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77th  Congress!  .  f  Document 

,  ,  e      •  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES  „     „„, 

1st  Session      J  [    No.  234 


RESEARCH— 
A  NATIONAL  RESOURCE 

II.  INDUSTRIAL  RESEARCH 


MESSAGE 

FROM 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

TRANSMITTING 

A  REPORT  ON  "INDUSTRIAL  RESEARCH"  PREPARED  FOR  THE  NATIONAL 

RESOURCES  PLANNING  BOARD  BY  THE  NATIONAL  RESEARCH 

COUNCIL  OF  THE  NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES 


May  29,  1941. — Referred  to  the  Committee  of  the  Whole  House  on  the  state  of  the  Union 
and  ordered  to  be  printed  with  illustrations 


From  the  collection  of  the 


■7      ^ 

z        m 


Blill; 


0  Pre|inger 

library 


San  Francisco,  California 
2008 


77th  CoNcuEss,  1st  Session        -----------        House  Document  234 


RESEARCH  -- 
A  NATIONAL  RESOURCE 

11.  INDUSTRIAL  RESEARCH 


DECEMBER  1940 


REPORT  OF  THE 

NATIONAL  RESEARCH  COUNCIL 
TO  THE 

NATIONAL  RESOURCES  PLANNING  BOARD 


UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE -         -         -         WASHINGTON   :  1941 


FOR  SALE  BY 
THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  DOCUMENTS,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

PRICE  $1.00 


To  the  Congress  of  the  United  States: 

One  of  tlio  greatest  rcsourees  in  the  arsenal  of  democraey  is  our  national  ability 
and  interest  in  industrial  research.  For  the  vigorous  prosecution  of  our  defense  pro- 
gram and  for  the  assurance  of  national  progress  after  the  emergency  we  rely  heavily  on 
the  continued  vitality  of  research  by  industry  in  both  pure  and  applied  science. 

Our  people  can  justly  take  pride  in  the  record  of  the  accomplishment  by  American 
industry  contained  in  the  report  on  Research — A  National  Resource,  Part  II,  Industrial 
Research,  which  I  am  transmitting  for  the  information  of  the  Congress.  This  docu- 
ment is  one  of  a  series  on  our  research  resources  being  prepared  by  the  National 
Resources  Planning  Board  with  the  assistance  of  scientific  councils  and  committees. 
The  National  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  National  Research  Council  are  responsible 
for  the  organization  and  presentation  of  this  volume. 

The  report  presents  a  clear  record  of  how  successfully  we  have  translated  our 
old-time  Yankee  ingenuity  for  invention  into  American  genius  for  research.  Our 
scientists  have  uncovered  and  explained  the  secrets  of  nature,  applied  them  to  industiy, 
and  thus  raised  our  standard  of  living,  strengthened  our  defense,  and  enriched  our 
national  life. 

The  following  significant  paragraph  in  the  report  sums  up  the  great  changes  that 
have  come  about  through  industrial  research: 

More  efficient  and  economical  methods  liave  conserved  our  resources;  new  materials  have  made 
possible  better  products;  and  new  products  have  contributed  to  the  health,  pleasure,  and  comfort 
of  the  general  public.  Such  changes  have  not  taken  place  without  some  temporary  misfortunes. 
Here  and  there  industries  have  disappeared  and  people  have  been  tenijiorarily  thrown  out  of  work, 
but  the  net  result  of  40  years  of  organized  industrial  research  in  this  country  has  been  the  enrichment 
of  life  to  an  incalculable  degree. 

I  connnend  a  careful  reading  of  this  report  to  the  Members  of  the  Congress. 

FRANKLIN  D.  ROOSEVELT. 
The  White  House, 

May  29,  1941. 


ui 


Executive  Office  of  the  riiEsiDENT 
National  Resources  Planning  Boaud 

Washington,  D.  C,  April  4,  lO.jl. 
The  President, 

The  White  House. 
j\Iy  Dear  IMr.  President:  We  have  the  honor  to  submit    lierewith   a    report 
on  "Research — A  National  Resource:  Part  II — Industrial  Kescarcli". 

This  volume  is  the  second  in  the  scries  on  this  subject  prepared  under  the  genei-al 
direction  of  our  Science  Committee  with  the  cooperation  of  the  councils  wliich  have 
designated  members  of  the  committee.  The  first  part,  submitted  in  1938,  dealt  with 
"Relation  of  the  Federal  Government  to  Research",  and  a  third  part  now  in  prepara- 
tion is  concerned  with  "Business  Research".  The  document  now  submitted  was  pie- 
pared  bj'  a  special  committee  of  the  National  Research  Council. 

We  endorse  in  principle  the  findings  and  recommendations  of  the  special  com- 
mittee and  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  great  importance  of  industrial  research  in  rela- 
tion to  both  the  present  defense  effort  and  also  to  developments  in  the  post-defense 
period. 

Sincerelj"  j^ours, 

Frederio  a.  Delano,  Cliairman. 
Charles  E.  Merriam. 
George  F.  Yantis. 


NATIONAL  RESOURCES  PLANNING  BOARD 

Frederic  A.  Delano,  Chairman 
Charles  E.  Merriam  George  F.  Yantis 


ADVISORS 

Henry  S.  Dennison  Beaedsley  Ruml 


DIRECTOR 

Charles  W.  Eliot,  2d 

ASSISTANT    DIRECTORS 

Thomas  C.  Blaisdell,  Jr.  Frank  W.  Herring  Ralph  J.  Watkins 

EXECUTIVE    OFFICER 

Harold  Merrill 


SCIENCE    COMMITTEE 

Arthur  L.  Day  Dugald  C.  Jackson  Charles  R.  Morey 

David  L.  Edsall  Charles  H.  Judd  William  F.  Ogburn 

Edward  C.  Elliott  Dexter  M.  Keezer  Edwin  B.  Wilson 

Ross  G.  Harrison  Waldo  G.  Leland 


Executive  Office  of  the  President 
National  Resources  Planning  Board 

Washington,  D.  C,  December  1,  1940. 

Mr.  Frederic  A.  Delano, 

Chairman,  National  Resources  Planning  Board, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Dear  Mr.  Delano:  Wc  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  "Indus- 
trial Research,"  constituting  the  second  of  a  series  of  reports  on  the  research  resources 
of  the  United  States.  This  report  was  prepared  for  the  National  Resources  Planning 
Board  by  the  National  Research  Council  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences.  The 
National  Research  Council  assigned  the  supervision  of  the  preparation  of  this  report 
to  a  Committee  of  26  outstanding  leaders  in  research.  This  Committee,  known  as  the 
Committee  of  the  National  Research  Council  on  Survey  of  Research  in  Industry, 
employed  a  staff  of  which  Raymond  Stevens,  Vice  President  of  Arthur  D.  Little,  Inc., 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  was  the  Director. 

The  report  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  United  States  has  achieved  con- 
spicuous leadership  in  industrial  research.  Since  the  beginning  of  this  century,  there 
has  been  a  rapid  development  of  research  of  the  type  with  which  the  report  deals. 
The  intimate  relations  between  industrial  research  and  research  carried  on  by  the 
Federal  Government  and  by  other  agencies,  such  as  universities,  is  made  clear  in  the 
report.  It  is  also  shown  that  industrial  research  has  contributed  very  largely  to  the 
improvement  of  the  standards  of  living. 

The  report  contains  a  number  of  recommendations  which  the  Science  Committee 
commends  to  the  favorable  consideration  of  the  National  Resources  Planning  Board. 
The  Science  Committee  calls  special  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  report  was  prepared 
by  one  of  the  councils  represented  in  the  membership  of  the  Science  Committee.  It 
is  the  belief  of  the  Science  Committee  that  the  Federal  Government  profits  greatly  by 
securing,  as  it  has  in  this  case,  the  services  of  a  competent  nongovernmental  association 
of  scholars. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

Edwin  B.  Wilson, 
Chairman,  Science  Commiltee. 

Arthur  L.  Day.  Ross  G.  Harrison.  Waldo  G.  Leland. 

David  L.  Edsall.  Dugald  C.  Jackson.  Charles  R.   Moret. 

Edward  C.  Elliott.  Charles  H.  Judd.  William  F.  Ogburn. 

Dexter  M.  Keezer. 


VII 


National  Reskakch  Councii. 

•J  101   CoNsrnuTioN  Avenue 

Washixiitox,  D.  C. 


November  2i),  1940. 


Mi;.  1'"i;i:d]:kic  A.  Uki.ano, 

(  'litii/iiiini ,  Xdliiiiial  I'lxoiirrKf:  I'liiniiliuj  Board, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Mv  Dkak  Mi;.  JjKr.AXu:  In  c()in|ili,inc.i!  witli  j-oiir  requt'st  nf  Dccciiibcr  8,  I'J.'JS, 
addressed  to  tlie  Xatioiiiil  Uesearch  Council,  asking  that  tlie  Council  undertaUe  a  study 
of  the  rescairli  resources  of  industrial  laboratories,  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  to 
you  herewith  a  report  entitled  "Research^A  National  Resource.  II.  Industrial 
Kesearch." 

The  report  has  been  jirepared  under  the  supervision  of  a  committee  of  the  National 
Ke-seiirch  Council,  of  2()  UKMuljcrs,  of  whicli  Mr.  F.  W.  Willard  is  chairman,  and  with 
the  a.'isistance  of  a  special  sliill'  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Raymond  Stevens.  Material 
for  the  report  h:is  been  submitted  by  research  workers  in  Government,  industry, 
iniiversity,  and  professional  fields.  Unhcsitant  and  unstinted  cooperation  has  been 
obtained  on  all  sides  in  the  Council's  endeavor  to  meet  comprehensively  and  con- 
slruetively  the  purpose  of  your  request. 

Respectfully  su limit  ted. 

Ros.s  G.  IIakkison",  Chairman. 

National  Reseaisch  Council 

2101  CoxsTiiuTioM  Avenue 

Washingto.v,  D.  C. 

SURVEY  OF  RESEARCH  IN  INDUSTRY 

November  22,  1940. 
Dr.  Frank  B.  Jewett, 

President,  National  Academy  of  Sciences, 

Washinf/to7i,  D.  C. 
Du.  Ross  G.  IIakkison, 

Chairman,  National  Research  Council, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Gentlemen:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  the  attached  report  of  the  National 
Research  Council's  Committee  on  the  Survey  of  Research  in  Industry. 

It  is  my  duty  to  record  here  the  gratitude  of  your  Committee  to  the  leaders  of 
private  enterprise  in  the  United  States  of  America  who  have,  without  exception  and 
without  reservations,  responded  to  your  Committee's  requests  for  information.  Lack- 
ing this  wholehearted  cooperation,  your  Committee's  task  could  not  have  been 
performed. 

To  those  men  eminent  in  their  respective  fields  who  have  prepared  monographs 
for  this  report,  your  Committee  records  its  grateful  appreciation. 

To  Mr.  Raymond  Stevens,  Director  of  the  Survey,  and  his  staff,  your  Committee 
acknowledges  its  debt.  They  have  performed  a  difficult  task  expeditiously,  econom- 
ically, and  with  an  intelligent  discrimination  of  relative  values. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

F.  W.  Willard,  Chairman. 

vni 


NATIONAL    RESEARCH    COUNCIL 


COMMITTEE    ON    SURVEY    OF    RESEARCH    IN    INDUSTRY 

F.  W.  WiLLARD,  Chairman,  President,  Nassau  Smelting  and  Refining  Company,  170 

Fulton  Street,  New  York,  Now  York 
C  L.  Alshekg*,  Director,  Gianiiini  Foundation  of  Agricultural  Economics,  University 

of  California,  Berkeley,  California 
C.  H.  Bailey,  Professor   of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Vice  Director,  Agricultiu-al 

Experiment  Station,  University  of  Minnesota,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota 
Herbert  A.  Baker*,  President,  American  Can  Company,  230  Park  Avenue,  New  York, 

New  York 
Henry  A.  Barton^,  Director,  American  Institute  of  Physics,  175  Fifth  Avenue,  New 

York,  New  York 
L.  W.  Bass,  Assistant  Director,  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research,  Pittsburgh, 

Pennsj'lvania 
Carl  Breer,  Director  of  Research,  Chrysler  Corporation,  Detroit,  Michigan 
0.  E.  Buckley,   President,  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories,   Incorporated,  463  West 

Street,  New  York,  New  York 

G.  II.  A.  Clowes,  Research  Director,  Eli  Lilly  and  Company,  Indianapolis,  Indiana 
W.    D.    CooLiDGE,    Vice    President    and    Director    of    Research,     General    Electric 

Company,  Schenectady,  New  York 
F.  G.  Cottrell,  3904  Ingomar  Street,  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

M.  H.  Eisenhart,  President,  Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  Company,  Rochester,  New  York 
Charles  N.  Frey,  Director,  Fleischmann  Laboratories,  810  Grand  Concourse,  Bronx, 

New  York 
George  R.  Harrison,  Professor  and  Director  of  the  Research  Laboratoiy  of  E.xperi- 

mental    Physics,    Massachusetts    Institute   of   Technology,    Cambridge,    Massa- 
chusetts 
Maurice   Holland,    Director,    Division   of   Engineering   and    Industrial    Research, 

National  Research  Council,  29  West  39th  Street,  New  York,  New  York 
Harrison  E.  Howe,  Editor,  Indiistrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Mills  Building, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Jerome  C.  Hunsaker,  Professor  in  charge.  Department  of  Aeronautical  Engineering, 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts 
Martin  Ittner,  Research  Director,  Colgate-PalmoHve-Peet  Company,  Jersey  City, 

New  Jersey 
Frank  B.  Jewett,  Vice  President,  American  Telephone   and   Telegraph   Company 

and  Chairman  of  the  Board,  Bell    Telephone  Laboratories,   Incorporated,    195 

Broadway,  New  York,  New  York 
John  Johnston,  Director  of  Research,   United  States  Steel  Corporation,  Kearny, 

New  Jersey 
Virgil  Jordan,  President,  National  Industrial  Conference  Board,  247  Park  Avenue, 

New  York,  New  York 
F.  T.  Letchfield,  Consulting  Engineer  and  Assistant  Vice  President,  Wells  Fargo 

Bank  and  Union  Trust  Company,  San  Francisco,  California 
L.  W.  Wallace,  Director,  Division  of  Engineering  and  Research,  Crane  Company, 

4100  S.  Kedzie  Avenue,  Chicago,  Illinois 
E.    R.    Weidlein,    Director,    Mellon   Institute   of   Industrial   Research,    Pittsburgh, 

Pennsylvania 

•Deceased. 


Frank  C.  Whitmore,  Dean  of  the  School  of  Chemistry  and  Pliysics,  Research 
ProfesFor  of  Organic  Chemistry,  Pennsylvania  State  College,  State  College, 
Pennsylvania 

R.  R.  Williams,  Chemical  Director,  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories,  Incorporated,  463 
West  Street,  New  York,  New  York 


SURVEY  OF  RESEARCH  IN  INDUSTRY 

STAFF 

DIRECTOR 

Raymond   Stevens,   Vice   President,   Arthur   D.   Little,    Incorporated,   Cambridge, 
Massachusetts 

ASSISTANT    DIRECTORS 

Dexter  North,  Washington,  D.  C.  Representative,  Arthur  D.  Little,  Incorporated, 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts 
Caryl  P.  Haskins,  President,  Haskins  Laboratories,  480  Lexington  Avenue,  New  York, 

New  York 

STAFF    MEMBERS 

Howard  R.  Bartlett,  Head,  Department  of  English  and  History,  Massachusetts 

Institute  of  Technology,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts 
Franklin  S.  Cooper,  Director  of  Research,  Haskins  Laboratories,  480  Lexington 

Avenue,  New  York,  New  York 


INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH 


Contents 


Pace 
1 


Summary  of  Findings  and  Recommendations 

I.  A  Report  on  Industrial  Research  as  a  National  Resource— Introduction  5 

II.  Research  in  the  National  Economy  17 

1.  The  Development  of  Industrial  Research  in  the  United  States  19 

2.  Research — A  Resource  to  Small  Companies  78 

3.  Coordination  Between  Industries  in  Industrial  Research  85 

4.  Technical  Research  by  Trade  Associations  88 

5.  Fundamental  Research  in  Industry  98 

6.  Careers  in  Research  108 

7.  Research  as  a  Growth  Factor  in  Industry  120 

8.  Industrial  Research  Expenditures  124 

III.  Examples  of  Research  in  Industry  127 

1.  Research  in  Aeronautics  129 

2.  Research  in  the  Petroleum  Industry  144 

3.  Research  in  the  Iron  and  Steel  Industry  157 

IV.  Location  and  Extent  of  Industrial  Research  Activity  in  the  United  States        171 
V.  Research  Abroad  ^^^ 

VI.  Men  in  Research  221 

1.  Chemistry  in  Industrial  Research  223 

2.  Physical  Research  in  Industry  as  a  National  Resource  236 

3.  The  Role  of  the  Biologist  in  Industry  253 

4.  Industrial  Mathematics  268 

5.  Metallurgical  Research  as  a  National  Resource  289 

6.  The  Chemical  Engineer  in  Industrial  Research  306 

7.  Industrial  Research  in  the  Field  of  Electrical  Engineering  316 

8.  Industrial  Research  by  Mechanical  Engineers  328 

9.  The  Significance  of  Industrial  Research  in  Border-line  Fields  347 

VII.  Appendix  ^^'^ 

1.  The  Relationship  of  the  National  Research  Council  to  Industrial 

Research  '■^^^ 

2.  Acknowledgments  -'70 


XI 


I  LLUSTRATIONS 


PttBe 

Figure  1. — Research  Laboratories,  Genera)  Electric  Com- 
pany, Sclienectady,  New  York  fi 

FiGUKE  2.- — Research  Laboratories,  American  Cyanamid 

Company,  Stamford,  Connecticut  V 

Figure  3. — Bell    Telephone    Laboratories,    New    York, 

New  York  10 

Figure  4. — General  Motors  Research  Laboratories  Build- 
ing, Detroit,  Michigan  11 

Figure  5.— Research    Laboratory    Floor    Plan,    General 

Foods  Crrporation,   Hobokcn,   New  Jersey  15 

Figure  6. — Interior    View    of    Edison's    Laboratory    at 

Menlo  Park,  1880.     (World  Wide  Photos,  Incl  30 

Figure  7. — The  First  Laboratory  of  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Ne- 
mours and  Company,  Incorporated,  was  Housed  in 
This  Building,  Erected  About  1802,  Wilmington,  Dela- 
ware 44 

Figure  8. — Library,  Research  and  Development  Lab- 
oratories, Bakelite  Corporation,  Bloomficld,  New  Jer- 
sey.   (Unit  of  Union  Carbide  and  Carbon  Corporation)         54 

Figure  9. — First  Laboratory  of  Parke,  Davis  and  Com- 
pany, 1873,  Detroit,  Michigan  60 

Figure  10. — Starting  Out  in  1880  to   Take   a   Picture. 

(Acme  Photo)  (iG 

Figure  U. — Laboratory  for  Developing  and  Testing  Re- 
fractories, General  Refractories  Company,  Baltimore, 
Maryland  80 

Figure  12. — Stri|)s  of  Light-Polarizing  Film  Hanging  in 
the  Laboratory  of  the  Polaroid  Cori^oration,  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts.  The  Strips  are  Transparent  Unless 
Two  Are  Crossed  at  Right  Angles  81 

Figure  13. — Fiber  Preparation  Laboratory,  John  A. 
Manning  Paper  Comi)!tny,  Incorporated,  Troy,  New 
York  83 

Figure  14. — Laboratory  and  Headquarters  of  the  Ameri- 
can Pharmaceutical  .Association,  Washington,  D.  C.  89 

Figure  15. ^National  Paint,  Varnish  and  Lacquer  Asbu- 
ciation,  Washington,  D.  C.  93 

Fiouaa  16.— Laboratory  for  Investigation  of  Length 
Change  in  Concrete,  Portland  Cement  Aseoolation, 
Chicago,  lUinois  95 

Figure  17. — Laboratories  and   Offices  of  the   American 

Institute  cf  Laundering,  Joliet,  Illinois  97 

Figure  18. — Higli-Speed  Motion  Pictures  of  the  Human 
Vocal  Cords,  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories,  New  York, 
New  York  101 

Figure  19.- — Pure  Research  Division,  Stamford  Research 
Laboratories,  American  Cyanamid  Company,  Stamford, 
Connecticut  102 

Figure  20. — Fundamental  Research  in  Reaction  Kinetics, 
Emeryville  Laboratories,  Shell  Development  Company, 
Emeryville,  California  104 

Figure  21. — Ultracentrifuge  for  Determination  of  Molec- 
ular Weights  of  Colloidal  Materials  Such  as  Proteins, 
Cellulose  and  Rubber,  Experimental  Station  of  E.  I. 
du  Pont  do  Nemours  and  Company,  Wilmington,  Dela- 
ware 105 

Figure  22. — World  Record  for  Maximum  Speed  130 

Figure  23.— Total  Route  Miles  131 

Figure  24. — Total  Plane  Miles  Flown  132 


Page 

Figure  25. — Total  Passenger  Miles  Flown  132 

Figure  2G. — Passenger  Revenue  (Domestic)  133 

Figure  27. — Passengers  Carried  (Domestic)  133 

Figure  28. — Average  Passenger  Fare  Per  Mile  134 

Figure  29. — Payments  to  Domestic  Air  Mail  Contractors 

and  Air  Mail  Postal  Revenue  135 

Figure  30. — Payment    Per    Pound-Mile    Domestic    Air 

Mail  135 

Figure  31. — Model  of  Pipe  Still  Used  in  Development 
and  Improvement  of  Processes,  Standard  Oil  Develop- 
ment Company,  Elizabeth,  New  Jersey  145 

Figure  32. — Production  and  Reserves  of  Crude  Oil  in  the 

United  States,  1925-39  146 

Figure  33. — Aerial  View  of  Research  and  Development 
Laboratories,  Universal  Oil  Products  Company,  River- 
side, Illinois  117 

Figure  34. — Experimental  Oil  Cracking  Still,  Gulf  Re- 
search and  Development  Company,  Ilarmarvillc, 
Pennsylvania  148 

Figure  35. — Variations  in  the  Consumption  of  Straight 
Run,  Cracked,  and  Natural  Gasolines  in  Terms  of  Per- 
centages of  Crude  Oil,  1921-39  148 

Figure  36. — The  Production  of  Domestic  Gasoline  in  the 

United  States,  1921-39  149 

Figure  37. — The  Trends  of  Octane  Gasoline  Ratings  and 

Automobile  Engine  Compression  Ratios,  1929-39  152 

Figure  38. — Variations  in  the  Price  of  Gasoline  in  the 

United  States,  1920-39  (based  on  50  cities)  154 

Figure  39. — Subzero  Temperatures  for  Study  of  Oil, 
Fuel,  and  Lubricant  Performances,  Standard  Oil  De- 
velopment Company,  Elizabeth,  New  Jersey  155 

Figure  40. — Research  on  Creep  of  Steel,  Crane  Com- 
pany, Chicago,  Illinois  161 

Figure  41. — Austempering  of  Steel,  American  Steel  and 
Wire  Company,  Worcester,  Massachusetts.  (Subsid- 
iary of  United  States  Steel  Corporation)  163 

FiGUKE  42. — Vacuum  Extraction  Apparatus  for  Control 
of  Oxides  in  Steel,  Republic  Steel  Corporation,  Cleve- 
lajid,  Ohio  165 

FiouBB  43. — Apparatus  for  Speotrographic  Examination 
of  Steel,  Bethlehem  Steel  Company,  Bethlehem, 
Pennsylvania  167 

Figure  44. — Personnel  Employed  in  Industrial  Research: 

1920-40  174 

Figure  45. — The  Increase  of  Research  Personnel  Between 
1938  and  1940;  Relative  Importance  of  the  Various 
Components  175 

Figure  46.— The  "Birth  Rate"  of  Industrial  Research  176 

Figure  47.^ — Geographical  Distribution  of  Industrial  Re- 
search Laboratories:    1940  177 

Figure  48. — Research  Employment  in  Various  Indus- 
tries: 1940.  The  marks  on  the  bars  indicate  values 
comparable  with  those  of  figure  49.     See  footnote  15.       179 

Figure  49. — Research  Employment  in  Various  Indus- 
tries: 1927  and  1938.  The  upper  bar  of  each  pair  refers 
to  1927;  the  lower  bar  to  1938  180 

Figure  50. — The  Percentage  of  the  Dollar  Value  of 
Products  of  Various  Industries  Expended  for  Research: 
1927  and  1938.  The  upper  bar  of  each  pair  refers  to 
1927;  the  lower  bar  to  1938  181 


Figure  51. — Independent  Managements  Utilizing  Re- 
search, Distributed  According  to  Corporate  Size:   1940       182 

Figure  52. — Number  of  Research  Workers  Employed  by 

the  Corporate  Units  in  Various  Sized  Groups:    1940  183 

Figure  53. — The  Average  Research  Staffs  Maintained  by 

Corporate  Units  of  Various  Sizes:  1940  184 

Figure  54. — Research  Staffs   Maintained  by  Corporate 

Units  of  Various  Sizes  in  the  Chemical  Industry:    1940       185 

Figure  55.- — The  Average  Research  Staffs  Maintained  by 
Various  Corporate  I'nits  l)i.strib\ited  According  to 
Sales  and  to  Net  Income:    1938  18C 

Figure  56. — The  National  Physical  Laboratory,  Ted- 
dington,  England.     (After  A.  W.  Hobart)  190 

Figure  57. —  Kaiser  Wilhelni  Institute  for  Iron  and  Steel 
Research,  Diisseldorf,  Germany.  (Photo,  Siahl  und 
Eisen)  198 

Figure  58. —  Laboratory  of  the  German  Interessen 
Gesellschaft  Farbenindustrie.  (Photo,  Chcmnyco,  In- 
corporated) 200 

Figure  59. — Bacteriological  Analyses  by  Students, 
Institute  of  Research,  Berlin,  Germany.  (Photo, 
German  Library  of  Information)  202 

Figure  60. — The  Wellcome  Research  Institution,  London, 

England  203 

Figure  61. — The  Paint  Research  Station,  Teddington, 

England  204 

Figure  62. —  High-Speed  Wind  Tunnel,  Government 
Aviation  Research  Center,  Guidonia,  Italy.  (Hamil- 
ton Wright  Photo)  208 

Figure  03. — Jungfrau  Institute  for  Scientific  Research, 

The  Jungfrau,  Switzerland.     (R.  Schudel  Photo)  212 

Figure  64. — Hydrogen  Liquifier  in  the  Cryogenic  Hall  of 
the  Institute  of  Physical  Problems  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  the  L^nion  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics. 
(Soviet  Foto  Agency)  214 

Figure    65. — Laboratories    of    the    National    Research 

Council,  Ottawa,  Canada  218 

Figure  66. — Research  and  Development  Laboratories, 
Bakelite  Corporation,  Bloomfield,  New  Jersey.  (Unit 
of  Union  Carbide  and  Carbon  Corporation)  224 

Figure  67. — Research  Laboratory,  Monsanto  Chemical 

Company,  St.  Louis,  Missouri  225 

Figure  68. — A    Chemical    Research    Laboratory,   E.   1. 
du  Pont  de  Nemours   and    Company,  Incorporated, 
Wilmington,  Delaware  228 

Figure  69. — Main  Library,  The  Dow  Chemical  Com- 
pany, Midland,  Michigan  231 

Figure  70. — Entrance  to  Research  Laboratory,  Abbott 

Laboratories,  North  Chicago,  Illinois  233 

Figure  71. — Vacuum  Tubes  for  the  Production  of  Ultra- 
short Electromagnetic  Waves,  Bell  Telephone  Labora- 
tories, New  York,  New  York  238 

Figure  72. — High-Speed  Photographs  of  Combustion  in 
Gasoline  Engine,  General  Motors  Corporation,  Detroit, 
Michigan  244 

Figure  73. — Photoelastic  Pattern  of  Roller  Bearing 
Stresses.  Points  of  Maximum  Stress  Occur  Where 
the  Lines  are  Spaced  the  Closest,  Timken  Roller 
Bearing  Company,  Canton,  Ohio  245 

Figure  74. — Electron  Diffraction  Pattern  of  (a)  Plated 
and  (6)  Stripped  Metal  Surface.     (After  H.  R.  Nelson)       246 

Figure  75. —  Motion  of  a  Pelton  Wheel  Frozen  with  the 
Aid  of  High-Speed  Photography.  (After  Harold  E. 
Edgerton)  246 

Figure  76. — The  "Atom  Smasher,"  Westinghouse  Re- 
search Laboratory,  East  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania  247 


I'llKC 

Figure  77. —  Viscosimeter  for  Determination  of  the  Abso- 
lute Viscosity  of  Glass,  Owens-Illinois  Glass  Companj', 
Toledo,  Ohio  248 

Figure  78. — Organized  Physics  in  America  250 

Figure  79.^Studying      0.\idation-Reduction      Systems, 

Fleischmann  Laboratories,  New  York,  New  York  255 

Figure  80. — Corner    of    Food    Technology    Laboratory, 

General  Foods  Corporation,  Hoboken,  New  Jersey  257 

Figure  81. — Photoelectric  Colorimeter  for  Measuring 
Amount  of  Vitamin  .\  in  Foods,  Purina  Mills,  St.  Louis, 
Missouri  258 

Figure  82. — Corner  of  Research  Lal)cn'atory,  Swift  and 

Company,  Chicago,  Illinois  259 

Figure  83.— Determination  of  Thermal  Death  Time  of 
Micro-organisms,  H.  J.  Heinz  Laboratories,  Pittsburgh, 
Pennsylvania  203 

Figure  84. — Determinants  274 

Figure  85. — Bicircular  Coordinates  276 

Figure  86. —  Continued  Fractions  278 

Figure  87. —  Elliptic  Integrals  280 

Figure  88.— The  Isograph  282 

Figure  89. —  Templin  Precision  Metal  Working  Machine, 
Aluminimi  Research  Laboratories,  Aluminum  Com- 
pany of  America,  New  Kensington,  Pennsylvania  290 

Figure  90. — Spectroscopic      E.vamination      of      Metals, 

Chrysler  Corporation,  Detroit,  Michigan  291 

Figure  91. — Pilot  Plant  for  Study  of  Soybean  Oil  Extrac- 
tion, Ford  Motor  Company,  Saline,  Michigan  308 

Figure  92. — Chemical  Engineering  Laboratory,  Alumi- 
num Research  Laboratories,  Ahmiinum  Company  of 
America,  New  Kensington,  Pennsylvania  309 

Figure  93. — Modern  Dubbscracking  Plant,  Modeled  in 
Wood,  Equiflux  Heater  at  Left,  Universal  Oil  Products 
Company,  Chicago,  Illinois  312 

Figure  94. — Pilot  Plant  for  Manufacture  of  Chemicals 
from  Petroleum,  Emeryville  Laboratories,  Shell  Devel- 
opment Company,  P^meryville,  California  313 

Figure  95. — .Assembling    of    Million-Volt    X-ray    Unit, 

General  Electric  Company,  Schenectady,  New  York  318 

Figure  96. — Vacuum  Electric  Furnace  for  Production  of 
Single  Crystals  of  Gold  and  Copper.  Westinghouse 
Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company,  East  Pitts- 
burgh, Pennsylvania  319 

Figure  97. — Surge  Generator,  Wagner  Electric  Corpora- 
tion, St.  Louis,  Missouri  321 

Figure  98. — Equipment  for  Investigation  of  Heat  Dis- 
tribution in  a  Conventional  Railway  Journal  Box  As- 
sembly, Railway  Service  and  Supply  Corporation, 
Indianapolis,  Indiana  330 

Figure  99. — "Squeeze"  Test  Machine  for  Subjecting 
Passenger  Cars  to  Compression  Load  of  900,000  pounds, 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Research  Laboratories,  Altoona, 
Pennsylvania  331 

Figure  100. — Wind    Tunnel    Apparatus,    Aerodynamics 

Laboratory,  Chrysler  Corporation,   Detroit,   Michigan       336 

Figure  101. — Six-Plate  Centrifugal  Molecular  Fraction- 
ating Still  in  Operation,  Distillation  Products,  Incor- 
porated, Rochester,  New  York.  (Subsidiary  of  General 
Mills,  Incorporated,  and  Eastman  Kodak  Company)  355 

Figure  102. — Research   Department   Library,   American 

Can  Company,  Maywood,  Illinois  357 

Figure  103. — Source  of  Pure  Beams  of  Protons  for  Bio- 
physical Research  359 

Figure  104. — National  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Na- 
tional Research  Council,  Washington,  D.  C.  367 


SUMMARY    OF    FINDINGS    AND    RECOMMENDATIONS 


Findings 

1.  Continuous  and  increasing  application  of  science 
by  industry  is  contributing  most  significantly  to  the 
high  standard  of  American  Hving.  Viewed  in  this  Hght 
industrial  research  is  a  major  national  resom-ce. 

2.  The  United  States  has  become  the  acknowledged 
leader  in  industrial  research. 

3.  American  industry  employs  over  70,000  research 
workers  in  over  2,200  laboratories  at  an  estimated 
annual  cost,  based  on  an  average  of  figures  reported, 
of  the  order  of  $300,000,000. 

4.  Industrial  research  is  generally  accepted  both  by 
informed  labor  and  by  informed  management  as  a  desir- 
able and  constructive  force.  Organized  labor  is  offi- 
cially on  record  in  favor  of  research,  and  the  annual 
reports  of  many  of  the  most  successful  corporations 
have  stressed  the  relation  of  research  to  earning 
power. 

5.  Small  and  moderate-sized  companies  were  found 
whose  principal  means  of  competitive  defense  against 
larger  companies  is  industrial  research.  One  company 
mentioned  specifically  that,  as  a  defense  against  compe- 
tition from  a  merger  of  other  companies  in  the  indus- 
try, a  policy  of  research  was  adopted  and  special  prod- 
ucts were  developed,  and  in  consequence  there  has  been 
continuing  heavy  demand. 

6.  One-hundred  eighty-one  manufacturers  report  ex- 
penditures for  industrial  research  of  2  percent  of  gross 
income  as  a  median,  the  percent  varying  with  company 
size  and  from  one  industry  to  another. 

7.  Industrial  research  is  possible  for  all  industrial 
units,  small  and  large.  The  distribution  of  research  in 
industry  seems  to  foUow  no  definite  rule  but  to  depend 
rather  upon  management  policy.  It  is  apparent  that 
research  is  most  active  in  companies  utilizing  techni- 
cally trained  men  in  design,  production,  or  sales  activity. 

8.  Industrial  research  acts  as  a  protection  against 
unfavorable  changes  taking  place  both  within  and  with- 
out an  industry. 

9.  A  great  difference  exists  in  the  direct  utilization  of 
research  by  different  industries — a  few  industries  still 
depend  almost  altogether  upon  sources  of  supply  for 
their  technical  advance  while  others  have  themselves 
made  great  strides  in  the  application  of  science. 

10.  Industry  looks  to  the  universities  for  trained  tech- 
nical men,  and  for  principal  advances  on  the  frontiers 
of  science.  However,  it  is  of  interest  that  advances 
are  not  infrequently  made  on  these  frontiers  in  the 
course  of  research  projects  originally  designed  to 
achieve  immediate  commercial  objectives. 


11.  The  United  States  is  now  virtually  independent 
of  foreign  sources  for  adequate  apparatus  and  facilities 
for  laboratory  research. 

12.  Cooperation  and  coordination  in  industrial  re- 
search take  various  forms.  Some  industries  cooperate 
through  associations,  especially  in  studying  problems 
common  to  an  industry.  Frequent  instances  of  coop- 
eration between  noncompeting  companies  are  noted. 
It  is  the  belief  of  those  responsible  for  this  report  that 
the  danger  of  uimecessary  duplication  of  research  by 
competitive  industry  will  remain  slight.  No  special 
steps  are  recommended  at  this  time  to  improve  coordi- 
nation and  to  prevent  duplication. 

12.  Relations  between  research  men  in  Government 
and  in  industry  are,  in  general,  close  and  cordial.  In- 
dustry generally  is  continuously  cooperating  recipro- 
cally with  the  Army  and  Navy  and  with  the  technical 
branches  of  other  departments  and  bureaus  in  the  Gov- 
ernment. A  factor  reported  as  interfering  to  some 
degree  with  even  more  effective  use  of  industrial  coop- 
eration by  War  and  Navy  Departments  is  the  extension 
of  secrecy  to  the  point  of  not  informing  industry  freely 
of  troublesome  problems.  It  is  possible  that  less  re- 
striction might  be  placed  on  information  about  existence 
and  nature  of  problems,  while  at  the  same  time  taking 
care  that  the  solutions,  when  found,  are  treated  with 
discretion. 

13.  Some  branches  of  applied  science  are  more  highly 
developed  in  industry  than  others.  Notably  chemistry 
has  been  widely  accepted  and  applied,  and  well  over  a 
quarter  of  the  members  of  industrial  research  staffs  are 
chemists  or  chemical  engineers.  Biology,  however, 
has  not  obtained  the  same  general  acceptance  even  in 
the  food  industries  where  there  is  great  opportunity 
for  wider  utilization  of  applied  biology.  It  is  believed 
that  the  biologists  themselves  could  take  steps  toward 
correcting  this  situation,  as  did  the  physicists  in  the 
formation  and  operation  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Physics. 

14.  There  is  opportunity  for  some  American  imiver- 
sity  to  establish  a  comprehensive  curriculum  in  applied 
mathematics.  The  number  of  men  engaged  in  applied 
mathematics  is  comparatively  small  but  their  work  is 
extremely  significant.  It  could  be  made  even  more 
significant  through  special  educational  facihties. 

15.  Industrial  research  men  are  members  of  a  pro- 
fession with  liigh  ethical  standards.  Compensation  for 
industrial  scientists  is  in  general  comparable  with  that 
for  men  with  equivalent  responsibihty  elsewhere  in 
industry. 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


16.  Industrial  research  lias  an  ever- widening  field, 
and  shows  no  tendency  to  terminate  or  even  to  be  re- 
stricted for  lack  of  new  opportunity. 

Recommendations 

TO  INDUSTRY: 

1.  Several  large  industries  are  found  to  lack  extensive 
provision  for  research.  It  is  recommended  tliat  leader.-^ 
in  such  industries  associate  themselves  with  representa- 
tives of  the  National  Research  Council  in  a  sj-stemati- 
cally  organized  investigation  of  the  possibilities  of  their 
undertaking  industrial  research,  and  of  practical  ways 
and  means  for  realizing  tlie  possibilities. 

2.  Although  no  attempt  is  made  in  this  report  to 
define  a  procedure  for  initiating  research,  the  various 
studies  and  the  introduction  suggest  several  sources  of 
information  and  cooperation  in  providhig  for  research. 
It  is  recommended  to  companies  not  now  conducting 
research,  that  they  consult  one  or  several  of  the  sources 
of  cooperation  indicated  in  this  report  and  consider 
carefully  the  establishment  of  research  as  a  continuing 
activity.  The  -section  on  small  industries  and  the 
introduction,  in  particular,  may  be  found  helpful  for 
this  purpose. 

3.  In  order  that  more  extensive  and  effective  applica- 
tion of  the  biological  sciences  in  the  food  industry  may 
be  encouraged,  it  is  recommended  to  companies  in  the 
prepared  and  preserved  food  fields,  that  common 
ground  be  sought  for  the  joint  support  of  fundamental 
biological  research. 

4.  Some  companies  publish  scientific  findings  regu- 
larly, and,  in  general,  publication  is  permitted  when 
protection  of  the  new  findings  has  been  assured.  In 
the  opinion  and  exporience  of  the  committee,  industries 
have  not  only  not  sufl'ered,  but  have  profited  by 
adopting  a  liberal  publication  policy. 

TO  LABOR  AND  INDUSTRY: 

5.  An  almost  untouched  and  extremely  profitable 
field  for  cooperation  is  believed  to  exist  in  the  conduct 
of  research  on  fatigue  and  related  matters  affecting  the 
welfare  of  labor,  and  thus,  also,  industry.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  labor  and  industry  join  in  initiating 
systematic  research  in  this  field. 

TO  GOVERNMENT: 

C.  Industrial  research  as  a  national  resource  capable 


of  contributing  to  public  welfare  should  be  fostered. 
Any  restrictive  policies  on  research  on  the  part  of  Gov- 
ernment are  opposed  to  the  public  interest.  For 
example,  any  tendency  toward  insisting  upon  capitaliza- 
tion of  research  expenditures  for  tax  purposes  might 
prove  a  dangerous  threat  to  the  welfare  of  industrial 
research. 

7.  In  several  branches  of  [niic  and  applied  science, 
abstracts  of  the  technical  literature  are  supported  by 
scientific  societies.  Such  support  is  becoming  increas- 
ingl}'  burdensome  and  increasingly  inadequate  in  the 
face  of  the  enormous  and  rapidly  expanding  amount  of 
technical  matter  being  published.  An  excellent  means 
of  Government  contribution  to  industry  would  be  proper 
provision  for  systematic  and  complete  publication  of 
abstracts  of  scientific  and  technical  literature. 

S.  Provision  should  be  made  for  the  extension  and 
revision  of  the  International  Critical  Tables  of  Numer- 
ical Data,  Physics,  Chemistiy,  and  TcchnologA',  origin- 
ally published  in  1926  under  the  auspices  of  the  Inter- 
national Research  Council  and  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences.  These  critical  tables  are  the  principal 
combined  source  of  authentic  records  of  properties  of 
materials.  As  such  they  should  be  brought  and 
kept  up-to-date. 

9.  Extension  of  research  means  increasing  dependence 
upon  adequate  and  correct  standards  of  reference. 
Establishment  of  standards  requires  most  exacting  and 
long-continued  laboratory  work,  a  high  caliber  of 
technical  personnel,  and,  frequently,  expensive  facili- 
ties. There  is  need  for  much  more  research  on  stand- 
ards of  measurement  than  is  now  conducted,  and  it  is 
recommended  that  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards 
be  given  encouragement  and  increased  tangible  support 
for  research  on  standards.  It  is  also  recommended 
that  any  appropriations  for  such  support  provide 
ample  funds  for  adequate  publication  and  distribution 
of  tlie  Bureau's  findings. 

10.  In  order  that  findings  of  Government  labora- 
tories generally  be  made  readily  and  continuously 
available  to  industry,  it  is  recommended  that  Govern- 
ment bureaus  receiving  appropriations  for  scientific 
work  be  less  restricted  than  at  present  in  allowances 
for  representation  at  technical  meetings,  for  publica- 
tion of  findings,  and  in  general,  for  cooperation  with 
iiuliistriiil  technical  workers. 


SECTION  I 
REPORT  ON  INDUSTRIAL  RESEARCH  AS  A  NATIONAL 
RESOURCE— INTRODUCTION 


Contents 

Page. 

A  Report  on  Industrial  Research  as  a  National  Resource — Introduction  5 

Purpose  5 

Scope  5 

The  Nature  of  Industrial  Research  5 

Research  Personnel  8 

Place  of  Industrial  Research  in  the  Industrial  Organization  9 

Research  in  the  National  Economy  10 

Research  and  the  Small  Company  11 

"Examples  of  Research  in  Industry"  12 

Location  and  Extent  of  Research  Activity  in  the  United  States  13 

Research  Abroad  13 

"Men  in  Research"  14 

Bibliography  16 


SECTION  I 
A  REPORT  ON  INDUSTRIAL  RESEARCH  AS  A  NATIONAL 

RESOURCE— INTRODUCTION 

By  Raymond  Stevens 
Vice  President,  Arthur  D.  Little,  Inc.,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Director,  Survey  of  Research  in  Industry 


Purpose 

This  report  on  industrial  research  in  the  United 
States  is  presented  by  the  National  Research  Council, 
at  the  request  of  the  National  Resources  Planning 
Board,  as  one  of  a  series  on  research  as  a  national  re- 
source. In  accordance  with  the  general  specifications 
suggested  for  it,  the  report  discusses  the  nature,  extent 
and  welfare  of  industrial  research  but  does  not  attempt 
a  catalog  of  new  wealth  coming  from  the  laboratories. 

Even  a  cursory  review  of  the  work  in  the  various 
applied  sciences  will  show  the  wealth-producing  nature 
of  industrial  research.  It  is  a  resource  with  promising 
new  areas  under  development  and  with  no  sign  of  deple- 
tion. The  first  of  the  applied  sciences  to  be  exploited 
in  the  industrial  laboratories  still  produces  in  amounts 
apparently  inexhaustible. 

Considered  as  an  industry  by  itself,  industrial  research 
is  not  small,  as  it  employs  over  70,000  people,  but  it 
is  based  on  the  work  of  a  comparatively  small  group  of 
specially  qualified  men.  The  activities,  objectives  and 
policies  of  research  men  are  described  in  this  report  in 
studies  in  which  they  themselves  discuss  the  state  of 
their  several  applied  sciences.  In  some  instances  means 
are  suggested  by  which  their  branches  of  research  may 
be  fostered. 

Scope 

An  endeavor  has  been  made  to  canvass  the  known 
industrial  laboratories  in  the  country,  bringing  up  to 
date  previous  statistical  information  and  supplementing 
it  with  new  data.  This  material  is  summarized  in  the 
section  on  Location  and  Extent  of  Research  Activity 
in  the  United  States.  A  directory  of  all  laboratories 
thus  canvassed  will  be  published  separately  by  the 
Council.  In  most  of  the  remainder  of  the  report, 
however,  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  less  tangible 
aspects. 

The  brief  review  of  research  policies  abroad  has  been 
considered  desirable  for  comparative  purposes,  while 
the  review  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  industrial  re- 
search in  the  United  States  is  intended  as  an  aid  in  the 
proper  comprehension  of  the  research  structure  as  it 
now  exists.  The  present  status  of  industrial  research 
in  three  different  industries  is  described  to  illustrate 


the  work  of  physicists,  chemists,  and  aeronautical 
engineers  in  aeronautics;  chemists  and  chemical  en- 
gineers in  the  petroleum  industry;  and  metallurgists 
with  iron  and  steel. 

A  few  special  aspects  of  research  are  discussed  in 
some  detail,  but  notable  omissions  are  due  to  the  belief 
that  the  matter  is  covered  in  publications  readily  avail- 
able and  listed  m  the  bibliography. 

In  particular,  organizational  relationship  of  research, 
the  subject  of  several  surveys  and  reports,  is  not  covered 
by  a  separate  study,  although  it  is  touched  upon  briefly 
in  this  introduction.  One  obvious  oniission,  any  dis- 
cussion of  patent  policy,  is  significant,  as  patent  policy 
has  important  bearing  on  the  health  and  growth  of 
industrial  research.  \Vliat  that  bearing  is,  and  what, 
if  anything,  should  be  done  about  the  present  patent 
system,  is  the  subject  of  other  current  investigations, 
more  detailed  and  extensive  than  could  be  included 
here.'  It  is  generally  recognized,  however,  that  patents 
play  an  important  part  in  the  motivation  of  research, 
and  no  changes  in  the  patent  system  should  be  made 
without  most  careful  consideration  of  possible  efi'ects 
on  the  welfare  of  industrial  research. 

Another  omission  will  bear  comment:  The  tie  between 
industrial  research  organization  and  the  university  is 
close  and  friendly,  with  recognition  of  mutual  depend- 
ence. Work  on  the  frontiers  of  science  is  carried  on 
principally  in  the  university,  from  which  the  stream  of 
youth  carries  its  results  continuously  uito  industry. 
No  study  of  industrial  research  can  be  complete  without 
consideration  of  research  work  and  policies  in  the 
imiversities.  Some  aspects  of  university  research  were 
covered  in  the  preceding  report  (that  on  Government 
research)  but  a  more  extensive  review  is  desirable. 

The  authors  of  the  various  studies  have  been  the 
final  authority  on  content  and  wording  of  their  sections 
and  to  them  must  go  both  credit  and  responsibility  for 
the  facts,  conclusions,  and  recommendations  they 
present. 

The  Nature  of  Industrial  Research 

The  Century  Dictionary  defines  research  as  "A 
continued  careful  inquiry  or  investigation  into  a  subject 

■  The  Confeience  Board  and  American  Engineering  Council.  Joint  patent  inquiry 
for  the  National  Association  of  Manufacturers,  1940. 


6 


Xational  Resources  Planning  Board 


in  ordpr  to  discover  facts  or  priiiciiilcs,"  nnd  tlicre  are 
other  good  definitions,  sucli  as  tliis:  "Jiesearcii  is  tiie 
organized  and  systematic  search  for  new  knowledge." 
Unless  these  broad  definitions  are  limited,  however, 
research  may  include  many  and,  at  times,  curious 
activities.  "Research"  may  determine  the  type  of 
radio  program  preferred  by  the  largest  number  of 
customers  in  a  particular  income  class,  or  the  market 
available  for  automatic  pencils.  "Kcsearch"  may 
ascertain  the  cost  of  manufacture  of  dry  batteries,  or 
the  preferred  practice  in  operating  purchasing  dei)art- 
ments.  "Research"  may  disclose  the  designs  used  by 
various  nationalities  for  foot  coverings,  and  lead  to  new 
styles  in  shoes.  All  these  activities  can  be  called 
"research,"  and  all  maj'  be  conducted  by  industry— yet 
I'.one  is  what  is  here  termed  "industrial  research.'' 

Industrial  research  as  the  activity  of  over  2,200 
industrial  laboratories  consists  of  organized  and  sys- 
tematic search  for  new  scientific  facts  and  principles 
which  may  be  applicable  to  the  creation  of  new  wealth, 
and  presupposes  the  emplovmcnt  of  men  educated  in 
the  various  scientific  disciplines.  The  line  of  de- 
marcation between  such  research  and  the  technical 
utilization  of  research  findings  is  seldom  clearly  defined. 
Usually  the  initial  stages  of  commercialization  are 
carried  on  under  laboratory  auspices.  There  is  wide 
difference  of  oi)inion  as  to  the  point  at  wliich  "research" 
stops  and  commercial  development  ;uid  o[)("ration 
b(gin. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  classify  the  stages 
through  wliich  research  travels  on  its  way  toward 
adoption  of  results  by  industry.  At  the  foundation  of 
all  industrial  research  is  a  type  referred   to,   in   this 


report,  as  "fundamental"  and  because  such  research 
offers  best  promise  of  new  industries  and  of  nuijor 
contributions  to  old  industries,  special  consideration 
is  given  it  in  this  report.  Dr.  C.  M.  A.  Stinc  in  his 
section  describes  "fundamental  research"  as  "quest  for 
facts  about  the  properties  and  behaviour  of  matter, 
without  regard  to  a  specific  application  of  the  facts 
discovered."  One  stage  removed  is  "pioneering  re- 
search," and  the  distinction  made  is  principally  one  of 
objective.  If  a  definite  objective  is  stated,  particularly 
if  it  ai)plies  to  specific  manufactured  products,  "the 
work  becomes  pioneering  applied  research."  "The 
investigation  of  monomolecular  films  by  a  producer  of 
electrical  equipnu^nt  might  be  fundamental  research, 
whereas  the  investigation  of  monomolecular  films  by 
an  oil  refiner  engaged  in  the  production  of  lubricants 
might  largely  assume  the  complexion  of  applied  re- 
search. The  complexion  of  the  research  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  problem  and  the  nature  of  the 
agency  carrying  on  the  investigation." 

Once  an  opportunity  for  commercial  development 
becomes  apparent,  there  is  usually  a  period  in  which 
"test-tube"  or  "bench"  research  is  conducted.  Ap- 
paratus used  is  extremely  limited  and  usually  relatively 
crude.  This  has  been  true,  for  example,  in  the  develop- 
ment of  most  of  the  plastics  that  have  attained  such 
wide  acceptance.  It  avoids  heavy  expenditures  in 
equipment  or  personnel  in  a  project  which  at  this  stage 
is  in  effect  a  speculation. 

Following  the  bench  stage  there  comes  the  pilot 
plant.  For  example,  in  the  manufacture  of  spun  glass 
a  small  unit  was  developed  and  operated  for  a  con- 
siderable period.     It  was  not  expected  that  the  product 


FiGCUE  1.-    KfSfUich  Laboratories.  General  Klectric  Cuiupany,  Schunectady,  New  York 


Industrial  Research 


of  this  unit  would  be  acceptable  commercially,  aiul 
many  changes  were  anticipated  before  the  desired 
product  and  procedure  were  achieved.  These  varia- 
tions in  the  process  coidd  be  made  without  enormous 
expense,  and  mistakes  on  this  scale  are  not  ruinous.  As 
the  process  was  then  still  in  the  research  stage,  various 
trials  could  be  conducted  without  delayina:  production 
or  interfering  with  the  momentum  of  commercial 
operation.  In  this  instance,  for  example,  the  high- 
speed-photography method  was  applied  to  the  study  of 
glass  spinning  and  this  made  various  refinements 
possible. 

Kesearch  continues  after  the  product  is  in  actual 
production.  Obtaining  a  satisfactory  coating  for  glass 
fibers,  as  for  air  filters,  for  example,  is  typical  of  the 
product-improvement  assignment  frequently  received 
by  the  research  laboratory.  At  the  same  time  in- 
vestigations are  made  of  various  applications  when  the 
fringe  between  sales  and  research  has  been  reached. 
Commonly,  in  the  market  introduction  of  a  new  article 
research  men  cooperate  with  the  sales  force  and 
frequently  even  become  salesmen  themselves  tem- 
poraril}'. 

WTien  market  or  production  difficulties  cannot 
readily  be  solved  by  production  or  sales  personnel, 
membei-s  of  the  research  staff  are  frequently  called 
upon  to  assist.  Experience  with  the  initial  coating 
of  photographic  plates  is  typical  of  the  kind  of  trouble 
that    develops    after    the    product   is   already   on    the 


market.  The  coating  of  these  plates  proved  to  have 
poor  keeping  qualities  for  unknown  reasons.  By  dint 
of  careful  investigation  it  was  eventually  found  that 
the  difficulty  was  in  the  gelatin  and  that  a  special  type 
was  necessary.  Such  investigations  are  frequently 
known  by  research  men  as  "trouble  shooting." 

As  a  final  stage  in  the  develoiiment  of  a  new  process 
or  product,  technical  control  of  process  and  quality  is 
frequently  established,  providing  for  analyses  or  tests 
at  various  points  in  order  to  maintain  the  original 
procedure  and  the  standards  established. 

In  this  gradation  from  fundamental  or  pioneering 
research  down  to  "trouble  shooting"  various  steps  and 
"types"  of  research  have  been  recognized  by  authors 
and  research  men.  Routine  testing  and  production 
control  are  generally  considered  outside  the  definition, 
but  there  is  no  such  general  agreement  on  other  fringes 
of  research,  as  for  example,  at  the  border  line  between 
research  in  applied  physics  and  the  design  of  new 
mechanisms.  Some  research  laboratory  organizations 
include  design  personnel  that  in  others  would  be  in- 
cluded in  engineering  departments. 

It  will  also  be  apparent  that  dependence  upon 
organization  dift'erentiates  modern  industrial  research 
from  the  practice  of  the  individual  inventor.  In  a 
typical  project  a  new  type  of  yeast  is  noted  by  a 
research  bacteriologist,  possibly  a  variation  giving 
better  flavor  or  greater  yield.  It  is  investigated  in 
the   test-tube  stage,   and   its  preferred  nutrients  and 


Figure  2. — Research  L:i 


iries,  American  Cyanamid  Company,  Stamford,  ConDecticut 


8 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


growing  conditions  are  determined.  Then  a  chemist 
investigates  commercial  nutrients,  and  possibly  a  com- 
promise is  reached  with  the  bacteriologist  between  the 
ideal  and  the  practical.  Then  a  chemical  engineer 
designs  and  operates  a  pilot  plant,  and  later  a  full 
scale  plant  is  designed,  installed,  and  initially  operated, 
possibly  with  the  help  of  otlier  engineers.  The  direc- 
tor of  research  is  responsible  for  the  coordination  of  the 
work  of  the  biologist,  the  chemist,  and  the  engineers 
as  tlio  project  goes  forward  through  successive  stages. 
Modern  research  laboratories  thus  utilize  men  trained  in 
the  various  sciences,  drawing  together  a  variety  of 
disciplines. 

Research  has  been  called  "an  attitude  of  mind"  and 
is,  after  all,  the  sum  total  of  thought  and  activity  of 
research  men.  The  early  protagonists  of  industrial 
research  had  in  mind  a  practical  constructive  force  that 
promised  great  things  for  humanity;  in  the  pursuit  of 
research  they  found  adventure  and  the  zeal  and  satis- 
faction of  the  crusader.  No  brief  dictionary-type  defi- 
nition conveys  any  understanding  of  what  these  re- 
search men  themselves  meant  when  they  used  the  term 
"research." 

The  best  practical  definition  appears  to  be  a  descrip- 
tion of  industrial  research  in  its  various  aspects,  and 
such  a  description  is  presented  here  in  the  several 
studies  written  bj'  research  men.  Differences  of 
opinion  on  terminology  will  be  noted,  but  the  composite 
should  give  reasonably  satisfactory  comprehension  of 
the  term.  In  spite  of  the  differences,  one  common 
denominator  will  be  noted — the  sincere  endeavor  of  all 
true  industrial  research  men  to  work  toward  making 
available  to  the  public  greater  physical  wealth  and 
well-being. 

Research  Personnel 

A  few  requisites  for  research  men  are  generally 
recognized  and  first  among  them  is  intellectual  in- 
tegrity— the  abihty  to  recognize  truth,  and  the  wiUing- 
aess  to  accept  it.  Technical  competence  is  assumed, 
but  a  number  of  personal  qualifications  are  considered 
of  such  significance  that  they  are  discussed  in  some 
detail  in  the  study  of  Careers  in  Research.  The  indi- 
vidual who  qualifies  fully  for  true  research  is  rare,  but 
"the  field  of  industrial  research  is  so  broad  that  there  is 
no  standard  type  of  individual  for  whom  specifications 
can  be  drawn." 

In  most  research  organizations,  a  man  with  the 
proper  quahfications  can  find  a  life  career  with  tangible 
compensation  generallj'  on  a  par  with  or  even  above 
that  of  technically  trained  men  with  equivalent  responsi- 
bilities elsewhere  in  the  company.-    Frequently  men 


■  White,  Alfred  H.    OccupatlODS  and  earnings  of  cbemlcal  engineering  graduate::. 
Amrrican  Imliliile  of  Chemical  Enginem,  TTanmctiom,  t7,  235  0931). 


arc  transferred  to  operating  or  sales  positions  because  of 
individual  (jualifications  and  preferences,  and  such 
transfers  usually  result  in  more  effective  liaison  between 
research  and  operating  departments. 

As  contrasted  with  many  other  fields,  research  is  a 
profession  in  which,  because  it  depends  so  largely  on 
individual  expression,  workers  cannot  well  be  classified 
on  a  salary  or  any  other  basis.  Men  with  high  creative 
urge  and  scientific  curiosity  find  satisfaction  in  initiating 
improvements  that  others  may  carry  forward  to  the 
great  benefit  of  employer  and  consumer.  Association 
with  others  of  similar  interests  and  intellectual  activity 
makes  a  strong  appeal.  Recognition  through  publica- 
tion, permitted  by  most  industrial  research  laboratories 
when  it  is  not  prejudicial  to  company  interest,  is  a  source 
of  considerable  satisfaction. 

With  the  present  enormous  mass  of  technical  data 
available,  the  research  personnel  serves  as  an  intelli- 
gence department  to  the  modem  company.  Properly 
organized  and  managed,  such  a  department  frequently 
makes  unnecessary  any  formal  exchange  of  information 
between  companies — all  draw  from  the  same  reservoir; 
and  occasionally  identical  advances  occur  simultane- 
ously in  several  companies,  as  was  true  with  solvent 
refining  in  the  petroleum  industry.  The  uniform  level 
of  advancement  within  industries  maintaining  re- 
search— petroleum  is  only  a  conspicuous  example — 
indicates  a  constant  and  rapid  transfer  and  develop- 
ment of  technical  intelligence  through  normal  channels, 
usually  without  the  necessity  for  official  agreements. 
In  some  smaller  companies  much  of  the  time  of  research 
men  is  given  to  keeping  in  touch  with  technical  advances 
in  universities,  in  reading  pertinent  technical  publica- 
tions, and  in  conferring  with  technical  sales-service  men 
from  the  larger  manufacturers.  Companies  lacking 
technically  trained  men  for  such  "intelligence  service" 
are  at  a  disadvantage  and  even  find  difficulty  in  fully 
using  the  technical  assistance  offered  by  sales-service 
men  or  professional  consultants. 

Practice  as  to  publication  of  research  findings  varies 
from  company  to  compan}'.  At  one  extreme  is  the 
company  unwilling  to  let  the  name  or  number  of  its 
research  personnel  be  known;  most  companies  are  less 
secretive  and  permit  occasional  publication  and  en- 
courage staff  members  to  attend  the  scientific  meetings. 
At  the  other  extreme  are  companies  which  themselves 
publish  scientific  papers  and  consider  such  publication 
not  only  as  a  form  of  building  "good  will"  and  prestige, 
but  as  serving  the  public  welfare  and  particularly  as 
assisting  in  the  further  development  of  their  research 
men.  In  many  instances,  at  least,  publication  has 
resulted  in  professional  advancement  to  the  individual, 
and  both  through  his  development  and  through  associ- 
ations created  with  scientific  workers  in  related  fields, 
has  benefited  his  employer. 


Industrial  Research 


9 


Place  of  Industrial  Research 
in  the  Industrial  Organization 

It  is  generally  accepted  that  research,  as  a  staff 
function,  receives  the  direct  attention  and  policj'  super- 
vision of  the  principal  executive  management  of  the 
industrial  corporation.  There  is  no  standard  pattern 
for  the  place  of  the  research  department  in  the  organi- 
zation, however,  and  occasional  attempts  are  still 
made  to  subordinate  research  to  production,  sales,  or 
other  functions.  Wliere  research  has  been  success- 
fully established  on  a  continuing  basis,  such  subordina- 
tion to  other  functions  is  not  general  practice. 

Committee  management  is  found  to  be  more  frequent 
for  research  than  in  otlier  organizational  units  in  in- 
dustry. Such  committees  represent  other  major  divi- 
sions and  define  broad  research  objectives,  establish 
policies,  and  e.xercise  financial  control.  The  research 
director  supervises  the  research  within  the  limits  thus 
imposed.  In  the  absence  of  such  practice,  equivalent 
provision  for  cooperation  with  other  departments 
usually  is  provided. 

In  a  majority  of  companies  questioned  on  the  subject, 
the  final  decision  in  authorizing  individual  research 
and  development  projects  rests  with  an  officer  of  the 
company,  most  frequently  the  president;  only  19  per- 
cent rely  upon  a  committee,  with  the  president  usually 
a  member.^  This  may  be  the  executive  or  management 
committee,  although  special  research  committees, 
planning  committees,  "construction  and  experimental" 
committees,  and  budget  committees  are  mentioned. 

No  standard  practice  has  been  found  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  amount  to  be  spent  by  a  company  on 
research.  Some  companies  attempt  to  establish  a  rela- 
tion between  expected  value  and  the  budget,  a  basis 
requiring  rather  clearly  defined  objectives.  A  few  set 
aside  a  percentage  of  gross  sales,  while  most  use  a 
combmation  of  methods.^  The  proper  ratio  cannot 
easily  be  determined,  since  it  varies  with  the  nature  of 
the  product,  the  value  added  by  manufacture,  size  of 
company,  and  many  other  factors.  Inquiry  in  a 
variety  of  industries  has  shown,  however,  that  per- 
centages amountmg  to  from  Yi  to  3  percent  of  gross 
sales  are  frequently  found  where  research  is  well  estab- 
lished. As  low  as  one-tenth  of  1  percent  or  less  may 
be  found  within  the  packing  mdustry,  for  example, 
while  in  chemicals  5  or  more  percent  of  gross  income  is 
frequently  noted. 

Estimates  or  even  records  of  amounts  expended  for 
research  are  difScult  to  secure  because  of  the  loose 
definition  of  the  term.  It  is  seldom  possible  to  attain 
unanimity  of  opinion,  even  within  one  company,  as  to 

'  National  Aasociation  of  Cost  Accountanlt  Bulletin,  XX,  No.  13,  Sec.  UI  (March 
1939). 

*  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  Department  of  Manufacture. 
Budgetary  and  accounting  procedures  for  organized  industrial  research.  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  1937.  pp.  4,  5. 


what  constitutes  research.  In  particular,  quality 
control  tests  and  analyses  frequently  contribute  to 
product  improvement  and  may  in  part  properly  be 
called  research;  similarly  "trouble  shooting,"  routine 
investigation  of  production  or  sales  difficulties,  may  lead 
to  change  of  process  or  product.  Costs  reported  most 
carefully  may  not  be  presented  on  a  basis  directly 
comparable  with  figures  from  other  companies  prepared 
witli  equal  care. 

The  principal  expense  in  research  laboratories  is  in 
wages  and  salaries,  occasionally  of  the  order  of  75  or 
more  percent.^  For  the  purpose  of  estimating  amounts 
spent  by  industry  on  research,  a  figure  of  $5,000  per 
man  per  year  has  been  used  frequently  by  well  informed 
research  executives.  Recent  sampling  inquiry  of  a 
number  of  laboratories  for  the  purpose  of  this  report 
gives  an  average  annual  cost  per  man  of  approximately 
$4,000.  This  cost  includes  both  professional  and  non- 
professional men  as  reported  in  the  National  Research 
Council  Directory  of  Industrial  Research  Laboratories. 
Such  an  average  per  person  cost  cannot  safely  be  used 
for  any  one  company  as  wide  variation — from  $2,500 
to  over  $9,000 — is  shown  on  the  returns  made.  An 
average  figure  of  between  $4,000  and  $5,000,  however,  is 
considered  roHable  in  estimating  the  total  amount  spent 
by  industry  or  any  large  section  of  industry  on  indus- 
trial research.  In  the  present  canvass  of  laboratories, 
over  70,000  research  workers  have  been  reported.  Close 
estimates  are  out  of  the  question  because  there  is  no 
precise  and  generally  accepted  definition,  but  on  the 
basis  of  this  number  of  men  and  the  average  cost  per 
man  indicated,  it  may  be  estimated  in  round  figures 
that  American  industry  is  spending  over  $300,000,000 
per  year  on  research. 

It  is  impossible  to  measure  the  indirect  benefit  of 
organized  industrial  research,  but  it  is  often  claimed 
that  research  benefits  management,  since  it  increases 
flexibilitj'  in  the  face  of  changing  conditions  and  leads 
to  the  adoption  of  research  methods  in  management 
practice.  Many  annual  corporation  reports  have  cited 
organized  research  as  contributing  to  growth  and 
strengtli.  A  comparison  of  a  group  of  companies 
known  to  maintain  strong  research  departments  with 
another  group  taken  at  random  will  show  how  research 
and  successful  management  run  together.  Whether 
research  is  a  significant  factor  in  aiding  good  manage- 
ment or  whether  it  has  merely  been  adopted  by  such 
management  is  not  easUy  demonstrated. 

The  relationship  of  labor  to  industrial  research  in- 
volves chiefly  the  somewhat  controversial  question  of 
technological  unemploj^ment.  As  contrasted  with  labor- 
saving  equipment,  consolidations,  plant  relocations, 
and  many  phases  of  technological  changes,  industrial 


'  Transcript  of  discussion.    Meeting,  Committee  on  Survey  of  Research  In  In 
dustry,  December  6,  1939,  p.  12. 


10 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


rcscaicli  serves  rallier  to  increase  oi-  sliil)ilize  eini)lo3"- 
incnt.  Organizeil  labor  has  odicially  recorded  its 
active  approval  of  the  eiieounifieineiit  of  apphed  science, 
and  informed  tiiought  in  tlie  fields  of  labor  organization 
and  of  sociolog}'  recognize  technological  advancement 
as  both  desirable  and  inevitable.  ° 

One  important  phase  of  labor  relations  concerns  the 
temporary  efTcct  upon  employment  of  any  change  what- 
ever, including  changes  produced  l)y  organized  indus- 
trial research.  Within  an  industry  the  necessitj'  of 
reducing  the  effect  of  change  upon  employment  presents 
a  problem  to  management.  Procedures  have  been 
proposed,  for  example,  in  the  railroad  industry  '  recog- 
nizing and  providing  for  employee  displacement  due 
to  labor  saving  improvement.  Labor  approves  tech- 
nological advances  in  general  while  endeavoring  to 
alleviate  immediate  and  femporarj'  unemployment 
conse(|uei;ces,*  '  and  to  increase  participation  in  eco- 
nomic benefits. 

'  Reported  at  i-onfcrcnce  arranged  by  Beyer,  Ot  tu  S.,  Chairman,  National  Mediation 
Rnard  for  Survey  of  Research  in  Industry. 

'  Report  of  the  Federal  coordinator  of  transportation,  1934.  Washington,  U.  S. 
Government  I'rintins  Office,  1935,  House  Document  No.  89. 

■  Frocffding^.  iCIh  Annual  Conrtntion  American  Federation  of  Labor,  Resolution 
Nu.l«, 


IKiiHE  '.i. — I?ell  Ti'k-phone  Lal)oratorii's,  New  York, 
New  ■\'ork 


I'leieedurc's  within  an  industry  do  not  solve  the 
problem  of  obsolescence  of  a  whole  industry — the 
buggy  and  buggy-whip  industries  are  classic  examples. 
Unemployment  insurance  can  reduce  the  shock,  but  it 
is  far  from  the  complete  answer.  Well-organized 
industrial  research  within  the  industry  is  in  itself  a 
protection  against  such  obsolescence  and  the  historj' 
of  the  fall  of  the  phonograph  before  the  advance  of 
radio  and  its  subsequent  aggressive  and  successful 
revival  as  a  result  of  research  personnel  and  method  is 
cited  to  illustrate  profitable  economic  policy  as  well  as 
sound  sociological  practice. 

There  may  be  significance  in  the  relation  to  emploj-- 
ment  stability  of  the  nimiber  of  research  workers 
employed  by  a  given  company.  The  6  industrial 
groups  reporting  the  largest  percentage  of  research 
workers  per  10,000  wage  earners  in  1937  were  chemicals, 
radio  apparatus  and  phonographs,  petroleum,  rubber, 
electrical  machinery  and  apparatus  and  electrical  com- 
munication.'" These  groups,  as  a  whole,  stand  in 
favorable  comparison  to  the  balance  of  industry  in 
the  continuity  of  employment  and  in  the  relative 
absence  of  temporary  displacement  resulting  from  tech- 
nological advancement  or  other  causes.  Although 
factors  other  than  research  were  also  at  work,  including 
general  good  management,  there  is  little  question  that 
research  organizations  played  an  important  part  in 
stability  of  employment. 

Research  in  the  National  Economy 

The  rapidity  with  which  research  has  taken  its 
present  significant  place  in  industry-  is  mdicated  in  the 
discussion  of  its  origin  and  growth.  There  was  a  long 
slow  period,  prior  to  the  turn  of  the  century,  a  period 
largely  used  in  accumulating  the  great  reservoir  of 
scientific  knowledge  to  be  drawn  on  later,  though  there 
were  many  important  examples  of  the  conmiercial 
application  of  science.  But  shortly  after  1900  mdustry 
generally  began  to  accept  research,  organized  research 
departments  began  to  appear,  and  the  conmiercial  and 
sociological  significance  of  organized  research  began  to 
be  apparent. 

In  the  discussion  of  growth  and  development  it  will 
be  noted  that  companies  whose  operations  were  based 
on  scientific  discoveries  were  among  the  first  to  adopt 
oi-ganized  research.  Among  them  will  now  be  found 
some  of  the  countiy's  largest  and  most  important 
laboratories.  In  this  record  of  growth  will  also  be 
seen  the  close  relation  between  the  universities  and  the 
laboratories.     It  would  appear  that  there  was  mutual 

*  Murray,  IMiliip.  Chairman  steel  workers  organizing  committee.  Verbatim  record 
•  if  the  proceedings  of  the  Temporary  National  Economic  Committee.  Proceedinijs  of 
the  Temporary  National  Economic  Commltlee,  IS.  No.  5,  H5-96  (.\pril  12, 1940). 

I'  Perazich,  O.,  and  Field,  P.  M.  Industrial  research  and  changing  technology. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Work  Projects  .Administration,  National  Research  Project, 
Report  Xo.  M-i.  1910. 


