid of trees, and when trees do
occur they never form forests.

In the lower mountain canyons, wherever there is water, the growths
are dense. The principal trees are the Willow, Alder, Maple, and
Mountain Live Oak (Quercus oblongifolia). These are mixed with trees
coming up from the valleys on the one side, principally Oaks, and
down from the mountain heights on the other, principally Spruce
(Abies Douglasii). The whole is inextricably tangled up with dense
chaparral and charmingly ornamented with large fern-brake.

The deciduous trees of the country are almost exclusively confined
to the canyons or the damp land below them, or to the courses of the
waters. The Quercus oblongifolia is the only one of our Oaks valuable
for timber.

On the mountains the real forest is found. Considerable quantities of
valuable timber exist on the Sierra Madre, San Bernardino, San Jaciiito,
and Cayamaca Mountains. The Sierra Madre range bas been too steep
and inaccessible as yet to be exploited; but on San Bernardino ani
San Jacinto large saw-mills are continually at work, supplying the col-
onies below in the valleys with lumber, but farnishiog none for export.

200
The principal timber cut is Pine. Spruce and Cedar are also cut and

sold; the latter largely split for posts. The most important trees in
the mountains are:

Pinus Lambertiana, Sugar Pine.
Pinus ponderosa, Pitch Pine.

Pinus Coulteri, Nut Pine.

Pinus Sabiniana, Digger Pine.
Pinus Jeffreyi, Yeilow or Bull Pine.
Pseudotsuga Douglasu, Spruce.
Juniperus Californica, Juniper.
Inbocedrus decurrens, White Cedar.
Abies concolor, Silver Fir. |
Quercus chrysolepis, Red Live Oak.
Quercus Kelloggit, White Oak.

The timber is said by the lumbermen to be softer and less valuable
than that farther north. The low foot-hills near the coast are generally
devoid of trees or shrubs. Those on the desert are absolutely bare.
With these exceptions, all the foot-hills and mountains not covered with

trees are more or less thickened with evergreen bushes, called, collect- .

ively, chaparral. These grow from 3 to 15 feet in height and are fre-
quently almost impenetrable. This chaparral is composed principally
of Scrub Oaks, Manzanita, Wild Lilac, Grease-wood, and Sumac. On
the lower foot-hills this brush is cut and grubbed up for fire-wood. In
the mountains and canyons it furnishes food for the bees, and, most im-
portant of all, it acts as a reservoir, in allowing the rains of the wet
season time to seep into the soil and rock veins, to appear again in the
dry season as springs in the low country. This brush, together with
the trees, also protects the country from the formation of destructive
torrents and floods, and modifies the desert winds, which are already
somewhat detrimental, at times, to vegetation.

These brush lands almost all belong to the Government, and, being of
little direct value, will probably long remain its property. Every year
disastrous fires sweep off great areas of this mountain covering. The
Government sets no watch and takes no heed of its property, and the
fires run into and destroy the timber as well asthe brush. FEvery year,
as a consequence, water-rights are decreased in value, through the
springs diminishing in summer, and torrents tun more violently and
bring down more sand and stones to scatter on the farms. The floods
each wet year are more destructive than before. Lately, floods have
swept away twenty-two houses in Los Angeles, and interrupted travel
for weeks on the Southern Pacific Railroad, in the Soledad Canyon, and
for months on the California Southern road, in the Temecula Canyon.
On each of these water-sheds extensive destruction of trees and brush
had taken place in the Soledad by deliberately set and deliberately re-
peated fires. :

It is very important that steps should be taken to preserve these

201

mountain coverings, so as to maintain the tax-paying power of the com-
munity, which can not exist here if the springs become dry.

For the forest maps of these counties, comprising an empire of land,

I am indebted, for Los Angeles, to Mr. George H. Jackson, and, for oan
Diego, to Mr. T. EK. Vandyke and Mr. M. G. Wheeler.

Cupressus macrocarpa and Guadalupensis are not found in T68 An-
geles County, to my knowledge, in a state of nature. Some of the
Sumaes, as the one with edible berries, do not extend to us.

The Pinus Torreyana is confined to one little nook of San Diego
County. On the other hand, the Yucca brevifolia, or tree cactus, seems
not to be known in San Diego County, and the beautiful, fragrant, Bay-
tree does not extend south of the Los Angeles canyons.

In the second Sierra Madre range of Los Angeles County there are
about two hundred Redwood trees, Sequoia sempervirens—a fact not
generally known, owing, doubtless, to the inaccessible character of the
mountains where they are.

In this connection it is proper to call attention to the considerable
number of trees and shrubs perpetuated in California that have long
become extinct elsewhere. One may well think it probable that the
mild and equable climate where this has happened may be as favorable .
to man as it has been to vegetable growth.

The necessity of the hour is the intelligent supervision of the forests
and brush lands of California, with a view to their preservation. The
cutting and use of the forests should be so reasonably regulated as to
insure their reproductive power, and, above all, maintain the forest influ-
ence on the climate and secure to the farmer the perennial character of
the springs and streams necessary in the dry season for irrigation; also
to protect the low lands against floods and torrents that occur here
whenever the mountains are denuded.

TREES AND SHRUBS OF SAN DIEGO COUNTY, CAL-
[FORNTA.

(Shrubs not woody throughout have been excluded. )

ANACARDIACEZ: Cashew Family. :
Rhus diversiloba, Torr. & Gray. ‘ Poison Oak”: climbing.
Rhus aromatica, Ait., var. trilobata, Gray. Two to 5 feet.
Rhus integrifolia, Benth. & Hook. Five to 10 feet; evergreen.
Rhus laurina, Nutt. Large shrub, with evergreen foliage.
BATIDEA : ane
Batis maritima, Linn. Seaside shrub 3 to 4 feet, generally prostrate.
BERBERIDACEZ: Barberries.
Berberis repens, Lindl. Less than 1 foot high.
Berberis pinnata, Lag. Two to 6 fect high.
BIGNONIACEZ: Bignonia family.
Chilopsis salignat Don. Shrub or small tree 10 to 20 feet high.
BUXACEE :
Simmondsia Californica, Nutt. Low Shrub.
CAPPARIDACEZ: Caper family.
Isomeria arborea, Nutt. Three to 5 feet high.
CAPRIFOLIACEZ: Honeysuckle family.
Sambucus glauca? Nutt. Elder. Shrub, or small tree.
Symphoricarpos racemosus, Michx., Snowberry. Two to 4 feet.
Lonicera hispidula, Dougl., Honeysuckle. More or less twining.
Lonicera involucrata, Banks. Two to 10 feet high.
CHENOPODIACEZ: Goosefoot family.
Sarcobatus vermiculatus, Torr. Two to 8 feet high; commonest of the ‘ Grease-
woods,” and very probably occurs in this range.
Compositaz: Composite Family.
Baccharis pilularis, DC. Two to 4 feet high.
Tctradymia spinosa, Hook. & Arn. Two to 4 feet high.
Tetradymia canescens, DC. One to 2 feet high.
ConIFERaz: Pine Family.’
Juniperus Californica, Carr. A shrub or small tree, sometimes 20 to 30 feet.
Thuya gigantea, Nutt. Canoe Cedar. A very large tree (100 to 250 feet high)
said to occur in this range. :
Libocedrus decurrens, Torr. One hundred to 150 feet high.
Pseudotsuga Douglassii, Carr., var. macrocarpa. <A rather large tree 40 to 50 feet
or more in height, probably occurring in this range.

Oe! ee ee a

: ms es Peree

1See No. 61, page 179.
2 Seo No. 56, page 177.
3 See Coniferw in Rocky Mountain Flora, page 159,

203 :

ConIvERz: Pine family—Continued.
Pinus Lambertiana, Dougl. ‘Sugar Pine.” <A very large tree, sometimes 150
to 300 feet. .
Pinus monophylla, Torr. & Frem. Twenty to 25 feet high, probably to be found
in this range.
Pinus Parryana, Engelm. Twenty to 30 feet high; probably occurs in this
range.
Pinus Torreyana, Parry. Twenty to 30 feet high.
Pinus ponderosa, Dougl. ‘‘Yellow Pine.” One of the largest pines, sometimes
150 to 300 feet high.
Pinus Jeffreyt, Murray. ‘‘Bull Pine.” One hundred feet high.
Pinus Sabiniana, Dougl. ‘Nut Pine,” “‘ Digger Pine.” Sixty to 100 feet heel
Pinus Coulteri, Don. Sixty to 100 fet or more in height.
CoORNACEZ: Dogwood Family.
Cornus Californica, C. A. Meyer. Six to 15 feet.
Cornus pubescens, Nutt. Your to 10 feet.
Garrya flavescens, Watson, var. Palmeri, Watson. Four to 8 feet; foliage ever-
green.
CUPULIFERZ: Oak Family.
Quercus lobata, Née. Large tree, often 100 feet high.
Quercus undulata, Torr., var. pungens, Engelm. A shrub under 8 feet.
Quercus dumosa, Nutt. A slender shrub or small tree 20 feet high.
Quercus oblongifolia, Torr.! Twenty to 30 feet high.
Quercus chrysolepis, Liebm. ‘‘ California Live Oak.” At high elevations a
shrub, but elsewhere generally a large tree.
Quercus Palmeri, Engelm. <A shrnb 8 to 10 feet high.
Quercus agrifolia, Née. ‘‘Encino.” A largetree. Variety frutescens isa shrub
under 5 feet.
Quercus Wislizent, A. DC. ‘Desert Oak.” Sometimes a shrub, but chiefly a
large tree. Variety frutescens is a shrub 3 to 10 feet high.
Quercus Kelloggiit, Newberry. Shrub or middle-sized tree.
Castanopsis chrysophylla, A.D C. Western Chinqnapin. A smallshrub or large
tree; found only sparingly.
Alnus rhombifolia, Nutt. A rather large tree known as ‘‘ White Alder,” “ Cali-
fornia Alder.”
Alnus oblongifolia, Torr. A small tree 20 to 30 feet high.
ERICACEZ: Heath Family.
Arctostaphylos pungens, H BK. Manzanita. Procumbent or rising 8 to 10 feet
high.
Arctostaphylos glauca, Lindl. Great-berried Manzanita. Eight to 20 feet, and
otten 1 foot in diameter at the base.
Arctostaphylos bicolor, Gray. Manzanita. Three to 4 feet high.
Aretostaphylos polifolia, H BK. Five to 8 feet high.
&hododendron occidentale, Gray. Azalea. Two to 6 feet high.
EUPHORBIACEZ : Spurge family.
Acalypha Californica, Benth. Shrub.
Euphorbia misera, Benth. Two to 3 feet high.
IlyDROPHYLLACEZ: Water-leaf family.
Kriodictyon tomentosum, Benth. Six to 10 feet.
Hriodictyon glutinosum, Benth. Three to 5 feet.
JUGLANDACEZ : Walnut family.
Juglans Californica, Watson. California Walnut. A shrub or tree sometimes
60 feet high; occurs only sparingly in this range ; cultivated.

1 See No. 69, Rocky Mountain Flora, page 182.

204

LAURACE: Laurel family.
Umbellularia Californica, Nutt. ‘‘ Mountain Laurel,” ‘‘Spice Tree.” Shrub or
tree 10 to 70 feet.
LEGUMINOSZ: Pulse family.
Pickeringia montana, Nutt. Four to7 feet high.
Amorpha Californica, Nutt. Three to 8 feet.
Olneya Tesota, Gray. ‘‘Iron-Wood.” Small tree, 15 to 20 feet high.
Cercis occidentalis, Torr. Red-Bud, Judas tree. Small tree, 10 to 15 feet high.
Parkinsonia aculeata, Linn. <A small tree.
Parkinsonia microphylla, Torr. Shrub 5 to 10 feet high.
ParkinsoniaTorreyana, Watson. ‘‘ Palo Verde.” A tree 20 to 30 feet high.
Prosopis juliflora,| DC. ‘* Honey Mesquit.” A tree 30 to 40 feet high.
Prosopis pubescens, Benth. ‘‘Screw-Pod Mesquit.” A tree 15 to 30 feet high.
Acacia Greggi,! Gray. Cat’s Claw. Small tree, 10 to 20 feet high.
LILIACEZ: Lily family.

Yucca baccata,? Torr. ‘‘ Spanish Bayonet.” Mexican Banana. Sometimes 20
feet high.
OLEACEZ: Olive family.
Fraxinus dipetala, Hook and Arn. Small tree. af

PAPAVERACEZ: Poppy family.
Dendromicon rigidum, Benth. Two to 8 feet high.
PLATANACEZ : Plane-tree family.
Platanus racemosa, Nutt. ‘‘ Buttonwood.” Sycamore. Large tree, often 100
feet high.
POLYGALACEZ: Milkwort family.
Krameria parvifolia, Benth. One to 2 feet high.
Krameria canescens, Gray. One to 2 feet high.
RIMAMANCEZ: Buckthorn family.
Zizyphus Parryi, Torr. Four to 15 feet high.
Karwinskia Humboldtiana, Zucc. Two to 6 feet.
Rhamnus crocea, Nutt. ‘Three to 15 feet high.
Rhamnus Californica, Esch. Fourto 18 feet high ; var. tomentella more southern
than the type.
Adolphia Californica, Watson. Two feet high.
Ceanothus sorediatus, Hook and Arn.
Ceanothus divaricatus, Nutt.
Ceanothus integerrimus, Hook. and Arn. Two to 3 feet high.
Ceanothus crassifolius, Torr. Four to 12 feet high.
Ceanothus cuneatus, Nutt. Three to 12 feet high.
ROSACEZ: Rose family.
. Prunus demissa,? Walpers. Wild Cherry. Shrub or small tree.
Prunus ilicifolia, Walpers. ‘“‘Islay.” Ashrub 8 to 12 feet high with evergreen
foliage.
Prunus fasciculata, Gray. Two to3 feet high.
Chamebatia foliolosa, Benth. One to 2 feet high.
Purshia tridenta,t D C. Two to 8 feet high.

Cercocarpus parvifolius,> Nutt. Mountain Mahogany. Two to 10 feet high.
Andenostoma fasciculatum, Hook.and Arn. ‘‘Greasewood.” Two to 10 feet high,
shrub-like ; evergreen foliage.

1 See Nos. 39, 40,41 Rocky Mountain flora, pages 171, 172.

°See No. 88 Rocky Mountain flora, page 189.

3 See No. 47 Rocky Mountain flora, page 174.

4See Purshia, list of shrubs in Rocky Mountain region, page 192,
5 See Nos, 51 Rocky Mountain flora page 175,

205

Rosacea: Rose family—Continued.
Andenostoma sparsifolium, 'Torr. ‘‘ Deer-brush.” A shrub 6 to 10 feet, or small
tree; evergreen.
Rosa Californica, Cham. and Schlecht. Two to 8 feet high.
Rosa gymnocarpa, Nutt. One to4 feet high.
Heteromeles arbutifolia, Roemer. ‘Tyon,” ‘Tollon.” Four to 15 feet high.
Amelanchier alnifolia,! Nutt. Three to 8 feet.
RuBIacEZ: Madder family.
Cephalanthus occidentalis, Linu. ‘Three to 10 feet or more; sometimes a small
tree.
RutTacEZ: Rue family.
Pielea angustifolia,? Renth. Hop-tree. Five to 25 feet high.
Thamnosma montanum, Torr. One to 2 feet high.
Cneoridium dumosum, Hook. f. ‘Two to 4 feet high.
SALICINEZ: Willow family.*
Salix levigata, Bebb. <A tree 15 to 20 feet high. Two varieties are distin-
guished from the type; var. angustifolia and var. congesta.
Salix longifolia, Muhl. Three to 15 feet high. Two varieties are known; ar-
gyrophylla, Anders., and exigua, Bebb.
Salix taxifolia,,H BK. Five to 6 feet high; very probably occurs in this
range.
Salix lasiolepis, Benth. Under favorable conditions a tree 40 to 60 feet high.
Two varieties; Bigelovii, Bebb ; falax, Bebb.
Populus trichocarpa, Torr. and Gray. Thirty to 50 feet high. One variety, cupu-
lata, Watson.
- Populus Fremontii, Watson, var. Wislizenit, Watson. A large tree.
SAPINDACEZ: Soapberry family.
Aisculus Parryi, Gray. Buckeye. A shrub occurring farther south, but possibly
to be met with in this range.
Acer macrophyllum, Pursh. Broad-leaved Maple. Tree 50 to 90 feet high.
SAXIFRAGACACEZ: Saxifrage family.
Ribes speciosum, Pursh. Gooseberry. Six to 10 feet; stout.
Ribes Menziesii, Pursh. Gooseberry. Two to 6 feet.
Ribes sanguineum, Pursh. Currant. ‘Two to 12 feet.
Ribes aureum, Parsh. ‘‘ Missouri Currant.” Five to 12 feet high; cultivated
largely as an ornamental shrub.
SOLANACEZ: Nightshade family.
Lycium Californioum, Nutt. Two to 4 feet; spiny.
Lycium Torreyi, Gray. Three to 8 feet.
STERCULIACE.
Fremontia Californica, Torr. Ten to 20 feet high.
TAMARISCINEZ: Tamarisk family.
Fouquiera splendens, Hngelm. Candlewood. Often 10 to 20 feet high.
VITACEZ: Grape Vines.
Vitis Californica, Benth.
ZYGOPHYLLACEZ:
Larrea Mexicana,* Moric. ‘‘ Creosote-bush.” Four to 10 feet high.

1See Amelanchier, list of shrubs in Rocky Mountain region, page 192.
2 See No. 28 Rocky Mountain flora, page 168.

3 See this family in Rocky Mountain flora, page 185.

4See Larrea, list of shrubs in Rocky Mountain region, page 190,

THE NEEDS OF THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK.

U. 8S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,
Washington, December 27, 1887.

Sir: During your visit to the Yellowstone Park last summer you ex-
pressed so warmly your keen appreciation of the region as a forest res-
ervation that I desire to call your attention to some of the more salient
features of the country, and to point out what I consider the important
reasons for not only maintaining the national park, but for enlarging its
boundaries. In the arid and sparsely timbered regions of the eastern
ranges of the Rocky Mountains few areas equal and none surpass the
Yellowstone Park in its advantages to the nation as a forest reservation.
While much may rightly be said in favor of the maintenance of the park,
based upon sentimental grounds, the necessity of protecting the scien:
tific curiosities, the advantages of the place as a.game-preserve, and the
benefits to be derived from it as a health resort, the object of first im-
portance is the preservation of its timber. The park is a natural res-
ervoir, adapted by geographical position to receive a copious snow and

rain-fall, and by its topographical structure to store up the waters which
it receives.

In its broader physical features the Yellowstone Park is an elevated
volcanic plateau shut in on the south, east, north, and northwest by
mountains rising from 2,009 to 4,000 feet above the general level of the
jnclosed table-land. It preemie a broken, roughly undulating surface,
varying from 7,900 to 8,500 feet above sea-level, with an average ele-
vation of about 8,006 feet.

The Gailatin Beene. with Electric Peak a Satara point, shuts in
the park on the west and north. To the northeast the Snowy Range,
deriving its name from the white-capped summits, towers high above the
plateau. Along the eastern side of the park for more than 80 miles
stretches the Absaroka Range, which rises asa bold, unbroken barrier
above the table-land, many of the mountain tops reaching elevations
varying from 10,000 to 11,500 feet above sea-level. Tothe southward
the plateau is rimmed in by the Grand Tetons and Wind River Range.
All these surrounding mountains, covered with snow the greater part
of the year, are constantly pouring immense volumes of water into the
plateau region. The continental water-shed enters the park near its
southeast corner, crosses the summit of Two Ocean Plateau, and with

206

: Be a7

an irregular, winding course follows along the top of the volcanic lava.
flow in a general northwesterly direction, leaving the park nearly west
of the Upper Geyser Basin.

Five main channels carry off the waters from the park to the valleys
below. On the eastern side of the great water-shed the Yellowstone,
Madison, and Gallatin contribute their waters to the Missouri, while
the Suake and Falls Rivers on the opposite side add their share to the
Columbia. The Yellowstone River, already a magnificent stream be-
fore it leaves the mountains, drains more than one-half the area of the
park, including the entire eastern border, together with the eastern
side of the Gallatin Range, which, through the Gardiner River, pours its
waters into the Yellowstone. The streams upon the western slope of
the Gallatin Range empty into the Missouri by the Gallatin River.
-Both the Gibbon and the Firehole find their sources among springs on
the plateau, and after draining the principal geyser basins unite to form
the Madison. Falls River, a picturesque stream, collects the large
drainage from the Pitehstone Plateau and the southern end of the Madi-
son Plateau, and leaves the park at the extreme southwest corner.
Snake River, however, drains the greater part of the country on the
west side of the water-shed, collecting immense bodies of water com-
ing from the northern ends of the Teton and Wind River Ranges and
the southern slopes of the volcanic plateau. Taken together, these
accumulated waters make the Snake a broad river before it leaves the
mountains.

On the plateau, upon both sides of the water-shed, occur several
large bodies of water, Yellowstone, Shoshone, Lewis, and Heart Lakes
being especially noteworthy,for their size and beauty. Scattered over
the country, both on the plateau and in the surrounding mountains,
are numerous smaller lakes and ponds, occupying for the most part
shallow basins of glacial origin. The view from the summits of either
Mount Sheridan or Mount Hancock presents a grand and picturesque
scenery of diversified forms, and a country so dotted over with lakes
as to receive the appellation of the lake region of the Park. Thou-
sands of hot springs add their waters to the cold water of the surface.
Meadows, marshes, and swampy areas characterize the entire area in
strong contrast with most Rocky Mountain scenery. These lakes are
the reservoirs of the larger streams. The Yellowstone is the largest
lake in North America at so high an elevation (7,741 feet). It has a
surface area of 12i square miles, and an indented shore-line of nearly
100 miles. Only preliminary soundings have as yet been made, but over
a very considerable area the depth is known to be more than 250 feet.
Less than 6 miles from the Yellowstone, in a deep depression on the
plateau, Les Shoshone Lake, with an area of nearly 12 square miles.
A short distance to the southward, at the west base of Mount Sheridan,
occurs Lewis lake, measuring 44 square miles, and on the opposite side

208 ©

of the mountain lies Heart Lake, with a surface area of 3 square miles.
All three of these Jakes are important feeders of Snake River.

The greater part of the Park plateau and the adjacent mountains,
more especially the western slope of the Absaroka Range, are densely
covered with timber. After a careful study of the forests, I think it
may be safely said that $4 per cent. of the area of the country is forest-
clad. The broad bottoms of the main river valleys, the steeper mount-
ain slopes, the meadows, marshes, and geyser basins, and the tops of
ridges above timber-line, comprise the timberless areas. Frequently
the broad summits of the higher elevated ridges present more or less
barren areas due to the almost incessant exposure to high winds, but
over the greater part of the country timber line ranges from 9,600 to
9,800 feet above sea level. Over the Park plateau the timber offers a

somewhat monotonous aspect, with little variety of species. Fully’

two-thirds of the forest trees belong to one species, the Black Pine
(Pinus Murrayana), a straight, slender tree which rarely attains a height
exceeding 75 feet. Frequently it occurs only a few inches in diameter,!
when it is generally known as “ Lodge pole” Pine. Next to the Black
Pine comes the Balsam (Abzes subalpina), which also covers considerable
areas, most frequently on steep slopes and generally on moist ground,
Associated with this last species is found the Spruce (Picea Engelmanni),
more abundant, however, on the slopes of the Absaroka Range than
over the plateau. The grandest tree of the region is the Douglas,
or Red Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasvi), which occurs seattered over the
Park, more especially in the neighborhood of Mount Washburn and
Specimen Ridge. The only other species common enough in any way
to characterize the forest, or to call for special mention, are the Pinus
flevilis, and its associated variety, Pinus albicaulis, the latter widely
distributed in the southern end of the Park at high altitudes, where it
occurs as a common tree on the slopes of Mount Sheridan and Mount
Hancock. According to Mr. Frank Tweedy, only five genera and eight
species of conifers are known to occur within the present Park limits,
the additional species being the Juniperus communis and J. Virginiana,
both found over very limited areas. The arborescent growth in no way
equals the grand forests of California, Oregon, and Washington Terri-
tory, either in size and development of the trees or in the quality of
the wood. It is in general stunted in growth, and furnishes but a poor
quality of timber in comparison with the magnificent forests found to the
westward. Its importance to the nation does not consist in its market-
able value, but rather in its power to store up the water and to regulate
the flow of streams. For this purpose it is of incalculable value, and
quite as serviceable in its way as the timber of the western Cordilleras.

The life of the forest is of short duration. The scanty, gravelly soil
affords at best but slight protection to the roots against the force of
the winds blowing almost incessantly from the west, as is only too well

1 Owing to its dense growth.—B. E. F.

— ae a ee . ~

= AG ie 1) 2)

209

shown in the extensive acreage of fallen timber. On the other hand, I

know of no region throughout the Rocky Mountains where the condi-
tions seem so favorable for a young growth. During the five years that
I have carefully observed the forests nothing has so impressed me as
the rapid, healthy development of the young trees which in afew years
replace the down timber. {n most instances the young growth be-
longs to Pinus Murrayana, and in every case it is the first tree to spring

up over a burnt district.

I need not enter here into a lengthy discussion of the januenee of
the forest upon the supply of water. I simply desire to call your at-
tention to the special advantages of the Yellowstone Park forest for
maintaining a water supply of a country singularly well situated to
gather and distribute a large annual precipitation of moisture. This
uplifted mountain mass measures 90 miles in length by 60 in breadth.
From the southwest the moisture-laden winds blowing across the Mad-
ison plateau precipitate immense quantities of snow and rain over the
cold, wet table-land. Storms gather over the mountains at all times of
the year. The annual precipitation is excessive as compared with the
adjacent regions of the Rocky Mountains. Rains are of common oc-
currence between May and September, while during eight months of
the year nearly all precipitation falls as snow, which lies upon the
ground well into midsummer, and on the northern slopes, at higher
altitudes, remains throughout the year. Irosts occur nearly every
week during the summer, and observations in July and August for sev-
eral seasons, at various stations over the plateau, show that the mini-
mum thermometer registers below 40° every night.

The forests exert a powerful influence in sheltering the snow fields,
marshes, and meadows from the direct rays of the sun and the dry
moisture-absorbing winds blowing from the west. Strip the plateau and
mountains of timber, and early freshets would soon lay waste the lower
country in spring and leave it arid and parched throughout the summer
and autumn. Not only would streams diminish, but the loose gravelly
soil which now everywhere covers the Park would rapidly be washed
away, laying bare the underlying rocks. Thesou, with the accompanying
roots and grasses, playing the part of a sponge, exert a powerful influence
in maintaining the water supply. They serve to keep the ground cool

and moist and allow the water to percolate slowly from the surface to in-

numerable springs below and thence to the reservoirs of the great rivers.
With a view of determining with some degree of accuracy the volume

_of water flowing from the-Park, the largest lakes and streams were care-

fully gauged. The measurements were made in early September, 1886,

not only the dryest period of the summer but the dryest season known

at any time within the previous five years. Evidence was ample to
show that Yellowstone Lake had fallen 20 inches below high-water mark
of early July. Measurements were made of the discharge from the lake
at a point on the river a one-quarter of a » mile below the outlet.

24738—Bull 2

210

The results obtained gave a minimum outflow of 1,525 cubic feet per
second, or, expressed in other words, of 34,000,000 imperial gailons per
hour. Shoshone, Lewis, and Heart Lakes poured into Snake River 104

cubic feet per second. With few exceptions all the principal rivers
leaving the Park were gauged and the discharge from the others care-
fully estimated, taking as a basis the number of square miles contained
in the drainage basin and the flow of the streams. The results give
what may be considered as approximately the minimum discharge from
the Park—a volume of water equal to 1 eubic foot per second per square
mile over an area somewhat more than 4,000 square miles; or as Dr.
Hallock, ofthe U.S. Geological Survey, who STaCRigetiis gauging of the
streams, has stated it, ‘an amount of water which vould make a river
‘5 feet deep and 190 feet wide, with a current of 3 miles per hour.” For
a region bordering on the arid plains to the eastward this is certainly
an excessive amount.

According to Humphreys and Abbott, the mean annual discharge
from the Mississippi River at its mouth amounts to 675,000 cubic feet
per second from a drainage basin of 1,147,000 square miles. This gives
od cubie feet per second per square ile. or a trifle more than one-half
the minimum estimate for the Yellowstone Park country. Surely is it
not one of the treasures of the nation, to be carefully guarded in every
possible way ?

If the broad valley of the Lower Yellowstone from Glendive to Liv-
ingston is ever to be hee by an agricultural population, they will
at no distant day need all the water flowing from the sources of the
river for purposes of irrigation. In the Gallatin Valley, the finest
wheat region in Montana, the hard-working farmers are already quar-
relling over the distribution of the water running into their inadequately
supplied irrigating ditches, while the equally industrious wood-chopper
is busily cutting away the timber from the headwaters of the streams
in the mountains.

In another way this broad forest-proteeted reservoir is singularly
well situated to be of incalculable service to the nation. Throughout
the summer the prevailing dry winds from the west In their passage
across this moist mountainous region absorb immense quantities of water
ready under favorable conditions to be again precipitated over the
agricultural and grazing lands to the eastward. In camping near tim-
ber line for weeks ata time, I have never failed to be impressed with the
absorbing powers of these winds, the effect of which may be seen upon
the snow fields any hot summer day. The melting of the snow and the
running down of the water frequently appears inconsiderable as com-
pared with the absorbing power of the hot, thirsty winds. Where all
the available lands on the Great Plains is being taken up for settlement
by a rapidly advancing civilization, the economic distribution of the
Park waters is a question of the utmost importance to the nation.

It is proposed to extend the boundaries of the Yellowstone Park to

211

the south and east so as to include a dense forest region abounding in
mountain torrents, the head waters of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers.
Atthe time the Park was set aside by act of Congress in 1872 but little
was known of the region and its relations to the adjacent country, and
still less was its real value appreciated as one of the nation’s most avail-
able reservoirs. This proposed enlargement embraces all the water
draining into the Yellowstone river and lake from the Absaroka
range and all affluents of the Snake from the northern spurs of the
Grand Tetons and Wind River range. ‘To accomplish this enlargement
necessitates placing the boundaries 25 miles farther to the eastward
and 9 miles to the southward of the present lines. By this addition to
the domain of the Park the headwaters and timber areas around Soda
Butte, Cache Calfee, Miller, and the Lamar Rivers on the west side of
the range, and Crandall, Sunlight, and Dead Indian Creeks, tributaries
to Clark Fork and the Stinking Water, an affluent of the Big Horn,
which ultimately drains into the Yellowstone, on the east side, will fall
within the reservation.

Unless protected, encroachment will soon be made upon this valuable
inheritance of the nation. No serious difficulties arise against placing
this additional territory within the Park forever. If timber lands near
the sources of our large rivers are to be carefully guarded by national
legislation there is no better place to begin the work than right here at
the headwaters of the Yellowstone and Snake, which send their waters
from the heart of the continent to both the Atlantic and Pacific. |

Very truly, yours,
ARNOLD HAGUE.

Prof. B. EK. FERNow,

Forestry Division,
Department of Agriculture, Washing.on.

SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION FOR THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
OR FORESTS ON THE PUBLIC DOMAIN.

By N. H. EGLESTON,

Forestry Division.

The earliest action of the General Government having regard to the
preservation of timber was in 1799, when Congress appropriated $200,000
for “‘the purchase of growing or other timber, or of lands on which tim-
ber is growing, suitable for the Navy, and for its preservation for future
use.” The special object of this legislation was to secure a supply of
Live-Oak timber, which was considered peculiarly valuable for ship-build-
ing and was in great demand for that purpose, both at home and abroad,
while its growth was confined to a limited portion of our territory in the
vicinity of the Gulf. Two small islands on the coast of Georgia, con-
taining together about 2,000 acres, were purchased under the act of
1799. Another act (Revised Statutes, section 2458), having the same
object in view, was passed in 1817, by which the Secretary of the Navy
was directed to cause lands producing Live Oak or Red Cedar to be
explored, and to have selections made of tracts necessary to furnish for
the Navy a sufficient supply of such timbers. Under this act 19,000 acres
in Louisiana, which had recently become ours by purchase from France,
were reserved. ae

Additional enactments were made in 1820 and 1827, by which the
selection of lands to be reserved was intrusted to the surveyor of Pub-
lic Lands in place of agents appointed by the Secretary of the Navy,
and the President was authorized to withhold such lands from sale.

In 1822, an act was passed (Revised Statutes, section 2460), authoriz.
ing the President to employ the land and naval forces so far as neces-
sary effectually to prevent the felling or other destruction of timber in
Florida, and to take such other measures as might be deemed advisable
for the preservation of timber there. (Florida had recently been ceded
to the United States by Spain, and was known to abound in Live-Oak
timber.)

In 1831, an act was passed (Revised Statutes, sections 2461, 2462, and
2463) of wider scope than that of 1822. This made it a felony, with ~
penalty of fine and imprisonment, to cut or remove timber from any of _
the public lands, whether reserved or not, except for the use of the ~ |

212 a

Fart Ssh

213

Navy, and subjected any vessel transporting such timber without proper

authority and for any other purpose than for the use of the Navy, to con-
fiscation and the master ot the vessel to a fine.

This act is the one under which, up to the present time, all the pro-
tection they have had has been secured to the public forests, the Su-
preme Court having construed the act (9 How., 351) as authorizing the
protection of all timber on the public lands, and punishment for tres-
pass upon the same. Under the act of 1831, the Treasury Department
undertook a partial oversight and protection of timber on the public

lands through its ordinary agents. In 1855 this oversight was trans-

ferred to agents of the Land Department, registers and receivers being
instructed to act also as timber agents, but without any additional
compensation. Where trespass was willfully committed, payment of
stumpage was demanded or the timber was seized and sold and the
proceeds paid into the Treasury. Where the trespass was committed
ignorantly, actual entry of the land only was required, with payment
of the usual entry charges.

The first appropriation for the payment of agents specially employed
for the protection of timber on the public lands was made in 1872, when
$5,000 were appropriated. A like sum was appropriated annually
thereafter for five years. In 1878, to meet expenses for suppressing
depredations upon timber on the public lands, $25,000 were appropri-
ated. Subsequent appropriations for this purpose are noticed in another
place.

The following synopsis shows the course of legislation by the Gen-
eral Government in behalf of the forests and timber lands since the
passage of the actof 1831.

It will be noticed that, with the exception of the acts of 1876, 1878,
1880, and 1883, none of the many bills which have been proposed have
been given the form of law. But the failures to secure legislation may
be as instructive and as important in a correct history of forestry in
our country as the reco.d of successes. This will justify the somewhat
extended, though not exhaustive, list of bills here given:

: House in which : : _ :
Year. Congress. originated. Object of bill. Action taken.
1871 | 41st, 3a sess. H. R. 2930, For the sale of timber lands in | Referred to Committee on
y Sargent. California and Oregon. Puble Lands.
1871 | 41st, 3d sess. | HH. R. 3005, To authorize the sale of timber | Passed in House. In Sen-
Sargent. lands in California, Oregon, and ate referred to Commit-
Washington Territory, not ex- tee on Public Lands.

eeeding 640 acres to oné person
or association, without resi-
dence, at $2.50 per acre.

1871 | 42d, Ist sess. H. R. 274, Same as the preceding .--..-.--.-- Referred to Committee on
: Garfielde. Public Lands.
1872) 42d, 2d sess. He R..2197, To encourage the planting of trees | Referred to Committee on
Haldeman. and the preservation of woods Agriculture. Reported
on the public domain. (The fay orably. Failed of pas-
firstrealand compr ehensive for- sage—81 yeas, 87 nays.
estry bill.)

]
/House in which
originated.

Year. Congress.

1872 42d, 2d_ sess.
|

1873 | 3d,1st sess.

1874 | 43d, ist sess.

1874 43d, Ist sess.

1874 | 43d, Ist sess.
|

1875 | 43d, 2d _ sess.
}

1875 | 44th, 1st sess.
|

1875 44th, 1st sess.

1875 44th, Ist sess.

H. R. 410,

Page.

Senate 471,

Boutwell.

H. R. 2497.
Herndon.

H. R. 2540,
Dunnell.

H. R. 4430,

Averiil.

H. R. 323,
Dunnell

Senate 2,
Clayton.

Senate 6,
Kelley.

}

i 7 5 = ]
| For the appointment of a commis- |
sioner to inquire into the de- |

214

Object of bill.

| Resolution thatthe Committee on

Agriculture inquire whether a
certain pereentage of each quar-
ter section of public lands sold
must be planted with trees or
a certain percentage of existing

forests preserved for the pur- |

pose of preventing or remedying
drouth.

Same as Garfielde bill (274) above-

For the survey and disposal of

the timber lands of the United
States. Miners may buy stump-
age, not more than 160 acres, till
that is cut, at $2.50 per acre.

Homesteaders may buy 40 acres
of timber land near agr icultural
land at same price.

For the appointment of a commis-

sion for inquiry into the de-
struction of forests and into the
meastres necessary for the pres-
ervation of timber.

struction of forests and into the
measures necessary for the pres-
ervation of timber.

To regulate the survey and sale of |

the timber lands of the United
States. Commissioner of the
Land Office to survey and ap-
praise lands more valuable for
their timber than for agricultu-
raluse. Such lands not to be
entered under homestead or pre-
emption laws, but appraised and
otiered at public sale, and if not
sold then to be open to private

Action taken.

| No action.

Referred to Committee on

Public Lands. June 8,re-
| ported back with amena-
| ments and recommitted.
December,1874, H. R. bill
4194 reported by commit.
tee as substitute. Passed
February 22, 1875. In
Senate February 22, re-
ferred to Committee on
Public Lands.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands. Reported
with amendments.

| Referred to Committee on

_ Public Lands. Reported

back with H. R.2540as a
substitute.

Reported by Committee on

Public Lands as a substi-
aie for preceding bill, H.
R. 2497.

Referred te Committee on
Public Lands.

entry at a price not less than |

the appraisal.

To regulate the survey and sale of

the timber lands of the United
States. Same bill as the pre-
ceding.

To repeal section 2303 of the Re-

vised Statutes, thereby opening
timber lands in Southern States
to private entry in unlimited
juantities and ‘at the reduced
price of $1.25 per acre.

For sale of timber lands in Cali-

fornia, Oregon, and the Territo-
ries. Same as previous bills
with similar title.

erased to Commigtee on
Public Lands.

Referred to Committee on

Public Lands. Reported
back and passed. In H.R.
referred to Committee on
Public Lands. Passed
H. R. and became a Jaw
July 4, 1876, through in-
action of the President.

Referred to Committee on
Pubiie Lands. ha
Senate February, 1876
In H. R., February, 1876,
referred to Committee on
Public Lands. March,
1877, House refused to
suspend rules and pass
the bill. y

ew >

21D

House in which

Year Congress. originated,

1876 | 44th, 1st sess. H. R. 660,
i Maginnis.

1876 | 44th, Ist sess. | H. R. 1191,
Sayler.

1876 | 44th, 1st sess. H.R 1210;
Dunnell.

1876 | 44th, Ist sess. | H. R. 2075,

Fort.

1877 | 45th, 1st sess. 18f6 1k, WS,
Maginnis.

1877 | 45th, Ist sess. | H. R. 1154,
Pacheco.

1877 H. R. 1525,

45th, 1st sess.

1878 | 45th, 2d sess.

Herbert.

HH. R. 2658,
Maginnis.

Object of bill.

——_—_—_—_-- 54)

Action taken.

For the sale of the timber lands
in the Territories. Lands valu-
able for timber but not for cul-
tivation to be sold at $2.50 per:
acre, not more tlian 40 acres to
one person.

To regulate the survey and sale of
the timber lands of the United
States. Lands valuable chiefly
for timber not to be subject to
entry under pre-emption or
homestead laws, but to be ap-
praised and sold at not less than
the appraised value.

For the appointment of a commis-
sion, ete. Same as preceding
pill (HL. R. 2540).

¥or the preservation of the forests
adjacent to the sources of nay-
igable rivers and other streams.
Such timser lands to be with-
drawn from sale and a commis-
sion to determine what should
be reserved so as to prevent
scanty supply of water.

For the sale of timber lands in the |
Territories. Sameas bill (660) of
Mr. Maginnis in Forty-fourth
Congress.

To regulate the survey and sale of
timber lands of the United |
States. Same as bills in the For-
ty-third and Forty-fourth Con-
gresses.

To put into market certain tim-
ber lands of the United States. ,
Declaring subject to entry, in
any quantity, all public timber
lands in Alabama, Louisiana,
and Minnesota which have been
subject to entry in limited quan-
tities for twenty years, and
after entry of such lands to be
no prosecution for trespass or
timber cutting.

To provide for the entry of unsur-
veyed timber lands. Allowing
the owner of a mine to take 160
acres of timber land for every
20 acres of mineral land owned
by him, and the owner of agri-
cultural land 40 acres for every
quarter section, and for every
$20,000 expended on a mill or
furnace 640 acres may be taken

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands. Reported
with amendments and
recommitted.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands. No oppor-
tunity was afiorded for
regular action on the pill,
but, on motien of Mr.
Dunnell, the substance
of it was added as an
amendment to the gen-
eral appropriation bill,
and became a law At-
gust, 1877.*

| Referred to Committee on

Public Lands.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands.

Referred te Committee on
Public Lands.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands.

at $2.50 per acre.

* By this enactment the Commissioner of Agticulture was directed to appoint a competent person

to make the contemplated inquiries and investigations.

The Commissioner appointed for this work

Mr. F. B. Hough, and the prosecution of the work led to the establishment of the Forestry Division

in the Department of Agriculture.
volumes.

The result of Mr. Hough’s inquiries has been published in three
The work begun by him has been continued by his successors in charge of the Forestry

Division, so far as the small appropriation made by Congress for the purpose would allow, and addi
tional reports have been published.

Coneress.

216

/House in which

originated.

Object of bill. zs

1878

1878 |

1878

1879 |

1880

1882 |

| 45th.

| 46th,

46th,

45th,

| 45th,

45th,

46th,

46th, ¢

46th,

47th,

2d sess. |

Zd sess.

2d sess. |

2d sess.

3d sess.

ist sess.

1st sess.

Sess.

sess.

sess. |

sess.

sess. |

H. R. 3981,

Patterson.

Senate 926,

Sargent.

H. R. 3800,

Wren.

Senate 20,
Chattee.

H. R. 6087,

Duronell.

H. R. 1164,
Dunnell.

H. BR. 6321,
Carlisle.

TH. R. 6340,
Downey.

Senate 1812,

Coke.
HeaksG3iile
Hooker.

H.R. 1846,
Herbert.

Senate 760,

TYeller.

| ; ;

| Withdrawing lands chiefly valua-
ble for timber from entry under
pre-emption or homestead laws.

Sueh lands-to be surveyed and |

divided into ‘‘timber lands” and

“mineral timber lands.” On the :)

latter the timber only to besold.
Timber lands to be appraised
and sold by commissioners.
Such lands as are needed for
irrigation purposes to be with-
held from sale.

-----.----------| $23,000 appropriated to suppress

depredations on public timber.

| Allowing sale of timber lands un-
fit for cultivation in California,
Oregon, Nevada, and W ashing-
ton Territory at $2.50 per acre.
No one person or association to
enter more than 166 acres.

