yt-
!
EEPTILES AND BIBDS.
HAWKING IN THE MIDDLE AGES.
Fronti."-j>it
REPTILES AND BIRDS.
A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE VARIOUS ORDERS ;
WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE
Habits and Economy of the Most Interesting.
LOUIS FIGUIER.
EDITED IlV
PARKER GILL MO RE
Author of " Gun, Roil, and Saddle," &v.
WITH 307 ILLUSTRATIONS.
\V. J. HOLLAND & CO.,
SUBSCRIPTION BOOK PUBLISHERS,
SPRINGFIELD, MASS.
50
PREFACE.
IN presenting to the public this English version of Louis FIGUIER'S
interesting work on Reptiles and Birds, I beg to state that where
alterations and additions have been made, my object has been
that the style and matter should be suited to the present state of
general knowledge, and that all classes should be able to obtain
useful information and amusement from the pages which I have
now the honour and pleasure of presenting to them.
On commencing my undertaking I was not aware of the
immensity of the labour to be done, and fear that I must have
relinquished my arduous task but for the kind encouragement of
FRANK BUCKLAND, Esq., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries, and HENRY
LEE, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c., to both of whom I take this oppor-
tunity of returning my sincere thanks.
PARKER GILLMORE
("UBIQUE").
December, 1809.
CONTENTS.
EEPTILES.
PAGE
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER . 1
CHAPTER I.
AMPHIBIA, OR BATRACHIANS.
PAGE PAGE
Structural Distinctions 8 Toads 25
Intelligence 13 Natterjack 26
Characteristics 15 Surinam 28
Historical Antiquity 18 Land Salamanders 31
Distribution 19 Spotted 32
Frogs 19 Black 33
Habits of Life 21 Aquatic Salamanders 33
Development of Young .... 22 Crested 34
Green 23 Gigantic 34
Common 23 Transformations and Reproduction 35
Green Tree 24
CHAPTER II.
OPHIDIAN REPTILES, OR TRUE SXAK.ES.
Snakes 38 Snakes —
Burrowing 42 Rock 61
Ground 43 Natal Rock 61
Tree 43 Guinea Rock 61
Fresh-water 43 Royal Rock 61
Sea 43 Aboma 62
Innocuous 46 Anaconda 65
Blind 46 Cobra 70
Shield-tail 47 Asp 75
Black 49 Bungarus 76
Rat 49 Pit Vipers 78
Ringed 49 Fer-de-lance 79
Green and Yellow 52 Jararaca 80
Viperine 52 Trimeresurus 80
Desert 53 Rattle 82
Whip 54 Copperhead 82
Blunt-heads 56 Tic-polonga 88
Boas 56 Puff Adders 89
Diamond 59 Common Adder 92
Carpet 59
Vlll
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
Lizards, Distribution and Division . 99
Grey 109
Green 110
Ocellated 110
Ameivas 112
Iguanas 117
Basilisk 127
Anoles 129
Flying 132
THE ORDER OF LIZARDS — SAURIANS.
PAGE
PAGE
Lizards —
Gecko 134
Chameleons 136
Crocodiles 141
Jacares 145
Alligators 145
Caiman 147
True 149
Gavials 153
CHAPTEE IV.
CHELONIANS, OR SHIELDED REPTILES.
Formation 155
Distribution and Classification . . . 157
Tortoises 158
Land 158
Margined 159
Moorish 159
Greek 160
Elephantine 160
Genus Pyxis 161
Ditto Kinixys 161
Homopodes 161
Elodiansy or Marsh Tortoises :
Mud 162
Emydes 163
Pleuroderes 164
Potamians, or River Tortoises :
Trionyx 164
Thalassians, or Sea Tortoises :
Green 177
Hawk's-bill 177
Loggerhead 178
Leather-back . .178
BIEDS.
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
Anatomy 181 Nests 197
Plumage 184 Reproduction ........ 201
Beaks 189 Longevity 203
Digestive Organs 191 Utility 205
Powers of Sight 193 Classification 207
Vocal Organs 195
CHAPTER I.
THE NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS.
Divers 212 Penguins 218
Great Northern 213 Manchots 219
Imbrine 216 Grebes 221
Arctic 216
Black- throated , .216
Castanean 222
Crested .223
Red-throated 217 Guillemots .. 224
CONTENTS.
ix
CHAPTER II.
Mallard 232
Golden-eyed Garret 242
Poachard 243
Shoveller 244
Shieldrake 246
Eider Duck 2*7
Common Teal 250
Velvet Duck 253
Scoter, Black 253
Great-billed 258
Goosander 259
Smew 260
Goose 261
Wild 262
Bean 266
Domestic 266
Bernicle . 269
DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
PAGE PAGE
Goose —
White-fronted Bernicle . . . .269
Swan 270
Whooping- 273
Black 277
Frigate Bird 277
Tropic Bird 279
Darter 281
Gannet 283
Cormorant 285
Shag 289
Pelicans 291
White 294
Crested 295
Brown 296
Spectacled 297
CHAPTER III.
THE LARUX£.
Tern 299
Little 301
Noddy 302
Silver- winged 302
Arctic 302
Whiskered . 303
Gull-billed 303
Roseate 303
Sandwich 303
Caspian 303
Scissors-bills 303
Black 304
Gulls 304
Large White- winged 306
Great Black-backed 306
Herring 306
Sea Mews 304
White, or Senator 307
Brown-masked 307
Laughing 307
Grey 308
Skua 308
Parasite 309
Richardson's 309
Pomerine 309
Common 310
Petrels 310
Giant 311
Chequered 311
Fulmar 311
Stormy 311
Blue 312
Puffins' 312
Grey 312
English 312
Brown 312
Albatross 312
Common 314
Black-browed 314
Brown 314
Yellow and Black-beaked. . . .314
CHAPTER IV.
GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS.
ralmidactyles :
Flamingo 317
Avocet 320
Stilt Bird 321
Macrodactyles :
Water Hens 322
Common 323
Purple, or Sultana Fowl .... 324
Rails 325
Coots 326
Bald 328
Crested 328
Blue 328
Glareola 328
Jacana 328
Kamichi 330
Horned 332
Faithful , . .332
CONTENTS.
Longirostres :
Sandpipers 332
Brown 334
Greenshank 334
Redshank 334
Pond 334
Wood 334
Green 334
Common 334
Turnstone 334
Ruff 336
Knot 338
Sanderlings 339
Woodcock 339
Snipe 343
Common 344
Great 345
Jack 345
Wilson's 345
Godwit . . 345
Curlew ..." 346
Ibis 348
Sacred 348
Green 351
Scarlet 351
Cultrirostres :
Spoonbills 352
White 352
Rose-coloured 352
Storks 353
White 353
Black 357
Argala 357
Jabiru 359
Ombrette 359
Bec-ouvert 359
Drome . . 359
PAGK
Tantalus 360
Boatbill 360
Herons 361
Common 362
Purple 364
White 364
Bitterns 366
Crane 366
Ash-coloured 366
Demoiselle 371
Crested 371
Hooping 371
Caurale 373
Pressirostres :
Cariama 373
Oyster-catchers 373
Runners 376
Lapwings 376
Plovers 378
Great Land 379
Doterel 379
Ringed 379
Kentish 380
Golden 380
Pluvian 381
Bustard 381
Great 381
Brempennw :
Ostrich . , .... 383
Rhea 390
Cassowary 392
Emu 393
Apteryx 395
Extinct Brevipenn& :
Dodo 397
Epiornis 397
Dinornis 397
CHAPTER V.
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
Habits, origin, &c 399
Tetraonidce :
Capercailzie 401
Grouse, Black 402
Pinnated 402
Ruffed 403
Cock of the Plains 402
Gelinotte 403
Ptarmigans 404
Common 404
Red Grouse 405
Perdicides :
Gangas 405
Pin-tailed S and Grouse 406
Heteroclites 406
Quails 406
Partridges 410
Grey 415
Partridges, Red-legged 417
Gambra 417
Colin, Virginian 417
Californian 41
Solitary 41
Francolins 41
Chinese 41
European 42
African and Indian 42
Coturnix 42
Turnix tachydroma 42
Tinamides 42
Chionidse 42
Megapodidse 42
PhasianidcG :
Pheasants 42
Common 42
Golden ... .42
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Pheasants —
Silver 425
Ring-necked 427
Reeves's 427
Lady Amherst's 427
Argus 427
Gallus 427
Common 427
Bankiva 429
Jungle-fowl 429
Bionzed 429
Fork-tailed 429
Kulm 429
Negro 429
Tragopans 435
Pintados 435
Turkeys 437
Wild 437
Domestic 440
Ocellated 441
Peacocks 441
Domestic 442
Wild 444
Polyplectrons 444
Impeyan Pheasants 444
Alectors 444
Hocco, or Curassow 444
Pauxis 446
Penelopes, or Guans 446
Hoazins 446
Columbidee :
Colombi-Gallines 447
Pigeons (Colombes) 448
King or Wood 450
Wild Rock 450
Common Domestic 450
Pouter 451
Roman 451
Swift 452
Carrier 452
Tumbler 452
Wheeling 452
Nun 452
Fan-tailed 452
Turtle Dove -. . . 453
Ring Dove 453
Passenger i . . 453
Columbars 456
CHAPTER VI.
SCANSORES, OR CLIMBERS.
Parrots 457 Cuckoos —
Macaw 464 Grey 469
Parrakeets 465 Indicators 472
Tabuan 465 Anis 473
Parrot, Grey 466 Barbets 474
Green 466 Trogons 475
Cockatoos 466 Resplendent 476
Toucans 467 Mexican 476
Proper 468 Woodpeckers 476
Aracaris • . . 469 Wry-necks 479
Cuckoos 469 Jacainars 480
CHAPTER VII.
PASSERINES.
Syndacti/les :
Hornbills 482
Rhinoceros 483
Fly-catchers 483
King-fishers 484
Ceyx Meninting 486
Bee-eaters 486
Common 488
Momots 487
Tai/iirotitres :
Hoopoes . 488
Epimachus 490
Promerops 490
Colibri 491
Proper 491
Humming-birds 491
Creepers 495
Picumnus 496
Furnarius 496
Sucriers 497
Soui-mangas 497
Nuthatches 498
Conirostres :
Birds of Paradise 499
Great Emerald 500
King Bird 500
Superb 500
Sifilets 501
Crows 502
Raven 502
Carrion 502
Royston 502
XII
CONTENTS.
Crows —
Eook 502
Jackdaw 502
Magpies 507
Common 508
Brazilian 509
Chinese 509
Jays * 509
Nut-cracker 510
Rollers 511
Starlings 512
Common 513
Sardinian 513
Baltimore Oriole 514
Beef-eater 514
Crossbill 515
Grosbeak 516
Bullfinch 517
Siskin 517
House Sparrow 518
Goldfinch 519
Linnets 519
Chaffinch 520
Canary 521
Widow Bird . . • 523
Java Sparrow 523
Weaver Birds 523
Republican 524
Buntings 524
Reed 525
CM 526
Ortolan 526
Snow 527
Tits 527
Great 528
Long-tailed 528
Larks 529
Crested Lark 531
Fissirostres :
Swallow 531
Salangane 537
Goatsuckers 538
Night-jar 540
Guacharos 541
PAGE
Dentirostres :
Manakins 542
Cock of the Rock 542
Warblers 542
Nightingale 543
Sedge Warbler 545
Night Warbler 545
La Fauvette Couturiere . . . .546
Garden 547
Robin 547
Wrens 547
Golden-crested 548
European 548
Wood 548
Stone Chat 549
Wagtails 550
Pied 551
Quaketail 551
Pipits 552
Lyretail 552
Orioles 553
Golden 553
Mino 554
Honey-sucker 555
Ouzel, Rose-coloured 555
Water 556
Solitary Thrush 556
Blackbird, Common 557
Ringed 559
Solitary 559
Thrush, Polyglot 559
Song 560
Redwing 561
Tanagers 561
Drongos 562
Cotingas 563
Caterpillar-eater 563
Chatterers 564
Fly-catchers 565
Tyrants 567
Cephalopterus ornatus 567
Shrikes 568
Vangas 571
Cassicus . - 571
CHAPTER VIII.
RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.
Nocturnal :
Horned Owls 576
Great 576
Virginian 579
Short-eared 579
Ketupu 581
Scops 581
Hornless Owls 583
Sparrow 583
Small Sparrow 584
Hornless Owls —
Pampas Sparrow 584
Burrowing 585
Tawny 585
Barn 585
Canada 588
Hawk 589
White 589
Caparacoch 590
Harfang 590
CONTENTS.
xm
Hornless Owls —
Lapland . . 591
Ural 591
Diurnal :
Eagles 592
Koyul 602
Imperial 602
Bonelli's 602
Tawny 602
Booted 602
Reinwardt's 602
Vulturine 602
Sea Eagles 602
European 603
American 604
Marine 604
Piscivorous 604
Caffir 604
Mace's 604
Pondicherry 604
Indian 604
Osprey 605
Huppart 606
Falco urubitinga 606
Harpy 606
White-bellied Eagle . • . . .607
Falcons 608
Gyrfalcons 608
White 609
Iceland 609
Norway 609
Falcons 610
Lanier 610
Sultan 610
Peregrine 610
Hobby 613
Merlin 613
Kestrel 613
Bengal 613
Goshawk 622
yarrow-hawks 623
Common 623
Dwarf 623
Sparrow-hawks —
Chanting Falcon . . ... . . 624
Kites 624
Common 624
Black 625
Parasite 625
American 625
Buzzards 626
Common 627
Honey 627
Eough-legged 627
Harriers 627
Hen 628
Moor 628
Frog-eating 628
Pale-chested 629
Jardine's 629
Ash-coloured 629
Caracaras 629
Brazilian 629
Chimango 629
Long-winged 629
Chimachima 629
Funebris 631
Vultures 631
Griffons 632
Bearded 632
Sarcoramphi 634
Condor 634
King Vulture 638
Cathartes 639
Urubu 639
Turkey Buzzard 641
Common Vulture 642
Percnopterus 644
Vulture, Pondicherry 642
Kolbe's 642
Yellow 642
Sociable 645
Chinese 646
Oricou 646
Serpent-eaters 646
Secretary Bird 646
REPTILES ANfo BIRDS,
INTRODUCTORY.
THERE is little apparent resemblance between the elegant feathered
warbler which makes the woods re-echo to its cheerful song, and
the crawling reptile which is apt to inspire feelings of disgust when
the more potent sensation of terror is absent — between the familiar
Swallow, which builds its house of clay under the eaves of your
roof,- or the warbler whose nest, with its young progeny, care-
fully watched by the father of the brood in the silent watches of
the night, is now threatened by the Serpent which has glided so
silently into the bush, its huge mouth already open to swallow
the whole family, while the despairing and fascinated parents
have nothing but their slender bills to oppose to their formid-
able foe. " Placed side by side," says Professor Huxley, "a
Humming-bird and a Tortoise, or an Ostrich and a Crocodile,
offer the strongest contrast ; and a Stork seems to have little
but its animality in common with the Snake which it swallows."
Nevertheless, unlike as they are in outward appearance, there
is sufficient resemblance in their internal economy to bring them
together in most attempts at a classification of the Animal King-
dom. The air-bladder which exists between the digestive canal
and kidneys in some fishes, becomes vascular with the form
and cellular structure of lungs in reptiles ; the heart has two
auricles, the ventricle in most is imperfectly divided, and more
or less of the venous blood is mixed with the arterial which
circulates over the body ; but retaining their gills and being
therefore transitional in structure, they are also cold-blooded. In
2 INTRODUCTORY.
birds, the lungs are spongy, the cavity of the air-bags becoming
obliterated by the multiplication of vascular cellules; the heart
is four- chambered, transmitting venous blood to the lungs, and
pure arterial blood to the body; the temperature is raised and
maintained at 90° to 100° Fahr.
Thus Reptiles, like Birds, breathe the common air by means
of their lungs, but respiration is much less active. "Although/'
remarks Professor Owen, " the heart of Birds resembles in some
particulars that of Reptiles, the four cavities are as distinct as
in the Mammalia, but they are relatively stronger, their valvular
mechanism is more perfect, and the contractions of this organ
are more forcible and frequent in birds, in accordance with
their more extended respiration and their more energetic mus-
cular action/' It is true, as Professor Huxley informs us, that the
pinion of a bird, which corresponds with the human hand or the
fore paw of a reptile, has three points representing three fingers :
no reptile has so few.* The breast-bone of a bird is converted
into membrane-bone : no such conversion takes place in reptiles.
The sacrum is formed by a number of caudal and dorsal vertebrae.
In reptiles the organ is constituted by one or two sacral vertebrae.
In other respects the two classes present many obvious dif-
ferences, but these are more superficial than would be suspected at
first glance. And Professor Huxley believes that, structurally,
"reptiles and birds do really agree much more closely than birds
with mammals, or reptiles with amphibians."
While most existing birds differ thus widely from existing rep-
tiles, the cursorial or struthious genera, comprising the Ostrich,
Nandou, Emu, Cassowary, Apteryx, and the recently extinct
Dinornis of New Zealand, come nearer to the reptiles in structure
than any others. All of these birds are remarkable for the short-
ness of their wings, the absence of a crest or keel upon the breast-
bone, and some peculiarities of the skull, which render them more
peculiarly reptilian. But the gap between reptiles and birds is
only slightly narrowed by their existence, and is somewhat unsatis-
factory to those who advocate the development theory, which
asserts that all animals have proceeded, by gradual modification,
from a common stock.
* Vide, however, p. 8.— ED.
CONNECTING LINKS IN CLASSIFICATION. 3
Traces had been discovered in the Mesozoic formations of certain
Ornitholites, which were too imperfect to determine the affinities
of the bird. But the calcareous mud of the ancient sea-bottom,
which has hardened into the famous lithographic slate of Solen-
hofen, revealed to Hermann von Meyer, in 1861, first the impression
of a feather, and, in the same year, the independent discovery
of the skeleton of the bird itself, which Yon Meyer had named
Archteopteryx lithographicus. This relic of a far-distant age now
adorns the British Museum.
The skull of the Archeeopteryx is almost lost, but the leg, the foot,
\
Fig. 1. — Archseopteryx lithographicus.
the pelvis, the shoulder- girdle, and the feathers, as far as their struc-
ture can be made out, are completely those of existing birds. On
the other hand, the tail is very long. Two digits of the manus
have curved claws, and, to all appearance, the metacarpal bones are
quite free and disunited, exhibiting, according to Professor Huxley,
closer approximation to the reptilian structure than any existing
bird. Mr. Evans has even detected that the mandibles were pro-
vided with a few slender teeth.
On the other hand, the same writer points out certain peculiari-
ties in the single reptile found also among the Solenhofen slates,
which has been described and named Compsognathus longipes by the
B2
4 INTEODUCTOEY.
late Andreas Wagner. This reptile he declares "to be a still
nearer approximation to the missing link between reptiles and
birds," thus narrowing the gap between the two classes.
While we think it proper to point to these structural resem-
blances of one class of the animal creation to others very different
in their external appearance, it is necessary to guard ourselves
and our readers from adopting the inferences sometimes deduced
from them ; that " these infinitely diversified forms are merely
the final terms in an immense series of changes which have been
brought about in the course of immeasurable time, by the operation
of causes more or less similar to those which are at work at the
present day." Domestication and other causes have no doubt
produced changes in the form of many animals ; but none from
which this inference can be drawn, except in the imagination of
ingenious men who strain the facts to support a preconceived
hypothesis. In spite of the innumerable forms which the pigeon
assumes by cross-breeding and domestication, it still remains a
pigeon ; the dog is still a dog, and so with other animals. Nor
does it seem to us to be necessary, or calculated to advance our
knowledge in natural history, to form theories which can only
disturb our existing systems without supplying a better. Systems
are necessary for the purpose of arrangement and identification ;
but it should never be forgotten that all classifications are artificial
— a framework or cabinet, into the partitions of which many facts
may be stowed away, carefully docketed for future use. " Theories,"
says Le Yaillant, "are more easily made and more brilliant probably
than observations ; but it is by observation alone that science can
be enriched." A bountiful Creator appears to have adopted one
general plan in the organization of all the vertebrate creation ;
and, in order to facilitate their study, naturalists have divided
them into classes, orders, and genera, formed on the differences
which exist in the structure of their vital functions. The advan-
tages of this are obvious, but it does not involve the necessity of
fathoming what is unfathomable, of explaining what is to man
inexplicable in the works of GOD.*
* This, however, is a subject upon which naturalists of the highest rank hold
different opinions, many of those most highly qualified to form a correct judgment
advocating the tenets propounded "by Mr. Charles Darwin. — ED.
CONNECTING LINKS IN CLASSIFICATION. 5
In previous volumes of this series* we have endeavoured to give
the reader some general notions of the form, life, and manners
of the branches of the animal kingdom known as Zoophytes,
Mollusca, Articulata, and Pisces. We now continue the superior
sub- kingdom (to which the fishes also belong) of the Yertebrated
Animals, so tailed from the osseous skeleton which encircles their
bodies, in which the vertebral column, surmounted by the cranium,
its appendage, forms the principal part.
The presence of a solid frame in this series of animals admits of
their attaining a size which is denied to any of the others. The
skeleton being organized in such a manner as to give remarkable
vigour and precision to all their movements.
In the vertebrated animals the nervous system is also more
developed. There is, consequently, a more exquisite sensibility in
them than in the classes whose history we have hitherto discussed.
They possess five senses, more or less fully developed, a heart, a
circulation, and their blood is red.
We have now to deal with a class advanced above that of fishes,
that of Reptilia, which is divided as follows : —
AMPHIBIA — (BATRACHIA, Cuv.)
Animals having ribs or processes, or short, slight, and free ver-
tebrae, forming a series of separate centrums, deeply cupped at
both ends, one of which is converted by ossification in the mature
animal into a ball, which may be the front one, as in the Surinam
Toad, Pipa, or the hind ones in the Frogs and Toads, liana. The
skin is nude, limbs digitate, gills embryonal, — permanent in some,
in most lost in metamorphosis, — to be succeeded by pulmonary
respiration, — or both ; a heart with one ventricle and two auricles.
They consist of : —
I. OPHIOMORPHA.
Cseciliadae or Ophiosomse.
II. ICTHYOMOKPIIA.
Proteidse or Sirens, Proteus, Newts, and Salamanders.
* " The Ocean World," from the French of Louis Figuier. " The Insect World,"
from the French of the same author.
6 INTEODUCTOEY.
III. THERIOMOKPHA.
Aglossa . . . Pipa or Surinam Toads.
Eanidce . . . Frogs.
HylidcB . . . Tree Frogs.
Bufonidce . . Toads.
CHELONIA, OR TURTLES.
Distinguished by the double shield in which their bodies are
enclosed, whether they are terrestrial, fresh- water, or marine.
The Turtles, Chelonia, have the limbs natatory.
Mud Turtles, Triom/x, } .
5 limbs amphibious.
Terrapens, .bmys,
Tortoises, Testudo, limbs terrestrial.
LACERTILIA.
Having a single transverse process on each side, single-headed
ribs, two external nostrils, eyes with movable lids ; body covered
with horny, sometimes bony, scales.
Lacerta — the Monitors, Crocodiles, Lizards ; having ambulatory limbs.
Anguis — Ophisaurus, Bimanus, Chalcides, Seps ; limbs abortive ; no sacrum.
OPHIDIA.
Having numerous vertebrae with single-headed hollow ribs, no
visible limbs, eyelids covered by an immovable transparent lid ;
body covered by horny scales. It includes : —
Viperince — the Vipers and Crotalidae.
Colulrincc — the Colubers, Hydridae, and Boidse.
CROCODILIA.
Teeth in a single row, implanted in distinct sockets ; body de-
pressed, elongated, protected on the back by solid shield ; tail
longer than the trunk, compressed laterally, and furnished with
crests above. The several families are : —
Crocodilida — the Gavials, Mecistops, Crocodiles.
Alligatoridce — Jacares, Alligators, Caiman.*
* By some naturalists the Amphibia are considered as a distinct class, by other
as a sub-class either of Reptilia or of Pisces. Of the reptiles proper (at present
existing), the arrangement into the orders Testudinata (or Tortoises), Sauria (or
Lizards), and Ophidia (or Snakes), is the one most generally adopted; but De Blain-
ville elevates the Loricata (or Crocodiles) to the rank of an order, and others have
adopted a division of corresponding rank, Saurophidia, for the Anguis series above
referred to ; but the latter are merely limbless Lizards (or with abortive limbs) akin
to the Scinques. — ED.
CHAPTEE I.
AMPHIBIA, OR BATEACHIANS.
THOSE geographers who divide the world into land and sea over-
look in their nomenclature the extensive geographical areas
which belong permanently to neither section— namely, the vast
marshy regions on the margins of lakes, rivers, and ponds, which
are alternately deluged with the overflow of the adjacent waters,
and parched and withering under the exhalations of a summer
heat ; regions which could only be inhabited by beings capable of
living on land or in water; beings having both gills through
which they may breathe in water, and lungs through which
they may respire the common air. The first order of reptiles
possesses this character, and hence its name of Amphibia, from
afjifapios, having a double life.
The transition from fishes to reptiles is described by Professor
Owen, with that wonderful power of condensation which he possesses,
in the following terms : — " All vertebrates during more or less of
their developmental life- period float in a liquid of similar specific
gravity to themselves. A large proportion, constituting the lowest
organised and first developed forms of this province, exist and
breathe in water, and are called fishes. Of these a few retain the
primitive vermiform condition, and develop no limbs ; in the rest
they are ' fins' of simple form, moving by one joint upon the
body, rarely adapted for any other function than the impulse
or guidance of the body through the water. The shape of the
body is usually adapted for moving with least resistance through
the liquid medium. The surface of the body is either smooth
and lubricous or it is smoothly covered with overlapping scales ; it
is rarely defended by bony plates, or roughened by tubercles.
8 BATEACHIANS.
Still more rarely it is armed with spines." Passing over the
general economy of fishes we come to the heart. " The heart,"
he tells us, "" consists of one auricle receiving the venous blood,
and one ventricle propelling it to the gills or organs submitting
that blood in a state of minute subdivisions to the action of
aerated water. From the gills the aerated blood is carried over
the entire body by vessels, the circulation being aided by the
contraction of the surrounding muscles."
The functions of gills are described by the Professor with great
minuteness. " The main purpose of the gills of fishes," he says,
" being to expose the venous blood in this state of minute sub-
division to streams of water, the branchial arteries rapidly divide
and sub-divide until they resolve themselves into microscopic
capillaries, constituting a network in one plane or layer, supported
by an elastic plate, covered by a tesselated and non-ciliated epithe-
lium. This covering and the tunics of the capillaries are so thin as
to allow chemical interchange and decomposition to take place
between the carbonated blood and the oxygenated water. The
requisite extent of the respiratory field of capillaries is gained by
various modes of multiplying the surface within a limited space."
" Each pair of processes," he adds, " has its flat side turned towards
contiguous pairs, and the two processes of each pair stand edgeway
to each other, being commonly united for a greater or less extent
from their base; hence Cuvier describes each pair as a single
bifurcated plate, or ' feuillet.' '
The modification which takes place in the respiratory and
other organs in Eeptilia, is described in a few words. " Many
fishes have a bladder of air between the digestive canal and the
kidneys, which in some communicate with an air-duct and the
gullet ; but its office is chiefly hydrostatic. When on the rise of
structure this air-bladder begins to assume the vascular and
pharyngeal relations with the form and cellular structure of
lungs, the limbs acquire the character of feet : at first thread-
like and many jointed, as in the Lepidosiren ; then bifurcate, or
two-fingered, with the elbow and wrist joints of land animals,
as in Amphiuma ; next, three-fingered, as in Proteus, or four-
fingered, but reduced to the pectoral pair, as in Siren."
In all reptiles the blood is conveyed from the ventricular part
STEUCTUKAL DISTINCTIONS. 9
of the heart, really or apparently, by a single trunk. In Lepi-
dosiren the veins from the lung-like air-bladders traverse the
auricle which opens directly into the ventricle. In some the vein
dilates before communicating with the ventricle into a small
auricle, which is not outwardly distinct from the much larger
auricle receiving the veins of the body. In Proteus the auricular
system is incomplete. In Amphiuma the auricle is smaller and
less fringed than in the Sirens, the ventricle being connected to
the pericardium by the apex as well as the artery. This forms a
half spiral turn at its origin, and dilates into a broader and
shorter bulb than in the Sirens.
" The pulmonic auricle," continues the learned Professor, "thus
augments in size with the more exclusive share taken by the lungs
in respiration ; but the auricular part of the heart shows hardly
any outward sign of its diversion in the Batrachians. It is small
and smooth, and situated on the left, and in advance of the ventricle
in Newts and Salamanders. In Frogs and Toads the auricle is
applied to the base of the ventricle, and to the back and side of
the aorta and its bulb."
In the lower members of the order, the single artery from the
ventricle sends, as in fishes, the whole of the blood primarily to the
branchial organs, during life, and in all Batrachians at the earlier
aquatic periods of existence. In the Newt three pairs of external
gills are developed at first as simple filaments, each with its
capillary loop, but speedily expanding, lengthening, and branching
into lateral processes, with corresponding looplets ; those blood-
channels intercommunicating by a capillary network. The gill is
covered by ciliated scales, which change into non- cilia ted
cuticle shortly before the gills are absorbed. In the Proteus
anguinus, three parts only of branchial and vascular arches are
developed, corresponding with the number of external gills. In
Siren lacertina the gills are in three pairs of branchial arches,
the first and fourth fixed, the second and third free, increasing in
size according to their condition.
The AMPHIBIA, then, have all, at some stage of their existence,
both gills and lungs co- existent : respiring by means of branchiae
or gills while in the water, and by lungs on emerging into the
open air.
10 BATEACHIANS.
All these creatures seem to have been well known to the
ancients. The monuments of the Egyptians abound in represen-
tations of Frogs, Toads, Tortoises, and Serpents. Aristotle was
well acquainted with their form, structure, and habits, even to
their reproduction. Pliny's description presents his usual amount
of error and exaggeration. Darkness envelops their history
during the middle ages, from which it gradually emerges in the
early part of the sixteenth century, when Belon and Rondi-
letius in France, Salviani in Italy, and Conrad Gesner in Switzer-
land, devoted themselves to the study of Natural History with
great success. In the latter part of the same century Aldrovandi
appeared. During fifty years he was engaged in collecting
objects and making drawings, which were published after his
death, in 1640, edited by Professor Ambrossini, of Bologna,
the Reptiles forming two volumes. In these volumes, twenty -two
chapters are occupied by the Serpents. But the first arrange-
ment which can be called systematic was that produced by John
Hay. This system was based upon the mode of respiration, the
volume of the eggs, and their colour.
Numerous systems have since appeared in France, Germany,
and England ; but we shall best consult our readers' interest by
briefly describing the classification adopted by Professor Owen,
the learned Principal of the British Museum, in his great work
on the Yertebrata.
The two great classes Batrachians and Reptiles, include a
number of animals which are neither clothed with hair, like the
Mammalia, covered with feathers like the birds, nor furnished
with swimming fins like fishes. The essential character of rep-
tiles is, that they are either entirely or partially covered with
scales. Some of them — for instance, Serpents — move along the
ground with a gliding motion, produced by the simple contact
and adhesion of the ventral scales with the ground. Others, such
as the Tortoises, the Crocodiles, and the Lizards, move by means
of their feet ; but these, again, are so short, that the animals
almost appear to crawl on the ground — however swiftly, in some
instances. The locomotive organs in Serpents are the vertebral
column, with its muscles, and the stiff epidermal scutes crossing
the under surface of the body. " A Serpent may, however, be
TADPOLE LIFE. 11
seen to progress," says Professor Owen, " without any inflection,
gliding slowly and with a ghost-like movement in a straight line,
and if the observer have the nerve to lay his hand flat in the
reptile's course, he will feel, as the body glides over the palm,
the surface pressed as it were by the edges of a close- set series of
paper knives, successively falling flat after each application."
Others of the class, such as the Tortoises, Crocodiles, and Lizards,
move by the help of feet, which are generally small and feeble —
in a few species being limited to the pectoral region, while in
most both pairs are present. In some, as in various Lizards, the
limbs acquire considerable strength.
There is one genus of small Lizards, known as the Dragons, Draco,
whose movements present an exception to the general rule. Besides
their four feet, these animals are furnished with a delicate mem-
branous parachute, formed by a prolongation of the skin on the
flanks and sustained by the long slender ribs, which permits of
their dropping from a considerable height upon their prey.
Batrachians, again, differ from most other Reptilia by being
naked : moreover, most of them undergo certain metamorphoses ;
in the first stage of their existence they lead a purely aquatic
life, and breathe by means of gills, after the manner of fishes.
Young Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders, which are then called tad-
poles, have, in short, no resemblance whatever to their parents in
the first stage of their existence. They are little creatures with
slender, elongated bodies, destitute of feet and fins, but with large
heads, which may be seen swimming about in great numbers in
stagnant ponds, where they live and breathe after the manner
of fishes. By degrees, however, they are transformed: their
limbs and air-breathing lungs are gradually developed, then
they slowly disappear, and a day arrives when they find themselves
conveniently organized for another kind of existence ; they burst
from their humid retreat, and betake themselves to dry land.
'' The tadpole meanwhile being subject to a series of changes in
every system of organs concerned in the daily needs of the coming
aerial and terrestrial existence, still passes more or less time in
water, and supplements the early attempt at respiration by pullu-
lating loops and looplets of capillaries from the branchial vessels."
(Owen.)
12 BATEACHIANS.
Nevertheless, they do not altogether forget their native
element ; thanks to 'their webbed feet, they can still traverse the
waters which sheltered their infancy ; and when alarmed by any
unusual noise, they rush into the water as a place of safety, where
they swim about in apparent enjoyment. In some of them, as
Proteus and the amphibious Sirens, where the limbs are confined
to the pectoral region, swimming seems to be the state most natural
to them. They are truly amphibious, and they owe this double
existence to the persistence of their gills ; for in these perenni-
branchiate Batrachians, arteries are developed from the last pair
of branchial arches which convey blood to the lungs : while,
in those having external deciduous gills, the office being dis-
charged, they lose their ciliate and vascular structure and disap-
pear altogether. The skull in Reptiles generally consists of the
same parts as in the Mammalia, though the proportions are dif-
ferent. The skull is flat, and the cerebral cavity, small as it is, is
not filled with brain. The vertebral column commences at the
posterior part of the head, two condyles occupying each side of the
vertebral hole (Fig. 2). The anterior limbs are mostly shorter than
the posterior, as might be expected of animals whose progression
is effected by leaps. Ribs there are none. The sternum is highly
developed, and a large portion of it is cartilaginous ; it moves in
its mesial portions the two clavicles and two coracoid bones,
which fit on to the scapula, the whole making a sort of hand which
supports the anterior extremities, and an elongated disk which
supports the throat, and assists in deglutition and respiration. The
bone of the arm (humerus) is single, and long in proportion to the
fore arm. In the Frogs (Rana), the ilic bone is much elongated,
and is articulated in a movable manner on the sacrum, so that the
two heads of the thigh bones seem to be in contact. The femur,
or thigh, is much lengthened and slightly curved, and the bones
of the leg so soldered together as to form a single much elongated
bone.
The respiration of Reptiles and some of the Batrachians, like that
of Birds and Mammals, is aerial and pulmonary, but it is much
less active. Batrachians have, in addition, a very considerable
cutaneous respiration. Some of them, such as Toads, absorb more
oxygen through the skin than by the lungs. Their circulation is
INTELLIGENCE OF BATEACHIANS.
13
imperfect, the structure of the heart only presenting one ventricle ;
the blood, returning after a partial regeneration in the lungs,
mingles with that which is not yet revivified: this mixed fluid
is launched out
into the economic
system of the
animal. Thus
Reptiles and Ba-
trachians are said
to be cold-blooded
animals, more es-
pecially the for-
mer, in which the
respiratory organs,
which are a con-
stant source of in-
terior heat, are
only exercised
very feebly.
Owing to this low
temperature of their bodies, reptiles affect warm climates, where
the sun exercises its power with an intensity unknown in tem-
perate regions ; hence it is that they abound in the warm lati-
tudes of Asia, Africa, and America, whilst comparatively few are
found in Europe. This is also the cause of their becoming torpid
during the winter of our latitudes : not having sufficient heat in
themselves to produce reaction against the external cold, they fall
asleep for many months, awakening only when the temperature
permits of their activity. Serpents, Lizards, Tortoises, Frogs, are
all subjected to this law of their being. Some hybernate upon the
earth, under heaps of stones, or in holes ; others in mud at the
bottom of ponds. The senses are very slightly developed in these
animals ; those of touch, taste, and smell, are very imperfect ; that
of hearing, though less obtuse, leaves much to be desired ; but
sight in them is very suitably exercised by the large eyes, with
contractile eyeballs, which enables certain reptiles — such, for
instance, as the Geckos, to distinguish objects in the dark. Most
Reptiles and Batrachians are almost devoid of voice : Serpents,
14 BATEACHIANS.
however, utter a sharp hissing noise, some species of Crocodiles
howl energetically, the Geckos are particularly noisy, and Frogs
have a well-known croak. In Reptiles and Batrachians the brain
is small, a peculiarity which explains their slight intelligence and
the almost entire impossibility of teaching them anything. They
can, it is true, be tamed ; but although they seem to know indi-
viduals, they do not seem to be susceptible of affection : the slight
compass of their brain renders them very insensible, and this insen-
sibility to pain enables them to support mutilations which would
prove immediately fatal to most other animals. For instance, the
Common Lizard frequently breaks its tail in its abrupt movements.
Does this disturb him ? Not at all ! This curtailment of his being
does not seem to affect him ; he awaits patiently for the return of
the organ, which complaisant nature renews as often as it becomes
necessary. In the Crocodiles and Monitor Lizards, however, a muti-
lated part is not renewed, and the renovated tails of other Lizards
do not develop bone. In some instances, the eyes may be put
out with impunity^ or part of the head may be cut off; these
organs will be replaced or made whole in a certain time with-
out the animal having ceased to perform any of the functions
which are still permitted to him in his mutilated state. A
Tortoise will continue to live and walk for six months after it
is deprived of its brain, and a Salamander has been seen in a very
satisfactory state although its head was, so to speak, isolated from
the trunk by a ligature tied tightly close round the neck. There is
another curious peculiarity in the history of Reptiles and Batra-
chians : each year as they awake from their state of torpor, they
slough their old covering, and thus each year renew their youth ;
so far as the skin is concerned, it is certain that they retain their
youth a very long time. Their growth is slow, and continues
almost through the whole duration of their existence ; they are,
moreover, endowed with remarkable longevity. This is not very
astonishing, if we consider that (at least in our latitudes) they
remain torpid for several months yearly ; thus using up less of the
materials of life than most animals, they ought, consequently, to
attain a more advanced age. The activity of organization in Reptiles
and Batrachians is so slight that their stomachs feel less of the exi-
gencies of hunger; hence they rarely take nourishment ; they digest
CHAEACTEEISTICS OF EEPTILES. 15
their food with equal deliberation. "With the exception of the
Land Tortoises, whose regimen is herbivorous, most reptiles feed on
living prey. Some, such as Lizards, Frogs, and Toads, prey on
worms, insects, small terrestrial or aquatic Molluscs ; others, such
as Ophidians and Crocodiles, attack Birds, and even Mammalia.
Large Serpents, owing to the distensibility of their oesophagus,
swallow animals much larger than themselves. The Boa-con-
strictor darts upon the Deer, binds him in its snaky coils, breaks
his bones, and little by little swallows him entirely.
Heptiles, whether Batrachians, Ophidians, or Chelonians, are
mostly oviparous, sometimes ovo-viviparous, and some of them
are very prolific. The eggs of some are covered with a cal-
careous envelope, as in the Turtle. Sometimes they are soft,
and analogous to the spawn of fish, as in the Batrachians.
They do not hatch their eggs by sitting upon them, but bury them
in the sand, and take no further care of them, trusting to the heat
of the sun, which hatches them in due course. To this the
Pythons form a partial exception. Batrachians content them-
selves with diffusing their spawn or eggs in the marshy waters
or ponds, or they bear them on their backs until the time
of hatching approaches. On leaving the egg the young Tor-
toises have to provide immediately for their own wants, for
the parents are not present to bring them their nourishment or
to defend them against their enemies. This parental protection,
so manifest among the superior animals, does not exist in ovi-
parous species ; that is, in those whose eggs are not hatched in
the body of the mother. The young are, so to speak, produced
in a living state, and fully prepared for the battle of life. The
loves of these animals present none of that character of mutual
affection and tender sympathy which distinguishes the Mammalia
and Birds.* When they have ensured the perpetuity of their
species, they separate, and betake themselves again to their
solitary existence.
Some reptiles attain dimensions truly extraordinary, which
render them at times very formidable. Turtles are met with
which weigh as much as sixteen hundred pounds, and the carapace
* Birds, however, are oviparous, and nevertheless manifest the strongest parental
affection. — ED.
16
BATEACHIANS.
of one of these measured as much as six feet in length. The size
of an ordinary Crocodile is from eight to nine feet, but they have
been seen twenty-four and even thirty feet long, with a mouth
opening from six to eight feet wide.
In Ohelonians the surface of the skull is continuous without
movable articulations. The head is oval in the Land Tortoises, the
interval between the eyes large and convex, the opening of the
.Fig. 3.— Skeleton of a Turtle
nostrils large, the orbits round. The general distinguishing
characteristic of Tortoises is the external position of the bones of
the thorax, at once enveloping with a cuirass or buckler the
muscular portion of the frame, and protecting the pelvis and
shoulder bones. The ribs are inserted by means of sutures into
these plates, and united with each other. A three-branched
shoulder and cylindrical shoulder-blade are characteristic of the
Tortoises.
CIIAEACTEEISTICS OF EEPTILES. 17
In tropical regions enormous Serpents are found, which are as
bulky as a man's thigh, and are said to be not less than forty feet in
length. Roman annals mention one forty feet long, which Regulus
encountered in Africa during the Punic wars, and which is fabu-
lously said to have arrested the march of his army. These gigantic
reptiles are not, however, the enemies which man has most cause
to fear ; their very size draws attention to them in such a, manner
that it is easy to avoid them. It is quite otherwise with Vipers
twenty or thirty inches long ; they glide after their prey without
being seen, strike it cruelly with their fangs, leaving in the wound
a venom which produces death with startling rapidity. Doubtless
this fatal power was the origin of the worship which was ren-
dered to certain reptiles by barbarous nations of old, and these
animals are indeed still venerated by many savage races. The whole
class of Reptiles are, for the most part, calculated to inspire
feelings of disgust, and such has been the sentiment in all ages.
Few people can suppress a movement of fright at the sight of an
ordinary Snake, Lizard, or Frog, notwithstanding that they are
most inoffensive animals. Several causes concur to this aversion.
In the first place the low temperature of their bodies, contact
with which communicates an involuntary shudder in the person
who tries to touch one of them ; then the moisture which exudes
from the skins of Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders ; their fixed and
strong gaze, again, impresses one painfully in thinking of them ;
the odour which some of them exhale is so disgusting, that it
alone sometimes causes fainting ; add to this the fear of a real
or often exaggerated danger, and we shall have the secret of the
sort of instinctive horror which is felt by many people at the
sight of most reptiles. Nevertheless, the injurious species are ex-
ceptional amongst reptiles, and there are not any amongst the
Batrachians, for it is altogether a mistake to take for venom the
fluid which the toad discharges.* It is true that these animals
are repulsive in appearance, we can nevertheless recognise their
services in the economy of nature. Inhabitants of slimy mud and
* The Necturus, a Siren-like animal inhabiting the lakes of North America, has
series of small, fang-like teeth abo\«) and below, which are stated to give an
envenomed bite. — "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1857, p. 61. For
poison-organs in certain fishes, vide the same publication for 1861, p. 155. — ED.
C
18 BATEACHIANS.
impure swamps, they make incessant war upon the worms and
insects which abound in those localities. In their turn they find
implacable enemies in the birds of the marshes, which check their
prodigious multiplication. In this manner equilibrium is main-
tained.
Some of the animals which now occupy our attention render
more direct service to man by the part which they fulfil at his
table. Frogs are eaten in the south of France, Italy, and many
other countries ; and in some parts of the south of France, Adders
are eaten under the name of Hedge-eels. We know the favour in
which Turtles are held in England, where turtle- soup is considered
a dish only fit for merchant princes. In some countries Iguanas,
Crocodiles, and even Serpents are eaten. Yiper-broth, which was
known to Hippocrates, is discontinued as an article of food.
As we have already remarked, the peculiar nature of their
organization leads Reptiles and Batrachians to seek the warmer
regions of the earth. It is in those regions that they attain the
enormous dimensions which distinguish certain Serpents ; there,
too, they secrete their most subtle poisons, and display the most
lively colours — which, if less rich than those of Birds and Fishes,
are not less startling in effect. Many Serpents and Lizards glitter
with radiant metallic reflections, and some of them present ex-
tremely varied combinations of colour. Chameleons are found
in the same localities, but in the Old World only ; these and some
other Lizards are remarkable for changing their colour, a pheno-
menon which is also seen among the Frogs, but in a smaller degree.
Reptiles and Batrachians were numerous in the early ages
of our globe. It was then that those monstrous Saurians lived,
whose dimensions even are startling to our imagination. The>
forms of the Reptiles and Batrachians of the early ages of the
earth were much more numerous, their dimensions much greater,
and their means of existence more varied than those of the
present time. Our existent Reptiles are very degenerate descen-
dants of those of the great geological periods, unless we except
the Crocodiles and the gigantic Boas and Pythons. Whilst the
Reptiles of former ages disported their gigantic masses, and
spread terror amongst other living creatures, alike by their for-
midable armature and their prodigious numbers, they are now
FEOGS. 19
reduced to a much lower number of species. There are now but
little more than 1,500 species of Reptiles and Batrachians described,
and only 100 of those belong to Europe.*
I. BATRACIIIA.
Animals which compose this class have long been confounded
with reptiles, from which they differ in one fundamental pecu-
liarity in their organization. At their birth they respire by
means of gills, and consequently resemble fishes. In a physio-
logical point of view, at a certain time in their lives, these
animals are fishes in form as well as in their habits and orga-
nization. As age progresses, they undergo permanent meta-
morphosis — they acquire lungs, and thenceforth an aerial
respiration. It is, then, easy to understand that these animals
hold a doubtful rank, as they have long done, amongst Reptiles,
which are animals with an aerial respiration ; they ought to, form a
separate class of Vertebrates, f
Batrachians establish a transitional link between Fishes and
Reptiles — they are, as it were, a bond of union between those two
groups of animals. In the adult state Batrachians are cold-blooded
animals with incomplete circulation, inactive respiration, and the
skin is bare. In the introductory section to this chapter we have
given the general characteristics which belong to them. The
Frogs — Tree Frogs, Toads, Surinam Toads, Salamanders, and
Newts — are the representatives of the principal families of
Batrachians of which we propose giving the history.
The Frogs, Rana, have been irreparably injured by their resem-
blance to the Toads. This circumstance has given rise to an unfa-
vourable prejudice against these innocent little Batrachians. Had
the Toad not existed, the Frog would appear to us as an animal
of a curious form, and would interest us by the phenomena of
transformation which it undergoes in the different epochs of its
development. We should see in it a useful inoffensive animal of
slender form, with delicate and supple limbs, arrayed in that
* Vide subsequent notes on this subject, in p. 31, &c.
t They are regarded by some naturalists as a sub-class of Fishes rather than of
Reptiles, as piscine forms certain of which develop to a parallelism with the ordinary
reptilian condition of advancement ; their reproduction especially favouring this
view or idea. — ED.
c2
20
BATBACHIANS.
green colour which is so pleasant to the eye, and which mingles
so harmoniously with the carpeting of our fields.
The body of the Edible Frog, liana esculenta (Fig. 4), some-
times attains from six to eight inches in length, from the ex-
tremity of the muzzle to the end of the hind feet. The muzzle
terminates in a point ; the eyes are large, brilliant, and sur-
rounded with a circle of gold colour. The mouth is large ;
the body, which is contracted behind, presents a tubercular and
rugged back. It is of a more or less decided green colour
on the upper, and whitish on the under parts. These two colours,
I'ig. 4. -The Edible Frog (liana esculenta).
which harmonize well, are relieved by three yellow lines, which
extend the whole length of the back, and by scattered black
marbling. It is, therefore, much to be regretted that prejudice
should cause some at least of us to turn awav from this pretty
little hopping animal; when met with in the country ; with its
slight dimensions, quick movements, and graceful attitudes. For
FROGS. 21
ourselves, we cannot see the banks of our streams embellished by
the colours and animated with the gambols of these little animals
without pleasure. Why should we not follow with our eyes their
movements in our ponds, where they enliven the solitude without
disturbing its tranquillity. Frogs often leave the water, not only
to seek their nourishment, but to warm themselves in the sun.
When they repose thus, with the head lifted up, the body raised
in front and supported upon the hind feet, the attitude is more
that of an animal of higher organization than that of a mean and
humble Batrachian. Frogs feed on larvae, aquatic insects, worms,
and small mollusks. They choose their prey from living and
moving creatures ; for they set a watch, and when they perceive
it, they spring on it with great vivacity. A large Indian species
(R. tigrina) has been seen to prey occasionally upon young Spar-
rows. Far from being dumb, like many oviparous quadrupeds,
Frogs have the gift of voice. The females only make a pecu-
liar low growl, produced by the air which vibrates in the interior
of two vocal pouches placed on the sides of the neck ; but the
cry of the male is sonorous, and heard at a great distance : it
is a croak which the Greek poet, Aristophanes, endeavoured to
imitate by the inharmonic consonants, brekekurkoax, coax! It
is principally during rain, or in the evenings and mornings
of hot days, that Frogs utter their confused sounds. Their chant-
ing in monotonous chorus makes this sad melody very tiresome.
Under the feudal system, during the "good old times" of the
middle ages, which some people would like to bring back again,
the country seats of many of the nobility and country squires were
surrounded by ditches half full of water, all inhabited by a popu-
lation of croaking Frogs. Yassals and villains were ordered to
beat the water in these ditches morning and evening in order to
keep off the Frogs which troubled the sleep of the lords and
masters of the houses. Independent of the resounding and pro-
longed cries of which we have spoken, at certain times the male
Frog calls the female in a dull voice, so plaintive that the Romans
described it by the words "ololo," or "ololygo." "Truly," says
Lacepede, " the accent of love is always mingled with some
sweetness."
When autumn arrives Frogs cease from their habitual voracity,
22
BATEACHIANS.
and no longer eat. To protect themselves from the cold, they bury
themselves deeply in the mud : troops of them joining together in
the same place. Thus hidden, they pass the winter in a state of
torpor ; sometimes the cold freezes their bodies without killing them.
This state of torpor gives way in the first days of spring. During
the month of March, Frogs begin to awake and to move them-
selves ; this is their breeding season. Their race is so prolific that
MM
Fig. 5. — Development of the Tadpole.
1. Egg of the Frog. 2. The Egg fecundated, and surrounded by its visicule. 3. First state of the
Tadpole. 4. Appearance of the breathing gills. 5. Their development. 6. Formation of the hind
feet. 7. Formation of the fore feet, and decay of the gills. 8. Development of the lungs, and
reduction of the tail. 9. The perfect Frog.
a female can produce from six to twelve hundred eggs annually.
These eggs are globular, and are in form a glutinous and trans-
parent spheroid, at the centre of which is a little blackish
globule ; the eggs float, and form like chaplets on the surface of
the water.
All who have observed the small ponds and ditches in the
country at this season, will have seen these light and elegant
TADPOLE OF THE FROG. 2?
crafts swimming on the surface of the water. After a few days,
more or less according to the temperature, the little black spot
which is the embryo of the egg, and which has developed itself
in the interior of the glairy mass which envelops it, disengages
itself and shoots forth into the water : this is the tadpole of the
Frog.
The body of the tadpole is oval in shape, and terminates in a
long flat tail, which forms a true fin ; on each side of the neck
are two large gills, in shape like a plume of feathers ; the tadpole
has no legs. These gills soon begin to wither, without aquatic
respiration ceasing, however ; for, besides these, the tadpole pos-
sesses interior gills like fishes. Soon after, the legs begin to show
themselves, the hind legs appearing first; they acquire a con-
siderable length before the fore feet begin to show themselves.
These develop themselves under the skin, which they presently
pierce through. When the legs have appeared, the tail begins
to fade, and, little by little, withers away, until in the perfect
animal it entirely disappears. About the same time the lungs
become developed, and assume their functions. In Fig. 5
may be traced the successive phases of its transformation from
the egg to the tadpole, till we finally reach the perfect Batrachian.
Through these admirable modifications we see the Fish, little
by little, become a Batrachian. In order to follow this strange
metamorphosis, it suffices to gather some Frog's eggs, and to place
them with some aquatic herbs in an aquarium, or in a globe with
Gold and Silver Fish ; it there constitutes a most interesting spec-
tacle, and we advise our readers to give themselves this instructive
and easy lesson in natural history.
At present, there exist two species of Frog in Europe: the
Green or Edible Frog, and the Common Frog. The Green Frog is
that which we have described, and of which we have given a
representation in Fig. 4. They are found in running streams and
stagnant waters. It is this species to which La Fontaine alludes in
one of his fables. Common Frogs are smaller than the preceding :
they inhabit damp places in fields and vineyards, and only return
to the water to breed or to winter.
The flesh of the Edible Frog is very tender, white, and delicate.
As an article of food, it is lightly esteemed by some, but unde-
24
BATKACHIANS.
servedly so. Prepared in tlie same manner, Green Frogs closely
resemble very young fowls in taste. In almost all parts of France
Frogs are disdained as articles of food ; it is only in the south that
a taste for them is openly avowed, and there Frogs are sought for
and brought to market. Therefore, I never could comprehend
how the notion popular in England, when it is wished to express
contempt for Frenchmen, should be to call them Frog- eaters. It
is a reproach which might be addressed to Provencals and Lan-
guedocians like the author of this work, but not at all to the
majority of Frenchmen.
The Green Tree Frog is easily distinguished by having little plates
under its toes. These organs are a species of sucker, by means of
Fig. 6. -Green Tree Frog (Hyia).
which the animal is enabled, like the house-fly, to cling strongly to
any surface, however smooth and polished it may be. The smoothest
branch, even the lower surface of a leaf, forms a sufficient hold
and support to these delicate organs.
The upper part of the body is of a beautiful green, the lower
part, where little tuberculi are visible, is white. A yellow line,
lightly bordered with violet, extends on each side of the head
and back, from the muzzle to the hind legs. A similar line runs
from the jaw to the front legs. The head is short, the mouth
round, and the eyes raised. Much smaller than the ordinary Frog,
GREEN TREE FROG. 25
they are far more graceful. During the summer they live upon the
leaves of trees in damp woods, and pass the winter at the bottom
of some pond, which they do not leave till the month of May,
after having deposited their eggs. They feed on small insects,
worms, and mollusks ; and in order to catch them, they will
remain in the same place an entire day. During the glare of the
sun, they remain hidden amongst the leaves ; but when twilight
approaches, they move about and climb up the trees. We must
repeat of these Green Tree Frogs what we have already said of
Frogs. Get rid of all prejudice towards their kind, and then you
will examine with pleasure their lively colours, which harmonize
so well with the green leaves ; remark their tricks and ambus-
cades : follow them in their little hunting excursions ; see them
suspended upside down upon the leaves in .a manner which
appears marvellous to those who are not aware of the organs
which have been given to enable them to attach themselves to the
smoothest bodies : and it will give as much pleasure as can be
derived from the consideration of the plumage, habits, and flight
of birds. The croak of the Green Tree Frogs is like that of other
Frogs, although less sharp and sometimes stronger in the males ;
it can be pretty well translated by the syllables caraccarac, pro-
nounced from the throat. This cry is principally heard in the
morning and evening ; then, when one Frog begins to utter its
croak, all the others imitate it. In the quiet night the voice of
a troop of these little Batrachians sometimes reaches to an enor-
mous distance.
Toads, B-ufo, are squat and disagreeable in shape : it is difficult
to comprehend why nature, which has bestowed elegance and a
kind of grace upon Frogs and Tree Frogs, has stamp 3d the Toad
with so repulsive a form. These much despised beings occupy
a large place in the order of nature : they are distributed with pro-
fusion, but one cannot say exactly to what end ; their movements are
heavy and sluggish. In colour they are usually of a livid grey,
spotted with brown and yellow, and disfigured by a number of pus-
tules or warts. A thick and hard skin covers a flat back; its large
belly always appears to be swollen ; the head a little broader than
the rest of its body ; the mouth and the eyes are large and pro-
minent. It lives chiefly at the bottom of ditches, especially those
26
BATEACHIANS.
where stagnant and corrupt water has lain a long time. It is found
in dung heaps, caves, and in dark and damp parts of woods. One
has often been disagreeably surprised on raising some great stone
to discover a Toad cowering against the earth, frightful to see,
but timorous, seeking to avoid the notice of strangers. It is in
these different obscure and sometimes foetid places of refuge that
the Toad shuts itself up during the day ; going out in the evening,
when our common species moves by slight hops ; whilst another,
the Natterjack Toad, Bufo calamita, only crawls, though some-
what fastly. When seized, it voids into the hand a quantity of
limpid water imbibed through the pores of its skin ; but if more
Fig. 7. — The Common Toad (Uufo vulgar is).
irritated, a milky and venemous humour issues from the glands
of its back.
One peculiarity of its structure offers a defence from outward
attacks. Its very extensible skin adheres feebly to the muscles,
and at the will of the animal a large- quantity of air enters
between this integument and the flesh, which distends the body,
and fills the vacant space with an elastic bed of gas, by means of
which it is less sensible to blows. Toads feed upon insects, worms,
and small mollusks. In fine evenings, at certain seasons especially,
they may be heard uttering a plaintive monotonous sound. They
assemble in ponds, or even in simple puddles of water, where they
TOADS. 27
breed and deposit their eggs. When hatched, the young Toads go
through the same metamorphosis as do the tadpoles of the Frogs.
Their simple lives, though very inactive, are nevertheless very
enduring ; they respire little, are susceptible of hibernation, and
can remain for a considerable time shut up in a very confined
place.
It is proper, however, to. caution the reader against believing
all that has been written about the longevity of Toads. Neither
must implicit faith be given to the discovery of the living animal
(Fig. 7) in the centre of stones. " That Toads, Frogs, and
Newts, occasionally issue from stones broken in a quarry or in
sinking wells, and even from coal- strata at the bottom of a mine,"
is true enough; but, as Dr. Buckland observes, "the evidence is
never perfect to show that these Amphibians were entirely enclosed
in a solid rock; no examination is made until the creature is dis-
covered by the breaking of the mass in which it was contained, and
then it is too late to ascertain whether there was any hole or crevice
by which it might have entered." These considerations led
Dr. Buckland to undertake certain experiments to test the fact.
He caused blocks of coarse oolitic limestone and sandstone to be
prepared with cells of various sizes, in which he enclosed Toads of
different ages. The small Toads enclosed in the sandstone were
found to die at the end of thirteen months ; the same fate befell the
larger ones during the second year : they were watched through the
glass covers of their cells, and were never seen in a state of torpor,
but at each successive examination they had become more meagre,
until at last they were found dead. This was probably too severe
a test for the poor creatures, the glass cover implying a degree of
hardness and dryness not natural to half amphibious Toads. More-
over, it is certain that both Toads and Frogs possess a singular faci-
lity for concealing themselves in the smallest crevices of the earth,
or in the smallest anfractuosities of stones placed in dark places.
This animal, so repulsive in form, has been furnished by
nature with a most efficient defensive armature; namely, an
acrid secretion which will be described farther on. It is a
bad leaper, an obscure and solitary creature, which shuns the
sight of man, as if it comprehended the blot it is on the fair
face of creation. It is, nevertheless, susceptible of education, and
28
BATEACHIANS.
has occasionally been tamed ; but these occasions have been rare.
Pennant, the zoologist, relates some curious details respecting a
poor Toad, which took refuge under the staircase of a house. It
was accustomed to come every evening into a dining-room near to
the place of its retreat. When it saw the light it allowed itself to
be placed on a table, where they gave it worms, wood-lice, and
various insects. As no attempt was made to injure it, there were
no signs of irritation when it was touched, and it soon became,
from its gentleness (the gentleness of a Toad !), the object of
Fig. 8. — Surinam Toad (Pipa monstrosa).
general curiosity ; even ladies stopped to see this strange animal.
The poor Batrachian lived thus for six and thirty years ; and it
would probably have lived much longer had not a Crow, tamed,
and, like it, a guest in the house, attacked him at the entrance
of his hole, and put out one of his eyes. From that time he
languished, and died at the end of a year.
Nearly allied to the Toads, Bufo, the Surinam Toad, Pipa, holds
its place. Its physiognomy is at once hideous and peculiarly
SUEINAM TOAD. 29
odd : the head is flat and triangular, a very short neck sepa-
rates it from the trunk, which is itself depressed and flattened.
Its eyes are extremely small, of an olive, more or less bright,
dashed with small reddish spots. It has no tongue. There is
only one species of Pipa, viz. the American Pipa (Fig. 8), which
inhabits Guiana arid several provinces of Brazil. The most
remarkable feature in this Batrachian is its manner of reproduction.
It is oviparous, and when the female has laid her eggs, the male
takes them, and piles upon the back of his companion these,
his hopes of posterity. The female, bearing the fertilized eggs
upon her back, reaches the marshes, and there immerses herself ;
but the skin of the back which supports the eggs soon becomes
inflamed, erysipelatous inflammation follows, causing an irritation,
produced by the presence of eggs, which are then absorbed into
the skin, and disappear in the integument until hatched.
The young Pipa Toads are rapidly developed in these dorsal
cells, but they are extricated at a less advanced stage than almost
any other vertebrate animal. After extrication, the tadpole grows
rapidly, and the chief change of form is witnessed in the gills.
As to the mother Batrachian, it is only after she has got rid of
her progeny that she abandons her aquatic residence.*
The Batrachians differ essentially from all other orders of HEP-
TILIA. They have no ribs ; their skin is naked, being without scales.
The young, or tadpoles, when first hatched, breathe by means of
gills, being at this stage quite unlike their parents. These gills, or
branchiae, disappear in the tailless Batrachians, as the Frogs and
Toads, in which the tail disappears, are called. In the tadpoles the
mouth is destitute of a tongue, this organ only making its appear-
ance when the fore limbs are evolved. The habits also change.
The tadpole no longer feeds on decomposing substances, and cannot
live long immersed in water. The branchise disappear one after the
other, by absorption, giving place to pulmonary vessels. The prin-
cipal vascular arches are converted into the pulmonary artery, and
the blood is diverted from the largest of the branchiae to the lungs.
* The same phenomena occur, with certain variations, in some other American
Batrachians, as the Nototrema marsupiatum of Mexico, and the Notode'pliys ovifera of
Venezuela. In the Alytcs obstetricans of France, Switzerland, and the Rhine
district, the ova (about sixty in number) adhere to the hind-legs of the male parent !
—ED.
30 BATEACHIANS.
In the meantime the respiratory cavity is formed, the communicat-
ing duct advances with the elongation of the oesophagus, and at
the point of communication the larynx is ultimately developed.
The lungs themselves extend as simple elongated sacs, slightly re-
ticulated on the inner surface backwards into the abdominal cavity.
These receptacles being formed, air passes into and expands the
cavity, and respiration is commenced, the fore limbs are liberated
from the branchial chambers, and the first transformation is
accomplished.
The alleged venemous character of the Common Toad has been
altogether rejected by many naturalists ; but Dr. Davy found that
venemous matter was really contained in follicles in the true skin,
and chiefly about the head and shoulders, but also distributed
generally over the body, and on the extremities in considerable
quantities. Dr. Davy found it extremely acrid, but innocuous
when introduced into the circulation. A chicken inoculated
with it was unaffected, and Dr. Davy conjectures that this acrid
liquid is the animal's defence against carnivorous Mammalia. A
dog when urged to attack one will drop it from its mouth in a
manner which leaves no doubt that it had felt the effects of the
secretion.
In opposition to these opinions the story of a lad in France is
told, who had thrust his slightly wounded hand into a hole, intend-
ing to seize a Lizard which he had seen enter. In place of the
Lizard he brought out a large Toad. While holding the animal,
it discharged a milky yellowish white fluid which introduced itself
into the wound in his hand, and this poison occasioned his death ;
but then it is not stated that the boy was previously healthy.
Warm and temperate regions with abundant moisture are the
localities favourable to all the Batrachians. Extreme cold, as
well as dry heat, and all sudden changes are alike unfavourable
to them. In temperate climates, where the winters are severe,
they bury themselves under the earth, or in the mud at the bottom
of pools and ponds, and there pass the season without air or food,
till returning spring calls them forth.
The species of this family are very numerous. MM. Dumeril
and Bibron state that the Frogs, Rana, number fifty-one species ;
the Tree Frogs, Hyla, sixty-four ; and the Toads, Bufo, thirty-five.
SALAMANDEES. 31
They are found in all parts of the world, the smallest portion
being found in Europe, and the largest in America. Oceania is
chiefly supplied with the Tree Frogs. There are several curious
forms in Australia, and one species only is known to inhabit New
Zealand. The enormous fossil Labyrinthodon, of a remote geo-
logical era, is believed to have been nearly related to these
comparatively very diminutive Batrachians.*
TAILED BATRACHIANS,
Sometimes called Urodeles, from oupa, " tail," 817X05, " manifest."
The constant external character which distinguishes these Amphi-
bians in a general manner is the presence of a tail during the
whole stage of their existence. Nevertheless they are subject to
the metamorphoses to which all the Amphibians submit. " The
division, therefore, of reptiles," says Professor Rymer Jones, "into
such as undergo metamorphoses and such as do not, is by no means
philosophical although convenient to the zoologist, for all reptiles
undergo a metamorphosis although not to the same extent. In
the one the change from the aquatic to the air-breathing animal is
never fully accomplished; in the tailed Amphibian the change
is accomplished after the embryo has escaped from the ovum."
Salamanders have had the honour of appearing prominently in
fabulous narrative. The Greeks believed that they could live in
fire, and this error obtained credence so long, that even now it has
not been entirely dissipated. Many people are simple enough to
believe from the Greek tradition that these innocent animals are
incombustible. The love of the marvellous, fostered and excited
by ignorant appeals to superstition, has gone even further than
this ; it has been asserted that the most violent fire becomes extin-
guished when a Salamander is thrown into it. In the middle ages
this notion was held by most people, and it would have been dan-
gerous to gainsay it. Salamanders were necessary animals in the
conjurations of sorcerers and witches; accordingly painters among
their symbolical emblems represented Salamanders as capable of
* In Dr. Giinther's Catalogue of the Batrachia Salientia (as Dr. Gray terms them)
in the collection of the British Museum, published in 1858, and which includes all the
ascertained species up to the time of publication, as many as 282 are enumerated,
which are arranged under twenty-five groups holding the rank of families. — ED.
32
BATBACHIANS.
resisting the most violent action of live coal. It was found neces-
sary, however, that physicians and philosophers should take the
trouble to prove by experiment the absurdity of these tales.
The skull of the Land or Spotted Salamander, Salamandra
maculosa, is well described by Cuvier as being nearly cylindrical,
wider in front so as to form the semi- circular face, and also behind
for the crucial branches, containing the internal ears. The cranium
of the aquatic Salamander differs from the terrestrial in having the
entire head more oblong, and they differ also among themselves.
In the Land Salamander the body is black and warty
Fig. 9. — Land Salamander.
with large irregular yellow spots distributed over the head,
back, sides, feet, and tail. They affect obscure and moist places,
and only issue from their retreat in the night or morning,
walking slowly, and dragging themselves with ' difficulty along
the surface of the ground. They live upon flies, beetles,
snails, and earth worms. They remain in the water to deposit
their eggs ; the young are born alive, and furnished with fully-
developed gills. Moreover Salamanders are gifted with a power
which causes them to be much dreaded by other animals: it
has the power of discharging an acrid and milky humour, with a
very strong odour, from the surface of its body, which serves as a
defence against many animals which would otherwise attack it.
It has been proved by experiment that this liquid, when intro-
NEWTS.
33
duced into the circulatory system by a small wound is a very
active poison, and causes certain death to the smaller animals.
This species is found in most parts of Europe, but not in the
British Islands.
The Black Salamander, Triton alpestris, has no spots ; it is found
on the highest European mountains, in the regions of snow, and
principally on the highest Alps.
Newts, or Aquatic Salamanders, have not a round conical tail
like the terrestrial species, but have that appendage compressed or
flattened laterally. The males (during the breeding season only) are
Fig. 10.— Newts, or Aquatic Salamanders.
recognised chiefly by the membranous serrated ridge or crest which
extends along the whole length of the back, from the head to
the extremity of the tail, as represented in Fig. 10. Newts are
highly aquatic ; they are found in ditches, marshes, and ponds,
which after the breeding season they leave for moist places on
land, often then finding their way into drains and cellars. They
are carnivorous, feeding upon different insects and on the spawn
of Frogs, not even sparing individuals of their own species. The
females deposit their eggs singly, fixing them on the under sur-
face of the leaves of aquatic plants. " Some Newts/' says Pro-
fessor Owen, " deposit their eggs upon aquatic plants, such as
Polygonum persicaria, folding the leaf by means of the hind feet
D
34 BATRACHIANS.
•
in such a way that its under surface is turned inwards and the
fold made to stick by the adhesive coating of the egg, which
she inserts in the fold." The young are hatched fifteen days
after. These animals give utterance to a very peculiar noise,
and when touched emit an odour quite characteristic.
It has been ascertained that Newts can live for a long time, not
only in very cold water, but even in the midst of ice, being some-
times taken in blocks of ice which are formed in the ditches and
ponds which they inhabit. When the ice-flakes melt they seem to
awaken from their torpor, and betake themselves to their accus-
tomed movements with their recovered liberty. Lacepede states
that he found Aquatic Salamanders even during summer in pieces
of ice obtained from the ice- dealers, where they had remained
without movement or nourishment from the time when the ice
had been gathered from the marshes.
Newts present another remarkable feature in the facility with
which they repair any mutilations they may have undergone. Not
only do their tails grow again when broken off, but even their feet
are reproduced in the same manner, and the process may be many
times repeated.
The Crested Newt, Triton cristatus, is frequently found in the
neighbourhood of Paris ; the skin of its back is rough and warty,
of a brownish colour, with large black spots and white projecting
points ; the belly has black spots upon an orange ground.
The Dutch traveller, Sieboldt, has introduced a species of
Aquatic Salamander, which inhabits the mountain lakes and
marshes of Japan. This species is remarkable for its gigantic
growth. Instead of being the size of a finger, as is the case with
those indigenous to Europe, this Batrachian is four feet and a half
in length, and weighs fifty pounds.
•Magnificent specimens of this gigantic Salamander, the Sie-
boldtia maxima, may be seen by the visitors to the London
Zoological Gardens. The largest of them measured and weighed
as above (March 3rd, 1869). An analogous large fossil species
was described as the Homo diluvii testis !
The transformation of the tailed Batrachians, from the tadpole
condition to the air-breathing and four-footed state, is one of the
most interesting exhibitions of Nature, and one which everyone
TRANSFORMATION OF NEWTS. . 35
may verify for himself. "We cannot in our brief description have
a more trustworthy guide than Professor Rymer Jones, who
selects the Water Newt, Triton cristatus, as an example : —
" Immediately before leaving the egg," he says, "this tadpole
presents both the outward form and internal structure of a fish.
The flattened and vertical tail, fringed with a broad dorsal and
oval fin ; the shape of the body and gills, appended to the side of
the neck, are all apparent ; so that wrere the creature to preserve
this form throughout its life the naturalist would scarcely hesitate
in classing it with fishes, properly so called.
"When first hatched it presents the same fish-like body, and rows
itself through the water by the lateral movement of the caudal fin.
The only appearance of legs as yet visible consists in two minute
tubercles, which seem to be sprouting out from the skin imme-
diately behind the branchial tufts, and which are, in fact, the first
buddings of anterior extremities. Nevertheless, to compensate to
a certain extent for the total want of prehensile limbs, which
afterwards become developed, two supernumerary organs are pro-
visionally furnished in the shape of two minute claspers on each
side of the mouth ; by means of these the little creature holds on to
the leaves which are under water.
" Twelve days after issuing from the egg, the two fore-legs, which
at first resembled two little nipples, have become much elongated,
and are divided at their extremity into two or three rudiments of
fingers. The eyes, which were before scarcely visible, being covered
by a membrane, distinctly appear. The branchiae, at first simple,
are divided into fringes, wherein red blood now circulates ; the
mouth has grown very large, and the whole body is so transparent
as to reveal the position of the viscera within. Its activity is
likewise much increased ; it swims with rapidity, and darts upon
minute aquatic insects, which it seizes and devours.
" About the twenty- second day the tadpole for the first time
begins to emit air from the mouth, showing that the lungs have
begun to be developed. The branchiae are still large. The
fingers upon the fore-legs are completely formed. The hind-
legs begin to sprout beneath the skin, and the creature presents, in
a transitory condition, the same external form as that which the
Siren lacertina permanently exhibits.
36 0 BATBACHIANS.
"By the thirty- sixth day the young Salamander has arrived at the
development of the Proteus anguinus ; its hind-legs are nearly
completed ; its lungs have become half as long as the trunk of the
body, and its branchiae more complicated in structure.
" At about the forty-second day the tadpole begins to assume the
form of an adult Newt. The body becomes shorter, the fringes
of the branchise are rapidly obliterated, so that in five days they
are reduced to simple prominences covered by the skin of the head ;
and the gills opening at the sides of the neck, which allowed the
water to escape from the mouth as in fishes, and were, like them,
covered with an operculum formed by a fold of the integument,
are gradually closed ; the membranous fin of the' tail contracts,
the skin becomes thicker and more deeply coloured, and the
creature ultimately assumes the form and habits of the perfect
Newt, no longer possessing branchise, but breathing air, and in
every particular the Heptile."
But however curious the phenomena attending the development
of the tadpoles of the Amphibian Reptiles may be to the observer
who merely watches the changes perceptible from day to day in their
external form, they acquire tenfold interest to the physiologist
who traces the progressive evolution of their internal viscera ;
more especially when he finds that in these creatures he has an
opportunity afforded him of contemplating, displayed before his
eyes, as it were, upon an enlarged scale, those phases of develop-
ment through which the embryo of every air-breathing vertebrate
animal must pass while concealed within the egg, or yet unborn.*
* In the British Museum Catalogue (1850) these Amphibians are styled Batra-
chia Gradientia, and are distributed under three families, comprising fifty-two recog-
nised species. The class Amphibia is divided by Dr. Gray into five orders — viz.
Batrachia, Pseudosauria, Pseudophidia, Pseudichthyes, and Meantia. Of these the first,
or the Batrachia, are divided into the sub-orders Salientia and Gradientia, the latter
consisting of three families, Salamandridce, Molgidce, and PletUodontidce. The second
order, Pseudosauria, comprises the families Protonopsidce (which contains the Sieboldtia
maxima) and Amphiumidce. The third order, Pseudophidia, consists of only one
family, CcEciliidce. The fourth order, Pseudichthyes, also contains one family only,
the Lepidosirenida. The fifth order, Meantia, comprises the two families Proteida
and Sirenida. Twenty-four ascertained species are distributed amongst the last
four of these orders ; but the limits of this work do not permit of a more detailed
notice of these various groups of Batrachia Gradientia. More recently, Dr. Giinther,
in his work on the reptiles of the Indian region, has pointed out certain structural
characters connected with the generative system which show that the Pseudophidia
BATKACHIANS. 37
do not properly belong to the Batrachia ; nor is their place in the system as yet
quite satisfactorily determined. They seem rather to be a very humble form of
reptile ; while the Pscudichthyes should rather be subordinated to the class Pisces :
though, as we have seen, there are naturalists who would refer all of the Batrachia
to the fish class, certain forms amongst them rising to a parallelism of development
with Reptilia, but still not constituting true reptiles. The mode of reproduction
especially is in favour of this view. Both Pseudophidia, and Pseudichthyes are inter-
tropical or subtropical animals, whereas the rest of the Batrachia Gradientia belong
almost exclusively to the northern temperate zone ; any exceptional case occurring
probably in very elevated regions. Of sixty-six ascertained species, forty-nine are
American, and there are five from Japan, inclusive of the Sieboldtia maxima. But
more species have been discovered since the catalogue cited has been drawn up, and
of course there must be many yet to be discovered. Five species are referred to the
Pseudophidia^ and three only to the Pseudichthyes. — ED.
CHAPTER IL
OPHIDIAN REPTILES, OR TRUE SNAKES.
REPTILES are, as has been said in the preceding chapter, Yerte-
brated Animals, breathing by lungs, having red and cold blood ;
that is to say, not producing sufficient heat to render their tem-
perature superior to that of the atmosphere. Destitute of hairs,
of feathers, of mammary glands, and having bodies covered with
scales.
Snakes, properly so called, have the tympanic bone, or pedicle
of the lower jaw, movable, and nearly always suspended to another
bone, analogous to the mastoid bone, which is attached to the cra-
nium by muscles and ligaments, a conformation which gives to these
animals the vast power of distension they possess. Their trachea
is long, their hearts placed far back, and the greater number have
one very long lung and vestiges of a second. They are divided
into non-venemous and venemous ; and the latter are sub-divided
into venemous with maxillary teeth, and venemous with isolated
fangs.
The Snakes prey almost exclusively on animals of their own
killing ; the more typical species attacking such as are frequently
larger than themselves : and the maxillary apparatus is, as we
have seen, modified so as to permit of the requisite distension.
According to Professor Owen's clear and intelligible descrip-
tion, the two superior maxillary bones have their anterior
extremities joined by an elastic and yielding fibrous tissue
with the small and single intermaxillary bone ; the lower maxil-
lary rarni are similarly connected. The opposite extremity of
each ramus is articulated to a long and movable vertical pedicle
formed by the tympanic bone, which is itself attached to the
OPHIDIANS. 30
extremity of a horizontal pedicle formed by the mastoid bone,
so connected as to" allow of a certain yielding movement upon
the cranium. The other bones have similar loose movable articu-
lations, which concur in yielding to the pressure of large bodies
with which the teeth have grappled.
The class of Reptiles is divided into three orders : — the OPHI-
DIANS, comprehending the Snakes ; the SAURIANS, the Lizards
and Crocodiles ; and the CHELONIANS, the Turtles and Tortoises.
OPHIDIANS.
In Ophidians, commonly known under the name of Snakes,
the body is long, round, and straight. They have neither feet,
fins, nor other locomotive extremities. Their mouths are furnished
with pointed hooked teeth. In the Boas and Pythons the teeth
are slender, curved, bending backwards and inwards above their
base of attachment. In others each maxillary bone has a row of
larger ones, which gradually decrease in size as they are placed
further back. These teeth are not contiguous, being separated by
considerable intervals. The smaller non-venemous Serpents, such
as the Colubridtf, have two rows of teeth in the roof of the mouth.
Each maxillary and mandibular bone includes from twenty to
twenty-five teeth. In the Rattlesnakes and some other typical
genera of poisonous Snakes, the short maxillary bone only sup-
ports a single perforated fang. Their lower jaw is highly
distensible ; the opening being longer than the skull. They have
no neck ; their eyelids are immovable ; their skin is coriaceous,
highly extensible, and scaly or granulous, covered with a thin
caducous epidermis, which detaches itself in one entire piece,
and is reproduced several times in one year. Their movements
are supple and varied. In consequence of the sinuosity of their
bodies, — for, though scale- clad, Snakes are without apparent means
of progression, — they make their way with the utmost facility, by
walking, leaping, climbing, or swimming.
According to the genus chiefly, the very numerous species
inhabit either arid or moist places, the ground, or bushes and
trees. Some pass much of their time in the water, and one
family (that of the HydTOphiddfy is exclusively aquatic — even
40 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
pelagic in the instance of one very widely diffused species, the
Pelamis bicolor. In the Arboreal Snakes the tail is very long,
and highly prehensile ; in others, as the Yipers, it is short and
without any prehensility. In the Sea Snakes (Hydrophidce), it
is laterally much compressed. Like other true reptiles, Snakes
abound more especially in warm climates, and there are many kinds
of them in Australia ; but the order has not a single representative
in JNew Zealand.
Most of the Snakes feed on living animals, only a few on birds'
eggs. Several kinds of them prey habitually on other Snakes, as
the genera Hamadryas, Bungarus, and Elaps, even Psammophis
occasionally ; and there are rare instances of non-venemous
Snakes preying upon poisonous ones. The venemous kinds first
kill their victim by poisoning it ; various others by smothering
it between the coils of their body. As they do not possess organs
for tearing the prey to pieces, nor a dentition fit for mastication,
the prey is swallowed entire ; and in consequence of the great
width of the mouth, and of the extraordinary extensibility of the
skin of the gullet, they are able to swallow animals of which
the girth much exceeds their own. The Sea Snakes prey mostly
upon fishes, and the ordinary Water Snakes (Homolopsidce, &c.) on
frogs and other Batrachians. Certain swallowers of birds' eggs
have peculiar spinous processes proceeding from the vertebrae of
the neck, the object of which is to fracture the shell of an egg
during the process of deglutition.
Most of the Ophidian Reptiles are oviparous, but many are
ovo-viviparous. The Pythons alone (so far as ascertained) perform
a sort of incubation, which has been repeatedly observed of captive
specimens of these huge Serpents.
Many Snakes are remarkable for their great beauty of colouring,
or of the pattern of their markings ; but on account of the
poisonous property of so many of them, the whole order is
popularly regarded with horror and apprehension, and the most
foolish tales are current respecting various species of them. Thus
many people suppose that there are Snakes which rob cows of
their milk ; and the skeleton of a child being found in the same
hollow with a number of harmless Snakes (the North American
Coryphodon constrictor], it was concluded, as a matter of course,
ERRONEOUS NOTIONS CONCERNING SNAKES. 41
that the Serpents must have both killed the child and Gripped off
its flesh, which latter is what no Snake could possibly do. People
are prone to exaggerate, and commonly evince a fondness for the
marvellous, which induce those of hot countries more especially,
where the species of Ophidians are numerous, to declare every
Snake met with as usually the most venomous one in their country ;
and thus travellers often come away with exceedingly erroneous
impressions on the subject. The Indian region surpasses every
other part of the globe in the number and variety of its Ophidians,
and almost every investigation of a limited but previously unex-
plored district, is tolerably sure to add largely to our previous know-
ledge of them. What, however, the late Sir J. Emerson Tennent
asserts of those inhabiting Ceylon, is equally applicable to other
parts of the Indian region. " During my residence in Ceylon,"
he remarks, " I never heard of the death of an European which
was caused by the bite of a Snake ; and in the returns of coroners'
inquests made officially to my department, such accidents to the
natives appear chiefly to have happened at night, when the reptiles,
having been surprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound in self-
defence. For these reasons the Cingalese, when obliged to leave
their houses in the dark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the noise
of which, as they strike it on the ground, is sufficient to warn the
Snakes to leave their path."
In some parts of the vast Indian region the natives regard the
innocuous Chameleon as venemous ; in other parts various Geckos,
or other Lizards. In Bengal there is a current notion regarding
a terrifically poisonous Lizard, which is termed the Bis-cobra, but
which has no existence except in the imagination of the natives —
who bring the young of the Monitors and occasionally other well-
known Lizards as exemplifying the object of their dread. Again,
the little harmless Burrowing Snakes (Typhlops), which, superfi-
cially, have much the appearance of earth-worms, are there popularly
regarded as highly poisonous, though not only are they harmless,
but physically incapable of wounding the human skin. Strangers
who are little versed in zoology are commonly led astray by such
errors on the part of natives of those countries, and, unfortunately,
there is a number of stock vernacular names which are applied to
very different species in different localities. Thus Europeans
42 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
in India are familiar with the appellation " Carpet Snake," as
denoting a very deadly reptile, but nobody can there point out
what the Carpet Snake really is ; and the one most generally
supposed to bear that name is a small innocuous Snake (Lycodon
aulicus), which is common about human dwellings. In the
Australian colony of Victoria, however, the appellation Carpet
Snake is bestowed upon a terribly venemous species (Hoplo-
cephalus curtus) ; while in the neighbouring colony of New
South Wales, a harmless and even useful creature (Morelia
spilotes) is habitually known as the Carpet Snake.
With regard to the poison of Yenemous Snakes, attention has
lately been directed to the virtue of ammonia or volatile alkali.
This should be administered internally, mixed with alcoholic
spirit and water, in repeated doses ; and it should also be injected
into a vein — about one drachm of the liquor ammonia of the shops
being mixed with two or three times that quantity of water. The
patient should be kept moving as much as possible, and the effects
of a galvanic battery should also be tried in cases where animation
is nearly or quite suspended. By these means it is asserted that
quite recently, in Australia, some very remarkable cures have
been effected.
The Ophidia have many enemies, as the well-known Mungoose
among mammalia, also Swine, and various ruminating quadrupeds,
as Deer and Goats. In the bird class, the famous Serpent- eater,
or Secretary-bird of South Africa, is one of their chief destroyers ;
and there are various other Snake-devouring birds of prey, besides
the great African Ground Hornbill,— even the Peafowl and sundry
Storks and other waders. Comparatively large birds of the King-
fisher family prey chiefly upon Snakes and Lizards in Australia ;
and of reptiles, besides those Snakes which prey upon other
Snakes, the Monitor Lizards frequently seize and devour them.
The series of Ophidians is arranged by our most eminent herpe-
tologist, Dr. A. Giinther, into five subordinate groups, which he
characterises as follows : —
I. Burrowing Snakes, living under ground, only occasionally
appearing above the surface. They are distinguished by a rigid
cylindrical body, short tail, narrow mouth, small head not
distinct from the neck, little teeth in small number, and by the
SNAKES. 43
absence or feeble development of the ventral shields. They feed
chiefly on small invertebrate animals. Not any of them are
venemous.
II. Ground Snakes, or species which live above ground, and
only occasionally climb bushes or enter the water ; their body is
more or less cylindrical, very flexible in every part, and of mode-
rate proportions. Their ventral shields are broad. They feed
chiefly on terrestrial vertebrate animals. By far the greater
number of Snakes belong to this category, and it is represented
by many variations in all of the three sub- orders to be noticed
presently.
III. Tree Snakes, or species passing the greater part of their
life on bushes and trees, which they traverse with the utmost
facility. They are distinguished either by an exceedingly slender
body, with broad, sometimes carinated, ventral shields, or by a
prehensile tail. Many of the species are characterised by their
vivid coloration, of which green forms the principal part. We
shall see, in the sequel, that the first and third sub-orders offer
numerous instances of Tree Snakes ; the Tree Snakes of the second
sub-order being confined to Tropical Africa. They feed on animals
which have a mode of life similar to their own ; only a few species
on eggs.
IV. Fresh-nater Snakes, distinguished by the position of the
nostrils, which are placed on the top of the snout, and by a taper-
ing tail. They inhabit fresh- waters, and are, therefore, excellent
swimmers and divers ; only a few species (which also in external
characters approach the following group, that of the true Sea
Snakes) venture out to sea. They feed on fishes, frogs, crustaceans,
and other water animals, and are viviparous. Not any of them
are venemous.
Y. Sea Snakes, distinguished by a strongly compressed tail,
and by the position of the nostrils, which are placed as in the last
group. They live in the sea, only occasionally approaching the
land, feed on marine fishes, are viviparous and venemous. One
genus only (Platurus) has the ventral shields so much developed
as to be able to move on land. No Oceanic Serpent is known of
gigantic dimensions, such as is currently alleged to have been
seen by unscientific observers.
44 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
" Although these five groups/' remarks Dr. Giinther, " are not
separated from each other by defined lines of demarcation, and
frequently pass into one another by intermediate forms, yet a
family and genus which should be composed of species of several
of these groups would be a very unnatural assemblage of hetero-
geneous forms."
It is also remarked by the same naturalist that there is no sharp
boundary line between the order of Snakes and that of Lizards.
There are various limbless Saurians of Ophidian appearance, but
the systematic position of which is decided by the structure
of their jaws. The Common Orvet, or Slow -worm, is a familiar
instance. On the other hand, certain Ophidians remind us, by
several characters, of the Saurian type, — as the Snakes constituting
the families Typhlopida, Tortricidce, Xenopeltida, and Uropeltida,
which are distinguished by polished, closely adherent, rounded,
sub-equal scales, much resembling the smooth scales of various
Scincoid Lizards ; most of them have a very narrow mouth, un-
like the enormous gape of the typical Serpents, and some are
without that longitudinal fold in the median line of the chin
which is so characteristic of most Ophidians ; moreover, most
of them have rudiments of the bones of a pelvic arch. " The
reason," alleges Dr. Giinther, " why we adopt the view of those
systematists who refer such reptiles to the Ophidians, instead of
associating them with the limbless Scincoid Lizards, is the loose
connection of the jaw-bones, a character which must be con-
sidered as peculiar to the Ophidians, and which is only somewhat
less developed in the families mentioned than in the typical forms.
The two halves of the lower jaw in Ophidians, namely, are not
united by a bony symphysis, but by an elastic ligament. The
peculiar mobility of the jaw bones enables the Snakes to extend
the gape in an extraordinary degree, and to work their prey down
through the collapsed pharynx."
The same naturalist classifies the Ophidia into three sub- orders,
in which the venemous Snakes are separated from the others ; but
to some herpetologists this arrangement must appear rather forced,
as his Venemous Colubrine Snakes have certainly a much nearer re-
semblance in other respects to the Colubrida than they have to the
Viperine Snakes. For the most part, these reptiles are provided
VENEMOUS SNAKES. 45
with numerous teeth, which are lengthened, conical, thin and
pointed like a needle, and more or less bent backwards.
In Dr. Giinther's first sub-order, that of Non-venemous Snakes,
the teeth are either entirely smooth, or only the last of the
maxillary series is provided with a faint longitudinal groove,
which is not intended to convey a virus into the wound, the
groove appearing rather to increase the strength of the tooth.
Many of them have long teeth in front of the jaws or of the palate,
but these are never grooved or perforated, and only serve to afford
a firmer hold on the living and struggling prey.
'' The structure of the venom-tooth is not the same in all
poisonous Snakes : in some it is fixed to the maxillary bone, which
is as long or nearly as long as in the non-venemous Snakes, and gene-
rally bears one or more ordinary teeth on its hinder portion. The
venom-tooth is fixed more or less erect, not very long, and its
channel is generally visible as an external groove. The poisonous
Snakes with such a dentition have externally a more or less
striking resemblance to the non-venemous Serpents, and on this
account they are designated as Venemous Colubrine Snakes, form-
ing our second sub-order" Two very distinct families are here
brought together — viz. the Elapidce (which comprises the Cobras1
and many others), and the Hydrophida (or Sea Snakes).
" In the other venemous Snakes, composing the third sub-order,
the maxillary bone is extremely short, and does not bear any
teeth except an exceedingly long fang, with a perfectly closed
externally invisible channel in its interior. Although this tooth
also is fixed to the bone, the bone itself is very mobile, so that the
tooth, which is laid backwards when 'at rest, can be erected the
moment the animal prepares to strike. This tooth or fang, like
all the other teeth, is not only occasionally lost, but appears to be
shed at regular intervals. From two to four other venom-fangs
in different stages of development, destined to replace the one in
action, exist between the folds of the gum, and are not anchylosed
to the bone." The more characteristic venemous Snakes apper-
tain to this sub-order — viz. the two families Crotalidce (compre-
hending the Rattlesnakes, the Fer-de-lance, &c.) and Viperida
(comprising the Yipers, Puff-adders, &c.).
Let it be particularly borne in mind that the supposed distin-
46 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
guishing characters of all poisonous Snakes, as assigned by sundry
mischievously ignorant writers, are those of the third of the fore-
going sub- orders almost exclusively. Even the broad, flat, and
lanceolate form of head is exemplified in certain Tree Snakes of
the non-venemous genus Dipsas, and not in the Cobras and others
that are quite as deadly — e.g. Hoplocephalus, Bungarus, Naja,
Elaps, and others constituting the Colubriform family Elapidce.
FIRST SUB-ORDER.
OpMdii Coluber if ormes (Giinther), Innocuous Snakes.
These are distributed by Dr. Giinther under numerous families,
of which we can only notice the more prominent, and some of the
more conspicuous species, in a popular exposition.
The Typhlopidte, or Blind Snakes, comprise forms which are
the most remote from the true Ophidian type. They live under
ground, their rigid body and short curved tail being adapted for
burrowing. After showers of rain they occasionally appear above
ground, and then they are tolerably agile in their serpentine
movements. The eye, which is scarcely visible in many species;
can give to them only a general perception of light. They feed
on worms and small insects, the tongue being forked, and, as in
other Snakes, frequently exserted. They are oviparous. The
smallest species of Snakes belong to this family, some of them
being only half the size of a common earth-worm, to which they
bear a superficial resemblance. Such, indeed, are the small
vermiform Snakes already referred to, as being foolishly con-
sidered venemous by most natives of India. Species of this
family inhabit almost every country within and near the tropics.
The Tortricidce are akin to the Typhlopida, and have rudiments
of hind limbs hidden in a small groove on each side of the vent,
also a longitudinal fold at the chin. The " Coral Snake " of
Demarara (Tortrix scytale) appertains to this family; and the
genus Cylindrophis, different species of which inhabit the great
Asiatic archipelago, with the island of Ceylon,
The family Xenopeltidtf consists of a single species only, so far
as hitherto known, the Xenopeltis unicolor, which is common in
the Indo-Chinese and Malayan countries. It grows to three or
four feet in length, and when alive is uniformly steel-blue,
FIRST SUB-OEDEE. 47
most beautifully iridescent, beneath white ; but the blue fades to
brown after long immersion in spirits. Young examples have a
white collar. Mr. W. 'Theobald remarks of it that " this Snake
is common in Lower Pegu and the Tenasserim provinces, and is
very malignly beautiful, though of repulsive physiognomy. The
skin is loose and thick, and its habits are nocturnal. The following
illustrates its ferocious nature : — I once remarked a Colubrine
Snake (Ptyas mucosa), some five feet in length, in the hedge of the
Circuit-house of Bassein. On running downstairs, the Snake had
vanished, but on searching for it I saw its tail sticking out of a
hole beneath a wooden plant-case. Do what I might I could not
drag it out, as it seemed held fast within. I therefore, with some
trouble, overturned the plant- case, and then saw that the unlucky
Colubrine Snake was firmly pinned by a large Xenopeltis, into
whose hole it had unwittingly entered. The Xenopeltis seemed
about four feet in length ; but, on perceiving itself uncovered,
released its hold of the Ptyas and made its escape." The Xenopeltis
'preys chiefly on small mammalia, which it hunts for in their subter-
ranean holes ; and in some respects it approximates the Pythonidce.
The Uropelticlce, or Shield-tails, constitute a very curious family
of Burrowing Snakes, which bear considerable resemblance to the
Typhlopidce, but have a very peculiar, short, strong, posteriorly
shielded tail, adapted for working their way below the surface.
The species are mostly small, and hitherto they have been found
chiefly in Ceylon, but a few also in the peninsula of India. They
are by no means scarce, but escape observation from their peculiar
mode of life. Dr. Kelaart remarks that " they are timid creatures,
seldom making their appearance above ground ; living chiefly in
anthills or dunghills, sometimes also several feet deep in rich
loamy soil. They feed on ants, small earth-worms, and the larvae
of insects, and at least one species has been ascertained to be vivi-
parous. Five genera and eighteen species of them are recognised.
The Calamaridce form an extensive family of diminutive slender
Snakes, from one to two feet in length, many species of which
inhabit both the Old World and the New, though the same kinds
are not found both East and West. They keep to the ground,
beneath stones, fallen trees, &c. ; and their food appears to
consist chiefly of insects. They are gentle, and never attempt
48 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
to bite, and themselves very commonly become the prey of the
smaller Elapidae, certain of which indeed bear considerable
resemblance in appearance to the Calamaridce, but are readily
distinguished by possessing the poison-fangs.
The Oligodontida are another extensive family of small ground
Snakes, which are peculiar to South-eastern Asia and its great
archipelago. They conduct to the terrene genera of the great
family Colubridce,
The Colubrid(E are divided by Dr. Giinther into ground Colu-
brines (Coronellina), true Oolubrines (Colubrince), bush Colu-
brines (Dryadince), and fresh-water Colubrines (Natricince) ; and
he remarks that " they are found in every part of the temperate
and tropical regions, but are only scantily represented in Australia
and in the islands of the Pacific. The species are so numerous
and show such a gradual passage between extreme forms, that,
although genera can be easily characterized, it is almost im-
possible to distinguish wider groups by definite characters."
Among them the Coronellince approximate the immediately pre-
ceding families, and, like them, live on the ground, and are
not generally of brilliant colouring, though a few species which
frequent grassy plains are of a bright green colour. The Colu-
brince " form, as it were," writes Dr. Giinther, " the nucleus of
the whole sub- order of innocuous Snakes : they are typical forms,
not characterized by the excessive development of some particular
organ, but by the fairness of the proportions of all parts. Yet
some of them have a more slender body than others which always
live on the ground ; they are land Snakes, but swim well when
driven into the water, or climb when in search of food. They
are of moderate or rather large size." In the Dryadince the form
is elongate and somewhat compressed, indicating their climbing
propensities ; they have the body not so excessively slender as in
the true Tree Snakes, to which they lead off. They are much
more numerous in the New World than in the Old, and their
ground-colour is very commonly green. The Natricince are gene-
rally not very elongate or compressed, and most of them have keeled
scales. They freely enter the water in pursuit of their food,
which consists chiefly of frogs and fishes. All the Snakes of the
preceding three sub- families overpower their prey by throwing
COLUBEID^. 49
some coils of the body round or over it, and commence to swallow it
only after it has been smothered, or at least exhausted ; but the
Natricince swallow their prey immediately after they have seized it.
Of the sub-family Coronellince, one species of the typical genus
Coronella is widely diffused over Europe, and has only of late
years been recognised as an inhabitant of the British Islands,
the Coronella austriaca. Another, C. girondica, occurs in Italy.
Others are found in Africa, America, and Australia. The
C. austriaca has somewhat the appearance of the common Adder,
for which it is often mistaken ; but it is non-venemous, though
rather a fierce reptile, which bites and holds on ; and as it occurs
in Malta (where no venemous species is known to exist), it is
doubtless the supposed Viper which seized upon the apostle
Paul. Several other genera are recognised.
Of the Colubrince, Rhinechis scalaris, Coluber cescidapii, C. qua-
drilineatus, Elaphis quater-radiatus, and three species of Zamenis
inhabit Europe : there are five of Coluber in North America, and
the well-known " Black Snake " of the Anglo-Americans is the
Corypkodon constrictor. Other species of Coryphodon or Ptyas
inhabit South-eastern Asia, as the different " Eat Snakes " of
Anglo-Indians, of which Ptyas mucosus is particularly common in
India, where it is encouraged by reasonable people as a destroyer
of the far more troublesome Brown Rat (Mus decumanus).
The Dryadintie are chiefly American, and do not call for par-
ticular further remark ; but the Natritince are very numerous, and
there are three species in Europe of its most prominent genus,
Tropidonotus — viz. T. natrix, T. hydrus, and T. viperinus. Dr.
Gvinther gives as many as twenty-one species of this genus as in-
habitants of the Indian region alone, and there is reason to believe
that that number is far from being complete. Others inhabit North
America and North-western Australia, and some generic groups
have been detached that are not very conspicuously separable.]
The Ringed Snake, Tropidonotus natrix, is often found in fine
seasons near human habitations. It deposits its eggs, which are
fifteen to twenty in number, commonly in dunghills, in one agglu-
tinated mass. Exposed to the air, these eggs soon shrivel and dry,
and the embryos within them perish. The Ringed Snakes are also
found near rivers and meadows, by the side of water- courses, into
£
50
OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
which they love to plunge ; hence they are sometimes called Water
Serpents, Swimming Serpents, Hedge Eels, and other provincial
synonyms. They sometimes attain to as much as and more than a
yard in length. The summit of their head is covered with nine
large scales, disposed in four rings. The upper part of the body is
of a more or less darkish grey colour, marked on each side with
irregular black spots. Between the two rows of spots are two
other longitudinal rows, which extend from the head to the tail.
The belly varies from black to a bluish white. Upon the neck
are two whitish or pale yellowish spots, which form a kind of half
collar or ring, from which its name is derived ; these two spots
Tig. 11.— Kinged Snake (Tropidonotus natrix).
become much more apparent from being contrasted with two
other very dark triangular spots placed near them. They prey
upon lizards, frogs, and mice, and they even surprise young
birds, and devour the eggs in their nests, for they climb trees with
facility. Towards the end of the autumn they seek the warmest
places, approaching near to houses ; or they retire into subter-
ranean holes, often at the bottom of some hedge, which is
almost always in an elevated place, secure from inundations.
The Ringed Snake is found in nearly all European countries,
and can be handled without danger. Lacepede gives some
interesting details, showing the gentleness of its habits. They
THE EINGED SNAKE. 51
are easily tamed, and can be kept in bouses, where they soon
accustom themselves to those who have the care of them.
At a sign from their keeper, they will twist themselves round
his fingers, arms, and neck, insinuate their heads between his
lips to drink his saliva, and to hide and warm themselves they
creep under his clothes. In their wild state, the adult Ringed
Snake lives in the fields ; and, when full-grown, shows great
irritation when attacked. When exasperated, they move their
tongues, erect themselves with great vivacity, and even bite the
hand which tries to seize them ; but their bite is quite harmless.
[This Hinged Snake is the Natrix torquatus of Ray, well known
to naturalists. The female is larger than the male. Its food con-
sists a good deal of frogs, which are generally caught by the leg,
and swallowed alive, in spite of resistance and very distressing cries.
When the skin has just been cast, the Ringed Snake presents
beautiful markings, especially when, seen swimming across some
clear running stream, its head and neck raised above the limpid
water, and the sun shining on its bright enamelled skin. It has
been supposed, not unnaturally, that the Snake casts its skin at
fixed intervals ; this, Mr. Bell considers to be a mistake. He has
always found that it depended on the temperature of the atmo-
sphere and on their state of health and feeding. " I have known
the skin thrown off/' he adds, " four or five times during the year.
It is always thrown off by reversing it, so that the transparent
covering of the eyes and that of the scales are always found in the
exuviae. Previous to this curious phenomenon, the whole cuticle
becomes somewhat opaque, the eyes dim, and the animal is evi-
dently blind. It also becomes more or less inactive, until at length,
when the skin is ready for removal and the new skin perfectly
hard underneath, the animal bursts it at the neck, and creeping
through some dense herbage or low brushwood, leaves it detached,
and comes forth in brighter and clearer colours than before."
The Ringed Snake begins to hybernate, in some warm hedge
or under the root of some tree, or other sheltered situation, about
the end of autumn ; and there they coil themselves up, sometimes in
numbers, till the spring again calls them forth. Many instances
are told of this Snake being tamed. Mr. Bell had one which knew
him from all other persons ; it would come to him when let out of
E2
52 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
its box, and crawl under the sleeve of his coat, and every morning
come to him for its draught of milk.]
The Green and Yellow Snake is also about a yard in length, and
is common in the south and west of France ; they have been
taken in the forest of Fontainebleau. The beautiful colours in
which they are clothed causes them to be easily distinguished
from the Yiper. The eyes are edged with golden- coloured scales ;
the upper part of the body is of a very dark greenish colour,
upon which is extended a large number of radiating lines, com-
posed of small yellowish spots of different shapes, some long,
others lozenge shape, giving it a chequered appearance. These
Fig. 12.— Tropidonotus viperinus.
chequers extend from the head to the tail. The belly is yel-
lowish ; the large plates which cover it have a black spot at each
end, and are bordered with a very thin black line. This inoffen-
sive reptile is extremely timid, and generally hides itself from
observation, taking to flight at the least alarm. They are said
to be easily tamed.
The Yiperine Snake (Fig. 12) has the body of a greyish or
dirty yellow colour, having on the 'middle of the back a series of
blackish spots so close to each other as to give the idea of one
small continuous wavy line from head to tail. The sides are
covered with isolated spots, forming lozenge-like figures, the
centres of which are of a greenish tint. This is the smallest of all
DESEKT SNAKES. 53
the European Colubridce, and, like the others, it is found in
most parts of Europe.
[The Psammophidce, or Desert Snakes, are akin both to the
ColubridfB and to the Tree Snakes of the next family ; but the
latter, remarks Dr. Giinther, may always be distinguished either
by their green coloration, by the horizontal pupil to the eye, or
the absence of a long, anterior, maxillary tooth. In the Psammo-
phidce the pupil of the eye is round or vertical. Most of the
species of this family belong to the fauna of tropical Africa, which
also produces a slender form (in Psammophis elegans). The other
species are of a stouter habit, frequenting plains, or at all events
living on the ground. Of the Indian Psammophis condanarus,
Dr. Jerdon procured one which had killed and was swallowing a
small Yiper (Echis carinata), this being one of the few instances
in which a non-venemous Snake has been known to overpower a
poisonous one. We have heard the same of a small Boa-like
Serpent ( Chilabothrus ?) in the West Indies, which is said to
prey upon the formidable Crotalidce. The P sammodynastes
pulverulentus has a wide geographical range over South-eastern
Asia and its islands. Although innocuous, it has the aspect of a
venemous species.
In a kindred African family, the Rachiodontidas, the species of
Dasypeltis have the maxillary teeth minute and few in number
(four to seven) ; but they have also some remarkable gular teeth,
which are formed by the elongated inferior spinous processes of
the hinder cervical vertebrae. The object of the latter is to crush
the shells of birds' eggs, upon which the Snakes in question
habitually feed.
Of the more characteristic Tree Snakes, the Dendrophidae have
the body and tail much compressed, or very slender and elongated ;
the head generally lengthened, narrow, flat, and distinct from the
slender neck ; the snout rather long, obtuse or rounded in front ;
cleft of the mouth wide ; and the eye of moderate size, or large,
with round pupil. These are Diurnal Snakes, which live entirely
upon trees, where they prey chiefly on arboreal lizards and frogs.
Species of them inhabit all tropical countries. They are mostly
of great beauty, and the Indian Chrysopelea ornata is excessively
so, being variegated with yellow and crimson upon a black ground ;
54 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
but the crimson soon fading when a specimen is immersed in
spirit. Others are very variable in their colouring, as the African
Bucephalus capensis and the Indian Dendrophis picta.
The next family of Dryiophidce, or the Whip Snakes, have a still
more slender and elongated body, which has been aptly compared
to the thong of a whip. The head is very narrow and long, with
ta-pering snout, ending in a protruded rostral shield, which is some-
times modified into a flexible appendage ; eyes of moderate size,
and all the Asiatic species h&ve the pupil of the eye horizontally
linear, and a long fang-like tooth in the middle of the maxil-
lary. The whole of this group are provided with a posterior grooved
tooth. They are chiefly nocturnal, and their movements are won-
derfully rapid and graceful among the branches of trees. They
are numerous almost everywhere in tropical countries. In general
the various Whip Snakes are of a bright leaf-green colour, with
two white stripes on the belly, so that they are difficult to discern
.among the foliage. In the genus Lang aha, which is peculiar to
Madagascar, the muzzle is elongated into a fleshy appendage,
which is covered with small scales, constituting about one-third
of the total length of the head. This appendage is dentated in
one species (L. crista-galli), and not so in another (L. nasuta). In
the Indian genus Passerita the snout is long and pointed, termi-
nating in a flexible appendage. The name of Whip Snake is
applied by Anglo-Indians to all of the species of Dendrophidce and
of Dryiophidcz, and the erroneous notion prevails that they are
highly venemous, and that they spurt venom into people's eyes.
The same .is believed in South Africa of the Bucephalus capensis.
Even ;<Grordon Gumming asserts that one night a Snake which his
servant had tried to kill with his loading-rod flew up at his eye,
and " spat poison into it. Immediately/7 he adds, " I washed it
well at the fountain. I endured great pain all night, but next
day -my eye was all right."*
* "A Hunter's Life in South Africa," vol." ii. p. 133. Vide also Chapman's
"Travels in the Interior of South Africa," vol. ii. p. 34. We have personally
captured or assisted in capturing various species of both families in India, and it is
no easy .matter to do so sometimes, from the rapidity of their movements among the
branches of trees and hushes ; hut most assuredly we never saw one of these most
beautiful reptiles attempt to dart or to spurt at anybody, and as they have no
poison fangs the latter must needs be an error. — ED.
TEEE SNAKES. 55
Of a beautiful green species (Philodryas viridissimus), apper-
taining to the family of Dendrophidce, in Brazil, Dr. Wurcherer
writes: — "I am always delighted when I find that another Tree
Snake has settled in my garden. You look for a bird's nest, the
young ones have gone, but you find their bed occupied by one of
these beautiful creatures, which will coil up its body, of two feet
in length, within a space not larger than the hollow of your hand.
They appear to be always watchful ; for at the instant you dis-
cover one, the quick playing of the long, black, forked tongue
will shew you that*you too are observed. On perceiving
the slightest sign of your intention to disturb it, the Snake will
dart upwards through the branches and over the leaves, which
scarcely appear to bend beneath the weight. A moment more,
and you have lost sight of it." Some of the true Whip Snakes
attain to six or seven feet in length, or even more ; and with
reference to the vague application of vernacular names (vide
p. 42), it may here be remarked that the "Little Whip Snake"
of the Australian colony of Victoria denotes a poisonous Snake
of a very different family (the Hoplocephalusjlagellum).
The Dipsadida are a numerous family of tropical Tree Snakes,
which also have a much compressed body, but short and tri-
angular-shaped head, which is broad behind ; the eye large,
having generally a vertical pupil. Some of them attain to six or
seven feet in length, and all live on warm-blooded animals. It
is remarkable that certain of the species prey on birds solely,
whilst others attack only mammalia. Their coloration varies a
good deal, and species of them inhabit most tropical and sub-
tropical countries.
The Lycodontidce are an extensive family of small Ground
Snakes, inhabiting Africa and tropical Asia, which have the body
generally of moderate length, or rather slender, and the head also
of moderate length and width, with generally a depressed, flat,
and somewhat elongated muzzle ; maxillary with a fang-like
tooth in front, but without a posterior grooved tooth. The African
species feed on Mice and other small nocturnal mammalia ; while
the Indian species (which have a vertical pupil) prey chiefly, if
not wholly, on the smaller Scincoid Lizards, which they would
appear to follow into the place of their retreat. Lycodon aulicus
56 OPHIDIAN REPTILES.
is one of the commonest Snakes of the Indian region, and is quite
harmless, though often ignorantly supposed to be dangerously
poisonous.
The Amblyc&phalida> or Blunt-heads, comprise a few species of
moderate or small size, akin to the Dipsadidce, but the narrow
mouth of which necessitates their feeding on insects, and they
live on trees and bushes, or under the roofs of huts. Of the
Indo-Chinese and Malayan Amblycephalus boa, Dr. Giinther
remarks that " the head of this most singular Snake resembles
much that of a mastiff, the lips being arched and tumid. It
climbs with great facility, frequenting the roofs of the natives' huts
in pursuit of its insect food. It attains to a length of three feet,
the tail being a third." Of a second genus, P areas, three species
inhabit the same region.
The Pythonidce, or Pythons, and Boas, are celebrated for the
enormous magnitude to which some of the species attain. These
are emphatically the great constrictor Serpents, to all of which the
name of Boa-constrictor is popularly applied, although this
appellation refers properly to one only of them which is peculiar
to South America. Various genera of them inhabit Africa,
South-eastern Asia and its islands, Australia, and South America,
with the West Indies.]
The Pythons are large Serpents of Asia and Africa. They live
in marshy places, and near the margins of rivers. They are non-
venemous, but possessed of immense muscular power, which
enables some of the species to kill, by constriction, animals of much
larger circumference than themselves.
Aristotle tells us of immense Lybian Serpents, so large that they
pursued and upset some of the triremes of voyagers visiting that
coast. Virgil's Laocoon, so vividly represented in the well-known
marble group, owes its origin, no doubt, to the descriptions current
of constricting Serpents. Quoting Livy, Valerius Maximus relates
the alarm into which the Eoman army, under Eegulus, was
thrown by an enormous Serpent, having its lair on the banks of
the Bagradus, near Utica. This Serpent Pliny speaks of as being
a hundred and twenty feet long. But, without multiplying
instances to which time has lent its fabulous aid, and coming to
more modern times, Bontius speaks of Serpents in the Asiatic
PYTHON. 57
islands as being so various that he despairs of even enume-
rating them all. "The great ones," he says, " sometimes exceed
thirty-six feet, and have such capacity of throat and stomach,
that they swallow entire Boars." Adding that he knew persons
who had partaken of a Hog cut out of the stomach of a Serpent of
this kind. "They are not poisonous," he adds, "but they strangle
by powerfully applying their folds round the body of their prey."
Mr. M'Leod, in his interesting voyage of the Alceste, states that
during a captivity of some months at Whidah, on the coast of
Africa, he had opportunities of observing Serpents double this
length, one of which engaged a negro servant of the governor
of Fort William in its coil, and very nearly succeeded in crushing
him to death. There can be no doubt that the length is here much
exaggerated. About thirty feet is the utmost length attained by
the most gigantic Serpents of which we possess accurate know-
ledge.
The body of the PYTHON is large and round. They live on
trees in warm damp places, on the banks of streams or water-
courses, and attack the animals which come there to slake their
thirst. Hanging by the tail to the trunk of a tree they remain
immovable in their ambush until their opportunity comes, when
they dart upon their prey, fold their bodies round it with amazing
rapidity, and crush it in their monstrous folds. Animals as large
as Gazelles, and even larger, thus become their victims. Their
jaws are extremely distensible, as we have seen ; for, having neither
breast-bone nor false sides, they can easily increase the diameter
of the opening, so as to swallow the most voluminous prey.
The Ophidians (as we have seen) surpass all other Reptiles in
the number of their vertebra), with incomplete haemal arches ;
these constitute the skeleton of the long, slender, limbless trunk.
All these vertebrae coalesce with one another, and are articulated
together by ball-and-socket joints. Besides this articulation to
the centrum, the vertebrae of Ophidians articulate with each other
by means of joints which interlock by parts reciprocally receiving
and entering one another, like the tenon-and-inortise joint in
carpentry. "The vertebral ribs have an oblong articular surface,
concave above and almost flat below, in the Python. They have
a large medullary cavity, with dense but thin walls, with a fine
58 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
cancellated structure at their articular ends. Their lower end
supports a short cartilaginous membrane, closing the haemal
arch, which is attached to the broad and stiff abdominal scute.
These scutes, alternately raised and depressed by muscles attached
to the ribs and integuments, aid in the gliding movement of
serpents."
The peculiar motion of Snakes was first noted by Sir Joseph
Banks, and commented on by Sir Everard Home. Sir Joseph
was observing a Coluber of unusual size, and thought he saw its
ribs come forward in succession, like the feet of a caterpillar. To
test this, he placed his hand under the animal, the ends of the ribs
were distinctly felt pressing upon the surface in regular succession,
leaving no doubt that the ribs formed so many pairs of levers, by
means of which it moves its body from place to place.
The muscles which bring forward these ribs, according to Sir
Everard, consists of five sets. One from the transverse process of
each vertebra and the rib immediately behind it, which rib is
attached to the next vertebra. The next set goes from the
rib near the spine, and passes over two ribs, sending a slip to
each, and is inserted into a third, a slip connecting it with the
next muscle in succession. Under this is a third set, issuing
from the posterior side of each rib, passing over two ribs, and send-
ing a lateral slip to the next muscle, and is also inserted in the
third rib behind. And so on throughout the h' ve sets of muscles.
On the inside of the chest there is a strong set of muscles
attached to the anterior surface of each vertebra, and passing
obliquely forward over four ribs is inserted into the fifth one only
in the centre. From this part of each rib a strong flat muscle comes
forward on each side, before the viscera, forming the abdominal
muscles and uniting in a middle tendon, so that the lower half of
each rib which is beyond the origin of this muscle, and which is
only laterally connected to it by a loose cellular membrane,
is external to the belly of the animal, and is used for the pur-
pose of progressive motion, while that half of each rib which
is next the spine, as far as the lungs extend, is employed in
respiration.
These observations of Sir Everard Home apply to all Snakes ;
but the muscles were compared with a skeleton of the Boa-
59
constrictor in the Hunterian Museum, which is thirteen feet nine
inches in length. The habit of attaching themselves to trees,
and holding on by the tail, their heads and bodies floating
listlessly on some sedgy river, is explained by the structure of the
tail. Dr. Meyer has minutely described the manner in which they
hook themselves on to a tree, which gives them the power of a
double fulcrum. The apparatus which gives this power is a spur
or nail on each side of the vent in the Pythonida, in which the
anatomist discovered the elements of an unguinal phalanx articu-
lated with another bone much stronger, which is concealed under
the skin.
Following the arrangement of the Pythowdce, adopted by Dr. J.
E. Gray in the Catalogue of the British Museum, we find : —
I. Morelia, having a strong prehensile tail, distinct head,
truncate muzzle, crown of the head with small shield-like plates.
Of this genus there are two species. The Diamond Snake
(M. spilotes), a native of Australia, and .of .a bluish-black colour;
and the Carpet Snake (M. variegccta), from Port Essington and
Swan River. It is whitish, with irregular black-edged olive
spots, and an olive head, with two or three .white spots in the
centre of the crown,
II. Python, having the crown shielded to behind the eyes.
Of this genus there are two species, which have sometimes
been referred to the Boas. The Pythons bear the same general
appearance. Upon their bodies is traced a sort of blackish-
brown chain, presenting nearly quadrangular links upon a clear
yellowish ground, extending from the nape of the neck to the
extremity of the tail. The suscephalous region is partly covered
by a large brownish-black spot. Upon each side of the head is a
black band, which frequently extends from the nostril, passing by
the eye, as far as, and up to, the commissures or corners of the lips.
P. reticulatus, the Ular Sawad of the Malay countries, found
also in Burmah and Siam, has the four front upper labial plates
pitted ; the frontal plate simple ; the head has a narrow, longi-
tudinal, brown stripe. This is one of the most handsomely marked
species of the whole family, its body being covered with a gay
lacing of black and golden yellow. It is said to attain the great
length of thirty feet, and is stout in proportion. In its native wilds
60
OPHIDIAN KEPTILES.
Fig. 13.-Natal Eock Snake (Hortulia natalensi*).
the powers of this gigantic
reptile are said to be enor-
mous, being able to subdue a
full-grown Buffalo ; and even
a Man has been said to fall a
prey to its fury. A Malay
prao had anchored for the night
under an island of the Celebes.
One of the crew had gone
ashore in search of the favourite
betel nut, and is supposed on
his return to the beach to have
fallen asleep. In the dead of
the night his comrades were
roused by his screams ; they
pulled ashore with all expe-
dition, but came too late; the
cries had ceased, and the
wretched man had breathed his
last in the folds of one of
these enormous Serpents. They
killed the creature, cut off the
head, and carried it, together
with the lifeless body of their
comrade, to the vessel. The
right wrist of the corpse bore
the mark of the Serpent's teeth,
and the disfigured body showed
that the man had been crushed
by the constrictive folds of the
reptile round the head, breast,
and thighs. The Ular Sawad
arranges its eggs by placing
them in a group, which is
covered by the body. This
statement, first made by Mr.
Bennett, has been confirmed
b the observations of M.
EOCK SNAKE. 61
Lamare Picquot, and by observations on other species of Python
in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, and in the London Zoological
Gardens.
The Hock Snake of India and Ceylon (P. mohtrus) is another
species to which the name of Boa-constrictor has been given.
It has the two pairs of front upper, and three hind lower labial
shields pitted, and the frontal plates double. Of this gigantic
Serpent several specimens are generally to be seen in the Zoological
Gardens.
III. Hortulia, having the upper and lower labial shields deeply
pitted; muzzle and forehead with symmetrical shield; nostrils
lateral. They are natives of Africa, and three species are known,
namely, the Natal Rock Snake, having the lower labial shields
deeply pitted, the muzzle and forehead with symmetrical shields,
the nostrils lateral ; the Guinea Rock or Fetish Snake (H. Seba),
closely resembling the last in many structural points ; and the
Royal Rock Snake (H. regid), having the four pairs of the upper
front labials pitted, the upper ocular plate single, the lower labial
shields four in number and broad.
The Royal Rock Snake inhabits Western Africa. It is black
in colour, marked on the middle of the back with a series of
oblong white spots, the sides being marked by another series
of large white spots, with one or two black spots in the upper
part ; the head black, with a streak over the nostrils and the top
of the eyes, another from the lower edge of the eye, the lips and
chin beneath are white.
The Natal Rock Snake (H. natalensis, Fig. 13) is described by
Sir Andrew Smith as being gigantic in size, he having seen a skin
measuring twenty-five feet, although part of the tail was absent.
" It feeds/7 he says, "on small quadrupeds; and for some days after
swallowing one it remains in a torpid state, when it may be easily
destroyed." Of this opportunity, however, the South Africans
never avail themselves ; they have a horror of the reptile, but
believe that it has an influence over their destinies, and affirm
that no one has ever been known to kill one and prosper.
The Guinea Rock or Fetish Snake (//. Sela, Fig. 14) is
typical of the genus, and has also been referred to the Boa-
constrictor, and closely resembles the Natal Rock Snake. It is
62
OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
a native of the warmer parts of Africa. A living specimen at the
Zoological Gardens is estimated to weigh a hundredweight.
Of the genera Liasis and Nardoa there are five species, very
imperfectly known.
Fig. 14.— Guinea Rock Snake (H. Sebce).
IV. Epicrates, an American and West Indian species, having
the crown scaly ; the forehead with symmetrical shields.
The Aboma (E. cenchria) is one of the largest of the group,
sometimes attaining dimensions quite gigantic. It is yellowish
in colour, with a row of large brown rings running the whole
ABOMA.
63
length of the back, and variable spots on the sides ; these are
generally dark, with a whitish semi-lunar mark. This formidable
Reptile has all the habits of its congeners ; it is found in the
marshy swamps of
tropical America,
and near the rivers,
where it lies in wait
for its prey.
The Boas, pro-
perly so called,
have the scales
smooth ; labial
shields smooth, not
pitted ; the body
compressed, taper-
ing to the tail,
which is long and
prehensile; the
head is compara-
tively small, being
enlarged behind,
and contracted
towards the muzzle,
which is rather
short. The crown
is covered with
scales; the nostrils
lateral, between two
plates. Four spe-
cies of this genus
are recognised by naturalists, all of which have been described by
travellers as the true Boiguacu, or Boa- constrictor of Linnaeus.
This species has the scaly circle of the orbit separated from the
upper labial plates by one or two series of scales. A large chain
consisting of blackish hexagonal spots, alternating pale oval stains,
notched and jagged, extending the whole length of the back, and
forming a very elegant design. This species seems to be strictly
confined to tropical America. Humboldt found it in Guiana, and the
64 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
Prince de Wied observed it in Brazil. All the specimens in the
British Museum are from that part of the New World. This is sup-
posed to be the Tlicoatl and Temacuilcahuilia (the words meaning
" fighting with five men "), described by Hernandez, the latter
name being derived from its size and strength. " It attacks/' he
says, " those it meets, and overpowers them with such force, that
if it once coils itself round their necks, it strangles and kills them,
unless it bursts itself by the violence of its own efforts." The
same author states that he has seen Serpents as thick as a man's
thigh, which had been taken when young by Indians and tamed.
That this Boa attains an immense size is a well-established fact.
Shaw mentions a skin in the British Museum, in one of his
lectures, which measured thirty-five feet in length.
Three other species — the Lamanda (B. diviniloqua} , from Santa
Lucia; the Emperor (B. imperator), a native of Mexico; and
B. eques, the Chevalier Boa of Peru — are all to be occasionally
seen in the Zoological Gardens.
The Boa anaconda, more properly Eunectes murinus, is also a
native of tropical America. The name of Anaconda has become
well known through Mr. Lewis's celebrated tale, so called, in which
its predatory habits are displayed in such a manner as to enthral
and fascinate the reader, as the author makes the reptile fascinate
its victim. The name, Mr. Bennett tells us, is of Cinghalese origin,
and is popularly applied to all very large Serpents. This species
is of a brownish tint, with a double series of colours extending
from head to tail ; the sides are covered with annular spots with
white disks surrounded by blackish rings. Seba has represented
this creature lying in wait for Mice ; but this is probably the
prey of the young Anaconda. Another provincial name, "El
Troga Yenado" (the Deer Swallower), is probably applied to
the matured Reptile.
The following description of the actions of one of these large
non-venemous Serpents, which accompanied a specimen sent to
the United Service Museum, by Sir Robert Ker Porter, is pro-
bably a fair description of the habits of all the large Pythonida :
— " This species is not venemous, nor is it known to injure
man (at least not in this part of the New World) ; however,
the natives of the plain stand in great fear of it, never bathing
ANACONDA.
in waters where it is known to exist. Its common haunt, or
rather domicile, is invariably near lakes, swamps, and rivers ;
likewise close and wet ravines produced by inundations of the
periodical rains. Fishes, as well as other animals which repair-
there to drink, are
its prey. The
creature lurks
watchfully under
cover of the water,
and, while the
unsuspecting ani-
mal is drinking,
suddenly makes a
dash at its nose,
and with a grip of
its back- reclining
range of teeth,
never fails to se-
cure the terrified
beast beyond the
power of escape.