Industrial  Research 


11 


dependence  and  that  the  very  considerable  increases 
in  numbers  of  technical  students  and  in  courses  in 
applied  science  were  due  to  the  demand  being  created 
by  the  laboratories.  In  turn,  technical  graduates 
initiated  research  in  companies  where  it  was  previously 
unknown.  Naturally,  research  prospered  best  in  the 
newer  companies,  dependent  upon  technical  men,  and 
it  has  made  least  progress  generally  in  the  old,  estab- 
lished industries  where  the  art  had  been  higlily  devel- 
oped, as  in  the  tanning  industry,  to  cite  an  extreme 
example. 

As  a  distinguishing  characteristic  of  modern  research 
is  its  organization,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  it  would  be 
most  higlily  developed  in  the  larger  companies.  It  is 
probable  that  in  some  instances  an  aggressive  research 
policy  has  contributed  to  the  rapid  expansion  of  some 
of  these  larger  companies.  In  the  course  of  the  survey, 
question  was  raised  as  to  the  abUity  of  the  small  com- 
pany to  use  research  and  as  tliis  problem  had  important 
bearing  on  public  welfare,  it  was  given  special  con- 
sideration. 

Briefly,  it  would  appear  that  although  the  small 
company  has  many  handicaps,  in  the  use  of  advertising, 
accounting,  legal  assistance,  and  other  staff  functions, 
when  it  comes  to  research  it  is  often  found  that  a  small 
flexible  group  can  accomplish  rather  remarkable  results. 
One  companj-  reported  that  when  a  large  portion  of  the 
industry  merged  and  offered  unusually  strong  competi- 
tion, the  company  fell  back  upon  research  as  a  defense. 
As  a  result,  specialties  were  developed  that  have  kept 
the  company  in  a  strong  position  with  increasing,  rather 
than  decreasing,  pay  roll.  In  many  other  instances, 
especially  in  industries  built  upon  new  discoveries, 
small  companies  lean  upon  research  and  technical 
development  as  a  principal  competitive  support. 

Research  and  the  Small  Compary 

There  is  a  lower  limit  for  the  average  size  of  company 
that  maintains  a  large  organized  research  staff.  Assum- 
mg  3  percent  of  gross  income  as  proper  for  research, 
then  $30,000  is  a  reasonable  budget  figure  for  a  company 
whose  annual  gross  income  is  $1,000,000.  This  would 
mean  a  research  staff  of  six  or  seven  people  at  an 
annual  carrying  cost  approaching  $5,000  per  person. 
Obviously  large  research  staffs  are  not  to  be  expecteti 
in  the  smaller  companies. 

It  does  not  follow  that  small  companies  are  not  using 
industrial  research.  Unfortunately,  the  National  Re- 
search Council's  Dii-ectories  of  Industrial  Research 
Laboratories  are  not  a  satisfactory  source  of  small- 
corn  [any  research  statistics,  since  small  companies  were 
not  canvassed  systematically  even  for  the  latest  direc- 
tory. For  this  report  a  sampUng  investigation  was 
necessary  and  its  findmgs  have  been  used.  For  con- 
clusive statistical  data  on  the  extent  of  small-company 


r'jsearch,  for  comparison  with  large  companies,  or  with 
estimates  of  totals  sjjeiit  for  otlier  purposes,  a  much 
more  extensive  census  would  be  necessary.  Relatively 
little  use  was  cited  of  university,  consulting,  association 
or  governmental  laboratories.  Small  com])anies  appear 
rather  as  highly  individualistic  and  self-sufUcient. 

A  variety  of  successful  research  practices  is  found  in 
small  companies  as  are  numerous  methods  of  providing 
for  advertising,  legal,  and  accounting  procedure,  and 
other  staff  functions  without  separate  departments  or 
organized  staffs.  Increasingly  common  and  construc- 
tive is  the  use  of  help  from  the  technical  sales-service 
man  who  relays  to  his  customer  technical  and  even 
original  research  assistance  in  the  application  of  his 
materials.  An  electrical  company  carries  on  research 
in  electronic  circuits,  doing  pioneer  work  in  the  field, 
and  its  findings  are  available  to  customers,  small  and 
large.  Paint,  lacquer,  and  resin  manufacturers  have 
aided  small  companies  in  the  improvement  of  their  prod- 
ucts by  special  finishes,  frequently  involving  special 
original  research.  The  small  shoe  manufacturer  obtains 
his  research  from  suppliers  of  machinery  or  materials, 
some  of  whom  have  large  laboratories.  The  flow  of 
technical  knowledge  from  the  research  laboratory  of 
the  large  company  to  the  smaU  company  and  through 
its  sales  engineers  to  the  ultimate  user  or  consumer 
takes  the  place  of  highly  organized  research  in  many 
small  companies. 


Figure   4. — General    Motors   Research   Laboratories    Building. 
Detroit,  Michigan 


12 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Association  research  is  used  in  sonic  industries  al- 
though less  emphasized  proportionately  in  the  United 
States  than  in  England.  The  Aniorican  Institute  of 
Laundering  has  an  excellent  laboratory  serving  the 
whole  industry.  Canners  are  served  by  a  laboratory 
with  an  excellent  record  of  achievement,  and  the  asso- 
ciation even  mauitains  a  traveling  laboratory  that 
follows  the  seasons  from  small  cannery  to  small  cannery. 
A  central  laboratory  in  the  paint  and  varnish  industry 
not  only  solved  many  minor  problems  but  has  intro- 
duced new  oils  to  meet  increased  difficulty  in  obtaining 
supplies  from  the  Orient.  Such  association  laboratories 
are  available  to  all  members,  and  most  of  them  issue 
reports  at  intervals,  render  advisory  service,  and  even 
undertake  individual  investigation 

Contrarj'  to  a  common  understanding,  the  larger 
laboratories  available  under  fellowship  or  consulting 
arrangement  are  not  used  exclusively  by  companies 
without  research  facilities.  Sponsors  of  research  at 
foundations  and  at  commercial  consulting  laboratories 
include  many  companies  well  known  for  their  own 
facilities,  personnel,  and  progress  in  research. 

The  large  consulting  laboratories  are  coordinating 
units  in  touch  with  many  noncompetitive  industries. 
Services  of  such  organizations,  however,  are  available 
to  the  small  company  at  costs  equivalent  to  those  of 
the  maintenance  of  one  or  two  research  men,  and  special 
arrangements  arc  frequently  made  by  companies  with 
much  more  limited  budgets. 

The  principal  consulting  laboratories  are  found  pre- 
pared to  suggest  sources  of  research  aid,  and  they  indi- 
cate no  lack  of  research  assistance  and  cooperation 
available  from  various  sources  when  sought.  Banks 
can  report  on  the  financial  standing  of  consultants,  and 
many  of  them  are  now  offering  information  on  availa- 
bility of  research  aid  as  a  special  service  to  customers. 
One  group  of  bankers  even  serves  as  an  intermediary 
between  question  and  answer  on  specific  teclmical 
problems.  In  the  utilization  of  outside  facilities  for 
new  product  or  process  development  or  for  other  major 
projects,  however,  the  small  company  is  faced  with 
the  same  necessity  for  patient  diligence  as  are  the  larger 
laboratories,  for  major  research  projects  generally 
require  a  period  of  years  for  their  development. 

Some  small  companies  use  individual  consultants  to 
advantage.  The  industrial  areas  of  the  country  arc 
dotted  with  consultants  available  to  industry  and  the 
best  among  them  provide  the  equivalent  of  the  research 
available  to  the  largest  companies.  The  Engineering 
Societies  of  New  England  has  compiled  a  directory  of 
research  consultants  of  various  tj'pes  in  the  section,  and 
it  lists  289  entries  of  individuals  and  institutions  cover- 
ing the  whole  field  of  science  and  engineering." 

"  Directory  of  New  England  research  and  engineering  facilities.    Boston,  Engi- 
neering Societies  of  New  England,  Inc.,  1939. 


Numerous  small  manufacturing  companies  have 
employed  one  or  more  technically  trained  men  for  pro- 
duction or  other  duties,  who  carry  on  research  or  draw 
intelligently  upon  the  extensive  available  sources  of 
technical  aid.  In  some  instances,  such  men  have  met 
outstanding  success.  An  extension  of  the  practice  of 
employing  technical  graduates  appears  worth)'  of  any 
possible  encouragement. 

"Examples  of  Research  in  Industry" 

Research  would  appear  to  follow  a  general  pattern 
in  a  particular  industry  with  a  notable  similarity  be- 
tween laboratories  and  policies  within  the  industry  as 
contrasted  with  laboratories  and  policies  in  other  in- 
dustries. No  adequate  explanation  of  the  reasons  for 
particular  policies  in  the  different  industries  has  been 
offered — whether  they  are  dependent  largely  upon  the 
technology  in  an  industry  or  upon  mere  chance  in 
development  is  not  yet  certain,  nor  will  it  probably  be 
known  until  research  has  had  opportunity  for  further 
development,  particularly  in  some  of  the  older  indus- 
tries. The  three  industries  chosen  for  illustration 
make  these  conditions  apparent.  It  is  even  true  that 
the  word  "research"  in  some  industries  carries  different 
connotation  than  in  others. 

At  times  in  the  past  there  has  been  a  tendency  to 
criticize  whole  industries  for  not  adopting  aggressive 
research  policies.  Wlien  such  criticism  is  based  upon 
comparison  between  industries,  however,  it  is  seldom 
valid.  In  the  chemical  industry  research  is  not  only 
necessary  but  at  present  can  be  compared  almost  di- 
rectly with  the  design  and  engineering  departments  of 
the  automobile  industry.  Some  types  of  new  chemicals 
can  be  created  by  the  research  department  almost  to 
order.  The  textile-finishing  industry,  however,  is 
chemical  and  was  built  upon  the  research  of  Dana, 
Mercer,  and  other  early  chemists,  but  various  attempts 
at  the  application  of  research  to  textile  finishing  have 
shown  that  the  opportunity  is  by  no  means  as  obvious 
as  in  the  chemical  industry.  Until  some  more  promising 
approach  to  textile-finishing  research  becomes  apparent 
it  probably  would  be  poor  judgment  for  companies  in 
that  industry  to  spend  the  high  percentages  of  gross 
income  being  devoted  profitably  to  research  by  the 
chemical  industry. 

It  is  not  always  true,  however,  that  failure  to  adopt 
research  is  due  to  lack  of  apparent  opportunity.  Eng- 
land, Soviet  Russia,  and  Germany  have  done  more  on 
the  utilization  of  coal  than  has  the  United  States.  This 
country  has  not  yet  the  need  that  spurred  Germany  to 
the  conversion  of  coal  to  petroleum  substitutes;  but  this 
country  has  a  coal  problem,  and  industrial  research, 
properly  supported  and  conducted,  might  assist  in  the 
solution.  Unfortunately,  the  coal  indr.stry  is  not  pros- 
perous and  is  not  expanding.    Within  itself  it  does  not 


Industrial  Research 


13 


contain  the  setting  that  has  made  research  so  construc- 
tive in  the  petroleum  industry,  for  example.  To  a 
lesser  degree,  the  railroad  industry  is  in  the  same  po- 
sition. If  this  is  a  fault,  it  docs  not  necessarily  lie  with 
the  industries  but  rather  with  the  fact  that  the  problem 
of  how  to  initiate  and  support  research  within  an  in- 
dustry not  generally  making  reasonable  progress  has  not 
been  solved  adequately.    The  subject  needs  study. 

Location  and  Extent  of  Research 
Activity  in  the  United  States 

An  extensive  analysis  of  the  incidence  of  industrial 
research,  based  upon  directories  pubHshed  by  the 
National  Research  Council  has  recently  been  made.''^ 
The  present  report  therefore  devotes  relatively  brief 
space  to  the  subject.  The  few  charts  presented,  how- 
ever, are  based  upon  additional  recent  data  obtained 
by  canvass  made  for  this  purpose.  Only  such  charts 
are  included  as  bear  upon  policy  matters  with  which 
this  survey  and  report  are  directly  concerned.  Supple- 
menting a  questionnaire  canvass  of  all  laboratories 
known  to  the  Council  and  of  members  of  the  National 
Association  of  Manufacturers  and  other  companies,  mem- 
bers of  the  survey  staff  personally  canvassed  a  repre- 
sentative sample  of  industry,  seeking  answers  to  specific 
questions.  It  is  believed  that  the  information  presented 
as  a  result  of  this  sampling  can  be  accepted  as  objective 
and  representative. 

Organized  research  laboratories  arc  found  in  all  the 
industrial  areas  in  the  country  and  in  most  types  of 
industry.  It  is  apparent  that  research  has  become 
well  established  as  a  continuing  function  and  that  its 
further  spread  may  be  anticipated.  Of  particular 
interest  is  the  chart"  showing  the  rate  at  which  the 
number  of  laboratories  has  been  increasing — and  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  constantly  that  the  list  of 
organized  research  laboratories  recorded  in  the  directory 
is  by  no  means  a  complete  record  of  the  provision  for 
research  in  American  industry. 

Research  Abroad 

Industrial  research  was  well  developed  in  Europe 
before  its  general  adoption  in  America,  but  the  United 
States  now  leads  in  total  spent  on  research  and  except 
possibly  for  the  Soviet  Union  in  ratio  of  research  expend- 
itures to  national  income.  Satisfactory  figures  are 
not  available,  but  Bernal  has  estimated  that  we  spend 
more  on  research  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world, 
outside  the  Soviet  Union,  and  that  England  and 
Germany  spend  possibly  a  tenth  as  much,  France  and 
Italy  appreciably  less.'* 


>'  See  footnote  10. 

I'  Cooper,  Franklin  S.    Location  and  extent  of  industrial  research  activity  in  the 
United  States.    This  volume,  figure  46,  p.  176. 


Excellent  and  extensive  laboratories  arc  found  in 
Soviet  Russia  and  Japan.  Each  of  the  smaller  indus- 
trial countries  provides  for  research.  Switzerland,  for 
example,  makes  up  in  quality  for  part  of  its  lack  in 
quantity.  Research  is  generally  recognized  as  a  factor 
in  mternational  as  well  as  in  national  industrial  com- 
petition and  development. 

England's  Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial 
Research  is  an  outstanding  example  of  government 
encouragement  and  support  of  research  for  the  benefit 
of  industry.  The  World  War  had  shown  the  competi- 
tive power  of  research — ■ 

and  there  was  general  awakening  to  the  fact  that  for  success 
in  times  of  peace  as  well  as  of  war,  it  was  desirable  that  the 
sources  of  science  should  be  utilized  to  the  full.  The  perils  of 
war  furnished  precepts  for  peace,  and  it  was  realized  that  on 
the  conclusion  of  the  conflict  a  situation  would  arise  in  the 
world  of  industry  which  would  call  for  increased  effort  if  British 
industrial  supremacy  was  to  be  maintained,  and  if  the  manu- 
factured products  of  the  nation  were  to  continue  to  hold  their 
own  in  the  world's  markets.  In  anticipation  of  that  situation 
the  Government  of  the  day  set  up  the  Department  of  Scientific 
and  Industrial  Research  and  as  part  of  the  financial  provision 
placed  at  its  disposal.  Parliament  voted  a  capital  sum  of  one 
million  pounds  for  the  encouragement  of  industrial  research. 
The  most  effective  way  of  promoting  this  aim  was  the  subject 
of  careful  consideration  by  our  predecessors  in  consultation 
with  leaders  of  industry  and  the  scheme  of  cooperative  research 
was  devised." 

The  aim  of  the  Department  was  to  demonstrate  to 
industry  the  usefulness  of  research  with  the  thought 
that  government  aid  would  be  withdrawn  once  the 
demonstration  was  made.  About  half  the  country's 
industry — principally  the  new  industries — subscribed. 
Research  associations  were  formed  witliin  various  in- 
dustries and  research  activities  were  financed  by  the 
joint  contribution,  pound  for  pound,  of  government 
and  industry.  Estimates  of  accomplishment  from  such 
research  cannot  be  checked  satisfactorily,  but  specific 
results  have  been  achieved,  and  in  one  report  enormous 
returns  were  claimed  from  total  annual  expenditures — 
of  the  order  of  800  percent.  It  is  perhaps  significant 
that  after  careful  study,  industrial  associations  were 
considered  the  best  means  of  providing  subsidy,  of 
demonstrating  the  value  of  research  to  industry  im- 
familiar  with  it,  and  of  giving  aid  throughout  industry. 
Even  with  sucii  close  contact  with  industry,  there 
ex"ists  the  same  difficulty  reported  for  the  subsidy  of 
agricultural  research  in  Great  Britain — 

.  .  .  There  are,  however,  seme  live  farmers  who  make  constant 
use  of  the  facilities  placed  at  their  disposal  by  the  State,  with  the 
result  that  the  race  is  more  than  ever  to  the  swift  and  intelligent. 
It  is  still  unfortunately  true  that  the  very  farmers  who  would 
benefit  most  from  the  help  of  the  research  workers  are  those  who 

'I  Bernal,  J.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  The  soi-ial  function  of  science.  New  York,  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.,  1939,  p.  6.5,  etc. 

"  Report  of  the  advisory  council— 1932-33.  Department  of  scientific  and  industrial 
research.  Report  for  the  year  1932-33.  London,  His  Majesty's  Stationery  OflSce, 
1934,  p.  7. 


14 


are  not  being  reached  by  the  present  methods  of  spreading  scien- 
tific knowledge  about  farming. 

In  foreign  laboratories,  there  has  been  greater  secrecy, 
apparently,  than  in  the  United  States,  with  a  y^robable 
corresponding  reduction  in  over-all  efhciency.  In  some 
totalitarian  countries  ability  to  assign  a  considerable 
number  of  investigators  to  an  individual  problem  may 
offset  partially  such  inefficient  policies,  and  such  ability 
is  of  special  significance  in  areas  of  technologj- where 
the  fundamental  creative  work  has  been  done  and 
where  applications  are  required  that  depend  more  upon 
training  and  experience  than  upon  the  creative  ability 
of  skilled  research  scientists. 

One  practice  reported  as  tried  in  Soviet  Russia  has 
interesting  possibilities.  If  a  research  man  shows  out- 
standing ability  in  a  particular  field  the  government 
may  build  him  a  laboratory,  equip  it  well,  and  provide  a 
staff  of  as  many  men  as  can  be  used.  Incidentally,  the 
staff  and  even  the  mechanics  and  all  the  helpers  are 
understood  to  have  their  say  in  the  choice  and  conduct 
of  the  program. 

The  Soviet  Union  has  also  attempted  coordination  of 
research  on  a  grand  scale.  In  one  instance  18  large 
laboratories  submitted  plans  for  research  in  the  chem- 
istry of  solid  fuels  (coal),  and  after  study  by  a  centra- 
lized body,  assignments  were  distributed  and  financ- 
ing guaranteed  for  180  projects.  An  American  coal 
scientist  reports  use  there  of  excellent  equipment,  capa- 
able  research  leaders,  and  well-organized  general  scope 
of  activity.  He  was  especially  impressed  bj'  the  mass  of 
technical  data  being  compiled  on  the  nature  of  the  fuel 
resources. 

"Men  in  Research" 

Chemists  dominated  the  early  industrial  laboratories 
and  even  now  approximately  25  percent  of  industrial 
laboratory  men  have  specialized  in  chemistry.  Opinions 
differ  as  to  whether  this  dominance  has  been  due  to  the 
nature  and  scope  of  the  science  or  whether  research 
going  on  within  the  science  developed  interest  and  skill 
in  the  use  of  the  research  method.  There  is  also  some 
uncertainty  as  to  whether  the  flow  of  technically  trained 
men  into  industry  brouglit  research  with  it,  or  whether 
the  demand  of  industry  led  to  the  great  expansion  of 
chemistry,  chemical  engineering,  and  other  technical 
courses.  One  of  the  first  of  the  great  industrial  labora- 
tories started  without  a  physicist,  though  the  industry 
was  based  on  physics.  A  similar  situation  originally 
held  in  other  industries — the  research  director  of  a  great 
steel  company  was  trained  as  a  chemical  engineer,  not  a 
metallurgist;  the  research  directors  of  the  early  food 
laboratories  had  little  training  in  biological  subjects. 
Other  disciplines  are  gaining  recognition,  however.  In 
one  outstanding  example,  physicists  formed  the  Ameri- 
can Institute  of  Physics  and  made  intensive  eflort  to 


National  Resources  Flanning  Board 

present  the  possibilities  of  applied  physics  to  industry. 
The  number  of  industrial  physicists  in  the  laboratories 
has  increased  significantly,  and  there  is  gradually 
increasing  recognition  of  biologists,  mathematicians  and 
men  trained  in  other  disciplines,  including  the  several 
divisions  of  engineering. 

"Chemistry  in  Industrial  Research"  presents  the  most 
mature  of  the  research  disciplines.  As  such  it  speaks 
in  part  for  otlier  disciplines  in  a  discussion  of  origins  of 
research  programs  and  to  some  degree  their  conduct. 
At  the  other  extreme  of  acceptance  by  industr}',  how- 
ever, are  the  biologists.  From  the  results  of  the  inves- 
tigation made  and  reported  in  the  study  by  Dr.  E.  B. 
Fred  and  Dr.  C.  N.  Frey,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
opportunity  exists  for  tremendous  increases  in  the 
number  of  biologists,  in  the  food  industries  particularly. 
It  was  found,  however,  that  some  changes  in  the  teach- 
ing of  applied  biology  in  the  universities  for  this  pur- 
pose are  desirable. 

In  the  more  highly  developed  laboratories,  mathe- 
matics is  beginning  to  find  its  special  place.  It  would 
seem  probable  that  with  the  extension  and  refinement 
of  research  method  and  policy  there  will  be  increasing 
dependence  upon  mathematics.  This  may  be  true 
particularly  as  more  obvious  research  opportunities 
become  exhausted  by  relatively  simple  and  crude 
approaches.  Dr.  Thornton  C.  Fry,  speaking  for  the 
profession,  states  that  no  university  offers  a  complete 
and  satisfactory  curriculum  in  applied  mathematics. 
He  has  made  the  definite  recommendation  that  such  a 
course  be  organized  and  offered  by  one  of  the  univer- 
sities. His  present  estimate  of  a  very  few  graduates  of 
such  a  course  per  year  is  of  course  no  measure  of  the 
possible  significance  of  such  a  step. 

Of  the  various  professional  societies  actively  inter- 
ested in  research,  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  has  one  of  the  most  highly  developed  pro- 
grams under  its  own  auspices.  Activities  in  coopera- 
tion with  this  Survey  are  being  made  the  basis  for  a 
reconsideration  of  the  research  of  the  Socict.y.  It  is 
well  to  note  that  mechanical,  electrical,  and  other 
engineers  are  playing  increasingly  important  parts  in 
research  as  contrasted  with  straight  engineering.  In 
some  of  the  larger  machinery  laboratories,  for  example, 
engineers  predominate  with  possibly  a  few  physicists 
and  a  few  or  no  chemists. 

From  the  duplication  apparent  in  the  report  of  vari- 
ous applied  sciences  and  particularly  from  the  studj'  of 
border-line  zones,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  lines  of 
demarcation  between  the  various  pure  and  applied 
sciences  have  begun  to  disappear  and  in  some  instances 
arc  quite  obliterated.  There  remain,  however,  many 
areas,  particularly  on  the  fringes  of  the  various  sciences, 
that  have  not  been  developed  satisfactorily.  A  few 
companies   liave   surveyed    their   special    branches  of 


Industrial  Research 


15 


science  and  have  established  fundamental  research  to 
develop  neglected  areas.  The  areas  are  chosen  either 
because  current  developments  need  new  data  or 
because  of  promise  of  new  developments  within  the 
company's  commercial  and  technical  scope.  The 
study  of  polymers  by  du  Pont,  of  acoustics  by  Bell 
Telephone  Laboratories,  of  aliphatic  organic  compounds 
by  the  Carbide  and  Carbon  Chemical  Company  have 
been  made  for  one  or  both  reasons.     But  no  organiza- 


tion now  has  responsibility  and  support  for  a  search  of 
the  whole  of  science  for  neglected  areas  most  promising 
in  their  ultimate  return.  If  new  industries  are  to  come 
from  research,  as  nylon,  sound  moving  pictures,  and 
new  chemicals  came  from  the  investigations  cited, 
fundamental  studies  in  fields  now  comparatively 
neglected  would  seem  to  offer  one  of  the  best  oppor- 
tunities. 

One  of  the  most  apparent  of  neglected  areas  is  in 


TmEii     Floor^  y^^Ai/^ 


Figure  5. — Research  Laboratory  Floor  Plan,  Gereral  Foods  Corporation,  Hoboken,  New  Jersey 


16 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


the  great  border  luie  between  the  physical  and  social 
sciences,  and  some  of  the  most  interesting  work  is  being 
done  within  it.  Fatigue,  for  example,  is  a  major  factor 
in  all  industry,  yet  little  is  known  about  it.  The 
National  Research  Council  several  years  ago  estab- 
lished a  Committee  on  Work  in  Industry  which  is  in- 
vestigating the  possibilities  of  clinical-type  studies  in 
this  border  line  field.  Limited  industrial  investigations 
have  been  made  and  they  indicate  rather  remarkable 
possibilities.  But  possibly  more  important  is  the  rela- 
tion between  scientist  and  laj'man.  Where  lies  the  re- 
sponsibility for  adjustment  of  industry  and  society  to 
advances  made  bj'  the  research  scientist?  The  scientist 
himself  is  the  first  to  indicate  that  he  is  not  too  well 
qualified  outside  his  field,  and  the  average  physical 
scientist  has  no  great  opportunity  for  developing,  by 
experience,  ability  to  deal  witii  social  problems.  To 
say  that  physical  scientists  should  solve  the  social  prob- 
lems they  create  is  to  speak  without  considering  their 
concentrated  devotion  to  their  own  particular  contribu- 
tion to  human  welfare.  There  is  recognition,  how- 
ever, among  some  scientists  that  more  attention  may 
profitably  be  given  to  the  social  aspects  of  science,  and 
insofar  as  their  efforts  contribute  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  science  by  laymen,  and  insofar  as  they 
help  develop  a  liaison  between  technical  man  and  lay- 
man, benefit  is  achieved.  Some  leaders  among  non- 
technical men,  especially  in  government  and  industry, 
have  developed  active  lay  interest  in  scientific  and  tech- 
nical matters,  and  such  development  is  probably  even 
more  beneficial  and  promising.  The  industrial  execu- 
tive, political  leader  and  publicist  are  all  in  a  position 
to  assist  in  the  adjustments  that  will  continue  to  be 
necessary  as  research  advances. 

Bibliography 

Books 

Bebnal,  J.  D.     The  social  function  of  science.     New  York,  The 

Macmillan  Company,  1939.     482  p. 
Boyd,  T.  A.     Research,  the  pathfinder  of  science  and  industry. 

New  York,   London,   D.   Appleton-Century   Company,    Inc., 

1935.    319  p. 


George,  W.  11.  Tlie  scientist  in  action;  a  scientific  study  of  liis 
methods.     New  York,  Emerson    Books,  Inc.  (1938).     354   p. 

Holland,  Maurice,  and  H.  F.  Pringle.  Industrial  explorers. 
New  York,  London,  Harper  and  Brothers,  1928.     347  p. 

Hcxi-EY,  J.  S.  Science  and  social  needs,  .  .  .  with  an  intro- 
ductory chapter  by  Sir  William  Bragg  .  .  .  and  discussions. 
New  York,  London,  Harper  and  Brothers,  1935.     287  p. 

Little,  A.  D.  The  handwriting  on  the  wall;  a  chemist's  inter- 
pretation. Boston,  Little,  Brown  and  Company,  1928. 
287  p. 

Murray,  D.  S.  The  laboratory;  its  place  in  the  modern  world. 
London,  The  Fcnland  Press,  (1934).     117  p. 

National  Research  Council.  Industrial  research  laboratories 
of  the  United  States,  including  consulting  research  laboratories. 
6th  ed.,  1938.  Compiled  by  Callie  Hull  for  the  National 
Research  Council.  Washington,  D.  C,  Published  by  the 
National  Research  Council,  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
(1938).  270  p.  (Bulletin  of  the  National  Research  Council 
No.  102;  earlier  editions  were  issued  as  Bulletins  Nos.  2,  16, 
60,  81,  and  91.) 

National  Research  Council.  Division  of  engineering  and 
industrial  research.  A  bibliography  on  research;  selected 
articles  from  the  technical  press,  1923-1924-1925.  New 
York  (1925).     46  p. 

National  Research  Council.  Five  years  of  research  in  in- 
dustry, 1926-1930;  a  reading  list  of  selected  articles  from  the 
technical  press,  compiled  by  C.  J.  West.  New  York,  National 
Research  Council,  Division  of  engineering  and  industrial 
research,  1930.     91  p. 

Redman,  L.  V.,  and  A.  V.  H.  Mory.  The  romance  of  research. 
Baltimore,  The  Williams  and  Wilkins  Company,  1933.     149  p. 

Ross,  M.  H.,  ed.  Profitable  practice  in  industrial  research; 
tested  principles  of  research,  laboratory  organization,  admin- 
istration, and  operation.  New  York,  London,  Harper  and 
Brothers,  1932.     269  p. 

National  Resources  Committee.  Science  Committee.  Re- 
search— a  national  resource,  v.  1.  Report  of  the  Science 
Committee  to  the  National  Resources  Committee.  Washing- 
ton, U.  S.  Government  Printing  Oflice,  1938.     255  p. 

National  Resources  Committee.  Technological  trends  and 
national  policy.  (Washington,  U.  S.  Government  Printing 
Office.)     1937.     388  p. 

Weidlbin,  E.  R.,  and  W.  A.  Hamor.  Science  in  action ;  a  sketch 
of  the  value  of  scientific  research  in  American  industries. 
New  York,  London,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  Inc.,  1931. 
310  p. 

Weidlbin,  E.  R.,  and  W.  A.  Hamor.  Glances  at  industrial 
research  during  walks  and  talks  in  Mellon  Institute.  New 
York,  Reinhold  Publishing  Corporation,  1936.     246  p. 


SECTION    II 
RESEARCH    IN    THE    NATIONAL    ECONOMY 


Contents 


The  Development  of  Industrial  Research  in  the  United     Pase 

States  19 
Factors  Affecting  the  Development  of  Industrial 

Research  1 9 
Progress  in   Chemistry   and   Physics   in   the 

Nineteenth  Century  20 
Foundation  of  Schools  of  Science  and  Tech- 
nology 20 
Vast  Natural  Resources  23 
The  Protective  Tariff  24 
Attitude  of  Industrialists  and  Scientists  24 
Period  of  Unorganized  Research  25 
Early  Plant  Chemists  25 
The  Creation  of  New  Industries  by  Indepen- 
dent Investigators  29 
Hyatt  and  Celluloid  29 
Edison  and  the  Electric  Light  29 
Acheson  and  Carborundum  31 
Hall  and  Aluminum  33 
Baekeland  and  Bakelite  33 
Growth  of  Organized  Research  34 
Period  Preceding  First  World  War  34 
Effect  of  the  First  World  War  35 
Organized  Research  a  Major  Industry  37 
Some  Economic  and  Social  Aspects  of  Industrial 

Research  39 
Development  of  Organized  Research  Within  In- 
dividual Companies  42 
Chemicals  42 
American  Cyanamid  Company  42 
Dow  Chemical  Company  43 
E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and  Company  43 
Monsanto  Chemical  Company  45 
Petroleum  45 
Atlantic  Refining  Company  45 
Gulf  Research  and  Development  Company  45 
Humble  Oil  and  Refining  Company  45 
Shell  Development  Company  46 
Standard  Oil  Company  of  California  47 
Standard  Oil  Company  of  Indiana  47 
Standard  Oil  Company  of  New  Jersey  48 
Standard  Oil  Development  Company  48 
Universal  Oil  Products  Company  48 
Electrical  Communication  49 
Bell  Telephone  Laboratories  49 
Western  Union  Telegraph  Company  50 
Electrical  Machinery,  Apparatus,  and  Supplies  51 
General  Electric  Company  51 
Westinghouse  Electric  Company  54 
Rubber  55 
B.  F.  Goodrich  Company  55 
United  States  Rubber  Company  55 


Page 

Motor  Vehicles  56 
General  Motors  Research  Corporation  56 
Chrysler  Corporation  57 
Metals  57 
American  Brass  Company  57 
American  Rolling  Mil!  Company  58 
American  Smelting  and  Refining  Com- 
pany 59 
United  States  Steel  Corporation  59 
Pharmaceuticals  60 
Abbott  Laboratories  60 
Eli  Lilly  and  Company  60 
Parke,  Davis  and  Company  61 
E.  R.  Squibb  and  Sons  61 
Miscellaneous  Industries  61 
American  Locomotive  Company  61 
Armour  and  Company  62 
Swift  and  Company  62 
Babcock  and  Wilcox  Company  63 
Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  Company  63 
Consolidated  Edison  Company  of  New 

York,  Incorporated  65 

Eastman  Kodak  Company  65 

Johns-Manville  Company  68 
National    Lead    Company  —  Titanium 

Division  68 

Pittsburgh  Plate  Glass  Company  69 

United  Shoe  Machinery  Company  69 

Western  Precipitation  Corporation  70 

Research  Institutes  70 

Battelle  Memorial  Institute  70 

Mellon  Institute  71 

Other  Research  Institutes  72 

Commercial  Laboratories  72 

Charles  T.  Jackson  72 

James  C.  Booth  72 

Arthur  D.  Little,  Incorporated  72 

Miner  Lal)oratories  73 

Other  Commercial  Laboratories  74 

Testing  Laboratories  74 

Electrical  Testing  Laboratories  74 

Robert  W.  Hunt  and  Company  74 

Pittsburgh  Testing  Laboratory  75 
The    United   States   Testing   Company 

Incorporated  75 

Bibliography  75 

2.  Research — A  Resource  to  Small  Companies  78 

Place  of  Research  in  Small  Enterprises  78 

Extent  of  Research  in  Small  Enterprises  79 

Character  of  Research  Activities  80 

Facilities  for  Research  80 

Dependence  Upon  Outside  Research  Agencies  82 

Benefits  from  Cooperative  Research  Activities  82 

Significance  of  Research  to  the  Small  Enterprise  83 


17 


Contents — Continued 


3.  Coordination    Between    Industries   in    Industrial    lie-     Paue 

searcli  85 

Joint  Activities  in  Research  85 

Exchange  of  Information  86 

Policies  on  Publication  of  Research  Findings  86 

The  Industrial  Research  Institute  86 

Bibliography  87 

4.  Technical  Research  by  Trade  Associations  88 

Types  of  Research  89 

New  Products  Developed  90 

Quality  Standards  Improved  91 

New  Uses  for  Products  91 

Technical  Research  Agencies  91 

Trade  Association  Laboratories  92 
Research  Promotes  Consumption  of  Canned  Foods         92 

Paint  and  Varnish  Research  92 

Commercial  Research  Laboratories  92 

University  Fellowships  and  Grants  93 

Governmental  Research  Agencies  94 

Collection  and  Distribution  of  Data  94 

Financing  Research  94 

Research — A  Long-Range  Activity  95 

Coordination  of  Research  95 

The  Trade  Association  Research  Committee  96 

Patents  96 

Access  to  Research  Results  96 

National  Emergency  97 

Bibliography  97 

5.  Fundamental  Research  in  Industry  98 

Introduction  98 
Reasons  for  Fundamental  Research  in  In- 
dustry 99 
Organization  for  Fundamental  Research  99 
Cost  of  Research  100 
Conditions  for  Successful  Fundamental  Re- 
search 100 
Results  Achieved  100 


Patfe 
American  Cyananiid  Conii)any  101 
Bell  Telephone  Laboratories  101 
Coming  Glass  Works  102 
Eastman  Kodak  Company  102 
General  Electric  Company  103 
Monsanto  Chemical  Company  103 
Standard  Oil  Development  Company  103 
United  States  Rubber  Company  103 
W'estinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany 103 
General  Motors  Corjjoration  104 
E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and  Company  105 
Fundamental  Research  by  Small  Companies  106 
Fundamental  Research  and  Foreign  AfTairs  106 
Bibliography  106 

6.  Careers  in  Research  108 

Introduction  109 

Qualifications  for  a  Career  in  Research  109 

Personal  Qualifications  109 

Training  111 

Selection  of  a  Position  113 

Careers  in  Research  114 

Organization  114 

Progress  of  the  Research  Worker  115 

Future  of  the  Research  Worker  117 

Compensations  of  the  Research  Worker  117 

Probable    Future    of    Industrial    Research    a-s    a 

Career  118 

Bibliography  118 

7.  Research  as  a  Growth  Factor  in  Industry  120 

Summary  and  Conclusions  123 

Bibliography  123 

8.  Industrial  Research  lOxpenditurcs  124 


SECTION     II 
1.    THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH 

IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

By  Howard  R.  Bartlett 
Head,  Department  of  English  and  History,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


ABSTRACT 


In  the  nineteenth  century  the  activity  of  scientists 
in  Europe  and  the  United  States  greatly  increased  man's 
fundamental  knowledge.  Laymen  in  this  country, 
convinced  of  the  importance  of  the  newly  discovered 
facts,  made  it  financially  possible  to  establish  schools 
of  science  and  technology,  whose  avowed  object  was  to 
instruct  students  in  the  application  of  science  to  the 
everyday  purposes  of  life. 

Certain  factors,  however,  served  to  delay  the  prog- 
ress of  applied  science  in  this  country.  Its  territory 
was  so  vast  and  its  resources  were  so  abundant  that 
industry,  for  some  time,  was  not  particularly  concerned 
with  producing  goods  economically  and  efficiently. 
As  long  as  the  products  of  industry  could  be  sold  at  a 
profitable  price  to  a  rapidly  increasing  population,  the 
manufacturer  had  httle  incentive  to  invest  his  funds 
in  the  search  for  new  methods  or  new  products.  It  was 
not  until  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
that  competition  became  sufficiently  severe  to  cause 
industrialists  to  turn  with  increasing  frequency  to 
professors  in  the  universities  and  to  commercial  chem- 
ists for  assistance.  The  results  were  so  satisfactory 
that  the  gap  between"  pure"  and  applied  science  grad- 
ually closed,  and  trained  chemists,  physicists,  metal- 
lurgists, and  biologists  found  employment  in  industry. 
Also  during  this  period,  independent  investigators, 
working  in  their  own  laboratories,  made  discoveries 
which  resulted  in  the  foundation  of  new  industries  and 
demonstrated  further  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from 


utilizing  in  industry  the  facts  and  methods  of  science. 

Until  the  twentieth  century,  however,  industrial 
research  remained  largely  a  matter  of  the  unorganized 
effort  of  individuals.  Early  in  the  1900's  a  few  com- 
panies organized  separate  research  departments  and 
began  a  systematic  search  not  only  for  the  solutions  to 
immediate  problems  of  development  and  production, 
but  also  for  new  knowledge  that  would  point  the  way 
for  the  future. 

The  First  World  War  focused  the  attention  of  the 
general  pubHc  upon  the  accomplishments  of  applied 
science  and  greatly  stimulated  the  growth  of  industrial 
research.  Between  1920  and  1940  the  number  of  m- 
dustrial  research  laboratories  increased  from  about  300 
to  more  than  2,200. 

Great  changes  have  been  wrought  by  the  results  of 
industrial  research.  More  efficient  and  economical 
methods  have  conserved  our  resources;  new  materials 
have  made  possible  better  products;  and  new  products 
have  contributed  to  the  health,  pleasure,  and  comfort 
of  the  general  public.  Such  changes  have  not  taken 
place  without  some  temporary  misfortunes.  Here  and 
there  industries  have  disappeared  and  people  have 
been  temporarily  thrown  out  of  work,  but  the  net  result 
of  40  years  of  organized  industrial  research  in  this 
country  has  been  the  enrichment  of  life  to  an  incalcu- 
lable degree. 

The  last  section  of  this  paper  presents  historical 
sketches  of  more  than  50  industrial  research  laboratories. 


Factors  Affecting  the  Development 
of  Industrial  Research 

The  nineteenth  century  was  nearly  over  before  the 
industrial  research  laboratory  became  an  important 
factor  in  the  economic  life  of  the  United  States.  Not 
until  the  nineties  had  the  developments  in  science, 
education,  and  industry  reached  the  point  at  which 
the  organized  application  of  science  to  industry  by 
trained  men  seemed  to  industrialists  to  be  the  key  to 
greater  progress  and  profit.     Without  a  fund  of  scicn- 

321835—41 3 


tific  knowledge  from  which  to  draw  and  without  a  sup- 
ply of  men  sufficiently  prepared  to  apply  that  knowledge, 
the  industrial  research  laboratory  could  not  e.xist.  By 
the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  both  of  these  require- 
ments had  been  met,  and  in  addition  industry  had  come 
to  realize,  from  the  accomplishments  of  the  works  chem- 
ist and  the  individual  experimenter,  that  many  of  the 
problems  which  defied  rule-of-thumb  methods  would 
yield  to  the  application  of  science.  Toda}'  the  research 
laboratory  is   widely  recognized    as   an   indispensable 

19 


20 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


part  of  the  country's  industrial  equipment.  From  it 
comes  the  knowledge  that  leads  not  only  to  improved 
methods  and  materials  but  also  to  entirely  new  proc- 
esses and  products  and  occasionally  to  new  industries. 

Progress  In  Chemistry  and  Physics 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century 

Scientists  of  the  nineteenth  century,  building  upon 
the  solid  foundation  laid  by  those  of  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  uncovered  and  explained 
secrets  of  nature  which,  when  applied  to  industry,  were 
to  alter  completely  the  details  of  man's  existence. 
Inquiring  minds  were  active  in  many  subjects,  but  a 
brief  mention  of  a  few  men  working  in  chemistry  and 
physics  is  suflicicnt  to  show  how  important  this  period 
was  for  the  future  development  of  numerous  great 
industries. 

In  1801  Thomas  Young  brought  before  the  Royal 
Society  in  London  "the  first  convincing  proof  .  .  .  that 
Ught  is  not  a  corporeal  entity,  but  a  mere  pulsation  in 
the  substance  of  an  all-pervading  ether."  It  was  in 
1801  also  that  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  as  lecturer  and 
professor  of  chemistry  at  the  newly  established  llo5'al 
Institution  in  London,  was  carrying  on  the  experiments 
in  electrochemistry  by  which  he  was  able  to  isolate 
potassium  and  sodium  and  to  prove  that  substances 
formerly  considered  elementary  were  really  compounds. 
At  the  same  time  John  Dalton  was  formulating  his 
atomic  theory,  which,  when  first  presented  in  1803 
before  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of 
Manchester,  made  little  impression.' 

The  atomic  theory  was  soon  to  receive  some  support, 
however,  from  the  work  of  a  French  chemist,  Gay- 
Lussac,  who,  in  publishing  his  observations,  brought 
out  "the  remarkable  fact  that  gases,  under  the  same 
conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure,  combine 
always  in  definite  numerical  proportions  as  to  volume."  ^ 
An  Italian,  Amadeo  Avogadro,  quickly  supplied  the 
explanation  of  Gay-Lussac's  observations  in  terms  of 
the  atomic  theory,  but  because  of  the  slow  acceptance 
of  the  theory  itself,  Avogadro's  law  was  neglected  by 
chemists  for  a  whole  generation.  Johan  Jakob  Berze- 
lius,  a  Swedish  chemist,  however,  put  the  theory  to 
test  in  his  laboratory  by  determining  the  combining 
weights  of  the  different  elements,  and  in  1818  he 
published  his  first  table  of  atomic  weights. 

Ten  j'ears  later  the  barrier  between  animate  and 
inanimate  nature  was  destroyed  when  a  young  German 
chemist,  Friedrich  Wohlcr,  succeeded  in  synthesizing 
urea  in  his  laboratory;  and  in  1831  Michael  Faraday, 
Davy's  prot6g6  and  successor  at  the  Royal  Institution, 
opened  the  whole  field  of  electricity  and  magnetism  for 


cultivation  by  such  men  as  Hermann  von  Ilelmholtz, 
Clerk  Maxwell,  and  lleinrich  Hertz. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  the  chemists  of  the  period 
was  Justus  von  Liebig,  whose  laboratory,  established 
at  Giessen  in  1824  for  research  in  organic  chemistry 
and  agricultural  chemistry,  became  the  training  school 
for  young  chemists  from  all  countries.  AVhen  called  to 
Munich  in  1852,  he  developed  there  a  still  larger  labora- 
tory to  which  came  a  steady  stream  of  applicants 
seeking  the  privilege  of  studying  and  working  with  the 
renowned  teacher;  among  them  were  the  Americans, 
Eben  Horsford,  J.  Lawrence  Smith,  Frederick  A. 
Gcnth,  AVolcott  Gibbs,  and  C.  M.  Wetherill. 

Just  before  the  middle  of  the  century  Louis  Pasteur 
began  the  work  which  was  to  mean  so  much  first  to 
French  industry  and  later  to  all  mankind.  Three 
advances  of  far-reaching  importance  came  toward  the 
end  of  the  century,  when  J.  J.  Thomson  isolated  the 
electron  and  measured  its  charge  and  mass;  when 
Rontgen  discovered  X-rays;  and  Becquerel  observed 
the  first  indications  of  radioactivity. 

Two  scientists  in  the  United  States  also  made  dis- 
tinct contributions  to  scientific  theory.  The  first  was 
Josiah  Willard  Gibbs,  who  in  1876  presented  his  phase- 
rule,  one  of  the  most  important  additions  to  the  theory 
of  chemistry  made  by  an  American.  Partly  because 
it  was  not  sufficiently  brought  to  the  attention  of  chemists 
and  partly  because  its  mathematical  presentation  was 
not  at  first  understood,  a  decade  passed  before  it  was 
applied.  The  second  was  Joseph  Henry  who,  although 
preceded  by  Faraday  in  the  announcement  of  the 
theory  of  current  induction,  was  the  first  to  announce 
the  phenomenon  of  self-induction. 

Foundation  of  Schools  of  Science 
and  Technology 

The  reservoir  of  scientific  knowledge  was  filling,  and, 
as  it  filled,  many  men  turned  their  thoughts  to  means 
by  which  this  knowledge  could  be  utilized.  As  in  the 
discovery  of  new  facts,  so  also  in  the  application  of 
them,  the  countries  of  Europe  quite  naturally  preceded 
the  United  States.  Special  schools  were  founded  where 
students  could  learn  not  only  scientific  theories  but 
also  their  application  to  industry.  Germany,  France, 
and,  to  some  extent,  England  had  recognized  that 
"the  greatest  warfare  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  in- 
dustrial warfare — the  struggle  between  great  nations 
for  supremacy  in  the  various  industries,  and  for  the 
control  of  the  various  markets."^ 

Many  of  the  early  technical  schools  gre\v  out  of  the 
industrial  demands  of  the  locaUty  in  which  they  were 
established.  The  silver  mines  of  Freiberg,  for  example, 
led  to  the  founding  in  1765  of  a  famous  School  of  Mines, 


'  Williams,  Henry  Smith     The  story  o(  nineteenth-century  science.    New  York, 
London,  Harper  and  Bro.,  1900,  p.  255. 
I  The  story  of  nlnctccnth-century  science,  pp.  256-257.    See  footnote  1. 


■  White,  Andrew  D.    Scientific  and  industrial  education  in  the  United  Mates 
Popular  Science  Monthty.  6,  172  (1874) 


Industrial  Research 


21 


which  is  said  to  ho  the  oldest  technical  "High  College" 
in  the  world.  It  had  a  faculty  of  eminent  men  and  was 
a  center  of  activity  in  geology,  mineralogy,  crystallog- 
raphy, metallurgy,  and  chemical  technology.''  The 
Royal  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Dresden  was  started 
in  1828,  and  by  1845— 

there  were  in  all  Germany,  including  Austria,  thirty  poly- 
technic schools,  usually  one  and  sometimes  two  in  each  large 
city;  .  .  .  forty-six  schools  of  agriculture,  seven  schools  of 
mines,  and  eighteen  schools  of  forestry.  .  .' 

The  German  states  came  early  to  realize  that  their 
material  prosperity  was  dependent  largely  upon  the 
thoroughness  of  their  systems  of  scientific  education. 

In  supplying  instruction  in  chemistry,  France,  how- 
ever, was  far  ahead  of  other  countries.  "Vauquelin 
was  the  first  to  organize  a  course  of  instruction  in  his 
small  laboratory  for  students  anxious  to  learn,  while 
Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard  also  taught  in  their  labora- 
tories, which  however  were  exceedingly  cramped."  ° 
French  schools  such  as  the  Polytechnic  School,  the 
School  of  Engmeering,  the  School  of  Mines,  and  the 
great  Central  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  were 
training  students  in  the  nineteenth  century  to  apply 
the  new  scientific  knowledge. 

The  movement  was  not  so  far  advanced  in  England, 
and  in  1868,  after  a  survey  of  the  schools  and  universi- 
ties on  the  continent,  Matthew  Arnold  wrote: 

In  nothing  do  England  and  the  Continent  at  the  present 
moment  more  strikingly  differ  than  in  the  prominence  which  is 
now  given  to  the  idea  of  science  there,  and  the  neglect  in  which 
this  idea  still  lies  here.  .  .' 

In  the  United  States  an  interest  in  science,  particu- 
larly chemistry,  was  developing  during  the  first  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1802  Benjamin  Silliman 
was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  Yale  and 
immediately  granted  a  leave  of  absence  "in  order  that 
he  might  acquire  the  necessary  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence." At  that  time  Philadelphia  was  the  center  of 
scientific  activity  and  without  question  the  best  place 
in  the  country  at  which  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  chemistry. 
Benjamin  Rush  had  been  teaching  chemistry  in  the 
Philadelphia  Medical  School  since  1769.'  James  Wood- 
house  and  later  Robert  Hare  also  taught  chemistry  at 
the  Medical  School  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  it  was  from  a  close  friendship  with  the  latter  that 
Benjamin  Silliman  gained  much  of  the  knowledge  and 
experience  which  made  it  possible  for  him  to  develop 


<  Chitteoden,  Russell  H.  History otSheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  University, 
1846-1922.    New  Haven,  Yale  University  Prvss,  1928,  vol.  1,  pp.  14  and  20. 

•  See  footnote  4. 

*  Meyer,  Ernst  von.  A  history  of  chemistry.  New  York,  Macmillan  and  Co., 
1891,  p.  524. 

'  Arnold,  Matthew.  Higher  schools  and  universities  in  Germany.  London, 
Macmillan  and  Co.,  1874.  p.  213. 

8  Newell,  Lyman  C.  Chemical  education  in  America  from  the  earliest  days  to 
1820.    Journal  of  Chemical  Education,  9,  680  (April  1932). 


the  subject  of  chemistry  at  Yale.  Olhcrs  wore  strug- 
gling to  get  chemistry  recognized  as  a  worthy  subject 
in  the  college  curriculums:  Aaron  Dexter  and  John 
Gorham  at  Harvard;  Nathan  Smith,  Lyman  Spaulding, 
and  James  Freeman  Dana  at  Dartmouth. 

In  1845,  however,  even  the  most  advanced  colleges 
and  universities  still  placed  most  of  their  emphasis 
upon  the  classical  studies,  and  what  little  instruction 
they  offered  their  students  in  the  physical  and  natural 
sciences  was  elementary  in  character  and  confined  to 
undergraduates,  for  the  graduate  student  was,  as  yet, 
practically  unknown.  Instruction  was  limited  to  a 
textbook  and  lectures  during  which  the  professor  per- 
formed a  few  demonstrations.  Laboratories,  as  we 
know  them  today,  did  not  exist,  and  anything  approach- 
ing laboratory  work  by  students  had  scarcely  been 
thought  of.  In  fact  few  of  the  professors  holding  chairs 
in  the  sciences  possessed  the  necessary  equipment  or 
had  the  necessary  rooms  for  such  experimental  work. 
A  brief  description  of  Robert  Hare's  laboratory,  one 
of  the  best  of  that  day,  will  give  some  idea  of  what 
a  chemist  in  the  1830's  had  to  work  with: 

The  hearth  behind  the  table,  is  thirty-six  feet  wide,  and  twenty 
feet  deep.  On  the  left — is  a  scullery  supplied  with  river  water 
by  a  communication  with  the  pipes  proceeding  from  the  public 
water  works,  and  furnished  with  a  sink  and  a  boiler — .  In  front 
of  the  scullery  are  glass  cases  for  apparatus.  On  the  right  of 
the  hearth  are  two  other  similar  cases.  .  .  .  Behind  the  lower 
one  of  these  is  the  forge  room,  about  twelve  feet  square;  and  north 
of  the  forge  room  are  two  fireproof  rooms  communicating  with 
each  other,  eleven  feet  square  each;  the  one  for  a  lathe,  the  other 
for  a  carpenter's  bench,  and  a  vice  bench.  Over  the  forge  room 
is  a  store  room,  and  over  the  lathe  and  bench  rooms  is  one  room 
of  about  twenty  by  tw'elve  feet.  In  this  room  there  is  a  fine 
lathe,  and  tools.  The  space — to  the  right  is  divided  by  a  floor 
into  two  apartments — .  The  lower  one  is  employed  to  hold 
galvanic  apparatus,  the  upper  one  for  shelves,  and  tables,  for 
apparatus,  and  agents,  not  in  daily  use.  In  front  of  the  floor 
just  alluded  to  is  a  gallery  for  visitors. 

The  canopy  over  the  hearth  is  nearly  covered  with  shelves 
for  apparatus,  which  will  bear  exposure  to  air  and  dust,  especially 
glass.  In  the  center  of  the  hearth  there  is  a  stack  of  brick  work 
for  a  blast  furnace,  the  blast  being  produced  by  means  of  very 
large  bellows  situated  under  one  of  the  arches  supporting  the 
hearth.  The  bellows  are  wrought  by  means  of  a  lever  and  a 
rod  descending  from  it  through  a  circular  opening  in  the  masonry. 

There  are  two  other  stacks  of  brick  work  on  the  hearth  against 
the  wall.  In  one  there  is  a  coal  grate  which  heats  a  flat  sand 
bath,  in  the  other  there  is  a  similar  grate  for  heating  two  circular 
sand  baths,  or  an  alembic.  In  this  stack  there  is  likewise  a  power- 
ful air  furnace.  In  both  stacks  mentioned,  there  are  evaporating 
ovens — .' 

The  idea  of  a  special  school  of  science  or  of  a  technical 
school  in  which  the  applications  of  scientific  discovery 
might  be  stressed  grew  slowly  at  first,  and  naturally  so, 
for  its  successful  development  demanded  the  evolution 
of  methods  of  instruction  which  often  violated  accepted 


»  The  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arls,  19,  20  27  (January  1831). 


22 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


tradition.'"  Nevertheless  there  were  some  men  ready 
to  give  of  their  wealth  to  establish  such  schools,  for  they 
sensed  the  great  possibilities  of  the  future  if  only  the 
rapidly  accumulating  new  knowledge  could  be  made 
available  to  those  who  would  lind  their  work  in  indus- 
trial enterprises.  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  was  one  of 
the  first  of  these  men.  For  generations  his  familj^  had 
ruled  over  a  vast  feudal  estate  that  included  all  the  land 
now  comprising  Albany,  Columbia,  and  Rensselaer 
counties.  Although  the  family's  estate  was  greatly 
reduced  and  its  baronial  rights  were  lost  upon  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  colonial  government  during  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,  there  still  remained  a  large  property 
which  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  undertook  to  develop 
after  his  graduation  from  Harvard  College.  He  was 
the  first  to  propose  a  canal  connecting  the  Hudson 
river  with  the  Great  Lakes  and,  as  chairman  of  the  canal 
commission,  engaged  Prof.  Amos  Eaton  in  1821  to  make 
a  geological  survey  of  the  proposed  route  of  the  canal 
from  Albany  to  Buffalo."  The  importance  of  the  work 
and  the  difficulty  of  finding  men  who  were  qualified  to 
conduct  it  so  impressed  Van  Rensselaer  that  he  was 
convinced  of  the  need  for  providing  men  with  training  in 
science  and  technology. 

In  1824  Van  Rensselaer  wTote  to  Reverend  Samuel 
Blatchford : 

I  have  established  a  school  in  the  north  end  of  Troy,  for  the 
purpose  of  instructing  persons  ...  in  the  application  of  science 
to  the  common  purposes  of  life.  My  principal  object  is  to 
qualify  teachers  for  instructing  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
farmers  and  mechanics  ...  in  the  application  of  experimental 
chemistry,  philosphy  and  natural  history  to  agriculture,  domestic 
economy,  the  arts  and  manufactures.'- 

Professor  Eaton,  whose  interest  in  science  had  taken 
him  to  Yale  to  studj'  with  Benjamin  Silliman  and  whose 
ability  for  making  popular  presentations  of  scientific 
discoveries  had  led  Governor  De  Witt  Clinton  in  1818 
to  invite  him  to  give  a  course  of  lectures  before  the  mem- 
bers of  the  New  York  legislature,  was  to  hold  the  office 
of  "senior  professor"  and  teach  chemistry  and  experi- 
mental philosophy.'^  Students  were  not  to  be  taught 
according  to  the  us>ial  method  by  seeing  experiments 
and  hearing  lectures,  but  by  lecturing  and  experi- 
menting in  turn  under  the  guidance  of  a  competent 
instructor.  Thus  by  a  term  of  labor,  like  apprentices 
to  a  trade,  they  were  to  become  operative  chemists.  '* 
The  Rensselaer  School  opened  on  January  3,  1825,  and 
for    17   years,    under    Professor   Eaton's   direction,    it 


I"  Butler,  Nicholas  Murray.  Editor.  EducatioD  lu  the  Uuitcd  States.  McDden- 
hall,  T.  C.  Scicntiflc,  technical  and  cneineering  education.  Albany,  N.  Y., 
J.  B.  Lyon  Co.,  1900,  Monograph  No.  11,  p. :). 

"  Education  in  the  United  States,  p.  C.    .See  footnote  10. 

"  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  BulUtin,  7  (March  1940). 

"  Scicntiflc,  technical  and  enginoering  education,  p.  7.    Sw  footnote  10. 

'<  Sclentlflc,  technical  and  engineering  education,  p.  8.    Sec  footnote  lu. 


offered  a  year  course  of  study.  About  1850  the 
emphasis  was  shifted  to  civil  engineering,  and  the  course 
of  study  was  lengthened  to  three  years. 

The  year  1 840-47  was  an  important  one  in  the  history 
of  education  in  the  Uniteil  States.  The  Yale  Corpora- 
tion resolved  to  organize  a  school  of  applied  chemistry 
and  by  their  action  founded  what  later  came  to  be 
called  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  in  honor  of  its  first 
large  donor,  Joseph  E.  Sheffield,  cotton  merchant, 
promoter  of  railroads  and  canals.  That  same  year  the 
catalog  of  Harvard  College  carried  the  announcement; 

In  the  course  of  the  winter  of  1846-47,  arrangements  were 
made  by  the  government  of  the  University  for  the  organization 
of  an  advanced  School  of  Science  and  Literature — to  be  known 
and  de.-ignated  as  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  in  tlio  Uni- 
versity at  Cambridge. 

■Like  Sheffield,  Abbott  Lawrence  was  a  successful  mer- 
chant and  manufacturer  interested  in  education  and 
willing  to  give  money  to  provide  a  scientific  training 
which  the  existing  departments  of  the  University  did  not 
offer. 

Also  in  1846  William  Barton  Rogers,  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Virginia,  wrote 
to  his  brother  Henry  of  his  feeling  about  the  idea  of 
establishing  in  Boston  a  Polytechnic  Institution, 
"whose  true  and  only  practicable  object"  should  be 
"the  inculcation  of  all  the  scientific  principles  which 
form  the  basis  and  explanation  of  (the  arts)"  and  with 
this  a  "full  and  methodical  review  of  all  their  leading 
processes  and  operations  in  connection  with  physical 
laws."  "  Of  all  places  in  the  world  Rogers  felt  that 
Boston  was  the  one  "most  certain  to  derive  the  highest 
benefits"  from  such  an  institution  because  of  "the 
Iviiowlcdgc  seeking  spirit  and  the  hitellectual  capabilities 
of  the  commimity."  He  felt  that  in  Boston  "the 
occupations  and  interests  of  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
were  immediately  connected  with  the  applications  of 
physical  science,  and  their  quick  intelligence  had 
ah'eady  impressed  them  with  just  ideas  of  the  value  of 
scientific  teaching  in  their  daily  pursuits."  "  Although 
Rogers  never  lost  opportunity  to  advance  his  ideas  and 
plans  for  a  Polytechnic  Institute,  it  was  15  years 
before  Governor  Andrew  approved  an  "Act  to  Incorpo- 
rate the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,"  one 
branch  of  which  was  to  be  a  School  of  Industrial  Science 
that  woidd  provide  a  "complete  course  of  instruction 
and  training,  suited  to  the  various  practical  profes- 
sions— and,  at  the  same  time,  meet  the  more  limited 
aims  of  such  as  desire  to  secure  a  scientific  preparation 
for  special  industrial  pursuits  .  .  .  having  their  founda- 


"  Rogers,  William  Barton.    Lite  ami  Icttirs  of  William  Barton  Rogers.    Edited 
by  his  wife.    Boston,  New  York,  Houghton  Mimin  and  Co.,  1896,  vol.  1,  p.  200. 
'•  Life  and  ietteis  of  William  Barton  Rogers.    See  footnote  15. 


Industrial  Research 


23 


tion  in  the  exact  sciences."  '"     By  1899  the  Institute 
had  graduated  nearly  2,000  men. 

Before  tlie  middle  of  the  century  the  vast  mineral 
reso>n-ccs  of  the  country  had  scarcely  been  touched, 
and  the  need  for  trained  men  to  discover  and  develop 
thoin  was  great.  At  Columbia  College,  the  efforts 
of  Professor  Thomas  Egleston,  a  graduate  of  Yale  and 
the  ficole  des  mines  in  Paris,  resulted  in  1864  in  the 
organization  of  the  School  of  Mines.  Although  Co- 
lumbia College  did  not  pledge  itself  to  support  the  new 
school,  it  did  permit  the  use  of  some  rooms  in  the  college 
buildings.  George  T.  Strong,  William  E.  Dodge,  Jr., 
and  several  others  provided  about  $3,000  to  equip  the 
laboratory.  The  members  of  the  instructing  staff, 
consisting  of  Professor  Egleston  and  a  little  later  Pro- 
fessors Charles  F.  Chandler  and  F.  L.  Vinton,  were 
appointed  without  salary,  for  they  were  expected  to 
gain  their  livelihood  from  fees.'^ 

Although  originally  intended  to  train  mining  engi- 
neers, the  school  soon  had  on  its  staff  men  qualified  to 
teach  in  other  fields,  and  the  program  of  the  school  was 
expanded  to  include  civil  engineering,  applied  chemistry, 
sanitary  engineering,  geology,  and  architecture.  A  year 
after  its  opening  the  School  of  Mines  became  a  coordi- 
nate branch  of  the  college,  and  for  some  time  brought  to 
it  much  of  its  fame." 

In  Worcester,  Mass.,  two  men,  Mr.  John  Boynton,  a 
merchant,  and  Mr.  Ichabod  Washburn,  founder  of  the 
Washburn  and  Mocn  steel  and  wire  manufactory,  had 
confided  to  the  Reverend  Seth  Sweetser  their  desire 
to  contribute  to  the  establishment  of  a  school  for  train- 
ing young  men  for  industrial  pursuits.  A  conference 
with  several  other  individuals  interested  in  such  a  school 
resulted  in  a  united  effort  from  which  came  the  opening 
of  the  Worcester  Polyteclmic  Institute  in  1868.  Dr. 
Charles  O.  Thompson,  its  first  president,  is  said  to  have 
gained  from  a  study,  particularly  of  the  Imperial 
Technical  School  at  Moscow  and  the  Institute  of 
Technology  at  St.  Petersburg,  the  idea  of  combining 
lectures  and  the  study  of  textbooks  wnth  practical 
exercises  in  workshops  where  the  student  could  learn 
the  construction  and  use  of  machines.^" 

Other  businessmen  active  in  the  development  of  our 
natural  resources  provided  opportunities  in  their  re- 
spective localities  for  young  men  to  get  a  practical 
education.  Asa  Packer,  tanner,  carpenter,  owner  and 
master  of  canal  boats,  mines,  and  railroads  made  it 
possible     to     found     Lehigh    University.     Edwin    A.» 


"  Life  and  letters  of  William  Barton  Rogers.    See  footnote  15,  vol.  2.  p.  223. 
'*  Resignation  of  Professor  Chandler.    Metatlurgicat  and  Chemuat  Engineertng,  8, 
66  (February  1910). 
"  See  footnote  18. 
"Scientific,  technical  and  engineering  education,  p.  13.    See  footnote  10. 


Stevens,  one  of  the  earliest  users  of  steam  for  water 
transportation,  provided  by  his  will  the  original  funds 
for  Stevens  Institute  at  llobokcn.  Before  1900  other 
generous  donors  had  provided  for  such  institutions  as 
the  Case  School  of  Applied  Science,  at  Cleveland;  the 
Rose  Pol3'technic  Institute  at  Terre  Haute,  Indiana; 
Throop  Polytechnic  Institute,  later  to  become  the 
California  Institute  of  Technology;  and  the  Armour 
Institute  of  Technology  at  Chicago. 

The  long-established  colleges  and  universities  could 
not  neglect  the  science  and  technology  which  was 
spreading  rapidly  and  affecting  so  markedly  the  devel- 
opment of  the  country.  The  schools  of  science  at 
Harvard  and  Yale  have  already  been  mentioned. 
Dartmouth,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Princeton  and 
many  other  institutions  added  schools  of  science  during 
the  nineteenth  century  even  though  "the  student  pre- 
paring for  an  industrial  profession  was  not  considered 
as  of  the  same  caste  with  the  student  preparing  for  a 
'learned  profession'  "  ^' 

A  major  event  affecting  the  development  of  scientific 
and  technical  education  in  the  United  States  was  the 
act,  proposed  by  Justin  S.  Morrill,  of  Vermont,  and 
passed  by  Congress  in  1862,  providing  for  the  issuance 
to  every  state  of  scrip  for  30,000  acres  of  land  for  each 
representative  and  each  senator  sent  to  Congress  by 
that  state.  The  scrip  was  sold  in  the  open  market, 
usually  for  low  prices,  and  the  proceeds  spent  particu- 
larly to  found  or  assist  institutions  in  which  subjects 
relating  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  should  be 
leading  branches  of  study.  Classical  and  scientific 
studies  were  not  to  be  excluded ,  however,  and  the  study 
of  military  tactics  was  definitely  included.  Some  states 
gave  their  funds  for  the  endowment  of  scientific  and 
industrial  education  in  an  existing  institution;  others 
founded  purety  agricultural  colleges;  and  still  others 
founded  separate  schools  which  have  since  grown  into 
great  institutions.  Purdue,  Pennsjdvania  State  Col- 
lege, the  Universities  of  Illinois  and  Ohio  are  but  a  few 
of  those  organized  under  the  terms  of  the  Morrill  Act. 
Andrew  D.  White,  a  vigorous  proponent  of  the  "new 
education,"  pointed  out  the  significance  of  this  act  in 
1874,  when  he  said: 

It  was  to  provide  fully  for  an  industrial,  scientific,  and  general 
education  suited  to  our  land  and  time — an  education  in  which 
scientific  and  industrial  studies  should  be  Icnit  into  its  very  core, 
while  other  studies  should  also  be  provided  for.-^ 

Vast  Natural  Resources 

Although  the  amount  of  scientific  knowledge  was 
increasing  and  more  and  more  men  were  being  taught 

"  Scientific  and  industrial  education  in  the  United  States,  p.  171.    See  footnote  3. 
"  Scientific  and  Industrial  education  in  the  United  States,  p.  173.    See  footnote  3. 


24 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


in  schools  of  science  and  technology  to  apply  it,  obsta- 
cles still  existed  to  delay  the  application  of  science  to 
industry. 

When  the  nineteenth  century  oj)ened,  our  ancestors 
had  before  them  a  country  whose  limits  they  did  not 
know,  but  one  which  was  soon  to  yield  them  seemingly 
inexhaustible  natural  resources.  As  the  population  in- 
creased in  the  United  States,  more  and  more  attention 
was  given  to  the  development  of  manufactures,  although 
the  obstacles  to  their  introduction  were  numerous  and 
troublesome.  In  time,  canals,  railroads,  and  steam- 
boats made  available  the  great  deposits  of  ore  and  coal 
and  widened  the  areas  of  profitable  trade.  This  expan- 
sion of  transportation  facilities  was  made  possible  by 
feats  in  civil  and  mechanical  engineering  that,  for  the 
age,  were  "gigantic."  Our  dependence  upon  foreign- 
trained  engineers  was  soon  relieved,  and  in  some 
branches  of  engineering  we  began  to  set  the  example 
for  Europe.  The  "captains  of  industry"  were  bold  and 
capable;  masters  of  organization  and  of  men.  Their 
immediate  problems  were  not  those  of  producing  effi- 
cientl}^  and  economically,  but  rather  those  of  acquiring 
control  of  resources,  transporting  materials,  and  finding 
an  adequate  supply  of  labor  to  manufacture  them  into 
products  for  which  a  greedy  and  growing  population 
was  clamoring.  Technical  improvements  were  im- 
ported from  Europe  and  quickly  adapted  to  the  re- 
quirements of  industry.  Until  the  last  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  however,  teclmical  progress  was 
based  far  more  upon  inventive  experimentation  and 
trial-and-error  methods  then  upon  a  conscious  and  sys- 
tematic effort  to  apply  the  principles  of  science  to  in- 
dustry through  the  medium  of  research.  In  no  way 
does  this  fact  belittle  the  achievements  of  those  who 
utilized  such  methods,  or  serve  as  a  criticism  of  indus- 
trial leaders  of  that  era.  It  simply  indicates  that  in- 
dustry had  not  yet  reached  the  point  wliere  a  further 
increase  in  wealth  depended  upon  the  "progress  of 
scientific  knowledge  and  the  refinement  of  engineering 
skill."  As  long  as  there  was  a  large  demand  at  a  prof- 
itable price  for  the  products  of  the  mill  and  factory, 
owners  and  managers  had  little  incentive  to  invest  even 
a  small  portion  of  their  earnings  in  a  search  for  new 
methods  and  new  products.  When,  even  under  such 
generous  natural  conditions,  problems  did  arise  which 
threatened  profits,  the  industrialist's  traditional  attack 
was  a  plea  for  greater  tariff  protection,  or  a  "proposi- 
tion" which  would  offset  the  wasteful  methods  of 
production  by  eliminating  the  offending  competitor." 

The  Protective  Tariff 

As  late  as  1913  an  editorial  in  the  Journal  of  Industrial 
and  Engineering  Chemistry  went  so  far  as  to  say  that 

»  Duncan,  U.  K.    Temporary  industrial  fellowships.    North  American  Review,  IBS, 
M  (May  3,  1907). 


probably  the  greatest  factor  in  retarding  the  develop- 
ment of  scientific  research  among  our  industries  has 
been  a  high  tariff;  that  it  has  caused  prosperity  and 
enormous  profits  in  si)it('  of  short-sighted  management; 
and  that  political  research  has  been  well  understood. 
Many  industrial  managers  have  spent  thousands  on 
the  lobby  and  not  a  cent  for  placing  their  business 
on  a  sound  scientific  footing  .  .  .  Only  after  hope  of 
increasing  profits  by  the  political  route  has  been  entirely 
eliminated,  will  they  turn  to  the  scientific  method.-* 

Although  this  is  probably  an  overstatement  of  the 
effect  on  research  of  high  tariffs,  it  is  true,  particularly 
in  the  early  days  of  our  development,  that  they  fre- 
quently deprived  the  United  States  of  the  opportunity 
to  share  in  the  benefits  of  improvements  which  had 
been  made  abroad.  For  nearly  .30  years,  for  example, 
the  domestic  producers  of  hammered  iron  were  pro- 
tected from  the  rolled  iron  which  Great  Britain  w'as 
producing  much  more  cheaply  under  Cort's  new 
processes  of  puddling  and  rolling.^'  Moreover,  tariff  pro- 
tection and  industrial  combinations  undoubtedly  tended 
to  hide  problems,  or  at  least  to  hide  the  importance  of 
problems,  and  in  so  doing  postponed  a  scientific  attack 
upon  them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tariff  undoubtedly 
made  it  easier  for  many  industries  to  become  estab- 
lished, and  the  combination  of  small  industrial  units 
into  large  corporations  made  it  possible  for  the  latter  to 
support  costly  research. 