Bill similar to next below.-..-..--

| Allowing residents of. Colorado,
Nevada, and other Territories,
and all mineral districts, to fell
and remove, for building and
other domestic p
on mineral lands.

To regulate the survey and sale of
timber lands. Sameas bill pre-
sented December, 1875 (H. R.
323), providing that timber lands

more valuable for lumber than |

for agricultural purposes be re-
served from entry under home-
stead or pre-emption laws, ap-
praised, and sold to highest
bidder, but not for less than ap-
praisement.

To regulate the survey and sale of |
the United |
Same as last bill above. |

timber-lands of

States.

To prevent depredations upon tim-
ber in the Indian Territory.

Authorizing citizens of Colorado,
Nevada, and the Territories, to

public domain, for mining and
domestic purposes.
the act of June; 1878.

To prevent depredations upon tim-
ber on Indian reservations.

| To prevent depredations upon
timb r on Indian reservations.
Same as last bill above.
|
Act condoning trespass on public
lands prior to March, 1879. Per-
| sons against whom suits were
| pending prior to that date to
Enea lands trespassed upon and
pay accrued costs, thereupon
suits to be discontinued.
; same time price to be paid fo
lands to be reduced from $2. 50
to $1. 25.

; lic lands in Colorado and the
sale ef timber thereon,
Secretary of the Interior
regulate the sale, and may =
eerve timber on head-waters of
streams and on mountains.

| For the classification of the pub- |

Action taken.

Reported by Committee on
Public Lands as a sub-
stitute for several bills
Reconmitted.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands. Passed
Senate. Reported toand
passed H.R. appl oyed

| by President June 3

Referred to Committee on

Public Lands.

Referred to Committee en
Public Lands.
and passed bv Senate.
Passed H.R. and sicned

purposes, eee |

fell and remove timber on the |

Extending |

by President June 3.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands.

Referred to Commiitee on
the Publie Lands.

Referred to Committee «n
Indian A ffairs.

Referred to Committee on
the Public Lands.

|
| Reported from the Commit-
tee on Indian Affairs.

Referred to Committee on
Indian Affairs.

| Approved bythe President

|
|
|

|
|

June 15, 1880.

Referred to Committee ou
Public Lands.

Amended -

Congress.

House in which
originated.

217

Object of bill.

Action taken.

47th, 1st sess.

1882 | 47th, 1st sess.

1882 | 47th, 2d sess.

1283 | 47th, 2d sess.

1883 | 47th, 2d sess.

1883 | 48th, 1st sess.

1883 | 48th, Ist sess.

1883 | 48th, 1st sess.

1884 | 48th, Ist sess.

Senate 1641,
Teller.

Senate 1826,
» Sherman. °

H. R. 6315,
Butterworth.

H. RB. 6997, :
Strait.

H. BR. 7509,
Dwight.

Senate 2496,
Tabor.

Tf. R. 4757.

H. R. 832,
Strait.

Senate 1258,
Sherman.”

H. Rk. 4811,
lane.

H. BR. 5206,
Deuster.

Senate 1544,

Dawes.

To amend act of 1878, so as to al-
low any one in Western States
and Territories to remove tim-
ber from mineral lands for any
purpose, under rules and regu-
lations of the Secretary of the
Interior and payment of $2.50
peracrefor thetimber. Notim-
ber to be cut by mill-owners or
lumber manufacturers.

For the preservation of woods and
forests adjacent to sources of
navigable rivers. Same as bill
introduced in H. R.1st session,
Forty-fourth Congress.

For the preservation of woods, etc.
Same as Senate bill next above-

To provide for the classification
and disposition of pine timber-
lands.
able for their timber, not to be
subject to pre-emption or home-
stead entry, but to be appraised
by the Secretary of the Interior,
and sold from time to time at
public sale, for not icss than two-
thirds the appraisement. Min-
eral lands exempt from the act.

To regulate the sale of the tim-
ber-lands of the United States.
Similar to last bill above, but
lands remaining unsold to be
subject to private entry at the
appraised value.

For the protection and preserva-
tion of the forests of the United
States. One hundred thousand
dollars to be appropriated to
Colorado for the establishment
of anexperiment station under
the direction of the Department
of Agriculture.

Act to exclude the public lands
in Alabama from the operation
of laws relating to mineral lands.
(In reality an act to sell ali min-
eral lands in Alabamaas agri-
cultural lands, at private sale,
in unlimited quantities, and at
the reduced rate of $1.25 per
acre, to citizens or aliens.)

For the classification and disposi-
tion of pine timber-lands. Same
as above bill presented in Forty-
seventh Congress.

Forthe preservation of woods and
forests adjacent to sources of
navigable 1ivers, etc. Same as
bill in Forty-seventh Congress.

' Kor the preservation of woods.

etc. Same as last bill above.

For the preservation of woods,
ete. Same as last bill above.

To prevent cutting of timber on
military or Indian reservations.

Such lands, chiefly valu- |

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands.

Referred to Committee on
Agriculture.

Referred to Committee on
Agriculture. ©

Referred to Committee on
the Public Lands.

Referred to Commnitee on
the Public Lands.

teferred to Committee on
Appropriations.

Approved by the President
March 38, 1883.

Referred to Committee on
the Public Lands.

Referred to Committee on
Agriculture.

Referred to Committee on
Indian Affairs. Passed
in Senate April 23.: In
H. R. referred to Com-
mittee on Indian Affairs.

Year.

—

Congress.

originated.

House in which

218

Object of Dill.

1884

1885

1886

1887

1888

48th, Ist sess.

48th, 1st sess.

48th, 2d sess.

49th, Ist sess.

4th, 1st sess.

49th, Ist sess. |

49th, Ist sess.

49th, 1st sess.

49th, 2d sess. | H. R. 10430,
| Markham.
50th, 1st sess. H. R. 6045,

Cameron.

Edmunds.

Miller.

Edmunds.

Senate 551,
| Sherman.

Bee eee
Oates.

| Senate 1188

Senate 1824,

| Senate 2451,

Senate 581,

S. V.W hite.

Action taken.

For the protection, preservation,
and extension of the forests of
the United States. To estab-
lish an experiment station in
connection withthe Department
of Agriculture, west of the Mis-
sissippi River. To propagate
and distribute forest trees, in-
vestigate qualities, time of gr ow-
ing, profit, etc. One hundred
thousand doliars appropriated.

Act to establish a forest reserva-
Missouri and Columbia Rivers.

For the protection of forests on
the public domain. Withdraws
all timber land from sale under
existing laws.
sion to be appointed to examine

determine what should be per-
manently reserved. Timber on
reserved lands to be sold under
direction of the Commissioner
of the Land Office.

To establish a-forest reservation
in Montana... Same as Dill S.
1824, in Forty-eighth Congress.

To repeal act of 1878, for the sale
of timber-lands in California,
Oregon, Nevada, and W ashing-
ton “Perritory.

For the preservation of woods and

navigable rivers, ete. Samo as

gress.

For the preservation of woods and |
forests adjacent to sources of |
Same as |

navigable rivers, etc.
pill next above.

To define and punish the offense
of setting fire to woods or for-
ests belonging to the United
States.

For the protection of forests in
California. To withdraw from
sale Government forest lands in
California not suited to agricult-
ure. Such lands not to be alien-
ated from the Government, but
to be placed temporarily under
the management of the forest
commissioners of California.
Fifty thousand dollars appropri-
ated to carry out the act.

For the protection and adminis-
tration of the forests on the pub-
lic domain. Provides for the
classification of forest lands, the
reservation of a proper amount
of forest land from sale, the tim-
ber on the same alone being
sold under direction of forest
commissioners to be appointed,
who are to have entire manage-
ment of the public forests. Tim-
ber lands not necessary for res-
eryation to be sold.

forests adjacent to sources of |

bill offered in Forty-eighth Con- |

Forest Commis- |

and classify forest lands and |

Referred to Committee on

Agriculture
estry.

and For-

| Passed Senate June 1884,
| tion on the head-waters of the |

In House printed.

Referred to Committee on

Agriculture.
favorably.

Reported

Referred to Committee on

Agricultnre.

Reported

favorably. Passed Sen-

ate.
dar.

In H.R. on calen-

| Referred to Committee on
the Public Lands.

_ Referred to Committee on

Agriculture.

Referred to Committee on

Agriculture.

eferred to Committee on

Judiciary.
second

Reported at
session,

with

amendments, and placed
on the Calendar.

Referred to Committee on

Public Lands.

favorably.

Reported

Referred to Committee on

Public Lands.

pa Se

House in which

Year. Congress.

219

Object of bill.

Action taken.

Teller.

For the protection and adminis-
tration of the forests on the
public domain. Same as H.R.
bill 6045 above.

To furtheramend the public-land
laws, and for the preservation of
natural forests on the public do-
main, the protection of water
supply, and for other purposes.

To secure to actual settlers the
public lands adapted toagricult-
ure, to protect the forests on the
public domain, and for other
purposes.

Toamend act authorizing citizens
of Colorado, Nevada, and the
Territories to fell and remove
timber on the public domain for
mining and domestic purposes.

Authorizing citizens of Colorado,
Nevada, and the Territories to
fell and remove timber on the
public domain for mining and
domestic purposes.

Referred to Committee on
Agriculture and For-
estry.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands.

Reported by Committee on
Public Lands as a sub-
stitute for H. R. bill No.
6045 and other bills re-
lating to the public lands.
Passed. In Senate re-
ferred to Committee on
Public Lands.

Referred to Committee on
Publie Lands.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands.

TIMBER CULTURE ACTS.

House in which
originated.

To give a more complete view of the action of the Government in its
bearings upon forestry, it seems proper to append to the foregoing synop-
sis the following record of legislation, actual as well as only proposed:

Object of bill.

Action taken.

1873 | 42d, 2d_ sess.

1#74 | 43d, Ist sess.

. |
q

1876 | 43d, Ist sess.

Senate 680,
Hitcheock,

_H. R. 743,
Dunnell.

H. &. 24

Lo
co |

To encourage the growth of tim-
beron Western prairies. A per-
son planting 40 acres of timber
trees on Gevernment land to be
entitled to 160 acres at the ex-
piration of ten years. The so-
called timber-culture act.

Toamend the aboveact. Confines
privilege of entry to heads of
families or persons over twenty-
one years of age and to citizens
of the United States. Reduces
the time for perfecting title to
eight years. Restricts the
amount to be entered by one
person to 160 acres. Allows
homesteaders to obtain patent
by planting one-sixteenth of
homestead with trees.

To amend act of 1873. Allows ex-
tension of time for perfecting
title in case of the destruction
of trees by grasshoppers; also

permits seeds and nuts to be

planted instead of trees.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands. Reported
favorably and _ passed.
Approved March 3, 1873.

Passed and approved
March 138, 1874.

Referred to Committee on
Public Lands. Reported
favorably, passed, and
approved May 20, 1887.

TIMBER CULTURE ACTS—Continued.
Year Congress Sse which, Object of bill | Action taken
Sere Brees originated. | J : | 7S:
| sMekeer Ie ca) Meee Ce gH ak ee ee en
1878 45th, 2d sess. H. R. 3235, | To amend theact of 1873. Reduc- | Reported with amend —
Strait. ing the number of acres to be ments by commiitee,
planted to 10 for every quarter passed, and approved
} section and in the same prepor- June 14, 1878.
tion for smaller quantities, but
requiring closer planting—
twenty-seven thousand trees
per acre. Five acres to be
broken first year and 5 the sec-
ond, and planted with trees in
the third and fourth years. TRe-
peals the homestead provision
| of the act of 1874.
j .
1881 } 47th, ist sess. H. R. 430, | To amend the act of 1878. Speci- | Referred to Committee on
Ryat. fying the kinds of trees to be Paoblic Lands.
planted.
1882 | 47th, 1st sess. H. R. 4497, To repeal the act of 1878.-...-.--.-. Referred to Committee on
Deering. Public Lands.
1885 | 49th, 1st sess. Senate 65, To repeal all laws for the pre-emp- | Referred to Committee on
Dolph. tion of public lands and those Public Lands. -
allowing entries for timber cult-
| ure, the sale of desert lands, etc.
1885 49th, ist sess. H. R. 452, To repealall laws for the pre-emp- Referred to Committee on
Cobb. tion of public lands and those Public Lands.
allowing entries for timber cult-
ure.
|
1885 | 49th, Ist sess. H. R. 380 Torepeal pre-emption andtimber- | Referred to Committee on
Payson culture laws. Nearly identical Public Lands. ~
I | with bill 452.
1886 | 49th, 1st sess. eR. 5210, To repeal all laws for the pre-emp- | Referred to Committce on
Henley. tion of public lands and fortim- Public Lands.
| ber-culture entries.
1886 49th, ist sess. H. R. 1238, To amend the act of 1878.......... Referred to Committee on
Strait. Public Lands.
1888 | 50th, 1st sess. Senate 2893, | To amend act to encourage the | Referred to Committee on
Paddcck. growth of timber on the west- Public Lands.
| ern prairies.
{
FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT AND ENDOWMENT gF FORESTRY SCHOOLS.
1882 | 47th, 1st sess. Senate 1880, | To aid in the endowment of a Referred to Committee on
| McMillan. school of forestry at Saint Paul. Agriculture.
Granting 300 sections of public | :
land fer the purpose. ;
1883 | 47th, 2d sess. | H. R. 7440, To grant lands to Dakota for the | Referred to Committee on
| Pettigrew. | purpose of establishing a school Public Lands.
of forestry. Granting 400 sec-
tions of land for the purpose.
1884 | 48th, 1st sess. H. R. 4361, To grant lands to Dakota for the | Referred to Committee on
| Raymond. purpose of establishing aschool Public Lands.
of forestry. Same bill as the
preceding.
| ;
1886 | 49th, Ist sess. | H. R. 2826, To grant lands to Dakota for the | Referred to Committee on
Gifford. purpose oi establishing a school Public Lands.

of forestry. Same as two pre-
ceding bills.

THE CLIMATE OF COLORADO AND ITS EFFECT ON
| TREES. :

By GrorGE H. Parsons, Colorado Springs, Colo.

A discussion of climatic effects upon trees in Colorado must neces-
sarily, from the lack of exact records, be rather general in its nature.
It is to be regretted that no experimental plantations of trees have been
made in various parts of the State, where the behavior of different
species, under the peculiar conditions of this climate, could be regularly
observed and noted. Such a systematic record, showing in a concise
form the history of each tree, would be of much more benefit than the
general and irregular observations of any number of planters, provided,
always, that the observer is thoroughly trained in the work he has to
do, otherwise his records will be worse than useless, like many of the
tables of meteorological phenomena, laboriously constructed after the
most approved scientific methods, which are now thrown aside as
fallacious.

In the absence of these experimental stations and skilled observers,
the province of science may be to examine and record such irregular ob-
servations as may be found. This is what I propose to do, confining
myself to the results of my own general observations, and that of others,
regarding trees.

A detailed description of the whole climate of so large a State as
Colorado, and one of so great variation of surface, will be impossible
in the limits of this paper. The discussion will therefore be more par-
ticularly confined to the best-known and more densely peopled portion
lying where plain and mountain meet around the cities of Denver,
Colorado Springs,and Pueblo. Indeed, only in this region have climatic
observations been taken and recorded for a period long enough to give
any reliable data of the average conditions; and only here have trees
been planted to an extent sufficient to enable the observer to learn
some of the effects of the climate upon them.

Still, a study of the climate of this region will be, to a certain extent.
that of the whole State, for the difference between this and any other

221

Ss . wane
Le

222

portion is only one of degree. The temperature will change with alti.
tude and latitude, and the moisture among the mountains will be greater
than on the plains.

That we may enter more intelligently upon the consideration of the
climate of Colorado, we wiil briefly glance at the various influences that
control a climate.

Great altitude has perhaps the most important influence on climate,
because of the rarity of air that accompanies it, producing rapid evap-
oration, dryness, variability, and extremes of temperature, clearness
of skies, and all the effects opposite to those of the sea-level, where the
thick stratum of humid atmosphere intercepts the sun’s rays, retains
heat, obstructs radiation, and produces equability of temperature. Low
humidity is the main characteristic of high elevations, and is caused
principally by the lower temperature reigning at such elevations, but
also by the diminution of atmospheric pressure, allowing less moisture
to be held in a given space of air at a given temperature than at lower
levels. Authorities state that there is an average lowering of tempera-
ture of three degrees Fahrenheit for each thousand feet of ascent, and
this cooling lessens the capacity of air to contain moisture.

Latitude has a strong influence on climate, acting in much the same
way as altitude; the effects of a high degree of latitude being, in a gen-
eral way, similar to those of a great altitude. Professor Loomis states
that beyond the parallel of sixty degrees north latitude, at a short dis-
tance from the ocean, the mean annual rain-fall seldom exceeds 10
inches.

Distance from the ocean naturally promotes dryness, and to this fact
is due, in no small degree, the uniform lack of humidity in the atmos-
phere upon the extensive plateaus of*Wyoming, Colorado, and New
Mexico, which is not found in the high altitudes of Switzerland. The
evaporation constantly going on over the ccean and all bodies of water,
supplying the atmosphere with moisture, which returns to the thirsty
land in rain, is wanting in the elevated interior of our continent. And
there can be no satisfactory compensation on our open plains for this ab-
sence of water distribution, as long as there are no forests, undergrowth,
or thick grasses to prevent evaporation and drying of the land, and to
provide by their natural reservoirs and springs and differences of tem-
perature a substitute for the ocean. Afar inland position also has a pow-
erful influence upon temperature. The specific heat of land being only
one quarter that of water, it both absorbs and gives out heat more rap-
idly, consequently the more land the greater the heat and the wider the
fluctuation, especially when there is nothing to obstruct the sun’s rays
or the earth’s radiation.

High mountain ranges exert a powerful influence upon the moisture
conditions of a climate, by intercepting the air currents which come
from a distant, warm, damp region. Such currents are quickly brought

223

to the point of saturation as they mingle with the cooler elevated atmos-
phere of the mountains, and precipitating their moisture in rain or snow
upon the mountain sides, they pass on ina dry and highly electrical
condition. Mountains also influence a climate by the shelter they afford
from severe winds. ‘They also increase the local showers by gathering
and precipitating the moisture accumulated in the atmosphere by evapo-
ration from the earth’s surface. This effect of mountains is also shown
by the opposite influence of level, barren plains, where not even a tree is
found to intercept the moisture-laden currents.

The absorptive power of the earth has a climatic influence of greater

or less degree according to the nature of the soil. A very dry atmos.
phere will be rarely found where the soilis composed of closely-packed
clay, with a tendency to form swamps, morasses, and sloughs. On the
contrary, a porous, dry sand and light, friable, loose earth absorb, to a
great extent, the moisture from the air. Sand also loses its moisture
- more easily than clay ; it heats more quickly, and also cools more rapidly,

Such are, in general, the influences that control a climate, and with
a knowledge of these and of the physical nature of this selected sec-
tion of Colorado we may form a good idea of what to expect here.

The altitude of this region, outside of the mountains, is from 5,000 to
7,000 feet above the sea. The latitude is between the thirty-eighth
and forty-first parallels, about the same as the cities of Washington,
Philadelphia, and New York. The distance from the Pacific Ocean is
about 1,440 miles, and from the Atlantic about 2,100 miles.

The principal portion is a rolling prairie, bare and brown, except
along the few water-courses, where sparse belts of cottonwood trees re-
lieve the monotonous and desert-like appearance. The earthy billows
of this ocean-like plain rise and break against the rocky slopes of a vast
mountain range, running nearly north and south, and stretching west-
ward to the Pacific. Its lofty peaks rear their summits 14,000 feet
above the level of the sea, and promontories or spurs jut forth here and
there into the plain. From these rocky slopes the decomposed sand-
stone has been washed down upon the plain below, and formed sandy,
gravelly deposits of wonderful porosity and depth, capable of absorb-
ing any quantity of rain and moisture.

And now, with this bird’s-eye view of the climate, let us examine it

more closely and in detail and see how it affects tree-growth. In this |

we shall be aided by the constancy and regularity of most of the phe-
nomena.

SE Se eS ee eee Oe ee ee a ee Oe

224

The following table, compiled from the meteorological records taken
in Denver for thirteen years, from 1872 to 1884, will give an idea of the
climate there, as far as such observations can do so:

Table showing average climate at Denver for each month for thirteen years.

Months.

January :

September
October
November

S38
on | Mean temperature.
oo :

31.4

o |o Bio ® ee ay
a Qi = = Q - co
a |g | 8 le | 2 Bs B 5
GEN OSE Sal BER RS gh pas 5 B
S40 q = = . ee . = Gey
S oS o | a g g | a R So °
ca) DeLana 5 st: = S <<! : re re S bk
Ssles| 3 |es| es || 2 lalte@l/s|Slelal Be
a@alHa OS ee etn ieee _ 8 “ot m| nis re ess B= ie)
SPM eee ae cher PERERA sisal Seo Fs Bis
RP | Se B ar Ge - = Sis by = ae
b: ° a |g g 5 | | Stale liegt eda | Sree 2
= oi les © a Oo (ier [Orla st SOEs iota
ied (vale bes So | eo Be) Sle esse Sol Tegel ace
A fal he 8 fl pgnlces FIGS a oa| cel cal culmea
= D Ere 2 $ a ee ba ran pcre oRPse | s CS) 5)
ort °o (=) ° =) °o fo) (o) - >
a | H id 4 at ee le a eg ae | iene
ie ee Miles.
93.9 | 71 |—25 |64.4 |— 7.6 [55.8] .72/ 5/15/13| 3/29/22] 62
93.5 | 67 |—29 \60.2 |-11.5 |53.5| .66| 5| 16/11] 4/28/20] 65.
21.4 | 72 |—22 \62.0 |— 2.7 153.5 | .46] 5113/12] 3|27/22) 60
coon 72, {29 62.2 |— 7.8 [54.8 | 1.84] 15 | 44/96) 10) £21) 62
20.6| 81 |—10|71.3| 86 /48.8| .85| G]a4/it| 6| 28/26) 7.4
91.1|/83 | 4/76.9| 17.3 |49.2|1.83| 8/10|13| 7 | 25 3.2 | 7.3
22.5 |92 | 27185.4| 31.6 49.2|3.17/11 | 9/15| 7/28 |33] 7.1
tuys! 92 |—10 77.9 | 19.2 [49.1 | 5.86 | 25 | 83 | 39 | 20 | 81 2.0] 7.3
24.3|99 | 37 (94.4| 41.7 |408|2.59| 7/13/13] 4|29\25| 63
98.3 102.3) 42 /97.4| 50.2 146.4/1.78/ 9|12115| 4/30/28] 6.4
93.8 |105 | 4496.0} 49.4 |47.4|1.54]10/12/14] 5|30|28] 5.7
nie: 105 | 37 /95.9| 47.1 [44.9] 4.91 | 26 | 37/42/13 | 89\24|) 61
26.8|93 | 28 |89.7| 35.2 143.8| .90| 5/17| 9| 4/20\20] 5.5
96.7} 86 | 1/821) 20.7145.0|] .74| 5/16/10] 5|29\23| 62
96.4176 |—18|70.0) g6|47.7| .70| 5]16|10| 4/28/22] 62
its Sr 80.6 | 19.8 |45,5| 2.84/15 | 49|29|13| 86 22| 5.6
....-(105 |—29 79.2 | 19.7 |48.4 [14.95 | 81 |163 [146 | 56 [340 |26| 63
|

NotTre.—The data for this table are derived from the meteorological summary furnished by J. J.
Gilligan, U. S. signal officer, Denver, Colo.

TEMPERATURE.

From the physical nature of Colorado we must expect a low average

temperature.

The mean annual temperature at Denver is 49 degrees,

about the same as at Chicago and Boston; but it is actually more ex-
treme than this would indicate, for we also find that the lowest point the
thermometer reached was 29 degrees below zero, and the highest point

was 105 degrees.

But these extremes are few and of short duration, and

the records of the maximum and minimum temperature will be a better
‘indication for this region than for many others.
severe cold will come soft, balmy days in midwinter, when wraps are
cast aside and the houses are thrown open in the genial sunshine.
In comparing the records of each season here with those of other
parts of the country, we find that the average temperature is more

equal here throughout the year.

More often than this

We have the winter temperature of

a
)
»

ae ee
aN ne Eee

225

Saint Louis, the spring temperature only a little cooler than Washing:
ton, and the summer and autumn tempsrature of Boston,

Kvery one has perceived that the sensation of cold depends on many
other things besides the temperature. The dry and rarefied air of this
altitude, allowing the rays of the sun to pass through with but trifling
loss of heat, renders the lowest temperature much more endurable than
it would be in moister climates. If the sun be shining and the air still,
it matters. little how low the thermometer may fall, and zero weather
will be pleasant and agreeable. This warmth of the sun is not shown
in the meteorological tables, for the thermometers are set in the shade.
By sun thermometers temperatures of 110 degrees and upwards are
quite usual in winter, while 120 degrees has been observed in January.
In the summer months the temperature in the sun usually ranges be-
tween 130 and 150 degrees. This heat would be ditficult to endure
if it were not for the same rarefied condition of the air which we have
just found softening the effects of extreme cold. It gives a bracing,

stimulating quality to the air in summer, and a fresh coolness to the

slightest breeze, such as we never find in the low altitudes. Then, too,
no matter how hot it may be in the sun, there is always a cool spot in
the shade, and summer nights are rarely too warm fora blanket. This
marked difference between sun and shade is the result of the lack of
aqueous vapor in the air to become heated by the sun, for air of itself
is diathermanous to the rays of the sun, letting them through without
practically absorbing any of their heat. The great difference between
day and night temperatures is shown in the large ranges of tempera-
ture, being for the mean daily range 30 degrees, the mean monthly
range 33.7 degrees, and the mean annual range 131 degrees. Tor coin-
parison, the same ranges of temperature at New Haven are, respect-
ively, 16, 42, and 91 degrees.

Sudden changes of temperature are a peculiar feature of this climate.
Without the sheltering influence of forests or mountain ranges on the
north, something of the fierce cold is felt here of the blizzards or
northers which, coming from the fields of ice and snow in the north,
Sweep with such deadly power over the plains farther east. They come
suddenly, with little warning, chilling with their icy breath the soft,
balmy air that precedes them, and causing the mereury to drop 40 de-
grees in half an hour, and from 80 degrees at noon to zero at night.
But their violence soon carries them past, and the following day may be
as pleasant as before the blizzard came. The changes from cold to
heat are jnst as sudden and great, under the influence of the warm
west wind, which comes down from the mountain sides extremely dry
and electrical, driving the frost before it and absorbing the moisture of
the ground and air. Underits influence the thermometer has risen, by
aciual observation, 40 degrees in thirty-five minutes, and after it had
passed the thermometer his fallen 30 degrees in five minutes, so suddenly
did its in fluence cease. This peculiar west wind will be discussed later.

24738—Bull 2--—-15

226

- From the foregoing we find that the peculiar features of temperature
in Colorado are great extremes, great range, and sudden changes.
Upon trees the effect of great extremes is not necessarily injurious,
except in connection with a dry, porous soil, which, holding no moisture
to form an icy protection, allows the frost to penetrate so deep as to
reach the tender rootlets of a young tree. Trost has been found in the
eround in Colorado 5 feet below the surface. The evil effects of this
may be lessened by heaping snow around the foot of the tree, where it
will melt and freeze and protect the ground. When snow ean not be
had watermay beused. Late fall irrigation, just before freezing weather
sets in, is therefore beneficial, from the coating of ice formed near the.
surface. Winter irrigation should also be practiced for thesame reason.

The great range of temperature in Colorado is more injurious to trees
than extreme cold, for all vegetation thrives best in equable climates.
In winter the powerful heat of the midday sun in this thin air excites
the flow of sap in a tree to such an extent that it does not recover its
normal condition before it is frozen by the severe cold of the night.
Trees are found injured on the south, but never on the north, side. To
remedy this, the trunk is shaded by a board, or wrapped with matting,
burlap, or straw. More trees perish during the warm, summer-like days
of February than in the coldest weather. This great difference of tem-
perature in sun and shade has also an unfavorable effect on trees in
summer, retarding their growth and preventing the warm nights so
beneficial to all vegetation.

It is a well-known fact that sudden thawing is more injurious to plants
than freezing, and therefore the efi@cts of cold are increased tenfold
when followed by great warmth. For this reason sudden changes of
temperature are the hardest for trees to endure. The hot blasts which
come down from the mountains during severe cold often scorch the life
from the tree, and the fierce blizzard from the north, which may sud-
denly appear on the warmest day in winter, chills it to the marrow.

We find little spring weather in Colorado, and the approach of sum-
mer is not gradual, as at lower elevations. ‘Trees will be often tempted
to open their buds in the warm sunshine of many days in March and
April, only to be nipped by late frosts. For this reason fruits are diffi-
cult to raise, especially the early blossoming varieties.

On account of this peculiar winter weather, trees planted in autumn
suffer more than those planted in spring, which have the benefit of a
whole season to become accustomed to the new and peculiar conditions.
Those trees succeed best here which form their terminal buds early in
autumn, and make a definite annual growth, so that their tops may not
be killed in the first frosts.

HUMIDITY.

Humidity, or the amount of moisture in the air, is a more powerfui
agency in climate than is generally recognized. It regulates light and

220

heat, and checks evaporation from the earth by absorbing the heat and

‘partly arresting the direct rays of the sun. Itis the medium for the

formation of dew, rain, and snow, and when examined in connection

with temperature, gives the only true indication of the dryness of acli-
mate.

Relative humidity, as given in the table, indicates the ratio between a
given amount of vapor in the air and that which saturated air at the
Same temperature could contain. It enables us to form an idea of how
near to saturation and therefore to possible precipitation the air has-

come. But it does not represent the actual amount of moisture con-
tained in theair. Thisis dependent upon the temperature, for air when
warm takes up more moisture than when cold, and the point of satura-
tion may therefore represent move or less actual moisture in the air.

It has been found that “the expansion of air under the influence of
heat increases its capacity for retaining invisible vapor from about half
a grain in a cubic foot—the limit at zero, with the barometrical pressure
at 30 inches—to 19.84 grains, the limit at 100° F.” Therefore, in a cool

climate like that of Colorado, the air will absorb and hold much less
“moisture than in a warmer one. Altitude has also a direct effect upon
the amount of atmospheric moisture, for as the air becomes lighter and
more rarefied, its capacity for moisture decreases, and in Colorado it
will contain much less at the point of saturation for the same tempera-
ture than at sea-level. ‘There often occur here what are popularly called
“dry showers,” in which the rain dries so quickly that its effect disap-
pears almost immediately. The actual amount of moisture in the air
or the number of grains in weight of vapor contained in a cubic foot of
_airis termed its absolute humidity, and is the only exact measure for com-
parison of atmospheric moisture in various climates. Knowing the rela-
tive humidity and the temperature and altitude of any place, the abso-
lute humidity may be caleulated. From the weather maps published
_ by the Signal Service at Washington, we find it (the absolute humidity)
to be 1.9 grains at Denver, 4 at Los Angeles, 3.5 at New York, and 3 at
_ Boston.

From these figures it is readily seen that humidity has not necessarily
direct connection with rain-fall, for at Denver the humidity is only half
of whatit is at Los Angeles, although the annual rain-fall in both places
isabout the same; at Los Angeles it is one-third greater than at Boston,
though the rain-fall at the latter place is three times as much as at the
former. Wealso find the humidity at Los Angeles to be greatest in sum-
: mer, although the rain-fall is practically nothing. Air may be quite
humid, but, if there are no cold currents, the vapor will not be precipi-
5 tated in rain.

: Temperature has 2 direct effect upon humidity. The expansion of
air under the influence of heat increases its capacity for retaining in-
visible vapor from about half a grain in a cubic foot—the limit at zero,
with the barometrical pressure at 30 inches—to 19.84 grains, the limit at

228

100° F. Therefore in a cool climate like that of Colorado the air will
absorb and hold much less moisture than in a warmer one.

The small amount of moisture in the atmosphere of Colorado is indi-
cated by the almost total absence of dew, fog, mist, and hoar-frost, by
the searcity of clouds, and by the rapid evaporation of rain and snow..
It is also shown by the power in this climate of the solar rays to heat
solid bodies exposed to them, while the neighboring air remains com-
paratively cool. Humidity is least on the open, unsettled plains, where
there is nothing to prevent rapid evaporation, and it 1s greatest in the
canyons and parks among the mountains, where the mosses, grasses, and
trees retain the moisture in the soil, giving it out slowly and continu-
ously to the air.

Trees depend upon the air for a portion of the moisture they receive,
which, absorbed through the leaves, keeps up the free circulation neces-
sary for their growth. Without moisture leaves can not take up from
the air the carbonic acid and other gaseous products upon whieh
they exist. Where this moisture is limited, more is demanded of
the roots, and the relative proportion between them and the leaves
must be increased. This therefore is one reason for the slow growth
of trees here as compared with other places, and only those sueceed
well that have large and rapid root-growth, and especially those with a
tap-root, or roots which naturally reach far down in the ground, where
they find a greater supply of moisture. A treein Colorado may have all
the irrigation it can possibly need, but will never have the rich, luxu-
riant foliage seen along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. During the
spring and autumn rain-storms, alréady noticed, there is much humidity,
as Shown by mists and fogs, and under its influence the foliage of the
trees always swells and expands, and starts into new growth. Moisture
in the air will also benefit a tree through its roots, if enabled to reach
them through a spongy, porcus soil, or by cultivation with a spade or
plow, which loosens the soil around the tree and allows the air to pen-
etrate to a sufficient depth. This accounts for the fact that trees in cul-
tivated ground will endure drought better than those not so favored.
The porous nature of the soil in this region is therefore not so great a
disadvantage as it might be, for it helps to carry to the roots whatever
moisture theair may provide. Irrigation would be unnecessary if we had
the moist atmosphere which enables farmers on the southern plains of
Texas, for instance, to raise the richest crops without irrigation,

RAIN-FALL.

The rain-fall, or moisture precipitation, is the most important factor
of any climate in relation to trees. It is also the most irregular of me-
teorological elements. But the records of thirteen years will show what
may be accepted as the rule, though subject to many exceptions. The
average annual rain-fall at Denver is 14.99 inches, and at Colorado
Springs 15.87 inches. In comparison with this, at Los Angeles it is

Bilt)

229

18.25, at Chicago 37.34, and at New York 43.58 inches. The general
distribution of rain-fall in this region is shown by the table, which gives
the amounts for each month and season. In Colorado winter is the dry
season and summer is the wet season; the driest months are January
and February, and the rainiest are May and July. This is due to the
altitude and inland position, for we find just the reverse at Los Ange-
les, where 10.43 inches, more than half the annual rain-fall there, falls in
winter, and only 0.22 inches in summer. At New York the rain-fall is
very evenly distributed throughout the year. A fact, not evident
from the table, is that no rain falls, as a rule, in Colorado, between.
October and April. The storms that gather then are accompanied by
such cold as to precipitate only snow, which is quickly melted and ab-
sorbed or evaporated. The heaviest fall of snow during the last ten
years, about 2 feet deep, totally disappeared within a week. The large
snow storms invariably come from the southeast, though a whirl of
snow is generally driven before the fierce northers. This snow-fall
being small and quickly disappearing in the warm sun and dry air,
it has no opportunity to exert upon the air its cooling influence by
increasing radiation and by hindering the warming of the ground.

The winter weather, as we have already found, extends into April
and even May, and ends with a heavy snow or rain storm, lasting two or
three days. Settled warm weather may then be depended on, but not
before. The wet season begins generally about the first of July and re-
mains six or eight weeks. During this season almost every day will
bring its shower, which, coming in the afternoon, passes over before
night, leaving the evening cool, fresh, and beautiful, or it will clear
during the night, bringing most delicious mornings, with a wonderful
clearness of atmosphere. The summer ends as it began, with a heavy
rain-storm, late in August or early in September. This latter month is
generally more or less rainy, but October and November bring the per-
fection of autumn weather, extending often to Christmas.

With so little of their chief means of support, it is not to be wondered
at that the only trees growing spontaneously in Colorado are the narrow
belts of Cottonwood that mark the courseof the streams on the plains,
and the groups of hardy Pines, Spruces, and Firs on the northern slopes
of the mountains, or in the sheltered canyons. When these are de-
stroyed nature finds it hard to renew the growth in any way, and only
succeeds in the more favored localities. It may be accepted as a general
truth that on these plains, and in many parts of the mountains, in most

Situations no tree can be expected to grow by the natural rain-fall. Ivri-
gation is therefore a necessity, and as a system it has been brought toa
high state of perfection during the past twenty years.

Water must be supplied to trees, not only in their growing season,
but also during the dry winter months to aid in the small circulation of

_ Sap required to keep life in the tree during its long sleep, and to com-
pensate for the evaporation from its bark. The tree needs much water

230 | |

during the dry, hot days of May and June, before the summer rains begin.
During the wet seasonit will almost take care of itself, but when the
rains cease in August the principal danger of the whole year comes, and
as day follows day of hot, dry, scorching weather, the tree must be lib-
erally supplied with moisture to take the place of that absorbed by the
thirsty air. .

This region does not receive the benefit it might from the rain-fall,
on account of the deep, gravelly, porous soil, through which the rain
sinks quickly, leaving but a small portion behind, a large part of which
is soon taken up by the air, and but little remains for the tree.

EVAPORATION.

The evaporative power, or thirstiness, of the air is increased by high
temperature, low humidity, low pressure, and high rate of motion. It
is most powerful in summer in the sun and wind, and only slight in
winter in shade and when the air is caim. In any place like Colorado,
where are found many upturned faces of broken rocks and large uncov-
ered areas of sand and gravel, evaporation and radiation will be much
greater than in places where the surface is protected from sun and wind
by vegetation. This is shown by the entire absence of dew on the
plains and the rocky slopes of the mountains, and its formation when
trees and lawns are planted.

Trees are injured by rapid evaporation, because it produces an unnat- —
ural activity in the roots and stem to supply the drain from the cells of ~
the leaves and bark, and unless the tree has a large root-system and
great vigor in all its functions, it will be unable to keep up the proper ~
circulation. This is a reason for the fact already cited, that the trees —
which succeed best here are those of rapid, vigorous root growth, with —
a solid leaf structure. Hvaporation is more rapid in winter, and —
therefore fall planting is objectionable. Imported trees always thrive
best if they are cared for in a nursery for a year or two, until their”
roots, leaves, and bark become accustomed to the new conditions of-
climate.

WINDS.

The winds of this region, which, from the level character of most of —
its surface, are very constant and often of great velocity, have a strong —
influence upon the production of increased evaporation. In the day- |
time throughout the year the prevailing winds are from the south and
- southeast, while at night they are from thenorth. This is an advantage ~
to trees, for the south and east winds, always more or less laden with
moisture, come ata time when evaporation is most active, and tend to |
relieve its evil effects. The north wind, direct from the region of per-
petual ice and snow, is the wind of blizzards and storms, and is the
most injurious of all, from the sudden changes of temperature, already
described, which it produces. The warm west or northwest winds,

“sae
-

gral

~ whose effect on temperature and evaporation, as already noticed, is
so marked, are of such peculiar nature as to demand our especial ex-
amination. They are the same as the Chinook winds of Montana and
the Foehn wind of Switzerland, and similar currents are found on the
leeward sides of all extensive mountain ranges. Starting, it may be,
from the surface of the Pacific, or in the warm valleys of the western
slope, this aerial current is cooled and more or less completely deprived
of its moisture while climbing the mountains; and in sliding rapidly
down on the other side, it becomes gradually warmed by compression,
amounting to six or seven degrees for each thousand feet, and arrives at
the foot even warmer than it started. The direct effect of this higher
temperacure is to increase its capacity for holding moisture, and having
no means in its descent of regaining what was lost in the cool, rarefied
region above, if is intensely dry and parched, increasing evaporation to
such an extent as to dry up small ponds and streams, and cause the
snow to literally fade away. These winds are only noticed in cold
weather, for when the air is already warm, the change in temperature on
their account is not appreciable. Their effect on climate is to make the
region they frequent of higher average winter temperature than in the
center of the continent, as may be seen by the isothermal lines of any
climatic map of the United States.

Their deleterious effect upon trees, besides the sudden changes of
temperature, is more especially from their extreme dessicating power,
which increases to an intense degree all the evils already described
of rapid evaporation, acting on vegetation like fire. The barreness
and somber appearance of the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains,
as compared with the western, is caused partly by the blasting, scorch-
ing effect of these winds on many of the native trees, not vigorous
enough to stand the sudden drain on their vital forces. They also,
no doubt, play an important part in the treelessness of the western
plains.

In general it is found that they harden and dry the fruit on the side
exposed to them, blacken, char, and curl up the young and tender
leaves, cut off the fragrance of odorous plants, and kill young sprouts

‘in a few hours.

The winds of the greatest velocity in this region are from the north
and northwest. The strongest wind that has ever occurred at Colorado
Springs was from the northwest, in January, 1887. It began at about 8
o’clock in the morning, and gradually increasing in power, until at noon
its velocity was 72 miles per hour, it died away entirely by 4 o’clock
in the afternoon. But these extreme winds only come two or three
times a year, and a velocity exceeding 40 miles per hour is very rare.
The destructive tornadoes of lower elevations are unknown, and this
region is not subject to the continuous gales found elsewhere. This is
demonstrated by the average yearly wind-velocity shown by the table,
which is only 6.3 miles per hour. And this figure does not properly

Zaz

show its effect, from the fact that the force of the wind, with any given
velocity, is less in the light air of this altitude than at lower elevations.
Another advantage here is that the strongest winds come in winter or
early spring, when they have less effect on the leafless trees than they
would have in summer, the windy season in many regions. Itis very rare
to find trees blown down, and seldom are branches torn off. The specially
injurious effect of extreme winds upon trees in Colorado is from the
gravel, or small sharp stones, caught up by them from the dry, loose,
gravelly soil, and hurled with such force against the trunk and branches
as to cut the bark, and give it the appearance of having been rubbed
down by some rough substance. The bark of young trees has been
often found scraped entirely off on the north and west sides after such
a wind storm. |

CLEARNESS OF THE SKIES.

Ciearness of the skies is a direct result of the iow humidity of this
climate, and is one of the peculiar features of high altitude. Rapid
radiation from the earth, the absenve of moist currents in the air, the
rarity of the atmosphere, all these prevent the formation of haze, mist,
or clouds. The table gives the average number of days clear, fair, and
cloudy, in each month, at Denver. In these records the observer counts
the thinnest cloud, and many days are classed as cloudy or fair which
would be generally termed fair or clear. The record of sunny days
gives a better idea of the fine weather. Av Denver the records also
show that the average number of days in.a year on which rain or snow
fellis eighty-one, and the yearly average cloudiness in tenths of the
sky is 2.6. During thirteen years the average number of days during
the year on which the sun was not visible was three, and from October
30, 1879, to February 5, 1881, fifteen months, the sun was not obscured
an entire day.

This clearness of the sky is one cause for the daily fluctuations of
temperature already noted, and its effect on solar and terrestial railia-
tion is very marked. Solar radiation at this high altitude is rapid
soon after sunrise, because of the slight resistance which the dry,
rarified air offers to the rays of the sun. While after sunset terrestial
radiation is also rapid because there is no moist envelope shrouding the
face of the earth to prevent the natural cooling of the dry ground.
This is one cause for the late frosts which are so hurtful to trees and
which farmers and cultivators never expect without a clear sky and
dry air. Sunlight in Colorado is a nearer approach to white light than
at the sea-level, and many persons find it necessary to wear blue or
smoked giasses to protect their eyes against its effects.