In an instant the
slusrerish waters
O£3
are in turbulence
and foam. The
whole form of the
Serpent is in mo-
tion ; its huge and
rapid coilings soon
encircle the strug-
i . ... j Fjg. 16. — Aiiacouda (h'u/tectes murinus).
glmg victim, aiia
but a short interval elapses ere every bone in the body of
the expiring prey is broken." Sir Robert then describes the
manner in which the prey is swallowed, being previously lubri-
cated by the Serpent's saliva ; but Professor T. Bell, after carefully
watching the constricting Serpent's mode of swallowing its prey,
asserts that this is a delusion. " The mucus is not poured
F
(56 OPHIDIAN REPTILES.
out till it is required to lubricate the dilated jaws and throat for
the seemingly disproportionate feat."
[The small, but very distinct family of Erycidce have the body
of moderate length, cylindrical, covered with small and short
scales ; the tail very short, with only a single series of subcaudal
scales ; head somewhat elongate ; eye rather small, with vertical
pupil. Adult individuals have,, like the Pythons, a short
conical prominence in a groove on each side of the vent ; this
being the extremity of a rudimentary hind limb. " The Snakes
of this family," remarks Dr. Giinther, "shew great similarity to
the Pythons and Boas, with regard to their internal structure as
well as to their external characters. But their tail is very short,
not flexible, and much less prehensile ; and whilst the Serpents
just mentioned are more or less arboreal, frequenting marshy
places with luxuriant vegetation, the ErytidtB inhabit dry, sandy,
or stony plains, burrowing with the greatest facility below the
surface, and entering crevices and holes in search of their prey,
which consists of Mice, Lizards, and other burrowing Snakes.
Probably they are semi-nocturnal, and able to see in dark places
as well as in the night. They are found in Northern Africa, in
the islands of the Mediterranean, in the arid parts of India, and
probably in Arabia ; two species are known to have been brought
from Sikhim."
The Cursoria elegans is said to be from Afghanistan ; Eryx
iaculus inhabits Greece and Egypt ; and there is also E. tkebaicus
in the latter country, and E. Johnii in India. Another Indian
species is the Gonyylophis conicus, which the natives erroneously
persist in declaring to be venemous. The Eryx Johnii is fre-
quently found in the possession of the serpent-charmers of its
native country, who mutilate the end of its short, thick tail in
such a manner that the scarred extremity somewhat resembles the
form of the head. Such specimens are shewn as deadly Two-headed
Snakes, and, as such, are occasionally brought alive to Europe.
An example of this species lived in the London Zoological
Gardens for about eight years, and fed regularly on young Mice.
The keeper assured Dr. Giinther that it frequently covered its
prey with saliva. It always kept itself hidden below the gravel
ACKOCHORDID^E. 67
at the bottom of its cage. This species attains to a length of
nearly four feet, the tail measuring but four inches.
The Acrockordida constitute a very remarkable small family, of
which one genus is terrene, and another highly aquatic in its
habits. Whether a third genus, the Javanese Xenodermus, should
be referred to it, is doubtful in the opinion of Dr. Giinther. These
Snakes have the body of moderate length, rounded, or slightly com-
pressed, and covered with small wart-like, not imbricate, tubercular
or spiny scales ; tail rather short, prehensile ; head rather small,
not distinctly separated from the neck, and covered with scales
like those of the body ; nostrils close together, at the top of the
snout ; teeth short, but strong, of nearly equal size, and situate
both in the jaws and on the palate. These serpents are viviparous.
One of them, Acrockordus javamcus, inhabits Java and the
Malayan peninsula, where it is considered rare. It grows to a
length of eight feet, and its habits are terrene. The late Dr.
Cantor justly compares its physiognomy to that of a thorough-bred
bull-dog ; a female in his possession brought forth no fewer than
twenty- seven young in the course of about twenty-five minutes;
they were active, and bit fiercely. Hornstedt found a quantity of
undigested fruits in the stomach of this Serpent ! Upon which
Dr. Giinther remarks that no opportunity of making further
observations on the habits of this remarkable Snake should be lost.
The aquatic member of this family, Chersydrus gramdatus, in-
habits from the coasts of India to those of New Guinea and the
Philippine Islands. Sometimes it is met with at a distance of
three or four miles from the shore. Mr. W. Theobald remarks
that it is plentiful in the Bassein River (in British Burmah), in
salt water below Gnaputau, and, with various other Sea Snakes,
is frequently swept by the tide into the fishing baskets of the
natives. The ebb-tide, running like a sluice, sweeps various Fishes,
Crustaceans, Snakes, and even Porpoises occasionally, into the broad
mouths of those baskets, where they are at once jammed into a
mass at the narrow end of the creel. " The Chersydrus" he adds,
" is more nearly connected with the Hydrophidce than with the
next family, being as essentially aquatic as any of the former, to
which, save from its wanting the poison-gland, it might be appro-
F2
63 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
priately referred. Indeed, it has been erroneously asserted by
some authors to be venernous."
The Homalopsida are an extensive family of Snakes, of tho-
roughly aquatic habits, which are only occasionally found on the
margins of rivers ; several of them enter the sea, and in some
parts of their organization they approximate to the true marine
Snakes. They may be easily recognised by the position of the
nostrils on the top of the snout, which enables them to breathe by
raising only a very small portion of the head out of the water ; an
arrangement which is likewise seen in the Hippopotamus, the
Crocodile, the Sea Snakes, and other aquatic animals. Many of
them have a distinctly prehensile tail, by means of which they
hold on to projecting objects. Their food consists either entirely
of Fishes, or, in some species, of Crustaceans also. All appear to be
viviparous, and the act of parturition is performed in the water.
Not any of them attain a large size — about three or four feet in
length, or considerably less; and in captivity they refuse to feed.
All the Asiatic species of this family have a grooved fang at
the hinder extremity of the maxillary bone. The species are
numerous, and are arranged into many generic divisions. The
majority are from the grand Indian region, extending to China
and to Australia, but there are also several from the JNew World.
The Herpeton tentaculatum, of Siam, is very remarkable from its
snout terminating in two flexible, cylindrical, scaly tubercles, which
are supposed to be employed as organs of touch under water —
perhaps to discern its food, which as yet has not been ascertained.
The largest known example of this curious Snake is only twenty-
five inches long, of which the tail measures six inches.
We now proceed to the first family of Poisonous Snakes, that of
THE SEA SNAKES (Hydropkida),
Which are very distinct from all that follow, though less so from
certain of the harmless species appertaining to the two families
last treated of. Some of their distinctions have been already
noticed (p. 45), but they are especially characterised by their
highly compressed tail, indicative of their thoroughly aquatic
habits. According to Dr. Giinther, there is no other group of
SEA SNAKES. 69
Reptiles the species of which are so little known, and the synonymy
of which is so much confused, as that of the Sea Snakes. Most
naturalists who have worked at them have been misled by the idea
that the species were not nearly so numerous as they actually are.
Mr. W. Theobald makes out as many as twenty-five inhabiting the
Bay of Bengal and the adjacent seas, to which area this group of
Reptiles is mainly confined, a few species extending to northern Aus-
tralia, and one, the most emphatically pelagic, the P elands bicolor,
even to the Pacific Ocean. One genus only, Platurus, approaches
the Land Snakes in several of its characters ; having much the
physiognomy of an Elaps, with the cleft of the mouth not turned
upwards behind, as in other Sea Snakes ; the eye also is rather
small, nor is the tail at all prehensile. There are two species of
this particular form, one of which, P. scutatm, is rather common,
and its geographic range extends from the Bay of Bengal and the
China seas to the coasts of New Zealand ; the distribution of the
other, P. Fischeri, being nearly as extensive. The great genus
Hydrophis has the posterior part of the body highly compressed,
and most of the species are more or less of a bluish lead -colour,
like that of the sea, or black, banded with white or yellowish
white. They are so abundant in the Indian seas that some of
them are taken with every haul of a fishing-net, and they are
helpless and seemingly blind when out of the water ; the fisher-
men commonly seizing them, one after the other, by the nape
and throwing them back into the sea. Some of them (Micro-
cephalophis of Lesson) have the head very small and the neck ex-
ceedingly slender, while the compressed body is large and thick.
THE COLUBRINE YENEMOUS SNAKES,
These are comprised under the one family, Elapida, all of which
have an erect, immovable, grooved, or perforated fang in the fore-
part of the maxillary bone. There is little in their external
appearance to distinguish them from the harmless Colubrine
Snakes, to which they are more nearly akin, in all but their
poison-fangs, than they are to the Rattlesnakes and Vipers ; yet
some of the most poisonous of Ophidians appertain to this family,
as exemplified by the well-known Cobras of the Indian region and
70 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
of Africa, and also by some of the worst Snakes that inhabit
Australia. In the colony of Victoria alone as many as ten species
of Snakes are known, one only of which, Morelia variegata, is
harmless ; and one only of them, the formidable Death-adder
(Acanthopis antarctica}^ belongs to the sub-order of the Yiperine
Snakes. The rest are included among the Colubriform Yenemous
Snakes, and most of the accidents from poisonous Snakes in that
colony are due to what is there known as the Carpet Snake,
Hoplocephalus curtus, while the Snake that bears the same name
in the adjacent colony of ]NTew South Wales is the innocuous
Morelia spilotes, which is a small Serpent of the fa\m\yo£Pythonidce.
Of the total number of Snakes known in all Australia, by far the
greater number are veneraous, which is the reverse of what occurs
elsewhere. Only about five species, however, are really dangerous
throughout the .great island-continent, for in many of them the
poison is by no means virulent. Thus, of Diemamia psammophis,
which sometimes exceeds four feet in length, Mr. Krelft remarks
that " its bite does not cause any more irritation than the sting of
a bee." Also, that "the bite of Hoplocephalus variegatus is not
sufficiently strong to endanger the life of a man. I have been
wounded by it several times, " writes Mr. Krefft, " and experienced
no bad symptoms beyond u slight headache ; the spot where the
fang entered turning blue to about the size of a shilling for a few
days." Again, of Brachysoma diadema, " this very handsome
little Snake is venemous, but never offers to bite, and may be
handled with impunity." Far otherwise, however, is the venom of
Hoplocephalus curtus, and also of some others. II. curtus is one of
the worst Snakes of Australia, where it inhabits the more temperate
parts of the country from east to west Its bite is almost as deadly
as that of the Indian Cobra, to which it is, indeed, considerably
allied. " A good-sized Dog bitten became paralyzed within three
minutes, and was dead in fifty minutes afterwards ; a Goat died
in thirty-five minutes ; a Porcupine Ant-eater (Echidna hystrix]
lived six hours ; and a common Tortoise, an animal which will
live a day with its head cut off, died in five hours after being
bitten." The H. superbus replaces it in Tasmania.
The Cobras (Naja) are widely known, alike from the virulence
of their poison, and for their remarkable dilatable disk or
COLUBEINE SXAKES. 71
" hood " on the nape, the ribs which support this hood being much
elongated. Two species are commonly recognised, the Cobra di
capella of Southern Asia (Naja tripudians), and the Asp (N. hoje)
of Africa ; but there are marked local varieties of both species,
and the N. sputatrix of the Malay countries should probably be
recognised as a third species. Those of India, with Ceylon, have a
mark like a pair of spectacles upon the hood, while those of Burmah
and the neighbouring countries eastward have only an oval black
spot upon it. In India the commonest colour of this formidable
reptile is uniform brown, though many are of a pale yellowish
straw colour, and there are others of every shade between that and
black. It grows to a length of about five feet, seldom more.
" Almost every writer on the natural productions of the East
Indies," remarks Dr. Gimther, " has contributed to the natural
history of this Snake, which has been surrounded by such a
number of fabulous stories, that their repetition and contradiction
would fill a volume.'7 It is very generally diffused over the
Indian region, though, as Mr. Theobald notices, from its nocturnal
habits it is less often seen than many harmless species. " This
Snake is, I believe," he adds, "of inoffensive habits, unless
irritated, but is, of course, a dangerous neighbour to have in a
house.* Not only in Burmah, where the respect for animal life is
greatest, but in India also I have known a Cobra enticed or forced
into an earthen jar, and then carried by two men across a river, or
some distance from the village, and liberated. Dr. Giinther
remarks that, ' singularly enough, it has never been obtained in
the valley of Nepal/ This is very easily accounted for," con-
tinues Mr. Theobald, " since few would venture to kill a Cobra,
oven for scientific purposes, in the rigorously Hindu state of
Nepal. In British India, decent Hindus wrill not kill a Cobra ;
and if one has taken up his abode in a house, he is permitted to
remain, or else carefully inveigled into an earthen-pot, and carried
away as described. Of course only the orthodox Hindu is so
careful to abstain from injuring the Cobra, and their reverential
* Although the Cobra di capella is so plentiful in India, we could never hear of
one instance of a European being stung by one during a residence of more than
twenty-one years in that country. They prey chiefly on Eats, the presence of which
is the attraction which brings them about human habitations ; and they also prey
occasionally upon young chickens, and commonly upon Toads. — ED.
72 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
feeling is now perhaps rather the exception than the rule, though
probably as strong as ever in Nepal." A fine example of the
still more formidable gigantic Cobra (Ilamadryas elaps), to be
noticed presently, was obtained from an earthen pot which had
floated out to sea.
The late Sir J. Emerson Tennent mentions that " the Cingha-
lese remark that if one Cobra be destroyed near a house, its com-
panion is almost certain to be discovered immediately after — a
popular belief which I had an opportunity of verifying on more
than one occasion. Once, when a Snake of this description was
killed in a bath of the Government House at Colombo, its mate
was found in the same spot the day after ; and again, at my own
stables, a Cobra of five feet long having fallen into the well, which
was too deep to permit its escape, its companion, of the same size,
was found the same morning in an adjoining drain.* On this
occasion the Snake, which had been several hours in the well,
swam with ease, raising its head and hood above water ; and
instances have repeatedly occurred of the Cobra di capella volun-
tarily taking considerable excursions by sea" (or by rivers, as the
writer has personally witnessed).]
Cobras are much dreaded, for they instil the most subtle poison
into their bites. Their manners are very singular. When at
rest the neck of the animal is no larger in diameter than the head;
but when under the influence of passion and irritation the neck
swells at the same time that the animal raises the front part of his
body vertically, holding this part straight and rigid as an
iron bar. The lower part of the body rests upon the ground, and
serves as a support to the upper part, which is movable and capable
of locomotion. This faculty of dilating the neck is as striking a trait
n the organization of the Cobras, as the rattle is in Crotatus.
The ancient inhabitants of Egypt adored them ; they attributed
to their protection the preservation of grain, and allowed them to
live in the midst of their cultivated fields. The Cobra is no longer
an object of adoration in the East, but is held sacred by many
people, and it serves in nearly every country of Asia as a very
* " Pliny," remarks Sir J. E. Tennent, " notices the affection that subsists between
the male and female Asp (or African Cobra) ; and that if one of them happens to be
killed, the other seeks to avenge its death "—lib. viii. c. 37.
.big. 17.— Snake-charmers.
74
OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
curious spectacle ; being the Serpent "chiefly used by snake-
charmers in these countries, terrible as it seems to us.
The action of the snake-charmer is as follows : he takes in his
hand a root, the virtue of which is supposed to preserve him from
the venemous effects of the bite of the Cobra. Drawing the
reptile from the cage in which he keeps it confined, he irritates
it by presenting a stick to it ; the animal immediately erects
the fore part of its body, swells its neck, opens its jaws, ex-
tends its forked tongue, its eyes glitter, and it begins to hiss.
Then a sort of battle commences between the Serpent and the
Fig. 18.— Hooded Snake.
charmer; the latter, striking up a monotonous sort of song,
opposes his closed fist to his enemy, sometimes using his right
hand and sometimes his left. The animal fixes its eyes upon
the fist which threatens it, follows all its movements, balances
,its head and body, and thus simulates a kind of dance. Other
charmers obtain from the Cobra an alternating and cadenced
movement of the neck by the help of sounds which are drawn
SNAKE-CHARMING. 75
from a whistle or small flute. It is said that these mysterious
jugglers are able, by some sympathetic action they possess,
to plunge these dangerous enemies into a sort of lethargy and
death-like rigidity, and to bring them at will out of this mo-
mentary torpor. It is certain, at any rate, that they handle
these animals, whose bite is extremely dangerous, with consider-
able impunity, and without having in any way neutralized or
intercepted the venom. It is supposed by some that these charmers
take the precaution of exhausting the venom of the Cobra every
day by forcing it to bite something several times before exhibiting
it. It is also certain that they more frequently draw the poison
fangs — a wound from which can kill in the course of two or three
hours.
The Asp (Naja haje) has a less dilatable neck ; it is of a greenish
colour, and marked with brownish spots. It is smaller than the
former ; is found in the west and south of Africa ; and is espe-
cially common in Egypt. It was said to have been this Reptile
which caused the death of Cleopatra.
[The genus Hamadryas of Cantor (Ophiophagus of Giinther)
differs very little from the true Cobras, but has a less developed
hood, and a single small tooth placed at some distance behind the
fang. The only species, II. elaps, attains to thirteen feet in length,
and is proportionately formidable, being much less timid and
retiring in its habits than the Cobras of the genus JWaja. it
preys Habitually oil other Snakes, and seems to be more plentiful
eastward of the Bay of Bengal than it is in India. In Burmah it
is styled the Gnan, and Mr. Theobald tells us that its venom is
fatal in a few minutes. " One of these Snakes," he adds, " was
brought in alive, and a snake-charmer came up to display his
command over the animal. At first (as I am told) the Snake
seemed cowed by the authoritative ' Hah ' of the man ; but sud-
denly, through some carelessness on his part, the Snake struck him
on the wrist. The poor fellow at once ran off home to get an
antidote, but fell down before reaching his own door, and died in
a few minutes. When at Tongku," continues Mr. Theobald, " I
heard a case of an Elephant being killed by one of these Snakes,
which I have no reason for doubting. The Elephant was a fine
powerful male, and was pulling down with his trunk some creepers
76 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
or boughs, when a large ' Griian/ which was disturbed in the tree,
struck the Elephant on the trunk between the eyes. The Elephant
at once retreated, became faint, and died in about three hours."
This terrible Snake would appear to be not uncommon in the
Andaman Islands, and its range of distribution extends through
the Malay countries to the Philippines and to New Guinea.
The genus Bungarus is so called from the vernacular appellation
of Bungarum, which is applied to one of the species on the Coro-
mandel coast. Some of them are very like Cobras without the
hood, as the " Kerait " (B. c&ruleus), which is a much-dreaded
Snake in India, but the geographic range of which extends neither
to the countries eastward nor to Ceylon, The Snakes of this genus
have a row of broad hexagonal scales along the middle of the back.
The Kerait grows to four feet and a half in length, and has the
upper parts of a bluish or brownish black, either uniform or more
generally marked with numerous narrow white cross-lines, which
mostly radiate from a white vertebral spot. In its habits it
resembles the Cobra, preying on small Mammalia, Lizards, Toads,
and probably other Snakes occasionally. The "Raj-samp" (lite-
rally Lord Snake) is a larger and thicker species than the Kerait,
beautifully marked throughout with alternate broad rings of black
and golden-yellow. This one is found almost generally through-
out the Indian region, and would seem to prey entirely on other
Snakes, especially of the Tropidonotus genus. It is of verv
sluggish habits, and frequents moist places and the vicinity of
water. A species, or local variety (B. ceylonicus), takes its place
in Ceylon, and there is also a kindred species (B. semifasciatus)
in China and Formosa. According to Cantor, the Bungarums are
capable of darting nearly the anterior half of the body. Their
bite is very dangerous ; but " the magnitude of the danger,"
remarks Dr. Giinther,, " depends, as in other venemous Snakes, on
many circumstances — chiefly on the size and energy of the indi-
vidual Snake and on the place of the wound. As the fangs of the
Bungarums are comparatively short, the wound is always super-
ficial, and can be easily excised and cauterised ; also, experiments
made on some of the lower animals show that the general effect
on the whole system becomes visible only after a lapse of time."
Of poisonous Snakes akin to the Bungarums, there are the
POISONOUS SNAKES. 77
Xenurelaps bung ar aides, founded on a single specimen received
from the Khasya hills (north of Sylhet) ; and the Meg&rophis
Jlaviceps, which inhabits the Indo-Chinese and the Malayan
countries, but not India. The latter attains to more than six feet
in length, and when alive or fresh the head and neck are vivid
blood-red, which soon fades to a pale buff' hue in specimens im-
mersed in spirit, and hence the faulty name of jtaviceps. As
many as seven genera — GlypJwdon, with two ascertained species ;
Diemansia, with four ; Hoploc-ephalus, with eight ; Pseudechis, with
one ; Pseudo-naja, with one ; Brachysoma, with three ; and Ver-
micalla, with one — are peculiar to Australia with Tasmania, making
twenty known species of Colubriform Yenemous Snakes in that
range of territory, where others doubtless remain to be discovered ;
and there is one described as Pseudo-elaps superciliaris, which is
suspected to be a second species of Pseudo-naja. The Cyrtophis
scutatus of South Africa is a sort of hoodless Cobra, without any
small teeth behind its fangs. In America there is only the genus
Elaps, with numerous species, which are mostly of small size, and
in some instances are very brightly coloured, as one of the Coral
Snakes* of Brazil (E. corallinus), which is beautiful coral- red,
with the body encircled by equidistant black rings. The genus
Elaps in America is represented in Africa by Homorelaps, in the
Indian region by Callophis, and in Australia by Vermicalla. In
general, these are small and slender Snakes, too much so to be
held in much dread. What Dr. Gunther remarks of the species
of Callophis will apply, as we believe, equally to the others : —
" They appear to prefer hilly countries to the plains, live con-
stantly on the ground, and are slow in their movements. In their
habits, in their form, and in their powerless muscular organization,
they show the greatest similarity to the Calamarice ; and this is
why the Callop hides feed almost entirely on the latter, the venemous
Snake being able to overpower the non- venemous. Both of these
genera have also the same geographical distribution ; and Ceylon,
where we do not find the Calamarice, is not inhabited by a single
Callophis. If we are allowed to judge from the number of indi-
viduals of both genera brought to Europe in collections, the
Calamarice are about twice as numerous as the Callophide*."
* This name being also applied to the harmless Tortrix scytak (vide p. 46.)
78 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
Cantor, who had opportunities of observing them, states that
they are generally seen lying motionless, with the body thrown
into many irregular folds, but not coiled. Although they are
diurnal, their sight, from the minuteness of the pupil, appears
to be as defective as their sense of hearing, and they may be
closely approached without apparently being aware of danger. He
never observed them to strike voluntarily, even when provoked,
and he had difficulty in making an adult C. gracilis bite a Fowl ;
although, of course, the venom of these Snakes is as virulent as
that of a Viper, the animals used for the experiments having died
in the course of from one to three hours after they had been
wounded. Therefore the greatest caution should be observed in
catching or handling these Snakes. The shortness of their fangs
and the small quantity of their poisonous fluid, however, will
always give a very fair chance of recovery if the proper remedies
be applied, should an accident occur. Two or three species
of this genus inhabit India, and the rest are found in the Indo-
Chinese and Malayan countries, one of the most common of them
( C. intestinalis) having likewise been received from the Philippines.
The C. nigrescens of the mountains of southern India attain to four
feet in length, but they are mostly about half of that size, or even
smaller.
Lastly, we arrive at
THE VIPERINE SNAKES,
Which have a long, perforated, erectile fang on the maxillary
bone, which is extremely short and bears no other teeth. This is
described in greater detail subsequently (pp. 93, 94). They
are arranged under the two families Croialidce and Viperidce.
The Crotalidft, or Pit Vipers, have the body robust, the tail of
moderate length, or rather short, sometimes prehensile; head
broad, sub- triangular, frequently scaly above or imperfectly
shielded ; a deep pit on the side of the snout, between the eye and
nostril ; the eye of moderate size, with vertical pupil. They are
viviparous. The Pit Vipers are found only in Asia and America ;
those of the New "World surpassing the Asiatic species in size, and
therefore they are much more dangerous. Some live in bushes, others
FER-DE-LANCE.
79
on the ground. A rudiment of the curious caudal appendage of
the American Rattlesnakes is found as a simple spine-like scale in
the Asiatic species, constituting the genus Halys.
Some have the head covered with scales, having small shields
on the edge of the forehead and brows ; the cheeks are scaly, and
the tail ends in a spine. Of these, the American genus Craspe-
docephalus and the Asiatic genus Trimeresurus have the sub-caudal
plates two-rowed to the tip.
The genus Craspedocephalus comprises the terrible Fer- de-lance
of certain islands in the West Indies, which occurs on the main-
land of South America, where four other species are recognised
— one of them being found as far north as Mexico.]
The Fer-de-lance (<7. lanceolatus) is met with in Martinique,
r- iftfeA
Fig. 19.— Fer-de-lance (Trigonocnphala mycalcE},
Santa Lucia, and in the little island of Boquin, near St. Vincent.
It attains to a length of nearly six feet ; its colour is not always
yellow, sometimes it is greyish, and even marbled with brown ; the
80 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
head, which is large, is remarkable for a triangular space, the three
angles of which are occupied by the muzzle and the two eyes.
This space, raised at its front edge, represents the head of a
lance, large at its base and slightly rounded at the summit. On
each side of the upper jaw, one, sometimes two, and even three,
fangs are visible ; all of which the animal makes use of for the
purpose of wounding and discharging his venom. Of the poison
fangs of the Fer-de-lance, Professor Owen remarks, " that they
(in common with the Rattlesnake and Yiper) are coated with a
thin layer of a sub-transparent and minutely cellular cement.
This disposition of the dentinal tubes is obedient to the general
law of vertically , and the external surface of the tooth can be
exposed to no other pressure than that of the turgescent duct
with which it is in contact." It feeds on Lizards and the
smaller Mammals, especially Rats, but it is capable of killing
large animals, such as Oxen. The Negroes working among
the sugar-cane, and soldiers in the Martinique service, often
become victims to the Fer-de-lance. This Snake is, unfor-
tunately, very prolific, and its venom is so subtle, that animals
stung by it die three hours, twelve hours, one day, or several
after the accident ; but their death is certain. The wound pro-
duces extreme pain, and is immediately followed by more or
less livid swelling; the body becomes cold and insensible, the
pulse and respiration become slower, the head becomes confused,
coma appears, and the skin turns bluish ; sometimes extreme
thirst and spitting of blood are experienced, and paralysis attacks
the whole system.
Another species is known in Brazil as the " Jararaca " (C. brasi-
liensis), and there is a third in the same country, the C. bilineatus ;
a fourth, C. elegans, is believed to be from the west coast of South
America ; and a fifth, C. atrox, inhabits from Demerara to Mexico.
All of them are most highly formidable and dangerous Snakes,
which are held in especial dread.
The ten or more species of Trimeresurus occupy their place in
the woodland districts of tropical Asia and its islands. In them
the hinder labial shields are the smallest. The head is triangular,
covered above with small scales, except the foremost part of the
snout and the superciliary region, which generally are shielded ;
VIPERINE SNAKES. 81
body with more or less distinctly keeled scales, in from seventeen
to twenty-five series. Body and tail of moderate length, prehensile.
These reptiles are more or less arboreal, as is indicated by their
prehensile tail, and by their green or varied coloration. " In
general," remarks Dr. Giinther, " they are sluggish, not attempting
to move out of the way, and as they very closely resemble the
branch on which they rest, they are frequently not perceived until
they prepare to dart, vibrating the tail, and uttering a faint
hissing sound, or until they have struck the disturber of their rest.
Accidents caused by them, therefore, are not of uncommon occur-
rence, and it is a fortunate circumstance that comparatively few
of them attain to a size of more than two feet, so that the conse-
quences of their bite are less to be dreaded than that of various
other poisonous Snakes. Indeed, numerous cases are on record
which show that the symptoms indicating a general effect on the
system were of short duration, extending only over from two to
forty-eight hours, and confined to vomiting, retching, and fever.
After the pain and swelling of the bitten member or spot have
subsided, the- vicinity round the wound becomes discoloured,
mortifies, and is finally thrown off as a black, circular slough,
after which health is speedily restored. The bite of larger speci-
mens, from two to three feet long, is more dangerous, and has
occasionally proved fatal ; so that the greatest care should always
be observed in the immediate treatment of the patient. When
roused, these Snakes are extremely fierce, striking at everything
within their reach ; and Cantor states that in the extreme of fury
they will fix their fangs in their own bodies. Frogs, small mam-
malia, and birds form their food, and I have never found a Lizard
or Snake in their stomach."
Three or more of the species inhabiting India and Burmah are
of a beautiful leaf- green colour, which changes to dull blue after
long immersion in spirit. The commonest of them, T. carinatus,
varies remarkably in colouring, however, in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands ; if, indeed, the species be quite the same. These
grow to over three feet in length, of which size they are sufficiently
formidable. The kindred genus,. Peltopelor, is founded on a single
species inhabiting the mountains of Southern India, P. macrolepis,
which is remarkable for the- very large scales with which its head
G
82 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
and body are covered. Lachesis, with two species, is another
kindred genus in South America, in which the end of the tail has
four rows of scales underneath. The Calloselasma rkodostoma is
a very formidable reptile of this same series, which inhabits the
Malay countries. It has a remarkably broad head, and grows to
three feet or more in length. Dr. Giinther states that " it is one
of the most beautiful and most dangerous of venemous Snakes.
Feeding on frogs, it frequents grassy plains, and approaches
gardens and human dwellings. Kuhl was eye-witness to a case
where two Men, bitten by one and the same Snake, expired five
minutes after." Another Malayan species is known as the Atropos
acouba. The genus Halomys is characteristic of the fauna of
Central Asia, the species being found in Tartary, on the northern
side of the Himalayas, in China, in Japan, and in Formosa. One
of them occurs in the Western Himalaya, at an altitude of 9,000
feet, and another has been referred to this genus from the moun-
tains of Southern India. The " carawalla " of Ceylon (Hypnale
nepa) is likewise found on the mountains of Southern India. It
is a small species, but a good deal dreaded, although, remarks Dr.
Giinther, " its bite is but exceptionally fatal to Man, and in such
cases death does not occur before the lapse of some days. There
is always every hope of restoring the patient by a timely applica-
tion of the proper remedies." Its crown is more shielded than is
usual with Snakes of this family, and it varies much in colouring.
The rest of the Crotalidw are American, and consist of the
famous Rattlesnakes and their immediate kindred. In the genus
Cenchris the tail ends with a spine, and the tip of the tail has
several rows of scales beneath. The well-known " Copperhead "
(C. contortrix) belongs to this genus, and the black "Water
Yiper " ( C. piscworus). Tlje last has bred repeatedly in the London
Zoological Gardens, and is rather a large species, of very aquatic
propensities. " The Copperhead," according to Dekay, " is a
vicious reptile, and its 'venom is justly dreaded, being considered
as deadly as that of the Rattlesnake ; and an instance is recorded
in which a Horse, struck by one of these reptiles, died in a few
hours. Its motions are sluggish, and when approached it assumes
a threatening aspect, raising its head and darting out its tongue.
It chiefly occurs in pastures and low meadow grounds, feeding on
KATTLESNAKES. 83
Field-mice, Frogs, and the smaller disabled birds." The poison
of the black Water Viper is equally to be dreaded.
The true Rattlesnakes have the tail furnished with the extraor-
dinary appendages at its tip which will be described presently.
According to differences in the shields and scales covering the
head, Dr. Gray arranged them into three genera — Crotalophorus,
with three species ; Uropsophus, with one ; and Crotalus also
with one, C. horridus, which appears to be the only one known in
South America. Of the common Northern Rattlesnake (Urop-
sophus durissus), Dekay remarks that, "although furnished with
such deadly weapons, the Rattlesnake can scarcely be termed a
vicious animal, for he rarely strikes unless almost trodden upon.
When suddenly disturbed, he throws himself into a coil, and warns
the aggressor by rapidly vibrating his rattles, which, however, can
scarcely be heard beyond the distance of a few yards. This is most
usually the case, but they occasionally strike without the slightest
warning. At the moment the Snake strikes, he ejects the venom
forcibly into the wound. In an instance of a very large Rattle-
snake from Florida (C. horridus}, which was irritated, he struck
violently against the iron wire on the side of the cage, and spurted
the venom to the distance of three feet." * The fibulae, or rattles,
seldom exceed fifteen in number, and are rarely so many.]
The common Northern Rattlesnake sometimes attains to six feet
in length, the middle being about the size of a man's leg ; the
colour of the back is grey, mixed with yellow. Upon this foun-
dation extends a longitudinal row of black spots, bordered with
white ; towards the muzzle the flat head is covered with six scales
larger than the others, and disposed in three transverse rows, each
formed of two scales. The males are smaller, much more brightly
and less darkly coloured than the other sex. The very long and
visible fangs are situated in front of the upper jaw. The scales
on the back are oval, and raised in the middle by a bone which
extends in the direction of their greatest diameter. The underpart
of the body is furnished with a single row of large plates. The
Rattlesnake owes its name to a remarkable peculiarity in its struc-
ture ; the extremity of the tail is furnished with small horny cells,
* We have seen a Cobra thus spurt its venom against the plate-glass corer of the
box in which it was kept. — ED.
G2
84
OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
articulated one into the other. When the animal advances these
little capsules resound slightly, like the dry husks of beans which
still retain their seeds, thus giving notice of the approach of this
terrible enemy. The sibilant rattle of these appendages is not
very loud, but it may be heard about thirty paces off, aind announces
the approach of the reptile while it is still at that distance.
Fig. 20. — Northern Eattlesnake ( Uropsophus durissus).
Rattlesnakes feed on small mammals and upon other reptiles, wait-
ing patiently for their approach ; when close to them, the Rattle-
snake throws itself upon them. They are oviparous ; and for some
time after they are hatched, the young are said to seek a refuge in
the mouth of their mother. During summer Rattlesnakes remain in
the midst of stony mountains, uncultivated places, or places covered
with wild wood ; they generally choose those parts most exposed
to the heat, — the sunny shores of a fountain or stream where small
animals come to drink. They like also to place thmeselves under the
shadow of an old fallen tree. Audubon, the celebrated ornitho-
logist, says that he has often met with Rattlesnakes rolled up in a
FASCINATING A SNAKE. 85
slate of torpor when the temperature was low. Rattlesnakes are
revered by some of the American natives, who know how to lure
them from their houses without killing them ; for it is a singular
fact that this terrible animal is not insensible to the sound of
music. Chateaubriand's remarks will be read with interest : " In
the month of July, 1791," says this celebrated writer, " we were
travelling in Upper Canada with some savage families of the
Ounoutagnes. One day, when we had stopped in a plain on the
banks of the river Genedie, a Rattlesnake entered our camp, W e
had a Canadian amongst us who played on the flute ; wishing to
amuse us, he approached the animal with this new kind of weapon.
At the approach of his enemy, the splendid reptile at once coiled
itself up spirally, flattened its head, puffed out its cheeks, con-
tracted its ears, and showed its envenomed fangs, while its forked
tongue moved rapidly, and its eyes burned like red-hot coals ; its
body became inflated with rage, rose and fell like a pair of bellows ;
its dilated skin bristled with scales ; and its tail, which produced a
sinister sound, oscillated with lightning rapidity. The Canadian
now began to play upon his flute. The Snake made a movement
expressive of surprise, gradually drew its head backwards, closed
its inflamed mouth, and, as the musical sounds struck it, the eyes
lost their sharpness, the vibration of its tail relaxed, and the noise
which it made became weaker, and finally died away altogether ;
the coiled-up line became less perpendicular, the orbs of the changed
Snake opened, and in their turn rested in wider concentric circles
on the ground. The scales of the skin were also lowered, and
immediately recovered their wonted brilliancy, and, turning
its head slowly towards the musician, it remained immovable in an
attitude of pleased attention. At this moment the Canadian
walked away a few steps, drawing low and monotonous tones from
his flute ; the reptile lowered his neck, opened a way among the
fine grass with its head, and crawled in the steps of the musician
who thus fascinated him, stopping when he stopped and following
him when he began to move away. The Snake was thus con-
ducted from our camp in the midst of a throng of spectators — as
many Red-skins as Europeans — who could hardly believe their
eyes.'*
It is generally agreed that Rattlesnakes only attack Men in self-
86 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
defence, but it is at all times a dangerous neighbour, and it is im-
portant to know how to keep them at a distance in countries where
they abound. The Pig is an excellent auxiliary in obtaining this
result. In the west and south of America, when a field or farm is
infested by these ferocious reptiles, it is usual to put a Sow with its
young brood there, and the Snakes, it is said, will soon be eaten up.
It appears that owing to the fatty matter which envelopes the body
of this animal, it is safe from the venemous bite. Besides, it
likes the flesh of the Snakes, and eagerly pursues them. Accord-
ing to Dr. Franklin, when a Pig sees a Rattlesnake, it smacks its
jaws, and its hairs bristle up ; the Snake coils itself up to strike his
enemy ; the Pig approaches fearlessly, and receives the blow in the
fold of fat which hangs upon the side of its jaw. Then he places a
foot on the tail of the Snake, and with his teeth he begins to pull
the flesh of his enemy to pieces, and eats it with evident enjoyment.*
The Pig is not the only animal employed to destroy Rattle-
snakes. Dr. Rufz de Lavison, who has long resided in the French
Antilles, and who has since been manager of the Jardin d' Acclima-
tation, of Paris, has published a highly interesting work, in which
he relates the very important services which certain birds, especially
the Secretary-bird, or Serpent- eater (imported from South Africa),
render by destroying Rattlesnakes in the West Indies. We
have said that the Crotalidce are some of the most dangerous of
any Snakes ; let us mention some facts which show the frightful
power of their venom. A Crotalus, about three feet in length,
killed a Dog in about fifteen minutes, a second in two hours, and a
third in about four hours. Four days after he bit another Dog,
which only survived thirty seconds ; and another, which only
struggled four minutes. Three days afterwards it bit a Frog,
which died at the end of two seconds ; and a Chicken, which
perished at the end of eight minutes.
An American, named Drake, arrived at Rouen with three live
Rattlesnakes. In spite of the care which he had taken to preserve
them from cold, one of them died. He put the cage which con-
* Dekay, in his " Natural History of New York, "remarks that it is a popular belief
that 'Hogs are particularly destructive to Rattlesnakes ; but neither their bristly hide
nor their thick teguments afford them perfect immunity from the stroke of this
reptile. I was informed by a respectable farmer that he lost three Hogs in one season
by the poison either of the Copperhead or Rattlesnake. — ED.
EXPEEIMENTS WITH RATTLESNAKES. 87
tained the other two near to a stove, and excited them with a small
stick, to assure himself that they were alive and in health. As
one of the Snakes made no movement, Drake took it by the head
and tail and approached a window to see if it was dead ; the animal
turned its head quickly, and bit the unfortunate man on the back
of his left hand ; as he replaced it in the cage he was bitten anew
in the palm of the same hand. " A doctor ! a doctor ! " cried
the unhappy man. He rubbed his hand upon some ice which was
close by, and two minutes after, he bound the wrist tightly with
a cord. Four hours later a doctor arrived, and cauterized the
wound, but alarming symptoms soon appeared. Syncope, noisy
respiration, scarcely any pulsation, and involuntary evacuations
followed ; the eyes closed, their pupils contracted ; the limbs
became paralyzed, and the body cold. Drake died at the end of
nine hours.
Some experiments made by a friend of Dr. Bell seem to present
different results. This gentleman had received a living Rattle-
snake from America, intending to try the successive effects of its
bite upon some Rats. He introduced one into the cage with the
Snake : it immediately struck the Rat, and the latter died in two
minutes. Another that was placed in the cage ran to the
farthest corner, uttering cries of distress. The Snake did not
attack it immediately ; but after about half an hour, on being
irritated, it struck the Rat, which, however, exhibited no signs of
being poisoned for several minutes ; nor did it die for about
twenty minutes after the bite had been inflicted. A third Rat,
remarkably large, was then introduced into the cage, and
exhibited no signs of terror, nor did it seem to be noticed by its
dangerous companion : after watching some time, the gentleman
retired to bed, leaving the Rattlesnake and Rat in the cage
together. In the morning the Snake lay dead, and the Rat had
supped on the muscular part of its backbone. Unfortunately,
Dr. Bell does not remember at what season this experiment took
place, but thinks it was not in very warm weather.
The climate of France differing only slightly from that of the
United States, it is consequently well adapted for the production
of Rattlesnakes. If a living male and female of these dangerous
Crotalidce, were to escape from a menagerie, they would soon
88 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
infest the country with their 'terrible progeny. It is for this
decisive reason that public exhibitions of Rattlesnakes are for-
bidden in France. Nevertheless, two or three may be seen in the
collection of the Museum of Natural History at Paris, miserably
installed in a chest, which is quite unworthy of this establishment.
The Rattlesnakes are enclosed in a double cage, and every measure
of precaution is taken which prudence demands.
It is a remarkable fact that the poison is secreted after death.
Dr. Bell, in his " Hi-story of British Reptiles/' adduces the follow-
ing as evidence of the facts : — He was dissecting very carefully
and minutely the poison apparatus of a large Rattlesnake,
which had been dead some hours ; the head had been taken
off immediately after death; yet, as Dr. Bell continued his
dissection, the poison continued to be secreted so fast as to require
to be dried up occasionally with a sponge or rag : and his belief is,
that there could not be less than six or eight drops of the poison.
It is obvious that such experiments require the utmost caution,
seeing that preparations are not without danger.
[The family of the Viperidce, or true Vipers, are peculiar to the
Old World, inclusive of Australia, with the sole known exception
of one species in Peru. They have generally a robust bodjr,
with non-prehensile tail ; the head broad or thick, generally
scaly above or incompletely shielded ; the eye of moderate size,
with vertical pupil, and they are at once distinguished from the
Crotcdidce, by the absence of the pit below the eye. The scales
are keeled except in one genus (Acanthopis). For the most part,
these reptiles inhabit exposed and arid situations, though perhaps
all of them will take to the water on occasions, as does the common
British Adder.
They are divided, firstly, into those which have a depressed
head, rounded on the sides, and covered with acutely-keeled
scales. Some of these have large nostrils in the centre of a ring-
like shield, edged with a large scale above. Such are the genera
Daboia in the warmer parts of Asia, and Clotho, which is peculiar
to Africa — both genera are terrifically venemous.
The famous Tic-polonga of Ceylon (Daboia elegans) is also
widely diffused over India and Burmah. It is beautifully marked
with three rows of white-edged, oblong, brown spots. Occa-
PUFF-ADDERS.
89
sionally the spots forming the middle row are connected like the
beads of a necklace, whence the name Cobra monil (literally
Coluber moniliger), applied to the young of this Viper by the Indo-
Portuguese, and now corrupted into " Cobra de Manilla/' which
bears the reputation of being a highly poisonous Snake of diminu-
tive size ; it attains, however, to a length of nearly five feet, the
tail then measuring about eight inches, with considerable thick-
ness of body. It is nocturnal, and preys chiefly on Mice. In Burmah
this ^formidable Yiper is dreaded almost as much as the Hama-
dryas. It has been obtained in the Himalayas at an elevation of
5,500 feet, at Almorah, and elsewhere. Mr. Theobald has known
one to kill a Bull-terrier in twenty minutes. The D. xanthina is
a second species of this form inhabiting Asia Minor.
The genus Clotho consists of the terrible Puff-adders of Africa,
of which there are at least four or five species. Among the best
known of them are the ordinary Puff-adder (C. arietans), and the
Berg-adder (C.
atropos), of the
Cape colonists.
The Rhinoceros
Puff-adder, C. na-
sicornis, of Guinea,
has the scales over
the nostrils of the
male produced into
a long recurved
spine ; and in the
Horned Puff-ad-
der, C. cornuta, of
South Africa, there
* is a group of small
horn - like scales
over each eye.
Examples of the
Common and of the Rhinoceros Puff-adders may generally be
seen in the reptile house of the London Zoological Gardens. The
last mentioned is a huge Yiper of wondrous beauty, both of
colouring and in the complex pattern of its markings, especially
Fig. 21.— The Horned Puff-adder (Clotho cornuta).
90
OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
as seen when it has newly shed its epidermis ; but the aspect of its
surprisingly broad, flat, and triangular- shaped head unmistakably
betokens its terrific powers. Its head is remarkably massive. One
peculiarity of the Puff-adders is that they sometimes hold on to
their victim by their long fangs. Thus, of the common C. arietans
Sir A. Smith remarks that " although generally inactive, it is by
no means so when attacked — its movements are then bold and
energetic, and when once it seizes the obnoxious object, it retains
its hold with great determination, and some considerable exertion
is often necessary to detach it." * The traveller Burchell remarks
of this Snake that " its venom is said to be most fatal, taking
effect so rapidly as
to leave the person
who has the mis-
fortune to be bit! en
no chance of savi n :»
his life, but by in-
stantly cutting out
the flesh surround-
ing the wound.
Although I have
often met with this
Fig. 22.— The Unadorned Puff-adder (Clothoinornata). Snake," he adds,
" yet, happily, no opportunity occurred of witnessing the effects
of its poison ; but, from the universal dread in which it is held,
I have no doubt of its being one of the most venemous species of
Southern Africa. There is a peculiarity which renders it more
dangerous, and which ought to be known to every person liable
to fall in with it. Unlike the generality of Snakes, which make a
spring or dart forward when irritated, the Puff-adder, it is
said, throws itself backwards, so that those who should be
ignorant of this fact would place themselves in the very direction
of death, while imagining that by so doing they were escaping
the danger. The natives, by keeping always in front, are en-
* In Chapman's "Travels in the Interior of South Africa" (vol. ii. p. 59), we
read — " May 19th. I lost my "best Dog, Caesar. He had seized a large Puff-adder "by
the tail, and shook it. When the Snake was released it darted at the Dog's face, and
having fixed its fangs in its cheek, stuck there like a Bull-dog until it was killed.
The Dog only survived ten minutes." — ED.
CERASTES AND ECHIS. 91
abled to destroy it without much risk. The Snakes of South
Africa, as of Europe, lie concealed in their holes in a torpid state
during the colder part of the year. It is, therefore, only in the
hottest summer months that the traveller is exposed to the danger
of being bitten." Dr. Gray refers doubtfully to this genus both
the Echidna inornata of Sir A. Smith, and the E. mauritanica of
Dumeril and Bibron, from Algeria ; likewise a Peruvian species
named Echidna ocellata by Tschudi, which is the only known
instance of a member of this family inhabiting the New World.
The appellation Echidna, however, belongs properly to the Porcu-
pine Ant-eaters of the class Mammalia.
The species of Cerastes and of Echis have the nostrils much
smaller than the preceding, and are Yipers of less formidable size.
In the two species of Cerastes, or Horned Yiper, the eyebrows of
the male bear commonly a sort of horn. C. Hasselquistii is com-
mon in Egypt, and the other, C. Richii, inhabits Tripoli. Of
Echis there is one species in Egypt and North Africa — E. arenicola,
and another in India — E. carinata. The latter grows to about
twenty inches long, of which the tail measures two inches and a
third. These Yipers commonly lie half-buried in the sand, which
they much resemble in colour. They feed upon Centipedes
(Scolopendra) , and no case is known of their bite having proved
fatal.
The remaining Viperidce have the head more or less shielded.
They are divided by Dr. Gray into Vipera (with two European
species, not found in Britain — F. aspis from the Alps, and F.
ammodytes from the countries bordering on the Mediterranean) ; —
Pelias, which contains only the Common British Adder, P. berus ;
Sepedon, with one species only, from South Africa, S. h&machates ;
Causus, with also only one African species, C. rhombeatus ;
and finally, Acanthopis, founded on the Death-adder of the Aus-
tralian colonists, A. antarctica, which is the only member of the
family Viperidce known to inhabit Australia, where the Poisonous
Colubrine Snakes are so numerous. It is also the only known
species the scales of which are smooth or not keeled. It seldom
exceeds thirty inches in length, and varies a good deal in colour.
Like other Viperidce it is sluggish in its movements, but when
irritated it flattens itself out generally in the form of the letter S,
92
OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
turning round to one side or the other with astonishing rapidity,
but never jumping at its enemy or throwing itself backward, as
the Puff-adders are described to do. The Death-adder is found
in almost every part of Australia northward of the thirty-sixth
parallel of south latitude.]
The Common Adder (Pelias berus), is not improbably the E^is
of Aristotle, and the Viper a of Yirgil, as it is the Manasso of the
Italians, the Adder of the country-people in England and Scotland,
and the Yipere of France. It is found in all these countries, and
in Europe generally.
The Common Adder varies in length, from thirteen or fourteen
Fig. 23.— The Common Adder (Pelias berus).
inches to double that length ; and from two to three or even four
inches in girth.
Its general colour varies considerably : in some it is olive, in
others reddish^brown, varying sometimes to an ashy- grey ; at
other times it is greyish-black. A waving brown or blackish line
runs along the back. A row of unequal spots of the same colour
is observable on the flanks ; the belly is slate-coloured ; the head
nearly triangular, a little larger than the neck, obtuse and trun-
cated in front, and covered with granulated scales. Six small
plates cover the muzzle, two -of which are perforated for the
nostrils, which are lateral, forming a blackish spot. Above is a
sort of Y sha<pe, formed by two black bands. The upper jaw is a
WEAPONS OF THE VIPER. 93
white ground, spotted with black ; the lower jaw is yellow. The
eyes are small and sharp, edged with black. The tongue is long,
grey, and forked.
Adders are met with in the wooded, stony, and mountainous
regions of southern and temperate Europe — in France, Italy,
England, Germany, Prussia, Sweden, Poland, and even Norway.
They are met with in the heaths near London and in the neigh-
bourhood of Paris ; they are met with at Montmorency, and in
the forest of Fontainebleau, They feed upon Lizards, Frogs, mol-
lusks, worms, insects, and small mammalia, such as Field-mice,
Shrews, and Moles. They pass the winter and early spring in
a state of torpor in deep hollows, where they are sheltered from the
cold. It is not unusual to find several Adders coiled up together
in one heap, entwined and intimately interlaced together.
The movement of Adders is abrupt, slow, and irregular. They
appear to be shy and timid creatures, shunning the day, and only
seeking their food in the evening. The young come into the world
naked and living : so long as they are maintained within the
mother, they are enclosed in eggs with membranous shells.
Soon after their birth the young Vipers, whose length does not
exceed six or seven inches, are abandoned by the mother, and left
to shift for themselves. They do not, however, acquire their full
development till they are six or seven years old. Adders are justly
considered objects of fear and horror both to Men and to other
animals. They carry with them a formidable apparatus, of which
it is important that both the structure and the mode of action
should be known. This venemous apparatus is composed of three
parts — the secreting glandsy the canal, and the hooked fangs.
The gland is the organ which secretes the venom ; it is
situated upon the sides of the head, behind and a little beneath the
globe of the eye ; it is formed of a number of inflated bladders,
composed of a granulous tissue, and disposed with great regularity
along the excretory canal, not unlike the barbs of a pen-feather.
This arrangement, however, is only visible through a micro-
scope. The tube destined to conduct the secreted venom through
the gland is straight and cylindrical ; after being filled, in its
short journey it ends in two peculiar hook-like teeth, called
fangs, tapering to a point, and in shape horn-like. They
94 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
are much longer than the others, and placed one to the right,
the other to the left of the upper jaw. The Adder, then, is fur-
nished with two of these
poison-fangs ; they are
curved and sharp-
pointed, convex ante-
riorly, and furnished
with a straight duct
which commences in
one part by a slit placed
Fig. 24.-Fangs and Tongue of a Poisonous Colubrine Snake. ^ ^ anterior part Qf
its base, terminating by a second and smaller cleft towards its
point, and on the same side. This last cleft is like a little trench
or fine furrow, which extends the whole length of the convexity.
These hooked teeth are surrounded by a fold of the gums, which
receives and partly hides them, like a sheath, when they are at
rest or hidden. They are attached to the upper maxillary bones,
which are small and very mobile, and are put in motion by
two muscles. Behind them are dental germs, intended to replace
them when they fall out. The other teeth in the roof of the
mouth belong to the palate, where they form two rows.
Such are the terrible weapons of the Yiper group. It is not,
therefore, as many persons still believe, with the tongue that the
Adder inflicts its wound ; the forked, projecting tongue serves them
as a feeler, and to drink with, but cannot inflict a wound. We
have said that when in a state of repose the hooked teeth are
hidden ; when the animal wishes to use them, they issue from
their fleshy sheath, somewhat in the same manner as a man
draws his knife, when attacked, to defend himself, and in this case
the knife is poisoned.
Adders use their fangs to seize the small animals which serve
as their prey. They do not voluntarily attack a Man ; on the con-
trary, they flee at his approach. But if he imprudently places
his foot on or attempts to seize them, they defend themselves
vigorously. Let us see how an Adder conducts itself when it
hunts its prey and takes it. In this case it may be supposed to
act without passion, merely seizing its prey for food ; it simply
bites, sinking its fangs into the body of its victim. In pro-
REMEDIES FOE VIPER WOUNDS. 95
portion as the fangs penetrate the body of the animal the poison
flows into the canal, which again conducts it to the fangs under
the influence of the contracting muscles, by which they are
raised and made to press upon the gland; but this movement
causes the Adder to close its mouth, and the venom is injected
into the wound.
Adders bite in much the same manner when seized by the tail
or middle of the body ; but when they think themselves attacked
and become irritated, they strike rather than bite. At first they
coil themselves up into several superposed circles, then they
will uncoil themselves to their whole length with excessive
quickness, extending their bodies like a spring, drawing it out
with the rapidity of lightning, and gliding over a space equal
to their own length ; for they never leave the ground. They
will now open their jaws wide, erect their fangs, and strike,
first throwing back their heads, by which means they contrive to
strike as with a hammer.
Dr. Bell expresses doubts, in his " History of British Reptiles,"
of the existence of any well- authenticated case in this country of
an Adder bite terminating fatally.* At the same time he cau-
tions all persons against exposure to them in the heat of summer
and autumn, when the poison is most virulent. The remedy
applied to such a bite is to rub the part with olive oil, over a
chafing dish of coals, and to take a strong dose of ammonia (spirit
of hartshorn) internally.
Open copses, dry heaths, new woodland clearings, and sandy
wastes are the usual haunts of the Adder ; and in such places
its hibernaculum is usually found in winter, where several of
the same species lie intertwined in a torpid state.
It was long supposed that Adders, and Snakes generally,
exercise a sort of magnetic action from a distance — a power which
has been called, fascination. This impression has been denied,
and attributed, not without reason, to a less mysterious cause;
namely, the sentiment of profound terror which these creatures
inspire. This terror manifests itself in animals by tremblings,
spasms, and convulsions. The sight of a venemous Snake some-
times renders its victims immovable, incapable of flight, and as it
* A. few cases have been known. — ED.
96 ^ OPHIDIAN EEPTILES.
were paralyzed, and they allow themselves to be seized without
opposing the slightest resistance. Others give themselves over
to confused movements, which, far from saving them, only make
their capture easier. M. Dumeril, while pursuing experiments in
the Museum of Natural History, demonstrative of the sudden and
mortal action of the bite of a Yiper on little birds, saw a Gold-
finch, which he held in his hands, die suddenly, merely at the
sight of the Viper.
In warm countries, wounds produced by the larger species of
these terrible reptiles are extremely dangerous — they swell, become
red and ecchymose, and sometimes livid ; the wounded person is
seized with, syncope, fever, and a series of morbid symptoms, which
often terminate in death. The remedy is to bind immediately a
ligature above the wound with a band, such as a rolled hand-
kerchief, a cord, or a string, so as to stop all communication of
the blood with the rest of the body, and thus prevent the absorp-
tion of the venom into the system till more effectual means can
be adopted. It is well to suck the wound and make it bleed ; it
is necessary also to make an incision, so as to expose the internal
parts, and then to cauterize the wound immediately, either with
a red-hot iron or by means of a caustic agent. For this purpose
the following composition may be employed : —
Perchloride of iron. 60 grains.
Citric acid 60 „
Hydrochloric acid 60 ,,
Water 144 „
A few drops of this is poured on the wounded part, which
is then covered with a small piece of lint. Iodine or iodinet of
potassium can also be employed. M. Yiand-Marais has sub-
stituted the following composition for this compound with great
success : —
Water . • 50 grains.
Iodinet of Potassium 50 ,,
Metallic iodine 50 „
To facilitate the introduction of caustic into the wound, the
same naturalist has invented a little bottle closed with emery; the
stopper, which is long, and conical at the lower end, plunges
VENOM OF SNAKES. 97
into the liquid. By means of this stopper the medicated sub-
stance can be made to penetrate by drops as far as the bottom
of the wound, which has been previously enlarged by the bistoury.
This little apparatus will replace with advantage the bottle of
volatile alkali with which Viper-hunters are usually furnished.
But all these means are only useful when applied immediately.
The limbs and round about the wound must besides be rubbed with
ammoniacal liniments. Afterwards emollient poultices should be
used to lower the swelling and reduce the chances of congestion;
while tonics, sudorifics, and sometimes ammoniacal potions should
be given internally.
It is a remarkable fact that this venom, which is one of the most
virulent poisons known, can yet be swallowed with impunity. It
is neither acrid nor burning, and only produces a sensation on
the tongue analogous to that caused by greasy matter. But if
introduced into a wound in sufficient quantities, it enters into the
blood, and causes death with frightful rapidity. This is a charac-
teristic common to all morbid and venemous virus.
The strength of the venom varies according to the species
of Snake, and likewise the condition of the animal. The same
species is more dangerous in hot than in cold or temperate regions.
The bite is serious, according as the poison is more or less abun-
dant in the glands, and probably with the degree of rage expe-
rienced by the animal, as Professor Owen supposes.
[Of Snakes in general it has been remarked that " all strangers
in countries where these reptiles abound are apt to exaggerate
their danger ; but in a year or two they think as little of them
as we do in England. I never knew^ an instance of a Snake
attacking a person unless it was trodden upon or molested, and
even then they almost always give warning by hissing, or endea-
vour to effect their escape. During my residence in the Cape
colony, I have at different times trodden on them or kicked them
in the grass unintentionally, but was never bitten." * This
writer, however, could hardly have accidentally placed his foot
upon a Puff-adder, f]
* Hoodie's "Ten Years in South Africa," vol. i. p. 318.
f Subsequent experiments with, the virus of the Indian Cobra have conclusively
proved that ammonia is not a sufficient antidote, as alleged in p. 95. — ED.
H
CHAPTEE III.
THE ORDER OF LIZARDS. — SAURIANS.
'Tins is the second order of the great section of Scaly Reptiles
(Squamatd), as distinguished from the Shielded Reptiles (Cata-
phracta). The name Saurian, Saypos, given by Aristotle to the genus
of Lizards, has been more comprehensively applied to a group
of Reptiles which have the body elongated, covered with scales, or
having the skin rough like shagreen. They have, for the most
part, four feet, the toes of which are furnished with hooked claws ;
their eyelids are movable, and their jaws armed with encased
teeth ; they have a distinct tympanum, a heart with two auricles
and a single ventricle, sometimes partially valved, having sides and
a sternum. They are not subject to metamorphosis, and, finally,
they are furnished with a tail.
["By far the greater number of the Saurians," writes Dr.
Giinther, " are easily distinguished from the other orders of
reptiles by their elongated form, by their movable thorax covered
with skin, by the presence of legs, and by their general integu-
ments, which are either folded into scales, or granular, or
tubercular, or shielded ; still, there are many Saurians which, at
a superficial glance, might easily be taken for members of the
preceding order — that of the Snakes; and it cannot be denied
that there is a gradual transition from one of these orders to the
other. On the part of the Saurians, we allude to those which
have no externally visible limbs, and which combine with a
greatly elongate, cylindrical body, the peculiar kind of locomo-
tion we observe in Snakes. Yet the greater affinity of these
reptiles to the ordinarj^ Lizards is indicated by another character,
which is in intimate connection with their mode of life. The
SAUEIANS. 99
Snakes, having movable maxillary bones, and mandibles not joined
by a symphidis, are enabled to swallow other animals of appa-
rently greater bulk than their own. In the Saurians the maxillae
are fixed and immovable, and the mandibles are joined by an
osseous suture, so that the cleft of the mouth can be dilated only
in the usual vertical direction. Moreover, in these limbless
Saurians we always find bones of the shoulder hidden below the
skin, whilst no trace of them can be discovered in the true Snakes.
The motions of some Lizards are extremely slow, while those of
others are executed with very great, but not lasting, rapidity.
Many of them have the power of changing their colours, which
depends on the presence of several layers of cells loaded with
different pigments ; these layers the animal compresses by more
or less inflating its lungs, whereby the changes in the coloration
are effected/'
Dr. Giinther does not follow Dr. Gray in arranging all
true reptiles into the two grand divisions of Shielded Reptiles
( Cataphractd) and Scaly Reptiles (Squamata), but he includes the
Crocodilidce among the Saurians as a first grand division of them
— Emydosauri, and the other Lizards constitute his second grand
division of them — Lacertini. These latter are again primarily
divisible according to the structure of the tongue. Thus, in the
series of Leptoglossa, the tongue is elongate, forked, and exser-
tile, much as in the Ophidians ; in that of Pachyglossd the tongue
is short, thick, attached to the gullet, and is not exsertile ; and in
the Vermilingues it is Worm-like, club-shaped in front, and very
exsertile.
The various genera of Saurians which have either not a trace of
external limbs, or have them more or less diminutive and rudi-
mentary— either the usual two pairs or one pair only, and in the
latter case sometimes the fore and sometimes the hind pair being
deficient — are included among the Leptoglossa, or the series which
have a forked and protrusile tongue ; and, so far as is practicable,
we will commence by noticing the different serpentiform genera ;
only, in a classification which is not confessedly superficial, it
will be found that the various Snake-like Saurians appertain to
several distinct natural families, most of the other genera belong-
ing to which have, in sundry cases, limbs that are well developed.
H2
100 SAUBIANS.
Some of them, therefore, will have to be noticed as the different
families to which they belong are successively treated of; and
there will yet remain the curious serpentiform family of Am-
phisbcenidce, which Dr. Gray refers to his grand series of Shielded
Reptiles (Cataphracta).
The same naturalist divides the Leptoglossa into two tribes,
which he styles Geissosaura and Cyclosaura ; and, as constitut-
ing particular division of the former, he includes under it the
family Typhlopida, which Dr. Gimther refers — as we have seen —
to the order of Ophidians. In the series of Geissosaura, the scales
of the belly and (almost always) of the back and sides are
quincuncial, rounded, and imbricate ; the tongue is narrow, short,
flat, and but slightly forked ; and the head is of a conical shape,
and is covered with regular shields.
Of the families thus characterised, some only have distinct
eyelids, as the families Acontiadce, Ophiomorida, Sepsidfe, and
Sdncidce ; while others have the eyelids rudimentary and the
eyes exposed, as the families Lialisidte, Afirasiadce, Pygopodidce,
and GymnoptlmlmidcB. In the Acontiadce the nostrils are placed
in the enlarged rostral plate, with a longitudinal slit behind. The
form of the body much resembles that of our common Orvet, or
Blind-worm, and their limbs, when present, are so rudimentary
that they can aid little in locomotion. One genus, Acontias, is
without limbs, and the eyes are furnished with a lower lid, while
the upper eyelid is rudimentary. Of this, one species, A. meleagris,
inhabits South Africa; and another, A. Layardii, has been dis-
covered in Ceylon. The genus Nessia has four rudimentary
limbs, and the rostral shield is large, sub-conical, and depressed.
In one species, N. monodactyla, the limbs are diminutive, the pos-
terior placed far apart from the anterior, all being very short,
weak, and undivided into toes. In another, N. Burtoni, each
foot is divided into three minute toes. Both species are peculiar
(so far as known) to Ceylon, and the habits of this family are
much the same as those of our common Orvet (Anguis fragilis) .
The family of Ophiomoridce is founded on a single genus and
species, Ophiomorus miliaris, which inhabits North Africa. As
remarked by Dr. Gray, this reptile seems to be intermediate to the
Acontiadce and the Stincida, and makes it appear as if the large
SEPSID^E. 101
rostral shield of the former was formed of the united rostral,
supra-nasal, and nasal shields of the present family, and of the
Scincidce. It has an elongate, cylindrical body, without external
limbs, and the ears are hidden under the skin ; the eyes are dis-
tinct, with valvular eyelid ; and the scales of the body and some-
what elongate tail are hexagonal.
The Sepsidce differ from the preceding, and also from the great
family of the Scincidce, by having the nostrils placed in the front
edge of a small shield, in a notch at the hinder side of the rostral
plate, which latter is rather large and square. The eyes are dis-
tinct, the lower eyelid scaly, or with a transparent disk. Body
fusiform or sub -cylindrical, elongate. These reptiles burrow in dry
sand, and are peculiar to the anciently-knowncontinents and certain
islands. Some have a wedge-shaped head, with prominent rostral
plate. Of these the genus Sphenops has more developed limbs,
each dividing into four toes ; and the only species, S. sepsoides,
inhabits Egypt and other parts of North Africa. Spkenocepkalus
has a more slender and elongate shape, and the limbs are placed
more distantly apart ; the anterior minute, and fitting into a
groove, the posterior as large as in Sphenops, and each of them
having but three toes, of which the innermost and next are sub-
equal, and the outer much shorter. The only known species,
S. triclactylus, is common in Afghanistan. In Scelotes the ante-
rior limbs disappear altogether ; and the only known species,
S. bipes, inhabits South Africa. Other genera have a pyramidal
head, with the rostral plate erect, and rounded in front. Such are
the five following, each founded on a single species : — Gongylus
ocellatuSy from North Africa and the borders of the Mediterranean ;
Thyrus Bojeri, from the Mauritius ; Amphiglossus astrolabi, from
Madagascar; Seps tridactylus, from the south of Europe and
north of Africa ; and Heteromeles mauritanicus, from North
Africa. The last has only two toes to the fore-feet, three to the
hind ; and Seps has three toes to each foot, while the other three
genera have five to each foot. In general these animals are found
in dry and elevated spots, where they hide themselves in the sand
or under stones.
The Scincid(B have the head covered with shields, which are
symmetrically arranged. Tongue slender, free, extersile, termi-
102
SAUBIANS.
nating in two pointed lobes. Scales on the back rounded, quin-
cuncial, imbricate ; those on the belly similar to those on the
back and on the sides. No fold across the throat or along the
side ; no femoral or inguinal pores. Tail generally long, rounded,
fragile. Eyes and eyelids well developed. Nostrils in a separate
plate, between the frontal and labial shields. Generally four
limbs, moderately developed, sometimes feeble or hidden below
the skin. The species of this family are exceedingly numerous, and
inhabit almost every part of the tropical regions, some extending
Fig. 25. — Seps tridactylus.
into the temperate zones. They are thoroughly land Lizards,
preferring dry ground, and hiding themselves in the sand, under
stones, fallen leaves, &c., very few of them entering the water. They
do not attain to any considerable size, only a few species of
Australia and the West Indies growing to the thickness of a
man's wrist, and exceeding a foot in length. Some of them are
viviparous, others deposit from eight to twelve globular eggs.
Dr. Gray divides them into the sub-families of Sdncina, or those
which have the scales thin, smooth, and neither striated nor
keeled ; the nostrils in a single smooth plate, without any lunate
groove behind ; and the tail round, tapering, unarmed ; and
Tropidophorina, or those which have the scales thick, bony,
rugous, striated, and with one or more keels upon each of them ;
BLIND-WORM. 103
the rostral plate rounded in front, and the body fusiform, with
well- developed limbs, which terminate always in the full comple-
ment of toes. A few species of the Scindnce have no external
limbs, thus approximating in their appearance to certain of the
burrowing Ophidians.]
The Orvet, or Blind- worm, Anguis fmgilis, is small, cylindrical
in shape, about eleven or twelve inches in length, and having the
exterior appearance of Snakes. The scales which cover the body
are small, smooth and shining, being red in the middle, and
edged with white, of a silvery yellow on the upper part, and
dusky beneath ; the sides somewhat dusky brown, and the throat
slightly marbled with white, black, and yellow. Two larger spots
Fig. 26. — Orvet, or Blind- worm (Anguisfragilis).
appear, one above the muzzle, the other upon the back of the
head ; from this point two blackish longitudinal rays start, which
extend to the tail, as well as two other nut-brown rays, which
start from the eyes; the markings vary, however, in different
countries, and probably with age and sex.
The Orvet is found in woods and dry, sandy, and stony
wastes. They are timid, harmless creatures, retiring into holes
and concealing themselves in moss at the foot of trees to hide
themselves from observation. They feed upon worms, insects,
and the smaller mollusks. Although perfectly harmless, the
104 SAUEIANS.
country-people are strongly prejudiced against them, believing
their bite to be a deadly poison. This animal is extremely brittle.
Laurenti and others assert that when captured it throws itself into
a position of such rigidity that it sometimes breaks in two, and
that a smart blow of a switch will at any time divide it.
[There are little-known species of Anguis in India and South
Africa, which are at least provisionally so considered, and certainly
do not differ essentially ; and next we come to forms in which the
limbs are successively more developed. Such are the Ophiodes
striatus of Brazil, which has two short, flattened, .undivided, and
one-pointed limbs, corresponding to the usual hind pair; the
Brachymeles bonitee of the Philippines, in which there are two
pairs of short and rudimentary limbs, the fore bearing two minute
claws, while the hind are undivided ; Venira bicolor, of the same
archipelago, has very short limbs, the fore and hind being placed
distantly apart, but in this genus all have five distinct toes ;
Chiamelea lineata, from some part of India, and Hagria Vosmaerii,
from Bengal, are kindred forms which conduct to the genus
Ewneces, the species of which are very numerous, and spread over
nearly all the different countries between or near the tropics, and
in certain of them (as the Burmese E. anguinus) the limbs are still
remarkably diminutive, and (as in E, isodactylus of Cambodia) the
fore and hind limbs are placed very far apart, the body and tail
being long and anguiform. In various other species of Eumeces,
however, the proportions are more those of an ordinary Scink, as
again in the kindred genera Mabonia and Plestiodon, which are
widely distributed.
In other series of Scinks, the distinctions of which are far from
being conspicuous, we again have limbless genera, or nearly so,
as the Australian Soridia lineata, which has one pair of small,
posterior, undivided extremities ; while in another Australian form,
the Rhodona punctata, the anterior pair of limbs are simple and
undivided, while the hinder divide into two unequal toes, and the
two pairs of limbs are situate as distantly apart. And thus we
may continue to trace the successive gradations, in sundry genera,
until we arrive at the Scinais qffidnalis of North Africa, a well-
known reptile, the geographical range of which extends eastward
into Afghanistan, and which was formerly in considerable request
SCINKS. 105
for its supposed medicinal properties. Indeed, this notion still
prevails in Hindustan, into which country dried specimens of both
this reptile and of Sphenocephalus tridactylus (p. 101) are brought
by Afghan traders, and are sold in the bazars. Both of these are
Sand Lizards, which burrow into the sand with great rapidity.
We now come to the Tropidophorince, or second sub-family of
Scinks indicated by Dr. Gray (vide}). 102), which have always well-
developed limbs, the body only moderately elongated, and the
scales variously keeled. Several species of larger size appertain to
this series, as the Cyclodus gigas of Australia, and the curious
Stump- tail Lizards, Trachydosaurus rugosus and T. asper, of the
same insular continent, which latter have most prominently rugous
scales, and the tail literally appearing like the short and abrupt stump
of one. Egernia Cunninghami and Tropidolesma (of different species)
are other comparatively large Australian Lizards ; and examples of
most of those that have been mentioned may generally be seen
alive in the London Zoological Gardens, where the Cyclodus gigas
has bred and proves to be viviparous. Of the species of Euprepes,
of which several inhabit the Indian region, some (as the very
common E. rufescens) are viviparous, and others (as E. multica-
rinata) are oviparous. These have three more distinct, though not
prominent, keels upon each scale ; and the different species inhabit
both the Old World and the New, as well as Australia. The
Galliwasps ( Celestus) of the West Indies, and sundry other genera,
do not greatly differ. Of Tropidophorus, which has exceedingly
rugged scales, the species inhabit the Indo-Chinese countries, and
one ( T. codnsinensis) is found likewise in the Philippines ; while of
another (T. Berdmarei), in Burmah, Mr. Theobald remarks that
" its scales are dull and lustreless, and the coloration peculiar for a
Scink. It harbours under half-immersed stones, and enters the
water and gravel freely." In several of this family of Lizards
the scales are beautifully iridescent, and many of them show
longitudinal pale or white lines, or are otherwise variegated.
Nearly akin to the extensive family of Scincidcey there are three
small families (as classed by Dr. Gray), the species of which
are peculiar to Australia. They have small, undivided, posterior
limbs only, or are quite limbless. These families are the Lialisidto,
founded on three or more species of a single genus, Lialis ; the
106 SAUKIANS.
Aprasiada, founded upon one species only — Aprasia pulckella,
which is limbless ; and the Pygopodidte, comprising the two
genera Pygopus and Delma, the former containing two, the latter
only one ascertained species, The GyiHnoptkalmidce constitute still
another small family, quadrupedal, but with the limbs small and
weak. Of seven genera referred to it, five are Australian, one is
European, and one belongs to South America. Ablepharus panno-
nicus is a small Lizard of this family, inhabiting Eastern Europe,
with a congener, A. bivittatus, in the Caucasus ; and Gymno-
pthalmus lineatus inhabits Brazil and the Island of Martinique.
In the second tribe of Leptoglossa, entitled Cyclosaura, the
scales of the belly are square, in cross bands ; those of the back
and tail are rhombic and imbricate, or circular and subgranular ;
the tongue is lengthened, and more or less conspicuously furcate ;
and the eyes are diurnal, having two valvular lids. The limbs are
generally well developed ; but in several genera they still are more
or less rudimentary, or even absent.
There are four small families in which the sides are rounded and
covered with scales like the back. Of these, that of Cham&sauridce,
is founded upon the South African Lacerta anguina of Linnaeus, now
Chamaesaura anguina) which has the limbs quite rudimentary. In
the American families of Cercosauridae, Ckirocolidae, and Anadiadae,
the limbs are moderately developed, and have each five toes. The
two last-mentioned families are founded each upon a single species,
Chirocolus imbricatus and Anadia ocellata ; and the other contains
the two genera Circosaura and Lepisoma — of which the first com-
prises some two or three species only. All of these reptiles have
exceedingly long tails, though not so inordinately long as in the
Lacertidfe of the genus Tacky dromus.
Certain other families have a distinct longitudinal fold, covered
with small granular scales on each side. These are the families
Chalddae, Holaspidce, and the more extensive one of Zonuridte.
The Chalcida have the head covered with regular many-sided
shields, and the lateral fold is indistinct ; limbs small and rudi-
mentary, and the hind feet are undivided in the genera Chalcis and
Bachia, with three tubercles in place of toes in Microdacfylus, and
with four clawed toes in Brachypus. Each of these genera is
founded on a single species, and all are doubtless peculiar to the
107
New World. The .Holaspidce is also founded on one species only,
the Holaspis Gucntheri, which again is supposed to be South
American. It has four well- developed limbs, a double row of
plates along the back and upper surface of the tail, and the latter
organ is curiously serrated laterally.
The Zonuridtf constitute a considerable family, to which some
eighteen or twenty genera are assigned, and which present con-
siderable modification of form. The ears are distinct, whereas in
the Ckalcidae they are hidden under the skin. The head is
pyramidal, or depressed, and covered with regular many-sided
shields ; eyes with two valvular lids. Limbs mostly well developed,
but short in some, and rudimentary, or even wanting in the so-
called " Glass-snakes " which constitute the sub-family Pseuda-
podince. There is no external trace of them in the North American
Glass-snake, Ophisaurus ventralis ; and in the Old World genus,
Pseudopus, there is only one pair, posterior, rudimentary, and
undivided. These reptiles are long, and serpentiform in shape :
whilst in other Saurians the whole skin of the belly and of the
sides is extensible, the extensibility is limited in the " Glass-
snakes " to a separate part of the skin ; and, as Dr. Giinther
remarks, " the scaly covering of the upper and lower parts is so
tight that it does not admit of the same extension as in Snakes
and other Lizards ; and the Pseudopus, therefore, could not receive
the same quantity of food in its stomach as those animals, were
it not for the expansible fold of the skin running along each side
of its trunk." One species of Pseudopus, the P. Pallasii, inhabits
Asia Minor and the south-east of Europe ; and there is another,
P. gracilis, in the Indo-Chinese countries (or those lying eastward
of the Bay of Bengal). A second sub-family, Gerrhonotinte, is
peculiar to America, and consists of more ordinarily-shaped Lizards,
which are ranged in four genera. Together with the Ophisaurus,
or American Glass-snake, they are the only known Zonuridce that
inhabit the New World. The great mass of this family and all of
its most characteristic species are African, and these are arranged
by Dr. Gray under the sub-families Cicignince and Zonurince. In
the first of these sub-families the tail is smooth, or unarmed, and
in the second it is spinous. The Cordules, Cordylus, Zonurus, &c.,
are very characteristic Lizards chiefly of Southern Africa, several
108 SAUEIANS.
species of which have been figured by Sir Andrew Smith. They
are mostly of shortish form, and the neck is more or less spinous ;
the body-scales in some (as Zonurus cataphractus) being extra-
ordinarily rugous. These Lizards squeeze themselves into crevices
in the rocks, in which they hold on so firmly by their nuchal
spines that it is next to impossible to dislodge them, the tail com-
monly giving way at once if it be attempted to pull them forth by
means of it.
The family of Lacertida, comprising our ordinary European
Lizards, have no longitudinal fold along the sides, but generally
one across the throat; the tail is very long, rounded, with its
scales arranged in rings, being also fragile ; the head is covered
with shields, which are symmetrically arranged ; scales on the
back granular or rhombic ; on the sides granular ; on the belly
largely quadrangular or rounded, and arranged in cross-bands ;
eyes diurnal, with eyelids ; the tympanum distinct ; limbs always
four, and well developed. This group of Lizards has no repre-
sentative in America or (so far as known) in Australia.
The sub-family of Tachydromince is included by Dr. Gray in the
family Zonuridce. These are Asiatic Lizards, with a most in-
ordinate length of tail, the fore and hind limbs being not placed
distantly apart, as in the various anguiform Lizards already
treated of — there is an indistinct collar, and the toes are not ser-
rated or keeled. Two genera have been distinguished, Tachy-
dromus and Tachysaurus, the latter founded on a Japanese Lizard,
T.japonicus. At least three species are known of Tacky dromus,
two of which inhabit China, T. septentrionalis and T. meridionalis ;
the third belonging to the Indo-Chinese countries, T. sex-lineatus.
In an example of the last, measuring fourteen inches long, the
tail occupies eleven inches and a half. It is the longest-tailed
creature that we have any knowledge of, in proportion to its
other parts ; indeed, something quite wonderful to behold and muse
over.
The rest of the Lacertidae are chiefly from Africa and the south
of Europe ; there are probably more of them to be discovered in
Middle Asia, and only three or four species are known to inhabit
the Indian region. Fifteen ,or more genera are recognised. In
temperate Europe (inclusive of the British Islands) two species
GREY LIZARD. 109
are common — the Zoolica vivipara and the Lacerta agilis. The
former, as its name imports, is viviparous, whereas the other
genera belonging to the family are (so far as known) oviparous.
Others occur in the south of Europe.]
The common Grey or Sand Lizard (L. agilis], sometimes attains
the length of from eight to ten inches, of which the tail occupies more
than half. These little inoffensive creatures, so common in Southern
Europe, are slender and active ; their movements are so rapid that
they escape the eye as quickly as a bird. They require a mild tem-
perature, and seek shelter among ruins. When the sun strikes
with its meridian force upon a wall, they may be seen basking in
its rays, enjoying themselves delightedly upon the heated surface.
They seem to be pervaded with the blessed warmth, and mark
their pleasure by soft undulations of the tail. It is commonly
said that the Lizard is the friend of Man, since far from flying at
his approach, they seem to regard his appearance with great
complacency. They pass the winter at the bottom of small holes
which they have hollowed out of the earth, where they become
torpid. At the commencement of spring they issue from their
hiding-place, and each seeks its mate ; they go in pairs, male
and female, it is said, living in faithful union for many years,
sharing between them the domestic arrangements, which com-
prise hatching the young and nursing them in their helplessness,
carrying them into warm and sunny places, and sheltering them
from cold and damp.
Lizards feed chiefly upon insects, and especially flies. All who
have watched the actions of the Grey Lizards must have observed
that the caudal vertebrae are so extremely fragile that they separate
on the slightest touch, the tail remaining in the hand of any
one attempting to seize it. These tails sometimes grow again.
When an attempt is made to seize a Grey Lizard on the wall
ifc lets itself fall to the ground, and remains there a moment
immovable before attempting to run, evidently simulating death.
Grey Lizards are easily tamed, and appear happy in captivity.
From their extreme gentleness they soon become familiar with
their keepers, and return caress for caress, approaching mouth to
mouth, and suck the saliva from between their lips with a grace
that few people would allow them to display.
110
SAUPJANS.
In the Green Lizard, L. viridis, the scales of the temple are many-
sided and unequal, with a central layer; back granular and oblong,
with shelving sides; throat fold distinct. Nothing can be more
brilliant than the variegated colouring with which it is ornamented.
Its favourite locality is a slightly elevated woody place, where the
sun's rays readily penetrate. It is also found in sunny meadows.
It feeds upon small insects, and shows no alarm at the presence of
Man, but stops to look at him. Snakes, on the contrary, they
Fig. 27-— Green Lizard and Ocellated Lizard.
seem to fear much, but when they cannot avoid them they fight
courageously. In length they are about eighteen inches.
Green Lizards are found in Jersey and Guernsey, and other warm
countries of Europe, on the African coast of the Mediterranean,
and they are not rare in France.
How often have we admired their magnificent colours in the
neighbourhood of Montpelier, where they rival the green of the
meadows, and glitter in the sun like so many living emeralds !
In the Ocellated Lizard, L. ocellata, the upper part of the body
TEID2E. Ill
is green, variegated, spotted, and reticulated or ocellated with black,
having large round blue spots upon the flanks ; the under- part of the
body is white, frosted with green; in size it is about twenty inches.
They are found at Fontainebleau, in the south of France, and in
Spain. They establish themselves in hard sand, often between two
beds of calcareous rock, upon some steep declivity, more or less
directly exposed to the south ; they are also found between the
roots of old stems, either in hedgerows or vineyards. They feed
almost exclusively on insects ; but are said, to attack Mice,
Shrews, Frogs, and even Snakes, and to destroy the eggs of the
Partridge. They have sometimes been tamed by feeding them
on milk.
[In the genus Ophiops, two species of which inhabit Asia Minor,
and one of them the shores of the Mediterranean, the eyelid is
rudimentary and the eye exposed, whence the name, signifying
" snake eye/' So far as known, the habits of the various Lizards
which constitute the family of Lacertidce are much the same.
The family of Teida is peculiar to the New World, and some
of the species attain to the length of several feet. In these Lizards
the head is pyramidal, and is covered with regular many-sided
shields ; supra- orbital plate horny ; the teeth solid and well
rooted; tongue elongate, flat, free (rarely slightly sheathed at
its base) ; the scales of the back are regular and keeled, and of a
rhombic shape ; sides flat, and covered with small granular scales ;
the throat scaly, with a double collar, rarely indistinct.
In some the throat has two cross- folds, with large six-sided
scales within ; and of these some have the ventral shields small,
long, and smooth, while others have them much broader. The
former are known as the Teguexins (Teius and Callopistes) , and
the latter as the Ameivas (Ameiva, and three other genera). One
species of Teguexin, Teius teguexin, may commonly be seen alive
in the London Zoological Gardens. This is a large and powerful
Lizard, exceeding five feet in length when full grown, and ex-
tremely active. It feeds on small living animals of any kind, and
will even devour poultry, and especially their eggs, for which
latter it manifests an especial liking, as observed in captivity.
Sometimes it has been known to prey on other and kindred
Lizards, as the Ameivas. The teeth of this species are strong,
112 SAURIANS.
and the reptile can bite with great force. It is a bold and
determined combatant when attacked, and if it succeeds in seizing
its foe, retains its hold with pertinacity. Its flesh is eaten by
some people, who consider it excellent. Together with a second
species, T. nigropunctatus, it inhabits Brazil, and the two species of
Callopistes are also South American, one at least of them occur-
ring in Chili. The species of this family, although strong and
agile, never ascend trees, but range at will the hot sandy plains
or the dense and damp underwood on the margins of lakes and
rivers, into which they plunge when alarmed, and remain below
the surface until the danger has passed away, their capacious
lungs and imperfect circulation permitting them to endure a
very long immersion without inconvenience.
The Ameivas have a long whip-like tail, and peculiarly
elongated toes on their hind feet. The species of Ameiva and
Cnemidopkorus are numerous, and the genera Dicrodon and
Acrantus are founded each of them upon a single species. In
general these are Lizards which correspond with the ordinary
Lacertidae of the Old World. One species only, Cnemidophorus
sex-lineatus, inhabits the Southern States of North America ; there
are at least four others in Mexico, and the rest belong to South
America and the Antilles. " The Ameiva dorsalis" writes Mr.
Gosse, '•' is one of the most common of the reptiles of Jamaica, and
is as beautiful as abundant. Its colours are striking, but not
showy, and its countenance has a very meek expression. All its
motions are elegant and sprightly ; when it is proceeding de-
liberately, its body is thrown into latent curves the most graceful
imaginable ; but when alarmed its swiftness is so excessive that it
appears as if it literally flew over the ground, and the observer can
scarcely persuade himself that it is not a bird. It is very timid,
and though its toes are not formed as in the Geckos and Anoles,
for holding on against gravity, I have seen a large Ameiva run
with facility on the side of a dry wall, along the perpendicular
surfaces of the large stones."
A second series occurs in those Teidce which have a collar of
large shields on the throat. As many as five genera of them have
been established, each upon a single species, and all are from
intertropical America. In Crocodilurus lacertinus the two rows
VAEANIDJB. 113
of crests along the tail recall to mind the Crocodiles, whence the
name bestowed. Others have been styled Dragons, as the Great
Dragon, Ada guianensis, and the Smaller Dragon, Custa bicarinata.
All bear a certain amount of superficial resemblance to the Croco-
diles, and the Great Dragon grows to six feet in length, and is
found in many parts of South America. This large reptile runs up
the trunks of trees with facility, is quick when on the ground, and
it also swims, though not particularly well. It preys upon such
small animals as it can manage to seize, and chiefly frequents the
inundated savannahs and marshy localities, where it is seen bask-
ing in the sunshine ; but there is considerable difficulty in taking
this Lizard, as it makes generally for its burrow in some raised
spot, and bites desperately in self-defence. Its flesh is eaten, and
is considered a delicacy. Its eggs, also, are considerably esteemed
at Cayenne and other places, and each female lays some dozens of
them.
The family of Helodermidce is founded on a very remarkable
Lizard from Mexico, the H. horridum, which is of the same size as
the Great Dragon, and in some respects approximates the following
Old World family of Vamnidce. Its back and sides are covered
with oblong, hexagonal, very convex and shield-like scales, and
the belly with oblong, rather convex plates ; tail cylindrical,
with oblong, convex scales above, and flat, elongate, thin plates be-
neath. The head is somewhat flattened, and is covered with poly-
gonal, convex shields ; the muzzle is rounded ; and the teeth are
on the inner side of the jaws, incurved, with a groove on the front
of their inner side. The bite of this reptile is said to be severe.
The family of Varanidce inhabit South-eastern Asia and its
islands, Africa, and Australia. In this family are comprised the
largest of existing Lizards, with the exception of the CrocodilidcR.
They are very commonly miscalled Iguanas by Europeans and
their descendants, in the countries where they are found. These
reptiles have a pyramid- shaped head, more or less elongated, and
covered with small and scale-like, but not imbricate, shields. Their
teeth are acute and compressed. The tongue is elongate, slender,
terminating in a long fork, and is retractile into a sheath at its
base. Their scales are small, equal on the sides and on the back,
and arranged in cross rings ; those on the belly and tail are
I
114 SAUEIANS.
square, in cross bands. Tail long, and generally more or less
compressed. The feet are well developed, with five toes on each,
which are armed with strong claws. Most of them live near
water, and they are excellent swimmers, their long and com-
pressed tail serving as a propeller. Their movements on land
are not much less rapid than in the water. Several of the species
climb trees, and they are more or less nocturnal in their time of
action, though also about by day. They are exclusively carni-
vorous, feeding on the different water animals, and on the eggs
of birds, and likewise on those of other large reptiles; some of
them are also destructive to ducklings, and to various Snakes.
Dr. Giinther remarks that " their external nasal opening leads
into a spacious cavity situated in the snout ; when the animal
dives, it closes the nasal aperture, and retaining a certain quantity
of air in that pouch, or rather in the two pouches, it is enabled
to remain under water for a prolonged period without the neces-
sity of rising to the surface in order to breathe. It is the same
plan of structure as that with which a large northern Seal
(Cystophora borealis) is provided." In like manner, the air-bag
connected with the one developed lung of the Ophidians retains
the necessary supply of air during the tedious process of degluti-
tion or swallowing. The nostrils are variously placed, either mid-
way between the eye and muzzle, or nearer to one or to the other ;
and according to this and some other differences, Dr. Gray divides
the Varanidae into as many as seven genera, but Dr. Giinther would
seem to admit not more than two genera. When the tail of these
Lizards is mutilated, the lost portion is never renewed ; whereas
in the preceding families of the Zonuridae, Lacertidce, and Teida
a new tail or portion of one soon sprouts forth — but this renewed
portion contains no bony vertebrae, and it remains smooth exter-
nally ; when the fracture is cleft, as sometimes happens, two
new tails -are put forth. Another family of Lizards in which the
tail is thus commonly renewed is that of the Geckos ; but never
in the Iguanidce, the Agamidce, and the Ckameleonidce, any more
than in the Varanidw. The species of this family defend them-
selves vigorously, when attacked, by lashing forth smart blows
with the tail, as do also the Crocodiles and the larger Iguanidce.
In the genus Varanus, the nasal apertures form an oblique
115
slit, in, or nearly in, the middle, between the eye and the tip of the
snout. The scales are elliptic and small ; those on the back and
on the sides are not imbricate, each of them being surrounded by a
small, circular, granular fold. Tail with a low crest, formed by two
or four series of strongly keeled scales. Throat with a transverse
fold. One very common in India and Ceylon is the V. draccena,
which grows to a length of five feet, the tail being longer than the
body. These reptiles live in holes, and in midday they steal out of
their cells to seek their food, which consists chiefly of the smaller
reptiles and of insects. In many parts of India, and in Ceylon, the
flesh is much eaten by the natives. The late Dr. Kelaart states
that he once tried some excellent soup made from it, which tasted
not unlike hare-soup. At Trincomali, he tells us, they are hunted
down by Dogs, and sold in the market for sixpence each. This
species climbs walls, and holds on so firmly with its strong claws,
wherever these can be inserted, that it is actually used by house-
breakers in India to help in raising themselves up a wall or
building, the man grasping the tail, while the reptile affords a lift
by endeavouring to escape from him upwards. It lays twenty or
thirty eggs, which in texture and appearance resemble those of many
Snakes, being similarly agglutinated together by a viscid mucus.
Sir J. E. Tennent remarks that " one of the earliest, if not the
first, remarkable animal to startle a stranger on arriving in Ceylon,
whilst wending his way from Point de Galle to Colombo, is this
large Lizard, which may be seen at noonday searching for Ants
and other insects in the midst of the highway and along the
fences. When disturbed, but by no means alarmed, by the
approach of Man, it moves off to a safe distance ; and the intrusion
being at an end, it returns again to the occupation in which it had
been interrupted. It lives in any convenient hollow, such as a
hole in the ground, or the deserted nests of the Termites ; and
some small ones, which frequented my garden at Colombo, made
their retreat in the heart of a decayed tree."
Of another species, V.flavescens, which inhabits Lower Bengal,
and to the eastward in Burmah, &c., Mr. Theobald remarks that
" large specimens are not often procurable by Europeans, as they
are much sought after by both Burmese and Karens as choice
articles of food. They are chiefly hunted with Dogs, whose scent
116 SAUEIANS.
enables them to discover the Yarans in the hollow trees in which
they habitually shelter themselves. A Burman, though ordinarily
a lazy man, will think nothing of cutting down and breaking up a
large tree in which one of these creatures has sought refuge. The
Varanidce deposit their eggs in the ground, usually selecting a
deserted White-ant's nest. The eggs are cylindrical, with taper-
ing ends, of a dirty white colour and leathery texture (those of
V. drac&na are two inches long), and, being esteemed an uncom-
mon luxury by the Burmese, sell dearer than fowls' eggs. They
are oily and feculent-looking, though devoid of any nauseous
odour, and some Europeans eat them with pleasure.
A well-known African species, the V. or Psammosaurus scincus,
extends (without the slightest difference) to the extreme desert
region of the north-west of India, and more habitually frequents
dry localities than others, In this species the nasal apertures are
placed very near the eyes.
In the genus Hijdrosaurus, the nostrils are more or less
rounded, and are situate near the extremity of the snout. These
animals are more decidedly aquatic than the preceding, and
some of the species grow to seven or even eight feet in length.
Such is the H. giganteus of Australia, where three, if not four,
species inhabit. In all south-eastern Asia and its islands,
its range extending to Lower Bengal but not to India proper,
although found in Ceylon, the //. salvator is a common species,
which, according to the late Dr. Cantor, is "very numerous
in hilly and marshy localities of the Malayan peninsula. It is
commonly, during the day, observed in the branches of trees over-
hanging rivers, preying upon birds and their eggs and smaller
Lizards, and when disturbed it throws itself from a considerable
height into the water ; it will courageously defend itself with
teeth and claws, and by blows with its tail."
We have now to treat of the
PACHYGLOSSA,
Which are those Lizards which have the tongue short, thick, at-
tached to the gullet, and not exsertile, These fall under two very
distinct tribes — the Strobilosaura and Nyctisaura of Dr. Gray, or
IGUANAS. 117
the tribe of the Iguanas and their kindred, and that of the Geckos
and their kindred. The tribe of
STROBILOSAURA
Have the scales of the back and sides imbricate, generally rhombic,
and those of the lower parts imbricate and of small size. Tail
with more or less distinct whorls of scales. The eyes diurnal,
with round pupil, and valvular lids. Feet with toes of very
unequal length. Many of these reptiles have a row of spines or
spine-like scales along the back and tail, which in some are very
long, while others have high dorsal and caudal crests, an expansile
gular pouch, or other adornments. Like the Yarans among the
Leptoglossa (p. 114), these Lizards do not renew the tail, or a
portion of it, after mutilation. There are two great families of
them — one peculiar to the Old World with Australia, the other to
the New World ; but as families they do not differ much, and might
very well be retained as divisions of the same extensive family.
In the family of Jguanidcey all of which inhabit America or its
islands, the teeth are round at the root, dilated and compressed at
the tip, and toothed at the edge; they are placed in a simple
series on the inner side of the jaws, just below the edge, and are
covered on the inner side by the gums ; as they fall out they are
replaced by others, which grow at the base of their predecessors,
and gradually cause the absorption of their roots. Probably not
fewer than a hundred and fifty species are now recognised, which
are distributed under more than fifty genera. We can only
notice a few of the most remarkable of these Lizards, some of the
larger of which attain a length of five or six feet, with propor-
tionate bulk of body. As a general rule, the larger species are
mainly herbivorous, while the smaller are chiefly insectivorous,
though many of the latter also devour fruit. As most of them are
remarkable for their rapid changes of colouring, the name of
Chameleon is often misapplied to them, in the supposition that
the Chameleons are the only Lizards in which that curious phe-
nomenon is observable. In one remarkable species, the Sphcerops
anomalus, inhabiting Brazil, it is stated that the eye nearly re-
sembles, that of the true Chameleons, and it is also one of those
which are particularly celebrated for its changes of hue.]
H8
SAUEIANS.
The name Iguana was given by Laurenti to a heterogeneous group
of Saurians, various forms being included which were first separated
by Daudin. The Iguanas, as thus restricted, are characterized by a
very large thin dew-lap under the neck, a double row of small
palatal teeth, and a crest on the back and tail ; the latter long,
slender, compressed, and covered with small imbricated and cari-
iiated scales. Messrs. Dumeril and Bibron describe the genus, thus
modified, as principally remarkable for the cutaneous prolongation
which constitutes the deep and thin dew-lap, or pouch, the free
border of which describes a curved line, and is dentated at the part
Fig. 28. — Iguana tuberculata.
nearest the chin. The head is moderately long, and has the form
of a pyramid with four faces. The neck is slightly compressed,
the limbs long, the toes unequal and sometimes denticulate on the
edge. The five toes of the posterior feet are graduated ; the tail,
which is long and slender, is slightly flattened from right to left.
IGUANAS. 119
The Iguanas live chiefly on trees, but they take readily to the
water, swimming with great facility.
There are numerous species, all of which are found in South
America and the Antilles. In the Island of Isabella, Sir E. Belcher
found swarms of them which he had reason to consider omnivorous,
feeding voraciously on birds' eggs and the intestines of birds and
insects.
The Common Iguana, /. tuberculata, which inhabits a great part
of South America, is one of the best known species of this family.
These reptiles are easily recognised from the large pouch under-
neath the neck, and the dentated crest which extends from the head
to the extremity of the tail. The tail, feet, and body are covered
with small scales. On the upper part, their colour is a more or less
decided green, sometimes becoming blue, at others slate- coloured ;
the lower part is of a yellowish green. The sides present zigzag,
roundish, brown scales, edged with yellow ; frequently a yellow
line is traced obliquely in front of the shoulder, and some indi-
viduals are sprinkled with brown ; others have the limbs spotted
with brown on a black ground. The tail is surrounded with
brownish rays alternating with others green and yellow. When
full grown it attains the length of four feet, but the more ordi-
nary length of the animals is about thirty inches. They are very
gentle creatures, and perfectly harmless, feeding almost exclu-
sively on vegetables. They are hunted in America for their flesh,
which is excellent ; and they are especially common at Surinam,
in the neighbourhood of Cayenne, and in Brazil.
[Of a kindred species, Metopoceros cornutus, which also is
common in the Antilles, an excellent description has been pub-
lished by Lieutenant Tyler,* which we must endeavour to con-
dense. This reptile attains a length of five, and sometimes even
of six feet, the tail being about twice and three quarters the
length of the body. When first hatched it measures four inches.
The mouth is large, and is armed with two rows of maxillary and
two of palatal teeth, which appear simply to be intended to crop
leaves and to provide the stomach with vegetable food. Each
maxillary tooth is a little double-edged saw, and they are so
lapped over each other that the reptile, in closing its mouth upon
* " Proceedings of the Zoological Society " for 1850, p. 106.
120 SAUEIANS.
a leaf, cuts through it completely. The tongue is curiously used
by the animal to draw food into the mouth, and to forward it
down the gullet, or to repel it at will, and the only use of the
palatal teeth appears to be to secure the food while the tongue
moves forward to afford fresh assistance in its journey down the
throat. The tongue is always covered by a glutinous secretion,
which is perceptibly appended to the jaws when the mouth is
open. Between the lower jaw and the chest is a pouch, which the
animal draws in or extends simultaneously with the compression
or swelling out of the body when enraged or excited. The
portion of the gular pouch attached to the jaw is inflatable, and
food is sometimes retained in it for a considerable period, but the
lower part is merely extensible.
" Whilst always retaining the same colours, this Iguana has the
power of considerably changing its hues ; but these changes are
gradually performed. The colours become more dull as the
period of the change of cuticle approaches — which is not, however,
very frequent. Each scale has its own tint, and the colours
being thus irregularly blended, an appearance is given, particu-
larly to the younger reptiles, very much like that of worsted-
work.
" These Iguanas live principally on trees, and near the wind-
ward coast of the island" (of St. Lucia). " They are not much
seen, excepting in the months of February, March, and April, when
they quit their hiding-places, and repair to the sea-shore or other
sandy places to lay their eggs in the sand. The older females lay
a great number of eggs. I have known an instance of one in
confinement laying five in one day, and thirty- two within the
space of ten minutes five days afterwards, making thirty-seven in
all. Younger females are much less prolific, according to their
size. The eggs are very liable to destruction by Ants, which fact
probably accounts for their being usually deposited in sea-sand.
They are soft, and without any white, and their shell resembles
the most beautiful kid leather used for French gloves, of a very
light straw-colour. They are about the size of those of a domestic
Pigeon, but rather longer ; but they vary in dimensions according
to the age and size of the Iguana.
" This Iguana is not averse to water, when not too cold, taking
IGUANAS. 121
to it only when the sun is shining ; in fact, not moving about
much at any other time. Its mode of swimming differs from that
of other Lizards, inasmuch as it places its four legs close by the
side of its body, and swims entirely with its tail. It dives with
great facility, and remains sometimes for a considerable time
under water. I believe that it never ventures into the sea. The
tail is a very valuable limb ; for, besides being the sole means of
swimming possessed by the animal, it is of great use in climbing
trees, although not prehensile ; and it is a most important weapon
of defence, a blow from it being frequently sufficient to inflict a
severe wound. In fact, this reptile is rather formidable when
brought to bay in the woods. It is hunted by the natives with
Dogs trained for the purpose. The Dog, immediately upon
scenting it, gives tongue, and, if on the ground, the Dog seizes it
by the back, and either kills it or maims it, which makes its
capture easy ; if in a tree, the Iguana is either shaken down — a
matter ordinarily of no small difficulty — or the branch is cut off.
It is almost useless to attempt to find these reptiles without Dogs,
as the resemblance of their colour to that of the trees which they
inhabit prevents them from being easily seen. Few Dogs but
those accustomed to the sport will touch them, as, in addition to
the blows which they inflict with the tail, they bite and scratch
furiously ; and when once they lay hold of anything with their
teeth, they can only be made to let go by an inducement to bite
some other attractive object being offered to them. They run
into holes when chased, if an opportunity offers, and when their
eyes are hidden from view, they fancy that their whole body is
safely covered. The flesh, particularly of the female, is a great
delicacy ; it is cooked in various ways, sometimes in a fricassee,
with the eggs whole, sometimes roasted or stewed. The eggs
have a very glutinous consistence. The flesh is said to disagree
with some constitutions.
" Unless when caught young, it is very difficult to induce these
reptiles to feed in confinement, and particularly when watched.
Their disposition is sulky and savage, and I have known some of
them," continues Lieutenant Tyler, " to die in confinement from
starvation, rather than feed. This has caused me to try the
following plan, which I find very successful, of affording them
122 SAUEIANS.
nourishment : — I hold them by the lower part of the body with
one hand, and with the other I irritate them until they open their
mouth and attempt to bite, when I insert food ; and by annoying
them in this way, I have not only made them eat their natural
food, but I have killed some of them by forcing them to eat corn
and leaves, which appear to have disagreed with them. By some
of the natives this Iguana is said to eat Lizards and insects ; but
I have opened several, and I have never succeeded in finding any
but vegetable matter in the stomach."
Of the habits of a kindred species of Iguana, the Cyclura lophura,
inhabiting Jamaica, Mr. Gosse has given an elaborate description ;
and he tells us that .the gular pouch in the Iguanida " is exten-
sible, but not inflatable" as is the current opinion. Holbrook and
others have remarked the same ; and Professor Thomas Bell
describes the fold of skin as being drawn down by a peculiar
arrangement of the lingual bone, and a singular cartilage fixed to
it and attached also to the skin. These parts are moved by deli-
cate muscles, so that, when the cartilage is drawn down, the skin
of course is distended, and follows it " in the same way that the
silk is stretched over the whalebone of an umbrella/' " In fact
the skin," writes Professor Holbrook, " when distended in life by
the animal, does not resemble the inflated vocal sacs of the Frogs
and Toads, which are round, but looks like a fold of the skin,
pinched and drawn down, the two portions of it being in contact,
like a dewlap." It appears that the Cyclura, also, is exclusively
herbivorous ; and Mr. Gosse remarks upon the severe wounds
which it inflicts upon Dogs with its sharply- serrated tail. In
general, the larger species of this family are solely vegetable -
feeders, while the smaller kinds (such as the Anoles) are more or
less insectivorous ; and there are some, of intermediate size, which
even prey occasionally upon the kindred Anoles and other small
animals. The genera of these reptiles are exceedingly numerous,
as we have seen, and amongst so many there must be considerable
variety in the habits ; but we can only notice a very few of them.
Within the limited area of the small archipelago of the Gallapagos,
situate on the equator about ten degrees west of South America,
there are two remarkable species of Iguanidce, of which the habits
have been described and commented upon by Mr. Darwin in his
IGUANAS. 123
volume of the " Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle" One of them is
particularly so, because, as that naturalist observes, it is the only
existing Saurian which can properly be said to be a maritime
animal. In the whole of that group of islands, as he tells us, there
is only one rill of fresh water that reaches the coast ; yet this
reptile frequents the sea-beaches, and no other parts of the islands.
He adds that it is the only known existing Lizard that feeds
exclusively on aquatic productions. Although he refers both
species to the genus Amblyrhynclms, the aquatic sort now con-
stitutes the genus Oreocephalus of Dr. Gray, and it bears the name
of O.cristatus. This Lizard, according to Mr, Darwin, "is ex-
tremely common on all the islands throughout the archipelago of
the Gallapagos. It lives exclusively on the rocky sea-beaches,
and is never found — at least, I never saw one — even ten yards
inshore. It is a hideous-looking creature, of a dirty black colour,
stupid and sluggish in its movements. The usual length of a full-
grown one is about a yard, but there are some even four feet long.
I have seen a large one which weighed twenty pounds. On the
island of Albemarle they seem to grow to a greater size than on
any other. These Lizards were occasionally seen some hundred
yards from the shore swimming about ; and Captain Colnett, in
his ' Voyage/ says, ' they go out to sea. in shoals to fish.' With
respect to the object, I believe that he is mistaken ; but the fact
stated on so good an authority cannot be doubted. When in the
water the animal swims with perfect ease and quickness, by a
serpentine movement of its body and flattened tail — the legs,
during this time, being motionless and closely collapsed on its
sides. A seaman on board sank one, with a heavy weight attached
to it, thinking thus to kill it directly ; but when an hour after-
wards he drew up the line, the Lizard was quite active. Their
limbs and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over
the rugged and fissured masses of lava which everywhere there
form the coast. In such situations, a group of six or seven of
these ugly reptiles may oftentimes be seen on the black rocks,
a few feet above the surf, basking in the sun with outstretched
legs. I opened the stomachs of several/' continues Mr. Darwin,
" and in each case found it largely distended with minced sea- weed
of that kind which grows in thin foliaceous expansions of a bright
124 SAUKIANS.
green or dull red colour. I do not recollect having observed this
sea- weed in any quantity on the tidal rocks ; and I have reason
to believe that it grows at the bottom, of the sea, at some little
distance from the coast. If such is the case, the object of
these animals occasionally going out to sea is explained. The
stomach contained nothing but the sea- weed. Mr. Bynoe, how-
ever, found a piece of a Crab in one ; but this might have got in
accidentally. The intestines were large, as in other herbivorous
animals."
The food of this Lizard, equally with its compressed form of
tail, and the certain fact of its having been seen voluntarily swim-
ming out at sea, absolutely prove its aquatic habits ; nevertheless,
as we are told by Mr. Darwin, " there is in this respect one
strange anomaly, namely, that when frightened it will not enter
the water. From this cause, it is easy to drive these Lizards down
to any little point overhanging the sea, where they will sooner
allow a person to catch hold of their tail than jump into the water.
They do not seem to have any notion of biting ; but when much
frightened they squirt a drop of fluid from each nostril. One day
I carried one to a deep pool left by the retiring tide, and threw it
in several times as far as I was able. It invariably returned in a
direct line to the spot where I stood. It swam near the bottom,
with a very graceful and rapid movement, and occasionally aided
itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As soon as it arrived
near the margin, but still being under water, it either tried to
conceal itself in the tufts of sea- weed, or it entered some crevice.
When it thought the danger was passed, it crawled out on the dry
rocks, and shuffled away as quickly as it could. I several times
caught this same Lizard by driving it down to a point, and though
possessed of such perfect powers of diving and swimming, nothing
would induce it to enter the water ; and as often as I threw it in,
it returned in the manner above described. Perhaps this singular
piece of apparent stupidity may be accounted for by the circum-
stance that this reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, whereas
at sea it must often fall a prey to the numerous Sharks. Hence,
probably urged by a fixed and hereditary instinct that the shore
is its place of safety, whatever the emergency may be, it there
takes refuge. I asked several of the inhabitants if they knew
IGUANAS. 125
where it laid its eggs : they said, that although well acquainted
with the eggs of the other kind, they had not the least knowledge
of the manner in which this species is propagated — a fact, con-
sidering how common an animal this Lizard is, not a little extra-
ordinary. During our visit (in October) I saw extremely few
small individuals of this species, and none I should think under
a year old. From this circumstance it seems probable that the
breeding season had not commenced."
The terrene species, AmblycepJwlus subcristatus, unlike the
aquatic one, is confined to the central islands of the Gallapagos
archipelago, where they inhabit both the higher and damp, as well
as the lower and sterile parts ; but in the latter they are much
more numerous. " I cannot give a more forcible proof of their
numbers," relates Mr. Darwin, " than by stating that, when we were
left at James Island, we could not for some time find a spot free
from their burrows on which to pitch our tent. These Lizards,
like their brothers of the sea-kind, are ugly animals ; and, from
their low facial angle, have a singularly stupid appearance. In
size, perhaps, they are a little inferior to the latter, but several of
them weighed between ten and fifteen pounds each. The colour
of their belly, front legs, and head (excepting the crown, which is
nearly white) is a dirty yellowish orange ; the back is of a brownish
red, which, in the younger specimens, is darker. In their move-
ments they are lazy and half-torpid. When not frightened, they
slowly crawl along, with their tails and bellies dragging on the
ground. They often stop and doze for a moment, with closed
eyes, and hind legs spread out on the parched soil. These Lizards
inhabit burrows ; which they sometimes excavate between frag-
ments of lava, but more generally on level patches of soft volcanic
sandstone. The holes do not appear to be very deep, and they
enter the ground at a small angle ; so that when walking over one
of these Lizard warrens, the soil is constantly giving way, much
to the annoyance of the tired pedestrian. This animal, when
excavating its burrows, alternately works the opposite sides of its
body. One front leg for a short times scratches up the soil, and
throws it towards the hind foot, which is well placed so as to heave
it beyond the mouth of the hole. This side of the body being
tired, the other takes up the task, and so alternately. I watched
126 SAURIANS.
one for a long time," continues Mr. Darwin, " till half of its body
was buried ; I then walked up and pulled it by the tail ; at this
it was greatly astonished, and soon shuffled up to see what was the
matter ; and then stared me in the face, as much as to say, ' What
made you pull my tail ? ' They feed by day, and do not wander
far from their burrows ; and, if frightened, they rush to them with
a most awkward gait. Except when running downhill, they
cannot move very fast ; which appears chiefly owing to the lateral
position of their legs. They are not at all timorous ; when atten-
tively watching any one, they curl up their tails, and raising them-
selves on their front legs, nod their head vertically, with a quick
movement, and try to look very fierce, but in reality they are not
at all so ; if one just stamps the ground, down go their tails, and
off they shuffle as quickly as they can. I have several times
observed small fly- eating Lizards, when watching anything, nod
their heads in precisely the same manner ; but I do not at all
know for what purpose. If the Amblyrhynchus is held, and
plagued with a stick, it will bite it very severely ; but I caught
many by the tail, and they never tried to bite me. If two are
placed on the ground, and held together, they will fight and bite
each other till blood is drawn. Those individuals (and they are
the greater number) which inhabit the lower country, can scarcely
taste a drop of water throughout the year; but they consume
much of the succulent cactus, the branches of which are occa-
sionally broken off by the wind. I have sometimes thrown a
piece to two or three when together ; and it was amusing enough
to see each trying to seize and carry it away in its mouth, like so
many hungry Dogs with a bone. They eat very deliberately, but
do not chew their food. The little birds are aware how harmless
these creatures are : I have seen one of the thick- billed Finches
(peculiar to the Gallapagos) picking at one end of a piece of cactus
— which is in request among all the animals of the lower region —
whilst a Lizard was eating at the other ; and afterwards the little
bird, with the utmost indifference, hopped on the back of the
reptile. The stomachs of several that I opened were full of
vegetable fibres and leaves of different trees, especially of a species
of Acacia. In the upper region they live chiefly on the acid and
astringent berries of the guayavita, under which trees I have seen
BASILISK. 127
these Lizards and the huge Tortoises feeding together. To obtain
the acacia leaves, they crawl up the low, stunted trees ; and it is
not uncommon to see one, or a pair, quietly browsing, whilst
seated on a branch several feet from the ground.
" The meat of these animals, when cooked, is white ; and by
those whose stomachs rise above all prejudices, it is relished as
very good food. Humboldt has remarked, that in intertropical
South America, all Lizards which, inhabit dry regions are esteemed
as delicacies for the table. The inhabitants of the Gallapagos say,
that those inhabiting the damp region drink water, but that the
others do not travel up for it from the sterile country, like the
gigantic Land Tortoises. At the time of our visit, the females
had within their bodies numerous large elongated eggs. These
they lay in their burrows, and the inhabitants seek them for
food." "
These two curious Lizards of the Gallapagos agree nearly in
general structure, and in many of their habits; and neither of
them has that rapidity of movement which is characteristic of
various other Iguanidae. The form of the head resembles a good
deal that of a land Tortoise, and we find the same form of head,
and again the same disinclination to bite, in certain herbivorous
Lizards, such as the Uromastyx and kindred forms, which are
referred by Dr. Gray to the corresponding Old World family of
AgamidaeJ]
In the family of Iguanas the Basilisk may be noted. According
to ancient authors, reproduced by writers of the middle ages, the
Basilisk, although such a small animal, could produce instant death
by its sting. The man whose eyes met theirs was supposed to be
at once devoured by an intense fire. Such are the fabulous ideas
which tradition has transmitted to us about these animals. It is
to be remarked, however, that the Basilisk of modern herpetology
is not the /foo-iAto-Kos, or Royal Serpent, of the ancients, the Cocka-
trice of Scripture. The reptile which now bears the name is an
inoffensive animal, living in the forests of Guiana, Martinique,
and Mexico, and leaping from branch to branch, in order to gather
the seeds or seize the insects on which it feeds.
The Basilisk is distinguished from the other Iguanian Lizards
by the absence of the long and dilatable skin under the throat,
128
SAUKIANS.
and by the presence of an elevated crest which runs along
the whole length of the back and tail.
The Hooded Basilisk, B. americanus (Fig. 29), measures seven or
eight inches from the nose to origin of the tail, which is itself nearly
three times as long, being nineteen or twenty inches in length.
Upon the occiput it has a sort of horn or bag, in shape like a
hood, round at the summit, and slightly inclined towards the
neck. This bag, when distended, is about the size of a pullet's
egg. In the male the back and tail are surmounted by a
raised crest, such as we have described above, sustained in its
Fig. 29.— Hooded Basilisk.
thickness by the knotty process of the vertebras. The general
colour is a mixture of sandy brown, slightly marbled on the back
and sides, with shades of blue on the upper part, and a silvery
white underneath. On the throat are larger bands of brown,,
and on each side of the eye is a white ray bordered with black,
which is lost upon the back ; and the tail is so remarkably
attenuated towards its extremity as to show the articulations of the
vertebrae beneath.
[According to Mr. 0. Salvin, the Basilisk is very common about
Lanquin, in the province of Guatemala, where it may frequently
be seen on the low branches of a bush, and it is particularly fond
of basking on the boughs of a felled tree in a clearing near a
ANGLES. 129
stream. In some specimens of the males, we are informed, the tail is
much more compressed than in others. In a series of the young
the crest is shown in all stages of development. We also learn
from this naturalist that, notwithstanding the compressed form of
its tail, the Basilisk does not habitually enter the water, as most
writers have supposed.
The sub- family of Anoles (Anoliince) have mostly the skin of
their toes widened (under the ante-penultimate phalanx) into an
oval disk, striated crosswise underneath, which enables them to
attach themselves to various surfaces. They do not attain the large
size of the Iguanas, and the habits and characteristics of the
various species inhabiting Jamaica are thus vividly described by
Mr. P. H. Gosse in his " Naturalist's Sojourn " in that beautiful
island. " The stranger/' he remarks, " walks into the dwelling-
house. Lizards, still Lizards, meet his eyes. The little Anoles
(A. iodurus, A. opalinus, &c.) are chasing each other in and out
between the jalousies, now stopping to protrude from the throat a
broad disk of brilliant colour, crimson or orange, like the petal of
a flower, then withdrawing it, and again displaying it in
coquettish sport. Then one leaps a yard or two through the air
and alights on the back of his playfellow ; and both struggle and
twist about in unimaginable contortions. Another is running up
and down on the plastered wall, catching the Ants as they roam
in black lines over its whitened surface ; and another leaps from
the top of some piece of furniture upon the back of the visitor's
chair, and scampers nimbly along the collar of his coat. It jumps
on the table ; — can it be the same ? An instant ago it was of the
most beautiful golden green, except the base of the tail, which was
of a soft, light, purple hue ; now, as if changed by an enchanter's
wand, it is of a dull sooty brown all over, and becomes momen-
tarily darker and darker, or mottled with dark and pale patches of
a most unpleasing aspect. Presently, however, the mental emotion,
whatever it was — anger, or fear, or dislike — has passed away, and
the lovely green hue sparkles in the glancing sunlight as before."
The green colour of certain of these Anoles so closely resembles
that of foliage, that they are apt to be overlooked. Thus Mr.
Gosse was about to throw a net over a Butterfly, when, as he
remarks, " on a slight rustle among the leaves, I observed that it
K
130 SAUEIANS.
was fluttering as if unable to get away. My impression was that
an invisible Spider's- web was holding it ; but, looking closer, I
found that a little green Anolis had the Butterfly in its mouth.
Its colour was so exactly that of the verdant leaves of the bush,
that I had not perceived it before, although my eyes were fixed on
the spot. I have also observed the same species feeding on Ants.
On a gateway a number of scattered Ants of a small kind were
running to and fro, as they very frequently are seen to do. A
beautiful male Anolis had stationed himself on the post perpen-
dicularly, with the head downwards, and as the Ants one by one
came near him he snapped them up. Each capture was the work
of an instant ; he touched the post with his muzzle, and the Ant
was gone : they were evidently seized with the lips, not with the
tongue. These little creatures are as playful as they are pretty.
As they creep about they often catch sight of another of the same
species ; immediately one suddenly raises and depresses the head
and fore-parts, flirts the tail from side to side, and extends the
goitre by means of the elastic arched bone in front, till its tip
reaches nearly as far as the muzzle. The brilliant goitre is thus
alternately extended and relaxed several times. After being thus
' signalized ' for a few seconds, one darts towards the other, who
usually runs away, apparently as if wishing to be caught." Else-
where Mr. Gosse describes the noosing of an example of a fine Lizard
of this Anolis group, the Dactyl®, Edwardsii, which is also a native
of Jamaica, " about a foot long, and of a lively green colour. He
was very savage, biting at everything near : presently his colour
began to change from green to blackish, till it was of an uniform
bluish black, with darker bands on the body, and a brownish black
on the tail ; the only trace of green was just around the eyes." He
was placed in a cage, and " at night," continues Mr. Gosse, "I
observed him vividly green as at first — a token, as I presumed,
that he had in some measure recovered his equanimity. The next
day he continued very fierce. I hung the cage out in the sun ; two
or three times in the course of the day I observed him green, but
for the most part he was black. The changes were rather quickly
accomplished. The food of this Lizard appears to include both
vegetable and animal substances. I was never able to induce
one to eat in captivity ; but the dissection of several has given me
LIZARDS. 131
this result. Thus in one I have found seeds and farinaceous
substance ; in another the fragments of a brilliant beetle of the
weevil group. I once observed one deliberately eat the ripe
glass-berries, munching half of one at a mouthfuL" *
Thus far we have treated of chiefly arboreal Iguanidcs ; and
although a Marine Lizard ( Trachycephalus cristatus) cannot well
be so designated, it nevertheless belongs to the same particular
series. We have next a long series of mainly terrene genera of
the same great American family, in which the body is subtrigonal
or depressed. As many as twenty-two genera, with sixty-one
species of the terrene Iguanidce, were catalogued by Dr. Gray in
1845, and a good many have since been added. There is a cor-
responding series in the kindred Old World family of Aganddce,
and in neither instance are the majority of them ground -frequent-
ing Lizards to any great extent. Thus, of Dr. Gray's first
genus Tropidolipis (so named from its large keeled scales), and of
which as many as nine species are given from Mexico, a tenth
(T. undulatus, of the United States) is described by Professor
Holbrook to inhabit chiefly the pine -forests, where it is often
found under the bark of decaying trees; it also commonly chooses
old fences for its basking-place. " It is exceedingly rapid in its
motions, climbing with great facility to the tops of trees, and is
hence not taken alive without great trouble. Its food consists
of insects, especially such as are found under decaying wood."
The colouring of this Lizard is remarkably brown, with narrow
zig-zag black bands above, and green below, with a white medium
stripe bordered with black ; throat and breast black, with a broad
green band across. Various species of kindred genera were
collected by Mr. Darwin, and are figured in the " Zoology of
H.M.S. Beagle" and of one of these (probably Lecolanus Dar-
winii}, which he observed at Bahia Blanca, in Northern Patagonia,
he remarks that " it lives on the bare sand near the sea-coast, and
from its mottled colour, the brownish scales being speckled with
white, yellowish red, and dirty blue, can hardly be distinguished
from the surrounding surface. When frightened it attempts to
avoid discovery by feigning death, with outstretched legs, depressed
body, and closed eyes : if further molested, it buries itself with
* "A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica," by P. H. Gosse.
132
SAUEIANS.
great quickness in the loose sand. This Lizard, from its flattened
body and short legs, cannot run quickly." With others these
Lizards constitute the sub-family Tropidolepina of Dr. Gray,
which are followed by the sub-family Phrynosomince, in which some
very singular Lizards find their place. The most extraordinary
of them constitute the genus Phrynosoma, four species of which
inhabit Western North America. These have great spines to
the occiput, in these respects resembling the African genus Cor-
dylus (p. 107), and very Toad-like proportions, looking somewhat
like Toads with short tails ; and again they decidedly approximate
in appearance to the curious Moloch horridus of Western Australia,
which belongs to the corresponding Old World family of Agan-
cida; and, like that strange reptile, they are slow of motion, and
perfectly harmless, and they may be handled with impunity, as
they never attempt to bite.]
FLYING LIZARDS.
Flying Lizards (Draco) have the head small, the nostrils
Fig. 30. — Flying Lizard (Draco volans).
in a scale, tubular, on the side ridge; tympanum white
and opaque. They live on trees, walking with agility with
their wings folded by their sides. These wings they expand
FLYING LIZAEDS. 133
and use as a parachute when they throw themselves upon their
prey from the tops of trees or other elevated places. But they
cannot move them as birds do their wings. These remarkable
appendages also serve to drive away insects.
[The fabulous Dragons of the ancient Greeks were Serpents or
Lizards with remarkably piercing sight, which guarded treasures
and devoured men. The Dragons of mediaeval artists were frightful
and fantastic beings, one half Bat and the other half quadruped
or Serpent. The little Saurians which now bear the once
dreaded name are no less interesting, although they are no longer
monsters ; they are distinguished from all other reptiles by a kind
of wing, which is a large fold of skin, or membrane, on each side of
the body. These wings are entirely independent of the other
members, being sustained by six false ribs, which do not surround
the abdomen, but rather extend horizontally. They are the only
existing examples of our day of that organic arrangement which
distinguished the reptiles known under the name of Pterodactyli,
and which belonged to the jurassique period of geology.
Dr. Gray divides the Draconina into three genera, namely : —
I. DracoSj having the ears naked, nostrils below the fore ridge,
of which three species are described — viz., I), volans, the Flying
Lizard (Fig. 30), having the scales of the back broad, generally
smooth, those of the throat granular ; wings grey, fulvous, or brown,
spotted and marbled with black, sometimes forming four or five
oblique black bands near the outer edge j the sides with a series of
large keeled scales : the Timor Flying Lizard, D. mridis Timor ensis
of Schlegel ; and the Fringed Flying \AzaxdLtD.jimbriatus, keeled.
II. Draconella, of which there are two species, one_Z>. Dussumieri,
having the nape crested ; and D. hcematopogon, the Red- throated
Dragon, without crest on the nape.
III. DracunculuSy of which five species are described — namely,
D. quinquefasciatus, the Banded Flying Lizard, nape not crested,
having a longitudinal fold ; D. lineatus, having the nape crested,
the ears slightly concave ; D. ornatus, wings grey, reticulated
with black, and having broad black bands at the edge ; the Spotted
Winged Dragon, D. maculatus, grey, and the wings black spotted ;
and D. spilopterus, having the wing reddish near the body.]
134 SAUBIANS.
GECKOTID./E, OR THICK- TONGUED LIZARDS.
This singular family of Saurians have the head wide and
flattened, the mouth wide, the nostrils distant and lateral, the
eyes large, with short lids ; the tongue short, fleshy, and capable
of slight elongation. The body is thick and short, low on the legs,
rather squat and depressed, with a belly trailing on the ground ;
back without crest. The skin is defended by granular scales,
interlaced with others of a tubercular character ; they are almost
always of a sombre colour. Their feet are short, wide apart, and
robust ; they are furnished on the upper part with imbricated
laminae, which enable them to adhere firmly to the surface of even
the smoothest bodies, and to run with rapidity in all directions on
a plain surface, and even to remain stationary with the back
downwards, like the common house Fly. More generally, however,
their hooked and retractile claws, like those of cats, assist them
in climbing, crawling up trees, rocks, and even perpendicular
walls, and 'to remain there immovable for several hours. Their
flexible bodies mould themselves into the depressions of the sur-
face of the earth, in which they become scarcely visible, their
natural colour blending, and being confounded with, the colour
of the soil. Their eye-balls, which dilate and contract consider-
ably, protect them from the action of the sun's rays, and enable
them, it is thought, to see in the dark. They are nocturnal,
avoid the sun's rays, and catch their food in the chinks of rocks.