Attitude  of  Industrialists  and  Scientists 

The  industrialist's  suspicion  of  the  scientist  and  the 
scientist's  disdain  for  the  man  who  would  apply  his 
discoveries  to  everyday  enterprises  also  delayed  research. 
To  the  manufacturers,  industry  was  no  place  for  the 
impractical  dreamer;  he  belonged  in  the  university, 
where  he  would  not  upset  the  methods  that  had 
worked  for  many  years.  "Even  the  trained  chemist," 
said  Willis  R.  WTiitney  in  1916,  "constituted  in  the 
minds  of  most  manufacturers  a  pure  speculation." 
This  feeling  was  partly  the  result  of  ignorance  of  what 
a  properly  trained  man  could  accomplish  and  partly 
the  result  of  the  numerous  failures  of  men  who  were 
employed  to  do  research  although  they  were  wholly 
unqualified  through  temperament  and  lack  of  proper 
training  and  resourcefulness  to  undertake  it.  The 
manufacturer,  frequently  unwilling  to  provide  the 
necessary  conditions  and  equipment  for  research,  ex- 
pected immediate  and  startling  results.  Speaking  of 
this  attitude  as  he  observetl  it  in  the  oil  industry,  Mr. 
William  M.  Burton  said: 

It  is  very  curious  tliat  from  (lie  early  days  of  the  industry 
until  the  discovery  of  Lima  oil,  there  seems  to  have  been  prejudice 
on  the  part  of  practical  oil  men  against  the  chemical  fraternity. 

'*  Research.    Indttitriat  and  Kngiveering  Chemistry,  6,  9fi6  (Decomber  191.3). 
"Taussig,  F.  W.    The  tariff  history  of  the  United  States.    New  York,  London, 
O.  P.  riilnam's  Sons,  5th  ed.,  1909.  p.  127. 


Industrial  Research 


25 


Why,  ...  is  not  entirely  clear,  but  I  tliink  one  reason  might  be 
the  fact  that  manufacturers  frequently  called  upon  chemists  of 
general  training  to  solve  some  particular  jjroblem  connected  with 
their  business,  ignoring  the  fact  that  the  chemist  jjrobably  had 
had  no  practical  refining  experience.  The  chemist,  therefore, 
probably  offered  suggestions  which  were  totally  impracticable 
and  the  manufacturer  seeing  the  fact,  was  not  particularly 
impressed  with  the  chemical  profession  as  a  possible  aid  to  his 
business  .  .  ." 

The  scientist,  on  the  other  hantl,  was  not  eager  to  see 
his  discovery  apphed  to  industry.  He  was  in  search  of 
truth,  and  the  application  was  unimportant.  ITere  and 
there  a  scientist  could  be  found  who  went  so  far  as  to 
feel  that  "making  a  utility  of  the  God-given  discoveries 
of  the  truly  beautiful  phenomena  of  Nature  was  a 
prostitution  to  be  deprecated,  and  that  research  could 
only  be  pure  when  it  was  'sterile.'  "  " 

In  time,  however,  the  gap  between  "pure"  and  "im- 
pure" science  was  to  become  much  smaller.  As  William 
H.  Walker  expressed  it: 

There  is  with  scientific  men  a  general  awakening  to  the  fact 
that  the  highest  destiny  of  science  is  not  to  accumulate  the  truths 
of  nature  in  a  form  that  no  one  but  the  elect  few  can  utilize,  but 
that  the  search  for  truth  can  be  combined  with  a  judicious  at- 
tempt to  make  the  truth  serve  the  public  good.  Thus  the  dis- 
tinction which  has  existed  between  the  terms  pure  science  and 
applied  science  is  rapidly  falling  away.  An  attempt  to  define 
these  two  kinds  of  science  reveals  the  fact  that  their  distinction 
is  a  general  impression  rather  than  a  clear  statement. '' 

Period  of  Unorganized  Research 

The  wealth  of  natural  resources,  the  reliance  upon 
tariff  protection,  and  the  mutual  distrust  of  the  scientist 
and  the  industrialist  served  to  delay  but  failed  to  pre- 
vent the  infiltration  of  science  into  industry.  Growing 
competition  within  home  industries  could  not  be  met 
with  high  tariffs,  and  combinations  seldom  achieved  a 
monopoly.  Obviously,  a  new  attack  upon  industrial 
problems  was  necessary,  and  farsighted,  technically- 
minded  leaders  gradually  overcame  the  objections  of 
their  associates  and  made  it  with  applied  science. 
They  turned  to  the  imiversity  professors  and  the  com- 
mercial chemists  for  assistance  and  advice  upon  certain 
specific  problems.  With  many  misgivings,  they  added 
to  their  staffs  trained  chemists  whose  first  work  was 
largely  restricted  to  testing,  sampling,  and  controlling 
processes.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  these 
chemists,  with  their  special  training,  substituted  scien- 
tific methods  for  rule-of-thumb  and,  as  a  result,  not 
only  accelerated  the  improvement  of  existing  processes 
but  also  utilized  waste  products  and  created  new  prod- 
ucts. Many  a  research  laboratory  has  evolved  from 
the  dingy  corner  allotted  to  a  plant  chemist. 

"  Burton,  William  M.  Chemistry  in  the  petroleum  industry.  Induslrial  and 
Enginening  Clttmistrn,  10,  485  (June  1918). 

"  Whitney,  W.  R.  Incidents  of  applied  research.  Industrial  and  Enginetring 
Chemistry,  8.  561  (June  19161. 

■>  Walker,  W.  H.  Chemical  research  and  industrial  progress  Scienlijic  American 
Supplement,  71,  14  (July  1,  1911). 


Early  Plant  Chemists 

An  early  and  isolated  example  of  such  a  laboratory 
was  that  of  the  Merrbnack  Manufacturing  Company  at 
Lowell,  Mass.  From  1834  until  liis  deatli  in  1868, 
Samuel  Luther  Dana  served  the  company  as  resident 
and  consulting  chemist.^  After  being  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1813,  he  studied  medicine  and  be- 
came an  M.  D.  in  1818.  For  8  j'ears  he  practiced  in 
Waltham,  but  the  subject  of  chemistry  had  a  fascina- 
tion for  him,  and  even  before  he  gave  up  his  medical 
practice  he  had  "established  a  laboratory  for  the  i)ro- 
duction  of  sulfuric  acid  and  bleaching  salts."  This 
enterprise  was  soon  merged  with  the  Newton  Chemical 
Company  and  Dr.  Dana  served  it  as  superintendent  and 
chemist  until  1833.  He  then  went  to  Europe  for  a  year 
and  upon  his  return  became  chemist  for  the  Merrimack 
Manufactm-ing  Company.  Possessed  of  a  wide  knowl- 
edge of  substances  and  an  originality  in  devising  means 
for  solvuig  problems,  he  undertook  a  systematic  study 
of  the  action  of  the  dung  of  beeves  which  at  that  time 
was  used  "for  removmg  the  excess  of  mordant  in  print- 
ing calicoes  with  madder."  This  research  led  to  the 
discovery  that  "crude  phosphates  in  a  bath  with  bran" 
were  a  complete  substitute  for  the  expensive  and  un- 
pleasant material  which  had  hitherto  been  indispen- 
sable. By  using  sodium  phosphate  made  from  bones, 
Dana  greatly  improved  the  process  of  calico  prmting  in 
the  United  States.  Later,  Mercer  found  that  arsenates 
were  equally  effective  and  cheaper. 

Dana  continued  his  study  of  the  chemical  changes 
that  took  place  in  the  process  of  bleaching  cotton  fab- 
rics preparatory  to  printing  them  and  finally  developed 
what  became  known  as  the  "American  System"  of 
bleaching,  once  referred  to  by  the  French  scientist 
Persez  as  realizing  "the  perfection  of  chemical  opera- 
tions." The  process  was  not  only  widely  adopted  in 
the  industry,  but  was  also  highly  praised  as  a  piece  of 
scientific  investigation,  a  description  of  it  being  pub- 
lished in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  Industrielle  de  Mul- 
house  in  1838. 

Although  much  of  Dana's  attention  was  given  to  the 
many  diverse  problems  which  arose  in  the  mills,  he 
went  on  year  after  year  studying  madder,  its  nature, 
and  its  application  to  l)oth  dyeing  and  agriculture. 
Moreover  he  continued  his  study  of  manures,  and  1842 
published  The  Farmer's  Muck  Manual  of  Manures 
which  was  considered  "the  sheet  anchor  of  libraries  in 
the  rural  districts  of  New  England  for  many  years." 
Benjamin  Silliman,  the  younger,  placed  him  first  in 
point  of  "time,  originality,  and  ability"  among  those 
in  the  United  States  who  wrote  upon  scientific  agricul- 
ture.    To  Dr.  Dana  should  go  the  distinction  of  estab- 


"  This  account  of  Dana's  work  is  based  upon  those  in  Youmans,  W.  J.  Pioneers 
of  science  in  America.  New  York,  D.  Appleton  and  Co.,  1896,  pp.  313-315;  Dic- 
tionary of  American  biography.    New  York,  C.  Scribncr's  Sons,  1930,  vol.  5,  p.  61. 


26 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


lishing  one  of  the  first  industrial  research  laboratories  in 
this  country — a  laboratory  in  wliich  he  worked  sys- 
tematically for  34  years  not  only  to  solve  the  immediate 
problems  of  the  Merrimack  Manufacturing;  Company, 
l)ut  also  to  discover  new  facts  which  would  aid  the 
growing  textile  industry  in  New  England. 

Another  pioneer  chemist  in  industry  was  Charles 
Benjamin  Uudlej%  who,  in  1875,  left  his  position  as 
teacher  of  science  at  the  Riverside  Military  Academy, 
Poughkecpsie,  N.  Y.,  to  join  the  staff  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad.'"  At  that  time  the  company  had 
acquired  some  apparatus  for  conducting  physical  tests, 
but  had  made  no  provision  for  making  chemical 
analyses.  Any  need  for  the  services  of  a  chemist  was 
met  by  consulting  an  outsider.  When  the  company 
decided  to  have  an  engineering  laboratory  "in  its 
broadest  sense,"  a  department  of  physical  tests  was 
easily  organized  from  the  staff  and  equipment  already 
available.  To  organize  a  department  of  chemical  tests, 
however,  was  not  so  simple,  for  nobody  within  the 
company  had  had  the  necessary  experience,  and  no 
other  railroad  maintained  a  laboratory  from  which  a 
trained  man  could  be  liii'cd.  Mr.  Theodore  N.  Ely,  the 
Superintendent  of  Motive  Power  for  the  Pennsylvania 
R.  R.,  consulted  his  friend  Dr.  Coleman  Sellers,  and 
upon  his  recommendation  offered  the  position  to  Dud- 
ley. Since  the  latter  had  a  strong  desire  to  make  the 
study  of  "physiological  chemistry  his  specialty,"  the 
decision  to  give  it  up  for  work  in  industry  was  not  easUy 
made.  Moreover  Dudley  was  well  aware  of  the  general 
antagonism  and  skepticism  regarding  the  work  of  the; 
scientist  when  any  attempt  was  made  to  apply  it  to 
practical  affairs.  He  knew  too  that  the  undertaking 
was  largely  an  experiment  the  success  of  which  would 
depend  not  alone  upon  the  accuracy  of  his  chemical 
analyses,  but  also  upon  his  ability  to  cooperate  with 
men  who  would  have  httle  use  for  his  approach.  In 
spite  of  these  undesirable  features,  Dudley  knew  that 
the  railroad  would  offer  many  new  and  interesting 
problems,  and  that  the  higher  executives  were  men  who 
would  be  sympathetic  toward  his  efforts.  He  accepted 
the  offer  and  began  his  work  with  the  help  of  one  or  two 
untrained  men. 

The  problem  which  confronted  him  was  not  a  simple 
one.  First  of  all  he  had  to  determine  what  material  was 
best  for  the  company  to  use  for  any  given  purpose. 
Once  this  decision  was  made,  he  had  to  prepare  specifi- 
cations that  would  insure  the  company's  getting  exactly 
what  it  wanted  when  purchasing  in  an  open  and  higlily 
competitive  market.  To  get  such  results,  a  third  step 
was  necessary,  that  of  devising  "the  best  methods  and 
the  most  efficient  organization  for  carrying  on  routine 

"This  account  of  Dudley's  work  is  based  upon  papers  by  Marburg,  E.,  Ely,  T.  N., 
Smith,  E.  F.,aDd  Howe,  H.M.,  published  in  a  Memorial  volume  commemorative  of 
The  IKe  and  life  work  of  Chariea  Benjamin  Dudley,  Ph.  D.  (American  Society  tor 
TestInK  Materials.)     Pbiladelphia,  Pa.,  The  Society,  1911. 


acceptance  tests  on  an  extensive  scale."  And  finally  he 
had  "to  conduct  independent  research  and  keep  in 
touch  with  the  latest  scientific  and  practical  develop- 
ments in  a  vast  field"  in  order  that  the  railroad  might 
profit  by  any  method  or  product  that  would  increase  its 
efficiency    or    reduce    its    operating    costs. 

At  the  time  Dudley  joined  the  staff  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad,  the  loss  resulting  from  the  rapid  corro- 
sion of  valves  and  other  parts  of  the  locomotives  was  a 
serious  one.  He  immediately  began  a  study  of  the 
tallows  used  for  lubricating  the  locomotive  cylinders 
and  found  that  by  careful  and  proper  rendering  and  by 
the  selection  of  fresh  tallow  he  could  greatly  reduce  the 
loss.  The  next  step  was  a  carefully  prepared  specifica- 
tion which  would  govern  future  purchases  of  tallow. 

A  more  dangerous  situation,  involving  the  safety  of 
passengers,  existed  in  connection  with  the  railroad's 
signal  lights,  which  frequently  grew  dim  and  sometimes 
failed  entirely.  An  investigation  showed  that  no 
trouble  arose  when  lard  oil  made  in  the  company's  own 
oil  house  was  used.  Then  Dudley  experienced  difficul- 
ties in  his  attempt  to  discover  why  lard  oil  purchased 
from  dealers  gave  trouble.  Almost  by  accident  he  dis- 
covered, in  the  course  of  his  experiments,  that  "when 
acid  was  added  to  a  mixture  of  cotton-seed  oil  and  lard 
oil  a  reaction  took  place  in  which  the  heat  evolved  was 
in  almost  exact  proportion  to  the  cotton-seed  oil."  A 
conclusion  was  not  difficult  to  draw:  the  manufacturers 
were  mixing  low-priced  cotton-seed  oil  with  high-priced 
lard  oil  and  selling  the  mixture  for  pure  lard  oil.  Notice 
that  in  the  future  the  company  would  accept  no  lard 
oil  that  did  not  meet  Dr.  Dudley's  tests  brought 
immediate  expressions  of  indignation,  which,  how- 
ever, were  quickly  followed  by  an  ample  supply  of  pure 
lard  oil. 

An  investigation  of  The  Chemical  Composition  and 
Physical  Properties  of  Steel  Rails  brought  Dudley 
world-wide  attention.  Steel  was  being  offered  to  the 
railroads  as  a  substitute  for  iron,  but  nobody  knew  to 
what  extent  it  would  meet  the  requirements  of  actual 
service.  Before  beginning  his  investigation,  Dudley 
spent  a  few  weeks  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  in 
order  to  learn  more  about  the  methods  of  analyzing 
steel.  After  his  work  at  Yale,  in  an  effort  to  discover 
the  reasons  for  the  variable  life  of  steel  rails,  he  examined 
2.5  samples  which  in  actual  service  had  been  rated  from 
"good"  to  "very  bad."  His  data,  which  consisted  of 
the  location  of  the  rail,  the  tonnage  carried  over  it,  and 
the  results  of  chemical  and  physical  tests,  pointed  to 
the  conclusion  that  mild  steel  made  a  rail  which  was 
less  likely  to  break  and  which  would  wear  longer  than 
one  of  harder  steel.  On  the  basis  of  his  findings  he 
then  reconuncnded  a  formula  for  the  chemical  compo- 
sition of  rails  that  should  be  purchased  in  the  future 
by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 


Industrial  Research 


27 


Some  of  the  leading  steel  producers  took  immediate 
issue  with  Dudlej'  on  the  grounds  that  his  experiments 
were  inadequate,  that  his  results  were  not  consistent 
with  the  experience  of  other  users,  and  that  his  formula 
would  greatly  increase  the  cost  of  producing  steel  rails. 
Nevertheless,  Dudley  had  started  an  inquiry  which  led 
to  many  more  lesearches,  both  in  the  United  States  and 
abroad. 

An  inkling  of  the  significance  of  his  work  can  be  gained 
from  a  statement  made  by  Capt.  W.  R.  Jones,  of  the 
Carnegie  Company,  who  had  taken  issue  with  some  of 
Dudley's  findings: 

Before  he  proposed  this  formula  how  many  of  those  who  con- 
den>ned  it  as  being  egregiously  wrong  had  any  idea  whatever 
of  the  relations  of  carbon,  silicon,  and  manganese  to  phos- 
phorus? Although  Dr.  Dudley  may  be  wrong,  and  I  believe  he 
is  only  partially  correct,  yet  he  was  the  first  to  endeavor  to 
establish  a  formula  of  this  kind,  and  is  therefore  entitled  to  the 
thanks  of  steel  makers;  for  although  it  may  not  be  correct,  it 
is  much  nearer  the  mark  than  what  others  have  simply  guessed 
at;  and  the  direct  results  of  his  investigations  have  been  to 
stimulate  investigations  by  others  and  throw  much  light  on  a 
dark  subject." 

Rails,  axles,  springs,  paints,  varnishes,  coals,  disin- 
fectants, dyes,  were  all  subjected  to  Dr.  Dudley's 
analysis,  and  the  results  were  practically  expressed  in 
standard  specifications.  Today  much  of  the  type  of 
work  which  he  did  is  no  longer  classified  as  research ;  for, 
because  of  his  pioneer  work  and  the  work  of  the  Amer- 
ican Society  for  Testing  Materials,  organized  largely 
tlirough  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Dudley,  such  tests  and 
analyses  have  been  standardized  and  no  longer  involve 
a  search  for  the  unknown.  But  in  the  seventies  and 
eighties,  when  business  men  had  little  faith  in  what  the 
chemist  could  do,  and  the  chemist  had  little  knowledge 
of  what  he  could  do  for  the  business  men,  Dudley's 
work  was  true  industrial  research.  When  his  career 
with  the  Pennsylvania  ended,  the  laboratory  which  he 
had  organized  was  staffed  by  34  trained  chemists  and 
many  assistants. 

The  rapid  and  spectacular  developments  in  the 
American  iron  and  steel  industry  would  have  been 
impossible  but  for  the  work  of  trained  chemists,  metal- 
lurgists, and  engineers.  If  the  industry  as  a  whole  has 
lagged  in  organized  research,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that 
some  companies  began  early  to  "make  a  rational  attempt 
to  apply  the  findings  of  the  chemist  to  their  immediate 
problems." 

In  the  spring  of  1863  a  chemical  laboratory  was 
established  at  Wyandotte,  near  Detroit,  where  a  fur- 
nace had  been  built  for  experimenting  on  a  large  scale 
with  the  process  for  producing  steel  invented  by  William 
KeUy.  Previously  the  experiments  with  the  Bessemer 
process  had  not  met  with  success  largely  because  of  the 

"  The  lile  and  life  work  of  Charles  Benjamin  Dudley,  Ph.D.,  p.  23.    See  footnote  30. 


imperfect  control  of  raw  materials.  Those  in  charge 
of  the  furnace  at  Wyandotte,  however,  recognized  the 
necessity  for  using  suitable  pig  iron  and  established 
laboratory  facilities  for  determining  the  quality  of  the 
iron  received  from  various  furnaces.'^ 

W.  F.  Durfee,  the  man  who  was  invited  by  Capt.  E. 
B.  Ward  to  design  and  superintend  the  furnace  at 
Wyandotte,  made  an  interesting  comment  about  this 
laboratory: 

It  is  quite  certain  that  long  after  the  establishment  (of  this 
laboratory)  the  manufacturers  of  steel  in  Sheffield  did  not  regard 
the  employment  of  chemical  investigation  of  their  materials  or 
products  as  desirable  or  practicable.  I  have  in  my  possession  a 
pamphlet  published  in  Sheffield,  England,  as  late  as  1870,  for 
the  purpose  of  attracting  attention  and  trade,  in  which  the 
following  sentences  occur:  "The  various  articles  on  the  manufac- 
ture of  cast  steel  in  the  encyclopaedias  and  other  works  are  for 
the  most  part  out  of  date  or  are  written  by  scientific  men  having 
little  or  no  practical  acquaintance  with  the  subject  and  conse- 
quently are  not  of  much  value — The  steel  manufacturers  of 
Sheffield  are  not  chemists.  The  application  of  chemistry  to  the 
manufacture  of  steel  has  not  yet  met  with  any  success.  The 
analysis  of  steel  is  a  very  difficult  process.  It  has  frequently 
been  attempted  in  Sheffield  but  never  with  any  practical 
success."  32 

At  the  insistence  of  a  number  of  the  members  of  the 
American  Iron  and  Steel  Association,  J.  Blodgett 
Britton  established  in  Philadelphia  in  1866  an  "Iron- 
masters' Laboratory"  in  order  to  "encourage  the  de- 
velopment of  workable  bodies  of  iron  ore  and  to  inform 
producers  of  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  metal 
they  would  yield."" 

Alloys  also  began  to  interest  American  iron-masters 
about  this  time. 

In  1868  four  of  the  largest  rail  mills  in  the  U.  S.  were  experi- 
menting with  chrome  ore  and  manganese  in  the  puddling  furnace 
for  hardening  rail  heads,  and  the  Government  had  ordered  an 
experimental  lot  of  projectiles  to  be  made  of  cliromc  iron  in 
order  to  test  their  ability  to  penetrate  hardened  armor.'' 

The  first  chemist  in  the  iron  industry  employed  by  a 
company  not  making  Bessemer  stool  is  believed  to  have 
been  with  the  firm  of  Kloman,  Carnegie  &  Company, 
operators  of  the  famous  Lucy  furnace.'"  Two  develop- 
ments seem  to  have  convinced  Henry  Phipps,  then  in 
charge  of  the  Lucy  furnace,  that  the  services  of  a  chem- 
ist were  necessary.  Companies  producing  steel  were 
beginning  to  state  their  requirements  in  chemical 
terms,  "the  principal  one  being  that  tlu^  metal  should 
not  contain  more  than  ten-hundrodths  of  1  percent  of 
phosphorus."     For  every  increase  of  ono-huiulredth  of 

"  Clark,  Victor  S.  History  of  manufactures  in  the  United  Slates  (1860-1893).  New- 
York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co..  Inc.,  1929,  vol.  2.  pp  70-71. 

"  Durfee,  W.  F.  The  first  chemical  laboratory.  American  Iron  and  Steel  Associa- 
tion, Bulletin  SO,  249  (November  10,  1896). 

"  History  of  manufactures  in  the  I'nitcd  States  (1860-1893),  p.  78.    See  footnote  32. 

"  History  of  manufactures  in  the  United  States  (1860-1893),  p.  78.    See  footnote  32, 

>•  Bridge,  J.  H.  The  inside  history  of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company.  New  York, 
The  Aldinc  Book  Co.,  1903,  p.  65. 


28 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


1  percent  of  phosphorus  the  companies  deducted  25  cents 
per  ton  from  tlie  price  tliey  would  pay.^'  Also  at  a 
critical  period  in  the  financial  history  of  Kloman,  Car- 
negie &  Company,  the  Lucy  furnace  suffered  a  "chill" 
upon  the  substitution  of  high-grade  Lake  Superior  ores 
for  the  low  grade  ores  on  which  it  had  been  running 
well.  As  a  result  the  company  hired  Dr.  Fricke,  a 
German  chemist,  and  in  the  words  of  Andrew  Carnegie: 

.  .  .  great  secrets  did  the  doctor  open  up  to  us.  Iron  stone 
from  mines  that  had  a  high  reputation  was  now  found  to  contain 
ten,  fifteen,  and  even  twenty  per  cent  less  iron  than  it  had  been 
credited  with.  Mines  that  hitlierto  had  a  poor  reputation  we 
found  to  be  yielding  superior  ore.  The  good  was  bad  and  the 
bad  was  good,  and  everything  was  topsy-turvy.  Nine-tenths  of 
all  the  uncertainties  of  pig-iron  making  were  dispelled  under  the 
burning  sun  of  chemical  knowledge.'' 

'\Miile  competitors  described  the  exiKMiditure  for  a 
chemist  as  an  extravagance,  Carnegie  and  his  partners 
reaped  substantial  benefits  from  their  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  ores.  They  bought  ore  at  low  prices 
from  mines  which  other  furnace  owners  held  in  disre- 
pute; they  bought  for  50  cents  a  ton  the  flue  cinder 
from  the  heating  furnaces  and  the  roll  scale  from  the 
mills,  bj'products  that  competitors  were  piling  on  the 
river  banks  as  waste,  mixed  them  with  smaller  quan- 
tities of  high-grade  Lake  Superior  ore  than  had  pre- 
viously been  necessary,  and  yet  they  produced  a  better 
pig  iron  at  a  lower  cost.  To  complete  the  game,  they 
sold,  through  brokers,  their  own  inferior  puddle  cinder 
with  high  phosphorus  content  to  these  same  competitors 
for  $1  and  $1.50  a  ton.''  The  secret  was  in  knowing 
how  to  flux  the  ore  that  was  used.  "  Wliat  fools  we  had 
been!"  said  Carnegie.  "But  then  there  was  this  con- 
solation," he  continued,  "We  were  not  as  great  fools  as 
our  competitors." 

Very  early  in  its  history  the  petroleum  industry 
likewise  sought  the  services  of  the  scientist.  Before 
Colonel  Drake  drilled  his  w^ell  near  Titusville,  Pa.,  in 
1859,  samples  of  petroleum  had  been  sent  to  Professor 
Silliman,  the  younger,  at  Yale  for  his  examination.  He 
distilled  the  oil,  separated  the  various  fractions  accord- 
ing to  their  boiling  points,  and  reported  that  portions 
of  these  distillates  were  suitable  for  illuminating  pur- 
poses. Men  in  the  oil  business,  knowing  that  if  a 
substitute  for  the  expensive  animal  and  vegetable  oils 
that  were  then  being  used  in  lamps  could  be  found  it 
would  have  a  ready  market,  acted  upon  Professor 
Silliman's  advice  and  began  the  refining  of  petroleum 
in  this  country.** 


"  The  inside  history  of  the  Camcgio  Steel  Company.    See  footnote  36. 

■■  Carnc!!ie,  Andrew.  Autobiography.  Boston,  New  York,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
1920,  p.  182. 

'•  The  inside  history  of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company,  p.  64.  See  footnote  36.  Auto- 
biography, p.  183.    See  footnote  38. 

'•Burton,  William  M.  Chemistry  In  the  petroleum  Industry.  Induttrial  and 
Enjfiwerfnj  ChemUtrv.  10,  484  (June  1918). 


Li  spite  of  this  instance  of  the  practical  application 
of  chemistry,  it  did  not  play  much  of  a  part  in  the 
methods  of  refining  that  were  then  used.  They  were 
crude  and  wasteful,  utilizing  only  a  little  over  5  percent 
of  the  total  mass  of  the  crude  oil.  Not  until  1870, 
when  M.  L.  Hull  of  Cleveland  devised  the  "vapor 
stove,"  were  the  naphtiia  fractions  utilized;  and  then 
millions  of  gallons  of  naphtha,  for  want  of  a  demand, 
were  allowed  to  fiow  into  the  creeks  and  rivers,  there  to 
evaporate.  Little  change  took  place  in  the  industry 
until  1885  or  1886,  when  a  new  source  of  petroleum  was 
found  in  northwestern  Ohio  near  the  town  of  Lima. 
When  the  customary  refining  methods  of  distillation 
and  treatment  with  sulfuric  acid  and  alkali  were  applied 
to  this  Lima  oil,  they  were  found  to  be  inadequate. 
Illuminating  oils  of  suitable  quality  were  not  secured 
because  the  crude  oil  contained  from  ji  to  1  percent  of 
sulfur.  The  industry  was  forced  to  turn  to  the  chemist 
for  a  solution,  but  because  of  a  long-existing  prejudice 
against  the  "chemical  fraternity,"  there  was  scarcely 
one  trained  petroleum  chemist  in  the  United  States  in 
ISSS.*'  Out  of  this  situation,  however,  came  a  much 
better  understanding.  Both  the  itidustry  and  the 
chemist  came  to  realize  that  if  practical  solutions  for 
refining  problems  were  to  be  found,  industrj'  must  be 
patient  until  the  chemist  had  learned  something  about 
the  refining  industry.  Since  1890,  and  particularly 
since  the  introduction  of  the  internal  combustion  engine, 
research  has  played  an  increasingly  important  part  in 
the  petroleum  industry. 

Although  some  of  the  concerns  to  which  the  meat 
packers  sold  their  by-products  in  a  crude  state  had 
employed  chemists,  and  the  packers  themselves  had 
occasionally  consulted  commercial  chemists,  it  was 
not  until  1886  that  a  chemist  (H.  B.  Schmidt)  came  to 
be  regularly  employed  by  a  meat  packer  in  the  Union 
Stock  Yards  in  Chicago."  Other  packers  soon  fol- 
lowed suit  in  an  effort  to  improve  their  products  and  to 
find  use  for  various  byproducts.  "There  was  so  much 
for  the  chemist  to  do  in  the  packing  industry  in  those 
days  that  it  was  simply  a  question  of  what  pleased  him 
best  to  work  on."  " 

Li  the  copper  industry  previous  to  1SS4  the  use  of 
chemistry  had  been  confined  almost  wholly  to  a  few 
routine  analyses  by  commercial  chemists.  In  one 
instance  Calumet  and  Hecla  had  employed  an  expert 
chemist  to  help  them  out  of  a  chemical  difficulty. 
"About  1884,  a  few  chemists  were  employed  in  the 
earlier  work  of  developing  deposits  in  Montana  and 
Arizona,"  but  not  until   1890  was  the  real  value  of 

"  Chemistry  in  the  petroleum  Industry,  pp.  484-485.    See  footnote  40. 

"  Lowenstein,  Arthur.  Contributions  of  the  chemist  to  the  packing  house  prod- 
ucts Industry.    Industrial  and  B>n(iineering  Ckemittry,  7,  943  (November  1915). 

"  Contributions  of  the  chemist  to  the  packing  house  products  industry.  See 
footnote  42. 


Industrial  Research 


29 


chemists  in  concentrating,  roasting,  smelting,  and  re- 
fining copper  appreciated."  Since  tlioii  their  research 
and  their  improvements  in  analytical  methods  have 
made  it  possible  greatly  to  improve  the  purity  of  the 
metal  so  vital  to  the  electrical  industry .''' 

A  slowly  increasing  number  of  chemists  found  a 
demand  for  their  services  in  such  mdustries  as  pulp  and 
paper,  glass,  chemicals,  corn  products,  soap,  photo- 
graphic supplies,  fertilizer.  Some  of  the  more  venture- 
some individuals  established  commercial  laboratories  to 
which  industrialists  could  bring  their  chemical  problems. 
Most  of  these  early  laboratories  have  disappeared ;  but 
a  few  have  survived,  and  many  more  have  been 
founded.'" 

Although  it  must  again  be  said  that  today  much  of 
the  work  done  by  these  chemists  would  not  be  called 
industrial  research,  their  efforts,  nevertheless,  resulted 
in  better  products  at  lower  prices,  new  products  from 
former  waste  materials,  and  other  accompUshments 
which  impressed  the  more  foresighted  industrial  leaders 
with  the  importance  of  the  new  knowledge  that  was 
available  to  them,  or  could  be  made  available  if  the 
chemist  were  given  time  and  opportunity  to  become 
familiar  with  the  requirements  of  industry. 

The  Creation  of  New  Industries 
by  Independent  Investigators 

The  results  achieved  by  many  independent  investi- 
gators, whose  searches  frequently  gave  rise  to  new 
industries,  also  attracted  the  attention  of  industrialists 
to  the  value  of  research.  When  John  Wmthrop,  Jr.,  set 
up  in  Boston  his  curious  chemical  plant — "part  drug- 
gist's shop,  metallurgist's  workroom,  chemist's  labora- 
tory, and  alchemist's  den" — and  made  experimental 
batches  of  alum  and  saltpeter  in  an  effort  to  provide  the 
colonists  with  chemicals,  medicines,  and  gunpowder, 
and  to  exploit  the  mineral  resources  of  New  England,  he 
was  but  the  forerunner  of  thousands  of  individuals  in 
this  country  who  have  sought  to  apply  then-  knowledge 
and  skill  in  new  ways.  The  records  of  the  Patent 
Office  bear  witness  to  the  uselessness,  inipracticality, 
and  absurdity  of  manj-  such  efforts,  but  they  also  bear 
witness  to  accomplishments  which  have  completely 
altered  the  way  in  which  human  bemgs  live  and  the 
problems  which  they  face.  The  names  of  Eli  A^^litney, 
OHver  Evans,  Robert  Fulton,  Elias  Howe,  Samuel  F.  B. 
Morse,  Obed  Hussey  and  Cyrus  McCormick,  William 
Kclley,  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  and  Charles  Goodyear, 
immediately  come  to  mind.  For  many  years  such 
individuals  as  these  were  pointing  out  the  ways  of 
technical  progress.     Most  of  them,  although  without 

"  Herreshoa.  J.  B.  F.      Contributions  of  the  chemist  to  the  copper  Industry. 
Induxlual  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  7,  274  (.\pril  1915). 
"  Contributions  cf  the  chemist  to  the  copper  industry,  p.  275.    See  footnote  44. 
"  This  volume,  pp.  72-75. 


the  formal  training  that  we  now  consider  indispensable 
for  the  scientist  and  the  engineer,  were,  nevertheless, 
possessed  of  "an  mtuitive  uisight  which  was  unique,  and 
an  insatiable  curiosity  and  a  dogged  determination  to 
overcome  all  obstacles."  Athough  scores  of  men  made 
important  contributions  to  our  technical  and  industrial 
development,  the  work  of  only  a  few  of  those  whose 
accomplishments  hastened  the  transition  from  isolated, 
unorganized  research  to  cooperative,  organized  research 
in  industrial  laboratories  can  be  mentioned  here  in  any 
detail. 

Hyatt  and  Celluloid 

John  Wesley  Hyatt,  a  journeyman  printer,  working 
in  Albany,  one  day  read  of  an  offer  of  $10,000,  made 
by  Phelan  &  Collander  of  New  York,  for  a  substance 
that  could  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  ivory  in  billiard 
balls.  Undaunted  by  his  scant  knowledge  of  chemistry, 
he  began  to  experiment  nights  and  Sundays  in  the  hope 
of  gaining  the  reward.  His  efforts  produced  a  number 
of  useful  plastic  compositions,  but  none  of  them  was 
suitable  for  billiard  balls.  One  day  his  eye  fell  upon  a 
bit  of  dried  collodion  about  the  size  and  thickness  of 
his  thumbnail,  and  as  a  result  he  began  experimenting 
with  nitrocellulose.  Eventually,  by  making  a  solid  core 
of  another  plastic  material  and  covering  it  with  nitro- 
cellulose dissolved  in  ether  and  alcohol,  he  made  a 
billiard  ball.  Many  difficulties,  however,  stood  in  the 
way  of  a  perfect  product.  A  lighted  cigar  applied  to 
the  ball  at  once  resulted  in  a  serious  flame  and  occa- 
sionally "the  violent  contact  of  the  balls  would  produce 
a  mild  explosion  like  a  percussion  guncap,"  a  feature 
that  led  one  bUliard  saloon  proprietor  in  Colorado, 
writing  to  Hyatt  about  his  billiard  balls,  to  say  that  he 
did  not  mind  very  much  personally  but  that  it  was  a 
bit  dangerous,  for  every  man  in  his  saloon  immediately 
pulled  a  gun.^' 

Hyatt's  experiments  with  nitrocellulose  continued, 
and  he  also  designed  special  machinery  for  its  manu- 
facture and  manipulation.  In  the  winter  of  1872-73 
the  Celluloid  Manufacturing  Company,  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  began  to  manufacture  the  first  of  the  modern 
plastics.  After  3  years  Hyatt's  financial  backers 
finally  allowed  him  to  hire  Frank  Vanderpoel,  a  trained 
chemist,  to  sj'stematize  the  process  and  perfect  a  quick 
and  accurate  method  of  determining  the  spent  acids.'** 

Edison  and  the  Electric  Light 

From  a  baggage-car  laboratory  fitted  up  with  retorts 
and  bottles  discarded  from  railroad  shops,  Thomas  A. 
Edison's  curiosity,  persistence,  and  skill  were  to  carry 


*'  Hyatt,  John  W.    .\ddress  of  acceptance. 
iitry,  6, 159  (February  1914). 
"  .address  of  acceptance.    Sec  footnote  47 


Indmlrial  and   Engineering    (Them- 


30 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


him  to  cxtrnordinarv  success  in  business  and  to  the 
realization  of  a  boyhood  dream — the  possession  of  a 
well-equipped  laboratory  in  which  he  could  work  day 
and  night  if  he  chose.  The  funds  which  he  received 
from  the  sale  of  his  stock-ticker  made  it  possible  for 
him  to  set  up  a  workshop  on  the  top  floor  of  a  padlock 
factorj'  in  Newark,  N.  J.  In  1876,  however,  the  desire 
for  greater  privacy  and  more  room  caused  him  to  build 
a  laboratory  at  Menlo  Park.  It  was  a  "two  story 
clapboard  structure,  long  and  unpretentious  but  ex- 
actly what  he  wanted."*'  Next  to  the  laboratory  in 
importance  was  the  brick  machine  shop  where  skilled 
workmen  constructed  the  innumerable  pieces  of  equip- 
ment that  Edison  needed  in  his  experiments.  A  small 
wooden  carpenter  shop,  a  gasoline  plant  that  supplied 
the  gasoline  gas  used  for  illumination,  and  a  small 
building  in  which  lami)black,  made  from  a  battery  of 
smoking  kerosene  lamps,  was  collected  and  pressed  into 
small  cakes  for  use  in  the  Edison  carbon  transmitter 
completed  the  facilities  at  Menlo  Park.^" 


*•  Jehl,  Francis.    Mcnlo  Park  reminiscences.    Dearborn,  Mich.,  Edison  Institute, 
1936.  vol.  1,  p.  7. 


A  private  laboratory  in  which  a  man  strove  to  make 
inventing  a  profitable  business  was  a  new  thing  and 
did  not  go  uncriticized  bj'  the  "pure"  scientists  of  the 
day.  Moreover  Edison  was  looked  upon  as  an  un- 
schooled intruder.  His  methods  of  research  were  not 
the  traditional  ones.  Ho  frequently  disregarded  the 
long-established  rules  deemed  to  be  fundamental  and 
relied  on  common  sense  and  patient  effort  to  carry  him 
through  a  difficult  problem.  His  motto  was  "Seeing 
is  believing,"  and  he  would  not  give  up  the  search  for 
what  he  wished  to  see  until  he  ha<l  exhausted  every 
possibility.  Over  and  over  again  he  experimented 
with  "a  scrupulous  integritj'  and  a  minute  attention  to 
detail"  on  problems  the  scope  of  which  would  have 
challenged  even  the  best  trained  scientist.  Each  ex- 
periment was  recorded  methodically  in  notebooks,  one 
of  the  most  frequent  entries  being  "T.  A."  meaning 
"Try  Again. "5' 

Edison  has  often  been  criticized  for  his  "trial-and- 
error"  method.    But  Dr.  Karl  T.  (\)mi)ton.  who  worked 

'•  Dyer,  F.  L.,  Martin,  T.  C,  and  Mcadowcroft,  W.  H.    Edison:  his  life  and  in- 
ventions.   New  York,  London,  Harper  and  Bro.,  1929.  vol.  1,  p.  272. 
"  Menlo  Park  reminiscences,  p.  33S.    See  footnote  49. 


TiGURE  6. — Interior  View  of  Edison's  Laboratory  at  Menlo  Park,  ISSO 


World  Wide  Photos  ,/nc 


Industrial  Research 


31 


in  Edison's  laboratory  for  a  period  during  the  World 
War,  has  said  that  although  the  method  of  continual 
search  and  trial  underlay  much  of  Edison's  work,  how- 
ever, it  is  a  mistake  to  thmk  that  all  Edison's  work  was 
carried  on  by  this  search  and  trial  method.  Back  of 
everything  which  he  did  or  ti'ied  there  was  always  an 
idea.  The  startmg  point  was  always  the  need  of 
accomplisliing  some  purpose,  the  second  stage  seemed 
to  be  the  suggestion  of  various  ways  of  accomplishing 
that  purpose,  and  the  final  stage  consisted  in  trying 
out  these  suggested  solutions  in  as  thorough  and  sys- 
tematic a  manner  as  possible  in  order  to  find  the  best.'- 
Such  a  procedure  can  be  found  in  any  industrial  re- 
search laboratory  today. 

Previous  to  the  move  to  Menlo  Park  most  of  Edison's 
inventions  were  made  in  the  field  of  telegraphy,  but 
the  5  years  of  feverish  activity  after  the  move  were  to 
produce  the  phonograph,  the  carbon  telephone,  the 
chalk  telephone,  and  the  incandescent  light. 

A  description  of  the  steps  involved  in  each  of  the 
hundreds  of  experiments  dm-ing  the  long  search  for  a 
suitable  incandescent  lamp  may  give  some  idea  of  the 
care  and  patience  demanded  of  Edison  and  his  helpers : 

First  the  raw  mateiial  for  the  filament  had  to  be  chosen.  .  .  . 
The  second  step  was  the  preparation  of  the  raw  filament.  This 
work  Edison  always  did  himself.  Third,  each  filament  had  to 
be  carbonized,  a  process  he  attended  to  personally  on  the  experi- 
mental lamps.  .  .  .  Fourth,  Kruesi  supplied  the  copper  wires, 
on  the  end  of  which  short  pieces  of  platinum  had  been  twisted. 
Fifth,  Boehm  blew  the  glass  stem,  inserting  in  it  the  copper- 
platinum  wires.  Sixth,  after  being  carbonized  the  filament  was 
placed  on  the  glass  stem  of  the  bulb.  This  delicate  task  (which 
sometimes  took  two  or  three  days)  was  always  performed  by 
"Batch"  in  Edison's  presence.  Seventh,  Boehm  inclosed  the 
stem  with  its  filament  within  the  fragile  shell  cf  a  glass  bulb. 
Eighth,  I  placed  the  bulb  on  the  vacuum  pump  and  began 
evacuating  the  air.  .  .  .  Ninth,  after  the  vacuum  was  obtained,  it 
was  always  Edison  who  drove  out  the  occluded  gases  and 
manipulated  the  lamp.  .  .  .  Tenth,  when  the  lamp  was  finished, 
it  was  given  a  life  test.  .  .  .  (Lastly)  after  the  lamp,  good  or 
bad,  had  finished  its  test  he  breaks  it  open  and  takes  it  to 
the  microscope  to  study  the  filaments,  seeking  the  reason  for 
the  failure  of  the  slender  black  thread-like  substance." 

Such  labors  occupied  the  days  and  nights  until  New 
Year's  eve,  1879,  when  the  public  witnessed  the  demon- 
stration of  a  new  system  of  electric  illumination. 
While  scientists  were  accusing  him  of  "the  most  airy 
ignorance  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  both  elec- 
tricity and  dynamics"  and  demonstrating  the  impos- 
sibilities of  any  general  system  of  illumination  based 
upon  the  incandescent  lamp,  Edison  solved  the  prob- 
lem by  painstaking  research.  Before  many  indus- 
tries had  even  given  thought  to  research,  Edison  was 
keeping  75  men  busy  conducting  experiments,  designing 
and  building  new  electrical  apparatus  for  them,  and 

«  Compton,  K.  T.    Edison's  laboratory  in  war  time.    Scima,  75,  71  (Januar>- 15 
1932). 
"  Menlo  Park  reminiscences,  pp.  344-346.    See  footnote  49. 


devising  methods  of  measurements  so  that  ho  could 
make  the  use  of  electricity  practical.  Sir  James  Jeans 
in  his  presidential  address  before  the  British  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science  tried  to  give  some  idea 
of  what  such  efforts  meant  to  industry  when  he  said, 
"Let  us  also  remember  that  the  economic  value  of  the 
work  of  one  scientist  alone,  Edison,  has  been  estimated 
at  thi'ce  thousand  million  pounds."  '* 

By  1881  Edison  was  living  in  New  York  because  of 
his  new  business  interests.  Activities  at  Menlo  Park 
soon  ceased  as  one  by  one  the  men  in  the  laboratory 
left  to  assume  new  responsibilities  in  the  rapidly  grow- 
ing electrical  industry.  A  new  laboratory  was  estab- 
lished at  Gocrck  Street  and  a  dozen  men,  "mostly 
college  graduates  worlcing  for  glory  and  not  pay,"  were 
kept  busy  there  testing  and  improving  Edison's  new 
dynamos. 

While  at  Menlo  Park  Edison  had  devoted  himself  to 
his  experiments  and  had  given  little  thought  to  the 
problems  of  manufacturing  the  products  which  his  ex- 
periments had  made  practical.  In  1886,  however,  he 
built  a  much  larger  laboratory  at  Llewellyn  Park  and 
determined  to  develop  there  a  "large  industry  to  which 
a  thoroughly  practical  laboratory  would  be  a  central 
feature,  and  ever  a  som-ce  of  suggestion  and  inspira- 
tion." " 

Another  intensely  active  period  in  Edison's  life  fol- 
lowed the  opening  of  the  new  laboratory.  He  gave  his 
attention  particularly  to  the  development  of  his  phono- 
graph, motion  picture  camera,  storage  battery,  and  dic- 
tating machine,  while  a  rapidly  expanding  manufactur- 
ing plant  turned  out  the  products  perfected  in  the  lab- 
oratory. In  1917  he  left  his  interests  in  the  hands  of 
others  and  served  the  government  for  2  years  on  prob- 
lems created  by  the  war.  But  in  1919  he  was  again 
back  in  his  laboratory  where  in  1929,  2  years  before  his 
death,  he  was  still  workmg  16  to  18  hours  a  day. 

The  laboratory  at  West  Orange  now  has  a  staff  of  107 
persons  and  continues  to  serve  as  the  center  of  research 
and  development  for  the  various  interests  of  Thomas  A. 
Edison,  Inc. 

Acheson  and  Carborundum 

In  the  fall  of  1880,  a  young  man,  jobless  but  with  a 
keen  interest  in  electricitj^,  arrived  at  Edison's  labora- 
tory at  Menlo  Park.  A  white  lie  got  him  on  the  pay 
roll.  After  a  short  time  in  the  drafting  room,  E.  G. 
Acheson  was  placed  in  the  original  experimental  depart- 
ment at  $7.50  a  week.  Soon  he  was  in  the  lamp  fac- 
tory learning  all  the  details  in  preparation  for  arrang- 
ing the  exhibit  of  Edison's  electrical  inventions  at  the 
International  Exposition  in  Paris.     After  the  Exposi- 


M  Jeans,  Sir  James.    Presidential  address.    British  Association  tor  tlic  .Advance- 
ment of  Science,  Report,  1934,  p.  18. 
"  Edison:  his  life  and  inventions,  vol.  2,  p.  369.    See  footnote  50. 


32 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


tion  he  assisted  in  constructing  machine  shops  and  lamp 
factories  to  operate  the  Edison  patents  in  Europe,  and 
it  was  1884  when  he  returned  to  New  York  only  to  leave 
Edison  and  try  some  experimental  work  on  a  scheme  for 
"controlling  electric  currents,  regulating  dynamos,  etc." 
Finding  two  backers,  he  built  a  "new  style  of  dynamo" 
which  proved  to  be  a  failure,  for,  although  it  would 
produce  a  current  of  immense  amperage,  the  voltage 
was  absurdly  low.  "Another  failure  added  to  a  long 
list,"  he  said.  His  next  experiment,  on  an  anti-induc- 
tion telephone  wire,  was  made  by  taking  "a  rubber-cov- 
ered wire,  coating  it  with  graphite,  passing  it  through  a 
copper  solution  and  plating  on  it  a  tube  of  copper; 
next  braiding  cotton  over  the  tube;  then  soaking  the 
cotton  with  asphaltum ;  then  covering  the  whole  with  a 
lead  pipe  covering."  He  patented  the  process  which  a 
short  time  later  he  sold  to  Mr.  George  Westinghousc 
for  $7,000  in  cash  and  $50,000  in  stock  of  the  Standard 
Underground  Cable  Company,  which,  however,  because 
of  a  reduction  in  the  company's  capital,  was  soon  re- 
duced to  $16,666. 

After  a  3-year  term  as  electrician  to  the  Cable  Com- 
pany at  a  regular  salary,  Acheson  conceived  the  idea 
that  if  he  could  estabhsh  a  small  electric  lighting  plant 
in  some  town,  he  could  make  the  plant  pay  its  way  by 
night-lighting  and  yet  use  the  dynamo  for  experiments 
during  the  day.  Monongahela  City  was  selected  as  the 
location.  He  soon  turned  his  attention  to  making 
rubber  synthetically  and  succeeded,  in  1891,  in  pro- 
ducing a  small  piece.  Unfortunately,  one  of  his  part- 
ners in  the  lighting  enterprise  arrived  in  Monongahela 
City  to  see  the  plant  just  after  investing  considerable 
money  in  a  rubber  tree  grove  in  Alexico,  where  he  in- 
tended to  produce  more  rubber  than  the  world  would 
use,  and  advised  Acheson  to  shut  the  plant  up  and 
"throw  it  into  the  Monongahela  River."  Acheson 
lost  interest  in  rubber,  not  even  making  a  record  of  how 
he  produced  his  sample;  but  ignoring  the  advice,  he 
turned  his  plant  to  new  uses. 

The  value  of  an  artificial  abrasive  had  been  brought 
to  his  attention  by  a  chance  remark  made  in  1880  by 
Dr.  George  F.  Kunz,  of  Tiffany  &  Company.  He 
decided  to  try  to  produce  one.  The  recollection  of  an 
experiment  wliich  he  had  once  conducted  for  his  brother 
on  the  reduction  of  iron  from  its  ores  by  the  use  of 
natural  gas  suggested  a  starting  point,  for  in  this 
experiment  some  clay  articles  placed  in  a  highly  heated 
furnace  into  which  natural  gas  was  passed  had,  when 
cold,  been  found  to  be  thorougldy  impregnated  with 
carbon.  The  procedure  by  which  Acheson  discovered 
the  material  to  which  he  gave  the  name  Carborundum 
is  described  in  his  owTi  words: 

An  iron  bowl,  such  as  plumbers  use  for  holding  their  melted 
solder,  was  attached  to  one  lead  from  a  dynamo  and  filled  with 
a  mixture  of  clay  and  powdered  coke,  the  end  of  an  arc  light 


carbon  attached  to  the  other  lead  was  inserted  into  the  mixture. 
The  percentage  of  coke  was  high  enough  to  carry  a  current,  and  a 
good  strong  one  was  passed  througli  the  mixture  between  the 
lamp  carbon  and  bowl  until  the  clay  in  the  center  was  melted 
and  heated  to  a  very  high  temperature.  When  cold,  the  mass 
was  examined.  It  did  not  fill  my  expectations,  but  I  by  sheer 
chance,  happened  to  notice  a  few  bright  specks  on  the  end  of  the 
arc  carbon  that  had  been  in  the  mixture." 

One  of  these  specks,  when  mounted  on  the  end  of  a 
lead  pencil  and  drawn  across  a  pane  of  glass,  cut  it  like 
a  diamond.  After  patient  work  with  a  small  furnace 
made  of  bricks,  Aclieson  had  enough  of  his  material  to 
take  to  the  lapidaries  in  New  York  City.  It  was  during 
the  journey  that  the  substance  received  its  name,  be- 
cause of  the  discover's  hunch  that  it  was  composed  of 
carbon  and  corundum,  a  hunch  that  later  proved  to  be  a 
mistake,  for  carborundum  is  a  compound  of  carbon  and 
silicon.  In  New  York  a  diamond  cutter  bought  the 
tiny  supply  at  40  cents  a  carat  or  at  the  rate  of  about 
$750  a  pound. 

Upon  his  return  from  a  trip  to  Europe,  where  he  sold 
the  foreign  patent  rights,  Acheson  heard  of  the  new 
electrical  development  at  Niagara  Falls.  After  inspec- 
tion of  it,  he  placed  before  his  directors  a  plan  for  build- 
ing a  new  plant  equipped  for  a  thousand  horsepower. 
To  do  this,  in  the  face  of  the  fact  that  the  Monongahela 
plant,  using  only  134  horsepower,  was  producing  twice 
as  much  as  was  being  sold,  entailed  too  great  a  risk  for 
them,  and  they  resigned.  But  Acheson  went  on  with 
his  plans,  and  although  eventually  forced  to  appeal  to 
some  Pittsburgh  bankers  for  assistance,  the  Niagara 
Falls  works  were  started  in  the  fall  of  1895.  By  1910, 
although  Mr.  Acheson  had  lost  control  of  it,  the  com- 
pany was  using  10,000  horsepower  and  producing  car- 
borundum at  the  rate  of  10,000,000  pounds  a  year.  A 
new  industry  had  been  created,  the  value  of  the  product 
proved,  and  a  market  for  it  found  even  though  the 
couLntry  had  been  passing  through  a  financial  depression. 
But  Acheson's  contributions  to  industry  were  not  over. 
Under  patents  secured  in  1895,  1896,  1899  he  began  the 
manufacture  of  graphite.  Other  experiments  followed 
and  in  1906,  while  trying  to  increase  the  value  of  carbo- 
rundum as  an  abrasive,  he  found  in  the  furnace  a  small 
amount  of  "a  very  soft,  unctuous,  noncoalcscing  graph- 
ite" which  he  immediately  recognized  as  an  ideal  lubri- 
cating product.  More  experiments  resulted  in  a  method 
of  suspending  graphite  in  water  to  form  a  lubricant 
called  Aquadag.  The  next  step  was  the  transference  of 
the  graphite  from  the  water  medium  to  an  oil  medium, 
to  form  an  improved  lubricant  called  Oildag.  Acheson 
felt  that  those  two  products  would  probably  prove  to 
be  of  more  value  to  the  world  than  any  of  those  he  had 
previously  developed.'' 


"Acheson,  E.  O.    A  pathflnder:  discovery,  invention  and  Industry.    New  York, 
The  Press  Scrap  Book,  1910,  pp.  98-99. 
"  A  pathfinder:  discovery,  invention  and  industry,  p.  129.    See  footnote  K. 


Industrial  Research 


33 


Hall  and  Aluminum 

Shortly  before  Acheson  built  his  plant  at  Niagara 
Falls  for  the  manufacture  of  carborundum,  another 
industry  resulting  from  the  persistent  research  of  an 
individual  had  located  there.  As  a  schoolboy,  Charles 
M.  Hall  received  his  first  knowledge  of  chemistry  from 
a  textbook  that  his  father  had  studied  in  college  during 
the  lS40's.  Aluminum  was  mentioned  in  this  book,  but 
Hall  did  not  begin  experimenting  to  find  a  process  for 
making  it  cheaply  until  the  fact  had  dawned  upon  him 
that  although  every  clay  bank  was  a  mine  of  aluminum, 
the  metal  was  as  costlj'  as  silver.  The  first  experiments 
were  not  imdertaken  very  seriously  because  he  was  then 
a  student  in  college  and  already  working  on  "three  or 
four  other  attempted  inventions."  An  introduction  to 
the  subject  of  thermochemistry  and  a  close  association 
with  his  professor  in  chemistry,  Frank  Fanning  Jewett, 
increased  his  knowledge  and  led  him  gradually  to  the 
idea  that  aluminum  could  be  obtained  by  electrolysis. 
Beginning  in  1886  to  experiment  on  such  a  plan,  he 
made  manj^  tries,  until  finally  he  "took  some  cryolite 
and  found  that  it  melted  easily  and  in  the  molten  con- 
dition dissolved  alumina  in  large  proportions."  Putting 
some  of  this  molten  mass  in  a  clay  crucible,  he  passed 
an  electric  current  through  it  from  a  small  electric  bat- 
tery rigged  mostly  from  parts  borrowed  from  Professor 
Jewett.  At  the  end  of  2  hours  he  pom-ed  out  the  melted 
mass  but  found  no  alummum.  A  repetition  of  the 
experiment  with  a  carbon  crucible  enclosed  in  a  clay 
crucible  brought  greater  success,  for  in  the  bottom  of  the 
carbon  crucible  were  a  number  of  small  globules  of 
aluminum.  Hall  was  convinced  that  he  had  found  tbs 
process  he  was  seeking,  but  it  was  not  easy  to  convince 
others.  Within  3  years  two  groups  of  backers  became 
discouraged  and  gave  up.  A  third  group  formed  the 
Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company — now  the  Aluminum 
Company  of  America — and  in  the  summer  of  1888  began 
to  build  and  operate  a  commercial  plant  in  Pittsbm-gh 
which  produced  50  pounds  of  metal  a  day,  that  sold  for 
$2  a  pound.  Soon  the  company  erected  a  larger  plant 
at  Niagara  and,  by  1911,  had  a  third  plant  and  was  pro- 
ducing 40,000,000  pounds  a  year.  The  price  had  fallen 
to  22  cents  a  poimd. 

From  1888  until  1914,  the  experimental  development 
of  the  company's  various  manufacturing  processes  was 
carried  on  in  its  plants  and  chemical  laboratories  under 
Hall's  direction.  After  his  death  experimentation  con- 
tinued in  the  different  plants  under  the  direction  of  the 
superintendents,  and  in  certain  plants  imder  the  direc- 
tion of  the  central  engineering  organization,  but  in  1917 
it  was  decided  to  centralize  this  work  in  one  organization 
reporting  directly  to  the  management.  In  January 
1918  Francis  C.  Frary  was  hired  to  organize  the  research 
work  of  the  company.     The  war  delayed  his  plans,  and 


it  was  not  until  he  was  released  from  military  service 
in  December  1918  that  he  really  started  to  build  up  the 
research  organization  for  the  Aluminum  Company  of 
America. 

Baekeland  and  Bakelite 

In  1889,  as  part  of  his  reward  for  winning  a  prize  in 
chemistry.  Dr.  Leo  II.  Baekeland,  professor  of  chem- 
istry and  physics  in  the  Government  Normal  School 
at  Bruges,  Belgium,  was  able  to  make  a  trip  to  the 
United  States.  An  enthusiasm  for  i)hotography  and 
an  mterest  in  the  new  photographic  processes  which 
were  being  developed  had  already  brought  him  some 
reputation  in  this  branch  of  the  chemical  industry. 
Once  in  New  York,  Baekeland  was  offered  a  position 
as  chemist  in  the  factory  of  E.  and  H.  T.  Anthony  & 
Co.,  makers  of  photographic  films  and  bromide  paper. 
He  accepted  the  position,  resigned  his  post  at  the 
Government  Normal  School,  and  decided  to  remain  in 
America. 

After  2  years  with  this  company,  he  left  it  to  become 
a  consulting  research  chemist  and  to  try,  as  he  ex- 
pressed it,  "to  work  out,  without  sufficient  financial 
means,  several  half-baked  inventions,  the  development 
of  each  of  which  would  have  required  a  small  fortune." 

During  a  long  convalescence  Baekeland  reached  the 
decision  that  he  would  focus  all  his  attention  upon  the 
project  which  seemed  most  likely  to  bring  liim  the 
quickest  results.  With  the  financial  backing  of  Leonard 
Jacobi,  he  tackled  the  problem  of  manufacturing  some 
new  types  of  photographic  paper.  Although  the  tech- 
nical difficulties  were  soon  overcome,  the  business  did 
not  at  once  become  a  profitable  one;  it  took  6  years  to 
convince  the  picture-taking  public  that  Velox  was  a 
good  product.  Once  that  was  done,  the  Eastman 
Kodak  Co.  offered  Baekeland  cash  for  his  interest  in 
the  enterprise,  and  he  accepted  it. 

After  an  interlude  of  study  and  work  during  which  he 
helped  to  perfect  a  process  for  manufacturing  caustic 
soda  and  chlorine,  Baekeland  began  the  work  which  was 
to  bring  him  fame — the  study  of  the  action  of  formal- 
dehyde upon  phenols.  Other  chemists  had  sought  to 
fathom  the  mysteries  of  tliis  reaction,  but  had  obtained 
like  Kleeberg  a  worthless,  insoluble  mass  of  material,  or 
like  Blumer  and  De  Laire  special  resinous  substances 
with  practically  all  of  the  general  properties  of  natiu-al 
resins.  Baekeland  was  not  much  mterested  in  syn- 
thetic resins,  which  at  that  tune  cost  more  to  produce 
than  the  natural  products  and  were  in  some  respects 
inferior  to  them,  but  he  was  fascinated  by  the  hard 
mass  for  which  Kleeberg  had  been  unable  to  find  a 
solvent.  After  many  attempts,  Baekeland,  too,  had 
to  give  up  as  hopeless  the  search  for  a  solvent. 

Making  a  fresh  start,  he  studied  exliaustively  each 


34 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


step  in  the  complicated  ciieniicul  reaction  and  eventu- 
allj-  learned  liow  to  control  it  at  whatever  phase  he 
desired.  Then  followed  the  discovery  of  a  practical 
method  for  producing  a  substance  that  would  remain 
fusible  and  plastic  while  it  was  being  formed  or  molded, 
and  yet  could  under  the  action  of  heat  be  polymerized 
and  hardened  to  the  state  where  it  was  no  longer  fusible 
or  soluble. 

Baekeland  still  had  to  convince  himself  that  the  new 
substance  could  be  produced  upon  a  commercial  scale 
and  that  it  could  be  used  satisfactorily  for  industrial 
purposes.  Consequently,  he  installed  a  workmg  unit 
in  which  under  various  conditions  the  material  could 
be  prepared  in  ton  lots.  From  the  earl}^  experiences  of 
those  who  used  the  material  Baekeland  learned  much. 
Because  the  methods  of  handling  bakelitc  differed  so 
radically  from  those  involved  in  the  manipulation  of 
rubber  and  celluloid,  Baekeland  encountered  great  dif- 
ficulty in  teaching  some  of  his  prospective  customers 
how  to  work  the  new  material.  Consequently  he 
abandoned  his  idea  of  allowing  the  use  of  his  patents  on 
a  royalty  plan  and  concluded  that  the  best  way  was  "to 
conduct  the  manufacture  of  the  raw  materials  to  be- 
yond the  stage  where  chemical  knowledge  or  too  much 
experience  is  required."  Once  this  decision  was  made, 
Baekeland  proceeded  to  organize  factories  in  both  this 
country  and  in  Europe. 

The  Bakelite  Corporation,  now  a  unit  of  Union  Car- 
bide and  Carbon  Corporation,  has  had  from  the  time 
of  its  founding  a  research  laboratory  and  an  experi- 
mental department  for  the  carrj'ing  on  of  both 
fundamental  and  applied  research. 

Today  the  research  and  development  laboratories  are 
operated  at  Bloomfield,  N.  J.  There,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Dr.  George  O.  Curme,  Jr.,  and  Mr.  Archie  J. 
Weith,  the  correlation  of  the  numerous  types  of  plastics 
and  their  properties  is  being  studied  and  new  resins 
are  being  evaluated  in  terms  of  present-day  industrial 
requirements.  Fundamental  research  on  synthetic  or- 
ganic resins  for  various  uses  is  being  carried  on,  and  a 
great  many  experunents  are  under  way  in  the  develop- 
ment of  compositions  for  use  as  molding  plastics,  im- 
pregnating materials,  adhesives  and  bonding  agents  for 
plywoods,  abrasives,  resistors,  and  carbon  brushes. 

Other  research  is  bemg  conducted  in  such  diverse 
fields  as  synthetic  resin  bases  for  the  paint  and  varnish 
industry,  heat-hardcnmg  laccjuers,  cast  resinoids,  ce- 
ments, wire  coating  compounds,  calendering,  and  coat- 
ing compounds.  In  cooperation  with  industrial  firms, 
research  studies  are  being  made  to  improve  fabricating 
techniques,  to  develop  more  efficient  molding  processes, 
and  to  design  faster  production  machines. 


Growth  of  Organized  Research 
Period  Preceding  First  World  VNar 

The  preceding  account  of  the  efforts  of  men  who  were 
seeking  to  apply  science  to  industry,  either  within 
the  industrial  organization  itself  or  in  their  private 
laboratories,  is  far  from  being  a  complete  one,  but  it  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  after  1875  the  application  of 
science  to  industry  was  becoming  increasingly  effective 
and  was  receiving  growing  recognition  and  support  from 
industrial  leaders. 

Until  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  in- 
dustrial research  remained  for  the  most  part  an  unorgan- 
ized effort  by  individuals.  Their  accomplishments  were 
many  and  important;  but  individuals  working  inde- 
pendently could  not,  for  very  long,  provide  the  technical 
and  scientific  knowledge  essential  to  a  rapidly  developmg 
industrial  nation. 

Here  and  there  farsighted  executives  saw  the  need  for 
organized,  coordinated,  systematic  research  by  trained 
scientists  working  together  under  favorable  conditions 
and,  soon  after  the  turn  of  the  century,  took  measures 
to  meet  that  need  by  establishing  in  their  companies 
separate  research  departments  or  divisions.'*  On  the 
whole,  those  industries  born  in  the  laboratory  or  di- 
rectly dependent  upon  new  knowledge  for  their  growth 
organized  their  research  activities  earlier  and  more 
rapidly  than  the  industries  which  had  long  been  estab- 
lished. In  fact  in  1920  approximately  two-thirds  of 
all  the  research  workers  who  were  recorded  in  the  first 
survey  of  the  National  Research  Council  were  employed 
in  the  electrical,  chemical,  and  rubber  industries.^^ 

Several  endowed  institutes  of  research  and  an  in- 
creasing number  of  commercial  laboratories  provided 
industry  with  additional  facihties  for  carrying  on  re- 
search conveniently  and  inexpensively. 

In  spite  of  tliis  increased  activity,  however,  the  num- 
ber of  companies  carrying  on  research  in  1920  was  rela- 
tively small.  That  j-ear  the  National  Research  Council 
published  its  first  Directory  oj  Industrial  Research 
Laboratories,  which  contained  about  300  names.  This 
is  a  small  figure  when  compared  with  the  number  of 
companies  for  which  research  was  a  sound  undertaking. 

Although  after  1900  the  technical  journals  and  the 
proceedings  of  engineering  societies  published  an 
increasing  number  of  papers  pertaining  to  industrial 
research,  public  interest  was  still  small.  Before  the 
First  World  War  popular  and  scmipopular  magazines 

"  Since  the  story  of  organized  research  in  this  country  can  best  be  told  not  In  gener- 
alities but  In  terms  of  specific  experiences,  one  part  of  this  paper  sketches  the  growth 
of  research  in  approximately  50  industrial  laboratories.    See  pp.  42-75. 

»  Perazlch,  G.,  and  Field,  P.  M.  Industrial  research  and  changing  technology. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Work  Projects  Administration,  National  Research  Project, 
Report  No.  M-i,  1940.  pp  41-12. 


Industrial  Research 


35 


contained  little  mention  of  industrial  research.  In  the 
Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature  the  distinction 
between  scientific  research  and  industrial  research  was 
not  made  until  the  publication  of  a  Supplement  covering 
the  years  1907-15.  In  that  volume  six  articles  were 
listed  under  the  heading  "Industrial  Research,"  but  all 
of  them  discussed  the  subject  in  relation  to  England 
and  were  published  in  the  English  periodical  Nature. 
Long  before  the  war,  however,  leaders  of  research  in 
the  United  States  were  aware  of  Germany's  accomphsh- 
ments  and  pointed  them  out  to  American  industrialists 
and  educators  in  an  effort  to  arouse  interest  and  create 
conditions  which  would  make  for  comparable  achieve- 
ments in  this  country.  In  1911,  Willis  R.  Whitney 
wrote: 

For  the  past  50  years  that  country  (Germany)  has  been  ad- 
vancing industrially  beyond  other  countries,  .  .  .  bj'  new 
technical  discoveries.  In  fact  this  advance  may  be  said  to  be 
largely  traceable  to  their  apparent  over-production  of  research 
men  by  well  fitted  universities  and  technical  schools. "o 

He  went  on  to  point  out  that  each  year  a  few  hundred 
new  doctors  of  science  and  philosophy  were  gradu- 
ated. Most  of  them  had  been  well  trained  to  think 
and  experiment;  to  work  hard,  and  to  e.xpect  little. 
They  went  first  into  the  chemical  industry  until  it 
could  absorb  no  more  of  them,  and  then  into  every 
other  mdustry  iji  Germany.  They  became  the  teach- 
ers, the  assistants,  and  the  professors  of  all  the  schools 
of  the  country.  They  worked  for  $300  to  $500  a 
year,  satisfied  as  long  as  they  could  make  experi- 
ments and  study  the  laws  of  nature.  The  intense 
and  widespread  activity  of  so  many  highly  trained  men 
soon  manifested  itself  in  many  physical  and  electrical 
devices,  and  in  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  new 
commercial  organic  products.  "England  and  America 
had  the  raw  material  for  such  development.  But 
Germany  had  the  prepared  men  and  made  the  start." 

Effect  of  the  First  World  War 

The  outbreak  of  the  First  World  War  immediately 
focused  attention  upon  the  technical  and  scientific 
developments  that  had  given  Germany  such  industrial 
strength  and  military  power  within  a  comparatively 
short  time.  Industrial  research  began  to  have  sig- 
nificance for  the  general  public.  As  F.  B.  Jewett 
expressed  it: 

Newspapers,  magazines  and  periodicals  are  continually  pub- 
lishing articles  on  it;  vast  numbeis  of  people  are  talking,  more  or 
less  knowingly,  about  it;  and  industries  and  governmental  depart- 
ments, which,  up  to  a  few  years  ago  had  hardly  heard  of  industrial 
research,  are  embarking  or  endeavoring  to  embark  upon  the  most 
elaborate  research  projects.'' 

"Whitney,  W.  R.  Research  as  a  financial  asset.  Scientific  American  Supplimmt, 
71.  347  {June  3, 1911). 

•' Jewett,  F.  B.  Industrial  research.  {Reprini  and  CirciUar  Seriet  of  the  National 
Research  Council,  No.  4.)  Washington,  D.  C,  National  Research  Council,  1918,  pp. 
2-3. 

321835—41 4 


The  American  Federation  of  Labor  adopted  resolu- 
tions urging  the  President  of  the  United  States  and  the 
leaders  of  Congress  to  foster  in  every  way  a  broad  pro- 
gram of  scientific  and  technical  research  because  it 
forms  a  fundamental  basis  upon  which  the  development 
of  America's  industries  must  rest,  because  it  greatly  in- 
creases the  productivity  of  industry,  advances  the 
health  and  well-being  of  the  whole  population,  an<l 
raises  the  worker's  standard  of  living. 

American  industry  was  threatened  with  a  serious 
shortage  when  it  could  no  longer  get  chemicals,  dyes, 
medicines,  and  glass  from  Germany,  but  a  united  effort 
upon  the  part  of  scientists,  industrialists,  and  Govern- 
ment officials  soon  relieved  the  situation.  With  Amer- 
ica's entrance  into  the  war,  teclmical  problems  multi- 
plied and  the  efforts  of  research  workers  increased  in  all 
the  laboratories  of  the  country.  By  the  time  of  the 
armistice,  practically  every  scientist  possessed  of  any 
capacities  for  research  had  been  called  upon  to  aid  the 
country  with  his  special  knowledge. 

Wlien  the  war  began  only  Germany  could  supply  the 
world  with  large  quantities  of  diphenylamine — an  in- 
gredient necessary  in  smokeless  powder  to  prevent  its 
deterioration — and  aniline,  the  raw  material  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  diphenylamine;  the  du  Pont  research 
laboratories,  however,  set  to  work  at  once  to  meet  the 
demand  for  these  materials  and  in  1918  diphenylamine 
was  being  manufactured  at  the  rate  of  1,000  pounds  a 
day.«2 

A  threatened  shortage  in  the  supply  of  sheet  lead  and 
an  actual  shortage  in  lead  burners  seemed  about  to  pre- 
vent a  tremendous  expansion  in  the  sulfuric  acid  indus- 
try that  the  increased  call  for  explosives  was  making 
necessary.  Again  the  research  laboratory  solved  the 
problem,  and  in  1918  milhons  of  pounds  of  sulfuric  acid 
were  being  manufactured  in  plants  that  did  not  have  a 
pound  of  lead  in  their  construction.*' 

Another  serious  shortage  was  averted  because  shortly 
before  the  war  the  research  laboratory  of  the  du  Pont 
Company  had  discovered  the  presence  of  potash  salts 
in  its  nitrate  deposits  in  Chile  and  had  found  a  satis- 
factory method  for  their  extraction.  The  company 
was  in  a  position  therefore,  to  undertake  the  immediate 
production  of  them  on  a  commercial  scale. 