Sunlight plays a very important part in the development of plants,
and the various questions of the sun’s rays, their quantity and action,
their variations in the different hours and for different states of the
sky, and the relative effects of their different elements, should be the ©

239

subject of more research than they are. It may be thought that the
clearness of ‘the atmosphere in Colorado, bringing a superabundance of
sunshine, is a great gain to all life. It is so to many conditions of
human existence, but not to all, and under certain circumstances is di-
rectly injurious to vegetation. True it is that “ Light is the source
of life,” but its very greatness and power require tempering, softening,
and restraining, like fire and water. Sunlight and warmth start the
machinery of a tree and produce the chemical combinations which are
necessary to its life. Under its influences the mineral substances, drawn
from the soil by its roots, are combined with the carbon and other mat-
ters received from the air through the leaves, and the resultants,
carbon and oxygen, are produced, the former for the building up of the
various parts of the tree and the latter by exhalation into the atmos-
phere, for the use of animal life. This machinery of the tree, under
proper conditions, works as steadily and smoothly as the best regulated
engine. But if the speed of an engine is increased too greatly there fol-
lows vibration, increased friction, a falling out of adjustment, and soon
it becomes worn, broken, and useless. So with a tree, the rapid action
produced by the bright sun and clear air may draw too greatly upon
its means of subsistence, more or less limited in this dry region, and
the tree, unable to keep up the supply, dies.

Thus we have found that trees in Colorado, especially in the section
around Denver and Colorado Springs, suffer principally from extreme
temperatures with sudden changes, and from lack of rain to supply the
needed moisture for the roots. When water is supplied artificially by
irrigation, they still suffer from insufficient humidity in the atmosphere
to provide moisture for the leaves and stems, from rapid evaporation
caused by the dryness and rarity of the atmosphere and the frequency
of winds, and from the clearness of the sky, or lack of cloud and mist to
intercept the dry, scorching rays of the sun, and to prevent the sudden
changes of heat and cold. Truly, indeed, this is not a favorable climate
for the growth of trees. But we have dwelt more particularly upon the
injurious qualities of the climate. The conditions are not all unfavor-
able, and notwithstanding the many drawbacks trees will and do grow
in Colorado and fulfill the objects for which they were created.

ADVICE TO TREE-PLANTERS.

We have already, from time to time, indicated some of the peculiar
modes of treatment necessary for the successful growth of trees in this
region, and a brief summary of these will be useful.

Those localities should be selected for planting, if there be a choice,
which, by the configuration of the ground will be most protected.
Among the mountains, this will be on the northern slopes, where the
rays of the sun are least powerful and evaporation is leastrapid. If pos.

‘sible the useful operation of plowing and cultivating the ground before
planting should be performed. In this way the soil, besides being

234

broken and softened, will be in much better condition to hold moisture
and will require less irrigation than other wise.

Choose those trees that are hardy, rapid, and vigorous in their growth,
The following have been found to thrive well here when planted under
the proper conditions: Soft or Silver Maple, Box-Elder or Ash-Leaved
Maple, White Eim, Red Elm, White Ash, Black Walnut, Butternut,
American Chestnut, Black or Yellow Locust, Honey Locust, American
Linden or Bass-wood, Black Cherry, Black Birch, Red Oak, Pin Oak,
Black Alder, Russian Mulberry, Mountain Ash, and the many varieties
of Poplars and Willows. |

Foreign conifers have not succeeded well as yet. From the nature
of their foliage they seem to be less able to endure the hot sun and dry
atmosphere than deciduous trees. Even the native conifers from the
mountains are difficult to transplant to the plains on account of the
increased dryness and exposure, and only succeed with the greatest
care.

Plant in the spring, as early as possible, but so as to escape the hard
frosts. If possible select trees which have grown in a nursery in this
climate at least one year, in preference to trees brought from lower ele-
vations and different conditions. In general it is better to buy small
trees than attempt to raise from seed, which requires peculiar and care-
fui treatment.

Dig large holes, much larger than are needed for the roots of the
tree, cover the bottom of the hole with 6 inches of good top soil, mixed
if possible with a little manure. Just before planting fill the hole with
water. Plant the tree a little deeper than it was before and spread
out the rootlets, sifting the dirt well around them and stamping 1f down
solid. A mulching around the tree, if nothing more than of small
stones, will be of much benefit to prevent the rapid drying of the ground.
The irrigation ditch should run 2 or 3 feet from the tree, and a small
branch ditch carried around a foot from the trunk, in which the water
may stand and soak into the ground. In dry weather irrigate once a
week, and during the rainy season only when the tree seems to need
it. Irrigate in the autumn at such time as to freeze the soil around
the tree, and two or three times in the latter part of winter when con-
tinued warm dry weather occurs. Remember that a tree may have too
much water even in this dry climate. Snow heaped around the tree is
beneficial. During the winter matting should be wrapped around the
trunk to protect it from sun and wind.

With such treatment trees may be made to succeed well in this hard
climate, and, though never so rapid and luxuriant in their growth as in
lower elevations, they will amply repay the planter.

Nowhere are trees more needed than in this State, and nowhere should
more efforts be made to obtain them. They should be planted on the
plains, for shelter, and to hold the little moisture that falls. They should
be planted on the mountains, to store up the rain-fall and keep the .

25,

streams full. They should be planted everywhere, to bring to this bar-
ren region their beneficial influences.

With trees, as in atl things, it is the first step that costs. Each grow-
ing tree tends to make its surroundings more adapted to its needs, and
as trees are multiplied the climate must necessarily change. The cur-
rents of air will be checked and medified, preventing the high winds,
sudden changes, and great extremes of temperature. The rain-fall will
be retained longer in the ground, providing more moisture for the tree
to carry through its leaves to the atmosphere and increasing the hiu-
midity. The air being moister, there will be more fogs and mists, and
consequently more modified and less sunshine and less radiation. Evap-
oraticn will be also retarded by the mechanical obstruction of the
branches. All these changes will! increase the favorable conditions for
the growth of trees, and while we have begun with the native Cotton-
wood, we will end with the less vigorous but far more useful sorts.

Notre.—The planting of trees in the Rocky Mountain region has been confined —
mainly to ornamental and fruit trees, grown in towns and on farms and ranches.
Some forest-tree planting has been done under the ‘‘timber-culture act,” but the re-
sults so far are very meager.—B. E. F.

SNOW-SLIDES AND AVALANCHES —THEIR FORMA-
TION AND PREVENTION.

By B. E. FERNow.

The question of protection against the disastrous effects of snow-
slides and avalanches has been an important one for centuries in Switz-
erland, where it seems that not only special conditions favorable to
their formation exist, but where, on account of the dense settlement of
the mountainous region exposed to their course, their destructive effects
are more intensely felt. So regularly, from period to period or year to
year, do these avalanciies occur in given localities, pursuing the same
track down the mountain sides, that they have their names like the
mountains themselves, or like the geysers, which may go off at any
time, pouring forth their waters at irregular perioris.

Nore.—The dictionaries and encyclopedias do not seem to know the word ‘‘snow- -

slide,” which is the term used in the Rocky Mountain region. The word ‘ snow-
slip” is used to denote ‘‘a large mass of snow, which slips down the side of a
mountain and sometimes buries houses” ( /Vebster), while ‘‘ avalanche” is defined as
a ‘large mass of snow, earth, and ice sliding or rolling down a mountain” ( /Vebster),
‘or falling down a precipice ” (Ogilvie). (To avale—to fall, descend, be lowered, old
French aval—towards the valley.) There exists, therefore, no definite distinct idea
that might belong to the one word or the other exclusively, and the words, have there-
fore been used as synonyms.

The guestion of the formation, dangers, and preventives of ava-
lanches forms the subject-matter of a very interesting volume published
aé the instance of the Swiss agricultural department, in 1881, by I.
Coaz, the general forest inspector of the Republic, whose personal
observations and experiences for many years in the work of abating
these dangers deserve special attention. While the conditions, atmos-
pherie and geologic, of our Rocky Mountain region may not coincide
or compare exactly with those prevailing in the Alps, yet a study of
the causes and effects there observed through a long series of years
and of the methods there employed to remove the causes and alleviate
the effects of these dangers of mountain life may suggest a closer ob-
servation of our own conditions and the invention of expedients of
protection better suited to our own needs. The accounts given on

another page of this bulletin show that the phenomenon of avalanches.

236

237

is not unfrequent in the Rocky Mountains, and that their frequency and
the extent of damage occasioned by them must be expected to increase
as population and development there progress.

Notr.—Mr. William N. Byers, C. E., a close observer and long resident of Colorado,
says: ‘‘The main difference existing between our mountains and those of the Old
World lies in the fact that there glaciers abound while we are free from them. The
great extent of plateau country causes the high temperature of the mountain ranges,
andis the cause of the snow melting off yearly, in direct contrast to the mountains
of Switzerland, thus causing a higher snow-line with us.

‘‘Snow-slides are very common in Colorado, and most common in the San Juan near
the main ‘range. They occur every year, and, when snow falls to any extent, fre-
quently, and many lives are lost.” (Last year two hundred lives are reported to have
been lost.)

March is said to be the most dangerous month in the San Juan, and, as an old
miner expresses himself, ‘‘It is hard to say as to where it is safe to live in San Juan.”

Commissioner of the Land Office, Williamson, in his report for 1885, states: “It may
be noted also as another incident to this total destruction of timber along the can-
yons, that ‘snow-slides’ are of frequent occurrence in the denuded localities of the
mining settlements, and that during the past winter some were attended with serious
loss of life and property.

To show the not infrequent occurrence and disastrous effects of snow-slides and
land-slides, the following newspaper clippings, taken within the last few years, have
been here in part reprinted:

The well-known disaster at the Emma mine, a few years ago, will probably be re-
membered by all in Utah.

Helena, Mont., May 7, 13885.—The land-slide 1 mile east of Thompson’s Falls, May
4, isnot yet cleared. Water oozes from the ground 1,000 feet above the track. It is
feared that the entire mountain side will be precipitated.

Silverton, Colo., December 22, 1885.—The first snow-slide of the winter occurred to-
day, coming down the mountain into Minnesota Gulch. The slide struck the mouth
of the Prodigal Son mine, filling the 85-foot shaft and burying two men who were
working at the bottom. The snow was packed so tightly that it was found to be im-
possible to move the bucket. ‘The news of the accident was a great surprise, as it was
not supposed sufficient snow had fallen on the mountain to make a slide that would
cause damage.

Ouray, Colo., January 17, 1886.—Ruby Trust’s cabin, on Mount Sneffels, was carried
away this morning by a snow-shde, burying six men.

Robinson, Colo., January 25, 1886.—A snow-slide occurred near Summit City this
afternoon, which buried a team and two men.

Aspen, Colo., January 25, 1886.—A snow-slide of considerable dimensions passed
over the Jessie mine, on Aspen Mountain, at noon to-day, demolishing the machinery
and ruining the buildings. Fortunately no lives were lost.

Durango, Colo., January 26, 1887.—Leonard Sutton, who has been working in the
Silver Lake basin in the La Plata mine, reached Durango last night with an ac-
count of a slide which wrecked the cabin at the Daylight mine, Tuesday last.

Gunnison, Colo., January 26, 13826.—A snow slide occurred on Sunday and carried
away the cabin of the Excelsior mine, located in Poverty Gulch near Crested Butte.

Ouray, Colo., January 15, 1887.—Marshall basin was visited by another snow-slide
yesterday.

Gunnison, Colo., January 18, 1886.—W. J. Fine, 8. F. Winters, and Will Turner, re-
turning from a surveying party to Spring Creek this evening, had a narrow escape.
When directly opposite the mouth of Dead Man’s Gulch, they notiged a snow-slide
coming down the mountain. The edge of the slide caught three men and horses.

Aspen, Colo., January 20, 1886.—Numerous snow-slides are reported here. A snow-

238

slide of gigantic proportions passed over the Aspen mines. The engine-house was
crushed in, and the engine and boiler buried, and several men killed. Half an hour
later another slide occurred in an adjoining gulch, which passed over the Last Chance
mine, but without damaging efiect. At 5.30 the fire-bell announced the occurrence
of another slide, and investigation revealed that two ore-wagons, mules, and drivers
had been buried in another slide near the Late Acquisition.

Another slide occurred on Castle Creek last night which caused the closing down
of the electric-light works. The seven men who started for Maroon Pass yesterday
morning have not yet been heard from. Aslide betsveen here and Ashcroft last even-
ing took away a shanty, in which a man and woman were known to have lived.

Just before dark last night three teams and four men were caught on Aspen
Mountain near the Last Chance mine. They were found to-day uninjured, having
been imprisoned nineteen hours. 2

Aspen, Colo., January 21, 1886.—The results of the terrible snow-slides of Tuesday
continue to arrive. (Accounts of accidents are given.) During the past three days
twenty-seven snow-slides have occurred in the neighborhood of Maroon Pass. This
evening a miner from Conundrum stated that a fearful slide occurred this afternoon
in exactly the same spot where occurred the fatal slide two years ago in which sev-
eral men were killed.

Ouray, Colo., January 21, 1885.—George Boss, mail-carrier, reported a large slide on
the Dutton mine, in which four miners were swept away and the new plant of ma-
chinery and houses a total wreck. The Gilpin County Mining Company’s building
and George Porter’s store at Snefiels are all gone. The loss of life and property will
be large.

Leadville, Colo., January 21, 1886.—About 10 this morning a slide occurred on the
Blue River Branch of the Rio Grande near Chalk ranch. The track covered at
least 10 feet.

Gunnison, Colo., January 26, 1886.—News has just been received here of two snow-
slides which occurred yesterday morning, in the northern end of this county, in which

=
=

five men lost their lives. The Excelsior mine in Poverty Gulch, 8 miles north of
Crested Butte, was the scene of the horrors. The second slide occurred on White
House Mountain, in Crystal Basin. Many small slides and narrow escapes are also
reported in different sections.

In the following, therefore, that which appeared worth noting in the
volume referred to has been presented. As far as could be ascertained
no literature on the subject is extant in this country.

NATURE OF SNOW.

Snow is of different qualities according to the temperature of the
atmosphere, and on its quality depends the form, the manner of forma-
tion, and the progress of snow-slides and avalanches.

The temperature at which snow may fall (in the Alps) ranges between
40° and 12° Fahrenheit. At low temperatures snow fallsrarely, and then
only in fine needle-like crystals. With _a north wind if snows mostly
at a temperature below, with a south wind above, the freezing point.
The snow-fall at temperatures above zero is to be explained by the ex-
istence of a lower temperature in the higher strata of the atmosphere
where the snow forms. During a continuous snow-fall, and especially if
the wind changes, the temperature, and with it the form of the snow,
may change considerably.

Snow falling at low temperatures is dry and composed of small flakes,

is
rare

TY ak has

239

because the dry crystals do not hang to each other; such snow does not
hang on or ball easily nor does it make good sleighing. It lies so loose
that it is easily moved by the wind, like sand, and causes snow-drifts,
while the wet snow falling at higher temperatures, which has begun to
thaw and contains much air inclosed, packs tight and shrinks quickly.

The first snows of the season soon melt away, except in the highest alti-
tudes, because the temperature of the soil and atmosphere are still too
high for it to remain. As soon as the soilis cooled down to freezing
point the snow remains. If the temperature rises above freezing point
the snow begins to thaw superficially, part of the water evaporates, part
seeps through the snow and saturates it with water, or else the water
penetrates to the soil and softens this gradually. The snow thus shrinks
and settles until the temperature sinks again to freezing point, when
snow and water freeze together.

Thawing, evaporation, settling of the snow, depend on temperature,
the relative humidity of atmosphere, clear or cloudy sky, and on the di-
rection of the winds.

It would be supposed that winters of much snow-fall would bring the
greatest number of snow-slides. This is not the ease in the Alps, on |

account of the dry southern wind (Koehn) prevailing in such winters,

which evaporates with great rapidity much of the snow. If, in addition,
the soil was not frozen before the snow-fall and is capable of taking up
the snow water, snow-slides are made still less frequent.

NotTr. —The existence of a “ Foehn” in our own mountain region is perhaps
interesting enough to justify the following extract from a paper by Prof. W. M.
Davis, of Harvard, especially as it may suggest explanations of other climatic charac-
teristics of the Rocky Mountain region :

“First in Switzerland and afterwards. in other mountainous countries, the atten-
tion of meteorologists was called to the occurrence, especially in winter time, of a
warm, or even hot, dry wind, blowing briskly down the valleys from the high, cold

passes. The Swiss name for sucha wind is *‘ Fehn,” said to be derived from the old
p ,

Latin name Favonius. Various local names are used in other countries, but with the
present understanding of the origin of the wind, all examples of it may be included
under the Swiss term, which has now become of generic value. When the Fehn blows,
it is commé6n to see a bank of dark clouds over the pass at the head of the valley from
which the wind descends. Under its effects the snow-fields melt away, and the
streams rise in freshets.

“The origin of the wind should be looked for, not on the farther side of the mount-
ains, whence it blows, but in the direction towards which it flows. Its warmth and
dryness were first properly, but, as will be seen, not fully, explained as follows: When

a current of air, moving on its oblique path towards a center of low pressure, encoun-

ters a transverse mountain range, and is forced to ascend over it, the air expands and

is thereby cooled; in consequence of the cooling, its vapor is condensed into cloud,
and soon begins to fall as rain, so that on reaching the summit of the range the air
contains less vapor, although it is very moist and cloudy; its fall in temperature has

_ decreased its absolute humidity, while increasing its relative humidity. It must be
further noted that on account of the release of the energy before employed in main-
taining the rain in the state of vapor, the cooling of the ascending current is consid-

erably retarded ; the rate of cooling in an ascending mass of saturated air being only
from one-third to one-half as fast asin non-saturated air. As soon as the current begins

240

its descent on the leeward slope of the range, it is warmed by compression, but until
all its cloud is evaporated it warms as slowly as it cooled before ; however, by reason
of having lost some vapor that fell on the windward slope as rain, the cloud mass to
be evaporated in descent is less than the total cloud mass formed in ascent; the de-
scending current soon becomes clear, and then warms at the relatively rapid rate
proper to non-saturated air, and as a consequence of warming faster than it cooled
it must reach the valley bottom as a warmer wind than it was on starting to ascend
the other side of the mountains. Having lost some of its humidity and gained in
temperature, it must be relatively dry ; it is a Fehn.

‘Only one element remains to be added to the explanation, but it is a significant
one. Thus far the production of the Foehn dopends on the evolution of ‘latent heat,’
while the wind is rising and raining on the farther side of the range ; now it appears
from more precise observations that the winter Fehn is often felt in the northern valleys
of the Alpsa day, oreven more, before any rain falls on the southern slope; and there-
fore, although the rain is an aid when it begins, it must in these cases be preceded by
some other cause not dependent on the ascent of air towards the passes and the conden-
sation of vapor on its way. The solution of the difficulty is as follows: The average rate
of variation of temperature in the atmosphere is closely one degree Fahrenheit to 300
feet of descent. Inasmuch as the air is less active than the ground in changing its
temperature, this rate will be increased in the summer season and decreased in the
winter; in winter the rise of temperature encountered in descending through the air
is generally less than the gain of temperature given to a descending mass of air by
reason of its compression. If atsuch a time the air in a valley be withdrawn by
flowing away in answer to the call of an area of low pressure, and its place be taken
by air descending from the passes to windward, this fact of descent will require that
the new supply of air shall be warmer than that which has moved away; it is nec-
essarily very dry, because it gains capacity for vapor as its temperature rises, with-
out gaining the vapor to satisfy its capacity. This is the first cause of the Feehn,
and explains in good part why it is more pronounced in winter than in summer.
When the wind over the pass is well established, it may be joined by currents of air
rising from the further slope ; these soon become cloudy and yield rain, and then the
second cause of the Fehn is in operation, as already explained.

“The Chinook wind of the northwest, along the eastern foot of the Cordilleran
ranges, is described by G. M. Dawson as ‘a strong westerly wind becoming at times
almost a gale. It is extremely dry, and, as compared with the general winter tem-
perature, warm. Such winds occur at regular intervals during the winter, and are
also not infrequent in the summer; but being cool as compared with the average
summer temperature, are in consequence then not commonly recognized by the same
name. When the ground is covered with snow the effect of the winds in its removal
is marvelous, as, owing to the extremely dessicated condition of the air, the snow
may be said to vanish rather than to melt, the moisture being licked up as fast as it
is produced.’ (Science, 1886, vii, 33).

‘¢ Professor Loomis notes the following case of rapid temperature changes at Denver,
Colo., on the plains just east of the front range of the Rocky Mountains: ‘An
area of low pressure passed over San Francisco January 14, about 4p.m. During
the following night the center passed near Salt Lake City, and at 4 p. m., January
15, the center was near Leavenworth, having traveled about 1,400 miles in twenty-
four hours. It was this storm which brought the air from the west side of the Rocky
Mountains over to Denver. The vapoy contained in this air would be mostly precipi-
tated on the west side of the Rocky Mountains so that it would descend on the cast
side deprived of its moisture and with a temperature above that which prevailed in
the Salt Lake basin, on account of the latent heat liberated in the condensation of
the vapor. After the center of low pressure passed Denver, the northeast wind
returned and brought back the cold air which had constantly prevailed at stations
not very distant. Thus we see that in winter, during periods of extreme cold on the

;

2.
ad
7

241

east side of the Rocky Mountains, when the temperature at Denver sometimes sinks
more than 20° below zero, there prevails in the Salt Lake basin an average tempera-
ture of about 30°; and when by changes of atmospheric pressure this air is carried
over the mountains it may reach Denver with a temperature of 50°, resulting from a
precipitation of vapor on the mountains. We thus find a mass of air having a tem-
perature of + 50° in close proximity to a mass having a temperature of —20°, and
by the movements of the atmosphere attending the progress of a great storm these
different masses of air may be brought successively over the same station, causing a
change of temperature of 50° in a single hour.’

‘¢The following tables present numerical accounts of these changes from the same
authority 2 :

Temperature and relative humidity, January, 1875.

Pike’s North
ce. mne. nver.
Salt Lake. | Cheye Denver Beaioee: ie plane
Hour |- == — | |

: : ; |

} . 4 a | 0 ° F . ' 6
Date. (Washing-| 2 | os ae |ob)| 3 omle |oki ea oP
ton time). | &¢g | FS | & | Sse pe Bear eo aS 52)
Se (ess | AO pisses |S Ou ee Poets © |) se

fon) ia | S5 = olan! a5 ad Ag ao

Be jot) se ce) BS) ce) Be ck | Be los

BH |e (Raia |FelHe |8a/qu |Aa

January 14.....

7.85 fe 100) | en
Aba laa sui 504) a lamesrend | 64 |. 98 | 100 |b Zeer on
Oe ose sume OOn ee ot 5 | 100 eee
January 15..... Teooemse erecta ween peor 49) 2 21% 6 | “100'| =="8)| 79
4.35 | 26| 52 Peay FemelO nln Wrele 195 | ort00) es atalinanes
11.00 | 23 Sy wna ole ee is.) 449) 10, e100) "4a G40 hee

‘Salt Lake, at the western foot of the Wahsatch range, in the Great Basin, is con-
stantly rather warm, and of ordinary humidity. Pike’s Peak is cold and constantly
at its dew point. North Platte, on the plains east of the mountains, is much colder
and distinctly drier. Denver and Cheyenne are much alike in changes of tempera-
ture, as these stations are about equally distant from the eastern foot of the mountains;
but Denver shows much the greater decrease in relative humidity, perhaps because
the range west of this station is higher than farther north. The second table shows
in greater detail how violent the changes of temperature were at Denver and how
completely they accorded with changes in the wind:

Temperature and wind, Denver, January 14, 15, 1875.

€ | Tempera- :
Date. — Hour. tutes Wind.
1}

JanwWavy lees. ==. - 2.43 p.m. — 4] NE

9.00 p.m. +1) NE

9.15 p.m. 20 | SW

9.20 p.m. 27 |} SW

| O:a0 70s wa), 36 | SW

9.35 p.m. 40| SW

January 15......-.... 5.43 a.m. 43 |} SW

10.30 a.m. 521 SW

12.30 p.m. 4} NE.
2.48 p.m. SEL OP eet

“‘An observer who was considered perfectly reliable says that between 11 a. m. and
noon the thermometer fell from 58 to 22 (that is, 36°) 1n five minutes.” (Amer. Journ.
Science, 1875, x, 12; 1850, xxul, 13, 14.)

Any one who wishes to understand the climate of the Rocky Mountains will also
do well to read an excellent paper on the Chinook winds by Prof. M. W. Harrington

24738—Bul i a

242

in the American Meteorological Journal for 1887; from which we cite only a few
points:

‘The dry character of these winds is usually seen only to the eastward of the mount-
ains. In western Oregon and Washington they are moist, and the same is true of the
western slopes of Idaho and Montana. But as the name is more generally used east
of the mountains, where the idea of dryness is a fundamental one, the Chinooks are
defined as warm, dry westerly or northerly winds occurring on the eastern slopes of
the mountains of the Northwest, beginning at any hour of the day and continuing
from a few hours to several days. Their effects are felt at least as far as 500 miles.
east of the divide. On the arrival of the Chinook the winter appears to yield, the
air becomes mild and spring-like. This effect appears in the winter isotherms, mak-
ing the average winter temperature on the plains east of the Rocky Mountains in the
great interior basin and the narrower interior valleys to the north, notwithstanding
their continental position and high elevation, actually higher than on the same lati-
tudes east of the Mississippi River; yet at the same time the range of temperature for
the northwestern plain and the changes more sudden and severe. These changes are
injurious to tree life, and in them can be found one reason for the difference between
the eastern and western slopes of the mountains. The eastern slopes are bare, rugged,
and somber; the western heavily clothed with timber. These trees, largely conifers,
which can endure without injury very low temperatures, are very sensitive to ex-
treme dryness. The dry air injures the foliage, and when accompanied by wind may
kill the cambium on the windward side of the trunk, thus permanently injuring and
in time destroying the tree. The Chinooks have probably played an important part
in the treelessness of the Western plains and interior basins.”

MOVEMENT OF THE SNOW, FORMATION OF AVALANCHES.

On the plain the snow moves only by settling and by drifting. On
an incline, even if only slight, there is a side movement, following the
law of gravity and depending in its amount on the angle of inclination,
configuration, and especially cover of the ground, and also on the nat-
ure and amount of the snow. Ifthe snow is frozen to the soil, it can
not of course move. Otherwise, even if the conditions are not favor-
able to motion, and a movement may be hardly noticeable, yet it exists
within the mass, and becomes apparent by the formation of horizontal
rills on the surface of the snow. This movement and the pressure due
to it is capable of displacing buildings without much injuring them.
The more favorable the conditions are for motion the greater becomes
this movement, until at last a slide occurs, moving in larger or smaller
masses, more or less rapidly over the incline.

According to the temperature or the nature of the snow dependent
thereon, the forin and effect of the avalanche vary.

If in cold temperature a large amourt of dry snow falls on a steep,
deforested mountain side, it behaves like a sand-heap, the particles get-
ting into motion for lack of stability in the mass, and moving forward,
the mass carries with it any other masses of snow that are in its way.
The heavy particles arrange themselves towards the soil, the finer par-
ticles forming a cloud of snow bursting into the air and like dust set-
tling down only gradually.

This falling cloud, which obscures the mountain view for some time,
compresses the air to such an extent that like a cyclone it precedes the

243

avalanche, followed and pressed on by the latter in hasty flight and
exerting an enormous pressure, often over great distances, sometimes
2 or 3 miles beyond the actual course of the avalanche.

The destruction, which is due to the snow-masses of such a slide, are
insignificant in comparison tothose of the compressed air-current, since
the snow is light, and by the fall dispersed and scattered and may pass
through a thinly stocked forest without doing much damage. One of
such air currents preceding an avalanche is reported to have carried a
full-grown larch tree bodily over the tower of a prison, lodging it 300
yards beyond, and to have laid low timber drift 200 to 300 feet beyond the
avalanche. Such slides are called dust, or powder avalanches._ They
usually occur during a heavy snow-fall, and are but rarely occasioned
by winds afterwards, if perchance the snow has been able to preserve
its loose and dry condition and could keep in position long enough. It
seems that most of the snow-slides of the Rocky Mountains are of this
nature.

If the snow falls when the temperature is not low, it is wet, heavy
and compact, and hangs to the soil closely. If not much snow fell, it
remains lying undisturbed, provided the soil is not wet or slippery and
the ground not very steep. The larger the mass of snow and the
warmer the temperature, the greater is the danger of a movement of
the mass in itself and a consequent slide. In such a slide the snow re-
mains compact and does not disperse unless falling over precipices. It
does not therefore exert much pressure upon the air, flows more like a
snow-stream, now sliding and now rolling over and balling together.

Its velocity in spite of its great weight, on account of its friction against

all obstacles on its road, is much less than that of a dust-slide and its

_ effects reach over a smaller space. These may be called ground slides,

or true slides. |

Lastly, a third kind of avalanche is mentioned, with which we have
nothing to do in this country, except perhaps in Alaska and Nevada.
These are the glacier avalanches, which are formed when large masses
of the glacier disconnect themselves from the main flow, and falling
over a precipice break up into something like a dust avalanche.

MECHANICAL AND ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS.

Apart from the nature of the snow the following conditions are of
moment in the formation of avalanches :

First, the geological formation of the mountains: Compact rock-for-
mations are less favorable to formation of avalanches, especially ground-
slides, than stratified rocks. The latter offer more opportunity on the
side of the dip than on the side of the outcropping (head). Granite
and granitic gneiss mountains are therefore less liable to avalanches
than slates, limestone, Flysch*—only often the angle of inclination —

* A formation composed of alternating layers of black slate and sandstone.

244

on the dip is less than on the head, when a reverse of favorable condi-
tions occurs, but the slides on the head side usually do not fall into
places where much damage can be anticipated.

Rocks easily disintegrated, like the slates, Flysch, ete., are more fa-
vorable to the formation of alae than solid rock. :

Very dangerous are steep, stratified rock faces, from which spring
and seepage water oozes out, which keeps the surface moist and slip-
pery, or else when frozen gives no chance for the snow to lie. .

On a rocky and very steep mountain side the snow when reaching a
certain depth must slide for lack of internal coherence, especially when
dry. During a continual snow-fall several slides may fall from the same
place, but they are mostly of small dimensions and little effect.

If the rock has a soil over it without vegetation, the formation of
slides is dependent in the first place on the degree of steepness. Yet
other factors, as the height of the snow, the height of the mountain
wall, etc., are of such influence that the angle of elevation may not be
made a mathematical expression of the danger.

If the foot of the snow-wall is washed by a brook, or if a spring or
other circumstance disturbs the continuity of the snow-masses, the for-
mation of avalanches is favored ; it is therefore dangerous in places lia-
able to avalanches to open a track or even to wade through the snow.

A declivity which offers varying angles, or is broken by oceasional
steps or terraces, offers so many points of support to the snow-masses,
that avalanches are less liable to occur; roads, ditches, or other artifi-
cial barriers to an even descent, offer also such points of support.

Most important is the soil-cover. The more and the larger the loose
rocks, the more in the line of the horizontal they are placed, the more
hold and support has the snow.

Vegetation has a varying effect upon the formation of slides, accord-
ing tothe kind of plants that occupy the ground and their size. A
grass cover or turf is favorable to the sliding of the snow. It has been
observed in the mountain meadows, where the hay is made every sec.
ond year, that slides are less frequent the winter after the grass is cut.

Low shrubs and tree-forms offer a better support to the snow, unless
their stems are, as 1n the case of the Mountain Alder, so elastic that after
being pressed down they exert a pressure against the snow which tends
to interrupt the coherence of the mass, when, with the aid of wind or
additional snow-fall, the snow may be set in motion.

High timber affords the best protection against snow-slides, and if
the mountaineer had not in his ignorance removed and destroyed this
protector, many dangers of a mountain home would be avoided. The
importance of the forest in this respect was recognized in the Alps cen-
turies ago, aud wherever “ban” forests were maintained, immunity from
avalanches to the extent of the forest has been secured. An interest-
ing account is given of the ban forest of Urseren, which was reserved by
the community as early as the year 1397, and of the constant-fight which

kia esi Raed ed
|

245

was necessary against reckless advisers to keep it intact, until now the
beneficial effect is fully recognized, and reforestations have been begun
every where under the protecting walls or other safety-works wherever
the danger of avalanches exists.

Yet even timber-forest is not always absolute protection against
avalanches; since the place of incipient formation of the slide may lie
above timber-line. Such avalanches, formed above the forest line, if
small, first break a wedge into the forest below them, but by repeated
action the wedge is enlarged and gradually a road broken through the
forest. Large avalanches break, even in their first attempt, through the
best rooted full-grown forest of entire mountain sides, hurling earth,
rock, and timber into the valley below.

Water, the great mover of the earth, is an active agent in the forma-
tion of avalanches. Not only the spring and seepage water, but also rain
and melting snow-water exert their influence. Ground-slides (in the
Alps) occur mostly in warm weather in the spring, when the snow melts.
Then the snow settles and becomes more compact, has a greater specifie
weight, and therefore more tendency to slide; the snow water pene-
trates through to the soil, and if the soil is not frozen, saturates it and
then seeks to flow oif between soil and snow, by which the hold of the
snow on the soil is loosened, the latter made slippery, and the sliding
facilitated. How soon this influence of water becomes active depends
on how soon the soil is filled up with water, and this again on the kind
of soil and subsoil.

Clay soils soon fill up in their upper strata and the snow-water sooner
begins a superficial flow; a penetrable soil on the contrary with pene-
trable subsoil does not attain saturation at all and the dangeris avoided.
If the soil is frozen, the water can not penetrate at all and the sliding
takes place the sooner. Rain of courseadds to the water which loosens
the snow.

Configuration, as has been said, may prevent formation of avalanches
by presenting a number of points of support. Yet where there are
sink-holes or troughs in which the snow accumulates, the melting snow-
water collects below the snow and loosens the masses, which may thunder
into the valley, following the course of the ravine.

Lastly, even an exterior pressure or disturbance may loosen the masses.

A stone or an icicle falling, or snow dropping from the branches of
a tree, when accompanied by strong wind, is liable to start the snow.

So can one avalanche, by the concussion of the air which it produces,
Start others in its neighborhood. It has also been frequently observed
that a sound, as of a gun, of church bells, of an explosion from mines,
etc., may start the snow. This has given rise to the proposal to start
the slides by shotguns before they are likely to become dangerous.

On the other hand, sometimes in the stillest weather the danger may
be greatest, as the snow falling during such weather accumulates to
large amount before it breaks loose; while in stormy weather smaller

246 :

masses are constantly set in motion and come to strand on the terraces, -
etc., thus reducing the danger.

Some special conditions for the formation of slides exist, when days
with a temperature above freezing which thaws the surface of the snow,
alternate with cold nights when the surface freezes together. If fresh
snow falls on such a surface, it is most liable to form into an avalanche,
and sometimes if a heavy snow-fall occurs, it may break throngh the
erust and carry the lower masses with it. This kind of slide occurs
mostly on southern exposures.

As regards season and periodicity of slides the greatest diversity ex-
ists. New tracks are opened every year, while in other places the old
tracks become scenes of disaster in varying intervals, some yearly,
some every half or every full century. It depends of course on the
amount of snow fallen, in connection with weather conditions, espe-
cially the direction and force of winds. The most regular falls occur in
spring during time of thaws.

In wind-still weather and warm sunshine, the time of fall occurs in
the first hours of the afternoon, yet if a warm wind blows any time of
day or night, the avalanches may start.

PROGRESS OF AVALANCHES.

The ground-slides follow more or less the contour of the ground, like
running water. Usually the masses start sliding, later on they roll
over when passing over steeper and rocky ground, and in rills and fun-
nels they are compressed and compacted.

As in a stream of water, the greatest velocity lies in the center of
the slide, where in a straight track the largest mass and the least frie-
tion exists. If turned from the straight track the force is greatest on
the outer curve, where trees, turf, soiJ, and rocks are torn up and swept
away together.

Dust-slides occur most frequently during snow-falls at low tempera-
tures, especially in windy weather. They occur oftener in clear weather
than when the sky is clouded.

RESCUE OF PERSONS BURIED BY AVALANCHES.

After pointing out the different localities which are exposed to ava-
lanches in the Alps, and giving an account of some special cases of dis-
asters, which forms most interesting and instructive reading, a chap-
ter is devoted to the measures to be taken in saving men lost in snow-
slides. The procedure is somewhat like the following:

First look over the surface of the snow, where the slide has come to
rest, after signs of the unfortunate victims. If no parts of the body are
visible outside, determine, according to the location and the track which
the slide took, the place where most probably the entombed lie. Then
let the rescuers take position in line, and with the handles of shovels,

247

or with poles, push into the snow every foot or so, progressing forward
as they doso. If ahuman body is touched, the elasticity will be noted ;
also, the poles pushed down around the body will sink deeper, for the
entombed usually do not lie on the ground, but are imbedded in the
snow. Accounts are given of men who have been imbedded for four-
teen, nineteen, and twenty-four hours, and one case, in which a woman
was found living after one hundred hours, is almost incredible.

The work of rescue should, therefore, never be speedily abandoned.

Death usually occurs either through bodily injuries or through suftfo-
cation, mostly the latter. The more or less rapid effect of suffocation
depends on the density of the snow and the position into which the body
comes to lie. Naturally, if the head lies downward, and is packed into
compact snow, death must occur sooner than when the body gets into
an erect position with less snow pressing upon head and breast.

If the face comes near a hollow space in the snow, and breathing is |
facilitated, the entombed can live in spite of the cold for a long time,
and can be saved or even save himself; for the heat of the body thaws
the snow gradually, around breast and abdomen first, around legs
and arms more slowly, because these parts are more distant. from the
source of warmth.

From this some rules for the conduct of those who can not escape
the slide may be inferred, namely, that they should try to preserve an
erect position in the fall, and to keep the arms near the body, so that
the arms may sooner be released by thawing and become useful in the
rescue.

When the slide comes to rest the entombed at first feels a pressure;
this is soon relieved, after a few seconds, by the partial freezing of the
snow-masses and a consequent contraction.

The entombed hear and understand any noise or voice above them,

_ but their own voice can not be heard above; this probably because the
sound waves can not sufficiently develop in strength in the surrounding
snow. “
- The treatment of the rescued depends of course on the circumstances
of the case. Resuscitation is often possible, even if the rescued is ap-
parently dead. In all cases the first duty of the rescuers, when they
discover the body in the snow, is to provide means for breathing by
opening up a channel to the mouth. If the rescued is apparently dead
respiration must first be restored. This is done by placing the body on
the belly, supporting the front of the head lightly, pressing evenly and
slowly with flat hands upon the sides of the breast, rolling the body
over on the side and a little further and back on its belly, repeating the
pressure on the sides; this movement should be repeated sixteen to
twenty times per minute.

Another mode is to place the body in sitting posture, supporting the
head, grasping from behind the two forearms in the middle and moving
them forward and upward, until they touch both sides of the head, then —

248

move them down and press with them against the sides of the breast,
repeating the process sixteen to twenty times a minute.

This treatment should be continued for twenty to thirty minutes if
necessary, while rubbing the patient vigorously with flannel or woolen
cloth, in the direction from feet and hands toward the body.

Besides absence of respiration, cold and hunger may add to the
causes of asphyxia. I such cases, too, artificial respiration is first to be
supplied. The warming should be only gradual, never in a warm room,
or with heated bottles, but always by rubbing.

When the body becomes warm the danger in nose, ears, hands and feet
of a surplus of blood or of impeded blood-cireulation is avoided by cold
compresses, by rubbing with snow, and elevating the affected parts.

AS soon as respiration is restored small doses of coffee, tea, or brandy
should be given. .

MEASURES OF PROTECTION.

The damage done by avalanches, besides the immediate one of de-
stroying life and property and devastating meadows and agricultural
lands, lies in the tearing up of tracks in the ground in the shape or
rills and furrows, which may become the beginnings of dangerous tor-
rents and land-slides.

Those slides which fall into wild mountain guleches do damage by
tearing down the decomposed rock and stones, which high water may
carry to the valley and over fertile fields.

Measures of protection against avalanches and snow-slides have been
applied, of course, by the dwellers of the mountains since their occu-
pancy Legan. These consisted, where the ground permitted, in placing
the buildings into the mountain side, when the avalanche would shoot
over the building, or by building safety places, where to retreat in case
of danger. Probably, when by deforestation the danger from ava-
lanches had increased, a protecting wall or a stone or dirt heap was
erected, close above the houses which were to be protected, with an
acute angle towards the mountain top and with walls entering to right
and left ; such protective walls sometimes included a number of houses.

On the mountain roads galleries were built, either cut into the living
rock, or with stone or timber, over which the snow masses would slide.

These measures were intended to prevent the damage from avalanches
and slides, but to prevent their origin and their start measures were also
adopted early in this century. Such measures were the making of

ditches in horizontal lines, to prevent the snow from sliding, or of ter-

races, and the proper preservation of the forest growtb.

But only since 1867 has a systematic treatment of the avalanches
been begun under technical direction. Since then, up to the year 188),
thirty-four tracksof avalanches or snow-slides have been systematically
secured with perfect success.

In undertaking such work, it is first necessary to establish from tes.
timony the uppermost point from which the avalance has been observed

.
3
7
:
‘

—— a

——_—— eee, | le

= eS | ae eS

249

to start, which testimony, however, must be verified by a careful study
of the natural conditions of the locality. Usually the place of begin-
ning lies higher up than observed. If the start lies on extensive, steep,
rocky faces, there is no use in trying to secure it; if there are only in-
terrupted walls and rock portions, or if a ravine form the starting place,
securing is possible, and the question then simply is, whether the cost
of doing so is in proportion to the benefit to be derived.

The works consist of walls or woodwork, or a combination of both.
Ditches are not without influence, but are by no means as effective as
wall and woodwork, and present, besides, several objections; they are
collectors of water, which is liable to carry away the earth work; they
are soon filled up or trodden down; similar objections exist to terraces.

The choice of stone or wood for safety works depends mainly on the
costliness of either. Above the timber line stone would of course be
preferable, below the line it is employed only where reforestation, and,
therefore, temporary constructions are not possible. |

Wood structures consist of rows of pile work, for which of course the
most durable wood obtainable in the region is used. Split wood is

better than round, which latter does not hold the snow as well. The

piles are usually made 44 to 5 feet long, and have a diameter of 5 to 6
inches. Preserving processes, charring, etc., are unnecess ary in the
altitudes where this work is to stand. The posts are pointed at one
end, and driven with a wooden wedge, so as uot to split them, if pos-
sible, 24 feet into the ground, perpendicularly to the horizontal plane,
and secured with stones. They should not be above ground more than
3 feet, and on thin soil not as much. 7

The intervals between the piles should be 2 feet. It is not necessary
to connect them by wicker work, as the snow does not slide through
the piles; but where the ground is thin, or very dry, or very steep, or
otherwise lacking in hold, such wicker work may be made of branches
to connect, and thus to strengthen the piles. The two end piles must
be especially secured. The length of the rows of piles and their dis-
tance from each other depend upon the configuration and the angles of
inclination of the ground.