Their movements are rapid, silent, and sudden. They hibernate,
and are provided with fatty masses in the groin which are sup-
posed to be a provision for their nourishment during that period.
Geckos emit sounds which resemble the noise an equestrian
makes when he would encourage his horse — smacking their
tongues on the palate to produce the sound. They seek habita-
tions in which they can find food, and are timid, inoffensive, and
quite incapable of inflicting injury either by their bite or claws ;
but their repulsive appearance makes them objects of general
repugnance, and has caused evil properties to be attributed to
them. Thus people try to destroy them by every possible means.
There are about sixteen known species of Geckos distributed
in all quarters of the globe, but chiefly in warm countries.
GECKOTID^).
135
[The Geckotida are divided into many genera, according to the
construction of the toes. Dumeril refers to the comparative short-
ness and general structure of the feet and conformation of the
toes, which he describes and figures in detail. The lower surface
and the sole he states are very dilatable, and furnished with
small plates or lamellae, following or overlying each other in a
mode which varies in the different species. The nails are some-
times wanting on all the toes, but more frequently hooked, and
more or less retractile ; the toes sometimes united at the base, and
in Platydactylus the extremity of the toe expands into a fan shape,
as in the Tree Frogs. The membranous and soft plates of the
lower surface of the toes have various modifications in different
genera, which have been made the basis of their arrangement.
The Wall Gecko is supposed by Gesner to be the Lizard spoken
Fig. 31. — Platydactylus homalocephalus.
of by Aristophanes and Theophrastus, and the Tarentula of the
Italians : and there is little doubt that it was the 'AaKaAa/3u>*//x,e
of Aristotle and the ancient Greeks ; it clambered about their
walls catching spiders, on which it fed. Schneider has shown
it was the Stellio of Pliny. Linnaeus mentions three species, which
he places with his great genus Lacerta. Modern herpetologists,
following Cuvier and Dumeril, class them according to the struc-
ture under the several genera Ascalabotes, Piatydactylus, Hemi-
136 SAUEIANS.
dactylus, Ptyodactylus, Thecadactylus, Stenodactytus, and Gymno-
dactylus.~]
The Wall Gecko (P. homalocephalus) , Fig. 31, is of an ashy
grey colour, as if powdered on the upper part of the body. It
is white underneath, and inhabits the islands of the Mediterranean,
as well as the countries which form the basin of that sea, such as
Italy, France, Spain, and Africa. They are generally found in old
walls ; they are, however, sometimes seen running on those of
modern habitations. They feed on all sorts of insects, particu-
larly on the dipterous insects and Arachnidans.
CHAMELEO. (LATJRENTI.)
The genus Ckameleo, of which ten species are described in the
British Museum Catalogue, are natives of Africa and Asia and
naturalised in Southern Europe. They live on trees, clinging to the
branches by their feet and prehensile tails ; they move slowly and
with great caution, feeding upon insects, which they catch with
singular dexterity by the rapid elongation of their tongue, which
is viscid at the tip.
Certain groundless metaphors, deeply rooted in the popular
mind, have singularly distorted the truth in respect to these
reptiles. It is commonly believed that the Chameleon often
changes its shape, that it has no fixed colour belonging to itself,
but takes that of all objects which it approaches. This singular
idea has descended from very ancient times. According to the
reports of Theophrastus and Plutarch, the Chameleon takes all
colours in turn but white; according to Aristotle it changes
colour all over the body ; but -ZElian seems to have had views more
in accordance with those of modern observers, for he says when it
takes other colours than grey and disguises itself, it covers only
certain parts of the body with them. Altogether the ancients
made the Chameleon a very fantastic animal ; hence in the familiar
comparisons of literature these fabulous beings serve as a type to
designate uncertain principles ; to paint fawning men, who have
neither character nor individuality of their own, but who bend
themselves to the will and adopt the opinions of others. Putting
aside the imaginary attributes accorded to the Chameleon by the
fancies of the ancients, and painting them such as they are, we
CHAMELEONS. 137
still see in them animals most worthy of observation and highly
interesting to the naturalist, as well for the singular formation
of different parts of their bodies as for their remarkable habits,
and even for peculiarities which have given some sanction to the
errors and prejudices to which we have alluded.
Chameleons have compressed bodies ; the back round and pro-
jecting, or rather pyramidal ; the skin granulated ; the head
angular, with salient occiput resting on a short and thick neck ;
their legs are slender ; the hind, as well as the fore toes are five ;
the tail prehensile and round. The eyes are very large and
protruding, their globes covered by a single shagreen-like eyelid,
which the animal can dilate or contract at will, but which
leaves little liberty to a small hole pierced at the centre, through
which a quick and rather brilliant eye-ball is perceived. The
eyes, in the Chameleon, are thus completely enveloped, as if
they were too delicate to sustain any glaring light ; but this
is not all — their eyes have a singular mobility. By certain
special muscular arrangements they have the power to direct
them on objects either together or separate. Sometimes they turn
their eyes in such a manner that one eye looks back and the
other forward. With one eye they can see objects above them,
while with the other they can see those situated below. It is
a common saying in France, applied to the Chameleon, "that
it could look into Champagne and see Picardy in flames."
The vermiform and retractile tongue is also a most singular
organ. It is cylindrical, about six inches long, terminating
in a fleshy, dilatable, and somewhat tubular tip, which is covered
with a glutinous secretion, by the aid of which it seizes its
insect food, and draws it towards its mouth. The feet have
five very long and almost equal strong and hooked claws, but
the skin of the legs extends to the end of these toes, and
unites them in a very peculiar manner. Not only is this skin
attached to each of the toes, but it envelops them, and forms,
as it were, two bundles, — the one of three fingers, and the other
of two. From this structure one can anticipate the extreme differ-
ence which exists between the habits of Chameleons and those of
Lizards. These two bundles of long toes are placed in such a
manner as to enable them to seize the branches easily on which
138 SAUEIANS.
they love to perch ; they can grasp these branches by holding
on with one bundle of fingers before, and the other behind, in the
same manner as Woodpeckers, Cuckoos, and Parrots. Chameleons
are better able to preserve their equilibrium upon trees than upon
the ground; consequently they are more often seen in those
aerial domiciles. Besides, their long and strong prehensile tail
serves them as a fifth limb. They swing themselves about like
monkeys, grasping the small branches, and thus saving them-
selves from falling. Moreover, they are cautious, moving at all
times very slowly when going from one branch to another.
"Walking becomes much more difficult for them when they rest
upon a level surface — groping their way as they advance, placing
their feet upon the earth, one after the other, with the greatest
circumspection. They also steady themselves on the ground
by the aid of their tail. In their walk they display a certain
gravity which contrasts with their diminutive size and the
agility which might be expected from them. Even when perched
upon a tree their movements exhibit a slowness and delibe-
ration that one would be inclined to say was affected. It is
true that the arrangement of their eyes, and the rapid move-
ments of their tongue, render personal activity superfluous in
their search for food. They can see their prey and their enemies
from a great distance, and in all directions. The latter they
readily avoid. As to their prey, when about to seize it, the
Chameleon rolls round its extraordinary eye-balls so as to bring
them to bear on the devoted object. As soon as it arrives within
range of the tongue, that organ is projected with unerring pre-
cision, returning into the mouth with the prey adhering to the
viscous tip. This tongue they can extend to a length sometimes
surpassing that of their body. The skin of the Chameleon
does not adhere to the muscles everywhere ; some spaces are left
free, into which the air penetrates, causing the skin to heave and
swell ; this mechanism is voluntary, the animal having the power
of inflating or relaxing it at pleasure. When this great living
bladder is emptied, the animal may be said to resemble a bag
of gold-beaters' skin filled with bones. Chameleons exhibit great
variation in their colours ; that is to say, they may be almost
white, sometimes yellowish, at other times green, reddish, and
CHAMELEONS. 139
even black, either in portions, or all over their bodies. These
changes of colour were for a long time attributed to the greater
or less distention of the vast lungs they possess, and to the
corresponding modifications in the quantity of blood sent to the
skin ; but this explanation is now abandoned. According to
Mr. Milne Edwards, the cause of these variations of colour lie
in the peculiar structure of their skin, in which there exists two
layers of membranous pigment, placed the one above the other,
but disposed in such a manner as to appear simultaneously under
the cuticle, and at other times so that the one hides the other.
Again, occasionally the cuticle is hidden under the superficial
pigment.
[Sixteen or seventeen species of Chameleon are described in the
British Museum Catalogue.
I. Having an erect fin on the back, the belly crested ; which
includes the Fringed Chameleon, C. cristatus, a native of Fer-
nando Po.
II. Having the back high, and compressed belly and sides,
with a toothed crest ; including the Side-crested Chameleon,
C. laterales, a native of Madagascar.
III. The back and belly having a toothed crest, the sides
simple, the scales small and equal, muzzle simple; including
the Common Chameleon, C. vulgaris, with many synonyms. It
is a native of the East Indies, is the recognised type of the family
(Fig. 32), and the one most commonly brought to England.
There are probably two varieties, — one from North Africa, which
is also found in Sicily and the South of Spain ; the other, the
East Indian variety — C. Senegalensis, the Senegal Chameleon,
a native of West Africa ; C. arpelis, from Ashantee and Ga-
boon ; C. verrucosus, a native of Bourbon and Madagascar ;
the Rhinoceros Chameleon, C. rhinoceroceratus, also from Mada-
gascar.
IV. Having a toothed crest on the back, with the belly and
sides simple, the chin and muzzle simple ; including C. tuber-
culiferus, a native of South Africa ; C. cucullatus, the Hooded
Chameleon, a native of Madagascar ; C. nasutus, having the chin
simple, and the muzzle compressed, and C. bifurcus, having the
muzzle in the male forked — both natives of Madagascar ; C.
140
SAURIANS.
Tigris, Seychille Islands ; C. ventralis, from South. Africa, and
C. pumilus, from the Cape of Good Hope.
Y. Having back and belly without crest ; including C. Par-
F
Fig. 32. — Chameleo vulgaris.
sonii, a native of Madagascar ; and C. Owenii, the Three-horned
Chameleon, from Fernando Po, and C. Brookesianus, an adult
species, from S. W. Brookes's collection.
EMYDOSAURIANS
Have the head large, covered with a thick skin, ears closed with
two valves, gape very wide, tongue short, jaws with a single series
of cone-shaped teeth inserted in sockets ; back with a hard disc
formed of a longitudinal series of square keeled plates of hard
bony consistence embedded in the skin ; the under surface covered
with smooth thin square plates ; legs short, feet webbed, with
four to five toes, the three inner toes of each foot only armed with
claws.
They are divided into two groups : —
I. Crocodilidce, having the lower canines fitting into a notch
in the edge of the upper jaw.
II. Alligatorida, having the canines fitting into a pit in the
upper jaw.]
CKOCODILES, 141
CROCODILES.
The Shielded Saurians, as Dumeril designates the largest of
living species of that order of reptiles, have the body depressed,
elongated, and protected on the back with a solid carinated
shield or buckler ; the tail longer than the trunk, compressed
laterally, annulated and crested above ; having four very short
feet ; the toes of the posterior feet united, or web-footed, each foot
having three claws only; head depressed and elongated into a
muzzle ; the gape of the mouth extending back beyond the skull ;
tongue fleshy, adherent ; teeth conical, simple, hollowed at the base
or towards the root, unequal in length, and in a single row. Such
is a brief summary of the family by Dumeril and Bibron.
If the Eagle is the king of the air, the Tiger and the Lion the
tyrants of the forests, and the Whale the monarch of the deep,
the Crocodile has for the exercise of his undisputed control the
maritime shores of tropical seas and the borders of tropical rivers.
Living on the confines of land and water, this formidable rep-
tile is at all times the scourge of those human beings who are
compelled to reside near its haunts. Much larger than the Tiger,
Lion, or Eagle, the Crocodile surpasses all terrestrial animals,
with the exception of the Elephant, Hippopotamus, and some
Serpents, in its power of destruction.
Crocodiles have the head depressed and elongated into a muzzle,
in the front of which the nostrils are seen close to a fleshy tuber-
cule, and furnished with movable valves. The mouth opens up to
the ears ; the jaws are of commensurate length, and are armed, as
we have seen, with conical-pointed teeth, bent back, and disposed
in such a manner that when the mouth is closed they pass one
under the other. These teeth are implanted in a single row, and
continually maintained in a good condition by an organic system
which ensures their immediate reparation. In short, each tooth is
hollowed at the base in such a manner as to form the cell or sheath
of another tooth of a larger calibre. The new tooth, which presses
on, exercises a sort of absorption upon the base of the old hollow
tooth, so that the first is developed while the second is decaying.
In some species the front teeth of the lower jaw are so long and
142 SAUEIANS.
sharp that they perforate the edge of the upper jaw and appear
above the muzzle when the mouth is closed. The lower jaw alone
is movable, and that only in a downward movement. The mouth is
without lips, consequently, whether walking or swimming, the
teeth of Crocodiles are always visible.
This formidable conformation gives to the Crocodile an aspect
at once terrible and alarming, which is increased by two wicked-
looking eyes placed obliquely and close together, surmounted by a
kind of eyebrow. The tail of these animals is very long, as thick
as the body at the junction, and in shape it is flat, like an oar ;
this enables them to steer through the water like a fish, and to swim
with rapidity. They have four short legs, of which the hinder
have toes, united by a natatory membrane, and only three claws
to each foot. The skin is coriaceous, thick, and resistant ; being
also protected by very thick knots intermingled with plates of
different size, according to the parts of the body they protect. On
the skull and face the skin adheres closely to the bone, and
there is no trace of scales.
Nature has provided for the safety of these animals by covering
them with a cuirass, the resistance of which is proof against
almost everything. Thus the scales which defend the back and the
upper part of the tail are square, and form hard transversal
bands possessed of great flexibility, which prevents them from
breaking. Down the centre of the back there is a hard crest,
which adds to the strength of their armour. This cuirass is in
many points proof against a bullet from a gun. The plates
which cover the belly, the upper part of the head, neck, tail, and
legs are also arranged in transversal bands, but less hard, and
without crests. It is at these weaker and consequently vulnerable
parts that those inhabitants of the waters which are enemies to
Crocodiles manage to attack them successfully.
The general colour of the Crocodile is a dullish brown, with
sometimes a shade of green along the back ; the head and the
sides are marked with green, or at least they have a greenish
tint, with blackish spots ; the under part of the legs and belly
are of a yellowish grey. All these shades, however, vary with
age and sex, and the nature of the water in which the animals
live.
CROCODILES. 143
Crocodiles are oviparous, and their eggs are provided with
resistant shells. These eggs are deposited by the female in
some secluded place in the sand on the banks of the river, and
are hatched simply by the ambient heat, without any assistance
from the mother. The female Crocodiles of the Nile deposit their
eggs where the solar heat soon brings them to maturity. In
certain countries, such as the neighbourhood of Cayenne and
Surinam, the eggs are buried under a kind of mound which the
Ali gators raise in damp places by gathering together leaves and
herbaceous stems. This vegetable debris undergoes a kind of fer-
mentation, the result of which is an increase of temperature, which,
joined to that of the atmosphere, produces the desired result.
Lacepede describes an egg in the Museum of Natural History
in Paris, which was laid by a Crocodile fourteen feet in length,
which was killed in Upper Egypt. This egg is only two inches
and five lines in its greatest diameter ; in its least diameter
it is one inch and eleven lines. It is oval and whitish. Its
shell is cretaceous in substance, like the eggs of birds, but
not so hard. At the time of their birth the little Crocodiles
are only about six inches in length, but their growth is very
rapid. They abound in large rivers in the tropics, and in
marshy places near their banks. They often come on shore, for
they are amphibious. In the night they watch for their prey.
They feed exclusively on flesh — that is to say on fish, small
Mammalians, aquatic birds, and reptiles. When they have seized
a large object they drag it under the water, where it soon
dies by asphyxia ; there they leave it to macerate, when they eat
it by instalments. In this manner men are sometimes carried
away by Crocodiles, but it is contrary to the habits of the animal to
suppose that they are devoured immediately. When a Crocodile
has succeeded in seizing a negro, it does not devour him till
the body becomes decomposed, when it can tear it to pieces with
greater facility.
From the general structure of their bony framework it is diffi-
cult for Crocodiles to turn round or move otherwise than for-
ward. This circumstance renders it easy to escape their pursuit.
When chased by a Crocodile, it can be avoided by describing a
circle, or running in a succession of curves. Upon the banks
ALLIGATOEID^E. 145
of the Lake of Nicaragua, in America, an Englishman was once pur-
sued by an Alligator which had surprised him when on its margin.
The animal was gaining upon him rapidly, when some Spaniards
who witnessed the scene cried out to him to run round it. Thus
fortunately warned the pursued dodged the Alligator, and escaped
from his dangerous enemy (Fig. 33).
[No specimens of the Crocodilida have been found in Europe,
and until very recently none had been found in Australia, but they
are very common in the new colony of Queensland, an Alligator
twenty feet long having been shot on the banks of the Mackenzie
river, which was afterwards exhibited at Rockhampton. Croco-
diles, properly so called, are found in Africa, Asia, and America.
The Gavials seem to be limited to the Ganges and other large
rivers in India. Besides the Gavial, Asia produces three other
species, namely, C. vulgaris, C. galeatus, and C. bifurcatus. Of
the first, Siam is the chief locality ; the others are found in the
rivers which debouch into the Indian Ocean and the Ganges.
THE ALLIGATOKIDJE
Include the Jacares, Alligators, and Caimans.
The Jacares have the head oblong and depressed, with a ridge
across the face in front of the eyes ; teeth unequal, canines of the
lower jaw fitting into a pit in the upper jaw ; toes only partially
webbed, eyelids fleshy, nostrils separated by a cartilage. Five
species are described — namely, J. jissipes, from Tropical America,
six feet in length ; J". sclerops, from the Brazils ; J. Nigra, also
from the Brazils ; J. punctulatus, with triangular oblong head,
muzzle elongated, thin and flat, with a rounded point in front,
and a slight enlargement behind the nostrils ; J. vallefrons, differ-
ing slightly from the above — both natives of the Brazils.
Alligators have the jaws oblong, much depressed, broad and
nearly parallel ; forehead with a small longitudinal ridge between
the orbits ; feet fringed, toes half webbed, the outer toes free ;
nostrils separated by a bony septum rising from the upper edge,
muzzle lengthening with age. One species only is known, which
is a native of North America ; it attains a length of six to seven
feet, and is known also as Crocodilus Mississipensis.
L
146 SAUEIANS.
The Caimans have the jaws oblong, depressed, rounded, and
swollen at the end, without frontal ridges or maxillary pits ;
teeth unequal, the lower canines fitting into pits in the upper
jaw ; toes wehbed. There are three species described — C. trigo-
natus, C. palpebrosus, and C. goddeceps, all natives of Tropical
America.
The Jacares, Alligators, and Caimans are natives of America,
which country is fruitful in other species of the family. C.
acutus is also found in Martinique and San Domingo ; C. rhom-
bifor, at Cuba ; A. palpebrosus, A. sclerops, A. punctulatus, and
A. cynocephalus are natives of the southern part of the Ame-
rican Continent ; and A. lucius is found in the north.]
The principal characteristics of the American Crocodile are
a head one-third its length, and a very short muzzle ; teeth
unequal in shape and size, the fourth lower tooth being buried
in the upper jaw when the mouth is closed ; the first teeth of
the lower jaw piercing the upper at a certain age, so as to appear
through the muzzle when closed. The hinder legs and feet
rounded, having neither crest nor indentation on their edges;
the intervals of the toes more than half covered with a short
membrane, forming semi-palmated feet.
It is generally admitted, as we have stated above, that there are
five species of this genera, all exclusively American, the type of
which is the Alligator, or Caiman. A. Mississipensis (Gray) belongs
properly to North America, through the whole southern extent of
which it is found. They are gregarious, living together in large
herds in the Mississippi and its southern tributaries ; they are also
found in the lakes and marshes of Louisiana, Carolina, and even as
far north as thirty degrees of north latitude. Alligators do not ap-
pear to leave fresh water. During the winter season they bury them-
selves in the mud of the marshes, and await in a state of torpor the
return of spring, which is the signal of their restoration to activity.
In the neighbourhood of Bayou Sarah, on the Mississippi, flats of
lakes and marshes stretch away to a vast extent on either bank ;
every year these reservoirs are flooded by the overflow of the
river, when they are visited by myriads of fishes. The heat soon
partly dries up these lakes, leaving only about two feet deep of
water, thus displaying a vast amount of prey ready prepared for
THE CAIMAN. 147
the shore birds and Crocodiles. Millions of ibis, herons, cranes,
and cormorants wade into the water in pursuit of these fish.
In the deepest portions vast quantities of these imprisoned fish
accumulate, and these parts are known in the country as the Alli-
gators' holes. Thither these reptiles crowd, pressing one against
the other, and they soon thoroughly clear it of the fish which
lately were in such dense crowds. As evaporation proceeds and the
marshes gradually dry up, the fish are more and more exposed to
their voracious enemies. The Alligators pursue and devour them
in the water, whilst the ibis destroys those which seek the banks
for refuge. Alligators fish chiefly during the night. In the
hours of darkness and obscurity they assemble in large herds,
chase the fish before them, driving them into some retired creek,
where they rejoice their hearts at the expense of the unfortunate
finny tribes, which they force into their widely opened mouths by
a lateral movement of their tails. On these occasions the clash-
ing of their jaws may be heard at the distance of a mile.
Alligators are found by thousands in Mexican waters, and nearly
all North American rivers to the south of them. In the beautiful
transparent waters of Lake Claro they abound, and are without
difficulty seen by the naked human eye. Here they are so closely
pressed one against the other that they resemble a raft of trees
recently felled, and the resemblance is further increased by the
colour of their backs and the bark of a newly-felled tree being
identical. In this united and immovable condition, while waiting
for their prey, the approach of a boat is disregarded ; but they
rush with avidity at everything animate which either falls or is
thrown into the lake. Many children of poor negro women
become a prey to the Caiman in this locality. They rarely, how-
ever, pursue men, yet they would not hesitate to devour them if
their imprudence has placed them close to their terrible jaws.
The natives of Mexico hunt the Caiman. When they meet an
isolated individual asleep, they throw a lasso round its body, and
when secured, gag it. After this operation, the victim's career
is terminated by hammering on his head. There is another means
which the Indians use to capture the Caiman. They provide them-
selves with four pieces of hard wood about a foot long, and as thick
as a man's fingerr and pointed at each end ; round these they tie
L2
148 SAUEIANS.
a cord in such a manner that, supposing the cord to be an arrow,
the four sticks would form the head of it. They then fasten the
other end of the cord round a tree, and bait with meat. This
device is thrown into the water. When the Caiman snaps at the
prey the points of the hook, on straining on the line, penetrate
into its flesh. Having waited till the Alligator is dead, it is drawn
from the water, when the captors further gratify their dislike and
spirit of revenge by breaking its skull with stones and sticks.
Another method of capturing Alligators is practised by the
residents on the upper waters of the giant river Orinoco. A tree
is bent (generally a bamboo is selected from its elasticity) till the
top is brought down to the butt, a bait is then placed on a sharp
hook, the line attached to it being fastened securely to the small
end of the bent tree, which is caused to relax its position by an
ingenious piece of mechanism which gives way the moment the
least strain is felt upon the line ; the tree-point becoming thus
released, straightens itself with great velocity, and drags the
victim from the water.
Frequently the Alligator, from constant pursuit and interrup-
tion, becomes excessively wary and difficult to destroy ; when
such is the case, a live bait is sometimes successfully employed.
For instance, a Dog with a hook tied to his back is taken in a
canoe and dropped in the water ; it is seldom the unfortunate cur
is permitted to swim far before being seized.
It is currently believed that the Alligator prefers dog-flesh to
all others. The negroes on the plantations in the South- "Western
States of America, by imitating the barking of a dog, frequently
lure these reptiles from their hiding-places, when a well-directed
bullet terminates their career.
Alligators are very voracious, but, like Serpents and Turtles,
they can live a long time without nourishment. In Brown's
" Natural History of Jamaica," he asserts that he has known the
Caiman to live several months without food. The following
experiments have been tried in that island : — The mouth of an
Alligator was muzzled by a strong cord, it was then thrown
into a reservoir of water. Thus these animals lived a consider-
able time. They were seen to rise occasionally to the surface
of the water, until death came to their rescue. Let us add to
THE ALLIGATOR.
149
this, that Crocodiles bred in captivity in the menagerie of the
Museum of Natural History, at Paris, sometimes live for several
months without eating.
The female Alligator takes more care of her young than the
Fig. 34.— Alligator (Crocodilus lucius).
female Crocodile, properly so called. She conducts them to the
water, and in the slimy mud she disgorges her half-digested food
for their nourishment.
The TRUE CROCODILES are indigenous to Africa, but they are
found also in Manilla and India. Their length of head is almost
double its breadth. The fourth tooth of the lower jaw is the
longest and largest of all, and passes into an indentation hollowed
out in the edge of the upper jaw, becoming visible on the outside.
The hind feet have on their external edge a dentated crest, and
the interstices of their toes, externally, are palmated.
The principal type is the Common Crocodile, C. vulgaris, which
sometimes attains the length of nine or ten feet. The upper part
of the body of these reptiles is of an olive green colour spotted with
150 SAUEIANS.
black, and marbled upon the head and neck with the same colour,
also the back and tail ; two or three broad, oblique black bands
are visible upon the flanks of the under part of the body, which is
of a yellowish green. Crocodiles abound in Africa. Formerly
they were found in all parts of the Nile, but lately it is said that
(7. vulgaris is no longer to be met with in the Delta, but that it
exists in great numbers in the Thebaid and in the Upper Nile.
They are also found in the rivers Senegal and Niger, in Caffraria,
and in Madagascar. Most authors give them the name of Croco-
diles of the Nile. This species are found also in India.
The Crocodile was considered a sacred animal by the ancient
Egyptians. In ruins of temples mummies of Crocodiles are still
found in a perfect state of preservation. The Romans introduced
living Crocodiles at the national games in the Colosseum. At first
only five were imported under the sedileship of Scaurus. Under
the Emperor Augustus thirty- six were killed in the Circus of
Flaminius. Several ancient medals represent this reptile, the
body of which perfectly resembles that which now lives in the
waters and on the banks of the Nile. There is a truly wonderful
fact in the natural history of the Crocodile. Listen to what
Herodotus, the father of history, tells us with regard to it : —
" "When the Crocodile takes his food in the Nile, the interior of
its mouth is always covered with bdella (flies). All birds, with one
single exception, flee from the Crocodile ; but this one, the Nile Bird,
TrockyluSy far from avoiding it, flies towards the reptile with
the greatest eagerness, and renders it a very essential service.
Every time the Crocodile goes on shore to sleep, and at the moment
when it lies extended with open jaws, the Nile Bird enters the
mouth of the terrible animal and delivers it from the bdella which
it finds there ; the Crocodile shows its recognition of the service,
and never harms the bird."
This fact, reported by Herodotus, was long considered to be a
fable, but the naturalist, Etienne Geoffrey Saint- Hilaire, who
formed part of the commission that General Bonaparte took with
him in his expedition into Egypt, had on several occasions oppor-
tunities of proving the truth of the historian's narrative.
In a memoir read to the Academy of Science on the 28th
of January, 1828, he says, "It is perfectly true that there
THE CROCODILE. lol
exists a little bird which, flies about, perpetually seeking, even in
the mouth of the Crocodile, the insects which form the principal
part of its nourishment." This bird, which Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire recognised as the Charadrius ^Egyptius of ornithologists,
is like a Plover. The bdella, which thus torment the Croco-
diles, and even excite them to madness, are no other than our
European gnats. Myriads of these insects haunt the banks of
the Nile, and when these giants of its waters repose on its margin,
warming themselves in the sun, they become the prey of these in-
significant pigmies. It is like the war between the Lion and the
Mouse, described by La Fontaine. The bdella fly into the Croco-
diles' mouths in such numbers that they cover the entire surface
of the palate, and form a brownish crust. These little pests
pierce the tongues of the reptiles with their stings. It is then
that this bird comes into the mouth of the monster to catch
them, and deliver it from such innumerable enemies. The
Crocodile with one bite could easily destroy the bird, but he
knows too well what he owes to this friend to do it an injury.
Crocodiles of the Nile are more voracious than the American
Alligators. Hasselquist asserts that in Upper Egypt they often
devour women who come to draw water from the Nile, as well as
children playing upon its banks. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire says,
that in the Thebaid they often met with Arabs wanting an arm
or leg, who accused Crocodiles of this mutilation. Sir Samuel
Baker also mentions, in his late work on the Nile and its tribu-
taries, the desire of these amphibia for human flesh, and the dread
they are held in by the natives. Livingstone, the celebrated
traveller, gives the following account of an encounter he had with
one of these ferocious animals : —
"The Crocodile," says the celebrated traveller, "makes many
victims every year among the children who are so imprudent as to
play on the banks of the Liambia when their mothers go to fetch
water. The Crocodile stupefies its victim with a blow from its tail,
then drags it into the river, where it is soon drowned. In general,
when the Crocodile perceives a Man it dives, and furtively glides
away from the side which he occupies. Sometimes, on the other
hand, it precipitates itself with surprising agility towards the person
it has discovered, which may be noticed from the disturbance
152 SAUBIANS.
caused on the surface of the water. An Antelope which is being
hunted and takes to the water, in the lagunes of the Barotse valley,
a Man or a Dog who goes there to seek for game, will scarcely fail
to be seized by a Crocodile, of whose presence he has not the
slightest suspicion. It often happens that, after having danced in
the moonlight, the young natives of the river's bank will often
plunge into the water in order to refresh themselves, when, being
seized by an Alligator, they perish."
[This mode of attack (striking with the tail) is also one of the
methods adopted by the Alligator of America for disabling its
prey. A friend, on whose veracity I have much dependence, while
shooting wild fowl on one of the tributaries of the Lower Missis-
sippi, had the fortune to witness a fight between a Bear and an
Alligator. He was called to the scene of the struggle by the
noise made by the combatants, in the dry cane, that yielded to
their pressure as they fought in each other's embrace. Several
times both ceased only to recover breath and fresh energy; at
length the Alligator missed striking the foe with its tail, Bruin
seized the opportunity, and with all his efforts succeeded in turning
the amphibian on its back, where he held him for some minutes, at
the same time gnawing one of the fore-shoulders. A final
struggle of the now worsted Alligator hurled both into the water,
where they disappeared, the disturbed surface telling of the
dreadful contest that was being prolonged beneath ; after the lapse
•of over a minute the Bear came up, evidently much fatigued, and
swam ashore, my friend forbearing to wound, or possibly kill, the
gallant conqueror.]
Crocodiles, it is said, which have never eaten human flesh, are
much less dangerous than those that have acquired a taste for
it. Mr. Combes states that he was assured by an inhabitant of
Khartoum, who had reached the town with the Egyptian troops —
that is to say, before the horrors committed by the D ester dar, acting
with Mehemet Bey, who had been Governor of the Soudan some
time before Mr. Combes' s voyage — that the Crocodiles appeared to
be quite indifferent to human flesh ; but after the many executions
by drowning ordered by Mehemet Bey, as he was told by a native
whom he interrogated — " since the Nile has been loaded with the
carcasses of my brethren " — the monsters which inhabit it have
THE CEOCODILE. 153
become habituated to substantial food, which they scarcely knew
before : so that afterwards those swimming in the river, or even
bathing on its banks, were exposed to imminent danger.
Natives of Africa shoot the Crocodile with a gun, or attack
it with a barbed javelin, which is thrown by hand, and aimed at
the fore- shoulder. Some Egyptians are reported to be daring
enough to swim under the Crocodile, and pierce him in the belly
with a dagger. The negroes of Senegal are said to be equally
expert. If they surprise the animals in parts of the river where
there is not sufficient water for them to swim, they attack the
monster with a lance ; and with their left arm wrapped in a
sheet of leather, they commence by aiming with their weapon
at the eyes and throat ; then they thrust the arm, encased in
leather, into its mouth, and, holding it open, their enemy is
either suffocated or expires under the wounds received. Traps
are also employed successfully for their destruction. In Egypt
the natives dig a deep hole in the ordinary route of the Croco-
diles, which is easily discovered by the trail they leave in the
sand. This hole is covered with branches and strewed with
earth. The Crocodile is now alarmed with loud cries, which
disturb and drive him back to the river, by the same way that
it has left it. As it passes over the treacherous hole it falls in,
when it is killed, often with the most brutal cruelty. At other
times a thick cord is attached to a large tree, and to the other
end of the cord a lamb is bound, held by a protruding hook. The
cries of the lamb attract the Crocodile, which, in its attempt to
carry off the bait, is taken by the hook.
Still another method for the destruction of these repulsive-
looking creatures has been adopted on one or two occasions by
our countrymen in India. A dead animal is procured, in its abdo-
men is placed a loaded shell, to which is attached a wire made fast
to an electric battery ; when the bait has been seized and carried
to the bottom, the shell is exploded, which invariably maims or
kills the Crocodile.
The Gavials, or Indian Crocodiles, have long narrow cylindrical
muzzles, slightly inflated at the extremity ; the teeth are almost
the same, both in number and shape, on each jaw, the two first
and the fourth of the lower jaw pass into notches or indentations
154 SAUEIANS.
in the upper jaw, and not into holes, as in Crocodiles ; the hind legs
are dentated and palmated, like those of African Crocodiles. The
Gavials are chiefly remarkable for their long head, its type being
the Gavial of the Ganges, or Gavial longirostre. It is of a deep
watery green colour, having on the upper part numerous irregular
brown spots ; in the young, the back and limbs are transversely
banded with black ; the lower part is of a pale whitish yellow ;
the jaws are marked with brown, the claws are of a clear horn
colour. This species is not so carnivorous as the others, and is con-
sequently less dreaded.
The Gavial of the Ganges, G. Gangeticus, is supposed to be the
largest of the existing Saurians ; its length, as given by Dumeril,
is seventeen feet four inches,
CHAPTEE IV.
CHELONIANS, OR SHIELDED REPTILES.
[" THE body," as described by Dr. Gray, " is covered with square
imbedded plates, generally forming a dorsal and ventral shield
united by their margins, leaving only the head, neck, limbs, and
tail free, and (in some species, as the Box- Tortoises, Cinasternon,
shut up by movable closely-fitting doors) only covered with a scaly
skin ; the upper shield formed of the ribs united together and
adherent to the dorsal vertebrae by a toothed suture, and surrounded
by a series of bones forming the edge of the shields ; the lower
shield, or sternum, formed of four pairs and a central anterior
bone ; the jaws toothless, covered with a horny bill, rarely hid by
fleshy lips ; eyelids distinct ; drum of the ear visible ; legs short
and thick ; tail conical." " The natural dwelling chamber of the
Chelonia consists chiefly," says Professor Owen, "and in the
marine species (Ckelone) and Mud Turtles (Trionyx) solely, of the
floor and the roof; side- walls of variable extent are added to the
fresh- water species (Emydians) and Land Tortoises (Testudinians).
The whole consists of ' osseous plates/ with superincumbent horny
plates, or ' scutes/ except in the Soft or Mud Turtles (Trionyx
and Sphargis), in both of which these are wanting." — (" Circle of
the Sciences.")
These animals, to which a portable stronghold is thus given
in compensation for inferior powers of locomotion and defence,
are recognisable at a glance from the singular armour with
which Nature has provided them. A double shield envelopes all
parts of their bodies, only permitting the head, neck, legs, and
156 CHELONIANS.
tail to pass through it : moreover, all these organs can be hidden
within this double cuirass by means of a retractile power pos-
sessed by the animal. This double armour consists of a carapace,
or back-piece, and. plastron, or breast-plate, composed of a series
of small bones or plates closely united together ; the first resulting
from the union of the sides and dorsal vertebrae, the plastron, or
lower buckler, being only a highly- developed sternum. These
organs are merely portions of the skeleton, which, in place of being
lodged in the depths of the soft parts, has become the superficies,
which is only covered by a thin, dry skin.
This numerous and highly-interesting order of Reptiles, called
Chelonia, from xeAwn?, a Tortoise, are also called Testudinata, from
testudo, the Latin name for a Tortoise, from the double shield in
which the bodies of all, whether terrestrial, fresh- water, or marine
Tortoises, are enclosed.
The skeleton of the Tortoise is, perhaps, the most extraordinary
structure with which we are acquainted. This oddly- organised
animal when first seen strikes the beholder with astonishment.
The carapace and plastron, with their connecting plates, form a sort
of protecting box, in which the animal lives, its head and tail ex-
cepted. In the land Turtles the head and feet, which are compara-
tively senseless, can be withdrawn within the protecting armour.
The ribs and sternum are both placed quite on the exterior of
the body, so as to form a broad dorsal shield on the upper surface,
and an equally strong ventral plate ; between these, the limbs and
the head can be more or less completely retracted. Nevertheless,
the modifications in the arrangement of the elements by which
these changes are accomplished are of the simplest nature. In
the common Tortoise, Emys Europceus, the vertebrae of the neck
and tail being connected together in the ordinary manner, the
neck and caudal region of the spine present their usual flexibility,
but the dorsal vertebrae are strangely distorted, the upper arch
being disproportionately developed, while the bodies remain almost
in a rudimentary state ; the spinous processes of these vertebrae
are flattened and converted into broad osseous plates, which form
a longitudinal series along the centre of the back, and connected
together by means of sutures. The ribs are changed into broad
flat bones firmly united by sutures to each other, and also to the
TOETOISES. 157
lateral margins of the spinous processes of the vertebras, so that
they form together a single broad plate ; the heads of the ribs are
feebly developed, and the intervals between them and the bodies
of the vertebrae filled up with ligament. The margin of the shield
thus formed by the dorsal ribs is further enlarged by a third set
of flat bones fixed by sutures around the whole circumference of
the carapace.
The plastron, or ventral plate, is made up of nine pieces, of
which eight are arranged in pairs ; but the ninth, which is always
placed between the four pieces composing the two anterior pairs,
is single, and occupies the mesial line. The bones of the shoulder
and hip are placed within the thorax, and articulated to the sides
of the vertebral column.
Of this vertebral column in these extraordinary animals, Pro-
fessor Owen remarks that the manifold modifications of the
framework which render it a portable abode, appear to have been
given as a compensation for inferior powers of locomotion, and the
absence of offensive weapons. But with all its modifications, the
same number of pieces are found in the bony skeleton as in other
ordinary vertebratse, the form and volume of many of these pieces
being alone changed.
The skin which covers the body of these animals sometimes
preserves its softness, being altogether devoid of scales ; but in
nearly all the species it is covered with horny scales of great con-
sistency. Upon the plastron and carapace these scales form large
plates, the arrangements and appearances of which vary in dif-
ferent species, some of them being often remarkably beautiful.
The material which bears the name of Tortoise-shell forms an
important article of commerce.
Aristotle mentions three groups of Tortoises ; namely,
xepo-aia, or Land Tortoises ; OaXarrla, or Sea Tortoises ; and
or Freshwater Tortoises. Cuvier divides them into five sub-
genera : — 1, Land Tortoises, Testudo (Brogniart) ; 2, Fresh- water
Tortoises, Emydes (Brogniart) ; 3, Marine Tortoises, Chelque
(Cuvier) ; 4, Chelydes, Testudo fimbriata ; 5, Soft Tortoises, Trionyx
(Geoffrey) — in which he is followed by Dr. Gray in the British
158 CHELONIA.NS.
Museum Cataloguex who makes them the third order of Heptiles
in his arrangement as follows : —
I. TESTUDLNTDyE.
Testudo, Chersina, Kinixys, Pyxis.
II. EMYDID^E.
Geoemyda, Emys, Cyclemys, Malaclemys, Cistudo, Kinosternon,
Chelydra, Platy sternum.
III. CHELYDID^E.
Sternotherus, Pelomedusa, Hydraspis, Chelymys, Plirynops, Chelodina,
Hydromedusa, Chelys, PeltocepL.al.us, Padocnemis.
IY. TRIONYCID^E.
Trionyx, Eniyda.
V. CHELONIAD^E.
Sphargis, Ghelonia, Caretta, Casuana.
In the valuable " Erpetologie " of Messrs. Dumeril and Bibron,
the Chelonians are divided into — 1, Land Tortoises, Cher sites ; 2,
Marsh Tortoises, Elodites ; 3, River Tortoises, Potamites ; 4, Sea
Tortoises, or Turtles, Thalassites.
This arrangement being the most simple, is adopted as best
adapted to our purpose.]
LAND TORTOISES.
Terrestrial Tortoises are distinguished by their short, oval, and
convex bodies, covered by carapace and plastron ; four feet, and
the absence of teeth ; short, stumpy, unshapely legs ; nearly equal
toes, armed with claws, united by a thick skin, so as to form a
clumsy foot, the periphery of which forms a sort of hoof, which
seems adapted for the land.
In this group the carapace is very convex, its height sometimes
exceeding its breadth ; it forms a solid, generally an immovable,
arch, under which the animal can completely conceal its feet and
tail. This buckler is covered with large horny plates or scales.
Land Tortoises have been known from the earliest times, repre-
sentations of them being found on numerous monuments of anti-
quity, the product of ancient art. Moreover, ancient writers tell
LAND TORTOISES. 159
us that the carapace of the Tortoise contributed its substance to
the formation of the first lyre ; it was consequently sacred to
Mercury as the deity of music and inventor of that instrument.
The Land Tortoises are divided into four genera, which Dumeril
and Bibron again divide into three sub-genera and thirty species.
The most interesting species, however, to which we must limit
our remarks are — the Marginate Tortoise, Testudo marginato ; the
Moorish Tortoise, Testudo Mauritianica ; the Greek Tortoise,
Testudo Grceca ; and the Elephantine Tortoise, Testudo elephantina.
The Margined Tortoise, which was long confounded with the
Greek Tortoise, is found abundantly throughout the Morea, in
Egypt, and upon the Barbary coasts. The carapace is oval in
form, oblong, convex, and much dilated at the posterior margin,
and nearly horizontal ; the plastron is movable behind, which is
its chief sub- generic character ; the tail is thick, conical, and
scarcely issues from the carapace. The plates of the disc are of a
blackish-brown, presenting towards the centre certain spots of a
beautiful yellow colour ; the marginal plates are habitually orna-
Fig. 35. — Testudo Mauritianica.
mented with two triangular spots, one yellow, the other black.
The underpart of the body is of a dirty yellow, with one large
triangular black spot upon six or eight of the sternal scales. This
Tortoise is of medium size.
The Moorish Tortoise, Testudo Mauritianica, is commonly found
in the neighbourhood of Algiers, and along the coast of Morocco,
160 CHELONIANS.
whence those are sent which are sold in the Paris markets.
When shooting in Morocco, scarcely a day would pass without
the setters or pointers finding numbers of them, to which they
would stand with as much staunchness as game. The scent they
emit is so powerful as to be easily detected by a human being.
The carapace of this species is also convex ; the sternum is also
movable behind : it is generally olive-coloured. The plates of the
disc are marked with blackish spots, and sometimes with a buckle
of the same colour, which covers their circumference on the front
and sides. The plates of the plastron, the ground of which is
olive, have each a large black spot in the centre. This species is
rather smaller than the Marginate Tortoise.
The Greek Tortoise, Testudo Grceca, is of small dimensions,
scarcely exceeding twelve inches in length. They inhabit Greece,
Italy, some of the Mediterranean isles, and the south of France,
from whence it seems to have been transplanted into Italy. They
feed upon herbs, roots, slugs, and lob- worms. Like all their race,
they sleep during the winter, passing this season in holes which
they excavate in the soil sometimes more than thirty inches deep.
As the month of May approaches they issue from their retreat,
resorting to some sheltered sandy place, where they bask them-
selves in the sun's rays. Towards the month of June the females
lay from twelve to fourteen white spherical eggs, as large as a
small walnut ; they dispose these eggs in a hole exposed to the sun ;
but covered over with earth. Thus the operation of hatching is
performed. The carapace of this species is oval and very much
arched ; their marginal plates are twenty-five in number ; the
plastron, which is almost as long as the carapace, is separated
into two great portions by a longitudinal line ; the plates of
the carapace are spotted with black and greenish yellow, forming
a large marbled pattern ; the centre of the disc is besides relieved
by a small, irregular, blackish, central spot. These three species
are held in high estimation on account of their flesh, which gives
an agreeable taste to soup.
The Elephantine Tortoise, Testudo elepkantina, the length of
which is more than three feet, inhabits most of the islands
situated in the Mozambique Channel — namely, between the
eastern coast of Africa and the Isle of Madagascar. The Museum
MAESH TOETOISES. 161
of Natural History at Paris had specimens of this Tortoise which
lived more than twelve months, and which weighed about six
hundred pounds. Their flesh is extremely delicate, and much
sought after.
In some other Terrestrial Tortoises, from which the genus Pyxis
has been formed, the anterior portion of the plastron is movable ;
and when the head and feet are drawn in, the animal can fasten
itself against the sides of the carapace like a door in its case.
In some Terrestrial Tortoises, which have been formed into par-
ticular genera, the carapace is flexible, and can lower itself behind
like the plastron ; these are Kinixys. Lastly, there are others
which, for legs, have only four unguiculated toes : such as the
Homopodes.
MARSH TORTOISES.
Marsh Tortoises, Eloditea, occupy a place between Terrestrial
Tortoises and those which are essentially aquatic. They have the
carapace more or less depressed, oval, and broader behind ; their feet
have distinct flexible toes supplied with hooked claws, of which the
phalanges are united at the base by means of an elastic skin, which
enables them to separate one from the other, at the same time
preserving their strength and assisting them to grasp a much
larger surface. Thus they can walk upon the ground, swim on the
surface of deep waters, and climb up the banks of lakes or other
tranquil waters, which are their habitual dwelling-places.
These Tortoises are generally of small size ; being carnivorous,
they feed upon small living animals. As they exhale a nauseous
odour they are not used as an article of food ; and further, as
their carapace is neither thick enough nor beautiful enough to
be manufactured as tortoise-shell, they are consequently little
sought after. There are a hundred species of Elodians, or
Marsh Tortoises, known, which are spread over all parts of the
globe, but principally in warm and temperate regions. Such are
the CistudOy Emydes, and Trionyx.
The Elodians have none of the sluggishness of the Land
Tortoises ; they swim with facility, and on land they walk with con-
siderable rapidity. Their eggs are white, and nearly spherical, with
a calcareous shell, and these are deposited in a hollow dug in the soil
162 CHELONIANS.
or sand, like the Land Tortoises, the place chosen being generally
situated on the banks of some secluded stream; the number of
eggs increasing as the animal approaches maturity.
The Elodians are divided into Cryptoderes and Pleuroderes :
the former distinguished from the latter by the retractile power
they possess of concealing their cylindrical neck, with its sheath
of loose skin, under the middle of the carapace ; the head, whose
width is nearly equal to its height at the occiput ; the eyes always
lateral, and their orbit so large that the diameter of the cavity
nearly equals a fourth of the whole cranium ; and the jaws, which
are strong, sometimes trenchant, in others are dentated on the edge.
In the larger number of species the anterior extremity of the upper
beak is notched with a strong tooth on each side, producing the
appearance of a beak closely resembling that of birds of prey.
Fig. 36. — Mud Tortoise (Cistudo Europced).
The Mud Tortoises, Cistudo, sometimes called the Yellow Tor-
toise (Fig. 36) are very abundant in Europe. They are found in
Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and in the southern provinces of
France ; also in Hungary, Germany, and as far north as Prussia.
They inhabit lakes, marshes, and ponds, at the bottom of which
they bury themselves in the mud. Occasionally they come to the
surface of the water, and remain there for hours. They live
principally upon insects, mollusks, aquatic worms, and small
MARSH TOETOISES.
163
fishes. Although the flesh of the Mud Tortoise is far from being
palatable, it is nevertheless eaten in countries where they
are common.
Fig. 37.— Emydes Caspica.
The Emydes are divided into four considerable groups, namely,
the European group, of which Pig. 37, E. Caspica, is typical ;
Fig. 38.— Chelys matamata.
the American group, containing twelve or fourteen species ; the
African Emys ; and the Oriental group of twelve species.
M2
il64 ; CHELONIANS.
The Pleuroderes have the neck retractile on one side of the
carapace, without their having the power of drawing it between
their fore feet, and under the buckler and plastron, like the
Cryptoderes. Chelys matamata (Fig. 38) belongs to this division.
This species lives in stagnant water, and is altogether remark-
able for its singular appearance — for its depressed, wide, and tri-
angular nostrils, prolonged into a proboscis ; its wide gape,
rounded jaws, and the cutaneous appendages to the chin. This
is sometimes called the Bearded Tortoise.
POTAMIANS, OR RlVER TORTOISES.
The River Tortoises live constantly in the water, only coming
to land occasionally ; they swim with much ease below and
on the surface. The carapace is very broad and flat ; the toes
united up to the claws by broad flexible membranes. These
membranes change the feet into true paddles, which perform
the office of oars. They seem to attain a considerable size,
one kept by Pennant for three months weighing twenty pounds,
its buckler not reckoned ; the neck measuring twenty inches
in length. The upper parts of their bodies vary in tint from
brown to grey, with irregularly marbled, dotted, or ocellated
spots ; the underpart is a pale white, rosy, or purple tint. Sinuous
brown, black, or yellow lines are symmetrically disposed on the
right and left, principally on the neck and on the limbs.
During the night, when they think themselves safe, the River
Tortoises seek repose on the rocks and islets, or on timber floating in
the rivers, from which they plunge into the water on the slightest
noise. These Tortoises, which accommodate themselves so perfectly
to the medium that they inhabit, are continually at war with
the fishes, reptiles, mollusks, and other denizens of the rivers.
They are voracious and active, and are relentless enemies to the
young of fishes, and especially of Crocodiles.
The carapace of the River Tortoise, Trionyx, is soft, covered with
a flexible cartilaginous skin resting on a greatly-depressed osseous
disk; its upper surface is covered with shrivelled sinuosities. As
they are destitute of scales these Tortoises are said to be soft;
their flesh is much esteemed, and they are angled for with hook
and line, baited with small fishes or living worms and mollusks, or
EIVEK TORTOISE.
165
with, dead bait, to which the sportsman gives motion and apparent
life, for they are said never to approach dead prey. When they
seize their victim, or defend themselves, they dart out their head
and long neck with great rapidity, biting sharply with their
trenchant beak, and holding on till they have bitten out the
piece. From this peculiarity they are commonly known in the
United States as the Snapping Turtle. Persons wading have been
known to lose toes from their bite.
M. Lesueur states that towards the beginning of May the
Fig. 39. — Trionyx ^Egyptiacus.
females of Gymnopus spinifera, belonging to this division, seek
out sunny sandy spots on the river's bank for the deposit of their
eggs ; they are not deterred from choosing steeps of ten or fifteen
feet for this purpose. Their eggs are spherical, and more fragile
than those of the Marsh Tortoise. They deposit from fifty to
sixty at a time. None of this group are found in Europe. The
fresh- water lakes and rivers of the warmer regions, such as the
Nile and the Niger, in Africa, the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the
166 CHELONIANS.
Amazon rivers, in America, the Euphrates and the Ganges, in
Asia, are its habitats. Among other remarkable species in the
group we here represent Trionyx ^Egyptiacus, Fig. 39, supposed
to be the E/^vs of Aristotle.
No modern naturalist has done more to illustrate the habits of
the Fresh- water Turtle than Mr. Bates, in his highly interesting
work, " The Naturalist on the Amazon." " The great Fresh-
water Turtle (probably Platemys cefipes) of the Amazon or
Solimoens grows on the upper river," he says, "to an immense
size, a full-grown one measuring nearly three feet in length, by
two in breadth, and is a load for the strongest Indian. Every
house (in Ega) has a little pond called a corral, or pen in the
back- yard, to hold a stock of these animals through the season of
dearth — the wet months. Those who have a number of Indians in
their employ send them out for weeks, when the waters are low,
to collect a stock, and those who have not purchase their
supply — this is attended with some difficulty however, as they
are rarely offered for sale. The price of Turtles, like that of
other articles of food, has risen greatly since the introduction
of steam- vessels. Thus, when I arrived, in 1850, a middle-sized
one could be bought for ninepence, but when I left, in 1859, they
were with difficulty obtained for eight or nine shillings each.
The abundance of Turtles varies with the amount of diurnal subsi-
dence of the waters. When the river sinks less than the average,
they are scarce ; but when high waters have prevailed, they can
be caught in abundance, their haunts being less restricted, and
appropriate breeding-places more numerous.
" The flesh is very tender, palatable, and wholesome ; but it is
very cloying, and every one ends sooner or later by becoming
thoroughly surfeited. I became so sick of Turtle in the course of
two years that I could not bear the smell of it, although nothing
else was to be had ; consequently I suffered from actual hunger."
One of the most amusing sketches in Mr. Bates' book is a journey
he made on the Solimoens, during which he visited the praias, or
sand-islands, the Turtle-pools in the forests, and the by-streams
and lakes of the great river. His companion was Cardozo, who
was a sort of official superintendent of the diggers for Turtles' eggs
on the sand-banks of Shimuni, the island lying nearest to Ega.
FEESH-WATEE TUETLES. 167
There are four or five of these Royal Praias, as they are called, in
the district, each having its commandant, whose business is to see
that every inhabitant has an equal chance in the egg-field.
" The pregnant Turtles descend from the interior pools of the
main river in July and August, before the outlets dry up, and seek
their favourite sand-island in countless swarms ; for it is only a
few praias that are selected by them out of the great number
existing. When hatched, the young animals remain in the pools
throughout the dry season ; for these breeding-places of the Turtle
then lie from twenty to thirty feet above the level of the river, and
are accessible only by cutting a path through the dense forest." On
the 26th of September Mr. Bates left Ega with his companion, who
was about to visit the sentinels placed to mark when and where the
Turtles laid their eggs. Their conveyance was a stoutly-built canoe,
or igarete, arranged for two paddlers, with an arched covering in
the stern, under which three persons could sleep pretty comfort-
ably. The swift current of the Solimoens carried them rapidly to
the large wooded island of Baria, which divides the river into two
broad channels. Shimuni lies in the middle of the north-easterly
passage. They were quickly paddled across, reaching it an hour
before sunset. The island is about three miles long and half a
mile broad. The forest which covers it rises to an immense
uniform height, presenting all round a compact and impervious
front, the uniformity being interrupted here and there by a singular
tree, called Mulatto wood, whose polished dark- green trunk is seen
conspicuously through the mass of vegetation. The sand-bank lies at
the upper end of the island, and extends several miles, presenting
an irregular surface of ridges and hollows. At the further shore to
the north-east, where no forest line shuts out the view, the white,
rolling, sandy plain stretches away to the horizon ; to the south-
west a channel, about a mile in breadth, separates Baria from
Shimuni.
Arrived at this island, Mr. Bates proceeds to describe with great
minuteness the operations of the Turtles, as well as those of the
sentinels placed to watch them.
" We found two sentinels," he says, " lodged in a corner of the
praia, where it commences at the foot of the towering forest west
of the island, having built themselves a little rancho with poles
168 CHELONIANS.
and palm-leaves. Great precautions are obliged to be taken to
avoid disturbing the vigilant Turtles, which, previous to crawling
ashore to lay, assemble in great shoals off the sand-bank. The
men during this time take care not to show themselves, and they
warn off any fisherman who attempts to pass near the place ; for
the passage of a boat, or the sight of a man, or a fire on the sand-
bank, would prevent their laying their eggs that night, and if
repeated, they wrould forsake the praia for some quieter place."
After a night spent under a temporary shed rapidly constructed
for himself and companion, Mr. Bates rose from his hammock
shivering with cold.
" Cardoza and the men were already watching the Turtles on a
stage erected on a tall tree fifty feet high ; from this watch-tower
they are enabled to ascertain the place and date of successive
deposits of eggs, and thus guide the commandant in fixing the
time for his general invitation to the Ega people. The Turtles lay
their eggs during the night, leaving the water in vast crowds
when all around is quiet, when they crawl to the central and
highest part of the praia. The hours between midnight and dawn
are those when the Turtles excavate, with their broad, webbed
paws, deep holes in the fine sand, the animal in each case making
a pit about three feet deep ; in this pit it lays its eggs, about a
hundred and twenty in number, covering them over with sand ;
then a second deposit is placed on the top of the first, and so on
until the pit is full." This goes on for about fourteen days.
" When all have done, the area, or taboliero, over which they
have been digging is only distinguished from the rest of the
praia by signs of the sand having been a little disturbed.
" On rising I went to join my friends," he continues, " and few
recollections of my Amazonian rambles are more vivid and agree-
able than that of my walk over the white sea of sand on this
cool morning. The sky was cloudless ; the just-risen sun was
hid behind the dense woods on Shimuni, but the long line of
forest to the west on Baria, with its plumy decorations of palms,
was lighted up with his yellow horizontal rays. A faint chorus
of singing-birds reached the ears from across the water, and flocks
of Gulls and Plovers were calling plaintively over the swelling
banks of the praia. Tracks of stray Turtles were visible on the
FBESH- WATER TURTLES. 169
smooth white surface, two of which had been caught, for stragglers
from the main body are a lawful prize.
" On arriving at the edge of the forest I mounted the sentinels'
stage just in time to see the Turtles retreating to the water on the
opposite side of the sand-bank. The sight was well worth the
trouble of ascending. They were about a mile off, but the surface
of the sand was blackened with the multitudes which were wad-
dling towards the river ; the margin of the praia was rather
steep, and they all seemed to tumble head first down the declivity
into the water."
On the 2nd of October the same party left Ega on a second
excursion, the object of Cardoza being this time to search certain
pools in the forest for young Turtles. The exact situation of these
hidden sheets of water are known to few. The morning was
cloudy and cool, and a fresh wind blew down the river ; they had
to struggle, therefore, against wind and current. The boat was
tossed about and shipped a good deal of water. Their destination
was a point of land twenty miles below Shimuni. The coast-line
was nearly straight for many miles, and the bank averaged about
thirty feet above the then level of the river ; at the top rose an
unbroken hedge of forest. No one could have divined that pools
of water existed on that elevated land.
A path was cut through the forest by our party with their
hunting-knives to the pool, half a mile distant ; short poles were
cut and laid across the path, over which three light canoes were
rolled, after being dragged up the bank. A large net, seventy
yards in length, was then disembarked and carried to the place.
Netting, however, the older Indians considered unsportsmanlike ;
and, on reaching the pool, they commenced shooting the Turtles
with bows and arrows from light stages erected on the shores.
" The pool covered an area of about four acres, and was closely
hemmed in by the forest, which, in picturesque variety and
grouping, often exceeded almost anything I had seen. The
margins for some distance were swampy, and covered with large
tufts of fine grass called matupd. These tufts were in many places
overrun with ferns, and exterior to them was a crowded row of
arborescent shrubs growing to a height of fifteen or twenty feet,
forming a green palisade. Around the whole stood the taller
170 CHELONIANS.
forest trees — palmate-leaved Cecropice; slender Assai palms thirty
feet high, with their thin feathery heads crowning their gently-
curving, smooth stems ; and, as a background to these airy
forms, lay the voluminous masses of ordinary forest trees, with
garlands, festoons, and streamers of leafy parasites hanging from
their branches."
The pool which was hemmed in by this gorgeous scenery was
nowhere more than five feet deep, and of that one foot was a fine
soft mud. Cardoza and the author spent an hour paddling about
admiring the skill displayed by the Indians in shooting Turtles.
They did not wait for the animals to come to the surface to breathe,
but watched for the slightest movements in the water which
revealed their presence underneath; that instant an arrow flew
from the bow of the nearest man, which never failed to pierce the
shell of the submerged animal, and by mid-day about a score of
full-grown Turtles had been shot. The net was now spread at
one extremity of the oval- shaped pool, its side resting on the
bottom, while the floats buoyed the other side up on the sur-
face, the cords being held by two Indians. The rest of the party
now spread themselves round the pool, beating the water with long
poles, in order to drive the Turtles towards the centre. When they
neared the net, the men moved more quickly, beating and shouting
with great vigour. The ends of the net were now seized with
vigorous hands, and dragged suddenly forward, bringing them at
the same time together, so as to enclose all within a circle. Every
man then leapt into the enclosure, the boats were brought up, and
the captured Turtles were thrown in. In this manner about eighty
were secured in twenty minutes.
Among these were several male Turtles, or capetaris, as they
are called by the natives. They are much less numerous than the
females, much smaller, and more circular in shape ; their flesh is
considered unwholesome.
On the 17th of October, the day announced for the taboliero, or
egg-digging, Mr. Bates made a last excursion in Senhor Cardoza's
company. Egg-collecting occupied four days. On the morning
of the 17th about four hundred persons were assembled on the
sand-bank ; each family had erected a rude temporary shed of
poles and palm-leaves, to protect themselves from sun and rain.
SEA-TORTOISES. 171
Large copper kettles to prepare the oil, and hundreds of red
earthenware jars, were scattered about on the sands. The com-
mandant commenced by taking down the names of all masters of
households, with the number of persons each intended to employ
in digging ; he then exacted from each a fine equal to fourpence
a head towards defraying the expense of the sentinels, when the
whole were allowed to go to the taboliero. It was exhausted by
the end of the second day, when each household had erected large
mounds of eggs beside their temporary hut.
THALASSIANS, OR SEA TORTOISES.
Cheloniadce, Gray ; Carettoidce, Fitzing ; Halyckelones, Kelgen ;
Oiocopodee, "Wagler.
The Turtles or Sea Tortoises are distinguished from all others by
a comparatively flat carapace, long members, the extremities of
which terminate in broad paddles, the anterior much longer than
the posterior ones ; the toes, though formed of distinct pieces, can
only act together, thus constituting true oars, admirably arranged
for swimming. Their carapace, besides being flat, is indented and
elongated in front, and contracted behind, being disposed in such
a manner that the head and feet can be completely hidden.
Marine Tortoises are the largest of their species : they swim
and dive with great facility, and can remain long under water.
The external orifice of the nasal canal is furnished with a sort of
valve, which the animal raises when it is in the air and closes when
under water ; but it rarely leaves its liquid element except in the
breeding season, when nature prompts it to seek the shore to lay its
eggs. Some of the species, however, seek the shore in the night,
when they frequent the banks of desert and solitary isles, where
they browse on marine plants. Although they walk with difficulty,
and even with pain, in quiet seas they may be seen floating like a
boat, in absolute immobility, and asleep on the surface of the
water. "With their horny jaws, which are hard and trenchant
as the beak of a bird of prey, some of them feed upon sea- weed
and algaB, while others feed on living animals, such as crustaceans,
zoophytes, and mollusks.
We have seen how regularly and systematically the Land Tor-
172 CHELONIANS.
toises proceed in depositing their eggs — nor is less precaution
taken by the Sea Tortoise. The females, accompanied by the
males, traverse several hundreds of miles of sea in order to deposit
their eggs in some favoured locality. Other females resort, year
after year, almost to a day, to the sandy shore of some desert isle,
where they drag themselves ashore during the night, sufficiently
inland to be safe from the tide. In some such spot, using their
hind feet by way of a shovel, they excavate holes about thirty
inches deep. Here they lay frequently a hundred eggs, covering
them up afterwards with the fine sand, levelling the surface,
and then returning to sea, leaving the eggs to be hatched by
the solar rays. The eggs are round, slightly depressed at both
ends, and furnished with a coriaceous shell. From the high tem-
perature communicated to the sand-bank, they are hatched in about
fifteen days. The females seem to have two or three layings in
the season, at intervals of two or three weeks. When the young
Turtles are hatched, they are feeble, white, and about the size of
frogs, and their instincts lead them at once to the sea. Under
the fostering care of their mother, those which have escaped the
birds of prey on their way to the sea, and the fishes lying in
wait for them, rapidly develop, and attain, under favourable
circumstances, an enormous size, — some of the Sphargis, or
Soft Turtles, having been known to weigh from fifteen to sixteen
hundred pounds, — while others, whose carapaces measured more
than fifteen feet in circumference and seven feet in length, exceeded
eighteen hundred pounds.
Marine Tortoises are met with in herds more or less numerous
in all seas, principally towards the torrid zone in the tropical
regions, on the shores of the Antilles, in Cuba, Jamaica, St. Do-
mingo, the Gulf of Mexico, and in the Indian Ocean. Those occa-
sionally found by navigators in the North Atlantic and Mediter-
ranean seem to be wanderers separated from some travelling
bands.
Of all reptiles, the Sea Tortoise is the most useful to man. In
countries where they are common, and where they attain an
enormous size, their flesh is the most healthy and nourishing food,
and their carapace serves as a canoe in which the natives paddle
along the shores. They even roof their huts with them ; they
SEA-TOETOISES.
173
convert them into drinking-troughs for their cattle and into baths
for their children. According to Strabo and Pliny, the ancient
inhabitants of the shores of the Indian Ocean and the Ked Sea
converted the enormous carapaces of the Tortoise which frequented
their shores into coverings for their houses, and boats for paddling
along the coast. The fat of many species, when fresh, is used as
a substitute for oil and butter. When the musk-like odour of this
fatty substance, as in Chelonia caouana and C. caretta, becomes
too repulsive for food, it is employed in embrocations, in tanning
leather, or in lamps. The eggs of nearly all the Turtles are sought
Fig. 40.— Green Turtle (Chelonia Mydas).
after for their flavour. Finally, the carapace of several species
constitutes a valuable material much employed in the arts, and
known as tortoise-shell. This material is sought after in con-
sequence of its hardness and the fine polish of which it is sus-
ceptible, and also for the facility with which it is worked. It has
a strong resemblance to horn, but is easily distinguished from
it. Though, like horn, it is formed of parallel fibres, it seems to
be rather the result of exudation, consisting of a kind of solidified
mucus. Its texture is homogeneous ; it can be cut and polished
with precision and beauty ; in short, under the influence of a gentle
MODES OF CAPTUEING TORTOISES. 175
heat, it is softened and can be modelled into any fashion, accord-
ing to the taste of the moulder ; after becoming cool it retains
the desired shape.
While most of the Tortoises are highly useful to man, both for
food and other purposes, perhaps the most interesting are the Green
Turtles (Tortues /ranches of French authors), Chelonia caouana
and Caretta. From these man draws the greatest advantage from
their superior size, and from the thickness of their shells. The Green
Turtle ( Chelonia My das, Fig. 40) is so called from the reflected
green of its carapace. It abounds in the Southern Atlantic Ocean,
where it keeps habitually far from the shore, except in the breeding
seasons, when it makes long voyages in order to deposit its eggs,
giving a preference for that purpose to Ascension Island and
St. Vincent. It rests on the surface of the open sea, and as
it sleeps heavily, it is easily taken by a cord with a running
knot, which is carefully slipped round its neck as the boat con-
taining the captors silently glides past. It is even said to be a
practice with the Malay fishermen to dive beneath them, and attach-
ing a cord to the foot of a sleeping Turtle, thus take it alive.
Many other modes are employed for capturing them. In the
regions frequented by them in the breeding season, they are fol-
lowed by their track on the sands, and their retreat cut off, when
met with, by forming a circle round them, when they are thrown on
their backs ; hand- spikes sometimes being necessary to accomplish
this from their great size. In this position they are helpless, and
must remain until wanted, so that their enemies have time to pursue
their sport elsewhere, as represented in Fig. 41. The next day they
are collected or destroyed at leisure. In 1802 the crew of a French
ship surprised a female Turtle on the Island of Lobos. The men had
infinite trouble in making good its capture and throwing it on its
back, for it was strong enough to drag them all towards the sea. It
was at last mastered. Its head was as large as that of an infant, and
its beak four times the size of a paroquet. It weighed two hundred
and sixty pounds, and had in its body three hundred and forty-
seven eggs. Turtles are also taken in nets, in the meshes of which
their beaks and flippers get entangled; thus prevented from coming
to the surface for air, they die of asphyxia. Others harpoon them
on the open sea when they come to the surface to breathe. The
176
CHELONIANS.
harpoon is attached to a cord, by which the animal is soon
brought to the surface and drawn into the boat. But the com-
monest mode of capture is approaching them in a boat as they
float asleep on the surface — this must be done silently. When
within reach, a back flipper is laid hold of by one of the crew, and
by a sudden twist the Turtle is thrown on its back, when becoming
helpless for the moment, it is dragged on board.
A very curious mode of fishing for Turtle is pursued by means
of small fish, a species of Echeneis or Eemora. These small fish
are provided with an oval plate on the head, which consists
of a score of parallel plates, forming two series, furnished on their
Fig. 42.— Hawk's-biU Turtle (Chelonia caretta).
outer edge with an oval disk, soft and fleshy at its circumference ;
in the middle of this plate is a complicated apparatus of bony
pieces dispersed across the surface, which can be moved on their axis
by particular muscles, their free edges being furnished with small
hooks, which are all raised at once like the points of a wool-card.
The fishermen keep many of these fishes in buckets of water.
When they see a sleeping Turtle they approach it, and throw one of
these suck-fish into the sea. The fish dives under the Turtle, and fixes
itself inextricably to it by means of their cephalic disk. As the fish
is attached to a long cord by means of a ring in its tail, the fish
HAWK'S-BILL TURTLE.
177
is drawn on board along with its victim. This is line fishing of a
new kind, in which the hook is living, and pursues its prey in the
bosom of the deep.
The Green Turtle, whose flesh is celebrated for its delicacy and
excellence of its fat, is that from which Turtle soup is made. Turtle
soup is only of recent invention, the first Turtle having been
brought to London by Admiral Anson in 1752. It was long a
costly dish, and even now, although the introduction of steam and
other adjuncts to navigation has greatly modified the expense,
its price is about ten shillings per pound weight.
Much of the tortoise-shell of commerce comes from the Green
Turtle, but by far the finest specimens are produced by the Imbri-
cated or Hawk's-bill Turtle, Chelonia caretta (Fig. 42). In this
Fig. 43. — Loggerhead Turtle (Chelonia caouana).
species the plates of the disk are imbricated, or lapping over each
other, and thirteen in number. The muzzle is long and compressed ;
the jaws with straight edges, without dentation, curving slightly
towards each other at their extremities, with two nails on each
fin. It rarely attains the size or weight of the Green Turtle.
The Hawk's-bill Turtle is met with in the Indian Ocean, and also
on the American shores. It feeds on marine plants, on mollusks,
and small fishes, and is chiefly sought after for its shell, which
produces the finest tortoise-shell known ; while its flesh is rendered
N
178
CHELONIANS.
unpalatable from its musky flavour. On the other hand, its eggs
are excellent when fresh, and eagerly sought after.
In order to prepare the shell, it is softened by means of boiling
after being torn from the animal's back. It is then flattened by
being passed through a press, previous to being polished. In
this condition it is ready for all sorts of ornamental work. The
Loggerhead Turtle, or C. caouana (Fig. 43), like the Green
Turtle, has its scales placed side by side. Its colour is brownish
or deep maroon. It is found incidentally on the French and
English coasts, and abounds in the Atlantic and Mediterranean
seas. Its length is about four feet ; its weight, from three to four
Fig. 44.— Leather-back or Corded Tortoise (Spargis coriacea).
hundred pounds. It is very voracious, and feeds principally on
mollusks. Its shell is much valued, but its flesh is indifferent, and
its fat altogether uneatable ; however, it is used in some localities
to make lamp-oil.
The Leather-back or Corded Tortoise, Spargis coriacea, differs
from every other genus, its body being enveloped in a coriaceous
hide ; tuberculous in the young, perfectly smooth in adults. The
feet are without claws. Seven longitudinal grooves extend from
the neck to the tail, which remind one of the seven chords of the
ancient lyre. Only one species of Sphargis is known (S. coriacea,
CO.EDED TORTOISE. 179
Fig. 44). This species is found in the Mediterranean and Atlantic
Ocean, and is, with the Hawk's-bill Tortoise, the only species
found on the British coast. Its body is a light brown, with the
lines of the carapace fawn-colour ; its members black, edged with
yellow. It attains the length of six to eight feet, and a breadth
of about one-fifth of the length : it sometimes attains the weight of
fourteen to sixteen hundred pounds. Its flesh is said to be un-
wholesome, and, on being eaten, to produce severe vomiting and
purging.
BIRDS.
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
BIRDS are the spoilt children of nature — the favourites of creation.
Their brilliant plumag'e often assumes the most resplendent
colours. They have the happy privilege of moving in space — now
fluttering through the air, hunting the insect which flits from
flower to flower ; now soaring high aloft, and swooping upon the
victim it has marked for its prey ; now cleaving the atmosphere
on rapid wing, and performing journeys of vast extent with great
rapidity. Mankind have a profound sympathy with these little
winged beings, which charm at once by the elegance of their form,
the melody of their song, and the graceful impetuosity of their
movements.
Anatomically speaking, birds are connected with the Mammi-
fera by their internal structure. Their skeleton essentially
resembles that of the Mammals, the bones being nearly the same,
only modified slightly for the purposes of flight.
In birds there is a double circulation. The heart consists of
two moieties, or lobes, known as the auricle and ventricle. It-
is conical in form, and occupies the anterior part of the thorax,
its apex passing between the lobes of the liver ; but there is little
perceptible distinction between auricles and ventricles. Their
blood is richer in globules than that of the Mammalia, being more
thoroughly permeated by air ; the respiratory function is also more
energetic, from the same cause — in fact, they consume a larger
quantity of oxygen, and produce a proportionately greater degree
of heat ; for while their lungs are small, and placed in the upper
ANATOMY OF BIEDS. 181
part of the thorax only, where they are confined on each side to a
cavity, bounded above by the ribs, and below by an imperfect
diaphragm, they are perforated by tubes, which communicate
with membranous cells, distributed over the thoracic and abdo-
minal cavities, between the muscles, and beneath the skin, — often
in all parts of the body. What distinguishes the bird, in fact, is
not the wing ; for -certain of the Mammalia, as the Bat, and even
some fishes, as the Gusard and Exoccetus, can traverse the air by
expanding their wings. In birds the diaphragm which arrests
Fig. 45.— Skeleton of the Swan.
the air in the Mammalia is scarcely perceptible, so the external
air penetrates into every part of the body by the respiratory tubes,
which ramify the whole cellular tissue, the interior of the bones, and
even the feathers, and between the muscles. Their bodies, dilated
by the air inhaled, lose a proportionate amount of weight ; balloon-
like, they float in the air, and, from their peculiar forms, they
can swim, so to speak, in any direction in the gaseous element.
Wings alone, then, would fail to support the bird in space.
182
INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.
The position renders a double system of breathing necessary.
Yital heat in animals is always in proportion to their respiration,
for the oxygen of the air, which penetrates every ceil and cavity
of their bones, feathers, and body, warming and giving increased
activity to their circulation, and specific lightness to their bodies,
from its rich organisation enables
birds to live in .the coldest atmo-
spheric regions. In Fig. 46 the
respiratory organs of a Pigeon are
represented. The trachea, or wind-
pipe, is composed of many bony rings,
varying in different species. In the
Falcons it is slightly flattened, and
tapers in a small degree ; but in many
genera it presents dilatations and
contractions, and in others it is vari-
ously curved, two slender muscles,
which run along its sides towards the
sternum, serving to contract it. In
many of the song-birds several pairs
of small muscles are attached to the lower larynx where the tube
bifurcates, by which they are enabled to control this organ, which
is the producer of their note.
The trachea carries the air to the lungs in a Pigeon, and sepa-
Fig 46.
Fig. 47.
rates into two branches in the breast, where it abuts on the
aerial sacs, and on the two lungs (Fig. 47). The air carried by
ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 183
the windpipe acts upon the blood through the thin substance
of the cells which constitute the pulmonary tissue, in which it
traverses in an infinity of minute vessels, whose thin walls are
permeable by the gas.
The lungs are small, and placed in the upper part of the
thorax, where they are confined on each side by a cavity bounded
above by the ribs and below by an imperfect diaphragm ; but they
are perforated by tubes which communicate with membranous
cells distributed over the thoracic and abdominal cavities, between
the muscles, beneath the skin, and in all parts of the body — the
air even penetrating many of the bones when the species are
peculiarly aerial in their habits.
The external form of birds is modified so as to be subservient to
aerial progression. The vertebral column, or spine, along the
centre of which runs the spinal cord, is divided into three regions —
the cervical, dorsal, and sacral regions — terminating in the caudal
extremities, the number of vertebra, or pieces, varying much in
different genera. The body consists of the dorsal, sacral, and
caudal parts of the column ; laterally, of the ribs and pelvis ; and
beneath, of the sternum and the soft parts contained in it. Its
anterior part, containing heart, lungs, and liver, is named the
thorax ; the posterior, the pelvis. The sternum, with the clavicles
and scapulae, is perhaps the most curiously modified part of the
skeleton of birds.
The sternum, then, is a large expanded plate extended over the
whole anterior part of the thorax, and even covering more or less
what may be considered the abdomen. It varies greatly in dif-
ferent genera ; but in all it is more or less four- sided, and convex
externally, forming the basis for the powerful muscles by which
the wings are moved. These wings serve as arms by which the
bird guides itself, ascending or descending according to the im-
pulse given them. " That the anterior form of birds is modified
so as to be subservient to the aerial progression for which these
animals are intended/' says McGillivray, " is obvious and intel-
ligible. Their bodies are oval, with the more powerful muscles
placed on the breast, so that, when the horizontal position is
assumed, the centre of gravity comes between the wings, and is
kept near the lower part by the weight of the pectoral muscles.
184
1NTEODUCTOEY CHAPTER.
The length, and flexibility of the neck enable the bird to make the
necessary changes in the centre of gravity, while the solidity of
the dorsal spine gives advantage to the action of the muscles.
The head is terminated by a pointed bill, which aids in cleaving
the air ; the feet, when short, are drawn up and concealed under
Fig. 48.
the feathers ; when long, they are stretched out beneath or behind
the tail, which is more or less expanded, and helps to support
the body in the air, as well as, by acting in the manner of a
Fig. 49.
rudder, to change its direction, or, by being expanded, to break
its descent."
The wings of birds are acute or obtuse. The more angular the
Fig. 50.
wing of birds — that is to say, the longer the feathers on the edge
of the wing — the more rapidly does it propel itself through the
air. The tail consists of a number of feathers, to which are
attached a series of small muscles, one for each vertebra, which
are capable of depressing and elevating the tail in various degrees ;
while a series of connections, whose fibres invest the base of the
PLUMAGE. 185
quills, curve round the edge of the tail. Their action is to spread
out the tail-feathers, and incline them to the right or left ; thus
enabling it to perform the part of a helm or rudder as it cleaves
the atmosphere.
Besides flight, birds possess other means of locomotion. They
are formed for walking or for swimming as well as for flying,
according as their habits are aerial, terrestrial, or aquatic. Their
general form, though possessing all the characteristics of the class,
is modified and adapted to the kind of life they are intended to
lead. Where the skin of a bird is covered with feathers, it is
observed that the true skin, or derma, is thin and transparent ;
while the cuticle is thicker, and even covered with scales, in those
parts where feathers are absent.
Before addressing ourselves to the physiological functions of
birds, a few words descriptive of their feathers, beaks, and claws
will not be out of place.
The covering of birds is known by the general name of plumage.
It is composed of many individual feathers. The feathers are
horny productions, consisting of a hollow tube or barrel, and a
stem rising from it. Chemically, this covering is of the same
material as the hair on Mammals and the scales on reptiles and
fishes, differing only in its mechanical structure. Besides the more
conspicuous feathers, most birds have an underneath covering of
smaller ones known as down-feathers. A feather of the ordinary
kind consists of the tube, or barrel, by which it is attached to the
skin, varying in length according to the species ; the stem, or
shaft, composed internally of a soft, compact, but elastic substance
of a whitish colour, and in its buoyancy not unlike cork ; the web,
which is a lateral prolongation of the external coating of the shaft,
and which assumes the form of a thin linear membrane springing
from it at an angle more or less acute in different species : this is
the barb. From the upper edge of each barb two sets of minute
filaments proceed at an angle similar to that of the barb itself in
respect to the shaft. These smaller filaments are the barbules, by
means of which the barbs are retained in opposition — not by the
barbules of one barb interlocking with those of another in the
manner of dovetailing, but by the anterior series of one barb over-
lapping and hooking into the recurvate formation of the barb next
186
INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.
to it (Figs. 51, 52). The barbules themselves frequently throw
out filaments in the same manner, which are called barbicels, whose
object is apparently the same — namely, that of connecting and
Fig. 51. Fig. 52.
retaining the barbules in position. These may be observed, by
the aid of a small magnifying glass, in the quills of the Gfolden
Eagle, Aquila chrysaetus.
Feathers, then, consist of three parts — the tube, the shaft, and
the webs ; the webs being the barbs furnished with barbules, some-
Fig. 53. ['Fig. 54. ;Fig. 55.;
times barbicels. They are convex above, and are thus enabled to
resist flexion or fracture better from beneath than from any other
direction. They are also elastic ; and this property, together with
their curvature, tends to keep them closer together.
FEATHERS. 187
In the feathers of a large portion of birds there is a plumiform
formation, or small feather or plumule. This plumule is conspi-
cuous in gallinaceous birds — for instance, the Pheasants (Fig. 53) ;
it springs from the fore part of the tube, just at the commence-
ment of the shafts ; it gradually narrows, and is continued in the
form of a very delicate, thread-like fibre ; from its side proceed
two series of barbs, and from the barbs two series of barbules,
extremely fine, entirely disunited, and very loose. This plumule
seldom exists among aquatic birds, but in gallinaceous fowls it
attains the length of two-thirds of the feather, and in the Emu
and Cassowary it equals it in length.
Feathers may be divided into those specially employed as the
means of locomotion and those intended to protect the bird from
extreme cold. The former are much stronger, more compact, and
more elongated than the others. The row of feathers bordering
the wing behind is known as the alar quills, or wing-quills, and
those terminating the extremity of the tail, as caudal quills. From
the head, backwards to the tail, the feathers increase in strength
and size ; those on the face, or round the base of the bill, being
smallest, the tail-coverts longest. Immediately covering the base
of the wing-quills are a row of feathers on both surfaces of the
wing ; these are the quill-coverts.
The most brilliant feathers are found in birds of warm climates,
and the more tropical the climate the more dazzling and brilliant is
the plumage. In many species the brilliant plumage is confined to
the males, while that of the females is dark and sombre. In other
cases it is the same in both sexes. The young of some species
attain the adult appearance after the first moult ; others take
several years to acquire their full splendour.
Birds cast their feathers at least once a year, in order to
put on a fresh dress. This is called moulting — a change which
usually occurs in the autumn, but sometimes both in spring and
autumn. During the moulting season birds are dull, retiring,
and silent ; but when they emerge from this state they proudly
display their lively colours, which now rival the gayest flowers that
surround them.
Among the gallinaceous birds, and especially among the
aquatic species, there exist over the coccyx certain receptacles
188
INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.
from which is distilled the oily substance with which they lubri-
cate their plumage. These receptacles are known as the uropygial
glands. On the lower surface is a layer of cellular tissue con-
taining a similar fluid, which seems to be connected with the
growth of the feathers.
The feet of birds are as varied in different species as are their
wings. In birds of prey the claws are powerful and hooked. In
some the foot is flat and the claw straight and adapted for walking
(Figs. 56, 57, 58). The great toe is generally the strongest,
Fig. 56.
Fig. 57.
Fig. 58.
but this is not an absolute law : a projection which is found on
the leg of some birds, and is designated a spur, is a formidable
weapon in some species (Figs. 59, 60). Some birds walk by
Fig. 59.
Tig. 60.
bringing their feet forward alternately ; others by a simultaneous
motion, or a succession of leaps. Some run with great velocity,
while others walk with great difficulty, and that only on a flat
surface. Many have their toes joined by thin membranes, which
act as paddles by which they propel themselves through the
water.
The beak, or bill, of birds is composed of two bony pieces, called
mandibles, surrounded by a horny substance, differing both in
BEAKS.
189
form and thickness according to the habits of the species. In the
genus FALCO the bill is shorter than the head ; the upper mandible
is furnished at the base with a bare coloured skin, of a peculiar
dense texture, called the cere ; its outline slightly convex as far
as the edge of the cere (Fig. 61), then curved so as to form about
Fig. 61.
the third of a circle, and evidently destined, in connection with its
formidable claws, to tear its prey.
In the TOUCANS RAMPHASTID^E the bill is half a foot long,
hollow within, thin, and nearly transparent ; and the mandibles
are so disposed as to combine, with their great bulk, strength
and lightness, and assisting by their digestive power to assimilate
both animal and vegetable food (Fig. 62). In the PELICANIDJE,
as in the Common Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carlo, the bill is
long, straight, and compound; the upper mandible curved
towards the point, the lower compressed ; the base inserted in a
small membrane which extends under the throat. In the back
part of the head is an additional bone (Fig. 63, a), attached in
Fig. 63.
such a manner to the occiput as to admit of great expansion, which
permits of its swallowing plaice and other flat fish of considerable
190
INTKODUCTOKY CHAPTEE.
size. The CRANE, Grus cinerea (Fig. 64), lias the bill rather
longer than the head, strong, straight, compressed, and pointed at
the extremity ; the sides of the mandible deeply channelled with
nostrils, and closed backwards by a thin membrane.
Fig. 64.
In the Goose, genus Anser (Fig. 65), we find the bill short,
not longer than the head, conical, covered at the base with a cerous
skin, with under mandible smaller than the upper. In the Spar-
rig. 65.
rows, Passerina (Fig. 66), the bill is strong and conical, the
upper mandible slightly curved, the lower compressed and smaller
than the upper ; nostrils lateral, basal, round, and partly con-
rig. 66.
Fig. 67.
cealed by the short feathers at the base of the mandibles. In
the Goatsuckers, Caprimulgus (Fig. 67), the bill is remarkably
small and weak, the sides inflexed and sometimes gaping.
The tongue, like the bill, however, is only an accessory to the
digestive apparatus ; for while the beak serves the purpose of
prehension and trituration, the tongue assists in deglutition or
swallowing. Digestion is so active in some birds, that they get
fat in an excessively short space of time. The Ortolan Bunting,
Emberiza hortulana, and some others, are fattened for the table in
DIGESTIVE OEGANS.
191
five or six days. In the swelling under the throat, called the
crop, a (Fig. 68), or first stomach, which is largely developed in
some of the granivorous or grain- eating birds, the food remains
for a time, where it undergoes certain modifications which
facilitate digestion ; thence it passes into the succenteric ventricle,
or second stomach, b (Fig. 68), — there it imbibes the necessary
amount of gastric juice ; being finally transformed into chyme in
the gizzard, c (Fig. 68), or third stomach,
which is possessed of great muscular power,
being capable of acting upon the most solid
bodies, triturating even the flints and gravel
which the gallinaceous birds swallow to aid
their digestion.
It is a curious fact that a grain of seed,
introduced into the stomach, may be digested
without alteration, and ejected where it will
germinate, if it meets with no obstacle to its
vegetation. In this manner trees are fre-
quently found in regions where their species
appear to have been previously unknown.
Chyle, which is a milky fluid formed from
the junction of chyme and bile, is received
by the small intestine, where the bile also
flows from the liver and the saliva from the
pancreas.
The urinary apparatus consists of the kid-
neys, two in number, thick and irregular, and distinct one from
the other, abutting on the intestine, which terminates in a species
of pouch, or cloaca, through which evacuation, alternately of urine,
excrement, and eggs, takes place.
The sense of touch, of smell, of taste, and hearing are only
slightly developed in birds. Some have spoken of great deli-
cacy of scent in birds of prey, which are observed to assemble in
great numbers on fields of battle and other places where human
carcasses are exposed. But the opinions of naturalists, such as
Audubon and Levaillant, seem to prove that these animals were
attracted rather by the sight than smell.
The organ of sight is, indeed, more highly developed in birds
192
INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.
than in any other class of animals. The volume of the eye itself
is large compared with the head. It includes an addition which
seems to be confined to birds. This is a black membrane, with
many folds, very rich in blood-vessels, and situated at the bottom
of the ocular globe, and advancing towards the crystalline.
Fig. 69.
Anatomy has failed to explain the use of this, but it is sup-
posed that by advancing or withdrawing it, it gives to birds
additional power of vision. Other parts of the eye, such as
the choroids, the thin membrane which covers the posterior part
of the eye, the iris, the retina, present nothing remarkable.
The white of the eye is surrounded by an osseous or cartilagi-
nous matter, evidently placed there for protection of this delicate
and useful organ.
SIGHT AND, SWIFTNESS OF BIRDS. 193
Besides the ordinary upper and lower pupils, birds possess a
third. This consists of an extensive transparent membrane, dis-
posed vertically, which covers the eye like a piece of network,
protecting it from the effects of a blaze of light. It is this pupil,
or nictating membrane, placed at the internal angle of the eye,
between the orb and the external pupil, which the animal uses at will,
which permits the Eagle to gaze at the sun, and prevents the noc-
turnal birds of prey from being dazzled when, exposed to daylight.
The perfection of the sight of birds seems to be proved from
the Vulture, so distant from his prey as to appear a mere speck
in the heavens, without deviation flying directly to it ; or the
Swallow, which perceives, while on rapid wing, the smallest
insect on which it feeds. According to Spallanzani, the Swift has
sight so piercing, that it can see only five lines in diameter at the
distance of five hundred feet.
Birds, of all animal creation, can traverse distances with the
greatest rapidity. The fleetest among the Mammifera cannot
run over five or six leagues in an hour. Certain birds easily
traverse their twenty leagues in the same interval of time. In
less than three minutes we lose sight of a large bird, such as a
Kite or an Eagle, whose body is more than a yard from wing to
wing. It is assumed, from these facts, that these birds traverse more
than fifteen hundred yards each minute, or more than fifty miles
in an hour. A Falcon of Henri II. strayed from Fontainebleau
in pursuit of a Bustard ; it was taken the next day at Malta.
Another Falcon, sent from the Canaries to the Duke de Lermes,
in Spain, returned from Andalusia to the Peak of Teneriffe in six
hours — the flight representing a distance of two hundred and fifty
leagues. In short, the whole organisation gives to a bird that
remarkable lightness which contributes so much to its velocity. Not
to speak of the feathers with which it is covered, its bones are hollow
and form large cells, called aerial sacs, which it is able to fill
with air at will, and its sternum is furnished with a bony frame
or breast-bone, formed somewhat like the keel of a ship, into
which the pectoral muscles are inserted — which, besides being
largely developed, in birds of flight possess remarkable contractile
properties.
The vocal apparatus in birds, represented in Figs. 70 and 71,
194 INTBODUCTOKY CHAPTER
is very complicated, and differs from the human larynx and trachea.
It consists of a kind of osseous chamber ; which, however, is only
a swelling in the arterial trachea at the point where it bifurcates
and enters the breast to form the bronchial tube. It is this
formation, called the lower larynx, which constitutes the organ of
song. Five pairs of muscles, attached to the walls of this chamber,
stretch or relax the vocal chord, by which means they enlarge
Fig. 70. Fig. 71.
or diminish the cavity of the larynx. Whoever has watched any
song-bird singing must have noted the swelling and contracting
of its throat as it poured out its melody, modifying, in a thousand
ways, the tension of the vocal chords and of the larynx, and
producing those marvellous modulations whose perfection must
always be a subject of astonishment and admiration.
The song of birds must be the expression of some sentiment ;
they surely sing as much for their own pleasure as to charm those
who listen to them. While they fill the woods with their melo-
dious accents they direct their looks on all sides, as if proud of
their talents, and desirous of gathering the tribute of admiration
to which they feel themselves entitled. Their song varies with
the season, but it is in the early spring their efforts are the most
successful, and we are most disposed to admire the beauty and
harmony of their voices. Can anything be more delicious than
the warbling of the Linnet, the piping of the Goldfinch, slowly
swelling from their leafy bower, or the melodious cadence of the
Nightingale, as it breaks the silence of the woodland during the
serene nights of leafy June ?
Our landscape would be sad and mute indeed without these
THE SONG OF BIRDS. 195
graceful inhabitants of the air, which give so much animation to
country life and solitary rambles. In the silence of night, when
all nature sleeps and life seems suspended, all at once certain
notes of harmony rise from under the dense foliage, as if to pro-
test against the universal silence. It is sometimes a plaintive
cry, prolonged into a stifled sigh, now a continuous warbling,
now a lively song, gay and melodious, which the whole forest re-
echoes to.
When the darkness of night gives place to the first dawn of
day — when the soft gleam of Aurora has appeared on the horizon,
all is transformed, all is vivified on the new-born earth, lately
asleep and apparently deserted. The larger birds rise higher
and higher in the air, till they are lost in the clouds. The small
birds hop from branch to branch with joyous gambols, commu-
nicating a movement of happiness and content over all nature.
What a wonderful variety of music issues from them — what
dazzling brilliancy and variety deck their plumage — what a
charm pervades the whole scene, enlivened by these living flowers
flitting about in intense enjoyment, hovering, traversing, and
embellishing the air ! Be it a Titmouse, which seems to spend its
life suspended from the branch of a tree ; or the Fly Catcher,
on the other hand, always perched ; the Lark, performing its
graceful circles in the air as it rises higher and higher, pouring
forth its melodious song more vigorously with each circle described ;
the Thrush, which runs along the grassy path, watching for its
prey, or the House Sparrow chirping from the straw-built roof, or
the Robin warbling from some leafless bower — how completely the
little winged wanderers decorate the landscape and improve the
picture with their innocent gambols !
Assuredly birds have a language which they alone comprehend.
When danger threatens them, a particular cry is uttered by one,
and immediately all of the same species hide themselves until
their fears are dispelled and confidence restored. When the pre-
sence of a bird of prey is announced by the plaintive cry of the
Thrush, all the feathered race of the neighbourhood are hushed
into silence.
Birds of prey with carnivorous instincts live in the most solitary
places. The Eagle lives alone with his mate in some unapproach-
o2
196 INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.
able aerie, his nest placed on the side of some steeply- scarped
mountain, or perhaps hidden in the depth of some inaccessible
ravine, whence they sally forth to visit some distant region in
search of prey.
It is very difficult for us to appreciate the degree of intelligence
exhibited by birds. In the Mammifers, whose organisation ap-
proaches nearer to that of man, we are enabled partially to com-
prehend their joys and griefs ; but in the case of birds we are
reduced to conjecture in order to arrive at an estimate of their
sensations. To explain this profound mystery a word has been
invented which satisfies easy minds : we call the sentiment which
leads birds to perform many admirable actions which are related
of them, instinct. The tenderness of the mother for her young —
a tenderness so full of delicacy and foresight — is, we say, only the
result of instinct. It is agreed on all hands, however, that this
instinct singularly resembles the intelligence called reason, and,
in the opinion of many, is nothing else.
Eeproduction in birds occurs at intervals regulated by nature,
and they are distinguished, above all other creatures, for the
fidelity of their affections. It is frequently a matter of observa-
tion that a male attaches itself to a female, and they henceforth
live together till the death of one or both ; and many affecting
scenes are described where death has overtaken one of the affec-
tionate pair. When the breeding season approaches, the habits
of the female are modified ; she abandons her former freedom, and,
having laid her eggs, she passes her whole time in incubation,
defying hunger and all other dangers, apparently well instructed
in the fact that the equal and prolonged heat communicated by
their contact with her body is necessary to hatch them. During
the period of incubation the male, in most instances, watches
the female, and supplies her with food ; afterwards the little ones
are waited on by both the parent birds with the tenderest care
until they finally attain the use of their wings.
The solicitude of birds for their young is first manifested in the
choice of the locality for the nest, and in the care with which this
cradle of their progeny is constructed. But all this disappears
when the young no longer require the maternal protection.
In spring, when the birds have paired, they set themselves to
BIBBS' NESTS.
197
work at once to collect the necessary materials for their nest.
Each carries its blade of grass or stem of moss. Large birds con-
tent themselves with a coarser structure — chips of wood, or
branches of trees interlaced with twigs, lined with hair and other
soft materials, are fashioned into the necessary shape. But the
smaller species really display great art in framing their miniature
dwelling, which they furnish inside with wool, blades of grass,
or down, the male and female labouring in the common work.
Their effort is to make a soft, warm, and solid bed on which
to deposit the coming eggs. The mother-bird has recourse
to all sorts of cunning devices in order to conceal her nest
Fig. 72.
Fig. 73.
from prying eyes, choosing for this purpose the heart of a
leafy bush, the forked limb, the concealed crack or hollow in the
Fig. 74. Fig. 75.
trunk of a tree, the chimneys of a house, crevices in a wall
or under a roof. Curiously enough, the nests of the same
species are always fashioned in precisely the same manner.
198
INTKODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.
The Kinglet, or Wren (Fig. 72), builds its nest under a bank, gene-
rally near some brook ; it is neatly formed of moss, nearly covered
with, leaves, and lined with small feathers, hair, and wool. In this
nest the smallest of our native birds lays six delicate little white
eggs, marked with small pink spots. The Humming-birds (Fig.
73), which flit about in tropical woods, build their nests of grass,
lined with feathers. The House Sparrow (Fig. 74) builds its nest
under the eave of some house ; while the Hedge Sparrow (Fig.
74) chooses the fork of a hawthorn- tree in which to construct its
children's home. The Magpie, more ambitious, constructs, in the
topmost fork of some tall ash, or poplar, or elm, its nest of branches
interlaced with twigs, and lined with fine grass, hair, and other
soft materials (Fig. 75). It is a large and consequently a con-
spicuous fabric, elliptical in form, composed first of rough boughs,
on which is laid a quantity of mud, and then a layer of twigs, the
whole lined with fibrous roots and other soft material. The Gold-
\ \
Fig. 77.
finch builds its nest on trees ; it is composed of grass, moss, and
lichens, and lined with the down of various plants and such other
soft material as comes in its way, elaborately interwoven with
wool and hair (Fig. 76).
The Owl, Strix Jiammea, chooses her nest in some obscure nook
of an old tower, the steeple of a church, a dovecot, or the hollow
of an aged tree (Fig. 77). It is composed of twigs and straws
loosely arranged.
Some birds form into a sort of coarse tissue the fibres of which
NEST OF TAILOR BIRD. 199
they construct their nest, which has procured them the name of
Weaver Birds. The nest of Fondia erythrops occupies the centre
of a bundle of reeds growing in shallow water, in which various
grasses are roughly interwoven in the form of a cupola. The
Black-headed Synalaxis, S. melanops (Bonaparte), constructs a
more delicate fahric, but remarkable for its strength. It builds
its nest with grasses, interlacing them in a firm and inextricable
web ; the form is globular, and the entrance is a small hole in one
of its sides. The Orioles and Cassiques of the New World cannot
be passed without noticing their wonderful skill in nest construc-
tion. The nest of the Baltimore Oriole forms a perfect family
pouch, which it suspends from the upper branches of a shrub or
tree. The nest of Cassicus hcemorrhous (Cuvier) consists of dry
grasses woven into long sacks, gradually increasing in size towards
the bottom, with an elongated slit in the side ; this is so con-
structed as to exclude rain from the nest. These wonderful
structures are sometimes two yards in length ; and when these
birds are numerous in the country, the nests, as they hang
suspended from the branches of trees, give a singularly novel
aspect to the landscape.
Not less curious is the nest of the Tailor Bird, Orthotonia (Fig.
78), which is formed of a large leaf, the two sides of which the
bird has contrived to sew together ; in the interior is placed the nest.
Miraculous indeed is the produce of these little workers. The
wonder is how the birds contrive to enter a nest on the wing when
the opening seems scarcely so large as the bird's body, and yet it
enters without disturbing a fibre. The hut of some savage races
is left constantly open, their intelligence not suggesting a pro-
tecting door. The Spiders are more ingenious. They contrive
to close the entrance to their dwellings, while the door is left
habitually open ; some birds adopt analogous precautions. In M.
Jeudon's book on the Birds of India, he reports a curious arrange-
ment of a species of Homrain: when the female of this bird
begins to lay, the male encloses her in their nest by shutting up
the door with a thick mud wall, leaving only a small opening by
which the female can breathe and receive her food from the male
bird's bill ; for this severe husband is not forgetful of his duties, but
every few minutes conveys some morsel to the enclosed prisoner.
200
INTBODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.
Sonnerat, in his " Yoyage to India," speaks of a Cape Tit, the
nest of which is in the form of a bottle, and composed of cotton.
While the female hatches the eggs, the male, like a true sentinel,
maintains a strict watch on a specially- formed resting-place,
built on one of the sides. Finally, for ingenious construc-
tion, instigated by affection for its progeny, there is nothing
to compare to the work of the Republican (Fig. 79). This little
bird of the Cape, which is about the size of a Sparrow, which it
much resembles, lives in numerous families, that unite in forming
immense colonies. Their dwellings have the appearance of a
circular framework surrounding the trunk of some large tree,
as represented beneath. Levaillant counted as many as three
hundred cells, which indicate that it is inhabited by six hundred
Fig. 78.
1'ig. 79.
birds. These nests are so heavy that Levaillant was compelled
to employ a cart with many men in transporting one of their
colonies. At a distance they resemble great roofs attached to the
trunks or branches of trees, on which hundreds of birds sport and
enjoy themselves. Further, the Oriole suspends its basket-like
nest by a twig at the extremity of a flexible branch, placing it
thus beyond the reach of any prowling four-footed ravisher. The
Magpie selects the topmost fork of the loftiest trees. Again, the
nest of the esculent Eastern Swallow, the one so much sought
after by gourmands, hangs from those cliffs washed by the sea.
HATCHING. 201
and is constructed of ajucus, or marine plant, of the genus Geli-
dium, which gelatinous substance, cemented by the saliva of the
bird, forms a sort of paste of most delicate flavour.
When this nest is built, and the walls properly cemented, and
the home of the little brood prepared, the eggs are laid and the
process of hatching commences. Eggs are generally numerous in
inverse proportion to the size of the bird. The Eagle lays two, for
instance, while the Titmouse (Parus) lays from twelve to eighteen.
The eggs laid, the female must now submit to the long and
painful labour of incubation. While the male lies in wait in the
neighbouring bush to defend his young brood against any enemy
which may present itself, giving battle to much larger animals
if they venture to attack his nest, the female only quits her charge
for necessary food, and her place is often occupied during her
absence by her mate. Enemies that lie in wait are numerous.
Among them may be enumerated birds of prey, small quadrupeds,
reptiles which treacherously insinuate themselves into the nest,
and perhaps more unfeeling than all, children with destructive
instincts.
If nothing occurs to disturb the repose of the pair, the male,
perched upon a neighbouring branch, pours out a song expressive
of his felicity. The little ones are finally hatched. Helpless and
incapable, without feathers and with closed eyes, they are utterly
dependent on the parent birds, by which they are fed until the
time when they are covered with feathers. They now begin to
try their wings, and find their own food. The mother directs
their first efforts, uttering a peculiar cry to attract them when she
discovers a favourite morsel ; defending them courageously, and,
with a total abnegation of self, meeting the most formidable
enemies ; sometimes going so far for their protection as to offer
herself a victim. How pitiful are the cries of a Swallow whose
nest is built under the roof of a house on fire ! Fearlessly she
rushes on the flames, flying to the assistance of her young, as if
she would rescue them or perish under the fatal roof. Or mark
the unhappy Partridge which the sportsman has surprised on the
nest. She hesitates not to offer herself a sacrifice, throwing her-
self almost under the intruder's feet, in order to attract his atten-
tion from her progeny.
202 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
When the young are strong enough to take wing, they
abandon the family tie, and soon lose themselves in the great
world of nature, forgetful of their parents' unselfish care. The
ingratitude of their first-born does not, however, discourage the
forsaken couple. With the returning season they renew their
labours, exhibit the same solicitude, the same affection, to meet
with the same return. Nature is an unfailing source — an eternal
focus of tenderness and love.
Most families of birds are migratory; that is, they abandon their
summer quarters and undertake long journeys at certain seasons.
These migrations occur with the greatest regularity. By their
departure from temperate or cold climates they prognosticate the
approach of winter, as their return heralds spring. Among
the ancient Greeks, as we learn from a passage of Aristophanes
on birds, the arrival of the CRANE pointed out the time of sow-
ing ; the arrival of the KITE the sheep- shearing season ; and the
arrival of the SWALLOW in Greece was the date for putting off
summer clothing. The impulse which causes birds to depart is
an instinctive desire to find climatic conditions appropriate to their
wants of life. At the approach of winter they desert the regions of
the north in search of southern countries with a warmer climate,
while others migrate northwards to escape the heat.
Nevertheless, all birds are not migratory ; many species remain
during their whole lives in the locality where they were hatched,
straying but little distance from their birth-place. The majority of
those which migrate perform their journeys annually and with
great regularity ; a few irregularly and accidentally ; that is, they
are caused by necessity, or by atmospheric influences, to change
their residence ; and it is no unusual sight on such occasions to
see numerous flocks of birds assembling under the leadership of a
chief, and taking their flight in perfect order, traversing seas,
and passing from one continent to another, with astonishing
rapidity. On the 22nd of September, 1771, White, of Selborne,
witnessed the flight of a flock of Swallows which had rendez-
voused the night before in a neighbour's walnut-tree. " At dawn
of what was a very foggy day, they arose all together in infinite
numbers, occasioning such a rustling from the strokes of their
wings against the hazy atmosphere that the sound might be heard at
LONGEVITY OF BIRDS. 203
a considerable distance." In the Old World, choosing a time when
the winds are favourable, most migratory birds direct their flight
towards the south-west in the autumn, and the north-east in
spring. In America the migratory birds take a south-east direc-
tion in autumn, and the reverse in spring. These aerial travellers
instinctively direct their flight to the same regions — often to the
same district ; and there are good grounds to believe that the same
pair frequently find their way year after year to the same nest.
The duration of the life of birds in a state of nature is one of those
subjects on which little is known. Some ancient authors — Hesiod
and Pliny, for example — give to the Crow nine times the length
of life allotted to man, and to the Raven three times that period ;
in other words, the Carrion Crow, according to these authors, attains
to seven hundred and twenty years, and the Raven two hundred
and forty. The Swan, on the same authority, lives two hundred
years. This longevity is more than doubtful. Paroquets, how-
ever, are known to have reached more than a hundred. Goldfinches,
Chaffinches, and Nightingales unquestionably, even in the con-
finement of a cage, have lived four- and- twenty years. A Heron,
GKrardin tells us, lived fifty- two years, which was testified by
the ring which he bore on one of his legs, and even then
he lost his life by an accident, while in full vigour. A couple of
Storks, moreover, have been known to nestle in the same place for
more than forty years. All that we can affirm is that birds live
much longer than the Mammalia.
We can easily fix a circumscribed geographical boundary to any
species of Mammalia. They may be limited to a country, or even
a district. Can we impose a like distribution on birds ? At first
sight this seems difficult : their powerful organs of locomotion
permit of their travelling rapidly ; and, moreover, their nature,
essentially mobile, and their wandering humour, lead them to
continual change; and then their organisation adapts them for
great extremes of temperature — circumstances which would lead
us to consider them quite cosmopolite. Nevertheless, many species
reside habitually in countries of very limited range. A Sovereign
Hand has traced on the surface of the globe limits that cannot
be passed. How such small creatures are able to perform such dis-
tant journeys, pausing only at far-severed resting-places for neces-
204 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
saries, lias always been a matter of surprise. They pass on without
an instant's sleep, however long and fatiguing the route. How
can the Quail, for instance, with its short wing and plump body,
traverse the Mediterranean twice in the year ? Hasselquist tells
us that small short- winged birds frequently came on board his
ship in squally weather, all the way from the Channel to the
Levant ; and Prince Charles Bonaparte was agreeably surprised
by the visit of a party of Swallows to the ship Delaware, in which
he was a passenger, when five hundred miles from the coast
of Portugal, and four hundred from Africa. Audubon relates
a similar occurrence ; and numerous instances are recorded in
which these fatigued travellers have taken shelter in the first
fisherman's boat they met, sometimes so weak as to be hardly
able to move a wing. It is therefore a fact truly inexplicable,
in spite of every hypothesis, more or less reasonable, which has
been advanced by naturalists in explanation.
Men have little influence over birds, and have, therefore, few
opportunities of studying their habits in a state of nature. Some
few species may be retained in captivity, and some observers
have been able to obtain their entire confidence while in that
condition ; but, except two or three species, it has not been pos-
sible to reduce them to a state of domestication. Our knowledge
of the habits and manners of the feathered race is, therefore,
entirely dependent on chance observation.
The Humming-bird is confined to certain portions of America.
The Nightingale, if a visitor to Scotland, is only found in Ber-
wick and Dumfriesshire in fine seasons, while it is constantly
seen in Sweden, a country much colder and much more northerly.
The Toucans, so brilliant in plumage, are only found in tropical
South America. The Swallow, so rapid on the wing, clearing
its twenty leagues an hour when it leaves us for its southern
winter quarters, never deviates from the route which seems to
have been traced for it by a Sovereign Master.
It may, then, be stated that the great zones of the earth differ
as much in birds as in the Mammifers found in them. We
find in climatic regions birds, or groups of birds, of per-
fectly distinct species, and which are rarely found beyond that
particular zone. Glancing at the various countries forming a
UTILITY OF BIRDS. 205
region, particular types of birds are easily recognised. Africa,
for instance, alone possesses the Great Ostrich, while only a
small species exists in America — the Rhea ; the Emu repre-
sents the genus in Australia. Africa has species brilliant as
the most precious stones. To America belong exclusively the
Humming-birds, so remarkable for the brilliancy of their plumage.
Again, if Africa is the country of the Vulture, to America belongs
the Condor.
Nevertheless, the acclimatisation of birds is by no means beyond
our power. Experience proves that by carrying a bird far from
its native country, and placing it in conditions approaching those
to which it has been accustomed, it will live and multiply — accli-
mate itself, in short, to its new home.
Europe possesses no ornithological type peculiar to it. It is
only in Africa and America that we find those rich varieties of
form and colour which characterise the feathered race. The
Island of Madagascar is the land which possesses the greatest
number of ornithological types — simply, perhaps, because that
island abounds in species whose rudimentary wings do not permit
of their wandering away. Whatever the cause, however, the
species found there are not obtained elsewhere. Here we find
the unique Dodo, a form of animal which became extinct in
Europe in the last century.
There is a wonderful charm of companionship in birds — they
give animation to the scene, skipping from bush to bush, or
skimming the surface of land and water. They please the eye
by their graceful shape and plumage, and they charm our ears
by their ceaseless warblings. Even in this sense we lie under a
debt of gratitude to these graceful inhabitants of the air. But this
is far from being the limit of the benefits we derive from them.
The birds of the poultry- yards furnish our most delicate food; their
eggs form a considerable branch of trade, and are indispensable in
the kitchen ; and what would become of our country gentleman
should our game birds ever become extinct? — an event by no
means improbable, seeing that, in the year of grace 1868, the
head-dress of every votary of fashion was decorated with the
wing of a bird — not confining the demand to Birds of Paradise,
Ostrich, Pheasant, and other feathers of brilliant plumage whose
206 INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.
value was a protection, but extending to the harmless sea- fowl,
which were destroyed by thousands only for the sake of their
feathers.
Birds are useful to man by their feeding on the insects, larvae,
and caterpillars which infest cultivated crops. Without their aid,
agriculture would become impossible. In former times it was a
favourite doctrine with the agriculturist that the Passerina were
the real destroyers of his crops, and a war of extermination was
declared against them ; but the observations of more enlightened
persons have demonstrated that the chief food of most of these
consists of insects, and the havoc among them has consequently
been stayed ; still much ignorance, and its concomitant, cruelty,
exist on this point. Elsewhere, those interested soon discovered
that the destruction of small birds led to formidable increase in
the numbers of voracious insects — that these lively and joyous
creatures, which float in the air and twitter on the bough,
are sent us more for good than evil, and that if some of them
make the crops pay a tax, they repay it tenfold by keeping
down the excess of more destructive ravagers.
While the smaller birds have proved essentially beneficial
to man, some of the larger birds exhibit similar tendencies.
The Wading Bird clears the earth of serpents and other unclean
and venomous animals. The Yultures an4 Storks throw them-
selves in flocks on corrupt carrion, and divest the soil of all
putrefying objects : thus, in concert with insects, birds are the
scavengers of the earth, lending their aid to make it a fit residence
for man ; in fact, are constituted by nature guardians of the public
health.
In former days Falconry afforded a stately and picturesque
sport to the great, in which lords and noble dames assisted. This
pastime still exists in some parts of England and some portions of
the East, especially in Persia, where the Falcon is trained to
chase the Gazelle and small ruminants ; while in China and Japan
the Cormorant and Pelican are taught to fish the rivers for their
masters. From very ancient times, the Carrier Pigeon was the
bearer of messages now transmitted along the electric wires with
lightning speed.
Nor do these benefits comprise all the claims of birds to the
CLASSIFICATION. 207
gratitude of man. In tropical America the Agami, Trophia crepi-
tans, or Trumpet Bird of Guiana, is domesticated, and so docile in
its habits, that it is employed to watch the flocks, which it does
with the fidelity and intelligence of a Dog. " The Agami," says
M. Monocour, "is not only tamed easily, but becomes attached to
its benefactor with all the fondness and fidelity of a Dog. When
bred in the house, it loads the master with caresses, and follows
all his motions, but is easily offended." It is bold and obstinate,
and will attack Cats and Dogs, fighting a tough battle with one of
the latter, however considerable his size. In Cayenne the denizens
of the poultry -yard are confided to its care ; it leads them to their
pasture, prevents them from straying to a dangerous distance, and
brings them home in the evening, just as a trained shepherd's
Dog will do the flocks committed to his care, and it manifests
its delight by cries of joy when its master vouchsafes a caress
in return for its faithful service. The Kamichi, which belongs,
like the Agami, to the same order, possesses similar characteristic
intelligence. Like the former, it is sociable and susceptible of
education, and becomes a useful auxiliary to the inhabitants of
South America.
After these brief remarks on the organisation and habits of
birds, we proceed to describe the more remarkable species, arranged
according to a simple and comprehensive order of classification,
placing before the reader the various orders of the class AVES,
in the ascending scale which has been adopted in our previous
works.
AVES — BIRDS.
Warm-blooded, vertebrated, biped animals. Pectoral limbs,
fore-arms or wings organised for flight ; feathery integument ;
red blood ; respiration and circulation double ; lungs fixed and
perforated.
I. NATATORES, OR PALMIPEDES.
Swimming birds, having the toes united by a membrane ; legs
placed behind the equilibrium ; the body covered with a thick
coat of down beneath the feathers. They include the following
orders and families : —
208 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
I. Brevipennes, Ostriches, Cassowaries, the Penguins, Auks, Guillemots,
and Grebes.
II. Longipennes, including the Terns, Gulls, Mews, Petrel, and Albatross.
III. Totipalmates, the Pelicans, Gannets, Cormorants, Frigate Bird,
Tropic Bird.
IV. Lamellirostres, the Ducks, Geese, Swans, Flamingos.
II. GRALLATOKES.
Wading birds, having the legs long and naked from the tibia
downwards.
I. Macrodactyli, Crakes, Coots, Rails, Screamers.
II. Cultrirostres, Boatbills, Cranes, Herons, Ibis, Storks, Spoonbills.
III. Longirostres, Avocets, Snipes, Ruffs, Turnstones, Sandpipers, Godwit,
Curlews, Gambets.
IY. Pressirostres, Oyster Catchers, Thicknee Plovers, Lapwings, Bustards,
Coursers.
III. BASQUES.
Scratching birds. Feet with strong, obtuse, scratching claws ;
mandible vaulted ; nostrils pierced at the base, covered by a
cartilaginous scale.
I. Gattinacece (Polygamous). Pea-fowl, Partridge, Pheasant, Quail, Grouse,
Pentados, Turkey, Curassow.
II. Columbacece (Monogamous), Pigeons, Gouravinago.
IY. CANTORES.
Singing birds. Legs short and slender, three toes before and
one behind. In this order, according to Professor Owen, the
brain attains its greatest proportionate size, and the organs of the
voice their greatest complexity.
I. Dentirostres, Shrikes, Wrens, Wagtails, Thrushes, Warblers, Manakins.
II. Conirostres, Birds of Paradise, Crows, Tits, Starlings, Buntings, Larks,
Finches, Grosbeaks.
III. Tenuirostres, Nuthatch, Creeper, Sunboard.
IY. J?issirostres, Swallows, Martins.
Y. YOLITORES.
Birds moving solely by flight. Skeleton light and buoyant ;
head large ; keel deep (entire on the Humming-bird) ; wings
CLASSIFICATION. 209
powerful, in some long and pointed ; legs small and weak. The
order includes —
I. Cypselidce, Swifts. VII. Galbulidce, Jacmar.
II. Trochilidce, Humming-birds. VIII. Coraciadce, Boilers.
III. Caprimulgidce, Nightjar. IX. Capitonidce, Puff-bird.
IV. Trogonidce, Trogons. X. Alcedinidce, Kingfishers.
V. Prionitidce, Moinots or Motmots. XI. Bucerotidce, Hornbills.
VI. Meropidce, Bee-eaters.
VI. SCANSORES.
Climbing birds, with opposing toes in pairs, two behind and two
before. The order includes —
I. Bamphastidce, Toucans.
II. Bucconidce, Barbets.
III. Cuculidce, Cuckoos.
IV. Picidce, Woodpeckers.
V. Musophagidce, Plantain- eaters.
VI. Coliidce, Colys.
VII. Psittacidce, Parrots.
VII. EAPTORES.
Rapacious birds, with strong, curved, pointed, and sharp-edged
beak ; legs short and robust, three toes before and one behind,
armed with strong, crooked talons. The order includes —
I. Nocturnes, Owls.
II. Diurnes, Eagles, Vultures, Hawks.
CHAPTER I,
THE NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS.
THE Natatores are obviously devoted, by their organisation, to
an aquatic life. Their constant haunts are found on the great
rivers and lakes, or on the coast. They are chiefly characterised
by the form of their feet. The toes are united by marginal mem-
branes in the Coots and Water-rails, or in others by the extension
of webs bstween and uniting the toes, of a soft membrane slightly
lobed ; hence the name of Palmipedes, or web-footed, usually
applied to them. These broad palmate feet, acting at the end of
a long lever, strike the water with great force when fully ex-
panded, being favoured by their backward position. When the
bird recovers its stroke, the toes are relaxed in their forward
movement, preparatory to another effort ; thus progression through
the water is obtained.
Some of the swimming birds in their flight are feeble and slow ;
others are incapable of even rising from the water, being only
furnished with rudimentary wings. Again, there are species
which possess extraordinary powers of traversing the air, their
well- developed wings enabling them to pass through space with
wonderful rapidity. The Albatross is met with on the high seas
at a vast distance from the shore. Others, as the Petrels, seem
to revel in storms and tempests, mingling their wild cry with
that of the storm-tossed waves. The sailors, who look anxiously
to windward at the dark horizon, where the clouds are sur-
charged with torrents of rain ready to burst on the ship, are
assured of the approaching tempest by the circling flight of the
white-winged Albatross, as it is seen through the obscure and
threatening mist.
THE NATATOKES. 211
The whole order of Natatores swim and dive without saturation,
their plumage being anointed by an oily liquid furnished by
certain glands in their skin, which renders them impervious to
moisture. This immunity from the effect of water is further
assisted by the disposition and structure of their feathers, which,
being smooth and three-cornered, with the barbules closely inter-
laced, cause the water to glide off their polished surface ; while
the down beneath the feathers of which we have spoken protects
their bodies from the cold, maintaining their natural heat, and
enabling them to resist the cold of the most rigorous winter.
The Natatores are numerous both in species and individuals,
having their habitat in all countries. According to Prince Charles
Bonaparte, one of the most eminent of European naturalists, those
which frequent the sea-shore alone constitute one-fourteenth part
of all the birds on the globe, and the number of species he reckons
at nine thousand four hundred. They feed on vegetables, insects,
mollusks, and fishes. They seek the coast in the breeding season,
where they build their nests on the sand, or in nooks and crannies
of the rocks, or on the margin of lakes and rivers.
In the spring the sea-birds assemble in large flocks, pair off, and
proceed to deposit their eggs in nests constructed generally with-
out skill, but always lined or carpeted with a fine down, which forms
a soft warm bed for the embryo progeny. Certain localities are
frequented by preference, which are occupied by innumerable flocks
in the breeding season, all of which seem to live together in per-
fect harmony. Some of the families of the Natatores are valuable
additions to the poultry-yard. Ducks and Geese furnish delicate
and nourishing food for man ; the Swan is gracefully ornamental
on our lakes and ponds. The down of all the aquatic birds
is of immense value to the commerce of northern countries.
The eggs are good to eat, and in many countries the inhabitants
consume them in great quantities. Nor does their usefulness
end here. Guano, so eagerly sought for by the farmer, is the
excrement of aquatic fowls — the accumulation of ages, until,
in the South Pacific Ocean, it has formed whole islands, some
of them being covered with this valuable agricultural assistant
to the depth of ninety or a hundred yards. Nor is this so
marvellous, if it is considered that twenty-five or thirty thousand
p2
212 THE NATATOEES'.
sea-birds sleep in these islets night after night, and that each
of them will yield half a pound of guano daily. Our lands receive
valuable assistance to fertility from this unrivalled material, which
owes its power to the ammoniacal salts, phosphate of lime, and
fragments of feathers of which it is composed.
The order of Natatores, or Palmipedes, consists of four families :
— 1. Brevipennes, or Divers; 2. Longipennes, or Skimmers;
3. Totipalmates, or Pelicanid® ; 4. Lamellirostres, including
Geese, Ducks, Swans, and Flamingos.
THE DIVERS (Brevipennes) .
Penguins, Aptenodytes ; Auks, A lea; Grebes and Divers,
Colymbus ; Guillemots, Uria.
The birds which constitute this family of the K'atatores are
characterised by wings so thin and short as to be totally useless
for the purposes of aerial locomotion. They are also called
Brachypteres, from the Greek compound ppaxys, short, and Trrepa,
winged. These are all habitual divers and indefatigable swim-
mers, using their wings as fish do their fins. To raise these
after making the down- stroke requires a considerably greater
effort than a bird of flight makes in raising its wings in the
air, for which reason the second pectoral muscle in this and
other diving birds has an unusually large development to give
further strength. Their plumage is smooth and silky, and im-
pervious to water from its oily nature. They live chiefly on the
sea, coming ashore in the breeding season.
The Divers, Colymbus , are distinguished from other Brachypteres
by their beak being longer than the head, straight, robust, and
nearly cylindrical, slightly compressed on the sides, acute, the
upper mandible longer than the lower ; their toes, in place of being
each furnished with marginal membranes, have the three united
by a single membrane ; their feet being placed far backward and
on the same perpendicular line with the tibia — an arrangement
very unfavourable for walking, compelling the birds to take a
vertical position, rendering their movements on land both painful
and difficult.
They are, however, intrepid swimmers, and they dive with such
GEEAT NOETHEEN DIVEE. 213
alertness that it requires a quick eye and hand to shoot them.
They are inhabitants of northern seas ; there they build their
nests in some solitary islet or desert promontory, where they
lay two eggs, oblong in shape, and more or less shaded of an
Isabella white. Fish, particularly the herring, form their prin-
cipal food ; crustaceans and marine vegetables are also eaten by
them. Their flesh is tough and leathery, and tastes disagree-
able. In the winter they migrate to temperate countries, where
they frequent the rivers and lakes, returning to the northern
regions when the ice has broken up.
There are three species described : the Great Northern Diver,
Colymbus glacialis ; the Arctic Diver ; and the Imber Diver. But
there is considerable doubt on this subject, the young of C. glacialis
of the first and second year being so unlike the parent birds as to
have been long supposed a distinct species.
THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER (Colymbus glacialis}.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Northern Diver : Montagu, Selby. Speckled Diver,
Ember Goose : Gunner. Eing-necked Loon.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Colymbus glacialis : Linn., Adult, Latham, Jenyns,
Brien. Colymbus Immer : Young, Linn., Latham.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Plongeon Imbrim : Temminck.
The Great Northern Diver is among the mass of those birds
which seek their food on the bosom of the great deep. It is not
numerous in British waters, and can scarcely be called gregarious,
although adults sometimes, and the young more frequently, form
small parties of two to five. A wanderer on the ocean, it not only
frequents the margins of the sea, fishing in the bays and estuaries,
but it is also met with many miles from the shore. Narrow chan-
nels, firths, coves, sea-locks, and sandy bays are, however, its
favourite resorts ; there it floats, the body deeply immersed in the
water. But though deep in the water, it moves on steadily and
majestically ; it overtakes and shoots ahead of ail its more buoyant
congeners. But let us watch the actions of a pair of these children
of the ocean, and listen while Mr. McGillivray describes one of
tho^e picturesque scenes in which he delights. "It is now the
214 THE NATATOEES.
end of spring, when the returning warmth gives an increase of
animation to the wandering tribes of the winged inhabitants of
the ocean air ; but the Loon makes comparatively little use of his
wings, and his great bulk and robust frame would be ill adapted
for the hovering flight of the Gulls and Petrels. There he comes,
followed by his mate, advancing with marvellous speed. They
have rounded the point, and now stop for a moment to cast a
searching glance along the shore, lest an enemy should be lurking
there. Forward they start — the smooth water rippling gently
against their sides. Small effort they seem to make, and yet
powerful must be the stroke of the oars which impel masses so
large at so rapid a rate. Now and again they dip their bills into
the water ; then the head and neck. One glides gently under the
Fig. 80.— Great Northern Divers (Colymbus glacialis).
surface, without plunge or flutter, and in a few seconds it appears
with a fish in his bill, which, with upstretched head and neck, it
swallows. The other having also dived, appears with a fish, larger,
and less easily managed. She beats it about in her bill, plashing
the water, and seems unable to adapt it to the capacity of her
gullet ; but at length, after much striving, she masters it, and
continues her search. Backwards and forwards, over the clear
sand of the shallow bay, they glide in their quiet way, and now
they have both dived with their heads towards us. One rises close
to the sea- weed, and so near to us, that we might almost count the
spots on his back. The other, in emerging, has perceived us, and
somehow communicates the discovery to her mate. Thev swim
about for a short while with erected necks, then sink into the
GEEAT NORTHEEN DIYEE. 215
water, their heads disappearing last ; and when we see them again,
they are three hundred yards distant, standing out to sea, with
half- submerged bodies." " If shot at and not wounded," continues
this most picturesque of writers on Natural History, " it never
flies off, but dips into the water and rises at a great distance, and
unless shot dead, there is little chance of procuring it, for its
tenacity of life is great, and its speed far exceeds that of a four-
oared boat."