Other  industrial  research  laboratories  were  equally 
active.  The  Eastman  Kodak  Company  became  the 
main  source  of  many  chemicals  essential  to  photogra- 
phy and  to  the  work  in  laboratories  of  universities  and 
industry.  It  also  made  extensive  studies  during  the 
war  in  aerial  photography  and  naval  camouflage.  In 
the  General  Electric  laboratories  a  small  but  powerful 
X-ray  generating  outfit  was  developed  by  W.  D.  Cool- 


"  Reese,  Charles  L.     Developments  in  industrial  research.     American  Socletn  for 
Toting  Malerialt,  Proceedingt.  IS,  pt.  2,  37  (1918). 
•>  Developments  in  industrial  research,  p.  37.    See  footnote  62. 


36 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


idgc  with  the  aid  of  C.  F.  Kettering  and  the  Victor 
X-Ray  Company.  Two  months  before  America  en- 
tered the  war,  the  Submarine  Signal  Company  of 
Boston,  and  the  General  Electric  Company,  aided  a 
little  later  by  the  Western  Electric  Company,  had 
taken  the  first  steps  toward  developing  a  submarine 
detector.  By  November  1917,  the  famous  "C"  and 
"K"  tubes  were  ready  for  trial  installations,  and  their 
performance  proved  to  be  superior  to  any  other  detect- 
ing device  that  the  country  produced  before  the  armi- 
stice was  signed.  An  appreciable  percentage  of  the 
personnel  of  the  Westinghouse  Laboratories  went  into 
various  departments  of  the  Government  during  the 
war.  In  many  other  research  laboratories,  facilities, 
money,  and  men  were  placed  at  the  service  of  the 
country  in  meeting  the  problems  caused  by  the  war  in 
Europe  and  later  by  our  participation  in  it. 

American  chemists  and  chemical  manufacturers  were 
harshlj'  criticized  during  the  war  for  having  failed 
to  develop  an  American  dye  mdustry.  They  rephed 
with  various  explanations.  "The  United  States,"  said 
Bernhard  C.  Hesse,  "had  persistently  and  deliberately 
declined  to  bring  about  economic  conditions  which 
those  who  were  in  a  position  to  know  told  them  were 
essential  to  the  establishment  of  an  independent  coal- 
tar  color  industry  in  this  country."  "  A.  D.  Little 
gave  a  different  explanation  of  the  lack  of  dye  industry 
when  he  said : 

The  plain  underlying  reason  why  we  have  been  unable  during 
thirty  years  of  tariff  protection  to  develop  in  this  country  an 
independent  and  self-contained  coal-tar  color  industry  while  dur- 
ing the  same  period  the  Germans  have  magnificently  succeeded 
is  to  be  found  in  the  failure  of  our  manufacturers  and  capitalists 
to  realize  the  creative  power  and  earning  capacity  of  industrial 
research." 

Whether  either  of  these  statements  gives  a  completely 
satisfactory  explanation  of  America's  dependence  in 
1914  upon  Germany  for  dyes  and  dye  intermediates  is 
doubtful  and  beside  the  point  here.  The  significant 
fact  for  this  survey  is  that  in  cooperation  with  the 
Government,  American  industrialists  established  a  dye 
industry  which  American  scientists  have  continued  to 
advance  teclmically.  The  foundation  of  the  industry 
was  laid  when  A.  AL  Palmer,  alien  property  custodian, 
and  Francis  P.  Garvan,  his  colleague,  became  convinced 
that  the  German  patents  would  not  only  provide  a 
solution  of  the  immediate  problem,  but  would  also 
serve  to  protect  the  new  industry  against  German 
competition  after  the  war." 


M  Hesse,  BerDbard  C.  Contribullon  of  the  chemist  to  the  Industrial  development 
or  the  United  States — a  record  of  achievement.  Industrial  and  Engineerinfj  Chemistrj/, 
7,  297  (April  1915). 

"Little,  A.  D.  The  dyestufi  situation  and  Its  lesson.  Jnduttrlal  and  Engineering 
Chemlttrg,  7,  239  (March  1915). 

"  The  Chemical  Foundation.    Scientific  American,  IK,  315  (March  29.  1919). 


When  the  Trading  with  the  Enemy  Act  was  first 
drawn  up  it  did  not  provide  the  ahen  property  custodian 
with  authority  to  take  over  enemy  owned  patents,  but 
an  amendment  to  the  act  remedied  tliis  defect.  The 
idea  was  then  conceived  of  putting  the  patents  in  the 
hands  of  an  American  institution  strong  enough  to 
protect  them.  An  effective  barrier  to  German  importa- 
tions after  the  war  would  thereby  be  erected  and  Amer- 
ican industry  would  be  freed  from  the  prohibition  en- 
forced by  the  patents  against  manufacture.  The 
Chemical  Foundation,  Inc.,  originated  by  Garvan  and 
approved  by  President  Wilson,  came  into  existence  and 
acquired  about  4,500  of  the  former  German  chemical 
patents.  It  was  not  to  operate  any  patent  itself,  but 
merely  to  issue  nonexclusive  licenses  for  the  patents  for 
a  small  fee  to  persons,  firms,  or  corporations  wishing 
to  participate  in  a  competitive  chemical  industry.  After 
certain  provisions  for  the  retirement  of  preferred  stock 
were  met,  all  siu-plus  income  went  to  the  support  of 
research. 

Although  Garvan  had  had  no  formal  scientific  train- 
ing, he  believed  wholeheartedly  in  the  importance  of 
applied  science,  and,  as  rapidly  as  funds  were  available, 
he  used  them  to  support  cherr'cal  research  and  to  edu- 
cate the  public  in  the  importance  of  the  chemical  in- 
dustries. The  paper  research  laboratory  at  Savannah. 
Ga.,  which,  under  the  direction  of  Charles  H.  Herty, 
has  developed  processes  for  the  utilization  of  southern 
pine  in  the  manufacture  of  newsprint  paper  is  an  out- 
standing example  of  research  made  possible  by  the  fund 
of  the  Chemical  Foundation.  In  1934  Garvan  organ- 
ized the  Farm  Chemurgic  Council  in  an  attempt  to 
bring  together  the  leaders  of  science,  agriculture,  and 
industry  for  an  attack  upon  the  problems  that  have 
faced  agriculture  for  many  years. 

In  1916,  when  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
offered  its  services  to  the  Government,  President  Wilson 
asked  it  to  organize  an  advisory  committee  and  various 
subconmiittecs  to  coordinate  and  make  available  to  the 
Government  the  research  resources  of  nongovernmental 
institutions.  The  National  Research  Council  was 
formed  as  an  operating  agency  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  its  work  was  so  effective  that  in  May 
1918,  again  at  the  request  of  President  Wilson,  it  was 
given  permanent  organization.*' 

Early  in  the  war  the  submarine  problem  and  the 
development  of  antisubmarine  devices  engaged  the 
attention  of  the  Council.  Fifty  engineers  and  physi- 
cists, called  together  to  determine  what  had  already 
been  done  in  this  field,  formed  special  groups  to  deal 
with  various  phases  of  the  problem.  Scientists  from 
the  Allied  countries  came  to  America  to  report  what 

•'  Barrows,  Albert  L.    The  relationship  of  the  National  Research  Council  to 
industrial  research.    This  volume,  pp.  365-370. 


Industrial  Research 


37 


research  was  being  carried  on  in  their  countries,  and, 
in  order  to  prevent  duphcation  of  effort,  scientists  were 
attached  to  the  American  embassies  in  London,  Paris, 
and  Rome  to  keep  in  close  touch  with  research  activities 
among  the  AlHes.  The  Council's  Divisions  of  Physics, 
Mathematics,  Astronomy,  and  Geophysics  dealt  with 
70  major  problems  in  connection  with  range-finding 
and  the  pressures  and  velocities  involved  in  the  dis- 
charge of  large  guns.  The  Chemistry  and  Chemical 
Technology  Division  had  40  problems  assigned  to  it. 
A  thoroughgoing  study  of  primers  was  made;  a  special 
committee  was  formed  to  deal  with  the  problem  of  fixa- 
tion of  atmospheric  nitrogen;  and  other  groups  worked 
upon  charcoal  for  gas  masks,  fuel  for  motors,  the  toxi- 
cology of  gases,  and  difficult  problems  in  ceramics  and 
refractories.  The  Engineering  Division  of  the  Council 
had  14  committees  at  work  and  maintained  close  coop- 
eration with  the  engineering  societies.  The  Division  of 
Agriculture  was  active  on  problems  of  production  and 
conservation  while  other  groups  of  scientists  carried  on 
investigations  in  meteorology,  geology,  road  building, 
medicine,  and  psychology.^* 

Such  organized  effort  resulted  within  a  short  time  not 
only  in  the  solution  of  numerous  wartime  problems,  but 
also  in  the  discovery  of  many  facts  that  were  to  provide 
the  basis  for  great  peacetime  industries.  The  effective- 
ness of  cooperation  in  research  was  clearly  demonstrated, 
but  the  concentration  of  all  the  research  resources  of  the 
country  upon  the  immediate  problems  of  a  warring 
nation  had  at  least  one  serious  drawback,  which  Dr. 
Jewett  pointed  out  at  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Canadian 
Institute  shortly  after  the  war.     He  said : 

The  results  of  the  research  activities  throughout  the  war  have 
been  simply  astounding,  even  to  men  whose  whole  training  and 
experience  have  been  along  this  line.  Few,  however,  realize  the 
exact  price  paid  for  these  results  or  appreciate  fully  the  reactions 
on  the  orderly  peace-time  life  of  the  nations  brought  about  by 
the  diversion  of  our  educational  and  research  energies  toward 
the  one  common  purpose  of  human  destruction.  With  the  pic- 
ture of  recent  scientific  war-time  achievements  before  us,  it  is 
difficult  to  realize  that  in  setting  up  the  machinery  to  accomplish 
these  achievements  we  at  the  same  time  set  up  the  machinery 
for  the  destruction  of  advances  beyond  a  certain  point.  By  rob- 
bing the  colleges,  universities,  and  industries  of  their  trained 
scientists  and  employing  them  in  war's  scientific  sweat-shop,  it 
was  inevitable  that  stupendous  results  should  be  obtained.  By 
so  doing,  however,  we  cut  off  completely  the  possibility  of 
further  advances  into  the  realm  of  the  unknown  and  likewise 
destroyed  our  chance  of  developing  new  men  to  carry  on  the 
investigational  work  of  the  old,  when  the  latter  were  worn  out. .  . . 

While  I  am  not  in  a  position  to  know  the  exact  situation  else- 
where in  the  world,  I  do  know  that  we  in  the  United  States  had 
early  in  the  summer  of  1918  arrived  at  the  state  where  scientific 
man-producing  machinery  no  longer  existed." 

In  contrast  to  this  point  of  view,  however,  was  that 


of  Dean  W.  R.  That(;hcr,  of  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota, who  felt  that  the  increased  appreciation  of  the 
practical  value  of  research  and  the  enhanced  respect 
for  the  research  worker,  resulting  from  America's  ex- 
perience dm'ing  the  war  more  than  counterbalanced  the 
temporary  concentration  upon  wartime  problems.'" 

Organized  Research  a  Major  Industry 

Since  the  First  World  War,  industrial  research  has 
assumed  the  proportions  of  a  major  industry.  Labora- 
tories organized  before  the  war  have  expanded  their 
facilities  and  increased  their  staff's;  new  laboratories 
have  been  established  by  companies  seeking  to  maintain 
or  improve  their  position  in  the  industrial  order  by 
using  more  efficient  methods,  by  making  better  products, 
by  developing  new  products,  and  by  being  equipped  to 
meet  the  changes  that  come  through  science  and  tech- 
nology. In  1920  about  300  laboratories  were  engaged 
in  industrial  research;  in  1940  the  number  had  increased 
to  more  than  2,200.  Meanwhile  the  total  personnel 
had  grown  from  approximately  9,300  to  over  70,000."' 
The  2  periods  of  most  rapid  expansion  were  from  1920 
to  1931  and  from  1933  to  1940.  Between  1931  and 
1933,  the  business  depression  caused  many  companies 
to  curtail  their  research  activities  and  to  reduce  the 
number  of  workers  in  their  laboratories.  In  1930, 
when  the  National  Research  Council  revised  its  List  of 
Industrial  Research  Laboratories,  1,625  industrial  estab- 
lishments reported  a  total  research  personnel  of  34,212. 
A  second  report  in  1933  showed  1,455  laboratories 
reportmg  a  total  personnel  of  22,312,  a  decrease  of 
almost  35  percent.  Nearly  44  percent  of  the  labora- 
tories, however,  kept  their  personnel  intact,  and  about 
13  percent  increased  their  staffs.  The  greatest  decline 
in  the  employment  of  research  workers  occurred  in  the 
larger  laboratories,  of  which  only  22,  employmg  more 
than  100  men  each  in  1930,  accounted  for  a  total 
decrease  of  3,119."  By  1935,  however,  the  lost  ground 
had  been  recovered  in  most  industries,  and  for  the  last 
5  years  the  total  personnel  in  research  laboratories  has 
showed  a  marked  gain. 

In  their  study  of  "Industrial  Research  and  Changing 
Technology"  George  Perazich  and  Philip  M.  Field 
have  pointed  out  some  significant  features  about  the 
postwar  growth  of  research. 

In  the  interval  between  1927  and  1931  laboratory  personnel 
grew  by  approximately  14,000  workers,  more  than  half  of  whom 
were  employed  by  the  electrical,  petroleum,  and  industrial- 
chemical  industries.  In  the  seven  years  following  1931,  labora- 
tory personnel  of  all  companies  grew  by  11,500  more  workers. 


"Howe,  H.  E.    The  stimulation  of  research.    Scientific  American,  i!0,  518-519 
(May  17. 1919). 
"  Industrial  research,  pp.  3-4.    See  footnote  61. 


'•  Angel],  James  Rowland.  The  development  of  research  in  the  United  States. 
{.Reprint  and  Circular  Series  of  the  National  Research  Council,  No.  6.)  Washington, 
D.  C,  National  Research  Council.  1919,  p.  17. 

'I  Cooper,  Franklin  S.  Location  and  extent  of  industrial  research  activity  in  the 
United  States.    This  volume,  pp.  174  IT. 

"  West,  C.  J.,  and  Hull,  Callie.  Survey  of  personnel  chunges  in  industrial  research 
laboratories— 1930-1933.    Research  Laboratory  Record,  I,  154-58  (September  19331. 


38 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


About  half  of  this  growth  was  due  to  the  increase  in  stafTs  of 
producers,  of  agricultural  iniplcnieiits,  industrial  chemicals, 
petroleum,  and  rubber." 

The  same  source  shows  that  there  has  been  an  im- 
pressive increase  in  the  number  of  large  laboratories. 
Fifteen  companies  in  1921  maintained  research  staffs 
of  more  than  50  persons;  by  1938  there  were  120  such 
companies.     Their  growth  was — 

.  .  .  eightfold  (as)  compared  with  about  a  threefold  rise  for 
companies  with  fewer  than  1 1  persons  on  their  research  staffs.  .  .  . 
Thirteen  companies  with  the  largest  research  staffs,  representing 
less  than  1  percent  of  all  companies  reporting  in  the  National 
Research  Council  survey,  employed  in  1938  one-third  of  all 
research  workers,  or  as  many  as  the  1,583  companies  with  the 
smallest  research  staffs." 

During  this  period  concentration  of  research  workere 
in  the  laboratories  of  a  few  companies  within  an  in- 
dustry became  more  marked. 

...  In  rubber,  for  instance,  a  quarter  of  the  reporting  com- 
panies employed  90  percent  of  the  research  personnel  in  the 
industry;  in  petroleum  and  industrial  chemicals  the  respective 
percentages  were  85  and  88." 

In  1938  the  largest  number  of  research  workers  was 
employed  in  the  chemical  and  allied  industries. 

.  .  .  Next  in  importance  were  petroleum;  electrical  com- 
munications; electrical  machinery,  apparatus,  and  supplies;  other 
machinery  industries;  and  rubber  products  ...  In  that  year 
more  than  half  of  all  those  working  in  industrial  research  labora- 
tories in  the  United  States  were  employed  by  the  chemical, 
petroleum,  and  electrical  industries  (including  communications, 
utilities,  radio,  and  the  manufacture  of  electrical  machinery, 
apparatus,  and  supplies.) " 

From  1927  to  1938  there  was  a  gain  in  the  number  of 
research  workers  in  the  petroleum  industry  of  538.7 
percent  while  during  the  same  period  the  increase  in  the 
radio  and  phonograph  industry  was  1,600  percent.'' 

With  the  remarkable  growth  of  industrial  research 
since  1920  have  come  a  better  coordination  of  all  re- 
search activities  and  a  more  cooperative  approach  to 
the  problems  common  to  companies  within  an  industry. 
The  National  Research  Council,  in  addition  to  promot- 
ing research,  has  fostered  among  the  scientific  organiza- 
tions and  institutions  of  the  country  a  coordinated 
program  of  research  in  the  interest  of  the  general 
welfare.  To  assist  more  directly  the  research  interests 
of  industry,  the  Council  has  established  the  Division 
of  Engineering  and  Industrial  Research."  The  greater 
part  of  the  Council's  membership  is  "composed  of 
representatives  of  some  85  national  scientific  and  tech- 


'*  iDdustrlal  research  aod  cbangiog  technology,  p.  6.    S«e  footnote  59. 

"  Industrial  research  and  changing  technology,  pp.  8-10.  Sec  footnote  59;  Location 
and  Client  of  Industrial  research  activity  in  the  United  States.    See  footnote  71. 

"  Industrial  research  and  changing  technology,  p.  10.    See  footnote  59. 

"  InduRtrlal  research  and  changing  technilogy,  p.  18.    See  footnote  59. 

"  Industrial  research  and  changing  technology,  statistical  table,  p.  19.  See  foot- 
note 68. 

"  The  relationship  of  the  National  Research  Council  to  Industrial  research,  pp. 
305-369.    See  footnote  87. 


nical  societies."  Nearly  1,000  persons  are  members  of 
the  many  committees  that  have  been  formed  to  repre- 
sent the  major  fields  of  science. 

In  addition  to  their  work  with  the  National  Research 
Council,  the  engineering  societies  have  expended  much 
effort  and  money  to  promote  important  joint  research 
projects.  In  1926  the  Special  Research  Committee  of 
the  American  Engineering  Council  presented  a  5-year 
program  of  research  estimated  to  cost  $335,000  that 
would  benefit  both  industry  and  agriculture.  In  1938 
a  Special  Committee  on  Scientific  Research  Legisla- 
tion presented  a  report,  which  was  approved  by  the 
American  Engineering  Council,  stressing  the  need  for 
more  coordinated  and  scientifically  directed  research 
as  "essential  to  the  maintenance  of  adequate  national 
defense"  and  "investment  in  the  public  welfare." 
This  report  also  urged  careful  study  of  the  ways  in 
which  the  Federal  Government  could  aid  and  encourage 
research  without  interfering  with  the  existing  or  pros- 
pective research  of  individuals,  corporations,  and  edu- 
cational institutions. 

The  Engineering  Foundation,  the  research  agency 
for  the  engineering  societies  in  civil,  mechanical,  elec- 
trical, mining,  and  metallurgical  engineering,  is  like- 
wdse  active  in  coordinating  research  activities.  In  1937 
the  laboratories  of  14  universities  and  2  Government 
bureaus  were  working  with  it  in  an  effort  to  solve  tech- 
nological and  human  problems  in  the  engineering  fields. 
In  addition  the  Engineering  Foundation  has  sponsored 
long-term  research  projects  in  alloys  of  iron  and  in 
welding,  the  latter  project  embracing  more  than  60 
fundamental  studies  in  college  and  industrial  labora- 
tories and  a  compilation  of  welding  literature." 

Many  special  and  joint  research  committees  in  the 
various  engineering  societies  are  active  in  furthering 
coordinated  and  cooperative  research  projects.  In  one 
of  the  worst  years  of  the  depression,  1931,  the  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  had  460  men,  50 
percent  of  whom  were  not  members  of  the  society,  I 
voluntarily  serving  on  28  such  committees.  To  finance 
the  society's  research  activities  of  that  year,  $40,500 
was  contributed  by  industry  and  other  interests  outside 
the  society.  Some  25  technical  societies,  trade  asso- 
ciations, and  Government  bureaus  cooperated  with 
the  committees  as  joint  sponsors  and  financial  support- 
ers of  the  various  projects.'" 

A  cooperative  attack  upon  common   problems  by 
companies  in  the  same  industry  is  not  a  new  procedure,     j 
but  it  is  one  that  has  become  increasingly  important  in 
the  last  two  decades.     In  the  late  eighties  the  cane- 
sugar  producers  in  Louisiana  were  threatened  by  the 


'•  Cooperative  engineering  research.  liututlTtal  and  Eatttutrint  Chtmittr)  (Newt 
Ed.),  16,  f  J  (February  20.  1937). 

*•  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers.  Reports  and  papers  research  com- 
mittee.   New  York,  The  Society,  1932,  p.  S. 


Industrial  Research 


39 


competition  of  the  beet-sugar  producers.  For  years  the 
latter  had  been  working  with  the  chemist  and  the 
agronomist  to  raise  the  sucrose  content  of  the  beet  root 
and  to  find  processes  that  would  unprove  the  yield  of 
sugar  and  make  molasses  and  all  the  other  byproducts 
sources  of  profit  rather  than  loss.  The  net  cost  of 
beet  sugar  fell  year  after  year  until  it  was  sold  at  prices 
comparable  to  those  of  cane  sugar.  Faced  with  this 
grave  competition  the  cane-sugar  producers  decided  to 
meet  it  with  the  same  methods  that  had  created  it. 
They  called  Dr.  W.  C.  Stubbs  to  Louisiana,  and  under 
his  direction,  established  the  Sugar  Experiment  Station 
at  Kenncr.  It  was  moved  later  to  Audubon  Park,  on 
the  outskirts  of  New  Orleans.*'  From  funds  contributed 
entirely  by  the  cane-sugar  planters  of  Louisiana,  a  com- 
plete sugar  house  was  erected  upon  a  scale  large  enough 
to  give  commercial  results.  About  $100,000  worth  of 
equipment  for  the  station  was  obtained  either  by 
purchase  or  gift.*^ 

Stubbs  soon  found  that  there  were  many  inefficient 
practices  in  the  cane-sugar  industry  that  could  be 
remedied  by  proper  scientific  control.  When  the 
planters  began,  however,  to  look  for  chemists  and  engi- 
neers to  provide  this  control,  they  were  faced  with 
another  problem,  for  outside  of  Europe  there  were  few 
men  who  knew  much  about  the  chemistry  of  sugar. 
Undaunted,  the  Louisiana  Sugar  Planters'  Association 
met  and  decided  to  establish  in  connection  with  the 
Sugar  Experiment  Station  a  school  for  training  the 
experts  they  needed.  Under  the  direction  of  Stubbs, 
the  Audubon  Sugar  School  was  opened  in  189L  The 
whole  enterprise  was  so  successful  that  it  was  taken  over 
by  the  State  and  became  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  State 
University. 

Research  is  today  an  accepted  and  important  part  of 
the  work  carried  on  by  many  trade  associations.  Dis- 
cussing in  detail  in  another  section  of  this  report  the 
research  activities  of  these  associations,  Charles  J. 
Brand  states  that  of  the  330  trade  associations  listed  in 
the  survey  of  the  National  Research  Council  36  main- 
tain their  own  research  laboratories,  and  at  least  54 
others  conduct  technical  research  in  some  other  way. 

A  cooperative  attack  upon  problems  other  than 
technical  ones  is  now  being  made  by  a  few  industries. 
Various  means  exist  by  which  research  directors  and 
laboratory  executives  can  exchange  information  and 
study  jointly  the  common  problems  of  organization  and 
management.  One  group  of  executives  representing  28 
companies  in  widely  different  industries  located  in  many 
different  parts  of  the  country  has  met  at  various  times 

"  Coates,  Charles  E.  An  experiment  in  the  education  of  chemical  engineers.  The 
twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  Audubon  sugar  school.  Industrial  and  EngineerinQ 
Ckemislri),  9,  379-380  (April  1917). 

••  An  experimeiit  in  the  education  of  chemical  engineers.    See  footnote  81. 


since  its  formation  2  years  ago  to  discuss  problems 
arising  from  the  maintenance  of  research  laboratories.*' 

Since  the  study  of  science  and  the  technique  of 
experiment  became  parts  of  the  curriculum  of  educa- 
tional institutions  in  this  country,  university  labora- 
tories have  been  the  source  of  innumerable  scientific 
contributions  to  industry."  The  proper  relationship 
between  the  university  and  industry  in  the  matter  of 
industrial  research  is,  however,  a  difficult  one  to  de- 
termine and  perhaps  an  even  more  difficult  one  to 
maintain.  Nevertheless,  during  the  last  20  years  means 
have  been  evolved  by  which  the  university  and  industry 
can  cooperate  to  their  mutual  advantage.  Through 
practice  schools  and  cooperative  courses  both  faculty 
and  students  become  cognizant  of  the  practical  prob- 
lems which  are  involved  in  the  successful  application  of 
science  to  modern  industry.  As  a  result  industry  is 
supplied  with  men  better  qualified  to  enter  its  research 
laboratories  and  its  development  departments.  Through 
engineering  experiment  stations  and  divisions  of  indus- 
trial cooperation,  the  knowledge  of  specialists  and  the 
unique  facilities  of  university  and  technical  school 
laboratories  are  made  available  to  industry,  without 
interfering  with  the  educational  program,  and  often  in 
fact,  with  benefit  to  it. 

A  few  years  ago  Dr.  Vannevar  Bush  in  writing  about 
the  educational  institution  and  industrial  research  said: 

Where  an  institution  has  unique  facilities,  and  outstanding 
staff  of  specialists,  and  a  location  in  the  midst  of  intense  indus- 
trial development,  it  is  certainly  incumbent  upon  it  to  play  a 
part  in  the  industrial  world  about  it,  not  only  because  its  exist- 
ence may  thereby  become  a  matter  of  greater  utility  to  industry, 
but  also  because  the  resulting  relationships  when  properly 
nurtured  are  capable  of  exerting  a  profound  and  beneficial 
influence  upon  its  educational  processes.  This  is  especially  true 
in  a  case  of  a  school  of  engineering,  where  the  relationship  be- 
tween the  pedagogical  processes  and  many  types  of  industrial 
problems  is  particularly  close;  but  it  applies  as  well  to  an 
institution  of  science,  where  that  science  is  applied,  whatever 
may  be  the  tield.'^ 

Some  Economic  and  Social  Aspects 
of  Industrial  Research 

Science  and  the  research  laboratory  played  but  a 
small  part  in  furthering  the  early  technical  develop- 
ments in  industry.  Lewis  Mumford  in  his  Technics 
and  Civilization  wrote: 

.  .  .  The  detailed  history  of  the  steam  engine,  the  railroad, 
the  textile  mill,  the  iron  ship,  could  be  written  without  more 
than  passing  reference  to  the  scientific  work  of  the  period.     For 

«  Worthington,  C.  Q.  Coordination  between  industries  in  inrtustriBl  research. 
This  Tolume.  pp.  85-87. 

"  Papers  describing  contributions  of  research  laboratories  in  universities  to  indus- 
try, have  been  published  but  no  comprehensive  study  of  the  subject  has  as  yet  been 
made. 

"  Busb,  Vannevar.  The  educational  institution  and  industrial  research.  Research 
LaboratOTii  Record,  t,  3.'>  (November  1932). 


40 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


these  devices  were  made  possible  largely  by  the  method  of 
empirical  practice,  by  trial  and  selection:  many  lives  were  lost 
by  the  explosion  of  steamboilers  before  the  safety-valve  was 
generally  adopted.  And  tliough  all  these  inventions  would  have 
been  the  better  for  science,  they  came  into  existence,  for  the 
most  part,  without  its  direct  aid.  It  was  the  practical  men  in 
the  mines,  the  factories,  the  machine  shops  and  the  clockmakers' 
shops  and  the  locksmiths'  shops  or  the  curious  amateurs  with  a 
turn  for  manipulating  materials  and  imagining  new  processes, 
who  made  them  possible." 

Although  the  "practical  men"  and  the  "curious 
amateurs"  continue  to  make  their  contributions  to  the 
technical  progress  of  the  country's  industries,  the 
importance  of  their  work,  compared  with  that  done  by 
trained  scientists  and  engineers  cooperating  in  organized 
laboratories,  has,  for  the  last  50  years,  been  steadily 
diminishing.  In  the  universities  and  in  industry, 
trained  chemists,  physicists,  metallurgists,  mathemati- 
cians, and  biologists  have  been  continually  pushing 
outward  the  frontiers  of  science.  The  detailed  history 
of  the  electric  light,  telephone,  camera,  aeroplane, 
radio,  of  paper,  rubber,  chemicals,  alloys,  and  plastics 
could  not  be  written  without  repeated  reference  to 
science  and  the  industrial  research  laboratory.  No 
longer  can  the  knowledge  upon  which  further  important 
technical  advances  depend  be  supplied  b}'  the  "clock- 
makers"  and  the  "locksmiths."  Even  though  more 
great  inventors  of  the  stature  of  Edison,  Diesel,  and 
Sperry  appear,  as  they  unquestionably  will,  "the  results 
of  extensive  research  will  be  the  raw  materials  upon 
which  their  inventive  work  will  be  exercised."  *'' 

No  comprehensive  account  of  the  economic  and  social 
importance  of  the  industrial  research  laboratory  can 
be  written  until  the  many  developments  that  have 
emerged  from  it  have  each  been  studied  in  great  detail. 
These  developments  are  so  numerous  and  often  so  far- 
reaching  in  their  effects,  as  in  the  case  of  the  incandes- 
cent light,  the  internal-combustion  engine,  or  the  radio, 
that  a  complete  account  will  probably  never  be  possible. 
Nevertheless  some  of  the  more  obvious  and  immediate 
economic  and  social  results  of  industrial  research  can 
be  observed. 

The  application  of  science  to  industry  has  helped  to 
remedy  some  of  the  less  desirable  consequences  of  tech- 
nical change:  Natural  resources  have  been  conserved 
and  former  waste  materials  have  been  turned  into  useful 
products  through  organized  research.  Simple  analyses 
by  a  trained  chemist  made  valuable  the  enormous  piles 
of  flue  cinder  and  roll  scale  that  had  been  discarded  from 
the  heating  furnaces  and  mills  in  the  iron  industry.  No 
longer  do  millions  of  gallons  of  naphtha,  for  want  of  a 
demand,  flow  into  the  creeks  and  rivers  to  evaporate. 

"  MumlorJ,  I.«wis.  Tochnlcs  and  civilization.  New  Yorit,  Harcourt,  Brace 
and  Co.,  1?34,  pp.  215-216. 

"  FiTTis.  J.  P.  Ites«arrh  for  iDdustrial  pioneering.  Mechanical  Engineering,  S(, 
249  (April  1932). 


No  longer  do  the  meat  packers  bury  in  the  swamps 
carloads  of  bones  and  heads  or  pollute  the  streams  with 
blood  and  tankage  from  their  slaughterhouses. 

In  1907  nearly  seven-eighths  of  the  coke  made  in  the 
United  States  was  produced  in  beehive  ovens,  where 
only  the  fLxed  carbon  of  the  bituminous  coal  was  saved 
and  all  volatile  constituents  were  wasted.  That  same 
year,  however,  5,607,899  tons  were  produced  in  byprod- 
uct recovery  ovens,  and  the  value  of  the  gas,  tar,  and 
ammonia  obtained  from  them  amounted  to  $7,548,071. 
At  the  prices  which  prevailed  in  1907,  the  value  of  the 
byproducts  wpsted  in  beehive  coke  ovens  has  been 
estimated  at  a  little  over  $55,000,000.*' 

The  manufacture  of  the  type  of  powder  used  by  the 
United  States  Army  in  1918  required  great  quantities 
of  alcohol  and  ether  which,  because  of  their  volatility, 
were  largely  lost  during  the  powder  manufacturing 
process.  Industrial  research  made  it  possible  to  devise 
methods  which,  at  the  scale  of  operation  in  1918, 
resulted  in  a  saving  of  50,000,000  pounds  of  these  sol- 
vents each  year.  Similar  changes  in  the  process  of 
making  guncotton  saved  45,000,000  pounds  of  nitric 
acid,  an  economy  particularly  important  in  the  days 
when  nitric  acid  had  to  be  made  almost  entirely  from 
Chile  saltpeter. 

A  more  recent  example  of  the  economic  benefit  re- 
sulting from  industrial  research  is  found  in  the  petro- 
leum industry,  where  in  1936  the  cracking  process  made 
it  possible  for  the  refineries  of  the  world  to  conserve 
1 ,865,000,000  barrels  of  crude  oil.  Without  this  process 
it  would  have  required  3,607,000,000  barrels  instead  of 
the  1,742,000,000  barrels  of  crude  oil  actualh'  refined 
to  have  supplied  the  world's  need  for  gasoline.** 

New  processes  originated  in  the  research  laboratory 
have  brought  lower  costs  of  production  and  improved 
products.  James  Gayley's  invention  of  the  dry-air 
plant  eliminated  the  weather  as  a  troublesome  variable 
in  the  production  of  pig  iron  and  brought  a  saving  of 
from  50  cents  to  $1  in  the  cost  of  producing  each  ton, 
which  for  the  j'car  1912  meant  a  saving  of  from 
$15,000,000  to  $29,000,000. 

Ten  years  ago  it  was  estimated  that  the  replacement 
of  the  carbon  filament  lamp  by  the  more  efficient  tung- 
sten filament,  gas-lillod  lamp  was  saving  the  consumers 
of  electric  light  in  the  United  States  about  $2,256,000,- 
000  a  year.'"  Although  probably  inaccurate,  this 
figure  does  give  some  hint  of  the  magnitude  of  the 
savings  which  can  come  through  industrial  research. 
^Vbolly  beyond  calculation,  however,   are   the  social 


"  Sadtler.  S.  P.  Conservation  and  the  chemical  engineer.  .4mer/can  InttUuie  of 
Chemical  Engineer!.  Traruaelioni,  i,  109  (1909). 

••  Pioneers  In  research.    Olland  Oai  Journal,  36.  ii-H  (May  27, 1937). 

••  Carty,  J.  J.  Science  and  progress  in  the  industries.  {Reprint  and  CirctjJar  Series 
of  the  National  Rueaich  Council,  No.  89.)  Washington,  D.  C.  National  Research 
Council,  July  1929,  p.  3. 


Industrial  Research 


41 


benefits  which  come  with  the  rcHef  of  eyestrain  and  the 
prevention  of  nervous  disorders. 

Recently  the  research  laboratory  of  a  steel  mill 
announced  an  electronic  device  that  would  substitute 
for  the  fallible  human  eye  an  electric  eye  for  controlling 
the  temperature  in  the  process  of  making  Bessemer 
steel.  It  is  claimed  that  the  accuracy  made  possible  by 
this  one  result  of  a  research  project  costing  less  than 
$75,000  will  save  the  company  $3  on  every  ton  of  steel 
it  produces,  or  a  potential  yearly  sum  of  $3,000,000. 

Every  automobile  owner  has  shared  directly  in  the 
results  of  the  intensive  research  carried  on  by  the 
manufacturers  of  tires.  In  1908  a  small  tire  cost  $25;  a 
large  one  $125.  Each  dollar  bought  about  50  miles  of 
tire  travel.  In  1920  the  estimated  cost  of  tires  for  every 
10,000  miles  traveled  was  $163.  By  1936  this  figure 
has  been  reduced  to  $38.30.  Dr.  W.  A.  Gibbons,  of  the 
United  States  Rubber  Company,  has  figured  that  if  one 
assumes  that  this  reduction  in  the  price  of  tires  since 
1920  has  not  been  a  determining  factor  in  bringing  about 
the  increased  use  of  automobiles  then  the  decrease  in 
cost  that  has  taken  place  has  saved  the  public  the 
enormous  total  of  $35,083,000,000. 

Impressive  as  are  the  new  methods  of  industry,  more 
impressive  still  are  the  new  products  which  have  been 
made  possible  through  industrial  research.  In  1935 
the  American  Chemical  Society  exhibited  at  the 
Exposition  of  Chemical  Industries  75  industrial  prod- 
ucts that  had  been  commercialized  during  the  recovery 
period  1934-35.  No  product  was  exhibited  whose 
origin  could  not  be  traced  directly  to  an  industrial 
research  laboratory.  Every  person's  life  is  influenced 
by  direct  contact  with  scores  of  new  devices  and 
products  that  did  not  exist  10  years  ago,  but  far  greater 
in  number  are  the  new  materials  used  by  industry,  of 
which  the  layman  knows  little. 

In  1911,  W.  R.  Wliitney  wrote: 

Copper,  iron,  and  five  other  metals  were  known  and  used  at 
the  time  of  Christ.  In  the  first  1,800  or  1,900  years  of  our  era, 
there  were  added  to  the  list  of  metals  in  technical  use  (pure  or 
alloyed)  about  eight  more,  or  a  rate  below  three  a  century. 
There  has  been  so  much  industrial  advance  made  within  the  past 
twenty  or  thirty  years  that  fourteen  new  metals  have  been 
brought  into  commercial  use  within  this  period.  This  is  almost 
as  many  in  our  quarter  century  as  in  the  total  preceding  age  of 
the  world." 

Just  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  C.  M.  A.  Stine, 
speaking  in  1936  at  the  annual  dinner  of  the  Wilmington 
Traffic  Club,  said : 

Lighter,  stronger,  rust-resisting  metals  were  needed.  The 
metallurgist  and  the  electrochemist  have  developed  more  than 
10,000  alloys  that  have  gone  into  every  department  of  industry. 
It  was  chiefly  the  demands  of  the  automobile  and  the  airplane 
that  inspired  this  research,  which  in  turn  revolutionized  steel- 
making  and  all  metal  working  .  .  ." 

'I  Research  as  a  financial  asset,  p.  346.    Sec  footnote  60. 

n  Stine.  C.  M.  A.    Change  rules  the  rails.    Vilal  Speech^,  f.  348  (March  9.  1936) 


In  any  list  of  now  jiroducts  must  be  included  multi- 
farious chemicals,  medicines,  drugs,  vaccines,  and 
serums.  If  the  byproducts  of  the  wood,  coal,  and 
petroleum  iiulustries  were  also  added,  the  total  would 
be  stupendous.  By  decreasing  costs  and  improving 
quality,  by  relieving  drudgery  and  sulforing,  and  by 
increasing  the  opportunities  for  pleasure  these  new 
products  have  contributed  to  a  higher  standard  of 
living. 

The  impact  of  new  methods  and  new  materials  upon 
industry  has  brought,  however,  continual  change;  and 
change  in  a  complicated  industrial  society  inevitably 
means  insecurity,  temporary  dislocation,  and  frequently 
disaster  for  many  individuals.  The  rapidity  with 
which  this  change  sometimes  occurs  is  well  illustrated 
by  the  following  description  of  events  that  took  place 
as  the  tungsten  lamp  was  being  evolved. 

I  have  seen  whole  factories  entirely  overhauled  a  number  of 
times  in  the  past  few  years,  in  order  to  make  the  newest  lamps. 
Not  only  have  entire  floors  of  complicated  and  expensive 
machines  for  making  carbon  lamps  been  thrown  out  and  new 
machinery  for  making  metal  filament  lamps  installed,  but  before 
packing  cases  containing  new  machines  could  be  opened  and 
unpacked  in  the  factory  they  have  been  thrown  out  as  uselees, 
as  the  advance  from  squirted  metal  filaments  to  drawn  wire 
filaments  proved  the  better  way.  Before  the  limit  of  factory 
efficiency  on  vacuum  lamps  could  be  reached,  the  introduction 
of  nitrogen  into  the  lamps  brought  the  factories  an  entirely  new 
factor,  and  now,  before  the  consumers  have  more  than  com- 
menced to  feel  the  effects  of  the  nitrogen-tungsten  lamps,  the 
manufacture  of  argon  and  its  introduction  into  the  incandescent 
lamp  becomes  a  reality.'' 

Rarely  can  the  shocks  caused  by  technical  changes 
be  absorbed  within  a  single  company.  The  rapid 
development  of  the  incandescent  lamp,  for  example, 
eliminated  any  commercial  possibilities  for  an  ingenious 
lamp  invented  by  Nernst  and  also  greatly  lessened  the 
value  of  certain  German  patents  covering  a  process  for 
producing  ductile  tungsten.  Hall's  electrolytic  process 
for  producing  akmiinum  at  $1  a  pound  brought  sudden 
idleness  to  Castner's  plant  which  had  been  producing 
500  pounds  a  day  at  a  cost  of  $4  a  pound.  Likewise 
the  development  of  mechanical  refrigeration  has  made 
great  inroads  upon  the  market  for  natural  ice.  The 
successful  production  of  synthetic  indigo  meant  that 
the  market  for  the  crop  from  1,000,000  acres  of  land  in 
India  had  been  destroyed.  The  discovery  of  an  eco- 
nomical process  for  the  fixation  of  nitrogen  has  freed 
the  world  from  its  dependence  upon  the  nitrate  beds 
of  Chile,  with  the  residt  that  an  important  Chilean 
industry  has  sunk  steadily  into  debt,  and  the  country 
has  lost  a  major  source  of  revenue.  Successful  proc- 
esses for  the  production  of  synthetic  fibers  and  sj'n- 
thetic  rubber  have  created  new  domestic  industries  and 


»  Whitney,  W.  R.    Relation  of  research  to  the  progress  of  manolacttirlng  indus- 
tries.   General  Eleclrk  Review,  18,  872  (September  1915). 


42 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


^eatcr  national  self-sufficiency,  at  the  expense,  how- 
ever, of  the  prothicers  of  natural  fibers  and  natural 
rubber  and  at  the  risk  of  further  disturbance  to  world 
trade. 

Industrial  research  has  added  new  factors  to  the 
competitive  system  in  industry.  To  the  struggle 
between  companies  in  the  same  industry  for  the 
advantage  that  comes  from  lower  costs  of  production 
and  better  quality  of  products  has  been  added  the 
rivalry  for  new  knowledge.  As  one  director  of  a 
research  laboratory  has  expressed  it: 

The  keenest  competition  today  is  between  revolutionary  ideas. 
What  the  manufacturer  of  today  fears  is  not  so  nivich  the  com- 
petitor who  may  shade  production  or  selling  costs  a  little,  as  the 
manufacturer  who  may  virtually  i)ut  him  out  of  business  by 
getting  out  something  radically  new  that  the  customer  prefers.** 

Industries  never  before  considered  as  possible  rivals, 
have  become  competitors  because  of  discoveries  made 
in    research    laboratories.     The    petroleum    industry, 

"Jewett,  F.  B.  Address  before  the  American  Bar  Association,  July  1938.  Re- 
port) of  the  American  Bar  Atsocialion,  BS,  192  (1928). 


already  a  serious  competitor  of  the  coal  industry,  is 
rapidly  becoming  a  producer  of  chemicals.  The  air- 
plane, a  product  of  intensive  and  highly  complicated 
research,  competes  with  the  railroad  train;  the  rubber 
industry,  with  the  textile  industry;  and  the  chemical 
industry,  with  the  cotton-growing  industry. 

Research  has  made  more  research  imperative.  In- 
dustrial strength  can  be  achieved  only  through  knowl- 
edge of  what  is  taking  place  in  the  laboratory.  In  the 
face  of  constant  change,  industries  maintain  their 
stability  only  by  being  prepared  for  the  next  advance. 
For  companies  unable  to  support  expensive  research 
laboratories,  the  iiroblcm  of  keeping  abreast  of  new 
developments  is  difiicult ;  yet  through  trade  associations, 
commercial  laboratories,  and  universities  the  small 
concern  has  been  able  to  strengthen  its  position  tlirough 
research.  This  necessity  for  seeking  new  methods  and 
new  products  has  brought  new  life  to  many  companies. 
Inefficient  methods  have  fallen  before  the  impact  of 
applied  science;  growth  has  replaced  atrophy. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ORGANIZED  RESEARCH  WITHIN  INDIVIDUAL  COMPANIES 


For  vtost  of  the  material  which  follows,  the  author  is  greatly 
indebted  to  the  executives  and  directors  of  research  in  the  respective 
companies  whose  laboratories  are  described.  In  viany  instances 
the  wording  follows  closely  that  of  the  accounts  which  were  sent  to  him. 

The  reader  mil  perhaps  be  aware  that,  in  these  pages  many 
important  laboratories  are  not  discussed.  The  short  lime  available 
for  the  preparation  of  this  report  made  such  omissions  inevitable. 

Chemicals 

American  Cyanamid  Company 

When  the  American  Cyanamid  Company  acquired 
the  American  patent  rights  to  the  cyanamid  process, 
there  was  a  relatively  small  pilot  plant  in  operation  in 
Germany,  an  operating  unit  of  commercial  size  in 
Italy,  and  a  number  of  scattered  plants  under  construc- 
tion in  Europe.  To  construct  its  first  cyanamid 
unit  at  Niagara  Falls,  Canada,  the  company  brought 
from  abroad  engineers,  operating  experts,  and  special 
items  of  equipment.  An  organization  made  up  wholly 
of  Americans  was  assembled,  however,  and  in  1909  a 
research  department  was  established  to  develop  methods 
and  means  of  converting  the  crude  product  into  a 
fertilizer  material  which  could  be  used  in  the  American 
fertilizer  mixtures.  This  research  was  carried  on  with 
the  scattered  facilities  in  the  plant  and  in  institutional 
laboratories. 

In  1912  a  formal  research  laboratory  was  established, 
and  3  years  later  a  building  was  erected  at  Warners, 
N.  J.,  to  house  its  activities.  At  this  time  about  six  men 
spent  their  full  time  in  the  laboratory.  With  the  out- 
break of  the  First  World  War,  the  company,  knowing 


By  means  of  a  questionnaire  executives  in  every  known  research 
laboratory  in  the  country  were  asked  for  historical  material  concern- 
ing the  laboratories  in  their  respective  companies.  An  additional 
appeal  was  made  to  the  directors  of  research  in  more  than  76 
laboratories  known  to  be  especially  active  in  their  industries.  In 
some  instances  no  reply  was  received;  in  others  the  account  either 
was  not  historical  in  character  or  was  too  brief  to  be  useful. 

it  would  be  called  upon  for  many  products  derived  from 
cyanamid,  organized  a  special  stafl"  to  develop  and  pro- 
duce them.  Not  until  early  in  1919  could  this  emer- 
gency service  be  abandoned  and  the  personnel  reorgan- 
ized into  a  new  research  unit  principally  occupied  with 
investigations  of  cyanamid  derivatives. 

During  the  10  years  from  1919  to  1929,  the  Cyana- 
mid Company  acquired  three  other  enterprises:  the 
Selden  interests  at  Pittsburgh  and  Bridgoville,  Pa., 
with  a  modern  laboratory  at  Pittsburgh;  the  Calco 
Company  at  Bound  Brook,  N.  J.,  with  a  highly  de- 
veloped laboratory;  and  the  Lederle  Laboratories,  with 
an  excellent  central  laboratorj'  at  Pearl  River,  N.  Y., 
as  well  as  some  other  widely  scattered  research  facilities. 

The  laboratories  at  Warners  and  at  Linden,  having 
proved  entirely  inadequate,  were  abandoned;  and  a  new 
research  center  was  established  at  Stamford,  Conn., 
which  later  absorbed  the  Pittsburgh  and  Bridgeville 
units.  At  present  the  company  operates  three  major 
units:  one  at  Stamford  for  research,  both  fundamental 
and  applied,  in  pharmaceuticals  and  mining  chemicals; 
one  at  Bound  Brook  for  the  study  of  coal-tar  products; 
and  one  at  Pearl  River  for  the  study  of  biologicals, 
serums,   vaccines   and    for  specialized    pharmaceutical 


IndxLstrial  Research 


43 


work.  Approximately  325  technical  men,  supplemented 
by  320  operating,  clerical,  library,  and  legal  assistants, 
devote  their  entire  time  to  research. 

When  facilities  for  the  study  of  certain  problems  are 
unavailable  in  these  three  laboratories  wholly  under  the 
control  and  direction  of  the  company,  other  laboratories 
in  institutions  scattered  throughout  the  country  are 
used  by  means  of  a  fellowship  plan. 

Dow  Chemical  Company 

In  1887  Herbert  Dow,  a  student  at  Case  School  of 
Applied  Science  in  Cleveland,  invented  a  new  and 
economical  process  for  extracting  bromine  from  brine. 
Two  years  later  he  proceeded  to  put  his  electrolytic  cell 
to  work  in  a  small  flour-mill  shed  in  Midland,  Mich. 
Before  very  long  his  process  was  also  adapted  to  the 
extraction  of  chlorine  from  brine,  with  caustic  soda  as  a 
coproduct.  These  developments,  at  the  end  of  10 
years,  led  to  the  consolidation  of  several  parent  com- 
panies to  form  the  Dow  Chemical  Company. 

A  sister  company,  formed  by  Dow  and  his  associates 
in  1901,  and  later  purchased  by  the  Dow  Chemical 
Company,  is  conceded  to  have  been  the  first  one  to 
carry  on  a  synthetic  organic  chemical  process  on  a 
commercial  scale  in  America.  The  company  manu- 
factured sulfur  chloride  and  reacted  it  with  carbon 
bisulphide,  producing  carbon  tetrachloride  which,  in 
turn,  was  treated  with  iron  in  the  presence  of  water  to 
produce  chloroform. 

The  First  World  War  shut  off  the  European  sources 
of  chemicals  and  stimulated  the  company's  production 
of  aromatic  organic  compounds.  The  output  of  phenol 
was  increased  to  30  tons  a  day,  and  a  new  process  was 
developed  for  the  manufacture  of  synthetic  brominated 
indigo. 

The  end  of  the  war  found  the  company  in  a  critical 
position;  either  it  would  have  to  develop  efficient  man- 
ufactm-ing  processes,  or  suffer  enormous  losses  in 
apparently  useless  buildings  and  machinery.  Intensive 
research  proved  to  be  the  solution  of  the  company's 
problem.  The  old-time  method  for  producing  phenol 
was  discarded  and  a  new  process  devised  and  placed  in 
operation.  The  next  steps  were  to  undertake  the  pro- 
duction of  the  phenol  derivatives,  aspirin  and  synthetic 
oil  of  wintergreen,  and  to  utilize  the  byproducts  from 
indigo  and  phenol  manufacture  in  making  artificial 
flavors  and  perfumes.  Aniline  was  produced  by  a  new 
process  based  upon  the  action  of  ammonia  upon  chloro- 
benzene.  An  alloy  of  magnesium  metal,  weighing 
only  one-fourth  as  much  as  iron,  was  manufactured  in 
quantities  for  airplane  parts,  portable  tools,  high-speed 
machinery,  and  many  other  purposes.  The  company 
was  the  first  to  produce  a  spray  material  of  organic 
origin  which  contained  no  arsenic  or  lead. 

Without  constant  research  the  Dow  Chemical  Com- 


pany could  not  have  achieved  such  a  record  of  accom- 
plishments. Since  1919  when  a  group  of  organic  re- 
search chemists  was  formed  and  an  adequate  reference 
library  was  established,  there  has  been  no  let-up  in  the 
intensity  of  the  company's  research  in  many  fields, 
mcluding  organic  and  inorganic  chemistry,  biochem- 
istry, physics,  and  metallurgy.  Today  225  graduate 
chemists  and  physicists,  270  technically  trained  engi- 
neers, and  170  laboratory  assistants  continue  to  work  on 
problems  new  and  old. 

E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and  Company 

In  no  company  in  the  country  have  chemistry  and 
chemical  research  played  a  more  important  part  than 
in  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and  Company.  The 
founder  himself,  E.  I.  du  Pont,  when  16  years  old,  had 
begun  to  study  chemistry  in  the  laboratory  of  Lavoisier, 
who  was  then  in  charge  of  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder for  the  French  Government.  In  1837  the  direc- 
tion of  the  company  fell  to  Alfred  du  Pont,  who  had 
been  a  former  student  of  chemistry  under  Thomas 
Cooper  at  Dickinson  College  and  who  was  always 
"contriving"  a  new  instrument  or  experimenting  in  the 
laboratory  in  an  effort  to  improve  the  quality  of  the 
powder  made  by  the  company. ^^  Henry  du  Pont,  who 
assumed  the  management  in  1850,  was  not  interested  in 
experimenting  with  new  methods  and  even  wrote  to 
various  agents  that  he  was  satisfied  that  the  powder 
could  not  be  improved.  The  search  for  new  methods 
and  better  products  was  continued,  however,  by  Alfred 
du  Font's  younger  son,  Lammot,  a  graduate  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1857,  as  a  result  of  the 
latter's  investigation,  nitrate  of  soda  was  used  in  place 
of  nitrate  of  potash  in  the  manufactui-e  of  blasting 
powder,  a  substitution  that  not  only  benefited  the 
company  financially  but  also  represented  an  advance  in 
the  art  of  powder  making. '*  Before  the  Civil  War  he 
had  accomplished  much  toward  the  development  of 
both  black  and  brown  prismatic  powders.  In  an 
attempt  to  carry  out  some  "plant-scale  experiments 
on  the  separation  of  nitroglycerol  from  the  waste  acid," 
for  the  purpose  of  recovering  the  latter,  he  was  killed 
by  an  explosion.  The  loss  of  this  able  chemist  was  a 
serious  one,  but  other  members  of  the  family  carried 
on  his  work.  By  1884  the  company  had  succeeded  in 
developing  a  brown  prismatic  powder  which  was 
satisfactory  to  the  Government.^'  Francis  G.  du  Pont, 
an  efficient  chemical  engineer,  invented  and  developed 
the  du  Pont  smokeless  powder  and  later,  with  the  aid  of 
Pierre  S.  du  Pont  and  others,  a  smokeless  powder  for 
the  Government's  use. 

•'  Du  Pont,  Mrs.  B.  Q.  E.  I.  du  Pont  dc  Nemours  and  Company,  a  history — 
1802-1902.    Boston,  New  York,  Houehton  Mifflin  Co.,  1920,  pp.  72-73. 

"  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and  Company,  a  history— 1802-1902,  p.  78.  See  foot- 
note 95;  Reese,  Charles  L.  American  chemical  industries.  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Ne- 
mours and  Co.  Industrial  and  Enoineerint  Chtmulry,  17,  1094  (October  1925). 

•'  American  chemical  industries,  pp.  1094-1095.    See  footnote  96. 


44 


NatioTial  Resources  Planning  Board 


For  nearly  a  hundred  years  the  du  Pont  Company 
apphed  chemical  knowledge  to  improve  the  quality  and 
increase  the  number  of  its  products,  but  it  was  not 
until  1902  that  scientific  research  became  a  clearly 
defined  part  of  the  company's  policy.  In  that  year 
the  Eastern  Dynamite  Company,  which  controlled 
several  other  d}Tiamite  manufacturing  companies,  es- 
tablished under  the  guidance  of  Charles  L.  Kcese  the 
Eastern  Laboratory  in  Gibbstown,  N.  J.  Two  years 
later  the  Experimental  Station  was  established,  and  in 
1906  it  was  installed  in  its  present  location  near 
Wilmington,  Del. 

The  Experimental  Station  was  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  company's  development  department  until  1911 
when,  together  with  the  Eastern  Laboratory,  it  be- 
came part  of  the  newly  created  chemical  department, 
which  for  the  next  10  years  directed  all  of  the  company's 
research.  Although  originally  organized  for  research 
in  explosives,  the  chemical  department,  following  the 
general  diversification  and  expansion  of  the  company's 
business,  soon  extended  its  activities  into  such  fields 
as  dyestuffs,  textiles,  synthetic  organic  chemicals, 
heavy  chemicals,  and  pigments. 

Research  had  become  such  an  important  factor  in 
the  success  of  the  company  by  1912  that  a  United 
States  court,  in  a  decree  which  divided  the  company's 
business  by  establishing  two  independent  competing 


organizations — the  Hercules  Powder  Company  and 
the  Atlas  Powder  Comi)any — stipulated  that  the  labo- 
ratories of  the  du  Pont  Company  should  serve  the  two 
new  companies  for  a  period  of  5  years.  Back  of  this 
requirement  was  the  fear  of  the  court  that  new  develop- 
ments in  the  laboratories,  unless  made  available,  might 
prevent  the  success  of  the  new  companies." 

In  1922  a  complete  reorganization  of  the  manufac- 
turing, sales,  and  research  activities  of  the  company 
resulted  in  the  decentralization  of  research,  which 
today  is  carried  on  by  nine  major  operating  depart- 
ments, two  controlled  subsidiaries,  and  the  chemical 
department.  The  research  work  of  the  operating  de- 
partments and  the  subsidiaries  is  concerned  largely  with 
their  respective  branches  of  industry  and  technology. 
The  chemical  department  is  concerned  not  so  much 
with  applied  research  problems  as  with  the  exploration 
of  new  fields  of  science  and  pioneering  investigations 
aimed  at  the  development  of  new  products  and  proc- 
esses. Thus,  insofar  as  fundamental  research  and  long- 
range  I'esearch  are  concerned,  the  chemical  department 
serves  the  entire  range  of  the  company's  activities. 
Nylon,  which  represents  a  wholly  new  family  of  or- 
ganic compounds  of  the  class  of  polyamides,  is  a  no- 
table result  of  the  fundamental  research  of  tliis  depart- 
ment.    In  the  fields  of  explosives,  powders,  dyestuffs, 

»•  American  chemical  industries,  p  1095.    See  footnote  96. 


Figure  7. — The  First  Laboratory  of  E.  I.  du  Pont  do  Nemours  and  Company,  Incorporated,  Was  Housed  in  this  Building,  Erected 

About  1802,  Wilmington,  Delaware 


Industrial  Research 


45 


cellulose  film,  cellulose  nitrate  lacquers,  synthetic 
resin  enamels,  synthetic  rubber,  and  camphor,  the  ac- 
complishments of  the  various  laboratories  have  been 
almost  innumerable  and  their  effect  upon  the  industrial 
life  of  the  Nation  has  been  incalculable. 

Monsanto  Chemical  Company 

The  Monsanto  Chemical  Company,  established  in 
1901  to  make  saccharin,  now  produces  a  variety  of  prod- 
ucts in  the  following  three  broad  groups :  fine  and  medic- 
inal chemicals,  heavy  chemicals,  and  intermediates. 
An  important  factor  in  the  company's  growth,  particu- 
larly in  recent  years,  was  its  research  laboratory,  which 
was  acquired  in  an  unusual  manner.  In  1928,  the 
Thomas  and  Hochwalt  Laboratories,  then  2  years  old 
and  engaged  in  commercial  research  in  Dayton,  Ohio, 
began  work  on  the  problem  of  producing  synthetic 
resins  from  petroleum  bases.  After  5  years  the  study 
pointed  to  such  important  possibilities  that  the  Mon- 
santo Chemical  Company  purchased  a  major  share  in 
the  development.  A  subsidiary,  called  the  Monsanto 
Petroleum  Chemicals,  Inc.,  was  formed  to  exploit  the 
process,  while  the  Thomas  and  Hochwalt  Laboratories 
not  only  expanded  their  research  in  connection  with  this 
new  enterprise,  but  also  engaged  in  other  work  for  the 
Monsanto  Company.  By  1936  so  large  a  proportion 
of  the  laboratory's  effort  was  bemg  devoted  to  the 
company's  problems  that  a  merger  was  effected.  That 
same  year  the  company's  expenditures  for  research 
were  3.04  percent  of  its  sales  and  16.5  percent  of  its  net 
income. 

Petroleum 

Atlantic  Refining  Company 

The  Atlantic  Refining  Company  began  its  corporate 
existence  April  29,  1870,  and  during  the  next  30  years 
much  work  was  done  by  various  individuals  of  scientific 
and  engineering  attainments  upon  the  problems  of  pe- 
troleum refining  and  the  processes  and  machines  in- 
volved in  the  packaging  of  petroleum.  About  1900  the 
emphasis  placed  on  research  was  increased,  but  investi- 
gations were  still  largely  carried  on  in  connection  ^vith 
operating  work.  In  February  1924  a  separate  depart- 
ment was  established  under  the  title  "Process  Division"; 
later  this  title  was  changed  to  "Research  and  Develop- 
ment Department."  In  1924  this  department  num- 
bered 82  individuals  and  by  December  1939  it  had 
grown  to  195.  At  the  present  time  the  department  has 
well  equipped  research  laboratories,  including  an  auto- 
motive laboratory  equipped  with  an  electric  chassis 
dynamometer  and  an  air-conditioning  apparatus  which 
permits  studies  at  temperatures  20°  below  zero,  Fahr- 
enheit. In  the  development  branch,  pilot  units  per- 
mit petroleum  refining  operations  on  a  small  scale,  but 


in  such  a  manner  that  results  in  the  plant  can  be  dupli- 
cated and  anticipated. 

Among  those  developments  in  the  petroleum  in- 
dustry to  which  the  company  has  made  substantial 
contributions  are  the  evolution  of  distillation  processes 
from  batch  stills,  through  tower  stills,  to  the  modem 
pipe  still  for  the  large  scale  fractional  distillation  of 
crude  petroleum;  the  solvent  extraction  of  lubricating 
oils;  the  thermal  production  of  motor  fuels  from  both 
heavier  and  lighter  hydrocarbons;  and  novel  develop- 
ments in  the  construction  and  propulsion  of  ocean- 
going tankers. 

The  Atlantic  Refining  Company  also  cooperates 
with  both  automotive  and  petroleum  companies  in 
projects  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  such  national 
bodies  as  the  American  Petroleum  Institute,  the 
Society  of  Automotive  Engineers,  and  the  American 
Society  for  Testing  Materials. 

Gulf  Research  and  Development  Company 

When  the  management  of  the  Gulf  companies  de- 
cided to  centralize  its  research  activities.  Dr.  Paul  D. 
Foote  was  called  in  August  1937  from  the  National 
Bureau  of  Standards  to  Mellon  Institute,  Pittsburgh, 
to  head  the  new  research  program.  The  number  of 
technical  men  employed  at  Mellon  Institute  to  work 
on  the  company's  production  and  pipe-line  problems, 
trebled  within  a  short  period.  In  December  of  the  next 
year  offices  were  opened  for  work  in  geophysics.  Dur- 
ing 1929  a  building  was  erected  in  Pittsburgh  to  house 
the  new  research  activities.  In  January  1930  most  of 
the  company's  employees  at  Mellon  Institute  and  the 
geophysical  group  were  transferred  to  the  new  quarters. 
Definite  technical  divisions  of  geophysics,  engineering, 
chemistry,  physics,  materials  engineering,  and  business 
management  were  set  up  as  the  research  department  of 
the  Gulf  Production  Company.  The  total  staff  num- 
bered about  90. 

By  1937  the  Gulf  Research  and  Development  Com- 
pany had  built  several  new  buildings  and  had  a  labora- 
tory staff  of  418.  An  additional  575  employees  were 
doing  exploratory  work  in  the  United  States  and 
foreign  countries. 

Humble  Oil  and  Refining  Company 

The  Humble  Oil  and  Refining  Company  started 
operations  at  its  first  major  refinery  in  1920.  For  the 
first  4  years  there  was  no  formal  organization  for 
research  work,  but  there  was,  of  course,  a  laboratorj'  for 
the  control  of  refining  operations.  Two  or  three  of  the 
better-trained  men  in  this  routine  laboratory  who 
showed  an  aptitude  for  special  investigations  were 
from  time  to  time  assigned  to  work  on  proposed  proc- 
esses and  on  the  solution  of  plant  operating  problems. 
The  refinery  was  growing  rapidly,  and  in  1924,  a  sepa- 


46 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


rate  group  was  set  up  to  spend  full  time  doing  research 
and  development  work  on  refining  processes.  At  the 
start,  this  group  consisted  of  seven  technically  trained 
men,  some  of  whom  were  transferred  from  the  routine 
laboratory. 

From  1924  to  the  latter  part  of  1926  all  the  research 
and  development  effort  was  associated  with  the  current 
and  contemplated  refining  processes  at  the  Bay  town 
refinery  located  about  30  miles  east  of  Houston,  Tex. 
In  the  latter  part  of  1926,  a  comprehensive  research 
program  on  the  production  of  alcohols  and  organic 
chemicals  from  hydrocarbons  present  in  natural  gas 
was  initiated,  and  a  separate  imit  with  laboratory 
facilities  and  experimental  equipment  was  established 
in  north  Texas,  where  natural  gas  supplies  were  readily 
available.  At  first  this  group  consisted  of  3  technical 
and  20  nontechnical  men,  but  in  the  course  of  the  work 
it  was  increased  to  7  technical  and  36  nontechnical  men. 

From  1929  to  1932  an  extensive  research  program  on 
hydrogenation  was  conducted  at  Baytown,  but  it  was 
concluded  soon  after  plans  for  the  installation  of  hydro- 
genation equipment  at  Baytown  were  abandoned. 
The  depression  was  about  at  its  severest  stage,  and 
activities  had  of  necessity  to  be  reduced  by  roughly  40 
percent.  This  reduction  was  accomplished  partly  by 
the  release  of  assistants  and  service  men  without  tech- 
nical training  and  partly  by  decreasing  the  number  of 
hours  a  month  that  each  man  worked.  As  economic 
conditions  improved,  the  research  activity  was  again 
expanded  by  increasing  the  working  hours  of  each 
employee,  until  by  the  beginning  of  1934,  tlie  force  was 
back  on  a  normal  full-time  basis.  From  then  until 
1936,  the  research  and  development  continued  on  a 
fairly  constant  level,  and  no  substantial  additions  were 
made  to  personnel.  The  period  1936  to  1938  was 
one  of  expansion,  and  the  force  was  increased  some  60 
percent  to  70  percent  over  the  period.  Since  1938,  10 
men  have  been  added  to  the  staff. 

Only  a  relatively  small  proportion  of  the  research 
and  development  effort  has  been  directed  toward  work 
of  a  pioneering  type  since  the  principal  emphasis  has 
been  placed  on  improving  correct  refinery  processes 
and  products  and  on  improving  and  adapting  known 
processes  to  the  particular  conditions  existing  at  the 
company's  refineries.  Since  the  company  has  access 
to  the  results  of  research  work  carried  on  by  the  Stand- 
ard Oil  Development  Company,  an  intensive  pioneering 
program  is  not  essential.  Nevertheless,  its  program 
of  industrial  research  has  enabled  the  company  to 
operate  its  refining  process  at  a  high  level  of  efficiency. 

Convinced  of  the  value  of  its  research  activities  in  oil 
refining,  the  company  decided  in  the  middle  of  1928  to 
estabhsh  a  separate  unit  for  research  on  drilling  and  the 
production  of  crude  oil  and  natural  gasoline  in  the  field. 

The  group  of  22  technical  men  and  16  nontechnical 


men  assigned  to  the  production  unit  has  made  valuable 
contributions  toward  the  answer  to  such  problems  as 
the  estimation  of  reserves,  well  spacing,  the  chemical 
treatment  of  drilling  fluids,  the  flow  of  oil,  gas,  and  water 
mixtures  through  reservoir  rocks,  and  the  behavior  of 
oil  and  gas  reservoirs  under  various  operating  conditions. 
A  third  research  group  has  been  engaged  since  1925 
Ln  geophysical  exploration.  Discontinuing  the  refrac- 
tion method  in  1920,  the  company  adopted  the  reflec- 
tion technique  and  now  has  eight  reflection  parties 
operating  in  the  field.  Although  in  geophysics,  emphasis 
has  been  placed  upon  practical  research,  some  funda- 
mental work  has  been  done. 

Shell  Development  Company 

Previous  to  1928  the  plant  engineers  of  the  Shell  Oil 
Company,  Inc.,  made  numerous  improvements  in  oil 
technology,  but  a  new  era  of  planned  research  began  in 
1928  with  the  creation  of  the  Shell  Development  Com- 
pany. From  the  start  its  directors  saw  in  research  the 
means  not  only  of  bringing  about  the  improvement  and 
more  economical  processing  of  such  staple  commodities 
as  gasoline,  kerosene,  fuel  oil,  and  lubricants,  but  also 
of  laying  the  basis  of  a  profitable  chemical  industry 
through  the  study  of  petroleum  as  a  primary  raw- 
material  containing  a  great  variety  of  hydrocarbons. 

The  policy  of  the  Shell  Development  Company  has 
been  to  undertake  one  project  of  research  after  another, 
developing  each  through  the  stages  of  fundamental  re- 
search, applied  research  and  semicommercial  trials,  to 
the  final  commercial  application.  Thus  by  a  series  of 
limited  objectives,  the  company  has  evolved  at  its  lab- 
oratories in  Emeryville,  Calif.,  a  weU-roimded  program 
of  research,  which  embraces  all  the  major  interests  of 
the  oil  industry. 

The  Shell  management  intentionally  created  the 
Development  Company  as  a  separate  unit  freed  from 
the  day-to-day  problems  of  operation  so  that  is  might 
plan  and  conduct  research  on  a  broad,  long-term  basis. 
The  operating  companies  have  laboratories  of  their  own 
from  which  the  technical  controls  of  their  operations 
are  exercised,  and  in  which  many  experiments  for  the 
improvement  of  operations  are  carried  out.  Occasion- 
ally research  begim  in  the  laboratory  of  an  operating 
company,  however,  proves  to  be  of  such  a  fundamental 
character  that  it  is  transferred  to  the  laboratory  of  the 
Development  Company,  and,  conversely  the  Develop- 
ment Company,  for  geographic  or  other  special  reasons, 
sometimes  transfers  problems  to  the  operating  com- 
panies. 

Although  the  work  of  the  research  laboratories  has, 
by  a  combination  of  organization  and  natural  growth, 
come  to  be  arrangwl  under  such  major  dopurtmcnts  as 
organic  chemical  research,  application  research,  pilot 
plant  research,  oil  production  research,  oil  technology 


Industrial  Research 


47 


research,  engine  research,  asphalt  research,  anci  funda- 
mental research,  a  large  degree  of  flexibility  and  co- 
operation is  maintained.  Approximately  15  percent  of 
the  total  budget  of  the  laboratories  is  spent  upon  such 
fundamental  investigations  as  the  mechanism  of  catal- 
ysis, mechanism  of  polymerization,  hydrocarbon  re- 
arrangements, and  pyrolysis. 

The  laboratory  of  the  Development  Company,  starting 
with  a  total  staff  of  57  includmg  12  university-trained 
research  workers,  has  steadily  expanded  until  in  1940  it 
employs  520  persons,  of  whom  91  are  senior  research 
workers  and  260  are  university  graduates. 

Standard  Oil  Company  of  California 

Organized  research  and  development  work  was  initi- 
ated in  the  Standard  Oil  Company  of  California  in  1920 
when  a  research  division  for  these  activities  was  created 
within  the  manufacturing  department.  During  the  first 
few  years,  the  main  effort  of  the  division  was  directed  to- 
wards the  improvement  of  such  refining  processes  as 
distillation,  thermal  cracking,  acid  treating,  and  acid 
recovery,  with  such  impressive  retmns  that  in  1926  the 
research  work  was  expanded  and  centralized  in  an 
independent  department.  Since  that  time  the  depart- 
ment has  grown  steadily  imtd  it  is  now  composed  of  a 
staff  of  400  men,  about  half  of  whom  are  chemists, 
engineers,  physicists,  or  men  with  some  technical  train- 
ing. Two  branch  laboratories  are  maintained,  and  the 
department  has  representatives  at  the  various  refineries 
and  producing  plants. 

The  company  has  done  pioneer  work  in  the  manu- 
facture of  compoimded  lubricating  oils  for  Diesel  engines, 
and  in  recent  years  much  of  its  research  has  been  done 
in  the  field  of  catalysis  for  the  purpose  of  developing 
processes  by  which  petroleum  can  be  converted  into 
new  and  better  products  for  industrial  and  domestic 
uses. 

Standard  Oil  Company  of  Indiana 

Research  in  the  Standard  Oil  Company  of  Indiana 
has  expanded  in  a  period  of  50  years  from  the  work  of  a 
single  plant  chemist  to  the  multiple  activities  of  a 
modem  department  comprising  186  technical  and  250 
nontechnical  men. 