The choice of the place where the row of piles is to be put is of im-
portance. The work is begun at the top or starting place of the ava-
lanche and progresses downwards. The piles must be driven in the
horizontal line, so that the pressure of the snow will be evenly distrib-
uted over the whole line. They are also to be placed where a change

of fall (angle of inclination) from a less steep into a steeper incline oc-
curs. If no natural terraces are found, such may be made by cutting
into the ground above the piles, making a terrace of 2 feet in the side
of the mountain. The ground thus removed is placed on the lower side
of the piles and covered with turf.

_ Where piles can not be driven “snow-bridges” are constructed

| Where narrow rills or runs are to be protected a tree is thrown across

250

and secured at its ends against other trees, or by posts, or placed upon
trestles, if necessary, Supported in the middle by posts. Over this tree
are placed sticks, with a slight inclination to the mountain side, some-
what in the shape of a corduroy bridge, and fastened with wooden
nails to the tree and secured by stones on the ground, if possible.

The retaining- works of stone are the strongest, most lasting, and are
possible everywhere, but also the most expensive. For a foundation a
space of about 3 feetis leveled, with a slight inclination into the mount-
ain side, as if cutting out a road; the base must be natural, not made,
soil. The proper making of this foundation-base is of the highest im-
portance. The height of the wall must be 3 feet above the ground on
the upper side; the steeper the ground, therefore, the higher necessa-
rily becomes the wall work. Simple dry walls are all that is needed,
which, in addition to being cheaper, permit rain and snow water to seep
through.

Especially the ends of the wall must be well secured, and the use of
cement in this part of the wallis recommended. ‘The roof is made of
large slabs or, in their absence, of sods.

The length of walls, as of pile rows, depends on the configuration of
the soil. The distance of the walls from each other may be greater than
with wood-work.

There have also been used iron rods let into the rock and covered
with wood-work.

The choice of work and the adaptation to the configuration is of
greatest importance.

If the slope presents an even surface, like a roof, the pile rows and
walls are placed at intervals, so that the next series covers the even
spaces of the one before.

In ravines, the work is to be placed where the slope changes to the
steeper wall. Large bowlders or rocks rising above the surface are often
the incipient cause of slides. The safety-work is to be placed at their
foot, so, however, that the snow sliding from such elevations should
not fall upon the wall, but in front of it, to be there retained.

Springs and collections of seepage water must be taken care of and
properly conducted.

A yearly inspection and repairs are, of course, necessary.

After the starting-point of avalanches has been thus secured reforest-
ation is at once begun, with such species as belong to the locality.
The planting is done with seedlings, at a distance of 40 inches, as a
rule. This reforestation of the tracks of avalanches, especially in steep
situations, including after-planting, is very expensive, and amounts to
$25 to $40 per acre in Switzerland.

In conclusion, it may be stated that the Swiss Government bears 40
per cent.—in extraordinary cases 50 per cent.—of the cost of building
retaining-works. In reforestation in existing protective forests, 20 to
59 per cent., and in planting new forests, 30 to 70 per cent. of the cost is
borne by the Government, the communities being liable for the balance.

OND Ee Xx:

Agriculture in Rocky Mountains, relations of
_ forest preservation to, 60, 62, 84.

Alder, White, 184.

Alders of the Rocky Mountain region, 184.

Altitudesin Rocky Mountains, 54.

Amelanchier alnifolia, 192.

Ampelopsis quinquefolia, 191.

Arctostaphylos uva-urst, 195.

Area of Rocky Mountain system, 52,

Ash, Rocky Mountain, 177; Western Mountain,
175.

Asp or Aspen, Quaking, 72, 187.

Avalanches and snow-slides, 236; formation of,
242; rescue of persons puried, 246; measures
of protection, 248.

Baccharis salicina, 194.

Bay onet, Spanish, 189.

Berberis repens, 190; Fendleri, 190.

Betulu glandulosa, 196.

Birch, Canoe, White Birch, 183; Black, 184.

Blue Wood, Purple Haw, 168.

Bryanthus empetriformis, 195.

Butte, 53.

California, forests of Los Angeles, San Diego,
and San Bernardino Counties, 198; trees and
shrubs of same counties, 202.

Canon, 51.

Cat’s Claw, 172.

Ceanothus velutinus, 190; ovatus, 190; sangutneus,
191; Fendleri, 191.

Cedar, Canoe, 166; Red-Savin, 167.

Chamexbatiaria millefolium, 191.

Chareoal, demand on the forests for, 77; con-
sumption of in Colorado for smelting, 78.
Cherry, Indian, 168; Wild Red, 173; Oregon, 178;

Wild, 174; Choke, 174.

Climate of the Rocky Mountain region, 12, 56,
221.

Coal, supply of in Rocky Mountain region, 79,
81

Cceur d’Aléne Mountains, 20.

Coleogyne ramosissima, 192.

Colorado, assessed valuation of, 67; coal supply
of, 80; forests of, 116; forest preservation in,
118; Forestry Association of, 118; geography
of, 5; irrigation systems of, 118; lumber in-
terests of, 117; mountains of. 50.

Configuration of Rocky Mountain region, 51.

Conifers of Rocky Mountain region, 159.

Consumption of timber in Rocky Mountains for
mining purposes, 77.

Cornus Canadensis, 193; stolonifera, 193.

Cornwall, George, 57.

Corylus rostrata, 196.

Cowania Mexicana, 192.

Cupressus, Guadalupensis, 166,201; Cupressus ma-
crocarpa, 201.

Davis, W. M., 239.

Depredations on public timber, 9, 17, 21.

Domain, public, legislation for preservation of
timber on the, 212.

Egleston, N. H., 212; notes, 61, 139, 140.

Hixagnus argentea, 195.

Elevations in Rocky Mountain region, 55.

Ensign, E. T., 41, 69, 154.

European forests, yield of, 36.

Eupatorium ageratifolium, 194,

Fencing and fuel, demand on forests for, 79.

Fendlera rupicola, 192, 81, 198.

Fernow, B. E., 71, 83, 235, 236.

Fir, Balsam, Balm of Gilead, 163; Great Silver,
White, 163.

Fires, forest, in Rocky Mountain region, 82.

Foehn, the, 239. !

Foliage, loss of, 84.

Forest conditions of Rocky Mountain region,
summarized statement by counties in tables,
70, 152.

Forest fires in Rocky Mountain region, 82.

Forest flora of Rocky Mountain regio, 153,

Forest influences, 84.

Forest preservation in Rocky Mountains, rela-
tions of to agriculture, 84.

Forest policy, 13, 38, 86.

Forest products, value of, compared, 23.

Forest schools, 34.

Forest supplies, demandson, 72; for lumber, 73;
for railway, 74; for telegraph poles, 76; for
mining, 77; for charcoal, 77

Yorests, relation of the Government to, 23.

Forests of Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Ber-
nardino Counties, California, 198.

Forests of the Rocky Mountains, location, area,
and ownership, 69.

Forestiera Neo-Mexicana, 195.

Flora, forest, of Rocky Mountain region, 153.

Fuel, supply of, in Rocky Mountains, 79, 81.

Fuel and fencing, demands on forests for, 79.

Gaullheria Myrsinites, 195.

Geography of Rocky Mountain region, 49, 91, 99,
108, 115, 137, 149.

Hague, Arnold, 206.

Harrington, M. W., 241.

Haw, Purple; Blue Wood, 168.

Hemlock, Western, 164.

Holodiscus discolor, 191.

Houser, 8. T., 82, 88.

Idaho, assessed valuation, 66; geography and
forest conditions, 91; coal- fields, 81; coal pro-
duction, 80; irrigation, 93 ; lumber manu-
factur ed, 93.

Industries of Rocky Mountains, 62.

Indian Cherry, 168.

Influence of forests on climate and water-flow,
26,27.

Irrigation systems in Rocky Mountains, 61, 85.

James, E.J

Jamesia Americana, 192.

Juniper, 166; Rocky Mountain, 167.

Juniperus communis, 197; Sabina, var.
bens, 197.

Kalmia glauca, 195.

Kinney, Abbot, 198.

Land and snow slides in Rocky Mountain re-
gion, 83; in Europe, 138.

Land Office, Reports of the Commissioner of,
1 ly

Lands, public, 7, 9,13.

Larch, Western; Tamarack, 165;

Larrea Mexicana, 190.

Lonicera Utahensis, 194;
194.

Mahogany, Mountain, 175.

Manufactures of Rocky Mountain region, 64,

Maptes of Rocky Mountain region, 170.

Mesa, 52.

Mesquit, Serew Bean, 172.

Meteorological tables of Rocky Mountain region,
58, 60, O94.

procum-

Lyallii, 165.

involucrata, 194; ciliosa,

201

252

Mining industry of Rocky Mountains, 63; con-
sumption of timber for, in Rocky Mountains,
dae

Montana, assessed valuation, 66; geography and
forest conditions, 99; coal-fields, 81; coal pro-
duction, 80;
titudes, 99; trees, kinds and distribution, 100,

New Mexico, assessed valuation, 68; climate, 138;
coal-fields, 81; forests, 139; geography, 137;
irrigation, 139; lumber interest, 141: rainfall,
139.

Oak, Black—Mountain Oak, 183; Evergreen—Live
Oak, 182; White, 182.

Oaks of Rocky Mountain region, 181.

Pachystima Myrsinites, 190.

Park, Yellowstone National, 115, 206.

Parsons, George H., 221.

Peraphyllum ramosissimum, 192.

Philadelphus microphyllus, 192.

Physocarpus opulifolia, 191; Torreyi, 191.

Pine, White, 159, 160; Hoary-branched, 159;
Pinon—N ut, 160—Fox- tail—Hickory, 160 ;
Bull—Yellow, 160; Chihuahua, 161; Blaek—
Lodge-pole, Tamarac, 161; Torreyana, 201.

Pines of Rocky Mountain region, 159.

Plains and plateaus of Rocky Mountain region,
52,58.

Plum, Wild Yellow or Red—Horse Plum, 173;
Chickasaw, 173.

Poplar, Balsam—Balm of Gilead, 187.

Poplars of Rocky Mountain region, 187.

Populationand property values in Rocky Mount-
ain region, 65.

Public lands, disposal of, in Rocky Mountains,
7,13; depredations,9; protection, 17, 21.

Publie timber lands, area and management of,
86. P

Purshia tridentata, 192.

Railways in Rocky Mountains, consumption of
timber by, 74; mileage of, 75.

Reforestation in France, expenditure for, 13.

Resources, agricultural, 60.

Rhamnus alnifolia, 190; Culifornica, 190.

Rhus glabra, 191; toxicodendron, 191; aromatica,
var. trilobata, 191.

Ribes leptanthum, 192; divericatum, 192: oxican-
thoides, 193; rotundifolium, 193; Cynobati, 193;
prostratum, 193; lucustre, 193; Hudsonianum,
193; Coreum, 193; vicisissimum, 193; floridum,
193; sanguineum, 193; aureum, 193.

Rocky Mountain region, forest flora, 153 ; pines,
159; spruces, 161; maples, 170; ashes, 177;
oaks, 181; alders, 184; willows, 185; poplars,
187; shrubs, 190; climate, 12, 56, 221;
grants to, 7; population and values, 7.

Rocky Mountains, agriculture, 62;
conditions, 60; altitudes, 54; area, 52; cli-
mate,55; configuration, 51; elevation, 51, 52,
53, 54, 55: forests of the region, 69; forest
conditions, 49, 69; forest policy in, 86; in-
dustries, 62; irrigation systems, 61, 85: man-
ufactures, 64; mining, 63;
teaus, 52, 58: population and values, 65;

stock-growing, 64; stone and marble, 65; the |

mountain system, 19, 51, 49; timber lines, 55;
water-courses, 53; wool-growing, 64.

Rosa blanda, 192; Arkansana, 192; gymnocarpa,
192; Sayi, 192. Nutkana, 192; Fendleri, 192;
Woodsii, 192.

| Rubus Nutkanus,

geographical description, 99; al- |

land |

agricultural |

plains and pla- |

191; deliciosus, 191; strigosus,
191; occidentalis, 191,

Salix cordata, 196; Ne »2 Angliz, 196; irrorafa,
195; monticola, 196 : rostrata, 196; chlorophylia,
196; candida,196; glauca, var.villosa, 196; des-
ertorum, 196; artica, var. petrea, 196; vestita,
196; reticulata, 197.

Sambueus racemosa, 193; melanocarpa, 193 ; Cana-

~ densis, 194.

San Diego County, Cal., trees and shrubs of, 198,

Sarcobatus vermiculaius, 195.

Sequoia sempervirens.

Screw Bean—Mesquit, 172.

Sheperdia argentea, 195: Canadensis, 195.

Signal Service tables of temperature, rain-fall,
etce., in Rocky Mountain region, 83

Slides, snow and land, in Rocky Mountain re-
gion, 83.

| Snow and land slides in Rocky Mountains, 83.

Snow-slides and avalanches, 236; accounts of in
Rocky Mountains, 237.

Spirea betulifolia, 191.

Spruce, White—Single, 161; Engelmann’s, 162;
Blue, 162; Douglas—Yellow Fir, 164.

Spruces of Rocky Mountain region, 161.

Shrubs of Rocky Mountain region, 190.

Stock-growing in Rocky Mountains, 64.

Stevenson, E, A., 88,

Sudworth, G.B., 153.

Symphoricarpos occidentalis, 194; racemosus, 194 ;
oreophilus, 194.

Telegraph poles, 76.

Temperature of Rocky Mountain region, 58,
59.

Tetradymia canescens, 194; glabrata, 194; Nuttalit,
194; spinosa, 194,

Thorn, Black, 176.

Timber, consumption for mining purposes, 77 ;
right to fell and remove, 8.
Timber, public, depredations on, 9.
Timber lands, public—legislation in regard to,
2

212.

Timber lines in Rocky Mountains, 55.

| Torrents, damage by, in Europe, 13.

Trefoil, Shrubby—Hop Tree, 168.

Tree-planting in Colorado, 233.

Utah, assessed valuation, 68; climate, 149; farm-
ing lands, extent of, 149; forest conditions, 14;
geography, 149; ores, 150; quarries—stone,
151; rain-fall, 150; timber, 150, 151.

Values of property in Rocky Mountain region,
65, 68.

Vaccinium occidentale, 194; caespitosum,195 ; Myr-
tillus, 195.

Virburnum paucifiorum, 194.

Vitis riparia, 191.

Warren, Francis E., 56.

Water-courses of Rocky Mountain region, 53.

Willows of Rocky Mountain region, 185.

Wool-growing in Rocky Mountain region, 64.

Wyoming, assessed valuation, 66; climate. 109 ;
coal fields, 81; geography ‘and forest condi-
tions, 108; irrigation, 111; native trees and
for ests, 109.

Yellowstone National Park, 115, 206; needs of,
206 ;-forests, 208; flora, 208 : water-flow, 209.

Yew, 167.

Yucca, brevifolia, 201.

ERRATA.

Page 75, last line, for 686,827 read 686,781.

Page 128, line 25, for Poplar read Aspen.

Page 128, bottom, for Vine read Dwarf.

Page 129, third line, for Poplar read Aspen.

Page 131, third line from bottom, transpose ‘‘long” and ‘‘ wide.”
Page 132, ninth line from bottom, for 21,000 read 2,100.

Page 133, fifth line, for 84 read 74.

Page 136, tenth line from bottom, for 7,600 read 8,490.

Page 136, add at last line, There are 15 miles of mining and milling ditches.
Page 137, tenth line, strike out “ union colony.”

Page 146, fifteenth line, strike out ‘‘and Mal pais.”

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
: PORES TRY “DIV ISEON. ”.
BULLETIN No. 3.

Shere Sas
Sr ee

PRELIMINARY REPORT

eras
=*

Soe
Soke tee ae

ON =

i
§ , ‘ ; a 4 rs ; e r
Pad RED RAS Yo Abe MLA, SL YoRM POU dl Fie AM el
meee ae ae aE Sas, Go ey gel Noa!

Tee ae

‘THE USE OF METAL TRACK ON RAILWAYS AS A
| SUBSTITUTE FOR WOODEN TIES.

; |

BY : 4

_E, E, RUSSELL TRATMAN, C. E.

TO WHICH IS ADDED

A REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS IN WOOD SEASONING BY THE
CHICAGO, BURLINGTON AND QUINCY RAILROAD
COMPANY. AND OTHER NOTES.

COMPILED BY
Bk. FERN O-W, Faces”

‘CHIEF OF FORESTRY DIVISION.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1889.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Or ES Taye hy LSronN.:
BULLETIN No. 3.

PRELIMINARY REPORT

(HE USE OF METAL TRACK ON RAILWAYS AS A
SUBSTITUTE FOR WOODEN TIES.

BY
Bo Ee ROUSSEL NINN Cy le

TO WHICH IS ADDED

A REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS IN WOOD SEASONING BY THE
CHICAGO, BURLINGTON AND QUINCY RAILROAD
COMPANY. AND OTHER NOTES.

COMPILED BY

iS ein bh ER. INNO. W ,

CHIEF OF FORESTRY DIVISION.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

PSS 97

18689—Bull. 3———1

CONTENTS.

Page
eterno tein months Acetate ls oe ea acltl era. o ceiolais State areca eee Soocs 7
Venontmoneme altace fOreiem COUMUIe Smeal a5 cme cease esl) ite to eteetelate ML
AD MOI GAC NEM OS tte Sacises. 2 oe ote seetes «eS stee oes Pac eee meer 18
AUOMSMENDR IBS SOME AINS Mesa WME WEN WICK (SaGeoa sede ceaden does oaee605 556c 20
RV Woven eagle AIOE CS, sates Sea See eet Nee joes a ah ner a iacd arco. y acieie rare Sie eee 23
Maintenance expenses of track on wooden and metal ties......-..-.-...-- 20
ist of United: States patents relating to metal track ..:...-.-.-.---:----. 36
Me AEMCMtaOn mail weyecles am Bneland: 2-4 e-2..cccse see ee cc- soe ok oe leteeiee 4S
Circmuminerevardero chestmult-OakuGlesetc. a. sate k ae foece cle bos cools See ere ge 52
Correspondence in reply to the circular on chestnut-oak ties.....-.-.--..- 53
SMe Cia MOMS LOR NWOOMENNCEOSS-UICS 22aap2. 2 ee see chee oe dove eset cee tee 5d
HVCPOLOM exp eM CS IM WOO SCASOMING os] 25245 5 esse = 6 arn cs aoe oe ee hee 57
The relation of railways to the timber resources of the United States.......-. 63

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

FORESTRY DIVISION, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Washington, D. C., Kebruary 28, 1889.
Sir: I have the honor herewith to submit for publication as a special
Bulletin a preliminary report by Mr. IE. EK. Russell Tratman, C. E., on
the use of metal track for railways, which gives, in concise form, informa-
tion in regard to the use of this substitute for timber ties in foreign
countries.

This report forms a fit sequel to Bulletin No. 1, from this Division, on
the ‘ Relation of Railroads to Forestry,” which has found so much favor
with railroad managers and engineers.

tecognizing that the enormous drafts of the railroads on our timber |
resourees and especially on the young growth—the hope of our future
forestry—are among the most dangerous factors in the exhaustion of
our timber supply, it is in the interest cf forest preservation to keep
railroad managers informed of the possibilities in the use of substitutes
and the advantages to be derived therefrom. | :

Through the courtesy of Mr. George C. Smith, manager of the Chicago,
Burlington and Quincey Railroad Company, I am enabled to add, as of
interest to the same class of readers, an account of the highly valuable
experiments on seasoning of timber, undertaken by the chemist of that
company.

Notes of interest bearing on the same line of inquiries, such as have
accumulated in the Division since the issue of Bulletin No. 1, have also
been incorporated in the present issue.

Respectfully submitted.

B. KE. FERNowW,
Chief of Forestry Division.
Hon. NorMAN J. COLMAN, :
Secretary.

(wi

METAL TRACK FOR RAILWAYS.
(Preliminary Report on the Use of Metal Track on Railways in Foreign Countries.)

Peete OF TRANSMITTAL:

BROOKLYN, N. Y., February 1, 1889.

Sir: In accordance with the arrangements made some time ago, I
have been engaged for several months in collecting material to be used
in the preparation of a report to the Department of Agriculture upon
the use of metal track upon railways in foreign countries ; and I beg to
submit, herewith, a brief preliminary report, showing the scope of my in-
vestigations, and giving a general idea of the extent to which such track
isin use. Attention has for some years past been directed by the De-
partment to the destruction of the forests of this country; and as the
consumption of timber for railway ties is very great (as shown in Bulle-
tin 1, of the Forestry Division, on the “ Relation of Railways to Forest-
ry,” and subsequently in a paper by me presented at the annual meet-
ing of the American Forestry Congress, at Atlanta, Ga., in December,
1888), suggestions have from time to time been made that some form of
metal track should be introduced, both to effect an economy in the con-
sumption of our timber resources and to givea more efficient, durable, and
economical track. The matter has, however, been given very little prac-
tical attention, and it has been generally taken for granted that the use
of such metal track in several foreign countries (of which the home and
foreign technical journals give occasional information) has been entirely
experimental. ‘This is an erroneous impression, the facts being that ex-
periments begun mapy years ago have led to the adoption of various
“systems of metal track in different countries. A number of the systems
tried have proved fairly efficient in service, if not economical; the sys-
tems which have combined efficiency and economy are few, but such a
combination has been effected, and there is no reason why it cannot be
adapted to and-applied in American practice. The experiments are
still in progress, and careful records are being kept of the results ob-
tained, both with regard to econonty and efficiency; but the questions
of the advantages and the feasibility of metal track have passed be-
yond the experimental stage, and metal track for railways has been
brought to a very practical issue. ;

My first proceeding, after the preparation of the report had been de-
cided upon, was to draw up a list of leading questions respecting the
subject of my investigations and to have the list printed. A copy. of

this list is appended hereto. Personal letters have been written to
7

engineers, managers, manufacturers, etc., in all parts of the world, ask-
ing for information, and in each case a copy of these questions has been
inclosed in order te show the character of the information desired. At
the commencement of this comprehensive system of correspondence I
was not very Sanguine as to the results, but after about a year’s expe-
rience [ find that they have been eminently satisfactory and have far
exceeded my expectations. ‘There have been written about two hundred
and fifty separate letters of application, and replies have been received
to about one hundred and twenty ; some in brief, but alarge number in
detail, accompanied by plans, ete. These answers required acknowl-
edgment and sometimes a request for farther information, and this has
entailed a very large amount of personal correspondence; aggregating,
in all, between three hundred and fifty and four hundred foreign letters.
This work has been rather laborious, but the matter collected has been
well worth the trouble, while the work has resuited in the getting to-
gether of a mass of information which has probably never before been
gathered for purposes of compilation and comparison. The home and
foreign technical journals have also been closely studied. The varied
information thus obtained, with details of the various systems experi.
mented with or adopted, it is intended to present in full in the main re-
port; meanwhile, I am continuing the investigations.

As the particulars respecting the length of line laid with metal track
have been obtained from many separate companies and officers in many
countries, it is difficult to even approximate the total mileage ; but the
figures given in the succeeding pages will prove the great extent of
such track in the aggregate.

In Europe it is the usual practice, in addition to the use of metal
track for railways, to use steel or iron longitudinals or cross ties, or cast-
iron “chairs,” for street railway tracks, using no wood at all, but only
metal and concrete. Steel ties are also extensively used for contrac-
tors’ tracks, portable railways, narrow-gauge and light railways, ete., in
various parts of the world.

With regard to this country, very little has been done, although from,
time to time a few ties of different patterns have been put down experi-
mentally. The Pennsylvania Railroad has tried the steel tie used on
the London and Northwestern Railway of England, but the trial in-
cluded the entire system of English track,* with its objectionable dou-
ble-headed rail supported in chairs; a form of track which it is to be
hoped will never be introduced in this country. This trial does not count
for much, especially as the tie complete is very expensive, owing to the
amount of shop-work. (See “England.”)t The Boston and Maine Rail-
road has tried a few wrought-1 iron plate ties, and the New York Central

* Por description ‘of this, see my paper O1lines English Railroad Tr ack, ” in the Trans-
actions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, June, 1888.

t Four or five different types of ties have been tried by the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company, all of which have been taken ont, with the exception of those obtained
from the London and Northwestern Railway (Eugland), which, as stated, have been

and Hudson River Railroad has tried cast-iron “ pots” experimentally
on a small scale. This latter road will make a careful trial of the
‘‘Hartford” steel tie, which promises well; eight hundred of these ties
have been ordered and will be laid in April. Another tie about to be
given a practical trial is the ‘‘Standard” steel tie, in which the rails
rest on wood blocks, on end grain, the arrangement being somewhat
‘similar to a form of track tried on the Hastern Railway of France. Of
these types of ties, however, I prefer to say nothing further at present,
for the reason Are however advantageous they may seem, practical
service alone can decide as to their practical advantages; and, if sue-
cessful, they will doubtless be modified to some extent to meet require-
ments met with in experience, as has been the case with the “ Post” and
all other successful forms of ties.

It should be borne in mind that metal ties should be adopted not only
as a substitute for timber when the latter becomes scarce or expensive,
but also (and more particularly on main lines) as giving a better and
more efficient form of track for fast and heavy traffic. For a further
explanation of this view I would refer to a paper on ‘‘ Maintenance Ex-
penses of Track on Metal and Wooden Ties,” by J. W. Post (with a dis-
cussion written by anyself), in the Transactions of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, June, 1888.* Descriptions of some of the earlier
forms of metal track are given in Engineering News, New York, Janu-
ary and February, 1887.

In concluding this introduction, I give the following abstract of the
opinions presented at the International Railway Congress, held at Milan,
Italy, in 1887: The opinion presented at the Congress at Brussels, in
1885, that metal ties are able in point of efficiency to compete with
wooden ties, is not weakened by the results of experience of the two
years, and the use of metal ties is extending. In point of economy,
considering the first cost and the durability, the result depends upon
the material, the state of the metal market, and upon local circum-
stances. As tothe cost of maintenance, the question was not considered
to be fully decided on lines with a fast and heavy traffic, but for lines
with moderate traffic and speed it was the cpinion of the majority that
the metal tie presented advantages, especially after the lapse of a suffi-
cient time for the earth works to have thoroughly settled and for the
taking up of all slack in the fastenings.

I am, sir, respectfully yours,
HK. KE. RUSSELL TRATMAN,
B. EK. FERNow, Jun. Am. Soc. C. £.
Chief of Honey Division, ee tment of Agriculture.

Sonia SN Ree nO MATS. It is ale goed ‘ni as ne as white-oak ties can be got at 65
to 70 cents each it would be foolish to use metal ties, ‘costing $3 to $4” each, That
the cost for metal ties is not neecssarily as high as that given as objectionable will
appear further on in this report; a good tie (Durand patent) being claimed to be
produced from old rails at the cost of $1.—B. E. F.

* See reprint 1n this Bulletin, p. 25.

CIRCULAR.

The following circular was addressed to various railroad companies
and managers in Europe and other countries.

Metal Track for Railroads.

The information outlined below is desired for the purpose of a report to the U.S.
Department of Agriculture on the use of metal ties (sleepers) for railroad tracks, and
it is requested as a favor that all information furnished should be as complete as
possible and sent at the earliest possible convenience.

Respectfully,

K. E. RussELL TRATMAN, C. E.,

144 Remsen street, Brookiyn, New York, U. S. America.

INFORMATION.

Railroad :
J. Name.
2. koute.
3. Length of lines laid with metal
sleepers.
Character of same. (Particulars
of grades, curves, etc.)
. Dates when laid.
Iingincer in charge.
Character of traffic.
Weight of locomotives and weight
on driving wheels.

SU Sen

Sleeper:
9. Longitudinai, transverse, or bowl.

10. General form.

11. Dimensions, including thickness.
(Figured drawings. )

f2. Weight:

13. Material.

14. Spacing center to center.

15. How treated. (Paint, anti-rust
process, etc.)

16. Manufacturer.

17. First cost, at factory or delivered.

18. Expense of maintenance.

19. Attachmentof rails. (Detailsand
drawings.)

20. Arrangements for curves.

Sleeper—Continued.
21. Tie-rods; if used, how attached
and adjusted for gauge.
22. Durability.

23. Material of ballast.
24. Behaviorof ballast under sleeper.
25. Construction of road-bed. (Draw-
ing.)
26. Section and weight of rail.
27. Rail joints: how made.
28. Rail joints; on sleeper or sus-
pended.
29. Reasons for adopting metal sleepers.
30. General results: satisfactory or other-
wise.
31. Is there trouble with maintenance of
track?
32. Isthere trouble with rail attachments?
33. Is there trouble from breakages; how
and where do they usually oceur ?
34. Efficiency, ete., as compared with
wooden sleepers.
30. Cost, material, and durability of
wooden sleepers.
36. Climate; and effect of same on metal
or wooden sleepers.
37. General remarks,
38. Opinions.

REPORT.

EUROPE.

Hngland.—In England, steel ties have during the past few years been
tried to a greater or less extent on quite a number of the principal lines.
Foremost among them is the London and Northwestern Railway, which

has between 20 and 30 miles of track laid with the steel cross-tie in- _

vented by Mr. F. W. Webb, the locomotive superintendent of the road.
in 1888 there were 83,204 of them in use, and the experience with them
‘had covered then six and one-half years. These ties have been experi-
mented with on the Pennsylvania Railroad.

The general type used is the steel “‘inverted trough” in different
forms, either rolled or stamped. As the system of track, however, in-
cludes the double-headed rail, these ties are fitted with the usual heavy
cast-iron chairs to hold the rail (the Webb tie has the chairs made of
Steel plates), and the, track is unnecessarily heavy and costly. The
chief difficulty is said to be in adapting the steel tie to the double-
headed rail, it being difficult to make a good piece of work. The North-
eastern lailway, however, is trying steel ties under flange rails weigh-
ing 90 pounds per yard, which is a step toward the idea] track for main
lines.

france.—Experiments with metal cross-ties have been made on nearly
all the principal railways, and a large number of types have been tried,
but several of them have been of complicated design, and therefore un-
economical. Longitudinal systems have been tried to a small extent.

On the State Railways a number of trials have been made, and with
some forms of tie very good results have been obtained, cnabling a
reduction to be madein the maintenance staff. In 1886 there were or-
dered 17,000 ties of the “‘ Post” type and 80,000 ties of the old “ Berg-et-
Marche” type. In 1888 there were (a) 2.10 miles laid with the “Pau-
let-Lavalleite” ties, with double-headed rails in chairs; (b) 7.35 miles
laid with a tie similar to the “ Post” type, with double-headed rails,
and 30,000 more of these ties had been ordered; (c) 8.86 miles Jaid with
similar ties, but with flange rails. Of these (a) had been laid in 1855,
(b) and (ce) in 1887. On the Paris and Bordeaux line, 4.4 miles of “ Vau-
therin” ties of uniform thickness were laid between November, 1886,
and February, 1887; 4.5 miles of “ Vautherin” ties of varying thickness
(similar to the “ Post” type) were laid in February and March, 1887,
and .56 mile was laid with the “ Boyenval and Ponsard” ties in April,
1888.

The Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway used an old type of
iron tie several years ago, but abandoned it on account of the ties cost-
ing more than the wooden ties and giving a less firm and durable track ;

;
SETS

this latter defect was probably due to the old-fashioned ‘ gib and cot-
ter” fastening employed. These ties were laid in 1862 and following —
years, and had all been taken out in 1872. Good results have been ob- ;
tained with metal ties on the Algerian system controlled by this com- J
pany. (See “Africa.”)

The Northern Railway laid trial sections of its Belgian lines withthe §

‘‘Severac” and “ Bernard” ties in 1885, and laid 10,000 of the former J
on its French lines in 1888. |

The Western Railway, which used the old double-headed rail, has ex- 9
perimented with iron ties upon which the rail chairs were cast; about
1.3 miles were laid in 1887.

The Eastern Railway has tried steel ties with wooden cushions or §

bearing blocks under the rails, and has also laid about one hundred of §
the “‘ Post ” ties.

Holland.—In this country probably the most extensive and most valu-
able, because continuous and systematic, trials have been made, and the —
trials have resulted in improvements which have served to develop the §
now well-known and extensively-used “‘ Post” steel cross-tie of varying §
thickness, the thickness being increased under the rail seat. The |
“Post” tie, the invention of Mr. Post, the engineer of permanent way §
of the Netherlands State Railway Company, is economical both in con-
struction (owing to its requiring a minimum of shop-work, all of which §
adds to the cost of a tie) and in maintenance, and has proved very |
efficient in service. !

On the Netherlands State Railways the experiments have been in §
progress since 1865, and the steel tie designed by Mr. Post and im-
proved by him from time to time in the light of practical experience |
has been adopted on this system. In the early part of 1888 the system,
which comprises 910 miles of road, had 91 miles of track laid with these
ties. Of 10,000 ties laid in 1865, 9,550 were still in the track and were
expected to last twenty years more, although they were of the earlier §
type of the tie, which has since been improved upon. As to breakages,
out of 162,634 ties laid, not one had broken.

In the early part of 1888 there were in use 457,300 ties (about 23,800 @
tons) of the “Post” type in Holland, Belgium, France, Germany, }
Switzerland, and Asia (colonies) ; about 272,700 ties (avout 12,700 tons) §
more, including ties for narrow-gauge railways and for the rack rail-
way in Sumatra, were being manufactured; making a total of about
730,V00 ties, or 36,500 tons, of this one type. (See page 20 )

Belgium.—On the Belgian State Railway system the ‘ Post” tie has
been Jaid, but itis heavier than that used on the Netherlands State
Railway and heavier than the inventor considers necessary or desirable.
it should be noted that it is not economical to use more metal than ex-
perience has shown to be necessary. Experiments have been made on
rather a large scale, and in 1887 three types were experimented with
on various lines, and one of these types appeared to meet the require-
ments for fast and heavy traffic. -In 1885 it was decided to put down @

| 35,000 ties of the “ Post” (old) type, 35,000 ties of a type invented by
| the chief engineer of the road, and 5,000 ties of the “ Bernard” type.
| Some “ Bernard” ties were also laid in 1886~87.
_ he Grand Central Railway has also had satisfactory results with
metalties. In 1873 the superintendent of permanent way reported that
| he was fully satisfied with the experience then acquired with metal ties,
| but he was unable to adopt them further at that time owirg toa great
| advance in the priceofiron. In his reports for 1886 and 1887 he stated
| that the favorable results had been still more marked, and during 1887
| there were 6,000 metal ties laid. :
| Metal ties of the “ Coblyn” type, for light railways, have been defi-
} nitely adopted by the Société Anonyme des Chemins de Fer Econo-
| miques, and haye also been tried on the lines of the Société Nationale
| des Chemins de Fer Vicinaux, the Netherlands lines, the Liegeois and
| Luxembourg division (on Belgian territory) of the Netherlands State
| Iailway, and on the Liege and Seraing line. Metal ties have been tried
on the Belgian division of the Northern Railway of France, including
| 0,500 ties of the “‘ Bernard” type.
| Germany.—On the State Railways a number of different systems of
/ metal track of longitudinal and transverse types have been tried for
| several years, and some types have been regularly adopted on certain
; divisions. The investigations and trials are still in progress. In 1887
| the State Railway system had a length of about 13,193 miles, with about
_ 23,662 miles of track; of this amount about 5,530 miles had metal track—
3,131 miles being laid with cross-ties and 2,399 miles with longitudinals.
_ Very careful records of the trials have been kept. In the year 1886-’37
' there were laid 868,262 new cross-ties and 64,094 longitudinals. In Feb-
“ruary, 1888, 500,000 “ Post” ties were being made for German lines.
: Por the Rhenish Railway system 308,000 ties (10,775 tons) were pur-
chased in 187779. On the Left-Bank-of-the-Rhine Railway, which
comprises 1,681 miles, there are 943 miles with metal cross-ties and
—211 miles with longitudinals, the balance being on wooden cross ties.
' The first cross-ties were laid in 1876 and the first longitudinals in 1872.
Since 1879 metal sleepers only have been used. On the Elberfeld di-
_ vision of the Prussian State Railways (1,646 miles) there are 790.5 miles
Jaid with wooden ties, 762.5 with iron ties, and 93 miles with iron lon-
gitudinals. They were laid in different years between 1869 and 1880.
The experience with iron longitudinals and ecross-ties was very favor-
able, but still better results have been obtained since steel was intro-
duced. Wooden ties are still used in great numbers, partly on account
of their lower first cost and partly on account of the policy of the Prus-
sian Government to keep up the supply of timber by domestic cultiva-
tion and forest management.
_ Austria.—In this country, longitudinal systems of metal track have
been extensively used. The Northwestern Railway has a total of n9s
miles of track laid with the ‘“‘ Hohenegger” system of longitudinals,
and the economy over wood is reported to be noticeable. These longi-

. et ee aoe a Len WaT RI eT TT Pare Fae
" : i ‘

: 14

tudinals have been laid in small sections year by year since 1876; the
earlier ones were of iron, but the latter ones are of steel. The ‘‘Heindl”
system of Jongitudinals is in use on a number of roads; the first were
laid in 1883, and at the end of [837 there was an aggregate of about
141 miles laid with this system of track, 1 considerable portion being on
mountain divisions and including 6.634 miles on the Arlberg tunnel line.

Switzerland.—The Central Railway lad 100,000 metal ties in use at
the end of 1584, and proposed to lay 30,000 per annum till its whole
system had been thus laid. The Western and Simplon Railways began
using metal ties in 1883, and have been very well satisfied with them.
The Gotthard Railway uses them very extensively, and they have also
been adopted on the Mount Pilatus Rack-Railway. In February, 1888,
the Hoerde Works reported that they were delivering 160,000 “ Post”
ties to the Gotthard Railway and 160,000 to the Western Railway.

Ttaly—Metal track has been used very little, if at ali, and oak ties
are obtainable in ample quantities and ata moderate price; and as there
are extensive timber resources such track will not be necessary for
many years. I[t has been proposed, however, to lay steel ties on some
sections of the Mediterranean Railway system. The Government has
used steel ties for short military railways inits African campaigns.

Spain —The line from Bilbao to Las Arenas has 7.1 miles laid with
steel cross-ties, and it is believed that they will prove more economical
than wood. The line is Il-metre gauge. The Almanza, Valencia and
Tarragona line las 251 miles laid with the De Bergue system of east-
iron plates connected by tie-rods. This system is found to give greater
economy, and the gauge is maintained better than with wooden sleep-
ers. The division between Valencia and Tarragona was laid with this
track in 1860, and the division between Almanza and Valencia in 1873.

Sicveden.—On the State Railways about two-thirds of a inile were laid
with metal ties, for experimental purposes, in June, 1886. This is the
only case where they have been used in Sweden or Norway.

Denmark.—On the State Railways steel cross-ties were laid for about
18 miles in 1883-384; but the results, as reported to me in 1888, have
not been entirely satisfactory, owing to the insuffivient weight and
strength of the ties.

Russia.*—Metal ties have only been used to a very limited extent, on
two branch lines, and even there they have not been sufficiently used
to enable any reliable conclusions to be drawn from the experiments.

AFRICA.

Oape Colony.—-The Cape Government Railways have some sections of
the lines laid with cast-iron bowls; they are arranged in pairs and eon-

*The metal ties laidon the Moscow Kursk Railway were removed because their main-
tenance was found more expensive than that of wooden ties. It is claimed that at
present prices for wood and for metal in Russia, the metal ties, weighing 105.8 pounds,
with an estimated duration of thirty-five years, were two and a half times as expen-
sive as the pine ties impregnated with chloride of zinc, lasting ten years, and one
and one-half as expensive as oak impregnated aud lasting six years. Conditions in
Russia, however, are exceptional as regards labor and material.—B. E. F,

nected by transverse tie-rods. The Delagoa Bay Railway, one of the
new lines opening up the interior, is laid principally with steel ties.

Senegal.—About 5,000 ties of the “‘ Severac” type have been ordered
for the railwaysin this French colony. Cast-iron bowls are used on the
French island of Réunion.

Hoypt.—On the Egyptian Agricultural Railways, wrought-iron plates
connected by tie-rods have been used, and also cast-iron “ pots” or
bowls. In the Hnglish campaign of 1885 a short length of Nght rail-
way of 18-inch gauge, with corrugated steel cross-ties, was laid at Sua-
kim, but the line was soon taken up.

Algeria.—Metal ties are used on the Algerian lines controlled by the
Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway Company (France); 10,000
ties were laid in 1870, and have given good results. In 1857-’69 the
Algiers and Oran line put down 90,000 iron ties of the ‘¢ Vautherin”
type; the Bone and Guelma line put down 3,500 ties of the ‘‘Severac”
type and 2,500 of the ‘“‘ Boyenval-Ponsard” type. It is estimated that
the use of metal ties has saved one-fourth of the labor formerly required
for maintenance, or about $60 per mile per annum.

ASIA.

India.—In this country, steel cross-ties and cast-iron bowls and plates
(the latter types arranged in pairs) are very extensively used, and the
use of metal track is extending very rapidly, large contracts being fre -
quently awarded for the companies’ and the Government lines, Eve:
in Burmah, where wood has been generally used till recently, steel ties
are beginning to be introduced.

About 525,000 tons of steel ties have been sent out from [fneland
during the last few years, and there are nearly 300 miles of the State
lines now laid with this form of track; a large number of miles of private
companies’ lines are also laid with steel ties. The general results are
reported to be good, and the ties give, on the whole, much satisfaction.
They are used for lines of 1 metre and 5 feet Ginches gauge.

There are over 1,600 miles laid with cast-iron track of different types,
and these also give satisfactory results in general. Such tracks have
been in use for twelve or fourteen years. Of the “ Denham-Olpberts ”
type alone more than 2,000,000 pairs have been made for double-headed
rails and about 600,000 pairs for flange rails. On the Hast Indian fail:
way there were 1,311,000 of these ‘“‘ Denham-Olpherts” plate sleepers
at the end of 1887, and the breakages since 1885 had averaged only 0.54
per. cent. per annum. Tbey give good results in reducing the work o|
maintenance, there being a saving of about 64 per cent. of renewals pix
annum, In some of these sleepers wooden cushions are used for the rails
to reston. On onedivision of the Indian Midland Railway the pereent-
age of renewals of the *‘ Denham-Olperts” plate sleepers was 0.31.

Japan.—A few cast-iron “pot” sleepers were laid when the first lines
were built, about 1871, but they have nearly all been taken up again and
hardly any now remain in the track, while for new lines timber ties are
used exclusively. |

China.—Steel cross-ties are to be tried as an experiment on the new
railway which was opened last year.

AUSTRALIA.

Queensland.—The first metal sleepers ever made in Australia have
been tried in this colony, an experimental section of a few miles long
having been laid with the “ Phillips” type. This is a steel cross-tie
intended for prairie work, where the track is laid on the surface of the
ground; it is designed to be used without ballast, being simply packed
with surface soil. Some years ago about 1,000 wrought-iron ties were
laid, but they only lasted about five years, as they generally fractured
under the rail-seats, owing, it is said, to defective fastenings ; they were
laid in broken-stone ballast.