The great American naturalist, Audubon, has left a most
interesting account of this bird in his "Ornithological Biography."
After describing the various Transatlantic localities in which he
has studied its economy, he describes its nest. "One that I saw,"
he says, " after the young had left it, on Lake Cayuga, was almost
afloat, and rudely attached to the rushes, more than forty yards
from the land, though its base was laid on the bottom, the water
being only eight or nine inches deep. Others I examined in
Labrador were placed on dry land, several yards from the water,
and raised to the height of nearly a foot above the decayed moss
on which they rested. The nest, however placed, is bulky, and
formed of withered grasses and herbaceous plants found in the
neighbourhood. The true nest, which is from a foot to fifteen
inches in diameter, is raised to the height of seven or eight inches.
Of the many nests I have examined, more contained three than
two eggs, and I am confident that the former number most fre-
quently occurs."
Of this handsome bird Sir John Richardson remarks, contrary
to the generally- received notion, that it is seldom seen either in
the Arctic Sea or Hudson's Bay, but that it abounds in all the
inland lakes. It is rarely found on land, being ill fitted for
walking, but admirably adapted to aquatic habits, swimming with
great swiftness and for considerable distances under water ; and
when it does come up, seldom exposing more than its neck. It
flies heavily, but rather swiftly, and in a circle round those who
have disturbed it in its haunts ; its loud and melancholy cry
resembling the howling of the Wolf, or the distant scream of
a man in distress. When the Loon calls frequently, it is sup-
posed to portend a storm. In the bad weather preceding the
advent of winter on the smaller northern American lakes, previous
216 THE NATATOKES.
to migration, their wild, weird note is so unnatural, that both the
Indians and settlers ascribe to it supernatural powers.
The Imbrine Diver, Ulmbrim of Buffon, is also 9- fine bird
of blackish plumage shaded with white, the belly and a ring
round the neck being also white. The head is of a changeable
black and green colour.- When it has young, in place of diving
under water, as its ordinary habit is when threatened, it boldly
attacks its enemies with its beak. Its skin serves the Greenlanders
as clothing. It inhabits the Arctic seas of both hemispheres, is
abundant about the Hebrides, in Norway, in Sweden, and even
on the coast of Scotland. Its appearance on the French coast
is very irregular, and only after great storms.
The Arctic Diver, C. arcticus, has the beak and throat black ;
summit of the head ashy grey ; the breast and the sides of the
neck white, with black spots ; the back and rump black ; the
coverts of the wings with white spots, and all the lower parts
pure white. The bird, though rare in England and France, is
very common in the North of Europe. It is found on the lakes of
Siberia, of Iceland, in Greenland and Hudson's Bay, and some-
times in the Orkney Islands. The women of Lapland make
bonnets with its skin dressed without removing the feathers ; but
in Norway it is considered an act of impiety to destroy it, as
the different cries which it utters are said to prognosticate fine
weather or rain.
THE BLACK-THROATED DIVER (Colymbus arcticus).
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Black-throated Loon, Black-throated Diver : Mon-
tagu, Selby.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Colymbus arcticus : Linn., Latham, Temminck, Jenyns,
Yarrell, Bonaparte.
FRENCH SYNONYMS. — Plongeon Lumme : Temminck. Plongeon Arctique :
Cuvier.
Smaller and more slender than the Great Northern Diver, this
species retains many of its characteristic habits. It floats deep in the
water, and when alarmed swims at surprising speed, with out-
stretched neck and rapid beat of the wings, and little more than
its head above the surface. It flies high and in a direct course with
;great rapidity. Mr. Selby describes an ineffectual pursuit of a pair
BED-TIIBOATED DIYEB. 217
on Loch Shin, in Sutherlandshire, which was long persevered in.
In this case submersion frequently took place, which continued for
nearly two minutes at a time, and they generally reappeared at
nearly a quarter of a mile distant from the spot at which they
went down. In no instance did he ever see them attempt to
escape by taking wing. "I may observe," says this acute ornitho-
logist, " that a visible track from the water to the nest was made
by the female, whose progress on land is effected by shuffling along
upon her belly, propelled from behind by her legs." When
swimming, they are in the constant habit of dipping their bill in
the water with a graceful motion of the head and neck.
The eggs, of which there are two, sometimes three in the same
nest, are of a very elongated oval form, three inches in length, two
inches in their greatest girth, and of a brownish olive sprinkled
with black or dark-brown spots, and are larger at one end than at
the other.
THE RED-THROATED DIVER (Colymbus septentrionalis) .
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Bed-throated Loon, Bed-throated Diver : Montagu,
Selby, Yarrell. Speckled Diver : Montagu.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — C. septentrionalis: Linn., Latham, Jenyns, Bona-
parte, Temminck. C. borealis. Siviatus, and stellatus : Latham.
FRENCH SYNONYMS. — Plongeon Col Marin, ou d Gorge Rouge : Temminck.
The Hed- throated Diver is smaller than either of the preceding,
the plumage is dense and firm, the wings of moderate length, the
tail rounded and firm.
From the beginning of October to the middle of May these birds
are constantly found on our northern coasts, and on the rivers and
estuaries with which they abound. When on a long journey, they
keep at a great height, moving rapidly in a direct course with
outstretched wings. On these occasions they exceed the speed
of most of their congeners. With their long outstretched necks
and snow-white breasts, from their comparatively short wings,
they present a curious and novel sight. When swimming they are
extremely vigilant, and permit nothing to approach them. On the
appearance of a boat they glide as it were out of sight under the
water, without noise or flutter, and thence pursue their way with
great rapidity, using wings as well as feet to propel themselves.
218 THE NATATORES. ,
THE PENGUINS (Aptenodytes)
Belong exclusively to cold countries. They rarely quit the vicinity
of land, yet only take to the shore in the breeding season, or when
driven by squalls and storms from their favourite element. On
shore they are compelled to sit erect. They carry the head very
high and the neck stretched out, while their short winglets are
advanced like two diminutive arms. When they sit perched in
flocks on some lofty projecting rock they might be mistaken at a
distance for a line of soldiers.
At certain periods of the year the Penguins assemble on the
beech as if they preconcertedly met for deliberation. These
Fig. 81.— Penguin (Aptenodytes).
assemblies last for a day or two, and are conducted with an
obvious degree of solemnity. When the meeting results in a
decision, they proceed to work with great activity. Upon a
ledge of rock, sufficiently level and of the necessary size, they
trace a square with one of its sides parallel and overlooking
the edge of the water, which is left open for the egress of
the colony. Then with their beaks they proceed to collect
all the stones in the neighbourhood, which they heap up outside
the lines marked out, to serve them as a wall, to shelter them
from the prevailing winds. During the night these openings are
PENGUINS AND MANCHOTS. 219
guarded by sentinels. They afterwards divide the enclosure into
smaller squares, each large enough to receive a certain number of
nests, with a passage between each square. No architect could
arrange the plan in a more regular manner.
What is most singular is that the Albatross, a bird essentially
aerial, and adapted for flight, associates at this period with
these half fish, half birds, the Penguins ; so that the nest of an
Albatross may be seen next the nest of a Penguin, and the
whole colony, so differently constituted, appear to live on the best
terms of intimacy. Each keeps to its own nest, and if by chance
there is a complaint, it is that some Penguin (probably the king
Penguin, for he is generally the greatest thief) has robbed the
nest of his neighbour, the Albatross.
Other sea-birds come to partake of the hospitality of the little
republic. With the permission of the masters of the coterie they
build their nests in the vacancies that occur in the squares.
The female Penguin lays but one egg, which she only abandons
until hatched for a few instants, the male taking her place while she
seeks her food. The Penguins are so numerous in the Antarctic
seas that a hundred thousand eggs have been collected by the
crew of one vessel.
The Manchots (Fig. 82) have been described by most of the
French naturalists as a distinct species, but there is little doubt of
their being only a variety of the Aptenodytes. They abound in the
southern seas. Their short, stunted wings, which quite incapa-
citate them from flying, are reduced to a flat and very short stump,
totally destitute of feathers, being covered with a soft down, having
something of the appearance of hair, which might be taken for
scales. Like the Penguin, the Manchots are excellent swimmers
and incomparable divers, and their coating of down is so dense
that it even resists a bullet ; it is consequently difficult to shoot
them.
Everything about these birds indicates their adaptation to an
aquatic life. Their feet are placed at the extremity of the body —
an arrangement that renders them awkward and heavy when
ashore ; where, in short, they only come to lay and hatch their eggs.
They begin to assemble in great numbers at the commencement
of October. Their nests are a very simple construction ; for they
220
THE NATATOEES.
content themselves with digging in the sand a hole deep enough
to contain two eggs — but more often one than two.
In spite of the limited number of eggs, the quantity of these
birds found in the south of Patagonia is something prodigious.
When sailors land in these high latitudes they take or kill as many
as they choose. Sir John Narborough says, speaking of those at
the Falkland Islands, that " when the sailors walked among the
feathered population to provide themselves with eggs, they were
regarded with sidelong glances." In many places the shores were
covered with these birds, and three hundred have been taken
within an hour ; for generally they make no effort to escape, but
Fig. 82.— The Manchot (A. Patachonica).
stand quietly by while their companions are being knocked down
with sticks.
In another islet, in the Straits of Magellan, Captain Drake's
crew killed more than three thousand in one day. These facts
are not exaggerated. This island, when visited by these navi-
gators, was, so to speak, virgin ; and the birds had succeeded each
other from generation to generation in incalculable numbers,
hitherto free from molestation.
The Penguins have no fear of man. Mr. Darwin pleasantly
relates his encounter with one of these birds on the Falkland
Islands. " One day/' he says, " having placed myself between a
Penguin (A. demersa) and the water, I was much amused by the
THE GEEBES. 221
action of the bird. It was a brave bird, and, till reaching the
sea, it regularly fought and drove me backwards. Nothing less
than heavy blows would have stopped him. Every inch gained
he kept firmly, standing close before me firm, erect, and deter-
mined, all the time rolling his head from side to side in a very
odd manner, as if the powers of vision only lay in the anterior and
basal part of each eye." This bird, Mr. Darwin states, is called
the Jackass Penguin, from this habit, when on shore, of throwing
its head backwards, and of making a loud strange noise very like
the braying of an ass.
They defend themselves vigorously with their beaks when an
attempt is made to lay hands upon them ; and when pursued,
they will pretend to retreat, and return immediately, throwing
themselves upon their assailant. " At other times they will look
at you askance/' says Pernetty, " the head inclined first on one
side, then on the other, as if they were mocking you." They hold
themselves upright on their feet, the body erect, in a perpendicular
line with the head. In this attitude they might be taken for a
party of choristers with white surplices and black gowns. Their
cry strikingly resembles the braying of an ass, Navigators passing
these islands of the southern seas might suppose that they were
densely inhabited, for the loud roaring voices of these birds produce
a noise equal to that of a crowd on a fete day. The flesh is most
unpalatable, but it is frequently the only resource of ships' crews
who find themselves short of provisions in these inhospitable
regions. As to the eggs of most of the Palmipedes, they are said
to be excellent.
THE GREBES.
The Grebes (Podiceps) have the head small, the neck somewhat
elongated, the legs attached to the abdomen, the tail rudimentary,
the tarsi compressed, the anterior toes united at their base by a
membrane slightly lobed in its contracted extent. These birds
live principally on the sea, but they inhabit fresh water by pre-
ference, feeding on small fishes, worms, mollusks, insects, and
the products of aquatic vegetation. While they dive and swim
admirably, they also fly with vigorous wing when pursued ; but
222 THE NATATOKES.
they rarely ascend into the air unless they are alarmed, or under
migrating impulse, which disperses them among the interior
lakes in the autumn, and compels them to select a favourable
breeding-place in the spring.
The nest of the Grebe is usually placed in a tuft of rushes,
on the edge of the water. It is composed exteriorly of large
grassy plants roughly interlaced, and the interior is lined with
soft broken grasses delicately arranged. The eggs vary from three
to seven. On shore they cannot walk at all, but creep, so to
speak ; for they must hold themselves nearly upright, supported
on the croup, the toes and the tarsi being extended laterally. But
ungraceful as they are on shore, so much greater is their elegance
on the water. They are covered with a close warm down — so close
and so lustrous, that muffs of a silvery white are made of the down-
covered skins of their breast, which are impervious to water.
M. Noury, Director of the Museum of Natural History at Elbo3uf,
who has carefully studied the habits of the Grebes, relates of the
Castanean Grebe, P. cornutus, that its nest is a perfect raft, which
floats upon the surface of our ponds and lakes. It is a mass of
thick stems of aquatic herbs closely woven together ; and as these
materials contain a considerable quantity of air in their numerous
cells, and from disengaging various gases besides in decomposing,
these aeriform supporters render the nest lighter than the water.
In this improvised ship, and upon this humid bed, the female Grebe
silently sits upon and hatches her progeny. But if anything
unforeseen disturbs her security, this wild bird plunges one foot
into the water, which she employs as an oar to transport her
dwelling from the threatened danger.
Grebes are inhabitants of the Old and "New Continents.
Among the European species may be noticed the Crested Grebe
(Podiceps cristatus), Fig. 83, about the size of a Duck, ornamented
with a double black crest ; the Horned Grebe (P. cornutus), pro-
vided with two long tufts of feathers, in form somewhat resembling
a horn ; the Eared Grebe (P. auritus), distinguished by its beak,
the base of which is depressed, while the point is raised upwards.
Among the American species may be mentioned P. Carolinensis
and P. rubricollis, killed at the Great Slave Lake, along with
P. cristatus and P. cornutus. P. Chilensis and P. Americanus
THE CRESTED GBEBE. 223
are natives of the warmer parts of America, of St. Thomas, St.
Domingo, and the Philippines.
THE CRESTED GREBE.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Greater Crested Grebe : Jenyns. Crested Grebe :
Montagu, Selby.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Colymlus cri status : Linn., Yarrell. C. uriitatur :
Young, Linn. Podiceps cristatus : Latham, Jenyns, Bonaparte, Selby.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Grebe liuppe : Temminck.
The Crested Grebe is found along our coasts, and in their estu-
aries, in limited numbers ; but in the splendid lakes of the North
American fur-countries, according to Dr. Richardson, this species
is very abundant. Mr. Audubon says that it returns to the United
. 83.— The Crested Grebe (Podiceps ciistatus).
States from its northern wanderings about the beginning of Sep-
tember, and proceeds south as far as Mexico, a few stragglers only
remaining on the lower part of the Ohio, Mississippi, and the
neighbouring lakes. " They pass swiftly through the air/' says
this enthusiastic naturalist, " at the height of about a hundred
yards, in flocks of from seven and eight to fifty or more, proceeding
in a loose body, and propelling themselves by continual flappings,
their necks and feet stretched out to their full extent. When
about to alight on the water, they glide swiftly downward, with
their wings half closed, producing a sound not unlike that of a
Hawk swooping upon its prey. At this moment their velocity
224
THE NATATORES.
is so great that, on alighting, they glide forward on the surface of
the water for twenty or thirty yards, leavin g a deep furrow in their
wake. They are exceedingly quick- sigh ted, and frequently elude,
by diving, the shot which is aimed at them."
The Guillemots (Uria), Fig. 84, have the beak long, straight, con-
vex above, somewhat angular below, a little curved and hollowed
at the extremity of each mandible ; the legs are short, compressed,
and placed well behind the body ; the three anterior toes are united
by the same membrane ; the claws recurved and pointed ; no hind
toe ; the wings are straight, and the tail short. These birds,
when placed on the ground, raise themselves with great diffi-
culty, owing to the conformation of their legs. They only come
ashore when driven there for shelter by the storm, or for breed-
ing. For the latter purpose
they choose some precipitous
coast where the rocks project
in ledges, from which they can
throw themselves into the sea
if they are disturbed. Boldly-
scarped cliffs, which rise per-
pendicularly from the waves,
are consequently their favourite
breeding-places. There it is
necessary to seek them. Un-
fortunately, the demand for the
wings and down of the Guille-
mots has reached a point which
is not unlikely to lead to their
extermination. One London
dealer, we are told, has given
*£.-/ an order at Ailsa Craig, on the
rig. 84.-Gumemots(tfria Troiie). Clyde, for a thousand sea-birds
weekly ; and the tacksman of the rock is so intent on supplying
the demand, that he spreads his nets while the birds are sitting
on the newly-hatched young, which are thus left in thousands to
perish from being deprived of a mother's fostering care.
Among the Guillemots, the female lays only one large egg.
They feed on fishes, insects, and Crustacea. They principally
UTILITY OF BIRDS. 225
inhabit northern regions, visiting our shores and other temperate
climates when the ice has invaded their summer home. In their
migratory journeys they must trust to their wings — which, how-
ever, as already observed, are very short. They are consequently
not possessed of long powers of flight, and skim the surface of the
water, rarely rising much above the surface. Their progress,
however, is sharp and rapid, but of short duration. The Guille-
mots during winter are frequently seen in immense numbers on
.Rock-all Bank and on the banks of Newfoundland. So little are
they alarmed at the approach of a vessel, that should they be
directly in her track, they will only dive to save themselves.
These banks are several hundred miles from land.
The whole race of aquatic birds of which we have spoken, whether
Divers, Penguins, Grebes, or Guillemots, are, in these northern
regions, a valuable resource, where vegetation almost entirely
ceases. The poor people whose lot compels them to live there
obtain in their feathers, skin, oil, and eggs, clothing, food, and
light during their long and gloomy winter. But to obtain
what they truly consider a blessing from heaven, they have to
surmount innumerable difficulties, the birds often building their
nests in islets almost unapproachable, or on rocks rising perpen-
dicularly out of the water. Slung upon seats hung from the
summits of these crags, the courageous islanders suspend them-
selves, in the breeding season, to gather and make, so to speak,
a harvest of the sea-fowls' eggs. Some of these men walk along
the rocky coast, furnished with a conical net attached to the
end of a pole, which enables them to secure the birds flying
around them, much in the same manner as boys catch butterflies
in the meadows.
But chasing these graceful swimmers at the foot of their rocky
retreat is mere trifling ; the dramatic and dangerous incidents occur
at the summit of the steep, giant cliffs. The intrepid inhabitants
of the Feroe Islands, which are situated to the north of Scotland,
between Norway and Iceland, in the Atlantic Ocean, proceed as
follows in the search after eggs. The fowler begins operations
by swarming, as schoolboys call it, up a pole, which carries
him to the first projecting ledge of the rocks. This point attained,
he throws a knotted rope to his companions, who soon join him on
Q
i'lg. 85.— Catching Birds and gathering Eggs in the Feroe Islands.
GATHERING SEA-BIEDS' EGGS. 227
the aerial cliffs. The same manoeuvre is performed, stage by stage,
until they reach the summit. But this is nothing ; he has now to
visit the recesses in which the nests are to be found.
Upon the edge of the rock a beam is run out horizontally ; to
this beam a two-inch rope, which is not less than nine hundred feet
in length, is attached. To the end of this immense line a plank
is tied, upon which the fowler seats himself. This man holds
in his hand a light cord for the purpose of signalling to his com-
panions above. The fowler, thus seated, descends from cliff to cliff,
and from rock to rock ; he visits every nook and cranny in search of
plunder, making an ample harvest of eggs and birds, either taking
them by hand, or striking them with the end of his line. The
product of his perilous expedition he places in a sort of haversack,
which he carries slung from the shoulder. When he wishes to
change his place, he gives a preconcerted signal with his cord,
imparting an oscillating motion to it in the direction of that part of
the rock he wishes to visit. When the harvest is deemed sufficient
— when the day's sport is concluded — his companions are notified,
and the fowler is hoisted to the summit of the cliff.
How incredible is the address, and how great the courage,
required to induce a man to let himself be suspended by a slender
cord over a precipice some hundreds of feet in height, and how
hazardous, how frightful the peril ! The cord might be cut by
chafing against the sharp rock. What risks he runs on changing
his place ! It has sometimes happened to those above to hear one
loud heart-rending shriek — the cry of despair. The men who hold
the rope lean forward — they see nothing — they hear only the
great voice of the sea, which drowns all other sounds as it breaks
against the island. They hasten to draw up the cord — alas! its
reduced weight too plainly tells what has happened ! The fowler
has been seized with vertigo ; or, probably, he has overreached him-
self and lost his equilibrium on the slippery stones, and the wave
which roars at the base of this wall of rock has closed over him.
It is such accidents as these which induce the inhabitant of
the Feroe Islands, when he leaves his house on such an expedi-
tion, to bid farewell to his family. Fatal catastrophes, however,
are not very frequent. Men who live in those climates which
nature seems to have, as it were, disinherited, become accustomed
Q2
228 THE NATATORES.
to struggle with the elements, and almost always to triumph
over the dangers which surround them. They go to demand from
the abyss food for their wives and children, and the idea animates
and sustains their courage.
THE COMMON GUILLEMOT (Uria Troile).
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Lesser Guillemot : Montagu. Foolish Guillemot :
Montagu, Selby, Willock, Linn. Marrot, Scout, Sea-Hen, Scuttock :
Local.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Uria Troile : McGillivray, Latham, Jenyns, Bona-
parte. Colymbus Troile : Latham.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Guillemot d capuchon.
Individuals of this species are to he found dispersed over all our
seas, in small parties or singly, during the interval between the
breeding seasons. In estuaries, bays, and narrows, where herrings
or other fry are abundant, they congregate in vast numbers, along
with Auks, Red-throated Divers, and Gulls of various species.
About the end of April great quantities may be seen flying in
strings along the coast towards their favourite haunts, which are
the precipitous cliffs of Flarnborough Head, the Earn Islands,
St. Abb's Head, and other well-known spots on the English and
Scottish sea-board. No preparation is made for the reception of the
eggs, which are deposited in hollows of the rocks and ledges of
the cliffs, each female laying .a single one, although a great
number are often seen so closely packed together as to be possibly
covered by one bird.
Where the cliffs are lofty and other birds breed with them, the
Guillemot occupies a zone above the Kittiwake and below the
Razor-bill. " It is interesting," writes McGillivray, with the
enthusiasm of one who has tried it, " to visit one of the great
breeding-places, to row along the foot of the cliffs in a boat, or to
stand on a near promontory, and see the multitudes perched on
the rocks, or flying out to sea or returning ; or to look out from
the summit upon the groups in sight ; or startle from their stations
a whole flock by letting down a large stone ; or to descend by
some crevice, clinging with fingers and unshod feet to the little
narrow ledges, and creep in among the eggs ; or to be let down,
dangling on a rope, half trembling between fear and excitement."
CHAPTER II.
DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
WILLOUGHBY distributes the Palmipedes into such as have the
back toe, and those in which it is absent ; the former, again, into
such as have the four toes webbed together, and such as have the
back toe separated from the others. These latter he again subdi-
vides into narrow-billed and broad-billed ; the former having
their bills either hooked at the end or straight and sharp- pointed.
The hook-billed have them either even or toothed on the sides.
Those which have them straight or sharp-pointed are either short-
winged and divers — such as Doukers and Loons — or long- winged,
such as Gulls. The broad-billed are divided into Ducks and
Geese. The Ducks are either Sea or Pond Ducks. " The Ducks,"
he adds, " have shorter necks and larger feet, in proportion to
their bodies, than Geese. Howbeit, the biggest in this kind do
equal, if not exceed, the least in that. They have shorter legs
than Geese, and situated more backward, so that they go waddling ;
a broader and flatter back, and so a more compressed body ; and,
lastly, a broader and flatter bill. Their tongue is pectinated, or
toothed, on each side, which is common with them and the
Geese."
" The Ducks are of two sorts, either wild or tame. The wild,
again, are of two sorts : — 1, Sea Ducks, which feed mostwhat in
salt waters, dive much in feeding, have a broader bill (especially
the upper one), and bending forward to work on the stem ; a large
hind toe, and then, likely for a rudder, a long train, not sharp-
pointed. 2, Pond Ducks, which haunt plashes, have a straight
and narrower bill, a very little hind toe, a sharp-pointed train, a
230 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
white belly, speckled feathers, black, with glittering green on the
middle wing, with a white transverse ring on either side."
According to Mr. Yarrell, the first division of Ducks com-
prises the Wild Duck, Shieldrake, Muscovy Duck, Gadwall, Sho-
veller, Pintail, Widgeon, Bimaculated Duck, Garganey, and Teals,
all of which exhibit length of neck, wings reaching to the end
of the tail, tarsi somewhat round, hind toe free or without pendent
lobe. They generally frequent fresh water, but pass much of their
time on land, feeding on aquatic plants, insects, worms, and some-
times fish. The second division includes the Red Crested Duck,
Poachard, Ferruginous Duck, Scaup, Tufted Duck, Harlequin
Duck, Long- tailed Duck, and Golden Eye ; while between the two
divisions he places, as possessing some of the characters of each,
the Eider Duck, King Duck, Velvet Duck, and Scoter.
McGillivray accepts this arrangement, with some slight varia-
tions, remarking that the differences as to habits, as well as struc-
ture, are quite obvious ; and he gives us a graphic description of
the three types. " High in air," he says, " advancing on gently-
arched and outspread wings, that winnow a passage for them over
the far-spreading sea, is seen advancing from the north a flock
of large birds, that are observed, as they draw nearer, to be arranged
in lines ever undulating and changing figure ; while their clear
cries seem to express their joy at having escaped the dangers of
their long passage over the waste of waters. "Now they descend,
mingle their ranks, wheel in dislocated bands, unite, sweep along,
and, clamorous in their joy, at length alight on the open pasture.
Having rested awhile and plumed themselves, they begin to move
about in search of food, walking sedately and with decurrent necks,
stretching their strong bills to the ground, from which they wrench
the roots of the grasses, and pluck the herbage. Prudent, how-
ever, as they well need be in an unexplored tract, and careful of
their safety, they neither scatter about at random nor leave them-
selves subject to surprise. Should a suspicious object present
itself, one of them presently erects himself and emits a warning
cry, on hearing which they all rise together, raise their necks to
their full stretch, and carefully inspect the ground. Should the
danger be imminent, they run a few paces forward, spread out
their large wings, ascend into the air, and betake themselves to
DUCKS. 231
some distant place." These are of the first division, or Cribatores,
as Mr. McGillivray calls them — more useful to man than the other
aquatic birds, many of them not only affording him savoury food,
but feathers, quills, and down ; while some have become domesti-
cated, and rival the Gallinaceous Fowls in utility : these are the
Ducks and Geese of the poultry- yards and commons.
These web-footed birds, the Lamellirostra of Cuvier, are distin-
guished from all others by their laminated bills, which are thick,
have a covering of soft skin, also small teeth placed along the edge.
The tongue is fleshy, broad, and dentated on the edge. They are
aquatic, and principally inhabit fresh-water lakes and rivers.
Their wings being short, and living chiefly on the water, they
are badly qualified for a sustained flight. Their food is mostly
vegetable.
Numerous flocks of Ducks, of various species, frequent the sea-
shores and the rivers of all parts of the world. No family of birds
seems more profusely distributed over the world of waters, and
some of them are remarkable for the brilliant colouring of their
plumage. On land, the waddling gait of Ducks is anything but
graceful, but in the water their appearance is alert and elegant.
Look at them as they glide lightly over the surface of the
stream, or mark them as they plunge into its bosom with a splash,
either to bathe themselves or seek their food ! All their move-
ments here are executed with graceful ease, and it is easy to see
that they are in their natural element. They love to paddle in
the mud, where they often find a sufficient supply of food to satisfy
their voracity. But no description of animal matter comes amiss to
them, whether water- insects, worms, slugs, snails, small frogs, bread,
fresh or tainted meat, fish, living or dead. They are such gluttons,
that we have seen two of them fighting and disputing for more than
an hour over the skin of an eel, or some other garbage, which one
of them had partly swallowed, whilst his antagonist was dragging
at the other end. To this division of the Anatidse belongs the
Mallard, or Wild Duck, which may be considered typical of the
others, and which is generally supposed to be the ancestor of the
Domestic Duck.
232
DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
THE COMMON DUCK, OR MALLARD.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Mallard : McGillivray, Jenyns. Common Wild
Duck: Montagu, Selby.
LATIN SYNONYM. — Anas boschas : Linn., Latham, Jenyns, Bonaparte,
Temminck.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Canard sauvage : Temminck.
The plumage of the Wild Duck is dense and elastic. The head,
throat, and upper part of the neck of the male are adorned with
hues of a bright emerald green, shot with violet ; its breast is of a
purplish brown ; its back is ashy brown, sprinkled with greyish-
white zigzag bars ; the four feathers in the middle of the tail,
curling up at the end in a semicircle, are of a blackish hue with
a green reflection ; its length is about twenty-four inches ; length
of wing, thirty-five inches. The female, which is always smaller
than her mate, does not possess the bright colours which adorn
the Drake. Her plumage is brown and russet grey. Individuals
Fig. 86.— Wild Ducks (Anas boscluis).
sometimes, though seldom, vary. Sir William Jardine states
that he has seen Drakes having the upper parts of a bluish grey,
decreasing in depth of colouring down the breast ; and Mr.
Yarrell mentions two instances in which females of this species
have assumed, to a considerable extent, the appearance and plumage
of the Mallard, even to the curling feathers of the tail. On the
other hand, the male plumage, according to Mr. Waterton, under-
goes a singular alteration. About the end of May the breast and
WILD DUCKS. 233
back of the Drake begin to change colour; in a few days the
curled feathers of the tail drop out, and grey feathers begin to
appear in the lovely green plumage round the eyes ; and, by the
28rd of June, scarcely one green feather remains. By the 6th of
July all the green feathers have disappeared, and the male has
assumed the female garb, but darker in colour. In August this new
plumage begins to drop off, and by the middle of October the Drake
again reappears in all the rich magnificence of its former dress.
The Wild Duck (Fig. 86) forms the original stock from which
our Domestic Ducks have sprung. Their favourite resorts are to be
found in those hyperborean regions whose rigorous climate renders
it uninhabitable by man. The rivers of Lapland, Greenland,
and Siberia are sometimes literally covered with them ; and, in
the month of May, their nests are there found in quantities
which the imagination can scarcely picture. At the first ap-
proach of frost their earliest harbingers begin to appear among
us, and about the middle of October these travelling bands arrive
in increasing numbers.
Wild Ducks have a powerful, sustained, and rapid flight. With
one stroke of the wing they raise themselves either from the land
or water, and mount perpendicularly above the summits of the
loftiest trees, when they take a more horizontal course, maintaining
themselves at a great height, and making long journeys without
rest. Triangular columns of them may sometimes be seen
directing their unerring course towards their destination, the
rustling of their wings being heard at considerable distances.
The leading bird, which directs the course of the band, and which
is thus exposed to the first resistance of the wind, from being
foremost to cleave the air, soon becomes fatigued, when it falls
back into the second rank, its place in the van being immediately
taken by another (Fig. 87).
Wild Ducks are extremely suspicious in their nature. When
they want to settle down on any spot, or to go from one pool to
another, they sweep round in concentric curves, descending and
ascending again and again, until they have made a complete sur-
vey of their intended halting-place.
The margins of fresh- water lakes, pools, and marshes are the
principal localities frequented by the Wild Duck, so long as the
INCUBATION OF WILD DUCKS. 235
frosts of winter do not prevent their obtaining the water-insects
and aquatic weeds on which they feed. But when the frost has
congealed the stagnant waters, they take themselves off into more
temperate climates, invariably following the course of the rivers
and running streams. When they return northward after the great
thaw — that is, about the end of February — they keep in pairs, and
disperse themselves in search of breeding-places among the rushes,
reeds, and sedge-grasses, constructing a bulky nest of weeds, which
is simply placed on the ground, and generally near to water.
Much elegance is not to be looked for in the nest of the Wild
Duck. A favourite situation is a thickly- growing tuft of sedge,
and they content themselves with plucking off a few of the blades,
the ends of which they bend down so as to form a foundation, the
surface being covered with a soft layer of down. Their nests
are occasionally found at some distance from the water, amidst
heath or broom, or even in the fork of a tree, the female having
been known to take possession of a Magpie's or Crow's nest which
had been abandoned.
The Duck lays from five to ten eggs, and sometimes more ;
their colour varies, but is generally a dull greenish white. The
female sits alone, and only leaves the nest to seek her food. When
leaving her nest, she covers it up carefully with any rubbish at
hand ; on her return, the cunning creature alights a consider-
able distance from it, and glides through the grass, looking in
every direction to see that she is not watched ; if discovered, she
will even feign lameness to induce pursuit, so that she may draw
off intruders.
Incubation lasts about a month. The young ones are then
hatched, all generally bursting the egg on the same day. They are
covered with a close yellow down, and are quite alert when they leave
the shell ; and their mother soon leads them down to the water, en-
couraging them by her example to enter it. They do not return to
the nest. At night their mother covers them under her wings, and
at first feeds them with the small flies that come within her reach.
The ducklings, although they soon learn to swim, are unable to
fly till after the expiration of three months ; after that lapse of
time wing- feathers are developed sufficiently to enable them to
take flight. But they are always alert and active on the water,
236 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
diving and remaining under it for many minutes with, nothing
but the bill above the surface. When danger approaches, the
mother utters a peculiar cry, and the young ones immediately
conceal themselves. In a ditch full of water, Mr. McGillivray
once came upon a whole brood of half- grown ducklings which
disappeared in a moment ; and although he searched everywhere
for them, he did not succeed in finding a single one. When the
Duck perceives the great Black-backed Gull, the ruthless enemy
of her race, she beats the water with her wings as if to attract
the attention, of the aggressor. On his approach she darts at
him with so much vigour that she compels him to retire, shame-
fully beaten.
Audubon relates a remarkable instance of maternal affection in
this bird. The American naturalist had found in the woods a
female of this species at the head of her young brood. As he
approached, he noticed that her feathers became erect, and that
she hissed with a threatening gesture, after the manner of Geese.
In the meantime, the ducklings made off in all directions. His
Dog, which was perfectly trained, brought the little creatures to
him, one by one, without doing them the least injury. But in all
his proceedings he was watched by the mother, who kept passing
and repassing in front of him, as if to distract his attention.
When the ducklings were all safe in the game-bag, in which they
struggled and cried out, the mother came with a sad and troubled
air, and placed herself close to the sportsman, as if unable to sup-
press her despair. Audubon, seeing her grovelling almost under
his feet, was filled with pity, and restored her little family before
leaving the spot. " When I turned round to watch her/' adds
the naturalist, " I really fancied I could detect an expression of
gratitude in her eyes ; and I experienced at that moment one of
the most vivid sensations of pleasure I have ever enjoyed."
Whilst the mother is devoting herself to the education of her
brood, the father pays but little attention to his progeny. Jaded
and thin, he lives a solitary and quiescent life, more sad and wild
than ever. He has, in fact, to submit to a most sudden course
of moulting. The female also loses her plumage after the young
ones are hatched. They neither of them regain their more brilliant
dress until the end of autumn.
238
DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
There are numerous instances proving that Wild Ducks are sus-
ceptible of attachment to man, and it is certain that they can be
easily tamed. They also breed readily with the Domestic Duck ; and
the crossed birds thus produced are said to have an excellent flavour,
and to fatten with facility. Mr. St. John, in his " Wild Sports in the
Highlands," remarks that he has frequently caught and brought
home young Wild Ducks. " If confined in a yard with tame birds
for a week or two, they strike up a companionship which keeps
them from wandering when set at liberty. Some years ago I
brought home three, two of which turned out to be Drakes. I sent
Fig. 89.— Open Duck-shooting.
away my tame Ducks, and the next season I had a large family of
half-bred and wholly Wild Ducks, as the tame and wild bred
together quite freely. The Wild Ducks which have been caught
turned out the tamest of all, — throwing off all shyness, they follow
their feeder, and will eat corn out of the hand of any one they
know ; while the half-bred birds are inclined to take wing and fly
away for the purpose of making their nests at a distance."
The flesh of the Wild Duck is much esteemed. But they are
birds which are very difficult to approach, in consequence of their
suspicious nature ; and in order to get even a long shot at them,
DUCK-SHOOTING. 239
it is necessary to have recourse to stratagem. Even when suc-
cessful in your aim, the shot often fails to penetrate, owing to the
thick layers of their downy covering. Various artifices, there-
fore, are employed to lure them, all of which require some
cleverness. They are shot from a watching-place, being seduced
to its neighbourhood by employing Domestic Ducks which act as
decoys (Fig. 88). They are also shot from huts on the edge of
the water. Sometimes they are attracted by means of lights, or
by imitating their call. Many are taken in nets, in decoy- weirs,
and in snares ; they are sometimes even taken by means of baited
fish-hooks, and many other strange contrivances.
The ordinary open Duck-shooting, .as represented in Fig. 89, is
far from being so productive as some of the former methods, but
it is much more attractive. No sport is more uncertain, but occa-
sionally none is more fruitful, or more full of unexpected successes.
Duck-shooting from a hut, as represented in Fig. 90, is the
method most practised. The sportsmen are hidden in a small hut
placed on the edge of some lake or river, or it may be erected in
the middle of the water on a heap of stones. Here they lie in wait
for the birds in order to get a close shot at them. They generally
use fowling-pieces of great length and large calibre, called Duck-
guns. Shooting from Duck punts is also practised all round the
coast, and on the larger lakes, ponds, and estuaries.
On the Saone, the gunners, accompanied by a boatman, take
their places in a long, light, narrow, pointed boat, or punt, called
a fourquette. The two men, lying down in the bottom of the boat,
are hidden by faggots placed in front of them, the muzzle of the
duck-gun protruding through the faggots. Thus floating down
the river among the Ducks, they get an opportunity of shoot-
ing them without being perceived. Sportsmen in France some-
times employ a very odd artifice to baffle the suspicious instinct
of 'these birds : a man disguises himself as a cow by means of an
outline of the animal roughly made of common cardboard. Under
favour of this disguise he gets near the Wild Ducks without
exciting their fears, if only aware how to make good use of his
device ; that is, if he describes gentle and graceful curves, so as to
advance gradually without alarming the timid Palmipedes. But
this sport, though productive enough when skilfully managed,
BBBf'
THE DOMESTIC DUCK. 241
is not unattended with danger. A sportsman, who had dressed
himself up in this disguise, happened inadvertently to find his way
among a herd of cattle, which, detecting the imposture, immediately
ran at him and chased him about the meadow. He thought himself
fortunate in escaping with the loss of his disguise, which he aban-
doned to the fury of his horned assailants.
Large numbers of Ducks are taken by means of nets and various
snares, which want of space prevents us from here enumerating.
The Domestic Duck, Anas domestica, is a descendant of the Wild
Duck, or, as some think, of the Shoveller. The first tame Duck,
the ancestor of a family since so prodigiously multiplied, probably
proceeded from an egg which had been taken from some reedy
marsh, and hatched under a Hen.
The Duck, however, has been reduced to a state of domesticity
from a very remote period, and has been of incalculable utility to
mankind, filling in our poultry-yards no unworthy place. Ducks'
eggs are a wholesome and agreeable article of food, and the flesh
of the bird itself is most savoury. Epicures highly prized, and
rightly so, ihepdtes defoie de canard of Toulouse, Strasbourg, Nerac,
and Amiens (we arrange them here in their order of merit, not
according to Baron Brisse's dictum, but following our own poor
gastronomic capabilities). Their feathers, although not so valuable
as those of the Goose, are articles of considerable importance in
commerce.
Ducks produce large profits to those who rear them. They are
by no means choice in their food. Nothing comes amiss to their
palate ; the corn scattered about the yard which is disdained by other
fowls, and the meanest remnants of the leavings of the table and
kitchen, they do not reject. All that they require as an essential is
to have a little water within reach in which they can paddle at will.
Ducks' eggs are often put under a Hen to be hatched. When
seeking her food, the Hen sometimes leads her little flock to the
edge of water, and gives them a glimpse of its dangers. But
the ducklings, impelled by instinct, rush into the element they are
most partial to. The poor mother, anxious for the fate of the
young giddy-pates, which she loves as her own offspring, utters
cries of terror. She would resolutely throw herself into the stream,
and perhaps get drowned, were she not soothed by seeing them
242 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
swimming about, happy and active. This shows her that in them
she cannot recognise her own flesh and blood.
There are several favourite varieties of the Domestic Duck, but
those of Normandy and Picardy, in France, and the Aylesbury
Ducks in England, are the 'most profitable. Every nation rears
Ducks ; but the Chinese undeniably most excel in this art. For
hatching them the Celestials have recourse to artificial heat. They
also possess some superb varieties, which have been recently im-
ported into Europe, and are at the present time the glory of
our ornamental waters. Magnificent pairs of Chinese Ducks,
of which the Mandarin is the most beautiful, may be admired in
the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Paris, at the Zoological Gardens
of the Regent's Park, and also in the artificial waters in the parks
and gardens of our principal cities.
The Common Wild Duck, which we have described, is the type
of the order of Ducks ; but there are about seventy other species.
The most remarkable are the Widgeon, the Poachard, the Shoveller,
the Shieldrake, the Eider Duck, the Teal, the Black Diver, and
the Merganser.
THE GOLDEN-EYED GARROT.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Golden-eyed Garrot : McGillivray, Yarrell, Mon-
tagu, Jenyns, Selby. Golden-eyed Duck, Gewdy Duck, Pied Widgeon,
Whistler.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas clangula: Linn., Latham, Temminck. Anas
glaucion: Bonaparte, Linn., Young, Yarrell, Latham. Clangula vul-
garis : Selby. Clangula clirysophthalmus : Jenyns.
The Golden-eyed Garrot, Anas clangula, is sometimes called the
Golden- eyed Duck, on account of the brightness of the iris of its
eye. In some provinces it has received the nickname of the
Harlequin Duck, because its plumage, at a little distance off, looks
as if it was composed of black and white feathers only. This
variegated appearance, which occurs only in the males, makes a
fine show on the dark pools and lakes of the north Highlands and
Hebrides, where the scenery in winter is excessively dismal. When
undisturbed, they float lightly on the surface; but if alarmed,
they are said to sink themselves deeper in the water, diving
rapidly, and swimming with great velocity. They fly also
swiftly in a direct manner, their small, stiff, and sharp-pointed
THE POACHAED. 243
wings producing a whistling sound, which is heard in calm weather
at a considerable distance.* They rise easily from the water,
striking it with their feet and wings for several yards ; but under
alarm, or when there is a breeze rippling the surface, they can
ascend at once. During winter they are met with in all parts of the
country, from Shetland and Orkney on the one side, and from the
Lewis Islands on the other, to the southern extremity of England.
In Ireland, also, they are constant winter visitors ; but they do
not seem to breed with us, betaking themselves to the Arctic
regions in spring, and returning in October. They are essentially
lake Ducks ; but they are also found on the open coasts and
estuaries. Their flesh is dark-coloured and unsavoury, it requiring
all the art of the cook to conceal its natural fishy flavour.
They are generally plentiful in our markets, where the young
and females go under the comprehensive name of Widgeons.
The Golden- eyed Gar rot flies low and rapidly. In the month
of November it reaches France in small flocks, to remain till the
spring. Then it returns to its native country — Sweden, Norway,
or Lapland. As it is not a shy bird, the sportsmen on the sea-
coasts of Picardy, Normandy, and the Landes kill large quantities
of them.
THE POACHARD.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Bed-headed Poachard: McGillivray. Poachard
Montagu. Common Poachard : Jenyns.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas ferina: Linn., Latham, Temminck. Aytliya
ferina : Bonaparte, McGillivray. Fuligula ferina : Selby, Jenyns.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Canard melouin : Temminck.
The Poachard nearly resembles the American Canvas-back Duck,
but is unlike any British species in form. Its body (of the male) is
large, full, depressed, and elliptical in form ; its neck long and
thick ; the head large, oblong, compressed, and rounded above. The
plumage is dense, soft, and glossy. The feathers on the fore part
of the head are small and stiff ; on the remainder of the head and
neck soft, silky, and blended. The wings are short, curved, narrow,
and pointed. The bill black to a little beyond the nostrils, the inter-
mediate space light greyish blue. The head, and half the neck all
round, are of a fine brownish- orange tint.
* From the noise made by their wings they are in some localities called Whistlers.
R2
244 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
The Poachard (Fig. 91) is, next to that of the Common Wild
Duck, the variety which is most plentiful on our waters. It is
almost as large as the latter ; it makes its nest in the rushes round
pools or lakes, and feeds upon the roots of grasses and aquatic
plants, also on worms, mollusks, and small fish. They are
plentiful in the eastern counties south of the Humber, and in the
fen counties ; and it occurs in America, where, as Dr. Richardson
states, it breeds in all parts of the fur countries, from the fiftieth
parallel to their most northerly limits. Audubon found it abun-
dant in winter about New Orleans, in East Florida, and in Chesa-
peak Bay. " Although they dive much and to a great depth in
our bays and estuaries, yet, when in the shallow ponds of the
Fig. 91. — Poachard (Anas ferina).
interior, they prefer dabbling in the mud along the shores, much
in the manner of the Mallard."
This bird reaches France in little flocks of twenty to forty in
the month of October. It can easily be caught in nets.
THE SHOVELLER.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Blue-winged Shoveller: McGillivray. Common Sho-
veller : Selby, Jenyns. Shoveller : Montagu.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas clypeata : Linn., Latham, Jenyns, Temminck.
Rliynchaspis : Bonaparte, McGillivray.
FRENCH SYNONYMS. — Canard Souchet : Temminck. Rouge de Riviere : Figuier.
The Shoveller (Fig. 92) is very common on the Seine and the
Marne, where it is called Rouge de Riviere. It is smaller than
the Common Wild Duck, and has a very long bill, with the upper
mandible of a semi- cylindrical shape, dilated at its extremity,
THE SHOVELLER. 245
somewhat in the form of a small spoon. This bird is really
charming in the brilliancy of its plumage. Its head and neck are
of a bright green, and its wings are variegated with streaks of a
brilliant pale blue, green, white, and black. It is called " red "
because its plumage underneath is of a brownish-red hue. In the
month of February it abandons the icy regions of the north, to
visit the more southern lakes and rivers of France and Germany.
With us it is only a straggler, although in former days, when our
system of drainage was less perfect, it was a more frequent visitor.
In France considerable numbers of the Shovellers remain and breed.
It dwells in marshes, on lakes and large rivers, being seldom
Fig. 92.— The Shoveller (Anas clypeata).
found near the sea-coast ; feeding occasionally on vegetable sub-
stances, but chiefly on fresh-water mollusks, worms, and insects,
for grubbing up which, and separating them from the sand and
mud, its bill is evidently well adapted.
The Shoveller is met with in various parts of Europe, as
well as in Asia, Africa, and America, where it is found widely
dispersed. The nest is constructed on the borders of rushy lakes,
and they lay from eight to twelve eggs. When first hatched,
the young ones are excessively ugly, their beaks being almost
as large as their bodies. The flesh of the Shoveller is tender
and delicate, and preserves its pink colour even after it is cooked.
246
DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
THE SHIELDRAKE.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Burrow Shielduck : McGillivray. Shieldrake : Mon-
tagu, Selby, Jenyns. Popular names : Skeldrake, Skelgoose, Skieling
Goose, Burrow Duck, St. George's Duck, Stockannet.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas tadorna: Linn., Latham, Temminck. Tadorna
mdpanser : Selby, Bonaparte, McGillivray.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Canard Tadorne.
This very beautiful bird is a permanent resident in the British
Islands, although it is only met sparingly along our coasts. It
Fig. 93.— The Shieldrake (Anas tadorna).
resorts in spring and summer to the sandy bays on the west coast
of England and Scotland, from the Land's End to the Shetland
Islands. In autumn and winter it is found on the eastern coast
both of Scotland and England, where many individuals remain
to breed. It is generally found in the neighbourhood of sandy,
marshy land and moist meadows near the sea. It walks with
a quickish step, and has a swift flight, something like the Mallard,
and with a more rapid beat of the wings than the Goose.
The Shieldrake (Fig. 93) is the most remarkable of all the
THE EIDEE DUCK. 247
Duck tribe, not only from its size, but from its beauty, and the
elegant variations of its plumage. It is larger and stands higher
on its legs than the Common Wild Duck. The plumage is full,
soft, and blended ; the feathers of the head and upper neck are
small and silky. The colours are very brilliant, being of a glossy
blackish green on the head and neck, with purplish reflections in
some lights ; a broad band or ring of white is found on the neck, and
lower another of orange-red encircles the fore part of the body. The
rest of the under parts are white, with a band of glossy black on
the breast and belly ; the back white, variegated with black, white,
russet, and green. The Shieldrake abounds on the coasts of the
Baltic and North Sea ; it is also found in America, and on the
southern coasts of France, as well as on the edge of the Northern
Ocean. The nest is usually placed in some indentation in the sand,
the female frequently choosing a Rabbit's hole, which is often
situated in sand-banks. The poor Babbit, thus turned out of its
burrow, never ventures to return to it again.
THE EIDER DUCK.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Eider Duck : Montagu. Common Eider : Selby.
White-backed Eider : McGillivray. Popular names : St. Cuthbert's
Duck, Dunter Goose.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas mollissima: Linn., Latham, Temminck. Soma-
teria mollissima : Jenyns, Bonaparte, McGillivray, Selby.
The Eider Duck, though remarkable for beauty of plumage,
is nevertheless a very clumsy bird. In form it is bulky, depressed,
and elliptical, with large, oblong, and compressed head. The
plumage is dense and fine ; the head-feathers are short, tufted, and
rounded, and, blending with the terminal filaments, disunited ;
the wings diminutive, concave, narrow, and pointed, the tips of
which extend to the base of the tail, which is short, round, and
slightly decurvated.
The Eider Duck is the northern bird which supplies the soft,
light, and warm material which is so well known under the name
of " eider-down." It's plumage is whitish, but the upper part of
the head, its belly, and its tail are black ; the side of the head, the
throat, and the neck are white, but the hair-like feathers on the
back part of the cheeks and nape are of a delicate pale green ; the
248 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
lower part of the neck is cream-coloured. The black parts from
their glossiness are conspicuous, while the white look soiled ; the
head and back are also shaded with a green tint.
The Eider Duck is found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions,
occurring in diminished numbers in the latter. In the Outer
Hebrides it has many breeding-places, and some nests occur on
the Bass Eock, and on the Farn Islands, off the coast of Northum-
berland, where the eggs have been found in the month of June.
The nest is made in some hollow in the turf, and is composed
of sea-weed and dried grass, mixed with such marine plants as
Plantago maritima and Coronopsis. The eggs, which vary in
number, are of a longish oval shape, smooth and glossy, and
of a pale greenish grey. When they have been laid, the female is
said to pluck the down from her breast and cover them over with
it. This down, when shaken out, will occupy a space of nine or
ten inches. This peculiar quality of the down, however, caused
by its elastic character, belongs to all the Anatidae, and probably
not less so to the Anserinse.
The principal home of the Eider Duck is on the bleak and
frozen sea-coasts of Northern Europe, and its food, which is ob-
tained by diving, is the bivalve mollusca ; also Crustacea, fishes,
and fish-spawn, together with aquatic worms. It makes its nest
on rocks washed by the sea. Sometimes two female birds lay
in the same nest, which then contains from nine to ten eggs,
for each of them lays from four to six. The nest is roughly
built with sea-weed, but it is lined inside with a thick layer
of the bird's own down. " The Eider Ducks," as we learn from
Willoughby, " build themselves nests on the rocks, and lay good
store of very savoury and well- tasted eggs ; for the getting of
which the neighbouring people let themselves down by ropes
dangerously enough, and with the same labour gather the fea-
thers, or eider-dun, our people call them, which are very soft
and fit to stuff beds and quilts ; for in a small quantity they dilate
themselves much, being very springy, and warm the body above
any others. These birds are wont at set times to moult their
feathers, enriching the fowlers with this desirable merchandise."
" When its young are hatched/ ' adds the English naturalist, " it
takes them out to sea, and never looks at land till next breeding-
time, nor is seen anywhere about our coasts."
THE EIDEE DUCK. 249
There seems to be some considerable difference between the
down taken from the dead bird and that which the female plucks
from her breast. The lightness and elasticity of the latter are
such that two or three pounds of it squeezed into a ball which
may be held in the hand will expand so as to fill a quilt large
enough to cover a bed. When the female prepares her nest,
she lines it as above mentioned ; when she has laid her four or
six eggs, which are about three inches in length and two in
breadth, she strips herself a second time ; should this down be
abstracted, as it generally is, and she is unable to supply more,
the male submits himself to the same plucking process, his contri-
bution being known by its paler colour.
The haunts of a bird yielding so valuable an article are carefully
watched, and proprietors do everything in their power to attract
them to their land ; and in Scotland and Norway the districts
resorted to by the Eider Ducks are strictly preserved, everything
likely to disturb them being carefully guarded against. Pennant
thus records a visit he paid to one of their breeding-places in the
Earn Islands on the 15th of July, 1769 :— " I found the Ducks
sitting," he writes, "and I took some of the nests, the base of
which was formed of sea-plants and covered with the down.
After separating it carefully from the plants it weighed only three-
quarters of an ounce, yet was so elastic that it filled a greater
space than the crown of the largest hat. These birds are not
numerous on the isles, and it was observed that the Drakes kept on
the side most remote from the sitting-places. The Ducks continue
on the nest till you come almost to them, and when they rise, they
are very slow fliers. The eggs are of a pale olive colour, large,
glossy, and smooth ; they are from three to four, warmly bedded
in down." Sir George Mackenzie, in his " Travels in Iceland,"
says that " the boat in its approach to Vidoe passed multitudes of
Eider Ducks, which hardly moved out of the way ; and between
the landing-place and the governor's house it required some
caution to avoid treading on the nests, while the Drakes were
walking about even more familiar than common Ducks. The Ducks
were sitting on their nests all round the house, on the garden
wall, on the roof, in the inside of the house, and on the chapel."
The locality where the Eiders make their nests is always diffi-
250 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
cult of access. Nevertheless, tlie inhabitants of Iceland, Lapland,
and the coasts of the North Sea invariably secure them. The
harvest which is derived from these birds is the source of a con-
siderable revenue, eider-down being, in fact, a very large article
of commerce. The rocks where the Eider Ducks lay their eggs
are private property, and are handed down in families just as if
they were the most valuable possessions.
THE COMMON TEAL.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Common Teal : Montagu, Selby. Green- winged
Teal.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas crecca : Linn., Latham, Memming, Temminck,
Jenyns. Querquedula crecca : Bonaparte, Selby, McGillivray.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Canard Sarcelle.
This is the smallest of the Duck kind known in the British
Isles. It is a remarkably beautiful bird, and in colouring as well
Fig. 94.— Common Teal (Anas crecca).
as in form closely resembles the Mallard, but is much smaller.
It frequents marshy places and the margins of lakes and rivers,
seldom betaking itself to estuaries or the sea-coast until frost sets
in. It walks with ease, swims with great dexterity, flies rapidly,
and is in all respects remarkable for its activity. It rises from
the water or the land at once, and shoots away with great
rapidity, so that the marksman who would bring it down must be
very expert with his gun. It breeds in the long reedy grasses
on the margin of lakes, or on upland moors and marshes. Its nest
TEALS. 251
is a mass of decayed vegetable matter lined with down and feathers,
in which it lays ten or twelve eggs, about an inch and three-
quarters in length and an inch and a quarter in breadth. North
of the Tay they are found occasionally all the year round, returning,
according to Mr. St. John, year after year to breed, if left undis-
turbed in the process of incubation.
" If we compare," says Mr. McGillivray, " the Common Teal
(Anas crecca, Linn.), with the Garganey (Anas circia), the Gadwall
(Anas strepira), and the Pintail Duck (Anas acuta), we find slight
differences in the form of the bill, in the elongated lamella of the
upper mandible, in the length of the neck and tail ; but they are
all so intimately connected that, unless each species can be con-
verted into a genus, there can be no reason for separating them."
He classes them accordingly under the general name of Teal.
This bird makes its appearance in France in spring and autumn.
It breeds in all the temperate climates of Europe, and pushes on
towards the south as the winter advances.
Of the Teals there seem to be three, probably four, species,
which in our climate may be divided into three — namely, the
Common Teal, Anas crecca ; the Summer Teal, Anas circia ; and
the Little Teal, or Black Diver, Anas nigra.
According to Columella, in his work "De He Rustica," the
Romans succeeded in domesticating the Teal ; but the bird has
reverted to an entirely wild state, which is much to be regretted,
for it would have formed a valuable addition to the poultry-yard,
the flesh of the Teal being held in great estimation.
The group of Ducks usually denominated Teal, Mr. Swainson
has formed into the sub- genus Boschas, in which he also includes
the Mallard, or Wild Duck. "As this is the most numerous
group," says this writer, " so it exhibits a greater diversity of form
among the species. They are all, however, characterised by a
bill longer than the head, whose breadth is equal throughout ;
sometimes indeed a little dilated, but never contracted at the tip,
while the laminae of the upper mandible are entirely concealed
by the margin of the bill." " The beautiful Anasjbrmosa, which
is essentially a Teal, differs," says a writer in the "Penny
Cyclopaedia," "in the greater length of the tail, thus connecting
it more closely with the Pintail and other long-tailed species ;
252 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
while the bill, which is depressed in form in the Mallard as well
as in the Common Duck, is convex, with projecting laminae, in the
Teal. Such is the case with the Blue-winged Teal of North
America, in which the laminae of the upper bill project nearly as
much as in the Gadwall, while the upper mandible exhibits that
sinuosity at the base which is seen in no other Duck except the
Shoveller."
Mr. Selby says of the Common Teal : " I am inclined to think
that our indigenous breeds seldom quit the immediate neighbour-
hood of the places in which they are bred, as I have repeatedly
observed them to haunt the same district from the time of their
being hatched till they separated and paired on the approach of
the following spring. The Teal breeds in the long rushy herbage
about the edges of lakes, or on the boggy parts of upland moors."
Very few of them are found, according to Mr. McGillivray, in the
south of Scotland during the summer months. In winter, one of
his correspondents informs him, it unites in large flocks, the Drakes
having then a whistle like the Plover ; but it has not been heard
to use this call during the breeding season. The boldness of the
female in defence of her young is very affecting. Mr. St. John
describes an instance which occurred in Ross-shire. He was riding
along when an old Teal, with eight newly-hatched young ones,
crossed the road. The youngsters could not climb the bank, and all
squatted flat down while he passed. He dismounted, and carried
all the young ones a little distance down the road to a ditch, the
old bird fluttering about all the time, and frequently coming within
reach of his whip. The part of the road where he found them
passed through a thick fir- wood covered with rank heather, and it
was a great puzzle to him how such little things, scarcely bigger
than a mouse, could have struggled through it. Next day he saw
them all enjoying themselves in a pond a little distance off, where
a brood of Teal appeared every year.
Teal are less timid than the Wild Duck, and the sportsman, there-
fore, has not the same difficulty in getting within shot of them.
They breed in great numbers in some of the Highland lochs,
and Mr. St. John says that in August he has seen perfect clouds
of them rise from some calm, glassy lake at the report of a gun.
\
VELVET DUCK AND BLACK SCOTEE. 253
THE VELVET DUCK.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Velvet Duck: Montagu. Velvet Scoter: Selby,
Jenyns, McGillivray. Black Duck, White-winged Black Duck, Black
Diver, Double Scoter.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas fusca: Linn., Latham, Temminck. Oidemia
fusca : Selby, Jenyns, Bonaparte, McGillivray. Anas nigra : French
writers.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Canard Macreuse : Temminck.
The Scoters (Oidemia, Flemming) have the bill broad, with
dilated margins, and coarse lamelliform teeth ; a swelling above
the nostrils, dividing them into two equal parts, both large and
elevated.
The Velvet Duck is the largest of the Scoters, and is distinguish-
able by the white band upon its wing, much- depressed body, thick
neck, and large, oblong, and compressed head. They make their
appearance in our bays and estuaries towards the end of autumn,
and depart about the middle of April. In the evening they fly
out to sea in flocks of fifteen or twenty when the weather is
favourable, returning to the shore in the morning. They fly low,
but with considerable speed, moving their wings quickly ; and
on arriving at a suitable place, they relax a little and alight on
their hinder end, the body being kept oblique. On settling, they
commence forthwith to feed.
THE BLACK SCOTER.
ENGLISH SYNONYM. — Black Scoter : Selby, Jenyns, McGillivray.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas nigra : Linn., Latham, Temminck. Oidemia
nigra : Flemming, Selby, Jenyns, Bonaparte, McGillivray.
The Black Scoter arrives on our shores about the middle of
autumn in considerable flocks, and is seen on all our western coast
during winter, but is still more abundant on the French coast.
It closely resembles the American Scoter, of which it is probably
a variety.
The Black Scoter (Oidemia nigra) is almost as large as the
Common Wild Duck, but is shorter and more thickly made. Its
plumage is entirely black ; when young it is greyish.
The Black Scoter passes its life on the surface of the water, and
25* DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
never ventures on the land except when driven by stress of
weather, or for the purpose of making its nest in the marshes. It
flutters rather than flies over the surface of the sea, and makes no
use of its wings, except to escape some danger, or to transport itself
from one point to another with
more rapidity. Its legs, in flying,
hang down, and constantly graze the
surface of the water; it always
appears as if it regretted to leave its
favourite element.
When on land, these birds walk
slowly and ungracefully ; but in the
water they are never wearied. Like
faculty of being able to run about on the waves. They are
natives of both the Old and New World. About the month
of October, driven by the north and north-west winds, they
come down from the northerly countries of Europe, and visit our
Atlantic coasts and the Mediterranean.
The Black Scoter delights in the salt-water pools adjacent to the
sea, and the sheltered creeks on the coast, in which they find a
refuge against storms. In these places they become the objects of
the terribly destructive sport of which we are about to speak.
Two or three times during the winter, large placards exhibited
in certain towns of the department of Herault — at Montpellier,
Cette, Agde, &c. — announce that large flocks of these birds (called
foulques in the country) having settled down on some adjacent
lake, a day's sport will be had with them on a given date. The
day is turned into a real fete by the sportsmen, and an extra-
ordinary concourse of people are brought together. Every one
starts in the middle of the night, some in carriages, some in carts,
and the most humble among them on donkeys or on foot. At
daybreak they reach the margin of the lake. When arrived there,
they embark in boats, each provided with a rower. At a given
signal the whole flotilla puts off from the shore, and advances
slowly towards that part of the lake in which the Ducks are to be
found.
These unusual preparations are a cause of astonishment to the
THE BLACK SCOTER. 255
birds, which utter gentle cries of terror as they crowd together.
The boats, however, hem them in on all sides, gradually contract-
ing their circle so as to shut the birds up in an enclosed space.
The Black Scoters, seeing the enemy advancing upon them, in their
anxiety take to diving and plunging about. But, before long,
being closely pressed, they spread their wings and take flight
over the heads of their enemies. This is the signal for the com-
mencement of the first volley. There is now no cessation in the
resounding reports of the guns; for usually no less than five
hundred sportsmen meet on the surface of a not very extensive
lake, such as those of Mauguio or Palavas. The massacre lasts
for some hours ; in fact, these unfortunate birds, incapable of
flying very far, are pursued from place to place by the pitiless
boats, which are soon, like the bark of the venerable Charon, laden
with the dead. When no birds remain on the lake, the boats
return to the shore, rowing along the banks to hunt out the
wounded. Three thousand of these birds will sometimes fall
before the murderous guns in the space of a few hours. Almost
as a matter of course, quarrels often arise among the sportsmen.
The cause of dispute may be some bird which has been shot at
from several boats at the same moment. These disturbances, which
usually begin with shouts and abuse, from the warmth of the
southern blood sometimes terminate fatally. In this sport tumult
reaches its utmost pitch, and it is as productive of danger as of
pleasure. Sometimes a boat capsizes, owing to the excessive
eagerness of the rowers ; sometimes a sportsman is wounded by an
awkward neighbour, or two or three men fall into the water in
trying to reach their prey. Such are the exciting scenes that I have
often witnessed in my youth ; they were the supreme delight of
the boys of Clapas (Montpellier). The same sport is practised at
Hyeres, in the Yar, and on the lake of Berre, near Marseilles.
On the coasts of Picardy, where the Black Scoter abounds during
winter, very destructive means are used for their capture. Nets
are stretched horizontally in the water, above the banks of shell-
fish which the sea has left uncovered at its reflux, and on which
these birds feed. "When they dive to seize their prey they become
entangled in the meshes of the net, from which they cannot escape.
The Black Scoter is also the object of individual sport when it
256 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
does not arrive in these immense flocks. It is then shot from a
boat like other water-fowl.
The Black Scoter makes but a poor figure on aristocratic tables.
Its flesh, which is by no means tender, retains a very decided marshy
flavour. In former times it was much sought after, but not exactly
for its culinary qualities. The reason this bird was shown such
preference was because people were permitted to eat it in Lent in
place of fish.
The singular notions on which the Church of Rome founded
this toleration — a toleration, however, which still exists in full
force even at the present day — is as follows. The councils of the
twelfth century permitted both the clergy and laity to eat Black
Scoters during Lent because it was a generally-accepted idea,
founded on the writings of Aristotle, that these birds were not
produced from an egg, but had a vegetable origin. The learned of
the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, seeing large flocks of these
birds suddenly appear, while nothing was known whence they
came, indulged in all kinds of conjectures to explain this mysterious
fact. They attributed to them origins which were marvellous ;
one conjecturing that the feathery appearance in the ciliated ten-
tacles of certain mollusks which inhabit the barnacle shell changed
into Black Scoters ; others imagined that these birds proceeded
from the wood of rotten fir-trees which had been long floating
about in the sea, or even from the fungi and marine mosses which
cling to the debris of wrecked ships ; others, again, went so far
as to assert that the north of Scotland, and especially the Orkney
Isles, produced a tree the fruit of which, falling into the sea,
developed into the bird which was called Anser arboreus, in order
to commemorate its origin : this bird they imagined was the Black
Scoter.
The naturalists who gave expression to these transcendental
views might certainly boast that they had Aristotle on their side ;
for this distinguished philosopher believed in the spontaneous
generation of various kinds of animals. He asserted, for instance,
that rats sprung from decayed vegetables, and that bees proceeded
from the carcass of an ox. Who, for instance, is unacquainted
with the fine episode of the fourth book of Yirgil's Georgics,
where this poetic fiction is related in beautiful verse?
THE VELVET DUCK. 257
As a matter of fact, however, Pope Innocent III., better
instructed than Aristotle in this department of natural history,
passed sentence on all these tales by forbidding its use during
Lent ; but no one, either in the monasteries, the castles, or the
taverns, has ever looked at this interdict of the sovereign pontiff
in a serious point of view.
This controverted question, however, met with an unexpected
solution. Gerard Yeer, a Dutch navigator, in one of his voyages
to the north of Europe, found some eggs of the Yelvet Duck.
Being ignorant of their nature, he brought them home, put them
under a hen, and, when they were hatched, the produce exactly
resembled the birds which were asserted by the ancients to proceed
from the decay of vegetable matter. Gerard Yeer made the
announcement that these birds bred in Greenland, thus affording
a complete explanation of the absence of their eggs in southern
countries.
This discovery of the Dutch navigator met with no favourable
reception. The custom of eating the Yelvet Duck in Lent had
been long established ; the Church allowed it, and every one was
satisfied. Gerard Yeer was sent back to his galliot, and all kinds
of reasons were found for satisfying the consciences and stomachs
of the faithful, which had been justly alarmed.
There was, however, no deficiency in the arguments brought
forward. It was asserted that the feathers of the Yelvet Duck
were of quite a different nature from those of other birds ; that
their blood was cold, and that it did not coagulate when shed ;
that their fat, like that of fishes, had the property of never harden-
ing. The analogy between the Yelvet Duck and the fishes being
thus clearly established, the permission of the councils remained
in full force.
Finally, as the writers of the Middle Ages and the Renais-
sance were but indifferent naturalists, and had very vaguely
described the Yelvet Duck, the same mode of reproduction was
ascribed to several other marsh-birds. As a matter of course,
the same toleration in Lent was extended to them. The faith-
ful were thus in the habit of indulging in various other birds,
such as the Brent and Bernicle Geese. The opposing claims
of devotion and appetite being thus harmlessly satisfied, no one
258 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
cared to object to a supposition which gave such general satis-
faction.
"We must add that this confusion of names still exists, for on
the sea-coast several varieties of the Duck genus still go by the
name of the privileged bird.
There are five principal varieties of this species. The most
remarkable are the Yelvet Duck (Oidemia fusca), the Common
Black Scoter (0. nigra), and the Great-billed Black Diver (0.
perspicellata}.
THE GREAT-BILLED SCOTER.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Surf Scoters : Selby, McGillivray, Jenyns. Surf
Duck, Black Duck : Pennant.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas perspicellata : Linn. , Latham, Temminck. Oidemia
perspicellata : Selby, Jenyns, Temminck, McGillivray.
FRENCH SYNONYMS. — Macreuse a large free, Canard marchand.
The Great-billed Scoter is a rare bird in this country, the only
positive evidence of its occurrence being a female, shot in the Firth
of Forth, mentioned by Mr. Gould, and a recently-shot specimen
sent to Mr. Bartlett for preservation, and from which Mr. Yarrell
derived his description. It is, however, stated by Audubon as being
abundant in winter on the eastern coast of America, as far south
as the mouth of the Mississippi. In Labrador he found a female
on its nest in a marsh ; the nest was snugly placed amidst the tall
blades of a bunch of grass, and was raised fully four inches above
the roots. It was composed of withered and rotten weeds, the
former being circularly arranged over the latter, producing a well-
rounded cavity, six inches in diameter, and two and a half deep ; the
border of the inner cup being lined with down from the birds after
the manner of the Eider Duck. In it lay five eggs, the smallest
he had ever seen in a Duck's nest. They are equally rounded
at both ends, about two inches and a half long, and an inch and
five-eighths in their greatest breadth ; the shell perfectly smooth,
and of a uniform yellow colour.
The plumage of the bird is soft, dense, and glossy ; the feathers
of the head and neck blended and velvety; the wings short,
narrow, and pointed ; the upper mandible orange red, the protu-
berance on each side yellowish grey ; at the base is a large square
THE GOOSANDEK. 209
patch of black, margined with orange red, with a patch of greyish
white in front.
Intimately allied to the Ducks in many respects, and to the
Divers and Cormorants in others, are the Mergansers, a very dis-
tinct family, characterised by a large, elongated, and depressed
body ; long and slender neck ; oblong, compressed head, narrow-
ing anteriorly ; bill straight, narrow, and slender, sub- cylindrical
outwards, wide at the base, and abruptly hooked at the tip ;
margins of both mandibles serrated ; the teeth directed backwards.
THE GOOSANDER.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Goosander : Montagu, Selby, Jenyns.' Dun
Diver : Montagu. Buff-breasted Goosander : McGillivray. Greater
Goosander, Saw-bill, Jacksaw.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Mergus merganser: Linn., Latham, Temminck, Selby,
Jenyns. Mergus castor : Linn., Latham. .Merganser castor: Bonaparte,
McGillivray.
FRENCH SYNONYMS. — Bieune of the old French. Grand Harle : Temminck.
The Merganser (Mergus, from mergere, to submerge) is some-
times separated from the Ducks. Prince Charles Bonaparte
includes in it two sub- genera, the Smew (Mergus) and the Mer-
ganser of Leach. The Merganser is distinguished by its slender
and almost cylindrical bill, armed on the edges with points turning
backwards, somewhat resembling the teeth of a saw ; yet, in its
general appearance, plumage, and habits, this bird bears much
resemblance to the Ducks.
The Mergansers very rarely come on land ; they are exclusively
aquatic, and frequent rivers, lakes, and pools, preferring them to
estuaries ; but they may be seen in summer fishing in the sea-lochs
of Scotland. The Latins gave them the name of Mergm in con-
sequence of their habit of swimming with the body submerged —
the head only appearing above the surface of the water.
These birds feed on fish, of which they destroy an immense
number. They also commit serious depredations on the spawning
beds. They are able to accumulate a large quantity of air in
the trachea, and can therefore remain some time under water
without breathing. They take advantage of this for diving to the
260 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
bottom to seek their prey, and they will often travel to a consider-
able distance before they appear again on the surface. The
activity they display in pursuit of their prey is very great ; for,
in order to accelerate their speed in swimming, they make use of
their wings as well as of their feet. The Merganser is in the
habit of swallowing fish head first ; consequently, it often happens
that the remainder of the body of their prey is too bulky to be
easily gorged ; they are, however, very far from wishing to get
rid of this temporary inconvenience, but wait till it becomes
gradually absorbed. Sometimes the digestion of the fish/s head
has already commenced in the bird's stomach whilst the tail is
still projecting from its bill.
The flight of the Merganser is rapid and prolonged, without
reaching any great elevation. Their gait on land is awkward and
tottering. They generally inhabit temperate regions during the
winter, and in spring return to the high latitudes of both hemi-
spheres, which are their breeding-places. They lay from eight
to fourteen whitish-coloured eggs, either on the shore between
two large stones, or in thickets of grass on the edge of lakes and
rivers : occasionally a hollow in a tree is selected ; but it is in-
variably near water. Their nest is composed of dry grass, sedges,
fibrous roots, and other similar materials, with a lining of down
plucked from the breast.
The Merganser is a regular visitor, in winter, to our coasts and
inland lakes. It breeds in North Uist and others of the Outer
Hebrides. Its flesh is unedible except when young.
THE SMEW.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Smew : Montagu, Selby, Jenyns. Pied Smew :
McGrillivray. White Nun : Selby. Pied Diver, Vane Widgeon.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Mergus albellus: Linn., Latham, Jenyns, Bonaparte,
McGillivray. Mergus minutus : Young, Linn., Latham.
FRENCH SYNONYMS. — Harle Piette : Temminck. Harle Huppe : Buffon.
Like its congeners, the Smew is a native of the northern regions
of both continents, retiring southward as the winter approaches,
and spreading in great numbers over Germany, France, and Italy
in October and November, and returning northward in April.
THE SMEW. 261
North of the Humber it is a rare bird. Montagu says it is plentiful
on the south coast, but that it is not known to breed with us. It is of
elegant form, smaller than the Merganser, being only fifteen inches
in length. The plumage of the head is full, soft, and blended ;
the upper part of the head and nape elongated, forming a gra-
dually narrowing crest ; the wings short, rather narrow, slightly
convex, and pointed — when closed reaching to within an inch and a
half from the end of the tail. The male bird, at maturity, has a
great spot of greenish black on each side of the bill, and a longi-
tudinal one on the occiput. The tufted crest, neck, scapulars,
Fig. 96.— The Smew (Mergus albeltus).
small coverts of the wing, and all the lower parts are pure white ;
the upper part of the back, the two crescents under the sides of
the breast, and the edges of the scapulars are deep black ; the
tail is ash-coloured ; sides and thighs are varied with ash-coloured
zigzags ; bill, tarsi, and toes are bluish ash ; webs black, and the
iris brown. In habit the Smew greatly resembles the Goosan-
ders.
The Goose ( Anser) forms a special genus among the Palmipedes.
It is a bird which is often spoken of with contempt, though very
improperly, for few birds are able to afford mankind the amount
of service rendered by the despised Goose.
262 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
THE WILD GOOSE.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Grey Lag Goose : Montagu, Selby. Wild Goose :
Jenyns. Marsh Goose, Grey Lag, Grey Goose, Fen Goose.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas anser: Linn., Latham. Anser ferus: Temminck,
Jenyns, McGillivray. Anser palustris : Selby. Anser cinereus : Bona-
parte.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Oie Cendree : Temminck.
The "Wild Goose, though by no means elegant in form, has
none of the awkwardness of the Domestic Goose, which is gene-
rally supposed to be descended from it. The body of Anser
ferus is large and full ; the neck long, at its upper part slender ;
the head proportionately small, ovate, oblong, and rather com-
pressed ; the feathers of the head are small, short, rounded and
blended, of a greyish brown ; those of the upper part of the
neck small and oblong, and arranged in ridges with deep inter-
vening grooves, gradually getting paler until it fades into greyish
white ; the wings are long, reaching nearly to the end of the tail,
the feathers of the fore part of the back and wings close, broad,
and abrupt ; the prevailing colour a bluish grey.
The Geese in many respects resemble the Ducks and Swans, but
they are less aquatic in their habits, keeping at a distance from large
bodies of water, and frequenting, by preference, moist meadows and
marshes, where they find herbage and various kinds of seeds, on
which they principally feed. They swim very little, and seldom
dive. They make their nests on the ground, and lay from six to
eight eggs, which are hatched in rather more than one month. The
young ones walk about and find their own food almost as soon
as they are hatched. Geese, especially the male birds, moult twice
a year — in June and November,
The noise made by a flock of Geese seeking their food can be
heard at a great distance. Their call, which is repeated at regular
intervals, somewhat resembles the sound of a trumpet or clarion,
and is accompanied by a continuous muttering noise in shorter
notes. The hissing common to both Geese and Ducks is pro-
duced by two membranes placed in juxtaposition at the lower
part of the trachea. These two membranes are situated side by side
in the two bony and elongated openings of the internal larynx,
WILD GEESE. 263
from which the two principal bronchia have their origin. A close
examination of this organ in the Goose is supposed to have con-
tributed to the invention of certain wind instruments, such as the
flute, bassoon, bagpipes, clarionet, and even the organ.
When attacked, the Goose makes a hissing noise similar to that
of some serpents. Endeavours have been made to express this
sound by the three Latin words strepit, gratitat, stridet. The
slightest noise wakes them up, when they at once give the signal
of alarm, which immediately warns the whole flock of approaching
danger. Thus, some authors have maintained that the Goose is more
vigilant than the Dog ; and in proof of this, instance the story of the
Geese of the Capitol, whose wakefulness saved the Romans from
i'ig. 97.— Wild Goose (Anscr ferus).
an attempted assault on the part of the Gauls. The Roman people
were grateful enough to award an annual sum for the maintenance
of a certain number of Geese in the Capitol ; and on the anni-
versary of the day when their services had been so valuable, they
were in the habit of whipping the Dogs in front of the building,
as a retrospective punishment for their culpable carelessness.
The Gauls, on the other hand, never pardoned the Goose for
having baffled their attack. Frenchmen, even in the present day,
possibly the descendants of the proud companions of Brennus, or of
the conquerors of Northern Italy, appear still to inherit this ances-
tral hatred. At some of the French village fetes they are in the
habit of hanging up Geese by the feet in order to cut through
their necks with a sword, or to beat them to death by hurling
264 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
stones and sticks at their heads. At every blow the poor creature
must suffer dreadful agony, but it is left in its pain until it dies a
lingering death. It is then borne away in triumph by the con-
queror, and its mutilated carcass afterwards appears at his table to
be devoured by him and his companions. Happily, the Assemblee
Rationale has now forbidden this brutal and sanguinary amuse-
ment as being dishonourable to a civilised nation.
It is difficult to say why the Goose should have been considered,
from the earliest ages, as the symbol of stupidity. Their sight
is sharp and piercing, and they enjoy a remarkable delicacy of
hearing. Their sense of smell, moreover, may be compared to
that of the Crow. Their watchfulness seems never at fault. When
they either sleep or eat, one of their number is placed as a sentinel.
With neck stretched out and head in the air, it scrutinises the
distant horizon in every direction, ready, at the slightest alarm,
to give a signal of danger to the rest of the flock.
The flight of Wild Geese indicates no slight degree of intel-
ligence. They place themselves in two slanting lines, forming a
< shaped angle, or sometimes in a single line, if the flock is not
very numerous. This arrangement allows each bird to follow the
main body with the least possible amount of resistance, and at the
same time to keep its rank. When the individual which leads
the flight begins to be fatigued, it takes its place in the rear,
each bird in its turn leading the flock.
These birds are too numerous to travel in large flocks ; it would
appear, therefore, as if they fixed upon some points where they
separate in order to distribute themselves over various countries.
In Europe Wild Geese come principally from Asia. On their
arrival here, the flocks disperse themselves over different districts.
In our land they make their appearance towards the beginning of
winter, and depart towards the end of April. Formerly they are
said to have been abundant, and to have been even permanently resi-
dent ; now they are rare, and are seldom known to breed with us.
On their arrival they resort to open pastures and cultivated fields,
feeding on the roots of aquatic grasses, young corn, clover, and
other green herbage. On an alarm being given by the sentinel on
watch, they all erect their necks, run forward, and, uttering their
loud, grating cry, spring into the air, departing with a heavy,
WILD GEESE. 265
measured, and lofty flight. According to Temminck, " the "Wild
Goose inhabits the seas, coasts, and marshes of eastern countries,
seldom advancing northward beyond the fifty-third degree ; it is
abundant in Germany and in Central Europe ; occasionally, in its
migrations, it halts in small numbers in Holland." Those which
visit France are the harbingers of the frost ; and when they make
an early appearance, it is well known that the winter will be a
severe one.
Although they live little in the water, Wild Geese repair every
evening to the ponds and rivers in their neighbourhoods to pass
the night ; so that the Wild Goose only takes to the water when
the Wild Duck is leaving it. These birds are very difficult to
shoot in consequence of their lofty flight, from which they only
descend when they see the water on which they are to pass the
night. Even then their excessive caution renders nearly useless
all the stratagems of the sportsman. The attempt is sometimes
made to take them in the evening with nets, the wild ones
being attracted by means of tame Geese, which are trained to act
as decoys.
The Ostiacs, on the banks of the Obi, in Siberia, pile up the snow,
and, with the addition of branches, construct small huts. Near
these they place some stuffed birds in the water ; the Wild Geese
dart on these and peck them to pieces. While thus busily occu-
pied, they can easily be shot or taken with nets.
But the most curious and difficult mode of capturing them is
that followed by the adventurous inhabitants of St. Kilda, a little
islet on the west coast of Scotland. Wild Geese of several species
make their nests there in large flocks at the foot of the sea- washed
rocks which surround the island. It is very doubtful if the
Wild Goose, Anser ferus, is found among these. Both for
strength and economy, the inhabitants use a cord made of thongs
of twisted cow-hide covered with sheep- skin. With a rope of
this description, two men climb to the top of a cliff; there they
fasten themselves to either end of the cord ; then one lets him-
self down over the face of the cliff, and the other clings to
the rugged points above. The first man fills a sack with the
eggs, and suspends by their claws as many goslings as he can
hang to various parts of his person. When he has made his
266 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
collection, his companion hoists him up by main force, twisting
the cord round his own body after the manner of a windlass.
This aerial and dangerous sport is very productive. A cow-
hide rope forms a large portion of the dowry of a St. Kilda girl,
and very often it is the sole dependence of a household. The
hardy sportsmen have so much coolness and nerve, that accidents
very rarely happen.
The Bean Goose (Anas segetum) of most authors differs from
the preceding in being somewhat smaller, and having the bill more
slender, although not much shorter ; the hind part of the back is
also dark brown. In its habits it closely resembles the Wild
Goose, for -which it has probably been frequently mistaken. Yast
flocks of this species frequent the northern waters, such as
Montrose Bay, the mouth of the Findhorn, and especially the
inland waters of Ross and Sutherland — thirty or forty pairs
having their nests annually on Lake Laighal.
The Domestic or Common Goose (Anser sylvestris) has been
made the source of great utility and profit. It appears to be the
civilised offspring of the Wild Goose, to which it bears the same
proportions as other tame animals bear to their prototypes. Mr.
Yarrell was of opinion that the White-fronted Goose {Anser albi-
frons) has concurred, with the Anser ferus, in producing our
domestic race.
In our poultry-yards the Domestic Goose begins, in the month
of March, to lay from eight to twelve eggs. When they remain
on the nest longer than usual, they are about to " sit." Incuba-
tion lasts for a month. No birds are more easily reared than
goslings ; they issue from the shell full of life, and covered with
a delicate down. It is, however, necessary to keep them shut up
for the first few days ; if the weather permits, they may soon be
released. Their first food is a paste formed of barley roughly
ground, mixed with bran, moistened, and boiled in milk, with the
addition of a few chopped-up lettuce leaves. When at large, it is
necessary to keep them carefully from hemlock and other poisonous
plants.
Our ancestors, the Celts, the Gauls, and the Franks, reared a
large number of these birds, and carried on a considerable trade in
them, especially with Italy. Pliny, in his " Natural History,"
DOMESTIC GEESE. 267
relates that he has seen immense droves of Geese, which were
making their way towards Borne from different districts of Gaul,
but especially from the country of the Morini (now forming the
departments of the Nord and Pas-de-Calais). The conductors of
these feathered flocks were in the habit of placing the tired ones in
front, so that, being pushed forward by the whole column behind
them, they were forced to move on in spite of themselves. In the
present day, numerous flocks of Geese are driven in the same
manner into Spain from the French departments of Lot, Dor-
dogne, Lot-et- Garonne, Gers, Tarn, &c.
The Goose, in its coarse and somewhat democratic condition, was
good enough food for the Romans of the republic ; but at a later
period, when the people became more refined in their tastes, they
invented a barbarous method of fattening it. By depriving them
of water, movement, and light, an extraordinary development of
the liver was produced, which gave them a particularly savoury
flavour. This invention — the triumph of modern gastronomy —
dates as far back as the days of Augustus and Varro ; indeed, two
persons of consular dignity disputed the honour of being its
originator.
In order to fatten Geese in this way, an abundant supply of
food is administered, at the same time depriving them of light and
exercise. This food consists of balls made up of maize and wheat,
with which the poor creatures are crammed three times a day.
In some countries they force whole grains of maize down their
throats. At the end of about four or five weeks the fattening
process is perfect. This is at all events considered to be the case
when the wretched Palmipede exhibits signs of suffocation. This
is certainly a cruel method of feeding ; nevertheless, it is only
by this plan that the delicious fat and plump livers so much
appreciated by epicures can be obtained. The liver undergoes an
alteration which in the end must prove fatal to the bird ; in fact,
it assumes enormous development ; and the epicures, who hold it
in such high favour, regard as a dainty this diseased liver !
The introduction of the Turkey has led to the culture of the
Goose being more neglected in Europe ; nevertheless, the latter
bird is a source of prosperity at the present day in many parts
of France, and in many a rural district in England. In
268 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
ancient times there was no entertainment or family festival
without the traditional Goose smoking on the board. In England
the Goose is still considered a festival bird. A custom intimately
associated with their national history still dictates that every true
Englishman should partake of Goose on Michaelmas Day.
The flesh, and especially the fat of the Goose, keeps perfectly when
salted down. In parts of the world, in this state it is much employed
for culinary purposes. The enormous succulent livers which are
found in these precious birds after their forcible fattening are used
to make the delicious Strasbourg pies. Those of Nerae, as well as
those of Toulouse, are made more of Ducks' livers, for the latter
birds can be fattened in very nearly the same way as the Goose.
The down and feathers of Geese are objects of considerable
trade. Before the invention of steel pens, the only implement
that was used for writing was the quill plucked from the
wing of the Goose. Great care was necessary in dressing them.
This was done by passing the barrel of the quill through hot
ashes, or plunging it into boiling water, with other clarifying
processes.
From under the neck, the wings, and the breast of the birds,
the down is taken. This operation takes place every two months,
from March until autumn.
Geese are certainly not so stupid as they are usually said to be.
The following facts will perhaps enable us to appreciate the moral
qualities which distinguish them : —
In Scotland a Goose became so attached to its master, that it
followed him about everywhere, just like a dog. One day this
gentleman, after mixing with the crowd which was moving about
the town he resided in, went into a barber's shop to get shaved.
The faithful bird had followed him, and waited at the door until
his master came out, in order to attend him in his subsequent
movements, and then accompanied him back to his home. This
intelligent creature could recognise its master's voice, although
clothed in any disguise.
In Germany a Gander was in the habit of leading an old blind
woman to church every Sunday. It guided her by the skirt of her
dress, always conducting her to the seat in the church which she
usually occupied. Afterwards it returned into the churchyard to
THE WHITE-FACED BEBNICLE GOOSE. 269
browse upon the grass. When the service was over, it waited, just
like a faithful dog, to take charge of its mistress. One day, when
the minister called upon her and found her from home, he
expressed his astonishment that the poor blind woman should
venture out alone. "Ah, sir," replied her daughter, "we have
no fears about her — the Gander is with her." Our blind people
would make their fortune if they could replace their traditional
dog by a guide of this novel kind.
The Bernicle, or Tree Geese, are so called from a foolish tradition
of the Middle Ages of their being produced from the barnacle shell
which attaches itself to ships' bottoms and timber floating in the
sea. They differ from the true Geese in having the head smaller,
the bill shorter and more conical, the breast-feathers much larger,
and in the predominance of black in their plumage, bills, and feet.
The plumage is full, very soft, and close. There are several species
of Bemicla, which some recent writers have formed into a genus
under that somewhat inappropriate name, the best-known species
being the White-faced or Bernicle Goose, Anser leucopsis, Tem-
minck, and the Black- faced or Brent Goose, Anser bernicla, of the
same author.
THE WHITE-FRONTED BERNICLE GOOSE.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Bernicle Goose: Selby, Montagu. White-faced
Bernicle Goose : McGiUivray. Common Bernicle : Jenyns. Clukis :
Selby.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas lernida : Linn. Anas erythropus : Latham.
Anser leucopsis : Temminck, Jenyns. Anser bernicla : Selby. Bernicla
leucopsis : Bonaparte, McGillivray.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Oie lernache.
In its winter plumage this is a beautiful Goose, much smaller
than those just described, but with a full body, long neck, and a
small, oblong, and compressed head, with soft glossy plumage well
blended on the head, neck, and breast. It occurs in considerable
flocks in the Outer Hebrides, where it arrives in October, and
remains till April. A large flock of these birds sitting lightly on
the water, advancing with elevated necks, presents a very beautiful
spectacle. JSTor are they less handsome on the wing as they shoot
through the air, now arranged in long undulating ranks, at one
time extending in the direct line of their flight, at another flying
270
DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
obliquely, or at right angles to it, and again mingling altogether
under some unexplained impulse. Their voice, as it proceeds from
a large flock at some distance off, is clear and shrill, producing a
pleasant harmony.
The Brent Goose, or Black-faced Bernicle, is much smaller than
the Anser leucopsis, and easily distinguished from it by the face
and head being entirely black. They seem to have visited our
shores in great numbers in former years. In the years 1739-40
these birds were so abundant on the French coast that the people
rose en masse to destroy them, and so numerous on the Kentish
coast that many were taken in a starving condition. Mr.
Fig. 98.— White-fronted Bernicle Goose (Anser erythropus).
McGillivray met with large flocks of them in Cromarty Bay,
Beauley Firth, and Montrose Basin. Mr. Selby observed them as
constant visitors on the shallow waters between Holy Island and
the mainland, and other parts of the coast.
THE SWAN (Cygnus).
The Swan, which belongs to the family of Lamellirostral Pal-
mipedes, has been an object of admiration in all ages for its
noble and elegant proportions, the graceful curvature of its neck,
its small and shapely oval head, its beak so prominent at the
base, the gracefully-swelling rotundity of its body, its plumage
THE SWAN.
271
so abundant in down, and its colour of purest white of the species
with which we are most familiar, and is the finest and largest of all
our aquatic birds. On the water it is a picture of elegant ease ; it
swims apparently without effort, and with great rapidity ; on the
wing it rises to a great height, but on shore its walk is slow and
cumbersome. It is found in Europe, Asia, and America ; and in
Australia the Black Swan, for ages the ram avis of the poets, is
very abundant. In the wild state it lives on the lakes, rivers,
Fig. 99.— Swans (Cygnus olor).
and sea-coasts of both hemispheres, feeding on such seeds, leaves,
roots, water-insects, frogs, and worms as come in its way. In its
domestic state it is the charm and ornament of our lakes and
rivers ; but, except in some few instances, it is only kept for show,
being jealous and cruel in disposition, and incapable of being
tamed.
The ancients thought the voice of the Swan musical and har-
monious, and its gracefully- rounded form and stately neck inspired
many poets, who have described it as the bird of gods and god-
272 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
desses. The poetical imagination of the Greeks, in short, asso-
ciated their most agreeahle ideas with its name. It was one of
their pleasing fictions that in dying and breathing out its last sigh,
the Swan celebrated its death by a melodious song ; or, as Eloy
Johanneau has it —
" Le Cygne, a la fin de la vie,
Fait entendre un touchant accord,
Et d'une voix affaiblie
Chante lui-meme en mort."
Buffon himself has drawn the portraiture of this bird in words
more poetical than true : — " The Swan/' he says, " reigns over the
water by every claim which can constitute an empire of peace,
grandeur, majesty, and kindness. . . . He lives more in the
character of a friend than a monarch amid the numerous tribes of
aquatic birds, all of which seem willingly to place themselves
under his rule."
The great naturalist certainly allowed himself to be led away
by his enthusiasm, and perhaps by his classic recollections ; for
the Swan, although elegant and majestic in form, and graceful in
its movements on the water, is clumsy and awkward when on
land ; it is, besides, spiteful and quarrelsome. It attacks every
animal, and even man. The Swans in the gardens of the
Luxembourg at Paris had taken an aversion to all the keepers,
and whenever they saw one, they all came out of the water in order
to pick a quarrel with him.
The principal strength of the Swan does not lie in its beak, but
in its wings — a most effective offensive weapon, of which it takes
every advantage. In spite of its bad qualities, however, the Swan is
the most ornamental of all our aquatic birds. Its beak is flesh
colour, edged with black, and its plumage white as snow.
Its song, or rather its cry, is indeed far from being harmonious.
It is a dull and harsh sibilation, not at all agreeable to listen to.
Some of the poets, however, have not believed the fable which
attributes to these birds a sonorous and melodious voice. Virgil
perfectly well knew how hoarse the note of the Swan really
was —
" Dant sonitum rauci per stagna loquacia cycni."
Lucretius also says —
" Paryus cycni canor."
THE WHOOPING SWAN. 273
THE WHOOPING SWAN.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Whistling Swan : Montagu, Selby, Jenyns. Whoop-
ing Swan : McGillivray. Wild Swan : Hooper, Elk.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Anas cygnus ferus : Linn. Anas vygnus : Latham,
Temminck. Cygnus ferus : Selby, Jenyns. Cygnus musicus : Bonaparte,
McGillivray.
FRENCH SYNONYMS. — Cygne d lee jaune : Temminck. Cygne sauvage
of authors.
This is, in all probability, the Swan so celebrated among the
ancients. It is found in the northern regions of Europe and Asia ;
residing in summer within the Arctic circle, and migrating south-
wards and visiting Holland, France, and the British Islands in
winter, although occasionally breeding in the north of Scotland.
Southward, it extends to Barbary and Egypt ; eastward, it wan-
ders as far as Japan. The note of the Wild Swan is a sort
of whoop, uttered several times in succession — a hoarse, hard, and
rather discordant cry — and this has given it the name we have
adopted ; for it is difficult to imagine the grounds on which the
Prince of Canino gave it the name of Cygnus musicus.
The peculiar organic distinction of the Swan is the great length
of the neck, consisting of twenty- three vertebrae, and the cavity in
the sternum for the reception of the trachea, which is admirably
described by Mr. Yarrell as descending the passage between the two
branches of the forked bone called the merrythought to a level
with the keel of the breast-bone, which is double, and receives the
tube of the trachea between its two sides, which here turns upon
itself after traversing the whole length of the keel, and passes
upwards and forwards, and again backwards, till it ends in the
vertical bone where the two bronchial tubes go off, one to each
lobe of the lungs. This is the apparatus through which the cry
is produced, which is variously described as a whistle, a whoop,
or a song, according to the fancy of the writer. They fly at a
great height when on a migratory journey, and in a wedge-like
figure, uttering this note as they proceed, and when heard at a
distance it is not unmusical. Mr. McGillivray listened to a flock
of Wild Swans coming in from the Atlantic after a gale : their
T
274 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
clear, loud, and trumpet-like cries delighted him as they sped
their way in lengthened files ; but they were too far off for him to
decide whether or not they were of this species.
From six to eight eggs, of a greenish white, the female lays,
and the incubation lasts about six weeks. The cygnets are at first
covered with a grey down, and do not put on their adult plumage
until the third year. Swans care but little for concealing their
broods, as they feel confident of their power to protect them against
every enemy. They will fight even with the Eagle itself, harass-
ing it with beak and wings, until the marauder is glad to make
a more or less honourable retreat.
In the protection of their young they display extraordinary
courage. On one occasion a female Swan was sitting on the bank
of a river, when she perceived a fox swimming towards her from
the opposite bank. Thinking that she would be better able to
defend herself in her natural element, she took to the water and
went to meet the enemy which was threatening her brood. She
soon reached him, and, springing upon him with much fury, gave
him such a violent blow with her wing that the fox was disabled,
and consequently drowned.
The male Swan is equally with the female attentive to the
young brood, and watches them with a rare devotion. He carries
them about on his back, takes them under his wings to warm
them, and never abandons them while they are still young. It
is a beautiful sight to see him gliding over the water at the head
of his young flock, looking far ahead with an inquisitive eye, and
prepared to sweep away any opposing obstacle ; whilst the mother
keeps some distance behind, ready to protect the rear. How
much, too, are they to be admired as they sail majestically over
the surface of some solitary lake ! If you hide yourself behind
the thick reeds so that they have no suspicion of your presence,
you may see these noble birds bending their necks into the
most graceful curves, plunging their heads into the water, catching
it up in their bills, and scattering it behind them, the drops fall-
ing round their bodies in glittering rain; or when, beating the
water with powerful wing, stirring up a foamy wave, you may
behold them all on a sudden, they will briskly spring up and
glide majestically over the surface of the water, cleaving it
THE WHOOPING SWAN. 275
before them with, their graceful bodies as the ploughman opens a
furrow in the ground with his ploughshare.
Sometimes, however, these elegant birds engage in terrible
combats with one another, which often lead to the death of one of
the contestants. The Domestic Swan, a more civilised and well-
informed bird, does not push matters quite so far ; but Wild
Swans, which live in the regions of the North — in the lakes of
Iceland and Lapland — hold sanguinary tournaments in honour of
their fair ones. A combat between two Swans is*a duel to the death,
in which both adversaries display not only unequalled strength and
fury, but also considerable skill and perseverance. The strife will
sometimes last several days, and does not terminate until one of
the foes has succeeded in twisting his neck round that of his
enemy, and has been able to hold him down under water long
enough to drown him.
But let us turn from this warlike spectacle and admire the Swan
at the moment when, impelled by the stimulus of love, it dis-
plays all the graces with which nature has endowed it. Their
long and supple necks entwine with one another like garlands of
snow, their plumage swells up with gentle undulations, and they
display all the splendour of their beauty.
The Swan is certainly conscious of its good looks and grace, for
it is constantly busying itself either in cleansing or polishing its
feathers. Besides, it unites the useful and the ornamental, by
extirpating the weeds which stagnate at the bottom, and by
thus transforming what would be a nasty pool into a clear sheet
of water.
These birds do not afford good sport with the gun, being unap-
proachable. In Iceland and Kamtschatka, Swan-hunting takes
place during the season of moulting, because the birds are then
unable to fly. Dogs trained to this sport chase and run them
down ; the birds, being soon worn out with fatigue, are easily
killed with sticks.
The Russians have another mode of killing Swans. When the
snows melt, they allure them by means of stuffed Geese and Ducks.
The Swans dart furiously on these decoys. The sportsmen, hidden
in a hut constructed of branches of trees and heaps of snow, at
short range easily shoot them.
276
DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
The flesh of the Swan is very indifferent in flavour. Our fore-
fathers ate it, but merely from ostentation, for it was only served
up on the tables of the greatest nobles. At the present day, the
city of Norwich has a preserve for Swans, which are only eaten at
the municipal feasts, or sent as presents to distinguished indi-
viduals. In these cases, the birds being young and tenderly fed,
are by no means, if properly cooked, a dish to be despised. The
inhabitants of the frozen regions of the extreme north, even with
their imperfect system of cuisine, do not entirely disdain it ; but
the cause for this is apparently something analogous to the philo-
sophical saying, " as there are no thrushes, we eat blackbirds."
The river Thames is remarkable for the number of Swans which
live on it. The greater quantity of them belong to the Queen ; the
Fig. 100.— Black Swans (Cygnus atrutus).
others chiefly to the Vintners' and Dyers' Companies of the City 01
London ; but we never heard that these feast their guests on
the noble birds. Deputations from the companies make an
annual visit to their preserves, called Swan-hopping, or capering
— that is, catching the cygnets, and marking them in the presence
of the royal swanherd with the distinguishing brand of the society
to whom the parent bird belonged.
Two species of Swans were recognised by Linnasus ; but later
THE FRIGATE BIED. 277
naturalists, and notably the Prince of Canino, record four species
known in Europe — namely, Cygnusolor, C.immutabilis, C.musicus,
and C. Bewickii — besides the American species, namely, C. ame-
ricanus and C. buccinator. There is another species, peculiar to
Australia, which is entirely black : efforts have been made suc-
cessfully to naturalise it in Europe.
THE BLACK SWAN (Cygnus atratus).
SYNONYMS. — Anas Plutonia : Shaw. Chenopis : Wagler.
We here give a representation (Fig. 100) of the Black Swan
of Australia. This bird, which has now become so common
in our ornamental waters, in some respects resembles the White
species ; it is all black, except a few of the secondary feathers,
which are white. In a state of nature, the Black Swans are gene-
rally seen in flocks of eight or nine floating on lakes. When
disturbed, they fly in single file, and are so shy that it is very
dim cult to get within gunshot when in captivity. Their note is
jess harsh than that of the Whooping Swan.
THE FRIGATE BIRD (Fregata, Ray).
ENGLISH SYNONYM. — Man-of-war Bird : Sloane.
LATIN SYNONYM. — Tachypetes : Vieillot.
The Frigate Bird is principally characterised by a strong,
robust, trenchant bill, longer than the head, with mandibles
hooked at the point ; nostrils linear ; orbits naked ; throat dilat-
able ; the front of the neck bare of feathers ; wings very long
and narrow, first two feathers longest ; tail lengthy and forked ;
feet short ; toes united by a membrane deeply notched.
The Frigate Bird spreads its wings to the extent of three yards ;
its power of flight is, therefore, very great. It inhabits the
tropical seas of both the Old and New World, and navigators
assure us that they have met with it two or three hundred
leagues from any shore. When a hurricane arises they mount
up far above the storm, and remain in these empyrean regions
until it is again fine weather. In consequence of their immense
expansion of wing, they can sustain themselves in the air for days
together without taking or requiring rest.
278 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
Their sight is so piercing that, at a distance far beyond that
which would render them invisible to us, they can perceive the
flights of Exocceti, or Flying Fish. From their elevated situa-
tion, they dart down upon their winged prey, which has relin-
quished its native element ; and, keeping their neck and feet in
a horizontal position, and thus grazing the waves, they grasp
their victim, which little expected to meet with an enemy in the
element which it sought for safety. It is no unusual thing for it
to rob the Gannet of the fish which it has just caught : the unfor-
tunate bird thus acts as purveyor to this sea-robber.
The Frigate Bird is of such a combative temperament, and has
such an unbounded confidence in its strength, that it is not afraid
to defy even man. It has been known to dash at a sailor, and to
snatch at the fish which he held in his hand. M. de Kerhoent,
a French navigator, relates that, during a residence at the Island
of Ascension, a perfect cloud of Frigate Birds surrounded his
crew. They hovered about, a few feet above the coppers of the
open-air kitchen, in order to carry off the meat, without being
intimidated in the least by the presence of his followers. Some of
them approached so near that M. de Kerhoent knocked down
one of the impudent intruders with a blow of his stick.
When these birds have thoroughly feasted on fish, or any other
of the marine creatures which constitute their food, they take
flight landwards, and proceed to perch upon a tree, in order to
digest their food in peace.
They assemble in large flocks on the islands where they are
accustomed to breed. In the month of May they begin to repair
their old, or construct new nests. They pluck off small dry branches
with their beaks, and with these pieces of stick crossed and re-
crossed a foundation is formed. These nests are suspended from
trees which hang over the water, or are placed on rocks in desert
islands, overhanging the sea ; in them they lay two or three
eggs, said to be of a carnation colour dotted with crimson.
These birds are common in the Brazils, in the Island of Ascen-
sion, at Timor, the Ladrone Islands, and the Moluccas : in fact,
they are to be found in most tropical countries. Navigators, struck
with the lightness of their flight and their slender shape, have given
them the name they bear, thus comparing them with the fleetest
THE TEOPIC BIRD. 279
and most elegant of men-of-war. Sir Hans Sloane, who saw
numbers of them at Jamaica, describes them under the name of
Man-of-War Birds. "They fly," he says, "like Kites, look
black, are very large-winged in proportion to their size, and
they fight with Sea Gulls for their prey." They are eminently
raptorial. Ray speaks of their eagle eye, vulturine claws, and
cat-like gliding movements, their immense extent of wing, and
their dashing swoop.
The Palmipede we are about to notice received from Linnaeus
the mythological name of Phaeton, in allusion to the son of Apollo
and Clymene, who is said to have made an audacious attempt to
drive the chariot of the Sun.
PELICANS.
The Pelicanid<%, which Mr. Gray makes his sixth and last family
of Palmipedes, includes Cuvier's Totipalmes, or birds having the
hind-toe united to the others by a single membrane. This extensive
family comprehends the Tropic Birds (Phaeton), the Anhingas
(P lotus), the Boobies (Sula), the Cormorants (Phalacrocorax), and
the Pelicans (Pelicanus).
The group comprehends those birds which have the base of the
bill denuded of feathers, the nostrils mere slots, in which the opening
is scarcely perceptible ; the skin of the throat more or less capable
of distension ; the tongue small. Some of the group are large and
heavy birds, but they are all gifted with powerful wings ; they
are, at the same time, good swimmers.
THE TROPIC BIRD (Phaeton).
SYNONYMS. — Lepturus: Moehr. TropicolipTius : Leach. Tropic Bird: Sloane,.
Catesby, and others.
These birds are well known to navigators as the harbingers
which foretell the approach to the Tropics. They are distinguished
by two long, slender tail-feathers, whence their French name of
Paille-en- Queue. They are gifted with great length of wing,
which, with their feeble feet, proclaims them formed especially
for flight. They are accordingly swift and untiring on the wing,
h eedlessly going far out to sea ; forming, as Lesson remarks, a
280 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
well-defined and purely geographical group, their homes being
in rocky islands, to which they usually return every night.
Nevertheless, he frequently met with them in sea- tracks far from
any land, possibly they having been swept, by the sudden squalls
and hurricanes so frequent in equatorial seas, beyond their natural
limits.
The Common Tropic Bird, Phaeton cetkereus, seems to confine
itself, according to this writer, to the Atlantic Ocean, stopping on
the confines of the Indian Ocean ; the other species, Phaeton
PhoenicuruS) seeming to belong further eastward, both meeting
in nearly equal numbers at the Mauritius and other islands of
the same group. Their flight is described as calm, quiet, and
Fig. 101.— Tropic Bird (Phaeton atthereus, Linn.).
composed of frequent strokes of the wing, interrupted by sudden
falls. The bird is about the size of a Partridge, with red bill
and markings under the lower mandible ; in general appearance it
resembles the Gulls, but has longer and more powerful wings ; the
legs and feet are vermilion red, the latter webbed ; the tail has
two long, narrow feathers. One of their breeding-places is the
Bermudas, where the high rocks which surround the island are
a protection from the attacks of the fowler. P. Phcenicurus is a
larger bird, being thirteen inches from the bill to the root of the
tail; the long tail-feathers being red of the deepest hue.
THE DARTER. 281
The appearance of this bird announces, as we have said, that
the navigators have entered the torrid zone, as this bird rarely
goes beyond the limits of this region. It sometimes, however,
pushes out to sea to a distance of a hundred leagues. When they
are fatigued, aided by their large webbed feet, they rest upon the
waves. Like many other ocean birds, their peculiar organisation
prevents them settling from choice on the ground. They are,
therefore, compelled to skim continually over the water, in which
they feed upon the fish and mollusks, which form their principal
food. When they are on the shore, the immense spread of their
wings induces them to choose some elevated spot for a perch, such
as the top of a tree or the summit of a rock. Worn out by
fatigue, if they settle on the water, they are forced to wait until
they are lifted up on the crest of a wave before they can again
take flight. Their mode of flying is rather curious, for they com-
municate to their wings a kind of quivering motion, as if overcome
by exhaustion.
These birds seek some remote and solitary islet for the purpose
of breeding. They build their nests in holes in lofty trees, or in
the clefts of rocks, but always in some position difficult of access.
They lay two or three eggs. The young ones, when just hatched,
owing to their dazzling- coloured down, bear a considerable
resemblance to powder-puffs.
There are three species of the Phaeton — the Red- tailed Phaeton
(Phaeton Phcenicurus), with white plumage, shaded with a light
rose-coloured tint, having the two long feathers of the tail of a
red hue. It inhabits the seas of India and Africa, Madagascar,
the Isle of France, and the Pacific Ocean. The White-tailed
Phaeton {Phaeton aether eus), with white plumage, with the two
long feathers in the tail white. It is a native of the Atlantic Ocean.
The Yellow-beaked Phaeton (Phaeton Jlavirostris) is distinguished
by the colour of its beak. It is a native of the islands of Bourbon
and Mauritius.
THE DARTER (Anhinga).
jinn., Klein, Scopoli. AT
tarter of English and Americj
The Darter (Fig. 102) has a straight and pointed bill, with
SYNONYMS. — Plotus : Linn., Klein, Scopoli. Anhinga: Brisson, Tein-
minck. Darter of English and American writers.
282
DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
indentations at the point, turned in a backward direction. Its
head is slender and cylindrical, and forms the termination of a
slim and excessively long neck, which gives it much the resem-
blance of a serpent grafted on a bird. In all its movements this
neck is the counterpart of the reptile, and imitates its undula-
tions ; therefore, in the United States it has received the name of
the " Serpent-Bird/' They are untiring swimmers and excellent
divers. When any danger threatens them, they dive completely
under water, and do not reappear until they have found some
tufts of reeds in which to hide, even should the distance be as
Fig. 102.— Darter (Anhinga, Levaillant).
much as one thousand feet from the spot where it disappeared.
These birds are of a wild and suspicious nature, confining them-
selves to solitary places. They perch upon trees which grow by
the sides of a pool or river, in order to dart upon any unfortunate
fish which comes within their reach, which they seize with ex-
traordinary address, swallowing it whole if not too large. If
THE GANNET. 283
they cannot manage this, they carry it to a rock, where they dis-
member it with their beak and claws.
The Anhinga builds its nest on the topmost branches of trees,
constructing it of dried twigs and reeds, and lining it inside with
a thick layer of down.
Only two species of the Anhinga are known : the Anhinga
(Plotus) Levaillantii, a native of Africa, the plumage of which is
black from the breast to the tail ; and the Black-bellied Darter
(Plotus melanogaster], an American species.
Levaillant, in his usual lively manner, relates that he was
induced to visit a rich proprietor in the Canton of the Twenty-four
Rivers by a tempting description he received of two extraordinary
birds which haunted the vicinity. They frequented a particular
tree, and baffled him more than once by their skill ; but at length
he got within shot, and killed both of them right and left. He
describes them as diving for fish. When they caught a small
one it was swallowed ; when a large one, it was carried to a rock
or the trunk of a tree, when the bird, fixing it beneath its feet,
picked it to pieces with its bill. Though the water is its favourite
element, it is on trees and rocks, he tells us, that it establishes its
nest and brings up its young, taking care to place the nest so that
the young may be precipitated into the water as soon as they are
able to swim, or when the safety of the family requires it.
THE GANNET (Sula).
SYNONYMS.— Solan Goose, Booby ; Fou de Bassan of the French.
The Gannet is a massively-made bird, not of graceful shape ;
it is larger than a Duck, and has white plumage.
They have obtained the name of " Booby " from the supposed
stupidity which, rightly or wrongly, is attributed to them ; for if
a man finds one of these birds standing in his way, the creature
offers no resistance, but will allow itself to be killed rather than
abandon its position. The Frigate Bird, with audacious rapacity,
when it observes the Gannet catch a fish, swoops down upon it
and compels it to disgorge its prey. Their somewhat imperfect
organisation explains this habit of non-resistance. The shortness
of their legs and the excessive length of their wings prevent them
284
DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
escaping from their enemies when on shore, nor have they suffi-
cient power of flight to avoid them in the air. But when
they are aloft they soar wonderfully, with their necks stretched
out, the tail expanded, and the wings almost motionless. Although
they are strong on the wing, they do not venture very far from
shore, consequently they are never met with more than twenty
leagues at sea. Their appearance, therefore, is considered by
Fig. 103.-Gannet (Sula Bassari).
the mariner as an indication of the proximity of land. In their
flight they frequently skim over the surface of the sea, catching
such fish as swim near the top. The skin of their throat
is so readily distended that they can swallow their prey whole.
The Gannet is also an excellent diver, for it is able to remain
more than a minute under water when in pursuit of a favourite
prey.
These birds are found in every part of the globe, giving the
preference, however, to tropical countries ; still they are plentiful
in the Hebrides, in Norway, Scotland, and are even found as far
THE CORMORANT. 285
north as Kamtschatka and the Gulf of Bothnia, according to
Acerbi. But when residents of high latitudes, they migrate
southward on the approach of cold weather. In the winter
season they frequent the coast of Cornwall, and are found, in
fact, in every part of the British and Irish Channel, generally
keeping out at sea. They are constant attendants on the large
quantities of herrings and pilchards that frequent our coast late
in autumn.
This bird takes its prey by darting down on it with great
velocity ; yet it does not appear to dive — swimming, it floats
upon the water with the buoyancy of a gull, not submerged, as
is the case with the Shag and Cormorant.
Three species of them are known : the Solan Goose, or Gannet
(Sula Hassan), which is very common on the Bass Rock, a small
islet in the Firth of Forth, and on the northern islands — this is
the only European species; the Common Gannet (Sula dactylatra),
vulgarly called " Mouche de Yelours " — this is smaller than the
preceding, and is found in the Island of Ascension ; the Brown
Gannet (Sulafusca), which inhabits South America.
THE CORMORANT (Phalacrocorax).
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Cormorant: Willoughby, Albin, Montagu. Great
Cormorant : Bewick, Tarrell. Crested Cormorant : Bewick. Cormorant :
Shaw, Latham, Lewin, Walcot, Pultney. Provincial : Great Black Cor-
vorant, Cole Goose, Skart, Green Cormorant, Norie.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Carlo carboranus: Meyer. Pelicanus carlo: Linn.,
Latham, Gwellin. Corvus aquaticus : Ray, Willoughby. Phalacrocorax :
Brisson, Temminck, Cuvier, Bonaparte. Halicus : Illiger. Hydrocorax :
Vieillot.
The Cormorant is distinguished by a bill straight and com-
pressed, the upper mandible curving downwards, and forming a
hook at the termination ; lower mandible inserted in a small mem-
brane extending under the throat ; feet strong, short ; toes three
before and one behind, united by a membrane ; nail of the middle
toe serrated ; wings moderate, the first quill longer than the
second, the whole being blackish ; the upper part of the back
and wings ashy brown, or bronzed in the middle, bordered by
a large band of glossy greenish black.
286 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
The Common Cormorant (Fig. 104) has a massive and rather
awkward body, feet short and drawn back to the abdomen, the
head flattened and small, the guttural pouch very small. Their
bulk varies, according to the species, from the size of a Goose to
that of a Teal. On the south coast of England they are large
birds, Pennant having weighed one which exceeded seven pounds,
and measured three feet four inches. Their blackish plumage has
given the idea of some resemblance existing between them and the
Crow ; hence their name, " Cormorant/' from Corvus varans, which
signifies a voracious Crow.
These birds have a wide geographical distribution, being found
Fig. 104.— Cormorant (Plialacrocorax carbo, Gould).
in all parts of the globe, and always on the sea-coast or at the
mouths of rivers. They are excellent swimmers and clever divers,
pursuing with extraordinary rapidity the fish on which they feed.
The Cormorant swallows its prey head first ; and if it happens
to catch it by the wrong end, it will throw it up in the air, and
seize it again in its bill as it descends in the proper position.
"When it has caught an eel, a good half-hour sometimes elapses
before it can succeed in swallowing it. It may be seen making the
most violent efforts to swallow its prey ; and just at the moment
when one would think that the slippery morsel was successfully
absorbed, the fish suddenly reappears again from the depths of
THE COEMOEANT. 287
its living sepulchre, still struggling to escape ; the Cormorant
re-swallows it again ; the eel still resists, and increases its efforts
to escape ; worn out at last by its prolonged and useless efforts, the
victim is finally compelled to resign itself to its fate.
The appetite of the Cormorant is insatiable. The havoc which
it commits in rivers is very great, for one day's consumption
frequently amounts to six or eight pounds of fish : these it pursues
principally under water, for it is an expert diver, and most suc-
cessful in its search for its prey. In consequence of the skill
displayed by the Cormorant in fishing, and the ease with which
it is tamed, it is reared in a semi-domestic state in certain parts
of Eastern Asia. The Chinese and Japanese are the nations
who best know how to utilise the habits of these birds. When
thus used a ring is placed round their necks to prevent them
swallowing their prey, before turning them loose in waters
which abound with the finny tribes. The Cormorants, trained
to obey their master's voice, and balked in their attempts
to swallow by the ring round the neck, bring to their owner
all fish they capture. Sir George Stanton, in his embassy to
China, having reached Len-tze, famed for its breed of these
birds, found them to be a species somewhat resembling the Com-
mon Cormorant, described by Dr. Shaw as a Brown Cormorant
with white throat, the body whitish beneath, spotted with
brown ; the tail rounded ; irides blue, and bill yellow ; which he
named Phalacrocorax sinensis. "On a large lake," Sir George
says, " close to this part of the canal, and to the eastward
of it, are thousands of small boats and rafts built entirely for this
species of fishery. On each boat or raft are ten or a dozen birds,
which, at a signal from the owner, plunge into the water ; and
it is astonishing to see the enormous size of fish with which
they return. They appeared to be so well trained that it did
not require either ring or cord round their necks to prevent
them swallowing their prey, except when they received the per-
mission of their master to do so, as an encouragement for their
labours."
The dexterity with which the Cormorant seizes its prey is such
that if a dead fish is thrown into the water from a distance, the bird
will dive immediately, pursuing its course in a direct line to the
288 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
spot, never failing to secure it, even before it reaches to the
bottom. On shore the Cormorant is a dull, heavy bird, and it is
only in the water, and especially while fishing, that it appears to
advantage. It floats so low in the water, and swims and dives
so quickly, that it seldom fails to capture its prey. Now on
the surface, next moment below, onward it plunges as if making
an attack ; then rising suddenly in some unexpected spot after a
lengthened dive, it is certain to have the unfortunate fish in
its bill.
Another peculiarity which belongs to this species is common
with many other aquatic birds — that of violently beating the water
with its wings without moving from the spot, followed by a vigorous
shaking of the whole body, with the feathers ruffled, and, at the
same time, covering itself with water. After repeating this
several times with small intervals of rest, it will retire to an
elevated place on shore, where it will remain with outspread wings
until dry.
The flight of these birds is rapid and lasting ; but they are as
heavy and awkward when on land as they are nimble and active
in the water. Their nature being unsuspicious and trustful, they
can be easily approached, particularly when resting after their
fishing exertions.
The Cormorant is widely diffused both in the Old and New
World. It is a migratory bird, but is seen on our coast at all
seasons. It breeds among rocks on the coast, selecting crags and
inaccessible places, which sometimes are covered with their nests :
these are composed of sticks and sea- weed, in which the female
deposits her eggs, generally three in number, and which are of a
whitish colour, weighing about two ounces.
In Egypt four species of Cormorants are known. The Great
Cormorant ( Carbo cormoranus) is the size of a Goose ; this
species is often domesticated, and is frequently met with in France.
THE GREEN CORMORANT. 289
THE GREEN CORMORANT, OR SHAG.
ENGLISH SYNONYMS.— Green Cormorant: McGillivray, Morris, Selby.
Shag: Montagu, Willoughby, McGillivray, Latham, Flemming. Crested
Cormorant : Morris. Crested Shag : Montagu, Selby, Jenyns.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Pelicanus graculus : Linn., Latham, Montagu, Bewick.
Phalacrocorax graculus: Cuvier, Brisson, Rennies, Montagu, McGilli-
vray, Stephens, Flemming. Phalacrocorax cristatus: Meyer, Temminck.
FRENCH SYNONYMS. — Cormoran Larcup : Temminck. Petit Cormoran, or
Nigaud : Buffon. Cormoran Nigaud : Figuier.
LOCAL SYNONYMS.— Black Cormorant, Crested Cormorant, Shag, Scart,
Scarer, Green Scout, and the Booby Cormorant.
This species is in weight about four pounds ; the bill is dusky,
and about four inches in length ; a bare yellow skin is situated
along the sides of the mouth and chin, the latter speckled with
black. The whole bird appears black at a little distance., but on
nearer examination, the head, neck, breast, and rump are of a
glossy green. The feathers of the upper part of the back, scapu-
lars, and wing coverts are pointed, and beautifully glossed with
purple, violet, and green, each feather being edged with a velvety
black ; the under part of the body is less glossed with green ; the
legs are dusky black ; middle claw serrated.
The female weighs over three pounds ; the upper part of her
body is dark, not so densely glossed as in the male ; but the margin
of the feathers of the scapulars and wing coverts is black, the
under part dusky, with a mixture of grey.
Such is Colonel Montagu's description of a pair shot from the
nest, but they vary in plumage and colour. In habit the Shag
is strictly a salt-water bird, never visiting fresh water, breed-
ing on our rocky coasts, where it builds a nest of stick and sea-
weed. They resort to the maritime caves of the Hebrides in such
vast numbers that they literally cover the sea to a considerable
extent when on their passage from the caves of Liuir and Toehead to
their fishing- grounds in the sound. Mr. McGillivray has counted
a hundred and five in one flock. This picture Mr. McGillivray
makes the text for one of his most delightful descriptions : —
" There is a large cave," he says, " on the west coast of Harris,
celebrated for the number of Shags which reside on it, and so lofty
that a boat can enter it to a considerable distance with lowering the
u
290 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
masts. When we appear off the mouth of the cave a consider-
able number appear conspicuously perched on the little shelving
rocks and projections, their dusky figures strongly relieved by the
whitened surface of the rocks. Some of them fly overhead as we
approach, but more drop into the water like a stone. On looking
down we see them rapidly winding their way under the boat,
swimming with outspread wings, and not at all in the manner
represented by some writers, who say that it propels itself entirely
under water by the feet and tail. Glancing aloft, we see many
Black Guillemots in the clefts ; and above them is the eyrie of
the White-tailed Eagle. But our business is with the Shags,
which are now seen writhing their long necks as they gaze upon
us. Presently a shot is fired, and another ; the dead birds drop
on the water, the living plunge headlong into it, many advance
on the wing, but, being frightened by the upraised oars, dart into
the water.
" Advancing a little, we find that many still remain on the
rocks ; of these we shoot some more. Presently some of those
which had escaped return, and perch ; and we continue shooting
until we have obtained as many as we desire. After all the
uproar we have created, several still remain standing near their
nests, loath to quit them. Although most of the nests are out of
reach, some are accessible. We find them generally bulky, some-
times very scanty, formed of fuci, twigs, heath, and grass rudely
put together, made flat, or with a shallow cavity, containing two,
frequently three, sometimes four eggs, never more."
This bird has black plumage, as we have seen, is smaller than
the one preceding, and inhabits the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
A bird nearly resembling this (Phalacrocorax Desmarestii) is
described by Temminck and figured by Gould, a species which
has been observed in Corsica, and is of a blackish green. Montagu
satisfied himself that the Crested Cormorant was only a seasonal
variety of the Common Cormorant ; and probably others of the
species described, if carefully examined, would prove to be the
same. McGillivray is of opinion, however, if Mr. Gould's figure
is correct, the species must be distinct.
THE PELICAN. 291
PELICANID^E.
A comprehensive group of aquatic birds presenting a uniformity
of structure quite apparent in the skeleton, and especially in the
digestive organs, of which the Pelican is the type. They are
mostly birds of large size, but of slender, elongated body, long
neck, and head generally of moderate size. The bill is long, some-
times slender, at other times rather stout and straight ; the upper
mandible with the ridge separated by grooves, and terminated in
a narrow, decurved, and pointed nail, or claw ; the lower mandible
elastic and extensible. The plumage is soft and blending, on the
back and wings compact and imbricated ; wings long, tail of
moderate length and narrow.