Research  began  in  the  company  in  1890  with  the 
hiring  of  Dr.  WiUiam  M.  Burton  to  investigate  the 
Frasch  Desidfiu-ization  Process.  Later,  when  the  larg- 
est refinery  of  the  company  was  being  erected  in  Whit- 
ing, Ind.,  Bm-ton  established  an  analytical  laboratory 
there  to  test  paints  and  other  materials  being  used  in 
the  construction.  During  the  next  20  years,  until  1910, 
there  was  httle  increase  in  the  laboratory  staff,  which 
was  mainly  concerned  with  routine  analyses.  Some 
development  work  was  carried  out,  however,  and  it 
resulted  in  improvements  in  the  manufacturing  of 
asphalts,  greases,  lubricating  oils,  and  candles. 


The  years  1910-20  brought  moderate  expansion  in 
both  personnel  and  research.  Although  emphasis  con- 
tinued to  be  placed  on  analytical  work,  experiments 
were  carried  out  in  connection  with  the  Burton  crack- 
ing process,  while  other  investigations  led  to  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  medicinal  white  oils  and 
lubricants. 

After  1922  the  expansion  of  the  laboratory  staff  was 
rapid,  conforming  to  the  widening  of  research  activities. 
The  laboratories  of  3  refineries  of  the  company  were 
incorporated  into  the  research  department,  while  other 
laboratories  were  established.  One,  the  engine  re- 
search laboratory,  was  founded  in  1925;  another  was 
organized  early  in  the  1930's  for  fundamental  research. 
The  increase  in  the  total  personnel  was  twentyfold  in 
20  years. 

Paralleling  this  structural  growth  were  the  extended 
activities  in  and  accomplishments  of  research.  With 
the  introduction  of  the  approach  of  chemical  engineer- 
ing to  refinery  problems,  studies  were  made  of  distUla- 
tion,  fuel  economy,  corrosion,  evaporation  losses,  and 
gasoline  recovery.  Considerable  effort  was  also  ex- 
pended in  the  development  of  thermal  cracking,  both 
in  the  field  and  in  experimental  equipment  in  the  labora- 
tory. From  the  intensive  research  on  thermal  cracking, 
the  large  modern  combination  cracking  unit  was 
evolved  and  has  since  been  continually  improved  to  a 
point  where  it  is  capable  of  producing  better  than  75 
percent  of  high  octane  gasoline  from  crude  oil.  The 
problems  of  knocking  characteristics  and  gum  forma- 
tion, arising  from  the  application  of  the  thermal  cracking 
process  to  meet  the  growing  demands  for  gasoline,  were 
solved  by  experiments  with  antioxidants.  The  proc- 
esses of  propane  dewaxing  and  chlorex  extraction 
resulted  from  intensified  research  on  lubricating  oils. 

At  the  present  time  experimental  work  is  being  carried 
out  on  all  phases  of  petroleum  refining  from  the  crude 
distillation  to  the  road  testing  of  fuels  in  modern 
automobile  engines.  In  addition,  considerable  effort 
is  being  expended  in  the  development  and  improvement 
of  specialty  products  such  as  greases,  candles,  asphalts, 
road  oils,  solvents,  special  lubricants,  and  domestic  fuels. 

The  activities  of  the  research  department  are  co- 
ordinated with  those  of  its  closely  associated  develop- 
ment and  patent  department,  which  assists  in  main- 
taining teclmical  contacts  with  competing  companies 
and  other  industries,  provides  a  technical  information 
service,  and  manages  the  patent  affairs  of  the  company. 

In  addition  to  the  research  and  development  activi- 
ties conducted  directly  by  the  staff,  the  company  has 
contributed  to  and  participated  in  cooperative  research 
projects  conducted  under  the  sponsorship  of  the 
American  Petroleum  Institute,  Gasoline  Products 
Company,  The  Polymerization  Processes  Corporation, 
and  The  M.  W.  Kellogg  Company. 


48 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


standard  Oil  Company  of  New  Jersey 

Centralized  industrial  research  ui  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  of  New  Jersey  began  in  a  modest  way  with 
the  organization  of  the  development  department  in 
September  1919.  The  technical  staff  of  this  new  de- 
partment consisted  of  2G  analytical  and  research 
chemists  in  the  research  laboratorj^,  and  3  chemical 
engineers  in  the  experimental  division.  In  addition  a 
general  engineering  department  of  some  60  men 
worked  in  close  collaboration  with,  but  not  as  an  integral 
part  of,  the  development  department. 

The  rapid  technical  advance  in  methods  of  cracking 
and  the  growing  use  of  more  efficient  fractionation 
equipment  bj^  the  petroleum  industry  w^ere  accompanied 
by  an  expansion  of  the  experimental  division,  and  a 
small  increase  in  the  staff  of  the  research  laboratory 
of  the  development  department,  which,  by  the  end  of 
1926,  had  a  total  persormel  of  some  150,  including  chem- 
ists, engineers,  and  nontechnical  assistants.  Motor  fuel 
and  lubrication  laboratories  were  estabUshed  in  the 
early  1920's  for  testing  and  developing  improved  fuels 
and  lubricants. 

Standard  Oil  Development  Company 

The  Standard  Development  Company  was  incorpo- 
rated in  Delaware  in  September  1923  as  a  patent-hold- 
ing and  licensing  organization.  Its  corporate  name 
was  changed  to  the  Standard  Oil  Development  Com- 
pany in  October  1927,  and  the  new  company  took  over 
the  research  and  development  activities  previously 
carried  out  by  the  development  department  of  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  of  New  Jersey.  The  general 
engineering  department  and  the  standard  inspection 
laboratory  were  incorporated  into  the  new  organi- 
zation. 

In  December  1927  the  motor  fuel  laboratories  were 
enlarged  and  the  refining  research  group  (process  lab- 
oratories) moved  into  new  quarters.  The  facilities  then 
made  available  to  the  refining  research  group  consisted 
mainly  of  pilot  plant  equipment  and  permitted  a  more 
systematic  study  of  refinery  processes,  thermal  crack- 
ing, atmospheric  and  vacuum  distillation,  and  acid 
and  solvent  treating.  This  work  was  carried  out  on  a 
scale  large  enough  to  secure  basic  data  for  design  of  new 
equipment. 

Early  in  1927  negotiations,  begun  in  1925  with  the 
owners  of  the  Bergius  and  Pier  patents  on  hydrogena- 
tion,  culminated  in  the  acquisition  of  the  American 
rights  to  this  process  by  the  company.  Shortly  after 
this  agreement  was  reached  a  hydrogenation  labora- 
tory was  estabhshed.  The  research  and  development 
work  of  this  organization  led  to  the  commercial  appli- 
cation of  the  hj'drogenation  process  to  petroleum  dis- 
tillates and  heavy  residues.     Thus  it  became  possible 


to  make  high  qualitj'  fuels  and  lubricants  from  feed 
stocks  which  could  not  be  utilized  by  existing  processes. 

The  Hydro  Engineering  &  Chemical  Company  was 
incorporated  as  a  subsidiary  of  the  Standard  Oil  Devel- 
opment Company  in  February  1930  to  supervise  devel- 
opment work  on  hydrogenation  and  to  design  hydro- 
genation plants  in  the  United  States.  Including  this 
newly  formed  unit  with  a  staff  of  67  engineers,  the 
Standard  Oil  Development  Company  had  approxi- 
mately 600  employees  by  the  end  of  1930. 

The  company  completed  a  new  research  laboratory  in 
1931  to  provide  much  needed  facilities  for  the  techni- 
cal library  of  the  patent  department.  This  librarj^  has 
one  of  the  largest  technical  reference  sections  in  the 
petroleum  industry  and  a  staff  which  keeps  the  research, 
development,  and  engineering  groups  informed  con- 
cerning the  latest  advances  in  the  petroleum  and  allied 
fields. 

The  staff  of  the  comapny  increased  rather  rapidly  to 
approximately  1,000  persons  by  the  end  of  1937.  Sub- 
sequent additions  to  the  staffs  of  the  various  laboratory 
and  engineering  groups  have  gradually  increased  the 
personnel  of  the  Standard  Oil  Development  Company 
to  its  present  1,300  employees. 

The  Standard  Oil  Development  Company  by  agree- 
ment with  the  major  refining  units  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  of  New  Jersey  acts  as  a  central  research  and 
development  agency  for  the  operating  companies.  Such 
centralization  of  research  work  prevents  uimecessary  du- 
plication of  staffs  and  laboratories  and  results  in  much 
better  research  facilities  than  would  be  possible  had 
each  operating  group  tried  to  proceed  independently. 

Universal  Oil  Products  Company 

In  1907  Jesse  A.  Dubbs,  owner  of  the  Sunset  Oil  and 
Refining  Company  and  the  Globe  Asphalt  Company  of 
Obispo,  Cal.,  was  faced  with  a  serious  problem.  One 
of  his  oil  wells  had  developed  water  which  could  not  be 
separated  from  the  oil  by  simple  heating  in  a  pipe  still, 
the  process  which  he  had  been  using  on  other  emulsified 
crude  oils.  After  2  years  of  investigation  and  experi- 
ment, he  solved  the  problem  and  applied  for  a  patent. 
Dubbs  had  discovered  the  first  heat  cracking  process, 
but  he  did  not  realize  it  until  1913,  when  Dr.  William 
M.  Bm"ton  secured  a  patent  on  another  heat  cracking 
process.  Dubbs  then  amended  his  application,  and 
when  his  patent  was  issued,  in  1915,  it  covered  cracking 
and  condensation  under  the  pressure  of  self-generated 
vapors. 

A  group  of  men  interested  in  the  commercial  pos- 
sibilities of  the  patent  acquired  it,  estabUshed  a  labora- 
tory at  Independence,  Kans.,  and  engaged  a  staff  of 
research  workers,  including  Carbon  Petroleum  Dubbs, 
son  of  the  inventor,  to  develop  the  cracking  process. 
From  this  beginning  the  Universal  Oil  Products  Com- 


Industrial  Research 


49 


pany  has  growii  to  be  an  important  research  and 
development  organization. 

The  investigations  made  at  Independence  resulted, 
in  1919,  in  the  building  of  a  cracking  unit  which,  in  a 
spectacular  run  lasting  10  days,  demonstrated  the 
possibihties  of  the  process.  Because  of  the  formation 
of  coke  in  the  tubes  of  the  cracking  unit,  runs  had 
previously  been  limited  to  2  days.  Successful  as  this 
demonstration  was,  it  served  only  to  stimulate  the 
company  to  a  gi-eater  research  and  development 
campaign.  J.  Ogden  Armour  supplied  funds,  to 
the  extent  of  more  than  $6,000,000,  for  the  work. 

The  laboratory  at  Independence  was  soon  insufficient 
for  the  company's  needs,  and,  in  1921-22,  a  new  one 
was  built  at  Riverside,  111.  In  addition  to  the  labora- 
tory buildings  the  research  equipment  now  includes 
25  acres  of  tanks  and  "strange  looking  structures." 
Dr.  Gustav  Egloff  directs  the  activities  of  approximately 
250  research  workers,  most  of  whom  are  men  trained 
in  science  and  engineering.  The  stafi"  is  divided  into 
groups  of  specialists  such  as  mathematicians,  physicists, 
physical  chemists,  and  organic  chemists.  Other  even 
more  speciahzed  groups  work  upon  the  specific  prob- 
lems of  catalysis,  treating,  and  cracldng.  Fundamental 
research  has  led  to  such  developments  as  Ipatiefl"'s 
catalytic  polymerization  process,  which  bids  fan  to 
become  the  forerunner  of  a  whole  group  of  new  processes, 
and  Morrcll's  alkj^lation  process,  by  means  of  which 
100  octane  gasoline  is  produced. 

In  East  Chicago,  a  few  miles  from  the  laboratory, 
the  company  maintains  a  1,000  barrel  cracking  unit 
in  which  new  developments,  after  they  have  been  tested 
in  a  pilot  plant  and  on  a  semiworks  scale,  can  be  tried 
on  a  commercial  scale  before  being  offered  to  pro- 
spective Hcensees.  The  results  of  the  company's  re- 
search and  development  are  made  available  not  only 
to  those  who  operate  equipment  under  a  license  but 
also  to  the  industry  as  a  whole,  as  soon  as  this  step  can 
be  taken  safely. 

In  addition  to  research  in  its  own  laboratories,  the 
companj'  has  helped  to  finance  the  work  of  the  American 
Petrolemn  Institute  and  has  maintained  research 
fellowships  in  several  imiversities  and  technical  schools. 

Electrical  Communication 

Bell  Telephone  Laboratories 

On  March  10,  1876,  Alexander  Graham  Bell's  voice 
was  transmitted  to  the  ear  of  his  assistant,  Thomas  A. 
Watson,  over  a  wire  strung  between  2  rooms  on  the  top 
floor  of  a  boarding  house  in  Boston.  The  patient  re- 
search of  another  pioneer,  who  had  often  been  beset 
with  poverty,  had  met  with  success;  and  the  public, 
in  spite  of  its  skepticism,  was  soon  to  have  a  new  means 
of    communication.     Gardiner    G.    Hubbard,    Bell's 


father-in-law,  organized  the  Bell  Telephone  Associa- 
tion, in  partnership  with  Bell,  Watson,  and  Thomas 
Sanders,  the  father  of  one  of  Bell's  deaf  pupils.  In 
May  1877  a  man  from  Charlestown,  named  Emery, 
came  to  Hubbard's  law  office  and  handed  him  $20  for 
the  lease  of  2  telephones.  The  world's  first  commercial 
telephone  bill  had  been  paid  in  advance.  A  crude  ex- 
change was  established,  and  6  telephones  were  lent  to 
the  proprietor  of  a  burglar-alarm  system  for  installation 
in  6  Boston  banks.  Within  90  days,  778  telephones 
were  in  use.'"  Although  faced  with  many  struggles, 
financial,  legal,  and  technical,  the  new  telephone  indus- 
try was  gathering  momentum. 

Without  continuous  research,  however,  the  present 
system  of  communication  by  telephone  could  never 
have  been  achieved.  Since  the  days  when  Bell  and 
Watson  constituted  the  "Department  of  Development 
and  Research,"  men  have  sought  knowledge  that  would 
improve  and  extend  this  means  of  communication. 
Previous  to  1907  the  Bell  Telephone  System  had  three 
laboratories  or  departments  of  development  and  re- 
search, one  in  the  American  Company  at  Boston,  one 
in  the  Western  Electric  Company  at  Chicago,  and  one 
in  the  Western  Electric  Company  at  New  York.  ""' 
To  promote  efficiency  and  economy  the  laboratory  work 
and  the  experimental  work  of  these  three  groups  were 
combined  in  1907  into  a  single  unit,  known  as  the  Engi- 
neering Department  of  the  Western  Electric  Company. 

Increasing  the  distance  spanned  was  from  the  be- 
ginning one  of  the  outstanding  problems  of  telephony. 
From  this  combined  laboratory  organization  came  a 
new  attack  on  this  basic  problem,  and  telephone  service 
was  opened  in  1911  between  New  York  and  Denver,  a 
distance  of  2,100  miles.  This  step  was  largely  accom- 
plished by  improvements  in  the  construction  and  appli- 
cation of  the  loading  coil  which  had  been  invented  at 
the  turn  of  the  century. 

Several  years  before  the  New  York  to  Denver  service 
was  opened,  however,  the  company's  engineers  realized 
that  unless  the  problem  of  telephone  repeaters  could 
be  satisfactorily  solved,  this  line  would  mark  the  prac- 
tical limit  of  distance  for  telephony.""  Consequently, 
J.  J.  Carty,  then  chief  engineer,  of  the  American  Tele- 
phone Company  asked  for  money  and  men  to  develop, 
by  further  research,  a  telephone  repeater  suitable  to 
operation  on  long  loaded  lines.  Theodore  N.  Vail, 
president   of   the  company,   approved;   consequently: 

in  the  winter  of  1910-11,  a  small  group  of  scientists  was  selected 
and  research  initiated  under  the  general  guidance  of  Dr.  F.  B. 
Jewett,  who  was  then  Transmission  and  Protection  Engineer  of 


"  Kaempflcrt,  Waldcmar.  A  popular  history  of  American  invention.  New  York, 
C.  Scribner's  Sons,  1924,  vol.  1,  p  330. 

i»  Oiflord,  W.  S.  The  place  of  the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories  in  the  Bell  system. 
Bell  Telephone  QuaHerl]/,  i,  90  (April  1925). 

'"  Mills,  John.  The  line  and  the  laboratory.  Bell  Telephone  QuaTterly,  19,  6 
(January  1940). 


50 


Naiional  Resources  Planning  Board 


the  American  Telephone  ami  Telegraph  Company.  The  men 
who  were  to  investigate  the  problems  which  loaded  lines  pre- 
sented to  repeaters  were  in  Dr.  Jewett's  department  in  the 
telephone  company;  those  who  were  to  make  a  laboratory 
attack  on  the  repeater  itself  were  grouped  into  a  research  depart- 
ment under  Dr.  E.  H.  Colpitts  in  the  Engineering  Depart- 
ment of  the  Western  Electric  Company.  The  scientists  thus 
assembled  became  the  nucleus  of  the  present  Research  Depart- 
ment of  the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories.  A  year  later  Jewett 
became  Assistant  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Western  Electric  Com- 
pany, and  in  that  position  coordinated  the  entire  transcontinental 
line  research,  whether  carried  out  in  the  laboratory  or  in  the 
field.'" 

The  work  was  directed  primarily  to  the  development 
of  electrical  amplifying  devices,  to  improvements  in 
line  structure,  and  to  the  proper  association  of  line  and 
amplifiers  at  periodic  intervals  to  give  stable  operation. 
Although  several  forms  of  repeaters  were  tried  out 
successfully  on  the  line,  it  was  demonstrated  that  the 
vacuum  tube  could  be  perfected  to  be  the  most  effec- 
tive telephone  amplifying  device.  As  a  result  of  the 
work,  on  Januar}^  25,  1915,  Alexander  Graham  Bell 
in  New  York  talked  with  Thomas  A.  Watson  in  San 
Francisco  over  3,400  miles  of  wire. 

Since  that  time  have  come  in  succession  improved 
repeater  operation  over  open  wire  lines,  repeated 
cable  systems  adequate  to  span  any  distance,  multi- 
plexing of  both  open  wire  and  cable  circuits,  and  the 
multichanneled  coaxial  circuit  type  of  cable  now  going 
into  use.  The  development  of  transoceanic  radio  tele- 
phone service  to  Europe  and  later  to  all  parts  of  the 
world  has  been  the  final  step  in  extending  the  distance 
range  of  telephone  communication. 

Since  the  laboratory  had  become  so  important  and 
its  work  so  extensive  by  1925,  it  was  given  corporate 
form  and  became  knowTi  as  the  Bell  Telephone  Labora- 
tories, Inc.  Dr.  Jewett  was  made  president  of  this 
unit  and  a  vice  president  of  the  American  Telephone 
and  Telegraph  Company,  which  owns  the  Laboratories 
jointly  with  the  Western  Electric  Company.  The 
Laboratories  are  responsible  to  the  former  company 
primarilj'  for  fundamental  research  and  development, 
and  to  the  latter  for  development,  design,  and  engineer- 
ing in  connection  with  manufacture. 

The  principal  activities  of  the  Bell  Laboratories  are 
carried  out  in  a  headquarters  building  in  New  York 
City,  together  with  leased  space  in  two  other  city 
buildings.  However,  many  kinds  of  development  are 
carried  out  in  smaller  country  locations.  These 
include  radio  laboratories  at  Holmdel,  Deal,  and  Wliip- 
panj',  N.  J.,  a  chemical  laboratory  at  Summit,  N.  J., 
an  outside  plant  laborator}'  at  Chester,  N.  J.,  and  a 
transmission  testing  station  at  PhoenLxville,  Pa. 
Stations  are  also  located  at  Gulfport,  Miss.,  and 
Limon,  Colo.,  to  insure  a  range  of  climatic  conditions 


■"The  line  and  the  laboratory,  p.  10.    Seo  footnote  101. 


for  testing  of  preservatives  for  timber  products.  In 
addition,  small  groups  of  people  from  the  laboratories 
are  located  at  the  Western  Electric  factories  at  Kearny, 
N.  J.,  Hawthorne,  111.,  and  Point  Breeze,  Md.,  and  at 
a  large  number  of  places  tliroughout  the  country,  to 
carry  on  work  with  the  people  and  plant  of  the  oper- 
ating telephone  companies. 

About  2,000  out  of  a  total  of  4,600  people  in  the  Bell 
Telephone  Laboratories  are  professionally  trained 
members  of  its  technical  staff.  This  trained  personnel 
covers  development  and  engineering  as  well  as  research. 
Somewhere  between  a  fifth  and  over  a  half  of  the  per- 
sonnel would  be  designated  as  "research"  according  to 
the  interpretation  of  that  somewhat  indefinite  term. 

Since  research,  development,  manufacture,  and  opera- 
tion are  all  included  in  the  Bell  System  organization, 
the  divei-sity  of  problems  covered  by  the  Bell  Telephone 
Laboratories  is  peculiarly  wide.  Much  of  the  Labora- 
tories' work  finds  embodiment  as  operating  systems  of 
apparatus — transmission  systems  for  handling  telephone 
currents  and  switching  systems  for  establishing  tele- 
phone connections.  The  work  of  such  a  system  starts 
with  fundamental  mvestigations  of  materials  and  of 
electrical  and  mechanical  action,  together  with  studies 
of  the  needs  and  experiences  of  the  operating  companies. 
The  work  continues  through  the  model  stage  of  appara- 
tus and  functioning  combinations,  and  then  into  the 
economical  design  of  all  the  parts  involved  and  their 
association  iiito  an  economical  operatuig  system. 
Included  are  considerations  of  manufacturing  methods, 
factory  testing,  and  field  installation  and  operation. 
The  development  responsibility  for  the  new  system 
covers  also  its  trial  uistallation  and  tests  of  performance 
in  the  operating  plant.  The  Laboratories'  interest  in 
the  system  extends  throughout  its  useful  life  and  may 
finally  end  with  a  consideration  of  the  best  way  of 
obtaining  any  residual  value  as  it  goes  to  the  junk  pUe. 

The  following  statement,  by  one  intimatel}'  connected 
witli  the  Laboratories  for  manj^  years,  gives  another 
picture  of  the  diversity  of  the  Laboratories'  activities: 

Our  research  problems  are  scattered  along  the  whole  frontier  of 
the  sciences  which  contribute  to  our  interests,  and  extend  through 
the  fields  of  physical  and  organic  chemistry,  of  metallurgy, 
magnetism,  electrical  conduction,  radiation,  electronics,  acoustics, 
phonetics,  optics,  mathematics,  and  even  of  physiology,  psychol- 
ogy, and  meteorology.  In  each  field  inquiry  carries  the  important 
question  of  its  practical  applications,  and  thus  involves  con- 
sideration of  the  specific  devices  which  our  industry  uses  and 
study  of  new  forms  into  which  they  may  be  molded  and  new 
services  which  they  may  be  made  to  render.'" 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Company 

For  many  years  after  the  demonstration  of  the  practi- 
cability of  Morse's  electric  telegraph,  research  and 
development  in  the  field  of  electrical  communication 

1"  Arnold,  H.  D.  Organizing  our  research.  BeU  Laboratorlu  Record,  I.  161  (June 
1926). 


Industrial  Research 


51 


wore  carried  on  iilinost  oiitiroly  hj'  iiH!i\'i(luals. 
Although  maii.y  important  improvements  in  repeaters, 
the  duplex,  the  quaihniplex,  and  the  telephone  resulted 
from  tiie  work  of  these  inclivithials  during  tlie  carlj- 
years  of  the  telegraph  industrj',  it  was  not  until  about 
1900  that  any  concerted  efl'ort  was  made  to  organize 
telegraph  research  and  development.  About  (hat  time 
the  nucleus  of  a  ^Vestcrn  Union  laboratory  existed  in 
New  York,  masquerading  under  the  name  of  a  "Repair 
Shop."  But  to  all  intents  and  purposes  it  was  a  labora- 
tory, for  there  in  a  space  of  about  40  by  100  feet  were 
assembled  the  best  of  machines  and  apparatus  then 
available  for  experiments  with  telegraph  e(iui[)ment. 
The  activity  in  this  shop  proved  so  worth  while"  that  a 
year  or  two  later  the  company  decided  to  establish  an 
E)lectrician's  Work  Sliop,  and  tliere  six  men  were  regu- 
larly emploj'cd  in  experimental  and  development  work. 
Compared  with  present-day  apparatus  their  equipment 
was  crude,  but  with  it  much  of  the  ground  work  upon 
which  modern  telegraph  practice  rests  was  done. 

Despite  these  limitations  of  space  and  equipment,  the 
first  units  of  the  modern  multiplex,  which  permits  the 
simultaneous  transmission  and  reception  of  several 
messages  over  a  single  wire,  were  being  tested  and  per- 
fected, and  the  first  of  the  modern  telegraph  jirinters 
was  being  developed.  The  successful  application  of 
the  combination  of  multiplex  channels  and  printing 
telegraph  marked  the  beginning  of  the  era  of  mecha- 
nized telegraphy  to  which  these  laboi'atories  have  made 
and  are  still  making  major  contributions. 

In  1910  the  first  laboratory  to  be  organized  as  such 
by  Western  I'liion  was  established  at  16  Dey  Street, 
New  York,  and  about  15  men  were  employed.  This 
laboratory  had  some  of  the  equipment  which  is  now  con- 
sidered indispensable,  including  an  oscillograph,  a  fair 
selection  of  meters,  electrometers,  galvanometers,  and 
Wheatstone  bridges,  as  well  as  a  small  power  plant. 

Late  in  1916  the  laboratory  was  moved  to  more 
spacious  quarters.  The  staff  was  increased  to  25  engi- 
neers and  organized  into  5  divisions — cable,  power 
|)lant,  apparatus,  automatics,  and  general  laboratorj'. 
Demands  upon  the  laboratory  continued  to  increase, 
and  in  1918  a  research  and  a  chemical  laboratory  were 
added.  In  1921  a  laboratory  devoted  to  the  develop- 
ment and  ijnprovement  of  the  multiplex  ami  simplex 
was  established;  a  year  lnt(M-  a  mechanical  laboratory 
was  addetl. 

The  rapidly  expanding  telegraph  business  required, 
however,  still  more  experimental  and  development 
facilities,  and  in  1925  the  laboratories  again  were  moved 
to  larger  quarters.  Work  upon  cables,  simplex  print- 
ers, tickers,  iind  the  nniltiplex  continued  to  increase. 
Moreover,  investigations  in  chemistiy,  metallurgy',  and 
photography  were  made  necessary  by  the  company's 
broad  program  of  research  which  sought  not  only  to 

321835 — 11 5 


bring  llu;  benefits  of  scientific  knowledge  to  every 
branch  of  the  telegraph  industry,  but  also  to  make  sure 
that  its  vast  volmne  of  supplies  was  of  suitable  quality. 
Twice  since  1925  the  quarters  devoted  to  research 
have  been  outgrown,  and  in  addition  to  the  laboratories 
in  New  Y'ork  the  company  maintains  another  labora- 
tory at  Water  Mill,  J^ong  Island,  which  is  designed  to 
deal  prijnarily  with  the  many  problems  presented  by 
the  radio  industry.  Work  is  also  done  there  upon 
|)roblems  relating  to  wire  telegraphy,  such  as  the  syn- 
chronous operation  of  telegraph  e(|uipmcnt,  the  balanc- 
ing of  ocean  cable  circuits,  and  facsimile  telegraphy. 
WhOe  Western  Union  reseairh  aims  primarily  to  im- 
prove telegraph  service  and  to  lower  costs,  it  frequently 
leads  to  devices  and  products  that  are  made  available 
to  other  industries. 

Electrical  Machinery, 
Apparatus,  and  Supplies 

General  Electric  Company 

During  the  last  part  of  the  nineties  the  electrical 
indiistiy  had  been  expanding  with  tremendous  speed. 
New  and  larger  stations  were  springing  up  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  transmission  lines  w'ere  being  strung 
to  carry  the  increasingly  higher  voltages,  'i'ho  con- 
stant demand  for  larger  aiul  larger  apparatus  with 
which  to  generate,  control,  transmit,  and  distribute  the 
steadily  increasing  amounts  of  power  forced  innumer- 
able problems  upon  the  company's  engineers.  As 
difficulties  arose,  and  as  new  ideas  came,  thcj'  were 
handled  in  the  department  most  intimately  concerned. 
To  a  limited  extent  facilities  were  also  provided  in  the 
model  department  for  working  otit  new  problems,  but 
the  personnel  of  the  department  was  generally  very 
limited,  and  the  magnitude  and  importance  of  the 
problems  undertaken  soon  became  restricted. 

The  works  laboratory  of  the  early  days  of  the  indus- 
try has  been  described  by  Elihxi  Thomson  as — 

not  necessaril3'  for  research,  but  for  the  exainiiialion  of  products 
brought  in  or  sent  out,  and  for  the  analysis  of  materials.  We 
may  picture  ...  a  space  set  aside  fiom  a  portion  of  tlie  manu- 
facturing and  testing  department,  where  with  a  few  tools  and 
perhaps  one  or  two  workmen,  devices  and  new  appliances  were 
constructed  in  the  form  of  working  models,  which  were  there  to 
be  refined  and  immediately  put  into  manufacture.  Sometimes 
this  space  was  limited  in  extent  to  that  of  a  single  moderate- 
sized  room,  and  later  on,  for  privacy,  it  might  be  a  space  par- 
titioned off  from  the  rest  of  the  floor.'" 

With  the  industry  in  its  infancy,  such  activities 
were  sufficient  to  meet  the  immediate  demands  of  the 
business,  but  as  the  various  departments  became  more 
distinct,  as  the  number  of  products  increased,  and  as 
the  quantity  of  products  produced  became  gi'eater,  little 
attention  could  be  given  to  scientific  research.     But 


"'  Thomson,  Eliliu.    In  an  unpublished  manuscript. 


52 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


several  individuals  in  the  General  Electric  Company — 
unwilling  to  accept  the  point  of  view  of  a  financier  in  the 
textile  industry  who  told  Elihu  Thomson  that  he  thought 
the  electrical  industry  was  rapidly  becoming  stand- 
ardized and  getting  to  the  point  where  new  research 
and  experimentation  were  hardly  necessary — were  con- 
vinced of  the  need  for  a  continuous  search  for  new  sci- 
entific knowledge.  They  had  heard  of  the  work  being 
done  by  Cooper  Hewitt  on  the  mercury  arc  lamp  and 
felt  that  they,  too,  should  investigate  it. 

By  1899  the  period  of  business  stagnation  following 
the  depression  of  1893  had  largely  passed,  and  business 
men  were  again  viewing  the  future  with  optimism  and 
making  their  plans  accordingly.  Mr.  E.  W.  Rice,  Jr., 
was  at  this  time  technical  director  of  the  company.  He 
had  been  a  student  under  Elihu  Thomson  and  later  his 
assistant  when  the  latter  had  left  teaching  to  direct  his 
energy  to  the  commercial  development  of  his  many  ideas. 
Both  men  saw  the  necessity  for  new  facts  and  princi- 
ples in  the  electrical  industry,  and  both  men  felt  it 
futile  to  wait  for  those  facts  to  come  from  the  univer- 
sities. Their  idea  of  supplementing  the  company's 
existing  engineering  and  development  facilities  with  a 
research  laboratory  was  also  enthusiastically  supported 
by  Dr.  Steinmetz  and  Mr.  Albert  G.  Davis,  the  com- 
pany's patent  expert.  With  such  backing,  Rice  was 
able  to  persuade  the  directors  to  grant  him  an  appro- 
priation to  provide  facilities  and  personnel  for  a  syste- 
matic program  of  research,  and  the  annual  report  for 
the  year  1901,  carried  the  announcement  to  stockholders 
that — 

although  our  engineers  have  always  been  liberally  supplied  with 
every  facility  for  the  development  of  new  and  original  designs 
and  improvement  of  existing  standards,  it  has  been  deemed  wise 
during  the  past  year  to  establish  a  laboratory  to  be  devoted 
exclusively  to  original  research.  It  is  hoped  by  this  means  that 
many  proBtable  fields  may  be  discovered. 

The  most  important  step  was  still  to  be  taken — the 
hiring  of  a  man  capable  of  organizing  and  guiding  a 
research  laboratory  of  the  type  contemplated  by  the 
directors  of  the  company.  Since  there  were  no  out- 
standing research  men  in  other  industries  to  be  called 
to  General  Electric,  the  company  turned  to  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute  of  Technology.  There  Rice  found 
Dr.  Willis  R.  Whitney,  assistant  professor  in  the 
chemistry  department.  Pleased  with  the  reports  of 
Whitney's  energy,  originality,  and  skill,  Rice  and  Stein- 
metz went  to  Boston,  talked  with  Whitney,  and  asked 
him  to  undertake  the  work  at  Schenectady.  Whitney 
was  not  anxious  to  leave  Boston,  for,  as  he  expresses  it, 
"I  was  having  too  much  fun  working  on  colloids  and 
didn't  want  to  stop."  But  this  was  not  Whitney's 
only  misgiving;  he  was  also  a  bit  doubtful  as  to  whether 
or  not  he  could  find  enough  work  at  Schenectady  to  keep 
him  busy.     Rice,   convinced   that  he  had   found   the 


right  man,  was  equal  to  the  situation.  He  surprised 
Whitney  by  telling  him  to  bring  his  work  on  colloids 
with  him,  and  if  by  any  chance  he  found  he  did  not  have 
time  to  work  on  them,  he  could  get  somebody  to  help 
him.  To  meet  Whitney's  second  objection  that  there 
might  not  be  enough  for  him  to  do,  Rice  proposed  an 
arrangement  whereby  Wliitney  would  spend  part  of  his 
time  at  Schenectady  and  part  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology.  In  September  1900  Whitney 
began  a  3-year  period  of  long-distance  commuting. 
From  Monday  morning  until  Wednesday  night  he 
worked  in  Schenectady;  the  rest  of  the  week  he  spent 
in  Boston.  At  the  end  of  3  years,  however,  convinced 
that  there  was  enough  to  do  in  the  research  laboratory 
of  the  General  Electric  Company,  he  left  his  teaching 
position. 

For  many  years,  Whitney  has  had  as  his  associate  at 
Schenectady  Dr.  W.  D.  Coolidge,  who  likewise  began 
his  career  in  a  laboratory  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology.  When,  in  1905,  Whitney  needed 
another  man  on  the  staff  he  decided  to  get  Coohdge,  of 
whose  ability  he  was  sure.  The  steps  that  followed 
must  have  brought  at  least  an  inward  smile  to  Whitney. 
At  first  Coolidge  was  not  interested.  He  did  not  care 
to  leave  either  Dr.  Noyes,  with  whom  he  was  working, 
or  the  problem  of  "electrical  conduction  in  aqueous 
solutions  at  high  temperatures,"  which  he  was  study- 
ing. Rice's  tactics,  this  time  used  by  Whitney,  again 
won  for  the  General  Electric.  Coolidge  was  told  to 
bring  his  work  right  along  to  Schenectady,  and  there 
he  could  give  all  the  time  he  wished  to  his  aqueous  solu- 
tions. Somewhat  doubtfully  he  accepted  the  offer,  but 
once  in  Schenectady  his  eyes  must  have  sparkled  when 
the  innumerable  intriguing  and  important  problems 
which  faced  the  small  group  of  workers  began  to  be 
known  to  him.  It  was  not  long  before  his  aqueous 
solutions  were  shipped  back  to  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Teclmology.  Within  3  j-ears  he  was 
assistant  director  of  the  laboratory.  Of  his  many 
accomplishments  the  two  best  known  are  the  Coolidge  . 
X-ray  tube  and  ductile  tungsten,  on  which  he  spent  ' 
nearly  4  years  of  persistent  and  resourceful  search 
before  it  was  produced  commercially.  Since  Wliitney's 
retirement  in  1932,  he  has  directed  the  activities  of  the 
laboratory. 

Mr.  Rice's  idea,  from  the  very  first,  was  to  develop  a       : 
laboratory  for  research  in  pure  science.     Ho  wished  it      \ 
set  sufficiently  apart  in  the  company  organization  to 
be  free  from  the  responsibilities  of  current  problems       i 
of  the  company.     Since  in  practice  such  dctaclmicnt      ' 
has  been  impossible  to  maintain,  the  ride  in  the  General 
Electric  Laboratory  has  been  to  give  calls  for  assist- 
ance from  the  engineers  and  production  men  "prece- 
dence over  all  else  claiming  the  attention  of  the  staff,  if 
they  involve,  as  they  usually  do,  possible  loss  to  the 


Industrial  Research 


53 


company  or  delay  in  satisfactorily  meeting  a  customer's 
needs."  Nevertheless,  one  of  the  outstanding  character- 
istics of  the  laboratory  has  been  the  director's  constant 
effort  to  keep  in  progress  as  much  fundamental  research 
as  possible.  The  fact  that  the  laboratory  has  been  free 
from  all  direct  responsibility  for  engineering  and  manu- 
facturing operations  has  made  it  less  difficult  to  main- 
tain fundamental  research  than  it  otherwise  would 
have  been.  The  presence  of  Dr.  Ii-ving  Langmuir  has 
also  helped  to  keep  fundamental  research  from  being 
crowded  out.  Dr.  Whitney,  writing  of  Langmuir, 
said: 

Some  promising  research  men  are  so  tempted  by  urgent  calls 
of  manufacturing  difficulties  tliat  they  metaphorically  divest 
themselves  of  their  protecting  clothing  and  quickly  plunge 
into  depths  of  factory  troubles  unfathonied  by  all  previous 
e.xperts.  Not  so  Langmuir!  He  was  destined  to  be  a  good 
helper  (or  life  preserver),  but  a  still  better  pioneer.  His  methods 
develop  principles  of  new  utilities  instead  of  putting  patches  on 
the  old.'"* 

That  scientists  inevitably  are  led  at  times  from  re- 
search to  its  application  because  they  alone  have  the 
knowledge  necessary  for  design  and  development  is 
shown  by  the  following  instance  related  by  Mr.  Larry 
A.  Hawkins,  e.xecutive  engineer  of  the  laborator3^ 

When  Langmuir  had  discovered  the  pure  electron  discharge 
from  a  hot  cathode  in  high  vacuum,  Coolidge  perceived  and 
demonstrated  the  possibility  of  utilizing  such  a  discharge  in  a 
new  type  of  X-ray  tube.  He  could  not  stop  there  if  the  new 
tube  were  to  be  made  available  to  the  medical  profession.  No 
other  department  of  the  company  had  the  knowledge  and 
facilities  necessary  for  its  design  and  development.  Coolidge 
became  for  the  time  a  designing  engineer.  Even  when  he  had 
produced  a  tube  satisfactory  for  the  doctor's  use,  he  had  not 
completed  the  necessary  task.  No  factory  department  was  in 
a  position  to  undertake  its  manufacture.  Coolidge  therefore 
had  next  to  become  a  production  manager,  devising  and  building 
equipment,  establishing  details  of  material  specifications,  fabri- 
cation of  parts,  assembly,  exhaust,  and  testing,  and  supervising 
the  smaU  scale  manufacture,  until  others  had  acquired  the  neces- 
sary training  to  enable  them  to  carry  on.'" 

When  Dr.  "WTiitney  decided  that  the  activities  at  the 
General  Electric  laboratory  were  sufficient  in  number 
to  require  his  full-time  attention,  he  had  about  a  dozen 
helpers.  Since  that  time  the  increase  in  the  nunaber  of 
employees  has  in  general  followed  the  increase  in  the 
company's  business.  Moreover,  as  the  activities  and  ac- 
comphshments  of  the  laboratory  became  more  numerous, 
its  prestige  increased,  and  it  was  accorded  greater 
independence.  In  1903  a  Research  Laboratory  Ad- 
visory Council  had  been  formed,  with  Mr.  Rice  as  chair- 
man. For  12  years  it  held  meetings  two  or  three  times 
a  year  in  order  to  guide  the  development  of  the  labora- 
tory in  a  way  that  would  be  of  greatest  benefit  to  the 

I"  Whitney,  Willis  R.  Irving  Langmuir,  scientist.  Ciirrenl  Hiatory,  S7,  705 
(March  1933). 

•••  For  this  quotation  and  much  of  the  factual  material  concerning  the  General 
Electric  Co.,  the  author  is  Indebted  to  its  executive  engineer,  Dr.  Larry  A.  Hawkins. 


company.  Although  Dr.  Whitney,  as  director,  had 
long  enjoyed  an  entirely  free  rein,  he  continued  to  re- 
port the  activities  of  the  laboratory  to  the  vice  presi- 
dent in  charge  of  engineering  until  1928,  when  he  was 
himself  made  vice  president  in  charge  of  research.  With 
this  move  the  research  laboratoiy  took  its  place  in  the 
organization  chart  on  a  level  with  the  major  activities 
of  the  company. 

Occasionally  the  laboratory  staff  has  been  decreased 
because  of  prolonged  business  depressions;  but  much 
more  frequently  by  the  transfer  of  a  group  of  laboratory 
men  to  another  department  because  of  the  develop- 
ment in  the  laboratory  of  a  new  product,  so  different 
from  the  company's  prior  comanercial  products  that  no 
existing  department  was  competent  to  complete  its 
development  and  carry  on  the  initial  manufacture. 
Such  products  as  the  new  type  of  carbon  brush  for  rail- 
way motors  and  other  apparatus,  ductUe  tungsten  and 
the  process  of  making  it,  the  Coolidge  X-ray  tube,  and 
the  radio  power  tube  have  resulted  in  the  organization 
of  new  departments  manned  by  the  men  from  the  labora- 
tory who  had  been  in  charge  of  the  development  and 
initial  production. 

With  the  exception  of  2  or  3  years  during  the  recent 
depression,  the  company  has  for  15  years  followed  the 
practice  of  inviting  a  carefully  selected  list  of  post- 
graduate students  to  work  in  the  laboratory  during  the 
vacation  period.  As  a  result,  the  company,  when  in 
need  of  additional  men,  has  been  able  to  select  those 
who  have  shown  clearly  that  they  possess  the  qualities 
necessary  for  a  successful  career  in  research. 

The  research  laboratory  cooperates  closely  with  nu- 
merous other  laboratories  maintained  by  the  company. 

There  is  the  General  Engineering  Laboratorv,  specializing  on 
the  standardization  of  instruments  and  testing  methods,  the 
development  of  new  instruments  and  new  testing  procedure,  and 
the  conducting  of  special  engineering  tests.  There  is  the  Thom- 
son Research  Laboratory  at  Lynn,  from  which  have  come  fused 
quartz,  the  supercharger  for  aeroplanes,  and  a  number  of  other 
developments.  Each  of  the  larger  works  has  its  own  works 
laboratory,  responsible  for  supplying  the  technical  assistance  and 
supervision  required  in  factory  processes,  making  physical  and 
chemical  tests  on  materials  and  product,  conducting  the  neces- 
sary experiments  for  solving  the  day-to-day  problems  arising 
from  factory  operations  or  engineering  requirements,  and  devel- 
oping new  factory  equipment  and  processes.  There  is  a  large 
laboratory  for  lamp  development,  a  metallurgical  laboratory 
specializing  on  tungston,  molybdenum  and  their  alloys,  a  lighting 
research  laboratory,  an  illuminating  engineering  laboratory,  and 
a  high-voltage  laboratory  for  studying  lightning  and  other  high 
voltage  phenomena."' 

If  all  of  the  laboratory  work  of  the  company  were 
consolidated  in  the  research  laboratory,  its  staff  woidd 
need  to  be  increased  manyfold,  and  the  portion  of  its 
activities  devoted  to  fundamental  research  would  be  a 
minute  fraction  of  the  whole  and  in  constant  danger  of 

'•^  Hawkins,  L.  A.    Manuscript. 


54 


National  Resources  PlanniTig  Board 


being  scjucczcd  oul  ciilirely  by  ibe  pressure  of  service 
work.  Under  the  existing  organization  the  research 
laboratory  keeps  as  free  from  development  and  service 
work  as  it  possibly  can  by  turning  over  to  the  other 
laboratories  as  much  of  that  work  as  they  are  prepared 
to  take. 

Toda}'  the  total  personnel  of  the  research  laboratory 
numbers  290.  Thirty-four  chemists,  17  physicists,  26 
engineers,  and  10  metallurgists  are  at  work  seeking 
both  new  knowledge  and  a  better  application  of  that 
already  at  hand. 

Westinghouse  Electric  Company 

Westinghouse  Electric  Company  research  started,  in 
an  unorganized  way,  with  the  formation  of  the  company 
in  1886,  and  many  technical  developments  took  place 
between  that  date  and  1902  (or  1903)  when  a  research 
department  was  established  by  C.  E.  Skinner.  Since 
the  company  then  had  no  central  laboratory,  experi- 
mental work  continued  to  be  conducted  in  laboratories 
scattered  throughout  the  East  Pittsljurgh  Works.  In 
1916,  however,  a  separate  research  building  was  con- 
structed, and  staffed  with  research  scientists  drawn 
from  universities,  from  inthistiy,  and  from  their  own 
laboratories  in  East  Pittsburgh.  To  a  considerable 
extent  these  men  were  occupied  with  fundamental  ami 
long-range  problems,  while  the  mi-n  in  the  older 
laboratories  worked  u])on  more   immediate  problems. 

After  the  separate  research  building  was  completed, 


the  lamp  company  research  was  housed  there  until 
it  became  evident  that  this  work  could  best  be  carried 
on  nearer  the  lamp  works.  For  the  past  20  years, 
therefore,  lamp  research  has  been  a  separate  activity 
at  Bloomfield,  N.  J.,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  II.  C. 
Kentschler. 

With  the  facilities  provided  by  the  new  building 
and  with  the  demands  created  by  America's  entry  into 
the  war,  research  expanded  rapidly.  The  company 
was  immediately  involved  in  problems  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  military  and  naval  needs  of  the  country. 

Many  major  developments  in  the  electrical  industry 
have  come  largely  or  entirely  as  a  result  of  Westing- 
house research.  George  Westinghouse  himself  was  a 
pioneer  in  the  generation,  transi)ortation,  and  distri- 
bution of  alternating  current.  Machine-wound  coils 
and  laminated  cores  for  transformei-s;  air  ventilated 
and  oil  filled  transformers;  the  polyphase  induction 
motor,  invented  by  Nicola  Tesla;  the  slotted  armature 
for  direct-current  machines;  the  Scott  transformer;  and 
the  synchronous  contlenser;  these  are  some  of  the  im- 
provements contributed  by  research  workers  and  engi- 
neers in  Westinghouse.  Micarta,  a  laminated  plastic 
inateiial  widely  used  in  the  electrical  industry  for 
many  years,  originally  consisted  of  paper  and  shellac, 
l)ul  men  in  the  company's  laboratory  found  that  sj-n- 
thetic  resins  could  be  advantageously  substituted  for 
the  shellac.  Mr.  C  E.  Skinner,  the  first  director  of 
research  at  Westinghouse,  was  one  of  the  first  to  make 


Figure  8. — Library,  Research  and  Development  Laboratories,  Bakelite  Corporation,  Bloomfield,  New  Jersey.     (Unit  of  Union  Carbide 

and  Carbon  Corporation) 


Industrial  Research 


55 


use  of  Bakelite  and  similai-  coihijouihIs  in  the  electrical 
industry.  In  fact  Wcstinghousc  i^nvc  I^r.  Backcland  his 
iirst  conmu'rcial  order  for  Baivclitc.  IniiJrovcnicnts  in 
insulation  materials  and  electrical  sheet  effected  in 
the  laboratory  have  brouglit  great  savings  (o  the  users 
of  electricity.  New  and  valuable  alloys,  incluiling  one 
with  the  same  expansion  characteristics  as  hard  glass 
and  another  of  very  great  strength  at  high  (enipera- 
tures,  which  is  a  salisfactmy  substitute  in  many  i)laces 
for  platinum,  have  l)i'en  developeti  l)y  the  company. 
The  laboi-atories  have  also  i)layed  an  active  part  in 
perfecting  radio  transmitting  and  receiving  e(iuipment. 
Some  10,000  of  the  tubes  used  m  the  early  receiving 
sets  were  manufactured  by  members  of  the  research 
staff. 

In  193G  the  company'  began  an  extensive  program  of 
research  in  the  field  of  nuclear  physics,  which  led  to  the 
construction  of  a  5,000,000-volt  atoju  smasher  of  the 
electrostatic  type.  Another  step  toward  more  funda- 
mental research  was  taken  in  193G  when  the  Westing- 
house  Research  Fellowship  Plan,  by  which  five  Fellows 
with  Ph.  D.  degrees  would  be  appointed  each  year  to 
carry  on  research  in  fields  of  their  o^\^l  choosing,  was 
inaugurated  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  E.  U.  Condon. 
Fellowships  are  granted  for  1  year,  although  they  may 
be  renewed  for  a  second  year,  and,  in  general,  the  studies 
made  by  the  recipients  have  no  inmicdiatc  commercial 
objective  but  are  designed  to  increase  the  store  of 
scientific  knowledge. 

Westinghouse  supplements  research  in  its  own 
laboratories  by  maintaining  a  number  of  research 
fellowships  and  by  subsidizing  certain  studies  in  such 
institutions  as  Mellon  Institute,  Arthm-  1).  Little, 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  Stevens  Institute  of 
Technology,  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology,  and  the  Engineering 
Foundation. 

Rubber 

B.  F.  Goodrich  Company 

Although  Charles  Goodj'car  discovered  the  secret  of 
vidcanization  in  1839,  when  he  dropped  a  piece  of  rubber 
mixed  with  sulfur  on  the  hot  stove  in  his  kitchen,  it  was 
not  until  1S95  that  the  first  research  laboratory  in  the 
rubber  industry  was  established  by  the  B.  F.  Goodrich 
Company  at  its  plant  in  Akron,  Ohio.  Charles  C. 
Goodrich,  the  eldest  son  of  the  fomider,  was  a  graduate 
chemist  and  the  first  manager  of  the  laboratory'. 

As  the  uses  for  rubber  grew,  an  ever-increasing 
number  of  problems  were  presented  to  the  laboratoiy 
staff.  Groups  were  organized  to  find  methods  of  con- 
trolling and  improving  the  raw  materials,  to  study 
waj's  of  bettering  processes  and  equipment,  and  to 
develop  new  products.     Their  research  uncovered  the 


fact  that  certain  organic  chemicals  added  to  rubber 
compositions  shorten  the  time  of  vulcanization  and 
improve  the  strength  and  aging  i)roi)erties  of  the 
finished  goods.  This  advance  made  it  possible  or 
manufacturers  to  jjioduce  in  greater  quantities  without 
buikling  additional  plants  and  for  consumers  to  liavc 
better  products  at  lower  cost. 

From  the  laboratory  came  also  the  discovery  that 
carbon  black,  when  iiicorjjorated  in  rubber  goods  in 
amounts  much  greater  than  had  previously  been  used, 
increased  the  resistance  of  rubber  to  abrasive  wear  and 
made  possible  tiie  construction  of  a  satisfactoiy  tread 
for  automobile  tires.  Similarly  the  addition  of  certain 
chemicals  to  rubber,  was  found  to  retard  its  deteriora- 
tion and  to  increase  its  resistance  to  heat  and  to 
cracking  under  repeated  flexing. 

At  the  present  time  the  division  of  synthetic  research 
under  the  tlircction  of  Dr.  \Vald()  L.  .Semon,  is  particu- 
larly active  in  developing  a  rubber-like  product  made 
entirely  from  raw  materials  available  in  this  coimtry. 
Petroleum,  the  base,  is  broken  down  to  butadiene, 
which  is  liquified,  mixed  with  other  ingredients  prepared 
from  natiu^al  gas  and  air,  and  then  made  into  a  milky 
emidsion  by  the  use  of  soap  supplied  from  American 
agricultural  sources. 

United  States  Rubber  Company 

As  m  many  other  great  industries  so,  too,  in  the  tire 
industry  progress  in  the  early  days  was  the  result  of 
inventive  genius.  While  this  force  is  still  important  as 
the  industry  continues  to  grow,  it  has  to  be  supple- 
mented with  systematic  investigations  of  the  factors  in 
the  numufacturing  process  which  afi'ect  the  properties 
of  the  finished  product. 

In  the  United  States  Rubber  Company  organized 
research  is  conducted  by  the  operating  divisions  of  the 
company,  in  each  of  which  there  is  a  development 
department  with  suitable  laboratory  facilities,  and  by 
the  general  development  division,  of  which  the  general 
laboratories  are  a  part.  Fundamental  research  and 
such  applied  research  as  is  of  interest  to  more  than  one 
division  are  carried  out  by  the  general  development  divi- 
sion. Responsibility  for  the  maintenance  and  improve- 
ment of  the  quality  of  the  company's  products  rests 
upon  the  technical  groups  in  the  operating  divisions. 
This  separation  of  responsibilities  permits  both  the 
necessary  concentration  upon  research  and  the  proper 
attention  to  manufacturing  processes. 

For  years  the  company  has  studied  systematically 
the  physical  and  engineering  problems  involved  in  the 
manufacture  of  tires,  and  as  a  result  has  contributed 
materially  to  the  progress  which  the  industry  has  made 
in  increasing  the  safety,  improving  the  performance, 
and  lengthening  the  life  of  this  important  product. 

Although  it  had  been   known    for   a  long   time    tliat 


56 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


certain  materials  would  accelerate  the  process  of  vulcani- 
zation, only  within  the  last  20  years  has  the  company 
been  particularly  active  in  discovering  and  promoting 
the  use  of  chemicals  for  this  purpose.  During  the  same 
period  the  useful  life  of  rubber  products  has  been  greatly 
increased  by  the  development  of  another  class  of  chemi- 
cals known  as  antioxidants. 

About  the  time  of  the  First  World  War,  the  United 
States  Rubber  Company  began  an  intensive  study  of 
latex  in  an  effort  to  find  methods  of  using  it  in  manu- 
facturing operations  in  place  of  dry  rubber.  As  a  result 
of  this  study  the  companj'  has  developed  a  number  of 
new  or  improved  products  which  can  be  manufactured 
by  using  the  latex  method. 

Among  the  new  products  are  a  rubber  thread  which 
when  covered  with  textile  yarns  is  known  as  Lastex;  a 
latex  paper  widely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial 
leathers  and  similar  products  where  a  high  degree  of 
strength  and  good  embossing  properties  are  desii-ed; 
a  latex  foam  from  which  car  seat  cushions,  mattresses, 
and  similar  products  can  be  manufactured  directly;  and 
a  wire  which  has  a  rubber  insulation  of  such  unusual 
high  quality  and  uniformity  that  it  permits  a  reduction 
in  the  over-all  diameter.  Substantial  quantities  of 
latex  are  also  being  introduced  into  industries  which 
were  unable  to  use  dry  rubber  in  their  manufacturing 
processes. 

Motor  Vehicles 

General  Motors  Research  Corporation 

About  1909  C.  F.  Kettering  visualized  a  research 
organization  for  the  purpose  of  initiating  improvements 
upon  which  he  felt  the  future  of  the  automobile  in- 
dustry depended.  The  Dayton  Engineering  Labora- 
tories Company  was  established  to  carry  out  the  pro- 
gram Kettering  had  conceived.  The  company  hoped 
to  license  its  subsequent  developments  to  the  various 
car  or  accessory  manufacturers  and  in  this  way  to 
obtain  funds  for  future  investigations.  Realizing  that 
research  and  production,  if  housed  under  the  same  roof, 
might  prove  to  be  unfortunate  rivals  for  the  company's 
time  and  effort,  the  men  in  the  enterprise  decided  not 
to  enter  immediately  the  manufacturing  field. 

The  first  project  of  the  newly  organized  company 
was  a  battery  ignition  system,  which  found  favor  in 
the  eyes  of  several  manufacturers.  Inasmuch  as  the 
system  consisted  chiefly  of  a  coil  and  several  small 
parts  or  contacts,  the  Kellogg  Switchboard  and  Supply 
Company  of  Chicago  undertook  to  manufacture  the 
unit,  and  a  license  arrangement  was  agreed  upon.  In 
this  way  funds  were  obtained  for  further  research,  and 
the  company  could  continue  on  its  original  purpose. 
In  1912,  the  company  offered  the  self-starter  to  the 
automobile  manufacturers.  A  problem  immediately 
presented  itself,  however.     Because  of  certain  features 


in  the  construction  of  this  new  unit,  it  could  not  be 
readily  produced  by  an  outside  company.  The  labora- 
tories, therefore,  undertook  the  assembly  of  the  starter, 
purchasing  the  parts  from  dilferent  manufacturers.  In 
this  way  the  company  became  a  manufacturing  concern, 
still  devoting,  however,  part  of  its  energies  to  funda- 
mental research,  out  of  which,  incidentally,  came  the 
Delco  farm  lighting  unit  in  1914.  After  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  have  an  outside  company  manufacture 
the  unit,  the  farm  lighting  division  of  Delco  was  organ- 
ized to  take  over  the  production. 

At  the  time  the  United  States  entered  the  First  World 
War,  several  of  the  manufacturers  of  accessories  found 
it  necessary  to  combine  in  order  to  stabilize  the  acces- 
sory business.  Consequently,  the  United  Motors  Cor- 
poration was  organized,  with  Alfred  P.  Sloan,  Jr.,  as 
president.  This  organization  later  purchased  by  Gen- 
eral Motors  included  Delco,  Remy,  New  Departure, 
Hyatt,  and  Perlam  Rim. 

In  1917  Kettering,  realizing  that  facilities  for  general 
automotive  research  were  Umited  because  of  the  require- 
ments of  production,  returned  again  to  the  idea  of  a 
laboratory  for  fundamental  research  and  organized  the 
Dayton  Research  Laboratories  Company,  with  Mr. 
F.  O.  Clements  as  director.  The  newly  organized 
company  focused  its  energies  chiefly  on  the  problem  of 
detonation. 

During  the  early  months  of  the  country's  participa- 
tion in  the  First  World  War,  the  Government  often  had 
occasion  to  ask  the  assistance  of  the  organization  in 
the  solution  of  war  problems,  among  them  the  gyro- 
scopic control  of  aerial  torpedoes.  Later  the  company 
found  difficulty  in  obtaining  raw  materials  because  of 
the  enforcement  of  the  priority  list.  In  order  to  over- 
come this  handicap,  the  company  became  associated 
with  the  Dayton  Metal  Products  Company  as  its 
research  division,  but  engaged  also  in  research  and  pro- 
duction work  for  the  Dayton  Wright  Airplane  Company. 

At  the  end  of  the  war,  the  company  again  turned  its 
attention  to  automotive  research,  concentrating  its 
efforts  on  ethyl  gasoline,  combustion  studies,  and  air- 
cooling  problems.  General  Motors  at  this  time  be- 
came interested  in  these  projects  and  purchased  the 
Dayton  Metal  Products  Company  and  also  the 
Dayton  Wright  Airplane  Co. 

In  1920  the  General  Motors  Research  Corporation 
was  established  at  Moraine  City,  Ohio,  with  C.  F. 
Kettering  as  president  and  F.  O.  Clements  as  technical 
director.  This  step  marks  the  beginning  of  the  present 
period  of  the  research  laboratories.  In  the  summer  of 
1925  the  Research  Corporation  transferred  its  labora- 
tories to  Detroit  to  be  nearer  the  manufacturing  divi- 
sions of  the  company,  and  its  name  was  changed  to 
General  Motors  Corporation,  Research  Laboratories. 
At  this  time  it  was  merged  with  the  General  Motors 


Industrial  Research 


57 


Research  Department  which  had  been  estabhshcd  bj' 
Arthur  D.  Little,  Inc.,  at  Detroit  in  1911.  The  hibora- 
tories  quickly  outgrew  the  quarters  assigned  to  them, 
and  in  1929  were  moved  into  a  new  building.  On 
January  1,  1938,  research  was  given  the  status  of  a  full 
division  and  is  now  the  Research  Laboratories  Division, 
General  Motors  Corporation,  with  C.  F.  Kettering  as 
general  manager. 

The  research  workers  in  General  Motors  have  con- 
tributed to  every  product  or  study  in  which  the  cor- 
poration has  had  an  interest.  The  wide  variety  of  the 
problems  engaging  the  attention  of  the  staff  and  the 
importance  of  its  work  to  the  automotive  industry  are 
clearly  indicated  by  such  accomphshments  as  lacquer 
finishes,  ethyl  gasoline,  powdered  metal  oilless  bear- 
ings, two-cycle  Diesel  engines,  static  and  dynamic 
balancing  machines,  quick  process  malleable  iron,  two- 
way  hydraulic  shock  absorbers,  hypoid  gear  lubricants, 
and  rubber  bushings. 

Chrysler  Corporation 

In  1924,  when  the  public  first  viewed  a  Chrysler 
automobile,  the  company's  engineering  research  facUi- 
ties  consisted  of  a  3-room  laboratory  in  a  small  wooden 
buUding.  Today  the  engineering  and  research  division 
with  a  staff  of  55  technical  workers  and  more  than 
1,000  other  employees  is  housed  in  new,  fully  equipped 
laboratories,  in  which  on  an  average  day  1,500  research 
tests  and  projects  are  in  progress,  while  on  some  days 
the  number  reaches  2,500.  Each  project  has  a  care- 
fully defined  objective,  a  detailed  budget,  and  a  dead- 
line for  its  completion.  These  limitations  are  altered 
only  when  the  research  is  clearly  proceeding  toward  a 
desired  end,  for  Chrysler  engineering  and  research  must 
"pay  oft"  eventually  in  a  better  car  or  a  lower  cost  of 
manufacture." 

The  company's  engineering  and  research  is  subdivided 
roughly  into  three  divisions,  (1)  fundamental  research, 
which  seeks  new  ways  of  designing  a  car  and  its  parts, 
(2)  the  analysis,  testing,  and  control  of  materials,  parts, 
and  processes  involved  in  the  production  of  the 
next  model,  (3)  the  testing  of  the  completed  car  and  the 
comparison  of  the  results  with  those  from  similar  tests 
upon  the  carj  of  competitors. 

Work  in  the  first  category  is  concerned  with  projects 
that  point  toward  the  automobile  of  the  future.  Engi- 
neers test  scale  models  in  a  wind  tunnel  in  order  to  de- 
termine the  changes  necessary  in  design  to  reduce  the 
resistance  of  an  automobile  to  both  head  winds  and 
cross  winds.  From  such  studies  the  engineer  learned 
that  a  "typical  sedan  in  1932  could  go  backward  with 
about  half  the  resistance  with  which  it  could  go  for- 
ward." 

Physicists  study  the  interplay  of  scores  of  vibrations 
of  varying  intensities,  durations,  and  wavelengths  in 


order  that  engineers  may  be  aided  in  designing  the 
complementary  dampening  equipment  to  this  vibration 
and  in  properly  placing  the  dampening  equipment  relative 
to  the  center  of  gravity.  Chemists  and  metallurgists 
seek  new  alloys,  synthetic  rubbers,  and  plastics  that  will 
better  meet  the  loads  and  stand  the  speeds  of  today's 
high-compression  motors. 

For  years  the  physiology  of  the  automobile  driver  has 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  company's  research  work- 
ers in  order  that  they  may  better  understand  the  effects 
of  noise  and  vibrations  on  the  human  system. 

The  second  type  of  research  in  the  company's  labo- 
ratories consists  of  subjecting  to  rigorous  tests  every 
part  of  the  automobile  and  every  material  from  which 
those  parts  are  constructed.  In  the  laboratory  where 
routine  ferrous  tests  are  made,  for  example,  a  single 
bench  is  allotted  to  each  of  the  basic  elements  in  the 
composition  of  steel,  so  that  once  a  specimen  piece  has 
been  subjected  to  the  various  tests  its  content  of  carbon 
and  magnesimn  and  copper  is  accurately  known. 
From  these  exhaustive  tests  and  analyses  of  parts  and 
materials,  the  company  is  able  to  write  specifications  for 
better  materials,  new  materials,  and  new  parts.  The 
company's  laboratories  in  a  sense,  therefore,  serve  a 
host  of  industries  that  supply  both  the  automotive 
industry  and  the  general  public. 

Elaborate  facihties  are  provided  for  the  third  type  of 
research — that  of  testing  the  finished  car  and  comparing 
it  with  the  cars  of  other  manufacturers.  A  variety  of 
machines  reproduce  in  the  laboratory  all  the  road  con- 
ditions that  a  driver  could  possibly  encomiter.  In  fact 
these  conditions  can  be  greatly  exaggerated,  yet  the 
means  of  measuring  the  effects  upon  the  car  can  be  far 
more  accurate  and  detailed  than  any  that  can  be 
established  for  an  actual  test  on  the  road. 

In  the  dynamometer  building,  tests  can  be  run  in  a 
completely  dehumidified  room  with  the  temperature 
at  45°  F.  below  zero,  or  in  a  room  where  the  temper- 
ature is  far  above  himian  tolerance.  Nevertheless  a 
final  check  upon  the  results  obtained  in  the  laboratory 
is  secured  by  sending  fleets  of  cars  to  operate  in  every 
part  of  the  country  under  a  variety  of  road  conditions. 

By  its  application  of  science  and  scientific  methods, 
by  its  painstaking  records  of  tests  and  analyses,  the 
company  duphcates  in  a  short  time  years  of  trial  and 
error  effort;  and,  so  far  as  human  planning  and  fore- 
sight can  insure  it,  "seeks  to  determine  its  own  tech- 
nological destiny." 

Metals 

American  Brass  Company 

The  American  Brass  Company  included  among  its 
member  companies  the  Coe  Brass  Manufacturing 
Company  of  Torrington,  Conn.  This  fact  is  of  im- 
portance in  a  survey  of  the  development  of  research 


58 


A^ational  Resources  I'laiining  Board 


because  Williaui  II.  Basset t  Ix'canie  elieinist  of  the  Coo 
Manufacturing  Company  in  1902.  Duriiitr  tluit  year 
and  in  the  ones  miniediately  following:,  wliilf  he  was 
chief  chemist  and  metallurgist  of  the  American  Brass 
Company,  Basselt  initiated  a  broad  program  of  re- 
search which  was  to  have  great  influence  upon  the 
entire  copper  anil  brass  industry.  The  progi'am  was, 
in  reality,  a  gradual  outgrowth  of  work  demanded  by 
the  problems  of  the  industry;  for  instance,  the  produc- 
tion of  electrolytic  copper  had  resulted  in  adequate 
volume  but  not  in  the  cjuality  necessary  for  the  pro- 
duction of  good  WTOught  copper  and  wrought  copper 
alloys.  By  cooi)erating  closely  with  the  most  able 
copper  metallurgists  and  refmers  of  those  early  days, 
Bassctt  succeeded  in  securing  electrolytic  copper  with 
properties  which  were  equal  to  those  of  the  Lake  copper 
that  previously'  had  been  the  standard  of  the  industry. 

Such  cooperation  was  not  confined  to  those  in  tlie 
copper  refining  industry,  but  was  extended  to  the  men 
in  the  brass  casting  shop  and  brass  mill  where  "rule-of- 
thumb"  methods  were  in  control.  In  a  relatively  few 
months,  standard  methods  of  chemical  analysis  of  coj)- 
per  and  its  alloys  had  been  developed  and  put  into 
practice  throughout  the  mills  of  the  American  Brass 
Company.  Exact  chemical  ranges  of  composition  of 
alloj's  were  decided  upon,  and  from  that  time  each 
alloy  was  cast  to  specifications,  not  only  as  to  copper 
content  but  also  as  to  allowa])le  amounts  of  impurities. 

From  the  multiplicity  of  problems  facing  the  copper 
industry  one  of  the  first  that  Bassett  selected  for  study 
was  that  of  the  logical  determination  and  arrangement 
of  data  on  the  properties  of  copper  and  copper  alloys 
after  cold  rolling  and  after  heat  treatment  or  annealing. 
Charts  were  prepared  showing  graphically  the  tensile 
strength,  elongation,  electrical  conductivity,  hardness, 
and  grain  size  of  many  brass,  bronze,  and  nickel  alloys. 
This  study,  made  more  instructive  by  means  of  photo- 
micrographs, was  the  first  instance  in  America  of  the 
use  of  the  microscope  in  the  examination  of  the  struc- 
ture of  copper  and  its  alloys.  With  the  assistance  of 
Mr.  F.  G.  Smith  and  Mr.  J.  C.  Bradley,  he  revealed  by 
methods  of  polishing  and  etching  the  relation  of  grain 
size  to  annealing  temperature. 

The  research  department  (as  such)  did  not  grow  rap- 
idly. It  gave  most  of  its  attention  to  improving  manu- 
facturing methods,  yet  each  of  the  trained  men  in  the 
department  was  expected  to  give  a  portion  of  his  time 
and  thought  to  the  solution  of  research  projects. 

In  1920  the  company's  research  program  was  broad- 
ened to  include  a  large  number  of  studies  in  the  resist- 
ance of  alloys  to  corrosion  and  the  development  of  new 
alloy  materials.  Today  its  research  continues  under 
the  direction  of  II.  C.  Jennison  and  J.  K.  Freeman,  Jr. 


American  Rolling  Mill  Company 

Since  its  incejition  tlie  American  Kulling  Mill  Com- 
pany has  given  iirst  i)lace  to  researcii.  Such  emphasis 
was  essential,  for  the  company  started  as  a  very  small 
concern  in  1900,  the  j'car  that  much  of  tiie  steel  indus- 
trj'  was  consolidated  into  the  largest  commercial  corpo- 
ration the  world  had  j'^et  known.  Tiie  officials  of  the 
American  Itolling  Mill  Company  felt  that  if  the  C(  m- 
pan^'  wvn:  to  survive  it  must  enlist  the  forces  of  re- 
search. Their  early  and  continuing  faith  in  industrial 
research  has  been  justified,  and  today  the  company  is 
the  world's  largest  nnmufacturer  of  si)ccial-analysis  iron 
and  steel  sheets. 

The  company's  researeli  can  be  divided  into  two 
parts:  one,  the  study  of  chemical  anil  metallurgical 
problems  to  produce  sheets  for  exacting  uses  such  as 
drawing,  s])inning,  and  the  making  of  alloyed  metals; 
the  other,  a  study  and  ilevelo])nient  of  mechanical  and 
l)rodiictivc  ])rocesses  to  better  the  |)roducl,  increase  the 
output,  and  lower  the  cost. 

Chemical  and  metallurgical  research  at  the  American 
Rolling  Mill  Companj-  began  when  a  25-ton  furnace 
was  set  aside  for  experiments  in  nuiking  electrical  steel 
of  the  uniformitj-,  low  hj'steresis,  and  high  i)ermeability 
needed  by  such  concerns  as  the  West  inghouse  Company. 
The  relentless  toll  of  rust  demanded  attention,  and 
experiments  were  conducted  in  1900  to  make  pure  ii'on 
in  an  open  hearth  furnace,  with  the  result  that  the 
company's  ingot  iron  was  placed  on  the  market.  It 
won  the  prize  award  at  the  San  Francisco  Plxposition 
in  1915  for  rust  resistance,  welding,  magnetic,  and 
enameling  j)roperties.  The  growing  need  for  stronger 
lightweight  sheets  for  railroad  cars,  busses,  and  products 
of  a  similar  kind  led  to  intensive  research  which  re- 
sulted in  the  j)roduction  of  the  high  tensile  sheets 
which  are  today  serving  this  market  with  definite 
advantages. 

Closely  associated  with  iron  and  steel  production 
are  the  various  methods  for  coating  sheets  of  iron  and 
steel.  Recent  research  has  i)roduced  galvanized  sheets 
that  can  be  painted  immediately  without  weathering 
and  a  galvanized  coating  that  will  not  peel  in  forming 
or  spinning.  As  a  result  the  cost  of  hand  dii)ping  is 
saved  on  all  sorts  of  galvanized  products. 

The  invention  by  John  B.  Tyttis  in  1024  of  the  con- 
tinuous process  for  rolling  sheets  is  perhaps  the  Ameri- 
can Rolling  Mill  Company's  greatest  contribution  to 
the  iron  and  ste(>l  industry.  Mills  built  and  equipped 
for  this  process  by  the  leading  steel  comi)anies,  under 
license,  have  made  possible  an  increase  in  the  use  of 
iron  and  steel  sheets  that  could  not  lunc  taken  place 
willi  hand  mil!  ojiei'ation. 


Industrial  Research 


59 


American  Smelting  and  Refining  Company 

Iviiiy  in  192-1  llic  i)ropusal  to  establish  a  research 
liepaitiiUMil  ill  the,  American  Smelting  and  Kelining 
Company  was  given  serious  consideration.  The  sug- 
gestion was  occasioned  by  the  feeling  among  the  odi- 
cials  that  systematic  research  would  materially  assist 
the  company  in  maintaining  its  position  in  the  rapiilly 
advancing  nonferrous  metallurgical  field. 