In regard to the “ Phillips” type, Mr. Phillips kindly reports to me
as follows, under date of January 2, 1889, and it is especially interest-
ing as showing that metal track is adapted for other lines than those
with heavy traffic:

I have just returned from North Queensland, where I have been constructing a
section of railway 36 miles in length on my system. The country I am dealing with
is between the port of Normanton, in 17° 45’ 8. lat. and 141° 10’ E. long., and a new
goldfield by the name of Croydon, situated about 85 miles E.S. E. from Normanton.
The country is almost uniformly eyen, and the Norman River is the only important
river crossed. The first 4 miles are over gravel ridges, when a descent of 1 in 79 for
half a mile brings the line down to the level of the river fiats; the soil is dark clay
with a slight admixture of alluvial sand. This description of country extends to 14
miles, where the river is crossed with a low level timber bridge (principally 20-feet
spans) on a sandstone rock bottom. Thence to Croydon the country is very uniform
in character—fine sandy soil, covered with a more or less thick forest of inferior and

stunted timber, sometimes dense enough to be called brush or serub. There is no
- forest timber of sufficient dimensions in the district available for ties or bridge work,
neither is there any stone for ballast, except by quarrying below the surface, and
that is sandstone of an inferior and very soft description. The country is almost
uniformly even, except at the 4-mile peg, where there is a cutting of about 5 feet and
an embankment of equal height. I commenced track-iaying July 7, and completed
32 miles on December 29; fully seven weeks were lost through non-delivery of ties,
so that the average rate of progress was 1? miles per week of six working days.
The number of men employed in (a) clearing track 66 fect wide, (b) grubbing, (c)
ploughing, harrowing, and rolling central width of 10 feet, (d) track-laying, (e) lifting
and packing ties, and (f) straightening track, never exceeded 65, with one team of
bullocks (12) and one horse, Cost per mile for labor only, $520; wages for laborers,
$2.50 per day; gangers, $3.15. The ploughing, harrowing, and rolling cost $75 per
mile, and is included in the $630. The total cost was under $15 per lineal foot.
The best day’s work was .525 mile, and the best week’s work a little over 2 miles.
No ballast has been provided and no side or cross drains cut; the only water-
ways are at well-defined and water-worn channels. The total timber bridging on
the 36 miles is 1,108 lineal feet, and only one box-drain has been put in. From
202 miles to 36 miles there is not a single water-way of any description. The cost is
nnder $15 per lineal foot.

The material train has never failed to run to the head of the road daily, from the
commencement of track-laying, although there have been some very heavy thunder-
storms with 1 to 2 inches of rain-fall in an hour. The track is laid with steel flange
rails, 41} pounds per yard, 26 feet long, fastened to mild steel cross-ties, weighing 84
pounds each, 11 ties to arail length. The average gross load of the material train,

100 tons. The locomotive employed is a six-wheeled engine of English build. The
country passed through is believed to be the softest in wet weather to be found in
Australia, but so far no trouble has been experienced with the line. The country is
infested with white ants (termites), and ties of the best hard woods of the colony
will not Jast more than 3 years in the form of ties. The government now in power
are not very favorable to my system, but I hope to be able to induce them to complete
the Croydon Railway on my system. I believe my system might be applied with
advantage to your prairie country subject to heavy rain-falls.

New South Wales.—About 1,000 steel cross-ties were laid in 1882. In
1887 it was reported that they were in bad condition, but this may have
been due (if correct) to the fact that the inanufacture of steel ties was
in its infancy in 1882.

South Australia.—In March, 1888, the agent-general in England re-
ported to me that metal sleepers were being laid on a new line 145 miles

long, not then open to traftic.
SOUTH AMERICA.

Argentine Republic.—In this State, cast-iron ‘‘ pot” sleepers are used
almost exclusively, except in the far west and north. The Buenos
Ayres Great Southern Railway, which began operations in 1865, has
132 miles of double track and 8193 miles of single track laid with cast-
iron sleepers of an improved design. They are adopted on account of
the difficulty of procuring good hard-wood ties in sufficient quantity
and the greater expense of these wooden ties; also because they give
a more rigid and satisfactory track. The Central Argentine Railway
has 246 miles laid with cast-iron track. The Santa Fé and Cordoba
Railway ordered 20,000 steel ties in England in 1888.

Chili.—Steel ties have been tried to a small extent, but the type was
considered too heavy and expensive. Previous to the award in No-
vember last, to an American syndicate, of the contract for building about
180 miles of railways for the State, proposals had been invited by the
Chilian legation in France for the supply of 739,400 metal ties 9 feet
long and 725,100 ties 44 feet long.

United States of Colombia.—There lias been some talk of adopting
metal ties on the Bolivar Railway.

MEXICO.

The Mexican Railway (Vera Cruz line) is using a large number of
steel ties of the type in general use in India, and has obtained very
good results with them, especially at times when the road has been
flooded. These ties were first used in 1884, and at the end of June,
1888, there were 464 miles of track laid with steel ties. The Mexican
Central Railway has been contemplating the adoption of the same type
of tie on the mountain division of the road, the advantages being that
they last longer than wooden ties and keep the track in perfect gauge.

The above report is respectfully submitted for consideration.

i. Ki. RussELL TRATMAN,

FEBRUARY 1, 1889. Jun. Am, Soc. C. H,

18689—Bull. 3——2

Appendix A.
EE. PO Sie nol.

This tie, of which so much has been heard, is probably the most sue-
cessful of all the various types of metal ties that have been put in serv-
ice, and the success is largely due to the care which has been taken in
noting the results obtained and in making such improvements as expe-
rience has shown to be desirable. Consequently, the present form of the
tie is the result of many improvements, and represents several years of
experience and careful study. It is a cross-tie rolled from: mild steel
(Bessemer, Thomas, or Siemens-Martin); its section is that of an inverted
trough, with flaring sides forming a section of a polygon; it is narrow,
and deep in the middle, the ends are closed, and the bottom edges are
thickened to form a rib. One of its special features is its varying thick-
ness, giving an ample thickness of metal at the rail seat, where the
greatest strength is required, and a less thickness at the middle and
ends. Thus the weight of the ties as now used is from 110 pounds to
121 pounds each, corresponding to 126.5 and 139.15 pounds if they were
of uniform section. This feature represents, therefore, an economy of 15
per cent. of metal as compared with a tie with a uniform thickness equal
to the maximum thickness of the ‘‘ Post” tie. In the operation of roll-
ing, the varying thickness is given and also the shape of the tie, while
the bending of the ends to give the rails an inward inclination of 1 in 20
(in accordance with European practice) is done during the same opera-
tion.

The shape of the middle portion of the tie is designed with a purpose,
as it is claimed that by narrowing this portion the ballast is kept from
working away from under the rail seat, and in this way a stable road-bed
and track are secured, thus diminishing the work of maintenance. It
prevents the tendency of the ballast to work towards the middle and
form a ridge on which the tie would rest, giving a rocking motion to the
track, but gives it a tendency to pack well under the rail seat, The in-
creased depth of this portion gives additional strength to resist bending
and also offers increased resistance to creeping.

The following are the principal dimensions, given in the original
metric measure and also reduced to feet and inches: Length over all,
2.55 to 2.65 metres (8.364 to 8.692 feet); width over all at rail seat, 235
millimetres (9.40 inches); width over all at middle, about 5.50 inches;
width of rail seat, 110 millimetres (4.40 inches) ; width of end, 280 milli-
metres (11.20 inches); depth under rail, 74.5 to 75.5 millimetres (2.95 to
3.02 inches); depth at middle, 125 millimetres (5 inches). Thickness of
cross-section at rail seat varies as follows: Thickness at bottom of flange, 6
millimetres (.24inch); thickness at upper part of lange, 7 millimetres (.28
inch); thickness at rail seat, 9 to 10 millimetres (.36 to .40 inch) ; thick-
ness at bolt-holes, 12 to 13 millimetres (.48 to .52 inch); thickness at

iL)

middle and ends,.6 to 7 millimetres (.24 to .28 inch). The rib on the
lower edge of the flanges has a depth of abont 18 millimetres (.72 inch).
and projects about 13 millimetres (.52 inch) beyond the outer face of the
lange. er

For narrow-gauge and light railways the dimensions wonld be re-
dueed in accordance with the weight, and for such lines a weight ot 72.6
to 77 pounds is considered sufficient.

For rail fastenings reliance has been placed upon bolts, and the re-
sults have been entirely satisfactory ; the fastenings keep tight, pre-
vent vibration aud rattling, and require little attention after the track ~
has become well settled. The bolt-holes are oblong, and have rounded
eorners. The bolt used is 91 millimetres (3.64 inches) long and 22 mil-
limeters (.88 inch) in diameter; it has a T-head 38 by 46 millimetres
(1.52 by 1.84inches), and a cam-shaped or eccentric neck 22 by 30 milli-
metres (.88 by 1.20 inches), for the purpose of allowing an adjustment of
gauge at curves, switches, ete. The bolt passes up through the tie and
through a “crab” washer which bears on the flange of the rail and the

face of the tie; a Verona nut-lock is then put on and the nut screwed
down upon it. The upper face of the washer and the lower face of the
nut are indented, so as to give a good hold on the nut lock. The ties
are sent out to the track with the fastenings separate in kegs, or with
the bolts in place and the nuts loosely screwed on, according to the
wishes of the division engineers; some of whom prefer one plan and
some the other.

This tie presents the following advantages :

First. Economy in material; owing to the maximum thickness being
given at the rail seat and a less thickness at the middle and ends, this
effects a decided saving in weight and first cost.

Second. Keonomy in manufacture; owing to the shaping, bending,
and varying of the section being all done in the operation of rolling,
thus reducing the shop-work to a minimum; which is an important con-
sideration.

Third. Economy in maintenance; owing to the little care and atten-
tion required, as shown by years of actual service.

fourth. Efficiency in making a good track; as also proved by years
of actual service.

fifth. Adjustment; owing to the arrangement of the fastenings per-
mitting the gauge to be widened at curves and narrowed at switches ;
which is an important feature when a tie is adopted on a considerable

length of track.
IDead Dabs inet Lt

Appendic B.
SOME AMERICAN METAL TIS:

The International tie-—This is a rolled steel tie, the section of which
resembles a printer’s “brace” (~~); originally it was made in two
pieces, riveted together at the middle flange, but itis now to be rolled in
one piece. The dimensions are as follows: Length, 8 feet; width, 10
inches; side flanges, 22 inches deep; middle flange, 2 “ales high; ane
ness, fom i ---1nch at tlie lower partof the side flanges to 32; inch Stine mid-
die. The middle flange is cut away in two places for the rails. The
fastenings consist of flat wrought-iron clips, one on each side of the rail,
which are bolted to the flange of the tie and have projections which
bear upon the rail flange. Some of these ties have been in use for more
than two years on the Boston.and Maine Railroad and the Maine Central
Railroad ; the Long Island Railroad is now giving them a trial. _

The Hartford tie.—This is a rolled. steel tie, of inverted trough sec-
tion, with a channel or groove along the whole length of the top table,
and having the ends curved down to hold the ballast. The dimensious
are as follows: Length, 7 feet 6 inches; width at top, 8 inches; width
at bottom, 104 inches; depth, 24 inches; thickness, ? inch at sides and
75 inch at top; the channel or groove is o4 inches wide and 3 inch deep.
The weight is about 120 pounds. The fastening for each ail consists of
two clamps 2-inch thick, with a hooked projection at the broad end,
which holds the flange of the rail; these clamps are wedge-shaped in
plan, and hein the channel above ineuconed: A bent bolt, with its head
at an angle of 53 degrees with the body, is used on each sideof the rail;
the head is on the under side of the tie and the body passes up through
the tie and clamp, the nut bearing on the inclined face of the clamp.
This is the fastening as improved by Mr. Katté, the chief engineer of
the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad. By this arrange-
ment, the bolt being at an angle, a strong grip is secured, and there Is
little tendency to jar the bolts loose; to prevent such loosening, how-
ever, the bolt has the Ilarvey grip thread, which forms a nut-loek in it-
self. The fastening permits of a very wide rangeof adjustment of gauge.
These ties have not yet been tried, but the New York Central and IHud-
son River Railroad will lay $00 of them in April, and careful observations
will be made as to the results.

The Standard tie.-—This is a steel tie of channel section (LJ) stamped
to shape from a plate. The bottom is cut away at the middle, and is
bent up at an angle to offer resistance to lateral motion, the ends being
open. The rail does not rest upon the vertical sides of the tie, which
are cut away for a depth of three-fourths of an inch under the rail, but
rests upon a block of preserved wood (placed with the grain vertical).
The tie is intended to be filled with ballast. The fastenings consist of
Z-shaped clips, the upper part holding the rail-flange and the lower

part taking a bearing on the under side of the bottom of the tie; the
upright web is nearly vertical, but curved so as to grip the wood block.
A bolt passes horizontally through the two clips and the block, near
the top of the latter, holding all the parts firmly together. At the rail-
joints it is intended to use a tie of extra width, with wide clips and two
bolts, and it is claimed that this fastening will be sufficient in itself,
and will obviate the necessity of using splice plates. These tics have
not yet been in service, but arrangements have been made for their
manufacture, and it is said that they will soon be tried on a Western
road. The claim is made that they are specially adapted for roads

with a narrow width of ballast, owing te the resistance to lateral move-

ment being at the middie instead of the ends of the tie.

The Taylor tie.—This is an iron or steel tie on the “bowl” system,
each tie consisting of a separate piece under each rail, connected by a
third piece forming a tie-bar. The rail-bearers are short piczes of in-
verted trough section, placed longitudinally with the rail, and have a
vertical transverse slot through which the deep flat tie-bar passes.
The inside flange of the rail is held by clips, forming a part of the top
table of the trough, and the outside flange is held by a hooked projec.
tion at the end of the tie-bar. No bolts or other loose parts are used.

The Toucey tie.—This is a cast-iron * pot” tie designed by Mr. Toucey,
general superintendent of the New York Central and Hudson River
Railroad. Hach tie consists of two “ pots,” of H-section, with outward
flaring sides; the “pots” are connected by a tie-rod, the ends of which
are bent at right angles to fit into a hole in the horizontal web, the rod
passing through a hole in the side. The “ pots” are 18 inches long, 93
inches wide on top, 164 inches wide at bottom, and 8°; inches deep ;
the thickness varies from one-half inch to 1 inch. The space above the
web is filled with an oak block, to which the rail is secured by the Bush
interlocking bolts. These ties are in use at the Grand Central Depot
in New York City. :

A channel tie—A channel tie was used by the Pennsylvania Rail-
road for some years subsequent to 1880. In that year some were laid
on the Filbert Street extension, and in 1885 about 400 or 500 were laid
on the main track in the West Philadelphia yard. The tie consisted of
an ordinary 7-inch channel iron (f_ 1) 8 feet 6 inches long; the ends
were closed by a piece of angle-iron riveted on, and a cross piece ot
angle-iron was also riveted inside the channel, just under the outer
flange of the rail. The fastenings for each rail consisted of a piece
of angle-bar riveted to the face of the tie (the rivets passing through
the angle-bar, tie, and inside angle-iron) on the outside of the rail, and
a loose flat clip on the inside of the rail, fastened by bolts. Writing in
1886, Mr. Brown, the chief engineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad, said:

These ties cost from $3 to $4 each. As long as we can get good oak ties for not ex-
ceeding $1 each, I would not recommend making the change, although they give

perfect satisfaction and are no more trouble to keep in line and surface than wooden
ties, J Deeg Shes Sori!

22
THE DURAND TIE.

This tie, among the latest patented in this country, has been in use
on a private trial line in the French Alps.

It resembles most nearly the ** Post” tie.

It is produced by converting old rails into metal sheets, from which
the tie is stamped out by special machinery, requiring no further shop-
work than the fastening of the bolts, which are welded to the tie while hot.

The cross section is of the “‘ Vautherin” or “ Zores” type, like the
‘ Post” tie, narrowed, and depressed in the center and slightly curving
towards the ends, as well as to the middle of the tie. Lengthwise cor-
rugations on the face of the tie under the rail-seat, and if deemed nee-
essary, Vertical corrugations on the side-faces, are intended to give ad-
ditional strength, allowing a saving of metal as against the * Post” tie.
The width on top under the rail-foot is 10 inches and across the lower
edges 12 inches.

The ends are open but can be closed if desired by a special cap, which
is put on after the tie is placed and can be easily removed if necessary,
permitting access to the lower side, bolts, ete., without removing the tie
entirely. Experience, however, with the open-end type seems to have
proved thet the curvature of the ends is sufficient to prevent the blow-
ing out of ballast.

The fastening of the rails is effected by means of four bolts with spe-
cially-fitted T-heads, which are inserted and partialiy welded to the tie
from below during its manufacture, and are prevented from turning by
a shoulder in the tie. A washer of soft metal is so adapted as to pre-
vent any loosening of nuts above, an indentation on the lower side
fitting into a similar indentation in the tie, and one flange being bent
upwards after screwing down.

_ For curves, switches, ete., the adaptation of shape, inclination, and
gauge is effected in the manufacture by interchangeable pieces in the
stamping apparatus.

The placing of the tie is effected by laying it on the ballast and bury-
ing it in the same by means of a rocking motion with the help of levers
inserted into holes made at the ends of the tie in manufacturing. Ne
digging of a tie-bed, no tamping is needed. The drainage, a very im-
portant requirement, is well provided for.

The weight of the tie is made variable by either rolling the metal-
sheets to three-sixteenths ofan inch, which gives a 65 pound tie, or five-
sixteenths of an inch, which will make it about 100 poands.

The cost is claimed to be $1 or $1.35 respectively, if manufactured in
the United States. The cost of manufacture is calculated at 30 cents,
allowing a railroad company to use up theold rails. The plant for roll-
ing the rails to shape and stamping the tie is simple; its cost is esti-
mated at $5,000.

The Durand tie, with less metal, promises to give the same strength
and is more easily placed than the “ Post” tie.—B, E. F.

ME oe eB ON OPiS:

The following matter has been appended as of interest in the discus-
sion of the desirable change from wooden to metal ties.

These notes originate in part with Mr. Tratman, or else are copied
from other publieations.

The ephemeral literature on the subject is growing Late and by
the time Mr. Tratman’s final report will go to press, it will have become
desirable, with it, to present in abstract the useful information which
has thus accumulated. By that time itis hoped that more experiences
from trial tests on railroad lines of our own country may also be re-
corded.

As this Bulletin goes to press, two interesting items of news on the
railroad tie question have reached this office. The one relates to the
remarkable durability of lignum-vite cross-ties on the Panama Mail-
road—thirty-five years. That there is any likelihood, as some papers
seem to anticipate, that this discovery will in any way influence the
use of metal ties by possible competition of this wooden tie, I am in-
clined, for various reasons, to doubt.

Perhaps of more influence on this subject may become the introduc-
tion of stone sleepers in combination with the ‘Hlastic Tie-Plate,”
which was originally intended to improve the track on wooden ties, but
has proved itself of service on rock sleepers in an experiment made by
the Ystad-Eslof Railway in Sweden. Yet we are inclined to think that
even this kind of substructure, if found as efficient as is claimed, would
not threaten as much competition with the metal track as it might ate
first appear to do, except under special conditions.

The theoretical requisites for a perfect metal tie are now quite well
understood and have been discussed at length in Bulletin I, from this
Division. The task of inventors henceforth must be, while complying
with these theoretical requisites, to do it in such a manner as to reduce
the cost of the manufacture to its lowest possible figure without loss of
required strength. With the extendeg experience before us there can
not longer be a doubt that it is possible to construct a metal tie which will
be superior in all respects to wooden ties; yet to bring its first cost down
to such a figure that the future saving in its maintenance need not en-
ter into consideration, but may be taken as au agreeable surprise in

the cost of management—this is what railroad companies are most ben
on obtaining. Hspecially in our country, where the present account-
ing outweighs in importance all future possible profits, this considera-
tion alone, of reduced first cost, may be sufficient to work a revolution
in the use of railroad ties. On the other hand, the bugbear of cheap-
ness, which is often mistaken for an equivalent of economy, is apt to
mislead the inventor into risking the factors of safety and strength in
order to attain cheapness.

“Ifa man wants a ‘cheap’ track he had better continue to pay 50
and 75 cents for wooden ties. And if he wants an economical track he
must use steel ties with enough metal in them to insure permanency.”

There is also no doubt that the metal tie which is suitable for one set

of conditions is not suitable for others. The amount of traffic, and es-
pecially the condition of track and ballast, will dictate changes in shape,
weight, ete.
It had been the intention to review all the patents which had con-
cerned themselves with introducing metal for railway tracks, but the
large number—not less than 256 patents so far, very many of which
are obviously impracticable—made the task too laborious for the prac-
tical result to be expected from it. Therefore, only a brief reference
list to these patents has been prepared by Mr. Tratman.

The first suggestion for the use of metal track seems to date back to
the year 1839; a patent by J. Stimpson, proposing a construction of
metal and wood combined, similar to a construction now much used in
street railways. The next attempts did not follow until 1857, 1858,
and 1861.

The flood of patents begins with the year 1883, the last five years hav-
ing produced not less than one hundred and sixty devices. ©

Some of the more prominent devices, which have been actualiy manu-
factured in the United States, are briefly described in Appendix B.

B. HE. FERNoW.

MAINTENANCE—EXPENSES OF TRACK ON WOODEN
AND METAL TIES.

By J. W. Posr, permanent way engineer, Netherlands State Railroad Company.
Iead at the annual convention of the American Society of Civil Engineers, July 2, 1888.

Though the track of Huropean railroads shows in material, construc-
tion, and maintenance a great difference from the grack on American
lines, the following data concerning the use of steel cross-ties, gathered
methodically since 1865 on the lines worked in Holland, Belgium, and
Germany by the Netherlands State Railroad Company, may be of some
interest to American railroad engineers.

The first trial of metal ties on the Netherlands State Railroad dates
from 1865, in which year 10,000 Cosijns ties* were laid. In 1880 these
ties, of a system now considered poor, had given satisfactory results as
to the metal part during their fifteen years of service, but the oak
blocks had to be frequently renewed. Moreover, the following consid-
erations induced the company to search for a good metal tie:

First. It was feared that prices of timber would gradually rise, owing
to the increasing devastation of forests.

Second. Kven with the wood deemed best for ties, viz. oak, it was
difficult to secure satisfactory results; some lots of oak ties, severely in-
spected, appeared first-rate when new, but had to be renewed after only
one year of service. The time of felling seems to be of great importance,
and cannot be determined at the moment of purchase even by the sever-
est inspection.

Third. Kven the best methods of impregnating proved unreliable;
of ties coming from the same boiler some were quite saturated, others
only on the surface; some lasted one year only, others twenty years.
Uniformity in this respect is desirable for the track.

Fourth. No timber merchant guarantees his ties; whereas steel ties
are generally guaranteed for two years.

Fifth. There is a great loss of interest during the time timber ties
are piled in order to dry; whereas metal ties are often in the track before
being paid for. —

Sixth. There is a great loss of timber ties by bursting, caused by
sunskine, water, frost, driving the spikes, cte.

Seventh. Timber ties being heavier than metal ties, the transport to
the place where they are put in the track is more expensive.

Highth. The difficulty and cost of the respiking and readzing of tim-
ber ties, and of the replacing by new ones, increases with the daily
number of trains. Ties of more durable material are desirable also from
that point of view.

*This tie consisted of an [ beam laid horizontally, thus 4, with a wooden block
under each rail,

Ninth. The selling price of old metal ties is considerably higher than
the price of old timber ties.

Tenth. A caleulation* of the total annual sum required for purchase,
laying, maintaining, and renewing tracks on timber and on metal ties
gave a favorable result for the metal.t

All these considerations induced the company to charge the writer
in 1880 to study, both at home and abroad, the different systems of
metal ties then in use, both from the point of view of manufacture and
of maintenance, and to propose a method of trial enabling the company
to get the most complete information possible on the subject.

This charge resulted in the following different systems of ties and
fastenings being laid in the track from 1880 to 1888:

Pounds.
Evy pou .V autheningse chon, > imo nek ie Seer See oe eee ar ee eS
diye IE eVia beri mySe c UNO TNS OIA ee = ete oe eae ele eee 103. 84
iype 1, Haarmann sections, mild steel soc... s- aes ee ee 110
LspelV Haarmaun-section; muilldisteelrs =e aoe eee en ee es eee 114.4
Type V, Haarmann-Lichthammer section; mild steel....-..2...-..-...---.-. 95. 48

Ties
Jit JSS USO ssc oceeofoso. scociesea s5o050 9000 bo Soc0 6o05 90055 9o0b adoe Mona es 4,133
Ion Iketee4s Una e Ul ARG e Se oes enc Gso5 cand os case scoaus sp 6cgs5s Se sosoes es cssssece es LO)
iin, 1StsB}, tay ey Wb S55 soe65 oSoced uoosesoo eocdcaues BEd Spare Heh os Geaciocd o3s0 2, 089
MMNBSSS, type LV ~ see sae eee Nee Se see aio eo eee eee ee eee a a ee
IMrey 1 cise 1G) Wo SSe566 s6G o5cn bac066 6566 Soa5 aa S55 65 oa coos seus Sa boos S552 se 11, 680

And from 1885 to 1888, about 126,000 ties, types VI, VII, VIII and 1X,
making about 150,000 ties of ten different types (including Cosijns). Of
each ot the types, trial lengths, under different circumstances of grades
aud curves, were put under special observation, every hour of mainte-
nance work and every renewed piece being scrupulously noted. Asa
base of comparison 1,120 first-rate new oak ties were laid in the track,
the rails being fastened with the ordinary spikes The plate shows the
different types of ties used.

At the same time different systems of fastenings were ied on the
metal ties. |

By trying the best improvements in shape, material, and manufacture,
and by eliminating every year the faults of the preceeding types, Mr.
Post gradually arrived at types of ties and fastenings which, having
shown great advantage in every respect over the preceding types, have
now been adopted as standards for this railroad. t (T) pes VIII and [X.)

* For methods of calculation see Bulletin I of pee Mee also the Palen
report of the American Society of Civil BIDET ROSTS, June, 1885, on the ‘‘ Preservation
of Forests.”

+tMany important improvements introduced since have increased the advantage of
metal over timber.

t Other railroads have, to their great satisfaction, followed this example. A total
of about 457,300 ties (about 23,800 tons) of the Post types VI, VII, VIII, and IX is
now in service on different lines of Holland, Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland,

Vautherin. LX . g Tron:88 tbs.
S gy eee em ieee ria is Tale ake ee

T
Tron: 104 lbs.

Vautherin. fron fe
(Pe

Til
Mild Steet:110 lbs.

HaormonnS \__

IV
Mitd Steel-114 tbs.
AHaarmann.

Vv
Vautherin Lichthammer. Mild Steel:95.5 lbs.

Pressed. Pressed.

VI .
AA A D
Post: fa D\. (Ge EPR Ley PRRESISE 2
A D

Ss trengthered.

nialtl : Strengthened.
SS Ow 80 870.

DEVELOPMENT AND TYPES OF THE “POST” TIES.

Types VI, VII, VIL, and IX are in mild steel rolled to a variable
section, strengthening at rail seats and tilt 1 in 20 being obtained di-
rectly by rolling, thus preserving the steel from damage at the vulner-
adle spot (rail seats) by bending or pressing. These ties weigh 50 to
59 kilograms each, corresponding to 57 to 63 kilograms per tie of
uniform section BB (economy 15 per cent.). Type VI, without the nar-
row waist, like all preceding types, had not quite the same stability as
the later types with narrow waist; indeed, this reduction of breadth
in the middle causes the principal reaction of the ballastto work at the
rail seats, eliminating the balancing action of the track which takes
place when the support isin the middle, particularly on badly ballasted
roads or with neglected packing. Moreover, the increased height at
the center gives greater rigidity to the tie. The wedge waisted tie VII
is, unfortunately, of difficult manufacture, and so types VUi and IX
are practically esteemed the best, and all agree that they give remark-
able results. — .

The ends are closed and project downward 2 inches into the ballast.
The tests prescribed for inspection are very severe. The author exe-
cuted a series of tests to ascertain whether annealing the ties after
punching the holes does pay or not; his conclusion was, that with mild
steel annealing is not necessary, but is desirable if if can be done at
smalb expense.

The ties are tarred if they have to remain a long time beside the
track. The price, including two years of guaranty, varies from $22 to
$26 per ton.

The fastenings show the following improvements, gradually intro-
duced an@ tried by Mr. Post. The surface of nuts and clips is rough-
ened to facilitate the grip of the Verona nut-lock. The clips, if rolled
(mild steel annealed), get three fillets for the same reason: if stamped
(iron or inild steel), they are indented like the nuts. In both cases the
clip has a large contact with the surface of the tie in order to reduce
the wear. For the same reason the head of the bolt (iron or soft man-
ganese steel) is large. The bolt must not be less than { inch diameter.
The collar of the bolt, which is eccentric, to enable widening of gauge
on curves by turning the bolt 180 degrees, fits tight into the tie hole;
this hole being rounded in the corners to avoid cracks, the bolt collar is
rounded accordingly. The Verona nut-locks are of the very best quality,
severely tested as to elasticity and sharpness of points, and are guaran-

and Asia (colonies). About 272,700 more (about 12,700 tons), comprising the narrow-
gauge and rack-road ties for Sumatra, are ordered and being manufactured now,
making a total of about 730,009 ties (or 36,500 tons). See on this subject:

(a) Mr. Bricka’s official report to the French minister of public works.

(b) Mr. Kowalski’s official report to the Milan Railroad Congress, 1887.

(d) Annual Report, 1887, of the French Society for the Advancement of Industry ;
silver medal awarded to the writer,

teed. The price of these improved fastenings does not exceed 24 cents
per tie.

The statistical results as to cost of maintenance gathered to January |

1, 1888, on twenty-four trial lengths, are shown in the accompanying
table. Columns 1 to 14 give the particulars of sections, condition of
laying, types, etce., and columns 15 to 22 the expense of maintenance per
day and per kilometre in francs.

The statistical data gathered to January 1, 1887, and the close and
scrupulous observations of the trial divisions, allowed the company to
report seventeen conclusions to the Milan Railroad Congress in 1587.

The service from January 1, 1887, to January 1, 1888, having fully
confirmed the opinions of the company on these seventeen points, the
following conclusions are still applicable to the statistical data gathered
to January 1, 1888, as contained in the accompanying table:

(1) Trials 11 and 14 are on curves of 350 metres radius and 16 milli-
metres per metre grade. Oak ties occupying this place previously had
to be respiked every year, causing great cost of maintenance; the rail
flange cut the spikes 3 to 4 millimetres, thus giving every year a gauge
widening of 6 to 8 millimetres. Several ties of type ILI, on the con-
trary, taken from the track for inspection after 1,553 days of service,
showed only a widening of 2 millimetres, the exterior bolts (of the old
type “‘A”) being worn only 1 millimetre by the rail flange. The tie sur-
face only showed a slight amount of corrosion, and the holes were notin
any way enlarged or ovalized. Considering the unfavorable conditions
under which these ties were, these are very good results; in no year did
the expense amount to 2 franes per day kilometre, and the average day
kilometre is only 1.39 and 1.40 franes (columns 18 toe22),

(2) Trials 3 and 9 being on marshy ground, the result may also be
considered as favorable; in no year as much as 2 frances per day kilo-
metre, and average day kilometre 0.95 frane and 0.88 frane (columns 15
to 22). .

(3) As to consolidation (about 2,300 days), the only trials comparable
to the base trial No. 1 (oak ties) are trials 2, 3, 4, and 5. Though two
of these four trials are under unfavorable conditions, there is no sensible
difference between the average day kilometre of trials 2, 3, 4, and 5, and
the day kilometre (0.605 franc) of trial 1, a very favorable result indeed,
considering the following facts:

(a) Type I is now considered a poor system, each of types II to IX
being great improvements. Had one of the more perfect types been
used on these trials, still better results would have been obtained.

(D) Respiking and re-adzing of the oak ties of trial 1 had begun in
1886, and has to be continued in 1888 and following years, increasing
the cost of maintenance with the age of the wood. |

(c) With the trials on metal ties, on the contrary, there is a tendency
shown of a decrease of expense as the permanent way becomes set.

(da) On trial 1 only ten oak ties had to be replaced by new ones since
1881; this renewing, however, will go on increasing with the age of the
wood, thus increasing, apart from the cost of purchase, the daily ex-
pense (work) of trial1. The renewal of ties on the other twenty-three
trials, on the contrary, was nil since 1881 (not one metal tie being bro-
ken), and will be nil for many years. ,

(4) The day kilometre of trials 6, 7, 8, 12, and 17 does not exceed
0.88 franc; those of trials 10, 13, 15, 16,18, and 19 are below 0.60
frane, though these eleven trials date only from 1883 and 1884.

(9) The time of observation for types VI, VIII, and IX (trials 20 to
24), has been too short to form any definite idea of the mean day kilom-
etre; meanwhile everything tends to show that these types will give
even better results than types I to V.

(6) The average expense for laying and inaintaining the twenty-three
trial-lengths 2 to 24, has not been greater than would have been occa-
sioned by the timber ties laid on the same places. The supplementary
expenditure for these trials, apart from the trouble of statistics, ete., is
therefore nil. -

The close observation of the permament way and of the manufacture
of ties and fastenings led the company to the following conclusions:

(7) A part of the road near Liége, twenty-five trains daily, curve of
530 millimetres radius,'16 millimetres per metre gradient, after having
been carefully pack ed, was left for forty months without any other work
than occasional nut-tightening. This shows that a good road, with steel
ties, once properly packed, requires no more scrupulous attention and
maintenance than one laid with timber ties; on the contrary, it would
have been dangerous to have left a track situated as this was, and laid
with timber ties, for a period of threeeand a half years.

(8) The diagrams of the self-registering gauge-measure show that the
gauge is much more regularly kept on metal ties than on timber (even
new oak) ties.

(9) The position of the rail, which often changes on timber ties, is not
variable with the metal ties.

(10) The lateral displacement of the track is insignificant with metal
ties, even on curves of short radius, providing that the tie is closed at
the end.

(11) The breadth of the ballast bed may be made alittle smaller with
the narrow-waisted metal ties (types VII, VIII, and IX) than with ordi-
nary metal or timber ties.

(12) The respiking and re-adzing of trial No. 1 necessitated to 1888
the replacing of two bearing plates and 1,081 spikes by new ones. The
renewal of fastenings on the metal ties is insignificant, especially with
the adopted type ‘*C.”

(13) Iron is not recommended for metal ties; mild steel is superior to
it in every respect, viz. manufacture, inspection, rigidity, and dura.
bility.

(14) Alternating joints have given satisfactory results, especially in
curves of short radius. ;

(15) Suspended rail joints have given the best results on metal ties,
providing the angle splice-bars be strong and the distance between
joint-ties small.

(16) Types VII, VIII, and IX fulfill all conditions for properly im.
bedding the tie in the ballast. If the packing is done properly, and does
not exceed 14 feet from each side of the rail, the track can never become
balancing, through the ballast working towards the middle of the tie
and leaving the ends uusupported, for the shape of the tie drives the
ballast towards the rail seats, both transversely and longitudinally.
Generally the ballast soon forms into a compact cake, adhering to the
interior of the tie, thereby augmenting both the base and the mass of
the track. |

(17) The track men, who generally abhor novelties, have soon learned,
owing to practical instructions, to appreciate the steel ties and to make
au excellent traek with them.

The company closed these seventeen conclusions by quoting at the
Milan Congress the following statement from the annual report of Mr.
Charles Renson, resident engineer of the Liegeois section, which will
be received with great appreciation on account of the distinguished and
impartial manner in which this engineer has organized the trials of
metal ties on that section :

A single track with ties, Type VIII or IX (latest form), having twenty-five trains
per day with curves, gradients, ballast, etc., as the Liege-Hasselt section, can be, af-
ter four years of consolidation, maintained in proper order at the rate of one hundred
working days per year—kilometre. <A gang of four men, working two hundred and
fifty days a year, of which fifty days are given to other work, are able to maintain in
good condition 8 kilometres of permanent way.

The Netherlands State Railroad Company, having expe:i need the
great. advantage of practical cxperiments made on trial sections of
track, has continued experiments as follows, in order to gather infor-
mation on other points:

Between Tilburg and Breda, four parts of equat length were laid in
1886 on the same track, to compare the cost of maintenance and of re-
newal between: (1) Ordinary steel rails (33 kilograms per meter) on
timber ties. (2) Heavy steel rails (40 kilograms per meter) on timber
ties with two Post’s steel, toothed bearing-plates on every tiv. (3)
Heavy steel rails (40 kilograms) on heavy Post steel ties. (4) Ordinary
steel rails (33.7 kilograms per meter) on ordinary Post steel ties.

The time of observation is yet too short for any conclusion.

Between Tilburg and Breda, four parts of equallength are being laid
now in the same track to compare the cost of maintenance and of re-
newal between: (1) Ordinary steel rails on ten timber ties per 9 meters
of track. (2) Ordinary steel rails on eleven timber ties per 9 meters of
track. (3) Ordinary steel rails on twelve timber ties per 9 meters of

track. (4) Ordinary steel rails on twelve timber ties per 9 meters of
track, with alternating joints.

Between Weurne and Helmond the same four comparative trial
lengths are being laid on ten, eleven, and twelve Post steel ties per 9
meters of track.

The information gathered by these methodical researches wiil be of
ereat value, not only for the Netherlands State Railroad but for rail-
roading generaily ; the best remedy for scanty net earnings being a re-
duction of the expenses of maintenance and renewal.

Cost of maintenance on trial tracks with wooden and metal ties, Netherlands State Railroad

Company.
| a = =
ae 2 = :
ol ESE Ea E - H 2 Types.
aie | Section of line. From—| To— | 7 s ae on =
= = 5=, ey oy = =
= 2 Zo asec OY Lease) Ate
Ss | ‘SL Ou] See pe eret = oes Fasten-
= S 35= | cs | a ss PS Ties. Hl ings.
Sli es) = = A =
1} 2 3 4 Bele AG 7 8 Dis) ae
Kilom. | Kilom. : |
1} 25| Liége-Tongres.-.....--| 15.620) 14.612) 12.0 500, 1.008 1.120 Oak. | Spikes
5 = | ae 9 790 2 }
2) EE Peer ene ees 16.666 15. 620 12.05 straight. ¢ Loi] 1,153 EL | A.
+3! 25] Bilsen-Hassett......-. | 41.093, 40.170, 1.2) straight.! 0.993) 1,0c0.’ IT. | A.
(| 25) Liége-Tongres .....--- | 7.946] 7.432, 16.0 1,000! 0.514, "G00! ~ IL. 3.
7| 29) Liers-Flamalle......-- 1.831 1. 393 level. 1,000 0.438 500 II. Eg
8 25} Poneres-Bilsen -...--.- | 25.031) 24.570; 8.0) straight.) 0.461) ~ 500 If. L.
*9} 25] Bilsen-Hassett --.-...-.. | 43.625, 43.349 £0 straight. 0.276 800 EL 3B.
11} 25) Liége-Tongres ---... -- 3. 790 3.640 16.0 300; 0.250) — 201 AG & 1B:
IP Hee | ee CO). Seer Se } 12.707 12.528 13.0 900}; 0.26 300 18 L.
= 4. 002. 3. 790 or a6
6) ar erg eas aol ine 16. 0 350 1.016 1,398 III,IVv.| A.
iV 7A lj) tee Core se ee eee oe 12.528, 12.315 13.0 560} 0: 215) - 258 DV- “AS
=| kc cB) 4,302 = ere
Bt 2}. Fe le Nas ee: eh 16.0 530 0.117, 200, VI c:
al aed = peace 8.060 9.000 16.0) 1,000} 1.¢0c} 1,081] ‘VI. CG:
4] 14; Hassett-Wrchmael...| 22.238) 21.130) 2.9) straight.) 1.108) 1, 201 if A.
=| 1) Wychmael-Achel..-..| 32.673 31.940, 3.4 straight. 0.733) | 800} 1& A.
10} 14 Ifissett-Wychmael ---! 8. 408, 7.301} 3.9 straight.) 1.107 1,200) ‘IT. B.
| Fes Re § Sere GORs een ee: 1. 562) 1.218} 6.5 500 0. 344 490) IT B.
1 FAIS 23-2: iy! Ieee See | 1.218) 0.765; 6.5 500, 0.453) 500) TIL-1V. | A.
lf} 14) Achel-Eindhaven~. -- 47.334) 47.795) 0.8) 2,000; 0.461; FOO} ITT. A.
ie) at) ho 7 ai ea Sit ne ess 47.795 48.256 level. straight. 0.461) 50.) 1V. A.
aS eee MO} S555 eee eee 46.868) 47.334 0.8) straight. 0. £66. ae Vis AC
j =- - 2 -- mor 1
Wa lates ace ee 52.709, 52. 032 1.05 teattahicl 0.677) 733] VI. C
23) 14\.--.-- OV S22 Sere 57. 342. 50/56. 425. 9 1.0 2, 000 0. 083. 40 93) VIIL C
2 oe | eee G0) = eee 57. 425. 95/57. 509. 10 1.0 2, 000 0. 023.15 92 IX. C
|

*Marshy ground.

- Cost of maintenance on trial tracks with wooden and metal ties, etc.—Continued.