The habits of the group vary considerably. Cormorants pursue
their prey much in the same manner as Mergansers and Loons ;
the Anhingas are strictly terrinatorial ; the Pelicans combine the
habits of both. The Gannets fly about in quest of food, plunging
upon it from on high. The Frigate Birds range over the seas with
unrivalled power of flight, and the Tropic Birds resemble in pro-
gression the Terns. The family comprises —
1. Pelicans.
2. Cormorants.
3. Gannets.
4. Phaetons.
5. Anhingas.
The Pelican (Fig. 105) has the bill long, straight, rather broad,
and very much depressed ; upper mandible flattened, terminating
in a hooked tip much bent and compressed ; lower mandible formed
of two bony branches united at the point, from which a mem-
branous naked skin is suspended, forming a purse, which can be
distended into a voluminous bag. The Pelicans are large, heavy
aquatic birds, with great extent of wing, and are excellent swim-
mers ; their haunts are estuaries, the sea-coast, and the banks of
rivers, lakes, and marshes. In its habitat, whenever a fish betrays
its presence by leaping or flashing its glittering scales in the
sun, the Pelican will be seen sailing towards it.
This bird has an appetite so insatiable, and a stomach so capacious,
292 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
that, in one day's fishing, it devours as much fish as would satisfy
six men. The Egyptians have nicknamed it the " River Camel/'
because it can imbibe at once more than twenty pints of water.
Certainly it only makes two meals a day ; but, oh ! what meals
they are !
Pelicans often travel in considerable flocks, visiting the mouths
of rivers or favourite retreats on the sea- coast. When they
have made choice of a suitable place, they arrange themselves
in a wide circle, and begin to beat the water with extended wing,
Fig. 105.— The Crested Pelican (P. onocrotalus, var. Orientalis, Linn.).
so as to drive the fish before them, gradually diminishing the circle
as they approach the shore or some inlet on the coast. In this
manner they get all the fish together into a small space, when the
common feast begins. After gorging themselves they retire to
the shore, where the processes of digestion follow. Some rest
with the neck over the back ; others busily dress and smooth
their plumage, waiting patiently until returning appetite invites
all to fresh exertions. When thus quiescent, occasionally one of
these birds empties his well-lined pouch, and spreads in front of
him all the fish that it contains, in order to feed upon them at
leisure.
THE PELICAN. 293
This guttural pouch, which plays so important a part in the
Pelican's life, is composed of two skins, the outer one being a
prolongation of the skin, of the neck ; the inner one is contiguous
to the coating of the oesophagus. The tongue is small : a delicate
gizzard forms one large sac with the other stomachs.
In spite of its great size, the Pelican flies easily and to con-
siderable distances. It is no diver, but will occasionally dash
down on fish from a considerable height, and with such velocity
that it becomes submerged ; but its buoyancy instantly brings
it to the surface again. It perches on trees, but seems to prefer
rocks. When it builds a nest, it is generally formed of coarse
reedy grass, lined with softer material, placed in the cleft of dry
rocks near the water. Here the female deposits two, three, four,
sometimes five white eggs, but most frequently only two. They
are occasionally satisfied with placing their eggs in an indentation
in the ground which they have roughly lined with blades of
grass.
After an incubation lasting from forty to forty-five days, the
young ones, covered with a greyish down, are hatched. The female
feeds them : she presses the hooked red point of the mandible against
her breast, which causes her to disgorge the fish it contains into
the bills of the young ones, the male performing the same opera-
tion on himself for the benefit of his partner. This is probably
the fact that has given origin to the absurd fable that the female
Pelican is in the habit of piercing her breast in order to nourish
her young with her maternal blood. The young birds are easily
tamed. It is even asserted that they are susceptible of education,
and that, like the young Cormorants, they can be taught to fish
for their masters.
The Pelican is more common in tropical regions than in tem-
perate climates. They are very numerous in Africa, Siam, Mada-
gascar, the Sunda Isles, the Philippines, Manilla, and in the
Western Hemisphere they abound from the Antilles to the
northern temperate part of the South American continent. The
true Pelicans are large birds with powerful wings, and are
excellent swimmers. The pouch has extraordinary elasticity, and
is capable of containing a number of fish either for its own con-
sumption or the nourishment of its young. It haunts the
294 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
neighbourhood of rivers and lakes and the sea-coast, being rarely
seen more than twenty leagues from the land. Levaillant
describes one of those wonderful ornithological scenes which only
occur in uninhabited regions. At the entrance of Saldanha Bay,
on the south-west coast of Africa, after wading through the surf
and clambering up the rocks, " all of a sudden there arose from
the surface of the Island of Dassen-Eyland an impenetrable
cloud, which formed, at the distance of forty feet above our heads,
an immense canopy, composed of birds of almost every kind of
water-fowl — Cormorants, Sea Gulls, Sea Swallows, Pelicans, and I
believe the whole winged tribes of this part of Africa were here
assembled. Their voices, harsh and discordant, formed a noise
so unmusical that I was every moment compelled to cover my
head in order to relieve my ears. The alarm we created was so
much the more general, inasmuch as the birds disturbed were
chiefly sitting females. They had nests, eggs, and young to
defend." In this scene the Pelican, from its peculiar appearance,
was of course a prominent object. The best-known species are —
1, the White Pelican; 2, the Crested Pelican; 3, the Brown
Pelican ; and 4, the Spectacled Pelican.
THE WHITE PELICAN.
ENGLISH SYNONYM.— White Pelican.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Pelicanus onocrotalus : Linn., Temminck, Selby.
P. minor : Ruppell.
FRENCH SYNONYM. — Pelican Blanc : Temminck.
The White Pelican (Pelicanus onocrotalus) is as large as a Swan.
Its bill is about fifteen inches in length. Its plumage is white,
with a slightly rosy tint, which is brightest in the breeding season ;
the pinnaries and spurious wings are black ; the crest and a few
feathers on the neck yellowish.
This species received from the ancients the name of Onocrotalus,
because they fancied that they discovered a resemblance in its cry
to the braying of an ass. It is very common on the lakes and
rivers of Hungary and Southern Russia, as well as on the banks of
the Danube. If it is seen in France, it is purely accidental, as it is
a rare visitor. A wild rocky shore, where it can look down on
THE CEESTED PELICAN. 295
the sea, is the favourite haunt of the Pelican ; but it is not un-
common for it to perch on trees. The nest is formed of coarse
reedy grass, with a lining of finer quality ; it is generally made on
the ground, and is about eighteen inches in diameter, in which it
lays four, sometimes five, white eggs, but more frequently two,
slightly oblong, and alike at both ends. Fish forms its principal
food, which it captures chiefly in shallow inlets ; for it is no diver,
although on the wing it dashes upon a fish occasionally from a
great height, and that with such velocity that it submerges itself,
but its buoyancy brings it immediately to the surface. Occasionally
it flies very high, but it generally just poises itself over the
water. Notwithstanding its webbed feet, it often perches on trees
— a habit which Sonnerat describes as peculiar to the female in
the evening, after having fed and protected her young during
the day.
THE CRESTED PELICAN.
SYNONYMS. — Pdicanus crispus : Bonaparte, Temminck, Brack. Pelican :
English authors. P. onocrotalus (var. Onentalis) : Linn, Pallas, Dal-
matian. Riesen-pelikan : German authors.
The Crested Pelican, in common with the White Pelican, in-
habits the south-east of Europe and Africa, and is also found in
Hungary, Dalmatia, Greece, the Crimea, and the Ionian Islands,
as well as in Algeria, and, according to some authors, it is fre-
quently met with in China.
It has white plumage, with the exception that the ends of the
feathers of the back and wings are black. The feathers of the
head and upper part of the neck are twisted up so as to form a
tolerably large tuft or crest : hence the name it bears. Its habitat
is principally the marshes round the Black Sea, and the isles
adjacent to the mouth of the Danube.
Of their habits, travellers in these regions give very interesting
descriptions. Count Miikle states that they are plentiful on the
lakes of Missolonghi, and in the marshy grounds near Thermopylae.
In situations incredibly difficult of access, especially on floating
islands, scarcely over the water-line, they place their nests thickly
together, supported among reeds and rushes. The vicinity of
these congregated nests is rendered indescribably offensive by the
296 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS.
foul fish they have dropped about, and the disagreeable white
dung with which all the neighbourhood is covered.
" Time was," says Mr. W. H. Simpson, " and that not so long
ago, when Pelicanus crispus lived in hundreds all the year round,
from the rocky promontory of Kourtzalari, hard by the mouth of
the Achelous, on the western extremity of the lagoon, near the
island of Mtolico, up the northern arm, and on the east along the
great mud flats which mark the limits of the present delta of
Phidaris. Nowadays, however, a solitary individual may be seen
fishing here and there throughout the vicinity ; the remnant have
betaken themselves to the islands which divide the Gulf of Proco-
panisto from that of ^Etolico. Here, towards the end of February
last, the community constituted a group of seven nests — a sad fall-
ing off from the year 1838, when thirty-four nests were grouped
upon a neighbouring islet. As we approached the spot in a boat
the Pelicans left their nests, and taking to the water, sailed away
like a fleet of stately ships, leaving their preconcerted nursery in
possession of the invader. The boat grounded in two or three feet
of mud, and when the party had floundered through this, the
seven nests were found to be empty. A fisherman had plundered
them that morning, taking from each nest one egg, which we
afterwards recovered. The nests were constructed in a great
measure of the old reed palings used by the natives for enclosing
fish, mixed with such pieces of the vegetation of the islet as were
suitable for the purpose. The seven nests were contiguous, and
disposed in the shape of an irregular cross, the navel of the cross,
which was the tallest nest, being about thirty inches high, the two
next in line being about two feet, and the two forming the arms
being a few inches lower, the two extremes at either end being
about fourteen inches from the ground. . . . The eggs are chalky,
like others of the Pelicanidse, very rough in texture, and some
of them streaked with blood."— (" Ibis/' vii. p. 395.)
THE BROWN PELICAN (P.fuscus).
The Brown Pelican is an American species, smaller than the
preceding, and is described at some length by Nuttall. It has the
head and the neck variegated with white and ash- colour ; all the
THE SPECTACLED PELICAN. 297
rest of the plumage of a brownish, grey, with whitish marks on the
back; the pouch is of an ashy blue, striped with a reddish hue.
It is found in the Larger Antilles, on the coasts of Peru, in
Bengal, and in South Carolina.
THE SPECTACLED PELICAN (Pelicanus conspicillatus) .
The Spectacled Pelican, which is only found in southern
climates, is thus named from the naked skin which surrounds
the eye, reminding one of spectacles by its more or less circular
form. Its plumage, like that of its congeners, is white.
CHAPTER III.
THE
" NOTWITHSTANDING the dissimilarity of the bill/' says Mr. Vigors
(Linn. Trans., vol. xiv.), " the Sterna and Rhynchops most inti-
mately accord in habits and external characters. The Gull-billed
Tern of Colonel Montagu conducts us from these genera to the
groups which compose the Linnsean genus Larus — now divided
into two genera, Lestris and Larus. From this group we are led
to the genera Diomedece and Haladroma, by the absence of the
hind toe, by means of the species Larus tridactylus (Latham),
where, though the hind toe is not absolutely different, as might be
inferred from its name, there appears but the rudiment of one.
The last- mentioned genus, Haladroma, originally belonged to
Procellaria, and was separated from it by its tridactyle foot.
Even in this character, however, it forms a connection from Larus
to the groups that compose the genuine Procellaria, all of which
are distinguished by the singular peculiarity of having no true
hind toe, but only a nail adhering to the tarsus in its place.
We thus arrive at the Petrels, separated into groups of the Pro-
cellaria (Anet), Pachyptila (Ilf.), Pu/ucus (Ray)."
THE LONGIPENNES (Cuvier).
The Grands Voiliers, or Long-winged Birds, are thus named
from their powerful and enduring faculty of flight. Mariners
meet with them everywhere, and easily recognise them by their
long and pointed wings, forked tails, and short legs. In this
order the back toe is unconnected with the others, or is wanting,
and the membrane which unites the others much notched; their bills
\
THE TERN. 299
are sharp and pointed, and without indentations. They pass their
lives at a great distance from land, and do not approach the shore
except for breeding purposes. To this sub-order belong the Sea
Swallows (Sterna), Scissors-bills or Skimmers (Rynchops), the Sea
Gulls (Laridce), the Labbes (Stercoraria), the Petrels (Procel-
laria), Albatross (Diomedea).
THE TERN (Sterna hirundo, Linn.).
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Common Tern : Selby, McGillivray, Morris.
Greater Tern : Montagu, Bewick, Pennant. Local names : Sea Swallow,
Gull Teaser, Tarney, Tarrock, Kippock, Scraye.
LATIN SYNONYMS. — Sterna hirundo: Pennant, Montagu, Bewick, Flemming,
Selby, Jenyns, Gould, Yarrell, Latham. Sterna major : Brisson. Hirundo
marina ; Ray, Wiiloughby.
There are six species of Sterna, properly so called, described by
British naturalists; and six others, according to McGillivray,
nearly resembling them in form, colour, and habit. The true
Sterna has the bill straight, slender, compressed, and tapering ;
it is about the length of the head, with the edge sharp, and the tip
elongated and pointed ; the upper mandible armate ; legs short,
slender ; anterior toes small ; membrane emarginate ; wings long
and pointed; tail forked. These birds are remarkable for their
buoyant, graceful, easy flight, and the soft, loose texture of their
plumage. Their prevailing colours are a pale bluish grey or black,
and white.
The Tern, or Sea Swallow, as it is commonly called, on account
of its long pointed wings and forked tail, appears to be, like the
Swallow properly so called, a perfect disregarder of rest. They
may be seen soaring in the air at a very great height, and then
suddenly darting down upon their prey, which their piercing
sight has enabled them to descry in the water. Often, too, they
may be noticed skimming over the surface of the waves with
astonishing rapidity, and seizing in their flight any fish which is
imprudent enough to show itself. Their flight over the sea
seems incessant, and it is rarely they are seen swimming. When
they need rest, they seek some solitary, isolated rock in the
ocean. They congregate in flocks more or less numerous, and
they manifest so much attachment for individuals of their own
species, that, when one of them is wounded by the sportsman's
300
THE LABILE.
gun, the others surround it, full of grief and sympathy, nor will
they leave it until all hope of saving its life is at an end.
These birds in their flight give utterance to shrill and piercing
calls, which, when produced by numbers together, cause a deafen-
ing uproar in the sky. These calls are raised with increased
power when they are about to undertake some longer flight than
usual. But the time, above all others, when their noise is most
discordant and shrill is the breeding season. " On going up
to one of their breeding-places," says McGillivray, " which may
always be discovered from a distance, as some of the birds will
be seen hovering over it, one is sure to be met by several of them,
Fig. 106.— The Tern (Sterna hirundo, Linn.).
which hasten to remonstrate with the intruder by harsh cries and
threatened blows. As you draw nearer, more of them leave their
nests; and at length they are all on the wing, wheeling and
bounding — now high and now low — at times coming quite close,
and increasing their cries, which resemble the syllables ' cree-
cree-cree-ae.' '
Like the Land Swallows, these sea-birds arrive on our coasts in the
spring. They disperse themselves over our lakes and large ponds,
where they feed on any animal substances they meet with — either
fresh or putrefied — fish, mollusks, or insects. Montagu says
they are found in great abundance on the Sussex and Kentish
THE LITTLE TEEN. 301
coasts, particularly about Winchelsea, and in the Romney marshes
towards Dungeness. Mr. Selby found them breeding in the
Solway and in the Firth of Clyde. McGillivray met with them in
great numbers in South Uist and Long Island; and his corre-
spondents, Messrs. Bailie and Heddle, noted their annual arrival in
the Orkneys in May. " They arrive in straggling flocks in the
beginning of May," says McGillivray, "and soon betake them-
selves to their breeding-places, which are sandy tracts, gravelly
or pebbly ridges, rocky ground, sometimes low, shelving rocks
on the sea-shore ; their nests being bits of grass or fragments of
sea- weed, placed in a mere depression. In stormy weather they
fly little, but shelter themselves by resting on the shore. They go
to roost very late in the evening ; long after sunset,, they are still
engaged in seeking their sustenance."
Terns always assemble in flocks on the sea-coast, on the mar-
gins of lakes, in marshes, or wooded spots near the mouths of rivers,
at their breeding-time. Their nests are placed so near to one
another, that the hens sitting actually come in contact. They lay
their eggs, to the number of two or three, which hatch in twenty
days. These eggs are esteemed as a very delicate viand : in
the United States a considerable trade is carried on in them.
The Sea Swallow is found in all the regions both of the Old and
New World, Australia, and the islands of the Pacific.
The Tern (Sterna hirundo) is very common in France, on the
shores of the Atlantic, and in the Mediterranean.
THE LITTLE TERN (Sterna minuta, Linn.).
ENGLISH SYNONYMS. — Lesser Tern : Montagu, Selby. Lesser Sea Swallow,
Little Tern : McGillivray, Flemming.
LATIN SYNONYM. — Sterna minuta: Latham, Flenaming, Selby, McGilli-
vray, Morris, Jenyns, Temminck.
FKENCH SYNONYMS. — La Sterne Petite ; Figuier. La Petite Hirondelle de
Mer: Temminck.
This smallest of the Terns has many habits in common with the
Sterna hirundo. " In the elegance of its buoyant flight," says
McGillivray, " as it skims over the water or shoots along its way
to and from its breeding- place, the tiny creature is an object of
302 THE LAEID^E.
.
admiration to every lover of nature. You may see a pair coming
up from a distance, flying at the height of a few yards over the
waves, their long wings winnowing the air and impelling them on
by starts as they wind their way in undulating and graceful
movements. Suddenly their flight is arrested over a large pool
left on the sands by the retreating tide. With quick beats of
their wings they hover almost stationary over the water, with
downward-pointed bills, intently searching for their prey beneath.
One drops with upraised wings, dips for a moment, and rises
with a small fish in its bill; the other is equally successful.
Onward they proceed, now and then emitting their shrill cry.
Far ahead is seen a flock engaged in picking up their prey, and
onward the stragglers speed to join their kindred. "
The Little Tern has the bill slightly longer than the head, and,
like the Common Tern, slender, nearly straight, much compressed,
tapering, and acute ; the eyes and feet small ; plumage soft
and blended ; wings long, narrow, and pointed ; tail long and
deeply forked ; upper part of the head and nape black ; neck, back,
and wings light greyish blue ; hind part of the back and tail white ;
length to the end of the tail about ten inches ; wings twenty-one
inches.
This species reaches our shores in the beginning of May, and
settles along the whole eastern and southern coast, from the Land's
End to the Orkneys, but is rare on the west coast. The Firth of
Forth, the sands of Barry, near Dundee, a place at the mouth of
the Don, and another at the Ythan, are noted as their haunts, as are
the sands of Strathbeg Loch, and the sands between Burghead and
the mouth of the Findhorn. It is also abundant on the sea-coasts
of Holland and France, where it feeds on fish-spawn and small
winged insects.
The Noddy (Sterna stolida), which frequents rivers and the
borders of lakes, especially marshes, makes its nest among the
reeds and water-lily leaves : this is the species most plentiful in
America. The Silver- winged Tern (Sterna leucoptera] inhabits the
bays and gulfs of the Mediterranean, and is only an accidental
visitor to the north of France. The Arctic Tern (Sterna arctica)
is a native of the Arctic Circle, and regularly visits the sea-
coast of the north of France. We may also mention the Whis-
THE SCISSOES-BILL.
303
kered or Marsh Tern (Sterna leucupareia) , the Gull-billed Tern
(Sterna anglica), the Roseate Tern (Sterna Dougalli), the Sandwich
Tern {Sterna cautiaca), and the Tschegruna, or Caspian Tern
(Sterna caspica), all of which either breed upon the British coast,
or are frequent visitors there, although they rarely reach France.
THE SCISSORS- BILLS, OR SEA SKIMMERS (Rynchops, Linn.).
The Scissors-bills have received their name from the conforma-
tion of their beaks, which are flattened laterally into two laminae
fitting one on the other, forming two mandibles compressed into
-A' \
Fig. 107.— The Black Scissors-bill (liynckops niyra).
cutting blades, the upper being one-third shorter than the lower.
In order to pick up the shrimps and small fishes on which they
feed, these birds are obliged to skim the surface of the water,
dipping the lower mandible of their bill, the upper mandible being
kept open and clear of the water till aquatic insects or other small
fry have entered into the lower portion of it.* The singular form
of their bills is also of service to them in opening such bivalve
shell-fish as come in their way. They frequently watch these
mollusks, and when they notice that the shell of the latter
* Catesby says : " These birds frequent near the sea-coasts of Carolina. They
fly close to the surface of the water, from which they seem to receive somewhat of
food."
304 THE LARID.E.
is slightly open, they plunge the lower mandible of their long bill
into it ; they then break the ligament of the shell by beating it
against the rock. The tenement being thus destroyed, there is
no obstacle to their devouring the inhabitant.
The only remarkable species of this bird is the Black Scissors-
bill (Rynchops nigra), frequently called the Cut- water. It is about
the size of a Pigeon ; its prevailing colour is white, top of the
head and shoulders black, with a white band on the wings. These
birds are very numerous in the "West Indian seas. They fly with
a slow motion, and, like the Gulls and other sea-birds, they occa-
sionally form such dense flocks that the sky is actually darkened
for the space of a league.
GULLS AND ALLIED SPECIES.
Gulls and their congeners include the well-known shore-birds
generally called Gulls, more especially the Skuas (Lestris), Gulls
(Larus), and Mews (Grama). They are characterised by a light
body, more or less compact ; neck of moderate length ; head ovate ;
bill shorter than the head, straight, compressed ; convex ridge on
upper mandible, nasal groove long ; lower mandible with the angle
long and narrow ; mouth moderate ; tongue fleshy ; eyes small ;
legs generally short ; tibia bare ; tarsus short, compressed ; hind
toe small ; middle toe longest ; fore toe moderate in length and
slender ; connecting membrane full, margins only concave ; claws
generally small, arcuate, acute, and more or less compressed.
These birds inhabit the sea- shore, along which they wander in
search of food; the larger species preying on fish, Crustacea
and mollusca, and the carcasses of cetacea and other marine
mammalia cast up by the sea. They all pursue shoals of fish
in the open sea, often to great distances from land. Their
plumage is full, soft, close, elastic, and well blended on the back
and wings ; wings long, broad, and pointed ; the tail, of twelve
feathers, rounded and forked.
The Sea Mews (Gavia) are connected with the Terns, yet
still have some characteristics of the Gulls. However, they
are of smaller size than the latter, have more slender forms,
and their feet and bills are comparatively feebler. We shall
THE GULL. 305
describe the Mews and Gulls under one head, as they have the
same generic characteristics, the only difference between them
being that of size. The name of Gull applies to those species
which are at least as large as Ducks ; that of Mew to those which
are smaller.
The Gull (Larus) and the Mew are found in every country, on
every coast, out at sea, and sometimes even on fresh waters, lakes,
and rivers. These birds literally swarm on some coasts, where
they devour every kind of food they meet with. Fish, either fresh
or stale ; flesh, either fresh or decomposed ; worms ; shell-fish — all
are alike acceptable. If these birds happen to notice the car-
cass of any animal, either floating on the sea or cast up on the
shore, it soon becomes their prey, and is speedily devoured by
these " Sea Yultures," as Buffon calls them. Should one of them
discover the remains of a dead whale, or other large oceanic
mammalia, it apprises the rest of the flock, and immediately they
all pour down upon their booty, uttering the most discordant
cries. They gorge themselves up to their very throats ; but their
stomachs soon digest the rapidly-decomposing animal diet. They
may also be observed in search of other prey, skimming over the
surface of the water, their keen eyes anxiously scanning far and
near for their most favourite food, young fish.
During the breeding season they visit islands where they are
sure to find thousands of eggs as well as young birds. In spite
of the piteous shrieks of the parents and the plaintive cries of the
young, the whole colony is sacrificed to their gluttony ; the eggs
are sucked, and the scarcely-hatched young ones are devoured.
But, as they are always cowards, whenever these sea- vagabonds
notice the approach of a bird more warlike than themselves,
although, perhaps, much smaller, their only endeavour is to hide
themselves, or depart with all the celerity which their long wings
can give them. The mere sight of a Labbe (Stercoraria) is quite
sufficient to make them disgorge their food. These birds, which
are essentially water scavengers, are frequently very much in want
of food, especially during stormy weather. Nature in her good-
ness, however, has well enabled them to endure hunger.
Sea Gulls and Sea Mews are found everywhere, but they are
most numerous on the flat and low sea-shores of the North, where
x
306
THE LAEID^E.
the dead bodies of whales and other large fish furnish them with
abundant food. They prefer building their nests on desert islands
in the Polar seas, where they are safe from man's intrusion.
They lay two or three eggs in a hole scratched in the sand, or in
the cleft of a rock.
These birds are easily tamed, and soon take to domestic habits ;
but their flesh, which is hard and tough as leather, is unfit for
human food. In order to render them eatable in cases of emer-
gency, the sailors, after haying skinned them, hang them up by
their feet, and leave them exposed to the evening dew for two or
Fig. 108. — Large White- winged Gull (Larus glaucus, Yarrell).
three nights. By this means a little of the disagreeable smell
passed by their carcass is got rid of.
The most remarkable species of the Sea Gull are the following : —
The Large White- winged Gull, Larus glaucus (Fig. 108), is all
white except its back, which is of a light bluish grey. It is most
frequently found towards the east of Europe, and is rare on the
Atlantic coasts.
The Great Black-backed Gull, Larus marinus (Fig. 109), is of
a pure white, with a black back. It is very common in northern
regions, and habitually visits the shores of the Atlantic to the
north of France.
The Herring Gull (Larus argentatus, Yarrell), is white, with a
THE SEA MEW. 307
blue back. It is seen throughout the year on the coasts of the
Mediterranean and the Atlantic.
The only species of Sea Mew which it is necessary for us to
describe are : —
The "White Sea Mew, or Senator (Larus eburneus)* which is
found but incidentally in the temperate regions of Europe. It
is very common in Greenland and Baffin's Bay. Its plumage is
entirely white, tinted with pink underneath ; it has black feet
and a bluish bill.
The Brown-masked Sea Mew (Larus capistratus)] has the top
Fig. 109.— Great Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus, Yarrell).
of its head and throat of a light brown colour ; the inside of the
wings are light grey ; the rest of its body is white ; and its bill
and tarsi are of a reddish-brown colour. This species is common
in England.
The Laughing Sea Mew (Larus ridibundus] J has its head black ;
its neck, tail, and lower parts of a white hue. Its back and
wings are bluish grey, and its beak and feet vermilion red. This
is the species most easily tamed. It is called the Laughing Sea
Mew on account of its cry. It is widely spread all over Europe,
and builds its nest on the coast at the mouths of rivers. It is
only a visitor in France and Germany, but in Holland it is found
a permanent resident.
* Ivory Gull of Yarrell. t The Masked Gull of Yarrell.
+ Black-headed Gull of Yarrell.
308
THE LAEID^E.
The Grey Sea Mew, Larus canus (Fig. 110), is commonly
called the Sea Pigeon. Its plumage is of a beautiful white colour
Fig. 110.— Grey Sea Mews (Larus canus, Yarrell).
with the exception of a grey back. When tempests threaten, this
species disperses in flocks over the inland districts. It is common
in summer in the regions of the Arctic Circle ; in autumn and
winter it is found on the sea- coasts of temperate and southern
Europe.
The Skua, Labbe, or Dung-bird (Stercwaria, Vieillot), Fig.
Ill, is remarkable for its stout bill, which is nearly cj^lin-
Fig. 111.— The Common Skua (Lestns cataractes, Yarrell).
drical, and covered with a membrane from the base as far as the
nostrils; the upper mandible is convex, hooked, and armed at
THE SKUA. 309
the extremity with a crooked point, which almost appears as if
it was supplementary. These birds principally frequent the sea-
shore, but at the time of storms they venture further inland.
They fly very rapidly, even against the strongest wind. They
pursue the Sea Mews and the Terns most inveterately, and some-
times even Boobies and Cormorants, their only aim being to
deprive these birds of the prey they have caught ; for the Sea
Mews and the Terns are their purveyors. Incessantly do they
pursue, harass, and beat these species until they have forced
them to disgorge and drop their booty: before the fish falls
into the sea it is caught by the active persecutors. This singular
habit has given rise to the belief that Skuas feed upon the excre-
ment of the Sea Mew, and to this they owe their name of Dung-
birds.
In some countries, as the Shetland Islands, these birds are
held in veneration. The care and protection of the sheep are
almost entirely intrusted to them, owing to their possessing an
inveterate hatred against Eagles ; for as soon as the monarch of the
air appears in view, three or four of them combine together to
give him battle. They never attack him in front, but harass
him pitilessly until his strength is so reduced that they can
completely conquer him, or at least force him to retreat. In
recompense for these services, the inhabitants are in the habit
of throwing to the Skuas the refuse of their fisheries.
These birds almost always live in solitude, so that they may
be more readily able to procure their food, which consists of fish,
mollusks, eggs, young sea-birds, and small mammals. They inhabit
the Arctic regions of Europe and America, and make their nests
in the heather ; they lay from two to four eggs, which are
sat upon by the male and female birds alternately. They are
courageous enough to defend their young brood against any kind
of animal, and even against man.
There are four European species: the Parasite Skua (Lestris
parasiticus) , which inhabits Greenland, Newfoundland, and Spitz-
bergen, and visits tolerably often our Atlantic coasts ; Richard-
son's Skua (Lestris Richardsonii] , which is very plentiful in
Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and North America ; the Pome-
rine Skua (Lestris pomarinus), which is very common in New-
310 THE
foundland, Iceland, and the Feroe Islands ; the Common Skua
(Lestris cataractes), commonly called the Brown Stoeland.
The PETRELS (Procellaria, Linn.) are characterised by a gibbous
beak, the extremity of which is hooked, and seems made all in
one piece, and as if jointed on to the rest of the upper mandible.
These birds never dive, and rarely swim ; but in their rapid flight
they skim over the waves, and actually appear to walk upon the
waters. To this habit they owe the name of Petrel, which simply
means " Little Peter," in allusion to the miracle of St. Peter, who
walked upon the restless waters of the Lake of Genesareth.
The family of the Petrels contains several species of very dif-
ferent appearance. They traverse immense distances in their
powerful and rapid flight, although they nearly always keep close
to the water. They never draw near to the coast except to build
their nests, for which purpose they select a little crevice in some
steep rock, in which they deposit a large white egg. While sitting
upon it, they keep up a low and continual noise, like that of a
spinning-wheel.
In general, Petrels are not of a very engaging aspect ; but they
are an invaluable resource to the poor people who inhabit the
Fig. 112.— The Blue Petrel (Procellaria carulea, Gmelin).
islands in the frigid seas, who do not object to eat the flesh of
these birds, although they principally value them for their warm
down and the oil which can be extracted from their stomachs.
The quantity of oil which these birds contain is so large that it is
used as an article of diet. In the Feroe Islands candles are
made from this oleaginous matter. Often, indeed, the islanders
THE PETREL. 311
make the bird itself serve as a candle to illuminate their gloomy
vigils. This is performed by passing a wick through the body
of the bird when just killed.
These birds appear to love the tempest; they run over the
roughest waves, and seem as if they were enjoying themselves
as they pass up and down the declivities of the mountains of
foam. When the storm is too violent for them, they take refuge
upon the nearest rocks, or even on the yards of a passing ship.
Sailors, who are confessedly simple and superstitious, take these
birds for evil spirits, birds of the devil, harbingers of storms, and
so forth, simply because they more frequently see them during a
storm. Their black plumage tends to confirm the sailor in his
superstition.
When the vessels sent to the whale fishery have passed the
Shetland Islands, and entered the northern seas, which are almost
always very rough, the Petrels are seen flying about amidst the
eddies of foam which are formed by the movement of the ship.
They keep in attendance until something is thrown overboard,
for they are extremely voracious, and especially fond of fat, par-
ticularly that of the whale. When the fishermen begin to cut
up a whale, the Petrels flock together to the number of several
thousands. They are not afraid to approach within reach, so that
they may be taken or killed with a blow from a boat-hook.
Their- plumage is so close, that shot fired at them, except at close
range, will not penetrate.
Petrels walk on land with much difficulty. When they require
rest in the open sea, with their heads placed under their wings,
they sleep on the water, allowing themselves to be borne about
at the mercy of the wind.
The most remarkable species are — the Giant Petrel (Procellaria
gigantea), commonly called the Bone-breaker, which inhabits the
tract of ocean between Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope ;
the Chequered Petrel (P. capensis), commonly called the
Chequered Pintado, which is a native of the southern seas ; the
Fulmar Petrel (P. glacialis), which inhabits the Arctic seas ; the
Stormy Petrel (P. pelagica), commonly called the Storm-bird,
which frequents the seas of Europe, and after a hurricane appears
on the northern coasts of France ; the Forster or Blue Petrel
312
THE LABIIXZE.
(P. Forsteri or ccerulea), Fig. 112, commonly called the Blue
Petrel, which inhabits the Antarctic seas.
Under the name of Puffins those species of Petrels are included
which have bills as long, and sometimes longer, than their heads,
and their nostrils in two distinct tubes. Among these are the
Grey Puffin (Puffinus cinereus), which is very common in the
Mediterranean, and builds its nest in Corsica ; the English Puffin
(Puffinus anglorum), which inhabits the northern regions of our
hemisphere; the Brown Puffin (Procellaria cequinoctialis) , which in-
habits the Southern Ocean, and is frequently met with at the Cape.
Fig. 113.— The Common Albatross (Diomedea cxulans, Linn.).
The ALBATROSS * is the largest and most bulky of all the birds
which fly over the surface of the sea. It belongs principally to the
southern hemisphere. The sailors know it under the names of Cape
Sheep and Man-of-war, which they give it on account of its
enormous size. Its extended wings measure as much as five
* From the Portuguese word Alcatraz, applied by the early navigators of that
nation to Cormorants and large sea-birds. — ED.
THE ALBATEOSS. 313
metres across.* Its plumage is generally white, with the exception
of a dark back. Courage is not measured by size. This rule
holds good in these birds, for, notwithstanding their wonderful
strength and their large, strong, sharp, and hooked bills, they
exhibit the most unaccountable cowardice. Even a poor weak Sea
Mew will attack an Albatross, and endeavour to tear its stomach
open. The pusillanimous Albatross can find no better means of
getting rid of his enemy than by plunging into the water.
Although they are most gluttonous in taste, they prefer to fly away
rather than contend for their food. This consists of small marine
animals, mollusks, mucilaginous zoophytes, and the eggs and
spawn of fish. They will even swallow large fish without tearing
them to pieces. When they are completely gorged, and the
fish which they have seized is too large to swallow whole, they
may be seen with part of it hanging outside their bill, until the
first half of their prey is digested. The same is done, as is
well known, by several kinds of Serpents. When thus embar-
rassed, the Albatross has only one mode of escape if it happens
to be pursued ; namely, by disgorging the food with which its
stomach is overloaded.
Gifted as they are with an extraordinary power of flight, these
birds venture out to enormous distances from all land, more espe-
cially in stormy weather. They seem to delight in the warring
of the elements. When overcome with fatigue, they take repose
on the surface of the sea, placing their heads under their wings.
When in this position they are very easy to capture : in order to
do this, the sailors have only to approach silently, and knock them
down with a boat-hook or spear them with a harpoon.
Navigators have found opportunities of observing these birds in
the Polar regions, where there is no night during half the year.
They see the same flocks hovering around their vessel during
many successive days without exhibiting the least signs of fatigue,
or the slightest relaxation in their strength. The peculiarity in
their mode of flight is that, whether they are ascending or descend-
ing, they seem to glide, for they flap their wings but seldom.
* The weight of this bird much varies. A specimen in the Leverian Museum
measured thirteen feet from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other. One shot off
the Cape of Good Hope was said to be seventeen and a half feet. — ED.
314 THE LAEID^l.
To follow in the wake of some passing ship, probably because
the agitation of the waves brings to the surface the small fry
of marine animals which are their principal food, appears to de-
light them. They also pounce upon anything that falls over-
board, even though it should be a man. On one occasion a sailor
fell into the sea from a FreDch vessel, and could not be imme-
diately rescued because there was no boat in a fit state to be
lowered. Before such could take place, a flock of Albatrosses which
followed in the ship's wake pounced upon the unfortunate man, and
commenced to peck his head and arms. Being unable to buffet
both with the sea and the enemies which surrounded him, the man
perished iinder the very eyes of his comrades.
The Albatrosses and Petrels may be said to be the Yultures of
the ocean. They may also be said to be its scavengers, for they
cleanse the sea of all the putrefied animal substances which float
on its surface.
At the breeding season, which varies according to the hemi-
sphere inhabited by them, the Albatrosses arrive at their favourite
haunts, generally in an exhausted state ; but, however thin they
may be, they soon grow fat upon the abundant supplies of food
which they find in the vicinity. In the end of September, to
build their nests, they go in immense numbers to the island of
Tristan d'Acunha, in the South Atlantic Ocean. Their nests,
which are about three feet in height, are formed of mud. Their
flesh is very hard, and can only be rendered eatable by laying
it in salt for a long time, and afterwards boiling it, flavouring it
with some piquant sauce. Nevertheless sailors, as well as the
inhabitants of the desolate southern regions, use it, but only in
the absence of better food.
The most remarkable species are — the Common Albatross
(Diomedea exulans), which frequents the seas washing the
south of Africa ; the Black-browed Albatross (D. melanopfc/ys),
which also inhabits the seas round the Cape of Good Hope ; the
Brown Albatross (D. fuliginosa] ; the Yellow and Black-beaked
Albatross (D. chlororinches), which, like the preceding species,
inhabits the seas of the South Pole.*
* Captain Cook mentions a variety frequently captured by the inhabitants of
Kamtschatka and the Kurile Islands.
CHAPTEE IV.
GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS.
THE most striking characteristic of the Waders consists in the
nakedness and length of their tarsi, which sometimes attain to
really extraordinary dimensions : some of these birds look as
if they were mounted on stilts. This peculiarity of conforma-
tion is, however, well adapted to their modes of life. They
inhabit, for the most part, river-banks, lakes, and marshes, in
which they find their sustenance ; consequently, they are fear-
less of water and ooze. The Agami, the Bustard, and the Ostrich,
as well as the Emeu and other Struthionida, which are placed
by naturalists with this family, are not aquatic ; they inhabit the
interior of the country, and are either herbivorous or granivorous.
The bills of these birds assume very various forms. They are
generally long ; but, according to the species, they may be thick
or slender, tapering or flat, blunt or pointed, strong or weak ; and
in some kinds, such as the Flamingo, the Spoonbill, and the
Boatbill, they really defy all description. The neck is always
slender, and in perfect harmony with the length of the legs.
Almost all the Waders are birds powerful on the wing, and
twice a year most of them undertake long journeys, which they
perform in large flocks, like as do Ducks, Geese, and Swans.
There are, however, exceptions to this rule. Some of them
— the Bustard, for instance — move through the air with diffi-
culty, although their inferiority in this respect does not reach
to complete inability ; others, as the Brevipennce, are absolutely
unable to fly at all : their wings being altogether rudimentary,
are only useful for accelerating their pace in running, and thus
assisted they are remarkably swill .
316 GRALLATORES, OB WADING BIRDS.
The nature of their food varies with the form and strength of
the bill and the locality they inhabit ; it consists generally of
fish, small batrachia, mollusks, worms, and insects ; sometimes of
small mammalia and reptiles, and more rarely of grasses and
seeds. This kind of sustenance must be wonderfully fitted to
develop the savoury qualities of their flesh, for it is among this
class that we find our most delicious specimens of "game."
The mere mention of the Woodcock, Snipe, Plover, Pewit, and
Bustard is sufficient to establish their claim upon the epicure.
Some kinds, which are utterly devoid of any culinary properties,
are furnished with a plumage to which ladies owe some of their
most brilliant adornments. The Ostrich and Marabout feathers,
and those of the Heron, are keenly appreciated by many fair
ones, whose beauty the feathers are supposed to greatly enhance.
In short, this order of birds possesses two important qualities —
worthily ministering to the taste of the most fastidious palate,
and handsomely decorating with its gorgeous plumage our fashion-
able and wealthy belles. Gormandising and coquetry alike find
satisfaction, and derive from these birds some of their most agree-
able sensations. If they had the additional gift of melody they
might lay claim to perfection ; however, such is not the case, as
their notes are shrill and discordant.
The Waders are monogamous or polygamous according to their
species ; but their history furnishes us with some touching
instances of conjugal attachment. They make their nests either
on trees, buildings, or the surface of the earth ; sometimes even in
the middle of the water, among the reeds, sedges, and other
aquatic plants. In general, they evince but little care in the
construction of their progenies' birth-place. In most cases they
are contented to collect together a variety of substances without
much discrimination ; sometimes they merely scratch a hole in the
ground, in which they deposit their eggs without any further care.
The Waders are usually divided into six great families, which
are again divisible into many genera. Following Cuvier's classi-
fication, with some slight modification, we propose arranging
the group as follows : — I. Palmidactyles, II. Macrodactyles,
III. Longirostrce, IV. Cultrirostrce, V. Pressirostrce, and YI. Bre-
vipennce.
THE FLAMINGO.
317
THE PALMIDACTYLES
Have the anterior toes united by a wide membrane ; the hind toe
is absent, or is very small ; the legs are very long and smooth ; from
their webbed feet they may appear to belong to the Palmipedes, but
the arrangement of their toes is altogether different, and consti-
tutes them most strikingly characteristic of the order of Waders.
The FLAMINGO is one of the most curious of the tribe of Waders.
The most fanciful imagination would fail in picturing to itself
Fig. 114. — The American Flamingoes (P. ruber, Wilson).
anything more odd than the conformation of this bird. Ex-
tremely long legs, supporting quite a small body ; a neck corre-
sponding in length with the legs ; a bill rather long than
otherwise, sharply curved and broken, as it were, in the middle,
contrived probably to discourage those who are tempted to
describe it; wings of a middling size, and a sh6*rt tail — such
are the distinctive features of this remarkable-looking bird. The
long legs terminate in equally long feet, with three toes in front
318 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
hind toe articulated high up the tarsus, and very short ; anterior
toes united by a deeply-indented membrane. Add to this a
plumage of a splendid rose-colour, warming into a bright red on
the back and wings, and we have an object calculated to excite
both wonder and admiration.
Ancient writers, struck with the vivid colouring of its wings,
gave the Flamingo the designation of Phcenicopterus (fiery-
winged) : this term was popularised in France by the word
Flambant, or Flamant: hence the name by which the bird is
universally known.
Flamingoes inhabit the margins of lakes and ponds, more
rarely the sea-shore, or the banks of rivers. They feed on worms,
mollusks, and the spawn of fishes, which they capture by the
following stratagem : they place their long neck and head in
such a position that the upper mandible of their bill is the lowest ;
then, by stirring the mud about in every direction, they easily
succeed in disturbing the small fish which have settled in it,
and afterwards in capturing them. They also use their feet for
working the ooze and uncovering the fry and spawn to which
they are partial. They love company, and live in flocks, which
are subject to strict discipline. When they are fishing they
draw themselves up into long, straight, and regular files, placing
a sentinel, whose office it is to give a signal of alarm on the
approach of danger. If any cause for uneasiness should arise, the
scout-bird gives a piercing cry, not unlike the note of a trumpet,
and the whole flock immediately take wing in perfect order.
Flamingoes are very shy and timid birds, and shun all attempts
of man to approach them ; the vicinity of animals, however, they
disregard. Any one who is acquainted with this fact can take
advantage of it so as to effect slaughter of these beautiful creatures
by dressing himself up in the skin of a horse or an ox. Thus
disguised, the sportsman may get close to them and shoot them
down at his ease. So long as their enemy is invisible they remain
immovable, the noise of the gun only stupefying them, so that
they refuse to leave, although their companions are dropping
down dead around them.
Some authors have asserted that the Flamingo makes use of
its long neck as a third leg, walking with its head resting on
THE FLAMINGO. 319
the ground like a foot. The fact that has doubtless given rise to
this supposition is the position of the neck, necessitated by its
peculiar method of seeking food. We are told, it is true, about
a Flamingo reared in captivity which, being accidentally deprived
of one of its limbs, found out a remedy for its infirmity by walk-
ing on one leg and helping itself along by means of its bill, using
the latter as a crutch ; the master of the bird, noticing this,
fitted it with a wooden leg, which it used with the greatest
success. But this story, which applies very well to a domesticated
bird which was maimed, and consequently under peculiar condi-
tions, in no way invalidates our former observations.
The Flamingo makes itself a nest which is as original as its
own personal appearance. It consists of a truncated cone, about
twenty inches in height, and formed of mud dried in the sun.
At the summit of this little hillock it hollows out a shallow cavity,
in which the female lays two eggs, rather elongated in shape and
of a dead white colour. When she is incubating them she sits
astride on this novel description of throne, with her legs hang-
ing down on each side. The young ones run about very soon
after they are hatched, but it is some time before they are able
to fly — not, indeed, until they are clothed with their full plumage.
At two years old they assume the more brilliant colours of the
adult bird.
The Flamingo is found in all the warm and temperate regions
of the globe. On certain islands off the American continent they
exist in such numbers, that navigators have given them the name
of the Flamingo Islands. In the Old World they are found spread
over a region below the fortieth degree of latitude, principally in
Egypt and the Nile tributaries : during the summer they seek a cooler
climate, and they are then seen in numerous flocks on the southern
coasts of France. The height of these magnificent birds reaches
to about five feet ; when they are flying, in the peculiar formation
common to most aquatic birds, with the neck stretched out and
the legs sticking out behind, they look, in the clear sky, like
gigantic triangles of fire. The spectacle they then present is at
once beautiful and wonderful.
The ancients greedily sought after the flesh of the Flamingo,
which they regarded as the most choice food. The tongue espe-
320 GEALLATOBES, OE WADING BIEDS.
eially was thought to be an exquisite dainty, and the Emperor
Heliogabalus appreciated it so highly that a body of troops was
exclusively employed in slaughtering Phrenicopteri to satisfy his
gastronomical tastes. At the present day we no longer eat the
bird ; to modern palates its flesh is disagreeable in flavour, and it
retains a marshy smell which is far from being pleasant. With
regard to the tongue, the Egyptians, it is said, are content with
extracting an oil from it, which is used to flavour some descrip-
tions of viands. We must add, in order to complete our account
of the Flamingo, that it is covered with down like a Swan, which
is employed for the same purposes, and that its thigh-bone is
used in some countries in the manufacture of flutes.
The AVOCET (Fig. 1 15) is characterised by a very long and slender
bill, flexible, and curved upwards ; this latter peculiarity has pro-
I'ig. 115. - Avocet (Recurvirostra avocetta).
cured for it the name of Recurvirostra (curved beak). It uses
this strange implement to rake up the sand and mud to a pretty
good depth, in order to catch the worms, small mollusks, and fish-
spawn which constitute its chief food. Its long legs enable
it to travel in safety over swamps and lagoons ; it also swims with
great ease. It may often be seen looking for its food in the very
centre of lakes and ponds.
The Avocet stands about twenty inches in height, although its
body is but little bigger than that of a Pigeon. It is a pretty bird,
of slender make ; its plumage is black on the head and back, and
white underneath. It is to be met with on both the Continents ;
the European species is common in Holland and on the French
coast. It is wild and shy in its nature, and very difficult of
THE STILT BIED.
321
approach. It is clever in avoiding snares set for it by the
fowler, and ingenious in escaping — either by flight or swimming
— its pursuers. The nest of the Avocet is a very simple struc-
ture, generally made by placing a few blades of grass in a
hole in the sand. Here it lays two or three eggs, of which it is
frequently robbed ; for, like those of the Plover and others, its
congeners, they are regarded as great delicacies by the gourmand.
The flesh, however, is not considered very tempting.
The STILT BIRDS obtain their name from the excessive length
Fig. 116. — Stilt Bird (C/turadrius kunantu^us).
of their legs, which are also so slender and flexible that they
can be bent considerably without breaking. Their feet are
not so completely webbed as the species we have just men-
tioned : the two membranes which unite the toes are unequal
in size. The bill is long, slender, and sharp, like that of the
Avocet, but straight ; the wings are long and pointed ; the tail
small. They are about the size of the Avocet, and some-
Y
322 GEALLATOEES, OR WADING BIRDS.
times attain the height of six- and- twenty inches. They possess
considerable powers of flight, but walk with difficulty ; on the
other hand, they are much at home on mud or in marshes
and swamps, in which they bore with their long beaks for in-
sects, larvas, and small mollusks — dainties to which they are very
partial.
They are dull, shy birds, leading a solitary life, except at the
breeding season. At that period they assemble in great numbers,
build their nests in the marshes, on little hillocks, close to one
another, grass being the principal material employed. They
lay four greenish- coloured eggs, with ash-coloured spots. The
male bird watches while the females are sitting ; and at the slightest
alarm he raises a cry which startles the flock. The whole colony
may then be seen on the wing, waiting for the danger to pass
before settling down.
Stilt Birds are uncommon in Western Europe ; they are prin-
cipally to be met with in the Russian and Hungarian marshes.
During the summer they occasionally visit the shores of the
Mediterranean, but they are seldom seen on those of the Atlantic.
By sportsmen they are little thought of.
MACRODACTYLES.
*
The birds forming the family of Macrodactyles (long-toed) are
remarkable for the extreme length of their toes, which are entirely
separate, or but slightly webbed ; they are thus enabled to walk
on the weeds growing on the surface of the water. In most
instances the shortness of their wings limits their powers of
flight.
This order includes the Water Hens (Gallinula) , the Taleves,
or Sultana Hens, the Rails (Rallus), the Coots (Fulica), the
Glareolee, and the Kamichis.
The chief characteristics of the WAT KB HEN are a short and
strong bill, thick at the base and sharp at the end, with a pro-
longation of it extending up the forehead ; four well- spread toes,
furnished with sharp claws— the three front toes united by a
small and cloven membrane. They are plentiful in some parts of
THE WATER HEN. 323
the globe, tlieir favourite haunts being marshy places and the banks
of lakes or rivers, where they feed on worms, insects, mollusks,
and the smaller fish. They are lively, graceful, and ornamental
birds. During the day they love to lie hid among the reeds,
shaded from the sun's rays by the large leaves of the water-lily.
They emerge from their hiding-places at evening and morning in
search of food.
Although incapable of either fast flight or rising to great
elevations, the Water Hen shows considerable address in escaping
from the sportsman's gun. When pressed very closely, they take
to the water, in which they are expert swimmers and divers :
under the water they go, to reappear on the surface many
yards away, where they only show themselves above for a mo-
ment to breathe, avoiding flight until every cause of fear is
removed.
In some countries they remain throughout the year ; in others,
on the contrary, they are migratory. When the latter is the
case, they travel sometimes on foot, sometimes by swimming,
and sometimes on the wing ; following the same route, how-
ever, year after year, and always returning with constancy to the
spot where they made their first nest.
The eggs are seven or eight in number. During incubation
the male and female occupy the nest alternately. Should any
intruder alarm them, they never fail, before leaving the nest, to
cover up their cherished treasures with grass or other material, so
as to keep them warm and hidden from the voracity of their
watchful enemy, the Crow.
Immediately after the young are hatched they leave the nest
to follow their mother, and are very soon able to supply their
own wants. Their only covering at first is a scanty and coarse
down ; but they run rapidly, and seem almost instinctively to
swim and dive and conceal themselves at the slightest appearance
of danger. Young Water Hens, however, are exposed to acci-
dent from the flooding of streams, and consequent submersion
of the nests ; and it is probably by way of compensation for this
that nature has made them so prolific, for frequently they rear
three broods per annum.
The Common Water lien (Fig. 117) is a native of Europe ;
Y2
324
GBALLA.TOBES, OK WADING BIRDS.
it is found in France, England, Italy, Germany, and Holland. The
Slate-coloured Water Hen is a native of Java.
/!//", &•','/•' \- i0B& ^- /$\\A±— \ •.'*' ••:
Fig. 117. — Common Water Hen (Gallimda chloropus, Svv.).
The Purple "Water Hen (Porphyrio hyacinthus, Temminck), or
Sultana Fowl (Fig. 118), is peculiarly characteristic of Macro-
Fig. 118. — Sultana Fowl (Polio sultana, Sw.).
dactyles, and might be denned as an exaggeration of the Water
Hen. Its bill is thicker and more robust, the frontal plate on
RAILS. 325
the forehead is more extended, the toes are longer, but its habits
are very nearly the same. It is, however, less exclusively aquatic,
and its favourite food is the seeds of the cereals and aquatic
plants, and fruits : it occasionally, however, feeds on mollusks and
small fishes. When eating, it stands on one foot, and uses the
other as a hand in order to convey the food to its beak.
The body of this magnificent bird is of an indigo-blue colour,
the beak and feet being rose-colour. The ancients, who were
acquainted with it, and were accustomed to rear it in a domes-
ticated state, gave it the name of Porphyrio (purple coloured) on
account of its colour. If it could be acclimatised, it would be a
valuable addition to our ornamental grounds.
There are several species of the Sultana Fowl, differing more
or less from one another. They inhabit the warmer regions of
the Old World. The Purple Water Hen is found in Greece, Asia
Minor, Africa, and the South of Europe ; generally, it is about
the size of the ordinary Domestic Fowl.
RAILS (Rallus) are characterised by a slender, tapering, slightly-
lig. 119.— Land Hail (Rallus crex, Linn.).
arched beak, longer than the head ; elongated tarsi, terminating
in slender toes, much compressed and completely separate, and not
marginate ; wings middle-sized ; tail short.
Their habits bear a strong resemblance to those of the Water
Hen. Like the latter, they are timid, and hide themselves all day
in the rushes, underwood, or grass of the marshes and meadows
they inhabit. They make use of the holes hollowed out by water-
rats, in which they take refuge when hard pressed. Little thickets
32G GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS.
bordering brooks and small rivers are localities to which they
are peculiarly partial, inasmuch as they assist ready conceal-
ment from their enemies. Their flight is slow and heavy, and is
generally directed in a straight line, but little elevated above the
ground. Eunnmg, however, is the means they usually adopt for
escaping their pursuers, and by their numberless turns and wind-
ings they often succeed. But in some cases their efforts are of
such a feeble character that dogs catch them without difficulty,
and even the sportsman has been known to capture one with his
hands.
Hails are solitary, differing in this from the majority of
migratory birds, which generally assemble in flocks previous to
undertaking long journeys.
The nest is roughly constructed among the reeds and flags of
some quiet pond or river bank. The females lay from six to eight
eggs. The young ones run as soon as they are hatched, and grow
very rapidly. Their favourite food is worms, insects, and shrimps,
but they do not reject wild corn and other seeds. Their flesh
is considered delicate, and is certainly superior to that of the
Water Hen : in the autumn it acquires an exquisite flavour
in the estimation of French gourmands.
Rails are very common in France. The species most abun-
dant there is the Land Rail, which is thus named from its habits
being more terrestrial than aquatic; besides, it gives a very
decided preference for fields, copses, heaths, and meadows. It is
vulgarly called the "King of the Quails/' probably from frequent-
ing the same localities. They do not acquire their most perfect
condition till the end of summer ; this, therefore, is the proper
time to kill them. Twenty species of Rails are enumerated, which
are spread over the various countries of the globe. However, the
characteristic features of all are nearly alike.
The COOT (Fulica) has a bill of moderate size, stout, tapering,
much depressed, with a well-developed frontal plate ; the toes are
slender, and edged with a broad, scalloped membrane. Their
plumage is glossy, soft, full, and blended, and impervious to
water.
Coots are essentially aquatic, frequenting lakes, pools, and
marshes, and sometimes the shores of estuaries, bays, and gulfs.
COOTS. 327
Like the Water Hen and the Rail, their life is almost nocturnal.
During the daytime they hide themselves amid the reeds and flags,
from which they do not emerge until the evening, when hunger
forces them to seek their food. This consists of worms, small
fishes, and the young shoots of aquatic plants. Coots but rarely
visit the dry fields, where they move about with great difficulty ;
on the other hand, they swim and dive with graceful ease. Their
flight is somewhat less feeble than that of the Hails ; still it is
far from strong.
Coots herd together in flocks ; they make their nests on the
reeds in the water, and lay from eight to fourteen eggs. The
young ones take to the water as soon as they are hatched, but they
\
Fig. 120.— The Bald Coot (Fulica atra, Sw.).
often fall a prey to the Marsh Harrier. It sometimes happens
that the whole brood is destroyed in this way : when such is
the case the female lays a second batch of eggs, which she hides
in the most retired spot, less accessible to the enemies of her
race.
The Coot is found in every country in Europe, in North
America, in Asia, and in Africa. Its flesh, which is white and
delicate in appearance, is usually very fat, but has a disagreeable
328
GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
taste and marsh-like odour. Three species are known, only one
of which is found in this country — namely, the Bald Coot (Fulica
atra), the Foulque macrouleof French naturalists, very common in
the north of France, and all quarters of the Old and New World ;
the Crested Coot (F. cristata), a native of Madagascar, but some-
times a visitor to the South of Europe, and differing very little
from the Common Coot, but distinguished from it by the red and
prominent bony protuberances at the top of the frontal plate ; and
the Blue Coot, which is described as an inhabitant of Portugal.
The GLAREOLA, or SEA PARTRIDGE ( Glareola perdix), has the bill
short and curved, the tarsi long and slender, the middle toe
joined to the outer by a small membrane, the wings long and
Fig. 121. — Collared Glareola (Hirundo prantincola, Linn.).
pointed, the tail forked. They live in flocks on the banks of
the Danube, the Yolga, and on the shores of the Black and
Caspian Seas. They feed on worms, water-insects, and especially
locusts, which they catch on the wing.
The JACANAS or PARR^E are characterised by a straight and
JACANAS.
329
middle-sized bill ; legs armed with pointed spurs ; toes furnished
with long and sharp-pointed claws, and a back toe longer even
than the front ones. These birds inhabit Asia, Africa, and South
America. In Brazil they are called " Surgeon-birds," from the
resemblance the claw on their back toe bears to a lancet. They
frequent swamps, lagoons, and the margins of pools. They
walk on the wide- spreading leaves of tropical aquatic plants
with perfect ease, although they swim very imperfectly : some
naturalists, indeed, declare that they cannot swim at all, and
y
Fig. 122. — Jacana (Parra africana, Sw.)-
they are probably justified in this opinion by the appearance of
the bird, which seems to have few characteristics of an aquatic
species. Their flight is rapid, but not very high.
The Jacanas live in pairs. They are exceedingly numerous,
and perfectly fearless of man. They are restless and quarrelsome
in their nature, frequently engaging in conflict with other birds,
when they make good use of their spurs. They will defend
their offspring with daring courage even against man himself,
and will sacrifice their lives without hesitation in their defence.
The male and the female evince the tenderest mutual attach-
ment ; once united, they part no more during life. They make
their nest in a clump of flags or other aquatic plants, in which the
330
GRALLATOEES, OR WADING BIRDS.
female lays four or five eggs, on which she sits during the night
only, the high temperature produced by a tropical sun supplying
the necessary warmth. As soon as hatched the young ones leave
the nest, and are able to follow their parents about.
m
Fig. 123. — Horned Screamer or Kamichi (Pulamedea connita, Sw.).
The Common Jacana is black, with neck and shoulders of a
reddish brown, and green wing- feathers.
In the KAMICHI, or HORNED SCREAMER (Palamedea cornuta), the
beak is shorter than the head, slightly compressed, and bent at the
point; the wings are wide-spreading, and provided with strong
spurs on the shoulders ; the toes are separated, and furnished with
long, stout, and pointed claws. Their plumage is of a blackish
THE KAMICIII.
331
hue. Their size is about that of a Turkey. They are South
American birds. Their favourite haunts are moist, marshy
localities, inundated savannahs, or the oozy banks of shallow
streams. Although they do not swim, they venture on the
water in search of aquatic plants and their seeds. Some natu-
ralists, founding their belief on the presence of spurs with which
Fig. 124.— Faithful Kamiohi (Palamedea cristuta, Sw.).
this bird is provided, assert that it attacks small reptiles and
destroys them. This is now acknowledged to be an error.
These birds live isolated, in pairs ; they are mild and peaceful in
their nature, for the breeding season is the only time when they
seem at all disposed to use their weapons. At this period
the cocks engage in deadly conflict to gain possession of some
favourite mate. The union once formed, it is indissoluble, and
only terminates with the death of one of them. It is even
asserted that the survivor exhibits signs of great affliction, linger-
332 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
ing for days near the spot where cruel fate had severed him by
death from the loved one.
The Palamedea has many points of resemblance to the Galli-
naceous order : its comparatively short and thick tarsi, its general
make and gait, its habits of life and inoffensive nature, all remind
us of the above-named tribe. There is, therefore, no reason for
surprise in the fact that man has succeeded in domesticating them,
and even in turning them into useful assistants.
The Horned Kamichi is thus named on account of having on
its head a horn-like tuft, which is straight, thin, and movable,
about three inches long.
The Chaja, or Faithful Kamichi, has, instead of the horn, a
crest of feathers arranged in a circle on the back of its head.
This species is susceptible of education. It is easily tamed, and
becomes very friendly with man, proving itself an active, intelli-
gent, and devoted servant. It becomes at once the companion
and protector of the other denizens of the poultry-yard — so
much so, that in Brazil and Paraguay, where it is known solely
as the Chaja, the inhabitants have no hesitation in confiding
to its charge the care of their flocks of poultry. The Chaja
accompanies them into the fields in the morning, and at night-
fall conducts them back to their roosting-places. Should any
bird of prey come near, the guardian spreads out its broad wings,
darts upon the intruder, and soon makes him feel what a love
of justice can do when aided by four stout spurs.
LONGIROSTRES (Cuvier).
The birds composing this family are characterised by a long
and flexible bill, which is fitted for little else except boring in
mud and soft ground. They are indifferently shore or marsh
birds. Among them are comprised the Sandpipers, Turnstones,
Ruffs, Knots, Grodwits, Woodcocks, Snipes, Curlews, and Ibis.
The SANDPIPERS have a long, straight, thin bill, flexible at the
base, but firmer towards the point; the tarsi are slender and
elongated ; the wings very pointed ; the feet half webbed, the back
toe short, and touching the ground with the point only. They
SANDPIPEES.
333
live in small flocks on the banks of rivers and on the sea-coast.
Some species frequent marshy localities, others dry and sandy
districts. Their food is chiefly worms, insects, fish-spawn, and
sometimes even small fry and Crustacea. Their habits are peace-
able, and their movements easy and graceful. They may be
noticed on the strands and banks of our rivers, incessantly on
the move, running, swimming, and diving, all of which they per-
form with equal ease. They are gifted with a keen sight, for
not even the smallest insect in its vicinity can escape its vision.
The moment one of them descries a prey, the whole flock vie
with each other to obtain possession of it.
The Sandpipers are natives of the northern parts of the Old and
Fig. 125.— Kedshank (Totanus stagnatili, Teium.).
New World ; they visit France twice a year — in spring and
autumn. They breed in the North, and lay from three to five
eggs. The extreme delicacy of their flesh causes them to be much
sought after by epicures ; they are, therefore, captured in every
possible way. Extinction will probably be the result. To gratify
the tastes of the gourmand and the bloodthirsty instincts of the
poacher, the lovers of nature are, forsooth, to be deprived of one
of the most innocent and beautiful families of birds.
In France seven species of Sandpipers are known, varying in
334
GRALLATORES, OE WADING BIRDS.
size from that of the Sparrow to that of the Thrush. They are as
follows : — the Brown Sandpiper, called also the Harlequin Sand-
piper (Totanus fuscus), the Greenshank (Totanus glottis), the
Redshank (Totanus caledris), Fig. 125 ; the Pond Sandpiper ;
the Wood Sandpiper (Totanus glareola), the Green Sandpiper
(Totanus ackropus), the Common Sandpiper (Totanus hypoleucos).
The last kind is the smallest, and also the most prized.
The TURNSTONES (Strepsila) inhabit the sea-coasts of both con-
tinents. A single known species alone has been traced over most
parts of Europe, the Cape of Good Hope, and various parts of
Asia, Australia, and North America. It owes its name to the
peculiar method it adopts to find its food. This habit consists of
Fig. 126. — Turnstone (Cinclus mterpres, G. R. Gray).
lifting up the pebbles and shingles which lie spread over its
domain, the sea- shore, in order to discover the worms, Crustacea,
and insects concealed underneath. For this purpose it is provided
with a bill of medium length, tapering, pointed, and hard, which
it uses adroitly as a lever. It lives a solitary life, and does not
even congregate with its own species for the purpose of migra-
tion, but travels alone. Only in the North, whither it repairs
to breed, does it manifest any approach to sociability. The
female lays three or four rather large eggs of an ashy-grey
336 GBALLATORES, OE WADING BIEDS.
colour ; these are deposited in the bottom of a hole dug in the
sand on the shore. The young ones are very precocious, for
even on leaving the shell they run about with their parents to
seek their sustenance.
The only species of this genus, the Einged Turnstone, Strepsila
interpres (Fig. 126), is a bird of passage in France and England.
Its flesh is not without relish, but by no means equal to that of
the Plover.
The RUFF (Machetes pugnax, Temminck) commends itself to
the attention of the observer by the sudden metamorphosis which
seems to revolutionise its entire nature, in the early days of
May, at the first dawning of that charming month when all
nature appears to expand and array itself in every kind of
splendour, the better to render homage to the Creator. At this
season the plumage of the Ruff, which has hitherto been grave and
almost sombre, undergoes a most brilliant transformation. It
would strike the observer as if the agitation of love had the
effect of totally changing its plumage from one altogether devoid
of display to the most brilliant costume imaginable, for its neck
is now wreathed with a glittering collar, which extends by degrees
over shoulders and breast. On the top of its head, to the right
and left, two graceful plumes come forth, which vastly improve
its looks, and contribute in no small degree to the impres-
siveness of its demeanour. Brilliant hues of yellow, white,
and black, arranged in a hundred ever- varying shades, com-
bine to improve their plumage, making them most attractive to
look at.
This physical transformation produces a change in the temper
of the bird. Puffed up with pride, and elated at his own personal
magnificence, our hero suddenly finds himself subject to the most
warlike feelings.
But what is this object which catches his sight ? It is another
Ruff — a rival. Without hesitation he rushes immediately to meet
the stranger, who, nothing loath, charges in return at the top of his
speed. With stretched- out beak and crest erect, the two adversaries
impetuously close. A furious duel takes place, carried on in the sight
of the feebler sex, who pass their opinion on the blows which are
given and received, praise or blame them, and, by a cry at judicious
I
338 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
*
movements, reanimate the failing ardour of the gallant com-
batants. Fierce blows with the beak follow one another in
quick succession, blood soon flows, and the arena is reddened
around them, until at last the two weary champions roll over
m the dust, and lie side by side completely exhausted. During
two or three months these duels are of frequent occurrence,
and cannot fail to leave numerous gaps in the ranks of the
species.
In the beginning of August their rich vestments gradually
disappear, and the warlike fever as rapidly abates. The Ruff
now becomes a commonplace bird of peaceful habits, with no
other occupation but that of searching for worms and insects
on the shores of the ocean. Then is the time when they fall
under the sportsman's gun and into the snares of the bird-
catcher.
The Ruff soon gets accustomed to living in captivity. In
England, where they were formerly very numerous, and in
Holland, where they are probably so still, Ruffs are reared
and fattened for the table. They must, however, be kept in the
dark during the breeding season, to prevent them from giving
way to their turbulent tempers, which blaze out on the slightest
excitement under the influence of light.
These birds inhabit the northern and temperate countries of
Europe and Asia : in France they are common enough on the
north and north-west coast of the Channel. In spring they
fix their abode in moist and marshy meadows, where they lay
their eggs, four or five in number, of a greenish- grey hue,
speckled with small brown spots. In the autumn they spread
themselves along the sea- shore. Their size nearly equals that of
the largest of the Sandpipers.
The KNOT (Tringa, Linn.) has a bill as long as the head; the
toes divided, the back toe short ; the wings pointed ; a shape
rather heavy and thick- set. They frequent the sea- shore and
salt marshes, and, except by accident, never venture far inland.
They are natives of the Arctic Polar Circle, and visit our coasts
in the spring and autumn. They lay their eggs, four or five
in number, in their northern retreats.
THE WOODCOCK. 339
The Sanderlings ( Caledris) and the Curlews (Numenius, Latham)
are species closely allied to the Knots, but differing in their habits
and physical characteristics. They visit all the coasts of Europe
in small flocks, incessantly on the move. Even an abundance of
food does not suffice to keep them very long in the same locality :
motion seems the law of their existence.
The WOODCOCK (Scolopax rusticola) has a very long, straight,
and slender bill ; the head flattened ; the tarsi short ; and the legs
covered with feathers. They live in the woods, and do not frequent
the sea-shore or river-banks. They differ from the Snipes in
haying the body fuller, the tibiae feathered at the joint, the tarsi
shorter, the wings broader, and the bill firmer (Fig. 129). They
Fig. 129. — Common Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola, Teniin.).
are also larger in size. In points they differ from most of the
Grallae; but, taken as a whole, it has been thought right to
place them among this order.
The Woodcock inhabits, during the summer, the lofty, wooded
mountain-ranges of Central and Northern Europe. Driven away
by the severe cold, they descend into the plains, and reach France
and England about the month of November. They are shy, timid
birds, and conceal themselves all day long in the depths of the
most retired woods, busying themselves in turning over the leaves
with their bills to catch worms and grubs, which form their
340
GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
food. The brightness of daylight prevents their seeing clearly,
and they do not possess full power of their visual faculties until
evening, when they emerge from their retreats, and seek their
sustenance in the cultivated fields, damp meadows, or in the
vicinity of springs.
Woodcocks do not all migrate, but remain throughout the year
in the neighbourhood of springs which the most bitter cold cannot
freeze. Solitary during the greater part of the year, they pair
in spring ; building their nest on the ground with grass and
roots, placing it close to the trunk of some tree (the Scotch fir
by preference, it is said), or in a holly-bush. The female lays
iig. lau.- Woodcocks (White and Isabella-coloured).
four or five oval eggs, rather larger than those of a Pigeon. The
young ones run about as soon as they are hatched : the parent
birds guard them with careful solicitude, and manifest on all occa-
sions the greatest love of their offspring. If any danger threatens,
the old birds catch up their young, holding them under their
necks by means of their beaks, and afterwards transferring them
to a place of safety.
These birds seem always to feel an affection for places they
have once frequented, and love to return to them ; the fol-
lowing fact, at least, would lead one to think so. A game-
keeper, having snared a Woodcock, gave it its liberty after
THE WOODCOCK. 341
fastening a copper ring to its leg. The following year he per-
fectly recognised, by the help of this mark, the Woodcock which
had formerly been his captive ; it had again visited its old
haunts.
During ten months of the year the Woodcock is mute ; when
the early leaves begin to bud it utters a feeble cry—pitt-pitt-corr !
— to attract a mate.
The plumage of the Woodcock is remarkable for the harmony
of its shades ; it is a happy mixture of brown, russet, grey, black,
and white. It is not an unusual thing to meet with Woodcocks
entirely of the latter ; they are the albinos of their kind. Others
are arrayed in an Isabelle-coloured plumage (Fig. 130) ; but
white, with grey or brown mottlings, are their principal pecu-
liarities of plumage.
The Woodcock is very clean in its habits : nothing prevents
it pluming and dressing its feathers twice a day. At morning
and evening they can be seen bending their course in rapid flight
towards rivulets or springs to bore for insects, quench their thirst,
and arrange their toilette.
This bird is found in almost all the departments in France, but
principally in 1'Ain and 1'Isere. We need hardly say that they
are sought after with an eagerness that no obstacle seems to dis-
courage. One can scarcely imagine the pitch of enthusiasm some
of our sportsmen possess for pursuit of the Woodcock. They
will walk for ten or twelve hours in the mud, leave shreds of
their garments hanging on every bush and bramble they pass,
exercise all their ingenuity in manoauvring and cunning, and, as
a recompense for all these exertions, not discouraged, perhaps find
"the bird flown." This is a short compendium of the results
often enjoyed in seeking this woodland denizen.
The chief difficulty in pursuing these birds is, first, to find them,
and then to make them flush. Hidden motionless and mute in
the thickest bushes, they emit but very little scent to catch the
nose of the dog, which ranges about in every direction, dis-
heartened with such laborious and often unprofitable work. After
a long trial of patience and perseverance, scratched and torn by
thorns and briers, the slightest taint on the air tells the secret —
• ;;i T ' ;, •
THE SNIPE, 343
the dog draws. As soon as the sportsman sees or knows that
his dog is "pointing" at the game, he advances quietly, and
judging as well as he can of the locality of the bird, places him-
self in the best position for firing when it flushes (Fig. 131). If
he misses his aim, all he has to do is to follow up, for it is likely
enough to drop again only a short distance on0. Still the labour
to force the game to take wing a second time is not less arduous
than heretofore. Both man and dog are often put on the wrong
scent by the turns, twists, and circuits of their tracks, and all the
other tricks of concealment with which this bird is familiar. If at
last the Woodcock succumbs, it will not be till it has thoroughly
fatigued its persecutors.
In Brittany, some years ago, Woodcocks were so common
that the inhabitants were in the habit of catching them with
nets in the following singular way: — Two men went out toge-
ther at night, one carrying a lantern, the other a small net
fastened at the end of a long stick. They proceeded to those
parts of the woods where deer had been grazing, which places
are always favourite haunts of the Woodcocks on account of
their finding worms and insects among their droppings. The
rays of light from the lantern were suddenly thrown on the birds
while feeding; the latter, dazzled with the brilliancy, allowed
themselves to be entangled in the meshes of the net before they
thought of flight.
A similar method to the above is practised by the negroes on
the Southern plantations of the United States, with this difference
— instead of a net, only a club is used for their destruction.
Often the slaughter of a successful night amounts to hundreds.
The American Woodcock is scarcely as large as the European
bird, nor is their colour the same.
The Woodcock constitutes a delicious article of food from its
exquisite flavour and piquancy : it in consequence holds the highest
rank among game in the eyes of the epicure.
The SNIPE much resembles the Woodcock, but is smaller, with
longer tarsi. It is also different in its habits. It haunts marshes
and fens, feeding on grubs, and sometimes even on aquatic
plants. It travels during the night as well as in the day,
344 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
generally preferring stormy, damp weather for performing its
migrations.
The Snipe is found in all latitudes in every part of the
globe. Some remain the year round in France and Ireland.
They make their nests among reeds in muddy, boggy places,
difficult of access to both man and beast, in which they lay
four or five eggs. The young ones leave the nest as soon as
they are hatched, and are fed by their parents for some time,
Fig. 132. — 1. Jack Snipe. 2. Common Snipe (Scolopax gallinula, Scolopax gallinago, Linn.).
the want of solidity in their bills not permitting them to bore for
their own food.
The Snipe does not live so solitary a life as the Woodcock ; it
is occasionally seen in wisps or flocks. When flushed they utter
a shrill cry, which is easily recognised. They visit us in autumn,
coming from the marshes of Poland and Hungary, whither they
return again in the spring. The most common species are the
Common Snipe (Scolopax gallinago, Fig. 132, 2), the Great Snipe
(S. major), the Jack Snipe (S. gallinula , Fig. 132, 1), Sabine
Snipe (8. Sabini), and the American variety (S. Wilsonii).
The Common Snipe is no bigger than a Thrush, and has a bill
longer in proportion than the Woodcock. It has on the head
THE GODWIT. 345
two longitudinal black stripes ; the neck and shoulders are
blackish, and the breast white. It is persecuted by some of the
small birds of prey, such as the Merlin, the Hobby, and the
Kestrel. But, among all its enemies, man is most to be dreaded ;
he looks upon it as nearly equal to the Woodcock, and for this
reason pursues it with the greatest perseverance. It is true that
the sportsman pays dearly enough for the pleasure of killing this
favourite game ; for Snipe-shooting is not only more fatiguing
than pursuit of the Woodcock, but is occasionally dangerous.
Has not the Snipe-shooter the horrible prospect of rheumatism
saddling itself upon him at an age when most persons are still
vigorous, to say nothing of the falls he is almost sure to meet
with on the perfidious surface of the bogs and marshes traversed,
which might perchance even bury him in their muddy depths ?
Certainly this thought ought to cause reflection ; but as rheuma-
tism generally makes its appearance late in life, we seldom worry
ourselves about it when young. Besides the drawback of rheu-
matism, Snipe- shooting is accompanied by innumerable difficulties.
Immediately on the bird rising it makes two or three sudden
twists, which often baffle even the best shots : proficiency can
only be attained by long experience, aided by considerable rapidity
and steadiness of hand and eye.
The Great Snipe is about a third larger than that of which we
have just been speaking.
The Jack or Deaf Snipe is thus named because it fails to
notice the approach of the sportsman, and gets up literally under
his feet. This is the smallest of the European species.
Wilson's Snipe (Scolopax Wilsonii) is a native of America. In
size it is the same as our Common Snipe. On the prairies of the
Western continent it is found in immense numbers. It is, strictly
speaking, migratory. The male and female differ slightly in
plumage and size, the former having a white breast, while the
latter has a brown one. As a table delicacy they cannot be sur-
passed.
The GODWIT (Limosa), Fig. 133, is a beautiful bird, of slender
make, with long legs. It is larger than the Woodcock, with a
longer beak, this being twice the length of its head, and slender
346
GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
and tapering towards the point, which is rather depressed, and
slightly curved upwards.
These birds inhabit the North of Europe, and in the autumn
regularly visit France, and the English coast from Cornwall to
the north-east extremity of Scotland. They make their nests in
meadows near kthe sea, among the grass and rushes, and lay
four eggs, very large in proportion to the size of the bird.
Their flesh is much esteemed, and, with the exception of that of
.
Fig. 133.— Godwits (Limosa melanura, Temm.).
the Woodcock and Snipe, is undeniably the best among the
group of Waders that frequent our coast.
The male Godwit is always smaller than the female. Two
species of this bird are known — the Black- tailed Godwit (Limosa
aegocephala) , and the Barred- tailed Godwit (Limosa rufa).
The CURLEW (Numenius), Fig. 134, is remarkable for the im-
moderate length of its bill, which is slender, curved, and round
from end to end. Its wings are medium- sized, and tail short.
Its plumage is a mixture of grey, russet, brown, and white. It
derives its name from the plaintive, melancholy cry which it
utters when it takes flight.
These birds frequent the sea-coast and the vicinity of marshes,
feeding on worms, water-insects, and small mollusks. They
THE CURLEW. 347
plunge their bills into the ground, to a small portion of which
they communicate a vibratory movement ; the worms, disturbed in
their subterranean dwellings, come up to the surface, and are
immediately swallowed.
The gait of the Curlews, generally speaking, is grave and
measured ; but if any one disturbs them previous to taking wing,
they begin running with astonishing rapidity. They are capable
Fig. 134. — Curlew (Numenius arguatus, Gould).
of a prolonged flight, but do not generally venture far into the
interior of the country ; it is on the coast they are always most
abundant. They live together in numerous flocks, except during
their breeding-time, when they isolate themselves in order to
build their nests in some dry place among the grass. The female
lays four or five eggs. The young ones run about to seek their
food as soon as they leave the shell, and receive no attentions
from their parents.
The Curlew is of a wild and timid nature. Nevertheless, in
Senegal, they have been domesticated ; to no great advantage, it
is true, as their flesh always retains a very marshy flavour.
Curlews abound all over the globe. They are very common in
France, where they arrive in the month of April, leaving again
348 GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS.
in August, although sometimes they pass the winter on the
coast. Of their sojourn in the British Islands the same may be
said. A beautiful variety of the Curlew is found in America. In
shooting them the great difficulty is to get within range. The
sportsman, if well secreted, may occasionally succeed in obtaining
a shot at Curlews by imitating their call.
The IBIS has a long bill, curved in the direction of the ground,
almost square at its base, and rounded towards the termination ;
the head and neck are bare. It has four toes ; the three front
ones are united at the base by a membrane ; the whole length of
the back toe rests upon the ground.
These birds are inhabitants of the warm regions of Africa, Asia,
and America ; only one species, the Green Ibis, being found in
Europe. They are to be met with in companies of seven or eight
together, in moist and marshy grounds, and on the banks of
large rivers, where they catch the worms, water-insects, and small
mollusks which form the principal part of their food. They also
crop young and tender aquatic plants. Their nature being mild
and peaceable, they do not keep shifting about with that petu-
lance which characterises some of the Grallse, but have been
observed to remain for hours in the same place engaged in
digging into the mud which conceals their small prey. Like
nearly all the other birds of this order, they migrate every year,
and undertake long journeys from one continent to another.
They are monogamous, each pair swearing, as it were, eternal
fidelity to one another, and death alone can sever the bonds
fortified by affection and habit. They usually build their nests
on lofty trees, but sometimes on the ground ; the female lays
two or three whitish eggs, which hatch in from twenty-five to
thirty days.
There are eighteen to twenty species of the Ibis, of which three
only merit our attention. These are the Sacred Ibis, the Gfreen
Ibis, and the Scarlet Ibis.
The Sacred Ibis (Ibis religiosa) is about the size of a Fowl. Its
plumage is white, with black at the extremity of the wings and
on the rump. It has enjoyed celebrity from ancient times, on
account of the veneration of which it was the object by the
THE IBIS.
349
Egyptians. They set it up in their temples as a divinity, and
allowed it to multiply in their cities to such an extent that, if
we can believe Herodotus and Strabo, it actually impeded the
traffic. Whoever killed an Ibis, even by accident, at once be-
came the victim of a mad crowd, who stoned him pitilessly ;
and the dead bird was embalmed with the "greatest care, and
then placed in earthen pots
hermetically sealed, which were
ranged in special catacombs.
A large number of mummies
of the Ibis have been found
in the necropoles of Thebes
and Memphis, and several
specimens of them are to be
seen in the Museum of Natural
History at Paris.
The Egyptian worship of
the Ibis is a certain and in-
contestable fact. Less cer-
tain, however, is the origin of
these honours. Herodotus has
given an explanation, obscure
enough, it is true, but which, however, was adopted by his suc-
cessors, and for a long time accepted by our savants.
"The Arabians assure us," says Herodotus, "that the great
veneration which the Egyptians render to the Ibis is caused by
the gratitude which they feel towards them for ridding the country
of winged serpents"
According to tradition, these "winged serpents" came into
Egypt from Arabia at the commencement of spring. They*
always followed the same route, and invariably passed through a
certain defile, where the Ibis waited for them and destroyed them.
Herodotus adds that, having gone to Arabia to obtain some certain
information about these "winged serpents," he saw, lying on the
ground near the city of Buto, " an immense quantity of bones
and vertebra) unmistakably those of the winged plagues."
Since the time of Herodotus, a great many authors, probably on
Fig. 135. — Sacred Ibis (Ibis religwsa, Cuv.). ',
350 GEALLATOBES, OE WADING BIEDS.
his authority, have reproduced this fable, and enriched it with
variations more or less fanciful. Cicero, Pomponius Mela, Solinus,
Ammianus, and -ZElian have mentioned it. According to the
last writer, the Ibis inspired the serpents with so much dread,
that the very sight of its plumage was sufficient to drive them
away, and a mere touch killed them at once, or at least stupefied
them.
Let it suffice that all these naturalists admit that the Egyp-
tians venerated the Ibis for the service which it rendered by
destroying numbers of venomous serpents. In the narrative
of Herodotus, as we have seen, the expression " winged serpents "
is used for venomous ones. The translation is rather a free
one, it must be confessed. Moreover, it is the opinion of M.
Bourlet, who has written a memoir on the subject, that by
the term " winged serpents " Herodotus intended to describe
locusts, innumerable swarms of which were wont to traverse
Egypt and the adjacent countries, destroying everything as they
pass. This explanation appears to us better than the former, for
it is a fact that the Ibis cannot attack serpents, its bill being too
weak for such a purpose.
Having quoted M. Bourlet's opinion, we may as well give that
of Savigny, the naturalist, whose studies on the subject have been
published in the " Histoire Mythologique de 1'Ibis."
" Between aridity and contagion, the two scourges which in all
ages have been so dreaded by the Egyptians," says the author,
" it was soon perceived that when a district was rendered fertile
and healthy by pure and fresh water, it was immediately fre-
quented by the Ibis, so that the presence of the one always
indicated that of the other, just as if the two were inseparable ;
they therefore believed that the two had a simultaneous existence,
and fancied some supernatural and secret relations existed between
them. This idea, being so intimately connected with the pheno-
mena on which their existence depended — I mean the periodical
overflowing of their river — was the first motive for their venera-
tion of the Ibis, and became the basis of the homage which
ultimately developed into the worship of the bird."
Thus, according to Savigny, the Ibis was venerated by the
CULTEIROSTKES. 351
Egyptians only because it announced to them the annual over-
flowing of the Nile. This explanation is now generally accepted.
This bird, whose attachment to Egypt was formerly so great
that, according to .Mian, it suffered itself to die of hunger when
it left the country, strange to say, now is scarcely ever seen there.
The cause of this probably is, that the modern Egyptians, treading
under foot the ancient faith of their fathers, kill and eat the Ibis
as they would any other fowl, without remembering its former
rank of divinity. Being deprived of the ancient protection which
rendered Egypt so dear to it, the Ibis has almost deserted the
ungrateful land of the Pharaohs. Still it occasionally pays brief
visits to the Delta at the time of the rise of the Nile ; but it
soon takes flight into the wilds of Abyssinia, forgotten and
unregretted. It is also found in Senegal and at the Cape of Good
Hope.
The Green Ibis (/. falcinellus), called by Herodotus the Black
Ibis, has black plumage, variegated with green on the upper part.
It inhabits the north of Africa and the south of Europe. Like
the first-mentioned bird, it was held sacred by the Egyptians.
The Scarlet Ibis (/. ruber) is indigenous to America, and is found
principally in Guiana, where it associates in flocks at the mouths of
the rivers. Its plumage is of a beautiful vermilion colour, tipped
with black at the ends of the wings. It does not, however, wear
this brilliant plumage till about two years old. The young are
very readily tamed, and their flesh is tolerably well-tasted.
CULTRIROSTRES.
The Cultrirostres (or knife-shaped bill) have a long, strong, and
sharp- edged bill. They are generally provided with stout tarsi,
and frequent the edges of marshes and banks of rivers. Many of
them enjoy the faculty of being able to stand on one leg for hours
together. This singular attitude is rendered possible by means of
a curious mechanism, which was discovered by Dumeril. The
tibia, in its junction with the femur, presents a protuberant knot,
which forcibly stiffens the ligaments of the knee, forming a kind
of catch, similar to the spring of a knife.
352
GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
The principal species of this family are— the Spoonbill (Platalea},
Stork (Ciconia), Jabiru (Mycteria, Linn.), Ombrette, Bec-ouvert,
Drome, the Boatbills (Cancroma), Heron (Ardea), Crane (Grus),
Agami and Caurale, and the Cariama (Palamedea cristata).
The SPOONBILL is remarkable for the singular form of its bill,
which is about four times the length of the head, straight, and
Fig. 136.— Common White Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia, Linn.).
flexible ; the upper mandible, about an inch and a quarter broad at
the base, gradually narrows to three-quarters, and again increases
to two inches at the point, causing a resemblance to a spoon, from
which it takes its name. It uses this bill for dipping into the mud
and water, whence it extracts worms and small fish, on which it
principally feeds. It also eats water-insects, which it catches by
placing.its bill half open on the surface of the water, permitting
them thus to float on to the lower mandible. It lives in small
companies, and frequents places near the sea- shore. It is easily
tamed.
There are two species of them : the White Spoonbill, which has
a tuft on the back of its neck, and is found in most parts of
Europe — it is, however, seldom met with in France, and then only
in the south; and the Rose-coloured Spoonbill, a native of South
STOKKS. 353
America, the plumage of which, presents the most beautiful
tints.
The STORK ( Ciconia) has a long and straight bill, wide at the base,
pointed, and sharp- edged; legs long and slender; tibia bare for
half its length ; tarsi long, compressed, reticulated ; hind toe short,
slightly elevated, and inserted rather high, but resting upon
the ground ; the tail is short. They are found in nearly all parts
of the world. Some species migrate with great p regularity,
being admirably constructed for travelling considerable distances ;
for, although their bulk seems great, their weight is comparatively
small, as most of their bones are hollow. In their migratory
journeys they fly in continuous or angular lines, and chiefly by
night.
Storks live in moist and swampy places by the side of pools
and rivers. They feed principally on reptiles, batrachians, and
fishes ; but they also devour the smaller birds and mammalia,
mollusks, worms, and insects ; among the latter, even bees become
their victims, nor do they disdain carrion and other impurities.
Their manner is slow and grave, and they are rarely seen to run.
They have wonderful powers of flight : on the wing they resemble
crosses, from their manner of carrying the head and neck. They
have no voice, and the only noise they make is a cracking, which
results from one mandible of the bill striking against the other,
and which expresses either anger or love ; it is sometimes very
loud, and, under favourable circumstances, may be heard as much
as a league away. They lay from two to four eggs, their fecundity
increasing in an inverse ratio to their size. The duration of
their life is from fifteen to twenty years.
There are several species of Storks, the most important being
the White Stork (Ciconia alba). It measures about forty inches
in height ; length to end of tail, forty-two inches ; wings,
extended, seventy-six inches ; its plumage is white ; the wings
are fringed with black. This is the species best known in
Europe ; it is chiefly met with in Holland and Germany. In
France, Alsatia is chosen as a residence by nearly all those that visit
that country. It is so rarely seen in England, that there it has
become almost a matter of legend. It is very common in the warm
and temperate parts of Asia. Leaving France every year in the
A A
354 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
month of August in order to visit Africa, it returns in the follow-
ing spring. This migration is not caused by temperature, as the
Stork can bear the most bitter cold. No, it is a mere question
of sustenance ; for feeding, as it does, principally upon reptiles
which remain in a complete state of torpor during our winters,
it is naturally compelled to seek its food elsewhere.
The Stork is of a mild nature, and is easily tamed. As it
destroys a host of noxious creatures, it has become a useful helper
to man, who is not ungrateful, for he has in all ages given it
succour and protection. In ancient Egypt it was venerated on
the same score as the Ibis ; in Thessaly there was a law which
condemned to death any one killing these birds. Even at the
present day the Germans and Dutch esteem it a happy omen
when the Stork chooses their house as its home. They go so far
as to furnish it with the means of doing this, by placing on
the roof a box or a large wheel ; this forms the framework of
the nest, which the bird then finishes according to its fancy
with reeds, grass, and feathers.
When the Stork has attached itself to a place, and is kindly
treated, it sometimes loses the habit of migrating. It cannot,
however, quite get rid of a certain agitation when the season for
departure comes : occasions have been known where it yielded to
the appeals of its wild companions and to the desire for progeny (for
in captivity it is always barren), and was allured away to join the
band of travellers. But this separation is only temporary ;
the next year the truant returns to the same house, and again
takes possession of its domicile with many a flapping of
wings to testify its joy. It exhibits great pleasure in renewing
acquaintance with the denizens of the house, and is not long in
placing itself on a footing of familiarity with them. It frolics
with the children, caresses the parents, plagues the dogs and
the cats — in a word, manifests a gaiety and susceptibility of
affection which one would hardly expect to find in a bird gene-
rally so dull and taciturn. It presents itself at the family meals,
and takes its share of them. If its master tills the ground, it
follows him step by step, and devours the worms which are turned
up by the spade or the plough.
STOEKS.
The Stork may certainly be set up as a model for all mothers :
its love for its young ones sometimes even approaches heroism.
We will give two touching instances.
In 1536 a fire broke out in the city of Delft, in Holland. A
Stork, whose nest was placed on one of the burning buildings,
made at first every effort to save its progeny. Finally, seeing its
inability to assist them, it suffered itself to be burnt with its loved
ones rather than abandon them.
In 1820, at another fire at Kelbra, in Russia, some Storks,
when threatened by the flames, succeeded in saving their nest and
young ones by sprinkling them
with water, which they brought
in their beaks. This last fact
proves to what an extent in-
telligence may be excited un-
der the influence of maternal
love.
The Stork is not only a good
mother, but she is also an ex-
cellent wife. The attachment
which these birds show for
each other when they are once
paired has long back procured
for them a high reputation for
conjugal fidelity. Thus, in the
Yorarlberg (Tyrol), a male
Stork was known to have
refused to migrate, passing ^ 137._whii;stork (Ciclmia atba< Temm).
several winters by the side
of his mate, which, in consequence of a wound in her wing, was
unable to fly.
We must, however, add that some lady Storks are by no
means slow in consoling themselves for the loss of husbands who
ought to be the subjects of eternal regret. A few tears, as a
matter of form, and their grief ends ! Sprungli notes the case
of one widowed Stork who contracted new bonds after two days'
mourning. Another gave evidence of the most guilty perversity.
A A2
356 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
The lady began by betraying the confidence of him with whom
she had united her destinies ; his presence had evidently become
insupportable to her, and she finally killed him with the help of
her accomplice.
These errors of the female render the high morality of the
male more conspicuous. Witness the following story, related by
Neander : —
A number of Storks had taken up their abode in the market-
town of Tangen, in Bavaria. Perfect harmony reigned in every
family, and their lives were passed in happiness and freedom.
Unfortunately, a female, who had been up to that time the most
correct of Storks, allowed herself to be led away by the idle
gallantries of a young male ; this took place in the absence of
her mate, who was engaged in seeking food for his family. This
guilty liaison continued until one day the male, returning un-
expectedly, became convinced . of her infidelity. He did not,
however, venture to take the law into his own hands ; he was
reluctant to dip his bill into the blood of her he had once loved so
fondly. He arraigned her before a tribunal composed of all the
birds at the time assembled for their autumnal migration.
Having stated the facts, he demanded the severest judgment of
the court against the accused. The ungrateful spouse was con-
demned to death by unanimous consent, and was immediately
torn in pieces. As to the male bird, although now avenged, he
departed to bury his sorrows in the recesses of some desert, and
the place which once knew him afterwards knew him no more.
The Storks of the Levant manifest a still greater susceptibility.
The inhabitants of Smyrna, who know how far the males carry
their feelings of conjugal honour, make these birds the subjects of
rather a cruel amusement. They divert themselves by placing
Hen's eggs in the nest of the Stork. At the sight of this unusual
production the male allows a terrible suspicion to gnaw his heart.
By the help of his imagination, he soon persuades himself that
his mate has betrayed him ; in spite of the protestations of the
poor thing, he delivers her over to the other Storks, who are
drawn together by his cries, and the innocent and unfortunate
victim is pecked tp pieces.
THE MAEABOUT. 357
Besides the numerous virtues that we have just stated — paternal
love, conjugal fidelity, chastity, and gratitude — the ancients
attributed to them, (among birds) the monopoly of filial piety.
They believed that these birds maintained and nourished their
parents in their old age, and devoted themselves to alleviating the
trials of the last years of their lives with the most tender care:
Hence was derived the name of the " Pelargonian Law " (from the
Greek TreXapyos, a Crane), the name given by the Greeks to the law
which compelled children to maintain their parents when old age
had rendered them incapable of working. This last feature in its
character has not a little contributed to the universal celebrity of
the Stork.
The flesh of the Stork forms but a poor article of food ; it is,
therefore, rather difficult to see why the sportsmen in our country
persist in shooting at it every time that they get a chance. The
reprehensible mania which our French Nimrods possess of indis-
criminately massacring everything which shows itself within
reach of their guns is a disgrace to those who practise it, and an
injury to the community at large. The result is that the Stork,
meeting with nothing but ill-treatment in return for its loyal and
useful services, is gradually retiring from France,, and before long
will have completely abandoned it.
The Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) is rather smaller than the
one above named ; it is a native of Eastern Europe, and is rarely
seen in France. It feeds almost exclusively on fish, which it
catches with much skill. It is very shy, and avoids the society of
man ; it builds its nest in trees.
The ARGALA, or MARABOUT, also called the Adjutant Bird,, or
Gigantic Crane, is characterised by its very strong and large
bill, and the bareness of its neck, the lower part of which is pro-
vided with a pouch somewhat resembling a large sausage ; but,
according to Temminck, there is a notable difference between the
African Marabout and the African Argala, the characteristic mark
of the latter frequently hanging down a foot, while it is much
shorter in the Marabout.
These birds are inhabitants of India ; they feed on reptiles and
all kinds of filth, and this fact has been the means of securing for
358
GRALLATOKES, OR WADING BIRDS.
them the good-will of the people. In the large cities of Hindostaii
they are as tame as dogs, and clear the streets of every kind of
rubbish which litters them. At meaj-times they never fail drawing
themselves up in line in front of the barracks, to eat the refuse
thrown to them by the soldiers : their gluttony is so great that
they will swallow enormous bones. At Calcutta and Chander-
Fig. 138.— Adjutant (Ciconia argala, Selby).
nagore they are protected by the law, which inflicts a fine of ten
guineas on any one killing a Marabout.
The long white feathers, celebrated for their delicacy and airi-
ness, which are used in the adornment of ladies' bonnets, and
known in commerce by the name of Marabout feathers, come from
this bird, and grow under its wings. Consequently, in spite of
THE JABIRU.
359
their ugliness, a good many Marabouts are reared in a domestic
state in order that these lovely feathers, on which our European
fair ones place so much value, may be plucked from them at the
proper seasons.
There are several other species which are allied to the Storks,
Fig. 139. — The American Jabiru (Myctcria nmericana^ Linn.).
and are only distinguished from them by a slightly different form
of the bill. We will confine ourselves to merely naming them
and pointing out the localities they inhabit. They are as follows :
— The Jabiru (Fig. 139), which is a native of South America;
the Ombrette, which is found in Senegal ; the Bec-ouvert, which
inhabits India and Africa (Senegal and Caffraria) ; the Drome,
360
GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
which, is met with on the shores of the Black Sea and Senegal ;
and finally, the Tantalus, which lives in the warm regions of both
the New and Old World.
Whoever has once set eyes on the BOATBILL or SAVACOU (Fig.
140) will never forget the hird, or confound it with any other.
What, it will he asked, is there so characteristic about it ? Nothing
Fig. 140.— The Common Boatbill (Cancroma cochlearia, Linn.).
else but its bill, which certainly is the most singular implement
one can well imagine. Fancy two long and wide spoons, with their
hollow sides placed one against the other, the end of the upper spoon
being furnished with two sharp teeth, and we shall have some
idea of this extraordinary storehouse, as it may be called, for the
proprietor can easily stuff into it provisions for a whole day. If
we add to this that the Savacou possesses a beautiful black crest
which hangs down behind its head, that it is about the size of a
THE HEEON. 361
Fowl, also that it has short wings, and rests its four toes firmly
on the ground, we shall then have a pretty exact portrait of our
subject. This bird inhabits the savannahs of Central America,
and occasionally the southern portion of the United States, fre-
quenting the banks of rivers, where it feeds on fish, mollusks,
and sometimes crabs. It makes its nest in the thick under-
brush.
The HERONS (Ardea), which form a genus of birds of the order
of Cultrirostres, have the bill long, pointed, opening widely, and
very strong ; their legs are in part bare of feathers ; toes long, and
furnished with sharp claws, not excepting the back toe, the whole
length of which rests upon the ground ; the neck is long and
slender. Further, the back of the head is adorned with a tuft
of long feathers, which fall over its shoulders like a plume, whilst
those in front, which are narrow and pendent, resemble a kind
of beard at the bottom of the neck.
These birds lead a semi-nocturnal life, and frequent the margins
of lakes, marshes, and rivers, where they feed on reptiles, frogs,
and fish. They are generally of a shy nature, and live in solitude
in the most unfrequented portions of extensive woodlands. When
they want to seek their prey, they go into the water until it
reaches half-way up their legs, and with the neck doubled down
over the breast, and the head buried between the shoulders,
they sometimes remain for hours together immovable as statues.
If any fish glides along within reach of them, they suddenly
stretch out their necks, as if impelled by a spring, and, with a
sharp movement of the bill, impale the unfortunate victim. When
their fishing is not very productive they dig into the mud with
their feet, to turn out the frogs and other reptiles that are con-
cealed in it. If compelled by hunger, they will attack rats, wood
and field mice, and if further pressed they show no repugnance
to carrion. They can, however, endure abstinence for a con-
siderable time.
Most of the Herons are endowed with great powers of flight.
When compelled by unusually severe weather, they occasionally
migrate, the young and the old travelling separately. Nevertheless,
as they can accommodate themselves to almost any temperature,
362 GRALLA.TORES, OR WADING BIRDS.
some species are stationary, and they are to be met with all the
year round in countries the most dissimilar.
The principal species of Herons are the Ash-coloured or
Common Heron (Fig. 141), the Purple Heron, the White Heron,
the Bittern, the Wight Heron, and the Crab-eater.
Every one knows the Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), at least by
reputation, if only from La Fontaine's verse : —
" Heron with the long bill, fit handle of a longer neck."
Its height is about forty inches, and it is found in nearly all parts
of the globe. It is the most common of the French Herons, and
the only one which joins its fellows during the breeding season, in
order to build their nests and sit on their eggs, and rear their
young in company. The place appropriated for this assemblage is
generally a clump of lofty trees in the neighbourhood of some
large lake or river. On the summits of these trees, or in the
angles formed by the branches, the Herons build their nests,
which are of very simple construction — a few boughs interwoven
together with smaller twigs, and without any additions, such
as moss, grass, &c., with which smaller birds love to line
their dwellings. In these nests the females lay three or four
eggs, and the males share with them the cares of incubation.
After the eggs are hatched, the male assists in the nourishment
of the young family. Frequently he disgorges into the bills
of his young ones the frogs and small fry he has just swal-
lowed ; sometimes he divides among them a large fish which he
brings from the adjacent lake or the more distant sea-shore.
Occasionally they undertake journeys in order to insure abun-
dance for their progeny, and their excursions often extend over
a very considerable tract of country.
When the young Herons are able to fly, they leave the nest and
provide for their own wants.
But the time for migration has arrived. About the beginning
of August, and always at the same date, the colony, then amount-
ing to five or six hundred individuals, range themselves in order
and quit the heronry. The following year they return thither,
and their arrival, like their departure, takes place on a regular
HEEONS. 363
day. It is remarked that the number of couples is always nearly
the same as that of the nests, so that each couple may readily find
a resting-place. The new generation must, therefore, have gone
to found a fresh colony in some other locality.
Heronries are becoming more and more rare. M. Toussenet
states that he has met with only one in all France, that at Ecury
(Marne), between Epernay and Chalons. They are not uncommon
in England, where many ancient families connect the heronry
with their ancestral grandeur. Lord Warwick's heronry, on
the classic Avon, still maintains seventy or eighty pairs of the
noble birds.
The Grey Heron has enemies in the Eagle, the Falcon, and the
Crows. The latter combine to steal its eggs ; the former aim at
the Heron itself, its flesh being much to their taste. When the
Heron finds itself pursued by a bird of prey, it immediately dis-
encumbers itself of all unnecessary ballast, and then endeavours to
get the uppermost in flying ; this plan is nearly its only means of
safety. Occasionally it succeeds, for the Heron is able to attain
immense altitudes. If it is close pressed, it makes an admirable
use of its bill as a means of defence, and has been known to
impale its adversary. Its usual tactics are, to wait for its enemy,
lance in rest, and to allow the latter to pierce himself through,
merely by his own impetuosity. If it has a chance to dart its
bill into the eye of its foe, it does not neglect so good an oppor-
tunity of utilising its small endowments. This is, in fact, a pri-
vate lunge, a coup de grace, and many a dog, hunting among
the reeds, has felt the poignancy of this offensive weapon. We
must, however, allow that the Heron is not always so fortunate,
and that oftener than not he becomes a prey to his eager adver-
saries— the Eagle and the Falcon.
The magnificent powers of flight possessed by the Heron, and
his clever devices in defending himself, gave rise, in days gone by,
to the very special regard with which he was honoured by kings
and princes, who hunted him with Falcons trained to the sport. The
poor Heron was doubtless not very gratified for these marks of
high esteem, and it is probable that, if he could be consulted at
the present day, he would bless the happy obscurity in which he
364 GBALLATOBES, OR WADING BIEDS.
is now allowed to vegetate. " It costs too mucli to shine in the
world," is the moral La Fontaine puts into the mouth of his
Heron.
Although its flavour is certainly as disagreeable as possible, the
flesh of the Heron was in the old time reckoned as a " royal dish,"
and was only served upon the tables of the great and powerful
of the earth. In order to procure this supposed delicacy more
easily, the idea arose of artificially arranging a certain part of the
forest so as to attract the unhappy birds into a retreat which
should realise all the characteristics of the natural heronry. The
birds here enjoyed all the comforts of life up to the moment when
they were ruthlessly torn from them at the will and pleasure of
their lord. We must add that they adopted the plan of taking
from them their progeny to assist the royal treasury ; for, as
Pierre Belon tells us, " they were in the habit of trading largely
in the young ones, which brought considerable sums of money."
Francis I. caused heronries to be established at Fontainebleau,
which, as connoisseurs tell us, were everything that could be
wished.
The Heron is quite susceptible of training when it is caught
young ; but it must always be little else than a bird of ornament,
as the service it can render amounts to little or nothing. When
adult at the time of capture it is altogether intractable, entirely
refusing food, and dying at the end of a few days.
The Purple Heron ( Ardea purpurea] has the same habits as the
one just spoken of, but it is a little smaller. It owes its name to
the colour of the numerous spots which adorn its livery. It is
rarely met with in France, but is pretty common at the mouths
of the Danube and Yolga, and on the margins of some of the lakes
in Tartary.
The White Heron (Egretta alba) is remarkable for its plumage,
which is entirely of a pure white. Two varieties of it are known
— the larger, generally called the Great Egret, is about the size
of the Ashy Heron; it is common in Eastern Europe, in the North
of Africa and America, and in the Malay Archipelago. The
smaller kind is known by the name of the Garzette Heron,
or the Little Egret, and is no bigger than a Crow ; it inhabits
HEKONS.
365
the confines of Asia and Eastern Europe, and regularly visits the
South of France.
These two species are adorned, during the breeding season,
with fine and silky feathers, which spring from the shoulders, and,
Fig. 141.— Common Herons (Ardea cinerea, Temrn.).
spreading out over the back, fall on each side of the tail in
elegant plumes. These are the feathers with which European
ladies are so fond of adorning themselves, and from them the
birds have derived their name.
Northern Africa presents us with a beautiful White Heron,
about the size of a Pigeon, the functions of which are extremely
interesting ; it is called the Ox-keeper. In Morocco this bird is
very common. It is in the habit of accompanying the oxen
into the fields, and takes the task of relieving the latter from
the numerous flies and insects with which they are annoyed. In
France it is met with only at the mouth of the Rhone.
366 GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS.
The BITTERN (Botaurus) has both the neck and legs shorter than
those of the Grey Heron ; its plumage is of a rich reddish yellow,
boldly variegated with dark markings. Districts intersected by
marshes are the chief places of its resort ; in these it keeps itself
hidden all day long among the reeds, motionless and silent.
Here, too, it makes its nest, almost on the ground, and close to
the water. It does not leave its hiding-place until the evening,
and then will fly up to so great a height as to be lost to view.
Its call to its mate is peculiar; it resembles the bellowing of a
bull, and can be heard more than half a league away. For this
reason the ancients called it Bos taurus — whence, by corruption,
comes the French Butor.
The Bittern is a very courageous bird; it will defend itself
energetically against any bird of prey, against dogs, and even
man. It is found all over Europe. Four British species are
described — B. stellaris, B. lentiginosus, B. minutus, and B.
comatus.
The CRANE ( Grus), which forms a genus among the Cultrirostres,
is characterised by a bill much longer than the head, stout,
straight, tapering, compressed, and pointed, but always slightly
cleft ; feet long ; tibia bare for a fourth of its length, covered with
hexagonal scales ; toes, four ; back toe short, which does not reach
the ground ; wings long and pointed. The Cranes are essen-
tially migratory birds, and possess wonderful requisites ; for, in
addition to prolonged powers of flight, they enjoy the valuable
faculty of being able to endure total abstinence from food for
several days — a faculty which, we may remark, is common to
most of the Wader tribe, though in a less degree.
There are three species described — the Ash- coloured Crane,
the Crested Crane, and the Demoiselle Crane.
The Ash-coloured Crane (Grus cinerea), Fig. , 142, is a fine
, bird, attaining nearly five feet in height. With the exception of
the neck, which is black, all the rest of its body is of a uniform
ashy- grey colour. The carriage of the bird is noble and graceful,
and the feathers on its rump, which rise up in undulating clusters,
add much to its elegance.
These Cranes are periodical visitors to France ; they arrive in
CRANES.
367
n
Europe in the month of April or May, passing the fine weather in
more northern countries. Towards the middle of October, on the
arrival of the first cold weather, they leave us, in order to winter
in Egypt, Abyssinia, or even Southern Asia. They travel
flocks, numbering sometimes
as many as three or four hun-
dred birds ; generally they
arrange themselves in two
lines, so as to form an isosceles
triangle, or a sort of wedge
with the point in front — the
most convenient formation
for cleaving the air with the
least amount of fatigue. From
time immemorial people have
been fond of saying that these
birds intrust the care of their
guidance to a chief, who, after
having led the way for a
certain time, and becoming
wearied, surrenders his charge
to one of his companions and
passes to the rear of the
band, where, like a new Cincinnatus, he resumes the position of
a simple citizen. The fact is, that the leader of the two files
changes perhaps ten times in a minute, and the apex of the angle
is occupied in succession by every Crane in the flock within a very
short space of time.
Cranes almost always travel at night, and alight down on the
ground during daytime to seek their sustenance. Sometimes,
however, they do not stop, and continue to push on through space,
giving utterance to startling cries, which probably are intended
as a rallying summons to those of the band which seem tempted
to linger on their journey. When they perceive a bird of prey,
or have to contend against a tempest, they abandon their usual
formation, and collect in a circular mass, so as better to resist the
enemy.
Fig" ^-
368 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
Cranes frequent large plains intersected with marshes and water-
courses. They feed on fish, reptiles, frogs, mollusks, worms,
insects, and even small mammals. Some kinds of grain have
also attractions for them, and they may not unfrequently be seen
invading the newly- sown fields to devour the seed which the
farmer has just committed to the soil.
When the breeding season arrives, they break up their social
compact, and pair off for the purposes of reproduction and
attending to the rearing of their young.
Their nests are but roughly constructed, and are placed on any
little piece of rising ground in the midst of the marshes ; in them
they lay usually two eggs, the male sharing with the female the
cares of incubation. Although these birds are ordinarily so
timid, and are alarmed at the least appearance of danger, yet,
when they have their young ones to defend, they become really
courageous. In this case they do not shrink from attacking
man.
The Crane ought to have been the emblem of vigilance. When
the flock go to sleep, with their heads hidden under their wings,
one of their number is specially charged with the duty of watching
over their common safety, and of giving alarm on the approach
of danger.
When caught young they are easily tamed, and in a very
short time will manifest considerable familiarity with their
keeper. They are, therefore, a good deal sought after in some
countries, both on account of their graceful shape, and also for
the sake of the vigilance which they exercise round about their
home.
These birds were well known in ancient times; Homer,
Herodotus, Aristotle, Plutarch, ^Elian, Pliny, and Strabo
have noticed them and their migrations. Unfortunately, not
content with correct observations, they have given credence to
some most ridiculous fables, invented in Greece and Egypt, the
classic and fertile lands of the marvellous. Thus, according to
the Egyptian story, the Cranes made an expedition to the sources
of the Nile to fight against the Pygmies, who were, as Aristotle
says, " a race of little men, mounted on little horses, who dwelt
CRANES. 3G9
According to Pliny, these little men were armed with
arrows, and mounted on rams ; they abode in the mountains of
India, and came down every spring to wage war against the
Cranes , whose sole object was to exterminate the Pygmies. The
Roman naturalist fancies that they succeeded in this destruc-
tive aim, for the town of Gerania, which even in his time was
ruined and deserted, was formerly, he asserts, inhabited by a
race of Pygmies, who were driven out by the Cranes. In the
views of modern commentators, these Pygmies were nothing but
monkeys, which assemble in large troops in the forests of Africa
and India, and always manifest hostility to birds.
The Greeks have also invented two stories about Cranes, which
are certainly very ingenious, but result from the error of attri-
buting too much importance to trifles. They say Cranes carry
a pebble in their mouths when they cross Mount Taurus, so
that they are compelled to keep mute ; they thus avoid exciting
the attention of the Eagles inhabiting those districts, which birds
are much disposed to do them mischief. In the same way, the
Crane which is placed as sentinel to watch over his sleeping com-
panions is bound to stand on one leg, and carry a stone in the
other claw, so that if he allows himself to be overtaken by slumber,
the fall of the pebble would wake him up. It was, as we are
aware, the expedient of the youthful Aristotle to hold an iron
ball suspended over a metal basin in order to wake himself
if he succumbed to sleep. We shall, I think, ascribe too
much ingenuity to the Crane in imputing to it an action of
Aristotle's.
The members of this interesting feathered tribe were said to
possess certain virtues. The thigh bone of a Crane imparted to
him who possessed it remarkable vigour and elasticity of limb.
Its brain also was a kind of love-philtre ; it transformed the
ugliest man into a perfect Adonis, and won for him the favour of
the fair.
It is, moreover, to the Crane that the Greeks are indebted for
one of their favourite dances. Be it understood that we are now
returning to plain matter of fact. The games and dances which
Cranes indulge in amongst themselves are not mere idle stories ;
observers of our own day, well worthy of credit, have proved their
B B
370 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
complete authenticity . It is certainly true that these birds form
groups in various fashions, advance one towards another, make a
kind of salutation, adopt the strangest postures— in a word, indulge
in pantomimes both burlesque and amusing. This is, we must con-
fess, a curious element in their character, and has been made the
most of by the Chinese, who are in the habit of teaching Cranes
to dance according to all the rules of art.
The ancients set a high value on the flesh of the Crane, which
is, nevertheless, anything but good. The Greeks especially
showed a great fondness for it ; they used to fatten these birds
after having put out their eyes or sewed up their eyelids ; this
cruelty being necessary, according to their idea, to cause a proper
degree of plumpness.
In the fine old days of hawking, the Crane, as well as the Heron,
enjoyed the esteem of princes. Even in the present day, in
Japan, it is reserved for the sport of the Taicoun (king), and the
common people treat it with all the respect that is consequently
its due.
We should certainly fall short in our traditionary lore if we
failed to relate the far-famed story of the Cranes of Ibycus.
Ibycus of Rhegium was a lyric poet, who enjoyed some reputa-
tion in his day. On one occasion, when he was proceeding to the
Olympic Games in order to contend for the poet's prize, he
lost his way in a forest, and fell into the hands of two malefactors,
who cruelly murdered him. Just as he was dying he cast his eyes
towards heaven, and perceiving a flock of Cranes passing over, he
cried out, " 0 ye bird- travellers, become the avengers of Ibycus ! "
The next day the two robbers were quietly taking a part in the
Olympic contests, when the news of the murder, which arrived
during the day, excited some sorrowful emotion. All of a sudden a
flight of Cranes passed over the arena, uttering loud cries. " Do
you see the Cranes of Ibycus ? " said one of the murderers to his
comrade in a humorous tone. This remark, being overheard ~bj
some persons standing by, and commented upon by a thousand lips,
became the ruin of the two scoundrels. At once arrested and
pressed with questions, they were compelled to confess their crime,
and were immediately put to death. Thus was fulfilled the dying
invocation of Ibycus.
CRANES.
371
The Demoiselle Crane ( Grus virgo) is remarkable for two beauti-
ful clusters of white feathers, which are suspended behind its
head, and for a black, pend-
ent tuft with which nature
has adorned its breast. Its
size is about the same as that
of the species just described,
and its shape is still more
elegant. It also enjoys in
a higher degree the gift of
the mimic art. Its slightest
movements have an air of
affectation and mannerism,
as if it desired, at any rate,
to attract the attention of the
spectator; hence, in French,
the name of Demoiselle has
been given to it. It is found
in Turkey and Southern
Russia, in Northern Africa, Fig' Ii3-D~lle c™
and in some parts of Asia adjacent to the latter region.
The Crested Crane (Grus pavonina), or Royal Bird, has the
top of its head adorned with a tuft of feathers, which it has the
power of spreading out like a fan, so as to form quite a resplendent
ornament. About the same size as the two sister-birds, it is
slender and graceful. Its voice is very loud. It. seeks the
acquaintance of man, and readily grows familiar with him. Its
chief locations are the eastern and northern coasts of Africa,
and also some of the isles in the Mediterranean : according to the
ancients, it was formerly common in the Balearic Islands.
TheAgami, or Hooping Crane (Psophia crepitans, Latham), has a
strong and tapering bill, shorter than the head ; long tarsi ; and me-
dium-sized toes, the back toe touching the ground at the extremity
only. Its wings are short, and, in consequence, it flies with difficulty ;
but, to make up for this deficiency, it can run very swiftly. This
bird is but little bigger than a domestic Fowl. It is in the habit of
uttering at intervals a piercing cry, which seems as if it did not
proceed from the bird itself ; this cry has procured for it the name
B B2
**>• Linn->-
372
GRALLATOKES, OE WADING BIEDS.
of the Trumpet Bird, and has caused some to ascribe to it the talent
of ventriloquism. It makes its nest on the ground, in a hole
scratched out at the root of a tree, and feeds on grasses, seeds, and
small insects. Shyness is not one of its qualities, and it will sub-
mit to captivity without repugnance ; it forms an attachment to
Tig. 144. — Crowned Crane (Ardea pavonina, Linn.).
its master, and solicits his caresses, just like a pet dog. The latter
comparison is all the more just, as the bird renders very much the
same service to man as the animal. This bird is intrusted with
the care of the flocks out of doors, and in the evening brings them
back to the farm, where his activity finds plenty of scope in the
poultry- yard.
In its wild state the Agami inhabits the forests of South
America. Its flesh is agreeable in flavour, and is often eaten.
It is easily domesticated, and attaches itself to man, following
its master about.
The CAURALE (Fig. 145), which forms a genus in the order we are
OYSTER-CATCHERS.
373
now considering, is a bird about the size of the Partridge, with a
large and fan-like tail. Its brilliant hues have obtained for it in
Fig. 145.— Caurale (Figuier).
Guinea the name of the Little Peacock, or Sun Bird. It is very
wild in its nature.
PRESSIROSTRES (COMPRESSED BILLS).
The birds which belong to the order Pressirostrce are charac-
terised by a middling- sized bill — not, however, devoid of strength
— and a back toe which is altogether rudimentary ; indeed,
in some species entirely wanting. They are mostly vermi-
vorous ; some, however, are granivorous or herbivorous. In
this order a number of rather dissimilar birds have been
reckoned, some of which belong decidedly to the Wader tribe,
whilst others, by their general habits, are more allied to the
GallinacecB. Among them are the Cariama (Fig. 146), the
Oyster-catcher, the Yellow-leg, the Stone Plover, the Lapwing,
the Plover, and the Bustard.
The OYSTER-CATCHERS (Hcematopus) are characterised by a long,
pointed, and powerful bill, which they use like a pair of pincers
for opening oysters, mussels, and other shell-fish left on the shore
by the receding tide, with the sole purpose of devouring their
contents. Few things are more interesting than to see them
374
GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
hovering over the retiring water, alternately advancing and re-
treating with the waves. As their toes are united at the base by
a web or membrane, they enjoy the faculty of resting on the
Fig. 146. — Cariama (Palamedea cristata, Gmelin).
water, although they do not actually swim. They utilise this
power in allowing themselves, every now and then, to be carried
on the waves to some distance from the shore. They fly well, and
can run with the greatest ease. Numerous flocks of them are found
on almost every sea-coast on the globe, making the neighbourhood
ring with their shrill cries.
In the breeding season they pair off; the hen birds lay from
two to four eggs, either in holes carelessly scratched out on the
strand or in clefts of the rocks, or sometimes in marshy meadows
some distance from the shore.
OYSTER-CATCHERS.
375
They assemble in considerable flocks for the purpose of migration
— if this term may be held applicable to the short journeys which
they annually undertake. They ought rather to be called pleasant
Fig. 147 .—Oyster-catcher (lltematopus ostralegus. Linn.).
little jaunts — inspections, as it were, of their domains ; something
like the circuit of his department made by a prefect, or the pro-
gress of a sovereign through his country.
There are three or four species of the Oyster-catcher, only one
Fig. 148. — .Runners (Cursorius, Figuier).
of which is a native of Europe. The plumage of the latter is
white and black, which, joined to its noisy habits, has obtained
376 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
for it the nickname of the Sea Magpie. Its bill and feet are of a
beautiful red colour ; hence the name of H&matopus (feet the
colour of blood) was given by Linnaeus to the whole genus, when
the other varieties of it were yet unknown. It is found at all
seasons on most of our coasts. As an article of game it is not all
one could wish.
The RUNNERS (Cursorius) have slender and pointed bills, slightly
bent at the end ; long tarsi ; no back toe ; wings much pointed ; its
plumage is of a dove colour, and it is about eighteen inches in
height. As its name implies, it runs with surprising rapidity.
It is a native of Asia and the north of Africa, and only casually
makes its appearance in Europe. Nothing is known of its habits.
The LAPWINGS ( Vanellus) have the bill enlarged on the upper
side, two-thirds of its length being filled up by the nasal chan-
nels ; its back toe is excessively short, and wings pointed. When
flying, they make a noise which is not unlike that of corn
falling back on the winnowing-fan ; hence their French name,
Vanneau.
These birds are essentially migratory, and come down from the
high northern latitudes in large flocks at the beginning of autumn,
again returning thither in spring. They frequent marshes and
the margins of lakes ; in fact, all moist, soft districts which abound
in earth-worms, insects, slugs, &c. They may often be seen
settling down on fields recently ploughed, where they can find an
ample supply of worms. They are in the habit of employing a
rather ingenious process to make their victims emerge from the
earth. They strike the ground with their feet, and thus give the
surface a slight shock, which the worm is tempted to attribute to
the proximity of a mole; and consequently it hastens to the
surface to escape its underground enemy, when it is immediately
snapped up by the bird.
The Lapwing is a model of cleanliness. After it has been
feeding on the ground for two or three hours, it washes its bill
and feet ; it repeats these ablutions several times in the day. In
this respect the most rigid Mahommedan could scarcely find fault
with it.
Lapwings live together in communities, except in the breeding
season, when they separate into pairs, to devote themselves to
LAPWINGS.
377
hatching and rearing their young. The hen lays three or four
eggs in the most simple nest that can be imagined, placed in
an exposed position on any little rising ground in the marshes.
These eggs are, it is said, of an exquisite flavour, and in some
countries, especially Holland, a large trade is done in them.
The flesh of the Lapwing is only good eating during certain
months of the year.* About All Saints' Day these birds acquire
their finest condition, when in some parts of France they are
in great demand. In the spring, as food, they are very in-
different, easily explaining why the Church has allowed them to
be eaten during Lent, for at that period assuredly no food could
be more maigre. There is an old saying which celebrates, and
also exaggerates, the culinary virtues of the Lapwing and its
brother bird, the Plover : "He who has never eaten either the
Plover or the Lapwing does not know what game is."
The Lapwing might be ranked amongst the most useful auxi-
Fig. 149. — Pewit, or Crested Lapwing ( Vanellus cristatus, Temm.).
liaries of man ; it destroys a prodigious quantity of worms,
caterpillars, and noxious insects. After hearing this the reader
might, perhaps, imagine that this bird has found aid and protection
378 GBALIATOKES, OR WADING BIRDS.
from mankind. Nothing of the sort ; it is killed wherever and
as often as possible ; besides this, means are discovered to set a
limit upon its multiplication by stealing away its eggs. "We
do not seem to perceive that this joyous, lively, and graceful
bird longs to conclude a treaty of friendship with mankind.
When will man make up his mind to understand his true in-
terests ?
There are in Europe two species of this genus — the Crested
Lapwing and the Swiss Lapwing, or Squatarole.
The Crested Lapwing (Vanellus cristatus), Fig. 149, is about
the size of a Pigeon ; its belly is white, and its back black, with a
metallic lustre. It is furnished with a crest, which coquettishly
adorns the back of its head. It is tolerably abundant in France,
but seems more especially partial to Holland. The Swiss Lapwing
is distinguished from the last by a lighter-coloured plumage, and
by the absence of the crest.
The PLOVERS (Pluvialis) have a bill closely resembling that of
the Lapwing, and difler from it chiefly in the latter having a
back toe, which is absent altogether in the Plovers. They are,
however, connected by several ties of kindred. Like the Lapwing,
they live in moist places and in numerous flocks ; like them, they
feed on worms, which they catch much in the same way ; like
them, too, they make frequent ablutions ; finally, they are
always close neighbours, and unite in migration. But they do
not follow out the resemblance with the Lapwings so far as to
imitate them in behaving as good fathers of families, and in living
as good citizens with one wife chosen once for all. Plovers
understand life in quite another fashion ; they have other
aspirations and other desires ; fidelity in love is not a quality
which suits them, and they practise polygamy on the very largest
scale.
One might well fancy that a bird of such low morality would
not be easily affected by the misfortunes of its fellows, and that it
would be endowed with no feelings but those of utter selfishness.
But nothing of the sort. If you knock down a Plover flying in
company with others, you may notice the whole flock coming
back to it to render the disabled one all the help they can ; and
if you are not too much of a novice, you will find no great diffi-
PLOVERS. 379
culty in turning this circumstance to your profit by filling your
game-bag.
The Plover migrates from the North of Europe to Africa, and
vice versa ; it thus visits France twice a year, in spring and autumn.
It is their appearance at these usually rainy seasons which has
given them the name they bear. There are five principal species
— the Great Land Plover, the Dotterel, the Ringed Dotterel, the
Kentish Plover, and the Golden Plover.