It  was  believed  that  the  needs  of  the  cojnpaiiy  couhl 
best  l)c  served  bj'  a  stall'  composed  of  highly  trained 
scientists,  together  with  men  in  the  plant  who  had 
shown  a  natural  ai)titude  for  research.  The  activities 
of  the  staff  would  be  ilirecteil  towaiil  the  investigation, 
study,  and  developnu-nt  of  established  i)rocesses,  as 
well  as  new  ones.  This  staff,  together  with  its  facilities, 
would  also  be  availai)le  for  technical  advice  and  service 
to  the  various  i)lants  and,  by  keeping  in  touch  with 
scientific  progress  in  otlier  industries,  would  ]>rovi<le  a 
clearing  house  fur  iid'ormation  of  intcresti  to  the 
company. 

Largely  through  the  ell'orts  of  F.  H.  Browuell,  H.  A. 
Prosser,  and  W.  H.  Peirce,  a  laboratory  was  established 
in  1925  at  the  company's  ])lant  in  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J., 
under  the  supervision  of  Peirce,  with  C.  A.  Rose  as 
director.  It  had  a  staff'  of  six  technical  men.  A  west- 
ern division  was  set  up  in  1926  at  Salt  Lake  City  for 
the  purpose  of  conducting  research  on  smelting  and 
related  problems.  During  the  ilifficult  years  of  the 
early  1930's,  some  curtailment  in  operations  was 
necessaiy.  However,  as  a  result  of  the  active  interest 
of  some  officials  within  the  company,  research  was  con- 
tinued and  the  laboratory  was  further  expanded  by  a 
section  devoted  to  physical  metallurgy. 

United  States  Steel  Corporation 

Since  the  days  of  Durfee,  Ward,  and  Phipjis,  applied 
science  has  been  a  factor  in  the  development  of  the  steel 
industry.  The  early  efforts  at  research  were  frugal  and 
inadequate,  yet  they  continually  uncovered  lU'W  facts 
and  paved  the  way  for  more  fundamental  studies. 

A\Tien  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  was 
organized,  in  1900,  all  of  the  constituent  companies  had 
laboratories  in  which  more  or  less  systematic  investiga- 
tions had  been  carried  on  for  some  years.  In  1891,  for 
example,  AV.  R.  Walker  hired  Dr.  Albert  Sauveur  to 
begin  the  microscopical  study  of  steel,  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  South  Works  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Company.  At 
that  time  only  tw'O  other  men  were  exploring  this  field- — 
Osmond  in  France;  Martens  in  Germany.'"^  Five  years 
later  Sauveur's  microscopical  work  was  interrupted 
because  of  Roentgen's  discovery'  of  X-rays,  and  because 
"a   hurricane   in    the   form   of   a   new   president  .  .  . 


"»  Sauveur,  A.    Metallurgical  reininisconces.    New  York,  American  Institute  of 
Mining  and  Metallurgical  Engineers,  1937,  p.  6. 


struck  the  South  Works  of  the  Illinois  Steel  ( 'ompany, 
which  in  its  violence  carried  away  the  metallographical 
laboratory  and  its  occupants."  "" 

After  the  formation  of  the  corporation,  research 
began  to  take  organized  form,  and  research  laboratories 
designated  as  such  were  provided  in  a  number  of  units. 
At  least  four  of  the  subsidiaiy  comi)anies  had  well 
directed  facilities  and  personnel  prior  to  the  year  1915. 
In  addition  to  the  investigations  carried  on  in  the  labo- 
ratories, a  much  larger  amount  of  work — sometimes 
s|)ora(lic  and  inconclusive  was  going  on  at  nearly  every 
plant.  This  work  was  mainly  concerned  with  mechani- 
cal developments  rather  than  metallurgical  ([uestions, 
for  only  within  recent  years  have  appropriate  experi- 
mental and  interpretive  techniques  been  developed  to 
the  ])()iiit  at  which  steel  making  processes  could  be 
studied  with  reasonabhi  hope  of  success. 

In  1928  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  as  dis- 
tinct from  its  constituent  com])anies,  estat)lished  a 
central  research  laboratory  under  the  direction  of 
Dr.  John  Johnston.  Since  that  date  the  widespread 
research  and  technical  activities  of  the  subsidiaiy  com- 
panies of  the  corporation  have  been  carried  on  in 
conjunction  with  the  central  laboratory,  now  located  at 
Kearny,  N.  J.  The  staff'  of  this  laboratory  collaborates 
with  men  in  the  plants  where  many  investigations  must 
bo  earned  out  because  of  the  impracticability  of  repro- 
ducing on  a  small  scale  in  the  laboratory  the  actual  con- 
ditions encountered  in  the  mills. 

The  corporation  now  has,  under  the  supervision  of  a 
vice  president  in  charge  of  metallurgy  and  research, 
Rufus  E.  Zimmerman,  about  450  men  engaged  in  re- 
search. Their  efforts  are  supplemented  by  the  activi- 
ties of  the  control  laboratories,  numbering  more  than 
80  and  employing  approximately  2,000  chemists,  phys- 
icists, metallurgists,  and  engineers. 

During  the  last  decade  the  corjioration's  research  has 
increased  greatly  not  only  in  amoimt,  but  also  in  quality 
and  significance.  Closer  control  of  the  whole  sequence 
of  processes  involved  in  making  steel  has  been  secured 
tlu'ough  a  study  of  the  fundamental  factors  affecting  the 
qualities  of  steel  and  through  the  development  of  better 
methods  of  temperature  measurement.  A  study  of  the 
rate  of  transformation  of  austenite  at  a  series  of  temper- 
ature levels  has  led  to  a  new  method  of  treatment  which 
imparts  to  ordinary  carbon  steel  properties  hitherto 
associated  only  with  alloy  steels. 

Systematic  research  on  the  residual  stresses  in  rail- 
road rails  has  resulted  in  a  process  known  as  Brunoriz- 
ing,  which  yields  a  rail  that  retains  its  ductility  at  low 
temperatures. 

Twelve  years  of  organized,  adequately  supported  in- 
vestigations have  brought  a  clear  recognition  of  the 
value  of  research  to  the  steel  industiy. 

"»  Metalliugical  reminiscences,  p.  13.    See  footnote  108. 


60 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Pharmaceuticals 


Abbott  Laboratories 


Dr.  Wallace  C.  Abbott  began  to  practice  medicine  in 
Chicago  in  1886.  Troubled  by  the  indelinite  and 
changeable  results  that  he  had  obtained  from  the  use  of 
unstandardized  fluid  extracts  and  tinctures,  he  began  to 
study  the  experiments  of  the  Belgian  dosinietrist,  Burg- 
graeve.  The  idea  of  using  only  the  active  principle  of  a 
drug  plant  in  place  of  a  wate:y  or  alcoholic  extract 
appealed  to  him.  Unable  to  puichase  such  a  product, 
he  began  to  isolate  the  pure  alkaloids  from  the  crude 
drugs  and  to  make  his  own  active-princijjle  granules. 
From  Ills  "laboratory"  in  an  annex  to  the  family  kitch- 
en, he  was  soon  supplying  granules  to  other  physicians 
in  the  neighborhood.  After  the  incorporation  of  the 
enterprise  in  1900  as  the  Abbott  Alkaloidal  Company, 
the  manufacture  of  other  types  of  products  was  under- 
taken, and  the  nucleus  of  a  chemical  research  staff  was 
formed.  Dr.  Alfred  S.  Burdick's  association  with  the 
company  had  much  to  do  with  the  emphasis  given  to 
research. 

The  First  World  War  placed  unusual  demands  upon 
all  the  pharmaceutical  laboratories  of  the  country,  and 


residted  in  an  enlargement  of  research  facilities.  The 
Abbott  Laboratories  continued  their  expansion  after 
the  war  and  began  research  aimed  at  the  development 
of  synthetic  mcdicinals  to  meet  definite  needs.  One 
result  of  this  study  was  a  new  local  anesthetic,  particu- 
larly useful  to  doctors  working  on  the  eye.  A  research 
program  in  the  field  of  hypnotics  led  to  the  production 
of  several  new  compounds. 

In  1922  the  Abbott  Laboratories  acquired  the  Derma- 
tological  Research  Laboratories  in  Philadelphia,  which 
had  been  founded  in  1911  on  philanthropic  grants  for 
the  study  of  psoriasis  and  have  continued  to  maintain 
research  there  under  a  highlj'  trained  staff. 

In  recent  years  the  company's  search  for  highly 
potent  sources  of  vitamins  A  and  D  has  led  to  the  use 
of  livers  of  the  halibut,  which,  before  1931,  were  thrown 
back  into  the  sea  as  a  useless  part  of  the  fish. 

Eli  Lilly  and  Company 

Other  companies  were  also  active  in  the  search  for 
new  and  more  reliable  medicinal  products.  The  firm 
now  known  as  Eli  Lilly  and  Company  had  equipped  a 
laboratory  and  emploj^ed  a  chemist  for  assaying  and 
research  by  the  late  eighties.     From  this  small  begin- 


iic;inK  '.».—  lirst  Laboratory  ol  Parke,  Davis  and  Company,  1S73,  Detroit,  Micliigan 


Industrial  Research 


61 


ning  the  research  organization  has  expanded  into  the 
present  Lilly  Research  and  Control  Laboratories,  which 
are  equipped  for  work  in  the  fields  of  chemistry,  botany, 
pharmacology,  physiology,  and  experimental  medicine. 
The  research  staff  cooperates  constantly  with  original 
investigators  in  universities,  clinics,  and  hospitals, 
particularly  in  the  study  of  prophylactic  and  thera- 
peutic agents.  The  first  insulin  commercially  available 
in  the  United  States  came  as  a  result  of  the  cooperation 
of  the  laboratory  with  research  workers  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Toronto. 

Parke,  Davis  and  Company 

In  1862  Samuel  P.  Duffield,  a  retail  druggist  in 
Detroit,  began  to  make  a  number  of  preparations  in 
larger  amoimts  than  required  for  his  own  use  and  to 
sell  them  to  other  pharmacists.  In  1866  the  partner- 
ship of  Duffield,  Parke  &  Company  was  formed,  later  to 
become  Parke,  Davis  &  Company.  From  the  beginning 
the  company  was  active  in  the  investigation  of  new 
drugs,  the  production  of  new  medicinal  substances,  and 
the  development  of  new  methods  of  manufacturing 
pharmaceutical  products.  About  1874  a  systematic 
search  was  begun  for  unknown  or  little  used  plants  that 
might  have  medicinal  value.  Representatives  of  the 
company  explored  the  northwestern  United  States, 
British  Columbia,  and  Mexico;  one  sent  to  the  Fiji 
Islands  brought  back  a  supply  of  tonga ;  another  brought 
from  the  West  Indies  other  plants  which  proved  to  be 
valuable  as  drugs.  A  special  representative  m  1881 
made  a  trip  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  River  about 
2,500  miles  into  the  interior.  As  a  result  of  these  ex- 
plorations and  the  work  in  the  laboratory  the  company 
in  the  early  years  of  its  existence  introduced  48  new 
drugs,  many  of  which  are  still  widely  used."" 

In  the  seventies  there  were  no  standards  for  medicinal 
products,  and  drug  extracts  varied  greatly  in  strength. 
In  1879  the  first  standardized  medicinal  drug  product 
on  the  market  came  from  this  laboratory.  It  was  a 
preparation  of  ergot  that  had  been  brought  to  a  uniform 
standard  of  strength  by  a  chemical  assay."'  Four 
years  of  systematic  study  made  it  possible  for  the 
company  to  announce  a  list  of  20  "normal  liquids"  that 
had  been  standardized  by  some  form  of  chemical  assay. 
Although  new  and  better  methods  of  assay  were  to  be 
discovered,  the  original  standards  have  in  many  instances 
changed  very  little.  In  recent  years,  much  research 
has  been  devoted  to  the  means  of  preparing  and  stabi- 
hzing  solutions  used  in  hypodermic  and  intravenous 
medications. 

A  separate  biological  unit  was  established  in  1895, 
and  in  1902  the  necessity  for  more  adequate  facilities 


110  Taylor,  F.  O.  Parke,  Davis  and  Co.    Industrial  and  EnfinterinQ  Cltemiitry,  19, 
1205  (October  1927). 
1"  Parke,  Davis  and  Cc.    See  footDcte  110. 


for  research  led  to  the  construction  of  a  new  research 
laboratory,  which  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  first  separate 
laboratory  buildings  erected  by  a  commercial  organiza- 
tion in  this  country.  Under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Oliver  Kamm,  the  laboratory  has  in  recent  years 
expanded  until  now  it  comprises  some  16  divisions, 
including  organic  chemistry,  biochemistry,  bacteriology, 
pharmacology,  physiology,  pathology,  and  pharmacy, 
each  of  which  is  under  the  supervision  of  a  specialist. 

E.  R.  Squibb  &  Sons 

Dr.  Edward  R.  Squibb  was  one  of  the  first  men  to 
take  steps  to  fill  the  need  for  new  and  better  products 
in  the  treatment  and  prevention  of  disease  and  in  the 
relief  of  pain.  He  founded  the  firm  of  E.  R.  Squibb  & 
Sons  and  began  at  once  to  develop  a  process  for  making 
ether  satisfactory  for  anesthesia.  Since  that  time  the 
company's  research  has  gradually  expanded  to  provide 
the  medical  profession  with  a  greater  supply  of  more 
effective  preparations  with  which  to  combat  disease. 
In  1938  the  company  organized  the  Squibb  Institute 
for  Medical  Research,  which  is  housed  in  a  new  lab- 
oratory building  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  The  labo- 
ratory is  devoted  to  pure  science  in  the  medical  and 
biological  fields.  Research  has  been  organized  in  four 
main  divisions — experimental  medicine,  pharmocology, 
bacteriology  and  virus  diseases,  and  organic  chemistry."^ 

Miscellaneous  Industries 

American  Locomotive  Company 

In  the  locomotive  industry  the  principal  objective  of 
research  has  been  improvement  in  locomotive  design 
and  construction  to  give  better  and  more  economical 
motive  power.  To  achieve  this  end,  research  in  the 
laboratory  has  been  supplemented  by  data  obtained 
from  actual  road  performance. 

During  the  decade  from  1890  to  1900  the  individual 
companies  which  were  later  consolidated  into  the 
American  Locomotive  Company  made  extensive  studies 
to  obtain  a  satisfactory  application  of  double  expansion 
steam  distribution.  As  a  result  of  this  work,  seven  or 
eight  types  of  compoimd  locomotives  were  introduced, 
among  them  the  Richmond  compound,  developed  by 
Carl  J.  Mellin,  which  is  still  the  American  Locomotive 
Company's  standard  for  compound  locomotives. 

Soon  after  the  formation  of  the  company  in  1901, 
experiments  were  carried  out  on  the  use  of  superheated 
steam,  a  practice  which  has  now  become  standard  in 
locomotive  operation.  For  a  period  of  10  years  the 
company  collected  a  large  amount  of  operating  data 
from  the  railroads,  and  from  an  analysis  of  these  data 
it  was  able  to  evolve  tables  giving  such  information  as 

>>!  Dedication  of  Sguibb  Institute.    Induttrial  and  EnsiTuerlnn  Chematrn  (,Ntwi 
Ed.),  16,  564  (October  20,  1938). 


62 


National  Resources  Planrnnrj  Hoard 


locomotive  tractive  power,  hniiiin<r  caj)a<-ity,  and  boiler 
capacity.  Tliesc  tables  became  tlio  IcxtbooU  for 
locomotive  design  and  locomotive  rating  for  many  j'ears. 
Tlie  company  lias  built  20  experimental  locomotives 
for  the  most  part  in  cooperation  with  railroads  interested 
in  developing  better  motive  power  units.  Through 
plant  research  the  company  has  jiroduced  high  grade 
forgings  for  locomotive  parts  and  high  grade  iron  cast- 
ings for  general  use.  It  lias  developed  and  built  the 
only  welded  locomotive  boiler,  and  is  now  devoting 
considerable  attention  to  fusion  welding,  both  in  its 
application  to  locomotive  construction  and  in  general 
fabrication  work. 

Armour  and  Company 

The  meat-i)acking  industry  was  an  old  one  before 
research  came  to  play  any  part  in  it.  Phillip  Danforth 
Armour,  the  founder  of  Armour  &  Company,  admittctl 
freely  that  he  knew  nothing  of  scientific  theory  or 
chemical  processes,  but  he  nevertheless  encouraged  the 
eflForts  of  his  staff  to  improve  operations  by  scientific 
methods.  A  loosely  bound  organization  of  scientifically 
minded  men  contributed  new  ideas  to  the  industry 
long  before  even  a  trained  chemist  was  added  to  the 
staff. 

Previous  to  1875,  slaughtering  operations  were  con- 
ducted only  in  winter,  and  the  main  carcass,  which 
could  be  sold  fresh  in  winter  or  barreled  in  brine  or  salt 
for  summer  use,  was  the  only  part  of  the  animal  con- 
sidered worth  saving.  In  spite  of  ridicule  from  his 
contemporaries  and  associates.  Armour,  in  187G,  had 
Joseph  Nicholson,  an  early  packing  house  arcliitect, 
build  the  first  refrigerated  meat  warehouse  in  the  world. 

Before  ;'hemistry  came  to  play  a  part  in  the  meat- 
packing industry,  individuals  outside  the  industry  had 
begun  to  prosper  by  salvaging  parts  of  the  carcass  that 
had  always  been  discarded  as  waste.  Blood  and  tank- 
age were  among  the  first  waste  products  to  be  utilized. 
For  years  they  had  been  discarded  in  the  south  branch 
of  the  Chicago  River  which,  because  of  the  evolution  of 
the  gases  of  fermentation  and  decomposition,  came 
to  be  known  as  "Bubbly  Creek."  In  1880  animal  fats 
were  used  to  produce  oleomargarine  commercially,  and 
2  years  later  the  shin  and  thigh  bones  of  cattle  were 
dried  and  used  for  such  articles  as  buttons  and  combs. 
Extract  of  beef  was  first  produced  in  1885. 

Armour,  observing  the  marked  success  of  the  con- 
cerns which  bought  up  the  packers'  waste  products  or 
hauled  them  for  the  taking  from  the  dumps,  decided 
to  expand  his  business  to  include  the  salvaging  of 
waste.  In  1884,  his  purchase  of  the  glue  works  of 
Wahl  Brothers  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  present  auxil- 
iary plant  for  utilizing  byproducts.  A  year  later  Armour 
entered  the  pharmaceutical  business,  making  at  first 
only  pepsin  and  pancreatin.     Another  important  step 


was  taken  when  the  waste  waters  from  cooking  and 
other  operations  were  saved  and  evaporated  to  recover 
the  valuable  protein  matter  used  at  that  time  as 
fertilizer. 

Armour's  realization  that  byproducts  might  hold 
liidden  treasures  led  to  the  application  of  science  to  the 
meat-i)acking  industry.  Tlie  marvels  of  chemical 
research  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at 
Chicago  in  189.3  made  a  deep  impression  upon  Armour 
and  members  of  his  staff,  and  that  year  he  hired  his  first 
chemist,  Dr.  A.  G.  Manns,  to  give  assistance  on  ceitain 
phannaceutical  and  refining  problems.  His  work  was 
so  satisfactory  that  .Vrmour  commissioned  him  to  equip 
adequate  laboratories  and  hire  the  necessary  staff. 
The  work  of  the  laboratory  increased  rapidly.  Chem- 
ists were  added  to  all  departments  of  th(>  comj)anv  and 
kept  busy  upon  immediate  i)rol)lcms  of  control  and 
trouble  shooting. 

About  the  same  time  C.  H.  MacDowcll  coiiviiiced 
Armour  that  profits  lay  in  the  direction  of  better 
utilization  of  byproducts  as  fertilizer  and  was  com- 
missioned to  start  the  venture  which  became  the  Armour 
Fertilizer  Works. 

In  1907  Paul  Rudinick,  who  succeeded  .Manns  in 
charge  of  the  chemical  lal)oratories,  created  a  separate 
department  undc"  Dr.  Frederick  Fenger  foi-  pharma- 
ceutical research,  and  one  for  research  in  fertilizers 
under  H.  C.  Moore.  Not  until  1928,  liowcver,  was  an 
attempt  made  to  form  a  separate  research  organiza- 
tion. At  that  time  W.  P.  Hemphill,  an  executive 
officer  of  the  company,  brought  research  under  his 
jurisdiction,  with  J.  J.  ^'ollertsen,  chief  control  chemist, 
in  immediate  charge.  The  physical  equipment  for 
research  remained  decentralized  until  E.  L.  Lalumier, 
Hemphill's  successor,  obtained  the  first  a[)propriation 
for  a  separate  research  laboratory.  From  19.10  to  1939 
both  research  and  develoi)ment  work  were  handled  by 
the  research  department  under  the  direction  of  V. 
Conquest.  In  the  latter  year  the  development  work 
was  placed  under  a  separate  head,  and  the  research 
program  expanded. 

Swift  and  Company 

In  1871  G.  H.  Hammond,  a  Detroit  paikcr, 
built  a  partially  successful  refrigerator  car.  Five 
or  six  j-ears  later  Gustavus  Finnklin  Swift,  by  de- 
veloping a  completeh'  successful  one,  made  possible 
the  erection  of  centralized  meat  packing  plants  near 
livestock  markets  such  as  Chicago.  By  1877  Swift 
and  Company  was  shipping  dressed  beef  to  a  country- 
wide trade.  With  its  market  greatly  expanded,  the 
company's  operations  increased,  and  steadily  mounting 
tonnages  of  blood,  grease,  and  bones  were  discarded  as 
waste  or  utilized  in  a  haphazard  way  to  make  feeds, 
fertilizers,  soaps,  and  other  finished  products.     Little 


Industrial  Research 


03 


serious  atteiilion,  however,  was  given  to  the  systematic 
conversion  of  waste  products  into  vahiablc  byproducts. 

In  1892  a  small  laboratory  was  established  at  the 
Chicago  plant  of  Swift  and  Company  ui  a  building 
which  served  simultaneously  as  a  glue  and  soap  factory. 
Dr.  Joslyn  was  employed  as  chief  chemist.  The  stated 
functions  of  the  laboratory  were  to  analvze  and  stand- 
ardize the  company's  products,  and  to  find  answers  to 
problems  pertaining  not  only  to  the  manufacture  of 
major  products  such  as  meat  and  lard,  but  also  to  the 
exploitation  of  byproducts.  Since  the  meat  packmg 
mdustry  offered  unexplored  territory  to  the  scientist, 
his  discoveries  were  frequent  and  led  quickly  to  an 
expansion  of  the  company's  activities.  New  packing 
plants  were  built  or  purchased,  and  in  each  new  plant 
there  was  a  laboratory'  for  analytical  and  control  work. 
Branch  laboratories  were  installed  at  St.  Louis  in  1900, 
Kansas  City  and  St.  Joseph  in  1905,  Fort  AVorth  in 
1906,  and  subseciuently  in  Omaha,  East  Cambridge, 
Portland,  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles,  St.  Paul,  New- 
ark, East  St.  Louis,  Edmonton,  Toronto,  Harrison, 
and  Atlanta. 

Much  of  the  research  m  the  laboratories  during  the 
early  j'ears  of  their  existence  was  determined  by  outside 
factors.  Between  1907  and  1910,  the  problem  of  acidu- 
lation  of  phosphate  rock  to  render  phosphoric  acid 
available  for  fertilizers  which  could  supplement  the 
animal  fertilizers  rich  in  nitrogen  was  of  paramount  im- 
portance. A  little  later  a  process  was  worked  out  by 
which  potash  could  be  recovered  from  kelp.  From 
1910  to  1912  the  research  staff  was  particularly  active  in 
developing  modern  methods  of  fat  and  oil  hydrogena- 
tion,  refining,  and  bleaching. 

Until  1920  the  research  laboratories  were  attached  to 
divisions  such  as  glue  and  gelatin,  fat  and  oil,  soap  and 
glycerine,  bacteriologj',  and  meat.  Trouble  shooting, 
technical  sales  service,  utilization  of  byproducts  were 
the  chief  activities  of  the  men  in  the  laboratories,  and 
out  of  a  staff  of  approximately  50  persons,  not  more 
than  8  or  10  were  doing  actual  research. 

To  relieve  the  inadequacy  of  accommodations  and  to 
provide  for  expansion,  the  company  built  new  labora- 
tory facilities  in  1929.  Two  years  later  W.  D.  Richard- 
son, who  had  been  chief  chemist  for  27  years,  resigned 
and  R.  C.  Newton  succeeded  him.  More  trained  men 
were  emploj'ed  to  work  on  problems  which  the  smaller 
staff  had  been  forced  to  neglect.  New  divisions  were 
formed,  and  coordinated  with  them  were  16  outside 
laboratories  and  160  smaller  test  rooms  devoted  to  the 
ever  increasing  task  of  controlling  the  processes  and 
products.  Approximately  150  trained  men  are  now 
engaged  in  this  control  work. 

At  the  laboratories  in  Chicago  about  60  persons  are 
engaged  at  least  part  of  the  time  in  fundamental  re- 
search in  many  subjects,  including  physical  chemistry. 


bacteriology,  industrial  sanitation,  nutrition,  histology, 
and  pathology.  These  men  also  devote  time  to  devel- 
opment work  and  to  consultation  and  technical  sales 
service. 

Babcock  and  Wilcox  Company 

Since  the  early  days  of  its  existence  Babcock  &  Wilcox 
Company  has  carried  on  laboratory  and  research  work. 
Until  1900,  studies  were  conducted  at  Stevens  Institute 
of  Technology,  under  the  guidance  of  T.  B.  Stillman, 
Sr.,  and  D.  S.  Jacobus.  From  1900  to  1910  a  small 
wooden  building  in  Bayonne,  N.  J.,  housed  3  to  4  men 
engaged  in  laboratory  work  on  fuel,  combustion,  and 
water  anal3'ses.  In  1910  the  company  established  at 
Bayonne  a  complete  chemical,  physical,  and  metallurgi- 
cal laboratory,  and  placed  a  competent  chemist  and 
metallurgist  in  charge  of  it.  This  laboratory  continued 
in  operation  until  1932,  when  it  was  moved  to  the  com- 
pany's plant  at  Barberton,  Ohio,  and  consolidated  with 
two  other  laboratories.  Besides  this  laboratory,  the 
company  now  maintains  a  complete  metallurgical  and 
piij'sical  laboratory  at  Beaver  Falls,  Pa.,  and  a  third 
laboratory  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  especially  equipped  for  re- 
fractory research.  To  complement  research  work  in  its 
own  laboratories  the  company  has  supported  research 
in  technical  institutions. 

Most  of  the  company's  research  has  naturally  been 
devoted  to  subjects  affecting  the  construction  and  op- 
eration of  boilers,  which  in  50  years  have  changed  from 
hand  fired  cast-iron  boilers  having  a  capacity  of  3,000  to 
4,000  pounds  of  steam  an  hour  at  160  poimds  pressure 
to  completely  automatic  units  fired  with  pulverized  fuel, 
producing  more  than  1,000,000  pounds  of  steam  an  hour 
at  a  pressure  of  2,600  pounds.  Research  on  refractories, 
however,  has  led  the  company  into  the  manufacture  of 
firebrick  and  insulating  materials,  products  which  find 
little  use  in  connection  with  boilers. 

Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Company 

The  Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  Company,  is  said  to 
owe  its  existence  to  the  imagination  of  J.  J.  Bausch  in 
foreseeing  the  advantages  of  hard  rubber  as  a  material 
for  making  spectacle  frames. 

A  chenucal  laboratory  was  established  by  the  com- 
pany in  1899,  with  John  Wood  Scott  as  chemist  in 
charge.  The  iirimary  purjiose  of  this  lalioralory  was 
the  preparation  of  chemicals  to  be  sold  through  the 
chemical  supply  division  which,  at  that  time,  was  an 
active  division  of  the  company.  Shortlj'  after  the 
laboratory  was  founded,  it  was  asked  to  undertake 
research  on  lacquers  for  finishing  metal,  cements  for 
use  in  the  lens  departments,  and  abrasive  materials 
for  use  in  grinding  lenses.  Before  the  end  of  the  year, 
1899,  Mr.  Frank  Kolb  was  engaged  to  work  primarily 
on  such  problems.     He  was  soon  put  in  charge  of  the 


64 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


chemical  laboratory  and  has  hold  tlmt  position  up  to 
the  present  time. 

The  activities  of  this  early  chemical  laboratory  were 
the  special  interest  of  Henry  Baiisoli.  As  the  company 
gjew,  the  responsibilities  of  the  laboratory  naturally 
increased.  It  was  called  on  for  aid  in  the  early  experi- 
ments in  the  making  of  optical  glass,  inspired  by  William 
Bausch;  it  undertook  research  m  all  kinds  of  metal 
plating;  and  the  latest  step  in  its  expansion  was  the 
addition  of  the  equipment  and  personnel  necessary  to 
handle  the  companj^'s  work  in  metallurgy. 

In  1905  the  scientific  bureau  was  established,  pri- 
marily to  perfect  optical  designs,  to  carry  out  such 
research  as  might  be  necessary  or  appropriate  to  es- 
tablish standards  of  performance,  and  to  devise  testing 
equipment  for  use  in  the  factory  in  producing  instru- 
ments that  measured  up  to  the  established  standards  of 
performance.  The  man  employed  to  head  this  depart- 
ment was  Dr.  G.  A.  H.  Kcllner,  who  had  been  educated 
at  the  Universitites  of  Jena  and  Berlin  and  who  had  had 
practical  experience  in  the  optical  industries  of  Ger- 
many. Attached  to  his  staff  were  Adolph  and  Henry 
Lomb,  Jr.,  and  Fred  Saegmuller.  In  1908  Dr.  Kellner 
engaged  the  services  of  W.  B.  Ray  ton,  and  lost  the 
services  of  the  other  3  men  mentioned  because  of  the 
continued  growth  of  the  business  and  the  necessity  to 
draft  these  men  for  other  responsibilities.  From  this 
small  beginning  the  department  grew  until  on  January 
1,  1940,  its  staff  consisted  of  a  total  of  39  people, 
including  optical  engineers,  electrical  engineers,  and 
mechanical  engineers. 

Dr.  Kellner's  first  undertaking  was  a  revision  of  the 
line  of  microscope  objectives  that  were  manufactured 
by  the  company.  iVt  the  same  time  he  began  a  revision 
of  the  optical  systems  employed  in  a  group  of  engineer- 
ing instruments  which  the  company  had  begun  to 
manufacture  after  its  absorption  of  the  business  of  the 
George  N.  Saegmuller  Company  of  Washington  in 
1905.  A  new  interest,  introduced  into  the  company's 
activities  by  Saegmuller,  was  the  development  of  lire- 
control  instruments  for  the  United  States  Navy^ 
instruments  such  as  gun  sights,  periscopes,  range 
finders,  and  miscellaneous  telescopes.  Prior  to  this 
time  the  Navy  had  very  little  equipment  of  this  sort, 
and  the  years  between  1905  and  1914  were  active  ones 
in  both  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance  of  the  Navy  and  the 
scientific  bureau  of  the  Bausch  &  Ix)mb  Optical  Com- 
pany in  developing  various  equipment  which  was  more 
or  less  experimental  in  the  study  of  the  whole  problem 
of  determining  ranges  and  aiming  guns. 

The  scientific  bureau  has  continued  research  upon 
the  company's  original  products — spectacle  lenses  and 
frames.  In  1912  it  began  studies  in  the  performance 
of  curved  forms  of  lenses.  The  general  development 
of  the  whole  field  of  ophthalmology  has  perforce  led 


the  company  into  the  design  and  manufacture  of  elab- 
orate instruments  for  diagnosis  of  the  pathology  of  the 
eyes  and  for  the  determination  of  refractive  errors. 

As  a  result  of  the  First  World  War  the  company  had 
to  supplement  its  lines  of  products  by  a  group  of  labora- 
tory instruments  such  as  spectrometers,  refractometers, 
spectrographs,  and  colorimeters.  Responsibility  for 
developments  in  this  field  rested  on  the  scientific  bureau. 
A  survey  revealed  the  fact  that  too  many  of  these 
instruments  were  so  designed  that  the  operator,  instead 
of  being  able  to  concentrate  on  his  main  problem,  had 
to  devote  a  large  part  of  his  time  and  ingenuity  to 
keeping  the  instruments  in  working  order.  Until  his 
death  in  1926,  Dr.  Kcllner  manifested  a  keen  interest 
in  the  design  of  such  instruments. 

Following  Dr.  Tvelliicr's  death,  Dr.  Rnj'ton  was  made 
head  of  the  bureau,  where  subsequent  developments 
have  added  to  the  original  responsibility  for  optical 
design,  the  responsibility  for  the  mechanical  design  of  all 
optical  instruments  manufactured  by  the  company. 
By  continuous  research  involving  the  properties  of 
materials  and  the  suitabilitj'  of  designs,  this  depart- 
ment has,  through  improved  instruments,  advanced 
the  work  of  both  the  research  and  routine  laboratories 
of  the  country. 

A  third  research  grou])  niamtained  hy  the  Bausch  & 
Lomb  Optical  Company  is  concerned  with  the  problems 
of  manufacturing  o[)tical  glass.  This  group  obtains 
assistance  from  the  chemical  laboratory  and  from  the 
scientific  bureau,  the  former  doing  analytical  work  and 
the  latter  investigating  the  quality  of  glass  as  regards 
its  effect  on  the  performance  of  lenses  and  instruments. 
The  glass  research  group  proper  is  concerned  with  the 
problems  of  melting,  annealing,  and  inspecting  optical 
glass.  Work  in  this  field  was  begun  shortly  before  the 
outbreak  of  the  First  World  War.  The  conditions  that 
resulted  from  the  war  made  it  absolutely  necessary  that 
the  company  solve  the  problem  of  manufacturing  opti- 
cal glass.  The  emergency  was  so  serious  that  the 
Geophysical  Laboratory  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of 
Washington  assigned  several  members  of  its  staff  to 
duty  at  the  glass  plant  of  the  Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical 
Company,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  progress  made  in 
the  years  1917  and  1918  was  manj-  times  greater  than 
it  would  otherwise  have  been.  In  spite  of  the  fact, 
however,  that  throughout  these  years  very  large  quan- 
tities of  usable  optical  glass  were  manufactured,  the 
number  of  kinds  made  was  small,  and  much  remained 
to  be  done  to  reduce  the  cost  of  production  and  to 
improve  the  quality  of  the  product.  Formulas  and 
techniques  required  for  the  production  of  a  wider  range 
of  glasses  also  had  to  be  developed  after  the  war. 

As  the  interests  of  the  company  have  expanded  so, 
too,  have  the  activities  of  its  research  laboratories  in 
which  130  workers  are  now  employed. 


Industrial  Research 


65 


Consolidated  Edison  Company 
of  New  York,  Incorporated 

Public  utilities  providing  electric,  gas,  or  steam 
service  are  faced  with  research  problems  that  are  dif- 
ferent in  many  ways  from  those  of  manufacturing  com- 
panies. They  do  not  usually  manufacture  or  sell 
products  and  are  not  directly  interested  in  creating  new 
products.  Their  function  is  to  provide  service  at  the 
least  possible  cost  to  the  public.  To  a  very  consider- 
able degree,  the  plant  and  facilities  of  a  utility  company 
are  composed  of  more  or  less  complete  units  purchased 
from  manufacturers.  The  engineering  problems  are, 
therefore,  largely  those  of  selecting  suitable  equipment 
and  assembling  it  in  a  way  that  will  give  the  most 
effective  operation.  Only  to  a  limited  extent  does  the 
company  fabricate  raw  materials. 

Manj'  of  the  items  of  equipment,  however,  are  such 
that  they  cannot  be  tested  thoroughly  by  the  manufac- 
turer. Large  steam  turbine  generating  units,  electric 
power  cables,  large  gas  manufacturing  equipment  must 
be  operated  under  service  conditions  in  order  to  deter- 
mine their  limitations  and  possibilities.  Therefore,  the 
chief  tasks  of  research  workers  in  the  utility  industry 
are  the  critical  examination  of  problems  arising  from 
the  operation  of  equipment  and  the  interpretation  of 
the  results  of  such  an  examination  in  ways  that  will  be 
useful  in  designing  and  manufacturing  equipment.  The 
utilities  rarely  make  basic  designs  for  such  equipment, 
however,  but  are  continually  confronted  with  the  prob- 
lem of  choosing  between  a  number  of  designs  ofl'ered  by 
various  manufacturers.  An  intelligent  choice  requires 
knowledge  of  the  controlling  factors.  Occasionally  it 
is  necessary  for  the  utility  companies,  as  purchasers  of 
equipment,  to  make  demands  that  will  accelerate  prog- 
ress, but  these  can  be  made  intelligently  only  when 
those  calling  for  the  new  type  of  equipment  have  a  suf- 
ficiently detailed  understanding  of  the  problems  in- 
volved to  know  that  their  solution  is  practical  and  eco- 
nomically sound. 

Other  research  arises  in  connection  with  the  adapt- 
ing of  utility  company  services  to  the  needs  of  custo- 
mers. Most  of  the  activity  in  this  connection  is  of  an 
engineering  or  teclmical  nature,  but  there  is  a  continual 
sprinkling  of  problems,  such  as  corrosion  of  pipes  and 
equipment  utilizing  gas  or  steam,  which  demand  the 
more  fundamental  approach  that  can  be  made  only  by 
a  research  organization. 

The  Consolidated  Edison  Company  of  New  York  is 
one  of  the  few  utilities  in  the  country  that  has  set  up 
research  as  a  distinct  activity.  In  most  companies  it 
is  a  part  of  the  engineering  and  operating  divisions.  The 
present  research  organization  of  this  companj'  is  an  out- 
growth of  the  work  of  a  small  group  formed  in  1922  and 
charged  with  the  responsibility  of  handling  a  variety  of 
technical  problems  in  connection  with  high  voltage  elec- 


tric power  cables  on  the  new  power  transmission  system 
which  was  then  being  evolved.  An  important  phase  of 
the  early  work  was  the  development  of  new  test  tech- 
niques for  use  in  the  investigation  of  the  cables  and  the 
making  of  suitable  joint  designs.  This  effort  was  grad- 
ually expanded  to  include  methods  for  checking  new  in- 
stallations of  cable  and  for  locating  faults  when  they 
occurred.  Gradually  these  procedures  became  more  or 
less  routine  and  were  eventually  transferred  to  the 
company's  testing  and  operating  departments. 

For  15  years  electrical  msulation  has  been  an  impor- 
tant study  m  the  company's  laboratory.  Today,  atten- 
tion is  directed  particularly  to  the  factors  influencing 
the  deterioration  of  electrical  insulation  and  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  criteria  for  use  by  the  engineering  depart- 
ments in  their  selection  of  cables.  Many  aspects  of  this 
work  are  so  fundamental  that  a  study  of  them  requires 
men  with  a  knowledge  of  physical  chemistry  and  physics. 

Improved  efficiencies  in  the  utilization  of  fuel  have 
been  possible  only  through  the  extensive  use  of  new 
products  of  the  metallurgical  industry;  consequently 
work  in  metallurgy  has  been  of  growing  importance. 
Although  the  materials  which  are  used  in  the  production 
and  fabrication  of  metals  are  carefully  selected,  they 
must  be  put  into  actual  service  before  their  essential 
characteristics  can  be  determined.  The  company  has, 
therefore,  found  it  very  important  to  have  in  its  research 
organization  trained  metallurgists,  as  only  they  can 
obtain  the  necessary  fundamental  information.  Ex- 
tensive laboratory  studies  are  frequently  required  to 
explain  conditions  observed  in  the  field. 

The  personnel  of  the  research  organization  in  the  Con- 
solidated Edison  Company,  totaling  about  30,  is  not 
large,  but  the  assistance  of  a  large  technical  service 
organization  and  of  the  engineering  departments  is 
available  whenever  specific  projects  demand  an  in- 
creased personnel. 

Eastman  Kodak  Company 

While  still  a  bank  clerk,  George  Eastman  began  the 
research  which  laid  the  foundation  for  the  present 
Eastman  Kodak  Company.  Keenly  interested  in 
photography,  he  was  annoyed  at  having  to  carry  about  a 
dark  tent  and  silver  bath  whenever  he  wished  to  take  a 
picture,  and  when  an  article  in  an  English  journal 
suggested  to  him  a  possible  improvement  in  the  art,  he 
set  about  "to  compose  an  emulsion  that  could  be  coated 
and  dried  on  a  glass  plate  and  retain  its  properties  long 
enough  to  be  used  in  the  field."  His  first  experiments 
brought  small  results,  but  finally  he  found  a  coating  of 
gelatin  and  silver  that  had  all  the  necessary  photo- 
graphic qualities. 

The  thought  then  came  to  him  that  other  photog- 
raphers must  also  be  eager  to  rid  themselves  of  the 
cumbersome  equipment  required  for  taking  pictures. 


66 


A'ational  Resources  Planning  Board 


By  Juno  1879  ho  was  ninkinp:  aiid  iiuukcliiig  plates 
that  were  entu'd}'  succ-ossful,  ami  a  inonlh  later  he  got 
his  first  patent  in  England  on  a  process  for  coating  the 
plates.  Experiment  after  experiment  was  made  to 
improve  both  the  emulsion  and  tlie  machine  in  which 
the  plates  were  coated.  Meanwhile  the  demand  for  the 
product  was  increasing,  and  Eastman's  fame  was 
spreading.  Catastrophe  was  soon  to  strike,  however. 
Photographers  began  to  complain  that  the  Eastman 
plates  were  dead.  Recalling  all  the  stock  in  the  hands 
of  dealers,  Eastman  began  to  search  for  a  dependable 
emulsion.  Four  hundred  and  fifty-four  attempts  at 
mixing,  cooking,  and  testing  brought  the  same  result — a 
"slight  red  fog  and  sliglit  veil."  Neither  his  own 
formula  nor  any  other  would  produce  a  clear  i)late. 
After  18  more  attempts  he  obtained  an  enndsion  "free 
from  red  fog"  but  his  success  was  fleeting;  the  l)ottlc 
broke,  and  he  lost  it  all."^ 

Following  a  brief  trip  to  Elngland,  Eastman  resumed 
his  experiments  in  Kochestcr.     Very  soon  his  plates 

'"  Ackerman.  Carl  W.    George  Eastman.    Boston,  New  York,  Houghton  Mifflin 
Co.,  1930,  p.  43. 


were  again  "clear  ami  good."  The  liundreds  of  unsuc- 
cessful experiments  and  the  information  obtained  during 
his  stay  in  England  had  given  Eastman  the  clue  to  the 
(lifTieidty,  whicli  lay  not  in  his  formula  or  machine  but 
in  tiie  gelalui  beuig  received  from  the  manufticturers. 
Thereafter  he  tested  every  chemical  or  ingredient  before 
he  purchased  a  supply. 

Although  Eastman  was  not  the  first  person  who  had 
had  the  idea  of  using  some  substance  other  than  glass 
as  a  base  for  the  emulsion,  he  now  turned  his  efforts  in 
that  direction.  In  a  letter  to  one  of  his  attorneys,  he 
says: 

1  first  conceived  the  process  of  making  Transparent  Film  by 
coating  a  support  witli  a  solution  of  Nitro  Cellulose,  and  then 
coating  it  with  emulsion  and  afterwards  stripping  it  off — earl}'  in 
(lie  year  18S4,  not  later  tlian  Feb.  or  Mar.'" 

Innumerable  tecluiical  and  chemical  problems  arose 
during  the  development  of  tliis  new  j)roduct,  and  the 
first  commercial  film  was  not  juade  until  March  26, 
1885."'     Fiir  from  satisfied  with  tliis  film,  but  convinced 

"'  George  Eastman,  p.  1.5.    See  footnote  U3. 
I"  George  Eastman,  p.  54.    See  footnote  113. 


r:^-^ 


Figure  IU.-    (Starting  tJiit  in  Ism,)  to  iiikr  :\  I'icture 


Iixhixfrial  Research 


67 


that  lie  was  on  the  right  track,  Eastman  (h'cith'd  to 
obtain  the  services  of  a  trained  chemist.  lie  consulted 
Professor  Samuel  Allan  Lattimore,  head  of  tlic  Depart- 
ment of  Clieniistry  at  the  University  of  Rochester. 
Dr.  Lattimorc's  assistant  was  an  "ingenious,  quick 
witted  fellow"  named  Henry  M.  Reichenbach,  and 
sometijue  in  August  1886,  Eastman  oflered  hiju  a  posi- 
tion in  which  he  was  to  "devote  his  time  entirely  to 
experiments."  Unlike  many  employers,  Eastman  was 
not  imi)atient,  and  a  year  later  in  reporting  the  residts 
of  the  experiments  to  one  of  his  associates  in  London 
he  says  of  his  chemist 

He  knows  nothing  about  photography  ...  I  told  him  what 
was  w-anted  and  that  it  might  take  a  day,  a  week,  a  month  or  a 
year  to  get  it,  or  perhaps  longer,  but  that  it  was  a  dead  sure 
thing  in  the  end.'" 

Eastman's  confidence  m  research  was  justified. 
After  trying  one  thing  after  another,  Reichenbach 
eventually  found  what  he  sought — the  formula  for  a 
transparent,  flexible  fihu,  which  he  patented  Decem- 
ber 10,  1889.  Eastman  again  wrote  to  his  associate 
in  London,  this  time  offering  a  bit  of  advice: 

It  will  not  be  long  before  your  concern  will  need  a  practical 
chemist.  .  .  .  The  best  way  to  do  is  to  make  application  to  the 
Prof,  of  Chemistry  in  some  good  technical  school  and  have 
him  recommend  two  or  three  first  class  boys.  You  can  inter- 
view them  and  take  your  choice — If  he  is  any  good  he  will  be 
the  most  profitable  man  you  can  hire."' 

Research  was  reducing  photography  from  a  compli- 
cated process  requiring  study  and  practice  to  a  few 
sunple  operations  which  the  amateur  coidd  easily  per- 
form. But  there  was  much  to  be  done,  and  Eastman 
sought  more  chemists.  In  1891  he  asked  Prof.  Thomas 
M.  Drown,  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, to  select  a  young  chemist  from  the  graduating 
class  and  to  have  him  devote  (dm-ing  the  remaining 
months  of  his  training)  some  attention  to  photographic 
chemistry.  Upon  Reichcnbach's  dismissal,  Eastman 
sought  recommendations  for  a  young  chemist  from 
professors  at  Johns  Hopkins,  Columbia,  and  Cornell. 
At  the  same  time  he  employed  Dr.  Leonard  Paget  to 
continue  the  company's  research  work  in  New  York 
City. 

When  Eastman  built  new  buildings  in  1893  at  Kodak 
Park,  he  provided  space  for  a  new  experimental  labo- 
ratoiy,  to  which  he  called  attention  in  a  Prnapfctiin  for 
Kodak,  Limited,  as  follows: 

Special  chemical  and  mechanical  departments  with  a  staff 
of  skilled  hands  are  maintained  for  experimental  purposes  in 
order  to  keep  in  advance  of  all  demands  for  improvements  in 
every  branch  of  photography."" 


In  1910  the  laboratory  was  enlarged,  and  2  j-ears  later 
a  building  at  Kodak  Park  was  completely  remodelled 
to  provide  adequate  facilities  for  all  kinds  of  experi- 
ments-ciiemical  and  ])liysical.  The  company's  re- 
search now  included  not  only  problems  of  immediate 
interest  in  the  manufacture  of  photographic  supplies, 
but  also  (juestions  of  scientific  nature  that  might  have 
an  application  in  the  photograjjliic  industry.  A  man 
of  unusual  training  and  experience  was  needed  to 
organize  and  direct  the  work  of  the  laboratory,  and 
while  abroad  in  1912,  Eastman  fovmd  such  a  num  in 
Dr.  C.  E.  Kenneth  Mees,  one  of  the  managing  directors 
of  a  snuill  firm  of  j)liotograpiiic  maiuifacturers  in 
England.  He  was  a  chemist,  a  physicist,  also  a 
practical  manufacturer  of  color-sensitive  dry  plates 
and  color  screens  used  in  photogi-apliy.  Alecs  came  to 
America  and  has  been  in  charge  of  the  Eastman  lab- 
oratory ever  since.  His  firm,  Wratten  &  Wain- 
wright,  Ltd.,  was  incorporated  in  the  English  company, 
Kodak  Ltd. 

From  the  early  days  of  the  laboratorj^,  organic 
chemicals  used  in  the  company's  research  were  pre- 
pared in  the  organic  chcmistiy  laboratory,  and  a 
foatiu-e  of  the  laboratory  particularly  interesting  to 
foreign  visitors  was  the  equipment  which  made  it 
possible  to  try  out  new  processes  on  a  miniature 
factory  scale."*  When  the  First  World  War  cut  off 
the  supply  of  syntlietic  organic  chemicals  coming  from 
Germanj^,  this  experience  and  equipment  proved 
especially  valuable  to  this  country.  The  laboratory 
soon  became  the  chief  soiutc  in  tlie  United  States  for 
organic  chemicals  \ised  in  research.  It  can  now 
supply  industrial  and  university  laboratories  witli 
more  than  3,000  such  chemicals.'-" 

Research  has  led  to  a  tremendous  expansion  of  tlio 
photographic  industry,  and,  in  turn,  the  expansion  of 
the  industry  has  greatly  extended  the  range  of  prob- 
lems with  which  the  research  laborat.ory  has  to  deal. 
Today  the  work  of  the  Kodak  Research  Laboratories 
falls  naturally  under  the  three  subjects  of  photography, 
chemistry,  and  physics.  LTnder  those  three  main 
divisions,  groups  in  the  laboratory  are  doing  funda- 
mental research  as  well  as  development  and  service 
work.  Some  idea  of  tiie  extent  and  complexity  of  the 
company's  research  can  be  gained  from  the  folIoM'ing 
description  of  the  Chemical  Division: 

.  .  .  Each  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  laboratory  is  subdi- 
vided into  smaller  specialist  departments  dealing  with  particular 
subjects.  The  chemical  Division  includes  the  following  lab- 
oratories: Organic  Chemisty,  for  general  organic  research,  par- 
ticularly on  cellulose  and  cellulose  esters;  Photochemistry,  for 


II*  George  Eastman,  p.  57.  See  footnote  I  i^ 
"'  George  Eastman,  p.  63.  See  footnote  US. 
1"  George  Eastman,  p.  146.    See  footnote  113. 


"•  Fleming,  A.  V.  M.  Industrial  research  In  the  United  States  of  America.  Lon- 
don, H.  M.  Stationery  OfHcc,  1917,  p.  7. 

I'o  Rochester — the  city  of  varied  industries.  Induilrial  and  Engineerivfi  Chemislry. 
(News  Ed.).  15,  287  (July  10,  1937);  Mees,  C.  E.  K.     Manuscript. 


3218.S5 — 41- 


68 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


fundamental  rcscarcli  on  the  theory  of  pliotograi)liic  sensitivity 
and  development;  Ilijjli  Vacuum  Chemistry,  dealing  with  vacu- 
um pumps  and  gages  for  molecular  distillation  and  vapor- 
pressure  measurements;  Electro-chemical  Measurements,  in- 
cluding Redex  potentials  of  developers,  electromctric  titration, 
determination  of  hydrogen-ion  concentration;  Colloid  Chemistry 
of  Gelatin,  Physical  Chemistry  of  Film  Support;  Research  on 
problems  arising  from  the  use  of  cellulose  acetate  yarn  in  textile 
processes,  including  a  physical  testing  of  yarn  and  the  dyeing 
properties  of  textile  materials;  Micro-analysis;  X-ray  examina- 
tion of  structure;  Photographic  emulsions  and  Sensitizing 
dyes."' 

More  than  400  workers,  over  half  of  whom  have  uni- 
versity degrees,  are  now  required  to  carry  on  the 
company's  extensive  research  program. 

Johns-Manville  Company 

In  the  seventies  H.  W.  Jolms  was  experimenting  with 
an  oil  stove,  a  teakettle  with  a  flattened  spout,  and  an 
ordinarj-  clothes  wringer  to  produce  a  fireproof  roofing 
from  saturated  wool  felt,  burlap,  manila  paper,  pitch, 
and  asbestos.  His  experiments  were  successful,  and  for 
more  than  20  years  his  efforts  were  devoted  largely  to 
the  development  of  commercial  products  that  could  be 
manufactured  from  asbestos.  I^ooking  about  in  1899 
for  a  man  who  would  make  himself  generally  useful, 
Johns  hired  William  Robbins  Seigle,  then  20  years  old. 
Ten  years  later,  when  the  II.  W.  Johns-Manvill(> 
Company  purchased  the  Indurated  Fibre  Compan^^  at 
Lockport,  N.  Y.,  Seigle  joined  forces  with  Prof.  C.  Ij. 
Norton,  who  had  developed  a  process  for  making 
"homogeneous  sheets  from  a  combination  of  asbestos 
and  cement  formed  together  under  heavy  pressure." 

Although  not  a  scientist  by  training,  Seigle  be- 
lieved that  if  inventors  working  alone  and  with  little 
scientific  knowledge  could  occasionally  make  discoveries 
that  were  important  for  industry,  then  highly  sldlled 
scientists  working  with  adequate  facilities  could  make 
many  more  such  discoveries.  In  1916  he  organized 
with  Professor  Norton  the  Norton  Laboratories,  Inc., 
at  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1917  he  set  up  the  W.  K. 
Seigle  Laboratories  in  the  garage  of  his  home  in 
Mamaroneck.  ^Mien  the  garage  became  too  small  for 
his  research  activities,  he  moved  the  laboratory  to 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,  and  incorporated  the  enterprise  as 
the  Fibrefraks  Laboratories.  Although  Seigle  carried 
on  the  research  as  a  personal  activity,  Johns-Manville 
profited  by  it  in  many  ways.  Asbesto-cement  pipe,  for 
example,  was  made  possible  very  largely  as  a  result  of 
knowledge  obtained  in  Seigle's  laboratory. 

In  time  Johns-Manville  purchased  the  Fibrefraks 
Laboratories  and  centered  all  the  company's  research  at 
the  Manville  factory  in  New  Jersey,  with  Mr.  Seigle  as 
director.     Under  his  supervision  the  research  work  ex- 


I"  Research  In  the  Rochester  area.    JnduaMal  and  Engineerlnp  Chemittrn  (Niict 
Ed.),  IB,  336-337  (August  10.  1937). 


pandcd  until  tiie  laboratories  reached  their  present  size 
employing  more  than  125  trained  workers,  headed  by  a 
skilled  staff  of  research  engineers.  Facilities  have  been 
provided  in  individual  laboratories,  such  as  the 
McMillan  Thermal  Insulation  Laboratory  and  the 
Acoustical  Laboratory,  for  special  study  of  each  class  of 
materials  made  by  the  company.  As  a  result,  new 
materials  are  developed,  existing  products  are  improved, 
and  technical  service  is  given  to  customers  and  to  the 
company's  manufacturing  and  sales  organizations. 
Only  through  research  do  the  company's  executives 
feel  that  they  can  be  prepared  for  the  future. 

National  Lead  Company — Titanium  Division 

About  1870  a  young  French  chemist.  Dr.  A.  J.  Rossi, 
came  to  America  and  was  engaged  in  a  blast  furnace 
operation  at  Boonton,  N.  J.,  where  titaniferous  ores 
were  being  successfully  smelted  into  pig  iron.  During 
this  experience  he  became  interested  in  the  occurrence 
of  titanium  in  iron  ores. 

Mr.  James  McNaughton,  who  controlled  the  large 
acreage  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains  where  the 
Mclntyre  Iron  Company  had  operated  a  blast  furnace 
for  the  reduction  of  titanium-bearing  ores,  was  aware 
not  only  of  the  richness  and  extent  of  the  titaniferous 
ore  deposits  available  there,  but  also  of  the  doubt  of 
blast  furnace  operators  regarding  the  possibilities  of  the 
use  of  such  ore  in  furnace  practice.  Confident  that 
effective  utilization  of  the  deposits  could  be  made,  he 
secured  the  services  of  Rossi,  the  only  person  in  the 
country  at  that  time  who  had  anj-  knowledge  of  the 
practical  smelting  of  titaniferous  ores.  About  1890, 
with  Rossi  and  several  friends,  McNaughton  organized 
a  syndicate  and  erected  a  very  small  blast  furnace  in 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  where  titaniferous  ores  were  smelted  in 
various  proportions.  Rossi  secured  patents  on  the 
processes  of  smelting  such  ores  and  also  on  the  manu- 
facture of  various  titanium  alloys. 

In  1908  Rossi  separated  an  impure  titaniimi  oxide 
and  proved  its  unusual  opacity  as  a  pigment  by  mixing 
it  with  salad  oU  and  applying  the  combination  as  paint. 
He  was  probably  the  first  to  conceive  of  the  use  of 
titanium  oxide  as  white  pigment.  In  1912  L.  E.  Bartan 
joined  Rossi  in  a  systematic  program  of  research  on 
the  possibilities  of  titaniimi  for  use  as  pigment.  To- 
gether they  developed  a  method  of  se])arating  titanium 
oxide  from  rutilc  and  ilmcnite.  Tlu-ough  further  re- 
search, they  were  able  to  demonstrate  the  practicability 
and  value  of  titanimn  dioxide  as  a  white  pigment  of 
uniciue  qualities  and  outstanding  merit,  and  later,  after 
additional  studies,  they  produced  the  composite  types 
of  titanium  pigments. 

As  a  direct  outgrowth  of  their  intensive  experimental 
effort,  the  Titanium  Pigment  Company  was  incorp- 
orated and  a  factory  built  at  Niagara  Falls  to  produce 


Industrial  Research 


G9 


tilaiiiiun  pigments,  but  restrictions  imposed  by  tlie 
Government  upon  the  use  of  power  during  the  First 
World  War  delayed  the  commercial  production  of 
titanium  pigments  until  1918.  After  experiencing  a 
rapid  expansion,  the  Titanium  Pigment  Company  was 
dissolved  in  1936,  and  the  manufacturing  interests, 
property,  and  stocks  were  taken  over  by  the  National 
Lead  Company — Titaniimi  Division. 

Pittsburgh  Plate  Glass  Company 

Since  its  incorporation  in  1883  the  Pittsburgh  Plate 
Glass  Company  has  maintaned  research  departments 
in  its  tliree  divisions:  glass,  paint  and  varnish,  and  alkali 
chemical.  Most  of  the  company's  research  has  been 
an  outgrowth  of  plant  problems  and  commercial  require- 
ments, although  occasionally  the  solution  of  problems 
quite  remote  from  its  operations  and  regular  line  of 
products  has  been  undertaken. 

Research  in  the  glass  division  has  residted  in  such 
developments  as  a  continuous  process  for  manufacturing 
plate  glass  from  a  large  tank  instead  of  intermittent 
small  pots;  a  continuous  method  of  giinding  and  polish- 
ing plate  glass,  which  replaced  the  individual  plate 
polishers;  improved  finishes  of  glass;  glasses  of  many 
different  compositions  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  specific 
requirements;  improved  refractories  for  fm-naces;  new 
and  improved  methods  of  laminating  glass;  new  plastics 
for  laminating  glass;  new  safety  glass  cements;  double 
glazed  windows;  glass  building  blocks;  colored  enameled 
glasses;  and  opaque  construction  glasses. 

The  laboratory  has  recently  cooperated  with  the 
laboratory  of  the  Carbide  and  Carbon  Chemicals  Cor- 
poration in  the  development  of  vinyl  plastic,  a  new  plastic 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  laminated  safety  glass. 

United  Shoe  Machinery  Company 

It  was  in  1846  that  Elias  Howe,  Jr.,  inventor  of  the 
sewing  machine,  revolutionized  mechanical  scwnng  by 
putting  the  eye  of  the  needle  in  the  point.  In  1851, 
John  Brooks  Nichols,  a  shoemaker,  of  L5'nn,  taking 
Howe's  machine  as  a  model,  made  a  similar  machine 
whichsewcdthe  uppers  of  shoes.  ThcNichols  invention, 
which  may  be  considered  the  beginning  of  what  today  is 
research  in  the  shoe  industry,  was  the  first  important 
application  of  machinery  to  shoemaking. 

In  1858,  Lyman  R.  Blake  took  the  second  step  in  the 
application  of  mechanical  sewing  to  shoemaking  by 
inventing  a  machine  which  sewed  the  soles  of  shoes  to 
the  uppers.  From  the  time  of  Nichols  and  Blake  to  the 
present  day — a  period  of  90  years — shoemaking  has 
changed  from  handcraft  to  a  higldy  mechanized  indus- 
try. Of  this  period,  the  last  four  decades  have  recorded 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  major  developments  in 
invention  and  technical  progress. 

With  the  founding  of  the  United  Shoe  Machinery 


Company  in  1899  came  the  first  systematic  application 
of  scientific  methods  to  the  shoe  industry.  Conditions, 
prior  to  that  time,  insofar  as  the  development  of  shoe 
machinery  was  concerned,  were  notably  chaotic  and 
unsatisfactory  not  only  for  inventors  and  manufacturers 
of  machinery,  but  also  for  their  prospective  customers — 
those  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  shoes. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  an  increasing 
number  of  men  had  acquired  knowledge  and  skill  in 
the  develoi)ment  of  machines  designed  to  replace  hand 
work,  but  there  was  an  almost  complete  lack  of  coordi- 
nation among  these  inventors.  The  need  for  system- 
atic organization  and  mobilization  of  effort  was  one 
of  the  fundanu'ntal  reasons  for  the  founding  of  the 
United  Slioe  Machinery  Company. 

Over  the  past  40  years  the  company's  experimental 
and  research  activities  have  led  to  the  development  of 
new  production  techniques,  of  improved  products,  and 
of  more  efficient  service  for  the  shoe  industry.  In  the 
field  of  machine  development,  the  company  has  con- 
tributed essentially  and  broadly  to  a  rise  in  labor  pro- 
ductivity, to  a  reduction  in  production  costs,  and  to  a 
mechanization  of  hundreds  of  operations  formerly  dore 
by  hniid. 

During  the  last  decade,  the  increase  both  in  the 
numb(>r  of  research  problems  in  the  shoe  industry  and  in 
their  complexity  has  made  it  imperative  for  the  research 
division  to  develop  a  program  of  coordinated  effort. 
In  the  field  of  machinery  development,  for  example,  it  is 
seldom  practical  for  independent  inventors  to  attempt 
the  mastery  of  all  the  knowledge  necessary  for  effective 
procedure.  No  matter  how  resourceful  the  individual 
may  be,  he  must  have  the  correlated  assistance  of  the 
chemist,  physicist,  metallurgist,  test-room  specialist, 
and  practical  shoemaker. 

Every  year  the  suggestion  department  of  the  com- 
pany's research  division  receives  more  than  3,000 
separate  items  covering  a  wide  range  of  subjects  per- 
taining to  shoe  machinery,  manufacturing  processes, 
and  allied  problems.  Before  these  suggestions  become 
the  bases  for  research  projects,  the  commercial,  eco- 
nomic, and  patent  features  of  each  are  carefully  ana- 
lyzed. The  division's  large  volume  of  data  relating  to 
the  technological  developments  of  the  past  furnishes 
invaluable  information  which  influences  the  recommen- 
dations of  research  management  to  executive  man- 
agement. 

The  United  Shoe  Machinery  Corporation  embraces 
a  number  of  affiliate  companies  engaged  in  manu- 
facturmg  lasts,  wood  heels,  eyelets,  tacks  and  nails, 
shoe  cartons,  shoelaces,  tanning  machinery,  chemicals 
used  in  the  shoe  industry,  and  hand  tools.  Research 
for  all  of  these  subsidiaries  is  sponsored  by  the  research 
division,  and  the  direction  of  new  developments  is 
systematically    divided   among   competent  specialists. 


70 


National  Rcsnurcex  Flnvnlnf)  Board 


Committees  are  used  as  an  efTcctive  means  of  coordi- 
nating; research  activities  with  the  various  operating 
departments  of  the  business.  For  example,  an  operat- 
ing department  committee,  consisting  of  representatives 
from  both  the  research  division  and  a  commercial 
department,  review  periodically  the  details  of  all  de- 
velopments for  that  department  respecting  progress, 
direction,  and  cost. 

Two  other  important  committees  are  the  shoe  ma- 
chinery program  committee,  and  affiliate  companies' 
program  committee  which  have  the  responsibility  of 
planning  major  developments  in  machines,  processes, 
anil  products,  and  of  formulating  definite  long  range 
objectives. 

The  company  has  recently  enlarged  its  experimental 
laboratory  and  now  has  more  than  600  persons  em- 
ployed in  the  research  division. 

Western  Precipitation  Corporation 

In  1906  Frederick  Gardner  Cottrell,  a  professor  of 
physical  chemistry  at  the  University  of  California,  did 
the  first  work  of  any  commercial  significance  in  the 
field  of  electrical  precipitation — a  principle  that  was 
discovered  by  Hohlfeld,  at  Leipzig,  in  1824.  After 
plant  tests  of  Cottrell's  precipitator  were  made  at  the 
sulfuric  acid  works  of  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  in 
Pinole,  Calif.,  a  commercial  installation  was  made  in 
1907  at  the  plant  of  the  Selby  Lead  Smelter  to  collect 
the  sulfuric  acid  fumes  escaping  from  the  gold  and  silver 
parting  kettles. 

Once  the  practicability  of  the  process  had  been  dem- 
onstrated. Dr.  Cottrell  and  three  associates  founded 
the  International  Precipitation  Company  to  act  as  a 
holding  company  for  patents  and  to  operate  the  world 
over  through  engineering  organizations  in  various  terri- 
torial districts.  The  Western  Precipitation  Company 
was  organized  to  handle  the  engineering  work  in  the 
western  states.  In  1911  the  latter  acquired  its  parent 
company.  Not  until  1936,  however,  was  the  name 
changed  to  the  Western  Precipitation  Corporation. 

The  corporation  is  a  research,  development,  and 
engineering  enterprise,  augmented  by  a  construction 
department.  Although  still  specializing  in  (he  electrical 
precipitation  process,  the  company  is  also  active  in 
the  field  of  dust  and  fiune  control  and  in  the  air  con- 
ditioning of  materials.  ForSOyears  Walter  A.  Schmidt 
has  been  its  director. 

An  interestmg  outgrowth  of  the  International  Precipi- 
tation Compan.v  is  the  Research  Corporation.  When 
the  Western  Precipitation  Company  was  formed, 
Cottrell  and  his  associates  in  the  International  Precipi- 
tation Company  offered  their  patent  rights  for  the 
eastern  territorjnn  the  United  States  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  as  an  endowment  for  scientific  research. 
Although  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Regents  did  not 


deem  it  wise  for  the  Institution  to  become  direct  owner 
of  the  patents,  they  were  willing  to  accept  a  declaration 
of  trust  from  the  owners  of  the  patents  and  to  operate 
them  in  the  interests  of  the  Institution  and  pay  over  to  it 
any  net  profits.'*^  As  a  result  of  this  decision,  the 
Research  Corporation  was  organized  in  1912  and 
capitalized  by  a  group  of  men  anxious  to  further  without 
personal  profit  Dr.  Cottrell's  objects,  which,  as  stated 
in  the  charter  of  the  corporation,  are 

...  to  i)rovicte  nioan.s  for  the  advancement  and  extension  of 
technical  and  scientific  investigation,  research,  and  experimenta- 
tion by  contributing  the  net  earnings  of  the  corporation,  over 
and  above  such  sum  or  sums  as  may  be  reserved  or  retained  and 
held  as  an  endowment  fund  or  working  capital,  ...  to  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  and  such  other  scientific  and  educational 
institutions  and  societies  as  the  Board  of  Directors  may  from 
time  to  time  select  in  order  to  enable  sucli  institutions  and 
societies  to  conduct  such  investigations,  research,  and  experi- 
mentation. 

Dr.  Cottrell  hoped  particularly  that  the  Research 
Coiporation  would  prove  to  be  a  means  of  getting  closer 
and  more  effective  cooperation  between  universities 
and  technical  schools  and  industrial  plants,  yet  at  the 
same  time  keeping  the  academic  institutions  or  the 
members  of  their  faculties  from  becoming  involved  in 
business  details.  The  Research  Corporation,  he  be- 
lieved, would  achieve  this  cooperation  by  being  in  a 
position  to  develop  useful  and  patentable  inventions 
evolved  by  men  in  academic  positions  in  connection 
with  their  regular  work — inventions  which  would  other- 
wise be  unavailable  to  the  public  because  of  the  dis-  I 
inclination  of  the  owners  either  to  undertake  the  ■ 
necessary  development  work  or  to  place  their  control 
in  the  hands  of  a  private  interest.  The  corporation 
could  study  the  situation  and  arrange  licenses  under 
fair  terms  so  that  individual  manufacturers  would  be  , 
justified  in  undertaking  the  development  of  the  in-  I 
vcntions.  At  the  same  time  it  would  be  accumulating 
funds  from  royalties  that  could  be  used  for  further 
investigations.'^ 

Research  Institutes 

Battelle  Memorial  Institute 

By  the  will  of  Cordon  Battelle,  an  industrialist  of 
Columbus,  Ohio,  the  founding  of  Battelle  Memorial 
Institute  was  made  possible.  In  the  couree  of  his 
industrial  career,  which  was  closely  connected  with 
the  metallurgical  and  fuels  industries,  Battelle  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  furtherance  of  research  in 
industry  would  contribute  largely  to  the  public  welfare, 
and  that  a  nonprofit  research  institute,  sufiiciently 
financed    to    insure    independence    and    continuity   of 

"'  Coltrell.  P.O.    Tho  research  corporation.    Jniuttrial  and  Engineering  ChemistT\i. 
i,  864  (December  1912). 
»>  The  research  corporation,  p.  865.    See  footnote  122. 


Industrial  Research 


71 


operation,  would  be  in  a  position  to  oncourap;e  the  use 
of  research  as  a  means  of  industrial  progress.  His  will 
established  a  self-perpetuating  board  of  trustees  to 
formulate  general  policies  and  (o  administer  the 
endowments.  A  director,  responsible  to  the  board, 
was  to  be  in  immediate  charge  of  the  institute's 
activities. 

The  nucleus  of  a  technical  staff  was  assembled,  and 
the  first  building  was  ready  for  occupancy  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1929.  The  staff  grew  as  the  volume  of  work 
increased,  until  at  the  end  of  1939  it  numbered  over 
200  persons  of  whom  125  were  technically  trained. 
Office  and  laboratory  space  has  expanded  correspond- 
ingly, and  in  1937  a  new  building  made  it  possible  to 
establish  a  complete  experimental  foundry. 

This  growth  has  been  in  accord  with  the  policy  by 
which  the  services  of  the  organization  have  been  made 
available  to  industry.  Endowment  income  has  been 
utilized  to  provide  phj'sical  plant  and  capital  equipment, 
to  finance  a  considerable  body  of  fundamental  research, 
to  publish  the  resulting  knowledge,  and  to  engage  in 
a  program  of  research  education.  The  large  and  grow- 
ing bulk  of  research,  however,  has  been  done  under 
a  sponsorship  plan  by  which  the  out-of-pocket  cost 
has  been  bonie  bj^  industry,  including  single  companies 
or  groups  of  companies,  associations,  and  individuals. 
All  residts  of  such  work  have  become  the  property  of 
the  sponsor,  including  data  and  patents  on  new  or 
improved  processes  and  products.  In  some  cases  such 
work  may  be  held  in  confidence,  while  in  others  the 
results  become  available  for  publication. 

Because  of  the  desire  to  maintain  a  permanent  and 
closely  integrated  research  staff,  it  has  been  the  policy 
of  the  institute  to  confine  its  efforts  to  certain  defuied 
fields  of  research.  These  are  metallurgy,  chemistry, 
fuels,  ceramics,  applied  physics,  and  electrochemistry. 
The  greater  part  of  the  sponsored  work  has  been  done 
for  the  metal,  ceramic,  fuel,  and  chemical  industries, 
but  other  industries  with  problems  in  the  special  fields 
noted  have  accounted  for  an  important  fraction.  Each 
year  appointments  of  research  associates  are  given  to 
qualified  graduates  of  accredited  imiversities  and  col- 
leges who  have  demonstrated  marked  aptitude  for 
scientific  research. 