Ed Days in service. Cost of maintenance in frances per kilometer per day.
Be .
i 28 dea. foes
3 | When ca Pace: Sienges
| laid. | & a as ei Biles
B a 6-4 | 1887. | 1881. | 1882. | 1883. | 1884. | 1885.| 1886.| 1887.| 08S &
= OG Sebel ep ee a
n> = o8o8 OD NE,
A Be RAS 3 Gen SIS
H A Fy | <2 aks
il 12 13 14 15 16 17 1s | 19 | 20| 2 22
1} 1881 | July 1, 1881 2,375 365) 0.15 0.217 1.226) 0.396) 0.493) 1.101) 0. 423 0. 605
2| 1881 secW® sscasse 2,315 365} 1.120 | 0.423) 0.576] 0.195) 1.086] 0.538) 0. 842 0. 650
*3 1881 | Sept. 1, 1881 2, 313 365] 1.930 | 0.829) 1.884) 0.256) 0.901] 0.383) 1.135 0. 952).
6 1882 |Jan. 1, 1883 1, 826 SOO Seis eye eras ere 1.214] 0.489] 0. 638] 1.112) 0. 552 0. 801
Thijs SUN NN ea (eee 1, 826 SO0l meses tease 1.582) 0.277] 1.160) 0.494) 0.573 0. 817
Beeson ee doe (58! ANG2E IL) © 365/222 Gy aerterre 1.676} 0.533] 1.253] 0.118] 0.046 0. 725
“DSS: peal cose 1, 826 BODE a aie cleo cee 1. 687) 0. 861} 0.953] 0. 278! 0. 625 0. 881
Il} 1883 | Oct. 1, 1883 1, 553 ee) ssocsnsiloosona: 0| 1.084) 1.974) 1.187) 1. 660 1. 889
12 1885 eeu Ojeaacieie 1, 553 Biol soaoovellasudase 0} 0.891) 0.465) 0. 264} 0. 746 0. 587
14\ 4885 Ae dOres semox 1, 552 GLO |baeae alsoaenee 0} 1.647) 1.792) 0. 867) 1.610 1. 392
17, IS Mic seO Seaasee 1, 553 BOD sane eee 0} 1.132) 1.111) 0. 498} 1. 000 0. 879
au ioe ae ? ee pes pe Se Ser lenecoos I ooscce Woeeaoos 0. 036! 0.078! 0. 983 0. 495
22, a8 une 1, 214) iA ieee nee ee hice Dale eale | yam cn sane Laue 0 0
4 1881 | Junels5, 1881 2, 390} 365] 0.6635) 0.595} 0.614) 0.198) 0. 156] 0.418} 0. 297]. 0. 407
*5 1881 | Sept. 1, 1881 2, 313! 365) 1.584 | 1.027) 0.790) 0.326) 0.536) 0. 569} 0. 227 0. 632
10 1882 | Jan. 1, 1885}. 1, 826 BAGS) (ease dl eaeeee 1.077) 0.475] 0.329) 0.503) 0. 595 0. 596
13, 1883 | Sept. 15, 1885 1, 569 B05 || fee evs lees ome 0} 0.433) 0.488) 0. 879} 0. 583 0. 543
15 1883 dower AO) Po: SG see eel eases 0] 0.246! 0. 412] 0.258) 0. 429 0.318
16 1883 | Mar. 1, 1884 1, 401 BOO sees aise OS oS eee 0. 311} 0. 143] 0. 329} 0. 802 0. 421
18 1884 ou ORe veces 1, 401 BOO | reece hol tere hee tevel alaiemiciees 0. 290) 0.372) 0.553] 0. 651 0.471
Oe SSA nase CO em see 1,401 OOD tne Sree eis Segerte [aaa ete 0. 551) 0. 897} 0. 277} 0. 492 0. 554
a eae que eee oy oe Mees a||"teies eters Seas eo elloe (enrol abe 3 0. 144) 0, 252 . 212
23 188 EO ly 22 1 ASDF el aOo EOS IGOObO al ease dole eee Ee ones 0 0
a tesmessedow 46 UDP ss TB plea Malt ae etal ip eee RC 5 Ite | eee 0 0

* Marshy ground.

tEMARKS.—These trial-lengths are on single-track road. First group, 25 to 29 trains per day; sec-
ond group, 14 trains perday. Mails, 38 kilograms per meter; steelangle splice bars. Ballast—gravel,
sand, and cinder. Heaviest engine on these lines, 50 tons, with 134 tons on the heaviest axle; heaviest
encine on other lines, 63 tons, with 13.9 tons on the heaviest axle. Speed up to 50 miles per hour (on
some parts 60 miles per hour). A day’s maintenance per man costs 2.19 francs ; the results of columns
15 to 22 may be transformed into days by dividing by 2.19. The figures in columns 15 to 22 give the
expense for work of maintenance, not the expense for purchase of new spikes, bolts, etc. Not one

_of the metal ties in this table, nor of the 124,000 steel ties in use on other lines of the Netherlands

State Railroad Company, has broken in the track.
DISCUSSION.

K. E. Russell Tratman, Jun. Am. Soc. C. E.—Having received from Mr. J. W. Post,
only a fewdays before the convention, the paper on ‘‘ Maintenance Expenses of T'rack
with Steel and Wooden Ties on the Netherlands State Railroad,” which I have trans-
mitted to the society by request of Mr. Post, I had not time to give as much attention
as I would like to have done to this discussion.

The subject of metal railroad ties is one in which I take very much interest, and
for some time past I have been engaged in making extensive investigations and col-
lecting information with regard to practice and experience in foreign countries. In
making my investigations I have been surprised at the great extent to which metal
ties have been actually adopted for service, for while I knew that experiments had
been made in many countries, in some cases on a quite extensive scale, I had no idea
that, as a result of some of these experiments, many railroads had practically adopted
these ties for regular use; this, however, I found to be the case, and several European
railroad companies are now gradually substituting metal for wooden ties on their
systems. I think few engineers who have not paid especial attention to this matter
realize that metal ties are in actual service, the general impression seeming to be that
while many experiments have been made and are still being continued, yet that no
practical results have been obtained. To this lack of appreciation of the results of
foreign experience may be attributed to a considerable degree, I think, the general]

18689—Bull. 3——=3

indifference of American engineers to the question of metal track. The fact that the
question of the future timber supply is one of serious import does not seem to be
realized, although the reports of the forestry division of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture show that use and waste are playing havoc with a supply that
cannot, under the present system (or want of system) of forestry in this country, be
renewed in proportion to the demand. It has always seemed to me surprising that
American engineers, who are usually in the van of any great step in the profession,
should have paid so little attention to this very important matter ; important both
as to the financial economy and the practical efficiency of the track. In my opin-
ion steel ties should be used as the standard for first-class track, and not merely
as a substitute for timber when the latter becomes scarce or expensive. For in-
stance, on such a road as the projected New York and Boston Rapid Transit line,
which is intended to be an independent line, aud which will probably, when it ma-
terializes, start out with a heavy and rapid traffic, steel ties should be laid down in the
first place. The same holds good for existing trunk lines, on which steel ties should
be introduced, as an advancement in railroad engineering and a step towards econ-
omy.

Taken as a whole, the results of experience have been satisfactory, and the type
which has been found to be the best is the cross-tie of the familiar reversed trough sec-
tion. Cast-iron ‘‘ bowl” sleepers are much used in new countries, and longitudinal
iron sleepers are still used to some extent in Austria and Germany, but the cross-tie
of trough section is the best type, as has been proved by experience and careful tests.
In consequence this form of tie is being more and more widely adopted, numerous va-
riations of section and various styles of rail fastenings being used, in accordance with
theideas of different engineers. In England several railroads are using steel cross-ties
to a greater or less extent, but in consequence of the engineers keeping to the double-
headed rail in chairs the track is very complicated and expensive, representing money
wasted and lying idlein much useless metal, whereas with a good flange rail a metal
track might be obtained more economical and more efficient than the present style of
rails and chairson wooden sleepers. Experience has shown that the ends should be
closed, but in quite a number of cases open-end ties are used. With open ends, of
course, the ties are more liable to lateral displacement, as they do not present the
area of resistance presented by a wooden tie or a closed end.

As will be seen by Mr. Post’s paper, the Netherlands State Railroad Company has
made a systematic series of trials of different types of metal ties, ana the very valua-
ble and important result of these trials has been the designing of the mild steelrolled
tie of trough section, with varying thickness, now well known as the ‘ Post” tie,
which has been adopted to a very considerable extent on European lines. Mr. Post
has been fortunate in having charge of a road owned by a progressive and far-seeing
corporation, which has grasped the economic purposes of metal track, and encour-
agedits engineer in his work of investigation. The comparisons of the different sys-
tems were gone into most thoroughly, account being taken of the amount of Jabor,
time, and expense involved in maintenance, renewals, and repairs, and therefore Mr.
Post has been able, gradually but steadily, to improve the form of tie, until he has ar-
rived at the present form, which is correct in theory and successful in practice; it is
easily manufactured, and has proved in service its advantages in point of economy
and efficiency. The trouble experienced with early forms of ties was that they failed
by cracking, generally between the holes for rai] attachments, and if made thick
enough to prevent cracking they were too heavy and expensive. With the ‘‘ Post” tie
the thickness is increased at the rail seat, giving ample strength where required, but
without any undue excess of weight. This strengthening is secured in the operation
of rolling by the use of special machinery, and in the same operation is secured the
inclination of the ends which gives the rails an inward cant of one in twenty, in ac-
cordance with European practice, Mary European steel works have orders on hand
for ‘‘ Post” ties.

The question of rail fastenings is one almost as important as that of the type of tie,
and many different plans have been tried, some simple, but the majority very com-
plicated. All riveting causes an extra expense, but a very favorite plan is to have a
“clamp” or ‘‘erab” riveted to the tie to hold one side of the rail flange, the other
side being held by a belted clamp. Mr. Post, realizing that all extra shop-work is
necessarily expensive, has adopted bolts exclusively, with entirely satisfactory re-
sults. It will be noted that the first type of metal tie experimented with had wooden
blocks for the rails to rest upon, the idea being that the rail required an elastic seat.
This seriously impaired the general efficiency of the tie, for the wood rotted and gave
constant trouble, so that this form of tie was scon abandoned. It has been conelu-
sively proved by experience with various types of ties in different countries that
such a wood-bearing is not only unnecessary, but a positive disadvantage, and that

the track is satisfactory to railroad men and travelers when the rail is fastened di-

rectly on the metal tie, and therefore no wood should be used at all, but a metal track
should be entirely of metal. The introduction of metal ties has been hampered by
the attempt to secure a ‘‘cheap” tie. The objects in using metal are to obtain econ-
omy in maintenance and efficiency in operation, and neither of these objects can be
obtained by using a tie which is “‘cheap.” Every desirable feature can not be com-
bined in one piece of steel, and if the tie is to make the track safer, reduce the main-
tenance expenses, keep the road in better condition, and far outlast the wooden tie,
it must have sufficient metal to insure these advantages. You need to have, and to
pay for, enough metal to make an efficient tie; but you need not have, and need not
pay for, extra metal that is mere dead weight. With ties, as with rails, the design
and manufacture are equally as important points as the weight, and the rail fasten-
ings no less important.

Two points need to be considered in designing or adopting a metal track, viz,
economy and simplicity. Cheapness is very far from being economy, being in fact
directly opposed to it. Simplicity is necessary, both for economy and efficiency, as
the track which, while possessing ample strength, is the most simple in its construc-
tion, will give the least trouble, and consequently involve the least expense for main-
tenance. A good metal track, once weil laid, is in itself a source of economy in main-
tenance and operation, and it is to be hoped that this type of track will soon be a
feature of first-class American railroads.

In nearly every large country but America, and in many of the smaller countries,
metal ties have been experimented with, and I would strongly urge that more prac-
tical attention should be paid to so important a matter by American engineers, rail-
road men, and steel manufacturers.

At the International Congress of Railroads, September 17 to 24, 1887,
the following resolutions were the outcome of its discussions:

(a) The opinion of the Brussels Congress that iron ties are of equal value to
/wooden, has not been negatived during the last two years; the application of iron
ties is rather on the increase.

(b) The question whether the use of wood or metal ties is cheaper depends on the
local conditions and the state of the iron market.

(ce) Regarding cost of maintenance and renewal, not yet sufficient data are on hand
for lines with large and rapid traffic; for medinm traffic and slow trains the iron ties
offer advantages, especially when after some time the track has consolidated and the
fastening has settled well.

(d) For the ‘‘ Vautherin ” form the use of a homogeneous metal is desirable,

PATENTS -RELATING =P O OVER Ada sR Aca VAACY sie ih Eee
By E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN.

The following list of United States patents relating to metal railway
track will be found useful by persons interested in this subject. It could
not practically be made anything more than a descriptive index, giving
sufficient information to enable any one who wishes to investigate more
fully to find the specifications.

No. 1,262; date, July 26, 1839; J. Stimpson.—Transverse frames resting on longi-
tudinal timbers, with inclined braces to hold them in position, and sockets at the top
to receive the web of a rail with a very narrow flange.

No. 16,898; date, March 24, 1857; H. Carpenter.—A short hollow post under each
rail, connected by a tie-plate; T-shaped fastening fitting into hollow of post.

No. 18,494; date, October 27, 1857; 8S. A. Beers.—Continuous longitudinal structure
with transverse tie-plates. Saddle rail of _ section.

No. 19,704; date, March 23, 1858; S. H. Long.—Cross-ties of channel [~] section
or T section (the latter nade of two angle irons). Continuous flat plate under ordi-
nary rail.

No. 20,620; date, June 22, 1858; W. Bryent.—Combined longitudinal grooved rail
and iron pavement.

No. 32,794; date, July 9, 1861; B. C. Smith.—Wide longitudinal channel sleeper and
rail combined, with transverse rods. A raised rib lengthwise of the sleeper forms the
rai).

No. 36,579 ; date, September 30, 1862; B. C. Smith.—Longitudinal cast-iron con-
tinuous bearing, of channel section, connected by transverse tie-rods. Rail secured
to chairs.

No. 53,507; date, March 27, 1866; Franz Vester.—Flat cross-tie, with two deep
corrugations along its whole length. Ends turned down.

_ No. 66,711; date, July 16, 1867; R. M. Holland.—Cross-tie of A section. Flange
cut away for rails. Hinged wedge fastening.

No. 70,731; date, November 12, 1867; Henry McCan.—Broad flat transverse base-
plates, with longitudinal girders held together by tie-rods. Rails resting on top of
girders. ;

No. 71,063; date, November 19, 1867; Leonard Repsher.—Wrought-iron flat cross-
tie, bent up at ends to embrace flange and web of rail, angle-clamp bolted to tie on
inside of rail. Bolt through clamp, web of rail, and end of tie.

No. 83,880; date, November 10, 1868; J. Potter.—Flat transverse base-plate, with
two uprights which support continuous stringers, to which flangeless T-rails are
bolted.

No. 109,504; date, November 22, 1870; C. Fisher.—Cross-tie of inverted trough
section, with closed ends. Two pockets for wooden bearing-blocks. Rail fastened
by flat plates resting on tie and rail flange, screwed to the wooden blocks.

No. 112,805; date, March 21,1871; S. M. Guest.—A railway joint chair, combined
with an iron cross-tie of T section.

No. 121,956; date, December 19, 1871; J. Newton.—A rail fastening for iron ties.
Flat tie with end turned up; wooden wedge between rail and end of tie; vertical gib
and cotter fastening (with serrated cotter) on inside of rail.

No. 123,526; date, February 6, 1872; L. E. Towne.—Cylindrical cross-tie with a
flat base plate at each end, and a rail chairon top at each end, secured by a strap
passing round the tie.

PR mae eee

ee
all ?

No. 124,521; date, March 12, 1872; R. M. Upjohn.—Longitudinals under each rail,

of | section with very high vertical web. The rail is of _.(L_ section and rests

upon the flanges of channel irons bolted to the vertical web of the longitudinals.

No. 134,418; date, December 31, 1872; James Calkins.—The continuous longitudi-
nals of channel sections have lugs to hold the outer flange of rails ; transverse plates
project over the inner flange and are bolted to the longitudinals.

No. 136,067; date, February 18, 1873; J. W. Kern.—A continuous roadbed of A sec-
tion, with the rails laid on the horizontal flanges. ‘Transverse base plates at inter-
vals. The bed to be of 4-inch boiler-iron.

No. 139,518; date, Taine 3, 1873; W. Peck and H.C. Richman.—Two chairs con-
nected by a horizontal flat tie-plate. Wooden bearing-blocks in the chairs.

No. 140,411; date, July 1, 1873; C. W. Gulick.—A flat wrought-iron cress-tie with.
ribs to form a channel for the flange of the rail. Fastenings of iron 34 inch diam-
eter under tie, passing up through holes in the same, with ends bent over rail flange.
Ties about 5 inches wide and 4 inch thick.

No. 143,407; date, October 7, 1873; P. S. Devlan.—A cross-tie made of two iron
plates on edge, fastened together at the middle and widening out to hold a wooden
block at each end.

No. 144,207; date, November 4, 1873; George Keech.—Longitudinal plates under
each fail, with lugs to hold outside of rail flange.. Tranverse tie-plates project over
the inner flange and are secured by horizontal bolts passing through lugs on the base
plate.

No. 145,991; date, December 30, 1873; If. L. De Zeng.—Wrougkt-iron cross-tie of
D1, VU, or othersection. A clip stamped out of the metal holds outer flange
of rail; loose clip secured by vertical key or cotter holds inner flange. (See 155,369. )

No. 146,376; date, January 13, 1874; G. H. Blaisdell.—A cast-iron cross-tie of A sec-

tion with’ wide, flat, deep ends, Hagin sockets for wooden blocks. A bolt passes

through both blocks and the whole length of the tie.

No. 147,563; date, February 17, 1874; P. Kendrick and J. Stokes.—A cross-tie made
of two old rails laid parallel, with a wooden block between them at each end, and
base plates if desired.

No. 148,242; date, March 3, 1871; George Potts.—Continuous bearing of wood held
between two continuous iron stringers of J section, the top of the web being bent
over to hold the rail flange. Bolts pass through the three pieces.

No. 155,369 ; date, September 29, 1874; H. L. De Zeng.—A cross-tie of inverted
trough section, with open ends, but with projecting wings at ends to prevent lateral
displacement. See No. 334,696.

No. 163,187; date, May 11, 1875; S. H. Hamilton.—An iron or steel cross-tie of square
hollow section throughout, or only at ends. Fixed lugs hold the inner flange of rail,
and bolted plates hold the outer flange.

No. 163,254; date, May 11, 1875; H. Reese.—A rolled iron cross-tie of T section;
lugs stamped out while hot from the rolls. Bent clip and horizontal wedge fastening
for outer flange of rail. (See 214,192.) .

No. 164,793; date, June 22, 1575; Ramon Banolas.—Cross-ties of [ section, carrying
longitudinal stringers of J section, to which flangeless rails of | section are bolted.

No. 166,625; date, August 10, 1875; R. E. Nichols.—A continuous hollow bearing,
section similar to lower half of letter A ; bottom closed; top open, with horizontal
flanges to carry the rail flange; cross-tiesof |__| section. Longitudinals and cross-
ties filled with broken stone.

No. 171,422; date, December 21, 1875; John Quigley. —A cast-iron cross-tic with
chair combined, for street cee fale

No. 172,041; date, January 11, 1876; In. E. Lewis.—A cross-tie of a section, with |
the top vertical flange cut away for ens rails, which are secured by wedges. (See
183,766. )

No. 17 6 ,213; date, April 18, 1876; George D. Bese —A cast-iron cross-tie, with

wide ends and loose bearing blocks, all held together by a bolt running through the
whole length of the tie.

No. 182,984; date, October 3, 1876; Leonora E. Yates.—-Cross-ties of ] Ps Nae
or “J section, the latter being semi-cylindrical, with flanges. The rails are fastened
by bolted clamps.

No. 183,766 ; 183,767 ; 183,768; date, October 31, 1876; E. E. Lewis.—A crosstie cf
+ section; rails of different forms. Also a joint tie of [] section. (See 172,041.)

No. 185,808; date, December 26, 1876; D. 8S. Whittenhall.—A eross-tie of
ANAVY~,_ section; the rails resting in notches in the top ridges.

No. 188,087; date, March 6, 1877; H. S. Wilson.—A cross-tie of [ section, with
fixed and movable rail clips.

No. 188,710; date, March 20, 1877; N. S. White.—A continuous bed-plate under
each rail, with cross-ties.

No. 190,739; date, May 15, 1877; A. H. Campbell.—A cast-iron cross-tie, with
sockets for wooden bearing-blocks.

No. 192,842; date, July 10, 1877; A. W. Serres.—A continuous bearing of _A_
section (in two pieces) under each rail, with transverse tie-bars. The web of a flange-
less raii lies between the two vertical webs. (This track has been used in Europe.
See Engineering News, New York, January 29, 1887, page 73; also Railroad Gagette,
New York, August 19, 1887.)

Ne. 198,0€0; date, December 11, 1877 ; John B. Ward.—A longitudinal iron pipe (for
conveying water) under cach rail; the bottom of rail curved to fit pipe. :

No. 198,464; date, December 25, 1577; E. E. Lewis.—A cross-tie consisting of an old
rail with two notches cut to the level of the flange to admit the track rails. Two
rails with wooden bearing-blocks used at joints. (See 172,041.)

No. 198,618; date, December 25, 177; D. Horrie.—A transverse truss of cast or
wrought-iron. Horizontal hook-bolt fastenings.

No. 201,667 ; date, March 26, 1878; H. A. Haarmann.—Continuous bearing for each
rail, with cross-ties. This track has been extensively used in Eurcpe. (See Engi-
neering News, New York, January 29, page 74.) (See 219,856.)

No. 206,647; date, July 30, 1878; T. W. Travis. —A hollow cross-tie, with boxes at
the ends open ontop. The rails are held between two CG clips; the groove holds
the rail-flange; the upper web lies against the rail web, and the lower web is wedged
into the box. i

No. 207,242; date, August 20, 1878; J. A. Bonnell.—An inverted trough cross-tie,
with closed ends and corrugated top. Bolted clips or angle-bar fastenings for rails.

No. 207,320; date, August 20, 1878; J. H, Thompson.—A cross-tie made in two pieces,
dove-tailed together in the middle. The rails rest on wood blocks.

No. 207,719; date, September 3, 1878; W. E. Curtiss.—A wrought-iron cross-tie of —
inverted trough section with flaring sides, having a brace of the same section inside ~
under each rail. The ends are open. Rails secured by bolted clips.

No. 210,774; date, December 10, 1878 (patented in Germany, January 18, 1878); F. ©
B. Freudenberg.—A wrought-iron cross-tie of somewhat similar section to the preced-
ing one. Hooked clips are riveted on for the inside and outside flange on alternate
ties, the rails being sprung into place. Long ties for double tracks.

No. 214,192; date, April &, 1879; H. Reese.—A cross-tie of T section, with the ends —
of the horizontal table turned down at an angle. Clip and wedge fastening. (See —
163,254. )

No. 215,675; date, May 20, 1879; H. Reese.—Improvements upon the preceding oue.

No. 216,845; date, June 24, 1879; L. A. Gouch.—A cross-tie of —}— section, the ©
longitudinal web being the widest and having its edges turned up or down.

No. 218,559 ; date, August 12, 1879; S. Nicholls (of England).—A continuous broad
bed-plate under each rail, for street railways. The rail is formed of two channels, —
leaving a space between forthe wheel flange 7] [C. 4

No. 218,603; date, August 12, 1879; A. P. Whiting.—A cross-tie of 4 section, the —
top flange cut away for the rails. Bolted clips hold the inner flanges of rails,

No. 218,648; date, August 19, 1879; C. F. Wagner (of Avstria).—A cross-tie com-
posed of two parallel pieces of T section, fastened together by cross-strips. Bolted
clip rail fastenings.

No. 218,878; date, August 26, 1879; C. Hanshaw.—A cross-tie made in two pieces
lengthwise; on one piece are cliy's for the inner flange of one rail and the outer flange
of the other, and on the other piece are clips for the outer and inner flanges, respect-
ively. The two pieces are held together by a flat horizontal key driven between
other clips in the middle of the tie.

No. 219,856; date, September 23, 1879; H. A. Hlaarmann, of Prussia, (see No.
201,667).—A cross-tie of inverted trough section with flaring sides, and a flat or
erooved top table. The rail fastenings are [(-shaped, with a bolt passing under the
rail. »

No. 220,026; date, September 30, 1879; H. T. Livingston.—A tubular cross-tie of -
oval section with a flat surface under each rail. Rails fastened by bolts screwed into
the tie. Interior of tie packed hard with straw, grass, etc.

No. 221,596 ; date, November 11, 1879; O. EK. Mullarky.—A eross-tie of channel sec-
tion [| with wooden bearing blocks wedged inside under the rails. The rails are
fastened by bolted clips.

No. 223,187; date, December 30, 1879; J. R. Sullivan.—T wo separate cast-iron bear-
ing pieces connected by a tie-bar. Each rail is secured by a cast-iron wedge.

No. 226,308 ; date, April 6, 1830; A. Greig (patented in England March 25, 1879).—
Flat crose-ties with one or two grooves along the whole length. A brace or clip is
riveted to hold the outside of the rail, and the railis held against it by a hook bolt,
the body of which lies in the groove and has a nut at the end of the tie. (This sys-
tem is much used for portable railways manufactured in England.)

No. 227,602; date, May 11, 1880; D.S. Whittenhall.~Improvements on No. 185,808.

No. 9,292 (re-issue); date, Jnly 13, 1880; H. Reese.—See original number 214,192 of
April 8, 1879.

No. 230,826; date, August 3, 1880; Lewis Scofield.—A cross-tie of _f\_ section.
Riveted and bolted clips for rail fastenings.

No. 231,755; date, August 31, 1880; William Brown.—A hollow cross-tie of rectan-
gular section, with concave bottom and open ends. A rib at the ends keeps the rail
in position, and it is fastened down by hooked bolts with nuts inside the tie.

No. 233,528; date, October 19, 1880; W.C. Lutz.—A cross tie of | section, with the
rails secured by flat hooked clips bolted to the side of the vertical web. (See 241,389. )

No. 235,078; date, December 7, 1880; G. H. Gilman.—A cast-iron cross-tie of rectan-
gular section, with grooves to reduce the weight. The rails are held by fixed and
movable lugs.

No. 235,321; date, December7, 1880; I. A. Williams.—The two broad bearing plates
on which the rails rest are connected by two transverse tie-plates, placed on edge.

No. 240,987; date, May 3, 1881; I. W. Fleck.—A cross-tie made of an ordinary rail,
head down, with strengthening sections and a broad base plate bolted to it. It is
curved into an arch form, high in the middle, with the ends level for the track raiis.

No. 241,389; date, May 10, 1881; W.C. Lutz.—A cross-tie of cylindrical form, with
flat-bearing surfaces for the rails; or with a vertical web on top, with notches for the
rails. (See 233, 528.)

No. 242,850; date, June 14, 1831; H. Thielsen.—Cross-tie of T section; in two
halves, one under each rail. Bent clips formed out of the metal of the tie. The
two pieces keyed together at the middle. (See 317,244.)

No. 246,888 ; date, September 13, 1881; G. A. Jones.—A cross-tie of J section with
the ends formed into a chair. The railis held in the chair and spiked to a wood
block.

No. 247,248; date, September 20, 1881; Levi Haas. —A cross-tie made of an old rail

with the ends resting on woodblocks; the track rails are secured to the top of the

tie. (See 257,572. )

Nos. 249,270, 249,271; date, November 8, 1851; E. H. Tobey.—Cross-ties of [___]| or
¥Y section; the rails are held in chairs resting on wooden blocks.

No. 249,503 ; date, November 15, 1881;. J. Clark.—A cross-tie of semicircular section
Zs » the bottom fastened to a flat bed-plate the whole length of the tie. The
top of the arch cut away for the rail. (See 256, 199, 259, and 095.)

No. 251,251 ; date, December 20, 1881; C. F. Kreuz.—A flat cross-tie with thickened
ends to hold the outer flanges of the rails; and a flat cross-tie with another flat piece
restiug on it to hold the inner flanges cf the rails. These ties placed alternately. —
(see; 265, 9195)

No. 254,802 ; date, March 14, 1882; J. Conley.—A flat cross-tie in two pieces, with

the inner end of each turned up so as to be bolted together. Under the rails thesides

are turned down. Clips are stavnped out of the metal. (See 332, 384.)

No. 255,554; date, March 28, 1882; IF’. A. Williams.—A cross-tie of shallow inverted
trough section, with broad ends. The rails are held against fixed clips by plates the
whole length of the tie, placed on edge, underneath, with a hooked end to hold the
rail flange. These plates are secured by a horizontal key in the middle of the tie.

No. 256,199; date, April 11, 1882; J. Clark.—Improvements upon No. 249,503.

No, 257,437; date, May 2, 1932: HL. De Zavala.—A cross-tie of A section, with UY
bolts passing under the rail and having nats screwed down on the rail flange.

No. 257,572; date, May 9, 1882; Levi Haas.—A cross-tie consisting of two cast-iron
bed-plates, with bearing Dos to which the rails are bolted. A tie-bar connects the
two bed-plates.—See No. 247, 248, 315, 771, 389, and 464.

No. 259,095; date, Ere 6, 1882; J. Clark.—Further improvements on Nos. 249,503
and 256,199. (See 270, 637; also August 5, 1884, and 358, 144.)

No. 259,823; date, June 20, 1882; A. 12 Cubberlery.—A flat cast-iron cross-tie,
with concave bottom, and doye-tail grooves on top for sliding rail-fastenings into
place.

No. 259,891; date, June 20,1832; J. H. Meacham.—A cross-tie of | section, with
end boxes for wood blocks, to which the rails are secured by hook bolts,

No. 260,231; date, June 27, 1882; J. Parr.—A cast-iron cross-tie with fixed and
movable lugs for the flanges of therails. (See 277,333.)

No. 263,919; date, September 5, 1832; C. F. Kescaz =0 cruss-tie of FY section, the
rails resting on the web and secured by wedges. An improvement on No, 251,251.

No. 265,760 ; date, October 10, 1882; M. I. Cortright.—A cross-tie with two grooves
or corrugations in its length, and with notches to receiv > the flange of the rails.

No. 267,930; date, November 21, 1832; G. L. Putnam.—A cross-tie of square section,
hollow or solid, with hooked epilcen put in place from the bottom and epee up-

wards. (See 285,842.)

No. 269,442; date, December 19,1882; Rh. B. Meeker.—Cross-ties of T section, with
broad table. Flat horizontal bars with turned-up ends, used alternately with the
ties. The rail to be of extra height, bolted to chairs

No. 270,637; date, January 16, 1883; J. Clark.—A flat cross-tie with arched bearing
plates and chairs. See No. 259,095.

No. 272,850; date, February 27, 1883; T. Breen.—A flat cross-tie twisted spirally in
the middle and having the ends turned up. (See 294,191.)

No. 274,309; date, March 20, 1883; W. H. Gibbs and George Snook.—-A cross-tie
of | section, with supports for a rail-chair of inverted-trough section, with a wooden
block, to Sie the rail is secured by hooked clamps.

No. 276,414; date, April 24, 1883; E. B. Hungerford.—A cross- -tie of shallow chan-
nel section| |. The flanges are on away and notched to hold the rail-flange, and
the railrests on a loose bed-plate witha clip to hold the other flange; the plate being
held in place by a horizontal key driven through holes in the tie-flanges.

No. 277,333; date, May 8, 1883; J. Parr.—A hollow cast-iron ecross-tie. The rails”
are secured to loose chairs, having long projections which run nearly through the
tie and are secured by a vertica] frolt at the middle of the tie. (See No. 260,231.)

No. 280,110; date, June 26, 1833; S. B. Wright—A cross-tie of inverted-trough
section, with the inside of the top arched. (Sec 298,539.)

No. 286,200; date, June 26, 1883; J. Mahoney and D. W. Shockley.—A cross-tie

of*: | section, with wooden bearing-blocks. (See No. 370,634.)

No. 281,806; date, July 24, 1883 ; fe R. Spauiding.—A cross-tie of channel section
rt] to wivel the rail is fastened by a series of flat horizontal keys or wedges in
dove-tailed grooves.

No. 283,076; date, August 14, 1833; J. L. Chapman.—Cross-ties of shallow channel
i__J, or of two flat plates, one above the other, separated by distance-blocks. Hach
rail is secured by bolted clips to a bed-plate.

No. 283,230; date, August 14, 1383 ; H. I’. Flickinger.—A cross-tie of [ section, to
which the rails are secured by fq) bolts with the nuts on the under side of the top
flange of the tie.

No. 284,157; date, August 28, 1883; J. W. Young.—A hollow, open-sided, elastic
cross-tie of ~__) section ; to be filled with ballast or earth on surface lines. Two
or more of these plates to te placed inside one another, with one side open, or to form
a closed tie. It is claimed to be adapted to elevated roads.

No. 285,833; date, October 2, 1883; John Newton.—Channel-iron stringers f—] >
with flat cross-ties fegiaell to ane con

No, 285,842; date October 2, 1883; George L. Putnam. oT cross-tie of T section,
depressed in the middle to hold a a aioe trough for supplying locomotives. The rails
are secured by bolted clips. See No. 267,930.

No. 285,986; date, October 2, 1883; Clark Fisher. —A bent-plate cross-tie, of fj sec-
tion in the middle, with flat ends. A U bolt passes under the rail, and washers are
serewed down on the rail flange by the nuts.

No. 287,418; date, October 30, 1883; J.J.Clarke (of Peru).—A flat plate tie for
portable railway track, with special joint fastenings. (Assigned to A. W. Colwell,
New York.)

No. 289,806; date, December 11, 1833; T. J. Bronson and A. Armstrong.—An iron or
steel cross-tie of approximately semi-cylindrical section 9, with lugs struck up by
means of dies.

No. 290,793; date, December 25, 1833; L. O. Orton.—A flat inverted trough cross-
tie, with wedge-shaped DOE projecting above and below to hold the bearing blocks
and fastenings.

No. 291,514; date, January 8, 1884; H. R. Holbrook.—A hollow eross-tie of oval
section, with thickened portions under the rails; rails secured by bolted clips.

No, 292,421; date, January 22, 1884; J. J. Du Bois.—A cross-tie, with dove-tailed
groove for rail and a wedge fastening.

No. 293,194; date, February 5, 1884; J. Reven.—A flat tie-bar to keep rails from
spreading; one end bent up to hold rail, the other end having thread and nut, with
movable clamp.

No. 293,302; date, February 12, 1884; George W. Bloodgood.—Bolted clips for fast-
ening rails to ties of inverted-trough section.

No. 294,191; date, February 26, 1884; T. Breen.—A cross-tie made in two pieces,

lengthwise; placed side by side, holding the rail-chairs and fastenings between

them. (See 272,850.)

No. 296,725; date, April 15, 1884; W. T. Carter.—A hollow cross-tie, with flat top
and bottom and concave sides.

No. 298,539; date, May 13, 1884; S. B. Wright. —Fastening rails to inverted-trongh
eross-ties by clips and T-headed bolts. (See No. 280,110. )

No. 299,557; date, June 3, 1884; J. Lockhart.—A clamp or tie-rod, to” be used in
connection with wooden ties. A tie-rod, ruining across the track, has clamps to
hold the rail flanges, the inner clamps being held by set-scréws. It is claimed that

soft-wood ties can be used, as there will be no tendeney for the rails to spread. (See
327,285. ) :

No. 302,965 and No. 302,955; date, August 5, 1884; C.S. Westbrook.—A cross-tie
off [ section, with parts ofthe horizontal table cut away. The rails are held by
riveted and keyed angle plates. .

Nos. 10,504, and 10,505 (re-issues) ; date, August 5, 1884; J. Clark.—Improvemeuts
in No. 249,503.

No. 303,373; date, August 12,1884; E.G. Holtham (of England). Patented in
England, December 22, 1883.—Broad longitudinais under each rail, with transverse
tie-rods, and with additional side plates to increase the bearing on the ballast.

No. 304,745; date, September 9, 1884; G. W. B. Neal.—A cross-tie made of trian-
gular section, with the rails carried in and bolted to chairs fastened to the apex of
the tie.

No. 306,090; date, October 7, 1884; Robert Moffly.—A cross-tie made of three
pieces the fulllength of the tie, bolted together so as to form a J slot along it, in
which the rail fastenings slide.

No. 306,139; date, October 7, 1884; B. W. De Courcy.—A cross-tie of ()_()\_ section,
with the rails resting on the top and secured by hooked clamps bolted together below
the rail.

No. 309,428; date, December 16, 1884; J. H. Williams.—A cross-tie of U section,
with wooden blocks to which the rails are spiked.

No. 310,269; date, January 6, 1865; Abraham Gottlieb.—A cross-tie of inverted-
trough section, with a groove along its top table. The rail is fastened by bolted
clips or a special form of locking-plate or chair.

No. 312,566; date, February 17, 1885; W. H. Knowltcn.—Cross-ties of different sec-
- tions.

No. 312,717; date, February 27,1885; E.N. Higley.—A flat cross-tie with sides and
ends turned down and with a vertical rib along the middle. This rib cut away for
the rails, which are fastened by bolted clips. General section thus, ——-”“ “—\. See
No. 334,228. (Manufactured by the International Railway Tie Co., of New York.
See Appendix B of report on metal track.)

No. 312,881; date, February 24, 1825; W.McVey.—A metal cross-tie in two pieces,
mortised together at the middle and secured by a bolt.

No. 313,072; date, March 3, 18385; A. A. Harrison.—A combined fat longitudinal
and eross tie; the cross-tie having plate at right angles and being laid so that these
plates of adjacent ties mect.

No. 314,757; date, March 31,1885; C. H. Van Orden.—A cross-tie of T section, with
a rail chair at each end, the rails being secured by bolts which have hooked ends
passing through the top of the tie. 3 :

No. 315,047; date, April 7, 1885; M. A. Martindale.—Longitudinals of inverted-trough
section with rails forming a part of or bolted to the top table. Connected by trans-
verse tie plates. Claimed to be adapted for laying along highways.

No. 315,771; date, April 14, 1885; L. Haas.—A cross-tie made of two pieces the full
length of the tie, with the section of figure 1, having wooden-bearing blocks to which
the rails are spiked. See No. 257,752.

No. 317,244; date, May 5, 1885; H. Thielsen.—A cross-tie of T section, the sides of
the top table being turned down. (See No. 242,850.)

No. 317,763; date, May 12, 1885; M. A. Glynn (of Cuba).— Cross-ties of _ or }
section ; also longitudinals of inverted trough section.

No. 319,010; date, June 2, 1885; A. J. Moxham.—A cross-tie made of two angle-
irons, with distance-plates at the ends and middle [_ ~ ]; the rails are bolted to
high chairs. The tie is intended for street railways, and is shown with a center-
bearing girder-rail.

No. 319,813; date, June 9, 1885; G. C. H. Hasskarl.—A hollow box cross-tie, with
a Sp -shaped web inside; the small middle space receiving the T heads of the track-
bolts. It is also to beused asa longitudinal sleeper for street railways, the two large
side spaces being used as conduits for telegraph wires, ete.

No. 320,231 ; date, June 16, 1885; E.D. Dougherty and George B. Bryant.—A cross-
tie of rectangular section, with an opening in the top table to receive a smaller cross-
tie to which the rails are fastened, and which rests on springs placed in the larger
box.

No. 323,356; date, July 28, 1885; G. Murray.—A flat cross-tie thickened under the
rail, and having a rib at the bottom under each rail, and in the middle; the rails se-
cured by bolted plates.

No. 323,430; date, August 4, 1885; J. K. Lake.—A combined metal stringer and chair
for street railways.

No. 323,809; date, August 4, 1885; William B. Henning.—A longitudinal plate lies
under each rail; with cross-ties having deep ends with J slots to receivethe web and
flange of the rails. (See 376,84.)

_ No. 325,020; date, August 25, 1835; R. R. Shepard.—aA cross-tie of channel section
eal ws: ith one outer and one inner lug for each rail, and two [ slots for clips of
[____-shape with eccentric heads.

No. 326,874; date, September 22, 1885; P. Kirk (of England).—A cross-tie with in-
creased thickness at the rail seats, and with two lugs or clips punched up to hold the
flange of each rail; the rail being secured by a wedge driven between the flange
and one of the lugs (patented in England, France, Belgium, and Spain, in 1885).

No. 327,285; date, September 29, 1885 ; J. Lockhart.—An improvement upon No.
ZS

Nos. 327,745 and 327,843; date, October 6, i8 885 ; L. E. Whipple.—A ecross-tie of X
section, made of two curved plates placed back to back and having flat plate across
top and bottom.

No. 323,632; date, October 26, 1885; J. 5S. Ammon.—A cross-tie of A section with rail
chairs secured to the top ridge.

No. 329,429; date, November 3, 1885; G. E. Baldwin.—A pair of rail chairs of _Q_
shape, resting on wooden blocks and tied together by arod. The top table has a
groove to receive the web of a rail of TJ section, having no bottom flange. Intended
especially for city railways.

No. 329,821; date, November 3, 1885 ; P. Davey.—A cross-tie of channel section, to
which the rails are secured by keys and Z-shaped clamps, the lower part of the latter
lying inside the tie.

No. 332,384; date, December 15, 1885; J. Conley. —A fastening for attaching rails
to metal ties, which have lugs to hold the outer flange of rail. The fastening is a bar
inside the tie, with a hook at cne end projecting through a hole and holding the rail
flange, while the other end is bent up against the end of the tie. (See 254,302.)

No. 333,015 ; date, December 22, 1885; J. Howard and E. T. Bousfield (of England).—
A cross tieof ~~ “\ section, with a U-shaped depression for each rail, the rail being
secured with a wooden wedge. (These ties have been used with the English double-
headed rail; patented in England.) (See 335,523.)

No. 333,480; date, December 29, 1885; L. B. Prindle.—A steel cross-tie three-eighths
to one inch thick; channel section[ =]; at each end isa slot to receive a tenon at
the bottom of a rail chair.

No. 334,228; date, January 12, 18386; E. N. Higley.—An improvement on No.
312,717. Gee 303,028. )

No. 334,695; date, January 19, 1886; H. L. De Zeng.—An improvement in fasten-
ings. (See Nos. 145,991 and 155,369; also 380,623. ) .

No. 355,523; date, February 2, 1886; J. Howard and E. T. Bousfield (of England).—
A cross-tie made of a metal sheet or plate, with one or more corrugations lengthwise,
the rails being held in chairs made by ne away the corrugations. (See No.
323,015.)

Nos. 335,804 and 335,805; date, February 9, 186; E. P. J. Freeman.—A cross-tie
made of a sheet of metal bent to form a rectangular ore A wooden block is placed
inside, under each rail, and a spike is driven into the wood through a hole in the

ci eo

metal. The spike may be split so as to flare like A when driven in combination, a
guard-rail of a plate bent to Z shape, the rail lying on the bottom flange and all fast-
ened to the tie.

No. 338,057; date, March 16, 1836; J. Gearon.—A continuous road-bed made of
channel cross-ties placed alternately -—7] and [___], with the vertical flanges over-
lapping one another. :

‘No. 339,275; date, April 6, 1886; J. DeMott.—A cross-tie with a rail chair at each
end. The end of the tie is rounded on plan, and is embraced by a C____ clamp
with the ends turned up to hold the rail flange.

No. 339,938; date, April 13,1835; F. F. Scott.—A cross-tie with a chair for each
rail; one half of chair fixed, the other fastened by bolts. Pins driven through the
web of the rail prevent vertical movement.

No. 340,118; date, April 20, 1885; H. Howard.—A deep channel [|__| cross-tie for
street railways. The rails are keyed to chairs resting on the top of the flanges.

No. 341,416; date, May 4, 1885; F. V. Greene.—For street railways. A continuous
cast-iron hollow bearing (preferably 10 feet long and weighing i40 pounds per yard)
under each rail. The rails are grocved, and are screwed to the top of the longitnu-
dinal.

No. 342,987; date, June 1, 1836; A. N. Warner and T. J. Deakin.—A eross-tie of
channel section LJ with T-shaped rail chairs fitting into it. The rail secured to
chairs by bolts with hooked ends, the nuts being under the fiange of the chair.

No. 344,011; date, June 22, 1886; C. H. Sayre.—Flat or arched “~7\ cross-ties
with pieces punched out of the top and bent to embrace the flange and web of the
rail.

No. 344,185; date, June 22, 1886; W. Kilpatrick—A cross-tie of SZ section,
with a slot along the flat top to receive the bottom of the rail chairs.

No. 344,826; date, July 6, 1886; I. F. Good.—A flat cross-tie thickened and widened
at the ends to form rail chairs, and having flanges projecting down under the chairs.
The rails secured by keys.

No. 345,733; date, July 20, 1885; C. Sailliez.—A cross-tie of channel section] ],
with lugs to hold the rail flanges. The flanges are cut away at the ends to allow of
wooden stringers being used under the rails.

No. 346,998; date, August 10, 1886; D. Kaufman.—F lat cross-ties with chairs at the
ends, and longitudinal continuous flat plates beyond the chairs. The space between
the rails is covered by a continuous arched plate.

No. 349,524; date, September 21, 1886; E. Schmidt (of Prussia).—A cross-tie made
of two old flange rails laid flat, head to head, forming a tie of H H section. The
rails rest on the web and are fastened by bolted clips. (Patented in Germany.)

No, 350,692; date, October 12, 1886; T. L. Mumford and H. Mcore.—A cross-tie of
inverted trough section, wider at the ends, with fixed Ings and movable clamps for
fastening the rails.