The Great Land Plover ( Oidicnemus Bellonii, Fleming) is about
the size of a Crow ; it is very uncommon, very active, and very
suspicious in its nature. The only chance of shooting it is in
the evening, at the moment when it comes to wash itself on the
edges of lakes and rivers. Its flesh is not much valued.
The Dotterel (Pluvialis morinellus) is a little larger than a
Blackbird. It visits us in March and September, and numerous
flocks of these birds frequent the vast plains of the beautiful
country of France. This is the bird which persists in sacrificing
itself to the sportsman's gun when its companion has fallen a
victim before the murderous weapon. It also shows the simplicity
of believing that drunken people must be animated with the
kindest feelings towards it ; so much so, that it is only requisite
to exhibit the outward signs of bacchanalian excitement, and the
birds will be filled with a sense of false security, so that you
may approach within a few yards of them.
The Dotterel has been the means of founding the reputation of
the Pate de Chartres : the bird's own personal experience must
long ago have convinced it how heavy the burden of renown
sometimes proves. They have, in fact, found themselves so much
relished, that they have been tracked and hemmed in on all sides
by eager pie-makers. The only chance for the poor creature is
to seek safety in flight, and abandon a country where it is
decidedly too much loved. Without either regret or envy it
must have seen that Larks and Quails have usurped its place in
popular favour for filling pates.
The Ringed Dotterel (Charadrius hiaticuld), Fig. 150, is about
half the size of the last bird. It is distinguished by its black
collar, and also by its extraordinarily brilliant and gold- coloured
eyes. In former days this bird had the credit of being able to
380
GEALLATOEES, OE WADING J3IBDS.
cure the jaundice. All that was necessary was for the sick person
to look fixedly at the bird's eyes, with a firm faith in the success
of the experiment ; under these conditions the bird was obliging
Fig. 150.— Kinged Dotterel (Ctiaradriushiuticula, Selby).
enough to relieve him of his malady. This superstitious idea
has departed to join all the rest of the medical opinions of the
middle ages.
Fig. 151. — Golden Plover {Charadrius pluvialis, Linn.).
The Kentish Plover (Charadrius cantianus, Latham) is thus
named on account of its collar being divided into two parts ; it is
rather smaller than the last-named bird, and is found in Europe
and Asia.
The Golden Plover (Plumalis aurea), Fig. 151, is the size of
THE BUSTAED. 381
the Turtle Dove ; the ground of its plumage is of a yellow colour,
speckled over with brown spots. In winter it is always numerously
represented in our markets : this is occasioned by the ease with
which it can be either shot or netted.
The PLUVIAN may be considered as belonging to the Plovers,
as the difference between them is altogether insignificant. We
wish to mention it on account of its very curious habits, to
which we previously called attention when speaking of Reptiles.
This bird is a native of Egypt and Senegal, and has con-
cluded a friendly treaty with the Crocodiles of the Nile, which
must force itself on the meditations of philosophers. The Pluvian
does the Crocodile the service of picking the latter's teeth. This
assistance rendered by the little bird to the terrible reptile of the
Nile is really rather touching, and has somewhat the appearance
of having inspired La Fontaine with his fable of the " Lion and
the Mouse."
The BUSTARDS (Otis) are allied to the Gallinacece, by their short
back, their thick- set shape, and the general character of their habits ;
but their elongated tarsi, and their legs partly bare, give them a
position among the Grallce. They have short toes, and no back
toe ; they run with extreme rapidity, assisted by their wings.
Their flight is heavy and awkward. They frequent dry and open
plains, and make their nests on the ground. Their food con-
sists of worms, insects, grasses, and even seeds ; and they move
about in large droves, although their range is rather restricted.
The male birds being less numerous than the females, they are
generally polygamous. These birds are shy and timid, and their
flesh constitutes an excellent article of food.
There are three species of the Bustard — the Great Bustard,
the Little Bustard (Fig. 152), and the Oubara Bustard
(0. Denhami).
The Great Bustard ( Otis tarda) is the largest of all European
birds ; its weight sometimes attains to sixteen kilogrammes. It is
yellow on the back, with black streaks, and in front it is a greyish
white. The head of the male bird is ornamented on both sides with
curled feathers, which look something like moustaches, and have
obtained for it the name of the Bearded Bustard. It flies with
great difficulty, and will never make up its mind to take wing
382
GEALLATOBES, OE WADING BIEDS.
except in cases of absolute necessity. Its eggs, two or three in
number, are laid in the corn or grass ; the nest is nothing more
Fig. 152.— Little Bustard (Otis tetrax, Gould).
than a hole scratched out in the earth, and with scarcely any
lining on the inside.
The Great Bustard was formerly very common in Champagne,
but has now become extremely rare. Nevertheless, it is the
only province in France in which this bird is to be met with,
and we might almost say that it has completely disappeared from
French soil. Innumerable troops of them are to be seen in the
steppes of Tartary and Southern Russia.
BREVIPENNES (SHORT- WINGED BIRDS).
The birds belonging to this family are distinguished from the
rest of the Grallce by such decisive characteristics that some
naturalists have proposed to include them in a separate group, to
be called Cur sores, or Runners ; an arrangement which has much
in its favour, although the simpler arrangement of Cuvier best
suits our purpose. In certain anatomical points, and especially
THE OSTEICH. 383
in their habits, the Brevipennae differ greatly from the other Gralla-
tores. They have wings, it is true, but they are so slightly
developed that they are entirely unfit for purposes of flight, and
are only useful in accelerating the speed of their limbs. On the
other hand, their legs are long and powerful, and capable of im-
mense muscular effort, thus enabling them to run with extraordi-
nary fleetness.
The deduction to be drawn from these facts is, that the Brevi-
pennes are essentially land-birds. This limitation of their habitat
necessitated certain modifications in the sternum, which, instead
of a prominent edge of bone in the centre, as in other birds, only
presents one uniform breast-plate. Again, most of the Brevipennes
are birds of large size, and, in certain circumstances, manifest
remarkable vigour.
This group comprehends the Ostrich (Struthio camelus), the
American Nandou (Rhea americanus), the Cassowary (Casuarius
emu], and the Apteryx.
The head of the OSTRICH (Struthio camelus), Fig. 153, is naked
and callous, with a short bill, much depressed and rounded at the
point ; its legs are half naked, muscular, and fleshy ; the tarsi
are long and rough, terminating in two toes pointing forward,
one of which is shorter than the other, and has no claw ; the
wings are very short, and formed of soft and flexible feathers ;
the tail taking the form of a plume.
There is but one species of the Ostrich ; it is sparsely diffused
over the interior of Africa, and is rarely found in Asia, except,
perhaps, in Arabia. It is the largest member of the Grallatores,
generally measuring six feet in height, and occasionally at-
taining nine feet; its weight varies from twenty to a hundred
pounds.
The Ostrich has been known from the most remote antiquity.
It is spoken of in the sacred writings, for Moses forbade the
Hebrews to eat of its flesh, as being " unclean food." The
Romans, however, far from sharing the views of the Jewish
legislator, considered it a great culinary luxury. In the days
of the emperors they were consumed in considerable numbers, and
we read that the luxurious Heliogabalus carried his magnificence
384 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
so far as to cause a dish composed of the brains of six hundred
Ostriches to be served at a feast : this must have cost some hun-
dreds of thousands of francs. In former days it was a favourite
dish with the tribes of Northern Africa. At the present date the
Arabs content themselves with using its fat as an outward applica-
tion in certain diseases, especially rheumatic affections ; and they
derive from it, as they say, very beneficial effects.
The natives of Africa call the Ostrich "the Camel of the
Desert," just as the Latins denominated it Struthio camelus.
There is, in fact, some likeness between them. This resemblance
consists in the length of the neck and legs, in the form of the
toes, and in the callosities which are found on the lower stomach
of both. In some of their habits they also resemble each other ;
the Ostrich lies down in the same way as the Camel, by first
bending the knee, then leaning forward on the fleshy part of the
sternum, and letting its hinder quarters sink down last of all.
An entire volume might be filled with the fables recorded about
the Ostrich. In the first place, according to the Arabs, it is the
issue of a bird and a camel. One Arabian author states that
it is aquatic in its nature, another maintains that it never
drinks. They still assert that its principal food consists of
stones and bits of iron. Buffon himself does not deny that it
might swallow red-hot iron, provided the quantity was small.
Pliny and (following him) Pierre Belon, the naturalist of the
Renaissance, state that when the Ostrich is pursued it fancies
itself safe if it can hide its head behind a tree, caring little about
the remainder of its body ; and some of these absurd ideas are
still deeply rooted in the minds of the public.
It is certain, however, that the Ostrich is extremely voracious.
Although the senses of sight and hearing are so highly developed
that it is said to make out objects two leagues off, and the
slightest sounds excite its ear, the senses of taste and smell are
very imperfect. This is the explanation given for its readiness
to swallow unedible substances. In a wild state it takes into
its stomach large pebbles to increase its digestive powers; in
captivity it gorges bits of wood and metal, pieces of glass, plaster,
and chalk, probably with the same object. The bits of iron found
in the body of one dissected by Cuvier " were not only worn
THE OSTRICH. 385
away/' says the great naturalist, " as they would likely be by
trituration against other hard bodies, but they had been con-
siderably reduced by some digestive juice, and presented all the
evidence of actual corrosion."
Herbage, insects, mollusks, small reptiles, and even small mam-
malia are the principal food of the Wild Ostrich ; when it is in a
state of domesticity even young chickens are frequently devoured
by it. It endures hunger, and especially thirst, for many days
— about the most useful faculty it could possess in the arid and
burning deserts which it inhabits ; but it is quite a mistake to
suppose it never drinks, for it will travel immense distances in
search of water when it has suffered a long deprivation, and will
then drink it with evident pleasure.
The muscular power of the Ostrich is truly surprising. If
matured it can carry a man on its back, and is readily trained
to be mounted like a horse, and to bear a burden. The tyrant
Firmius, who reigned in Egypt in the third century, was drawn
about by a team of Ostriches ; even now the negroes frequently
use it for riding.
When it first feels the weight of its rider, the Ostrich starts at
a slow trot ; it, however, soon gets more animated, and stretch-
ing out its wings, takes to running with such rapidity that
it seems scarcely to touch the ground. To the wild animals
which range the desert it offers a successful resistance by kick-
ing, the force of which is so great that a blow in the chest is
sufficient to cause death. M. Edouard Yerreaux states that he
has seen a negro killed by such a blow.
Man succeeds in capturing the Ostrich only by stratagem.
The Arab, on his swiftest courser, would fail to get near it
if he did not by his intelligence supply the deficiency in his
physical powers. "The legs of an Ostrich running at full
speed," says Livingstone, the traveller, " can no more be seen than
the spokes in the wheel of a vehicle drawn at a gallop/' Accord-
ing to the same author, the Ostrich can run about thirty miles in
an hour — a speed and endurance much surpassing those of the
swiftest horse.
The Arabs, well acquainted with these facts, follow them for
a day or two at a distance, without pressing too closely, yet
c c
386 GRALLATOKES, OK WADING BIRDS.
sufficiently near to prevent them taking food during the time.
When they have thus starved and wearied the birds, they pursue
them at full speed, taking advantage of the fact which observa-
tion has taught them, that the Ostrich never runs in a straight
line, but describes a curve of greater or less extent. Availing
themselves of this habit, the horsemen follow the chord of this
arc, and repeating the stratagem several times, they gradually
get within reach, when, making a final dash, they rush im-
petuously on the harassed birds, and beat them down with their
clubs, avoiding as much as possible shedding their blood, as this
depreciates the value of the feathers, which are the chief induce-
ment for their chase.
Some tribes attain their object by a rather singular artifice.
The hunter covers himself with an Ostrich's skin, passing his
arm up the neck of the bird so as to render the movements more
natural. By the aid of this disguise, if skilfully managed,
Ostriches can be approached sufficiently near to kill them.
The Arabs also hunt the Ostrich with dogs, which pursue it
until it is completely worn out. In the breeding season, having
sought and found out where the Ostriches lay their eggs,
another artifice is to dig a hole within gunshot of the spot, in
which a man, armed with a gun, can hide himself. The concealed
onemy easily kills the male and female birds in turn as they sit on
their nest. Lastly, to lie in wait for them close by water, and shoot
them when they come to quench their thirst, is often successful.
The Ostrich, which is an eminently sociable bird, may some-
times be seen in the desert in flocks of two or three hundred,
mixed up with droves of Zebras, Quaggas, &c. They pair about
the end of autumn.
The nest of the Ostrich is more than three feet in diameter ;
it is only a hole dug in the sand, and surrounded by a kind of
rampart composed of the debris ; a trench is scratched round it
outside to drain off the water. Each hen bird lays from fifteen
to twenty eggs, according to circumstances. The eggs weigh
from two to three pounds, and are each of them equal in contents
to about twenty-five Hen's eggs. They are of a tolerable flavour,
and are often a very seasonable help to travellers, one of them being-
more than sufficient for the breakfast of two or three persons.
"
Fig. 153.— The Ostrich (Strut/no camelus, Linn.).
cc 2
388 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
Incubation usually takes six weeks, and is shared by both
male and female birds : several of the latter often lay in the
same nest, and live together on the best terms, under the control
of one male. Levaillant remarked four females taking turns in
sitting on thirty- eight eggs laid in the same nest : they sat
during the night only, the burning heat of the sun during the
day being sufficient to maintain the necessary degree of warmth.
He also observed that a certain number of the eggs were not sat
upon, but were put aside to serve as nourishment for the young
ones after they were hatched.
It is a strange circumstance that the cry of the Ostrich so much
resembles that of the Lion when in search of his prey, that they
are often confused. Dr. Livingstone says that with all his expe-
rience he has been frequently deceived, and that only the quick
ear of a native can detect the difference.
It was long a subject of reproach to the Ostrich that she was
wanting in affection for her progeny. She was looked upon as
the most striking example of the hard-hearted mother. Thus, the
Hebrews accepted the Ostrich as the symbol of insensibility,
because she left her eggs upon the sand, without troubling her-
self, as Job says, about the dangers to which they might be
exposed. Jeremiah, too, laments over her that she is devoid of
family affection. All these accusations are quite unfounded : as
we have already seen, the Ostrich does not abandon her eggs,
neither does she desert her young, although they are well covered
at their birth with a thick, warm down, and can from the first
run about and provide for their own wants. On the contrary, she
keeps them near her until they are almost full grown, and defends
them against every enemy. Mr. Gumming came suddenly one
day on a dozen young Ostriches no larger than full-grown Grouse.
" The mother/' he says, " tried all she could to deceive us, just
like a Wild Duck ; first she ran away, extending her wings ; then
she threw herself on the ground as if she was wounded ; whilst the
male bird cunningly enough conducted the young ones in an
opposite direction/'
Livingstone on several occasions met with broods of young
Ostriches led by a male bird, which pretended to be lame, in
order to monopolise the attention of the sportsmen.
THE OSTRICH. 389
Both the male and female birds afford one another mutual
assistance, as is proved by the following fact, which was related in
a report addressed to the Societe d'Acclimatation : — "Si-Djelloul-
Ben-Hamza and his brother, Si-Mohammed-Ben-Hamza, were
one day hunting Ostriches, and came upon the tracks of a
family led by a male and two females. Si-Mohammed arrived
first in sight of the birds, and firing, wounded one of the females.
The male bird at once darted at him, and struck with its feet at
the breast of his horse, which from fright threw its rider and ran
away. The Ostrich then turned upon Si-Mohammed, kicked
him repeatedly, and did not quit him until he had lost all
consciousness, and his brother Si-Djelloul had come to his assist-
ance."
All these facts abundantly prove that the Ostrich is not so un-
natural a parent as it has been thought, and at the same time
give a complete denial to the accusation of stupidity which has also
been made.
In spite of its great strength — perhaps even on account of it —
the Ostrich, when unmolested, is the most peaceable creature in
the world ; and owing to its inoffensive nature, it readily becomes
domesticated. If captured young, it can be tamed in a very short
time. General Daumas asserts that they play with the children,
and frolic with the horses and dogs, &c. In the district of
Sennaar they are reared as we do Fowls ; they are left to wander
about as they choose, and one of them attempting to escape is a
thing quite unheard of. They accompany the herds to pasture,
and return again to their home at meal-times. Kindness and
caresses are sufficient to attach them to any one ; but care must
be taken never to strike them. They have but one fault, which
arises from their voracity, — they are dreadful thieves, and devour
everything they can steal. The Arabs, therefore, always look out
when they are counting their money, otherwise the Ostriches
might snatch some of the coin.
In all ages the feathers of the Ostrich have been the object of
considerable trade : the birds are hunted and reared in a domestic
state, not so much for their flesh, grease, or eggs, as for these
plumes. Each bird produces about half a pound of white feathers
and three pounds of black. These delicate, wavy, and flexible
390 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
ornaments, so sought after by the fair sex, are found on the
Ostrich's tail and wings ; they have been used from time imme-
morial for the adornment both of man and woman. The Roman
soldiers decked their helmets with them, and the Janissaries their
turbans, when they had distinguished themselves by any glorious
deed. At the present day there is a large demand for them.
The plumes of the male bird are more highly valued than those of
the female, and all are superior when plucked from the living
bird.
Several Libyan nations in former days used the skin of the
Ostrich for a cuirass, and even at the present time some
Arabian tribes put it to the same use. The shells of Ostrich
eggs, which are very hard, are also utilised ; they are made into
beautiful cups, which much resemble vases of ivory. The Africans
annually destroy a large number of these birds ; yet their race
does not appear to diminish. It is a most useful creature, and
too much encouragement cannot be given to the trials which
have been made in Algeria and elsewhere to rear the Ostrich
in flocks on an extensive scale.
The NANDOU, RHEA, or AMERICAN OSTRICH (Fig. 154), bears
the greatest resemblance to the Ostrich, of which it is the repre-
sentative in the New World ; but it is only about half the size
of the African bird, and has three toes in front instead of two.
The colour of its plumage is a uniform grey.
The Nandou (called by the Brazilians Nhandu-Guaqu) inhabits
the Pampas of South America, the coolest valleys in Brazil, Chili,
Peru, and Magellan's Land. There these birds may be seen
wandering over the open plains in flocks of about thirty, in
company with herds of oxen, horses, and sheep. They browse on
the grass like grazing animals, searching at the same time for
various seeds. They run nearly as swiftly as the Ostrich,
and are well able, by speed, to escape the pursuit of their ene-
mies. If a river comes in their way, they do not hesitate to
plunge into it, as they are excellent swimmers ; indeed, so
fond are they of water that they take a pleasure in washing and
bathing.
The Nandou lays its eggs and incubates them in the same
manner as the Ostrich. They are birds of a gentle nature, and
THE NANDOU.
391
are tamed with the greatest ease, becoming very familiar in the
house, visiting the various apartments, wandering about the streets,
and even into the country ; but they always return to their homes
before sunset.
The flesh of the adult Nandou is by no means agreeable ; that
of the young, on the contrary, is tender and sweet, and forms
Fig. 154.— The Nandou, or Ehea (Struthi-j It/iea, Linn.).
excellent food. Its skin, when properly dressed, is used for
bags, purses, &c., and their feathers serve for plumes and light
dusting brooms. We owe the perfect knowledge of a second
species of Rhea to Mr. Darwin, who has given a figure and ample de-
scriptions of the bird and its habits in " The Voyage of the Beagle;"
it has been named in consequence Rhea Darrcinii. There is every
392
GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
reason for thinking that these birds might be successfully accli-
mated in Europe.
The CASSOWARIES form a genus of birds allied to the Ostrich,
although they differ from it in some particulars — their shape is
not so elegant, and their wings are even less adapted for flight ;
Fig. 155. — Cassowary (Strut/do casuarius, Linn.).
for so short are they, that ;they are perfectly useless even to
assist in running. Their long blackish feathers are almost devoid
of side fringes, which gives them a resemblance to coarse hair ;
their feet are provided with three toes. This bird was called
the Emu by early Portuguese navigators. Ifc is the Struthio
casuarius of Linnaeus, the Casuarius galeatus of Vieillot, and the
Cassowary of British naturalists.
The Cassowary has a kind of helmet on its head, produced by
an enlargement of the bone of the skull, and covered with a horny
substance. It is a massively-made bird, in size between the
Ostrich and the Ehea, and is a native of the islands of the Indian
CASSOWARIES. 393
Archipelago, the Moluccas, Java, and Sumatra. It is especially
plentiful in the vast forests of the island of Ceylon. The first bird
of this species which was seen in Europe was brought from Java
by the Dutch in 1597. It is a stupid, quarrelsome, and gluttonous
creature, feeding on plants, fruits, and sometimes small animals.
Possessed of considerable strength, and being wild and fierce
in nature, its anger cannot be provoked without danger ; for,
although its wings are short, each is furnished with five pointed
spines, the middle one of which is a foot long, and which are
employed with adroitness as weapons of defence. Its habitual
cry consists of a low grumbling, which, when the bird is angry,
is changed into a sonorous humming noise, not unlike the sound
of carriage- wheels or of distant thunder.
The menagerie of the Museum of Natural History at Paris was
in possession of a Cassowary which devoured everything that was
given it — bread, fruit, vegetables, &c., and drank seven or eight
pints of water daily. In the London and the Paris Zoological
Gardens there are generally several to be seen.
The Cassowary runs very swiftly, and in a way quite peculiar,
for it kicks up its heels at every step. They live in pairs,
and during the breeding season the male bird shows a degree of
violence which renders him very formidable. The female lays
three or four eggs in the dust, and sits on them alone for about a
month. The young birds, when first hatched, are covered with a
light down, and are without the helmet, which it acquires as it
approaches maturity.
The wild nature of these birds renders them but little fitted for
domestication : this is a fact not much to be deplored, as their
flesh is of an unpleasant flavour, and in no other respect than
as food could they be of any service to us.
The EMU, or AUSTRALIAN CASSOWARY (Dromiceius australis),
Fig. 156, is distinguished from the last-named bird by its larger
size, and also by the absence of the helmet, the caruncles, and the
pointed spines on the wings. It was formerly common in the
great forests of the Eucalyptus, in Australia, but the clearings
of the colonists have now driven it back beyond the Blue Moun-
tains. Being very powerful, it offers a stout resistance to dogs,
with wrhich it is hunted. It can be tamed much more easily
tlilDlBKAND ....
Fig. 156.— The Emu, or Australian Cassowary (Dromiceiw australis, Svvainson).
THE APTERYX.
J395
than the last- mentioned bird, and manifests some attachment to
its master. It is an excellent and useful acquisition to man, for
its flesh being of an agreeable flavour, is much esteemed. The
few specimens which have been brough tto Europe seem to
have been readily acclimated, for they have bred.
KIVI-KIVI, or APTERYX (Fig. 157), so called from the Greek
a.Trrtp6v, " wingless," is a singular bird, bearing but little resemblance
Fig. 157.— Kivi-kivi, or Apteryx (Apteryx australis, Gould).
to the other members of the class. It is no larger than a Fowl,
and combines the bill of the Woodcock with the feet of the Galli-
naceous tribe. The shortness of its wings, which are entirely
unfit for flight, is the sole characteristic which entitles it to rank
with the group in which it is placed.
The plumage of the Apteryx is brown ; it has no tail, and its
mere stumps of wings are provided with strong and curved claws.
It is a native of New Zealand, and keeps in the marshes, where it
feeds on worms and grubs: being nocturnal, it does not leave
its retreat until the evening. In spite of its short legs, it runs
very fast, but if overtaken does not yield without an effort, using
either its feet, armed as they are with long and sharp claws,
or the points at the end of its wings, as weapons of defence. It
builds a very rough nest among the roots of marsh- growing shrubs,
and lays a single egg, excessively large in proportion to the size
S96 GEALLATOEES, OE WADING BIEDS.
of the producer. The natives call the bird Kiwi. They used
at one time to hunt them very perseveringly, as much for their
flesh as for their feathers, which they used in making mats. Now
they have renounced this work, the profits not compensating for
the fatigue which it entailed. Day by day it is becoming more
rare and difficult to procure. The Zoological Society of London
has three specimens.
EXTINCT BREVIPENNJE.
The order of the Brevipennce may be held to embrace some
birds which have now disappeared from the surface of the globe,
but which are supposed to be contemporaneous with Man. The
remains which are met with in quite modern alluvium scarcely
admit of any doubt in this respect.
In the first rank of extinct birds we may place the DODO
(Didus ineptus, Linn.), Fig. 158, which was indigenous to the
Mauritius and the Isle of France, where it used to be abundant,
if we may believe the testimony of the companions of Yasco de
Gama, who visited there in 1497. At the end of the seven-
teenth century some of them still existed. Former travellers have
described them; and these accounts, with skeletons and an oil-
painting in the British Museum, are the only items of informa-
tion which we possess.
The Dodo was a fat and heavy bird, and weighed not less than
fifty pounds. This portly body was supported on short legs, and
provided with ridiculously small wings, making it equally in-
capable of running and flying, dooming the bird to a rapid destruc-
tion. Lastly and principally, it had a stupid physiognomy, but
little calculated to conciliate the sympathies of the observer. Its
rear was decorated with three or four curly feathers, making
a pretence of a tail, whilst in front it presented an enormous
curved bill, which occupied nearly the whole of the head.
The Dodo did not even possess the merit of being useful after its
death, for its flesh was disagreeable and of a bad flavour. On the
whole, there is not much reason to regret its extinction.
In the island of Madagascar fossil eggs and bones were found
of a bird belonging to a species probably extinct, the proportions
THE DODO.
397
of which must have been truly colossal. One of these eggs was
equal to at least six Ostrich's eggs, and its capacity more than
fifteen pints. M. Isidore Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, who gave it
the name of Epiornis, reckoned that its height could not be less
than ten or twelve feet.
In 1867, M. Joly, Professor of the Faculty of Sciences at
Fig. 158.— The Dodo (Didus ineptus, Linn.).
Toulouse, published some very interesting observations on the
structure and probable habits of this gigantic bird.
It cannot yet be asserted that this bird has altogether dis-
appeared. The Malagashes state that, although very rare, some
few representatives of it still remain. There is an ancient tradi-
tion among this people relative to a colossal bird which could
knock down an ox, and then make a meal of it. This tradition,
however, is deficient in anything like evidence of its correctness,
for an examination of the pieces of bone found proves that the
Epiornis possessed neither talons to seize, nor wings with which
to pursue its prey ; it must, therefore, have fed chiefly upon
vegetable diet.
In New Zealand also some bones have been lately brought to
light, which must have belonged to a species of bird allied to the
Ostrich, but superior to it in size, which attained some thirteen
feet in height. This bird has been designated Dinorms. Some of
398 GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIEDS.
them probably still exist in that country ; at all events, its dis-
appearance must be very recent, for the bones which were dis-
covered still contained a large proportion of gelatine. Rumour
states that a Dinornis, more than thirteen feet in height, was seen
by two Englishmen in one of the marshy forests ; but they did
not venture to approach near enough to kill it. We give this
tale with all due reserve, as its authenticity does not appear to be
satisfactorily established.
CHAPTER Y.
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
UNDER this name Linnaeus included a large number of birds
which bear considerable analogy to the Domestic Fowl, and mostly
included in the E/asores of Illiger.
The GALLINACEJE are essentially land birds, seeking their food
on the surface of the soil, and frequently building their nests upon
it. They delight in scratching the earth, and in rolling them-
selves in the dust. Walking is their habitual mode of progres-
sion, as one would at once conclude from observation of their
strong legs, and their short and but slightly-bent claws. Some,
like the Partridge, are swift runners, having very short wings,
which render their flight at once awkward and laborious. In
this order of birds we do not find more than two or three
migratory species.
The Gallinacese have short arched beaks, which are generally
very strong, and well adapted for crushing the husks of the seeds
which, with the addition of grubs, insects, and grasses, form their
principal nourishment. Their large and muscular gizzards, with
thick lateral muscles, lined on the interior with a very tough
coating or epithelium, are exactly fitted for digesting this kind of
food. The triturating power of the Gallinacese is further increased
by their habit of swallowing small pebbles, which facilitate the
crushing of the grain.
In certain species (the Domestic Fowl, Pheasant, Turkey,
&c.) the males are armed above the back toe with one or more
400 GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
tapering spikes (a kind of very stiff spur), which they use both
for attack and defence. A great many of this class have their
heads adorned with crests and combs of various colours. These
appendages exist occasionally in the females, but with much less
development.
Birds of the most brilliant plumage are to be found among the
Gallinaceous tribe. The Peacock (Paw), the Argus, the Lopho-
phore, and the Pheasant may be said to bear the banner of their
order with no mean degree of splendour, and may worthily
stand in comparison with the most splendid of the Passerines. This
richness of colour is the characteristic of the male bird, for the
females are usually of a dull greyish hue. But if the Gallinaceao
captivate the sight, they are far from affording pleasure to the
ear, their cries being shrill and discordant.
Cruel, tyrannical, and quarrelsome are the characteristics of the
majority of this race. They are polygamous, and the females
lay a large number of eggs, which they sit upon, unassisted by
the male. They are generally divided into flocks, consisting of
one male, several females, and a number of young birds ; but it is
rarely that several families unite to live in common.
The Gallinacese are of all birds the most useful to man. Certain
domesticated kinds stock his poultry-yard, and supply him with
eggs of an exquisite flavour ; nor does their utility cease here — their
flesh is a popular, wholesome, and delicate food. Those known
as " game birds " are also abundant, and offer amusement to the
sportsman and table delicacies for the bon vivant.
Nearly all the Gallinaceas were originally natives of the warm
regions of Asia and America ; now, such as the Domestic Fowl,
the Pheasant, and the Turkey are perfectly acclimated to all
temperate parts of the globe.
The order of the Gallinacese may be divided into two great sub-
orders, namely, the Gallinacese proper, to which the characteristics
we have just enumerated specially belong; and the Columbida,
which differ from them in certain details of organisation and
habits, to be described hereafter.
THE COCK OF THE WOODS. 401
GALLINACEJE PROPER
Comprehend six families: the Tetraonidce, the Perdicid&y the
Tinamidtf, the Ckionida, the Megapodida, and the Phasia-
nidce.
TETRAONID.E.
The birds which compose this group are characterised as
follows : — Tarsi completely feathered ; a naked and knotty band of
skin supplying the place of eyebrows ; the body bulky ; and the
wings short. This family comprehends several species. The best
known we enumerate : — The Cock of the Woods (Tetrao urogallus),
the Black Grouse (Tetrao tetriz), Cock of the Plains (Tetrao
artimesia), the Pinnated Grouse (Tetrao Cupido), the Ruffed
Grouse (Tetrao umbellus), the Hazel Hen, or Gelinotte (Bonasia
europtea], and the Ptarmigan (Lagopus).
The COCK OF THE WOODS, or CAPERCAILZIE (Tetrao urogallus),
inhabits the pine and birch forests of northern hilly countries.
They feed indifferently upon fruits, berries, the buds of fir and
birch trees, insects and grubs — nothing, in fact, comes amiss to
satisfy their appetites. Their bearing, which is proud and war-
like, is supported by a robust form. Their plumage is black,
spotted with white, and clouded, as it were, with bluish diaphanous
shades. They are polygamous, and live together in families.
They readily seek shelter in the trees, both for roosting and in
order to conceal themselves from their enemies.
At the first breath of spring the male birds make the woods
re-echo with the loud notes with which they summon the females
to come to them. For an hour every morning and evening, for
over a month, this practice is continued.
The females retire into the thick brushwood to build their nests
and lay their eggs : here they devote themselves to incubation,
and afterwards to rearing their offspring — cares which devolve
upon them exclusively. They deposit from eight to sixteen eggs
on a bed of grasses and leaves roughly interwoven. The young
birds run about as soon as hatched, and remain for several months
D D
402 GALLINACEOUS BlfiDS.
with the mother, who on all occasions watches them with the
tenderest solicitude.
The flesh of the Cock of the Woods is juicy, but is esteemed,
more for its rarity ; for the buds and leaves of the pines, which
are its favourite food, give it a flavour of turpentine. In Scot-
land this species became extinct, but was restored by the Marquis
of Breadalbane and others, who imported great numbers from
Sweden. It is almost as large as a Turkey.
fia
-At
Fig. 159.— Black Grouse (Tetrao tetriz, Gray).
The BLACK GROUSE (Tetrao tetrix), Fig. 159, is about the size
of a Pheasant, and is distinguished by its tail, which in the cock
is divided into two parts, with a curling notch, composed of four
lateral feathers on each side, curving outwards.
The COCK OF THE PLAINS ( Tetrao artimesia, Aud.), so called from
frequenting and feeding on the sage that grows in profusion on
the far -western prairies of America, is a noble bird, of handsome
plumage. It is almost as large as a hen Turkey. Its numbers
are rapidly diminishing.
The PINNATED GROUSE (Tetrao Cupido, Aud.) is a native of the
prairies of the North American continent ; it is the same size
as the last-described species, but the plumage is a light brown,
occasionally ticked with white. Its call is deep and sonorous,
much resembling the bellowing of a bull, and can be heard
for miles in still weather. It is an excellent table bird, and
THE HAZEL GROUSE.
40,'J
affords good sport to the lovers of the gun. The Pinnated Grouse,
frequently called Prairie Chicken or Hen, pair in March ; they
lay from twelve to fourteen eggs, and are most devoted parents.
Of this species there are two strongly-marked varieties, differing
in size and formation of tail.
The RUFFED GROUSE (Fig. 1 60) is also an American bird, but
differs essentially from the last mentioned in size, habits, and selec-
tion of food. The hill- sides, densely covered with evergreens or
birch, are its favourite retreats ; on the wing it is remarkable for
its swiftness. Although not migratory, it is very erratic.
Fig. 160.— Ruffed Grouse ( Tttrao umbeilus, Aud.).
The HAZEL GROUSE, or GELIXOTTE (Bonasia ewropcBa, Gray),,
inhabits the same description of country, and has habits very
similar to the Black Grouse. Like them, it is suspicious and
timid, and hides itself among the thick foliage of the green
trees at the least appearance of danger. This bird flies awk-
wardly, but runs very swiftly. Its flesh, which is both deli-
cate and savoury, brings a high price in the market. It is
much less rare in France than the Cock of the Woods, and is
frequently met with in the departments of Yosges and Ardennes.
It is about the size of a Partridge, and the prevailing colour of its
plumage is a reddish brown mixed with white, or variegated with
DD 2
404
GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
grey and brown : the male has a large black patch under the
throat.
The PTARMIGANS have feet much like those of a hare, and thence
is derived the name Lagopus, which signifies " hare-foot " (Aayos,
hare; TTOVS, TroSos, foot). These birds not only have their tarsi
covered with feathers, but also their toes and the soles of their
feet.
The icy regions of both hemispheres, and the summits of lofty
mountains, are their domain. The snow is their favourite resting-
place ; they delight in rolling in it, and turning it over in search
of food, or forming holes in which they pass the night to take
shelter from the storm. •#
The colour of Ptarmigans is perfectly suited to the northern
solitudes they inhabit. Their plumage is of a brilliant white, save
one line of black on the head, and some tail-feathers of the same
colour. This is their winter costume. In the summer, when the
Fig. 161.— Common Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus, Gould), Summer and Winter Dress.
snow has disappeared under the scorching rays of the sun, they
change their plumage, and are clothed in a habit of a greyish
colour, spotted with brown and red (Fig. 161). Like the Cock of
the Woods and the Hazel Hen, they are birds of social habits,
and cannot bear captivity. When kept in confinement they
become sickly, and soon fall into decline. Their flesh is excellent
and much prized. Numbers of them are sold in the markets, and
considerable quantities are sent every year to England and France
GANGAS.
405
from Scotland, Norway, and Lapland. The two principal species
are the Lagopus mutus, common in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and
the North of Europe and America ; and the Red Grouse (Lagopus
scoticus, Selby), which is found only in Great Britain and Ireland,
where it is much prized for its beauty, delicacy of flesh, and the
magnificent sport it affords when killed over dogs. The 12th
of August, the first day of Grouse- shooting, is looked forward to
by the disciples of the gun as anxiously as the Derby day by
turfmen.
PERDICIDES.
The distinctive features of the birds composing this family
are — a short beak, a small head, a round and massive body,
bare tarsi, with spurs more or less developed, and a middling-
sized back toe. The wings are sharp, pointed, or blunt, according
to the species. This family comprehends the Gangas (Pterocles,
Temm.), Syrrhaptes (111.), Quail (Coturnix), Partridge (Perdix,
Briss.), Colin (Ortyx, Steph.), Francolin (Francolinus, Briss.), and
Turnix (Bonap.).
The GANGAS, or ATTOYENS, are essentially birds of passage, and
Fig. 162.— Pin-tailed Sand Grouse (Pteiocles setariiis, Gould), Male and Female.
in consequence are provided with long and sharply- pointed wings ;
but the range of their journeys is not very great. They resemble
the Plover in their power of lofty, rapid, and sustained flight,
406 GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
and inhabit the arid plains of Southern Europe, Asia, and
Africa.
The PIN-TAILED SAND GROUSE (Pterocles setarius), Fig. 162,
annually makes its appearance in Spain and the South of France ;
it is common on the steppes of Southern Russia, of Tartary, Man-
churia, Northern China, and in the North of Africa. Occasionally
it breeds in the Pyrenees.
The SYRRHAPTES, or HETEROCLITES, are characterised by the
total absence of the back toe. They are closely allied to the
Gangas, and, like them,have pointed wings, and are fond of tra-
velling, but their flight is not so continuous, for in their journeys
they are frequently compelled to alight. They inhabit the steppes
of Tartary, and but rarely venture into Europe.
The QUAIL (P&rdix coturnix, Latham) has a small beak, a
short back toe inserted rather high up, tarsi furnished with a
rudimentary spur in the shape of a horny tubercle, a thick-set
body, sharply-pointed middling-sized wings, and hardly any tail.
There are several species of this bird, only one of which is found
in Europe.
The Common Quail (Fig. 163) is noted for its migrations.
Every year innumerable flocks of them leave the regions of Africa,
cross the Mediterranean, and, about the commencement of May,
spread themselves over Europe. In the month of September they
return, again accomplishing the same journey. The instinct which
impels them to migrate from one country to another is so powerful
that it is observed in Quails which are born in captivity. At the
season of migration captive Quails become very uneasy, walk up
and down their cages, and throw themselves against the bars with
such force that they frequently fall back stunned, and sometimes
even crush their skulls.
When it is considered that the Quail is a heavy bird, with
wings comparatively small, and that it must cost them great
labour to migrate, it is evident that it must be undertaken under
strong impulse : probably the necessity of escaping the severity of
winter, or of providing for their sustenance, is not the only cause,
but that there is some sort of instinctive want, equally imperative
with that of hunger, under which the birds are irresistibly forced
to traverse such indefinite distances.
408 GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
The fecundity of the Quail is extraordinary : if it were other-
wise the species would soon be exterminated, partly from their
heavy, awkward flight, which renders them an easy prey to the
sportsman's gun, but still more from the wholesale slaughter of
them which takes place in certain districts at the time of migra-
tion. The Bishop of the island of Capri, situated in the Bay of
Naples, receives an annual revenue of forty thousand francs (£1,600
sterling) from the duty he has imposed upon trading in Quails
killed on the island, which are afterwards sold in the markets of
Naples. From this he has received the name of the "Bishop of
the Quails."
On the shores of the Bosphorus, in the Morea, Crimea, and in
some of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, Quails sometimes
arrive in such dense masses that, according to a popular saying, it
is only necessary to stoop in order to pick them up. They fall
exhausted upon the ground, and the sky may almost be said to be
raining birds. The inhabitants, who have been watching for
them for many daj7s, now net them in great numbers, and,
having salted them, and packed them in barrels, export them to
different countries.
Quails travel principally in the evening and during the night.
They ascend to a tolerable height, but never fly against the wind ;
but, on the contrary, scud before it, and are thus carried across the
Mediterranean. The south winds bring them to us, and the north
winds carry them back to Africa. If overtaken by a tempest
during their passage, they have not power to resist it, but fall
into the waves. Thousands of them have been found drowned
around the precipitous portions of the island of Malta ; their
strength had failed them, and, from being unable to gain sufficient
elevation, they found a watery grave. They also take shelter
occasionally on the decks of passing vessels.
Quails principally frequent plains covered with cereals or
fertile pastures. They delight in rolling in the dust, and are
never known to perch. Their food consists of seeds and insects.
They are not sociable birds ; for the sexes do not approach one
another except in the breeding season, and parent and young
separate as soon as the mother's care is no longer necessary for the
protection of the brood. This period soon arrives, as the little
; I
410 GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
things are of rapid growth. The hen birds lay twice during the
year, once in Europe and once in Africa, and each time produce
from ten to fourteen eggs.
The Quail is a very swift runner, and frequently employs this
mode of locomotion to escape pursuit. It is only in cases of
imminent danger that it has recourse to flight. It flies in a
straight line, keeping close to the ground, and shows itself a
thorough master in the art of baffling dogs by throwing them off
their scent. Hidden in the thick tufts of lucern, it often bids
defiance to the novice ; but its wiles are seldom successful before
an experienced sportsman.
This bird is not as large as the Partridge. "When killed at the
proper time — that is to say, when it has rested after its fatiguing
journey and recovered condition — it is covered with a layer of
fat which is not surpassed in richness and flavour by any other
bird. Its flesh is sweet and delicate, and emits an odour grateful
alike to the nose and palate. This bird ranks immediately after
the Woodcock and the Snipe in the estimation of epicures.
The capture of Quails was formerly performed in several ways.
They were caught in a net or a trap, in which a bait was placed :
they were also shot with the help of a pointer. This last method
is the only one which is nowadays allowed in France ; and, thanks
to this restriction, the bird is now destroyed on a less extensive
scale than in times past, and the species may yet be something
more than a myth to future generations.
The PARTRIDGE (Perdix) has a sharply recurvate beak, a thick-
set body, blunt wings, and a short and drooping tail. The tarsi of
the male bird are either provided with, or destitute of, tubercles,
according to the species.
Partridges live constantly on the surface of the soil, and never
perch except when they are absolutely forced to do so. They
have, like the Quail, the pulverulent instinct, and run with
remarkable swiftness. Their flight is also very rapid, but low,
and does not extend to long distances.
These birds are eminently sociable, and live, during the prin-
cipal part of the year, in flocks or coveys, composed of the parents
and the young ones of the last brood. They are not migratory,
and seem to attach themselves to certain localities, confining
PAETEIDGES. 411
themselves to a limited extent of country, in which they pass
their lives. They never leave this except by accident. In it
they make choice of a sanctum in which to take shelter when
pursued ; this is called by sportsmen a " cover."
Partridges are monogamous ; they pair early in the year, which
union does not cease until the following spring.
In certain species, such as the Red Partridge, where the females
are less numerous than the males, a great number of the latter
remain single. As the cocks do not willingly resign themselves
to single blessedness, but make many attempts to avoid it at the
expense of their neighbours, this is the cause of frequent quarrels.
These conflicts at last come to an end — the various pairs are
firmly united ; and the unsuccessful candidates for affection, who
object to making up their minds to live as hermits, ultimately
combine together.
The attachment of the male to the female is deserving of admi-
ration. At the time for laying, the hen bird makes a hole in the
earth, which she lines with grass and leaves, and in it deposits
her eggs, to the number of twelve or fifteen, and sometimes even
twenty or more. The season of incubation follows after, which
lasts twenty days at least. During this time the male bird watches
over his companion, and guards her from danger. When the
young are hatched, paternal affection is added to conjugal love,
and a portion of the father's care is devoted to the young brood.
He accompanies them in their wanderings ; he teaches them to
catch grubs, finds ants' eggs, and shows himself as skilful as the
mother in guarding them from attacks of their enemies. At the
appearance of the sportsman or dog the male utters a cry of
alarm, which warns the young ones of their danger, and enjoins
them to seek concealment. Drooping his wings in order to induce
the intruder to follow him, he pretends to fly away. At the same
time the female proceeds in another direction ; and alighting at
some distance off, she runs back to her family, reassembles them,
and leads them to a place of security, where they are soon joined
by the male bird. The above is one of the ingenious stratagems
by which the young brood is defended from pursuit.
Some weeks after they are hatched, the young Partridges are
fit to fly and to provide for their own wants. As we have already
PAETRIDGES. 413
said, they do not now leave their parents, but continue to live
with them in the closest alliance until February or March, at
which time they separate in order to pair off. At this time, also,
the union of the father and mother comes to an end, and they
generally form a fresh alliance.
Partridges are of a shy and timid nature, which shows itself in
many ways. Nor are their suspicious fears unjustifiable, when it
is remembered how numerous are their foes, for foxes and birds of
prey make continual and unsparing war upon them. The latter
especially are particularly dreaded. At the mere sight of one of
the Falcon tribe a Partridge will stop as though struck with
stupor, and so overcome with fear as almost to be incapable of
concealing "itself, remaining absolutely immovable ; and it is not
until the dreaded enemy is gone that it regains self-control.
When a bird of prey dashes at one of them unsuccessfully when
in cover, no human power is able to make it abandon its retreat,
and any one can then lay hands on it without difficulty. A
Partridge has even been known to allow itself to be stifled with
smoke in its hiding-place rather than again expose itself to the
claw of the Falcon, Vulture, or Sparrow-hawk.
The knowledge of these facts has suggested a very simple and
effectual method of killing Partridges successfully. This con-
sists in frightening them with the help of an artificial bird of
prey, attached to the tail of a kite flown over them. While the
Partridges are paralysed by fright from this deception, the
sportsmen advance and make the birds flush within easy shooting
distance.
Notwithstanding their wild nature, Partridges are susceptible
of domestication, and, with care and gentleness, they may be
rendered very tame. Girardin relates that a Grey Partridge,
reared by a Carthusian, became so familiar that it followed its
protector about like a dog. Willoughby states that an inhabitant
of the county of Sussex succeeded in taming a whole covey of Par-
tridges, and was in the habit of driving them before him like a
flock of Geese. Tournefort relates that formerly, in the Isle of
Chio, flocks of Red-legged Partridges were reared which allowed
themselves to be driven about in exactly the same way; and Sonini
speaks of two Red-legged Partridges which an inhabitant of
PAETRIDGES. 415
Aboukir had managed to tame. All these facts abundantly prove
that, with a little patience, it would be possible to raise the
Partridge to the dignity of a domestic farm-yard fowl.
The Partridge is highly esteemed by epicures ; it is also the
delight of the sportsman, because it lies well to dogs. On account
of its abundance, especially of the Grey variety, this may be
called the " favourite game " of the French empire. Partridge-
shooting, moreover, is what is generally chosen for the education
of the inexperienced shot ; the dog, too, by its pursuit, acquires
such sagacity that renders him a valuable assistant to the disciple
of St. Hubert.
Let us now take a rapid glance at the various species of the
Partridge. The Grey Partridge (Perdix cinerea) is the most
common ; it is very plentiful over the whole of Central Europe,
the North of France, Belgium, Holland, and Great Britain.
In these countries it frequents the cultivated districts, the vast
plains covered with crops, and the artificial meadows, in all of
which it lives and breeds. This bird is not altogether harmless to
the pursuits of agriculture, as, after seed-time, it is not satisfied
with the grain left on the surface, but digs out those that are
growing. It also devours the young green shoots of corn, and
attacks the ears when they come to maturity. Its increase on a
large scale might, therefore, produce serious mischief, which would
hardly be compensated for by the services which it renders in
destroying worms, insects, and grubs.
The Grey Partridge furnishes a variety of smaller size, the
Migratory Partridge, which is not known in England. It is
remarkable for its vagrant character, and forms a singular con-
trast to the stay-at-home habits of the genus generally. It makes
its appearance in large flocks at the most diverse seasons and in
the most varied latitudes. Not migratory in the proper sense of
the word, its journeys seem undertaken under the influence of
some unknown cause, and are wanting in regularity and con-
stancy. It does not always follow the same route, and its journeys
are intermittent. This bird is of a very shy nature, and is fre-
quently met with in the East (Turkey, Syria, and Egypt) ; it v
sometimes noticed in France, where it is called the Dama?
Partridge.
PARTRIDGES. 417
Contrary to the Grey Partridge, the Red-legged, and those
allied to it, have the tarsi provided with tubercles.
The Red-legged or Guernsey Partridge owes its name to the
predominant colour of its plumage, and also to the pink shade
of its beak, tarsi, and feet. Uncultivated wastes, thinly covered
with heath, and undulating uplands adapted to the vine, are its
favourite resorts. In France it is principally found in the south ;
in the northern departments it is not so plentiful as the Common
Grey Partridge. It is also a native of Spain and Italy, and is
very common in portions of Asia and Africa.
The brush-clad mountains are its home, and in fine weather it
ventures even as far as the regions of perpetual snow. It is
very fond of grapes and the edible variety of snails. In some
parts of France it is scarce ; the Jura, the Upper and Lower Alps,
the mountains of Auvergne, and the Pyrenees are the districts
where it is most abundant. In Greece, Turkey, and Asia Minor
it is more plentiful.
Another variety, the Rock Partridge, or Gambra, which differs
but little from the Red-legged Partridge, is almost unknown in
France. Its habitat is Spain, Corsica, Sicily, and Calabria.
The COLIN, VIRGINIAN or AMERICAN PARTRIDGE (Ortyx vir-
ginianus, Wilson), has a thick and convex beak, smooth tarsi,
and a longer tail than the Partridge. These characteristics would
hardly entitle us to make any difference as to genus, if a study
of their habits had not revealed certain details which justify us in
doing so.
When these birds are flushed, they do not all of them fly
towards the same spot, but disperse in every direction, and
conceal themselves in the brushwood or trees. Under such cir-
cumstances, if one can only manage to re-find them, all may be
killed in succession. They are more prolific than the Partridge,
also less suspicious, and will readily enter snares set for them.
These birds are in the habit of making arrangements for sleeping
which are peculiar, to say the least. All the individuals of the
same flock begin by placing themselves in a circle at a certain
distance from each other; then they all walk backwards, con-
verging towards a common centre, until they are close to one
another, side to side : in this position they pass the night. By
E E
418
GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
means of this precaution the whole flock can see in all directions,
and fly away at once in case of danger, without one interfering
with the other. Each bird, in fact, has a clear space in front of
him, and runs no risk of being impeded by his companions when
desirous of taking flight.
The Colin is also distinguished from the Partridge by its
vagrant habits. In this respect it resembles the Quail, but its
peregrinations are irregular, and do not embrace anything like
the same extent of range. This bird is a native of North America,
Fig. 168. — Californian Colin (Lophortyx californicus, Bonaparte).
where it abounds. It exists in some districts of the United
States to such an extent that, during one winter, in a circuit of
not more than five or six leagues in extent, as many as twelve
thousand head have been killed, without any apparent diminution
of the species in the ensuing spring.
Having been brought to England and looked after, the Vir-
ginian has bred. Similar attempts have been made in France,
but with less success, owing to a want of perseverance. The Colin
would be an excellent addition to our game birds, as its flesh is
delicate, and it lies well before pointers or setters.
The Californian Colin (Fig. 168), familiarly known as the Cali-
fornian Quail, is a beautiful bird, adorned with a crest, the upper
portion of\ which points forward. They are only found on the
\
\
PEANOOLINS.
419
Pacific slopes of the Rocky Mountains. On the high grounds
which form the margin of the valley of the Sacramento River
they are extremely numerous.
Another variety of Colin, figured by Audubon, is also a resident
of California, where it is called the Solitary Partridge.
FRANCOLINS are distinguished from Partridges by a stronger and
more elongated bill, by a more largely developed tail, and by
the existence, in the male, of one or two sharp spurs. They also
differ in their habits, for they frequent wooded and marshy dis-
tricts, where they subsist on berries, seeds, worms, insects, and
young bulbous plants. When not feeding, they are almost con-
stantly perched on trees, where they pass the night. These
Fig. 169.— Turnix tachyclroma.
peculiarities exceptcd, they bear a strong resemblance to the
Partridge. Their flesh is highly esteemed, the Francolin taking
the first place among our game birds.
A beautiful variety of Francolin is found in the South of China.
Its favourite haunt is among the dwarf palmetto on the hill-sides.
It lies well to dogs, but is so quick in flushing, and so rapid in
flight, that even the best shots miss them. They are quite as
large as the Grey Partridge.
Unfortunately, in Europe the Francolin is tending towards
EE2
420 GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
extinction, for its wild nature prevents it accommodating itself to
a restricted range. It is found on the southern coasts of the Black
Sea, in Sicily, and the island of Cyprus. There are other species
inhabiting Africa and India.
The COTURNIX is closely allied to the Quail ; the only physical
distinction between them is the absence of the back toe. It fre-
quents sandy districts and plains covered with high grass. It
runs very swiftly, and but rarely flies. Should it be compelled,
however, to do so, its course is seldom more than one or two
yards above the ground, and of very short duration. Dropping,
it then stubbornly persists in remaining on the ground, and
prefers being caught to making a fresh attempt on the wing.
Its flesh is excellent.
A European species, the Turnix tacky droma (rapid runner),
(Fig. 169), inhabits Sicily, the South of Spain, and the North of
Africa.
The Sunda Isles produce a species of Quail, the warlike in-
stincts of which furnish an amusement for the barbarous tastes of
the inhabitants, who regularly pit them one against the other,
betting largely on the result, just as the English used to do on
cock-fights.
TlNAMIDES.
All the birds of this family belong to South America. They
are the representatives of the Partridge on that continent. Their
essential characteristics are — a slender and medium-sized beak ;
tarsi rather long, and provided with nodosities ; the back toe either
very short or altogether wanting — at all events, no use in walking
can be made of it from its elevated position ; the wings and tail
short, the latter sometimes deficient.
This family comprises four genera, all very closely allied to one
another ; these are the Tinamus, the Nothures, the Rkyncotes,
and the Eudromes. "We shall confine our remarks to their nature
and characteristics.
These birds are naturally stupid, and cannot habituate them-
selves to captivity. They live in small flocks, except during
the breeding season. They fly heavily, alwaj^s in a straight
line, but are swift runners. Some species manifest such slag-
MEGAPODIIXSL 421
gishness that they will remain the entire day without moving,
and will not even take the trouble to escape from their enemies.
They have the habit of rolling themselves in the dust, and fre-
quent indifferently cultivated ground, grassy meadows, or thick
woods. Except in rare instances, they roost upon the ground.
They are crepuscular — that is, they seek their food in the early
mornings and evenings, and even by moonlight. ' Their selection
of nutriment is frugivorous, granivorous, insectivorous, and vermi-
vorous. They make their nests on the ground, and lay twice a year
seven or eight eggs. Their flesh is good, and much sought after.
Tinamus tataupa (Swainson) may be taken as a representative
of the order. Mr. Darwin, in his " Journal of Researches in the
Countries visited by H.M.S. Beagle" describes this bird.
CHIONID^E.
The birds belonging to this family are characterised by a short,
crooked, and stout bill, long and pointed wings, a middling-sized
tail, and a merely rudimentary back toe. The size of the Chionides
varies between the Partridge and the Pigeon. The species of
Chionis, Tinochore, and Attagis are included in this family.
The Chionides are remarkable for their marine habits ; they fre-
quent the sea -beach, and feed on sea- weed and animal remains.
They are to be found in all southern countries. The Tinockores
and the Attagis are natives of Chili and Paraguay : their habits
are not known.
MEGAPODID^;.
The distinctive features of this family are as follows : the bill
straight and slender ; the tarsi long and stout ; the feet tetra-
dachylous, and furnished with long and strong claws. This family
comprises three genera: the Megapodius, Alecthelia, and Talegallus.
The Megapodii are but little known. All that has been ascer-
tained is, that they inhabit marshy localities, fly but little, and
run like Partridges. They lay each of their eggs in a separate
hole, and leave them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. The
young birds are able to dispense with maternal assistance and to
provide for their own wants on leaving the shell. These birds
inhabit the isles of the Pacific Ocean.
422 GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
The AlecthelicB bear a great resemblance to the Megapodii, and
are natives of the same places : their habits have not been studied
as yet.
The Talegalli, or Tavons, inhabit Australia and New Guinea.
They live in low brushwood adjacent to the sea. These birds have
a curious plan in building their nests. They scrape together a large
quantity of dry leaves, of which they form a conical mound five
or six feet high. On the top of this heap they make a hole, in
which the female drops two or three eggs, one on the top of the
other. The heat produced by fermentation, joined with the rays
of the sun, gives sufficient warmth to hatch them.
PHASIANID^;.
This family is divided into several genera or tribes ; namely,
Pheasants, Peacocks, Pintados, Turkeys, and Alectors.
The PHEASANT tribe comprises not only Pheasants proper, but
also the Domestic Fowls, the Argus, Tragopans, Roulouls, &c.
Their characteristics are as follows : — The head bare ; bill stout;
wings short and flight heavy; tail largely developed; plumage
extremely brilliant, and sometimes splendid.
All these birds were originally natives of Asia ; some have been
naturalised over nearly the whole face of the earth since time
immemorial ; the Pheasant, however, is not so widely spread,
although its range has been much increased.
The Pheasant is remarkable for the extraordinary length of its
tail, the middle feathers of which in one species, Reeves's Phea-
sant (Lyramaticus Reevesii), sometimes attain a length of seven
or eight feet. It is a bird of slender make, of an elegant form,
and the males are adorned with brilliant plumage ; but the hens
wear a much more unpretending attire. The sides of the face,
and round the eyes, are bare and tuberculous. The stronger sex
are provided with spurs.
There are many species of Pheasant, but there is no obvious
difference in their habits. We shall, therefore, content ourselves
with giving an account of the Common Pheasant (Fig. 170), which
is the species most widely spread through Europe.
The introduction of the Pheasant into Europe dates at a very
early age, if it is true that it goes back to the expedition of the
PHEASANTS.
42-3
Argonauts, about 1300 B.C. The companions of Jason met with
this bird on the banks of the Phasis, in Colchis, whence its name
is derived. Struck with its beauty, they carried it back with
them into Greece, whence it gradually spread over a large portion
of the European continent. The Greeks, believing it to be
indigenous to the banks of the Caucasian Hiver, called it the
" Bird of Phasis;" subsequently, however, it was ascertained that
it also inhabited the whole of the South of Asia (China, Cochin-
China, Bengal, &c.).
Fig. 170. — Common Pheasants (P/iasianus colchicus, Linn.).
At the present day this bird is found in France, Great Britain,
Holland, Germany, and even Sweden.
Pheasants prefer wooded slopes or marshy plains. Their food is
of a varied character, and is composed of grain, berries, worms,
insects, and snails. They are shy and timid in their nature,
taking flight at the slightest indication of danger. They live in
solitude up to the breeding season, when the male birds select their
PHEASANTS. 425
mates, for they are polygamous. On these occasions they engage
in such desperate conflicts that the weaker bird is often killed.
The hen Pheasant makes her nest on the ground, in the midst of
some dense thicket, and lays from twelve to twenty eggs, which
require twenty-four days to hatch.
The mother does not manifest that care and solicitude for her
young which are so marked in the majority of other birds ; she
does not even specially recognise her own progeny, for she pays
equal attention to all the young of her race that surround her.
We must not, however, expect to find much maternal love in a
bird which does not shrink from breaking her own eggs to gratify
an unnatural appetite.
The Pheasant is not remarkable for its intelligence, for, in spite
of its suspicious nature, it falls an easy victim to the poacher.
Pheasants, although they breed in a wild state in our climate,
are principally raised in vast enclosures called pheasantries, where
all the necessaries to existence are provided for them. As the
females are bad mothers, it is no unusual thing for their eggs
to be hatched by Domestic Fowls. During the first two months
of existence the young Pheasants require the greatest care, for
they are predisposed to numerous maladies. Their favourite food
is ants' eggs.
The flesh of the mature is very savoury, but rather dry, and
epicures consider that it ought not to be eaten till hung a long
time, when it is said to be " high/' a requisite which by analogy
has extended to other game. There is one very curious pecu-
liarity common to certain birds belonging to the family of which
we have been speaking, and which is especially remarkable
in the Pheasants — it is that when old females become unfruitful
they assume the plumage of males. It is said that young
Pheasants undergo the same change when deprived of their
reproductive organs.
The Golden Pheasant (Phasianus pictus), Fig. 171, and the
Silver Pheasant (P. nychthemerus, Linn.), are two beautiful birds,
originally from China and Japan, and now naturalised to Europe.
The former, clothed in purple and gold, bears a golden-yellow
tuft on its head ; the black-and-white costume of the latter is not
inferior in beauty to the preceding. Linnceus has named them.
COCKS. 427
Nychthemerus (the night and the day). There are also the Ring-
necked or Collared Pheasant, slightly different from the Common
Pheasant, which for some years has propagated rapidly in France
and England; Reeves's Pheasant (Phasianus veneratus, Temm.),
indigenous to China, where it is rather rare, and very highly prized
for the beauty of its plumage and the extraordinary length of its
tail — it is said that the exportation of this bird is severely inter-
dicted ; and lastty, the beautiful Lady Amherst's Pheasant, so called
because that lady brought two living specimens to Europe. " I pass
thus some and of the best/' as is said in Hernani, the French
comedy.
The ARGUS (Argus giganteus, Temm.), Fig. 173, a bird with
magnificent plumage, which inhabits the forests of Java and
Sumatra, takes its place beside the Pheasants, from which it only
differs in having the tarsi longer and unprovided with spurs, and
by the extraordinary development of the secondary feathers of the
wings in the male. The tail is large and round, and the two
middle feathers are extremely long and quite straight. When
paraded, as it struts round the female, spreading its wings and
tail, this bird presents to the dazzled eye of the spectator two
splendid bronze- coloured fans, upon which are sprinkled a pro-
fusion of ocellated markings much resembling eyes : it owes its
name of Argus to these spots. In a state of quiescence the wings
are folded on the sides, and attract little attention. Only in the
male bird is the gorgeous display of colouring to be found. The
Argus is very timid ; its habits are little known.
The general characteristics of the COCK ( Gallus) are as follows : —
A middling-sized, curved, and strong beak ; head surmounted by
a fleshy, red, and denticulated crest, the lower jaw furnished with
two hanging gills, equally red and fleshy; rather long tarsi, armed
with sharp spurs ; short, concave, and obtuse wings ; tectiforin
tail, arched and falling in plumes, with very developed medium
feathers ; brilliant plumage, with metallic reflections. This
description applies exclusively to male birds. Hens, more humble
in their costume, are not gifted with these exterior advantages ;
their plumage is generally dull and without attraction, their
straight and slightly-raised tails are limited to an ordinary pro-
portion ; their crest is reduced to the most simple excrescence,
Fig. 173. - Argu-s (Pkasianus Arace, Latham).
COCKS. 429
and in certain species entirely disappears ; lastly, their legs
are without the murderous spur with which the male is armed.
They are also smaller and less vociferous than the male.
The domestication of this family dates from ante-historic times,
so that we can only raise conjectures as to the original country and
species from which the numerous varieties sprang which we now
find spread throughout the world. The species, however, is pro-
bably one of those now living in a wild state in the islands of the
Indian Archipelago. They may perhaps constitute some of the
types which have given birth to our principal domestic races, and
which are separated into a number of varieties.
Whatever may be the opinion adopted, we know that amongst
the species indigenous to Asia are the Bankiva Cock (Gatlus
Bankwa, Linn.), which so nearly resembles our village Chanticleer
as to be often confused with it ; — the bird, known as Jungle-fowl
by Indian sportsmen, inhabits Java, Sumatra, the Philippines,
and Hindostaii : it is sometimes called Sonnerat's Cock ( Gallus
Sonneratn, Latham) ; — the Bronzed Cock (Gallus ceneus, Temm.),
the Fork-tailed Cock (Gallus furcatus, Temm.), and the Giant
Cock, or Kulm Cock (Gallus giganteus, Jardine), the largest
species known. These are considered, not without reason, the
founders of our most extensive races. The last mentioned lives
both in a wild and domestic state in Java, Sumatra, and India
proper. The Negro Cock offers a very remarkable case of contrast,
for the crest, gills, epidermis, periosteum, and feathers of this
species are black, but the flesh is white. The Negro Cock, very
largely spread over Belgium and Germany, still lives in freedom
in the Indies. All these species inhabit thick forests, and their
manners are entirely unknown. Consequently, without further
delay, we arrive at the description of the Domestic Cock.
The Cock is thick-set and massive, but without heaviness. His
upright and bold walk denotes his pride. Without being an
habitual runner, he moves with rapidity, but when driven to use
his wings his incapacity reveals itself; it is with difficulty he raises
himself from the ground, as if nature had destined him to live
always by the side of man, attached to the earth which
feeds them both. The Cock is a perfect model of a sultan ;
he attaches an entire seraglio to his train. His love is a
430
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
curious mixture of delicate attentions and revolting brutalities.
See him walking in the midst of his companions, he assumes
an air at once proud and defiant. He directs his wives, pro-
tects them, watches them with restless tenderness, and if he finds
a savoury morsel he unselfishly parts with it. When the time
for feeding comes, he softens his voice to invite them to come
and peck up the grain spread upon the ground ; again, he is
cruel and brutal both to Hens and chickens. Of an ardent
character, the Cock cannot suffer a rival at his side ; thus battles
Fig. 174.— Cock, Hen, and Chickens (Gallus, Briss.).
are inevitable when two Cocks inhabit the same poultry- yard.
With flashing eyes, head lowered, and feathers of the neck bristled,
the two adversaries observe each other for a time in silence. At
last the storm breaks with violence ; they precipitate themselves
upon each other, and fearlessly fight with both beak and spurs
till the earth is reddened with their blood. These battles,
which sometimes last an hour, only cease to recommence the
next day, or till one of the champions succumbs, acknow-
COCK-FIGHTING. 431
lodging the supremacy of the victor, and abandoning the place.
The Cock sometimes employs his courage and strength in
more noble contests, for he does not fear to expose his life for
the defence of the poultry-yard. Man, who knows how to utilise
even the bad instincts of animals, has not failed to employ the
natural combativeness of the Cock in ministering to his plea-
sures. In olden times the Greeks delighted in cock-fights;
the Cocks of Rhodes were particularly renowned for their game
qualities. It is related that Themistocles, marching against the
Persians, who had invaded Greece, and seeing the troops dis-
couraged before the battle, recalled to them the obstinacy
Cocks displayed in their combats, and then added, " These animals
display their courage for the single pleasure of victory; but
you, soldiers ! you go to fight for your gods, for the tombs
of your fathers, for your children, for your freedom." These
words reanimated the failing ardour of the Greek troops, and
the Persians were vanquished. In memory of this event the
Athenians consecrated a special day in the year to cock-fighting.
The Homans borrowed this pastime from the Greeks. Even in
the present day cock-fighting is still in favour in various parts
of the East. In Java, Sumatra, and Manilla this amusement is
carried to the length of folly. The inhabitants of these countries
scarcely ever travel without a favourite Cock, which they carry
under their arm. It is by no means rare to find gamblers bet-
ting not only their fortune, but even their wives or daughters,
upon the strength and dexterity of a champion bird. In
England the barbarous practice of cock-fighting in former days
was a favourite pastime, nor is it now entirely abandoned.
Henry VIII., we read, instituted rules for this then popular
sport. From his example most of the English kings patronised it.
Charles II. and James II. took it under their special protection.
At that time cock-fighting was almost a science, which had volu-
minous codes, laws, and regulations, determining the circum-
stances of the combat, and settling the interests of betters. Now,
however, it is almost exclusively confined to a few of the lower
classes, the matches generally taking place on one or other of the
few holidays which the hard-working mechanics have at their dis-
posal. On these occasions the crowd gathers, the bets are arranged,
COCKS. 433
which sometimes rise to considerable sums. The spectators con-
template with barbarous pleasure the result of the anticipated
combat, as both adversaries, armed with artificial spurs of pointed
steel, are placed in the cock-pit. When left to themselves, they
attack each other furiously, using their steel spurs with great
adroitness (Fig. 175). The fight only terminates by the death of
one of the combatants, and the victor is exhibited in triumph
to the crowd. But his triumph is of short duration ; the late
hero called again to do battle, the spur of a more powerful
adversary strikes a vital part, and he in his turn expires in the
arena. The victor upon whom formerly so much interest rested,
who excited so much admiration and such enthusiastic praises, is
now in turn defeated — the former favourite of Fortune is deserted
by the fickle goddess. In the meantime the other birds are
ceaselessly heard crowing defiance, and proclaiming their eagerness
for the fray. In the poultry-yard the Game Cock is quarrelsome>
and even cruel ; but this may be said of poultry generally. If
one of their companions is sick or wounded, they unite to put
an end at once to his sufferings and life. A stranger in the
yard is certain to meet with a bad reception ; the others set on it
in a body, and only cease hostilities at the end of several days, or
in the case of the Cock, who is their lord and master, taking the
new arrival under his protection. Hens feed on anything that
comes in their way ; this renders them valuable to country-people,
for they yield a profit without occasioning more expense than
that of a few handfuls of corn in the morning and evening;
Grain, herbs, worms, insects, carrion, rubbish of all kinds, are
alike acceptable to them.
In France Hens begin to have eggs towards the month of
February, and cease about the beginning of autumn, when they
moult. By giving them heating food, they can be made to lay
even in winter. They generally produce an egg daily — sometimes,
but rarely, two. Pairing exercises no influence in this respect ;
that is to say, Hens have eggs without a Cock, but these are clear or
unfruitful, and can only be used for food. The cry of the Hen when
about to lay is well known. When she has produced about twenty
eggs a desire to sit is manifested : if this is permitted, twelve or
fifteen eggs, placed in a basket filled with straw, are given her ;
F F
434 GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
when, uttering a peculiar clucking and spreading her wings, she
sits upon her treasures, and covers them with so much perseverance
as sometimes to forget to eat or drink, unless food is brought her.
During twenty-one days the eggs are maintained at a uniform
temperature of about 40° Centigrade. At the end of that time
the young chickens burst their shell. The Hen fulfils the duties
of a mother with incomparable devotion and tenderness ; she follows
her young brood step by step, calls them to her when they stray,
and seeks nourishment for them, thinking little of her own wants
till theirs are satisfied. Against all aggressors, with every feather
bristling and angry eyes, she warns them, protects them, and de-
fends them. If a bird of prey appears, she hastens to meet it,
and assumes such a menacing attitude, that few will not imme-
diately take to flight. The chickens develop rapidly. At the
end of a month the crest of the males shows itself ; at six months
they have acquired the vigour necessary for reproduction ; females
begin to lay about the same time. At the age of three months
transforming them into capons and pullets is performed — names
given to those individuals which have been deprived of the sexual
organs. In this condition they are fattened, and acquire a superior
flavour and delicacy of flesh. Pullets and capons, in losing the
generative faculty, lose also the inherent characteristics of their
sex. The temper of the male becomes so mild that he has been
made to perform maternal duties when a Hen has deserted her
chickens to recommence laying, by plucking out feathers from
his stomach, and then rubbing the part with nettles ; the chickens
gliding under, allay the pain which the stings have caused, and
thus the bird derives pleasure from his wards, and soon attaches
himself to them. The departments of Sarthe and Ain are cele-
brated for the pullets there raised.
Hatching is sometimes performed by artificial incubation. In
olden times the Egyptians had recourse to this means to increase
the production of poultry. The method which was used, and
which is still employed in modern Egypt, consists in placing the
eggs in a furnace maintained for twenty- one days at a uniform
temperature of 40° C. By this means a hundred millions of Fowls
are annually produced in Egypt. Simple as this operation appears,
it is not without difficulty, or the climate of Africa assists, for
GUINEA-FOWLS. 435
attempts in France have never been crowned with success. In
the Sunda Islands artificial incubation is accomplished in
another manner : here men are found who, for a small salary,
remain for three weeks stretched out and immovable upon eggs
placed in ashes. Antiquity has bequeathed to us the story of a
curious incubation made at Home by the Empress Livia. This
lady being pregnant, and desiring a son, thought of hatching
an egg in her bosom, and drawing a prognostic from the sex of
the chicken. The operation succeeded — the egg having produced
a Cock, the empress concluded that her wishes would be granted.
These were realised, for she brought into the world Tiberius — rather
a wicked bird, as every one knows.
The TRAGOPANS (Ceriornis, Swainson) and the JUNGLE-FOWLS
belong to India or the Indian Archipelago, and are all remarkable
for the brilliancy of their plumage. The HOUPIFERES, or, as their
name expresses, Tuft-bearers, strongly resemble our Domestic
Fowl. The Tragopan, which Buffon. calls the Horned Pheasant,
looks like a cross between the Domestic Fowl and the Pheasant,
but is distinguished by two small horns, which decorate the head
of the male. Lastly, the Jungle-fowls live in a wild state, being
as yet unknown domesticated, consequently little can be said of
their habits, but they probably differ but slightly from those of the
Pheasants.
PINTADOS (Guinea-fowls) have remarkably small heads for their
size ; beak and neck short ; the tail equally short and drooping ;
the tarsus very low, and destitute of spurs ; body round ; wings
short and concave ; on the head is a hard crest of a reddish blue,
sometimes replaced in mature birds by a tuft ; the wattles are
fleshy, and hang under the beak.
The Common Guinea-fowl (Fig. 176) has a slate-coloured
plumage, covered with white spots ; it is indigenous to Africa,
and its introduction into Europe dates from far-distant times ; it
was known to the Greeks and Romans. The former made it an
emblem of paternal affection. According to Greek writers, the
sisters of Meleager felt such grief at the death of their brother, that
Diana, to terminate their woes, changed them into Guinea-fowls.
The goddess, wishing that their plumage should bear the trace of
their tears, marked it with white spots.
FF2
436
GALLINACEOUS B1BDS.
The Romans, who highly esteemed the flesh of these birds,
propagated them with the greatest care to figure at their feasts, but
after the invasion of the barbarians they disappeared from Europe,
and during the Middle Ages we never hear of them. The Portu-
guese-re-discovered them in Africa on their return from the
Indies, and again imported them into Europe, where they have
since multiplied to a great extent. But the turbulent and quarrel-
some character of these birds and their noisy and discordant cries
are serious obstacles to their becoming favourites; they have also
, Fig. 176.- Guinea-fowl (Numida cristata, Latham).
ceaseless quarrels with the Hens and Turkeys, their neighbours, and
although not so strong as their antagonists, they fight them fear-
lessly. They have been seen to attack the young of other birds,
and split their skulls with a blow of their beaks. They show
great attachment to their own young, yet they occupy themselves
but little with the cares of a family ; consequently their progeny
is generally brought up by Hens or Turkeys. Although bad
nurses, their fecundity is very great, and when well fed they
lay as many as a hundred eggs in a year : these are much
sought after, and epicures prefer them to those of the Hen. Their
flesh, though good, is not so much esteemed. There are now
several species known in a wild state in Africa, and in a domestic
TUBKEYS, 437
state in Europe. They are numerous in Arabia, where they
are found in the neighbourhood of marshy places, in little bands
composed of a male and several females. Transported into America
after the discovery of that continent, the common variety is now
perfectly acclimated there, and is even to be found wild in some
of the vast forests and savannahs of that country.
TURKEYS are birds of large size, easily distinguished from
other Gallinacean fowls by the following characteristics : — Bare
heads and necks, decorated with fleshy appendages — those of the
neck, which fall under the head in front of the bird, are capable
of being inflated and much enlarged under the influence of love or
anger ; a brush of long and straight hairs hangs at the base of
the neck ; the tarsi are strong, and provided with slightly -
developed spurs ; lastly, the tail is round, of moderate length, and
at the will of the bird can be expanded like a fan.
The Turkey was originally imported from North America,
where it still lives in a wild state; it is frequently met with
in the forests which border the large western rivers of that country,
such as the Mississippi, Missouri, and the Ohio, and it must be
studied there to acquire a correct idea of its habits. The Domestic
Turkey is not so handsome in plumage as is the Wild, but the
former generally much exceeds the latter in size. The colour of the
Wild Turkey is brown, mixed with blue and green, giving out a
diaphanous metallic brilliancy. The full-grown male bird some-
times measures over three feet, and weighs from twenty to
twenty-five pounds. The American naturalist, Audubon, speaks
of having seen one which was upwards of thirty-six. The female
is much smaller, and seldom exceeds ten pounds in weight : her
plumage cannot vie with that of the male in splendour. Although
it does not appear constructed for the purpose, the mature bird
is capable of taking considerable flights, passing with ease in
its wild state across such gigantic rivers as the Ohio, Mississippi,
and Missouri, which in every direction traverse and bisect the
middle portion of the great North American continent ; but it, as
a rule, only takes wing when all other means of locomotion are
denied, for it runs with surprising rapidity, distancing the common
cur dog with ease, and only abates its speed after a lengthened
pursuit. It accomplishes long journeys on foot; not, however,
438 GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
caused by atmospheric influence, but want of sustenance in the
country which it inhabits. It is generally towards the beginning
of October that these migrations commence. The Turkeys then
unite in troops of from ten to a hundred individuals, and go
towards the regions which they have chosen for their new abode ;
the males form a separate drove from the females, which march at
their sides, surrounded by their young families. The necessity of
protecting their young from the brutality of the old cocks, who will
kill them if opportunity offers, inspires the hen Turkeys with
this habit. It sometimes happens that the emigrating band are
stopped by a water-course, when all evince great agitation by
spreading their tails, uttering frequent gobbles, and yielding
themselves to extravagant demonstrations. At the end of a day
or two, after having inspected the neighbourhood, they mount
upon the branches of some of the highest trees, and take to the wing
to traverse the obstruction. Some of the young ones always fall
into the water, but they know perfectly how to swim : when all
have reached the opposite bank they run hither and thither as if
they were mad, and from their recklessness at this time it is very
easy to approach and kill them. These birds pair in February or
March, according to latitude ; the females produce eggs six weeks
afterwards. At this time the hen secretes herself in a place
unknown to the male, as he would break the eggs. The nest is an
indentation in the ground, lined with soft grasses, moss, and dry
leaves, and in it are deposited her embryo progeny, which are sat
upon with perseverance deserving praise. In this respect they
are superior to all Gallinaceous fowls, even surpassing the Domestic
Hen. When the mothers leave their eggs to seek food they are
always careful to cover them with leaves, the better to screen
them from the sight of the Fox, Lynx, or Crow. The incubation
lasts about thirty days. As the time for hatching approaches, no
power can make the mother leave her nest, no peril will cause her
to desert her charge. On being hatched, the young Turkeys,
under the protecting care of the old bird, are led to sequestered
feeding grounds, and do not leave her till the end of several
months. Wild Turkeys have many formidable enemies, the most
destructive being Man, next the Lynx and the Eagle Owl ; they
are, therefore, very distrustful, and when on the ground secrete
WILD TUEKEY.
439
themselves at the least appearance of danger ; but if perched upon
a tree they are less guarded, and consequently can be more easily
approached by the sportsman. On a misty, moonlight night
American hunters take their posts under trees where Turkeys com-
monly perch. In this situation the game will receive several
f.
Fig. 177.— Wild Turkey.
discharges without making the slightest attempt to escape, although
numbers of them in succession may have been killed. It is diffi-
cult to explain this apparent apathy, especially when we know their
hurry to fly before the Owl. It is doubtless owing to the want of
sagacity which they manifest under these circumstances, as well as
to their ludicrous aspect and eccentric attitudes, that Turkeys have
440 GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
gained the reputation of stupidity. This bird, however, sometimes
gives proofs of intelligence, as the following fact, related by Audu-
bon, shows. He had raised a Wild Turkey from its most tender
age, which had become extremely tame, but the love of indepen-
dence remained very strong in the bird, for it could not accustom
itself to the pent-up life of its domestic relations. Thus it enjoyed
the greatest freedom; it went and came, passing nearly all its time
in the woods, only returning to the house in the evening. At length
it ceased to come back, and from that moment dispensed with
visiting its birth-place. Some time after, Audubon, whilst hunting,
perceived a superb Wild Turkey, upon which he set his dog ; but,
to his great surprise, the bird did not fly, and the dog, instead of
seizing it when it was overtaken, stopped and turned his head
towards his master : greater still was the hunter's surprise when,
having approached, he discovered his ancient pensioner. This
Turkey had recognised the dog, and understood that it would do
him no harm, otherwise it would have scampered off immediately.
Turkeys feed upon herbs, grasses, fruits, and berries of every
description ; they are partial to beech and other nuts ; and their
liking for wheat and maize is such that they frequent the
neighbourhood of cultivated fields, where they make the greatest
ravages. They also occasionally feed upon insects, frogs, and
lizards. The large destructive grub familiarly known as the
Tobacco Worm they are particularly partial to, and are con-
sequently much encouraged by the tobacco planters. In a
domestic state they are even known to have killed and eaten
rats. One curious peculiarity in the history of the Turkey
is its horror of red; the sight of a scarlet object throws it
into the most comical fury. It is needless for us to vaunt the
flesh of the Domestic Turkey ; every one is agreed on this subject.
We will only say that, from the testimony of many travellers and
naturalists, the flesh of a Wild Turkey, killed in winter or spring,
before laying, is far superior to that of the Domestic bird, those
coming from Southern Indiana and Illinois being considered by
Americans as the finest. The Turkey, being indigenous to
America, was naturally unknown to the ancients. The precise
date of its introduction into France is not recorded. According
to some, it was at the end of the fifteenth century ; to others,
PEACOCKS. 441
only at the commencement of the sixteenth. Anderson affirms
that the first Turkeys raised and eaten in France were served at
the marriage of Charles IX., in 1570.
The Honduras or Ocellated Turkey (Meleagris ocellata, Cuvier)
is one of the most beautiful Gallinaceans ; its plumage is mag-
nificent ; the tail is enamelled with large blue eyes, each of which
is surrounded with a circle of brilliant yellow and purple. It
inhabits the country surrounding the Bay of Honduras, Southern
Mexico, and all Central America. At the Regent's Park Gardens,
London, is to be seen a splendid hybrid, bred between the American
Wild Turkey and the Honduras species.
The tribe of PEACOCKS comprehends the genera Pavo cristatus,
Hist. Anim. ; Pavo javanicus, Horsfield ; and Lophophores. The
feature which essentially distinguishes Peacocks from other Gal-
linaceans is the immense tail with which nature has endowed
them. This tail, formed of long, large, and tufted feathers, coloured
with the richest shades, is capable of being raised up like that of
a Turkey. When one contemplates this magnificent appendage,
in which purple and gold vie with the most varying colours of the
emerald, and notices the innumerable and brilliant eyes with which
it is studded — when with delight he views its lofty stature, elegant
shape, noble carriage, and, above all, a slight and mobile tuft,
the emblem of royalty, crowning its head — one cannot help being
struck with lively admiration, and spontaneously according the
palm of beauty to the privileged being which unites in itself so
many marvels. The Peacock was known from the earliest time ;
for it is mentioned in the Bible as one of the most precious products
brought from Asia by King Solomon's ships. It made its first
appearance in Greece after Alexander's expedition into India.
Alexander, it is said, was so astonished at the sight of this bird
that he forbade it to be killed under the severest penalties. For
a long time they were very rare, and fetched a high price at Athens,
and the people from the neighbouring towns assembled in crowds
to see them. From the Greeks they passed to the Homans ; but
this nation, more fond of the pleasures of the table than of
spectacles, soon made them figure in their feasts. Peacocks
consequently were rapidly propagated in the poultry-yards of
the rich patricians ; and some of the emperors, such as Yitellius
442 GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
and Heliogabalus, caused dishes of the heads or brains of Peacocks
to be served: from this cause their price became excessive in
Rome. Little by little they spread throughout the empire, and
thus the Peacock has become naturalised in Europe. During
several centuries its exquisite and delicate flesh was in very great
favour; but the importation of the Pheasant, and later that
of the Turkey, brought successful rivals for table honours. The
Peacock is now bred principally to please the eye ; and even
when it does make its appearance at some ceremonious repast, it
is intended more to gratify the eye than the palate, for the carcass
is invariably decorated with the resplendent tail, spread out in
fan-shape. The Domestic Peacock, which is now the pride of
our gardens and parks, is indigenous to India and the isles of the
Eastern Archipelago. There they still live in large troops in the
depths of the forests. They are so abundant in localities, that it is
said the traveller, Colonel Williamson, being delayed one day in
the district of Jungleterry, counted not less than from twelve to
fifteen hundred. The Peacock runs with such rapidity that it often
escapes from pursuing dogs ; it takes to the wing with diffi-
culty, and flies slowly, though it can prolong its flight to a con-
siderable distance. It feeds upon grain of all kinds, which it
swallows without crushing. In the evening, to roost for the
night, it perches upon the limbs of the highest trees. In a state
of domesticity it retains this fancy for elevated places, and takes
pleasure in mounting on the roofs of houses, upon which it struts
and excites itself, scattering tiles, or tearing up the thatch, as the
case may be; for the devastating instinct appears to be very
strongly developed in it when opportunity offers. This bird also
commits great ravages in cultivated fields. The Peacock at times
utters deafening cries, which contrast unpleasantly with its daz-
zling plumage — one wishes for a more harmonious voice with
such a magnificent body; but what animal possesses all perfec-
tions ? It is polygamous. At the commencement of the spring
the male displays to the females all the splendour of his plumage ;
he struts, spreads his tail, delights at the sight of his own figure,
and receives with pleasure the admiration which his charms draw
forth. His vanity knows no bounds ; the adulation of his females
is not sufficient for him, he must have eulogiums from man also,
PEACOCKS.
443
and before him rejoices to display all the riches of his wonderful
tail. Complete master in the art of pleasing, he knows how to
manage the transitions of light and shade so as to present him-
self to the greatest advantage ; and when he has been gazed at
Fig. 178. — Domestic Peacock (2'avo cristatus, Wood).
sufficiently, by reiterated struts he marks his contentment. At the
end of August his beautiful plumage falls off, not to come forth
again till the spring. It is said that the Peacock is so ashamed of
having lost that which was his pride, that he then shuns the sight of
444 GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
man. This is better explained by tlie fact that the time of moult-
ing is for this, as for all other birds, a period of sickness ; they
consequently retire into solitude, to find there the calm and tran-
quillity which their critical state demands. The Wild Peahen lays
from twenty to thirty eggs in a hole hollowed out in the ground. She
is much less fruitful in the Domestic state. She takes the greatest
care to hide her nest from the searching eye of the male, which
breaks the eggs whenever he finds them. Incubation lasts from
twenty-seven to thirty days. The young follow their mother from
their birth ; at six months they are reputed adult, and attain
their full development at three years. The Peahen, like the hen
Pheasant and the Common Hen, adopts the plumage of the male
when age has rendered her unfruitful, or when, by a premature
atrophy, her eggs have become sterile. The Peacock lives from
twenty-five to thirty years ; some authors have wrongly attributed
to them the longevity of a century.
The POLYPLECTRONS (Diplectron, Yieillot) owe their name to the
superabundance of spurs with which they are armed ; the males
always possess two, sometimes three. The plumage of these birds,
like that of Peacocks, is sprinkled with glittering ocellations ; but
their tails are shorter, and not susceptible of expansion. There
are three or four varieties known, which inhabit India, China,
and the isles of Sumatra and Borneo. Their manners have not
yet been studied.
IMPEYAN PHEASANTS are little better known than the Poly-
plectrons. They prefer cold climates, which sufficiently accounts
for their predilection for the elevated ridges of the Himalayas.
No one has as yet succeeded in acclimating them in Europe.
This is one of the most brilliant Gallinaceans ; its plumage,
bedizened with the most lively colours, has gained for it in India
a very significant name — that of the " Golden Bird/7
Under the name of A lectors (from the Greek aAArwp), Cuvier
has united a certain number of American birds bearing some
resemblance to the Cock, and has divided them into several
varieties : the Hoccos, Pauxis, Penelopes, Parraquas, and Hoazins.
Hoccos are analogous in form and size to Turkeys, of which
they are the representatives in their habitat, Central America,
Guiana, and Brazil. Deprived of spurs, they have a large tuft
HOCCOS.
•
upon the head, formed of distorted and erectile feathers. They
Fig. 179. — Impeyan Pheasants (Lophopkorus Impeyanus, Gould).
live in numerous troops in the midst of forests, and feed upon
Tig. 180.— Curasaow, or Hocco (Crax alector, Linn.).
seeds, berries, and buds. Naturally very gentle, they readily yield
to captivity, when they become familiar, and evince pleasure in
446 GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
g
the caresses of their masters. Sonnini relates that he has seen
them wander at liberty through the streets of Cayenne, return
to their homes without hesitation, and leap upon the tables to
take their food. Their flesh is exquisite, and in all respects
worthy of the favour of epicures. These different qualities should
cause an honourable place to be assigned to Hoccos in our poultry-
yards ; it is, therefore, to be regretted that the attempt to acclimate
these birds made by the Empress Josephine, at the commence-
ment of this century, have not been renewed.
GALEATED CuRAssows, or PAuxis (Ourax pauxi, Cuv.), differ
but little physically from the Hoccos. They have the same habits
and characteristics, and easily habituate themselves to servitude.
GUANS or PENELOPES (Penelope cristata, Gmelin), and PARRAQUAS
(Latham), are two genera of birds strongly resembling each other ;
they have an analogy to Pheasants, but only on account of their
general forms ; in short, they possess the confiding and peaceable
nature of Hoccos and Pauxis, and easily submit to the domina-
tion of man. Their flesh is delicious ; they also deserve to be
acclimated.
The HOAZINS (Opisthocomus cristatus, Quoy and Gaimard)
inhabit the savannahs of Guyana, Their flesh, which exhales a
strong odour — due, no doubt, to the vegetables on which they feed
exclusively — is far from being agreeable.
COLUMBIDJE.
The Columbidce family establish a transition between real
Gallinaceans and Passerines ; in short, they partake of the nature
of both. Whilst they approach the former in their anatomical
and purely material characteristics, such as the structure of their
beaks, sternum, and crops, they resemble the latter in their elegant
forms, peaceable manners, and in all their habits.
Like the Passerines, they are monogamists. The male and female
build their nests together, and share the cares of the incubation and
education of their young ; these, when born, are blind, and only
covered with a slight down, and are quite unable to run like young
Gallinaceans. There are generally two Pigeons hatched at the
COLOMBI-GALLINES. 447
same time; and it is a very curious fact that there is almost always
a male and a female. They do not quit the nest till they have
acquired sufficient strength to use their wings and fly. During
the earliest portion of their existence they receive no other nourish-
ment from their parents than a sort of pap secreted in the walls
of the gullet ; but at the end of some days the father or mother
discharges into their beaks the food which they themselves take.
When they are sufficiently developed, they travel with the adults
in large flocks to seek a milder climate or better feeding ground :
their migrations in the natural state occur in spring and autumn.
"What distinguishes them from the true Gallinaceans is that
they have a thumb inserted even with the other toes, and that
consequently they are able to perch ; almost all Pigeons pass much
of their lives on trees. Their food consists principally of seeds,
berries, and fruits, sometimes insects, and a peculiar little snail
similar to that found in the Isle of France. Their flesh, gene-
rally good, in some species, such as the Crowned Goura, acquires
an exquisite flavour. Thus they form an immense part in
public alimentation, both in a domestic and wild state. They
are shot very extensively at the time of their migration.
Although their flight is noisy, and even presents some appearance
of heaviness, it is easy and sustained, so that Pigeons have
been known to accomplish journeys of surprising length in a
few hours.
We will divide the Pigeons into three families — the Colombi-
GallineSy the Colombes, or, properly speaking, Pigeons, and
the Colombars.
COLOMBI- G ALLTXES.
A certain number of birds rank in this family, which, with the
general forms of Pigeons, still preserve the habits of Gallinaceans ;
hence the mixed name of Colombi- Gallines. Thus they constantly
live on the earth, build their nests there, and only take refuge
upon trees to pass the night or escape from danger. They run
perfectly, but fly badly, and are sedentary ; lastly, some species
have cephalic nudities and fleshy appendages, or long, movable
feathers round the neck like the male of the Domestic Fowl.
Physically they are characterised by a slight and straight beak,
443
. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
and by rather high tarsi. This family comprises a very large
number of species spread throughout Central and South America,
the isles of the Indian Ocean, and a great part of Africa.
The compass of this work will not permit us to examine all :
we will merely mention the most remarkable, the Great Crowned
Pigeon (Columba coronata, Latham), very common in New Gruinea
and the Moluccas. The plumage of this bird is of a beautiful
greyish blue ; its head is ornamented with a pretty plume of
straight, long, and tapering feathers ; it is about the size of a
Fig. 181. — Crowned Groura (Phasianus cristatus indicus, Latham).
Domestic Fowl, and very highly esteemed for the qualities of
its flesh ; consequently the inhabitants of the above islands raise
it in their poultry-yards (Fig. 181).
COLOMBES.
Colombes have slender beaks, long wings, and short tarsi.
The principal species are the Wood Pigeons, Common Domestic
Pigeons, Carriers, Turtle Doves, and Passenger Pigeons: the
first three are indigenous to Europe.
The WOOD PIGEONS (Columba (Enas, Selby), Fig. 182, are the
largest species of this family; their plumage is slaty grey,
WOOD PIGEONS. 449
with bluish, green, and rose-coloured reflections. They are
spread throughout all Europe, but chiefly in warm and tem-
perate parts. They are very common in France, where they
arrive in numerous flocks early in March, generally departing
in October or November to pass the winter in more hospitable
climates. At the time of their passage the Alpine and
Pyrenean hunters destroy them in large quantities. The Wood
Pigeons or Cushats inhabit forests, and delight among the
branches of large trees. They feed upon acorns and beech-
nuts, and are very partial to cherries and strawberries. With
the farmers this bird is far from a favourite, for its appetite is
insatiable, and it is alike destructive to grain in the ear or ger-
minating. They build their nests in lofty trees. The female, after
having chosen a place, forms the nest out of materials which the
male brings her, such as little
dead branches which it detaches
from trees by the aid of its feet
or beak ; it never picks up the
boughs which strew the ground.
This nest is but a rude shelter,
scarcely large enough to contain
the young, and sometimes falls
to pieces before they are able to
fly; in this case the brood re-
tains, if possible, a position on
the large branches which sup- Fig. m— TI« wood or King pigeon
, i ,1 . ^ ••••. CEnas. Selby).
ported their previous dwelling.
Queests, as they are frequently called, generally lay in March
and August. Incubation lasts twelve days, and the young can
take flight about two weeks afterwards. During all the time
of the incubation and education of the young the male remains
near the female, constantly cooing, as if to break the monotony
of her occupation. In the wild state Eing Pigeons are distrustful
and difficult of approach, but their characters become modified
by domestication, or even by an independent life passed in the
neighbourhood of man. Thus young ones taken from their birth
familiarise themselves without difficulty, and do not appear to
regret having lost their liberty. They do not breed in this con-
G G
450 GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
dition — or at least we do not know how to make them do so ; it is
said that the ancients understood this art.
Ring Pigeons are seen in Paris which have from time imme-
morial chosen a domicile in the gardens of the Tuileries, at the
Luxembourg, and in the Champs Elysees. They are very tame, and
come almost under the feet of promenaders. Few inhabitants of
Paris have not seen at the Tuileries the charming spectacle of
an old man who attracts round him numbers of Wood Pigeons
and Sparrows, to which he distributes crumbs of bread. The
confidence they show to this kind friend as an acknowledgment
of his goodness is wonderful ; they rest upon his shoulders,
take the bread from between his fingers, and even from his
mouth, and allow themselves to be caressed without manifesting
the least fright : this is evidence of the possibility of taming Ring
Pigeons.
Wood Pigeons (Columba CEnas) have many traits of resem-
blance to Ring Pigeons, but they are smaller, justifying the
name of Little Queest which is sometimes given to them ; their
habits are the same as those of the preceding species, except
that they build their nests in the hollows of trees, instead of
upon the branches, as the former species do. They are very
plentiful in the South of Europe and in Africa. They leave
France regularly in the month of October.
WILD ROCK PIGEONS (Columba livia, Selby) delight in rocky
and arid places. They depose their two eggs in the clefts of rocks
and ruins. They are seldom seen in Europe in a state of com-
plete liberty, except upon some parts of the coasts of England
and Norway and certain isles of the Mediterranean. They will-
ingly sacrifice their independence to live in pigeon-houses. They
are generally regarded as the founders of the numerous races of
our Domestic Pigeons.
DOMESTIC PIGEOKS probably sprang from the Wild Rock
Pigeons. They are of two kinds — the Colombier Pigeons and the
Aviary Pigeons. The former enjoy almost complete liberty ;
they traverse the country all day to seek for food, and sometimes
even return to a wild state. The latter are quite tame, and the
door of their habitation can be left open without danger; they go
a little distance, and always return to their domicile. If Domestic
DOMESTIC PIGEONS. 451
Pigeons cause some harm to our crops, they amply compensate
for these devastations by the services which they render to agri-
culture. They are equally valuable to the breeder and consumer ;
the former derive a certain profit from them, and the latter an
agreeable and economical article of food. To give a sufficient
idea of the resources which they supply to public alimentation,
we have only to state that certain species lay as many as ten
eggs a year. Further, they supply a manure which is very effica-
cious for some soils. Raising Pigeons necessitates certain precau-
tions which cannot be neglected without bad results : the greatest
cleanliness is necessary in the pigeon-house or aviary; all tur-
bulent individuals which sow discord, and often injure the
fecundity of females, must be excluded ; and the races must be
separated as much as possible the one from the other, in order
to avoid the production of sterile varieties. Amongst the
Domestic species the naturalist can study at leisure the manners
of Pigeons, and form an exact idea of their natures and inclina-
tions; for he can observe them from their first steps, making
their early timid endeavours to raise themselves in the air ; after-
wards noting at more mature age the evolutions of the sexes,
and their fidelity to each other through years after pairing.
We will examine rapidly the principal races of Domestic Pigeons.
The first is, as we have said, the Common House Pigeon,
differing slightly from the Wild, which almost exclusively sup-
ports the population of Pigeon-breeders ; this is sometimes called
the Fugitive Pigeon. The Blue Rock is only a modification of
the Wild Rock Pigeon ; in form it is, however, more elegant,
while the plumage is prettier. It is one of the most fruitful
species.
The Pouter Pigeon owes its name to the faculty which it
possesses of inflating its crop to an immense size by the introduc-
tion of air. This peculiarity often destroys them ; indeed, when
feeding their young, they find so much difficulty in causing the
seeds which they have swallowed to reascend into their beaks,
that they contract a malady which is frequently fatal.
The Roman Pigeons, thus named because they are very common
in Italy, are easily recognised from the circle of red which
surrounds their eyes.
G G 2
452 GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
The Swift Pigeon is of small size, its flight is light and rapid,
and its fecundity very great.
The Carrier Pigeons belong to this race. They are celebrated
for their attachment to their birth-place, or to the spot that con-
tains their offspring, and for the intelligence which enables them
to regain their native countries from whatever distance. Trans-
port them miles from their homes, even in a well-closed basket,
then give them their liberty, and after a time they will return,
without the slightest hesitation, to the place from which they
were taken. This valuable faculty has long been utilised, espe-
cially in the East. The Romans made use of Pigeons as mes-
sengers. Pliny says that this means was employed by Brutus
and Hirtius to concert together during the siege of a town by
Marc Antony. At the siege of Ley den, in 1574, the Prince of
Orange employed Carrier Pigeons to carry on a correspondence
with the besieged town, which he succeeded in freeing. The
Prince, to mark his acknowledgment of the services rendered
by these sagacious birds, wished them to be fed with strawberries,
and their bodies to be embalmed after death. We learn from Pierre
Belon, the naturalist, that in his time navigators from Egypt
and Cyprus took Pigeons upon their galleys, and liberated them
when they had arrived at the port of destination, in order to
announce to their families their safe journey. In our century
they have been made use of for similar purposes. The fluctua-
tions of the Bourse were for a long time sent from Paris to
Brussels by means of Carrier Pigeons.
The Tumbler Pigeon owes its name to its curious manner of
flying. It has a habit, after it has risen to a certain height, of
throwing five or six somersaults.
The Wheeling Pigeon describes circles like birds of prey. It
is turbulent, and ought to be banished from pigeon-houses.
The Nun Pigeon is recognised by a kind of hood formed of
raised feathers, which covers the back of the head and neck, and
to which it owes its name. It flies heavily, but is very familiar
and very prolific.
The Fan-tailed Pigeon is remarkable for its tail, which is
very large, and raised like that of the Peacock, and for the con-
DOVES. 453
vulsive trembling which agitates it, especially at breeding-time.
It thrives badly in an aviary, and is little valued, except as an
object of curiosity.
There are two species of DOVES — the Turtle Dove (Turtur
communis, Linn.) and the Ring Dove (Turtur risorius, Selby).
The former is the smallest species of the family of Colombida).
They are found throughout Europe, but are more abundant in
the south than the north. They arrive in France in spring, and
depart for warmer countries at the end of summer. They build
their nests in large trees in the shady and most retired parts
of woods. They feed on seeds and berries. After harvest they
visit stubbles of wheat or other grain ; the abundant nourish-
ment which they there find makes their flesh extremely delicate
and nutritious. Although naturally wild, the Turtle Dove is easily
tamed when taken young, when it evinces great attachment.
The RING DOVE is indigenous to Africa, where it lives in a
state of freedom. This is the species which, in Europe, is raised
in cages and aviaries. In certain towns of Egypt, particularly
Alexandria and Cairo, they are so tame that they walk in the
streets, and even enter houses, fearless of the presence of occu-
pants. They are prolific, for they lay every month, except
during the moulting season. Their cooing somewhat resembles
a laugh — hence the name of Laughing Dove which has been
given them. The ancients made the Turtle Dove an emblem of
tenderness. This honour is justified by the kind attention which
the male shows the female, especially during the period of incu-
bation.
The PASSENGER PIGEON (Fig. 183) is the Columba migratoria
of many authors : it inhabits North America. They are remark-
able for the strength and rapidity of their flight, and for the
migrations which they accomplish.
The American naturalist, Audubon, says, " Pigeons have been
killed in the neighbourhood of New York, having their crops still
full of rice, which they could not have taken nearer than the
fields of Georgia and Carolina— six or seven hundred miles dis-
tant. As their digestion is sufficiently rapid to entirely decom-
pose grain in the space of twelve hours, it follows that they
must have travelled the above space at the rate of a mile a
454
GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
minute. One of these birds, if able to keep up this velocity,
could visit the European continent in less than three days."
It is not for the purpose of seeking a warmer climate that they
undertake their journeys, but to procure food when the acorns
become scarce in the woods which they inhabit. Their migra-
tions, consequently, are irregular as to date. Looking at the
innumerable and closely-packed masses of Passenger Pigeons
which take part in these voyages confuses the mind. Audubon one
Fig. 183. — Passenger Pigeons (Ectopistes migratoria, Sw.).
day endeavoured to count the flocks which passed above him in one
hour. He counted a hundred and sixty- three in twenty minutes,
but he was soon obliged to give up, the flights succeeded each
other so rapidly. He says : " The more I advanced, the more
Pigeons I met. The air was literally filled with them. The day-
light, in full mid-day, was obscured as by an eclipse ; the dung
fell like flakes in a fall of snow ; the buzzing of their wings
stunned me, and gave me a sleepy sensation." These Pigeons are
TRAVELLER PIGEONS. 455
endowed with very strong sight. When flying at a considerable
height they can perfectly distinguish the places which will furnish
them with the means of subsistence. Having found a suitable
country, they alight upon an immense space of ground, and in a
few minutes completely ravage it. Large quantities of them can
then be destroyed without any apparent diminution in their num-
ber. Some hours after their descent they again take to flight, and
regain their nocturnal domicile, frequently twenty or thirty miles
distant, where a frightful slaughter is often made amongst them.
Long before the sun sets the inhabitants of surrounding counties
await them with horses, carts, gun?, and ammunition. Some even
bring flocks of pigs, to fatten on the flesh of the Pigeons which
the destroyers are unable to carry away. Audubon, who assisted
at one of these slaughters, has related it as follows. He says : —
" Every one holds himself in readiness, with eyes directed towards
the heavens. Suddenly a general cry of ' They come ! ' resounds.
The noise which they made, although at a distance, reminded me
of a strong sea-breeze amongst the cordage of a ship, the sails of
which are furled. When they passed above my head I felt a
current of air 'which astonished me. Thousands were already
struck down by men armed with poles, but they continued to
arrive without intermission. Fires were lit, and it was then a
fantastic sight full of frightful magnificence. The birds pre-
cipitated themselves in masses, and pitched where they could,
one upon the other, in large heaps like barrels. Then the
branches gave way under the weight, cracked and fell, bringing
to the ground and crushing the closely-packed flocks which
covered every part of the trees. It was a lamentable scene of
tumult and confusion. In vain I tried to speak, or even to call
the persons nearest to me. It was with difficulty that I could
hear the guns fire, and I only perceived they had fired by seeing
them reload their arms. Pigeons continued to come, and it was
past midnight before I noticed any diminution in the number of
the arrivals. The uproar continued all night. At last the day
approached, the noise began to abate a little, and, long before we
could distinguish objects, the Pigeons commenced to start in quite
an opposite direction to that in which they had come in the even-
ing. At sunrise all that were capable of flying had disappeared.
4.36 GALLINACEOUS BIEDS.
Now it was the Wolves' turn, the howls of which saluted our ears.
Foxes, Lynxes, Cougars, Bears, Eats, Opossums, and Martins,
bounding, running, climbing, pressed to the quarry, whilst Eagles
and Falcons of different species flew down from the air to take
their part of such rich booty. The sportsmen then, in their turn,
entered into the midst of the dead, the dying, and the wounded.
The Pigeons were piled in heaps, each took what he wished, and
the Pigs were left to satiate themselves on the remainder."
These massacres are in nowise injurious to the existence of this
species. In short, according to Audubon, the number of these
Pigeons becomes doubled or quadrupled in a single year.
COLOMBARS.
This family, established by Levaillant, comprises some species
which belong entirely to the hot countries of Asia and Africa.
These birds are characterised by thick, strong, bent beaks, which
enable them to break the envelopes of the fruits which serve them
for food. They fly less rapidly than birds of the Dove family,
and coo in a different manner. They inhabit woods, and build in
holes in trees. Their flesh is good. The principal species are
found in Abyssinia, Senegal, and the Indian Archipelago.
CHAPTER VI.
SCANSORES, OR CLIMBERS.
PEOPLE will be strangely mistaken if they imagine that all the
birds which rank in this order possess the faculty of climbing. In
reality it is only the privilege of some, and does not belong
exclusively even to them, for it is found in some of the Passerines.
The essential characteristic of the Climbers lies in this organic
disposition — that the external toe, instead of being placed in front
like that in other birds, is placed behind, by the side of the thumb.
For this reason the denomination of Climbers has been substituted
by that of Zygodactyles, which is used by Temminck, Yieillot,
and others, and which has the advantage of perfectly express-
ing the distinctive characteristic of the order, for this word
signifies fingers disposed in pairs. Thanks to the formation of
their feet, the Climbers can clasp the branches of trees strongly ;
thus they are almost continually perched. Their flight is medium,
being neither so powerful as that of the Raptores nor so light as
that of the Passerines. These birds feed upon fruits or insects,
according to the strength of their beaks. They chiefly inhabit
warm countries, and their colours are generally brilliant. Lastly,
they are all monogamists, with the exception of the Cuckoo. This
order is one of the least numerous of the class of birds. It com-
prehends but few families, amongst which we will mention the
Parrots, Toucans, Cuckoos, Woodpeckers, and Jacamars.
PARROTS.
Parrots have large, strong, and round beaks ; the upper man-
dible strongly hooked and sharp at the extremity, extending
beyond the lower, which is rather deeply hollowed. The tongue,
458 SCANSOKES, OE CLIMBEES.
which, is thick, fleshy, and movable, is terminated by a cluster of
sinewy papillse, or by a cartilaginous gland. The tarsi are very
short, and the feet perfected to such a degree that they really
become hands, able to seize, hold, and retain small objects. Their
toes are supplied with strong and hooked claws, which make
these birds pre-eminently Climbers. With the exception of one
single species — the Loriets (Platycerdna Vigorsia, Sw.) — which
have rather long tarsi and straight claws, enabling them to run
with some rapidity, the Parrots, on the contrary, walk with
difficulty. They drag along the ground with such trouble that
they rarely descend to it, and only under pressing circumstances.
Besides, they find all the necessaries of their existence on trees.
They are not more favoured with regard to their flight, and we
can understand that it should be so ; for, living in thick woods,
they only require to effect trifling changes of place, such as from
one tree to another. However, some species, especially the smaller,
are capable of a more prolonged and effective use of their wings.
According to Levaillant, some even emigrate, and travel hun-
dreds of miles every year ; but this is an exception. In general,
Parrots are sedentary, and willingly remain in localities without
a desire to leave.
7 Sociable in their dispositions, they assemble in more or less
numerous bands, and make the forests re-echo with their loud
cries. To some species it is such an imperative necessity to be
near each other and live in common, that they have received
from naturalists the name of Inseparables. At breeding-time each
couple isolate themselves for the purpose of reproduction. The
male and female evince the greatest attachment to each other.
The females deposit their eggs in the hollows of trees and in the
crevices of rocks. The young birds are quite naked when hatched ;
it is not till the end of three months that they are completely
covered with feathers. The parent birds wait upon them with the
greatest solicitude, and become threatening when approached too
closely by intruders.
Essentially frugivorous, Parrots prefer the fruits of the palm,
banana, and guava trees. They may be seen perched upon one
foot, using the other to bear the food to their beaks, and retain it
there till eaten. After they have extracted the kernel they free
PAEEOTS. 459
it from its envelope and swallow it in particles. They often
plantations and cause great devastation. In a domestic state they
arc omnivorous. Besides seeds and grain, they eat bread, and
even raw or cooked meat, and it is with manifest pleasure that
they receive bones to pick ; they are also very partial to sugar.
It is well known that bitter almonds and parsley act upon them
as violent poisons. They drink and bathe very frequently ; in
summer they evince the greatest desire to plunge into water.
Captive Parrots will habituate themselves, if permitted, to the use
of wine ; it produces the same effect on them as on the human
family, viz., excites their loquacity and gaiety. They climb in a
peculiar manner, which has nothing of the abruptness displayed
by other birds of the same order. They accomplish their slow and
irregular movements by the help of the beak and feet, which
lend a reciprocal support. Like almost all birds of tropical
regions, Parrots are adorned with most beautiful colours, green
predominating; then comes red, and finally blue and yellow.
They have often largely- developed tails.
Notwithstanding their prattling, Parrots are the favourites of
men, from their remarkable talent of imitation. They retain and
repeat with great facility words which they have learned or heard
by chance, and also sometimes imitate, with startling resemblance,
the cries of animals, the sounds of different musical instru-
ments, &c.
By the words that they utter in an unexpected manner, Parrots
contribute to our amusement and diversion, and quite become
companions. Is it, then, to be wondered at that these birds
have been eagerly sought since their introduction into Europe ?
Alexander the Great brought into Greece a Parrot which he
had found in India. These birds became so common in Eome
at the time of the emperors, that they figured in their sump-
tuous repasts. They are now spread throughout Europe in a
domestic state.
The species most remarkable for their mimic babbling faculties
are the Grey Parrot, or Jaco, a native of Africa, and the Green
Parrot, from the West Indies and Tropical America.
In the sixteenth century a cardinal paid a hundred crowns for
a Parrot because it recited the Apostles' Creed correctly. Monsieur
460 SCANSOEES, OE CLIMBEES.
de la Borde relates that lie lias seen a Parrot supply tlie place of
chaplain to a ship, for he recited the prayer and rosary to the
sailors. Levaillant heard a Parrot say the Lord's Prayer lying on
its back, placing together the toes of its feet as we join our hands
in the act of prayer. Willoughby mentions a Parrot which, when
he said to him, " Laugh, Parrot ! " immediately burst out laughing,
and cried out an instant after, " 0 the great fool who made me
laugh ! " A keeper of a glass shop possessed one which, when-
ever he broke anything or knocked over a vase, invariably ex-
claimed, in tones of anger, " Awkward brute ! he never does
anything else."
" We have seen a Parrot," says Buffon, " which had grown old
with his master, and partaken with him the infirmities of age.
Accustomed to hear little more than the words, ' I am ill/ when
asked, ' How are you, Parrot — how are you ? ' ' I am ill/ it replied
in doleful tones, * I am ill/ and stretching itself on the hearth
— ' I am ill/ ' "A Parrot from Guinea," says the same author,
" being taught on the journey by an old sailor, learnt his rough
voice and his cough so perfectly that they could be mistaken.
Although it had been given immediately after to a young person,
and only heard his voice, it did not forget the lessons of its
former master, and nothing was so agreeable as to hear it pass
from a sweet and pleasant voice to its old hoarseness and the
cough of early times."
Goldsmith relates that a Parrot belonging to King Henry YIIL,
and always confined in a chamber bordering upon the Thames,
had learnt several phrases which it heard repeated by the boat-
men and passengers. One day it was let fall into the Thames,
when it cried with a strong voice, " A boat ! a boat ! twenty
pounds to save me ! " A waterman immediately threw himself
into the river, thinking that some one was drowning, and was
much surprised to find it was only a bird. Having recognised
the king's Parrot, he carried it to the palace, claiming the
recompense the bird had promised when in distress. The circum-
stance was related to Henry YIIL, who laughed much, and paid
it with a good grace.
The Prince Leon, son of the Emperor Basil, having been
condemned to death by his father, owed his life to his Parrot,
PABROTS. 461
which, in repeating the lamentable accents several times, " Alas !
my master Leon ! " ended by touching the heart of this barbarous
father. M. Lemaout says : — " In a town of Normandy a butcher's
wife beat her child unmercifully every day. The infant sank
under the ill-treatment. The justice of man made no remonstrance,
but a Grey Parrot which lived in the house of a rope -maker,
opposite to that of the butcher, took upon itself the chastisement
of this unnatural mother. It continually repeated the cries which
the poor child uttered when he saw his mother rush at him with
the rod in her hand — * What for ? what for ? ' This phrase was
uttered by the bird with such doleful and supplicating accents,
that the indignant passers-by entered unexpectedly into the shop,
and reproached the rope-maker with his barbarity. He justified
himself by showing his Parrot, and relating the history of his
neighbour's child. After some months the woman, pursued by
the accusing phrase and the murmurs of public opinion, was
obliged to sell her business and leave the village."
The Marquis of Langle, in his " Travels in Spain," writes thus :
— " I saw at Madrid, at the English Consul's, a Parrot which has
retained a quantity of things — an incredible number of stories and
anecdotes — which it retails and articulates without hesitation. It
spoke Spanish, murdered French, knew some verses of Racine,
could say grace, repeat the fable of the Crow, and count thirty
louis. They dared scarcely hang its cage at the windows ; for
when it was there, and the weather was fine, the Parrot talked
ceaselessly. It said everything it knew, apostrophised all passers-
by (except women), and talked politics. In pronouncing the word
Gibraltar it burst out laughing. One would think it was a man
who laughed."
An English gentleman bought a Grey Parrot in Bristol, the
intelligence of which was quite extraordinary. It asked for
everything it wanted, and gave orders : it sang several songs,
and whistled some airs very well, beating the measure. When
it made a false note it recommenced, and never committed the
mistake again. We have often, when passing through the
Rue Four-des-Flammes, at Montpellier, heard a Parrot which
sung and articulated most distinctly the two verses of this
462 SCANSOEES, OE CLIMBEES.
" Quand je bois du vin clairet,
Tout tourne, tout tourne au cabaret."
Parrots imitate not only the words, but even the gestures of
those with whom they come in contact. Scaliger knew one which
repeated the songs of some young Savoyards, and imitated their
dances.
These birds are more or less susceptible of education. Some,
Fig. 184. — The Ara Macaw (Mucrocercus (Sw.) ararau/ia, from Braziliau name). ,
naturally peaceable, are easily tamed ; others, more refractory,
submit to captivity unwillingly. In general, when they are
taken young they attach themselves strongly to those who have
care of them.
Parrots have a mania for using their beaks upon everything
that comes in their way. When encaged against their will they
utter loud cries, and sometimes turn their fury upon the bars of
PAEEOTS. 463
their prison. They have been known to pluck and even tear them-
selves in these paroxysms. Supplying them with a plaything is
the only means of keeping them quiet under such circumstances.
These Climbers are endowed with remarkable longevity. The
" Memorandums of the Academy of Sciences of Paris " mention a
Parrot that lived in the family of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, in
Florence, more than a hundred and ten years. Vieillot speaks of
Fig. 185. — Ringed Parrakeet (I'alceornis torquatus, Vig.).
having seen one near Bordeaux which was eighty-four years of
age. The average length of their life cannot, however, be exactly
ascertained.
Parrots rarely breed in Europe ; it is true they often lay, but
the eggs are sterile. A few instances have been known in
France where, under favourable circumstances, they have per-
petuated their species. Generally all that we see in our tem-
perate regions are brought from countries where the majority
have been taken from the nest. Different means are employed
to capture the adults, all of which have for their aim to stun
them for an instant, in order to paralyse their movements.
464
SCANSOEES, OE CLIMBEES.
The family of Parrots comprises four principal groups —
the Macaws, Parrakeets, Parrots properly speaking, and Cocka-
toos.
The MACAWS (Fig. 184), the largest of the Parrots, are recog-
nisable from their bare cheeks and long tapering tails. They in-
habit South America, and are arrayed in the most brilliant colours.
The principal species are the Red, the Blue, the Green, and the
Black Macaws. The name Arara, by which they are known in their
Fig. 186. — Love-birds (Psittacula taranta, Gould).
habitat (Brazil), describes the deafening cries which they utter.
Yery familiar, they tame easily, and do not abuse the liberty granted
them, for they never move far from their dwelling-place, and
always return to it. They like the caresses and attentions of people
they know, but do not care for strangers. The Green Ara is
remarkable for its aversion to children. This peculiarity doubtless
arises from the fact that it is very jealous, and that it often sees
children receive the caresses of its mistress. The Macaws have
PAEEOTS.
465
only the gift of imitation in a slight degree ; they are scarcely
able to retain any words, and articulate badly.
PARRAKEETS, much smaller than Macaws, have, like them, long
and tapering tails, but their cheeks are wholly or partially feathered.
Some species, which resemble the preceding group by being more
or less destitute of plumage round the eyes, for this reason have
received the name of Macaw-Parrakeets. Parrakeets are highly
Fig. 187. — Grey Parrots (Psittacus erythacus, Sw.).
esteemed for their vivacity, gentleness, and the facility with which
they learn to talk. Their plumage is generally of a uniform green ;
sometimes it is varied with red or blue. They inhabit South
America, the islands of Oceania, the Indies, Africa, and Senegal.
The TABTJAN or KING'S PARROT (Platycercus scapulatus, Vig.),
which inhabits Australia, belongs to this group. These birds form
a curious exception in the order of Climbers by their terrestrial
H H
4G6
SCANSOKES, OE CLIMBEES.
habits. According to M. J. Verreaux, they never perch when
pursued, but take refuge on the ground among the herbage.
PARROTS, properly speaking-, are distinguished from other groups
of the same family by their short square tails. They have feathered
cheeks like Parakeets, and their size is intermediate between them
and the Aras. They are much appreciated on account of their
memory, and also for their habit of repeating what they hear.
Parrots are divided into several species, founded upon the size
and the predominating colour of the plumage. The first of
these is generally grey, and consists only of the Grey Par-
rot, or Jaco, indigenous to the West Coast of Africa, to which
Fig. 188. — Green Parrot (Pstttacus umuzonicus, Briss.j.
the chief part of the anecdotes recounted in the preceding pages
relate. Next comes a species the plumage of which is green ;
the most remarkable of these is the Amazonian Parrot. The
principal colour of the Lories is red ; they inhabit the Moluccas
and. New Guinea. Love-birds (Fig. 186) are the smallest of this
group ; their plumage varies in shades according to the climates.
They are met with in America, Southern Africa, and in the islands
of Oceania.
COCKATOOS have tails of medium length, cheeks feathered, and
head surmounted by a white, yellow, or pink tuft, which they can
TOUCANS.
407
raise and lower at will. They are the largest among the race of
Parrots of the Old Continent. They inhabit the Indies and the
isles of Oceania, and are pretty, graceful, docile, and caressing,
but are indifferent talkers. One very remarkable species of this
group is the Microglosse (little tongue), called by Levaillant the
" Macaw with the trumpet, "from the formation of its tongue, which
is cylindrical, and terminated by a little gland slightly hollowed
at the extremity. When this bird has reduced into fragments,
by the help of its jaws, the kernels of the fruits which form its
nourishment, it seizes the pieces by means of the hollow which
terminates the tongue, and having tried the flavour, projects
Fig. 189. — Sulphur Cockatoos (Cacatua suiphurea, Wood).
the trumpet in front, and makes it pass to the palate, which has
the function of causing it to fall into the throat. This curious
mechanism was disclosed by Levaillant.
TOUCANS.
The characteristic of the birds which compose the family of
Toucans is their enormous beak. This is much longer than
the head, is curved at its extremity, dentated at its edges, and
H II 2
468
SCANSOEES, OE CLIMBEES.
possesses a projecting bone at the middle of the upper man-
dible. It is not so heavy to bear, and incommodes the movements
of the birds less than might be supposed, for it is formed of a
spongy tissue, the numerous cells of which are filled with air.
Thus it is very weak, and does not serve to break, or even to bruise,
fruits, notwithstanding the idea one forms at first sight of its
strength, for it is not even capable of breaking off the bark of trees,
as certain authors have urged. This wonderful bill encloses a still
more strange tongue ; very straight, and as long as the beak, which
is covered on each side with
closely-packed barbs, similar
to a feather, the use of which
remains a complete mystery
to us. This curious instru-
ment so struck the naturalists
of Brazil, where many Tou-
cans are found, that it fur-
nished these birds with a
name. In Brazilian Toucan
means "feather."
Toucans feed on fruits and
insects ; they live in bands of
from six to ten, in damp places
where the palm tree flourishes,
for its fruit is their favourite
food. In eating they seize
the fruit with the extremity
of the beak, make it bounce
Up {n the air, receive it then
into the throat, and swallow it in one piece. If it is too
large, and 'impossible to divide, they reject it. They are
rarely seen on the ground, and although their flight is heavy
and difficult, they perch on the branches of the highest
trees, where they remain in ceaseless motion. Their call is a
sort of whistle, frequently uttered. Very timid, they are ap-
proached with difficulty. During the breeding season they
attack the weakest birds of their own race, chase them from
their nests, and devour the eggs or nearly-hatched young ones
Fig. 190. — Toucan (Ramphastos toco,
native name).
CUCKOOS.
469
which they enclose. They build their nests in holes hollowed
out by Woodpeckers or other birds. They all have very brilliant
plumage, and inhabit Para-
guay, Brazil, and Guiana.
This family is divided into
Toucans, properly speaking,
and the Aracaris. These are
distinguished from the former
by their much less size, more
solid beak, and longer tail.
The most beautiful species of
the family is the Brazilian
Toucan, described by Hum-
boldt under the name of Yel-
low Toucan (Fig. 191). The
beautiful orange feathers
which cover this bird are
sometimes employed for ladies' dress. This fashion has passed
from Brazil and Peru into Europe, and muffs made of the throats
of Toucans sell at a great price.
Fi.T. 191.— Yellow Toucan (Pteroglossus Hum-
botdtii, Gould).
CUCKOOS.
The general characteristic of the birds ranked in this family
are — slightly-curved beaks of medium dimensions, wings generally
short and concave, and tapering tails. Among the Cuckoos are
comprehended Anis, or Annos (Cotophagus, Briss.), Barbets,
Trogons, and Touracos, or Plantain-eaters. Cuckoos have elegant
shapes ; beaks almost as long as the head, compressed, and slightly
curved ; the tail rather long and rounded. Unlike other birds
of the same family, they have long and pointed wings. Their
size is about that of the Turtle Dove. Their flight is light and
rapid, but they are unable to bear strong winds ; thus they cannot
accomplish great journeys without resting. There are a great
number of known species belonging to all the countries of the Old
Continent. The whole of Africa, South Asia, China, Japan, and
certain isles of Oceania are inhabited by Cuckoos.
Europe only possesses one species, the Grey Cuckoo, which has
470 SCANSOEES, OE CLIMBERS.
been carefully studied, and to which what we have to say regarding
this group of birds applies. Grey Cuckoos are essentially migratory.
They pass the warm season in Europe, and the winter in Africa
or in the warm parts of Asia. They arrive in France in the
month of April, and leave it at the end of August or the begin-
ning of September. They travel during the night, not in numerous
bands, but alone, or in groups of two or three at the most. They
prefer bushy parts of woods, but often traverse the country in
search of nourishment, which is composed principally of insects
and caterpillars. They are frightfully voracious, which accounts
for the enormous capacity of their stomachs. Of a surly and
tyrannical nature, they suffer no rival of their species in the
neighbourhood which they have chosen ; for if some intruder
arrives, it is hunted out without truce or mercy. On account
of this unsociable disposition, the Grey Cuckoos, when captured
after attaining maturity, are unable to accommodate themselves
to confinement — in short, adults starve themselves to death when
in captivity. Young birds are less restive, and gradually accus-
tom themselves to a cage ; but they are always disagreeable
on account of their quarrelsome habits, which prevents them
from living caged with feathered companions.
Cuckoos are celebrated for the peculiar manner in which
they raise their progeny. The females do not build a nest or
cover their eggs, neither do they take care of their young. They lay
their eggs in the nests of other birds, generally in those of little in-
sectivorous Passerines, such as the Lark, the Robin, Hedge Sparrow,
Eedthroat, Nightingale, Thrush, Blackbird, and sometimes also in
those of the Magpie, Turtle Dove, and Wood Pigeon. They leave
the care of hatching their eggs to these strangers, and of feeding
their young until they are completely developed. Different expla-
nations have been proposed to justify the anomaly which seems to
make a hard-hearted mother of the Cuckoo. We owe to M. Florenf-
Prevost the possession of certain information on this point which
had long remained in obscurity. According to this naturalist,
Cuckoos are polygamous, but in a reverse sense to other birds.