Mellon  Institute 

In  the  early  years  of  this  century  Dr.  Robert  Kennedy 
Duncan  was  seeking  a  means  by  which  miiversities  and 
technical  schools  could  be  brought  into  closer  coopera- 
tion with  industry.  He  recognized  the  need  for  a 
greater  supply  of  men  trained  to  do  industrial  research 
and  for  a  more  widespread  and  direct  application  of 
science  on  the  part  of  small  industries,  to  the  end  that 
the  public  at  large  might  profit. 

The  plan,  known  as  the  Industrial  Fellowship  System, 


apparently  crystallized  in  Duncan's  mind  in  1906  after 
he  had  previously  spent  much  tune  inspecting  the 
factories,  laboratories,  and  universities  of  various 
European  countries,  where  he  had  become  impressed 
with  the  spirit  of  cooperation  which  existed  between 
industry  and  institutions  of  learning,  to  the  advantage 
of  both.  The  contrast  with  American  methods  at  this 
tune  convinced  him  that  some  elfort  should  be  made  to 
provide  for  a  greater  application  of  science  in  this 
country. 

Duncan  returned  from  Eurojjc  to  accept  the  chair  of 
industrial  chemistry  at  the  University  of  Kansas  where 
in  January  1907,  he  established  the  first  Industrial 
Fellowship.     In  his  words,  this  plan  gave — 

.  .  .  the  manufacturer  the  privilege  of  founding  in  tlie  Uni- 
versity a  Temporary  Industrial  Fellowsliip  for  the  investigation 
of  a  specific  problem,  the  solution  of  which  would  mutually 
and  materially  benefit  both  the  manufacturer  himself  and  the 
public. '2' 

Two  years  later,  quite  by  chance,  Andrew  W.  Mellon's 
attention  was  called  indirectly  to  industrial  fellowships 
through  a  chemical  discovery  made  in  France,  which 
he  passed  on  to  the  chief  chemist  of  the  Gulf  Oil  Com- 
pany. The  latter  reported  that  the  discovery  had  no 
practical  value  and  to  prove  his  statement  sent  Mellon 
a  copy  of  a  book  called  The  Chemistry  of  Commerce  by 
Robert  Kennedy  Duncan.  In  the  last  chapter  of  that 
book  Mellon  read  of  the  plan  for  industrial  fellowships. 
Both  he  and  his  brother,  Richard  B.  Mellon,  felt  that 
an  institution  based  upon  Duncan's  ideas  would  be  a 
strong  force  in  the  direction  of  improving  the  standard 
of  living  through  discoveries  and  inventions. '^^  Con- 
sequently they  invited  Duncan  to  come  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pittsbiu'gh  ami  establish  the  system  there.  He 
accepted,  and  in  1911  the  first  research  fellows  began 
their  work  in  temporary  quarters.  As  the  result  of  a 
substantial  gift  from  Andrew  and  Richard  Mellon  in 
1915,  the  system  was  placed  upon  a  permanent  basis 
as  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research.  Duncan 
died  in  1914  and  was  succeeded  as  Director  by  Dr. 
Raymond  F.  Bacon,  the  former  associate  director.  He 
in  turn  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Edward  R.  Weidlein,  the 
present  director.  Although  allied  cooperatively  with 
the  University  of  Pittsburgh,  Mellon  Institute  has  its 
own  building,  endowment,  and  management.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1927. 

Under  the  Industrial  Fellowship  System,  an  individ- 
ual or  a  company  with  a  problem  to  solve  may  become 
the  donor  of  a  fellowship  by  contributing  to  the  institute 
a  definite  sum  of  money  for  a  period  of  not  less  than 
1  year.  The  funds  so  donated  are  used  to  pay  the 
salary  and  research  expenses  of  the  man  or  men  selected 

'"  Duncan,  R.  K.  Temporary  Industrial  fellowships.  North  American  Review 
185,  57  (1907). 

'W  Mellon,  Andrew.  Address  for  the  founders.  Induttrial  and  Engineering  Chem- 
istrv  (JVewj  Ed.),  IS,  187  (May  10, 1037). 


72 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


to  rnrrv  out  tho  dosirod  invcstifjation,  and  the  institute 
furiiislies  sucli  fncilitics  as  arc  necessary  for  the  conduct 
of  the  work.  The  results  obtained  belong  exclusively 
to  the  donor,  and  patents  are  assigned  to  him.  Wliere 
secrecy  is  necessary,  the  institute  tai^cs  every  precau- 
tion to  secure  it,  but  often,  after  a  reasonable  time,  the 
knowledge  obtained  by  the  various  researches  is,  with 
the  consent  of  tlie  donor,  made  •rciioially  availaijle 
through  publication. 

The  soundness  of  the  Industrial  Fellowship  Sj'stem 
and  the  success  it  has  had  are  clearly  indicated  by  the 
statistics  of  its  growth.  During  the  academic  year 
1911-12,  the  first  year  that  the  system  was  in  operation 
at  the  l^nivcrsity  of  Pilts])urgli,  2.S  fellows  were  en- 
gaged. From  March  1939  to  March  1,  1940,  91  fellow- 
ships required  the  services  of  107  fellows  and  lOfi 
assistants.'-' 

A  new  building,  dedicated  in  1937,  has  made  it  pos- 
sible for  Mellon  Institute  to  expand  its  activities,  and 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  twenty-seventh 
annual  report  of  the  director,  Dr.  Weidlcin  states  that 
fundamental  research  in  technology  and  pure  science 
is  becoming  a  more  important  part  of  the  institute's 
worl<. 

Other  Research  Institutes 

In  recent  years  other  research  institutes  have  been 
founded  at  several  universities  and  colleges,  among 
them  the  Institute  of  Paper  Chemistry  at  Lawrence 
College  in  1929,  the  Purdue  Research  Foundation  at 
Purdue  University  in  1930;  the  Research  Foundation 
of  the  Armour  Institute  of  Technology  in  1936;  and  the 
Ohio  State  University  Research  Foundation  the  same 
year.  The  object  of  all  these  research  foundations  is 
to  cooperate  with  industry  in  the  solution  of  pure  and 
applied  research  problems,  to  the  end  that  the  univer- 
sity, the  general  public,  and  the  industry  itself  shall  be 
substantially  benefited. 

Commercial  Laboratories 

Before  the  trained  chemist,  physicist,  or  metallurgist 
found  much  opportunity  for  regular  employment  in 
industry,  lie  fre(|uently  served  as  a  consultant  on  special 
problems.  Nfcmbers  of  the  faculties  at  universities 
and  technical  schools  did  most  of  the  consulting  work 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  but  some  courageous  indi- 
viduals, sensing  the  growing  inclination  of  industrialists 
to  consult  specialists,  established  private  laboratories 
where  advice  could  be  purchased  and  materials  could 
be  tested  and  analyzed. 

Two  such  laboratories  were  opened  in  1836;  one  in 
Boston  by  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson,  and  one  in  Phila- 
delphia by  Dr.  James  C.  Booth. 

i»  Uanior.  \V.  A.    Pure  and  applied  science  research  at  Mellon  Institute,  1939-40. 
Science,  91, 10711.  (1940). 


Charles  T.  Jackson 

Jackson  made  geological  surveys  for  the  States  of 
Maine,  Rhode  Island,  and  New  Hampshire  and  for 
tlie  Federal  Ciovernment  on  public  lands  in  the  region 
of  Lake  Superior.  He  experimented  in  Ids  laboratory 
with  the  narcotic  effects  of  ether  and  showed  Dr. 
W.  T.  G.  Morton,  a  Boston  dentist,  how  to  adiniiiLster 
it  before  extracting  a  i)atient's  tooth.  He  was  the  lirst 
to  make  a  chemical  study  of  sorghum  and  to  call 
attention  to  the  vast  economic  jiossibilities  of  cotton- 
seed. His  laboratory  offered  unusual  o])])ort unities  for 
a  varied  experience  in  tiie  prai-tical  applications  of 
cheinistrv,  and  it  was  here  that  \\'il]iani  Channing, 
Richard  Cro.ssley,  and  Benjaniin  Siiliiiian,  Jr.,  among 
others,  received  some  of  their  (raining. 

James  C.  Booth 

After  studying  with  Wohler  in  Hesse-Cassel  and  with 
Magnus  in  Berlin,  James  C.  Booth  returned  to  I'liila- 
deljjhia  and  openetl  a  student  laboratory  where  men 
could  receive  personal  instruction  in  applied  chemistry. 
In  1S60  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  interest 
iron  manufacturers  in  a  S3'stem  of  control  analysis  of 
iron  ores. 

.  .  .  He  was  tlic  first  cliemist  in  tlie  United  States  to  use  the 
polariscope  for  testing  sugar;  lie  investigated  the  production  of 
gelatin;  made  studies  of  tlie  ores  of  iron,  nickel,  and  other  metals; 
served  as  melter  and  refiner  of  the  United  States  Mint  at  Phila- 
delphia; and  acted  as  consultant  and  analyst  for  many  chemical 
industries.'-' 

This  laboratory,  which  in  1878  became  the  firm  of 
Booth,  Garrett,  and  Blair,  was  the  training  school  for 
many  chemists  who  later  achieved  distinction. 

Arthur  D.  Little,  Inc. 

As  a  chemist  to  the  Richmond  Paper  Company  at 
Rumford.  R.  L,  whose  mill  was  the  first  one  in  the 
United  States  to  manufacture  wood  pulp  by  the  sulfite 
process  invented  by  B.  C.  Tilglmiarm,  Dr.  Arthur  D. 
Little  began  his  career.  In  1886,  however.  Little 
formed  a  partnership  with  Roger  B.  Griffin,  who  had 
specialized  in  chemistry  under  Professor  Sabin  at  the 
University  of  Vermont,  and  they  opened  a  laboratory 
for  carrying  on  business  ".  .  .  as  chemical  engineei-s, 
analytical  and  consulting  chemists,  and  for  doing  expert 
and  general  laboratory  work.  .  .  ."  The  firm  was  not 
started  under  ideal  conditions;  it  was  located  in  Boston 
on  the  sixth  floor  of  a  building  in  which  a  temperamental 
elevator,  more  often  than  not,  made  it  necessary  for 
clients  to  walk  up.  More  threatening  to  their  chance 
for  success,  however,  was  the  general  attitude  of  sus- 
picion toward  chemists.  In  fact  Sir  William  Crookes 
had  just  published  an  editorial  in  Chemical  News  in 

■"  Browne,  C  A.    Tlie  history  ol  chemical  education  In  America  between  the  years 
1820-1S79.    Journal  of  Chemical  Educalivn,  9,  714  (April  1932). 


Industrial  Research 


73 


which  he  expressed  the  conviction  that  it  was  no  longer 
possible  to  hojie  that  a  gentleman  might  secure  a 
liveliliood  by  the  practice  of  analytical  chemistry. 
Some  of  the  difliculties  whicli  faced  consulting  cliem- 
ists  in  those  da^'s  have  been  described  by  Dr.  Little: 

.  .  .  Tlie  impression  prevailed  tliat  their  reported  results  were 
influenced  by  the  interests  of  their  clients.  It  was  charged 
that  they  frequently  took  commissions  for  recommending 
products,  processes,  and  equipment,  and  they  were  certainly 
for  the  most  part  everywliere  underpaid..  .  Five  dollars  was 
the  ruling  price  for  a  sanitary  analysis  of  water,  and  7r)((  for  tlie 
analysis  of  a  sample  of  raw  sugar.  We  gave  up  testing  sugar 
on  the  day  when  a  composite  sample  representing  6,000  tons  of 
sugar  was  brought  to  us  for  test  at  that  figure.  Clients  almost 
without  exception  refused  to  pay  charges  for  consultations  and 
considered  that  the  submission  of  a  $3.00  sample  for  analysis 
entitled  them  to  discussion  of  its  use,  eflocts,  and  merits  with 
no  limitation  as  to  time.'-' 

The  testing  of  sugar,  however,  proviilcd  most  of  the 
work  of  the  commercial  chemists  in  Boston  at  this  time, 
and,  in  spite  of  its  previous  experience  with  the  6,000- 
ton  batch,  the  firm  soon  obtained  the  major  portion  of 
this  work  by  buying  the  business  of  H.  Rathgens  upon 
his  retirement.  Later  a  few  additional  clients  were 
secured  by  buying  out  another  chemist  by  the  name  of 
Austin. 

Early  in  1S93  Griffin  suffered  a  fatal  injury  in  the 
laboratory,  and  only  after  some  hesitation  and  doubt 
did  Little  decide  to  carry  on  the  business  alone.  He  did 
so  for  7  years,  and  then  formed  a  partnership  with 
William  IL  Walker. 

In  1S99  a  group  of  Delaware  capitalists  sent  Dr. 
Little  to  Em-ope  with  a  representative  of  their  group  to 
study  the  commerciid  production  of  "viscose,"  a  com- 
pound which  had  been  discovered  in  1893  by  Cross, 
Bevan  &  Beadle,  a  well-known  firm  of  cellulose  chemists 
in  London.  Little's  report  pointed  to  such  important 
possibilities  that  a  second  trip  was  made  to  confirm  the 
facts.  As  a  result  of  this  trip,  the  Cellulose  Products 
Company  was  organized. 

In  1918  Lord  Shaugnessy,  president  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  asked  Arthur  D.  Little,  Inc.,  to  or- 
ganize and  carry  forward  a  survey  of  the  natural  re- 
soiu-ces  of  Canada  for  the  purpose,  primarily,  of  pointing 
out  the  industrial  opportunities  of  the  country.  The 
work  proved  to  be  so  important  for  Canada  that  it  was 
later  transferred  to  the  Council  for  Scientific  and  Indus- 
trial Research,  and  thus  became  an  activity  of  the 
Canadian  Government. 

A  particularly  interesting  result  followed  from  an 
anah'sis  of  a  German  product  marketed  under  the 
name  of  "Lactarine."  It  was  brought  to  the  labora- 
tory by  AVilliam  A.  Hall,  who  manufactured  in  Bellows 
Falls,  Vt.,  a  water  paint  consisting  of  a  mixture  of 
ground  g>-psum  and  glue.     He  had  foimd  that  when 


Lactarine  was  used  in  place  of  glue  in  his  paint,  it  made 
the  coating  insoluble  wlien  dry.  Lactarine  proved  to  be 
a  mi.xture  of  casein  and  lime,  but  it  could  not  be  im- 
ported for  less  than  30  cents  a  pound — a  figure  which, 
for  Hall's  purpose,  was  prohibitive.  After  proving  to 
Ilall  that  casein  could  be  produced  from  skunmed  milk, 
the  company  was  commissioned  to  work  out  commercial 
methods  for  its  manufacture.  The  problem,  although 
not  an  easy  one,  was  finally  solved,  and  the  Casein 
Company  of  America  was  soon  doing  a  business  of 
$2,000  a  day.  The  research  had  cost  Hall  a  little  over 
$700. 

Little's  success  in  giving  exi)ert  testimony  in  numerous 
l)atont  suits  also  added  to  his  reputation  and  that  of  his 
company.  Among  the  famous  cases  in  which  he  served 
as  technical  advisor  were  those  involving  the  infringe- 
ments of  the  Schultz  patents  for  (chrome  tanning  leather, 
the  Malignani  and  Howell  patents  for  the  evacuation 
of  incanch^scent  electric  lamps,  and  the  \Valdsrode 
smokeless  powder  patent. 

A  pioneer  in  the  establishment  of  commercial 
research  laboratories,  Little  was  also  a  pioneer  in  arous- 
ing American  industry  to  the  importance  of  research 
and  in  vitalizing  the  teaching  of  chemical  engineering. 
In  fact,  in  spite  of  the  notable  achievements  of  his 
laboratory,  he  once  wrote  that  his— 

.  .  .  most  significant  contributions  had  been  (first)  the  preaching 
of  the  gospel  of  industrial  research  during  many  years  when 
manufacturers  had  no  conception  of  what  research  meant  and 
were  profoundly  skeptical  of  the  value  of  cliemistry  to  them; 
(and,  second,  the)  conception  of  the  new  method  of  teaching 
chemical  engineering  which,  is  embodied  in  the  School  of  Chem- 
ical Engineering  Practice  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  and  which  has  been  adopted  by  other  institutions."' 

For  years  he  spoke  and  \vrote  in  an  inimitable  style 
of  the  possibilities  of  research,  beseeching  industrialists 
to  see  "the  handwriting  on  the  wall." 

Miner  Laboratories 

The  Miner  Laboratories  of  Chicago,  foimded  in  1906 
as  a  partnership  of  A.  P.  Bryant  and  Carl  S.  Miner, 
but  now  under  the  ownership  and  direction  of  the  latter, 
has  developed  from  an  organization  engaged  primarily 
in  analyses  for  industries  utihzing  the  products  of  mid- 
western  agriculture  to  one  whose  major  activities  are 
now  in  the  field  of  industrial  research. 

Its  first  significant  researches  were  those  conducted 
during  the  period  1910  to  1915  in  connection  with 
patent  litigations.  This  work  led  ultimately  to  the 
establishment  of  a  fellowship  for  the  study  of  certain 
problems  connected  with  the  business  of  manufacturing 
molded  plastic  products.  Other  research  followed 
rapidly,  much  of  it  again  in  connection  with  patent 
litisralion. 


"'  Little,  K.  D     .Manuscrip 


•"  Little.    See  footnote  128 


74 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


A  largo  amount  of  analytiral  work  for  the  food 
industry  led  to  research  on  ways  of  improving  the 
marketabihty  of  oat  hulls,  then  utilized  maiidy  as  a 
feed  material.  As  a  result  of  this  research,  the  pro- 
duction of  furfural  was  developed  on  an  industrial  scale. 
The  publicity  tliat  resulted  from  this  development  was 
probably  largely  responsible  for  bringing  the  Miner 
Laboratories  into  notice  as  an  agency  for  industrial 
research,  and  since  the  early  1920's  industrial  research 
has  increased,  until  it  now  constitutes  about  80  percent 
of  the  activities  of  the  laboratories. 

The  plan  for  conducting  research  most  frequently 
takes  the  form  of  fcllowsliips  under  which  one  or  more 
chemists  devote  their  efforts  to  single  or  multiple 
problems  of  a  client  in  the  laboratories  of  the  organiza- 
tion. In  other  cases,  however,  work  is  carried  on  in  the 
laboratory  of  a  client  having  no  research  department 
other  than  the  men  working  wholly  under  the  supervi- 
sion of  the  Miner  Laboratories.  In  still  other  instances 
the  Miner  Laboratories'  directing  group  cooperates  with 
the  research  departments  of  clients  in  the  planning  and 
directing  of  research. 

Other  Commercial  Laboratories 

Many  other  conimercial  consulting  laboratories  such 
as  the  Barrow -Agee  Laboratories,  Memphis,  Tenn.; 
Gustavus  J.  Esselen,  Inc.,  Boston,  Mass.;  Arthur  R. 
Maas  Laboratories,  Los  Angeles,  Calif.;  Lucius  R. 
I'itkiu,  Inc.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.;  Foster  D.  Snell, 
Inc.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  and  Weiss  and  Downs,  New 
York  City,  N.  Y.,  are  making  valuable  contributions  to 
industrial  progress  by  conducting  important  research 
projects. 

Testing  Laboratories 
Electrical  Testing  Laboratories 

Electrical  Testing  Laboratories  began  in  1896  as  the 
Lamp  Testing  Bureau  of  the  Association  of  Edison 
Illuminating  Companies.  Its  initial  activity  was  the 
inspection  and  testing  of  incandescent  lamps  for  about 
60  of  the  light  and  power  companies  which  were  licensees 
under  the  Thomas  A.  Edison  patents.  Soon,  however, 
the  defects  in  incandescent  lamps  led  to  a  program  of 
research  which  has  been  repeatedly  extended  as  the 
number  or  types  of  lamps  has  been  increased  and  as 
electric  lighting  has  grown  in  importance,  until  the 
company's  research  in  the  performance  of  lamps  now 
covers  all  lamp  products  made  in  the  L^nited  States. 
Before  a  standard  of  candle  power  was  provided  by  the 
National  Bureau  of  Standards,  Electrical  Testing 
Laboratories  maintained  one  for  the  electrical  industry. 

In  1002  the  Lamp  Testing  Bureau  was  incorporated; 
in  1904  the  name  was  changed  to  Electrical  Testing 
Laboratories,   and   the  business  expanded   to  include 


general  electrical  testing,  chemical  testing,  mechanical 
testing,  radiometric,  and  photographic  testing.  In 
addition  to  serving  about  30  different  industries  through 
general  testing  work,  the  company  has  made  tests  for 
engineers  and  munufaclurers;  furnished  standards  of 
various  types  to  universities,  other  laboratories,  and  to 
manufacturing  organizations;  certified  to  the  raanufac- 
tincrs  of  numerous  electrical  products  that  their  j)rod- 
ucts  comply  with  the  specifications  of  the  industry;  and 
carried  on  research  for  manufacturers  ami  promoters. 

The  Meter  Code,  under  which  all  light  and  i)ower 
companies  buy  meters  and  metering  equipment,  was 
written  originally  at  the  Electrical  Testing  LaVjoratories 
under  the  joint  committee  of  the  Association  of  Edison 
Illuminating  Companies  and  the  National  Electric  Light 
Association.  After  several  revisions,  this  code  now 
constitutes  a  national  standard  by  which  the  utility 
companies  and  the  meter  manufacturers  determine  the 
quality  and  operation  of  watt-hour  meters  and  associated 
apparatus.  The  Electrical  Testing  Laboratories  was 
also  intimately  connected  with  a  study  of  electric 
cables  and  the  establishment  of  standard  specifications 
for  lead-covered,  paper-insulated,  high-voltage  cable. 
In  1931  the  company  began  exhaustive  tests  upon  elec- 
trical appliances.  These  tests  brought  to  light  many 
defects  in  the  construction  of  appliances  and  led  indirectly 
to  improvements  in  them,  including  better  insulation 
and  other  safeguards  against  electrical  shock. 

At  present  the  company  is  engaged  in  research  in  the 
field  of  fluorescent  lighting  in  order  to  establish  proper 
specifictitions  for  operation  and  design. 

Robert  W.  Hunt  and  Company 

Captain  Robert  W.  Hunt,  who  superintended  the 
building  of  the  experimental  Bessemer  convertors  at 
Wyandotte,  Mich.,  and  directed  the  first  commercial 
rolling  of  steel  rails  at  the  Cambria  Works  in  1807, 
founded  the  Robert  W.  Hunt  &  (\)nipanj'  laboratory  in 
1888.  It  was  the  result  primarily  of  his  conviction  of 
the  value  of  inspections  and  tests  to  l)Oth  manufacturer 
and  purchaser  and  of  his  l)elief  thai  the  testing  could  be 
done  more  efficiently  and  economically  by  a  company 
of  impartial  engineers  organized  to  represent  many 
purchasers. 

At  first  the  work  of  the  laboratory  was  confined  prin- 
cipally to  the  inspection  of  rail  steel,  but  was  later 
expanded  to  include  tests  of  other  railway  materials  and 
equipment.  As  cement  and  steel  came  to  be  used  in  the 
building  industries,  the  laboratory's  staff  and  equip- 
ment were  increased  to  cover  the  inspection  and  tests  of 
the  new  materials.  Gradually  branch  laboratories  and 
oflTices  were  established  in  many  of  the  large  cities  in  the 
United  States  and  in  some  European  countries. 

Although  the  laboratory  has  continued  to  be  one 
primarily  for  inspection  and  testing  purposes,  its  chem- 


Industrial  Research 


75 


ical,  metallurgical,  X-ray,  photomicropirapliic  and  phys- 
ical testing  laboratories  are  equipped  and  staffed  for 
some  research. 

Pittsburgh  Testing  Laboratory 

In  1879  Dr.  Gustav  Lindenthal,  a  bridge  builder, 
went  to  Pittsburgh;  with  him  went  ^Villiam  Kent  and 
William  F.  Zimmerman  to  act  as  inspectors  of  steel  on 
his  projects.  In  the  course  of  their  work  at  the  Dia- 
mond Iron  &  Steel  Co.  they  met  Alfred  E.  Hunt,  super- 
intendent of  the  open  hearth  plant,  ami  George  H. 
Clapp,  the  plant  chemist.  Kent  and  Zimmerman 
organized  the  Pittsburgh  Testing  Laboratory  in  1881; 
Hunt  and  Clapp  joined  forces  with  them  later  and  in 
1887  bought  them  out. 

One  of  the  outstanding  achievements  of  the  Pitts- 
burgh Testing  Laboratory  was  the  proof  in  1888  that 
the  Hall  process  would  produce  aluminum  on  a  commer- 
cial scale.  For  several  years  the  laboratory  exercised 
control  over  the  production  of  alummum  bj'  the  Pitts- 
burgh Reduction  Company. 

The  testing  of  portland  cement  was  also  a  pioneer 
activity  of  the  laboratory,  for  which,  at  one  time,  the 
company  had  branch  laboratories  in  many  of  the  large 
cement  mills  in  the  colmtrJ^  Although  the  company 
still  tests  a  great  deal  of  cement,  the  branch  laboratories 
have  long  since  been  taken  over  by  the  mills  themselves. 

The  laboratorj-  inspected  the  steel  for  such  structures 
as  Brooklyn  Bridge,  the  bridge  over  the  Firth  of  Forth 
in  Scotland,  and  International  Bridge  over  the  Niagara 
River  at  Niagara  Falls. 

In  the  sense  that  research  frequentlj'  involves  a  suc- 
cession of  suitable  tests,  each  one  depending  upon  an 
analysis  of  the  results  of  preceding  tests,  the  Pittsburgh 
Testing  Laboratory,  as  well  as  other  testing  labor- 
atories, can  be  said  to  do  some  industrial  research. 

The  United  States  Testing  Company,  Inc. 

The  United  States  Testing  Company,  Inc.,  developed 
from  the  needs  of  a  particular  industry.  Prior  to  1872 
the  raw  silk  used  m  the  manufacture  of  merchandise  in 
the  United  States  came  principally  from  China,  Italy, 
and  France.  Conditioning  houses  in  France  and  Italy 
determined  the  size,  quality,  gum  and  water  content  of 
much  of  the  raw  silk  that  was  sent  to  the  United  States, 
but  no  facilities  existed  for  getting  similar  information 
regarding  the  raw  silk  from  China.  As  a  step  toward 
a  remedy  for  this  situation.  The  Silk  Association  of 
America,  Inc.,  was  formed  in  1872.  Its  first  report 
contained  a  recommendation  that  a  conditioning  house 
be  established  in  New  York  City. 

In  September  1880,  Messrs.  Poidebard  and  Muzard 
issued  a  printed  announcement  to  the  silk  trade  that 
they  were  establishing  the  New  York  Silk  and  Wool 
Conditioning  Works.    After  a  diflBcult  career  financially, 


the  company,  whose  name  had  meanwhile  been  changed 
to  the  New  York  Silk  Conditioning  Works,  was  merged  in 
1909  with  the  United  States  Silk  Conditioning  Company, 
which  hail  been  incorporated  in  1907.  After  D.  E. 
Douty,  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards,  became 
general  manager  in  1913,  the  company's  activities  were 
so  greatly  extended  that  the  original  name  no  longer 
accurately  indicated  the  work  of  the  company  and,  in 
1920,  it  was  changed  to  the  United  States  Testing 
Company,  Inc. 

With  the  hiring  of  a  chemist  in  1911,  the  directors 
of  the  company  initiated  the  research  which  is  now  con- 
ducted on  pro])lems  relating  to  the  textile  industry  and 
to  the  designing,  developing,  and  numufacturing  of 
standard  instruments  and  apparatus.  In  1928  the  com- 
pany developed  tints  which  were  fugitive  and  would 
eliminate  the  then  prevalent  fabric  defects  due  to  the 
use  of  unsuitable  dyes.  Continued  research  has  since 
developed  a  greater  range  of  shades  and  at  the  same 
time  produced  tints  suitable  for  rayon  and  acetates, 
spun  viscose,  wool,  and  silk. 

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SECTION    II 
2.    RESEARCH— A    RESOURCE    TO    SMALL    COMPANIES 

By  Fairfield  E.  Raymond 
Administrative  Assistant,  National  Industrial  Conference  Board,  Inc.,  New  York,  N.  Y.    Special  Contributor,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


ABSTRACT 


This  report  on  research  in  I  lie  small  coiiijiaiiy  is 
based  on  a  statistical  study  of  50  companies  located  in  0 
industrial  centers  of  New  England.  They  range  in 
size  from  33  wage  earners  to  1,500,  and  in  total  assets 
from  $150,000  to  $2,500,000.  In  addition  to  this 
statistical  survey  a  considerable  number  of  other  small 
companies  was  studied  to  give  a  broader  basis  for  the 
generalizations  of  the  report. 

The  outstanding  feature  of  the  small  company  is 
its  technical  uniqueness — in  respect  to  a  process,  a 
product,  a  service  to  industry,  or  a  selected  market. 

Research,  which  for  the  small  company  is  "organized 
fact-finding,"  is  carried  on  by  the  company  itself  in 
varying  degrees  of  complexity  of  organization,  and  is 
besides  the  product  of  collaboration  with  research 
agencies,  technical  institutions,  suppliers,  equipment 
manufacturers,  customers,  and  even  competitors.  In 
the  small  company  it  is  usually  very  individualistic, 
relying  on  the  inspiration  of  one  or  a  few  executives. 


There  is  no  apparent  relation  between  the  size  of  the 
company  and  the  amount  of  research  carried  on  as 
evidenced  bj'  the  number  of  research  workers,  kind  of 
research  organization,  or  number  of  fields  of  research. 
The  determining  factor  seems  rather  to  be  the  kind  of 
process  or  product. 

The  small  company  can  be  self-sufficient  in  the  matter 
of  immediate  product  or  process  developments,  but 
for  research  which  is  concerned  with  the  long-range  type 
of  development  it  needs  the  help  of  outside  agencies. 
This  includes  the  use  of  private  research  laboratories, 
technical  institutions,  and  the  buying  or  licensing  of 
new  developments  from  individuals  or  other  companies. 
Such  use,  however,  is  markedly  intermittent. 

Additional  resources  in  research  for  the  small  com- 
pany are  in  the  participations  by  their  [)ersonnel  in  the 
activities  of  professional  societies,  the  informal  exchange 
of  information  among  staff  and  clients  and  suppliers, 
and  especially  current  technical  literature. 


Place  of  Research  in  Small  Enterprises 

A  striking  feature  that  marks  the  place  of  many  a 
small  company  and  explains  its  existence  as  a  vital 
factor  in  our  industrial  economy  is  its  technical  unique- 
ness. Through  the  initiative  of  an  individual  or  through 
the  force  of  circumstances  these  small  companies  create 
a  unique  position  for  themselves  by  providing  services 
or  products  that  are  too  specialized  for  larger  corpora- 
tions to  supply  profitably.  As  an  extreme  example,  we 
have  the  very  small  concerns  operated  by  tradesmen  or 
craftsmen  whose  claim  to  uniqueness  is  largely  a  per- 
sonal service  to  a  particular  clientele  in  the  comnnmity. 
There  are  also  those  innumerable  proprietors  of  small 
businesses  who  cater  to  the  needs  of  a  locality  and  who 
manufacture  with  a  certain  amount  of  ingenuity 
products  which  for  the  most  part  are  in  common  use. 
Again,  we  have  the  inventor  type  who  has  succeeded  in 
building  a  small  business  around  some  technical 
specialty  for  which  there  is  but  a  limited  demand. 
78 


The  more  consequential  small  company  for  which 
research  begins  to  be  a  factor  falls  largely  into  the 
following  categories.  It  may  be  foumled  upon  some 
specialized  branch  of  technology,  for  example  the 
development  and  manufacture  of  a  special  type  of  gas 
engine  for  use  in  outboard  motors.  It  may  cater  in  a 
technical  way  to  a  selected  market,  as  does  the  manu- 
facturer of  sporting  goods,  such  as  fishing  rods  and  flies. 
It  may  offer  a  unique  technical  product  to  industrj', 
as  for  instance  some  small  suppliers  to  the  automotive 
industry,  such  as  the  makers  of  windshield  wipers.  Or 
it  may  offer  a  unicjue  engineering  service  to  industry, 
as,  for  example,  do  production  die  makers. 

To  obtain  a  measure  of  the  extent  to  which  research 
proves  to  be  a  resource  to  the  small  compjvny,  a  lim- 
ited though  representative  sample  of  50  such  companies 
has  been  examined.  In  addition  to  these  50,  on  which 
the  statistical  study  in  this  report  is  based,  a  consider- 
able number  of  others  has  been  studied  to  give  greater 


Industrial  Research 


79 


validity  to  the  generalizations  drawn.  Outstanding 
concerns  were  selected  for  stiuly  in  6  industrial  centers 
in  New  England.  This  is  not,  then,  a  typical  sample 
of  the  small  company,  for  the  purpose  is  not  to  present 
a  cross  section  of  the  industry  hut  rather  to  present 
the  clearest  examples  of  the  extent  to  which  research 
has  proved  of  benefit  to  the  small  company.  For  this 
purpose,  obviously,  companies  of  little  technical  accom- 
plishment would  add  little  to  our  Icnowledge  and  so 
they  have  been  neglected  in  order  to  concentrate  at- 
tention on  more  successful  research  methods.  But  in 
the  latter  category  as  much  diversity  as  possible  was 
achieved  in  location,  type,  and  size. 

The  50  companies  of  the  sample  range  in  size  from 
33  wage  earners  to  1,500.  Their  total  assets,  as  repre- 
sentative of  capital  employed  in  the  business,  range 
for  the  majority  from  slightly  over  $150,000  up  to 
$2,500,000,  wliile  7  companies  having  somewhat  larger 
total  assets  were  included  in  order  to  provide  a  connect- 
ing link  between  the  typical  sample  of  small  company 
and  those  of  larger  proportion.  To  provide  sufficient 
diversification,  the  companies  investigated  include 
those  that  were  manufacturers  of  machine  tools,  process 
equipment,  control  instruments,  prime  movers,  mechan- 
ical appliances,  metal  products,  rubber,  leather,  tex- 
tiles, foods,  drugs,  pharmaceutical  supplies,  and  a  lim- 
ited number  of  consumer  goods. 

Extent  of  Research  in  Small  Enterprises 

Research  for  the  small  company  must  be  viewed  on 
the  basis  of  the  defuiition  of  Dr.  C.  F.  Hirshfeld,  the 
late  director  of  research  for  the  Detroit  Edison  Company, 
"research  consists  of  organized  fact-finding."'  It  then 
becomes  a  question  of  the  extent  to  which  organized 
fact  finding  has  been  carried  by  companies  witliin  this 
category.  The  markedly  different  circumstances  of 
the  field  of  business,  the  character  of  the  market,  the 
complexity  of  technology,  and  the  severity  of  competi- 
tion make  it  difficult  to  draw  specific  conclusions.  The 
outstanding  fact  is  that,  whatever  be  the  extent  of  or- 
ganized fact-finding  among  small  businesses,  research 
in  the  broadest  sense  gives  to  such  concerns  a  resource 
for  rendering  a  imique  technical  service  to  industry  or 
the  community  whereby  they  hold  tlieir  place  in  com- 
petition. These  companies  draw  in  turn  upon  teclmi- 
cal  institutions,  suppliers,  equipment  manufacturers, 
customers,  and  at  times  competitors,  for  technical  de- 
velopments to  supplement  their  own  activities. 

The  small  enterprise  has  the  option  of  carrying  on 
whatever  sort  of  research  it  can  afford,  of  developing  its 
own  technique,  of  training  its  own  technicians  and 
experts,  of  acquiring  new  knowledge  by  hiring  trained 
engineers   or  by   participating  in   professional-society 

■  Davis,  H.  N.*  and  Davies,  C.  E.    Industrial  research  by  mecbaoical  engineers. 
This  volume,  p.  329. 


activities,  by  paying  for  the  services  of  consultants  or 
scientists,  by  financing  s|)ocific  research  projects  through 
technical  institutions,  or  by  buying  outright  new  tech- 
nical developments  or  inventions  from  individuals  or 
other  coinpaiiics.  These  o[)tions  are  not,  of  course, 
mutuallj'  exclusive;  a  company  may  use  first  one  and 
then  another  as  the  need  arises,  or  more  than  one  may 
be  utilized  simultaneously.  In  fact,  the  intermittent 
and  irregular  use  of  such  kinds  of  research  is  the  most 
striking  characteristic  of  its  use  by  the  small  company. 
Research  is  thus  ])oth  a  dire(;t  and  indirect  resource  to 
the  small  enterprise;  it  benefits  not  only  from  its  findings 
but  also  from  the  contributions  it  is  able  to  make  to 
others. 

The  importance  of  research  to  the  small  enterprise  is 
brought  out  by  the  fact  that  12  of  the  companies 
interviewed  admit  that  should  they  immediately  cease 
all  forms  of  organized  fact  finding  in  which  they  are 
now  engaged,  they  would  be  forced  out  of  business 
within  a  year,  while  17  would  be  seriously  affected  by 
the  loss  of  competitive  position  that  would  immediately 
ensue.  Six  others  acknowledge  that  after  a  period  of 
approximately  3  years  they  would  forego  all  technical 
uniqueness.  On  the  other  hand,  13  companies  whose 
distinctive  position  rests  more  in  serving  a  selected  or 
regional  market  or  in  acknowledged  consumer  goodwill 
recognize  that  the  cessation  of  research  would  only 
inhibit  the  long-term  growth  of  the  company.  Only  2 
companies  went  so  far  as  to  assert  that  the  technology 
of  their  field  had  become  so  well  developed  that  any 
effect  would  be  merely  incidental. 

Of  the  competitive  forces  that  impel  small  companies 
to  undertake  research,  two  are  of  primary  importance. 
The  first  is  the  need  to  satisfy  the  specific  teclmical 
requirements  of  industrial  customers;  an  example  would 
be  the  manufacture  of  machine  tools  for  specialized 
operations.  The  second  is  the  necessity  the  small 
company  faces  of  meeting  technical  competition  wath 
unique  developments  of  its  own,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
development  of  impregnated  fabrics  in  such  articles  as 
shoe  laces.  Of  almost  equal  significance  is  the  expressed 
desire  of  small  entrepreneurs  to  excel  in  a  specialized 
field  of  technology  or  to  establish  themselves  in  a  sector 
of  a  market  which  they  are  peculiarly  qualified  to  serve. 
An  example  of  this  last  would  be  the  manufacture  of 
vitamins  and  hormones.  In  a  few  instances  the  small 
company  holds  the  position  of  pioneer  on  the  frontier 
of  nn  evolving  art,  as  in  the  use  of  cast  beryllium  copper 
for  molds  and  dies.  In  the  area  of  consumer  goods, 
factors  of  market  competition  take  precedence  over 
technical  considerations  in  determining  the  character  of 
research  activities.  In  many  retail  products,  for  ex- 
ample, the  package  is  likely  to  be  at  least  as  important 
as  the  product  and  the  elements  of  appearance  and 
style  are  given  much  attention. 


80 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


In  general  it  can  be  observed  thai  the  small  company 
creates  a  unique  place  for  itself  by  renderinp;  through 
its  research  a  specialized  technical  service  to  larger 
companies  or  supplies  a  distinctive  product  to  a  select 
market.  For  the  most  part  its  research  activities  are 
characterized  bj'  "organized  fact  finding"  of  an  immedi- 
ate and  practical  sort  not  necessarily  set  apart  in  a 
functional  unit,  while  those  of  large  companies  arc  of  a 
continuing  and  more  intensive  nature,  carried  on  m 
specially  organized  departments  or  laboiatories  and 
encompass  in  certain  instances  advanced  research 
which  the  small  companv'  can  rarely  afford. 

Character  of  Research  Activities 

In  fields  where  the  art  has  become  well  established 
with  less  prospect  of  consequential  technical  change, 
organized  fact  finding  assumes  the  aspect  of  those 
engineering  activities  essential  to  the  improvement  of 
product  or  process.  In  attempting  to  measure  the 
magnitude  of  research  among  small  enterprises,  the 
intent  was  to  determine  the  highest  type  that  was 
essential  for  a  company  to  maintain  its  competitive 
position.  Of  course,  these  companies  engage  as  well 
in  the  supplementary  technical  activities  of  a  lesser 
order  down  to  those  of  a  routine  or  practical  nature. 

Tlie  research  activities  of  small  comjianies  tend 
naturally  to  be  individualistic.  In  6  instances  a 
genius  of  the  inventor  type  is  the  moving  spirit  in 
developmentiil  work,  under  whose  direction  a  few  techni- 
cians carr\"  on  llir  ronlitie  tasks.      More  fref|ii('ntly,  as 


mSii^l 


'^IPC,^ 


Figure    11. — Laboratory  for   Developing  and   Testing  Refrac- 
tories, General  Refractories  Company,  Baltimore,  Maryland 


in  11  companies,  research  centers  in  a  close  group  of 
technically  trained  operating  executives.  In  9  other 
cases  a  technical  staff  has  been  built  up,  the  members 
of  which  are  individually  responsible  for  specific  activi- 
ties to  the  line  executives,  rather  than  constituting  a 
distinct  engineering  department. 

Although  there  is  no  clear-cut  line  of  demarcation, 
there  is  evident  a  correlation  between  the  size  of  the 
company  and  the  kind  of  unit  to  which  it  trusts  its 
research.  Separate  engineering  departments  are  found 
in  15  companies  of  our  sample  of  50,  and  these  com- 
panies employ  between  150  and  500  wage  earners. 
Departments  which  engage  in  both  engineering  and 
research  are  found  in  10  companies  which  range  in  size 
from  200  to  \J^()0  workers  although  3  companies  with 
smaller  personnel  have  similar  units.  Separate  units 
devoted  solely  to  process  engineering  appear  in  17 
companies.  These  17  cover  a  considerable  range  of 
size,  but  the  greater  number  of  these  units  are  in  fairly 
large  companies. 

Facilities  for  Research 

The  number  of  experts,  engineers,  and  technicians 
employed  in  research  b}'  small  companies  varies  without 
regard  to  size.  For  example,  in  the  group  of  companies 
employing  about  100,  there  is  1  concern  with  12  experts 
and  technicians  and  another  with  1."^.  The  number  in 
this  group,  however,  is  more  likely  to  run  between  3 
and  6.  At  the  other  extreme,  1  company  employing 
l.-^OO  has  only  10  experts  and  another  with  a  personnel 
of  1,200  has  but  15.  By  contrast  still  another  company 
employing  1,200  has  but  58  in  research.  The  factor 
which  determines  the  need  for  research  workers  is 
obviously  not  the  size  of  the  plant  nor  of  its  business, 
but  its  character.  In  some  cases  the  technical  activities 
are  a  responsibility  delegated  to  operating  executives, 
shop  superintendents,  or  foremen,  while  in  others 
separate  staffs  are  set  up  and  their  ninnbers  run,  as  we 
have  seen,  from  3  to  58.  In  12  companies  sales  engi- 
neers constitute  an  important  part  of  the  technical 
organization. 

Size  likewise  in  no  way  distinguishes  the  number  of 
technical  fields  represented  by  engineers  or  experts  in 
tlic  employ  of  small  companies.  The  technical  activi- 
ties of  11  companies  fall  wholly  into  1  field,  while  those 
of  22  companies  relate  to  2  major  fields.  Nine  com- 
panies, in  turn,  have  occasion  to  delve  into  3  such  fields, 
while  of  the  remaining  7,  G  operate  in  4  fields.  All  of 
these  companies  are  scattered  over  the  whole  range  of 
size,  and  there  is  no  apparent  relation  between  size 
and  the  number  of  fields.  Mechanical  and  electrical 
engineering,  together  with  metallurgy  or  chemical 
engineering,  were  the  technologies  most  frequently  en- 
countered in  the  study.  Of  course  other  fields  were 
represented    in   specific   cases,    but    the    variation    in 


Industrial  Research 


81 


number  appeared  to  depend  most  on  the  state  of  the 
art  m  the  industry,  that  is,  on  tlio  age  of  its  establish- 
ment and  on  the  degree  of  its  coniplexitj'. 

While  14  companies  have  no  specialized  facilities  for 
research  or  experimentation,  they  carry  on  such  activi- 
ties to  the  extent  that  opportunities  in  the  plant  permit. 
Fifteen  companies  have  laboratories  for  routine  testing, 
out  of  which  come  ideas  which  are  further  studied 
through  other  means.  A  model  shop  is  mauitained  by 
6  companies  and  an  experimental  unit  forms  a  part  of 
the  technical  activities  of  7  others.  Specialized  research 
equipment  has  been  installed  by  5  companies,  scattered 
throughout  the  whole  range  of  size  of  small  companies 
studied. 

The  continuity  of  activity  was  marked  testimony  to 
the  dependence  of  the  small  enterprise  on  research. 
Twenty-nine  companies  claimed  that,  having  built  up 
an  effective  teclmical  organization,  they  could  not 
afford  to  diminish  its  activity.     It  is  only  the  routine 


members  of  sucii  units  that  are  allowed  to  vary.  In 
fact,  8  com])ani('s  pointed  to  the  steady  growth  of  their 
technical  units.  Only  among  10  companies  where  the 
art  was  relatively  well  established  did  the  number  of 
trained  engineers  vary  with  the  needs  of  the  business. 
It  is  notable  that,  for  small  companies  able  to  cite 
figures,  research  expenditures  ranged  somewhat  above 
5  percent  of  net  sales  for  those  having  more  than  200 
factory  employees  and  as  much  as  8-10  percent  for 
those  with  fewer  wage  earners. 

In  contrast  to  the  organized  research  of  large  cor- 
porations, individual  elfort  characterizes  the  technical 
activities  of  the  small  company.  For  the  most  part, 
individuals  arc  given  the  responsibility  for  specific 
technical  work  and  only  informally  exchange  ideas  or 
knowledge  with  their  associates.  Thus  the  technical 
requirements  of  20  companies  come  more  witliin  Ihc 
area  of  individual  ingenuity  and  accumulated  practical 
experience.     Fifteen  of  these  companies  spoke  of  en- 


FiGURE   12. — Strips  of  Light-Polarizing  Film  Hanging  in  the  Luljorutory  of  Ihc  rulaiuid  Cur|jur;t(iuij,   Cauibriiit; 

The  Strips  Are  Transparent  Unless  Two  Are  Crossed  at  Right  Angles 


Massachusetts. 


82 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


couraging  such  cooperative  exrliaiige  of  information, 
while  only  7  recognized  that  collaborulion  was  essential 
because  of  interlocking  technology.  Because  the  small 
company  tends  to  carve  out  for  itself  a  unique  technical 
position,  the  engineering  work  of  11  such  companies 
has  become  more  highly  specialized,  while  19  companies 
are  faced  by  an  increasingly  complex  art. 

For  the  most  part,  the  small  company  as  represented 
by  34  of  the  50  companies  studied  prefer  to  hire  men 
with  broad  engineering  training,  while  5  had  occasion 
to  emploj^  scientifically  trained  experts.  Nine  other 
companies,  however,  look  primarily  to  one  of  the  owners 
or  a  chief  executive  who  is  of  the  inventor  type  or  genius 
for  their  technical  inspiration  and  developments.  On 
the  other  hand,  14  companies  rely  largely  for  their 
technical  persomiel  upon  long-service  executives,  while 
19  draw  much  of  their  technical  material  from  practi- 
cally trained  technicians  or  trade  school  graduates. 
Twenty  companies  emphasized  the  importance  for 
their  purposes  of  brmging  men  up  through  the  ranks 
with  company  training,  rather  than  drawing  upon  the 
sui)ply  of  college-trained  engineers,  which  is  the  resource 
of  technical  personnel  for  1 1  other  companies.  Thirteen 
companies  make  a  specific  point  of  periodically  brmging 
in  new  blood  in  the  form  of  graduates  fresh  from 
engineering  colleges. 

Dependence  Upon  Outside 
Research  Agencies 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  small  company  recognizes 
the  importance  of  research  to  the  extent  of  training 
its  own  specialists  or  hiring  engineering  talent,  the  near- 
term  objectives  of  all  their  research  activities  preclude 
their  being  totalh"  self-sufficient.  Naturally,  the  neces- 
sity for  being  unique  in  its  field  demands  that  the  small 
company  be  self-sufficient  in  the  matter  of  immediate 
product  or  process  developments.  However,  it  is  for 
the  longer-range  type  of  development,  anticipating  the 
trend  in  the  art  or  creating  new  knowledge,  that  these 
companies  must  turn  to  outside  research  activities.^ 
Onl3-  15  companies  have  found  it  advisable  to  adopt 
such  long-term  policies  with  regard  to  outside  research. 

Of  the  22  companies  which  in  supplemonling  tlieir 
research  efforts  turn  to  the  ou(si(l(\  1 1  liav(>  acquired 
inventions  from  individuals,  while  in  12  instances 
inventions  or  technical  developincnts  wore  taken  over 
from  the  companies  of  origin.  In  3  cases  new  develop- 
ments were  acquired  from  teclmical  institutions.  For 
the  most  part,  companies  prefer  to  buy  outright  such 
developments,  although  to  clarify  the  art  or  to  obviate 
the  duplication  of  research,  9  companies  were  willing 
to  take  licenses.  Not  infrequently  the  research  staff 
may  be  regarded  as  a  sieve  for  ideas  Ijroiight  in  by 

>  Industrial  research  laboratories  of  the  United  States.    liuUetin  I0(.    7lh  cdltian. 
Washington,  D.  C,  National  Research  Council  (IMO). 


others,  and  as  such  it  enables  the  company  to  pay  most 
attention  to  the  more  promising  ideas. 

Since  the  small  company  cannot  for  the  most  part 
devote  time  to  advancing  the  art  or  acquiring  technical 
knowledge  for  itself,  it  not  infrequently  turns  to  es- 
tablished research  agencies  or  technical  institutions. 
Only  8  were  in  such  specialized  fields  as  to  have  no 
occasion  to  do  so;  their  fields  were  considered  so  uniquely 
their  own  that  they  knew  them  better  than  any  agency 
to  which  they  could  turn.  Wliile  6  companies  employed 
the  services  of  an  expert  consultant,  13  made  inter- 
mittent use  of  private  laboratories.  Twenty-four  of 
the  small  companies  in  our  sample  had  had  recourse  to 
the  faculty  and  laboratories  of  engineering  colleges, 
whereas  3  had  turned  to  research  foundations.  The 
cooperative  research  carried  on  by  trade  associations 
had  proved  to  be  a  resource  for  1 1  companies  where 
processing  technique  or  technical  problems  common  to 
an  industry  predominate.  One  company  made  use  of 
governmental  research  activities  through  the  National 
Bureau  of  Standards. 

The  nse  by  small  companies  of  the  afore-mentioned 
research  agencies  appears  to  be  more  of  the  nature  of 
intermittent  consultation  as  evidenced  by  the  experience 
of  19  companies.  Twelve  companies  have  periodically 
employed  experts  on  retainer,  while  10  have  sponsored 
specific  projects  on  a  fee  basis.  Only  2  have  financed 
longer-term  fellowships  through  research  foundations. 

Professional-society  activity  proved  to  be  a  particular 
resource  for  the  technical  personnel  of  19  companies 
whose  participation  the  management  activeh'  encour- 
aged. It  is  significant  that  the  more  self-reliant  com- 
panies made  a  particular  point  of  their  dependence  on 
following  closely  the  current  literature  coming  from  the 
technical  press. 

Benefits  from  Cooperative 
Research  Activities 

A  particular  resource  to  the  small  company  is  the 
exchange  of  technical  information  and  the  accumulation 
of  new  ideas  that  comes  through  the  informal  contacts 
between  engineers  in  their  technical  work  or  in  the 
direct  line  of  business.  Twenty-seven  companies  spoke 
particularly  of  the  technical  activities  that  grew  out  of 
their  relations  with  customers  as  a  partictdar  resource 
fornewdevelopments.  Similarly S concerns  had  derived 
benefits  in  working  out  teclmical  problems  with 
their  dealers.  Thirteen  companies  had  found  a  partic- 
ular resource  in  the  research  activities  of  noncompeti- 
tors  in  allied  fields,  wherebj'  they  could  adopt  new 
developments  to  supplement  their  own  technical 
activities  and  avoid  the  unnecessary  duplication  of 
research.  On  the  other  hand,  9  companies  readily 
availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  visit  about 
through  the  plants  of  noncompetitors  to  keep  them- 


Industrial  Research 


83 


selves  informed  about  new  methods  of  production  which 
would  have  a  bearing  upon  the  improvement  of  their 
own  operations.  In  G  instances  companies  wiiose  busi- 
ness was  largely  on  a  contract  basis  and  less  dependent 
upon  a  specialized  technology  were  not  averse  to  discuss- 
ing broad  technical  problems  of  the  industry  with 
competitors,  or  even  to  taking  licenses  for  the  use  of 
specific  technical  developments. 

Of  marked  significance  is  the  resource  that  small 
companies  find  in  the  research  activities  of  their  sup- 
pliers and  those  from  whom  they  purchase  manufactur- 
ing equipment.  Thirtj--eiglit  companies  stressed  partic- 
ularly the  advantages  that  come  tlu-ough  the  contacts 
with  supplier's  engineers  or  representatives  in  working 
out  the  specifications  for  raw  materials  particularly 
suited  to  their  needs  or  in  the  advice  given  regarding  the 
use  of  specially  designed  mechanisms,  electrical  appara- 
tus or  controls,  or  the  like,  which  are  necessary  to  the 
ultimate  product  but  which  are  foreign  to  the  company's 
own  field  of  development.  Likewise,  the  technical 
activities  of  equipment  manufacturers  have  proved  to 
be  a  resource  to  13  companies  where  the  mechanization 
of  process  is  becoming  more  highly  specialized.  Never- 
theless, the  manufacturing  requirements  of  14  com- 
panies were  sufficiently  unique  for  them  to  design  their 
own  specialized  machines.  In  10  cases  companies 
actuallj'  built  their  own  machinery. 


Significance  of  Research  to  the 
Small  Enterprise 

In  brief,  the  picture  presented  by  the  small  enterprise 
is,  because  of  the  necessity  for  uniqueness,  that  of  a 
concern  rendering  a  specialized  technical  service  to 
larger  units  of  iiulustry,  to  discriminating  customers,  or 
to  selected  markets  through  the  manufacture  of  a 
distinctive  or  quality  product.  This  research  aspect  of 
such  enterprise  is  strikingly  borne  out  by  the  intimate 
customer  relationship  maintained  in  almost  every 
instance  where  the  proprietor,  the  active  top  executive, 
or  a  corps  of  sales  engineers  works  closely  with  the 
engineers  in  other  companies  to  develop  new  products 
or  features  particularly  suited  to  the  latter 's  require- 
ments. Thus  research,  whatever  may  be  the  extent  of 
organized  fact-finding,  is  an  indispensable  resource  to 
the  small  company  through  which  it  holds  its  place  in 
the  face  of  competition. 

^liile  their  executives  and  teclmical  personnel  have 
become  experts  in  some  specialized  branch  of  tech- 
nology tlirough  continually  having  to  meet  new  situa- 
tions, the  circumstances  under  which  the  majority  of 
small  businesses  must  operate  preclude  a  long-range 
policy  toward  their  technical  activities  and  force  them 
to  look  to  the  outside  to  replenish  their  teclmical 
resources  and  to  keep  abreast  of  progress  in  the  arts 
and  sciences.    Accordingly,  in  spite  of  being  manifestly 


Figure  13. — Fiber  Preparation  Laboratory,  John  A.  Manning  Paper  Company,  Incorporated,  Troy,  New  York 

321835 — 41 7 


84 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


sclf-sufliciciit  in  its  own  field  of  tcchnolofry,  the  small 
compan}-  must  turn  from  time  to  time  to  consultants, 
private  laboratories,  and  technical  institutions  for  new 
knowledge,  new  developments,  and  advice  on  the 
application  of  allied  tcclmology  to  their  immediate 
problems.  An  even  greater  teclmical  resource  is  found 
in  cooperative  research  or  the  informal  exchange  of 
infonnation  between  their  engineers  and  those  of  non- 
competitors,  supphers  of  material  or  special  apparatus, 
and  manufacturers  of  process  equipment.  Participa- 
tion   in    professional-society    activities    and    resort    to 


current  technical  literature  appear  to  be  most  fruitful 
avenues  for  the  small  company  to  profit  from  the 
research  of  others. 

Thus,  research  is  in  reality  a  triple  resource  to  the 
small  company.  It  acquires  new  technical  facility 
from  research  conducted  by  outside  agencies  or  allied 
industry;  through  its  own  organized  fact  finding  it 
creates  its  specialized  teclmical  field;  and  by  catermg 
to  the  requirements  of  its  customers  it  renders  a 
unique  teclmical  service  to  industry  and  the 
community. 


SECTION    II 

3.    COORDINATION    BETWEEN    INDUSTRIES    IN    INDUSTRIAL 

RESEARCH 

By  C.  G.  Worthington 
Secretary,  Industrial  Research  Institute,  Chicago,  III. 


ABSTRACT 


This  is  a  survey  of  the  present  cooperation  between 
companies  as  to  (1)  joint  activities  in  research,  (2)  the 
exchange  of  information,  and  (3)  the  publication  of 
research  findings.  It  is  based  on  the  activities  of  com- 
panies which  represent  many  of  the  industries  and 
industrial  areas  of  the  country. 

Joint  research  carried  on  by  industrial  companies 
takes  the  form  of  (a)  cooperation  in  the  research 
activities  of  technical  societies,  trade  associations,  and 
the  like,  (6)  cooperation  with  other  companies  in  the 
development  of  a  new  product,  a  new  process,  or  a  new 
raw  material  which  all  the  companies  are  interested  in 
commercializing,  and  (c)  cooperation  in  financing  in- 


dustrial research  in  universities  and  in  government 
resoai'ch  foundation,  and  private  consulting  laboratories. 
Research  information  is  exchanged  among  industrial 
concerns  through  members  of  their  staffs  participating 
in  the  meetings  and  serving  on  the  committees  of 
technical  societies,  trade  associations,  and  the  like. 
The  general  policy  is  to  encourage  the  publication  of 
research  findings  which  contribute  to  teclmical  knowl- 
edge unless  such  a  step  would  jeopardize  a  company's 
position  or  reveal  proprietary  secrets.  Information 
about  the  organization,  management,  and  administra- 
tion of  research  in  industiy  is  exchanged  at  group  meet- 
ings of  industrial  executives  and  of  research  directors. 


Joint  Activities  in  Research 

Scientific  and  engineering  societies  and  trade  associa- 
tions conduct  many  investigations  which  are  so  broad 
in  scope  and  so  general  in  interest  that  no  one  company 
would  be  justified  in  making  the  necessary  expenditures 
for  them.  A  nmnber  of  interested  concerns,  however, 
will  cooperate  as  a  group  in  financing  and  supervising 
such  investigations.  They  ai'e  generally  conducted  in 
imiversity,  government,  or  piivate  laboratories  and  are 
usually  concerned  with  (1)  obtaining  fundamental 
scientific  and  engineering  data,  (2)  the  development  of 
test  procedures  and  analytical  methods,  and  (3)  to 
some  extent  with  finding  new  applications  for  raw 
materials. 

Several  companies  may  also  engage  in  a  cooperative 
research  program  directed  toward  the  development  of 
a  new  product,  a  new  process,  or  a  raw  material.  Most 
of  the  joint  activities  of  this  nature  are  earned  on  by  a 
company  and  its  customers  or  its  suppliers  of  raw 
materials  and  equipment.  This  is  a  logical  activity  as 
each  concern  stands  to  profit  from  the  successful  com- 
mercial utilization  of  the  new  product,  process,  or  raw 
material.  Such  cooperation  is  quite  general  among 
industrial  concerns  though  it  does  not  often  represent 
a  large  part  of  their  research  activities.  It  is  distinct 
from  sales  service  or  trouble  shooting. 


Within  the  past  few  years  there  have  been  many 
notable  examples  of  products  developed  as  the  result  of 
the  joint  research  efforts  of  a  number  of  companies. 
Among  these  are  the  sealed  beam  headlight  for  auto- 
mobiles, in  the  development  and  production  of  which  a 
nationally  known  electrical  manufacturing  company 
joined  with  equally  well-known  glass,  rubber,  and  other 
companies.  Another  is  the  bullet-resisting  tire,  recently 
announced  by  the  Ordnance  Department  of  the  United 
States  Army,  which  has  been  a  cooperative  develop- 
ment of  such  major  rubber  companies  as  Firestone, 
Goodrich,  Seiberling,  Goodyear,  and  United  States 
Rubber. 

Many  companies  which  carry  on  research  cooperate 
with  imiversities.  Such  cooperation  generally  involves 
either  (1)  fundamental  scientific  studies  in  the  general 
fields  of  the  company's  interests,  or  (2)  specific  investiga- 
tions with  definite  objectives  and  of  a  nature  directly 
related  to  the  operations  of  the  company.  The 
industrial  concern  usually  provides  only  the  funds  for 
the  work  while  the  university  provides  the  research 
facilities,  personnel,  and  supervision.  Fundamental 
scientific  studies  are  generally  set  up  as  fellowships  for 
students  working  for  advanced  degrees.  Specific  in- 
vestigations usually  require  full-time  trained  personnel 
and  administration  with  frequent  reports  to  and  con- 

85 


86 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


fercnces  with  the  industrial  sponsor.  A  number  of 
concerns  in  addition  employ  faculty  members  as 
consultants. 

Industry  also  supports  research  programs  in  private 
consulting  and  industrial  research-foundation  labora- 
tories. These  projects  are  generally  of  a  specific, 
confidential  nature  with  a  definite  commercial  objective 
requiring  energetic  attack  and  early  solution  of  the 
problem.  Such  laboratories  as  the  Mellon  Institute  for 
Industrial  Research,  Battelle  Memorial  Institvitc, 
Arthur  D.  Little,  Inc.,  are  typical  of  such  agencies. 

There  is  some  small  degree  of  cooperation  in  research 
between  industrial  concerns  and  govermnental  labora- 
tories. The  projects  are  usually  of  general  scientilic 
natm"e  and  of  interest  to  a  nmnber  of  concerns,  all  of 
whom  contribute  to  their  support.  In  the  field  of  agri- 
cidture  some  national  and  state  experiment  stations 
cooperate  dirccth^  with  one  or  more  concerns  in  the 
development  and  testing  of  new  raw  materials  or  of 
industrial  products  that  may  have  applications  in 
agriculture. 

Some  companies  spend  as  much  as  10  percent  of 
their  research  budgets  on  cooperative  research  programs 
with  university,  private,  and  government  laboratories. 
The  usual  figure,  however,  seems  to  be  nearer  2  to  3 
percent.  There  is  occasional  exchange  of  personnel  on 
projects  and  of  course  considerable  exchange  of  infor- 
mation in  the  form  of  conferences  and  reports. 

Exchange  of  Information 

The  most  general  means  of  exchanging  research  infor- 
mation among  industrial  concerns  is  tlu-ough  participa- 
tion in  the  meetings  and  technical  committee  work  of 
technical  societies,  trade  associations,  and  the  like. 

Many  members  of  the  industrial  research  staffs 
belong  to  technical  societies  and  present  their  findings 
of  technical  value  at  the  meetings  of  such  societies. 

These  societies  and  associations  also  sponsor  a  great 
deal  of  conmiittee  activity  which  benefits  industry  as 
well  as  the  technical  professions  and  the  public.  This 
work  is  directed  toward  the  formulation  of  industrial 
standards  and  specifications,  testing  procedures,  analyt- 
ical methods,  and  related  subjects.  New  scientific 
and  engineering  data  are  also  obtained  through  their 
cooperative  research  programs.  Industrial  concerns 
are  well  represented  in  the  membership  of  these  com- 
mittees, contributing  the  time  and  expenses  of  their 
representatives  as  well  as  much  of  the  information 
needed. 

Policies  on  Publication 
of  Research  Findings 

The  general  policy  of  enlightened  companies  seems 
to  be  to  encourage  their  staffs  to  publish  research  find- 
ings when  (1)  these  results  are  of  broad  interest  and 


represent  real  contributions  to  technical  knowledge, 
and  when  (2)  such  publication  docs  not  jeopardize  the 
company's  patent  position  or  reveal  proprietary  secrets. 
Many  research  results  appear  first  in  patents  and  are 
later  generalized  either  in  articles  in  the  technical  press 
or  in  papers  presented  before  technical  societies. 

Technical  items  of  current  interest  are  also  published 
in  some  90  industrial  research  laboratory  house  organs 
as  listed  in  the  National  Research  Council's  Bulletin 
No.  102  entitled  "Industrial  Research  Laboratories  of 
the  United  States." 

The  Industrial  Research  Institute 

As  indicated  above  the  most  usual  type  of  information 
that  is  exchanged  among  the  research  organizations  of 
industry  is  of  a  technical  nature.  Within  the  past  3 
years,  however,  a  new  activity  has  appeared  for  the 
exchange  of  information  on  the  organization,  manage- 
ment, and  administration  of  research  in  industry. 
This  work  is  being  carried  on  by  the  Industrial  Research 
Institute,  affiliated  with  the  National  Research  Council. 
Its  purpose  is  to  promote,  through  the  cooperative 
efforts  of  its  members,  constant  improvement  of 
methods  and  more  economical  and  effective  manage- 
ment in  industrial  research. 

Industry  as  a  whole  has  been  convinced  of  the  need 
for  doing  research  but  still  has  much  to  learn  about 
how  best  to  do  it.  Little  information  or  experience  is 
available  on  how  to  organize  and  manage  research  so 
as  to  obtain  results  in  the  most  efficient  and  economical 
way.  A  research  organization  has  peculiar  charac- 
teristics of  function,  operation,  and  personnel  that  do 
not  easily  lend  themselves  to  customary  business  man- 
agement methods.  Company  heads  are  nevertheless 
justified  in  demanding  results  with  economy  from  their 
research  organizations  since  their  operations  are  con- 
stantly gi-owing  in  terms  of  capital  investment,  annual 
expenditures,  and  number  of  personnel. 

This  situation  led  a  group  of  research  directors  to 
seek  the  aid  of  the  National  Research  Council  about  3 
years  ago  in  forming  an  Industrial  Research  Institute 
for  the  cooperative  study  of  common  problems  of 
research  management.  Maurice  Holland,  director  of 
the  Division  of  Engineering  and  Induslrial  Research 
of  the  Council,  has  been  largely  responsible  for  develop- 
ing the  idea  and  organizing  and  guiding  the  Industrial 
Research  Institute  that  resulted.  The  institute  started 
with  14  company  members  and  now  numbers  33  that 
are  widely  representative  of  types  of  industry  and  of  the 
industrial  areas  of  the  comitry.  The  institute  is 
designed  primarily  to  serve  the  middle-sized  research 
organizations  rather  than  the  largest  ones,  whose  prac- 
tices are  fairly  well  developed.  The  laboratory  staffs 
of  most  of  the  member  companies  number  imder  100 
persons 


Industrial  Research 


87 


The  institute  has  found  that  the  best  means  of 
accompHshing  its  objects  is  through  periodic  meetings 
at  which  comnion  problems  are  discussed  in  an  informal 
manner.  Such  matters  as  organization,  persomiel 
management,  project  selection,  scheduling  and  control, 
budgeting  and  accoimting,  selling  research,  university 
relations  to  management,  suggestion  systems  and 
patent  procedure  are  considered.  E.xtended  studies 
are  frequently  made  by  members  of  the  institute  or  by 
its  staff  on  subjects  of  special  interest.  Tours  of 
member-company  laboratories  are  often  a  featui-e  of 
the  meetings.  The  institute  meets  3  or  4  times  a  year. 
The  romid  table  method  of  discussion  is  used  to  promote 
informality,  and  the  proceedings  are  confidential. 

The  institute  provides  practically  the  only  source  of 
up-to-date  information  on  the  organization,  manage- 
ment, and  policy  problems  of  mdustrial  research 
organizations.  Tlirough  its  programs  and  the  close 
personal  associations  made  possible  by  its  meetings, 
the  members  gain  help  in  solvmg  current  problems, 
confirm  their  present  procedures,  or  leam  better  ways 
of  doing  the  job.  This  exchange  of  information  and 
experience  directly  leads  to  more  efficient  operation  of 
research  organizations  and  consequently  to  better  and 


more  tangible  results  in  shorter  periods  of  time  and  at 
less  cost.  These  results  in  turn  mean  that  research 
activities  are  more  fruitful  and  timely  and  hence 
financial  returns  are  realized  more  quickly  than  would 
be  the  case  otherwise. 

The  processes,  methods  and  materials  used  success- 
fully in  one  industry'  may  often  be  adopted  satisfactorily 
in  an  industiy  of  quite  different  characteristics.  The 
institute  provides  its  members  with  an  opportunity  to 
learn  of  such  possibilities  as  it  is  made  up  of  a  variety 
of  industries  whose  representatives  confer  frankly  with 
each  other. 

Activity  in  the  institute  is  also  a  constant  soiu'ce  of 
encouragement  and  inspiration  to  the  members  in  the 
better  conduct  of  their  jobs,  gained  from  association 
with  other  men  of  attainment,  responsibility  and 
broad  vision. 

Bibliography 

Holland,  Maurice.     Industrial  research  institute.     Science,  87, 

324  (1938). 
Weidlein,  E.  R.     Progress  through  cooperation;  history  and 

development     of    laminated    safety     glass.     Industrial    and 

Engineering  Chemistry,  SI,  563  (1939). 


SECTION    II 
4.    TECHNICAL    RESEARCH    BY    TRADE    ASSOCIATIONS 

By  Charles  J.  Brand* 
Executive  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  The  National  Fertilizer  Association,  Washington,  D.  C. 


ABSTRACT 


Successful  research  by  trade  associations  should  bene- 
fit both  association  members  and  the  consumers  of  the 
members'  products. 

Trade  associations  use  various  agencies  for  conduct- 
ing research.  A  large  number  of  associations  maintain 
their  own  well-equipped,  ably  staffed  laboratories; 
many  use  commercial  research  laboratories;  some  rely 
on  university  fellowships  or  financial  grants  to  educa- 
tional institutions;  and  others  obtain  the  assistance  of 
Government  agencies  having  research  facilities,  such 
as  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards.  Many  other 
methods  are  available  and  used. 

Among  important  research  projects  now  being  carried 
on  by  trade  associations  and,  according  to  a  recent 
survey,  in  the  order  mentioned  as  to  frequency,  arc  the 
search  for  additional  sources  of  supply  of  standard 
materials  or  for  new  materials,  efforts  to  improve  stand- 
ard products,  investigation  of  outlets  for  the  industry's 
products,  and  search  for  new  products  that  the  in- 
dustry can  successfully  manufacture  and  sell. 

A  great  variety  of  useful  work  has  been  done.  The 
teclmical  research  activities  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Steel  Construction,  the  National  Canners  Associa- 
tion, The  National  Fertilizer  Association,  the  National 
Lumber  Manufacturers  Association,  the  National 
Paint,  Varnish,  and  Lacquer  Association,  and  the  Na- 
tional Sand  and  Gravel  Association,  are  briefly  dis- 


cussed, however,  as  typical  examples  of  the  great 
volume  of  research  being  carried  on  by  trade  associa- 
tions. 

A  major  problem  confronting  trade  association 
technical  research  is  that  of  financing.  Unless  imme- 
diate practical  results  permit  prompt  returns  to  the 
industry,  interest  in  research  projects  wanes  and  financ- 
ing becomes  increasingly  difficult.  Fundamental  re- 
search is  seldom  of  such  a  nature  that  the  problem  can 
be  quickly  solved.  Financial  arrangements  shoidd 
insure  reasonable  continuity  of  research  projects  for 
periods  sufficiently  long  to  permit  complete  exploration 
of  the  possibilities  involved.  It  should  be  financed, 
whenever  possible,  from  the  general  funds  of  the  associ- 
ation in  order  that  all  members  may  have  equal  rights 
in  the  results. 

The  results  of  trade  association  research  should  be 
made  available  to  the  members  and  the  public  as 
rapidly  and  completely  as  the  definite  findings  warrant. 
Statistical  valuation  of  the  results  obtained  is  not 
possible,  but  a  great  amount  of  benefit  to  the  public  at 
large  has  been  obtained.  The  special  equipment  and 
trained  personnel  of  trade  association  research  organiza- 
tions will  be  quickly  and  efficiently  available  to  serve 
the  people  in  any  national  emergency. 

•Mr.  Fred  S.  Lodee,  technical  staff  assistant  of  tlie  association,  has  rendered  valu- 
able assistance  in  the  collection  and  preparation  of  material. 