Nos. 351,498 and 351,499 ; date, October 26, 1886; E. C. Davis.—A cross-tie made of
two old rails placed side by side. Each track rail rests on a bearing-block in two
pieces, with a lip at the end to engage the rail flange. The blocks are slid into place
between the tie-rails and bolted through the tie.

No. 352,(02; date, November 2, 1886; E. F. Reynolds.—A cross-tie of [AAA] sec- -
tion. The rails rest in notches ent in the top, and are held by hinged clips and lock-
ing clips.

No. 353,028; date, November 23, 1886; E. N. Higley.—Improvements upon Nos.
334,228 and 312,717.

No. 353,691; date, December 7, 1886; S. D. Loecke.—A channel eross-tie [ ], with
inelined ends and a transverse rib in the middle. The rails are fastened by bolted
clips. (See 356,002.)

No. 354,250: date, December 14, 1826; R. S. Sea.—A ecross-tie of T section with en-
larged ends forming rail chairs. +:(See 379,005. )

No. 354,433; date, December 14, 1386; R. Morrell.—A cross-tie made of a plate bent
to form a hollow rectangular box, with the top and bottom cut away at the middle.
The rails are fastened to wooden bearing-blocks placed inside the tie, (See 365, 932.)

No. 356,092; date, January 11, 1887; S. D. Locke.—An improvement on No. 353,691.

No, 358,144; date, February 22, 1887; J. Clark.—A cross-tie of channel section, with
chairs for the rails. (See No. 249,503, etc.)

No, 358,981; date, March 8, 1887; J. C. Lane.—An iron bridle-red, made in two
pieces, bolted together at the middle, to prevent rails from spreading at the curves.
No. 359,115 and No. 359,117; date, March 8, 1887; W. Wharton, jr.—A cross-tie of
Lor L section, with the bottom flange bent up to make a chair for the rails. To be
used on street railways with girder rails.

No. 359,440; date, March 15, 1887; T. Gleason.—A cross-tie of trough section |___[,
with interior cross-pieces or webs to which the rail clamps are fastened.

No. 360,397; date, March 29, 1887; M. Y. Thompson.—A flat cross-tie, with a U
shaped depression at each end to receive a wooden bearing-block. ‘The rails are fast-
ened by keys. ;

No. 361,199; date, April 12, 1887; H. P. Adams.—A cross-tie of T section, with
chairs keyed to it.

No. 361,330; date, Aprili9, 1887; P. J. Severac, of Paris.—A cross-tie of [ section,
with the horizontal flanges bent at the ends. In some cases a broad plate is riveted
to the bottom flange. Therailsare fastened by clipsor keyed tochairs. (Thissystem
isin use in Europe.) Patented in France, Belgium, England, Italy, and Spain, in
1884-25.

- Nos. 362,786 and 362,787; date, May 10, 1887; J. Riley (of Scotland).—A cross-tie
of inverted trough section, with the rail chairs stamped or pressed by dies, the rails
being secured by wedges. (Patented inEngland and Belgium; 1885-786).

No. 365,020; date, May 17, 1887; L. Taylor.—A hollow-box cross-tie, with outward-
flaring sides and concave bottom. The rails are fastened by hook bolts with the
nuts inside the tie.

No. 365,350; date, June 21, 1887; A. Roelofs.—A cross-tie of channel [| or in-
verted trough section. The rails are fastened by fixed lugs on the outside, and a tie-
bar which is sprung into place on the inside. Also a flat tie with a rib under each
rail and a slot along the middle for the bent tie-bar.

No. 365,511; date, June 28, 1887; F, X. Georget.—A cross-tie or longitudinal, of chan-
nel section ___J, built up of a base plate and two concave side plates with the tops
flanged outward horizontally. The ties or longitudinals are connected by tie rods.
(See 381,125.)

Nos. 365,932 and 365,933; date, July 5,1¢87; R. Morrell.—A hollow cross-tie, made
of a plate bent to an oblong section, with straps around it at the rail fastenings. The
metal is cut away to let the rails rest on a wood block inside the tie; the metal straps
keep the spikes from working loose and allowing the rails to spread. Also a tie for
elevated roads, made of two plates on edge, fastened together at the middle, and
flaring apart to admit wooden bearing-blocks between them. See No. 354,433.

No. 366,546; date, July 12, 1887; N.S. White.—A cross-tie of channel [| or in-
verted trough section, with a base plate at each end, with a bearing-block of wocd
or other material inside under each rail. The rails are fastened by locking clamps.

No. 367,325; date, July 26, 1887; John Splane.—A cross-tie of ~~] channel section,
with the bottom of the sides flanged outwards. The rails are let into apertures in
the top and rest on the hooked ends of two tie-bolts, the inner ends of which are
connected by a turnbuckle which is tightened by a wrench, there being a hole in the
middle of the top table of the tie.

No. 367,383; date, August 2, 1887; J. Fitzgerald.—The rails are fastened to a cast-
iron cross-tie by hook-headed spikes, which are secured by horizcata] keys fitting
inte corresponding notches in the tie and spike. .

_ No. 369,591; date, September 6, 1887; J, H. Coffman.—A solid tie with a groove

along the top and lugs for the inner flanges of the rail; hooked rods hold the outer
flange, and the inner ends of the rods are attached to a spring at the middle of the
tie.

Nos. 369,755 and 369,756; date, September 13, 1887; William L. Van Harlingen, sr.—
A box cross-tie made of an inverted trough fastened to a base plate; inclined and
closedends. Itincloses a wooden tie or wooden bearing blocks. The rail is fastened
by wood-screws with wide heads. Also a metal tie with end boxes to contain springs
on which the rails rest.

No. 370,072; date, September 20, 1887; R. C. Lukens.—A cross-tie of T section, with
slots in the web for attaching weights or anchors to keep the trackin position. The
rails are fastened by lugs and bolts.

No. 370,192; date, September 20, 1887; D. C. Heller.—A hollow box-tie of rectangular
section, with the top cut away under the rails. The tie is filled with concrete and
has two wooden blocks to which the rails are spiked.

No. 370,225; date, September 20, 1887; C. W. Yost.—A flat tie with lugs, and asep-
arate bed-plate, with lugs, for each rail.

No. 370,634; date, September 27, 1887; J. Mahoney and D. W.Shockley.—A cross-
tie of J! section, with a saddle plate for each railseat. The plate hasa lug for one
flange and a clip is bolted onthe other. See No. 280,200.

No. 371,110; date, October 4, 1887; W.H. Troxell. —A cross-tie with raised rail seat
and outer lugs. Hooked bolts, with nuts on the outer side of the chair, hold the
inner flange of the rail.

No. 371,780 ; October 18, 1827; J. Mcser and E. Moeckel.—A cross-tie of T section,
with a chair at each end; each chair has an inclined rail-brace and two hook-bolts.

No. 372,230; date, October 25, 1887; A. McKenney.—Cross-ties of channel [ [sec-
tion, with one end cut off at an angle to allow of a diagonal tie to the next transverse
tie, each set of three ties making a letter N on plan. Arranged continuously.

No, 872,525; November 1, 1887; J. A. Dunning.—A hollow rectangular eross-tie,
with cpen inclined ends; bottom and sides have corrugations, transverely and verti-
cally. Bolted clip fastenings.

No. 372,703 ; date, November 8, 187; I. A. Perry.—A cross-tie made of two old rails,
with saddle chairs fitting over the heads of theserails. Track rails fastened by chair
and sliding wedge, being held by flange and web.

No. 372,864; date, November &, 1887 ; C. Netter.—A cross-tie of T section, with the
ends beyond the rails bent down vertically and then horizontally. Rails fastened
by bolts having hooks, which take hold of the bottom of the web of the tie.

No. 372,879; date, November 8, 1887; J. H. Stull.—A cross-tie made of a plate bent
to a semi-circular form \___/, and semi-cylindrical at the ends ©. Rails fastened
by clamps. Open ends.

No. 373, 656; date, November 22, 1887; W. P. Hall and C. C. Barnett.—A cross-tie
of semi-circular section ~~ \, with open ends. Shoulders pressed out to prevent
spreading. Rails fastened to saddles or straps. (See 375,996.)

No. 375,005 ; date, December 20, 1857; R.S. Sea.—A cross-tie of channel section,
with closed ends. A strengthening plate is bolted to the under side of the top table,
and the side flanges are deeply notched to give elasticity. A metal block is bolted
under each rail, and the rails are secured by bolted plates.

No. 375,856; date, January 3, 1888; R. T. White.—A cross-tie of | section, with
high chair at each end to receive the web ofa girder rail. Intended for street rail-
ways. (See 385,395.)

No. 375,996; date, January 3, 1888; W. P. Hall.—A hollow cross-tic, made of a plate
bent almost cylindrical, but with the bottom open and flat on top. ‘The rails ere
fastened to saddle straps. (See 373,656. )

No. 376,214; date, January 10, 1888; J. W. Smith.—A hollow rectangular cross-tie,
with holes in the top to admit the rail chairs, which rest on coiled springs inside the
tie,

No. 376,884; date, January 24, 1888; William B. Henning.-—A flat bar, bent up at

_ the ends to embrace the flange and web of rail. Loose angleclamps on inside of rail.

(See 323,809.)

No. 377,162; date, January 31, 1888; G. Kelton.—A cross-tie of channel section
| 1, with a separate bottom, having projections on its inner side to give a held to
the pulp with which the tie is to be filled. The rails are fastened by hooked bolts,
with nuts inside the tie, cavities being left in the pulp filling.

No. 378,280 ; date, February 21, 1888; F. L. Barrows.—A cross-tie of inverted trough
section, with clips struck up on the outside of the rail to hold its flange, and clips
lengthwise on the inside of the rail to hold a rail fastening.

No. 378,930; date, March 6, 1888; J. Hill.—A flat cross-tie, corrugated lengthwise
top and bottom. The railis keyed toa chair. The inventor proposes to use a double-
headed rail.

No. 379,312; date, March 13, 1888; 8. B. Jerome.—A hollow rectangular cross-tie,
made of a bent plate. Itis to be filled with straw, sawdust, etc., and has a narrow
bearing-block along the underside of the top, to which the rails are spiked. The
ends are closed by wood or cement blocks. -

No. 379,399; date, March 13, 1888; J. Jacobs.—A cross-tie of channel section j J
with closed ends; atop plate is bolted on by side clamps to form arail seat. The
tie is to be filled with concrete, etc.

No. 379,574 ; date, March 20, 1688; C. P. Hawley.—A cross-tie of [ section, with
the top flange bent to make a rail brace. A longitudinal bridge is used under the
rail at joints.

No. 379,576; date, March 20, 1888; C. P. Hawley.—A cross-tie of | seetion, with
slots for the web of aT girder, forming a rail seat, or which can be made a longi-
tudinal bearing.

No. 380,623; date, April 3, 1883; H. L. De Zeng.—Improvements upon Nos. 334,696
and 348,550.

No. 381,125; date, April 17, 1888; F. X. Georget.—Improvements upon No. 365,511.

No. 381,860; date, April 24, 1888; H. kh. Stiles.—A cross-tie of channel section] _f,
with a wooden block under each rail.

No. 382,134; date, May 8, 1888; W. H. Britton.—A cross-tie of T section, with the
vertical web corrugated vertically. The rails are secured by lugs and clamps.

No. 382,394; date, May 1, 1888; J. B. Sutherland.—A eross-tie of approximately Y
section; curved like the section of a yacht, and with the top edges bent in to form
Hoe outa flanges for the rail chairs.

No. 382,855; date, May 15, 1888; F. Born alts —A hollow box eross-tie, with closed
ends. There isa wooden block the full size of the face of the tie at the top, and
another at the bottom; both inside. Coil springs are interposed between the top and
bottom sections.

No, 383,118; date, May 22, 1888; M. Fitzgerald.—A cross-tie of channel section
rT, with whe ends. Fixed lugs and hooked spikes are the rail fastenings.

No. 384,785; date, June 19, 1888; Jacob Reese.—A cross-tie of fj,section, with a
groove along its top table; rail seat bolted on top. The rail is secured by a bolt
passing under it and through the chair, having f washers to hold the rail flange. it
is to be rolled from a plate of No. 7 steel 24 inches wide; bedded in ballast.

No. 325,395; date, July 3, 1888; R. T. White.—A channel cross-tie of U section,
with rails secured to saddles by bolts and clips. (See 375,856 and 380,420.)

No. 385,492; date, July 3, 1888; D. Y. Wilson.—A cross-tie made of two angles
—ji L_, witha base plate and channel plate for rail seat at each end. Rails bolted
through top and bottom plates.

No, 386,119; date, July 17, 1883; R. W. Flower, jr., and 8. L. Wiegand.—A hollow
cross-tie of rectangular section, with part of the bottom cut away and turned down
bo prevent lateral movement, The rails are spiked to wood blocks inside the tie.

No, 586,156; date, July 17, 1583; J. A. Ogden.—a cross-tie of channel section | __],
wide at the bottom, with bearing blocks and hook-fastenings for the rails.

Nos. 336,356 and 386,357; date, July 17, 1888; H. Shultzen.—A channel tie L__J,
with the middle part of the bottom cut away and turned up to prevent lateral move-
ment. The rail is fastened to a wooden block by Z-clips and a longitudinal kolt
under the rail, or by diagonal bolts. (Now being manufactured by the Standard
Steel Tie Company, of New York.) (See Appendix B of the report on metal track.)

No. 386,389; date, July 17, 1888; A. Durand.—A cross-tie of inverted trough see-
tion, with clips and channels stamped in it. (See description on p. 25.)

No. 388,277; date, August 21, 1888; A. J. Hartford.—A flat cross-tie, with end
turned up, and a bent plate tie bridge, arched in the middle, bent to form a shoulder
for inner flange of rail; the rail rests on this plate and the end is turned over the
outer flange and secured by a bolt through both plates.

No. 389,464; date, September 11, 1888; L. Haas.—A cross-tie of rectangular sec-
tion; top cutaway atends and middle. Wooden block undereachrail. (See 391,704.)

No. 390,014; date, September 25, 18838; R. P. Fadais.—Wooden stringers, with flat
iron tie plates across top and under rail, with U belts embracing the stringers.
For street and steam railways.

No. 390,370; date, October 2, 1888; I. G. Howell.—A cress-tie of channel section
[1], with blocks under the rails. The top is cut away for the rail, and-the tail
clamps are fastened by books.

No. 391,492; date, October 23, 1888; W. J. Stifler.—A flat cross-tie with diagonal
grooves on the under side near the ends to receive the heads of the bolts of the two
plates, each with a lug, which form one rail seat.

No. 391,704; date, October 23, 1888; L. Haas.—A cross-tie of channel section | _f,
higher at the rail seats, with notched flanges for the rails. (See 257,752.)

No. 391,999 ; date, October 30,1888; A. H. Ames.—A flat cross-tie, with flaring ends
of channel section [” 1], having riveted and bolted clips for rail fastenings.

No. 392,849; November 13, 1888; J. Cabry and W. H. Kinch (of England).—A
roiled steel cross-tie of inverted trough section, with lugs stamped out. Rails
secured by keys driven between flange and lug. (In use on the Northeastern Rail-
way, in England.) .

No. 393,515; date, November 27, 1888; D. M. McRae.—A wooden or iron tie, with
metal sockets at ends ferming rail seats.

No. 394,738; date, December 18, 1888; G. W. Thompson.—A hollow cross-tie of
rectangular section, with a metal bearing-block inside under each rail. Bolted clip
rail fastenings.

No. 395,134; date, December 25, 1888; M. Hagarty.—A cross-tie made of twe
channels placed back to back JL, inner lug on one, outer lug on the other. The
bolt holies in vertical web are elongated to allow the channels to be shifted to let rail in.

No. 395,304; date, December 25, 1888; C. F. Yarbrough.—Hollow cross-ties of
rectangular section, with open ends and openings at sides. Wood blocks may be
used, or the ties may be filled with ballast.

No. 396,160; date, January 15, 1889; H. Hipkins (of England).—A stamped metal
cross-tie of 7~7*-y section, with lugs and rib stamped out of top table. (Patented
in England, 1888.)

No. 396,473; date, January 22, 1889; C. P. Espinasse (of France).—A cross-tie of —

4 section, with vertical web cut away for rail chair to which rail is secured by
wooden wedge.
No. 398,004; date, February 19, 1889; S. U. Smith.—A cross-tie of channel section

f—, with closed ends. The rails rest on the ends of a separate cross-plate, with

fixed lugs inside, and bolted plates outside,

sections, made of bent plates. Cross-section intended to give elasticity. (See

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TREATMENT OF RAILWAY TIES IN ENGLAND.

The information given below is taken from a paper on “ English Rail-
road Track,” by Mr. EH. E. Russell Tratman (Transactions of the Amer-
ican Society of Civil Engineers, June, 1888), The matter referring to
the Great Northern Railway (of Ireland) was taken by Mr. Tratman
from a highly interesting paper, ‘ Description of a Creosoting Yard
for Railway Purposes,” by Mr. W. Greenhill, read before the Institution
of Civil Engineers of Ireland, in May, 1886; the paper contains very

full particulars, in detail, of the plant and process, results of tests,

cost, ete., and is especially interesting in that it describes work done by
a railway company in treating timber for its own use.

The ties ale usually of Baltic red wood, 10 by 5 inches by 9 feet, spaced 2 feet 9
inches to 3 feet center to center. They are almost invariably creosoted, with about
7 pounds of oii per cubic foot. Some roads have the creosoting done by contract,
others have their own plant for the work. Among the latter may be mentioned the
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway and the Great Northern Railway (Ireland), bo‘h
of which have very large and complete plants, and pay careful attention to the im-
portant point of tic preserving. [See also paper by Mr. John Bogart, M. Am. Soc. C.
K., entitled ‘‘ The Permanent Way of Railways in Great Britain and Ireland; with
Special Reference to the Use of Timber Preserved and Unpreserved,” and read No-
vember 20, 1878.*] Ido not think enough practical attention is paid in this country
to ihe question of preserving railroad ties, and some points in the matter may be
learned from English practice.

Usually the ties are of rectangular section, but on the Midland Great Western Rai?-
way (Ireland), they are preferred of half-round section, except where the bearing-plates
(bed-plates) are used. Mr. Price says that for heavy traffic he would prefer slcepers
11 by 54inches; he uses, however, sleepers 10 by 5 inches, 8 feet 11 inches long, always
creosoted. The following is from the company’s specifications: The timber is to be
of good sound Baltic redwood, free from shakes and other defects, well seasoned and
dry ; 90 per cent. of both rectangular and half-round sleepers to have not less than 74
inches diameter of heart-wood, and 10 per cent. not less than 7 inches at both ends.
On one side the rectangular sleepers to have 50 per cent. sharp edges down to 9 inches
surface, and 50 per cent. not less than 8 inches, and on the other side all edges to be
sharp. The rectangular sleepers.are to be grooved and bored and the half-round
sleepers to be grooved, in accordance with the templates which will be supplied by
the engineer. After being grooved and bored they are to be placed in a receiver and
thoroughly impregnated with the best creosote oil (an equal mixture of light brown
and black oil) under such pressure and for such time as shall entirely fill the pores
with the liquid. The sleepers are not to be creosoted till they have been stacked in
the contractor’s premises for at least three months after inspection by the engineer,

* Transactions, Vol, VIII, page 17, January, 1879.

18689—Bull. 3——4

The engineer will reject, either before or after delivery, any sleepers which do not
comply with the above conditions, or any sleepers the sap-wood of which has not
been fully creosoted.

(1) LANCASHIRE AND YORKSHIRE RAILWAY.

The ties, after being well seasoned, are passed through a combined adzing and
bering machine, which first cuts out a seat about one-sixteenth of an inch deep for
the chairs, in order to give them a uniform bearing, and then simultaneously bores
the eight holes required for chair fastenings in each tie. The machine will seat and
bore about one hundred ties per hour.

The ties are then placed on small iron trucks and drawn on a tramway of 3-foot
gauge into the cylinder, which contains eight trucks with forty-seven ties each, or
three hundred and seventy-six ties in all. The cylinder is 77 feet long, 6 feet internal
diameter, built of one-half-inch wrought-iron plates and having egg-shaped ends.
When the full number of ties has been put in, the doors or covers are put on and
hermetically fastened by means of dog-bolts and screws, and the air exhausted by
a steam ejector. The creosote is then introduced, heated to a temperature of from
1060 to 120 degrees Fahrenheit; the air-pump then ceases to work and the pressure
pump is put into operation, the full pressure of 150 pounds per square inch being
obtained in about ten minutes; this pressure is maintained for about fifty minutes
and is then withdrawn. The spare creosote is allowed to run back into the reservoir
under the cylinder, the cover is removed, and after the ties have been left to drip for
about fifty minutes, they are taken out of the cylinder. About 3 gallons of creosote
are allowed for each tie, or 94 pounds per cubic foot of timber. The efficiency of the
process is ascertained by weighing three or four ties out of every charge, both before
and after the operation, the additional weight showing the quantity absorbed, which
averages about 20 pounds per tie:

Pouads

Average weight of tie before creosoting..--- Se ae So ee eee 128
Gain in weight during ‘process 52... <2 53s Se Se ee eae 39
Average weight of ereosoted tie.2-22-<co- = ee eee ant 158

The whole operation for one charge of ties occupies about one hundred and thirty-
two minutes, as follows, but varies slightly, however, according to the moisture in
the timber:

Minutes

RAGCLON VACHUIN : = Soo) oc soa o> oe ee ee sae bess ss aaeee tee 13

Pumping commenced and tank filled Motes eee ee eee ee 9

nll pressure-obtained i 2.) eo ee ee ee eee er 10
oll-pressure- maintained: tor: s+ See Se re Se 5

Spare creosote allowed to.drip fromi-ties=:: >: -.-.. 2a ee eee 50

Tetal si. 2.32225) Fa Se ee eee 132

From the creosoting cylinder the timbers are run back into the chairing shed, where
the chairs are attached to the ties by a machine (somewhat on the style of a steam
hammer) which, at one stroke, drives the four fastenings for each chair. This
machine will “chair” about seventy ties per hour.

The time occupied in seating, boring, creosoting; and chairing three hundred and
seventy-six ties is as follows:

Hrs. Min
Statint and bering. iW t,o eng bee ee ete eee ees Sats 23: 3 40
Running tracks into cylinder... 225. 2. ae -b ess Senate se he ace 0 20
Creoseting - 0.225 -9065 .- Kt Soe pteex ee. oooee 3. Se eee ee eee 2 12
Withdrawing charge from ¢ylinder:. <2 22... <25-2-6. ee ee 0 20
Chaarimg o.oo. 024 Sass aoe aaa eo a ee eee ee 5 14
Total: 2ucs. Shs Sack ce ee CR See ee eee 11 46

or 1 minute and 53 seconds per tie.

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The cost of the operations, not including the value of the machines, is as follows:

Hrondimonwliive thes isso oee e ao oo eee ee eee er Sea es per, 10077 7-80. 36
oNoiime and: Doringesss=: oo) tae See oe eee ee es do . 62
UBIO, eo SORA elonee Be Sa Macs ben Seer cre aer er orine cea se coca e Hee doss2. . 64
Creosote, 300 gallons ------ SE eS boas coer code etereosead seaoce see eels do s=2 5 6275
ONO IST Ves BRIG IIS DG Cae ES OB ee eee eed Sea e on com bencerr dos... 72.44

MO tale eee hee beet ei Sco ct Ro sees ene 10. 81

or 10.81 cents per tie.
The whole of the work is done at the company’s store yards at Castleton and Knot-
tingley, and is let picce-work at the above rates.

(2) GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY (IRELAND).

In 1876, when a number of railways were amalgamated to form: this system, the
new company decided that all the ties should be creosoted, and that to insure the
work being efficiently performed, it would erect a suitable plant of its own for sawing,
grooving, and creosoting the timber to be used for ties. After being sawed, the ties
are taken to the grooving-machine, which forms a groove or seat for the base of flange
rails by means of cutters making 2,000 revolutions per minute. Boring machinery,
with twisted augers, was used for a short time, but the adoption of the improved
ragged spike, which cuts its own way without splitting the tie, enables holes to be
entirely dispensed with, and insures a tighter fit of the spike. After being grooved
the ties are run out into the yard.on a tramway of 30-inch gauge, and stacked to a
height of 14 feet, alternate tiers on edge and on flat.

The cylinder is 60 feet long (6 tie lengths), 6 feet diameter, built of three-eighths-
inch plates. The safety valve is set at 110 pounds, but seldom rises; it is, however,
sometimes lifted to release air and water when the pressure pumps are working.
There are six tanks, of such a size that a vertical igch of the six tanks represents 156
gallons; a float is connected with a gauge and scales, which show the gallons or
pounds of creosote forced into the cylinder. There are 13-inch pipes in the cylinder,
through which the steam is forced to heat the creosote to 120 degrees Fahrenheit,
thus dissolving the naphthaline, etc., and rendering the creosote quite fluid. There
is an air-pump, 64 by 10 inches, which exhausts the air from the cylinder, and the
creosote enters by the atmospheric pressure on the tanks; the partial vacuum does not
extract the sap or affect the timber. When the cylinder is nearly full the valve is
closed, air-pump stopped, and the two force pumps, 3 by 4 inches, put to work.
Three hours of steady pressure are required. The consumption of oil varies from 140
to 180 casks of 36 to 38 gallons each, per week, and the quantity used annually is
about 250,000 gallons. The average quantity of creosote injected is 2.35 to 2.57 gal-
lons, or 25 to 27 pounds per tie. About nine months’ seasoning is customary, but a
longer period is considered desirable so as to insure dryness.

‘‘ Little or no creosote can be forced into a thoroughly wet slceper, even at high
pressures, and a thoroughly dry sleeper will readily absorb a large quantity of oil
which, when solidified by exposure to the air, no moisture, either from air or wet
ground, will succeed in removing.”

CIRCULAR IN REGARD TO CHESTNUT-OAK TIES.

FOR INFORMATION OF RAILROAD MANAGERS.

U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY DIVIsIon,
Washington, D. C., Deceriber, 1-37.

GENTLEMEN: Hopirg that you have appreciated the manner in which the Forestry
Division of this Department has, by its first Bulletin, attempted to call the attention
of railroad managers to the need of economy in the use of forest supplies, allow me,
in furtherance of such cconomy, to present ihe following statements, which a bis
of interest io you. .

In the use of oak for cross-ties, the spucmualioan of most roads, especially those of
the South, call for white oak (Quercus alba), a timber which is sought for also by
almost every industry employing oak, and which is therefore rapidly decreasing and
approaching comparative exhaustion. Meanwhile, millions of feet of tan-bark or
chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) are rptting ia ihe forests, after being stripped of their
bark, because their value for cross-ties is not known or is underestimated in many
regions.

This lack of appreciation of the value of this wood causes not only waste of the
wood itself, but waste of.the bark also, as without ready demand for the wood it
does not pay to peel the larger limbs.

From information furnished by Dr. Mohr, of Mobile, Ala., an expert in forestry sta-
tistics and agent of this Departmens, if appears that from the line of the Louisville
and Nashville Railroad, south of the Tennessee River, between 5,000 and 7,000 cords
of bark are shipped annually, involving the felling in that district alone of from
10,000 to 13,000 trees which are consigned to useless destruction, while capable of
yielding not less ihan 100,000 first-class railroad ties.

As to the lasting quality of the timber of chestnut oak, experiences are reported
from Cullman, Ala., to the effect that posts of this oak outlast those made of white
oak, partly, probably, because the timber is peeled. One reliable report states that
tan-bark-oak posts were found to be sound after twelve years, while those of white
oak in the same construction had to be replaced several years sooner. Reports from
railroad companies where this wood is used for ties give their life as from five to ten
years, while the reports for white oak give from three to twelve years. In the
average, all the oaks which are known as ‘‘ white oaks,” named below, last between
seven and eight years in the road-bed.

That the oaks of this class may be used for railroad construction interchangeably,
and do not offer any appreciable differences in the qualities most essential fer a good
railroad tie, the following table, compiled from the Census Report, may serve to show.
The column of specific gravity will allow an estimate in regard to adhesion of spikes,
while the column of indentation allows an estimate as to resistance to cutting of rail.

The position as to quality, in comparison with the other kinds mentioned, is indi-
cated by numbers in parentheses.

moe Specific Resistance i eel Trans-
Deseription. Range. Z Bl Shree to in- asticity.| verse
: 7 une gravity. | dentation. strength.

White oak (Quercus alba, | Eastof the Rocky | 46.35 | 0.7470 (4) 3388 (G) | 97089 (2) 905 (4)
GS) Mountains.
Chestuutorrock-chestnut | Northeastern and | 46.738 | 0.7499 (3) 3688 (5) | 125473 (1) | 10381 (2)
oak (Quercus prinus, L.).| mm Kentucky,
Tennessee, and
Alabama.
Basket or cow oak (Quer- | Southeastern .....| 50.10 | 0.8039 (2) 3725 (4) | 96373 (8) | 1118 (1)
cus Michauati, Nutt.).
Burr, mossy-cup, or over- | Northern United | 46.45 | 0.7453 (6) 3730 (3) | 92929 (4) 982 (3)

cup oak Quercus macro- States.
carpe, Mickx.).

_ Post or iron oak (Quercus | East of Rocky | 52.14 | 0. 8367 (1) 4415 (1) | 83257 (3) 72 (G)
obtusiloba, M*chz.). Mountains.

Cauformia white oak | Pacific Coast ..... 46.45 | 0. 7453 (5) 3846 (2) | 81109 (6) 879 (5)
(Quereus Garryand, |
Dougl.).

From these figures it would seem that, contrary to the accepted notion, the white
oak, par excellence, is inferior in all particulars to the chestnut oak, and in general
not superior to any of the others.

Trusting that the above information will be of value to you, and that, so far as
your conditions enable you to make use of it, you will-do so, and thus to some extent
aid in economizing timber supplies.

Yours, respectfully,
NORMAN J. COLMAN,
Commissioner of Agriculture.

Nore.—The objection to the injurious influence on their durability of cutting trees
ja the sap, which is done to obtain bark, is met by leaving the trees full length, with
limbs and leaves untrimmed for a fortnight, when by the action of the leaves a
more thorough seasoning will be accomplished than can otherwise be obtained.

This practice is common abroad wherever summer felling is a necessity, and has
proved itself so satisfactory that preference is given to cutting timber in the leaf.

COREESPONDENCE IN REPLY TO THE CIRCULAR ON
CEER ST NUT-OAK TES:

Lowisvitle, New Orleans and Texas Railway Company.—My own experience confirms
fully the facts stated in your circular. (James M. Edwards, vice-president and gen-
eral manager. )

Richmond and Allegheny Railroad.—i have ranked chestnut oak with white and post
oak for thirty years past, and in the middle sections of the State the impression is
that, cut under similar conditions, it rather outlasts the white oak. (R. D. Whit-
comb, chief engineer.)

Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific Railway Company.—I havescen your circular
concerning the value of chestnut oak, and am glad that you called attention to the
subject.

We have had its use specified for our cross-ties on the Cincinnati Southern Railway
since the first construction of the track, in 1876. (G. B. Nicholson, chief engineer.)

Nashville, Chattanooga and Saint Louis Railway.—Please accept my thanks for your
circular letter with reference to chestnut oak for cross-ties. Our chief engineer ad-

. - "BA

vises me that he classes it third best for this purpose , and considers it but little in-
ferior to white oak for cross-ties. (J. W. Thomas, president. )

Saint Louis and San Francisco Railway Company.—Ninety-five per cent. of the
timber fit for ties on our lines is composed of white, burr, or post oak. We have oc-
casionally obtained a few ties made of what is called chinquapin oak, which is a va-
riety of chestnut oak, and has long been recognized to be one of the best varieties of
timber for cross-ties. (James Dun, chief engineer.)

Philade!phia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad Company.—We have bough sey-
eral thousand of Quercus prinus in the Virginia counties bordering on the Chesapeake
Bay this last season. I consider it every way equal, if not superior, to the Quercus
alba ties. If you can direct me where the bark of the Prinus is being used, I will at
once send our agent to see what we can do towards getting the cross-tie in the
spring after the trees are barked. (J. N. Mills, superintendent.)

Mexican Central Railicay Company.—We are using on our railroad now, so far as we
draw from the United States, for ihe main line, cedar grown in northern Michigan
and southern Canada, and we have already contracted for 1,000,000 ties for next
year’s supply.

We have also bought 25,000 white-oak ties. These are the only oak ties that have
been purchased in the three and a half years of my presidency, with the exception of
some small lots of bridge ties. So, as you see, we have not been very great sinners
in the matter of the use of white oak.

The 25,000 oak ties were for use in curves; herctofore we have used on curves mes-
quite tics grown in Mexico; the supply wasnever plentiful, and it had materially
diminished.

The information you give us, therefore, may become of great importance. (Levi
C. Wade, president. )

SPECIFICATIONS FOR WOODEN CROSS-TIES,

PROPOSED GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR CROSS-TIES.

TIMBER.

Cross-ties will be accepted of the following varieties of timber: Oaks of the vari-
ous kinds known as ‘“‘ white,” “black,” ‘‘yellow,” “rock,” or ‘‘ chestnut,” ‘‘ burr,”
and ‘“ post,” red cak, black locust, second-growth white chestnut, beech, red elm,
cherry, maple, butternut, tamarack, and yellow pine of the long-leaved Southern
hard pine variety cut from untapped trees, white and red cedar. Hemlock may be
avcepted but only under special contracts.

SIZE.

First class. Wight and one-half feet in length, 7 inches in thickness, and not less
than 7 inches width of face on both sides at the small end.

Second class. Wight feet in length, 6 inches in thickness, and not less than 7 inches
width of face on both sides at the small end; and in each class there must be at
east one-fourth of the whole number that will be not less than 10 inches in width of
faces.

MANUFACTURE.

All ties must be made from sound, thrifty live or green timber, free from loose or
rotten knots, worm-holes, dry-rot, wind-shakes, splits, or any other imperfections
affecting the strength or durability of the timber.

Not more than 1 ineh of “‘sap wood” will be allowed on the edges or corners, and
none at all on either face of the ties; they must be hewed or sawed with the faces
perfectly true and parallel, of the exact thickness specified; the faces must be out
of “wind,” smooth, and free from any inequalities of surface, deep score marks, or
splinters; they must be cut or sawed square on the ends to the exact lengths given
and be generally straight in all directions, and will not be accepted if more than 3
inches out of straight in any direction; and must be peeled or stripped entirely free
from the Lark before being delivered.

No ‘‘ square ties,” either hewed or sawed, will be accepted excepting under special
contracts. No split ties will be accepted under any circumstances, and ‘ culls”
only at the option of the company, and at such prices as may be agreed upon from
time to time.

DELIVERY.

All ties delivered along the line of the railway must be stacked up in neat square
stacks of fifty tiesin each, with alternate layers crossing each other, and on ground,
wherever possible, as high or higher than the grade of the railroad, and in such posi-
tion as to admit of being counted and inspected with ease and facility. Ties deliv-
ered at suitable and convenient places, acceptable to the company, will be inspected,
and bilis made for all received and accepted up to the last day of each month, and
payment will be made forsame on or about the —— day of the succeeding month.

Chief Engineer.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR CROSS-TIES USED BY NEW ORLEANS AND
NORTHEASTERN RAILROAD.

The timber shall be either white, post, burr, or chestnut oak, mulberry, black lo-
cust, red cypress, or long leaf yeliow pine, cat in any month of the year of delivery
except February, March, April, May, or June, from young, sound, kiving trees. It
must be free from rotten or loose knots, werm-holes, dry-rot, wind-shakes, or other
imperfections affecting the strength and durability of the wood.

The cross-ties must be 9 feet long and straight in all directions, not less than 7 nor
more than 74 inches in thickness. They must have not less than 7 inches of heart
face.

The hewn surfaces must be parallel, free from objectionable score-marks, and not
winding. The ends must be cut square and all bark removed. No sawed ties will
be accepted. i

The ties must be delivered on the right-ef way of the railway, not lower than the
grade, and not higher than 8 feet above grade.

They shall be scattered for inspection in such a manner that all parts of every tie
can be seen and measured by the inspector. :

All accepted ties must be arranged in piles formed of layers separated by two ties.

PROPOSAL.

The undersigned hereby propose to furnish, according to the foregoing specifications

cross-ties. Said cross-ties to be delivered as aforesaid at ——.,, at the

rate of —— cents per cross-tie.
The undersigned further propose to commence work within

hereof, and complete the delivery of ties on or before
Signed this day of , 18—.

days from date
, 18—.

Name of firm : ———- ———,
By oF

Reference :
Post-office address : ————- ————-,

REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS IN WOOD SEASONING.

CHEMICAL LABORATORY,
Aurora, Ill., January 9, 1889.
Mr. G. W. RHODES,
Superintendent M. P., Chicago and Burlington Rh. R. Co. :

DEAR Str: Herewith is submitted a report on a second series of
‘‘experiments in the fluctuation of moisture in wood during seasoning,”
a report on first series having been submitted March 2, 1887. Accom-
panying this are diagrams showing the weekly fluctuation of the moist-
ure for every piece used during the experiments, based upon the exact
percentages of moisture in the tables given herein. In the diagrams
the nearest to a whole per cent. was taken.

The object of this second series was to corroborate, if possible, the
conclusions of the first series, viz: (1) To determine the time that out-
door seasoning begins and ends as indicated by the moisture; (2) to
ascertain whether the wood will again take back moisture during the
wet seasons of the fall and spring; (3) effects of size of wood; and (4)
whether one season is sufficient to season wood.

To determine these questions, fifteen pieces of unseasoned timber, as
wet as could be obtained, were placed out of doors in a latticed shed,
and loosely piled with cleats between and a board topping, all to pro-
tect from direct dripping and rain, and yet to be under the same condi-
tions as outdoor seasoned lumber.

All of the oak was from Kentucky, the pine from Michigan, ash from
Arkansas, white-wood from Tennessee, and elm from Michigan.

The first lot of lumber, including all but the pine, was received Wed-
nesday, December 29, 1886, and the first.determination of moisture made
Monday, January 3, 1887. The four pines were received later, the first

moisture determination being made April 18, 1887. The following are
the determinations and the kind of material :

; Cross di-
Letter. Kind. For what used. TiGHSiOna: Length.

AG AE eens eisnieioee Oaks tasscebeeeeesos - eae Drawawoodssa.--eseescssse= 43 by 14 V7ea0
AR eo oicra wines enix oie do Sicbotaseguec oe. Eseullacmee GO sence ee ee eee 4s by 8 8 2
Dene en eases dee eee aoe dO sires eceeoer sees Fn plateseecece cesses 33 by 123 93
Rees Sete tiene Heel dence |iceers ox doc boetes a oscrise sae INES Sse coe eee oe 5 by 93 9 6
ee Re She Ronee eae lees do jlsrakeseetacmtsen suae| eee eee GOS Se seiee i eeeenese sees 9 by 93 10 0
1 Es SHEE es SR eae WS ar ese dO Soot ee ee @omerposth-so-- oes eee ss Cea tO ined:
GOS BEE ee eee | See GOR ee ee iDrawabeamMe: =a sseeoseerces 9i by 94 12 2
| BS AE a Seat een tee ner! Ite See? dO! socks eace es eee ee Sideibracemesereres meee ee 3 by 43 G10
1 Bees Spas os aes ea aren AGH Bee eae see ceasaee Corner pOst=s225-ce2 se ase 4 by 9 16 0
Osa sa ocre cece ee Wihite-woodteaesase—neese = Outside. shee eee 3 by 12 16 0
16 eh nCri eae eer ae oes Im ee sec eae so eeeee Brake.beam: 22: 222s see ee eee 4i by 64 12 0
1 Gp Ree Se eats Si Hard: pine 2a. =e ae eeo-e eee HOOTIN GY... sss 32-b eee ee 2 by 10 18 0
Mirra ante aoe eye sae SOfh pines esses ens s5- fee Roolines oF eee eae mibye 20 16 0
INI Sas Aare eee iWard pine «2ose cee ee ee see Side silts. sos ss 5 scones 5 by 93 30 0
Ones ee Sa Seen BS jan Opa see sa eames see eee Side platexe 2s.ss5.4eee~ See 23 by 5 30 0

There are yet running two pieces of pine (N and O), and when they
are finished a third report will be made on * fluctuation of moisture in
wood and miscellaneous experiments in wood seasoning.”

On every Monday morning the amount of moisture was determined.
Following is the method employed in the estimation: From the same end
of each piece, exactly 3 inches was sawed, and from this piece on the
end freshly sawed, and exactly in the center, borings of the wood were
obtained, using a 3-inch bit. These borings or chips were transferred,
as quickly as they left the bit, to a previously weighed drying tube, and
when about 24 inches had been bored, the tube is quickly and securely
stopped and again weighed. The amount of chips of the wood is then
known. This tube containing the chips is placed in an air-oven for
one hour, at a temperature of 230 degrees Fahrenheit; then taken out,
cooled and weighed. This is repeated, drying fifteen minutes each time,
until the weight begins to increase (due perhaps to oxidation of the
resinous matters), when the lowest weight obtained is taken as the cor-
rect one. The determinations were all made by the same person, except.
a few during March and April, 1888, and thus any “personal error”
avoided that might arise from different persons doing the work.

COMMENTS.

Oak.—It will be noticed in the tables of percentages of moisture that
determinations were made in eight pieces of oak of different dimensions,
only one of which (A) was of sufficient length to last more than one
year. In this piece the moisture fluctuated very much, although there
is noticeable decrease commencing in April, and being the lowest the
latter part of November, when it increased from 30 per cent. to 35 per
cent., and then went down again until it ended in March. I do not
attribute the 5 per cent. increase in December to the wood absorbing
moisture, but to the fact that the per cent. of moisture in the center or
heart of green oak would amount to this difference. An experiment was

ese em aon

made on oak to determine this point, a report of which will be given in
the third series. In oak G(dimension 9 inches by 93 inches by 12 feet —
2 inches), the moisture at start in January was 43 per cent., and com-
menced to drop in March and April and in the following months until
the end in November, fluctuating between 38 per cent. and 41 per cent.
The remaining oak (K, I’, I, D, J, and E) all commence to decrease in
percentage of moisture during March and April, and show a continual
decrease toward the end of the pieces. Unfortunately these pieces were
not of sufficient length to allow the moisture to reach the lowest limit,

but from them we can tell the spring months which the seasoning be-

gins.

Pine.—Experiments with the pines were not commenced until April
18, 1887, and two test pieces (N and O) are still under observation. In
these there is an almost immediate decrease in percentage of moisture.
In N, the moisture dropped from 28 per cent. in April to 12 per cent.
October 1, when it increased to about 16 per cent., remaining at that
through the fall winter and spring, and in the following May again be-
gan to decrease until 13 per cent. was reached, where it remained with
Slight variation. In O, the moisture in April, 1887, was 20 per cent.,
and by the following August, 1887, had dropped to 9 per cent., then
increased to about 14 per cent., where it remains with the exception of
a slight drop in the summer. .

Months of 1888: The piece of roofing, 1 inch thick, had 14 per cent. of
moisture in April, 1887, and which decreased to 10 per cent. by August,
but the following fall and winter months it increased to 16 per cent.,
and did not decrease during the winter and spring months, until Au-
gust, 188, when it commenced to drop, and by June, 1888, the percent-
age was about the same as the summer of 1887. This piece took up
moisture during the wet seasons.