Whilst among them males have several females, with Cuckoos it
is the females that have several males, because the stronger sex is
much more numerous than the weaker. These ladies have no
CUCKOOS.
171
fixed home. At the "breeding- time they wander from one district
to another, reside two or three days with a male at one place,
and then abandon him, according to inclination. It is at this time
that the males so frequently utter the cry known to all the world,
and from which the bird derives its name ; it is a sort of call or
challenge to the females, which in their turn reply by a peculiar
clucking. Cuckoos lay eight or ten eggs in the space of a few
weeks. When an egg has been laid, the female seizes it in her beak,
and carries it to the first unoccupied nest in the vicinity, and there
deposits it, profiting by the absence of the proprietor, which would
Fig. 192. — Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus, Linn.).
certainly oppose such an addition. A Redthroat has been seen to
return unexpectedly, and force the stranger to retire -with her
burden. The next egg is placed in a neighbouring nest, but never
in the same as the first. The mother is doubtlessly conscious of
the unfortunate position it would place her two nurslings in if she
acted otherwise, for it would certainly be impossible for two
little Passerines to supply the wants of two such voracious beings
as young Cuckoos. Pertinent to this, we will mention a fact
that we have not seen stated in any work on natural history. It
often happens that the female Cuckoo takes from the nest one of
the eggs of the Passerine, breaks it with her beak, and scatters the
472 SCANSOEES, OE CLIMBEE8.
shell. Thus, when the mother returns, she finds the same number of
eggs that she left. It is from this cause one frequently sees pieces
of egg-shell surrounding the nests where Cuckoos have deposited
their progeny. This action on the part of the birds denotes
perfect reasoning powers, and consequently real intelligence.
What say the great philosophers to it, who refuse this faculty
to animals ? When it has thus left its eggs to nurse, the
female comes several times to see that they are well cared for,
and does not leave the neighbourhood till she is assured that such
is the case. She is not quite so free from solicitude about the
welfare of her young as one at first thinks. Thus we can under-
stand why the female Cuckoo does not herself discharge her
maternal functions. Laying her eggs at considerable intervals,
she would find that to cover several eggs and to raise a young-
one at the same time was incompatible, for the latter duty
involves frequent absences which would destroy the eggs, to which,
during incubation, an equal and constant temperature is necessary.
It is not then indifference, but thought, that causes her to confide
to others her maternal cares. The young Cuckoo is no sooner
hatched than he employs his infant strength to get rid of the true
children of his foster-parents, in order to be the only one to profit
by their attentions ; he glides under the frail creatures, gets them on
his back — where he holds them by means of his raised wings — and
precipitates them one after another from the nest. The mother,
though thus cruelly treated in return for her affection, generally
retains her love for this perfidious child of her adoption, and
provides for all its wants until the time of its departure. Some-
times, however, she is so angry at the loss of her young, that
she brings no nourishment to the monster, and lets it die of
starvation.
HONEY GLIDES, or INDICATORS (Indicator, Yall.), have their place
next to Cuckoos. These are little birds inhabiting the interior of
Africa. They feed on insects, and especially delight in the pupae of
bees ; they employ very curious manoauvres in order to procure them,
which denote perfect intelligence. When one of these birds dis-
covers a hive, it endeavours to attract the attention of the first
person it meets by frequently- repeated cries. When observed it
ANIS. 473
proceeds to fly, and sometimes leads thus for great distances till it
reaches the place where the hive is, which it takes care to point out
by every means in its power. Whilst the honey is being taken, the
bird remains in the neighbourhood, observing all that passes, and
when that work is accomplished, it approaches to reap the fruits of
its trouble, The bees make very little buzzing, but flutter round,
trying to sting it (but its skin is impervious to their efforts).
Often, however, the despoiled bees attack its eyes, and sometimes
succeed in blinding it : the unfortunate bird, incapable of guiding
itself, then perishes in sight of the place that witnessed its
triumph. The Hottentots esteem Indicators very highly on account
of the services which they render them in revealing the abodes of
bees, and therefore scruple to kill them.
The group of Cuckoos is supplemented by several more species
nearly allied to the genus Cuckoo, upon which it is useless for
us to enlarge. These are Courols, Coccyzus, Couas, and Guiras.
All these birds are strangers.
ANIS have bulky, short, very compressed beaks, surmounted by
a slight and sharp crest. They inhabit the countries of Equatorial
America, and live in troops of from thirty to forty in the midst of
savannahs and marshes. They feed upon reptiles and insects ; they
are often seen to alight upon cattle to devour the insect parasites
which torment them. Hence comes their scientific name of
Crotophaga (Linn.), or eaters of insects. They are of very gentle,
confiding natures, and the sight of man does not frighten them ;
besides, there is no advantage in killing them, for their flesh
exhales a repulsive odour. Taken young, they become very familiar,
and are as quick as Parrots in learning the art of speaking. They
possess the instinct of sociability in the highest degree ; so much
so, that they do not even isolate themselves at pairing-times as
other birds do. They build a common nest either in the trees or
bushes, in which all the females lay and sit on their eggs.
This nest is sometimes divided by walls into a certain number of
compartments, each of which belongs to a female, but generally
all the eggs are mixed, and the females cover them indiscrimi-
nately. This admirable understanding does not cease after the
young are hatched. These are nourished by all the mothers
474
SCANSOEES, OE CLIMBERS.
in common. Are not these little republics models of peace and
concord ? and does not man find in them salutary examples
of disinterestedness and affection ? The two principal species of
the genus are the Razor-bill of Jamaica and the Crow Blackbird
of America. The former is the size of a Blackbird, the latter of a
Jay.
BARBETS (Fig. 193) owe their name to a number of straight
hairs which they have upon their beak. They are massive in form,
and their flight is heavy. Inhabiting warm countries of both con-
tinents, they conceal themselves in thick forests, either alone or
in small bands. They feed on fruits, berries, and insects. Certain
species even attack and devour young birds. They build in the
Fig. 193. — African Barbet (Pogonias hirsutus, Sw.)-
trunks of trees. The number of eggs they lay is two, sometimes
(though rarely) three. Levaillant asserts that the old and
infirm Barbets are cared for and fed by those in the enjoyment
of all their vigour. He says that, having taken five Barbets
in a nest of Republicans, one of which was so old that it could
not stand on its legs, and having enclosed them in a cage,
" the four healthy Barbets hastened to give food to the one lying
in a dying state in a corner of the cage." He adds that the
nest whence he had taken them was filled with husks and the
remains of insects, which led him to think that the old invalid had
TEOGOXS.
475
been fed a long time by
these kind and thought-
ful birds. If this is true,
it is worthy the atten-
tion of moralists.
TROGONS, like Barbets,
have the bases of their
beaks covered with hairs.
Their soft and silky
plumage glitters with
the most brilliant hues,
and their tails are ex-
tremely long. They very
strongly resemble the
birds of night by their
unsociable nature and
melancholy dispositions,
and by the solitary lives
they pass in the wildest
parts of woods. Like
them, also, they only go
out in the morning and
evening to seek the in-
sects and caterpillars
which form their prin-
cipal nourishment. The
presence of man does
not frighten them ; and
this confidence often leads
to their death, for they
are actively pursued for
their flesh, which is said
to be excellent, and also
for their very beautiful
feathers. Their name
Couroucous arises from
the cry which they utter
at breeding-times. They
inhabit the intertropical
Fig. 194 — Kesplendent Trogons (Trogon (Calurux)
rttylciidiuis, Lrould).
476
SCANSOBES, OE CLIMBEES.
regions of both continents. The most remarkable species is the
Resplendent Trogon (Fig. 194), indigenous to Mexico and Brazil.
The plumage of this bird is
of a magnificent emerald
green frosted with gold :
its head is surmounted by a
beautiful tuft of the same
colour. The daughters of
the Caciques in the New
World formerly used its
feathers in their dresses. At
the present time Creoles
employ them for the same
purpose. The most com-
mon species is the Trogon
mexicanus (Fig. 195).
Fig. 195.- Mexican Trogon (Trogon mexicanus, Gould). TOURACOS, Or PLANTAIN-
EATERS (Musopkagida), are
African birds, of which the general forms bear some analogy to
the Hoccos. They live in forests, and perch upon the highest
branches of trees : their flight is heavy and little sustained.
WOODPECKERS.
The birds which compose this family are characterised by a
rather long, conical, pointed beak, and by a very extensible tongue.
They form two genera, Woodpeckers and Wry-necks.
WOODPECKERS excel in the art of climbing, but they do not per-
form it in the same manner as Parrots. They accomplish their
ascensions by extending their toes, supplied with bent claws, upon
the trunk of a tree, and maintain themselves hanging there ; then
move themselves a little farther by a sudden and jerked skip, and
so on. These movements are facilitated by the disposition of
the tail, formed of straight resistant feathers, slightly worn away
at their extremities, which, pressed against a tree, serve as a
support to the bird. Thanks to this organisation, Woodpeckers
traverse trees in every direction — downwards, upwards, or hori-
WOOUPECKEES.
477
zontally. Woodpeckers are of a timid and restless disposition ;
they live alone in the midst or on the borders of large forests.
Insects and their larvae form their nourishment ; there they seek
them in the trunks and clefts of trees. Their tongue is wonder-
fully suited to this work of exploration. It is very long, and,
by a peculiar mechanism, can be projected out far enough to
Fig. 196.— Black Woodpeckers (Picus (Dryocopus] martins, Gould).
1. Female. 2. Male.
reach objects three or four inches away. The beak is termi-
nated by a horny point bristling with small hooks. In many
species it is overlaid with a sticky humour, secreted by two
voluminous glands, the effect of which is to catch the insects
which it touches. "Whenever the bird darts this tongue into
the crevices, it draws it out more or less laden with insects. If it
perceives an insect that it cannot reach by means of this organ, it
478
SCANSOKES, OE CLIMBEES.
has recourse to its strong beak : striking the tree with redoubled
blows, it cuts the bark, breaks an opening, and seizes the coveted
prey. It often also strikes with its beak to sound the tree, and
assure itself that there is no cavity in the interior which would
serve as a refuge for its prey. If the trunk is hollow, it examines
all parts to find the entrance to the cavity. When it has dis-
covered it, it introduces its tongue ; and if the canal is not
large enough to permit it to explore the hiding-place with suc-
cess, it increases the size of the aperture. It is not only to seek
for food that Woodpeckers
make holes in trees, but
also to establish their nests.
Some species, it is true,
select the anfractuosities
which they find, but others
hollow out their resting-
places according to their
tastes. When such is the
case, they inspect soft-wood
trees, such as the beech,
aspen, &c., to ascertain those
that are decayed in the
interior. When they have
made their choice, the male
and female peck the bark off
the tree by turns, and do not-
ecase to labour till they have
reached the decayed portion.
The cavity which they bore
is generally so oblique and
so deep that perfect darkness must surround them. It is doubt-
less a measure of security against the little mammals, especially
the rodents, the natural enemies of their family. The female
deposits her eggs upon a bed of moss or the dust of worm-
eaten wood. The young birds grow slowly, and receive in the
nest the care of their parents for a long time. In general they
have little voice, or only utter disagreeable cries. At breeding-
time they frequently employ a language peculiar to them-
r>— Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers (Picus
minor i Gould).
WEY-NECKS.
479
selves : they strike the trunks of dead trees with their beaks,
and these blows, which are heard at a great distance, attract all
the Woodpeckers of the neighbourhood.
Woodpeckers are generally considered noxious birds, because
they are supposed to injure the trees of forests and orchards, and
for this reason a relentless war is made against them. They should,
on the contrary, be protected ; for they destroy innumerable insects,
the real enemies of timber. Besides, they scarcely ever attack
healthy trees — they reserve their labours for those which are
worm-eaten. There are a great number of species of Woodpeckers
known, wliich are spread over the two continents : Europe possesses
eight, seven of which live
in France either in a set-
tled state or as birds of
passage. The principal are
the Black Woodpecker,
the Spotted Woodpecker,
and the Grey Woodpecker.
WRY-NECKS owe their
name to the curious pro-
198.— Wry- necks (Ftauc torqtaUa
perty which they possess
of being able to twist their
necks in such a manner
as to turn the head in all
directions. They repeat
this movement every in-
stant, especially when sur-
prised or angry. At the
same time their eyes be-
come'fixed, the feathers of the head stand up, and the tail
expands itself. Like Woodpeckers, they can hang upon trees,
and sustain themselves in a vertical position for a long time ;
but they are incapable of climbing. The weakness of their
beaks does not permit of their boring trees ; therefore they
seek their nourishment upon the ground, principally amongst
the ant-hills. They lead a solitary existence, which they only
relinquish at pairing-time. They possess a characteristic con-
fidence, never in the least avoid the presence of man, and
480
SCANSOEES, OE CLIMBEES.
become very familiar in captivity. They build in the natural
holes of trees, or in those hollowed by Woodpeckers. Their
plumage is pleasing, and their size is the same as the Lark.
They inhabit all the Old Continent.
JACAMARS.
Jacamars (Fig. 199) inhabit Equatorial America. They are
characterised by long and pointed beaks, short tarsi, and short
or obtuse wings. They have three or four toes, according to the
' Fig. 199. — Paradise Jacamar (Galbula paradisea, Latham).
species. Their habits are little known ; but it is certain that
they live isolated or in pairs, that they are stupid, move but
little^ and rarely depart from the neighbourhood where they have
chosen their dwelling. AH species do not frequent the same places
— some like thick woods, others prefer plains, while some select
damp localities ; but all are insectivorous. In their manners, as
well as in their physical characteristics, Jacamars appear to
resemble King-fishers, of which we shall speak in the following
order.
CHAPTER VII.
PASSEBINES.
THE Passerines (from passer, the Latin name for Sparrow)
form the least natural group of the class Aves. Here one seeks
in vain for the homogeneous characteristics which distinguish
the preceding races. Indeed, it is difficult to detect the bonds
which connect them together. For example, where is the link
which unites the Crow to the Swallow or to the Humming-
birds ? Nevertheless, all these winged creatures, though so
different externally, belong to the Passerine. It may be said
that this order presents only negative characteristics, bringing
together in a somewhat odd assemblage all birds which are
neither web-footed, wading, gallinaceous, climbing, nor rapacious.
The only physical feature on which much stress can be laid, which
is common to all Passerines, and even that not of much value, is
that the outward toe is united to the middle one in a more or less
extended manner. Their food consists of seeds, insects, and fruit.
They live singly or in pairs ; they fly gracefully and easily ; their
walk consists of a leap ; and they build their nests and take their
rest under the thick foliage of trees, or under the eaves of
buildings.
In this extensive group we find most of the songsters whose
melodious voices so charmingly wake the echoes of the wood-
lands. Some of them have even the gift of imitating to a certain
extent the human voice, as well as the cries of wild animals.
Many are remarkable for their brilliant plumage ; others are
appreciated for their delicacy on the table. Man has reduced
numbers of them to comparative tameness, but has altogether
failed in bringing them to a domestic state.
Cuvier divides the Passerine into five great families— the. Syn-
1 1
482 PASSEEINES.
dactyles, Tenuirostres, Conirostres, Fissirostres, and Dentirostres.
The first is based on the structure of the feet ; the other four on
the formation of the bill. But this classification is very arbitrary,
as it is not always possible to assign a place to certain groups by
an inspection of the beak alone. We shall, however, follow this
distribution, as being that generally adopted.
SYNDACTYLES.
The Syndactyles (having the toes united) have the external
toe nearly as long as the middle one, and united to it up to the
last articulation. The birds which constitute this group have
little analogy with each other, the physical characters which we
shall have occasion to notice being purely artificial as a means of
classification. The family includes the Hornbills (Buceros, Linn.),
the Fly-catchers (Muscicapidce) , the King-fishers (Alcedo, Linn.),
the Bee-eaters (Merops, Linn.), and the Momots (Prionites, 111.).
The HORNBILLS, or CALAOS, are remarkable for their enormous
development of beak, which is long, very wide, compressed,
and more or less curved and notched, and in some species
surmounted by a large helmet-like protuberance. This immense
beak is nevertheless very light, being cellulose, as in the Tou-
cans. The Hornbills have in some respects the bearing of the
Crow : this led Bontius to class them among the Crows, under
the name of Indian Crow (Corvus indicus). They walk with
difficulty, and their flight is clumsy, their favourite position being
on a perch at the summit of lofty trees. Great flocks of these
haunt the forests of the warmer regions of the Old World,
especially Africa, India, and the Oceanic Archipelago. They
build their nests in the hollows of trees. They are omnivorous,
and the fruits, seeds, and insects of those regions are their prin-
cipal food; yet they feed also on flesh. In India they are
domesticated, their services in destroying rats and mice being
much appreciated. The plumage of the Hornbill is black or
grey, of various shades ; but there is a species described by Dr.
Latham and Dr. Shaw, under the name of the Crimson Hornbill,
which Mr. Swainson thinks may prove to be a link between
Toucans and Hornbills, and thus combine the beauty of plumage
of the former with the peculiarity of form of the latter. Their
FLY-CATCHERS.
483
flesh is delicate, especially when fed on aromatic seeds. Many
species are described, varying in size, among which the Rhinoceros
Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros), Fig. 200, is the most worthy of
notice. This bird is so named from the singular protuberance
with which its bill is surmounted : this is a smooth horny casque
or helmet, curving upwards from the bill, somewhat resembling
the horn of the rhinoceros. It is a native of India and the
islands of the Indian Ocean.
Fig. 200. — Rhinoceros Hornbiil (Buceros rhinoceros, tkmui).
The FLY-CATCHERS (Muscicapidce) are a family of insectivorous
birds, many of which are British, comprehending, according to
Temminck, the Todies (Todus), distinguished by long, broad, and
very flat bills, contracting suddenly at the tip. Characteristics : —
Tail short, slender, and rounded ; legs long and weak ; toes short,
the outer one more or less united to the middle one. T. viridis,
the only species, according to Temminck, has a bright green
n2
484 PASSEEINES.
plumage above, whitish beneath ; a scarlet throat ; sides rose
colour ; and the tail-coverts yellow. It is a native of South
America and the Antilles ; and Sir Hans Sloane, under the name
of " Green Humming-bird," describes it as " one of the most
beautiful small birds he ever saw." Mr. Browne states that
it is a familiar little bird, and will often let a man come within
a few feet to admire it before becoming alarmed. "It keeps
much about the houses in country parts," he adds, " flies slow, and
probably may be easily tamed."
It lives almost entirely on the ground, feeding on insects, which
it catches in the evening. It builds its nest in the crevices
on river banks, or in the soft rocks, in which it hollows out a
dwelling by means of its bill and feet.
The KING-FISHERS (Alcedo), the Martin-fishers of some authors,
form a highly interesting group, of which Alcedo ispida (Linn.)
is the only known species indigenous to Britain. M. Vigors
finds an intimate resemblance between them and the Todies.
The King-fishers are very singular birds. Their bill is strong,
straight, and angular, being of immense length compared with their
size ; the tip of both mandibles acute ; the commissure perfectly
straight; the head strong and elongated; wings and tail of
moderate size; tarsi short, and placed far back (Fig. 201). The
King-fisher (A. ispida) has behind each eye a patch of light
orange brown, succeeded by a white one; from each corner of the
mandible proceeds a line of rich blue, tinged with green ; the crown
of the head is deep olive green ; the feathers are tipped with a
verdigris shade ; chin and throat with yellowish white ; breast,
belly, and vent with orange brown ; tail a bluish green ; shafts
of the feathers black ; and the legs a pale brick red. This beautiful
bird is as interesting in manners as in appearance. Living on
the banks of rivers, they feed almost exclusively on fish. The
King-fisher watches patiently from a fixed station, generally a
naked twig overhanging the water, or a stone projecting above
the surface, for its prey : in this position it will sometimes
wait for hours, absolutely immovable. When the fish comes
within reach, with great rapidity it pounces upon it, seizing it
in its powerful mandibles, and after destroying it by com-
pression, or by knocking it against a stone or the trunk of
KING-FISHERS.
485
a tree, it swallows it head foremost. When fish is scarce it
feeds also upon aquatic insects, which it seizes on the wing.
Its aerial movements are rapid and direct, but weakly main-
tained, being performed by a series of quick, jerking beats of
the wings, generally close to the surface : the action of the
wings is so rapid as to be scarcely perceptible. The short tarsi
render the King-fisher a bad walker.
The King-fisher is a solitary bird, living generally in secluded
Fig. 201. — King-fishers (Alcedo ispida, Linn.}.
places, and is rarely seen even with birds of its own species,
except in the pairing season. Like the Todies, they build their
nests in the steep banks of rivers, either in the natural crevices,
or in holes hollowed out by water rats ; and these dwelling-
places are generally disfigured by the fragments of their repast.
Father and mother sit alternately, and when the young are
hatched they feed them with the produce of their fishing. The
bird has a shrill and piercing note, which it utters on the wing.
Their flesh is very disagreeable.
The King-fisher is the Halcyon of the ancients, who attributed
to it after death the power of indicating the winds. The
seven days before and the seven days after the winter solstice
were the Halcyon days, during which the bird was supposed to
486 PASSERINES.
build its nest, and the sea remained perfectly cairn. To its dead
body the attributes of turning aside thunder-bolts, of giving beauty,
peace and plenty, and other absurdities were ascribed. Even now,
in some remote provinces of France, the dead birds are invested
with the power of preserving woollen stuffs from the attack of the
moth; hence they are called Moth Birds by drapers and shop-
keepers. They are inhabitants of almost every region of the
globe, and comprehend a great number of species, spread over
Asia, Africa, and America.* Europe possesses one species not
larger than a Sparrow, and which is remarkable for the rich
colouring of its feathers. What, indeed, can surpass the bril-
liancy of the King-fisher as it suddenly darts along some mur-
muring brook, tracing a thread of azure and emerald ? Some
authors separate the King-fishers, properly so called, or river-
side birds, from the Bee-eaters and other Fissirostral birds, which,
while they resemble each other in many physical characteristics,
differ essentially in their habits ; in short, while the one haunts
the river, feeds upon its inhabitants, and nests upon its margin,
the other keeps to the woods and forests, feeds upon insects, and
builds in holes in trees.
The Ceyx Meninting of Lesson (Alcedo Biru of Horsfield) very
closely resembles the King-fisher of Europe in its habits ; it darts
in short, rapid flight along the surface of lakes and rivulets, emit-
ting shrill, discordant sounds ; it perches on trees on the river
banks, and feeds on small fishes and aquatic insects. The tarsus is
smooth, the inner toe suppressed ; in other respects its habits
are those of the King- fisher.
The BEE-EATERS (Meropidce) have the beak long, thin, slightly
curved, and pointed, the mandible having a trenchant edge ; the
tarsi short ; the wings long and pointed ; the tail well developed,
tapering, or forked. They are slender, light, and clamorous ;
their cries are incessant, while they skim through the air on
rapid wing with well- sustained flight. Their name of Bee-eaters
they take from their principal food, which consists of various
Hymenoptera, especially bees and wasps. They seize their prey
either on the wing, like the Swallows, or they hide themselves at
* In China a great number of species are to be found, all robed in the most
lliant plumage, nine of which we have collected. — ED.
BEE-EATERS.
487
the opening of their hives, and snatch up all that enter or depart.
They are skilful in avoiding their sting. Living together in
numerous flocks, they rapidly clear a district of wasps and wild
bees.
They build their nests in the banks of rivers or rivulets, in
holes which they excavate to the depth of six or seven feet.
Some species are highly esteemed as table delicacies by the
French.
The Bee-eaters inhabit the warmer regions of the Old World,
such as Bengal, the west coast of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope,
Morocco, and Malta. One species alone is found in Europe, the
Fig. 2U2. — Common Bee-eater (Alerojjs apiaster^ S\v.).
Common Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), Fig. 202. From the coast
of Africa it migrates in small flocks into the countries skirting the
northern shores of the Mediterranean. Some individuals proceed
into France, Switzerland, and Germany ; others spread themselves
over Turkey and the southern parts of Russia. In England it is
occasionally met with in Cornwall, Devonshire, and along the
Hampshire coast. It has been shot in the Mull of Galloway. In
France it arrives in the month of May, and remains but a short
time. As a rule it rarely ventures further north than the South
of France.
The MOMOTS (Priorities, Illiger) are birds still very imperfectly
488
PASSEEINES.
known. They are remarkably massive in form, heavy and slow
on the wing. They are placed by systematists near the Toucans
(Ramphastos), from similarity of habits, and especially from the
structure of the tongue, which is in both long, and so much
ciliated at the sides as to resemble a feather. The feet, however,
are totally different from those of the Toucans. In the Momots
the beak is long, robust, and crenated at the edge. They are
very wild, and lead an isolated life in the thick forests of South
America, where they build in holes in trees.
Fig. 203.— Momot (Prionites, Sw.).
TENUIROSTRES.
The Passerine Tenuirostres are characterised by a long slender
beak, straight or curved, but always without indentation. They
are insectivorous, and comprise the Hoopoes, Humming-birds,
Creepers, and Nuthatches.
The HOOPOES (Upupa, Linn.) have the beak long, slender, tri-
angular, and slightly curved. This group, which Mr. Gray
designates the Upupidce, includes a number of birds whose general
form presents the greatest analogy, but which possess their own
peculiarities of plumage and special physiognomy. This has
necessitated its subdivision into sub- genera, of which the Hoopoes
(Upupa), the Promerops (Brisson), and the Epimachus are worthy
of notice.
HOOPOES.
489
The Hoopoes are easily recognised from the double range of
plumes which form an arched crest on their head, which they
have the power of raising at pleasure. These feathers are, in
the Common Hoopoe, of a ruddy buff colour, tipped with black.
They are solitary birds, living by preference in low grounds
and humid places, where they prey on the worms, insects, and
terrestrial mollusks. They are migratory, and are occasionally
Fig. 204. — Hoopoes ( Upupa epops. Linn.).
found in the British Islands in autumn : instances have occurred
of their breeding there. They take their departure for warmer
regions in September. They have a light and graceful walk, and
nearly pass their existence on the ground, rarely perching, and
flying with visible effort. They have no song, and only utter
two notes, which may be rendered by the syllables zi, zi ; houp,
490
PASSEEINES.
Jioup. They nest in the clefts of rocks or walls, and in holes
in the trunks of trees. When captured young, they become very
tame, and seem to be susceptible of great attachment to those
who take care of them.
The Hoopoe (Fig. 204) is found in summer as far north as
Denmark and Sweden ; and southward, in France and Italy,
at Gibraltar and Ceuta, and in Egypt, where it breeds, as it
probably does over Northern Africa. It has been seen occa-
sionally at Madeira, and is abundant at Trebisond, whence it
comes every year to pass the summer season in Europe. During
the spring and summer it abounds all over France. At the period
of its departure — that is to say, in the month of September — it
is plump enough to be a choice morsel for the table, as its flesh
is very delicate.
The EPJMACHUS are remarkably beautiful birds. When at
maturity the side-feathers de-
velop themselves in delicate
lines or elegant panicles, while
their plumage, richly coloured,
is brilliant with diaphanous me-
tallic reflections. Little is known
of their habits. They are na-
tives of Australia and New
Guinea. The very remarkable
species, E. multifil (Fig. 205),
has six long fillets on each side
of its body. The equally strik-
ing species, E. magnus, has the
elongated side- feathers raised
and curling, of a glittering
steel blue, azure, and emerald
green ; the breast and belly
lustrous with the same diaphanous tints. This bird is an inhabitant
of New Guinea.
The PROMEROPS are distinguished from the other Upupina by
the absence of the crest, by their very long tail, and by their
forked and extensible tongue. They are natives of Africa, and
their habits, like those of the former, are little known.
Fig. 205. — Epimaclms (Epimachus multifil).
HUMMING-BIRDS. 491
The Colibri of Cuvier may be divided into Humming-birds
(Trochilida), or species having the beak straight, and true Colibri,
having the beak curved. "With this slight difference, the Trockillda
and Colibri closely resemble each other. They have the same
slight, elegant figure, the same brilliancy of plumage, and the
same habits — describe the one, and you describe the other. We
must be permitted, therefore, to treat of them together.
The HUMMING-BIRDS (Trochilidte) are the most lovely of the
winged race. Nature seems to have endowed them with her rarest
gifts. In creating them she surpassed herself, and exhausted all
the charms at her disposal ; for she imbued them with grace,
elegance, rapidity of motion, magnificence of plumage, and indo-
mitable courage. What can be more delightful than the sight
of these little feathered beauties, flashing with the united fires
of the ruby, the topaz, the sapphire, and the emerald, flying
from flower to flower amid the richest tropical vegetation ? Such
are the lightness and rapidity of some of the smaller species, that
the eye can scarcely follow the quick beat of the wings. When
they hover they seem perfectly motionless, and one might fancy
they were suspended by some invisible thread.
Specially adapted for an aerial life, they are unceasingly in
motion, searching for their food in the calyx of flowers, from
which they drink the nectar with so much delicacy and address
that the plant is scarcely stirred. But the juice and honey of
flowers, as some authors affirm, are not their only food — such un-
substantial diet would be insufficient to sustain the prodigious
activity displayed almost every moment of their existence.
The tongue of the Humming-bird is a microscopic instrument
of marvellous arrangement. It is composed of two half-tubes
placed one against the other, capable of opening and shutting like
a pair of pliers. Moreover, it is constantly moistened by a glu-
tinous saliva, by which it is enabled to seize and hold insects
—an arrangement not without its analogy in the Woodpeckers.
Proud of their gay colours, the Humming-birds take the greatest
care to protect their plumage. They frequently dress themselves
by passing their feathers through their bills. Their vivacity
often amounts to petulance, and they frequently manifest belli-
gerent propensities not to be expected in such minute creatures.
492
PASSEEINES.
They attack birds much, larger than themselves, harassing and
pursuing them without intermission, threatening their eyes, and
always succeeding in putting them to flight. They frequently
contend with each other. If two males meet on the calyx of a
flower, bristling with anger, and uttering their cry, they rush on
Fig. 206.— Nest of Humming-bird.
one another. After the conflict is over the conqueror returns to
reap the reward of his valour.
The nest of the Humming-bird (Fig. 206) is a masterpiece.
It is about the size of half an apricot. The materials are brought
by the male, and arranged by the female. These consist of
lichens, and are most artistically interwoven, the crevices being-
closed up with the bird's saliva : the interior is padded with the
silky fibres furnished by various plants. This pretty cradle is
HUMMING-BIRDS. 493
suspended to a leaf, sometimes to a small branch, bundle of rushes,
or even to the straw roof of a hut. The hen bird lays twice a year
a pair of eggs of a pure white, about the size of a pea.
After an incubation of six days the young are hatched ; a week
later they are capable of flight. During the breeding season the
males are tender and demonstrative, and both parents show much
affection for their progeny.
These little creatures are universally admired for their elegance
and beauty, and the names given them are generally descriptive
of their excessive minuteness. The Creoles of the Antilles call
them Murmurers ; the Spaniards Pica/lores ; the Brazilians Chu-
paflores, or Flower- suckers ; finally, the Indians call these darlings
Sunbeams.
Humming-birds are much sought after — not for their flesh,
which is valueless from its minute quantity, but for their feathers :
these ladies turn to various uses, such as collars, pendants for
the ears, &c. Some of the Indian races which have been con-
verted to Christianity employ them to decorate the images of
their favourite saints. The Mexicans and Peruvians formerly
employed them for trimming mantles. The French soldiers who
shared in the Mexican expedition report that pictures with the
feathers of the Humming-bird are fresh, brilliant, and effective.
Humming-birds cannot be preserved in captivity — not that
they do not become familiar and affectionate, but their extreme
delicacy unfits them for confinement, and in spite of the
utmost care that can be bestowed on them, they will die in a
few months. In their habitat they are killed with very small
shot or with the sarbacane : if desired alive, they are taken with
a butterfly net.
Among the most formidable enemies of the Trochilida may be
reckoned the Monster Spider (My gale amcularia), which spins its
web round their nests, and devours eggs or little ones ; even the
old birds are sometimes its victims. Humming-birds are scattered
over the whole of South and North America, even as far north as
Canada ; but in Brazil and Guiana they are most abundant. At
least five hundred species are known. Cuvier included them in his
genus Colibri. Mr. Gould has described three hundred of which
he has actual specimens ; these he divides into fifty-two genera.
494
PASSERINES.
Among the more remarkable species we may note the Topaz-
throated Trochilus ( T. pella, Grould), a native of Brazil ; the Sickle-
winged Humming-bird ( Trochilus falcatus, Sw.) ; Grould's Hum-
ming-bird (Ornismya Gouldii, Less.) ; the Double-crested Hum-
ming-bird (Trochilus cornutus, Wied.) ; Cora Humming-bird
(Ornismya cora, Less.) ; the Giant Humming-bird, which attains
the size of the Swallow ; the Dwarf Humming-bird, whose size
Fig. 207. — Bar-tailed Humming-bird (Trochilus spurganurus, Lesson;.
does not exceed that of a bee ; the Bar-tailed Humming or
Sapho Bird of Lesson (Fig. 207), a native of Eastern Peru ; and the
Racket-tailed Humming-bird, so named from the shape of its
tail, which spreads out at the extremity in the form of a racket.
The CLIMBERS (Scansores,Vig.) among birds, such as the Wood-
peckers, are characterised by an arched beak and a stiff pointed
CREEPEKS.
495
tail. The family comprehends several genera and sub-genera, of
which the principal are the Climbers, properly so called, as the
Creepers (Certhia}, the Wall- Creepers (Tickodrom a), the Picum-
nus, the Furnarius, the Sucriers, the Soui-mangas, and the Nut-
hatches (Sitta).
The CREEPERS (Certhia) are small Climbing birds which live
and build their nests in the holes they bore in the trunk or in
the natural hollows of trees : the insects to be found under the
bark are their food. Looking at the form of their slender beak, it
Fig. 208. — The Creeper (Certliiajamiliaris, Linn.).
is difficult to imagine how it can penetrate the hard covering
of an oak, for which they exhibit a marked preference. The Tree-
Creeper ( Certhia familiaris) is spread over nearly every European
country, and is very common in France. The Wall-Creeper
(Tic.hodroma mumria, C. Bonap.), called also Wall-Climber (the
Grimpereau des Mur allies of French authors), owes its name to
its habit of climbing the walls of dwellings. Supporting-points
are not found in their tails, as in the Woodpeckers. Grasping
the tree with their claws, they assist their feet by a slight move-
ment of the wings. They feed on insects, and lead a solitary
life on the mountains, only descending into the plains with the
496
PASSEEINES.
early frosts of winter. They are found diffused over all the South
of Europe.
The PICUMNUS (Climacteris picumnus, Temm.) have form and
habits very similar to the Creeper, but the beak is stronger and
more boldly curved. They are natives of Brazil and Guiana.
The FURNARIUS (Furnarius fgulus, Spix.) live singly or in
pairs in the plains of Chili, Brazil, and Guiana. They feed princi-
pally on seeds, but also on insects. They take up their residence
with much confidence in the neighbourhood of man. Their nests
(Fig. 209) are remarkable for their construction, being in the form
Fig. 209.— Furnarius (Furnarius, Lesson).
of an oven, whence their name. This structure it builds upon
trees, on palisades, or on the window of a house. It is remarkable
for its size as compared with its inhabitant, measuring not less
than from twelve to fourteen inches in diameter; it is entirely
formed of clay, and the interior is divided by a partition into two
compartments, the outer and inner, the latter being that in which
the female lays her eggs. The male and female alternately bring
small balls of earth, out of which the edifice is constructed, and
they labour so industriously that it is sometimes finished in two
days. Some species construct their nests on trees, interlacing
them with spiny branches, and providing one or many openings ;
STICKLERS.
497
that of the Annumbi is fifteen inches in diameter by twenty
inches in height.
The SUCRTERS ( CinnyridcB] are American birds, so called from
their attachment to saccharine substances. They feed on honey
they extract from flowers, and the sap from the sugar-cane, the
juice of which they suck through crevices in the stem. Like
the Humming-birds, they have the tongue divided into two
parts, by which they are enabled to seize insects, which form a
Fig. 210.— Sun-birds (Certhia c/ialybeia, Linn.).
part of their food. They are small in size, and their plumage is
brilliantly coloured. Among the Cinnyridae we find the Guits-guits,
ingenious little creatures which construct a nest in the form of a
horn, which is suspended from the flexible branches of a shrub :
in order to protect their young from the attacks of earwigs, the
opening is below.
The SOUI-MANGAS (Fig. 210) have the same partiality for
KK
498
PASSERINES.
sugar exhibited by the last, justifying their name, which signi-
fies " sugar-eater " in the Malagash tongue. They are natives of
Southern Africa and India, and represent in the Old World
the Humming-birds of the New. They are gay and sprightly,
and decked in the most
brilliant colours. Like the
other Cinnyridce, they love
to plunge their tongue into
the corolla of flowers and
extract its sweets. Their
most brilliant colours are dis-
played in the breeding season.
The NUTHATCHES (Sitta),
Fig. 211, have the beak
straight, pyramidal, and
pointed, covered at the base
with small feathers directed
forward ; the long toes are
furnished with claws strong
and crooked ; their habitat resembles that of the Creepers. The
Nuthatch is found in Oceania.
Fig. 211.— Common Nuthatch (Sitta europcea, Gould).
CONIROSTRES.
The Conirostral Passerince are characterised by a strong, robust
beak, more or less conical, and without notches. They are
generally granivorous, but some species are insectivorous or car-
nivorous. This group includes the Birds of Paradise, Crows,
Rollers, Starlings, Sparrows, Tits, and Larks.
The BIRDS or PARADISE have the beak straight, compressed, and
strong, the nostrils covered with velvety feathers. In brilliancy of
colouring-, and in graceful, pendent, gossamer-like plumage, they
take precedence in the feathered creation.
They have a very restricted habitat, being only found in New
Guinea, Ternate, and in the island of Papua, situated to the north
of Australia : there they dwell in the thick forests, feeding on
fruit and insects. Occasionally they are found living in solitude,
BIEDS OF PAKADISE.
499
but more frequently are to be met in large flocks, altering their
residence with the change of the monsoon.
Their flight is very swift, and has been frequently compared by
Europeans resident in the East to that of a Swallow ; in con-
sequence, they have bestowed on the Bird of Paradise the name
of Swallow of Ternate.
It is owing to the long lateral plumes, which they most perfectly
Fig. 212.— The Great Emerald (Paradisea apoda, Linn.).
control in the air, that they are so buoyant ; at the same time,, this
unusual amount of plumage almost entirely stops their progres-
sion against a head wind.
When the Bird of Paradise was first spoken of in Europe few
believed that it existed. Nor is this to be wondered at, when
we remember that it was affirmed that these gorgeous birds were
without legs, and hung on to the branches of trees by their
long aerial plumes ; that the female deposited her eggs under the
KK2
500
PASSERINES.
feathers on the back of the male ; that they passed the breeding
season in Paradise ; and many other stories equally absurd.
The inhabitants of Papua capture these birds, for their plumage
is of great commercial value. The method they adopt is to place
themselves in the tops of the highest trees : when thus concealed,
they attract the birds within reach of their blow-pipes by whistling.
The Birds of Paradise are divided by Yieillot into Parotia,
Lophorina, Cincinnurus, and Samalia. The most remarkable
among these is Paradisea apoda, the Great Emerald, as it
is sometimes called (Fig. 212), the throat and neck of which
are of a bright emerald green, from which circumstance it has
received one of its popular
names, while on its sides are
shaded tufts of yellow fea-
thers which float on the breeze,
forming an elegant aerial
plume, and giving the bird
a meteor look as it shoots
through the air. They live
in flocks in the vast Papuan
forests. When prepared for
migration — for they change
their quarters with the mon-
soons— the females assemble
in small flocks on the tops of
the loftiest trees, and utter
their call to the males, each
flock of fourteen or fifteen being attended by one male.
The King Bird of Paradise (Paradisea regia, Linn.), Fig. 213,
is an inhabitant of the Molucca Islands, where it is scarce. Little
is known of its habits. The beak, which is furnished at the
base with small feathers pointing forward, is slender, convex, and
slightly compressed at the sides. The hypochoiidrial feathers are
broad, elongated, and truncated.
In the Superb (Lophorina superba), Fig. 214, the beak is fur-
nished with elongated feathers, extending half its length; the
feathers of the neck, rising just behind the head, expand into a
wing- like form.
Fig. 213.— King Bird of Paradise (Cincinnurus
regius, Vieillot).
SIFILETS.
501
In the Sifilets (Parotid) the beak is furnished with short
feathers for half its length, and is slender, compressed laterally,
Fig. 214.— The Superb (Paradisea sitperba, Latham).
notched and curved at the tip ; they have long, broad, and loose
plumes covering the sides and abdominal part. Of this group
the Gold-throated Sifilet of Buffon (Parotid sexsetacca, Latham),
Fig. 215. — Golden-throated Sifilet (Paradisea aurea, Gmelin).
Fig. 215, is a fine example. It obtains its name from the three
thread-like feathers on each side of the head expanding into u
502 PASSERINES.
lancet shape at the extremity, and which form a very striking
ornament.
The birds which constitute the CROWS (Corvidce) are charac-
terised by a very strong beak with cutting edges, broad at the
base, flattened laterally, and hooked towards the point ; the nostrils
covered with stiff feathers directed forward ; also by strong
claws and long pointed wings. They are divided into four groups
or sub-genera — namely, Corvus, the Crows properly so called ;
the Magpies (Pica) ; the Jays (Garrulus) ; and the Nut-cracker
(Nucifraga).
The genus Corvus, as limited by modern naturalists, compre-
hends the Raven (C. cor ax, Lesson), the Carrion Crow (C. cor one y
Temm.), the Royston Crow (C. comix, Selby), the Rook (C.frugi-
legus, Linn.), the Jackdaw (C. monedula, Linn.).
All these species have in many respects the same characteristics,
the same aptitude, and the same habits. With the exception of
the Raven and Magpie, which live in pairs, the others reside
together in large flocks, whether they are in quest of their daily
food or roosting at night. They are all possessed of the same
intelligence, the same cunning, the same mischievous habits, the
same gift of imitation, though in different degrees, and the same
provident habit of amassing provisions in secret places. This
last peculiarity in tamed birds degenerates into a mania, which
leads them to carry off and hide everything that attracts their
attention, especially gems and bright articles of metal. The
whole group are susceptible of domestication.
The Crows, especially the Raven and the Carrion Crow, are
pre-eminently omnivorous. Living or dead flesh, fish cast up on
the shore, insects, eggs, fruit, seeds — nothing comes amiss to them.
Their depredations are enormous. Thus Ravens, not content
with raising a tribute on moles, wood-mice, and leverets, venture
into poultry-yards, and without ceremony appropriate chickens,
ducklings, &c. Buffbn even asserts that in certain countries
they fasten upon the backs of buffaloes, and after having put
out their eyes, devour them. As for the Carrion Crows, accord-
ing to Lewis, it is certain that they attack the flocks in Scotch
and Irish pastures. Lastly, all Crows delight in digging up
newly-sown ground, eating with avidity the germinating seed.
CEOWS. 503
On this account the agricultural population are generally their
bitterest enemies, destroying them, when opportunity offers.
In certain parts — Norway, for instance — laws were made order-
ing their extermination. But this policy was short-sighted :
if they did harm, they also did good, for the quantity of
noxious grubs and larvae formerly devoured by them, and con-
sequently kept in check, became most formidable foes to the
farmer, and most difficult to overcome. How is it that men
will not use their brains — that they actually destroy the animals
provided by a bounteous Creator, and whose utility is most con-
spicuous ?
The flesh of the Raven and the Carrion Crow exhales a very
bad odour, doubtlessly caused by the quantities of putrid animal
matter they consume; consequently, it is unfit for human food.
Not so, however, with the Rook. This bird, when taken young,
is not only eatable, but by some deemed a delicacy.
Crows possess a vigorous and sustained flight ; they have a keen
sense of smell, and excellent vision. By exercising these latter
qualities they become aware where food is to be obtained, and as
they wing their way towards it they constantly utter their cry,
as if inviting their companions to join them : this croak, as it is
called, is very harsh and dissonant. The plumage being of a
sombre funereal black, and the voice so unmusical, have doubtless
been the reasons why they have long been considered birds of
ill omen. When taken young, they are tamed with great facility,
even to permitting them to go at large, for they will neither
rejoin their own race nor desert the neighbourhood where they
have been kindly treated. True, they may go into the fields to seek
for food, but when the increasing shadows predict the approach
of night, their familiar resting-place in the house of their protector
will be sought. They become much attached to those who take
notice of them, and will recognise them even in a crowd. Their
audacity and their malice are incredible. When they take an
antipathy to any one, they immediately show it. They suffer
neither cats nor dogs to approach them, but harass them inces-
santly, tearing from them their very food. Filially, they choose
secret hiding-places, where they store up all that tempts their
cupidity or excites their covetousness. They even learn to repeat
504 PASSEEINES.
words and phrases, and to imitate the cries of other animals. These
facts are confirmed by numerous anecdotes related by naturalists
of undoubted veracity.
Pliny speaks of a Raven which established itself in one of the
public places of Rome, and called out the name of each passer-by,
from the emperor to the humblest citizen. We have all laughed
heartily at the recital of an adventure which happened to an
awkward horseman who lost his seat, while a Raven perched
on u branch of a tree above him cried out with solemn voice,
"How silly!"
Dr. Franklin thus speaks of a Raven of his acquaintance which
had been brought up at a country inn: — "It had," he says,
•" great recollection of persons, and knew perfectly all the coach-
men, with whom it lived on the greatest intimacy. With its
special friends it took certain innocent liberties, such as mounting
on the top of their carriage and riding out with them until it met
some other driver with which it was on terms of similarly close
friendship, when it would return home." The same Raven had
unusual sympathy with dogs in general, and especially those
which happened to be ]ame. These it loaded with the most
delicate attentions, keeping them company and carrying them
bones to gnaw. This excessive kindness to animals which are
rarely in the good graces of Ravens arose from this bird having
been reared along with a dog, for which it entertained such strong
regard, that it attended it with unremitting assiduity when it
had the misfortune to break its leg.
The same author mentions another Raven which was captured
in Russia, and came to be confined in the Jardin des Plantes, of
Paris. It recognised Dr. Monin when he stopped accidentally
before its cage. It had belonged to him ten years before, and
when brought before its old master it leaped upon his shoulder
. and covered him with caresses. The doctor reclaimed his property,
and the bird was henceforth an ornament to his house near Blois,
where it learnt to address the country -people as " great hogs."
Dr. Franklin raised one of these birds himself which showed
wonderful powers of imitation. " He called himself Jacob. Some-
times it made such a noise at the bottom of the stairs that you
could only imagine it was caused by a party of three or four
EAVENS. 505
children quarrelling with great violence ; at other times it would
imitate the crowing of a cock, the mewing of a cat, the barking
of a dog, or the sound produced by a rattle for frightening away
birds from a wheat-field ; then a silence would ensue ; but soon
after the crying of a child of two years of age would be mimicked ;
* Jacob ! Jacob ! ' its own name, probably it would then call,
repeating the cry at first in a grave tone, then with shriller intona-
tion and more vociferously ; again another silence ; but after a
pause, a man seems to knock at the gate ; if it is opened, enter
Jacob, who runs about the room, and finally mounts on the table.
Unfortunately, Jacob was a thief— and that was not his least
fault ; spoons, knives, forks, even plates, disappeared, with meat,
bread, salt, pieces of money — especially if new ; he carried off
everything, and hid all in some secret hole or corner. A
washerwoman of the neighbourhood was accustomed to dry her
linen near our window, fixing the clothes on the line with
pins ; the bird would labour with a perseverance truly wonderful
to detach these, the woman chasing him off with bitter male-
dictions about her fallen linen ; but he would only fly over into
his own garden for safety, where he would indulge in a few
malicious croakings. One day I discovered, under some old
timber, Jacob's hiding-place. It was full of needles, pins, and all
manner of glittering objects."
Mr. Charles Dickens was partial to keeping Ravens in his youth,
and has related some of his experiences in the preface to " Barnaby
Rtidge." He had two great originals. "The first was in the bloom
of his youth, when he was discovered in a humble retreat in London
and given to me. He h.-'d from the first, as Sir Hugh Evans says
of Anne Page, ' good gifts/ which he improved by study and atten-
tion in a most extraordinary manner. He slept in a stable —
generally on horseback — and so terrified a Newfoundland dog by
his preternatural sagacity that he has been known, by the mere
superiority of his genius, to walk off unmolested with the dog's
dinner from before his face. He was increasing in intelligence
and precocity when, in an evil hour, his stable was newly painted.
He observed the workmen closely, saw that they were careful of
their pigments, and immediately burned to possess some of them.
On their going to dinner, he ate up all they left behind, consisting
506 PASSEEINES.
of a pound or two of white-lead. Alas ! this youthful indiscretion
terminated in death.
" Whilst yet inconsolable for the loss, another friend of mine,"
adds Mr. Charles Dickens, " discovered an older and more gifted
Raven at a village inn, which he prevailed upon the landlord to part
with for a consideration. The first act of this sage was to administer
to the effects of his predecessor, by disinterring all the cheese and
halfpence he had buried in the garden — a work of immense labour
and research, to which he devoted all the energies of his mind.
When he had achieved this task, he applied himself to the acquisi-
tion of stable language, in which he soon became such an adept that
he would perch outside any window and drive imaginary horses all
day long, with great skill in language. Perhaps I never saw him
at his best, for his former master sent his duty with him, and
said, ' if I wished the bird to come out very strong, to be so good
as show him a drunken man ; ' which I never did, having (unfortu-
nately) none but sober people at hand. But I could hardly have
respected him more, whatever the stimulating influence of this
sight might have been. He had not the least respect for me, I
am sorry to say, in return, or for anybody but the cook, to whom he
was attached — but, I fear, only as a policeman might have been.
Once I met him unexpectedly, about half a mile off, walking down
the middle of the public street, attended by a pretty large crowd,
and spontaneously exhibiting the whole of his accomplishments.
His gravity under this trying ordeal I never can forget, nor the
extraordinary gallantry with which, refusing to be brought home,
he defended himself behind a pump until overpowered by numbers.
It may have been that he was too bright a genius to live long, or
it may have been that he took something pernicious into his bill,
and thence into his maw — which is not improbable, seeing he new-
pointed the greater part of the garden- wall by digging out the
mortar, broke countless squares of glass by scraping away the
putty all round the frames, and tore up and swallowed in splinters
the greater part of a wooden staircase of six steps as well as the
landing — but after some three years he was taken ill, and died
before the kitchen fire. He kept his eye to the last upon the
meat as it roasted, and suddenly turned over on his back with the
sepulchral cry of ' Cuckoo.' "
MAGPIES.
507
Crows ( Corrifs) are universally diffused over the globe. The
Raven (Corvus corax], Fig. 216, and the Carrion Crow (Corvus
corone), are sedentary "birds, and never voluntarily abandon
the place they have elected for their home. The Hooded Crow
(Corvus corone), the Rook (Corvus frugilegus), and the Jackdaw
(Corvus monedula), are migratory in their habits, only visiting-
Fig. 216. — The Raven (Corvus corax, Lesson).
the countries of Southern Europe on the approach of winter.
The Royston Crow (Corvus comix) inhabits the lofty mountain
regions of Europe, descending into the plains during winter.
Finally, the Senegal Crow (C. senegalensis, Temm.) is exclu-
sively confined to Africa.
The MAGPIES are distinguished from the Crows by their
shorter wings, longer tail, and by their variegated plumage ;
but for this difference, they greatly resemble the previously
described in appearance and habits. Like the Crows, they are
omnivorous, but they generally avoid dead prey ; they have the
same desire, whether in the wild or domestic state, to store away
provisions and hide glittering objects. Their instinctive habit of
appropriating all sorts of plunder is one of the causes of their
popularity. Every one has heard the true story on which the
drama of The Maid and the Magpie is founded — how Ninette
was accused and pronounced guilty of robbing her master, and
50S PASSERINES.
when executed found to have been innocent, the true culprit being
the pet Magpie of the house.
The Magpie is a bold, impudent bird, which is easily put to
flight by man, but will fearlessly harass a dog, a fox, or any of the
smaller birds of prey. Having caused one of these to retreat,
it pursues it vigorously, rousing by its cries all the birds of its
kind ; and what with its own energy and the combined efforts
of its kindred, it generally succeeds in utterly discomfiting the
intruder. Its action is unceasing, its movement short and jerky ;
but it is heavy on the wing. It cries and chatters incessantly.
Hence the proverb to "chatter like a Magpie." It builds its nest
of withered shrubs, dry sticks, and sand, on the highest branch
of some lofty tree, it is and equally remarkable for its form,
size, and solidity. This fabric has many beginnings : the
foundation of the last' and permanent structure is laid with
infinite precautions, to avert observation. This care is taken,
according to M. Nordmann, in order to mislead those who are
spies on its actions; for it is in this last nest that the female
deposits her eggs. If this fact were clearly established, it would
show a great amount of cunning in the bird.
The Magpie lays seven eggs, which the parent birds hatch with
care, each bird sitting alternately. They show great attachment
to their progeny, and continue to exercise their protection and
solicitude until the young are well advanced towards maturity.
The Magpie is tamed with facility, and soon becomes familiar,
assiduously following its master everywhere, and eagerly seeking
his caresses, so that it is necessary sometimes to shut it up to get
rid of its importunities. It readily learns to repeat a few words,
"mag" being the favourite in its vocabulary. The ability to
pronounce Words is said to be increased by extending the soft
fibrous slit which binds the lower part of the tongue to the palate.
But, compared with the beautiful glossy bird of the thicket, the
domesticated Magpie, draggled and mutilated, is a miserable-
looking object.
The Common Magpie (Pica melanoleuca) , Fig. 217, abounds in
all parts of the world. Cultivated valleys with natural or artificial
woodlands on their slopes ; low ground diversified with fields ;
pastures and moors partially covered with plantations; fertile
JAYS.
309
plains fenced in with wooded hedgerows, and studded with farm-
houses and cottages, are the type of landscape they prefer. In
spring plumage the Magpie is a fine bird, the feathers of the
back being of velvety black, while the breast and a part of the
wings are pure white.
In the Brazils and Paraguay we find another species, whose
whole plumage is a fine cerulean blue, with the exception of the
Fig. 217. — Common Magpie (Corvus pica, Linn.).
head and throat, which are black. In China there is also a Mag-
pie of beautiful cobalt-blue plumage ; its two centre tail feathers
are very long, barred with black, and tipped with pure white ; the
bill and legs are red. It is extremely shy, and occasionally seen
in flocks. By the inhabitants it is frequently taught to speak.
The JAYS (Cormis glandarius) have short bills, which are
slightly notched at the tip ; head rather large ; feathers on the
upper and anterior part of the head erectile when the bird is irri-
tated ; those feathers at the base of the upper mandible are stiff,
with short barbs. It is not less shy than other members of the
family, although it frequents gardens, where it feeds on beans
and peas, of which it seems to be particularly fond. Its food,
however, is not confined to fruit and vegetables, as it picks up
worms, insects, the eggs of small birds, and Crustacea, after the
manner of Crows and Magpies. Naturally irascible and quar-
510
PASSERINES.
relsome, they are nevertheless easily tamed when taken young,
and soon learn to pronounce a few words. They abound in
Europe and the Indies. The European Jay ( Garrulus glandarius),
Fig. 218.-European Jay (Garrulus glandarius, Belon).
Fig. 218, is a pretty bird of soft and blended plumage, the
feathers of the fore part of the head elongated, oblong, and
erectile : its general colour is a delicate brownish red tinged with
Fig. 219.— Tlie Nut-cracker Crow (Nucifraga, Briss.).
grey, approaching to purple on the back. The most conspicuous
trait of the plumage is the patch of ultramarine blue, banded with
blackish blue, on the primary coverts.
HOLLERS. 511
The American variety of Jay is not quite as large as the
European representative. Its plumage is less brilliant. In
characteristics they are much alike, being equally mischievous and
dreaded by the smaller feathered denizens at the period of nesting.
The NUT-CRACKER (Nucifraga caryocatactes) is furnished with a
long, strong, and straight bill, with which it can penetrate under
the bark of trees when in search of insects, and open -the cones of
firs and pines, on the kernels of which it feeds ; failing these, it eats
the hazel-nut and wild fruit, from which circumstance its name is
derived. They inhabit the mountain forests of Europe and Asia,
building their nests in the trunks of trees, to which they are
capable of clinging, but not of climbing.
The EOLLERS (Coradas garrula), Fig. 220, have in their general
Fig. 220.— European Eoller (Galgulus, Briss.).
appearance and habits considerable resemblance to the Jays ; but
they differ from the beak being more robust, and the nostrils
uncovered ; they are also more timid, withdrawing into the
thickest parts of the woods, which are their favourite haunts. When
taken young from the nest it is tameable. Dr. Meyer, of Offen-
bach, and others, have succeeded in rearing them ; but although
they become so tame as to know those who attend to their wants,
they never grow familiar. Their favourite food consists of
512
PASSEEINES.
insects and their larvae, worms, and the smaller reptiles ; but in
their absence they feed on berries, seeds, and certain roots.
The bill of the Roller is black towards the point, becoming
brown at the base, with a few bristles ; the irides are formed of
yellow and brown circles ; the head, neck, breast, and belly present
various shades of bluish verditer, changing to a palish green ; the
plumage of the upper part of the body is a brilliant azure blue
on the shoulders, and reddish brown on the back ; rump feathers
purplish. Wing primaries dark bluish black, lighter on the
edge ; tail feathers pale greenish blue. They abound in Europe,
Africa, and Southern Asia. Although the natural habitat of
the bird is oak and beech forests, M. Yieillot tells us that in
Malta, where trees are scarce, the bird nests on the ground. In
Barbary it has been observed to build on the banks of the rivers,
and Pennant observes that where trees are wanting it builds its
nest in clayey banks.
The STARLINGS (Stiemida) are characterised by a straight bill,
Fig. 221. — Starling (Sturnus vulgaris, Swainson).
depressed towards the point. They are remarkable for their
vivacity, and grave, sombre plumage, lit up with brilliant metallic
reflections of green and blue. They are sociable birds, living
in numerous flocks, being, says Selby, "particularly abundant
in the fenny parts of Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire, where
STARLINGS.
513
they roost among the reeds. Before retiring to rest they perform
numerous manoeuvres in the air, the whole colony frequently
describing rapid counter-flights round a common centre. They
will sometimes continue repeating the eccentric evolutions for half
an hour before they finally settle for the night." Their favourite
food is seeds and berries, and occasionally insects, worms, and small
terrestrial mollusks. They choose for their nests well-protected
places, such as the hollows of decaying trees, crevices of walls,
the belfries of old churches, the ledges of roofs, and sometimes even
the interior of pigeon-houses. The nest is formed of dry grass,
in which it lays five light blue eggs. The Starling is accused of
seeking the shelter of the dovecot for the purpose of sucking the
inhabitants' eggs, but this is now found to be a calumnious
error." They are diffused over all quarters of the globe. There
are two species described among European birds — Sturnus vulgaris
. 222.— The Pensile or Baltimore Oriole ( Icterus baltimvrus, Wood).
(the Common Starling), and Sturnus unicolor (the Sardinian Star-
ling), which is black, and without spots, with the anterior feathers
very long, tapering, and drooping from the base of the neck. It
is found in Algeria among the rocks, where it builds. It passes
the winter on the African coast of the Mediterranean, in company
with the Common Starling. Its flesh is bitter, and consequently
unpleasant to the taste, but it is sought after for its docility, and
for the ease with which it is taught to speak.
L L
514
PASSERINES.
The BALTIMORE ORIOLES (Xanthornis baltimwii, Sw.) have the
bill broad at the base, nearly conical and pointed ; the upper
mandible has the dorsal line slightly arched, the ridge narrow,
the sides flat and sloping at the base. They are chiefly American
birds, and have considerable resemblance in form and habit to the
European Starlings. Like them, they are sprightly, light, and
very rapid on the wing, live together in large flocks throughout
the year, feeding on seeds, berries, and especially insects, and fre-
quently committing ravages on cultivated fields and orchards.
Some of this genera exhibit remarkable industry and skill in
Fig. 223.— The Beef-eater (Huphaga africana, Levaill.).
the construction of their nests : the most ingenious represents
a kind of purse, about a yard in length and a foot in diameter,
the mouth or entrance being placed sometimes at the upper
extremity, sometimes on the side. Naturalists have subdivided
them into many smaller groups or genera, the most important
being the one here described, and which may well be taken as
an example. They are confined entirely to North America.
The BEEF-EATERS (Buphagus, Briss.), Fig. 223, owe their name
to a singular habit they have of lighting on the backs of rumi-
nating mammalia, and picking off the insects or extracting the
larvse of QEstri which infest them — an operation which cattle
submit to with great pleasure. Their food is not confined to the
CKOSSBILLS.
515
larvae of the (Estri ; they feed also upon the wood-bug and locusts :
hence they are likewise called Locust Hunters. They generally
unite in small flocks of six or eight. They are very wild, and
take flight with a sharp cry of alarm on any one approaching
their haunts.
Among the congeners of the Beef-eater may be placed the
COLIUS (Briss. and Linn.), which, like that bird, is an inhabitant
of Africa. They are small, about the size and shape of the
Yellow-hammer, and have a tuft on the head. They live in
flocks of from twelve to twenty, which nest in common, and
feed on fruit and young birds. According to Levaillant, they
creep on the branches of trees, with the head downwards ; and,
strange to say, even sleep in this peculiar position, pressing one
against the other. Their flesh is said to be very delicate.
Fig. 224.— Crossbills (Loxia curvirostra, Linn.).
The CROSSBILLS (Loxiada) are remarkable for the form of their
bill, the mandibles being compressed and recurved, crossing
each other in contrary directions, the terminations being hooked,
forming an instrument admirably adapted for dividing the scales of
fir-cones so as to disclose the germs, which are favourite portions
of their food. They are sometimes found near orchards, feeding
L L 2
516
PASSEEINES.
on the kernels of apples, which their bill readily cuts. They are
said to commit great ravages on the fruits of Normandy when
they pass through that province, which they annually do in great
flocks. This family present this peculiarity, which is almost
unique among birds — that they build their nests and lay at all
seasons. The Crossbills haunt the wooded mountains of the North
of Europe and America.
The SPARROW (Passer) is, perhaps, the best-characterised genus
among the Passerine Conirostres. In it are included a great
number of species with bills
more or less thick at the base.
Coming to the most remark-
able of them, we have the
Grosbeak (Fringilla cocco-
thramtes, Temm.), Fig. 225,
which is the type of the genus,
for it is distinguished by
the possession of a bill which
is about three-quarters of an
inch long, not less than half
an inch in thickness at the
base, and of immense strength
when the size of the bird is
considered, which scarcely ex-
ceeds that of the Thrush. It
feeds on seeds, berries, and
insects ; the kernels of the
hardest fruit cannot resist the
powerful implement with
which it is provided. Widely
diffused throughout Europe,
it is always" met with in England during autumn, continuing
with us till April, but it has not been recorded as breeding here.
It is constantly found in France, where it appears in open country
or woods, according to temperature. It is a quarrelsome and
unsociable bird ; and if placed in confinement with others, it will
undoubtedly maltreat, and perhaps kill them.
The Americans possess many species of Fringilla, some of them
having plumage of a fine rose colour.
Fig. 225.— Grosbeak, or Hawfinch (Loxia
coccothraustes. Linn.).
THE SISKIN.
517
]
r
Fig. 226.— Bullfinches (Loxia pyrrhula, Penn.).
The BULLFINCHES (PyrrJiida vulgaris, Gould), Fig. 226, are
pretty little birds. Their
cheeks, breast, and belly
are a bright crimson,
shaded with orange red ;
grey round the shoulders,
with black head. They
feed on various kinds of
seeds or berries. They
are easily tamed, being
of a gentle, docile dis-
position. Their attach-
ment to their master,
and the ease with which
they are taught to pipe,
are their principal recom-
mendations. In their
natural state they construct their nest in the most inaccessible
part of the thicket, usually in a black or white thorn bush. This
is composed of small dry
twigs, lined with fibrous
roots.
The SISKIN (Carduelis
spinus, Yarrell), Fig.
227, may be mentioned
among the numerous
songsters which charm
with their melodious
notes. It is very pretty,
although less richly co-
loured than the Gold-
finch and others, its con-
geners. It is neat and
compact in form ; its bill
resembles that of the
Goldfinch, but is more
Fig. 227. — Siskins (Frincjilla spinus, Penn.).
compressed, the two man-
dibles in some specimens meeting only at the base. The plumage
is soft, blended, and glossy.
518
PASSERINES.
The HOUSE SPARROW (Passer domesticus, Yarrell), Fig. 228, is
among the most interesting of the Passerinae. It abounds all over
Europe, from its most southern regions up to extreme north.
Every one is acquainted with this little bird ; lively, pert,
and cunning, the true gamin of the winged race. It lives in
flocks in the neighbourhood of dwelling-houses, and even in the
heart of large towns ; it is familiar, but its familiarity is circum-
spect and sly. It haunts our streets and public places, but is
careful to keep men and boys at a respectful distance. It has a
notion that the friendship
of the great is dangerous,
and its prudence counsels
it to avoid intimacies which
might have troublesome
consequences; it is only
after multitudinous proofs
of good offices that the
Sparrow will form an un-
reserved treaty of friend-
ship with man. The Sparrow
quoted by Buffon, which
not only followed its soldier
master everywhere, but
would recognise him from
all the others in the regi-
ment, proves they are both
intelligent and capable of
Fig. 228. — House Sparrows (Fringitla domestica, Perm.). oflpppf "nT1
Sparrows are eminently sociable, seeking their food and building
their nests near each other, whether it be in crevices of walls
or under the eaves of houses, in hedges or trees, or in the deserted
nests of Swallows, which they have the effrontery to appropriate.
In their nest, which is a bulky, soft, and warm structure, lined
with wool, bristles, and hair, the female deposits from four to six
eggs three times a year ; their fecundity is consequently very great.
They are omnivorous, but prefer seeds and the larvae of insects to
all other food.
Oceans of ink have flowed to prove the ravages committed by
THE GOLDFINCH.
519
Sparrows on the corn-fields, and to demonstrate that they should be
exterminated by the farmer. But it is now generally agreed that
the Sparrow is a benefactor, and belongs to the list of useful
birds. Have we not seen in the Palatinate that after the Sparrow
was proscribed and exterminated, the inhabitants were under the
necessity of reimporting them in order to arrest the ravages of
insects, which, in consequence of this bird's absence, had multiplied
in a frightful manner ?
The GOLDFINCH (Carduelis elegans, Yarrell), Fig. 229, is at the
same time the most gentle and peaceful of birds, and one of the
prettiest of European races. It has the back brown, the face red,
Fig. 229.— Goldfinches (FringMa
carduelis, Linn.).
Fig. 230.— Linnets ( b "ring ilia
linota, Penn.).
with a bright yellow spot upon each cheek ; its voice is full, sweet,
and harmonious ; it is exceedingly docile, easily tamed and raised
as a cage-bird ; in the aviary it soon becomes familiar, testifying
great attachment to those who take charge of it ; it readily learns
to sing and go through various exercises, such as drawing up
the vessel containing its food and drink, firing a miniature cannon,
and other similar tricks.
The LINNETS (Linota cannabina, Yarrell), Fig. 230, have con-
520 PASSEEINES.
siderable analogy to the Goldfinch. They are, like them, ex-
tremely sociable, except at the period of incubation ; that duty over,
the individuals begin to muster in small flocks towards the end of
autumn, which increase as the winter advances, when they betake
themselves to sheltered districts, and to the neighbourhood of
villages and farm-houses in search of food. They associate with
various species, such as the Mountain Linnet, Green Linnet, and
other small birds. The nest of the Linnet is generally placed in a
bush of furze or heath. It is a neat structure, formed externally
of blades of grass intermingled with moss and wool, and lined
with hair of various kinds; sometimes with thistle-down. The
female lays from four to six eggs, of an oval form, colour -bluish
white, marked with distinct spots of brownish black, purplish
grey, and reddish brown. Should the nest be destroyed during
incubation, the pair will build again, and lay two or three sets of
eggs if needful ; but the male is said to take no part in the
building or incubation, although he watches the female with great-
solicitude, supplying her with food during the process.
The Linnets feed principally on hemp and linseed, whence their
popular name. In the winter season, in the absence of their
favourite food, they attack the young buds of trees, and pick up
the stray seeds about farm-yards. Their song in confinement
is remarkably sweet, brilliant, and varied, but will not compare
with the thrilling voice of the Blackbird or Thrush. The species
are numerous, both in Europe and America, but there is a tend-
ency to reduce their number, and to regard them as seasonal
varieties of the species under consideration.
The CHAFFINCH (Fringilla coelebs, Linn.), Fig. 231, lives in flocks,
except when breeding, like the Goldfinch and Linnets. But they
differ from these members of the group in this — that their wing
is less compact, and that they disperse themselves more in search
of food than their congeners. Chaffinches are met with all over
Europe, either as birds of passage or as permanent residents.
They feed on various kinds of seeds and larvae of insects, the latter
of which they obtain in the early mornings of summer and autumn
by searching the lower surface of the leaves of oak, ash, and other
trees. They inhabit indifferently the woods, gardens, or high
mountain ridges. In the early days of spring the mellow, modu-
CANARIES.
521
lated "tweet, tweet, tweet " of the Chaffinch is exceedingly pleasant
to hear ; but its monotony is apt to fatigue, for its eternal refrain
Fig. 231. — The Chaffinch (Fringttla, Gesner).
makes it seem an affectation of gaiety, whence probably the French
proverb, Gai comme un pinson.
The CANARIES (Fringilla canaria, Linn.), are only known by us
Fig. 232.— Canaries (Carduelis canaria, Wood).
as cage-birds, where they are recognised by their yellow plumage,
more or less varied with green, although the facility with which
522 PASSERINES.
they breed with the Linnet, Goldfinch, and others of the group, has
introduced great varieties of colouring. Originally from the
Canary Islands, they were first imported into Europe in the
fifteenth century, and such was the charm of their song, added to
their natural docility and gay plumage, that every one was eager
to possess them. Buffon says, in his elegant manner, that if the
Nightingale is the songster of the woods, the Canary is the
chamber musician. Their race propagates, moreover, so rapidly
that the poorest can aiFord to possess them ; for these elegant
little creatures are to be found among every grade of society,
pouring out their joyous melody in the garret of the poor work-
man with as much energy as in the gorgeous saloons of the
wealthy.
There are two distinct species of the Canary, the Plain and
\ Fig. 233. — Whidah Finch, or Widow Birds (Einberiza paradisea, Linn.).
Variegated, or, as the bird-fanciers designate them, the Mealy, or
Spangled, and Jonquils ; but between these innumerable varieties
have sprung up from cross-breeding with the Goldfinch, Linnet,
and Siskin. These cross-breeds are often charming songsters ;
but, like all mules, they are completely sterile. Bechstein is of
WEAVER BIRDS. 523
opinion that our Domestic Canary has a cross of the Siskin in it :
this belief for a long time existed, but most naturalists now are of
opinion that the Siskin belongs to a different genus.
The WIDOW BIRDS, or WHIDAH FINCHES (Vidua, Sw.), Fig.
233, are among the most remarkable of the hard-billed, seed-eating
birds to which they belong. The long, drooping tail feathers
which adorn the males in the breeding season give them a very
singular appearance. The upper part of their plumage is of a
faded blackish brown, assuming a paler hue on the wings
and lateral tail feathers. The whole body is tinged with this
faded black, gradually narrowing as it descends to the middle of
the breast ; a broad, rich orange-brown collar proceeds from the
back of the neck, uniting with a tinge of the same colour on the
sides of the breast, this last hue passing into the pale buff colour
of the body, abdomen, and thighs, and the under tail coverts
being of the same colour as the upper ones — a hue to which
the bird is indebted for its popular and scientific name. The
tail feathers are black ; the four lateral ones on each side slightly
graduated, and rather longer than the one immediately above.
The next two are the long, drooping feathers, externally convex,
so conspicuous in the male bird, which, in fine specimens, measure
a foot in length from base, and about three-quarters of an inch in
width. The body of the bird is about the size of a Canary. They
are natives of South Africa and Senegal.
Near to the Widow Birds in the system we may place the
Java Sparrow, Rice Bird, or Paddee Bird of the East Indies and
Eastern Archipelago (Fringilla oryzivora, Sw.), Fig. 234. They
are eagerly sought for as pets, in consequence of their brilliant
plumage, and the facility with which they learn innumerable
tricks.
The WEAVER BIRDS (Ploceus, Cuvier) close the series of Frin-
gillidcB. They live in flocks in the interior of Africa, where
they feed on the cereals and the young of weaker birds. They
chirp, but have no song ; and they owe their name to the in-
imitable art which they display in constructing their nests. These
vary in form according to the species, and are composed of grass,
rushes, and straw. They are usually suspended from the branches
of a tree, the entrance being below. Sometimes they are spiral-
524
PASSEEINES.
shaped, occasionally round; in fact, they are of every imagin-
able outline. Mr. Swainson describes the nest of a species of
Loxia built on a branch extending over a river or a pool of
water, shaped like a chemist's retort suspended from the head,
while the shank was eight or ten inches long, at the bottom of
which was the entrance, all but touching the water.
Fig. 234.— Java Sparrows, or Eice Birds (Loxia oryzivora. Linn.).
Another species of the Ploceincz construct their nests in a clump
under one roof or cover, each nest having a separate entrance
on the under side, but not communicating with that next it.
Another variety is said each year to attach a new nest to that of
the previous year, and nothing is more picturesque than these
groups of nests thus suspended to the branches of a tree.
But the most curious of birds, in respect to nidification, are the
Republican Weaver Birds (Loxia socia, Latham). These establish
themselves, to the number of five or six hundred, upon the same
tree, constructing their nests under a common roof, the one back-
ing against the other, like the cells of a bee-hive, all living
together in the happiest manner.
The BUNTINGS (Emberizidce) are intimately associated with the
Passerine birds. They are characterised by a short, stout, conical
bill, the upper mandible narrower than the lower, its dorsal outline
BUNTINGS.
525
nearly straight, sides convex, edges inflected, the tip acute ; the
lower mandible has the angle short, broad, and rounded. In the
palate is a hard, bony knob to bruise the seed which forms
their principal food. Their general habitat is the fields and
hedges upon the margin of woods ; some few species haunt the
banks of rivers. They build their nests on the ground, or on
low bushes, and in this they deposit four or five eggs. The young,
when hatched, are blue. Their plumage is deficient in brilliancy,
Fig. 235.— The Reed Bunting ( Emberiza
sclicenidus, Yarrell).
Fig. 236.— The CM Bunting (Emberiza
cirlus, Yarrell).
but their song is not without attractions. In autumn, when
they leave the colder regions to go south, fattened with the rich
produce of the harvest-fields, they have a rich, delicate flavour,
and are then in France eagerly sought after for the table, and
frequently brought to market along with Larks and Ortolans.
The Buntings are divided into the Buntings properly so called,
in which the claw of the back toe is short and hooked, and the
Spurred or Lark Buntings (Plectrophanes, Meyer), in which it is
long, straight, compressed, and slightly arched. To the first of
526 PASSEEINES.
these divisions belongs the Reed Bunting (Emberiza schceniclus,
McGrillivray), Fig. 235, which may be considered the type of
the group, and is a constant resident all the year round in
France and England, but migratory in Scotland and other
northern countries.
The Girl Bunting (E. cirlus), Fig. 236, on the other hand,
although found in Devon and Cornwall, and other parts of
England, is only plentiful in the southern parts of Europe,
and does not migrate into the colder regions.
Fig. 237. — The Ortolan Bunting (Emberiza hortuluna, McGrillivray).
The Ortolan Bunting (E. hortulana, Yarrell), Fig. 237, so
well known to gourmets and pot-hunters of Southern Europe,
migrates periodically. Some have been found in various parts of
England, but they were evidently stragglers, driven there by
accidental circumstances. They abound on the northern shores
of the Mediterranean, in Western Central Asia, in France, and
as far north as Norway, where they are known to breed. Their
favourite resorts, according to Meyer, are the borders of woods,
hedges, and fields, near a water-course, clothed with low willows
and bushes. They are very shy : still great numbers are captured
in nets, when they are kept in confinement, and crammed for
the table.
TITMICE. 527
The Snow Bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis, Gould) rarely shows
itself in France, and Montagu describes them as rare in England,
but McGrillivray found them in considerable flocks all over Scotland,
from the Outer Hebrides to the Lothians. On the 4th of August,
1830, being on the summit of Ben-na-muic-dhu, one of the loftiest
mountains in Scotland, he observed a beautiful male flitting about
in the neighbourhood of a drift of snow, and some days after,
in descending from Lochnagar on a botanising expedition, he
noticed a flock of eight individuals flying about among the
granite rocks of a corry, evidently a family. "It is, therefore,"
he thinks, " very probable that it breeds on the higher Grampians."
The Conirostral Passerines include the family of Paridce, or
TITS. The Titmice, as they are sometimes called, are small birds,
seldom attaining the size of the Common Sparrow. Their general
form is moderately full, the head large in proportion, and broadly
ovate. Their bill is straight, short, and tapering, furnished with
hairs at the base, but their individuality is distinguished by their
specific peculiarities rather than by physiognomy. A charac-
teristic feature is their audacity, almost approaching to impu-
dence, and their courage, the instinctive result of their sociability.
These qualities secure for them a well-defined place in the group
under consideration.
Who discovers the Owl during the day? Who besieges him
with its clamours ? Who pursues him with unintermitting blows
of his bill ? Who rouses the whole tribe of small birds against
the nocturnal tyrant ? It is the Titmouse. Bellicose as bird can
be, it gives full scope to its most warlike instincts whenever a
suitable occasion presents itself, its want of physical power being
compensated for by the vigour of its assault. The Tit is, indeed, the
incarnation of motion ; it is continually on the qui vive, skipping
from branch to branch, at one moment piercing the crevices of
the bark with its bill in search of food, the next hanging sus-
pended from a branch, to which it clings with its claws, while
it picks off the insects which occupy the lower surface of the
leaves.
Nevertheless, it varies its food according to seasons and cir-
cumstances. Not only does it devour all kinds of insects, not
excepting wasps and bees, but even cereals and fruits. It is
528 PASSERINES.
even carnivorous, for it has been known to kill weak or sickly
birds in order to devour them. Some species have a most un-
natural partiality for grease, and devour it whenever opportunity
offers. They are sociable birds, inhabiting thickets or woods,
living in flocks the greater part of the year, and showing ^strong
attachment to each other, so that a flock of them will suffer them-
selves to be decimated, and even altogether destroyed, rather than
desert a wounded companion. In the spring they pair, and each
isolated couple now seek out a suitable place in which they may
rear their future progeny.
The position of the nest varies with the species. The Great
Tit, or Oxeye (Parus major, Selborne), builds in the hole of
some wall, or in a cavity formed in a decayed tree. It is usually
composed of moss, hair, and feathers. The Blue Tit (P. cceruleus,
Selborne) occasionally builds its nest in very insecure places.
Mr. Duncan, one of Mr. McGillivray's correspondents, in a MS.
note now before us, says, " In the year 1836 I discovered the nest
of a pair of Blue Tits in the shaft of a pump well, which was
drenched and partly carried away every time water was drawn ;
still they persevered in building. Gladly would I have left them
there, but they kept the water in a continually muddy state, and
their removal became absolutely necessary." The Coal Tit (P.
ater, Selborne) chooses the crevice of a wall or decayed tree.
So does the Marsh Tit (P. palustris, Selborne). The Crested
Tit (P. cristatus, Selborne), Fig. 238, is a retiring, solitary
little bird, provided with plumage both brilliant and beautifully
blended. They are rarely seen in England, but several flocks
are recorded as appearing in Scotland. They are said to breed
annually in plantations near Glasgow, in the forest of Glenmore,
and near the Spey two were killed in 1836. In the North of
Ireland, in autumn, they are not uncommon wherever plantations
of larch trees are to be found. Their nest, according to Temminck,
occurs in holes of trees, the oak being preferred, in rocks, or in a
deserted Crow's or Squirrel's nest.
The nest of the Long-tailed Tit, or Mufflin (P. caudatus),
is, perhaps, the most skilful specimen of construction. It is
oval in form, and has two openings, one for entrance, the other
for exit — an arrangement which the long tail of the bird renders
LARKS. 529
necessary. This singular bird — the most diminutive of our birds
except the Kinglets — differs from the Tits in its softer and more
bulky plumage and tail. Its flight is undulating and rapid ; its
long tail and body muffled up to the chin in dense plumage giving
the observer the idea of an arrow flying through the air.
The Tits abound throughout Europe, and are also found in
America ; some of them remaining all the year with us, although
they are all birds of passage.
The LARKS (Alaudince) complete the Conirostral Passerinse .
Fig. 238.— The Crested Tit (Parus cristatus, Selbcrne).
They are distinguished by the great muscularity of their gizzard,
and their elongated and slightly- curved claws, which are sometimes
longer than the toe itself, indicative of a ground-bird ; in short,
they pass their lives on the ground, in the bosom of great grassy
plains, or soaring in the air. This family renders eminent service
to agriculturists by the enormous quantity of worms, caterpillars,
and grasshoppers it daily devours.
The Lark builds its nest in a furrow, or between two clods of
earth, without much skill it is true, but with sufficient intelli-
gence to know that it is necessary it should be concealed. Here
it lays four or five eggs, spotted or freckled ; in favourable seasons
three sets of eggs in the year are sometimes hatched. The
young birds break the shell after fifteen days' incubation, and
M M
530 PASSEEINES.
are in a condition to leave their cradle at the end of fifteen
more ; but the mother still continues her surveillance, guides
their steps, satisfies their wants, and continually hovers near
them until the demands of another brood take her away, when
they are abandoned to themselves, being now so fully fledged as
no longer to require maternal care.
The Lark is the living emblem of happy, peaceful labour, the
songster of the cultivated earth. In the early dawn the male
bird rises aloft, and with soaring wing fills the air with his
joyous notes, and calls the husbandman to his labour. Higher and
higher he mounts, until he is lost to sight ; but his voice is still
Fig. 239. — The Crested Lark (Alauda cristata, Linn.).
heard. The song is significant ; it is the hymn of good fellowship
— a call to all the dwellers of the plain.
The season of incubation over, the Larks assemble in numerous
flocks, having now only their food to think of; and that being
plentiful, they soon get plump and fat. In countries like France
this is the signal for their destruction, for persons assemble
from all quarters to make a razzia on these valuable innocents,
using every means to accomplish their work of death ; and unless
the legislature interfere in their behalf by passing laws for
their preservation, it will finish probably by exterminating the
race.
Taking Larks by means of a mirror is a ruse based upon the
natural curiosity of this species, which leads it irresistibly towards
any reflected light. The slaughterer places a glass, or any
SWALLOWS. 531
object that will reflect the sun's rays, in a field, concealing him-
self in its neighbourhood. The Larks, attracted by the light,
come within reach of his blows, and fall around the mirror,
undismayed by the fate of their companions.
In this family the only species which lives in confinement is
the Sky-lark, and that only by very great care. It sings un-
ceasingly in a cage, and even imitates the song of other birds.
Larks are found all over the Old World, especially in Europe
and Asia. The principal species are the Sky-lark (Alauda
arvensis), the Crested Lark (Alauda cristata), the Wood Lark
(Alauda arborea), and the Shore Lark (Alauda alpestris).
The Crested Lark (Alauda cristata), Fig. 239, abounds on the
continent of Europe, but is rare in this country, one or two
specimens only being recorded. It is migratory, moving north-
ward in spring, and again toward the south on the approach
of winter. It is a handsome bird, about the size and appear-
ance of the Sky-lark, having a- few feathers on the crown forming
a crest pointing backwards.
FISSIROSTRES.
The Fissirostral Passerine are characterised by a broad, short
bill, flattened horizontally, and slightly hooked ; mandibles slightly
concave ; mouth very wide. They are essentially insectivorous. They
comprehend three genera: — 1. Swallows (Hirundd). 2. House
Martins (Chelidori). 3. Sand Martins (Cotyle).
The SWALLOWS are recognisable by their long pointed wings,
forked tail, and excessively short tarsi. The air is the true
element of these birds ; they fly with a facility, lightness, and
rapidity quite inconceivable ; indeed, their existence is one eternal
flight. They even feed their young on the wing when the latter
first begin to fly. Watch them in the air, and they will be seen to
rise and fall, tracing the shortest curves, crossing and interlacing
each other's course, moderating their pace suddenly when at their
utmost speed in order to follow the eccentric course of some winged
insect which they have doomed for their food. Such, indeed, is the
rapidity of their progress that some of the species have been known
to travel at the rate of thirty leagues an hour.
M M 2
532 PASSERINES.
This wonderful power, however, is only developed at the
sacrifice of another locomotive faculty, for they are bad walkers.
"With their short limbs, activity on their feet is impossible ; and
if by chance they are placed on the ground, with difficulty they
Fipr. 240.— Window Swallows (Flirundo tustica, Linn.).
rise again on the wing. On the other hand, their sight is
excellent — equal to even that of the Eagle or Falcon. According
to Spallanzani, who made numerous experiments on the Swallows,
SWALLOWS. 533
the Martin perceives the winged fly passing through the air at the
distance of more than a hundred and twenty yards.
Swallows are celebrated for their migratory journeys. In the
early days of spring they reach Europe, not in flocks, but as iso-
lated individuals or in pairs. They occupy themselves almost
immediately either in repairing their last year's nests, or, if these
have been destroyed, in constructing new ones. Among the arrivals
are many young birds of the previous year which have not had
nests, and yet it is not a little extraordinary that these, after six
months' absence, return with unerring certainty to the old dwelling
where hatched. This fact has been too often recorded to admit of
any doubt on the subject.
The form, structure, and locality of the Swallow's nest vary
with the species. The Common Swallows (H. rustica), Fig. 240,
build theirs in the upper angles of the window of some country
house, under the eaves of a roof, or on the interior wall of a
chimney. A chimney seems an odd place to select for such a
purpose ; and White of Selborne relates, not without some expres-
sions of wonder at such a choice, that near the middle of May
one of these little birds began to form her nest about five or six
feet down a chimney adjoining the kitchen fire. Their nests con-
sist of a crust or shell of mud mixed with straw, and lined with
fine grass and feathers. Other species, sometimes in vast numbers,
establish themselves in the clefts of dead trees. Audubon esti-
mated at the incredible number of eleven thousand the quantity of
Swallows which had taken up their dwelling in a sycamore tree
(familiarly known there as a button wood) near Louisville, Ken-
tucky, United States. Some Swallows prefer rocks or caverns,
and hollow out in steep escarpments a gallery from two to three
feet in depth, at the extremity of which they place their nest.
Sometimes the nest is formed of twigs torn by the bird from the
dead branches of trees, and bound together by a viscous liquid
which flows from the bird's mouth.
When, after a month's labour, the Swallows have finished their
dwellings, the female deposits from four to six eggs. Incubation
commences, and continues from twelve to fifteen days, during
which the male bird exhibits intense interest in the proceedings,
carrying food continually to his mate, and passing the night in
534 PASSERINES.
her immediate vicinity, twittering and chirping all day long to
cheer the mother at her task. Two or three times in the season
they thus raise a family.
From the time when the little ones are hatched the parent birds
attend them with all the care their feebleness demands, and
often exhibit remarkable proofs of affection. When the young
Swallows feel strong enough to try their wings, the old ones ten-
derly guide them on their first attempts at flight, and teach them
how pursuit of insects in the air is successfully performed. Boer-
haave quotes an instance where a Swallow, returning from some
distant excursion, found the house in which it had built its nest
in flames. It did not hesitate an instant to throw itself into
the fire in order to save its young.
Swallows generally prefer the proximity of a lake or river,
the surface of water being always the rendezvous of crowds of
insects, among which they can reap a plentiful harvest. Swallows
are extremely sociable ; they assemble in large flocks, and appear
to be bound together by strong attachment, for they aid each
other in trying circumstances.
" I have seen a Swallow," says Dupont de Nemours, " which
was unfortunate, and had, I know not . how, entangled its foot in
a ball of string, one end of which was attached to the roof of the
College of the Four Nations ; its strength was exhausted, and it
hung uttering painful cries at the end of the string, only endea-
vouring to release itself occasionally by fluttering attempts at
flight. All the Swallows between the Tuileries and the Pont
Neuf, and perhaps for a much greater distance, were assembled to
the number of many thousands, forming a perfect cloud, uttering
cries of alarm. All that came flew past, giving a peck of their
bill at the fatal string ; these blows, being frequently repeated,
and always directed at the same spot, were finally successful,
for in half an hour the string was cut and the captive set at
liberty."
Another fact, related by the great naturalist Linnaeus, proves how
strong is the spirit of brotherhood with these birds. When the
Window Swallows returned in spring to take possession of their
nests, a certain number of them were found occupied by Sparrows.
•One of the more legitimate proprietors, thus despoiled of his pro-
SWALLOWS. 535
perty, endeavoured by every possible means to recover possession,
but all was unavailing. Under these circumstances the assistance
of its companions was demanded. The whole assembly proceeded
to besiege the intruder. It resisted, intrenching itself in its fort,
and in revenge the ousted Swallows brought mud in their bills,
and actually walled up the entrance to the citadel and entombed
the interloper in his cell. The truth of this account, which is
repeated by many naturalists, has been denied ; but Mr. McGil-
livray, than whom we have no more reliable author, records three
well-authenticated similar instances.
The Swallow generally leaves us in the month of September in
order to seek a milder climate, and one providing more abundant
food in winter. Some time before their departure their cries are in-
cessant, and great agitation is seen in their ranks ; they assemble in
some elevated place, as if to hold council and deliberate over their
journey, and fix the date of their departure; finally, a day is
decided on, which when it arrives, all the Swallows of the neigh-
bourhood mass at an appointed place, and after certain evolutions,
intended, no doubt, to determine the route, they advance in one
mass towards the shores of the Mediterranean, whence they pass
into Africa. Although they are of all birds the strongest on the
wing, and best adapted for a long journey, they cannot accom-
plish this without rest if adverse winds should arise. Ships
passing are frequently boarded by stragglers which light on
the rigging; and both at Gibraltar and Tangiers large flocks are
occasionally seen to arrive in a state of great exhaustion. Those
stragglers which, through weakness or the duties of maternity,
are prevented from joining the great flocks, depart some days
later in smaller parties. Occasionally, however, a few individuals
seem to remain with us all the year round, contriving to survive
the most severe winters, which has given rise to the supposition
that the Swallow has the power of hibernating, or of remaining
in a state of torpor during the winter, and returning to animation
in the spring. This much-controverted point has now been con-
signed among the mythical legends to which it belongs.
Swallows have in all ages possessed the sympathies of man-
kind,- some of the ancients regarding them as sacred birds ; nor
are they ungrateful for the good feeling they excite. The
536
PASSEEINES.
services they render in destroying vast quantities of noxious
insects, not to speak of their gentle habits, mutual attachment
to each other, and the happy presage they hring with them
of spring's advent, contribute to make them welcome visitors.
Nevertheless there are instances where these proper sentiments
yield to the love of destruction — where their innocent confidence
is rewarded by death.
Swallows generally have the breast and belly white, and the
Fig. 241.— The Cliff Swallow (Hirundo fulva, Gin.).
upper parts of the body black, tinted with a reflected blue or peach
colour. There are about sixty species spread over the globe, of
which six only are natives of Europe. They are divided into
Swallows proper (Hirundo), Martins (Chelidons), Sand Martins
(Cotyle), and Swifts (Cypselus). The Martins are larger in size
than the true Swallows ; have the wings longer, and consequently
SALANGANE SWALLOW.
537
their powers of flight are greater and their speed more sustained ;
their claws are more robust and hooked.
The principal species we have already named. It is only neces-
sary to mention the Cliff Swallow (Fig. 241), the Chimney Martin,
the Bank Martin, and the Alpine Swift (Cypselus alpinus),
Fig. 242.
Among the foreign species the SALANGANE SWALLOW (Fig. 243)
Fig. 242.— The Alpine Swift (Cypselus melba, Woodj.
may be mentioned, so famous over the world for its edible nest.
This bird inhabits the rocks and caverns of the sea-shore in
Sumatra and Java. When building it eats of the plant called
fucus, which abounds in these regions ; this is metamorphosed in
the bird's stomach, and afterwards disgorged, to fabricate the
walls of its nest. The fucus thus devoured forms the nutritive
substance so eagerly sought after by the Eastern gourmet. The
538
PASSEEINES.
consumption of the nest of the Salangane (Fig. 244) in China, in
spite of its high price, is very considerable. From the days of
Bufibn there have been exported from the coast of Cochin China
four millions of them annually ; and the proprietors of one cavern
in the island of Java receive annually fifty thousand florins for
rent alone.
The distinctive features of the GOATSUCKERS (Caprimulgus) are a
Fig. 243. — The Salangane Swallow (Hirundo escutenta, White).
short, much-depressed bill ; the body small in proportion to the
plumage ; the neck short ; the head large, broad, and depressed ;
the eyes very large and broad ; the feet very small ; tarsi
partially feathered ; toes four, the lower surface broad and
flattened, the anterior toes connected by basal membranes ; claws
moderate, arched, and compressed. The plumage is full, soft,
downy, and blended, like the Owl's ; the wings have the second
and third quills longest ; tail long and rounded. Almost all the
species have strong bristles along the base of the upper mandible,
GOATSUCKERS.
539
and some have the feathers of the face radiated, like those of the
Owls.
The Goatsuckers are solitary birds, living generally in pairs,
sleeping during the day, and issuing from their nest with the
setting sun, or possibly earlier in gloomy weather, to chase the
crepuscular and nocturnal insects on which they feed. They
move silently and with great rapidity. Some authors say that
when on the wing they keep the mouth open ; but this is not.
Fig. 2-14.— Nest of the Salangane Swallow.
supported by facts, and is opposed to reason. The insects they
principally devour are moths, dragon-flies, beetles, crickets, cock-
chafers, and mosquitoes. Their usefulness, therefore, is nearly
equal to that of the Swallow. As they get very plump and
fat in the autumn, they fall a sacrifice to the gunner, and in
their turn are eaten by gourmets greater than themselves.
540 PASSEEINES.
They are migratory birds, travelling only during the night.
They are readily distinguished by the bristles at the base of the
bill, and by the claws of the middle toe, which is toothed.
The object of this toothed appendage has been the subject of
speculation. Some writers fond of the marvellous even surmise
that it is intended to comb and smooth the head feathers. Mr.
Vigors is of opinion that it may be useful as a further power
of prehension, citing, in support of his view, the family of the
Ardeida among the Wading birds, which exhibit an analogous
construction in the middle nail.
Through Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia the
Goatsuckers are diffused, and naturalists have divided them into
several sub- gen era, such as Podargus, represented by Podargus
kumeralis of the Gold River, and Podargus javanensis, the Chabba-
wonno of Java, and the Guacharo Bird, Steatornis villot of Hum-
boldt and Bonpland.
The typical species of Caprimulgus is the NIGHT-JAR (C. euro-
paeus), Fig. 245. It is about the size of a Thrush; and
Montagu states that he observed on one occasion a flock of eight
or ten on the wing together, in the dusk of the evening, skimming
over the surface of the ground, after the manner of Swallows, in
pursuit of insects. Its nest is of the simplest kind, for it deposits
its eggs on the bare ground, or upon a few dry leaves. These
eggs, in number only two, are hatched by the female in fourteen
days.
The Common Night-jar is chiefly found on furzy commons,
wild bushy heaths, and broken hilly ground in the neighbourhood
of thickets and woods. During the day it lies concealed in the
scrub, issuing forth in the balmy summer evenings to pursue its
insect prey on the wing.
On the prairies of North America, especially those inter-
sected by sloughs, dozens of these birds may be seen at the
hour of sunset, their swift, powerful, and graceful flight being
worthy of the greatest admiration. They are there called Bull
Bats, and are often accused by the ignorant of the crime of sucking
milk from cows — about as probable as snakes being guilty of the
same offence ; yet there are hundreds who believe in such im-
possibilities.
DENTIBOSTKES.
541
The Night-jar is a bird of evil omen in the estimation of our
rural population : such it has been considered since the days of
Aristotle, and possibly even further back. The reverse should be
the case, for the benefit it produces by clearing the air of noxious
insects is incalculable.
The GUACHAROS are singular birds, which were first described
by MM. Humboldt and Bonpland as being found in the interior
of a vast Columbian cavern — the Grotto of Caripe. Their -hooked
bill and general aspect are more robust than the Night-jars, for
Fig. 245.— The Night-jar ( Caprimulgus europceus, Sw.).
they more resemble birds of prey. They inhabit in thousands the
deep recesses of the caverns of the Cumana Chain, hanging to
the walls by their pointed claws. In these caves, which they
only leave during the night, they build their nests. Unlike
their congeners, they feed only on grain and seeds. The Indians
of Caripe enter these sombre domains from time to time, and make
raids upon their ranks, for they are deservedly esteemed as great
delicacies.
DEXTITIOSTRKS.
The Passerine Dentirostres are characterised by a bill more or
less strong, compressed on each side of the point. They feed on
berries and insects, and comprehend numerous genera, including
the Fly-catchers \Muscicapidce), the Manakins (Piprince), the
542 PASSEEINES.
"Warblers (Sylvince), the Lyres (Lyra), the Orioles (Oriolus), the
Philedons (Meliphagidce), the Dippers (Cucelus), the Thrushes
(Turdus), the Tanagers (Tanagrince) , the Caringas (Coradna), and
the Butcher Birds (Lanius).
M. Lesson thinks the Musdcapidce should consist of the genera
Tyrannus, Monacha, Eurylaimus, Platyrkynchus, Todus, Myiagra,
Musdcapa, Alectrurus, Drymophila, Formidvora, Rhipidura,
Seisura, Psophodes, and Emcurus. Of these, Eurylaimus have a
very large, depressed, and cleft bill. They are of more elegant
form than plumage ; for their colouring is devoid of brilliant
tints. They live a retiring life in marshes, and upon the banks
of lakes and rivers, feeding upon the worms and insects which
abound in such localities. They are about the size of the Thrush,
and they inhabit the isles of Oceania.
The MANAKINS (Piprince, Sw.) have the bill rather short; the
upper mandible much curved, and pierced with large nostrils;
the feet longish, slender, and weak ; the external toes reverted
towards the middle. These birds are natives of South America,
and are gifted with brilliant plumage.
The Rupicola (Briss.), or Cock of the Hock, is remarkable for
the lively and delicate shades of the colour of its plumage,
and for a graceful crest which decorates its crown. It prefers
sombre localities, and retires into clefts and caverns when pursued.
It is very wild, and only issues from its hiding-place in search
of the fruits which form its food. Under the most favourable
circumstances these birds are difficult to approach, taking flight
at the slightest appearance of danger. Their name comes from
their size, and also from their habit of scratching up the earth, and
flapping their wings like the Domestic Cock. They are natives of
South America and Malaya. The best-known species, Rupicola
aurantia (Vieillot), is a native of Gruiana ; its plumage is bright
orange, and the crest is formed by two rows of feathers, so
arranged as to form a semicircle.
The WARBLERS (Sylmance, Sw.) are readily recognised by their
short, slender, and tapering bill, constituting a numerous series of
birds, among which we note the Fauvette (Sylvia hortensis), Gold-
crested Wren (Regulus auricapellus), the Wren (Troglodytes), the
Whin Chats (Saxicola], and many other genera.
THE NIGHTINGALE. 543
All these are of small size, and have the singular property
of imparting a vibratory motion to their tails. They are chiefly
denizens of our woods, thickets, and gardens, where they fill
the air with their melody. They are generally migratory,
arriving in the spring, and departing at the fall of the leaf.
Living, except in autumn, almost exclusively on insects and
their larvae, they render in this respect eminent services to
man; but it is a curious fact that at that period these birds
cease to be insectivorous, and feed on fruits — among others, figs
and grapes, whence the name of Bec-figues applied to them
in the South of France. There they are most eagerly sought
for, the attraction being their flesh, which is considered most
delicate.
Warblers prefer the woods and sloping hill- sides, or the banks
of rivers, clothed with trees and shrubs, for their residence.
In the first rank of the Warblers stands the NIGHTINGALE
(Philomela luscinia, Selby), Fig. 246, celebrated all over the world
for its song, which is superior, without any doubt, to that of all
other birds. In size it is somewhat greater than the Garden
Warbler, which it resembles in its homely attire. Many have been
the attempts made to describe this far-famed bird. Naturally
shy, the Nightingale retires into the freshest and most sheltered
places, rarely exposing itself to observation. Brushwood and
thickets, witch-elms and evergreen trees, growing on the banks
of some retired water-course, are it's favourite dwelling. It is
among these that it establishes its nest, built without care, at
irregular height, and sometimes even on the ground. It possesses
this peculiarity — that it sings not only during the day, but also
in the night ; but let any alarming noise approach its retreat,
and it stops instantly. It seems to love solitude above all things.
Audubon, the American naturalist, has described some of the dis-
tinctive characteristics of the bird with a few graphic touches.
He has left his downy couch, and sallied forth to watch the
eventful moment when nature arises, fresh, blooming, and full of
renovated vigour. In his wanderings he comes upon a Nightingale.
" In the midst of a thicket," he says, "I now see a solitary bird,
humble in its attire, and of most modest mien, peeping at me with
a caution so uncommon, and yet so inviting, that I feel tempted to
544
PASSERINES.
seek its acquaintance. With care I approach the feathered
stranger. Its form is somewhat elongated, yet not incompact ;
its eyes are large, and of peculiar mildness ; it stands rather high,
on a pair of light flesh-coloured, and, as it were, transparent legs ;
its wings, which are of moderate length, droop, and seem at
intervals to tremble ; and, as it moves from one twig to another,
I see it hops, or leaps, and does not walk step by step, like many
other birds. Its colour is a dull brownish olive, but the hind
part of the back and the tail are of a richer tint, though corre-
sponding with the general hue. At this moment it flies lightly to
Fig. 246. -The Nightingale (Luscinia Philomela, Wood).
the ground, hops a few steps, picks up a grub, and returns to its
former station."
"The Nightingale," says McGillivray, "which in summer is
spread over the greater part of the Continent, extending its
migrations to Sweden and the temperate parts of Russia, arrives
in the South of England about the middle of April, or a few days
later, should the weather be severe. The females, according to
various observers, come from a week to ten days after the males.
Individuals settle in the southern counties, including part of
Devonshire, in the eastern and midland districts, and as far north
THE SEDGE WARBLER.
54-3
as York and Carlisle ; but none are to be seen in Cornwall, Wales,
or the north- western parts of England, although it is found much
farther north on the Continent." It is alleged that the migration of
the Nightingale does not extend into Scotland. Mr. Duncan, one of
Mr. McGillivray's most reliable correspondents, states that a pair
of Nightingales arrived in Calder Wood, in West Lothian, in the
early part of the summer of 1826. "Before and about midnight,
when the full moon shone bright and clear, the warble of the male
was first heard ; it soon attracted a number of admiring listeners,
who hastened to the spot. The owner of the wood was anxious
to preserve them, thinking they might breed ; but, in spite of his
care, the male was shot, upon which the female left the wood."
In France they arrive singly, and
depart alone about the middle
of August, in order to pass into
Africa or Asia.
The SEDGE WARBLER (Sati-
caria phragmites, Yarrell) is a
delicate, lively little bird, haunt-
ing the margins of streams and
pools overgrown with weeds,
sedges, and other aquatic plants,
in the midst of which it seeks
its food, and nestles so secretly
that it very frequently eludes
observation. Mr. McGillivray
found a nest of this species on
the marshy borders of Dud-
dingston Loch, near Edinburgh.
It was placed in the midst of
a large clump of Solanum dulca-
mara, supported by the branches,
and so hidden that he only found
it after cutting off a great number of flowering twigs. This nest
was composed of leaves, grasses, and other slender plants, loosely
but neatly put together.
The NIGHT WARBLER (Salicaria arundinacea, Yarrell), Fig. '247,
closely resembles the preceding in form and size. Its song is
Fig. 247.— The Night Warbler (Salicaria
arundinacea, Yarrell).
546 PASSEEINES.
loud, cheerful, and much diversified, night being generally
selected for the display of its vocal powers. Its nest is composed
of blades and stalks of grasses, lined with finer plants and hair ;
is of a conical form, with the apex downwards ; in depth from
four to five inches externally, and three in the interior, and as
much in breadth at the top ; and is fastened to the stalks of several
reeds, placed some distance above the ground — "an arrange-
ment," says Montagu, " which gives security to the eggs/' which
are four or five in number, of an oblong shape, greyish-brown
Fig. 248.— The Kobin, or Redbreast (Erythaca rubecula, Yarrell).
colour, spotted with dark olive, and usually marked with one
or two blackish, irregular lines.
The Warbler known to French writers as la Fauvette Cou-
turiere is the most curious of all in respect to the manner of
building its nest. Aided by bill and claws, it stretches out into
a thread fibres gathered from the trees ; selecting broad resistant
leaves, it drills them with its bill, sews them together with the
cotton which it has prepared, and in this manner constructs a
bag which serves the purpose of completely hiding its nest from
THE ROBIN.
547
the observation of enemies. This species belongs to India and the
islands of the Indian Ocean, and is unknown in Europe.
Among other well-known species we may mention the GARDEN
"WARBLER ( Carruca hortensis, Selby), known also as the White-
throat, Greater Prettychaps, and other pet names ; also the BLACK-
CAP (Sylvia atricapilla) , both of which abound near dwelling-
houses surrounded by gardens.
The ROBIN, or REDBREAST (Fig. 248), is too familiar a friend
Fig. 249.— Wrens (Regulus cristatus, Temm.).
to require description. It is lively, pert, pugnacious, cheerful,
and a universal favourite. In April the Robin betakes itself
to the woods and thickets, where it rears its brood. On the
approach of winter it returns to civilised life, when, as M. Figuier
informs us, it constitutes excellent game ! No doubt it is edible ;
but where is the consumer of such to be found? Not in the
British Islands, we hope.
The WRENS (Motacilla) are the smallest of European birds.
N N 2
54S
PASSERINES.
The Golden -crested Kinglet (Motacilla regulus. Linn.), Fig. 249,
inhabits the woods and thickets of the cold and temperate
regions of the earth, where, among the twigs, with great agility
it searches for insects, on which it feeds. While thus occupied
it emits a single shrill, feeble note, too often accepted by heart-
less boys as a tell-tale of its whereabouts.
The European Wren ( Troglodytes europceus, Cuvier), Fig. 250, is
widely diffused over Europe, from Greenland to the southern parts
of Italy, and from Trebizond to the west coast of Ireland. Like
Fig. 250. — The Common or European Wren (MotacUta troglodytes, Liuu.).
the Robin, it has become, in a sense, a sacred bird, and few
venture to commit any outrage on the familiar little creature.
Its nest is found in all kinds of situations ; a favourite one
being under the turfed summit of a stone wall skirting a brook,
or on the edge of a wood or shrubbery. It is an elegant
structure, oval in form, and dome- shaped, with the entrance
at the side, the materials varying with the locality ; but the
lining generally is soft, downy feathers.
The Wood Warbler, or Wood Wren (Motacilla trochilus, Bewick),
Fig. 251, is a delicate, active little bird, pretty generally diffused.
It is of retiring and unobtrusive manners, its favourite haunt being
among the willows and osiers which skirt some sluggish stream.
While flitting about in such localities it emits a small chirping
THE STONE CHAT.
549
noise ; but during the months of May and June it is often heard
chanting a soft, mellow, and very pleasing song. In autumn
great numbers of them may be seen gliding among the fruit trees
and bushes.
The STONE CHAT (Saxicolarubicola, Temm.), Fig. 252, has the head
and throat black in the male, the breast brownish red, the sides of
the neck white, a white spot on the wings, the upper parts brownish
black, and the feathers edged with brownish red. In the female the
head and upper parts are streaked with brownish red, the throat
Fig. 251.— The Wood Warbler, or Wood Wren (Sylvia siLilatrix, Bechstein).
yellowish grey, the breast dull brownish red, a white spot on the
wings, and the upper tail coverts yellowish red. " In April," says
McGillivray, " it forms its nest, generally under some furze bush,
or other shrub, or among rank grass; it is formed of stems and
blades of grasses, intermixed with moss, and lined with finer
straws, fibrous roots, hair, and wool, as well as feathers. These
birds manifest intense anxiety should any one approach their nest,
fluttering and flitting about, and incessantly emitting their sharp,
550
PASSERINES.
snapping note, while endeavouring to lead the intruder off in
pursuit of themselves."
The WAGTAILS (Motadlla, Cuvier) are remarkable for their slender,
Fig. 252.— The Stone Chat (Saxicola rubicola, Temm.).
elegant form ; the neck of moderate length ; the head ovate, small,
and narrow ; plumage soft and blended ; the wings long, broad,
Fig. 253.— Tne Pied Wagtail (Motadlla ^arrelli, Gould.)
and pointed ; tail long, straight, slender, consisting of twelve
weak, narrow feathers. The Wagtails are intimately allied to the
WAGTAILS. 531
Pipits, and resemble them in many of their habits, differing
chiefly in the lengthened tail and shorter claws. Both are
remarkable for the vibratory motion of their body while stand-
ing or walking, which their long tail renders a conspicuous
feature.
The Pied Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea, Gmelin), Fig. 253, which
is generally distributed in England, seems to have been con-
founded with the White Wagtail (Motacilla alba, Linn.) by natu-
ralists until both species were examined by Mr. Gould. In form
Fig. 254.— Quaketails (MotacilLi flava, Temm.).
and proportion the two species closely resemble each other, the Pied
Wagtail being the smaller. Mr. Gould states, in the " Magazine
of Natural History," that while preparing his work on the Birds
of Europe he was surprised to find that the sprightly Pied Wag-
tail, so common in our island at all seasons, could not be referred
to any described species, and that its habitat was limited to the
British Islands, Norway, and Sweden. The true Motacilla alba
of Linnaeus, on the -other hand, is abundant in France, particu-
larly in the neighbourhood of Calais, but has never been dis-
covered on the opposite Kentish coast.
The QUAKETAILS (Budytes, Cuv.), Fig. 254, form the transition
from the Pipits to the Wagtails, but incline more to the latter.
552 PASSERINES.
They are the Bergeronnettes of French authors. The claw on the
hind toe, which is long, and greatly resembles that of the Larks,
distinguishes them from Wagtails. They are said to follow
flocks of sheep ; hence the name given them in France.
The TITLARKS, or PiriTs (Anthus), the Farlouses of French
writers, approach the Larks by the same characteristics which
distinguish the Quaketails, and might be confounded with them
were it not for their compressed bill. Hence their name of Meadow
Fig. 255.— The Lyretail (Meenura paradisea, Vieill.).
Larks. They feed on autumnal fruits. Antkus trivialis, the Tree
Pipit; A. pratemis, the Meadow Pipit; A. aquations ; and A.
Eicardi are the British species figured by Mr. Gould.
The LYRETAIL (Meenura superba, Swainson), Fig. 255, is a
bird of New Holland, about the size of a common Fowl, and has
ORIOLES.
553
been classed by some naturalists among Gallinaceous birds ; but
Temminck places it in his Insectivorous order, among the Thrushes,
and between Cuculus and Pitta. Cuvier places it among the Pas-
serines. Vigors places it in the order Rasores, and in the family of the
Craciche. This curious bird has a long compressed bill, triangular at
the base. It owes its name to the peculiar disposition of its tail, which
in the male has the exact form of a lyre. The singular develop-
ment of the feathers of the tail is its chief attraction, for the
plumage is dull and sombre in colour. In Australia it inhabits the
forests of Eucalyptus ; builds its nest in trees, a short distance from
the ground ; and feeds upon worms and insects, which it seeks
for under the dried leaves and the surface of the soil. Its song is
described as not unpleasant.
The ORIOLES (Oriolus, Linn.) have the bill long, stout, nearly
Fit/. _'.:,(.}.— The Golden Oriole ( Oriolus galbula, Sw.) .
straight, rather broad at the base, the dorsal line arched, and the
tarsi very short. They are found in all the warmer parts of the
Old World, and in the islands of -Oceania, Their plumage is
richly coloured, shades of yellow and black blending in great
variety.
The Golden Oriole (Oriolus galbula, Wood), Fig. 250, is about
the size of the Blackbird, which it much resembles in form. The
g54 PASSERINES.
plumage is of a bright yellow ; the feathers are oblong, with dis-
united barbs ; those on the fore part of the head very short. The
wings, when closed, reach to within an inch of the end of the tail ;
hence its flight is easy and sustained ; while the form of its
feet is equally well adapted for hopping on the ground and gliding
among the branches. It is a shy, solitary bird, and is approached
with great difficulty. In the countries where it is a constant
visitor it arrives in May, and departs in August ; but while
it arrives singly, on its return migration it departs in whole
families. It establishes itself on the borders of woods, or on the
banks of some water-course; especially is it found where there
are large trees, such as oaks and poplars, in which it builds its
nest. The bird is common in the South of France. It lays
from four to six eggs, and during incubation feeds on insects'
larvae and caterpillars, and is especially fond of the more delicate
fruits of the sunny South, such as mulberries, cherries, and figs.
This food gives a delicious flavour to its flesh, which causes it to
be much sought after. The Oriole will not live in confinement.
It is the Beccafica of the Italians.
The MINO (Eulabesjavanses, VieilL), Fig. 257, has been assigned
to various families. Swainson places it among the Sturnidce, Gray
in the sub-family of Graculinfe, under the family of Corvida.
However, we prefer placing it as we have. They are sought
after by the Orientals in consequence of their gentle habits, and
the facility with which they imitate, like the Parrakeets, all sorts
of phrases, and even airs. Their song is very agreeable.
The Minos have a bill analogous to that of the Orioles ; but
their general form and habits approximate more to the Starlings,
among which they ought to be ranged. They are eminently
social in their habits, searching for their food in large flocks,
and passing the night in numbers on the same or on neigh-
bouring trees. Their natural disposition being peaceful, lively,
and confiding, they appear to prefer the vicinity of man's resi-
dence, and the cultivated fields that surround his dwelling.
They frequently attend upon flocks of sheep, to feed upon the
insects that infest these ruminants' skins. In countries where
locusts abound, they are of great service to man by feeding upon
them.
THE EOSE-COLOURED OUZEL.
555
The Isle of Bourbon was at one time so infested with locusts
that it threatened to become uninhabitable. The idea was enter-
tained of introducing some Minos, and these birds multiplied so
fast that in a few years the pests had disappeared. Unfortunately,
the services of the Minos had to be paid for dearly, for they
showed a penchant for fruit, and made great havoc among the
cherries, mulberry trees, &c. When insects became scarce they
even attacked the cereals and other crops.
Fig. 257. — The Mino Bird (Grucula rvligiutsu. Linn.).
These Passerines readily habituate themselves to confinement,
and in a short time become as tame as Starlings. Like these
birds, too, they possess the talent of remembering and repeating
words and various cries. They inhabit Africa, Asia, and Java.
In their migrations they sometimes visit the southern countries
of Europe ; but they are rarely seen in France.
The HONEY-SUCKERS (Meliphagidce) are remarkable for having a
thin tuft of hair at the end of their tongue, and for the fleshy
pendants which adorn the beaks of some species. Their plumage
is in general brilliant, and ornamented with tufts or collars.
The voice of some kinds is very melodious, but little or nothing-
is known of their habits.
We now come to the ROSE-COLOURED OUZEL, which is called in
France Merle Rose, because it combines the shape of the Blackbird
with a breast and back of a lovelv rose colour.
556 PASSERINES.
The characteristics of the Ouzels are a straight and slender bill ;
large and stout toes, furnished with strong and hooked claws ; and
short wings and tail. The decidedly aquatic habits of these birds
form a curious exception to the rest of the Passerine order. They
live constantly on the edge of the water, or in the water itself,
hunting for the insects which constitute their food. Although their
toes are not webbed, they may often be noticed diving and moving
about under water, by extending their wings and using them as
fins. They are frequently to be seen flying along streams, and
Fig. 258.— The Dipper, or Water Ouzel ( Cinclus aguaticus, Bechst.). '
catching the winged insects skimming over the surface of the
water. They live a solitary life, except during the pairing season.
Ouzels principally frequent the banks of mountain streams, espe-
cially in rocky and precipitous countries.
The European species, called the Dipper, or Water Ouzel
(Hydrobata tinclus, Wood), Fig. 258, is met with in Great Britain,
France, the Alps, Pyrenees, and other mountain chains in the
South, West, and North of Europe.
The SOLITARY or WOOD THRUSHES (Turdus mustillimes, Gin.),
Fig. 259, are distinguished from the other Dentirostral Passerines
by their long and slender tarsi. They are natives of America,
and, in the midst of its vast forests, busy themselves in hunt-
THE COMMON BLACKBIRD. ;>:>'
ing ants, on which they feed. Other insects are not refused
by them ; but, first and foremost, they are form Divorce. They
fly indifferently, but in
running and hopping they
are very nimble. Gene-
rally speaking, they do
not take the trouble of
building a nest, prefer-
ring to lay their eggs on
the ground, on a bed of
dry leaves. Their song is
of a strange character,
differing in its nature in
the various species. Some
of them have received the
Fig. 259.— The Wood Thiush (Turdus melodus, Wilson).
name of " Bell-ringer,
&c., from the similarity of their note to the sound of a bell.
They are wild and shy, and dash their heads against the bars
when they are shut up in a cage. Their flesh is appreciated for
the table.
The Merulicfa genus is characterised by a flattened, curved, and
slightly denticulated bill, and is one of the most numerous of the
family, embracing as it does no less than one hundred and fifty
species spread plentifully over the whole surface of the globe.
Birds of this genus are, generally speaking, migratory, and
travel in more or less numerous flocks. They feed on berries,
fruits, and insects, and are endowed with very harmonious powers
of song. They have been divided into two great sections, the
division being based on the particular arrangement of their colours.
First, the section of Merulcz, which embraces all the species the
plumage of which is of a uniform colour ; next, that of Turdi,
which contains those of speckled plumage, that is, marked with
small dark spots on the breast.
The principal species of the first section are the Common Black-
bird, the Rock Blackbird, the Solitary Blackbird, and the Mocking
Bird, or Polyglot Thrush.
The COMMON BLACKBIRD (Merula nrtijaris, Hay), Fig. 260, is so
called on account of its plumage, which in the cock bird is of a
558
PASSEEINES.
uniform bright black colour. It delights in neighbourhoods
covered with groves and thickets situated in the vicinity of
water. When a sufficiency of food is to be found it seldom
leaves the district it has frequented. In nearly all the countries
of the European continent it is to be met with the year round.
These birds appear to be less numerous in winter than in summer,
and it is only exceptionally that they are sedentary.
The Blackbird is shy and artful by nature, and shows extreme-
caution in approaching any object of suspicion. It rarely allows
itself to be surprised by man, except when its voracity and greedi-
Fig. 260.— The Common Blackbird (Turdus merula, Linn.).
ness lead it into danger; but still, notwithstanding its shy-
ness, it is disposed to frequent public and private gardens, and
the vicinity of habitations. When taken young it easily becomes
accustomed to captivity.
It builds its nest at a short distance from the ground, on trees
THE MOCKING BIRD.
559
or bushes, the hen bird only participating in the labour of build-
ing. She lays from four to six eggs.
In the South of Europe this species is much sought after, on
account of the exquisite flavour which its flesh acquires from
living on myrtle and juniper berries.
The RING BLACKBIRD (Merula torquata, Gould) differs from the
kind we have just noticed in being of larger size, and in the pre-
dilection which it shows for mountainous countries. It sings very
agreeably, and in France is found on the high summits of the
Vosges, the Alps, and the Pyrenees.
The SOLITARY BLACKBIRD (Merle Bleu of the French) is remark-
able for the deep blue colour of its plumage. It frequents the same
regions as the bird last described, and its habits are nearly the
same ; but it is wilder in its nature, and its song is even still more
Fig. 261.— The Mocking Bird, or Polyglot Thrush (Mimus poiy(,lottvs, Briss.).
charming. We read in the chronicles of his time that Francis I.
was never weary of listening to the strains of one he possessed.
This bird is common in the South of Europe and the whole of
the Levant, and when it is tamed acquires considerable value.
Of all the various species of the Merulicfa the one which is
unquestionably the most favoured, as regards its vocal qualities,
is the MOCKING BIRD, or POLYGLOT THRUSH (Turdus polyglottm,
Linn.), Fig. 261, a native of North America, and chiefly of the
560
PASSERINES.
Southern States. Its notes are so melodious that the conscientious
Audubon does not hesitate to rank them far ahove those of the
Nightingale. In addition to this, it possesses the wonderful
faculty of imitating the songs of other birds, and even the cries of
the mammals which make their abode near it. For this reason the
Indians call it the "Bird with Four Hundred Tongues." Being
protected by the inhabitants of Louisiana, it does not seem to dread
the presence of man, and builds its nest with the utmost publicity
in the vicinity of dwellings. When it is captured before leaving
the nest it becomes very tame.
The principal species of the Thrush are the Song Thrush, the
Redwing, the Mistletoe, and the Fieldfare.
The SONG THRUSH, Mavis of the Scotch (Fig. 2G2), has enjoyed,
Fig. -(52. — Tne Song Tiiruali (2'urdus musicus, liHiii.J.
ever since the days of antiquity, great reputation, not, as we might
have desired, for its vocal powers, but for the delicacy of its flesL.
The Romans appreciated these birds to such a degree that they were
in the habit of fattening them by thousands in immense aviaries,
cleverly combining the privation of light with a suitable diet.
Nowadays, Thrushes are not fattened artificially, because they
take very good care to fatten themselves in their autumnal visit
to the South of Europe ; for they gorge themselves to such an
extent with grapes, figs, and olives, that they attain an incredible
TANAGEBS. 561
pitch of obesity, causing them to be sought after with avidity,
to gratify the fastidious palate of the gourmand. It is even said
that Thrushes intoxicate themselves among the vines, which has
given rise to the French proverb, "As drunk as a Thrush," in
speaking of a man who has been indulging too freely in wine.
But this is absurd ; although the Thrush may be unable in the
autumn to fly away with its usual agility, the only cause is its
increased weight.
The EEDWING shares both the good qualities and the defects of
the Song Thrush, and it is likewise much esteemed by epicures.
The two other species are of less importance in an edible point of
view. They are all natives of Europe, and visit the centre and
South of France.
The TANAGERS (Tanagrina) form a genus of birds peculiar to the
Fig. 263.— Tanagers (Tanagra rubra, Nutt.).
hot regions of America. They are remarkable for a bill which is
tapering and triangular at the base, and for the brilliant colours of
their plumage. They are allied by their habits to the Warblers
and the Sparrow. They are lively, constantly in motion, and
but seldom settle down on the ground. In general life they
resort about among trees and bushes to collect berries, seeds,
and insects. According to the species, they live either solitarily, in
families, or in flocks. Some kinds have an agreeable song ; among
o o
562 PASSEEINES.
these are the Euphones (beautiful voices), or Bullfinch Tanagers.
Those which are most richly endowed, as regards the splendour of
their dress, are the Scarlet Tanager, the Cardinal Tanager, the
Bishop Tanager, and the Black-throated Tanager.
The Grosbeak Tanager ( Tanagra magna, Cuvier) is remarkable
for the sociability of its nature. It has received this name because,
with the help of its companions, it is in the habit of building on
the top of a palm tree a vast construction, divided into a certain
number of compartments, which are portioned out to so many
couples, to hold their nests and young broods.
The DRONGO SHRIKES (Dicrurince, Sw.) resemble a Crow in their
shape and a Blackbird in their size. They have a carinated beak,
Fig. 264.— The Tufted Drongo (Tephrodomis, Sw.).
pretty strongly curved, and a forked tail. The ground of their
plumage is black, with a green or blue metallic reflection. They
live in small flocks in the forests of India, Polynesia, and South
Africa. They are great destroyers of bees. The better to accom-
plish this, they post themselves, at morning and evening, at the
skirts of a wood, on ^a tree which is dead or bare of leaves, and
watch for them as they leave or regain their retreats. When
they attack their prey, they fly down from their post of observa-
tion, and from their great activity make terrible massacre of the-
unfortunate insects.
CATERPILLAR-EATEKS.
503
Their turbulent and noisy nature has been the means of gaining
for them among the Hottentots, who look upon them as birds of
evil omen, the name of " Devil-birds." Their flesh is of no value ;
but some species are said to sing in a way which is not unpleasing.
In the Broad- tailed Drongo the two outside feathers of the tail are
long filaments, terminating in square-pointed feathers. "We give
(Fig. 264) the representation of another species, the Tufted
Drongo.
The genus Cotinga is characterised by a short, flattened, curved,
and stout bill. It embraces as sub-genera the Cotinga proper,
the Caterpillar-eaters, and the Chatterers.
The COTINGA or CORACINA proper is a bird about the size of a
Fig. 265. — The Brilliant Cotinga (Coracina scutata, Tenim.).
Thrush ; it inhabits Brazil and Guiana, and is remarkable, during
the pairing season, for its brilliant and variegated plumage. It
frequents damp localities in the midst of great forests, and its
food consists of seeds, fruit, and insects. It is very shy in its
nature, and cannot habituate itself to captivity. Its rich colours
alone cause it to be admired, for its voice is by no means
melodious, and its flesh is too bitter for human food. The
most beautiful species are the Pompadour Cotinga and the
Brilliant Cotinga (Fig. 265).