The pine L (2 inches by 10 inches by 18 feet) when first commenced
in April contained 18-20 per cent. moisture, but immediately began to
decrease and reached the lowest percentage of moisture in the following
July and August, then increased during the fall and winter, amount-
ing to 17 per cent. during February and March of 1888, and again be-
ginning to decrease in April and continuing to do so until the piece
ended in the middle of July. The piece also took up moisture during
the wet seasons.

Ash.—Only one piece of ash was used during the experiments, which
contained about 22 per cent. of moisture during the months of January,
February, and March, but during April the percentage began to de-
crease, being the lowest in August (11 per cent.) and remained at about
12 per cent. during the following fall and winter months, and until
March, 1888, when the piece ended.

Elm.—The one piece of elm, H, showed a steady decrease of moisture
from 29 per cent. in January, 1887, to 16 per cent. in November of the
Same year, when the end of the piece was reached.

White-wood.—This wood, C, had 16 per cent. of moisture in January,
1887, and began to decrease in April, reaching the lowest (10 per cent.)
in July and August, and varied but 1 or 2 per cent. during the re-

mainder of the period of observation, which ended the middle of No-
vember of the same year.

Percentages of moisture.

Date.

Dee c eee

cmemee

37. 93
38.85
39.00
31.23

37.56 |

35.87
35.74

37.09 |

36.03
38.15
36.55
38.19
38.72

38.42 |

37.67
36.95
36.11
34.20
33.63

See ee

Sacinas | Soecer) coors sosaot nS teay ls oSket 14.97 | 16.10

seme ee

|
Be BN WS 2 Dee Slag eae ee 14.46 | 14.53

15.11
15.43
15.42

16.32
15.84
16.31

13.44
14.18 |

10.16
11.29

12.25 | 13.38
15.04 | 12.98
14.34 | 12.07
14.91 | 12.95
14.C0 | 13.01
13.73 | 15.03
14.78 | 12.64
14.93} 9.39

14.94 | 13.79
14.88
15.12
14.78
14.47

13.58
14 07
13.57
13.48

13.30 | 14.00
15.56 | 14.78
15.38 | 14.59
15.39 | 14.25
15.79 | 11.17

61
Percentages of moisture—Continued.
Oats | Aen | Ss Oak. Elm. Oak. Pine.
Date. arcane = i
Wee ears ee Der ein | Wa eG Fee | ois bedi Kea lay Tx. My xl aN eally ©
1888.
ECS Si lesoyeor | ae One sie. o [ama ted eeenlen eee eee OE les I EN oe 228 16.20 | 16.35 | 15.72 | 14.04
HLS ES tI SE SS 2 el eee Ieee an ea ee 16.61 | 16.48 | 16.26 14.25
Pf SP UOT ET aeO Os rat eed pee etal eels hens eral Gai cro a ENP ea ae 15.95 | 11.48 | 13.58 | 13 98
PGP SS | LD) Sea MRS FL AOE SLSR A a Rae inn | De A at 16.17 | 15.78 | 15.89 | 14.16
WEI Op Wo QSOS Nalco | Seis sae o tae Navemiosmiliainieie oll aol tcl te cinsineltlae sielell vaicisl eailtemcisies 16.65 | 15.19 | 16.14 | 14.08
End ;
NO AO) | Sa Oe ts cet eey Werk St SEES I SEES Del [SON ect keer ed (ieee gee ae NG Ls wis 16.47 | 14.65 | 15.79 | 13.89
TiS) Ba A eae ee (|e LP a ee ce 16.01 | 15.80 | 15.41 | 13.43
End.
2 Scam ale caoaas|ee SSerl Eee one Selleeaeoalsosor eile ciate emeenilasceeslecce es 16.13 | 15.22 | 13.61 | 13.79
TG O46 Oi besiege: St ON a2 I eg erie are eee Se RL ech | diet ame epee 15.03 | 16.18 | 15.26
Nai ede ot oneal rede eae Gow ck | So ene Se ote ie alae: Ih Liat J 15.85 | 13.51 | 15.29-| 12.80
HGH Eee ae ee ac og Bis tie ses ices Pets See | 15.84 | 13.38 | 14.95 | 12.62
Dober siren |p remen mee (er Cian Pom Cane Lie wa seieeay (eos: Sle 16.00 | 13.50 ! 15.54 | 12.95
Bal toe mals ee arose Sear eal Ore Sen laa eta cue eee a ent ache Silteveretaie <)/ are layers Een eee ENE 14.19 | 11.00 | 15.22 | 14.07
IW Dorie lose esta at eg ee Ee Ae | Eee SS ie ESE Deere nae ent ete 15.04 | 11.80 | 15.79 | 13.47
TTT Eis ie eet All| Se eget eae ne cha ae Ble steed GR rafters || ees. 15.07 | 12.27 | 15.95 | 12.72
TL TSS 5 Sak Ae SS 2 Rae oe | a Set Pc bp (ea 14.64 | 11.71 | 15.90 12 82
Ge bee een, [een Sie af es ese rlecey cletepeee. (umn fecne tale Sa. 13.99 | 12.18] 15.49 12.53
TTSUTTEESA Lg) el SP PS er CAD ga LD eS | ne | a a ee 113.81 | 11.46 | 14.23 | 12.14
Apa eee eet on ale Ree Rs aT | cea es a8 foie ge (9 Sean ee [ae a 13.86 | 11.36 | 14.29 | 12.29
LESS] ees se SiR OS arg Tae Se ak a | Kae at (entree Ree MO ce le eS 12.97 | 10.30 | 18.39 | 11.38
: End.
ORR reraceies |e ierateneeslie see TS real |e erate SCRE Ra SEIN | rere ae Sel sete leer tenn Reefer 1 A se 13.14 | 11.25
USUI yee esenerere ieee | EE as hie lp eeeau Nes ile os oo. [iea neice octal oes os lle eer 12GB |cossc 13.16 | 11.44
lis ke cos Ween ec el [i oe ee i Re (aa ne a ae TO ea see 13.98 | 12.32
IG ie Sa AU Ses Soe | SUS ce Pe dp ie DR VE eee EL aeons aCe 1237 ees 12.71 | 11.87
Sea tee Ps | ony eR alae a eae | Paes Tf O81. 12.30 | 11.46
SOR ace ret fie iam aici rete ciaalivare eis paseo the es corms altaya en | Prey egg SL enh 4 ake ane eae er ates 1s) esse 12.56 | 11,92
PAC Maree re lee Scrat Re A A lees a allhers, Sarat yl [isl cnia cio [tao acai | Ae ae | oe Sle cttiowe aetieeme se APA ieee 12.32 | 11.87
TUBS YS ss Hi aS Feed Be ae dS UD ee Rte Ue eee ean eee 24ers 13.25 | 11.52
XO) A eee POR ae a |S aces [Es ap a Ln 92 IE ae te ae gee Dew eee ae. aaa ba Ee ayo sal eae 12.67 | 11.54
End.
Fin espera sete cccates | drs |e (Pe ne pea en PeeS a setae [Pa Se ede ara ob lee Fea lpr est > [Ascea se 12.90 | 11.91
SST OWL) re ee UT eae ect a |e gel el ea ee eat Kg eg Le eg ye 11.79 | 10.84
HOH Se CCA pc eS | Oe ees fee pes Ser pat calles |e lL | Ute ene Uae my Laat 11.34 | 10.84
Wal Sere eames a hal tess | Pee specs el | tel (Seca [nt a Ae Scape eat Dees 12.63 | 11.16
oe NE a ees lees alee eT ees oS |UD oa Da [tes S| epee | ene 12.70 | 12.60
Deeks Th yc Bes eayf oeie fh Meet IRS TCR a Rh FNC (eae (eee 11.87 | 12.04
| esta eee aerate [oe are ee ta | ee ree eee “ore Noe 12.69 | 12.70
UD) ese ie rceeae ee (ecpentete onset reel kearieeer sos Scllscoeso|nomrtafoausaa/aeones Sige pape [aps erst ese 1.53 | 11.89

Nork.—In the “starred” percentage on y. pine ‘‘M,” the cut was made 1 foot from previous cne on
account of knot. Pieces ‘‘N” and ‘‘O” have 10 feet yet to be cut. The diagrams were made on per-
centages up to Oct ber 29, 1838.

CONCLUSION.

Out door seasoning depends a great deal on the character of the
weather during the year, that is, as to an early or late spring Or fall,
hot or cold summer months, or severe winter, etc., but during the ex-
periments it may be considered to have been average Illinois weather.

The result of this series of experiments shows that the month during
which the seasoning begins varies with the kind of wood.

(1) That for oak the seasoning commences in March or April; with
pine the exact month ean not be decided, as they were not placed under
observation until late (April), but all test pieces showed a loss of moist-
ure within a fortnight after being exposed.

. Ash and white-wood commenced to lose moisture in April, and elm
_ immediately on being exposed in January.
: No law can be deduced from the experiments as to the exact time

that seasoning ends, as the woods all vary, but as a general rule it may a
be stated that in all woods (except perhaps elm) seasoning virtually a
ends with the end of the summer months. | —

(2) All woods take up moisture in slight amounts during wet weather
of the fall and winter months. 3 (es =

(3) Pine of small dimensions (such as 1 inch flooring “ M”) will ab-
sorb moisture during the wet months. Other woods of small dimensions —
were not experimented with. |

(4) As shown by these experiments oue season of average weather
is generally sufficient to season woods for purposes of construction.

Yourstruly, |
G. H. ELLs, :

Chemist.

tevin a Goi ad

Within 3" of end.

a of Piecé.

888
ass
vfs [rdis

SS
yy

NN
cee
OAK DRAW WOOD. |_
As" X 14" X 47"

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THE RELATION OF RAILWAYS TO THE TIMBER RESOURCES
OF THE UNITED. STATES.

By E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN, C. E.
(Read before the American Forestry Congress, at Atlanta, Ga., December 8, 1888.)

The report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1887, recently
published, contains an interesting but brief report from the Chief of
the Forestry Division, and this report refers to the Government inter-
est in the development and maintenance of the forests; a matter which
is of far greater importance than is generally understood, and which is
especially important on account of the rapid destruction of forests
through the legitimate demand for timber, through reckless use, and
through wasteful practices of burning, herding, etc., while very little
practical attention is paid to the question of forest planting or reforest-
ing, although the forest under proper management is vapable of fur-
nishing continuous crops. The question considered is, ‘‘ What is the
first duty of the General Governiaent in regard to the forestry ques-
tion?” Itis stated that the natural forests are being rapidly reduced
by an increased demand for timber and by reckless use and wanton
destruction, and that the annual consumption of wood and wood prod-
ucts is at least double the amount reproduced on our present forest area.
The national interest in this question is Shown from four points of view:
(1) Because the forests properly managed would be the source of a
constant supply of timber; (2) because a sound land policy demands
attention to forest management to prevent the deterioration of forests
and forest lands; (3) because a rational forest policy demands atten-—
tion to the disturbance of the distribution of water flow by forest devas-
tation and by the denudation of mountains and hills; and (4) because
forest planting is a means of ameliorating climatic conditions and mak-
ing certain regions more habitable.

Other nations have recognized the importance of the forestry prob-
lem and have the matter under State administration ; for private in-
terest is not sufficieut to protect the forest property, since to the indi-
vidual it is the existing timber alone that is valuable, and he has no
eare for any but pecuniary considerations. Consequently the State

must undertake the management and protection of the forests.
68

69 , |

The General Government of the United States owns about 50,000,000
to 70,000,000 acres of forest area, principally in the far West and on
the Pacific ranges, and mostly on land not fit for agricultural purposes.
The water supplies for the valleys and the agricultural areas of these
regions are regulated and influenced to a great extent by the forests,
and it is therefore obvious that the matter of preservation and protec-
tion of the forests is one of importance to the national prosperity ;
whereas, in fact, the timber is recklessly used and wasted, while the
attempts to prevent the waste are practically ineffectual. <A Dill to
protect the Government forests has, however, been submitted to Con-
gress. The report referred to shows very forcibly the need of legisla-
tion in this direction, and of proper management to regulate the cutting,
to attend to the maintenance and protection, and to undertake the
planting of new forests to furnish a future supply of timber.

Of course these remarks apply to the consumption in total, but the
railways are responsible to a considerable extent, both on account of
the immense amount legitimately consumed for ties, bridges, trestles, ©
buildings, ete., and on account of their waste and the amount improp-
erly acquired. The report states as follows:

Every land-grant railway, in addition to its share of the land grant of 75,000,000
acres and the right of way, is permitted to cut timber “for first construction, adja-
cent to the line of its road.” But the railways do not consider ‘‘ construction” and
‘‘ adjacent ”’ exactly in the sense in which the lawgivers did, and they have cut
wherever, whenever, and for what purpose they chose.

Railway men as a rule do not give much attention to the sources of
supply for ties, but, with others, believe blindly in “ inexhaustible ” for-
ests, or if they do look forward at all to a diminished supply, they

usually consider it as too far in the future to require any special atten
tion now. In point of fact, however, this is even now avery important
matter, which becomes more serious every year. Forests, although they
can be made to furnish regular annual crops, can not be grown in a year,
and while present resources are being recklessly drawn upon, few steps
are being taken to provide future resources.

There are four ways in which the railways may help to economize
the present supply: (1) By taking more care in the selection, cutting,
and storing of timber; (2) by the more general use of iron, steel, stone,
brick, concrete, etc., for bridges, trestles, buildings, and other construc.
tion works; (3) by the introduction of some efficient and economical
preservative process; and (4) by the introduction of metal cross-ties.

These four methods ot economizing will be considered separately.

1. By taking more care in the selection, cutting, and storing of timber.—
Sufficient investigation has not been made of the availability of dif-
ferent kinds of timber for railway work. Tor instance, there are prob-
ably other kinds of timber besides those now used which are suitable
for ties, and, in fact, a circular was issued some months ago by the For-
estry Division* showing the advantages of the hitherto unused chestnut

*See Circular on p. D2.

oak, a species of timber of which the bark was used, but the wood itself
left to rot, its value for railway ties not being known cr appreciated.
As a result of this circular, large numbers of ties have now been made
from this wood. Certain specifications for ties which have been pub-
lished name only the following varieties:

Oaks of the various kinds, known as ‘‘ white,” ‘‘ black,” ‘“yeliow,” rock,” ‘ burr,”
and “post” (no red oak will be received), second-growth white chestnut, red beech,
red elm, cherry, maple, butternut, tamarack, and yellow pine of the long-leaved.

southern hard pine variety, cut from untapped trees and grown not north of South
Carolina. Hemiock may be accepted, but only under special contracts.

But it has been suggested that red oak, black locust, and white and red
cedar might be added, and probably others, besides the chestnut oak
already referred to. This part of the question is important also in con-
nection with the third part, as the use of preservatives may enable
other kinds of timber to ke used. It is sometimes specified that there
is to be no sap-wood on the face of the ties. which excludes all ties cut
from such trees as give only one tie, often the best. With regard to cut.
ting, although over this the railway has often ne control, except in the
case of new roads through timber country, there is undoubtedly much
timber wasted in high stumps and by careless felling, ete., which with
a little care might have been available for ties or lumber. In storing,
the ties are often stacked up in close piles, without any air-spaces be-
tween adjacent ties, and ieft till wanted, by which time many will prob-
ably be found, especially at the bottom of the pile, to be rotten and
useless. If they were thrown into a pond or brook, of course under
proper supervision, their life when put in the track would be longer
than if they had been stacked. Bridge timbers and other lumber should
also be properly cared for in storage.

2. The more general use of wron, steel, stone, brick, concrete, etc., for
bridges, trestles, buildings, and other construction works.—On this point
much need not be said. Iron and steel are becoming more and more
generally used for bridges and trestles, and many large and some small
stations are now built of masonry. There is, however, room for very
much greater economy yet to be practiced in the use of timber for rail-
way structures, and it will be practiced more as companies grasp the
idea that a heavy outiay in the first place is often economical. This, of
course, applies oniy where the heavy first cost can be afforded; but it
applies extensively to wealthy corporations, which continue to spend
money and use timber in building and repairing timber tresties, sheds,
wharves, etc., instead of Jaying out a good round sum on permanent
works. In this respect much might be learned from European practice.

3. The introduction of some efficient and economical preservative proc-
ess —Numerous preservative processes have been experimented with
and large quantities of preserved ties, piles, and lumber used ; but con-
sidering the enormous quantity of timber in use on the railways of this
country, the step towards economy in this direction is a very insignifi-

cant one. The trouble is to finda gocd process and to get it thoroughly
carried out. Different species of timber and different pieces of the same
timber absorb different quantities of the preservative, thus producing
an undesirable want of uniformity. This is specially troublesome in the
case of ties, some ties lasting for years and others having to be replaced
‘in a short time, which means considerable expense for maintenance
of the track: In England, where the creosoting process is generally
‘adopted for ties, some railway companies have their own plant and
creosote their own ties, sometimes also sawing their own ties from logs
delivered by contract. Some of these plants were described in my
paper on “English Railway Track,” read at the annual convention of
the American Society of Civil Engineers at Milwaukee, Wis., in June,
1888. .Too little practical attention has been given to this question,
though it seems as if some slow progress was being made. Creosoting
is very generally used in England and is very successful, but the kind
of creosote used is more expensive in this country. Some very valua-
ble and useful information on this subject is contained in the report of
the committee on the preservation of timber, American Society of Civil
- Engineers, June, 1885, and in Bulletin No. 1 of the Forestry Division
for 1887.

4, By the introduction of metal cross ties—This subject, one of the
most important in railway matters, from the point of view of the econ-
omy and efficiency of the track for operation and maintenance as well
as from that of economy in timber, is not given much practical atten-
tion in this country. Comparatively little is known in detail of what
has been done and is being done in other parts of the world, though it
is usually understood that quite a number of experiments have been
made in foreign countries. Experiments certainiy have been made and
are still being made, but the matter, on the whole, is beyond the experi-
mental stage, and metal ties have been regularly adopted on hundreds
of miles of track, with most satisfactory results. The reason why the
matter has been so neglected in this country, may prebably be found in ~
the undeniable cheapness of so many of our railways; the fact being
_ frequently overlooked that cheapness is expensive, and that what is
saved in construction is paid out over and over again in maintenance
and expenses. By this it is not meant to suggest that every road
should at once put down metal ties, because there are many cases in
- which this would be inexpedient if not impracticable, since many West-
ern roads must of necessity be built at as Jow a rate of first cost as pos-
sible; and as the construction of these roads (I refer here only to legiti-
mate enterprises) is absolutely necessary for the development of cer-
tain districts, for the benefit of those districts, and incidentally for the
benefit of the country at large, there are cases in which, for the present
at least, wooden ties may be used and their use put under the head of
‘legitimate consumption.” But there are other classes of railways:
there are the roads which, having been cheaply built in the first place,

have built up the district they serve and are being improved to meet
the requirements of increased traffic—on many of these roads metal
ties might be laid to advantage ; then there are the wealthy trunk lines,
which instead of consuming great quantities of wooden ties every year
for maintenance and renewals, should gradually introduce metal ties
on their tracks; and finally there are the new roads in busy parts of
the country, which are built in a first-class manner to accommodate a
heavy traffic from the beginning —these lines should be laid with a metal
track in the first place.

In these four ways the railway systems of the country might aid
greatly in economizing the present supply of timber, but, in addition,
they might help to restore the forests by establishing plantations and
encouraging forestry. This has been done to a small extent, but the
length of time necessary for the growth of a “ crop” is a hinderance to
any movement of this kind. In Pennsylvania, railways already have
to go outside the State for their oak ties, and the mining industries in
the once heavily timbered coal regions of the same State have to import
the props, ete., for the workings. In Europe, steel is coming into ex-
tensive use for mines, both for props and beams, and for ties.

Some idea of the consumption of timber by railways may be gathered
from the following particulars, which are abstracted from a Report on
the Forest Condition of the Rocky Mountains (Department of Agricult-
ure, Forestry Division, Bulletin No. 2), by Col. E. T. Ensign, forest
commissioner of Colorado :

Union Pacific Railway.—During 1886 there were used in Idaho, Montana, Wyoming,
and Colorado, 686,827 ties and 8,450,969 square feet of dimension timber.

Denver and Rio Grande Railway.—The following native timber was used in Colorado
and New Mexico in 1886: 60,000 broad-gauge ties, 740,000 narrow-gauge ties, 3,000,000
feet, B. M., of dimension lumber. The approximate amount of timber required for an-
nual renewals and repairs was 1,023,376 ties, and 5,625,000 feet, B. M., of sawed timber.

Colorado Midland Railway.—The number of ties for the construction of 250 miles of
main track and the sidings, was estimated at 900,000, and the number of feet of tim-
ber for bridges and other construction work at between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000.

Atlantic and Pacific Railway.—During 1885 the consumption of native pine was
937,240 feet in New Mexico, and 2,028,959 feet, B. M.,in Arizona. In 1886, 47,456 ties
of native pine and 298,755 feet of native pine dimension lumber were used in New
Mexico.

Another form of timber destruction, and one for which the railways
are largely responsible, is that of fires; on many lines through tracts
of timber there is abundant evidence of this fact in strips ot charred
stumps and logs aiong the track, sometimes spreading off into large
patches. The spark arresters on many locomotives, especially on lines
of minor importance, are very inefficient, and on some little lines in
New England over which I have traveled, the wood-burning engines,
although fitted with spark arresters, throw out continuous showers of
sparks. Some interesting notes in respect to forest fires may be gath-
ered from the reviews of the forestry interest in each State and Terri-
tory—given in the annual report of the Division of Forestry for 1887,

by Mr. B. H. Fernow, Chief of the Division, which report, as well as
other publications of the Division, I recommend for perusal to all per-
sons interested in this important question of our timber supplies. In
. most cases there are laws and penalties relating to starting fires, etc.,
but the laws seem generally to be a dead letter; they are rarely en-
forced, and consequently little heed is paid to them. In New Jersey,
- the loss from fires for the last fifteen or twenty years is said to have
averaged, on a low estimate, $1,000,000 a year, an amount which would
nearly pay the entire taxes of the State. In Maryland, the loss by fires,
“largely from locomotives,” is estimated at between $30, 000 and $40,000
a year. The total losses by fire form in the aggregate an enormous
amount of timber, representing a wicked waste of material, and conse-
quently of money. On the other hand, the steps taken towards plant-
ing are few and insignificant, being almost invariably on a very small
seale.

Street railways, too, consume a great amount of timber, and it is
probable that the ties, from their being covered up but not protected
from moisture, have a short life compared with that of ordinary railway
ties. When we reach that station of progress when we shall begin to
follow the European precedent of building city railways of iron and
concrete, we shall materially reduce one item of consumption of timber.
But proper street construction must come before, or at least with, proper
street railway construction.

In conclusion, the close relations of railways to the timber supply
of the country have, I think, been clearly outlined in this paper, and
I sincerely hope that at no Teun time the railways will, in effect, co-
operate with the Government in the conservation and protection of the
timber resources, while at the same time they greatly improve the effi-
ciency and value of their own works.

INDEX.

Page.
IS Chi USeKOl MMOUd GES Wl) eee = erate cle) jaicictsicw =e ieielaaciaratnia ele eco obeccr coos 15
America, South, use of metal OSes eet ee ees aeaeaa ehh aus, eee ten 17
PMIOTIC AM MUNC Ie STIESi coe sche 2 oe creo eis t Sc SU shociine sy cigs eieie cc's c ei Senle icicins seis 20
Area, torest, of the United. States .:---...<.-2-25..-+-4- Seal 8 eke cash ie 69
AroentineRepublic, use of metal, ties in. J. .2.2.---2i1e5-.n oe eee cee eke ree macy. Oo
Oh Om PP MMOMUS MPSCASOMIM OG 2 26s a's( cnc asicte cjetaais «,cisnain = Cle cee'd w sibiciotwin cS Se 2 59
ENGI US CROM IMG CAN, DICKS IMs oer Oke Non i Rote ce cele el sig tibial side veers. Delos fo See 15
AMIS CDM AMISCLOleIMObAl GlES-1M) 2885s soos ses ess choc ees She eee oe eee 16
PACES UIA Msc) OlemMebal CIOS saa Ge iseie se ke) Oe Bios ae crn oo Su cials Sete See ee 13
Belcium, Use ol-metal, ties\on rallraads Of}. <. <6... 2 saceis ss aseicsts 7-38 = ie 12
4 meco-et Marche” type oO bie, FP rane@e”.. 1. 5S... siecle ot sss k eae yoetnle es Sok 11
aberiard” (type ot metal ties, beleium) PM rance 2.22542 -%- sss. 22 22> cies 12,13
Bogart, John, on permanent way of railways in Great Britain........-.....-.- 49
“Bowl” sleepers:
ADEN Bites sete eene ne Seta sea eee ea a Se, alow oe wet c ieee 5 Lee 14
CAN UMIN acorns ar cet. ss PNR SNE Lion tai sjelate ca? tate Sd byt) fogs tay ea ee 15
PATO C MUI Ceo POUND sara pals ee ceo ecole ous oiialafat cia= eds s-craten arses 17, 21, 34
IHOVelvAl- OUSATG by PCLOL ie, ANGOLA, . 6 csc. oo as sete se ociecis noes eeicleee cere = 15
Cape Colony, use of metal ties in ..-.......-.-.-- sbon bo uneasensda oes Gage cneS 14
Channel tie, Pennsylvania Railroad, description of ..........--.-------------- 21
Chestnut-oak, qualities of, in comparison with other oaks......-....-.-..-.--- 53
Chestnut-oak ties, circular in regard to durability of...........----..----.---- 52
CoLrespondence) wm Tee ALG VO\ae emi aca e a2 eee at eaten =/5- 53
@hnili@userotenmie tal’ Hest te ee in Saks alas Cie solu Sl ee eR ee Ee 17
Ghipmayse Oto Mev Clee ssh a6: sas See Sein Se cine ose cee = odes aseee eS ok es: 15
weoblyn”? type of ties, France, Netherlands ..-- 2... .2. 2220.02.25 .0225.™.. 13
Congress of railroads at Brussels, opinions as to use of metal ties...--..-.... Bes ow
International, Milan, opinions in regard to metal ties.... 9,35
Peonsmaprion of timber by railroads pocecs s. ct --'ssc0-k sot cise cases es boeees 2. Cae
er @ocigushie- Netherlands: Misses 250i. ols Quick cou sce sercoee oovoutieel. 2k 25
ECost comparative, of wood: and metal ties <2. ..5 2. seco. a ecceee cece sccc le bows - rene G
Cost of maintenance with wood and metal ties. ...-....-22..----- -eecee eee 20, 32
Creesauimearetlvyc aves samy epee A enc oe ee Ee ih Bees ee eS > 49
Cxrows-wies, wooden, speciiicablons Oks: 222.3555 2. 220 Soke Maroc adie Sob ks eiestee 55
aeDerberone: svstonz Of Aron: plabes, OMallis + =>-,.oce-6 t54aseen se sec oes. eee css 14
Ocubam-Olpwerts:” by pe ot he miitat ss. 22... .ceGorscs lee ir.c seas esc tees 15
Wenniamun se Ole Metal tlesu Minas yee Og Sos Dae Nees So ob ee oele 14
Sie of use of metal ties before American Society of Civil i Daehneenk en 33
Doulplesweaded rar HE melish's¢ £2 2: terse. o aocevhg a vs Sede ots ide De Be Le SOE 8

Page.
Durability of chesinut-oak ties... 2222.5 ee so eee 2 ee ee eee 52
of trees, effect.on,of cutting in the sap (note) ~:.-....._ 2.2... -2e- 53
‘‘Durand” railway tie, France, description of..--. Peppa eegeriegee RS oy 22
Economy of timber supply, how promoted by railroads...--.-..-..........--- 69
Hey pt; useiof metal -bies in <i. - tc ee ee ee ee er ee pee en eee 2 ibe
Elastic :tie-plate, Sweden .c-:20-. =-b =) thee eee ee ee eee 23
Elim, cexperiments in Seasonine, 2seee seen ee eee UR Oe eee 59
Engineers, American Society of Civil, discussion of use of metal tracks....... 33
Eneland, preservation of railway Westin e. 222 eee ese ee os ee eee AT
use ‘Of ametal ties ins fo. trae Pe cree oe eee ee eee ene a ee ees meh
Bnglish systemof trackecss. 2 ses ee eee see eee Been Fs Aes gh en Pht ADEN 8
Expenses of maintaining track on wooden and metal ties.---..-...-......--.. 25,32
Esperiments in wood-seasonine..2 2250522 sot eee ee ee ee 57
ernow,, B.H., letter. of submittals. 2 2scs)2ossen 23255 500 ee oe eeeeee 5
Notes on: metal ties 4.<c5x<eosde esa ss oan ete ee (Sel pao
Durand.” metal tie. 2c 2. assee. ¢sssees hes scan seas ress sea sss eee ee 22
Korestarea of -the Unitedes tates 455282252 ss3 snot ee eee ee ee 69
Horesiifirés, ‘connection of railroads with: soe >see = ee os oe ee ast 72
Brance, use.of .metal-ties. im ss 9+1k3s Sock) soiree Sete eee wena eee 11
Germany,.use.0f metalsties in G5 2.2 eee cee ee ees Lee 13
Great Northern Railway (Ireland), mode used by, for preserving wooden ties-- OL
“Har tiord tie waro. oes ee ee Bas Sn bees Chee See eee ee eee eee 9
descriptionob oc. cee oe Ree ee te eens eee ee eee 20
‘ iaemndl?system of track, -“Austriaictts:=s.cosdecs coe sea= = Stee eee 13
‘“Hoheneoger system of track» Austtia ss. = teases = ae te ee © en ee £3
India, use:of nietal ties in iif ee PASE ae a ee eee 15
‘* International” tie, Boston and Maine, and Maine Central Railroads, descrip-

WON OF 2) 2th GS oe FFs Shs SSS Paseo SAE ee OO SS 20
Léaly, use of-metal tiesin’ see .wss sees tos se eseias cas yee ee ee eee 14
Japan, use of metal -ties.1n vale scene sss di sssascssece eo soee ee nee ae eee ee 15
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, mode of preserving wooden ties .....-.---- 50
PMoNUM=VWiblewe tes. fos 672s flees ets co czsds sc tiee2 ss ene se en oe cone eee 23
Maintenance expenses of track on wooden and metal ties. ..-......-..5------- 25, 32
Metaltie, requisites for -a-pertect\ 22222526 ae eee one soca eee oe eee 23

considerations in favor Of 222222 a- 22 eee eee ee eee eee 20

NOCOS. soa. -Se pe ee Oe Se ee ee eee tenes eee aera eee 23

Metal ties, use.of,-in the United States s5-2.-4e 9452 - see aes oe eee pate. 8
some Americans ssnos.-s case Soe 5 5 FS SS oa a oe eee eee eee 20

* different systems. Of 129s 225 SS ee ee 26
resolutions of railroad congress at Milan in regard to the use of.... 3D

Metal track, use of, for railways in foreign countries, report on...-........--- 11
first: suggestion: Of. .s2545 225525 34a ee cee oe eee eee 23

discussion of, before American Society of Civil Engineers .-...-.--. 33

patents relatinG 10 3-47.54 so see eaeae nie oe ee eee ene 36

use un Hurope-sss sssscs- eee eee ke he ee eee iW

Africa jc. .s tcnetee eee eeeeee es eae eee See ee 14

ASIG) Jo Se- cinta nwa deine eloe ic ee 2 ee ee ee eee 15

Ausbralitmce t-te Gee toe co aera ane ete eee er eee 16

South America <2. <t<2 o. 2 ie ee ee ee ee 17

MOR C0 acto ctr et a treieine eee eee ae ee £2

Mexico, useiofmetal ties! in 5-22 = aces sea ere a eae alata te ete ieee iby
Netherlands state railways, use of metal ties on....-....... -- .--se0---5----e- 12
different systems used ---. -- ---- 2223 -eee eee 26

experiments with .-----< cc os. - eee ee 25, 31

New South Wales, use of metal ties in <2. oSo2: < sce e eco 2 ae eee 17

Page.

- Oak, chestnut, circulars in regard to ties of.....-...---.------- -----+ eo 22 eee ' 52

quality, compared with that of other oaks........--....-.---- 53

correspondence in’ regard. tO. 222 34.-5-sejcccee ce ecs seca s-c==* 53

Oaks iimper experiments) 1M SCASOMIN Oy. coelo= soc eel-- s)e\ae mele sn alee 2 ial eal «elo 58

-Patents relating to metal railway track, list of...............--------------- 36

amet avatebteswkie; France, .2.2 2. ject done. oe et ae oes eee Se 11

Phennsvinania jvatlroad trial of steel ties --.20.25. 22-0 een lse Soins Sane soc eee 8

hiblips? type.of meal tie, Australia soc...) cece woes oe tote cme 2 Pen Ae 16

inecexpPOrImMe MES MM SEAa SOM UNO) 2! tay. cca shasta eee aete ore UNE ete ert ajere so 5 oo a chee ate 59

<‘Post ” metal-tie, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Asia. 12,25

GeScrip ion Of ses eset fe eae as svt 3 7s AUS ey eMetrics 18

AOVAMbACES Ole vasa ane We ea ciioi Salt Sate ase Lievectis phos 19

HOULES Ole vaArlOUSbY;PCS; Ole-= a2) a(n se oss eee i

result of use compared with that of oak ties ...-......-.---- 29

Cost aiimaintenance, 22 ssc crock. oon eels sec veers o eee sees See

‘¢Pots” tried by New York Central and Hudson River Railroad ...--..--..... 9

reservatiomor railway ties in Bmeland: _.) 222212258. 25.5-2- au osoe8 sone La Ao

MneenslanduserOr Meal tes Ma es5 (fs ne sel nccwe a. waieona. can etocs sea aekieee 16

ile double-headed. Emolishy os... cisco. ccc os aise cl eee - Moco Seni ceim asa ciueese 8

ailroad, Pennsylvania, trial-of steel ties by, .-. 2... 42c..22 420-2. se os ee oe 8

Boston and Maine .-.....--..-- Fs INS Leet ANE i Pes in ets a 8

News Wonk @empcals ect oie Aes eh le a ee ers Ne 9
Railroads, international congress of, at Milan, oninions of, in naeEnt to use of

WOO Ge ulrcenne balla lle Se pease i) eee ok ly lk be Aa Tce yn eae Bh, ak

CONSMIMIpLLOM-OL GMM WEI Dvir NAS ee ee Suet may ae 72

AMGSOLESU PMLCS (6 ano ee ee ieee niga oia'e owns Osi eea spain satan ot Heads 72

Railway, Lancashire and Yorkshire, method of preserving ties ...-.-.......-. 50

Great Northern, method of preserving ties .....-......-...--....--- 51

Railway metal track, patents relating to >.-..-. 22... 22-2. 5s woe ween ee owe 36

Railway ties, treatment of, for preservation, in England .........._....-...- 49

Railways, relation of to the timber resources of the United States -........... 68

howe econoimizertive timber supplys ts cfe: 6450) 4ee ee as, 2 oes ee 69

lAnMdesranii Giohtsyamd jmiayileges Ofte ye eee ce eee Saas 69

(Me OLelon COUMbEIES, Metall tracls TO se set teens a oe ee are 11

Erolish permanent) way: Ol, bOCart. 22a see eet ee ees eae AQ

Report on experiments in wood-seasoning..-.....-...----.------ sooo bon usaeec 57

Resources, timber, of the United States, relation of Pall waysitO)cas-t- sesso se 68

Soles Ol Te Call teEShiMeaas = (ees eikr. tle SOE or Le ee ee es 14

Sap, remedy for,evil of cutting treesin the (note)..-.-....-....2-.--------2es 53

Seasoning, wood, effect on, of cutting in the sap (MOLTO) eee ie Sk as ose 53

ERPOCIMIE MES AMP easter ye UNGiee ue ects tat a bole'al aeher a iee a acai eel 57

diagrams lusiraim Ore 2. oo Sata oes one he ereyse te oeaik ate 63

Some Sallie Olen Cua ties et) ys spoue Ces tee Se os ne Bee Aa ee etene cee 15

BESONCRUCU Ie wel Oumar on ole Nek oe es Ie oe te LT 12

I SOME OD) AMMO Riemer starts te ee og Sates sola: 38 toe 15

SomuNewmenicay mse Of MOeEbal tlesaMes.. 0-6. 6c ses cece clos ek See he 8 Bo bees 17

Saute ustraiia, use of metal tlesdmes 4-5... s52 oso Se os eo 17

SeaoUSeCOlMmMetal HGS lie es tere Seetce seins oo ase leeied occ cee bec 14

DMECiMCA MOMS TOR WOO eCMICLOSS-blesme. feo. Fike cso. Scere oe boos oe BS

[Sun SAS Ses aes ees Al Caen eee eC mPa Fe 49

aoe UTNG AT OR mle epe stays apenege vor eters Ll REI le OS ta a oie he ui i ae Pa 4)

description of ...-...-... By Sees ree ec acs Ses rE Phas 20

Stimpson, J., first suggestion of metal eile Be HOSTS tN ome ieee, Es

Stone ties, Seder co. Petey mete irre shar a Neer US ch eRe cy esa I el Seta De

SImeUemPmlUscwOtammolal less Min .s. eo meee hoe LS ce wae ce ak ta aude Se 23 Se 14

Page
Switzerland, use of metal tiesum 4.25. 4554 eee ee ee ee 14
“Taylor” tie, description, Ofac a2 sae, Ae hee ays eee regs meee eee 21
Tie-plate, elastic, Sweden...... fos es ape ol Ret pee Sea ped Galdwenes (ae 23
Ties: ;
“ Berg-et-Marche,” Franee . 22.32): 52e)- cine a eee eee Se eee 11
“Bernard,” Belowum, France 7 22.5 csc. te oe eee Bee ee bee 5
‘Bow]” sleepers, Africa, 2. 2. cio). t ce cea SE ed re pre te Ce eae 14
10 JAPAN 225-2 eo eaec ho eee eae ee Leb BOr SOCK 15
in, Argentine Republic 2 .-aieos ee ee eee 17
on New York Central Railroad . mene teh Pea Ars 21
‘ oyen val-Pousard), Aligenian ts 2) ce 2 se secre enn ee ae rae eae 15
Channel tie, Pennsylvania sivalmoadd ace eee soles oe ee eee eer ee anes oe
SSCobl yin.) rane. s.soyss 26 Saran cje.c ee ARIS arse ete lars ree eae ee 13
Cosijns;” Netherlands cass 22 0a Seo eee eee eee 25
2D) UBL Ue. 1 SP All eee ee ene eae eeseiee Pe eis is aries eye Sea ae a 14
SS Denbam-Ol pherts:/limditia ees stereo Sees aoe eee eee 15
eM arand,”?,Mrances.2ccsee toe < as Sa snine ee = cee oe a ke pee ee eee 22
Sot lastue tie-plate,”. Sweden. 22/222 ieee a she reer eee eee 23
COV AT CLOT ic. rakes Bis is Bee Sau tera carte ei OR occ tes a ee > 9,20
‘Hohenegoer,” “Austria = 3-03 5. eee Sets Sy eee ee oe a eee 13
‘‘ International,” Boston and Maine, and Maine Central Railroads........- 20
OCF Iau O ODN ek MAwe nici wl pee ou A Ae nan A a METRE See srs 16
S POSUYA DG2. os Re eel Se ESE Ee oe Nae et tee DGS SED eee Seip)
in France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Asia .... 12, 25
(Pots? (see< BOW] Seo tae ae are oracle Bees SCE: Heel nee egy eee 9
“NevVeLac,’' DelsLuIm rane 2. + yore cele ive ren siete ly Sear ee ee ee 12
in Senegal, Algerians 22.272. S22 siete atom e Spcie aoe eee 15
“Standard,” United States,desceripiiom Of cece 2s se ee ee ee eee eeite 9520
cmaylor,? New York Central Railroads. seas eees ssc eee sae tee eee 21
“fMoucey,”. New York (Central Mailroadcees Sec. oa. ei lee Solace eee 21
ESV Goi eri Ne? RAMI Cees ae his, Renee Ba IRS SELL ed, Ogee Wea eee 11
dim AVP Ora 2 hen kok ec. 5 Ce ee Sete terete rere eee 15
PSONMODD,” Hn land cw nccccccin tcc ee alae bieieks cert ea cite ea taeteteete orci tne eee ea 11
on Pennsylvania iailroad@=.- 262-82 ee eee A eee Sea ece 8
Wrought-iron plate -...--- oa etal ne BE SUS Stee ree Be emerald eee ee 8
NE Oks OEE ine ere SU SoG uarnD OGobOa hooSsc ocoacc 15
Tmiber, amount consumedeby railroads ses 22 ese eee oeceme ocean ish ee 72
resources of the United States, relation of railways to.......-..-.---. 68
‘““Toucey ” tie, New York Central Railroad, description of.:.........--..+.-.- 21
rack smetall, for railways) eae tessa eee cite oreo a ete ale a eee 11
expense of maintaining on wooden and metal ties ....-...---....-.---. 20
S PPE AM SAa Aono oeae edo bosocu beso acoude cook soo SesGs0 0c" 36
Track, Euclishysystemvor (note) oo. 2 eeece ce eee o- em eee eee ee 8
Lransmittal, letter of,-E. sh. R.e-Pratmam ea.c-) a-.ee hoe ee eee eee ie
Tratman, E. E. R., report on use of metal track for railroads in foreign coun-
PEIOS W\s'..5- pa ose hboee Reames ee eels Cone eee eee ee ee 11
discussion, on use of metal ties: 2-2. 22.) 5-2) ee eee 33
list of patents relating to metal railway track......-.-..-.. 36
relation of railways to the forest resources of the United
States... UM. oe eee ee See ee See trees see eee 68
Treatment of railway tiesin Kneland....-. ..2 22.2 -.ee el. - =e ee 49
United States, forest area of-..--.. 8c sees hase cee aoe oem ek lees ee een eee 69
use of metal: ties im 24 Jee oe oe ences eee eee ee 8

Page.

SAV EMMOni tO. OE ai CC memteneneatsetaarcrsia: sensi cle) aciets ooo su! ein peat sae Joe vac coe oe 11
as aeed OKs oe, ee ee See eee Ug 5 ee ee eee a ees ear 15

PENN an SUCC bles MM OU INel esa) elsrys oj clots talclofmiciel Gets win’s ‘mjnie'e! Watalw cin Gn scia ad apes o = 11
On) Remmsyiyaiilar Wall ROAa Gece = ans cece «ns sae ease eninicinn 8

Nhihe WOO dex PELIMEMES, 1M ySCASOMING piqela os <jntc mcletareleciencwe'e wore cncece seoe ces 60
Wood-seasoning, report of experiments In ...... 2-22. 2-22 oe eee eee ee eee 57
dia Ora Miceli lo S tra lM ease amare teecchoembatare oe Clsinle! yalcwieic sia. also 63

Seneral conc] Msionsml TeCardtOy. oss e 2 -s- cane cose ce cess 60

NVA OW CINE PrOM DIAL OptleS ems. <= )ie/ eee ene Sars niente emiseesuee tis adic cee cceees s- 8
RI Oy Disp eee ce et A, OM PDE auto cs beees = 15

= 5 t a) Se Js
San ae ne Tw Roe ee

PM ea ee at oe,

F " i
ee eee aa ap Misacante a ee ee ee

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Full text of "Report on the forest conditions of the Rocky Mountains, and other papers : with a map showing the location of forest areas on the Rocky Mountain Range"

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