CATERPILLAR- EATERS (Cebleptyrince) owe their name to the
source from which they derive their principal sustenance; but
o o 2
564 PASSEEINES.
they also feed on flies and the larvae of insects. They differ from
the preceding kinds both in their habitat and in the more sombre
colour of their plumage. The Cotingas are only met with in
America ; and the Caterpillar- eaters are not found except in
Southern Africa and the Indian Archipelago.
The CHATTERERS (Ampelidae) are sociable birds, living together
in flocks the whole of the year, except during the breeding season.
They feed on buds, berries, and insects ; they even catch flies on
the wing. They are, nevertheless, extremely indolent, and do not
move about more than is necessary to satisfy the requirements
of appetite. The greater part of their time they remain hid in
the recesses of woods, and are rarely seen ; they settle little on
the ground, for their gait is awkward and constrained. Not
Tig. 266.— Bohemian Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus, Wood).
endowed, properly speaking, with any powers of song, their only
utterance is a feeble twittering, which, in some species, is very
prolonged. The Bohemian Waxwing is noisy at all seasons ;
and this is probably the origin of the name Chatterer, which is
given to the whole genus. They are tamed with great facility,
and, as they are adorned with a brilliant plumage, they are often
reared in cages. These birds are found in Europe, North America,
and Japan.
The European species (Fig. 266) breeds in northern countries,
THE FLY-CATCHEE. 565
aad migrates to Germany at the approach of winter. It is rarely
met with in France. It is a very pretty bird, carrying a floating
tuft on the top of its head.
The birds belonging to the Fly-catcher genus (MuscicapidtB)
Fig. 207. — The Spotted Fly-catcher (Muscicapa grisola, White).
have a flattened and hooked bill, furnished with a projecting
edge, and with stiff hair at the base. They are divided into
Fly- catchers proper, Tyrants, and Eurylaimince.
Fig. 268.— King Fly-catcher (Eurylaimus serilophux, Sw.).
The FLY-CATCHER proper feeds on insects, which it catches
on the wing with a vivacity and agility which are extraordinary.
It sometimes adds to its fare caterpillars and ants, and it
never settles on the ground except when in pursuit of prey. They
560
PASSEEINES.
are birds of taciturn and solitary habits, frequenting alone the
depths of forests, or the margin of sluggish streams. They are
silent even during the pairing season, and are rather negligent in
their mode of building, taking no care to hide their nests from the
view of their enemies. According to the species, they build either
on trees and bushes, or in the crevices of walls, rocks, or under the
eaves of roofs. The hen bird lays from three to six eggs once a
year in Europe, but more frequently in other parts of the world.
The Fly-catchers are not larger than the Warblers. They are
Fig. 269.— The Long-tailed Tyrant (Milvulu, Sw.).
birds of passage, and various species of them are spread over the
whole surface of the globe. Some are natives of Europe, among
which we will name the Spotted Fly-catcher (Fig. 267), and the
Pied Fly-catcher. The latter bird is very fond of fruit, and in
the South of France it is killed for the delicacy of its flesh. The
TYRANTS.
5G7
common name there given it, Bec-figue, is also applied to a species
of the Warbler genus.
The Fan- tailed Fly-catchers (RMpiduraJlabellifem^&faftm} are
birds of the same size and with the same habits as the Fly- catchers
proper. They differ in nothing but their plumage, which is much
more brilliant, their more fully developed tail, and the beautiful
tufts which adorn the heads of some species. They are natives of
Africa, India, Polynesia, and America. The species which may
serve as a type is the Eurylaimus serilophus (Fig. 268), on account
of a magnificent red tuft, edged with black, which spreads out
round its head, and resembles a splendid diadem. It is a native of
South America, and is a very rare bird in collections.
The TYRANTS (Fig. 269) owe their name to their courageous,
Fig. 270,-Cephalopterus ornatus (Coracina cephdloptera, Vieill.).
audacious, and quarrelsome character, which leads them to attack
birds more powerful than themselves, such as some of the smaller
birds of prey, and even the White-headed Eagle. It must be
added, too, that they more often than not succeed in forcing these
robbers to quit the neighbourhood in which the Tyrant'* young
brood is reposing. They feed on insects, small reptiles, and some
times very small fish. They are found in South America only,
and principally in Brazil and Guiana.
The Cephalopterus ornatus (Less.), Fig. 270, has some resemblance
568 PASSEEINES.
to Crows, both in size and plumage. Their name, which in Greek
signifies " winged-head," is given them on account of a wide crest
which spreads out above their heads like a parasol. Added to this,
the front of the neck is bare, but the lower part is furnished with
a thick tuft of feathers, which hang down over the breast. These
birds are natives of the forests of Brazil, but little or nothing is
known as to their habits. The wide shape of the bill would
suggest that they feed chiefly on berries and fruit.
The SHRIKE genus concludes the Passerine order. It com-
prises a certain number of birds with tapering or flattened bills,
more or less hooked at the point, and deeply indented, and which
resemble the Rapacious order in their quarrelsome nature, and in
their taste for live flesh. Among them are classed the Great Grey
Shrike, the Red-backed Shrike, the Yangas, and the Cassicus.
The Shrikes proper possess the instinct of destruction in the
very highest degree. They delight in shedding blood and in
spreading death wherever they go ; indeed, their evil disposition
has become proverbial. Not satisfied with killing with a view of
satisfying the lawful needs of hunger, they sacrifice, as if for mere
pleasure, insects, birds, and small mammals. They afterwards
impale them upon the thorns of bushes and hedges.
But still we must not condemn these birds with too great a
degree of severity. No doubt there is, to some extent, cruelty in
their actions ; but, first and foremost, we are bound to recognise
the foresight which they show. These victims are stored as
a supply in time of need. It is a mistake to think that all
creatures which they attack are smaller than themselves.
Although not large, they are not afraid of a contest with Ravens,
Magpies, and even some of the birds of prey, when called upon to
defend their young.
Shrikes generally inhabit extensive woods. During the day-
time they post themselves in the top branches of the trees, from
which they pounce down upon their prey. They fly rather
indifferently, but hover with great ease. Their twittering is con-
tinual, and some of their melodies are not entirely devoid of charm.
They are remarkable for their talent of imitation, and reproduce
the songs of all the other birds with such similarity as to be mis-
taken for them. Some even go so far as to assert that they
SHRIKES.
569
abuse this faculty by deceiving small birds, whose song they
imitate.
They migrate every year, and at the time of their journey are
much sought after for the table ; for their flesh, being covered with
abundant layers of fat, is very rich. It is a curious fact that, in
spite of their cross-grained nature, they are very easily tamed.
They cannot, however, accommodate themselves to close captivity,
their active natures requiring a more extended field of action;
Fig. 271. -The Great Grey Shrike (Lanius excuf/itor, Wood).
such, for instance, as a large aviary affords. When kept in a
place of this kind, they become very friendly, and appear to be
fully sensible of the caresses of their master.
570
PASSEEINES.
Shrikes are common in all parts of the globe. Seven species
are known in Europe, the principal of which are the Great
Grey Shrike (Fig. 271), the Red-backed Shrike (Fig. 272),
Fig. 272.— The Bed-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio, Wood).
and the Southern Shrike. In France these birds are hardly
ever found, except in the southern departments.
WS^
Fig. 273.— The Cassicus.
The Falcon Shrikes are sometimes called Swallow Shrikes,
because they fly with as much ease as the Swallow, and, like the
CASSICUS. 571
latter bird, pursue insects on the wing. Their habits, however,
differ but little from those of the true Shrike. They are natives
of Africa, India, and the Southern Archipelago.
The Yangas (Buffon) bear a still greater similarity to the Shrike
proper. Their habits of life are altogether the same ; but they
are found only in South Africa, Madagascar, Australia, and New
Guinea.
Lastly, the Cassicus (Fig. 273) belongs to America, and holds
an intermediate place between the Shrike and the Crow, the
latter of which it resembles in its gait, size, and plumage. In
its habits it is clamorous, turbulent, and omnivorous. It may
be readily recognised by its long bill and the feathers in front
of its head.
CHAPTER VIII.
RAPTORES, OH BIRDS OF PREY.
Rap tores enjoy a greater amount of public notoriety than
almost any other birds, although they are of little or no ser-
vice to us, and possess infinitely fewer claims to our interest
than a multitude of other winged creatures. The audacity and
courage by which several species are distinguished, the marvellous
stories to which their exploits have given rise, and the supersti-
tious terror caused by their appearance may help to explain the
reason of their popularity. Poets and novel-writers, in order to
characterise their heroes, have often inspired them with the quali-
ties or defects of some of the Rapacious birds. They have made
the Eagle a type of nobility, strength, and valour ; the Yulture
the incarnation of cowardly and unclean cruelty. The Owl, with
its staring aspect and noiseless flight, has become with them a
bird of ill omen; its doleful hoot echoing through the shades
of night, over the house of sickness, is an infallible prediction of
death. These superstitions have had considerable influence upon
popular imagination, and have thus passed into habitual use in
conversation.
The Rapacious order is characterised by a very strong, hooked,
and sharp-edged bill, which is furnished at its base with a mem-
brane called the cere— it is generally of a yellow colour, and upon
it the nostrils open ; strong legs, covered with feathers ; four toes,
three in front and one behind, which #re usually very flexible, and
provided with crooked and retractile talons, often possessed of con-
siderable strength. Their powers of vision are very great, and they
are marvellously organised for flight ; their long and vigorous
wings enabling them to hover in the highest regions of the air,
\
\
GENERAL CHAEACTEEISTICS. 573
and to travel over immense distances in an incredibly short space
of time.
Their generic name sufficiently indicates that they live only by
rapine, and are naturally plunderers and bloodthirsty. They cor-
respond, in the class of Birds, with the Carnivora among Mammalia.
Like them, they live on animals, either dead or living ; like them,
too, they possess the strength and adroitness which are necessary
to satisfy their sanguinary appetites.
With her ever-admirable foresight Nature has wisely limited
the reproduction of these destructive creatures — the largest only
lay two eggs a year ; the others, on an average, five or six. It is
a singular thing that the female is often nearly a third bigger
than the male ; hence the name of " tarsel," given to the latter in
certain species.
The Raptores present none of the grace and charming prattle
of other races of birds. They enjoy no powers of song ; their
sole utterance consists either of harsh cries or strange and plain-
tive modulations. Their plumage, which is nearly always of a
sombre colour, is sad and monotonous in its appearance. Destruc-
tion is the sole object of their existence ; they are the terror of all
the rest of the feathered creation, among which they every day
make numerous victims. They live alone, or in couples, in the
most deserted places ; it is only exceptionally that they gather
together in flocks, and then merely to devour in common some
putrid carrion. They are of a despotic and combative tempera-
ment, and will not suffer any rivals in their neighbourhood. They
practise absolutism in its strictest form, and reign as lords and
masters in the districts which they choose for their territory.
The Raptores are met with over the whole surface of the globe ;
the larger species inhabit lofty mountains, or seek a hiding-place in
the face of inaccessible and solitary cliffs.
This order is divided into two sub- orders, the Nocturnal and
the Diurnal. This division is a very rational one, for it is
founded on dissimilarity of habits, which is owing to a difference
of organisation.
574 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
NOCTURNAL BIRDS or PREY.
Nocturnal birds of prey are distinguished by large staring eyes,
directed straight in front, and surrounded by a circle of slender
and stiff feathers, which, by their circular radiation round the
face, form a nearly complete disk, to which the name of 'facial disk
has been given ; by the large development of their head ; by very
short bills, devoid of cere, which is replaced by a plain skin covered
with hairs ; by tarsi feathered down to the claws ; by the mobility
of the outside toe, which can be turned either forwards or back-
wards; by very strong, sharp, and retractile claws; by abundant
and soft plumage ; and by tails which are generally short.
But the original characteristic of these birds, and that which
has contributed to their union in one group, is their inability to
bear the light of mid- day, and the faculty they possess of being
able to see in twilight, owing to the pupils of their eyes having
enormous powers of dilation. They therefore remain hidden in
their retreats while the sun is high, and do not begin to hunt until
the luminary has approached the horizon, when they are able
to distinguish with surprising clearness the objects on which they
prey.
We are not, however, bound to believe that these birds can see
in the midst of perfect darkness. "When the night is thoroughly
obscure they again become subject to the law common to all. The
epithet of " nocturnal," which is applied to them, is, therefore, not
strictly accurate, and must not be taken literally. They manifest
the greatest amount of activity when the moon diffuses her light
over the earth ; then it is that they revel in their destructive
instincts, levying a heavy tax on all weaker animal life.
The Eaptores have the sense of hearing strongly developed,
owing to the large cavities existing in their skulls, which com-
municate with the internal ear, and thus increase the capacity of
this organ.
Their plumage is streaked with diversely-arranged markings,
and is quite as soft and delicate as the down of fledglings. These
peculiarities are probably owing to the special conditions of their
existence. Constantly deprived as they are of the rays of the
NOCTUKNAL BIEDS OF PEEY. 575
sun, the action of which upon colour of plumage cannot be
doubted, they are not arrayed in those splendid hues which
clothe diurnal birds of tropical regions.
Owing to the structure and nature of their feathers, nocturnal
birds of prey fly without making the least noise. They can, there-
fore, pounce unawares on their victims, seizing them before they
have any idea of necessity for escape. When they lay hold of
their prey it is immediately devoured — an easy matter on account
of the enormous expansion of their bills. Their stomach afterwards
separates the indigestible parts, such as bones, hair, and feathers,
and when these are rolled together in the shape of a ball or pellet,
they are ejected by vomiting. Diurnal birds of prey which sub-
sist on living animals possess the same power.
With the exception of the Barn Owl, nocturnal birds of prey
all lay eggs of a spherical shape. They live in couples, only
assembling in flocks at the epoch of migration ; they never, how-
ever, hunt in common. They do not build any nest, but deposit
their eggs in cavities in old trunks of trees or ruined habita-
tions. They exhale a disagreeable and unwholesome smell, which
is no doubt owing to their exclusively animal diet.
A nocturnal bird of prey, unless forced, never comes out of its
lurking-place during day. When compelled by circumstances to
do so, it is assailed by all the Passerines of the neighbourhood,
which resent its intrusion, and avenge the oppression exercised
over them during the night, by combined attacks. It places itself
in the strangest postures, ruffles up its feathers, and balances its
head with a stupid look, making its bill crack, when so assaulted.
It does not, however, try to defend itself, and passively receives
the blows of its feathered enemies, which do it but little harm.
This natural antipathy of small birds for their nocturnal destroyers
has been taken advantage of for purposes of sport. The method
of catching birds by calling is founded upon it. Imitating the voice
of an Owl, the birds flock together and perch on the trees or
bushes in the suspected neighbourhood, where twigs covered with
birdlime have been abundantly scattered. This operation must
take place about an hour before sunset ; if later, it would not be
successful. This way of catching birds was in use in the days of
antiquity, for Aristotle has given us a description of it.
576 EAPTOEES, OR BIEDS OF PEEY.
The Owl has given rise to more fables and prejudices than any
living creature, doubtless in consequence of its peculiarities.
Although inoffensive in general, and even useful — for they destroy
a large quantity of rats and mice — in the rural districts nocturnal
birds of prey have occasioned so much superstition and terror,
that they have been hunted down with the utmost animosity.
The Greeks dedicated the Owl to Minerva, the goddess of
wisdom, no doubt on account of the calm and grave attitude
which distinguishes it, and gives it the air of a philosopher medi-
tating on the problems of life.
Mr. Swainson divides Owls into three groups — namely, Typical
Owls, Horned Owls, and Hawk Owls ; for simplicity and brevity
we prefer making only two families — namely, those with horns and
those without.
HORNED OWLS.
Horned Owls are distinguished by two tufts or horns of feathers
placed on each side of their head. They are subdivided into
three genera — the Great Horned Owls, the Long-eared Owls, and
Small Horned Owls.
The COMMON GREAT OWL (Bubo maximus), Fig. 274, is the
most remarkable of the family on account of its size and strength.
Its height is, on an average, two feet, and it is justly acknow-
ledged as the king of nocturnal birds. Its bill and claws are
of a black colour, very strong and hooked. Its plumage is
russet, variegated with black spots and brown stripes ; its wings,
when extended, are not less than five feet across. Its eyes are
large and fixed, with black pupils surrounded with yellow.
It bears light with less inconvenience than the other nocturnal
birds, and therefore goes out sooner in the evening and returns
home later in the morning. This bird makes its home among
the clefts of rocks, or in the recesses of old towers situated on
the mountains, which elevated ground it but rarely leaves to
descend into the plain. Its cry, huibou, houhou, bouhou^ ouhou,
resounding in the silence of the night, is a source of terror to
those animals which form its prey. It feeds principally upon
hares, rabbits, moles, rats, and mice. Now and then, and especially
THE GEEAT OWL.
577
when rearing its young, which are very voracious, it devours
toads, frogs, and small reptiles.
The Great Owl is very courageous, and often has battles with
the Tawny Eagle, from which it frequently comes off with honour.
Fig. 274.— Great Owl (Strix bubo, Linn.).
The fight is sometimes so severe that it terminates in the death
of both combatants.
M. Bailly relates that he was told, by reliable witnesses, that an
Eagle and Great Owl, which were fighting together in the moun-
tains of Savoy, drove their claws so deep into one another's
flesh that they could not withdraw them, so both died from their
wounds on the scene of action. In a similar fight near Zurich
a Great Owl, which was the conqueror, was so fastened to its
adversary that they fell to the ground together, and, being unable
to disengage its talons, was in consequence taken alive.
p P
578 EAPTOEES, OK BIEDS OF PEEY.
When wounded so as to be unable to fly, and attacked by dogs,
the Great Owl will sell its life as dearly as possible ; for, turning
upon its back, with open claws and menacing bill it presents an
appearance to its enemies which is enough to make the bravest
shrink from the assault.
In spite of this combative temperament, the Great Owl easily
becomes tame; it knows its name, and comes at the call of
its master. Perfect liberty may then be safely allowed it, as
it will remain in the neighbourhood of its home, returning at
meal- times. Frisch relates that he twice kept birds of this kind,
and that they lived for a considerable time ; he fed them on ox-
flesh and liver. They would sometimes swallow as many as five
mice without stopping, having first broken their bones with blows
from their bills. In case of necessity they would eat fish. Some
hours after taking their food, they ejected the bones and hair of
their victims. Instances have been known, however, in which
this Owl would not submit to confinement.
The Great Owl is possessed of the strongest attachment to
its young. M. Cronstedt, a Swiss gentleman, lived for several
years on a farm situated at the foot of a mountain, on the top of
which a couple of Great Owls built their nest. The servants
caught and shut up in a hen-house one of the young birds,
which the thirst for rapine had doubtless impelled prematurely
to leave the maternal abode. The next morning they were sur-
prised to find at the door of the hen-house a freshly- killed
Partridge. The idea was that the parent birds, attracted by the
cries of the young Owl, had thus provided for its sustenance.
The same thing occurred fourteen days running. M. Cronstedt,
wishing to come to a right understanding on the matter,
watched during several nights in order to surprise the hen bird
in this act of maternal love. But he failed, probably because
the bird, thanks to its penetrating sight, took advantage to leave
her offspring's provisions at a moment when his attention
was diverted. These parental duties ceased in the month of
August, when the young bird became capable of providing for
itself.
The Great Owl inhabits Europe and Asia, but is common in
Switzerland and Italy. It is not often met with in France, except
THE SHOUT-EARED OWL. 579
in the eastern and southern departments, where it rarely remains
during winter.
Another species, which is very common in Egypt, differs but
little from the last mentioned. It is sometimes seen in the South
of Sardinia and Sicily. It is commonly designated by the name
of the Great Short-eared Owl.
The VIRGINIAN HORNED OWL (Bubo virginianus], the Strix
mrginiana of Yieillot, inhabits JSTorth and South America. This
bird is nearly the size of the Great Owl of Europe ; it is dis-
tinguished from the latter by a different arrangement of the
feathered projections on its head, which, instead of starting from
the ears, take their rise close to the bill. This bird feeds on young
Gallinacese, which it boldly carries off from the very midst of the
poultry- yards ; the Turkey especially is a particular favourite
with it. When other food fails, it feeds on dead fish found on the
river -banks. If caught when young it is easily tamed, but as it
gets mature its bloodthirsty instincts become so powerful that
it ultimately proves a most expensive pet.
The SHORT-EARED OWL (Fig. 275) is about a foot in height.
The horns on this species' head are shorter than those of the
Great Owl in proportion to the birds' size. Its wings are thirty-
nine inches across ; in its plumage russet predominates, shaded
with grey and brown. It has a blackish bill and claws, and
beautiful yellow eyes. It inhabits hollows in rocks or dead trees,
and old ruined houses, and sometimes instals itself in nests left
vacant by Magpies, Ravens, and Buzzards. It is much less wild
than the Great Owl, and is frequently in the habit of prowling
round dwelling-houses.
This Owl being very fond of mice, which form its principal
food, all that is requisite to attract it to a snare is to imitate the
cry of these little animals. It also feeds on moles, and, in cases
of emergency, even on frogs, toads, leverets, young rabbits, and
insects. This bird displays much courage in the defence of its
young when it thinks them in danger, and does not then fear even
to attack man. Its cry consists of a kind of low moaning clow,
cloud, which it frequently utters during the night. It is easily
tamed if taken young ; but if old when caught, it persistently
refuses food.
p'p 2
580
EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
The Short-eared Owl is more sociable than most nocturnal birds
of prey, and is often met with in flocks of seven or eight. Its
habitat is the North of Europe, quitting it in the autumn to
winter in warmer regions : it regularly visits France in October
and November. It is sometimes found in thickets close to
marshes and rivers, where it catches frogs, and even fish. In
Fig. 275. — Short-eared Owl (Strix brachyotus,Yai-rell).
the North, especially in Iceland, it builds its nest in the ground,
sometimes occupying burrows made by rabbits. "We shall see
further on that this singularity is shared by one of the American
Owls.
A species very similar to the last described is found in Senegal ;
but the head, tarsi, and lower part of the body are white ; its
height is ten inches.
THE SCOPS-EAEED OWL.
581
Lastly, the Ketupu is a native of the islands of the Indian
Archipelago. It often frequents the banks of rivers, and feeds
principally upon crabs and fish. The name it bears is that which
has been given to it by the natives.
The SCOPS-EARED OWL (Scops), Fig. 276, is remarkable for its
diminutive size, which does not exceed that of a Thrush, and for
its horns, which are perfectly rudimentary and formed of a single
Fig. 276. — Tiie Scops-eared Owl (Stru bubonmct^ Liun.j.
feather. Its plumage, which is beautifully shaded with russet,
grey, and black, is much more pleasing than that of the preceding
species.
These Owls are more sociable than larger ones, and assemble
in flocks in autumn and spring to migrate into warmer climates ;
they depart after the Swallows, and get to their destination
about the same time. They are of great service to the agri-
culturist in destroying field-mice. " At times when this kind
of scourge was prevalent," says Buffon, "Small Horned Owls
have been known to arrive in numbers, and wage such a suc-
cessful warfare against the field-mice, that in a few days the
ground was cleared of them."
582 EAPTORES, OR BIEDS OF PREY.
Dale, an English author, mentions another example of the
utility of the Scops. In. 1580 such a large quantity of mice
appeared in the plains near South Minster that all the plants
were gnawed off by the roots. Soon after, a number of Small
Horned Owls came in flocks, and destroyed the mice.
When pressed by hunger, the Scops is not above eating fish.
It may then be seen hovering over ponds and rivers, and seizing
fish upon the surface with remarkable dexterity. Bats and large
insects also are its prey.
It is difficult to kill or catch the Scops, although they travel in
numerous companies ; for they do not begin their journey until
the evening, a short time before night closes in, and settle down
in the woods during the day. If they meet with a place
favourable for their subsistence, such as a plain intersected by
marshes and small woods, they remain there for two or three days.
In the evening they have a strange habit of following people
passing through their haunts. Sometimes they precede them,
hopping from tree to tree, and uttering low, plaintive cries,
frequently fluttering round almost sufficiently close to touch
them. The Scops is easily tamed, and becomes very familiar ;
it is, consequently, in much request in Savoy for the purpose of
bird-catching. It perfectly recognises the voice of whoever feeds
it, and, although at liberty, will not abandon the house of its
master. But when the season of migration arrives it would be of no
use to attempt to detain it ; kindness and caresses are all in vain.
Unless the precaution of shutting it up be taken, it rejoins its
companions, and accompanies them, perhaps, to Africa or Asia.
There is a variety of this bird, named Scops asio, which is found
in North America, on the shores of the Ohio and Mississippi. It is
very gentle, and allows itself to be caressed when taken, without
attempting to bite or scratch. Audubon relates that he carried
one of these birds from JSTew York to Philadelphia ; he kept it in
his pocket during the whole journey, accustomed it to eat out of
his hand, and the bird did not attempt to escape.
Several other species of Scops are scattered over the two con-
tinents. The most interesting is the exotic species called Choliba,
which the inhabitants of Brazil and Paraguay rear in their dwell-
ings to destrov rats and mice.
SPABBOW OWL?. 583
HORNLESS OWLS.
The family of Hornless Owls fs distinguished from the Horned
group by the absence of projecting feathers on their heads. They
comprehend several species, the principal of which are Sparrow
Owls (Strix passerina, Aud.), Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicu-
laria), Barn or Screech Owls (Strix jlammea), Hawk Owls (Surnia
funerea), Ural Owls (Surnia uralensis), and Snow Owls (Surnia
nictea).
SPARROW OWLS are of small size ; their facial disk is incomplete ;
the tarsi are elongated ; the claws bare or slightly hairy ; their
tails short and square. There are numerous species, of which we
shall only notice the principal.
The Common Sparrow Owl, which is very numerous in France,
and, in fact, through the whole of Europe, is about the size of a
Thrush. It inhabits old ruins and quarries, but never lives in
the hollows of trees ; therefore it rarely makes its abode in the
Woods. Its nature is much less nocturnal than that of its con-
geners, and it is often seen pursuing small birds in broad day-
light, though probably with but little success. Its general food
consists of mice, which it tears in pieces before eating, as it is
unable to swallow them whole. It also very skilfully plucks
the feathers from birds which become its victims. In winter,
when the snow is on the ground, it devours the filth deposited
in the farm- yards. Like the Scops, it delights in following
persons who pass its retreat, especially at the break of dawn.
When flying it utters a cry, poopoo, poopoo ! which it substitutes,
when perched, for a sound very like the voice of a young French-
man saying aime, heme, esme ! Buffon relates a curious anecdote on
this subject : — " I was sleeping in an old tower of the Chateau of
Montbard, when a little before daybreak, at three o'clock in the
morning, a Sparrow Owl came and perched on the window-seat of
my chamber, and woke me by its cry of kerne, edme. As I listened
to this voice, which seemed to me all the more singular as it was
so near, I heard one of my servants, who was sleeping in a room
above, open his window, and, deceived by the well-articulated
sound of edme, answer the bird: 'Who is down there? My
584 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
name is not Edme, but Peter/ The servant actually believed
that it was a man calling, so much did the voice of the Owl
resemble that of a human being, and so distinctly did it articulate
the word."
The bird-catchers of Tessin employ the Sparrow Owl for
enticing birds into .their nests. If taken when very young it is
easily tamed, and shows itself sensible of attention. M. Bailly
possessed one which exhibited much satisfaction when rubbed on
the breast, back, or head. It would remain perfectly immovable,
sometimes on its chest, and sometimes on its back, showing in
every way the pleasure it felt.
In Northern Italy this bird is reared in captivity; it feeds
on mice, and even eats fruit and polenta. M. Gerard relates
that he reared a Sparrow Owl, which became so tame that it
willingly allowed itself to be caressed at any moment of the day.
It destroyed a great many insects, and ate everything that was
given it, but showed such a very decided taste for raw meat
that it sometimes, without letting go its hold, hung suspended to a
morsel of intestine for more than ten minutes. It was on the best
of terms with the cat of the house ; and they were often found
lying close together in the same basket. The dog was never
able to gain the bird's affections ; and a Raven, which lived in the
house by the same right as the Owl, was cordially hated by it.
It showed much irritation at the sight of other birds, even if
they were only stuffed ones ; and when able to obtain possession
of them, carried them into a corner and plucked off their feathers
at leisure. It also delighted in rolling in the dust.
A more diminutive species still, the Small Sparrow Owl,
inhabits the northern part of the two continents, and sometimes
ventures as far south as Germany. Its plumage, which is
ash- coloured above, below the chest is dazzling white, marked
with black spots. It has a white stripe round the front of its
neck.
The Pampas Sparrow Owl is found in South America, and is no
bigger than a Thrush. This bird, though so small, has strongly-
developed bloodthirsty instincts ; for it slips under the wings of
poultry, and kills them by tearing open their sides.
Buffon classes with this species a variety which inhabits the
BAEN OWLS. 585
Cape of Good Hope, and is endowed with, magnificent plumage,
red and black partly mixed with grey. The colonists tame it,
and use it to keep their houses clear of mice.
The BURROWING OWL derives its name from the place in which
it makes its nest. This bird is about the size of a Pigeon, and
frequents the immense plains, or pampas, of South America, and
the prairies of North America. The burrows, however, it does
not dig itself, but simply takes possession of those belonging to
other animals, after having driven them away by its disgusting
odour. This mode of conquering a territory, although of a
peaceful character, is, to say the least of it, singular.
Burrowing Owls do not confine themselves to going out in the
evening and morning. They love the light of day, and willingly
seek their food even when the sun is vertical. It is a curious fact
that this bird lives in association with beings with which it has no
natural tie, such as the prairie dog, a sort of marmot peculiar
to the New World. Captain Francis Head, an English traveller,
who one day came across a flock of these creatures thus living
together, depicts their attitude as follows : —
" Towards the evening the prairie dogs keep outside their bur-
rows, with a serious look on their faces, like grave and reflective
philosophers or moralists. During the day the entrance to the
subterranean burrow is guarded by two Owls, which never quit
their post. While the travellers were galloping over the plain the
Owls continued their duty as sentries, looking them full in the
face, and one after the other shaking their venerable heads in
a way which was most ludicrous on account of its solemnity.
When the horsemen came near them the two sentinels lost
much of their dignified look, and darted hurriedly into the
burrows."
This Owl feeds on rats, reptiles, and insects. It is gentle, and
may be easily tamed, and is sometimes kept for the purpose of
destroying vermin.
The birds which are comprised in the genus of BARN or SCREECH
OWLS have a complete facial disk, and short tarsi feathered down to
the claws. They are as large, and even larger than the Short-
eared Owl.
The first of this group is the Tawny Owl, or Howlet, com-
586 RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.
monly called the Wood Owl. One of its names is derived
from its cry, koo-oo-oo ! which resembles the howling of a
wolf, and caused the Romans to call it Ulula, from ululare, to
howl.
The Tawny Owl has a large head, and is about fourteen inches
in height. It inhabits the woods during the summer, and conceals
itself in the thickest bushes or the old trunks of trees. It remains
hidden all day, only going out in the morning arid evening
to hunt small birds and field-mice, its favourite prey. In the
winter it approaches human habitations, and even ventures into
barns to catch rats and mice ; but it retires to its hiding-place as
soon as day begins to dawn.
At the beginning of autumn, the education of its young
ones being completed, this bird takes up its abode in damp
places, where it can catch frogs and reptiles, to which it is
very partial. During that season Woodcock shooters often flush
them.
Like many individuals of the same family, the Barn Owl will
lay its eggs in strange nests, such as those of Havens, Magpies, and
Buzzards, or even in a dovecot. The young ones are very voracious.
Before they are strong enough to stand upon their feet they will
support themselves on their stomachs, and, holding their prey in
their claws, tear it to pieces with their bills ; when they become
stronger, they stand on one leg, and use the other to convey food
to their mouths.
This Owl has a gentle disposition, and is easily tamed ; it knows
its master perfectly well, and calls to him for food by uttering
low cries. It is found scattered all over Europe, and frequently
in Scotland.
As stormy weather has a great effect on animals' calling, and
this dark variety is more frequently found in northern and stormy
regions than the lighter-coloured, many authorities erroneously
consider the Screech and Barn Owls different birds.
The Common Barn Owl is found over a great portion of Europe,
but in France it is rare. There are several varieties of this bird;
the one best known in England has the following characteristics :
— Its plumage is agreeably variegated with yellow, white, grey,
and brown, and is more pleasing than that of any of the other
BARN OWLS.
587
Fig. 277.— Barn Owl (Sirix /lammea, Yarrell).
Nocturnals. The eggs, which are elliptical, are generally five in
number, sometimes six or seven, and are deposited in holes in
walls, or hollow places in rocks
and old trees ; but the bird does
not take the trouble to line these
holes with grass or leaves. It
is but seldom it takes posses-
sion of the nests of other birds,
although stories are told of its
driving away the Martins from
their retreats, and installing itself
therein, having first considerately
devoured the young.
Children, women, and even
men who are silly enough to
believe in ghosts and sorcerers,
look upon the Barn Owl as a bird
of ill omen, and as a messenger
of death. All these prejudices are
really very foolish, for few birds are of more service. They destroy
a vast quantity of vermin which are injurious to agriculture, and
therefore have a good claim to protection. When the Owl has young
ones to feed, rats and mice are exterminated without either truce
or mercy. As rapidly as they can be caught they are carried
to the nest ; and each of the pellets of bone and hair which are
thrown up from its stomach is composed of at least six or seven
skeletons. Dr. Franklin collected, in the space of sixteen months,
a whole bushel measure of these pellets, all proceeding from a
couple of Barn Owls.
Farmers are in error when they accuse the Barn Owl of destroy-
ing their Pigeons' eggs. The real culprits are the rats. When an
Owl makes its appearance in the vicinity of a dovecot, the proper
course of conduct is to give it a kind reception and to protect it,
for its only object in coming is to obtain shelter for a time, and,
during its stay, to destroy rats or mice, the real scourges of the
pigeon-house.
When the Barn Owl finds a deficiency of food it has re-
course to fishing. It may then be seen diving perpendicularly
588
EAPTOEES, OE BIKDS OF PEEY.
on to the water to capture fish which are floating upon the
surface.
The Chinese and Tartars pay special reverence to the Owl, in
memory of a fact which well deserves to be recorded. Gengis
Khan, the founder of their empire, having been put to flight
by his enemies, was one day compelled to take refuge in a wood,
and an Owl which came and perched in the thicket in which he
had hidden himself was the sole cause of his escaping the pursuit
of his foes ; for those who were searching for him very naturally
omitted to explore the bushes in which he was concealed, thinking
that it was impossible that a covert should at the same time shelter
both an Owl and a man. Thus, thanks to the intervention of the
Fig. 278. — The Canada or Hawk Owl (Surnia funerea, Yarrell).
bird, Gengis Khan was saved from his foes. In memory of this
event the Chinese were in the habit of wearing on their heads an
Owl's feather. Certain tribes of the Calmucs have an idol repre-
senting an Owl.
The CANADA OWL (Fig. 278) is common in North America,
THE WHITE OWL. 589
and especially in Canada. It appears casually in the North of
Europe, in Sweden and Norway. Its plumage is of a greyish-
brown colour. It feeds on hares, rabbits, rats, mice, reptiles, and
birds ; it is about fifteen inches high. Audubon often had an
opportunity of examining it.
" Its cry/' says he, " is a waak, waahha, which one is tempted
to compare with the affected laugh of a votary of fashion. Often
in my distant excursions, when encamped under the trees, and
roasting a slice of venison or a squirrel by means of a wooden spit,
I have been greeted with the laughter of this nocturnal disturber.
It stopped at a few paces from me, exposing its whole body to the
gleam of my fire, and looking at me in such an odd way, that
had I not feared to make a fool of myself in my own eyes, I
should have politely invited him to come and partake of my
supper. This bird visits Louisiana, and is met with in all the
most isolated woods even in open day. If it appears likely to
rain, it laughs louder than ever ; its waak, waaMa, penetrates
into the most remote recesses of the woods, and its comrades
answer it in strange and discordant tones : one might almost think
that the Owl nation was celebrating some extraordinary fete"
Audubon adds that when you approach one of these birds
it thoroughly scrutinises you, assuming at the same time the
most grotesque attitudes. If any one fires at it and misses,
it flies away, but stops at a little distance and utters its mocking
cry.
The name HAWK OWLS has been given to this genus, as it serves
as a transition from the Nocturnal to the Diurnal birds of prey. In
fact, although, by their general shape and physical conformation,
they evidently belong to the former, they are also connected with
the latter by their habits and mode of hunting, which are very like
those of the Sparrow-hawk ; hence their name. They are easily
recognised by their long and tapering tail, and by their free and
bold gait. They form a very characteristic group, and the species,
which are four in number, present but little diversity.
The WHITE OWL (Surnia nictea), the Strix nictea of Foster,
can be tamed ; but it must not be closely confined. It requires
both air and space to move about at will. Under these condi-
tions it constitutes a useful auxiliary to the farmer, and will
590 R1PTORE3, OR 1URDS OF PEEY.
advantageously take the place of several cats. But if it is kept
in a cage it refuses food, and dies after a few days' captivity.
The White Owl may be found in all parts of Europe, Asia, and
North America. There are two varieties of it : one in Java, the
Calong Owl ; the other in Mexico and the Antilles. These two
species differ but little from the Common White Owl, and are
characterised by nearly the same habits.
The CAPARACOCH OWL, called by BufFon the Great Canadian
Sparrow Owl, measures about fifteen inches. In summer it
feeds upon small rodents and insects ; in winter, on Ptarmigan,
which it accompanies in their migrations from the South to the
North. It will sometimes pounce down on the game which is
killed by the sportsman, and, if care is not taken, will carry
it off. It is a native of the Arctic regions, especially those of
America. Sometimes it penetrates as far as Germany, but rarely
makes its appearance in France.
The HARFANG OWL, improperly called by some naturalists the
King of the Owls, attains to about twenty-two inches in height ;
that is, to nearly the size of the Great Horned Owl. With the
exception of the Lapland or Ash-coloured Owl, which measures
two feet, this is the largest among the Owls. Its plumage is a
brilliant white, with some black spots on the head. This colour
is well suited to the nature of the places in which the Har-
fang lives. This bird inhabits the most desolate solitudes to the
north of America : Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and Greenland.
It is also found in Iceland and the neighbouring islands, but
is only accidentally seen in England and France. Thanks to
its colour, which harmonises so perfectly with all around, it is
enabled to traverse almost unseen the immense deserts of snow,
and thus has great facilities for surprising its prey, which consists
of Hazel Hens, Ptarmigan, Grouse, Hares, and Rabbits. Owing
to its abundant plumage and thick down, it is able to brave the
inclemency of a climate that would be fatal to any creature less
amply protected.
The fact is attested by the statement of Captain Parry, of Arctic-
region notoriety, that this bird frequently dies of starvation.
Sometimes it shows so much audacity and greediness that it is
impossible to entertain any doubt on the subject of its hunger,
FALCONS. 591
as it will pounce on tlie game shot by the sportsman, totally
disregarding human presence.
The LAPLAND and the URAL OWLS have the same habits as the
Harfang, only their geographical distribution is less extended.
Mr. Gould regards the latter as one of the rarest European Owls.
As their names indicate, they are peculiar to certain countries.
Neither have they the dazzling whiteness of the Harfang Owl ;
and this is the characteristic which specially distinguishes them
from the latter.
We may class in the same genus two exotic species discovered
by Levaillant. These are the Choucou, which is a native of Africa,
and the Huhul Owl of Guiana, which hunts its prey in open
day.
DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.
All that we previously remarked, when commencing the con-
sideration of this order, as to the general characteristics which
distinguish birds of prey, applies more particularly to the diurnal
portion of them. We shall not repeat here what we have already
stated, but only add a few words, in order the better to specify this
division of the order.
The diurnal birds of prey have their eyes placed at the sides
of the head, and the toes completely bare. They vary in size
from that of the Sparrow-hawk, the spread of whose wings is
scarcely twelve inches, to the Condor, which stretches its pinions
over a space of four or five yards. They lay their eggs, which
are generally of an oval shape, in rude nests called " aeries/'
The Diurnal section of the Rapacious order is divided into three
families : the Falcons (Falconidce), the Vultures ( Vulturidce), and
the Serpent- eaters (Gypogeranus).
FALCONS.
The Falcon tribe have a very strong and comparatively short
beak, which i& generally curved from the base, with denticulated
or scalloped edges ; the head and neck covered with feathers ; the
592 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
talons very powerful, and furnished with retractile nails — not,
indeed, in the same manner as cats, which have the power of
withdrawing or sheathing theirs within the integuments, but by a
conformation which gives the bird of prey the power of elevating
its claws at pleasure.
These are the birds of prey par excellence. They feed for the
most part on living animals; there are, however, some which, when
other means of sustenance fail, devour putrefied flesh. Their flight
is very rapid, and they ascend to immense altitudes in the sky.
They are seldom to be seen on the ground ; if they settle there it
is but to seize their prey, which accomplished, they without delay
take wing to their aerie. They lay, on an average, three or
four eggs. Their plumage alters considerably during their early
years ; to such an extent, indeed, does this occur, that the young
and the adult birds have often been taken for two distinct species.
This fact has not a little contributed to confusing students of orni-
thology.
This family is a very numerous one, comprising no less than
nine genera ; namely, Eagles, Sea Eagles, Harpy Eagles, Caracara
Eagles, Hawks, Goshawks, Kites, Harriers, and Buzzards.
The EAGLE genus is characterised as follows : — The bill scal-
loped, but not toothed, and presenting a straight portion at
the base ; the nostrils elliptical and transverse ; the tarsi short,
and feathered down to the toes ; the wings long ; and the tail
rounded.
Buflbn has sketched a portrait of the Eagle, but his picture is by
no means a model of accuracy : —
" The Eagles," he says, " both physically and morally, present
several points of harmony with the Lion. In the first place, in
strength, and consequently in an empire over other birds, as
the Lion over beasts. In magnanimity ; for he, too, disdains
small creatures, and despises their insults. The Eagle will for a
long time bear with the troublesome cries of the Grow and the
Magpie ere he makes up his mind to punish them with death.
Added to this, he covets no good things that he has not conquered
for himself, and no other prey than that of his own catching. In
temperance ; for he scarcely ever eats the whole of his victim, and,
like the Lion, leaves the bits and fragments for other creatures.
EAGLES. 593
However great may be his Lunger, he will never feed upon dead
carcasses. Again, like the Lion, he lives a solitary life, inhabiting
a desert, into which he allows no other bird to enter, and in which
he himself must be the sole hunter ; for two pairs of Eagles in the
same mountain district are, perhaps, a rarer sight than two
families of Lions in the same part of a forest. They keep at a
sufficient distance from one another, so that the space allotted
to them should furnish each an ample subsistence ; and the extent
of their demesne is regulated by its productiveness. The Eagle
has a flashing eye like the Lion, and is nearly of the same colour ;
has claws of a similar shape, a breath equally rank, and a cry
equally frightful. Both seem as if they were made for combat
and the pursuit of prey ; both are alike inimical to companionship,
alike ferocious, alike proud, and difficult to tame."
Buffoii has much overrated the reputation 'of the Eagle ; it will
be well to reduce it to somewhat more just proportions. Agreeing
with the immortal naturalist, we admit that the Eagle is en-
dowed with no common amount of strength. With regard to its
magnanimity, we must be allowed to entertain a doubt. As a
matter of fact, the Eagle always attacks animals which are unable
to resist it ; if [ it disdains small birds, it is because they can
easily evade its pursuit, and after all, there would be but little
profit gained if they were caught. As to its moderation, it is
easily proved to have no existence save in the imagination of
the distinguished naturalist. On the contrary, the Eagle is
voracious ; it never leaves its prey until it is completely surfeited,
and then only because it is unable to carry away the remainder
to its aerie. So far from despising dead carcasses, it will readily
feed upon them, even when it is not compelled by need, for it
will gorge itself on carrion to such an extent that it frequently
becomes incapable of avoiding its enemies. Its honesty, too, is
a fact not better established, for the Fish Eagle pursues birds
that are weaker than itself, and, in defiance of all justice, takes
from them the booty which they have acquired through labour.
By a kind of rhetorical metaphor the Eagle has been proclaimed
" the king of birds." If the possession of strength, and the abuse
which is made of it, constitute the attributes of royalty, the
Eagle has an unquestionable right to the title But if with the
QQ
594 BAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
kingly rank we connect the ideas of courage and nobility, it would
never do to place the crown on the Eagle's head.
The ancients were inspired with a juster sentiment in making
the Eagle the symbol of victory. The Assyrians, the Persians,
and the Romans placed an Eagle with outspread wings on the top
of their standards ; and even in modern times we find a repre-
sentation of this bird filling the same emblematic post in the
armies of several European nations. Some, as Austria, instead
of one Eagle, adopt two as their allusive emblazonry.
In consequence of the Eagle mounting up to such prodigious
heights the ancients looked upon it as the bird of Jupiter and the
messenger of the gods. When Jove, after the withdrawal of
Hebe, came down to earth to seek for another cup-bearer, he
changed himself into an Eagle, and it was under this shape he
carried off Ganymede.
But we must leave mythology and symbols, and turn our atten-
tion to a matter-of-fact description of the great bird of prey.
In the Eagle the sense of vision is developed to its very highest
excellence. Contemplate him hovering majestically among the
clouds, and you will be struck with admiration. By an impercep-
tible motion of his wings he maintains this prodigious height
without fatigue. Perceiving a Hazel Hen on the heath below, he
folds his wings, and in a few seconds drops down to within a
short distance of the ground ; then, with his legs stiffened, he
swoops upon his prey, seizes his victim, and carries it away to
some adjacent mountain.
The great strength of the muscles which work the wing of this
bird (Fig. 279) will explain the power and long duration of his
flight.
The Eagle is endowed with such an enormous amount of
muscular force, that it contends successfully against the most
powerful winds. Raymond, the naturalist, who has been styled
" the painter of the Pyrenees," relates that, having reached the
summit of Mont Perdu, the loftiest peak of that range, he perceived
an Eagle pass over him at surprising speed, although it was
flying against a strong head-wind.
If to the weight of the body of the Eagle we add that of the
victim which it clutches in its talons ; if we consider that this
EAGLES. 595
victim is often borne by it to considerable distances, and that
the Eagle will thus cross the chain of the Alps ; if we also
reflect that the prey is not unfrequently a chamois or a sheep,
we shall be enabled to form some idea of its strength and mus-
cular power.
The size of the Eagle varies according to the race, but all
attain imposing dimensions. The female of the Golden Eagle
Fig. 279.— Wing of an Eagle.
measures three feet nine inches from the tip of the beak to the
points of the feet, and the spread of its wings is nearly ten feet.
In the Imperial Eagle the spread of the wings is only six feet,
and in the Small Marine Eagle four feet four inches.
It has been stated that the Eagle can travel sixty- five feet in a
second, which would give a speed of forty- four miles an hour ; but
Naumann positively contradicts this assertion, on the ground that
the Eagle is incapable of overtaking a Pigeon. It is, at all events,
a matter of certainty that the flight of this bird is very rapid. An
Eagle has been noticed circling over a hare in a field, and hem-
ming it in, so that the victim was unable to escape on either side,
always finding its enemy in front.
The Eagle builds its nest in the clefts of the most inaccessible
rocks, or on their edge, that its brood may be safe from danger
or surprise. This nest is nothing but a floor, made of sticks
placed carelessly side by side, bound together with some pliable
branches, and lined with leaves, reeds, and heather. However,
its solidity is sufficient to resist for years the decay caused by time,
QQ2
593 RAPTOKES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.
and to bear the load of four or five birds, weighing from seventy
to eighty pounds, with the provisions brought for their sustenance.
Some Eagles' nests have an area of as much as five feet square.
The number of eggs laid is generally two or three, rarely four.
Incubation requires thirty days.
Eaglets being very voracious, the parent birds are compelled
to hunt with great assiduity. Nevertheless, should scarcity
occur, the young brood do not suffer, for nature has endowed
them with the faculty of supporting abstinence for many days.
This peculiarity they possess in common with all birds of
prey. Buffon mentions an Eagle which, having been taken in
a trap, passed five weeks without anything to eat, and did not
appear enfeebled until the last eight days. An English author
states that for twenty-one days a tame Eagle was not fed, and
that the bird appeared to have suffered little from its protracted
fast.
When the young are large enough to provide for their own
wants they are pitilessly driven from their paternal home ; they
then proceed to an unoccupied district, of which they take posses-
sion.
The Eagle is, as we have before said, endowed with immense
muscular vigour ; it is, therefore, able to carry off prey of con-
siderable size, such as Geese, Turkeys, Cranes, &c. ; also Hares,
Kids, and Lambs. In the mountains in which Chamois are
abundant they are the principal objects of the Eagle's pursuit, and
it employs various stratagems to get these animals into its power ;
for the bird will not venture to make its attack in front, as
the Chamois is well able to keep it at a distance with its horns,
provided its rear is protected.
The Eagle sometimes kills its prey with the force of its swoop,
without clutching with talons or beak. Again, it is stated that a
blow from its wing will deprive a kid of life ; it is not, therefore,
surprising that its strength enables it to lift up young children,
and carry them off.
Many for a long period have refused to give credence to this
fact ; but the evidence of persons who are worthy of all confidence
will not allow of any doubt being raised on the subject. We will,
however, mention a few instances.
EAGLES. .597
In the Canton of Yaud two little girls, one three years old and
the other five, were playing together in a meadow. An Eagle
swooped down upon the eldest, and carried her off. All that
immediately after wrards could be found upon a most active search
was a shoe and stocking belonging to the child. Two months
having elapsed, a shepherd discovered the remains of the little
victim, horribly mutilated, and lying upon a rock half a league
from the meadow from which she was taken.
In the Isle of Skye, in Scotland, a woman left her child in
a field. An Eagle carried off the little one in its talons, and
crossing over a broad lake, laid it upon a rock. Fortunately
the robber was perceived by some shepherds, who came up in
time to succour the infant.
In Sweden a babe was carried away under somewhat similar
circumstances. The mother, who was only a short distance off,
heard the shrieks of the poor little thing ; but it was impossible
for her to rescue it. It was borne out of her sight, and the
wretched woman went mad with grief.
In the Canton of Geneva a boy of ten years old, who was
robbing an Eagle's nest, was seized by one of the birds, and
borne to a point six hundred yards from the spot. He was rescued
by his companions without having suffered further injury than
some severe wounds inflicted by the bird's talons.
In the Feroe Isles an Eagle flew away with a child (which its
mother had left for a few moments), and bore it off to its aerie.
Maternal love inspired the unfortunate woman with such a degree
of strength as to enable her to reach the nest ; but alas ! to find
her child lifeless.
Near New York, in America, a lad of seven years of age was
attacked by an Eagle. The boy having avoided the first shock,
the Eagle persevered in its onslaught ; but he waited for it bravely,
and gave the bird a vigorous blow under the left wing with a
sickle, which killed it. When the stomach of this Eagle was
opened it was found entirely devoid of food. The bird was, there-
fore, in a famished state, and consequently enfeebled. Its per-
sistent boldness is thus explained, and also the ease with which
it was mastered.
We must, however, confess that cases of children being carried
593 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
away by Eagles are rare, for they generally avoid the vicinity of
man, feeling unable to cope with him successfully. The chief
objects of their attacks are newly-born lambs, which they fre-
quently carry off in spite of the shouts of the shepherds and the
proximity of his dogs. Sometimes they devote their attention to
young calves ; they do not, however, attempt to carry them off,
but feed on them where slaughtered.
A considerable amount of ingenuity has been displayed by
some men in turning to account the habit which Eagles have
of storing up a quantity of provisions in their nests for the
sustenance of their young. A peasant in Ireland kept himself
and the whole of his family for an entire season by robbing the
Eaglets in a neighbouring aerie of the stores of food which were
brought to them by the parent birds. In order to prolong this
singular means of livelihood, report says, he endeavoured to delay
the moment when the young ones would be driven forth, adopting
the artifice of cutting their wings to render it impossible for them
to fly.
Eagles are very suspicious, and it is consequently difficult to get
•within gunshot of them. The mountaineers of the Pyrenees suffer
much from the ravages they make among their flocks, and for
this reason brave many dangers to destroy the young birds.
" This pursuit," says M. Gerard, " is carried on by two men ;
one of the hunters is armed with a double-barrelled carbine, the
other with a kind of iron pike about two feet long. At the
first indication of daybreak the hunters reach the mountain-
peak where the Eagle has his aerie, just at the time that the old
birds are away seeking food. The first stands on the summit of
the rock, and, carbine in hand, waits the arrival of the Eagle.
The other makes his way down to the nest, climbing from cleft
to cleft by means of cords. With a bold hand the Eaglets are
grasped, still too young to oppose resistance. The parents, hearing
the cries of their young, swoop down furiously, and fall upon the
intrepid mountaineer, who beats them off with thrusts of his pike,
whilst his companion waits a favourable opportunity to deliver his
fire, which generally terminates the contest."
The Eagle has been taken in snares ; but if the instrument is
not fastened down securely to the ground, the bird will tear it
EAGLES. 599
up and bear it off. Meisner relates that an Eagle, having been
caught by the foot in a fox's trap, struggled with such effect that
it wrenched up the trap, and carried it away to the other side
of the mountain, although the instrument weighed nearly nine
pounds.
The Scotch employ a method for capturing Eagles which
originated from their known voracity. In a narrow space, bounded
by four tolerably high walls, they throw down pieces of raw
meat. The Eagle settles to devour it. When completely gorged
it becomes too heavy to fly, and endeavours to make his way out
through an opening at the foot of the walls, where it is caught
and held fast by a running noose, which is placed in front of
the exit.
The Eagle is remarkable for its longevity ; but this cannot be
accurately determined. Klein mentions an instance of one of
these birds which lived in captivity in Vienna for one hundred
and four years; he also speaks of a pair of Eagles in For-
farshire, in Scotland, which inhabited the same aerie for such a
length of time that the oldest inhabitants had always known
them.
If captured young, Eagles are susceptible of a certain amount
of education ; but there always remains a tinge of ferocity in their
nature, which renders their behaviour gloomy and sullen. When
old they are absolutely untamable. In captivity they adapt their
appetite to circumstances, and will even devour their own race.
When nothing better is to be obtained, serpents, lizards, and,
according to Buffon, bread are acceptable food to them.
Although the Eagle is so irascible by nature, it has sometimes
given proofs of gentleness truly astonishing. We may instance
the bird which lived in 1807 in the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris,
which was captured in the forest of Fontainebleau. One of its
feet was broken in the trap in which it was taken, and in con-
sequence it was compelled to submit to a most painful operation,
which it underwent with exemplary calmness and courage.
Fully three months elapsed before it was cured, and afterwards
it became so familiar with its keeper that it allowed itself to be
caressed by him, and on his retiring for the night the bird roosted
by his couch.
GOO
KAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
The ancient falconers of the East were not in the habit of
making use of the Eagle ; its want of docility and its great
weight rendered it but little adapted for this exercise. Thus
Fig. 280. — Golden Eagles (Aquila ckrysaetos).
they rather unceremoniously class the Eagle among the ignoble
birds.
The Tartars, however, are in the habit of using an Eagle
indigenous to Central Asia to assist in taking the hare, fox,
antelope, and wolf. As this bird is weighty, they do not hold it
EAGLES.
601
on the fist, but place it in front of their horse's saddle. The genus
called the Berecoot, which is scarcely known by Europeans, is of
great power and courage. A well-known traveller describes a
scene he witnessed on the steppes of Tartary, where a pair of
Fig. 281. — Imperial Eagles (A. mogilnik).
them attacked and killed a brace of wolves with the greatest
apparent ease.
The Eagle is cosmopolitan, and may be found in all parts of
the globe. There are several genera which we shall merely
602 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
make mention of, because the habits of all are so exceedingly
similar.
The synonyms here given are those used in the classification of
the British Museum. The Royal Eagle (Fig. 280), called also
the Golden Eagle (Aquila, chrysaetos), attains a greater size than
any other; it is a native of the North and East of Europe. The
Imperial Eagle (Fig. 281) is found in the East and South
of Europe, and also in North Africa. Bonelli's Eagle (A.
Bonellii) inhabits Southern Europe, particularly Greece. The
Tawny Eagle (A. ncevioides) is to be met with in all the moun-
tainous and woody countries of Europe. The Booted Eagle (A.
pennata) lives in the East and South of Europe, and occasionally
makes its appearance in France. Reinwardt's Eagle (A. malay-
ensis) is found in the Malay peninsula and islands ; and the
Yulturine Eagle (A. vulturina) is a species peculiar to South
Africa, and of which Levaillant was the first to point out the
peculiar characteristics.
The diurnal birds of prey belonging to the order of Sea or
Fishing Eagles are distinguished from Eagles proper by their
tarsi, which are feathered only in the upper part, as well as by
their feeding principally on marine animalia.
SEA EAGLES.
Their name, Pythargus, which is derived from the Greek,
means "white- tail." They generally frequent the sea-shore, where
they feed on fish and aquatic birds ; they sometimes also catch
small mammals, and even devour putrefied flesh. Their claws
are very powerful, and the strength of their vision is so great,
that they can see their aquatic prey swimming under the surface
of the water. The rapidity with which they descend through
the air when striking at their quarry is so wonderful that
many have compared it to lightning. They even venture to
attack the Seal, but as they cannot lift their victim, they cling
to its back, forcing it on shore by means of their wings. But
this excess of boldness has been known to be fatal to them ;
large Seals are strong enough to dive and drag their foe under
water, where the Eagle meets with a miserable death; for,
SEA EAGLES.
603
having buried its claws deeply in its prey, it is often impossible
for it to disengage itself.
Sea Eagles hunt in the night as well as day. They attack
sea-birds weaker than themselves, and pursue them to take pos-
session of their prey. They are indefatigable in pursuit of
Vultures, which they make disgorge, and afterwards appropriate
Fig. 282.— American Sea Eagles (Haliceetus leucocephalus) .
the results. Audubon observed, on the shores of the Mississippi,
a Sea Eagle pursuing a Vulture which had just swallowed some
intestine. Part of this protruded from the Vulture's bill ; the
Sea Eagle seized it, and forced the original possessor to give it up.
The Sea Eagle of Europe lives in the coldest regions of the
604 EAPTOEES, OK BIEDS OF PEEY.
globe. It is common in Sweden and Norway, where it builds.
Its aerie is about two yards wide, and is generally situated in
the forests bordering on the sea or great lakes. It visits the
French coasts in the autumn, following flocks of Geese which
are migrating to the South ; and it is again seen in the spring,
on its return to the North. In. Russia the special conditions of
existence somewhat modify the habits of this bird, where, living
in the midst of the vast steppes, it feeds, not on fish, for it is
unprocurable, but on small quadrupeds, birds, and carrion. This
bird nearly attains to the size of the Golden Eagle.
The BALD EAGLE, WHITE-HEADED EAGLE, or SEA EAGLE (Fig.
282), is a native of North America. It builds its nest on the summit
of the highest trees. Its flight is as powerful as that of the
Golden Eagle, and its strength and adroitness are even greater.
This Eagle (Haliceetus leucocephalus, Vig.) is represented on the
flag of the United States. The illustrious Franklin with sorrow
regretted the selection his nation had made.
" It is a bird of low and evil nature," wrote Franklin in one of
his letters ; " it does not know how to gain its livelihood honestly.
Added to this, it is nothing but a cowardly rogue. The little
Wren, which is not so large as a Sparrow, resolutely attacks it,
and drives it from its haunts ! Thus in no point of view is it a
suitable emblem for a brave and honourable nation."
The varieties of this family are numerous on the North American
continent, but the distinctions are not sufficiently great to deserve
particular notice. Those from other portions of the globe most
worthy of attention are the Marine Eagle (Pandion ichtkyaetus),
which inhabits Java ; the Piscivorous Sea Eagle ( Cuncuma vocifer) ;
the Caffir Sea Eagle, discovered in Africa by Levaillant ; the Sea
Eagle of Mace ( C. Macei) ; and the Pondicherry Eagle, called by
some the Sea Eagle of India, which inhabits India and Bengal,
where the bird is an object of veneration among the Brahmins,
being consecrated to Vishnu.
We shall class with the same genus the OSPREY (Fig. 283),
which, although different from Sea Eagles in certain details of
organisation, is, however, allied to them by its aquatic habits.
It prefers the neighbourhood of ponds and rivers to the sea-
shore, where it is frequently mistaken for the Sea Eagle. Wild
THE OSPEEY.
G05
fowl and carrion are frequently its food, but fish forms the
principal portion of its diet. It does not always enjoy the fruit
of its labour, for the Sea Eagle frequently forces it to abandon
its prey, which, if dropped in the air, will be adroitly reseized by
the robber in its descent.
The old naturalists, Aldrovandus, Gfesner, Klein, and Linnsous
sanctioned a singular error concerning the organisation of this
bird. From the fact that it sometimes dives into the water to
.tig. 283. — Ihe Osprey (PanUiun /utliteeius).
catch fish, they imagined that it had one foot webbed for swimming,
and the other furnished with prehensile claws for seizing prey.
The River Osprey is about a third smaller than the Sea Eagle.
It is found all over Europe, but especially in Germany, Switzer-
land, and the East of France.
The birds which form part of the genus Morphnus (Cuv.)
occupy a middle position between Eagles and Sparrow-hawks,
of which we shall speak further on. They are characterised by a
full and rounded tail, comparatively short wings, and the existence
606 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
of a tuft on the back of the head. This latter feature, although
general, is not, however, common to all the species.
These birds generally inhabit the vast forests of Africa and
South America. They are admirably organised for strife and
slaughter, and are the terror of every creature in their neigh-
bourhood.
The HUPPART (Falco occipitalis, Daudin), thus named on account
of its huppe, or tuft, which is about six inches long, is a native of
Africa, and feeds on Hares, Ducks, and Partridges. It also pursues
Crows, for which it feels a deadly hatred, as these birds sometimes
league together to deprive it of its prey, and even to devour its
brood. It will not suffer any rival in its domain, but accords pro-
tection to small birds which come near to its nest to seek a shelter
from the attacks of inferior birds of prey.
The Falco urubitinga (Gmelin) inhabits Brazil and Guiana ; it is
eminently wild and taciturn, and builds its nest in the vicinity
of marshes. It feeds on birds, small mammals, reptiles, and even
fish.
The HARPY, or DESTRUCTIVE EAGLE of South America (Harpyia
destructor, Cuv.), Fig. 284, is the model species of the genus. It
is the most formidable of the whole tribe of Eagles ; for it is larger,
measuring nearly five feet from the extremity of the head to that
of the tail ; its bill is more than two inches in length ; and its
claws and toes are longer and more robust than the fingers of
a man. It is rumoured that the Harpy does not fear to attack car-
nivora of large size, and even men. Two or three blows from
its bill are sufficient to break its victim's skull. In order to
render these assertions worthy of belief they should be confirmed
by those who have enjoyed opportunities for observation.
Be this as it may, there is no doubt that Harpies are endowed
with extraordinary strength. D'Orbigny relates that at the time
of an exploring expedition on the banks of the Rio Securia, in
Bolivia, he met with a Harpy of large size. The Indians who
accompanied him pursued it, pierced it with two arrows, and gave
it numerous blows on the head. At length, thinking it was dead,
they plucked off the greater part of its feathers, and even the
down also, placing it afterwards in their canoe. What was the
surprise of the naturalist when the bird recovered from its stupe-
THE WHITE-BELLIED EAGLE.
607
faction, darted upon him, and burying its claws in his arm, inflicted
most dangerous wounds! The interference of the Indians was
necessary in order to rid him of his antagonist.
The Harpy inhabits the great forests of South America situated
Fig. 284. — The Harpy (Harpyia destructor, Cuv.).
on the banks of the rivers. Its food consists of agoutis, fawns,
sloths, and especially monkeys.
The Indians, who highly estimate warlike qualities, hold this
bird in great respect, and consider it most valuable. Its tail
and wing feathers they use to adorn themselves with on state
occasions.
The WHITE-BELLIED EAGLE (Cuncuma leucogaster) , so called
because its plumage is white underneath, has points of similarity
to the Eagle, the Sea Eagle, and the River Osprey. It is two
608 EAPTOEES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.
feet in height, and its spread of wings is five feet. It is very
common all over Europe, and is only too well known to the
villagers on whose poultry-yards it frequently leaves heavy tax.
It also feeds on moles, field-mice, reptiles, adders, and sometimes
insects. It hears captivity very well. Buffon reared one which
"became tolerably familiar, but never showed the least affection for
those who tended it.
FALCONS (fiomfalx, a reaping-hook) are marvellously organised
for rapine, and realise the ideal of a bird of prey. They have
a short bill, bent from the base, with a very strong tooth on
each side of the upper mandible, with which an indentation
corresponds in the lower portion. The wings of this bird are
long and pointed, causing its flight to be at once powerful, rapid,
and agile. Its tarsi are short, and its claws hooked and sharp.
When we add to all this a most penetrating vision and enormous
strength, it will easily be understood that these birds inspire
terror wherever they go. They feed only on living prey — birds or
small mammals — which they often instantaneously kill and carry
off to eat elsewhere. They always hunt on the wing. They
assemble in flocks at the time of migration to follow the birds
of passage. At other times they live in solitary couples, and
build their nest, according to the locality, in woods, cliffs, holes
in quarries, or in ruined habitations, and sometimes even in the
interior of towns. They lay from two to four eggs.
We shall divide the Falcon genus into two groups : Gyr-
falcons, characterised by tails longer than their wings; and Falcons
proper, which have the wings as long, and sometimes longer, than
the tail.
The group of Gyrfalcons, or Jerfalcons, comprehends the Gyr-
falcon proper, theLanner Falcon (Falco lannarius), and the Sacred
Falcon.
The Egyptians venerated the Falcon, and to this circumstance
the name of Gyrfalcon must be attributed, as it is a corruption of
Hierofalco, or Sacred Falcon.
The GYRFALCON is the best-proportioned and most active member
of the Falcon tribe. In strength it even rivals the Eagle itself,
although it is hardly two feet in height. Its colour varies with its
age. When young it is of a beautiful brown tint, but becomes
GYEFALCONS.
609
almost white with age. It .inhabits the Arctic regions, where it
feeds on large birds, principally Gallinacese or Palmipedes.
Three varieties of this species are known, all very similar to
each other : the White Falcon, called by Buffon the White Gyr-
falcon of the North, which inhabits the extreme north of the two
Fig. 285.— Sultan Falcons (F.peregrinatof).
continents ; the Falco islandicus, or Gyrfalcon of Iceland, peculiar
to that country ; and the Gyrfalcon of Norway, which is found in
Scandinavia, and sometimes appears in Germany, Holland, and
France.
R R
010
RAPTOEES, OE BIRDS OF PEEY.
The first two of these are very docile, and consequently were
eagerly sought after by falconers, who used them for pursuing
the Heron, Crane, and Stork. An ancient Danish law, which
was repealed in 1758, forbade, under pain of death, the destruc-
tion of these birds.
The LANNER FALCON (Buifon) is about the same size as the
White Gyrfalcon; it is found in Hungary, Russia, Styria, and
Greece, where it makes its appearance after the arrival of the
birds of passage. It is also easily trained for hawking.
i-i#. 286.— Peregrine Falcon (F. pereyrinus).
The SULTAN FALCON (F. peregrinator], Fig. 285, is larger than
the preceding species. It is found in Germany and Southern
Russia, Turkey, and Asia Minor.
In the first rank of Falcons proper must be mentioned the
PEREGRINE FALCON (Fig. 286), often designated by the names of
the Common Falcon and the Passenger Falcon. As its name
sufficiently indicates, it is a bird of passage. It is common in the
centre and north of Western Europe, as well as in the islands of
the Mediterranean. It also inhabits North America, where it is
frequently called the Chicken- eater.
The flight of the Peregrine Falcon is wonderfully rapid. One
THE PEREGEINE FALCON. Gil
of these birds having escaped from the falconry of Henri II., it
is said that it performed the whole distance from Fontainebleau to
Malta in one day, over three hundred leagues. It hovers in the
air with graceful facility, and when it marks a victim, darts upon
it with extraordinary rapidity, courage, and ferocity.
The Falcon feeds principally on aquatic birds, Pigeons,
Partridges, and Larks. So great is its courage that it has
been known to pursue the latter into the nets of the bird-
catcher. If compelled, it will eat dead fish, as was observed by
Audubon on the banks of the Mississippi ; but this latter cir-
cumstance is excessively rare. This bird possesses little dread of
man, for it sometimes has the audacity to swoop upon the game
which the sportsman has killed, and not unfrequently succeeds
in carrying it off. One of these birds established itself, some
years ago, on the towers of Notre-Dame, in Paris, and every day
captured several of the tame Pigeons which fly at liberty in the
city. This continued for a month, and was only put a stop to
by the proprietors of the Pigeons keeping their pets shut up.
Thus deprived of its means of existence, the Falcon soon dis-
appeared.
Notwithstanding the magnificent powers of flight of the Pere-
grine Falcon, it is not always successful in its forays. Naumann
narrates that he saw a Pigeon pursued by one of these destroyers
throw itself into a lake, dive down, and shortly after emerge
in another part, thus baffling its enemy. When a Pigeon is
harassed by a Falcon it endeavours to mount above its enemy ;
if it succeeds in this it is saved, for the Falcon becomes fatigued,
and gives up the pursuit.
Large Havens are inveterate enemies of the Peregrine Falcon.
They have frequent fights, in which the former sometimes prove
the conquerors. A Raven has been known to break the skull of
a Falcon with a blow of its bill.
The Falcon is gifted with a more remarkable degree of longevity
than even the Eagle. It is reported that in 1797, at the Cape
of Good Hope, a Falcon was caught which showed no signs of
decrepitude, and which had on a golden collar with an inscription
stating that in 1610 it belonged to James I., King of England ; it
was therefore over one hundred and eighty-seven years old.
RR2
612 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
The parent birds exhibit the greatest solicitude for their young
Tig. 287.— The Hobby (Hypobuorchis sulbuteo).
until able to provide for themselves : when that stage of maturity
arrives thev are driven forth.
Fig. 288.— Merlins (H. JEsalon).
The Peregrine Falcon is found among the cliffs of Normandy,
HAWKING. C13
There are other species of Falcons smaller than the preceding.
They are only distinguished from them by their size ; their habits
are identical, except that they prey on smaller birds, such as
Quails, Larks, Swallows, and sometimes insects. These species
are : the Hobby (Fig. 287), which is found all over Europe,
and also in Africa — it is about a foot in height ; the Merlin (Fig.
288), which is not much larger than a Thrush, and in summer
Fig. 289. — Kestrel (Tinnunculus alaud.tr ius).
inhabits the North, and in winter the South, of Europe; the
Kestrel (Fig. 289), which owes its name to its sharp cry — it is
thirteen inches in height, and is common in the centre of Europe ;
lastly, the Bengal Falcon (Terax c&rulescens) , which is a native
of India and Java — this is the smallest of all birds of prey.
Several other varieties of Falcon, which do not present any
remarkable peculiarity, are met with both in Africa and America.
The name of Falcon is still associated with the sport of hawking
or falconry, of which we are about to speak.
Falconry, the art of training or flying hawks to take other
birds, was formerly held in high esteem in the various countries
614 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
of Europe. In consequence of the invention of fire-arms, after
having been for centuries the delight of kings and nobles, it
fell into disuse. The Arabs and other Asiatic nations adhere
to it to the present day. This sport may be traced back to a
very remote period, for Aristotle, and subsequently Pliny, make
mention of it. Falconry was introduced into Europe about the
fourth century of our era, and was at its greatest repute in the
Middle Ages and during the Renaissance. All the nobility, from
the monarch to the lowest courtier, were passionately fond of
hawking — the name specially applied to it. Sovereigns and noble-
men expended princely sums upon it. The gift of a few fine
Falcons was considered a magnificent present. The kings of
France solemnly received twelve Falcons every year, which were
given to them by the grand-master of the Order of St. John of
Jerusalem. They were intrusted on their voyage to a French
knight of the order, to whom the monarch accorded, under the
name of a present, a sum of £3,000, and the expenses of his
journey.
Gentlemen, and even ladies, of the Middle Ages, seldom appeared
in public without a Falcon on their wrists ; and this example was
followed by bishops and abbots — they entered the churches sup-
porting their favourite birds, depositing them on the steps of the
altar during mass. Noblemen on public ceremonies proudly held
their Falcons in one hand and the hilt of their sword in the
other.
Louis XIII. was devoted to falconry. Daily he went hawking
before going to church ; and his favourite, Albert de Luynes,
owed his fortune to his great skill in this science. Charles
d'Arcussia of Capri, Lord of Esparron, published, in 1615, a
" Treatise on Falconry," in which it is stated that the Baron de
la Chastaigneraie, chief falconer of France under Louis XIII.,
purchased his office at a cost of fifty thousand crowns. He had
the direction of one hundred and forty birds, which required the
assistance of a staff of one hundred men for their care.
This kind of sport has almost totally disappeared ; a revival
of it in England and Germany has taken place, but only with
moderate success. For this purpose a society, called the " Hawking
Club," meets together every year in a dependency of the royai
HAWKING. 015
castle of Loo, under the presidency of the King of the Netherlands,
tojly the Heron. They take from one to two hundred of these birds
in the space of two months ; but this is only a feeble resuscitation
of an institution which has now practically passed away.
Falcons were formerly divided into birds of the noble and inferior
grades. The former comprehended the Gryrfalcon, the Falcon, the
Hobby, the Merlin, and the Kestrel ; the latter, the Goshawk and
Sparrow-hawk. The name of Goshawk training has been given to
the art whose special end was the education of these last two birds.
As the mode of education varies little for all these birds, which
only differ in docility, we shall merely consider one species, that
of the Falcon, which will serve as a type for all the others.
The Falcons destined for training must be captured young.
Those that have been providing their own food, and have nearly
reached maturity, are taken with a lure, which is generally
a Pigeon. Young birds which have just left the nest are called
eyases ; when rather more mature, branchers ; that is to say, birds
about three months old, strong enough to hop from branch to
branch, but incapable of flying or providing for their own sub-
sistence. The latter are preferable to all others, as they are not
so young as to require the care necessary to the eyas, and are yet
not old enough to have become intractable. At a year old it would
be nearly useless to attempt their education ; they are then called
haggards.
The Falcon being naturally wild, violent, and alike insensible
to caresses and chastisements, it can only be tamed by priva-
tions, such as want of light, sleep, and food, and also by constantly
being cared for by the same person. This is the foundation of the
method which the falconer practises.
Supposing that a brancher has been caught, its legs are first made
fast in the shackles, or bewits (Fig. 290), made of straps of supple
leather, terminated by bells. Then the falconer, his hand covered
with a glove, takes the Falcon on his wrist, and carries it about
night and day, without allowing it rest. If the pupil is in-
tractable, refuses to submit, and tries to use its bill, the tamer
plunges its head into cold water, and thus produces stupor in the
bird. Afterwards the head is covered with a hood (Fig. 2^1), which
keeps it in complete darkness. Alter three davs and nights of this
616
EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
treatment, rarely more, the bird becomes, to a certain extent,
docile. The falconer then accustoms it to take its food quietly ;
Fig. 290.— Bewits.
this is presented in the hand, while at the same time a peculiar noise
is made, which it learns to recognise as a call. In the meantime it
is carried about in frequented places,
so as to familiarise it with strangers,
and also with horses and dogs, which
are to be at some future time its com-
panions in the chase. When an obsti-
nate bird is dealt with its appetite is
excited, so as to render it more de-
pendent; with this view it is made to
swallow small pellets of tow mixed up
with garlic and wormwood. These
pellets have the effect of increasing
Fig. 291.— Hood.
Fig. 292.— Dressed Falcon.
its hunger ; and the pleasure which it afterwards experiences in
eating tends to attach it more closely to the individual who feeds it.
HAWKING. 617
In a general way, after five or six days of restraint the Falcon
is tamed, and the falconer can then proceed with the training,
to which the former practices are nothing but preliminaries.
The bird is taken into a garden, and taught to hop up on the
fist when called ; a piece of meat is shown to entice it, which is
not given to the bird until the requisite manoauvre is properly
executed. The meat is then fastened to a lure, or decoy, and the
same course is adopted, the bird being attached to the end of
a string from ten to forty yards in length. The lure (Fig. 293)
is a flat piece of wood, covered on both sides with the wings
and feet of a Pigeon. The Falcon is uncovered, and the lure
is shown to it at a short distance off, and at the same time
a call is given. If the bird stoops upon the lure it is allowed
to take the meat which is attached to it. The distance is pro-
gressively increased, and the Falcon is recompensed for its docility
on each occasion. When, at the full length of the string, it
will obey the call, a great point is gained, for it fully recog-
nises the lure, and knows that the meat attached will become its
own on returning to its master. Then the falconer no longer fears
it becoming free, for he well knows he can reclaim it ; that is,
make it settle down upon his fist, even when the bird is flying in
the air.
Afterwards it is introduced to living game by letting it fly at
tied Pigeons ; and, lastly, its education is completed by habitu-
ating it to stoop on the special game which it is intended to
chase.
Supposing the game it is destined for pursuing to be the
Partridge, in the first place, the Pigeon's wings on the lure are
replaced by those of the Partridge, and then the Falcon is let
fly in succession, first at Partridges tied to a string, and then at
liberated birds. When it binds its prey well, and shows itself
obedient, it is employed on wild game.
Birds of prey used to be educated for taking the Kite, the
Heron, the Crow, the Magpie, the Hare, Partridges, Quails, and
Pheasants ; also Wild Ducks and other aquatic birds.
The pursuit of the Kite, the Heron, the Crow, and the Magpie,
the profit of which was absolutely nothing, was looked upon as a
sport fit for princes, and was carried on by means of the Falcon
018
EAPTOEES, OR BIEDS OF PEEY.
and Gyrfalcon. But the chase of other birds, in which the in-
ducement was a prey fit for food, was considered the sport of an
esquire ; and for this were used the Hobby (Hobereau, French), the
Merlin, the Kestrel, the Goshawk, and the Sparrow-hawk. Hence
comes the nickname of Hobereau applied to French country gen-
tlemen; "because/' as Lacurnede Sainte-Palaye says, " they wish
to show an appearance of more property than they really possess ;
and not being able to keep Falcons, which cost too much in their
purchase and food, they hawk with Hobbies, which are readily pro-
cured, and also provide Partridges and Quails for their kitchens."
The most noble cast, but also the rarest, was that at the Kite.
We have already mentioned, when speaking of nocturnal birds of
prey, how at one time they were in the habit of alluring this
bird by means of a Great (Long-eared) Owl,
dressed out with a fox's brush. Some 'strata-
gem of this kind was obliged to be used in
order to get near the Kite, which flies at
heights altogether inaccessible to the best
Falcon. When the Kite came within range
a Falcon was let fly, and then a most inter-
esting conflict took place between the two
birds. The Kite, harassed by its enemy, and,
in spite of its turns and twists and numberless
feints, unable to escape him, generally in the
end fell into its foe's clutches.
The cast at a Heron generally presented
fewer incidents. This bird, from not being
gifted with the same powers of wing, was
unavoidably overtaken with much greater ease, although, when
not overloaded with food, it occasionally managed to escape. Still
it always defended itself with energy, and the blows of its formid-
able bill were often fatal to its pursuer. In Heron hawking (Fig.
294) a dog was required to flush the game, and three Falcons to
capture it : the duty of the first was to make the quarry rise, of the
second to follow it, and of the third to clutch it. We shall quote
from an ancient author of a " Treatise on Falconry " the account
of a cast at a Heron ; the description will well explain the details
of this kind of sport.
Fig. 293.— The Lure.
HAWKING.
619
" Now riding fast, we soon came by the side of the meadows
adjoining the warren, where the ' markers ' of M. de Ligne dis-
covered three Herons, and at once came to tell him of it. Making
up his mind to attack them, the Sieur de Ligne did me the favour
of giving me a white Gyrfalcon, named ' La Perle/ to let fly ; he
himself took another, called 'Le Gentilhomme/ and one of his
people took a third, named ' Le Pinson/ When the Herons heard
us approach they became alarmed, and took wing while we were
yet some distance off; seeing this, we let fly the birds, which were
620 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
some time before they perceived the quarry. At last one of the
Hawks caught sight of them, and went in pursuit. The two others
immediately followed with so much ardour and speed that in a very
short time they had all reached the Herons, and were attacking one,
which defended itself ; but it was so roughly treated that it could not
make much resistance, and was soon taken. Whilst the Falcons
were having their pleasure with it (that is, whilst the quarry was
being given them), the other Herons, frightened at seeing their
companion so badly treated, kept on rising in the direction of the
sun, hoping to shelter themselves in its glare. But they were
descried ; M. de Lign6 told me of this, saying, ' I can see the two
Herons up above still rising. I give you one as your share/ On
which, seeing them at such an immense height, I replied that the
Falcons would have great difficulty in getting at them. Then he
let fly his bird, we doing likewise, and they all vied with one
another in soaring upwards, using such diligence that soon we
saw them almost as high up as one of the Herons. Having first
made an effort and got above their prey, they commenced to deal
it such a shower of blows that it seemed stupefied, and flew down
to gain the shelter of the woods. We rode forward to bring the
hounds to the assistance of the Falcons, and were just in time;
for the Heron had thrown itself into a thicket, in which we
captured it alive, although taken from the mouth of one of the
dogs. Giving this bird to the Falcons, we mounted our horses
again to let fly after another."
The casts at the Crow and the Magpie were also very amusing.
These birds would try at first to escape by means of speed, and then,
recognising the uselessness of their efforts, they afterwards took
refuge in a tree, from which the falconers had much trouble to
drive them, so great was their terror for their pursuers.
For field and river sport the Falcon is not let fly direct from the
fist; that is, the Falcon does not attack immediately on leaving the
hand — it is thrown up, or, in common parlance, is let fly, before
the game flushes. The Falcon hovers for some time, and then
stoops down on the prey which the dogs have forced up. In order
to escape its persecutor the Wild Duck often takes to the water ;
from this the dogs again force it to take wing. The Hare is
hunted in much the same way.
HAWKING. 621
Hawking is even nowadays held in high, honour in the North
of Africa and in Asia, being the favourite diversion of the Arabs.
In the Sahara the Falcon is trained to hunt Pigeons, Partridges,
Hares, Rabbits, and even the Gazelle.
In Persia and Turkestan the Falcon is not trained, as it used to
be in Europe, for some special game ; they accustom it to stoop on
all kinds of prey. Hunting the gazelle with Hawks is a diversion
much esteemed among these nations. The plan adopted is as
follows : —
"The Persians," says Thevenot, the traveller, "provide stuffed
Gazelles, on the noses of which they always place the food for their
Falcons, and never feed them anywhere else. After they have
been thus trained they take them out into the open country, and
when they see a Gazelle they let fly two of these birds, one of
which darts down on the nose of the Gazelle, and fastens on to it
with its talons. The Gazelle stops short, and shakes himself to
get rid of the bird ; but the latter keeps his place for some time
by means of flapping his wings, thus preventing the Gazelle from
running fast, and even from seeing where it is going. When at
last, with some trouble, the Gazelle disengages itself from its
pursuer, the -other Falcon, which is flying near, takes the place of
the one thrown off; the latter, in its turn, again resumes the
assault when its companion has fallen. The birds thus hinder the
running of the Gazelle, so that the dogs easily overtake it."
In Egypt the Falcon is trained for this kind of sport by taking
it young, limiting the quantity of its food, and then frequently
bringing it into the presence of sheep : being in a famished state,
the bird unhesitatingly darts on them.
Hawking is also held in high esteem in India, both by the
natives and Europeans resident there. It is no rare thing to see
young ladies reviving all the customs of the Middle Ages, and
penetrating into the jungles mounted on elephants, accompanied
by their Falcons, which are flown at the charming blue antelope.
In China and Japan hawking is also very popular : in the course
of a day's journey it is no uncommon thing to meet persons pur-
suing this sport.
The birds which form the next family differ from the Falcon
in having no teeth in the upper mandible of the bill ; their tarsi,
022
RAPTOBES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.
also, are longer, and their wings shorter. Their flight, too, is both
less high and less rapid than that of the Falcon. They are found
in all parts of the globe, presenting some slight modifications due
to the influence of climate. They generally feed on small birds
and reptiles, and exceptionally on very small mammals. They
are divided into Goshawks proper and Sparrow-hawks.
There are various species of the Goshawk, all characterised
by very strong tarsi, one only of which, the Common Goshawk, is
a native of Europe.
The COMMON GOSHAWK (Fig. 295) is by no means rare in
France and England. In summer it frequents the oak and beech
Fig. 295.— Goshawks (Astttr palum-
barius).
Fig. 296.— Common Sparrow-hawk
(Accipiter nisus).
woods which cover the mountain- sides, and sometimes ventures
near habitations to carry off Fowls and Pigeons. At the com-
mencement of autumn it descends into the plains, making its
nest on the skirts of some extensive wood, from which it darts
out upon Partridges, Grouse, or young Leverets, which form its
SPARROW-HAWKS. 623
principal food. It pursues Larks with such ardour that it often
falls into the snares laid for these birds ; but it will never attempt
to get free from the trap until it has satiated its sanguinary
appetite. "When hunting for its prey it skims over the ground and
bushes, carefully inspecting each. Should it perceive a victim, it
approaches with caution until within striking distance, when it
suddenly darts upon its prey with unerring precision. This bird
is as large as the Gyrfalcon, but, although equal in cunning and
address, is possessed of less courage.
The Goshawk is difficult to tame ; its ferocious nature is not
subdued by captivity. In 1850, a young one four months old, kept
in the Botanical Garden of the Natural History Society of Savoy,
killed with its claws and bill a Kite the same age as itself, which
had been its companion for fifteen days. The young savage tore
its victim to pieces and fed on the carcass, although it had not the
least necessity for food, being perfectly well cared for.
The Common Goshawk is also found in the North of Africa.
Two other species are known in North America.
The SPARROW-HAWKS are distinguished from the preceding birds
by the slenderness of their tarsi. The Common Sparrow-hawk
(Fig. 296) is found all over Europe. In France it is a constant
resident. Although smaller, it has much the same habits as the
Goshawk, but is bolder, and will carry off Partridges, or other
small game, under the very hands of sportsmen or gamekeepers.
It will even attack and devour Fowls and chickens in the poultry-
yard, and so absorbed does it become in the enjoyment of its feast
that a person may sometimes get sufficiently near to capture it.
In the plains where game is abundant, Sparrow-hawks are very
destructive, and consequently are seldom spared when within
gunshot.
The Sparrow-hawk (Acclpiter fringillarius of some authors) will
become gentle and tame in captivity. Dr. Franklin mentions an
instance of one of these birds, belonging to a friend of his, which
lived with two Pigeons. This bird had succeeded in gaming the
affection of all who knew it, and was, it is said, as playful as a cat.
Africa possesses two species of Sparrow-hawk : the Dwarf
Sparrow-hawk (A. minullus), which does not exceed the Blackbird
in size. As intrepid, although not so strong, as its European
624
RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.
brother, it often ventures to attack Kites and Buzzards, and, by
its agility, harasses them with impunity. The Chanting Falcon
(Melierax musicus), which is about the size of the Goshawk, sings
in the vicinity of the female during the season of incubation. It
is the only musician among- birds of the Rapacious order, and
therefore has claim to honourable mention.
Both the Goshawks and the Sparrow-hawks were employed in
hawking in days of old, but their
relative value was much inferior
to that of the Falcon.
The birds which belong to the
KITE genus .(Milvus) are charac-
terised as follows : — Beak curved
from the base, and not toothed ;
tarsi short, slender, and feathered
on the upper part ; wings very
long ; tail long, and more or less
forked ; colour generally brown.
Several species are known, but
their characteristics are identical.
The Kite (Milvus regalis), Fig.
297, thus named on account of
affording amusement for princes,
who hunted it with the Falcon,
and even the Sparrow-hawk,
measures two feet in height, the spread of its wings being not less
than five feet. Of all the Falcon tribe this bird is gifted with the
most graceful, rapid, and sustained powers of flight. It is so
incessantly on the wing, that it appears scarcely to require rest.
Love for soaring through space must be the cause of this activity,
as it never pursues its prey, but descends upon it from the pro-
digious heights at which it may be hovering with incredible
velocity, and seizing it in its claws, bears it to some adjacent
tree to be devoured. Its food consists of leverets, moles, rats,
field-mice, reptiles, and fish — the latter it catches on the surface
of the water. It builds its nest on lofty trees, rarely on rocks.
It is a constant resident in some parts of France, and is met
with in nearly all countries of Europe.
Fig. 297.— The Kite (Milvus regalis}.
KITES. 625
The Black Kite (Milvus niger) is very common in Russia, and
has a particular penchant for fish. It is not, however, above assist-
ing Vultures in devouring carrion, and may be seen hovering
over the city of Moscow to pick up the fragments which are
thrown into the streets. In autumn these Kites assemble in flocks,
and, crossing the Black Sea, proceed to winter in Egypt, where
they are so tame that they perch on the windows of the houses.
In the spring they return to Europe.
The Parasite Kite (Milvus cegyptius) is thus named by Levail-
lant because his whole system of life seems to be at the expense of
man, either by devastating his poultry-yards or robbing with ex-
traordinary impudence travellers encamping in the open air. This
celebrated naturalist relates that whenever he made a halt, some
of these birds came and perched on his waggons for the purpose
of stealing.
" At Cairo/' says Dr. Petit, in the account of his travels in
Abyssinia, " I one day saw a Kite snatch suddenly from the hands
of an Arab woman a piece of bread and cheese, at the very moment
she was raising it to her mouth. At Chize, in Abyssinia, another
Kite carried away, from under the very nose of my dog, which
was guarding it, a portion of a sheep just killed. The same thing
t9ok place- several times in view of my servants."
The same authority adds that these birds sometimes assemble in
innumerable flocks ; for he has seen thousands hovering over an
Egyptian village.
The American Kite (Ictinia mississipiensis) is remarkable for
its deeply-forked tail, which it uses as a rudder to guide it in fly-
ing, when it describes the most elegant curves ; hence the name
Forked- tail Pilot, which is sometimes given it. Essentially
migratory, they may be seen in spring and autumn proceeding
North or South. They are protected bylaw; for, aided by the
Buzzards, they are of great service in clearing away garbage.
They have no fear of water, and pounce upon fish when oppor-
tunity offers. In the harbours of the Southern States they
may frequently be seen perched on carcasses floating in the
tide- way.
The bill and claws of the Kite are weak in comparison with its
size ; it therefore wisely avoids coming in collision with birds of
626 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
prey better armed than itself. This has been sufficient to give
it the character of cowardice.
Kites are easily tamed, and if taken young they will soon
become familiar.
BUZZARDS (Buteo) have long wings, a large head, and a rather
squat figure ; the tarsi are short, or of medium size ; and the
beak curved from the base ; in fact, their appearance is heavy
and ungraceful. They do not chase their prey when it is on the
wing, but secrete themselves on a tree or other elevation, where
they wait until a victim passes within reach. When thus occu-
pied, they will remain for several hours in the most complete
immobility, presenting an air of drowsiness which has become
proverbial. This stupid look is owing to their nonchalant and
apathetic attitude, and also to the weakness of their eyes, which
are affected by the glare of strong light.
They generally build their nests on the loftiest trees, occa-
sionally in thickets of brushwood growing among rocks. When
frost occurs they approach settlements and make forays upon
poultry. If pressed by hunger, they become excessively bold.
Their general food consists of small birds, rodents, serpents, in-
sects, and sometimes corn. They are easily tamed. M. Degland
mentions one which lived in perfect harmony with a sporting
dog, and even went so far as to share its food. Buffon also
speaks of another which was so attached to its master that it
could not be happy unless in his company ; it was present
at all his meals, when it would caress him with its head
and bill ; and, although this bird always enjoyed the most com-
plete liberty, every evening it returned to roost on the window-
sill. One day when its master was riding on horseback, it
followed him for more than two leagues, hovering over him in
the air.
Mr. Yarrell relates of these birds, which are much attached
to their progeny, that in the town of Uxbridge a Buzzard kept
in a domestic state having manifested a desire for building,
the means were furnished, and two Hen's eggs placed under
her. The young chickens were hatched and reared as if they
had been her own. On another occasion, in order to save
the trouble of sitting, some chickens just hatching were placed
HARRIERS. 627
in her nest ; these she killed, evidently feeling that she was not
allied to them by any maternal tie.
The principal species are the Common Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris),
Fig. 298, which is found all over Europe — it was until lately
very common in England ; the Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus),
a native of Eastern Europe — this bird is partial to bees, wasps,
and their larvae, of which its food principally consists — it will also
eat grain, and, in a domestic state, fruit ; and the Rough-legged
Buzzard (Archibuteo lag opus), so called on account of the feathers
which cover its tarsi down to the toes : it is a native of Europe,
Fig. 298. — Common Buzzards (Buteo vulgaris).
North Africa, Asia, and America. Ptarmigans are their principal
food, and cold climates their favourite habitat.
T^he birds which belong to the HARRIER genus are characterised
by long and slender tarsi, covered with feathers on the upper
portion only, and also by a sort of collar formed of closely-planted
leathers, which surrounds the neck and extends on each side
to the ears. Marshy plains, and woods situated in the vicinity
of rivers, are their most frequent resorts. They build their nests
on the ground, or close to it, in the brushwood, and in this respect
differ from most of the Falcon family. When searching for their
s s2
628 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
prey they skim over the ground, and always seize it suddenty,
as if by surprise : if the unfortunate is lucky enough to avoid the
Harrier's onset it is safe from pursuit. In Europe the best-known
species of this family are the Hen Harrier ( Circus cyaneus) and
the Moor Harrier (Circus ceruginosus), Fig. 299.
The former bird is about seventeen inches high ; it inhabits all
the countries of Europe, and feeds on serpents, rodents, and frogs.
Fig. 299.— Moor Harrier (Circus aruginosus) .
When it succeeds in making its way into pigeon-houses or poultry-
yards it commits great havoc.
The Moor Harrier feeds principally on game, to which it is
extremely destructive. Game preservers consequently are their
bitterest enemies. Their flight is not swift except when pouncing
on their prey, when it is possessed of great certainty and velocity.
The other species we will mention are the Frog- eating Harrier
(Circus ranivorus], which is a native of South Africa, where
it feeds principally 011 frogs and fish ; the Pale-chested Harrier
and Jardine's Harrier ((7. Swainsonii and C. Jardinii) ; and
the Ash-coloured Harrier (C. cinerescens], which is met with in
the extreme south of America. The latter has great powers of
CAKACARAS. 029
flight, and is always in motion, never halting except to seize its
prey ; it is very wild, and can only be approached when feeding.
The CARACARAS (Polyborus, Yieillot) are a race of birds which
form a link between the Falcon and the Yulture families. They
have, like the latter, the projecting crop, goggle eyes, head partly
bare of feathers, toes long, especially the middle one, and the
claws but slightly crooked. They show a decided taste for putrid
carrion. They do not, however, feed exclusively on it, for when
opportunity offers they will capture mammals, young birds, rep-
tiles, mollusks, grasshoppers, and even worms. These birds are
essentially pedestrians ; the slight curvation of their claws renders
this easy, and it is not an unfrequent thing to see them walk at
a slow pace for considerable distances.
Their name is derived from the cry which they utter. They are
peculiar to South America, in which they are found in every
latitude, and at all altitudes. They present, however, differences
according to the region which they inhabit. Each species fixes
itself in a zone, which becomes its special place of habitation.
Thus the Brazilian Caracara (Fig. 300) is met with everywhere,
from the coldest districts to the hottest countries, but only at a
slight altitude, and in company with the Chimango Caracara
(Milvago ckimango), whilst the summits of the Andes are inhabited
by the Long- winged Caracara (M. megalopterus) ; and the Chima-
chima Caracara (M. chimachima) inhabits the burning plains
between the tropics.
The Caracaras, especially the common species and the Chimango,
are distinguished from the other Falconides by an excessive amount
of sociability : everywhere they seek out the vicinity of man. But
we should be labouring under a mistake if we supposed that affec-
tion had any share in this alliance ; egotism and self-interest are
the motives which impel them to act thus. It is to feed at his
expense — to devour the fragments of his meals, kill his Domestic
Fowls, or take possession of the pieces of meat which are hung in
the sun to dry. This bird, however, is useful, for it most efficiently
performs the duties of scavengers.
The Caracara will craftily follow the sportsman, and steal away
game that is not quickly bagged. It also accompanies travellers
across the vast pampas to prey on the carcasses of the worn-out
630
EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
beasts of burden. It will even attack horses and mules which
are galled by the pack-saddle, fastening greedily on their wounds,
and would actually devour them alive if the quadrupeds had not
the sagacity to dislodge them by rolling on the ground. It will
also take up its abode near flocks of sheep, and if it can evade
Fig. SOU. — The .Brazilian Curac iras (Po'yborus brasUiensis) .
the watchfulness of the shepherd, will destroy the newly-born
lamb.
Having confidence in its own strength, the Caracara frequently
pursues other birds, especially Vultures and Gulls, which it forces
to disgorge their food. It will even engage in sanguinary con-
flicts with its own species for the possession of prey. Contrary
to the habit of most birds in a state of freedom, it remains con-
stantly paired, without, however, having more than one or two
broods a year. The Caracara lays two eggs ; the nest is generally
placed on the ground among brushwood.
Besides the four species we have mentioned there is also
the Caracara funebris, thus named on account of its plumage,
VULTURES. 631
which is almost entirely of a black hue. This bird is still more
of a plunderer than the preceding species, and is a native of the
shores of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Isles, Yan Diemen's
Land, New Zealand, &c.
VULTURES.
The Vultures ( Vulturidce] form a well-marked genus, which
is readily distinguished from the Falcons by the following cha-
racteristics : — A beak almost entirely straight, and curved only
at its extremity ; the head and neck generally devoid of feathers ;
small and staring eyes ; head small ; tarsi generally bare ; toes
short and slightly curved ; weak claws ; and wings very long.
They are also distinguished from holding themselves in a hori-
zontal position, whether walking or at rest ; whereas the Falcons
stand erect, and present a noble bearing. Vultures probably
adopt their attitude on account of the length of their wings,
which even in a stooping position sweep the ground, and would
drag much more but for this precaution. Lastly, they are
specially characterised by their partiality for putrefied flesh, which
forms their almost exclusive nutriment, as it is only occasionally
they attack living prey.
When a Vulture has glutted itself, its crop, swelled by the food
which it has devoured, forms a voluminous projection in front of
the neck ; a fetid humour oozes from its nostrils, and it remains
sunk in a state of stupid torpor until the food is digested.
They fly heavily, but mount aloft to great altitudes. Their
powers of vision are extraordinary. Should a carcass be left on
the plain, they 'immediately see it and drop down, turning over
and over in their hurry to partake of the anticipated banquet.
It has been supposed by some that their olfactory organs are so
acute as to smell, at great distances, the emanations which escape
from bodies in a state of decomposition, and thus to account for
their prompt arrival. Latterly, however, certain observers have
opposed this theory : according to their ideas the Vulture tribe
owe this wonderful facility to their sight, not to scent. This
reason, however, has not as yet been rendered altogether clear.
We therefore think it prudent to abstain from giving an absolute
judgment on the point, and will content ourselves by admitting
632 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OE PEEY.
that both sight and smell concur in producing the result : these
two senses may either exercise an equal power, or one of them
may predominate over the other.
The Vulture family exhale a tainted odour, which is owing to
the peculiar nature of their nutriment ; it is, therefore, impossible
for their flesh to be in any way utilised as food. This family
comprises four principal genera: the Griffons (Gypaetos, Storr),
the Sarcoramphi (Dumeril), the Cathartes (Guv. ; Gallinazos,
Vieill.), and the Common Yultures (Percnopterus, Cuv. ; Neophron,
Sav.).
The GRIFFONS, or Yulture Eagles ( Vultur fulvus, Bennett), form,
as their name indicates, an intermediate genus between the Eagles
and the Yultures. Although they have small and goggle eyes,
not very strong talons, and a projecting crop during the diges-
tion of their meals, they are allied to the Eagles in virtue of
their feathered tarsi, as well as by their head and neck ; they also
show a preference for living prey, which they attack with readi-
ness. We will complete their portrait by stating that they have
a very strong beak, enlarged towards the point.
The Bearded Griffon (Gypaetus barbatus, Gould) is the cele-
brated Lammergeyer, described by Buffon under the name of the
Golden Yulture. It owes its name to a tuft of stiff hair which
is under the beak : the loftiest mountains of Europe, Asia, and
Africa are its habitat. Its aerie, which is of considerable dimen-
sions, it builds amongst the most inaccessible rocks. On the old
continent it is the largest of all the birds of prey, and sometimes
reaches five feet in length. Its spread of wing generally mea-
sures nine or ten feet. Sometimes these limits are exceeded, for
one was killed during the French expedition to Egypt, in the
presence of Monge and Bertholet, which measured upwards of
fourteen feet.
The Griffon is endowed with wonderful strength of body and
powers of flight. It is not, therefore, surprising that it attacks
animals of considerable size, such as calves, lambs, deer, cha-
mois, &c., and that it succeeds in overpowering them. Like the
Eagle, it is reported to perpetrate the following ruse, one almost
telling of reasoning powers. Waiting until its victim stands
isolated on the edge of a precipice, it flies suddenly against the
GRIFFONS. 633
poor creature, beats it with its wings, and forces it to fall over
into the abyss below, where the Griffon descends to feed on the
mangled carcass.
It has been asserted that it sometimes ventures to employ this
mano3uvre against the chamois-hunter, to make him lose his equi-
librium in difficult passes. But in spite of all the wonderful
stories told, it cannot be admitted that it is capable of carrying
off lambs or children, for the weakness of its claws will not
support a prey of weight ; it is therefore obliged to rend its
victims in pieces, and devour them where killed.
Although it cannot carry off children, it is nevertheless true that
it sometimes attacks them, as the two following facts will prove.
In 1819 two children were devoured by Griffons on the environs
of Saxe-Gotha, which induced the Government to set a price on
the heads of these birds. M. Crespon, in his " Ornithologie du
Gard," relates the second fact : —
" For many years," says he, "I was in possession of a living
Griffon which exhibited no very great courage towards some other
large birds of prey which were kept with it, but it was different as
regarded children, upon whom it attempted to spring, spreading
out its wings as if it wished to strike them. Latterly, I let
this bird run about free in my garden. Watching for a moment
when no one saw it, it darted upon one of my nieces, two years
and a half old, and, having seized her by the top of her shoulders,
threw her down to the ground. Fortunately her cries warned
us of the danger she was in, and I hastened to her rescue, and
found that the child had suffered no other injury but fright and
the tearing of her dress."
, This bird shows great courage in defence of its offspring.
Joseph Scherrer, a chamois-hunter, having first killed the male
parent, climbed to an aerie to obtain the young, and had to
engage in such a furious encounter with the female that it was
with immense difficulty he saved himself by shooting the bird,
from which he had received some severe wounds.
They live in pairs, and a number together are rarely seen.
This is common to all animals which nature has endowed with a
great amount of physical strength, for it is the weak only which
practise the maxim, " Union is strength."
634 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
These birds were once far more plentiful in Europe than
now. The reason of this is the great havoc which was made among
them in the last century. Even at the present day pursuit of
them is encouraged by the grant of a reward for each indi-
vidual killed. The number of eggs they lay being limited (two),
there is but little cause for surprise that the species is very
sensibly diminishing.
In the birds which belong to the Sarcoramphus family the base
of the bill is furnished with a ring of long feathers, and the bill
itself is surmounted with a thick and scalloped fleshy crest ; from
this peculiarity of organisation they derive their name, the signifi-
cation of Sarcoramphus being " fleshy-billed."
This genus comprises but two species, the Condor (Sarco-
ramphus gryphus, Dumeril) and the King Yulture (Sarcoramphus
papa).
The CONDOR (from the word Cuntur, in the Peruvian language),
Fig. 301, commonly called the Great Yulture of the Andes, is the
most remarkable species of the Yulture family, both for its size and
strength, and also for the vast extent of the stretch of its wings.
Its plumage is of a dark blue, approaching to black; its collar,
which occupies only the back and sides of the neck, is formed of
a dazzling white down. Its crest, bevelled off at the edge, is
cartilaginous in its nature, and of a bluish colour, and extends down
the side of the neck in two fleshy strings. Lastly, the male
has two fleshy appendages under the lower mandible, level with
the collar. The wings are as long as the tail, their whole develop-
ment being ten or twelve feet. The length of the bird from the
point of the bill to the tip of the tail is on an average about four
feet.
The chief habitat of the Condor is the western slope of the chain
of the Andes, in Bolivia, Peru, and Chili ; it frequents all the
different altitudes, from the burning sands of the sea-coast to the
ice-bound solitudes of perpetual snow. Humboldt and Bonpland,
when exploring the Andes, repeatedly noticed Condors close round
them when at a height of 15,700 feet above the level of the sea.
D'Orbigny saw them as high up as the summit of Illimani, a
height of 24,600 feet ; and he likewise met with them on the coasts
of Peru and Patagonia, seeking their food among the various
CONDOES.
635
debris which the waves had thrown upon the shore, proving that
they can support variations of temperature which man would
be unable to bear ; in fact, at a height of 19,000 feet the air
becomes so rarefied, and the cold so intense, that no human being
Fig. 301. — Condor ( Vullw gryphus, Linn.).
would be able to exist for any length of time subject to their
influence.
The Condor passes the night at great elevations, perched on th
cleft of a rock. As soon as the rising sun gilds the peaks of the
mountains it raises its neck, hitherto buried between its shoulders,
and shaking its wide wings, launches into space. The impetus
of its own weight at first carries it downwards, but soon recover-
636 RAPTORES, OK BIRDS OF PREY.
ing itself, it traverses the aerial space with majestic ease and
grandeur. Almost imperceptible movements of the wings are
sufficient to carry it in every direction ; at one moment it is
skimming over the surface of the ground, now it is up in the
clouds, three thousand feet above. The Condor's power of vision
is so great that it commands a view of the plain beneath from
the greatest heights, and although it is no longer visible to
the denizens of earth, their slightest movements cannot escape its
piercing sight. When it catches view of prey, it partly folds
its wings and descends upon it with the rapidity of lightning.
Although thus endowed with such powerful means of action, the
Condor never attacks living animals unless they are helpless from
youth, or enfeebled by disease. The stories of some travellers con-
cerning the boldness of this bird are not founded on fact. It
is inaccurate to state that the Condor will attack a man, as a
child of ten years old, armed with a stick, has been known to put
it to flight. It has been asserted that this bird will carry off
lambs, young llamas, and even children, but this statement will
not hold good when subjected to examination ; for the Condor,
like all the Vulture tribe, has short toes and non-retractile claws ;
it is, therefore, radically impossible for it to clutch and carry prey
of any considerable weight.
It is, however, a fact beyond all question that the Condor is in
the habit of prowling round flocks of sheep and cows ; and, like
the Caracara, will fall upon and devour newly-born animals. It
accompanies the caravans which cross the plains of South America,
and when an unfortunate pack animal, worn out with fatigue
and privation, sinks down exhausted, totally unable to proceed on
the journey, it becomes the prey of these winged banditti, which
often commence their meal before life has left the body. M. de
Castelnau, who has observed the Condor in the Andes, writes
with regard to this subject : —
" Travellers who have sunk down upon the ground when utterly
worn out with fatigue and suffering have been known to be
attacked, tormented, and finally torn to pieces by these ferocious
birds, which pluck strips of flesh off their victims, having first
disabled them with blows of the wing. The unfortunates may
resist for a few instants, but ere long a few blood-stained frag-
CATHARTES. 637
merits are all that remain to announce to the passer-by the
horrible death of those who preceded him on these dangerous
paths."
The Condor possesses extraordinary tenacity of life. Hum-
boldt relates that he found it impossible to strangle one, and that
he was compelled to shoot it to put an end to its existence.
When the Condor is gorged with food it becomes very heavy,
and can scarcely fly. The Indians, who are well aware of this
peculiarity, take advantage of it to destroy the robber thus : —
Carrion is placed in full view to entice the Condors. When the
birds have thoroughly surfeited themselves they are hunted on
horseback and entangled with lassoes, to be finally beaten to
death with clubs.
Condors do not assemble in flocks except when devouring some
animal of great size. The hen bird lays a couple of eggs in
some crevice on the mountains or cliffs : nest-building they
entirely disregard. The rearing of the young requires several
months ; the parent birds feed them by disgorging into their bills
the food which they have stored in their crops. All the Yulture
tribe do the same.
The Condor is tamed with difficulty ; captivity seems only to
increase its savage nature. Humboldt kept one at Quito for
eight days, and he states that to approach it was always dan-
gerous.
The KING VULTURE (Sarcorampkus papa), Fig. 302, is distin-
guished from the Condor by its collar, or ruff, which is of a slate
colour, and surrounds the neck ; also by its crest, of an orange hue,
situated on the top of the bill. Instead of confining itself to arid
and barren localities, it frequents plains and wooded hills, and
nests in the hollows of old trees. Its habits are, however, very
much the same as those of the Condor. It has been named the
King of the Vultures because the other Vultures dread it, as it
appropriates their prey. It is found in Mexico, Guiana, Peru,
Brazil, and Paraguay, and occasionally in Florida, doubtless its
most northern habitat. In this species the female has a crest
as well as the male.
The genus Cathartes of Illiger has a long and elongated
bill; the head and neck bare; the nostrils oblong and pierced
638
EAPTOEES, OE BIRDS OF PEEY.
through ; the wings obtuse, and reaching a little beyond the tail.
There are three species : the Urubu ( Vultur atratus) and the
Turkey Buzzard (Vultur aura, Linn.), which are natives of
Fig. 302. — King Vultures (Sarcoramphus papa, Yarrell).
America, and the Percnopterus (Vulture of Latham, Pharaoh's
Hen of Bruce), peculiar to the Old World.
The URUBU ( Vultur atratus), Fig. 303, is the size of a small
Turkey. Its plumage, of a brilliant black, gives it a somewhat
dismal look, which is amply justified by its disgusting habits.
This bird is of a sociable nature, and is always met with in nume-
rous flocks. Like all birds which subsist on decaying matters, it
is the constant guest of man, and accompanies him in all his
wanderings through its habitat. In nearly all the large towns
of South America it has acquired rights of citizenship, where it
THE UEUBU.
639
may be seen almost in a domestic state, and multiplying under
the protection of the laws. In Peru the inhabitants are pro-
hibited from killing a Urubu under penalty of ten pounds. The
same prohibition exists in Jamaica.
This will easily be understood when it is explained that in
these countries the Urubus perform the whole duty of cleansing
the public streets from all kinds of filth and garbage, which,
Fig. 303. — Urubus ( Vultur atrutus, Wils.).
under the influence ;pf an elevated temperature, would certainly
infect the air, and engender continual epidemics. These birds,
officiating as public scavengers, preserve the general health, and
are therefore placed under the protection of the laws in spite of
their unpleasant aspect and their unclean odour.
"The familiarity and tameness of the Urubus," says Alcide
D'Orbignj-, " are extreme. At the time of the distributions of meat
made to the Indians in the province of Mojos I have known them
snatch away the pieces as soon as the men had received them. At
640 RAPTOBES, OE BIHDS OF PBEY.
one of these periodical distributions at Concepcion de Mojos, an
Indian told me beforehand that I should see the most impudent
bird possible, which was well known by the inhabitants by having
lost a foot. It was not long, in fact, before we saw it come up,
and it certainly showed all the qualities that had been attributed
to it. I was told," says he, "that it was perfectly aware of the
time of the distribution, which took place every fifteen days in
each mission. And true enough, for happening to be present the
following week at a similar performance at the mission of Mag-
dalena, distant twenty leagues from Concepcion, I heard the
Indians cry out, and soon recognised the lame Urubu just arrived.
The cures of the two missions informed me that this bird never
failed to be present on the fixed days at both places. This fact
would seem to indicate a very high degree of instinct in the
Urubu, combined with memory."
According as it inhabits country or town, the Urubu passes the
night on branches of trees or roofs of houses. As soon as it
is light in the morning it proceeds to search for food; and,
describing wide circles in the air, explores the neighbourhood. If
it perceives a carcass, it pitches on it, and, from the power with
which its beak is furnished, soon effects an opening through the
hide into the intestines. But its movements have been watched
by others, and soon thousands arrive to take part in the putrid
banquet. Contests and fights, wrangling and struggling, in which
the strongest is always triumphant, then arise. In an incredibly
short time the carcass is devoured, and nothing remains but a
skeleton, the bones of which are cleaned as thoroughly as if
done by an anatomist. The Urubus afterwards perch in the
neighbourhood, and with their necks drawn back between their
shoulders, and their wings extended, rapidly digest their food.
The Urubus, like most of the Vulture family, spread their wings out
for hours, although in a state of repose. The cause of this habit
is that the attitude permits them to exhale from, their bodies a
kind of greasy perspiration.
In spite of the services which this bird renders to man, it [is
still regarded with the greatest repugnance. Nevertheless,
D'Orbigny states that he has seen some completely tamed, and
that they appeared susceptible of affection. This naturalist also
THE COMMON VULTURE. 641
relates that a Creole had one of these birds, which he had reared,
and that it accompanied its master wherever he went. At one
time, its master having fallen ill, the bird became very sad ; but
finding one day that the window of the sick-room was left open,
it flew in, and came close to the invalid, manifesting by its caresses
the joy it felt at seeing him again.
The TURKEY BUZZARD (Vultur aura) is a native of the same
hemisphere as the preceding species, but is more addicted to
temperate climates : it is met with as far north as the shores of
the great chain of lakes. It is the same size as the Urubu, and
its habits of life are nearly identical. Like the Urubu, too, it is
protected by the laws. In Peru, for instance, any one who kills
an Aura is punished by a fine of fifty piastres; in Cuba, the
culprit is excommunicated. They are capable of standing a great
amount of cold : when snow covers the ground in the State of
Illinois they may be seen congregated in great numbers wherever
carrion is to be found.
The COMMON VULTURE (Neophron per cnopterus, Yarrell) is in
the Old World that which the Urubu and the Turkey Buzzard
are in the New. It is very common in Greece and Turkey, and
especially in Egypt and Arabia. In Constantinople and other
Eastern cities it performs the duty of removing all the putrid
matter which the carelessness and apathy of the inhabitants allow
to remain in the streets. A great amount of respect is conse-
quently paid to these birds ; and although the law inflicts no penalty
for killing them, they nevertheless enjoy the most perfect security
in the midst of the Mussulman population.
These birds were well known to the ancients, who gave them
the name of Per cnopterus on account of their black wings. The
Egyptians classed them among sacred birds, and often repre-
sented them on their monuments as religious symbols. Flocks
of them are in the habit of following caravans across the desert,
always finding something to pick up ; and, as they invariably
accompany the pilgrims in their journey to Mecca every year,
some devout Mussulmen have bequeathed money sufficient to
support a certain number of the birds which manifest such fidelity
to the faith of Islam.
They are about the size of a Fowl ; hence they obtain the name
T T
642 BAPTOBES, OB BIBDS OF PBEY.
of Pharaoh's Chickens, by which they are designated in Egyptian.
Although they do not manifest much inclination for living prey,
they will sometimes attack small mammals which are incapable
of defence or flight. The Crow is an adversary whose superiority
they never fail to acknowledge, and rarely dare to resist.
The Pondicherry Vulture (Vultur ponticerianus), the Indian
Yulture (Vultur indicus), and Kolbe's Yulture (Vultur Kolbii),
are also deserving of notice ; the two former are found prin-
cipally in Hindostan, the latter in different parts of Africa as well
as Java.
The Yultures properly so called (Vultur, Cuv.) have the head
and neck bare, the latter being surrounded at its base by a ruff
or collar of feathers ; the nostrils round or oval ; the tarsi bare
or feathered on the upper portion ; the middle toe very long ;
the wings pointed, and almost hanging down to the ground.
Their faculty of flight, although powerful, is slow and heavy ;
they take wing with difficulty, and this fact has procured for them
their name of Vultur (volatus tardus, slow flight). Preferring
putrid meat, they feed but little on flesh in a fresh state, although
they do not absolutely refuse it ; they consequently seldom attack
living animals.
Buffon has branded the Yulture with a stigma of infamy which
will always cast an odium on its name. " Yultures," says he,
" are actuated by nothing but a degraded instinct of gluttony and
greediness. They will never contend with the living if they can
glut their appetites on the dead. The Eagle attacks its enemies
or its victims face to face ; it pursues them, fights them, and
seizes them by its own individual prowess. Yultures, on the
contrary, however slight may be the resistance which they antici-
pate, combine in flocks like cowardly assassins, and are rather
thieves than warriors — birds of carnage rather than birds of prey ;
for these are the only birds which are so madly devoted to carrion
that they pick the very bones of a decaying carcass. Corruption
and infection seem to attract instead of repelling them." Further
on, too, he adds, " In comparing birds with quadrupeds, the Yul-
ture seems to combine the strength and cruelty of the tiger with
the cowardice and gluttony of the jackal."
The great naturalist has, however, somewhat calumniated the
VULTUEES.
643
Vulture. In depicting it in such very dark colours, his desire
seems to be to contrast it with the Eagle, which he had repre-
sented as the highest type of courage and nobility ; and he has
evidently yielded to the temptation to make the contrast between
the two birds as striking as possible. The idea of this antithesis
must, in fact, have led Buffon's mind astray, as he was often more
fond of figure than fact. The Vulture seeks after carcasses because
it really prefers them to living prey ; and its not attacking
living animals, like the rest of the family, is caused by the fact
Fig. 304.— The Yellow Vulture ( Vultur fulvus).
that it is neither armed nor organised for such an attack. It
obeys the irresistible and ordained instincts of its nature, and in
this we have no right to discover any feeling of cowardice. In
the present day it is really time to have done with all these time-
worn rhetorical fancies of the old naturalists, which are in con-
tinual and complete variance with the results of science and
observation.
644 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
The Vulture genus comprises several species, all of which belong
to the Old World.
The Yellow Vulture (Fig. 304), the size of which is about
equal to that of the Goose, is a native more especially of the
South and South-east of Europe. It is common in the Pyrenees,
Alps, Sardinia, Greece, Hungary, Italy, and Spain ; it is rarely
seen in France. It makes its nest in the crevice of some inac-
cessible rock. When pressed by hunger it shows no fear in
attacking living animals ; it is thus an object of dread among the
shepherds along the sea- coast of the Mediterranean. It is easily
tamed when caught youDg. Of this fact M. Nordmann gives
us an instance : —
" A lady residing at Taganrog," says he, "was in possession of
a Yellow Vulture which was in the habit every morning of leaving
its home and resorting to the fresh-meat market, where the bird
was well known and usually fed. If it so happened that it was
refused its daily pittance, it was always well able to get hold of it
by some cunning or other ; and then, after the larceny was com-
mitted, the bird would take itself off to the roof of some neigh-
bouring house, so as to consume its plunder in peace, and safe from
any attack. This bird would often cross the Sea of Azoff, and
visit the city of the same name, situated opposite Taganrog ; and,
after having spent the day there, would come back at night to the
house of its mistress."
There is a variety of the above bird rather larger than the one
just noticed. It is common in the Alps, Pyrenees, the Tyrol, the
Greek Archipelago, and also in the South of Spain, in Egypt,
and a great part of Africa. In autumn it leaves the temperate
regions to winter in some warmer clime. M. Degland and M.
Bouteille mention various instances of intelligence and courage
shown by it, for it has been known to repel dogs. Another bird
of the same kind, having flown away from its master's house,
grievously wounded two men who endeavoured to catch it. The
shepherds fear it even more than the preceding.
The Sociable Vulture (Fig. 305) is a native of the lofty moun-
tain regions of Africa. It has a fleshy crest, which, taking its
rise close to each ear, extends down the neck ; from this it
derives its Latin specific name. Levaillant, who often observed
THE SECRETARY BIRD.
645
it in Africa, was several times a witness of its voracity. One
day he had killed a couple of buffaloes, and, after having had
them cut up, caused the quarters
of meat to be hung to dry in the
sun ; they were soon assailed by a
flock of these Yultures, which
carried away the pieces of meat in
spite of the numerous gunshots
with which they were greeted. On
another occasion, having killed
three zebras at some distance from
his camp, he went to find a waggon
to carry them away ; on his return
he found nothing but the bones
remaining, round which hundreds
of Yultures were hovering.
The Oricou is of somewhat con-
siderable size ; it is about four feet
and three-quarters in length, and
the spread of its wings measures
as much as three yards and a half.
inaccessible steep rocks.
Lastly, the Chinese Yulture ( Vultur leuconotus), which is about
the size of a Turkey, is of a dirty brownish black on the body, and
white about the shoulders; it is very common in the southern
portions of the Celestial Empire.
It builds its nest amon
THE SERPENT-EATERS (Gypogeranus, Illiger).
This family comprehends but one single species, the Secretary
Bird, which in its organisation seems allied to the Waders.
The SECRETARY BIRD ( Gypogeranus serpentarius), Fig. 306,
has a widely-opening bill, very crooked and very powerful; a pro-
jecting superciliary arch ; feathered legs ; tarsi very long, and
covered, as well as the toes, with large and hard scales. The tail
is tapering, and the two middle feathers are longer than the others.
The wings, which are short and provided with bony protuberances,
form most destructive weapons, which the bird uses with much
646
EAPTOEES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.
skill to disable the serpents, of which its food principally consists.
It has oil its head a tuft of long feathers, which can be raised
at will. This has been the origin of its name, in allusion to the
custom that clerks had of placing their pen behind their ear in the
days when goose-quills were used for writing. Its toes are short,
and its claws blunt and well adapted for walking. It con-
Fig. 306. -Secretary Bird (Gypogeranus serpentanus).
sequently runs very rapidly ; hence it sometimes obtains the name
of Messenger Bird.
A contest between a Secretary Bird and a Serpent is a most
curious sight. The reptile, when attacked suddenly, stops and
rears itself up, swelling its neck and showing anger by shrill
hissings.
" At this instant," says Levaillant, " the bird of prey, spreading
THE SECRETARY BIRD. 647
ontTof his wings, holds it in front of him, and covers both his legs
as well as the lower part of his body with it as if with a buckler.
The reptile makes a spring at his enemy; the bird makes a bound,
and spurning the Serpent with his wing, retreats again, jumping
about in every direction in a mode which to a spectator appears
highly grotesque. He soon returns to the combat, ever presenting
to the venomous tooth of his adversary nothing but the end of his
well-protected wing ; and whilst the latter is fruitlessly expending
its poison by biting the callous feathers, the bird is inflicting
vigorous blows with his other wing. At last the reptile, stunned
and wavering, rolls at full length in the dust ; the bird then
cleverly catches hold of it and throws it several times up into the
air, until the victim becoming exhausted and powerless, the bird
crushes its skull with his sharp-pointed bill. The Serpent is then
swallowed whole by its conqueror, unless it is too big, in which
case it is first torn in pieces."
The Secretary Bird does not feed exclusively on serpents ; it
also consumes lizards, tortoises, and even insects ; its voracity is
extreme, and it possesses a power of digestion which is really sur-
prising. Levaillant killed one the stomach of which contained
twenty-one small tortoises, still whole ; eleven lizards, eight or
nine inches long ; three serpents of a length varying from two to
two and a half feet ; a perfect heap of grasshoppers and other
insects ; and, lastly, a great pellet of various remains, which it
had not been able to assimilate, and which would have ultimately
been vomited up.
These birds are natives of the arid plains of South Africa.
They pair about the month of July, the male birds having first
engaged in sanguinary conflicts for the choice of their mates.
Their nest, which is flat, and lined on the inside with down and
feathers, is constructed in the thickest bushes, or on the loftiest
trees, in which two or three eggs, of a white hue spotted with
red, are laid. The young ones are very late in quitting the
parental home ; for they do not leave it till they have acquired
full development. Nearly four months elapse before they are able
to stand firmly and run about with complete freedom.
The Secretary Bird is much appreciated at the Cape of Good
Hope, on account of the services it renders in destroying
648 EAPTOEES, OE BIEDS OF PEEY.
venomous reptiles. As it is easily tamed if captured when young,
the colonists have made a domestic bird of it, and use it to protect
their poultry against the incursions of serpents and rats. With
the inhabitants of the poultry-yard it is always on good terms,
even to quelling the quarrels which spring up among the Galli-
naceae around it. But it must be related that it is necessary to
see that it is sufficiently fed, for otherwise it will not hesitate to
help itself occasionally to a chicken.
In 1832 the Secretary Bird was introduced into the French
West Indies, particularly Guadaloupe and Martinique, on purpose
to make war upon the Trigonocephalus, or Rattlesnake, a dan-
gerous reptile swarming in those countries, which we mentioned in a
previous portion of this work. The introduction of the Secretary
Bird into the Antilles proved to be a real benefit. In order to be
convinced of this it is only necessary to read the interesting work
published a few years ago on this question by M. Rufz de Lavison,
who was for a long time an inhabitant of the French West Indies
before he became director of the Jardin Zoologique d'Acclimatation,
in Paris.
THE END.
PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY BOAD, LONDON.
ERBATA.
Phasianus cristatus indicus, in page 448, should be attributed to Brisson,
not Latham.
The synonym for Ring Pigeon, in page 448, should be Columba palumbus.
Woodcut 182 represents the Stock Dove, erroneously named Wood
Pigeons in page 450.
-. V
ft
THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SANTA CRUZ
SCIENCE LIBRARY
This book is due on the last DATE stamped below.
1971 JUN 29
NJB.-HOLD
ffcrr 2
29
REC'DNOV151979
50m-4,'69(J7948g8)2477
RED
NRL
2106 00256 1972
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