Technical  research  is  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  new  or  better  articles  of  commerce,  reducing 
their  cost,  or  finding  new  raw  materials,  or  new  or 
increased  uses  for  finished  products.  Trade  association 
technical  research,  to  be  of  the  most  value  in  our  na- 
tional economic  program,  must,  of  necessity,  produce 
results  beneficial  to  the  public  as  well  as  to  association 
members.  Naturally,  assistance  to  association  mem- 
bers must  be  the  first  objective.  Unless  members 
receive  some  tangible  benefit,  it  is  impossible  to  obtain 
their  continued  financial  support  for  research. 

The  determination  of  a  trade  association  to  engage 

in  technical  research  is  customarily  made  only  after 

careful  study  and  consideration  of  the  many  problems 

involved.     Each    project    selected    for    investigation 

88 


must  be  of  interest  and  potential  value  to  each  member 
of  the  association.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  results  to  be  expected  from  some  particular 
line  of  research  are  not  of  such  character  as  to  benefit 
only  one  member  of,  or  a  select  group  in,  the  associa- 
tion. Trade  associations  include  member  companies 
that  have  developed  widely  varying  yet  long-established 
business  principles.  Executives  of  these  companies 
range  from  rule-of-tluimb  operators  who  have  risen 
from  the  ranks  of  manual  workers  to  specially  trained 
and  highly  educated  scientists.  The  opinions  and 
psychologies  of  men  so  varied  in  training  and  experience 
arc  likely  to  be  very  difficult  to  reconcile  initiidly.  If 
technical  research  is  to  be  maintained,  the  first  necessity, 
and  the  ever-present  problem  before  the  trade  associa- 


Industrial  Research 


89 


tion  executive,  is  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  a  ground  of  common  interest  in  research  activity 
that  is  acceptable  to  a  majority  of  the  members. 

That  which  benefits  the  producer  benefits  the  con- 
sumer. The  producer  may  be  enabled  through  teclmi- 
cal  research  to  reduce  costs  or  to  manufacture  a  superior 
article  at  the  same  price.  In  the  latter  case  the 
customer  benefits  directly  by  receiving  better  value 
for  his  money.  In  the  former,  the  customer  will  even- 
tually receive  the  benefit  of  cost  reduction,  and  com- 
petition will  probably  operate  to  make  reasonably 
certain  that  he  receives  it  promptly.  Unless  the 
consmner  benefits  from  the  result  of  teclmical  research, 
an  incentive  to  increase  consumption  is  laclcing,  and 
this  is  one  of  the  main  objectives  of  trade  association 
activities. 

While  trade  association  technical  research  must 
always  be  designed  to  render  its  greatest  benefits  to  the 
members  of  the  association,  and  to  their  consumer 
customers,  other  members  of  the  particular  industry 
involved  almost  always  benefit  to  some  degree.  Any 
new,  better,  or  cheaper  method  of  production  can  at 
best  be  restricted  to  association  members  only  in  part. 
Even  if  the  exact  product  or  process  caimot  be  dupU- 
cated  legally  by  nonmembers,  for  whatever  reason, 
such  competitors  are  stimulated  to  substitution  or 
imitation.  Oftentimes  the  substitute  or  imitation 
equals  or  sm-passes  the  original.  The  general  plane  of 
quality  is  raised  and  the  Nation  benefits. 

Technical  research  carried  on  by  one  industry  may 
vitally  affect  other  apparently  entirely  um-elated  indus- 
tries.    Substitutes  for  standard  commodities  produced 


by  one  industry  may  be  developed  through  tecluucal 
research  in  another.  Stainless  steels,  for  uistance,  have 
almost  completely  supplanted  some  nonferrous  metals 
and  alloys  for  many  uses  where  ordmary  corrosion  is  an 
important  factor.  An  industry  may  suddenly  find 
that  the  entire  outlet  for  its  product  has  been  captured 
by  some  other  industry  that  it  did  not  previously 
regard  as  in  any  sense  competitive.  The  partly  sup- 
planted industry  must  find  other  outlets,  better  its 
methods  or  its  products  sufficiently  to  compete,  or  lose 
its  market.  Its  entire  economic  existence  may  be  at 
stake.  The  balance  is  upset  and  must  be  reestablished. 
Often  such  an  industry  must  turn  to  cooperative  asso- 
ciation research  of  one  kind  or  another  in  order  to  solve 
its  new  problems  and  continue  its  operations.  This 
situation  is  evidenced  in  the  relation  the  artificial 
refrigeration  industry  bears  to  the  natural  and  artificial 
ice  industries.  The  expense  of  individual  research 
effort  is  often  prohibitive;  a  pooling  of  the  laiowlcdge, 
the  experience,  and  the  resources  of  an  entire  industry 
may  be  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  its  research 
activities. 

Types  of  Research 

Any  research  project  that  has  for  its  object  the  devel- 
opment of  a  new  source  of  a  raw  material  important  to 
an  industry,  or  of  a  new  raw  material  usable  by  all 
members  of  the  association,  presents  an  acceptable 
undertaking.  It  might  well  be  that  an  individual 
association  member  would  not  elect  to  avail  himself  of 
such  a  new  source  or  new  material  and  would  thus 
seem  not  to  reap  a  benefit.     In  such  case,  however, 


I 
Figure  14. — Laboratory  and  Headquarters  of  the  American  Pharmaceutical  Association,  Washington,  D   C. 


90 


National  Besources  Planning  Board 


competitive  purcliasiiifr  pressure  would  be  transferred 
from  his  raw  material  source  of  supply  insofar  as  his 
competitors'  purchases  were  diverted  to  the  new  source 
or  material,  and  he  would  benefit  proportionately.  As 
reported  in  a  survey  of  trade  association  activities  made 
by  tlie  Trade  Association  Department  of  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  technical  research 
on  materials  already  in  use,  or  on  the  use  of  new  mate- 
rials, was  carried  on  by  90  of  the  330  trade  associations 
reporting. 

New  Products  Developed 

Trade  association  research  is  approaching  the  field  of 
private  endeavor  when  it  concerns  itself  with  new  prod- 
ucts, imless  such  new  product  can  be  made  generally  by 
the  members  of  the  association  from  raw  materials 
ordinarily  used  or  easily  obtainable.  However,  research 
that  may  lead  to  the  development  of  a  new  product 
which  logically  can  be  produced  in  conjunction  with 
current  operations  of  industry  members  in  general  may 
be  of  inestimable  value  to  an  industry  and,  if  practical 
for  use  by  all  operators,  presents  a  legitunate  type  of 
research  for  trade  associations  to  imdertake. 

Research  projects  of  this  character,  carried  on  by 
associations  of  the  coke  and  gas  producers  have  been 
instrumental  in  salvaging  volatile  products  from  coal 
that  were  formerly  wasted  into  the  air,  and  from  which 
are  produced  innumerable  new  and  useful  chemical 
compounds.  The  sale  of  joint  products  or  byproducts 
thus  obtained  reduces  the  cost  of  manufacturing  the 
major  product.  That  trade  associations  recognize  the 
value  of  research  aimed  at  the  discovery  of  new  and 
improved  products  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that,  in  the 
United  States  Chamber  of  Commerce  survey  already 
mentioned,  84  associations  report  themselves  engaged 
in  research  of  this  character. 

The  National  Lumber  Manufacturers'  Association 
early  in  its  research  work  discovered  that  projects 
directl}"  financed  by  members  had  to  be  limited,  for 
practical  reasons,  to  such  as  had  rather  immediate 
commercial  application.  In  1933  the  association 
founded  as  an  auxiliary  the  Timber  Engineering  Com- 
pany. This  company  acquired  certain  patents  and  was 
constituted  not  only  to  develop  and  license  the  use  of 
the  devices  covered  by  these  patents — mostly  timber 
connectors — in  construction  practice  throughout  the 
United  States,  but  also  to  engage  in  research  to  develop 
improved  methods  and  devices  for  timber  construction. 
This  activity  has  continued,  and  as  a  result  the  Timber 
Connector  System  of  Construction,  unknown  in  this 
country  prior  to  1933,  has  been  successfully  used  in 
more  than  10,000  structures  of  various  kinds  in  this 
country,  as  well  as  in  foreign  countries. 

This  type  of  organization,  operating  separately 
though  controlled  by  the  association,  has  assured  con- 


tinuity of  research  projects  requiring  several  years  to 
complete.  The  income  from  the  licensing  of  patents 
furnishes  funds  for  additional  research.  In  the  case 
of  the  Timber  Engineering  Company,  it  has  already 
repaid  or  is  in  position  to  pay  from  its  net  working 
capital  all  the  funds  originally  furnished  to  acquire 
the  patents  and  initiate  the  activities  of  the  company. 
Of  greater  interest,  however,  to  the  lumber  industry 
is  the  fact  that  the  system  of  construction  controlled 
and  improved  by  the  Timber  Engineering  Company 
has  been  instrumental  in  increasing  the  sales  of  lumber 
many  hundred  million  feet.  This  combination  of 
connncrcial  activity  and  research  through  the  trade 
association  is  a  particularly  satisfactory  one.  All 
members  of  the  industry  and  the  public  benefit  from 
the  research  on  equal  terms,  and  consumption  of  the 
industry's  product  is  increased. 

Another  research  activity  of  interest  in  the  building 
and  construction  industry  is  that  carried  on  by  the 
American  Institute  of  Steel  Construction,  Inc.  Hav- 
ing as  a  goal  reduction  in  the  cost  of  steel  buildings, 
bridges,  and  other  steel  structures,  its  early  efforts 
were  designed  to  bring  about  standardization  of  steel 
shapes  and  sizes.  Intelligent  standardization  of  this 
type  must  include  a  great  deal  of  physical  research 
into  the  properties  of  the  various  steel  shapes  and  their 
reactions  under  stress  so  that  those  selected  as  standards 
will  most  efficiently  carry  the  strains  and  stresses  of 
the  structure  of  which  they  are  a  part.  The  best  prod- 
ucts of  engineering  design  were  subjected  to  testing- 
laboratory  proof.  The  National  Bureau  of  Standards 
and  the  testing  laboratories  of  certain  engineering 
colleges  collaborated  with  the  Institute  in  this  work. 
Other  work  was  carried  on  in  collaboration  with  the 
same  institutions  in  connection  with  the  strength  of 
riveted  steel  rigid  frames  and  welded  steel  rigid 
frames. 

The  institute's  research  program  of  welding  research 
has  resulted  in  the  development  of  an  economical  steel 
floor  design  which  greatl}'  reduces  the  dead  weight  on 
bridges  and  other  steel  structures  using  floors  of  that 
type.  Incidentally,  better  fireproofing  qualities  have 
been  obtained.  The  rigid  frame  type  of  construction 
developed  by  this  research  permits  a  reduced  perimeter 
for  a  building  with  a  given  vertical  clearance  and  a 
given  clear  floor  space;  more  economical  provisions 
for  wind  stresses;  greater  speed  and  lower  cost  of 
erection;  more  economical  hoist  installation,  and  re- 
duced maintenance  costs.  All  of  these  improvements 
ultimately  benefit  the  steel  consumer  either  in  the 
form  of  a  lower  investment  cost  or  a  cheaper  upkeep. 
The  institute  issues  bulletins  giving  detailed  specifi- 
cations of  welding  practices  in  building  construction 
so  as  to  permit  the  construction  industry-  to  make  the 
best  possible  use  of  its  research  findings. 


Industrial  Research 


91 


Quality  Standards  Improved 

Kesearcli  concerning  the  improvement  of  standard 
products  is  one  of  the  least  controversial  projects  that 
trade  associations  can  undertake.  Almost  without 
exception,  manufacturers  will  agree  that  anything 
which  raises  the  general  quality  level  of  an  industry's 
products  will  benefit  members.  Nothing  promotes 
public  appreciation  and  approval  so  much  as  a  reputa- 
tion for  excellent  quality  in  an  industrj-'s  goods.  Thus 
the  unquestioned  acceptance  of  all  commodities  packed 
in  tin  cans  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  effect  that  can 
be  achieved  bj'  association  research  to  improve  quality. 
Again,  research  by  the  Underwriters  Laboratories  has 
been  of  such  high  character  as  to  make  their  certifi- 
cation of  fire-fighting  and  fire-prevention  equipment 
acceptable  as  standard  by  the  public,  by  official  bodies, 
and  by  insurance  companies. 

New  Uses  for  Products 

Another  most  appropriate  type  of  research  work  for 
trade  associations  is  the  development  of  new  outlets 
for  standard  industry  products,  \^^lenever  an  in- 
dustry's production  or  even  its  capacity  for  production 
equals  the  demand  for  its  product,  the  competitive 
struggle  of  that  industry  becomes  intense.  Any  new 
outlet  for  its  products  relieves  the  pressure  due  to  over- 
production and  tends  to  stabilize  the  industry.  A 
well-known  example  is  the  use  of  the  modern  synthetic 
plastics,  of  which  Bakelite  is  an  example,  to  displace 
the  various  kinds  of  insulators  used  in  makmg  electrical 
equipment.  These  same  plastics  are  also  replacing 
many  ornamental  metal  stampings,  metal  caps  and 
seals,  corks,  glass  covers,  and  innumerable  other  prod- 
ucts. Association  research  is  not  believed  to  be  re- 
sponsible for  the  development  of  these  new  uses  of 
synthetic  plastics,  private  research  is  to  be  credited 
for  their  discovery  and  utilization.  Trade  association 
research  has,  however,  been  forced  to  undertake  the 
development  of  new  outlets  for  the  products  supplanted. 
Of  the  330  trade  associations  reporting  in  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce  survey,  54  include  in  their  research  pro- 
grams the  search  for  new  uses  for  present  products. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  technical  research  is  only 
one  branch  of  association  research  on  such  a  problem; 
business  research,  studies  of  marketing  conditions,  and 
of  consumer  resistance,  and  the  like  must  accompany 
the  practical  teclmical  solution  of  the  problem  if  an 
industrj^  is  to  benefit. 

Research  on  industrial  processes  and  methods  usually 
can  best  be  undertaken  by  trade  associations  when 
comparative  uniformity  of  production  methods  exists. 
The  canning  industry  furnishes  a  typical  example  of 
such  possibilities.  In  the  main,  canned  foods  are  packed 
in  airtight  containers,  and  preservation  of  the  contents 
depends  on  sterilization  after  packing.    The  quality  of 


the  contents  and  the  suitability  and  attractiveness  of 
the  package  largety  determine  competitive  success  or 
failure.  The  goal  to  be  achieved  by  proper  processing  is 
the  protection  of  human  health.  The  industry,  through 
its  trade  association,  has  not  hesitated  to  provide 
adequate  funds  to  support  a  well-equipped  laboratory. 

Technical  Research  Agencies 

Trade  associations  carry  on  technical  research  in  a 
variety  of  ways.'  In  selecting  the  type  of  agency  best  suit- 
ed to  carry  on  an  industry's  technical  research,  the  nature 
of  the  problems  to  be  solved  must  receive  careful 
consideration.  If  only  improvement  of  product  or  proc- 
ess is  contemplated,  perhaps  the  most  effective  plan  is 
the  establishment  of  an  association  laboratory.  If 
standardization  of  members'  products  is  the  goal, 
coordinated  study  and  research  within  the  members' 
own  laboratories  may  be  sufficient.  If  an  entirely  new 
field  of  fundamental  science  is  to  be  explored,  if  expen- 
sive precision  equipment  must  be  used,  if  policy  requires 
scientific  sponsorship  more  authoritative  than  that  of 
the  technicians  of  the  industry,  then  the  laboratory  of 
some  well-known  university  may  afford  the  best 
agency  to  use. 

If  a  particular  problem  can  be  solved,  as  many  can, 
by  oft  repeated  trial  and  error  methods,  one  of  the  best 
available  organizations  is  the  commercial  consulting 
laboratory,  the  analytical  acciu-acy  and  techniques  of 
which  make  them  peculiarly  suitable  for  this  type  of 
research.  If  the  answer  is  obtainable  only  by  means  of 
accurate  determination  of  mmute  variations  in  physical 
measurements,  some  agency  such  as  the  National  Bureau 
of  Standards  at  Washington  may  be  the  best  choice. 

If  the  problem  is  that  of  meeting  State  or  Federal 
regulatory  requirements,  grants  of  financial  aid  to 
some  governmental  agency  for  research  in  that  field 
may  not  only  furnish  the  solution  but  may  result  in 
official  recognition  of  the  residts. 


I  The  foJlowing  News  Letter  was  recently  issued  by  the  National  Association  of 
Manufacturers: 

"Thirty-one  percent  of  the  National  Manufacturing  Trade  associations  in  the 
National  Industiial  Council  conduct  scientific  research  activities,  according  to  a 
survey  just  completed  by  the  Council  in  cooperation  with  the  N.  A.  M.  Advisory 
Committee  on  Scientific  Research,  of  which  Dr.  Karl  T.  Compton,  president  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  is  chairman. 

"Charles  J.  Brand,  executive  secretary  of  The  National  FertiUzer  Association,  is 
chairman  of  the  N.  I.  C.  Committee  in  charge  of  the  survey. 

"Of  the  113  associations  in  the  national  manufacturing  trade  group  35  conduct 
research  activities  and  11  have  their  own  laboratories  or  cooperate  with  others  in 
supporting  laboratories.  The  average  armual  reseaich  budget  of  27  associations  re- 
porting specific  figures  was  $36,960.  The  median  budget  was  $25,000.  Two  associa- 
tions spend  more  than  $100,000  a  year. 

"An  average  of  10  persons  ate  employed  in  the  laboratories  operated  by  the  associa- 
tions reporting. 

"Twenty-one  of  the  associations  finance  research  projects  at  universities,  7  at  re- 
search foundations,  and  3  at  commercial  laboratories. 

"Most  of  the  laboratories  reported  were  established  in  the  decade  between  1920  and 
1930. 

". "Approximately  34  percent  of  the  associations  take  out  patents  on  the  pioducts  of 
their  research  activities.  In  the  most  instances,  the  patents  are  assigned  to  the 
association. 

"Ten  associations  distribute  information  on  the  results  of  their  research  to  members 
only  and  25  make  the  lesults  known  to  the  public  generally." 


92 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Trade  Association  Laboratories 

Imhistries  confronted  with  many  technical  problems 
are  inclined  to  support  technical  research  generously. 
Trade  associations  within  such  industries  generally 
maintain  their  own  research  laboratories.  These  can 
usually  handle  most  of  the  types  of  research  mentioned. 
We  find  recorded  in  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  survey 
that  at  least  36  trade  associations  maintain  their  own 
research  laboratories.  These  laboratories  are  manned 
by  staffs  having  a  combined  personnel  of  over  425 
chemists,  physicists,  and  engineers,  and  about  the 
same  number  of  assistants  without  technical  education 
but  with  excellent  experience  and  training  in  laboratory 
technique.  These  laboratorj'  staffs  vary  from  some 
numbering  only  a  tcclmologist  and  one  helper  up  to 
others  employing  116  scientists  with  a  large  number 
of  assistants. 

Research  Promotes  Consumption 
of  Canned  Foods 

The  National  Canners  Association  affords  an  excellent 
example  of  industry  and  public  benefit  derived  tlirough 
research  carried  on  in  an  industry's  own  laboratory. 
This  trade  association  laboratory,  founded  in  1913, 
was  one  of  the  first  to  engage  solely  in  research.  This 
association  maintains  a  central  research  laboratory  in 
Washington,  with  branches  in  the  canning  areas  on  the 
Pacific  coast  and  a  traveling  laboratory  for  use  wherever 
needed.  In  the  early  days  of  commercial  canning, 
spoilage  of  canned  food  was  all  too  common.  It  was 
ordinarj^  practice  to  add  some  chemical  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  bacterial  growth  and  resulting  decomposi- 
tion. The  canning  industry  met  and  solved  success- 
fully difficult  problems  that  arose  from  the  fact  that  a 
few  types  of  canned  foods  seemed  particularly  sus- 
ceptible to  contamination  by  so-called  "food  poisons" 
that  were  occasionally  serious  in  their  effects. 

When  the  canning  industry  established  its  research 
laboratory,  one  of  the  ablest  food  chemists  of  the 
country  was  placed  in  charge  of  it.  This  scientist  had 
until  then  been  in  charge  of  one  of  the  Government 
laboratories  engaged  in  food  research  and  regulatory 
administration.  Intensive  studies  were  at  once  ini- 
tiated on  the  methods  necessary  to  insure  the  steriliza- 
tion of  canned  foods  without  recourse  to  chemical  pre- 
servatives. Length  of  cooking  and  the  temperatures 
necessary  to  obtain  complete  sterility  of  containers  of 
every  size  were  carefully  determined  for  each  type  of 
food  product  packed.  Variations  necessary  in  the 
processing  of  acid  as  compared  with  nonacid  foods  were 
carefully  worked  out.  Lacquer  linings  for  many  types 
of  tin  cans  were  investigated  and  individually  developed 
for  use  with  each  canned  j)roduct  likely  l<>  ad'ect 
ordinary    cans.     Chemical    changes    occurring    during 


canning  and  processing  were  studied  with  particular 
reference  to  the  vitamin  content  of  the  various  foods. 

The  industry  quickly  availed  itself  of  the  association 
laboratory's  findings  and  put  its  recommendations  into 
effect  in  processing.  Spoilage  of  canned  foods  virtually 
has  become  a  thing  of  the  past.  The  industry  has 
benefited  in  many  ways;  the  expense  of  replacing  spoiled 
goods  has  been  eliminated,  and  canned  food  products 
of  reputable  manufacturers  are  now  universally  accepted 
as  sound  and  wholesome.  The  public  has  benefited 
through  having  made  available  a  very  wide  variety  of 
wholesome  foods  at  lower  costs,  with  danger  to  health 
or  life  almost  completely  eliminated.  No  better  example 
of  the  value  to  be  obtained  from  a  trade  association's 
operation  of  its  own  technical  research  laboratory  can 
be  cited. 

Paint  and  Varnish  Research 

Another  typical  example  of  trade  association  research 
is  the  work  carried  on  by  the  scientific  section  of  the 
National  Paint,  Varnish  and  Lacquer  Association,  Inc. 
This  association  has  its  home  in  an  historic  mansion  in 
the  center  of  Washington  wdiich  contains  its  offices  and 
laboratories. 

Research  in  this  organization  follows  four  principal 
lines:  (1)  Determining  the  actual  causes  of  claimed 
failures  of  the  industry's  products;  (2)  investigating 
new  oil-bearing  plants;  (3)  examining  new  raw  mate- 
rials such  as  pigments,  resins,  and  balsams;  (4)  evalu- 
ating finished  products  of  the  industiy  as  to  durability 
and  other  physical  properties  in  order  to  develop  new 
fields  of  use  and  to  increase  consumption.  Analytical 
work,  publicity  through  lectures,  and  compilation  of 
pertinent  references  in  the  technical  literature  are  also 
a  part  of  the  scientific  section's  activities. 

The  research  work  of  this  association  is  done  by  a  staff 
of  eight  members  under  the  guidance  of  an  advisory 
committee  of  the  association.  It  affords  an  illustration, 
too,  of  some  of  the  additional  work  that  naturally 
eventuates  from  research  work.  In  1939  the  staff 
wrote  some  9,000  letters  generally  in  answer  to  techni- 
cal inquiries  and  entertained  some  1,500  visitors,  many, 
if  not  most,  of  whom  wished  to  discuss  their  technical 
problems. 

Commercial  Research  Laboratories 

Numerous  excellent  commercial  laboratories  have 
been  established  in  this  country.  Their  activities  cover 
not  only  the  control  of  technical  processes  in  privately 
operated  establishments,  but  research  on  practical 
operating  jjroblems  and  the  conduct  of  independent 
scientific  research  as  well.  Many  important  technical 
processes  have  been  discovered  and  perfected  in 
commerciiil  laboratories.  The  alloy  of  nickel  and 
chromium,  composing  the  heating  elements  of  most  of 


Industrial  Research 


93 


our  household  electrical  appliances,  is  the  result  of  re- 
search in  such  a  commercial  laboratory.  Some  24  trade 
associations  reported  in  the  United  States  Chamber  of 
Commerce  survey  that  they  utilize  this  type  of  organi- 
zation to  carry  on  their  technical  research. 

University  Fellowships  and  Grants 

Fellowships  at  technical  schools  and  universities  are 
sponsored  by  21  trade  associations.  These  fellowships 
are  generally  founded  in  an  institution  where  some 
member  of  the  faculty  is  known  to  be  especially  versed 
in  the  particular  research  problem  involved.  The  fel- 
lowships are  usually  extended  to  graduate  students 
working  for  higher  degrees.  For  a  relatively  modest 
sum,  half  of  a  fellow's  time  is  obtained  and,  in  addition, 
the  consulting  services  of  the  professor  are  available. 
Such  arrangements  arc  particularly  effective  if  the 
boundaries  of  the  problem  arc  well  defined  so  that  a 
planned  line  of  procedure  can  be  laid  down.  They  are 
not  as  effective  in  fields  where  the  problems  are  ill  de- 
fined. Similar  to  these  fellowships  arc  money  grants 
made  to  members  of  university  faculties  to  enable  them 
to  pay  for  supplies,  apparatus,  and  laboratory  assist- 
ants for  research  on  problems  submitted  for  study.  In 
such  cases  it  is  often  not  possible  to  arrange  that  a 
specific  amoxmt  of  time  be  devoted  on  projects  under- 
taken.   Usually  such  research  is  secondary  to  the  regu- 


lar university  work  of  the  researcher  and  must  be  done 
by  him  as  time  permits. 

The  National  Fertilizer  Association,  for  example,  has 
employed  these  methods  for  research  with  excellent 
results.  Funds  for  fellowships  in  agronomy  were  made 
available  to  a  number  of  universities  where  the  college 
of  agriculture  and  the  State  agricultural  experiment 
station  were  jointly  operated.  The  problems  selected 
for  these  research  activities  were  not  only  of  scientific 
interest  to  the  faculty,  but  their  successful  solution 
also  promised  benefit  to  agriculture  in  general.  The 
problems  naturallj^  concerned  some  phase  of  plant  feed- 
ing because  the  fertilizer,  or  plant  food,  industry  was 
supplying  the  necessary  funds.  In  carrying  out  some 
of  the  projects,  grants  were  also  made  for  traveling  and 
other  expenses  to  representatives  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  who  cooperated  and  assisted 
in  coordinating  the  various  studies.  At  least  a  dozen 
such  projects  were  supported,  some  of  them  lasting 
several  years,  and  in  some  years  several  thousand  dol- 
lars were  appropriated. 

The  most  extensive  and  probably  the  most  important 
research  carried  out  under  these  plans  was  the  study 
of  the  proper  methods  for  applying  fertilizers  to  various 
crops  in  order  to  produce  the  most  effective  results. 
A  number  of  fellowships  and  grants  were  established  for 
this  purpose  and,  in  addition,  research  projects  covering 


Figure  15. —  National  Paint,  Varnish  and  Lacquer  Association,  Washington,  D.  C 


94 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


some  particular  crop  or  particular  phase  of  fertilizer 
application  were  suggested  to  other  colleges  and  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations. 

As  the  investigations  proceeded,  other  interested 
organizations — the  American  Society  of  Agricultural 
Engineers,  American  Society  of  Agronomy,  American 
Society  for  Horticultural  Science,  and  Farm  Equipment 
Institute — joined  The  National  Fertilizer  Association 
in  forming  a  National  Joint  Committee  on  Fertilizer 
Application  to  assist  in  the  program.  The  project  has 
grown  from  four  experiments  on  two  crops  in  1929  to 
152  experiments  at  73  locations  in  23  States  on  29  crops 
in  1939.  Information  of  incalculable  value  to  the 
farmers  of  the  Nation  has  resulted  from  this  extensive 
research  project  and  has  been  disseminated  to  them 
through  all  available  channels. 

Governmental  Research  Agencies 

The  Federal  Government  maintains  a  large  number 
of  research  laboratories  from  which  help  may  be  ob- 
tained in  conducting  research  along  lines  that  promise 
results  redounding  to  the  public  good.  For  instance, 
the  laboratories  of  the  Biu-cau  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 
and  Engineering  have  been  most  helpful  in  working 
out  problems  of  general  interest.  The  four  new  regional 
research  laboratories  now  under  construction  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  will  no  doubt 
be  anxious  to  render  similar  assistance  under  suitable 
cooperative  arrangements. 

The  Government  agency  most  frequently  called  upon 
to  aid  trade-association  research  is  probably  the  Na- 
tional Bureau  of  Standards.  This  agency,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  most  important  in  standardization  research, 
but  arrangements  can  bo  made  with  it  to  supply  re- 
search associates  for  work  on  particular  industrial 
problems.  More  often,  however,  a  grant  in  money  is 
made  to  the  Bureau  to  provide  funds  for  a  specified  task. 
One  particular!}'  important  phase  of  the  Bureau's  work 
is  the  preparation  and  distribution  of  standard  analyti- 
cal samples  and  standard  test  specimens.  The  analyses 
and  physical  properties  are  carefully  determined  by  the 
Bureau  so  that  they  can  be  used  by  individual  labora- 
tories to  check  the  accuracy  of  their  own  methods  and 
determinations. 

For  many  years  the  National  Sand  and  Gravel 
Association  has  sponsored  research  in  connection  with 
the  use  of  the  industry's  products.  Comprehensive 
studies  have  been  carried  on  concerning  the  size,  shape, 
porosity,  and  other  physical  characteristics  of  the  aggre- 
gates used  in  concrete,  in  order  to  determine 
those  qualities  best  adapted  to  particular  types  of 
construction. 

The  ever  increasing  importance  of  the  construction 
of  concrete  highways  in  the  defense  program  of  the 
Nation  undoubtedly  would  have  made  this  particular 


research  project  one  of  public  necessity  if  the  trade 
association  had  not  already  instigated  it.  The  Public 
Roads  Administration  and  the  Bureau  of  Mines  are 
Federal  agencies  that  have  cooperated  extensively  in 
solving  these  research  problems.  The  building  indus- 
try, the  landlord,  and  the  home-owning  public  have  all 
benefited  in  better,  safer,  and  more  economical  buildings 
as  a  result  of  this  trade  association  research. 

Collection  and  Distribution  of  Data 

One  very  important  research  service  that  a  trade 
association  can  render  to  its  industry  and  the  public  is 
the  collection  and  dissemination  of  research  data  per- 
taining to  the  industry  and  its  products.  Thousands  of 
research  organizations  or  workers  are  scattered  over  the 
world.  Often  their  findings  are  published  only  in  some 
foreign  periodical  or  in  some  obscure  or  inaccessible 
medium.  Even  if  the  work  is  mentioned  in  one  of  our 
scientific  abstract  journals,  the  significance  of  the  data 
may  be  lost  by  an  abstractor  who  is,  himself,  unfamiliar 
^vith  the  problems  of  the  particular  industry.  Some 
trade  associations  review  all  available  domestic  and 
foreign  publications  that  appear  to  have  even  remote 
application  to  their  industry  and  keep  their  members 
advised  of  any  new  research  data  or  developments  that 
seem  worthy  of  consideration. 

In  addition,  experimental  research  agencies  on  occa- 
sion make  new  data  available  even  before  publication. 
Frequently  the  association  is  able  to  pass  such  informa- 
tion on  to  the  industry.  An  excellent  example  of  this 
type  of  trade-association  research  activity  is  a  publica- 
tion just  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Raw  Products 
Researchof  the  National CanncrsAssociation.  Thisbul- 
letin  of  143  pages  summarizes  the  recent  research  work 
done  by  all  the  State  agricultural  experiment  stations 
on  all  canning  crops.  Such  subjects  as  cultural  meth- 
ods, varieties,  fertilization,  pest  control  and  diseases  are 
included  in  the  abstracts  presented,  bringing  into  one 
book  all  the  results  of  research  along  these  lines  from 
the  48  stations. 

Financing  Research 

The  proljlem  of  financing  a  technical  research  pro- 
gram for  a  trade  association  is  often  very  difficult  to  solve. 
The  earlier  research  projects  were  usually  financed 
by  voluntary  subscriptions  from  the  larger  enterprises 
in  an  industry.  This  sometimes  proved  unsatisfac- 
tory, the  donors  often  felt  that  the  results  should  be 
reported  only  to  them  and  hence  objected  to  noncon- 
tributing  members  receiving  the  benefits  of  the  research. 
Such  methods  are  still  used  in  some  instances,  however, 
where  the  contributing  members  have  enough  confidence 
in  the  project  to  believe  they  will  receive  sufficient  bene- 
fit to  warrant  the  expense,  even  though  others  also 
benefit.     In  other  cases,  manufacturers  of  raw  materials 


Industrial  Research 


95 


or  other  basic  supplies  for  a  second  industry  engaged  in 
processing  and  distribution  may  provide  funds  for  re- 
search to  the  trade  association  of  the  second  industry. 
The  solution  of  the  research  problem  thus  financed 
would  be  expected  to  result  in  increased  use  of  the  ma- 
terial and  hence  in  increased  production  by  the  donors. 
The  manufacturers  of  tin  cans,  for  instance,  lend  sub- 
stantial financial  support  to  the  Canners  Laboratory 
of  the  National  Canners  Association. 

In  general,  research  appropriations  should  be  allocated 
from  the  general  funds  of  the  association  and  results 
shoidd  be  made  available  to  all  members.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  see  that  funds  so  allocated  are  sufficient 
to  finance  the  laboratorj'  or  other  research  agency 
adequately  for  the  work  it  is  to  undertake. 

Seventeen  trade  associations  out  of  thirty-six,  an- 
swering a  question  in  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  survey 
as  to  what  was  their  greatest  handicap  in  pursuing 
successful  research,  stated  that  it  was  lack  of  sufficient 
funds.  A  deficient  budget  may  cause  delay  or  even 
abandonment  of  a  project  when  ultimate  success  seems 
nearly  assm-ed  and  a  small  additional  expense  promises 
the  solution.  Contributors  are  likely  to  become  dis- 
gruntled and  withdraw  their  association  support  when 
such  a  condition  exists,  instead  of  having  the  broader 
vision  to  carry  on. 

Research — A  Long-Range  Activity 

In  considering  the  funds  necessary  for  research, 
thought  must  be  given  to  the  time  element.  Very 
few  research  investigations  can  be  completed  in  one 
year.  Reasonable  assurance  that  funds  will  be  made 
available  until  a  piece  of  research  can  be  completed  is 
very  desirable.  The  scientist  can  then  plan  the  thor- 
ough and  complete  program  that  is  so  often  necessary 
for  the  successful  solution  of  a  problem.  If  he  must 
work  under  the  handicap  of  feeling  pressed  for  time, 
knowing  that  in  so  many  months  his  work  must  termi- 
nate wdiether  successful  or  not,  he  will  be  apt  to  take 
short  cuts  and  may  miss  the  necessary  step  that  will 
insure  a  satisfactory  product  or  process.  If  time  is  all 
important,  sufficient  financial  provision  should  be  made 
immediately  to  sustain  as  large  a  staff  of  scientists  and 
technical  aides  as  can  effectively  work  on  the  project. 
If  a  mass  of  collective  experience  is  necessary  to  "prove" 
the  process,  a  well-organized  corps  of  workers  is  often 
successful  in  saving  much  time.  In  many  types  of 
investigation,  however,  continued  individual  endeavor 
is  the  only  practical  method  of  approach.  Such  types 
of  research  may  require  many  years  to  complete,  and 
if  undertaken  by  trade  associations,  the  time  require- 
ment must  be  thoroughly  understood  and  appreciated 
by  the  members. 


Trade  associations  that  are  carrying  on  research 
projects  satisfactorily  attribute  their  success  largely  to 
adequate  financial  support  both  in  amount  and  duration. 

Coordination  of  Research 

In  most  trade  associations  individual  members  will 
be  found  who  ai'c  carrying  on  private  research.  Coop- 
eration with  them  is  essential  to  prevent  needless  dupli- 
cation. This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  indi- 
vidual member  must  divulge  the  valuable  results  of 
successful  private  research.  More  often  it  means  that 
private  research  has  developed  negative  results  along 
some  apparently  possible  line  of  approach  to  a  problem, 
and  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  eft'ort  and  funds  by 
the  trade  association  research  staff  can  be  avoided  if 
this  fact  is  made  known. 

In  many  cases,  too,  private  industry  will  be  willing 
to  share  its  research  results  with  the  trade  association 
in  order  to  hasten  progress  and  promote  the  general 
welfare.  The  extent  to  which  this  is  feasible  naturally 
depends  on  the  particular  competitive  commercial 
advantage  involved.  In  general,  it  is  believed  that 
there  is  much  greater  exchange  of  this  type  of  informa- 
tion than  formerly  was  customary.  Private  enterprise 
is  more  inclined  at  present  than  in  the  past  to  encoiu-age 
its  scientists  to  publish  the  results  of  their  technical 
studies. 

The  mutual  problems  of  industrial  scientists  are  more 
freely  discussed  by  them  before  the  meetings  of  their 
respective  scientific  societies  than  formerly.     Publica- 


FiGUEB  16. — Laboratory  for  Invf.stigatioii  of  Length  C  ii;uim- 
Concrete,  Portland  Cement  Association,  Cliicago,  Illinois 


96 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


tion  of  patents  often  reveals  information  of  general 
interest  and  value.  Perfected  analytical  technique 
makes  possible  much  more  intelligent  investigation  of 
raw  materials  and  products.  All  of  these  factors  are 
taken  into  consideration  and  are  used  by  trade  associa- 
tion research  agencies  in  furthering  their  owti  work 
through  deciding  what  not  to  undertake  as  well  as  what 
path  to  follow. 

The  Trade  Association 
Research  Committee 

One  important  factor  in  the  coordination  of  trade 
association  technical  research  is  the  research  committee 
of  the  association.  This  committee  should  be  charged 
with  the  direction  of  the  research  laboratory  if  there  be 
one,  the  stimulation  of  pertinent  research  by  State  and 
Federal  research  agencies,  and  the  dissemination  of  in- 
formation regarding  research.  The  director  of  research, 
through  the  executive  officer  of  the  association,  acts  as 
the  agent  of  the  committee  in  these  activities.  The 
membership  of  a  research  committee  should  include 
representation  from  the  outstanding  teclmical,  produc- 
tion, and  sales  executives  of  the  association  membership. 

Only  by  such  broad  representation  can  the  research 
program  be  properly  envisioned  and  prosecuted.  Re- 
sults of  technical  research  are  commercially  worthless  if 
they  cannot  be  utilized  practically  in  production,  or  if 
the  resulting  products  cannot  be  sold.  Members  of  this 
committee  should  be  able  to  see  beyond  the  particular 
problems  of  their  own  enterprises  and  to  understand  the 
necessity  of  considering  problems  common  to  the  indus- 
try. The  research  committee  must  have  frequent  meet- 
ings with  the  director  of  research  and  members  of  his 
staff  so  as  to  stimulate  and  direct  the  work  along  lines  of 
most  value  to  the  industry. 

Another  function  is  to  evaluate  the  research  results 
practically  at  periodic  intervals  so  as  to  decide  what 
information  already  obtained  is  of  sufficient  importance 
to  be  disseminated  to  members,  and  in  what  manner  it 
can  best  be  utilized. 

State  engineering  and  agricultural  colleges  and  ex- 
periment stations  and  many  other  educational  organiza 
tions  are  often  eager  to  have  worth-while  research  prob- 
lems suggested  to  them  that  will  afford  opportunities 
for  thesis  research  by  undergraduate  and  graduate  stu- 
dents, or  for  more  extensive  institutional  research. 
This  provides  a  splendid  opportunity  for  a  research 
committee  to  function  and  to  be  of  great  assistance  to  its 
industry  in  establishing  sound  public  relations.  The 
Plant  Food  Research  Committee  of  The  National 
Fertilizer  Association  is  made  up  of  competent  agrono- 
mists and  chemists  employed  in  the  industry.  This 
committee  meets  frequently  to  discuss  the  unsolved 
agronomic  problems  facing  American  agriculture  and 


to  plan  ways  and  means  of  attempting  their  solution. 
In  some  instances  the  committee  has  sponsored  research 
on  its  own  account.  More  often  it  has  been  instru- 
mental in  arranging  for  studies  to  be  undertaken  by  such 
agencies  as  State  agricultural  experiment  stations.  The 
committee  often  provides  fertilizers  and  fertilizer  mate- 
rials and  other  aids  in  carrying  on  the  work.  - 

Patents 

The  question  of  patents  does  not  often  rise  in  trade 
association  technical  research.  So  many  individuals 
are  usually  involved  in  any  piece  of  such  research, 
through  suggestions,  advice,  or  contributed  experience, 
that  even  a  new  process  or  product  can  scarcely  ever 
qualify  as  the  patentable  idea  of  any  one  individual  or 
group.  If  a  patentable  feature  should  be  developed 
during  a  piece  of  trade  association  research  and  a 
patent  is  granted,  all  members  of  the  association  would, 
of  course,  be  privileged  to  use  the  patent  without  any 
royalty  or  fee.  Others  should  be  permitted  to  use  the 
patent  under  license  and  appropriate  fee  uidess  such 
use  would  be  definitely  contrary  to  the  interests  of 
association  members  who  bore  the  necessary  expense  of 
conducting  the  research  involved. 

Access  to  Research  Results 

The  results  of  trade  association  teclmical  research 
must  be  made  freely  and  fully  available  to  all  members 
of  the  association.  As  discoveries  are  made,  the  facts 
should  be  made  known  to  all  members  alike  as  soon  as 
their  practicability  is  determined.  If  a  laboratory  is 
maintained,  members  should  have  free  access  thereto 
for  the  purpose  of  first-hand  demonstrations  or  con- 
ferences. Care  must  be  taken  that  only  such  informa- 
tion is  given  out  in  personal  inter^^ews  as  has  already 
been  circulated  to  members,  at  least  in  general  terms. 
To  report  a  discover}'  to  one  member  in  advance  of 
others,  or  to  sequester  information  from  any  members, 
would  manifestly  be  unfair  and  would  very  quickly 
disrupt  the  research  program.  After  a  general  an- 
nouncement to  members  of  a  research  achievement,  it 
seems  perfectly  proper  to  discuss  anj-  details  thereof 
with  an}'  member  who  may  take  the  trouble  to  visit  the 
laboratory  or  WTite  for  further  information.  The 
method  of  acquainting  members  with  research  progress 
can  best  be  determined  by  the  research  committee. 
If  the  association  membership  is  large  and  its  research 
activities  are  extensive,  it  may  be  desirable  or  necessary 
to  publish  printed  bulletins  to  be  kept  for  reference. 
These  may  be  supplemented  by  mimeographed  letters 
or  releases.  Keeping  the  membership  informed  of 
research  progress,  either  achievement  or  failure,  is 
essential  if  their  support  for  the  research  program  is  to 
be  maintained. 


Inditstrial  Research 


97 


Figure  17.' — Laboratories  and  Offices  of  the  American  Institute  of  Laundering,  Joliet,  Illinois 


National  Emergency 

In  any  national  emergencj-  trade-association  teclmical 
researcli  facilities  can  be  converted  to  Government  use 
easily  and  immediately.  Researcli  committees,  being 
already  organized  and  functioning,  can  render  im- 
mediate, competent  service  in  making  technical  surveys 
of  the  industry  or  in  assisting  in  the  conversion  of  non- 
essential industries  to  the  production  of  munitions  and 
war  materials  generally.  The  trained  personnel  of 
laboratories  in  operation  would  be  particularly  valuable 
in  imdertaking  special  research  along  their  speciaUzed 
line,  or  along  similar  lines.  The  staff  and  facilities  of 
trade-association  chemical  laboratories,  if  necessary, 
could  easily  be  utilized  in  the  small-scale  production  of 
special  chemical  products  or  medical  preparations 
needed  for  war  use.  Engineering  and  other  types  of 
laboratories  could  be  used  likewise  along  their  special- 
ized lines.  Inasmuch  as  trade-association  research 
laboratories  are,  as  a  rule,  not  connected  with  any 
particular  factory  or  manufacturing  enterprise,  their 
mobilization  into  emergency  work  would  not  have  the 
effect  of  reducing  industrial  production. 

Teclmical  research  by  trade  associations  has  become 
a  great  national  asset.  It  is  as  yet  inadequately  devel- 
oped. Potentially,  the  research  facilities  of  trade 
associations  are  of  major  importance  to  national 
mobilization.  In  the  event  of  national  emergencies, 
facilities  owned  by  production  enterprises  should  be 
interfered  with  as  little  as  possible  in  order  that  maxi- 
mum production  and  expansion  may  take  place.  In 
trade-association  laboratories  may  be  found  able 
scientists  with  efficient,  trained  assistants  whose  im- 
mediate work  can,  without  permanent  loss,  be  tempo- 
rajily  discontinued  that  their  efforts  may  be  devoted 


to  the  common  cause.     They  may  be  made  our  first 
aiLxiliary  line  of  technical  defense. 

In  closing  this  discussion  the  author  wishes  to  make 
it  altogether  clear  that  in  mentioning  or  describing  as 
examples  the  research  work  of  a  few  associations,  no 
derogation  of  the  fine  work  of  many  others  is  intended. 
Only  space  limitations  and  lack  of  complete  knowledge 
are  responsible. 

Bibliography 

Books 

American  Institute  op  Steel  Construction.  Annual  report, 
1939.     New  York,  1939.     68. 

Bra.md,  C.  J.  The  stimulating  of  research  activities  by  trade 
associations.  In  American  Trade  Association  Executives' 
Addresses,  Twentieth  Annual  Convention,  Rye,  N.  Y.,  Sep- 
tember 20-23,  1939. 

National  Canners  Association,  Washington,  D.  C.  Bureau 
of  Raw  Products  Research.  Agricultural  research  relating 
to  canning  crops.  Vols.  1-5,  1936-40.  Washington,  D.  C, 
1936-40. 

Sparagen,  William.  Trade  association  research.  {In  Ross, 
Malcolm,  ed.  Profitable  practice  in  industrial  research. 
New  York,  Harper  and  Brothers,   1932.     p.   182-203. 

Journal  Articles 

Chamber  op  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  Department 
OF  Manufacture.  Cooperative  industrial  research.  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  1925.     38  p. 

Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  Trade  As- 
sociation Department.  A  classification  and  statistical 
survey  of  the  activities  and  services  of  330  associations. 
Washington,  D.  C,  1938. 

Davis,  R.  M.  Research — its  cash  value.  Factory  and  Indus- 
trial Management,  76,  712  (1928). 

Hamor,  W.  a.  Industrial  research  in  1939.  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry  (News  Ed.),  18,  1,  49  (1940). 

National  Paint,  Varnish,  and  Lacquer  Association,  Inc., 
Washington,  D.  C.     Special  circular,  October  1939. 


SECTION    II 
5.    FUNDAMENTAL    RESEARCH    IN    INDUSTRY 

By  Charles  M.  A.  Stine 
Vice  President,  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and  Company,  Wilmington,  Del. 


ABSTRACT 


Fundamental  research  is  a  quest  for  facts  about  the 
properties  and  behavior  of  matter,  without  retjard  to  a 
specific  apphcation  of  the  facts  discovered.  Funda- 
mental research  in  industr)'  is  a  sound  business  policy 
because  (1)  it  provides  a  basis  for  future  processes  and 
products;  (2)  it  is  a  logical  approach  to  the  more 
difficult  or  complex  "practical"  problems;  (3)  it  is  an 
assm-ancc  of  continued  leadership  in  quality  and 
economy  of  production. 

In  addition,  there  are  several  important  secondary 
factors  residting  from  industrial  fundamental  research, 
namely:  (1)  Fundamental  research  creates  consulting 
specialists  within  a  company,  readily  accessible  to  those 
engaged  in  applied  research;  (2)  it  broadens  and 
strengthens  relations  with  university  research;  (3)  it 
attracts  to  a  company  university  graduates  having 
distinct  aptitude  for  research;  (4)  it  provides  an 
opportunity  within  a  company  for  placing  personnel 
who  might  otherwise  be  misfits. 

In  the  du  Pont  Company  each  of  the  operating  de- 
partments and  subsidiaries  has  a  research  division. 
Many  problems  of  interest  to  two  or  more  operating 
departments,  however,  are  handled  by  an  independent 
central  research  department.  The  fundamental  re- 
search staff  is  within  the  administration  of  the  central 
resoarcli  department. 

The  fundamental  research  staff  of  the  du  Pont  Com- 
pany now  comprises  about  45  men,  including  full-time 
group  leaders  and  other  supervisory  personnel.  The 
investment  in  research  facilities  is  approximately 
$10,000   for   each  scientifically   trained   worker.     The 


operating  expense  is  approximately  $7,000  to  $8,000 
annually  for  each  scientifically  trained  worker. 

Fundamental  research  should  be  undertaken  only  as  a 
long-range  effort,  rather  than  on  a  year-to-year  basis. 
Significant  results  seldom  appear  in  a  year's  program. 
It  is  desu'able,  too,  to  assure  personnel  generous  com- 
pensation and  security  of  employment.  For  these 
reasons  fundamental  research  in  industry  is  somewhat 
limited  to  companies  of  considerable  size,  seasoned 
experience,  sound  financial  condition,  and  demon- 
strated faith  in  research  generally-  But  a  small  com- 
pany may  participate  in  fundamental  research  and 
profit  from  it,  particularly  by  obtaining  assistance  out- 
side its  owi\  organization. 

The  du  Pont  Company's  program  of  fvmdamcntal 
research  has  been  in  operation  12  years.  Substantial 
results  have  been  achieved  in  the  following  lines  of 
work:  Giant  molecules,  or  "superpol3'mers"  (nylon); 
chemical  engmeering  unit  operations ;  organic  synthesis, 
including  studies  of  acetylene  polymers  resulting  in 
neoprcne  chloroprene  rubber;  cellulose  derivatives; 
catalyst  studies;  and  pigments  and  particle  size. 

Although  pioneering  applied  research  may  enlarge 
existing  fields,  fundamental  research  broadens  the 
whole  field  of  chemical  industry,  and  from  it  flow  new 
l)roducts  and  new  processes.  These  new  products 
exhibit  not  onty  the  properties  expected  b}'  their  dis- 
coverer, but,  as  so  frequently  happens,  new  and  unex- 
pected properties  which  result  in  new  uses  not  envi- 
sioned for  it  when  the  product  was  merely  a  dream  in 
the  mind  of  the  inventor. 


Introduction 

Fundamental  research  and  what  may  be  termed 
"pioneering  applied  research"  should  bo  differentiated. 
The  distinction  is  based  principally  upon  the  scope  of 
the  work  and  the  extent  to  which  it  is  limited  by  certain 
recognized  practical  objectives.  In  general,  research 
undertaken  upon  some  broad  general  subject,  such  as 
the  structure  of  cellulose,  belongs  to  the  category  of 
fundamental  research. 
98 


On  the  other  hand,  if  a  company  engaged  in  the 
production  of  textiles  coated  with  cellulose  derivatives, 
or  in  the  manufacture  of  photograpiiic  film,  or  of  other 
products  utilizing  derivatives  of  cellulose,  undertakes 
research  aimed  at  the  development  of  new  cellulose 
derivatives,  in  the  hope  of  developing  such  derivatives 
as  might  exhibit  useful  ju-operties  fitting  them  for  appli- 
cation in  manufactured  products,  the  work  becomes 
pioneering  applied  research.     After  the  discovery  of  a 


Industrial  Research 


99 


new  cellulose  derivative  and  the  evaluation  of  its  prop- 
erties, the  next  step  might  be  actually  to  manufacture 
it,  whereupon  the  investigation  assumes  the  complexion 
of  ordinary  applied  research. 

The  investigation  of  monomolecular  fdnis  by  a  pro- 
ducer of  electrical  equipment  might  he  fundamental 
research,  whereas  the  investigation  of  monomolecular 
films  by  an  oil  refiner  engaged  in  the  production  of 
lubricants  might  be  largelj'  in  the  field  of  applied  re- 
search. Thus,  the  classification  of  the  research  depends 
upon  the  character  of  the  problem  and  the  nature  of  the 
agency  carrying  on  the  investigation. 

Reasons  for  Fundamental 
Research  in  Industry 

Why  fundamental  research?  The  answer  is  clear; 
industry  should  learn  today  in  order  that  it  may  be 
prepared  for  tomorrow.  Thus,  there  is  an  implied 
monetary  motive  for  fimdamental  research  in  industry. 
To  put  it  another  way,  fundamental  research  in  the 
technical  laboratory  is  not  a  labor  of  love.  It  is  sound 
business  policy.  It  is  a  policy  that  should  assure  the 
payment  of  futine  dividends.  More  specifically,  funda- 
mental research  in  industry  aids  in  achieving  the  follow- 
ing thmgs: 

(1)  Fimdamental  research  provides  a  basis  for  fu- 
ture processes  and  products.  For  example,  a  sub- 
stantial proportion  of  the  operations  of  a  certain 
company  is  based  on  the  raw  material  cellulose,  and  it 
is  likely  that  the  company  will  continue  to  use  cellulose 
in  large  quantities  every  year.  Consequently,  such 
studies  as  "chemistry  of  cellulose,"  "particle  size  of 
cellulose  derivatives,"  and  "physical  structure  of  cellu- 
lose derivatives"  are  a  part  of  the  fundamental  research 
effort.  It  is  believed  that  some  of  the  discoveries  being 
made  inevitably  will  lead  to  new  cellulose  products. 

(2)  Fundamental  research  is  a  logical  approach  to  the 
more  difficult  or  complex  "practical"  problems,  such  as 
the  design  of  equipment  for  chemical  and  physical 
processes.  After  a  process  has  been  carried  through 
the  laboratory  stage,  what  then?  Unless  the  process 
is  conventional — which  it  rarely  is — the  steps  which 
ensue  comprise  semiworks  operation,  followed  by  the 
design  of  a  full-scale  factory,  all  of  which  require  such 
data  as  coefficients  of  heat  transfer  and  empirical  formu- 
lae for  absorption  and  fluid  flow.  If  the  plant  operates 
according  to  prediction,  there  is  a  general  sigh  of  relief. 
^Yhile  there  is  a  body  of  knowledge  called  chemical 
engineering,  there  are  many  open  spaces  in  that  knowl- 
edge, as  the  designer  of  chemical  factories  will  testify. 
Therefore,  in  the  hope  and  belief  that  guesswork  in 
plant  design  can  be  diminished,  fundamental  research 
in  chemical  engineering  should  embrace  studies  in  fluid 
flow,  distillation,  absorption,  crystallization  and  evap- 
oration, heat  transfer,  and  the  like. 

321835 — 41 8 


(.'■!)  FunchuiU'utal  research  assures  continued  leader- 
ship in  quality  and  economy  of  production.  Paint, 
for  instance,  is  an  old  product,  so  old  one  might  think 
there  is  not  much  room  for  improvement  in  quality. 
But  research  is  destined  to  cause  much  more  than  con- 
tinued improvement  in  present  types  of  paint.  New 
types  of  paint  will  be  evolved.  Significantly,  a  paint  is 
judged  partly  by  the  way  it  fails;  whether  by  chalking, 
cracking,  blistering,  etc.  Short  life — from  1  to  5  years — 
is  an  accepted  quality.  So,  witli  these  facts  in  mind, 
fundamental  research  especially  on  pigments  is  in 
progress  in  the  paint  industry.  Such  properties  as 
particle  size  and  size  distribution  are  being  studied, 
using  the  ultracentrifuge  as  a  tool.  Fundamental 
laws  are  being  discovered,  and  these  discoveries  will 
permit  a  control  of  the  optical  properties  of  pigments. 
As  a  result,  paints  having  vastly  improved  durability 
may  be  expected. 

(4)  Fundamental  research  creates  specialists  within 
a  company,  readily  accessible  for  consultation  with 
those  engaged  in  applied  research,  or  themselves  to 
undertake  applied  research  with  assurance  of  a  broader 
foundation  than  otherwise  would  have  been  laid. 
Experience  indicates  that  the  consulting  function  does 
not  interfere  seriously  with  the  research  function;  on 
the  contrary,  contact  between  the  two  research  groups 
is  mutually  beneficial.  Or  alternately,  fundamental 
research  may  be  an  excellent  prelude  to  pioneering 
applied  research. 

(5)  Opportunity  for  fundamental  research  attracts  to 
industry  university  graduates  having  marked  aptitude 
for  research.  This  is  important,  because  in  a  large 
technical  research  organization,  the  recruiting  of  mem- 
bers for  the  junior  technical  staff  is  a  major  responsibil- 
ity. The  research  results  of  tomorrow  depend  upon  the 
quality  of  personnel  employed  today.  Stated  another 
way,  the  scientific  prestige  of  a  company  is  a  major 
factor  in  attracting  suitable  men,  and  this  prestige  often 
rests  on  the  company's  reputation  for  fundamental 
attack. 

Organization  for  Fundamental  Research 

In  one  company  in  which  fundamental  research  has 
been  practiced  a  number  of  years,  each  of  the  oper- 
ating departments  and  subsidiaries  has  a  research 
division.  To  that  extent,  research  is  decentralized. 
Many  problems,  however,  especially  those  of  pioneering 
applied  research  are  of  interest  to  two  or  more  opcratmg 
departments  or  for  other  reasons  are  handled  most 
effectively  by  an  independent  research  staff.  Conse- 
quently, there  is  also  a  central  research  staff.  The 
fundamental  research  staff  appears  most  logically  to 
be  a  part  of  the  central  research  department  and,  in 
fact,  is  administered  therein. 

Actually,  there  is  no  sharp  subdivision  of  organiza- 


100 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


tion,  since  certain  individuals  engaged  in  fundamental 
research  report  to  supervisors  who  also  have  responsi- 
bility for  pioneering  applied  research.  This  has  proved 
quite  satisfactory  and  ensures  fraternity  among  the 
applied  and  fundamental  groups.  Any  appearance  of 
having  set  up  an  aristocracy  of  fundamental  research 
is  carefull}-  avoided.  All  research  is  considered  to  be 
equally  important  to  the  company's  welfare;  similarly 
there  is  no  inequality  of  status  as  between  an  employee 
engaged  in  an  abstract  study  of  the  cellulose  molecule 
and  one  trying  to  make  better  photographic  film  from 
that  same  cellulose. 

The  fundamental  research  staff  of  the  company  now 
comprises  about  45  men,  including  the  full-time  group 
leaders  and  other  supervisory  personnel. 

Cost  of  Research 

In  this  same  company,  the  investment  in  research 
facilities  is  approximately  $10,000  for  each  scientifically 
trained  worker,  whether  engaged  in  fundamental 
research  or  in  applied  research.  This  includes  all 
capital  facilities,  such  as  land,  buildings,  and  equip- 
ment. The  operating  expense  is  approximately  $7,000 
to  $8,000  for  each  scientifically  trained  worker.  This 
includes  the  worker's  salary  and  his  overhead — such 
items  as  rent  (or  the  equivalent  of  rent),  heat,  light, 
power,  supplies,  insurance,  clerical,  and  mechanical 
services,  administration,  and  travel. 

Conditions  for  Successful 
Fundamental  Research 

Everyone  experienced  in  fundamental  research  knows 
it  should  be  undertaken  only  as  a  long-range  effort. 
Accordingly,  a  management  should  understand  that,  in 
all  probability,  significant  results  will  not  be  forth- 
coming in  a  year's  program.  Fundamental  research 
should  be  underwritten  for  a  term  of  years,  rather  than 
on  a  year-to-year  basis.  One  program  in  the  writer's 
experience  was  underwritten  initially  for  a  term  of  5 
years,  and  when  this  term  ended,  the  results  were  suf- 
ficiently tangible  to  warrant  continued  appropriations. 

A  second  factor  is  the  lines  of  work  to  be  imdertaken. 
"Lines  of  work"  rather  than  "problems"  are  specified, 
because  problems  were  not  specified  when  the  program 
was  initiated.  In  one  company,  for  example,  there 
are  a  number  of  major  lines  of  manufacture,  and  under- 
lying these  are  cellulose  chemistry,  catalytic  reactions, 
a  group  of  organic  syntheses,  a  group  of  inorganic 
sjmtheses,  also  certain  physical  phenomena,  as  for 
example,  those  related  to  paint  manufacture. 

Clearly,  it  is  good  policy  to  try  unceasingly  to  improve 
existing  products  tlxrough  applied  research  and  to 
develop  new  products  through  pioneering  applied 
research.     Having  organized  applied  research  to  the 


best  advantage,  the  possible  additional  benefits  to  be 
secured  by  fundamental  research  should  then  be  con- 
sidered. Finally,  if  fundamental  research  is  conducted 
on  the  broad  lines  underlying  the  various  industries, 
facts  that  sooner  or  later  will  be  valuable  are  most  likely 
to  be  discovered. 

A  third  factor  is  personnel.  Individual  ability  is 
even  more  important  in  fundamental  research  than  in 
applied  research.  Reaching  a  clearly  defined  objective 
in  applied  research  is  not  difficult  if  proper  supervision 
is  provided.  If  this  were  not  true,  applied  research 
would  not  have  achieved  virtually  universal  acceptance 
as  an  everyday  business  tool.  Of  course,  someone  has 
to  supervise  fundamental  research.  However,  the 
supervisor's  principal  task  is  to  contribute  suggestions 
and  constructive  criticism,  to  see  that  working  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  to  inspire  his  men,  and  to  maintain 
close  touch  with  the  progress  of  each  group  member. 
The  success  of  the  work  is  largely  dependent  upon 
securing  for  fundamental  research  the  highest  grade  of 
men  obtainable  for  each  of  the  principal  lines  of  work 
and  then  affording  them  a  wide  latitude. 

It  is  desirable  to  compensate  these  men  so  generously 
that  they  will  regard  themselves  as  "career  men"  with 
a  company.  Once  a  man  has  demonstrated  his  ability 
for  work  in  fimdamental  research,  security  of  employ- 
ment and  fair  compensation  ought  to  be  assured  inso- 
far as  possible. 

The  foregoing  considerations  indicate  at  once  why 
fundamental  research  in  industry  virtually  is  limited 
to  companies  of  considerable  size,  seasoned  experienced, 
sound  financial  condition,  and  demonstrated  faith  in 
research  generally.  To  put  it  another  way,  no  com- 
pany should  undertake  fundamental  research  unless  it 
is  both  willing  and  able  to  sustain  it  indefinitely, 
through  depression  as  well  as  prosperity.  In  this  con- 
nection, it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  lapse  of  lime 
between  the  conception  of  an  idea  in  fundamental 
research  and  its  eventual  emergence  as  an  industrial 
process  or  product  is  rarely  less  than  6  to  10  years. 

Results  Achieved 

Fundamental  research  is  not  new  in  industry.  It 
has  been  practiced  with  marked  success  by  the  chem- 
ical industry  on  organic  syntheses,  catalysis,  and  poly- 
merization ;  by  the  electrical  industry  on  acoustics,  sur- 
face films,  and  atom  smashing;  by  the  iron  and  steel 
industry  on  creep;  by  the  paper  industry  on  the  prop- 
erties of  lignin.  Even  a  gasket  company  has  carried 
out  basic  research  on  the  laws  affecting  leakage  without 
having  in  mind  specific  commercial  problems. 

Indicative  of  the  range  of  fundamental  research  in 
industry,  the  following  examples  are  cited.  These  ex- 
amples were  contributed  especially  for  inclusion  in  this 
report,  as  a  result  of  the  author's  contact  with  a  num- 


Indtistrial  Research 


101 


ber  of  companies,  the  cooperation  of  whitli  is  hereby 
acknowledged. 

American  Cyanamid  Company 

Physical  laboratory. — "A  spectroscopic  study  of  atomic 
arrangement  and  structure  of  organic  compoimds  in 
tlie  spectral  range  between  2,200-A  and  120,000-A. 
New  instruments  and  tecluiique  have  been  developed 
and  a  catalog  of  the  spectral  bands  of  molecular  group- 
ings is  being  compiled.  Some  very  valuable  applica- 
tions, particularlj-  m  the  analyses  of  imknown  organic 
mixtures,  have  resulted." 

Chemical  laboratory.— "A  comprehensive  study  of  or- 
ganic nitrogen  compounds,  particularly  derivatives  of 
cyanamid.  This  has  resulted  in  the  production  of 
many  new  products,  several  of  which  are  now  commer- 
cially available  in  the  class  of  organic  bases,  resin  form- 
ing compomids  and  intermediates  for  pharmaceutical 
and  dye  production.  Much  new  physical  and  chemical 
data  relating  to  the  properties  of  these  complex  com- 
poimds have  been  registered." 

Biological  laboratory. — "Organized  research  on  the 
nature  and  behavior  of  globulin  proteins  leading  to  a 
better  understanding  of  the  complex  constitution  of 
serums.  We  are  now  able  to  produce  certain  antitoxins 
and    toxoids    free    from    certain   side   reactions    when 


introduced  into  the  human  system,  and  with  better 
understanding  of  the  principles  involved,  the  application 
is  being  extended  rapidly  to  a  wider  range  of  tliose 
biologicals." 

Bell  Telephone  Laboratories 

Electron  dijfraction. — "Up  until  1927,  electrons  were 
thought  to  be  discrete  particles;  their  mass  and  charge 
had  been  determined,  and  their  behavior  under  all  the 
more  usual  circumstances  was  known.  Studies  in  Bell 
Telephone  Laboratories,  however,  showed  that  elec- 
trons also  have  the  character  of  waves.  This  was 
proved  by  projecting  a  stream  of  electrons  against  a 
nickel  crystal.  Instead  of  penetrating  or  being  blocked 
by  the  nickel  crystal,  the  electrons  arc  diffracted,  and 
leave  the  crystals  at  various  angles  from  the  line  of  the 
beam,  much  as  a  beam  of  light  is  diffracted  when  it 
falls  on  a  fine  mesh  screen.  This  result  was  in  conform- 
ity with  certain  theories  developed  shortly  before,  and 
has  been  one  of  the  important  factors  in  creating  the 
'new'  physics  that  has  come  into  prominence  in  recent 
years.  Since  this  original  work,  the  diffraction  of 
electrons  has  proved  a  useful  tool  in  studying  the 
nature  of  material  surfaces." 

Electron  emission. — ^"Studies  have  been  carried  on 
over  a  number  of  years  to  determine  the  fundamental 


Figure  18. — High-Speed  Motion  Pictures  of  the  Human  Vocal  Cords,  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories,  New  York,  N'ew  York 


102 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


physical  and  chciniral  factors  involved  in  emission  of 
electrons  from  heated  surfaces.  The  broad  objective 
has  been  to  improve  the  uniformitj',  efficiency,  and  life 
expectancy  of  vacuum  tubes.  At  the  time  these  studies 
were  initiated,  Wehnelt  or  oxide  coated  cathodes,  were 
known  but  their  behavior  was  erratic  and  their  prepara- 
tion difficult.  As  a  result  of  extended  researches,  the 
principles  involved  in  electron  emission  have  been 
greatly  clarified.  The  role  of  metallic  barium  in  oxide 
coated  cathodes  is  now  understood  from  these  studies, 
and  this  knowledge  has  facilitated  the  development  of 
manufacturing  processes  for  the  production  of  more 
uniform  and  efficient  tubes  of  longer  life.  Both  the 
efficiency  and  life  of  vacuum  tubes  have  been  increased 
many  fold  as  a  result  of  these  studies." 

Corning  Glass  Works 

Shrunk  glass.- — "The  development  of  'slirunk'  glass 
might  be  taken  as  an  instance  of  a  commercial  result  of 
fundamental  research  in  an  industrial  laboratory. 

"It  had  been  observed  that  prolonged  heat  treatment 
in  the  annealing  region  seriously  affected  the  resistance 
of  certain  glasses  to  attack  by  water  and  chemical  re- 
agents. With  no  immediate  practical  application  in 
view  a  study  of  the  phenomenon  was  undertaken. 
After  work  extending  over  a  period  of  years  it  was  found 
that  certain  chemical  compositions  were  particularly 
susceptible    to   heat    treatment,    the   result   of   which 


appeared  to  be  the  separation  of  the  glass  into  two 
phases,  one  consisting  almost  entirely  of  silica  and  the 
other  of  boric  oxide,  alkali,  and  other  constituents. 
Extraction  with  acid  then  gave  an  article  of  the  original 
size,  microscopically  porous  and  consisting  of  some 
96  percent  silica,  which  on  firing  contracted  in  volume 
about  35  percent  and  yet  retained  with  remarkable 
fidelity  its  original  shape. 

"It  has  thus  become  possible  to  produce  from  a  glass 
melted  and  worked  by  conventional  methods  ware 
which  in  its  properties  approaches  fused  quartz.  The 
expansion-coefficient  of  the  'shrunk'  glass,  for  instance, 
is  0.0000008  where  that  of  fused  quartz  is  0.0000006. 
Electrical  properties  and  resistance  to  chemical  attack 
are  also  close  to  fused  quartz. 

"The  glass  is  now  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  labo- 
ratory ware  and  in  other  special  applications." 

Eastman  Kodak  Company 

Distillation  in  high  vacua. — "A  very  typical  example 
of  the  application  of  fundamental  research  is  Dr.  Hick- 
man's process  of  distillation  in  high  vacua,  which  resulted 
from  a  study  of  the  design  of  vacuum  gauges  and  pumps. 
This  was  undertaken  originally  as  a  purely  fundamental 
research,  without  any  particidar  application  in  view  and 
has  enabled  us  to  design  and  build  molecular  stills  and 
to  carry  on  the  commercial  distillation  of  vitamins  from 
fish  oils  in  a  subsidiary  company  formed  for  the  purpose. 


Figure  19. — Pure  Research  Division,  Stamford  Research  Laboratories,  American  Cyanamid  Company,  Stamford,  Connecticut 


Industrial  Research 


103 


There  are  many  other  applications  of  this  distillation 
process  to  the  treatment  of  vegetable  and  animal  oils, 
all  of  which  are  developing  from  Dr.  Ilicivman's  work 
on  high  vacua." 

General  Electric  Company 

High-pressure  arc  work. — "High-pressure  arc  work 
(electric  discharges  in  high  pressures  of  gas,  up  to 
50,000  pounds  per  square  inch)  has  taught  us  how  to 
improve  air  circuit  breakers  so  that  an  air  circuit  breaker 
may  now  be  made  as  compact  as  an  oil  circuit  breaker 
for  the  same  service." 

Hot  filaments. — "At  a  time  when  X-ray  tubes  con- 
tained no  fdaments,  researches  on  phenomena  connected 
with  hot  filaments  yielded  the  clew  to  a  new  type  of 
X-ray  tube,  so  superior  to  former  types  as  completely 
to  supersede  them." 

Monsanto  Chemical  Company 

Ferric  sulfate. — "Fundamental  study  of  the  system 
Fe203 — SO3 — HoO,  out  of  which  rose  efficient  manufac- 
turing methods  for  ferric  sulfate." 

Synthetic  resins  from  petroleum. — "Study  of  the  reac- 
tions of  olefins  with  diolefins  and  aromatics  resulting  in 
the  development  of  resins  from  petroleum." 

Organic  phosphates. — "Study  of  the  reactions  of 
phosphoric  anhydride  with  organic  compounds  resulting 
in  the  development  of  alkyl  phosphates." 

Standard  Oil  Development  Company 

Lubrication  studies. — "In  connection  with  a  study  of 
lubricating  oil  behavior  it  was  found  that  a  new  syn- 
thetic material  had  the  effect  of  reducing  the  pour  point 
of  lubricating  oils.  Manufacture  of  this  material  was 
started  within  the  company  and  it  is  now  sold  in  the 
form  of  an  oil  solution  as  'Paraflow.'  The  production 
of  this  material  has  been  a  quite  successful  commercial 
enterprise." 

Polymerization  studies. — "In  connection  with  exami- 
nation of  the  constitution  of  petroleum  fractions,  it  was 
found  that  the  hydrogenated  polymerization  product 
obtained  from  treating  refinery  C4  cut,  with  moder- 
ately strong  sulfuric  acid,  at  essentially  room  tempera- 
ture contained  octenes  other  than  2,2,4-tri-mcthyl 
pentane,  normally  known  as  iso-octane.  Up  to  that 
time  it  had  been  felt  that  the  only  product  of  the 
reaction  was  the  polymerization  of  isobutylene  to 
di-isobutylene  which  would  be  converted  to  2,2,4-tri- 
methyl  pentane  on  hydrogenation.  Discovery  of  the 
presence  of  other  octenes  stimulated  work  on  the  modi- 
fication of  the  polymerization  process  which  led  to  the 
development,  so  far  as  the  Standard  Oil  Development 
Company  is  concerned,  of  the  'hot  acid'  process  for 


production  of  mixed  octenes  by  polymerization  of 
isobutylene  with  normal  butylenes.  Development  of 
this  process  more  than  doubled  the  supply  of  aviation 
gasoline  blending  agents  that  could  be  obtained  from 
refinery  C4  fractions  as  compared  with  the  earlier  'cold 
acid'  process.  This  work  made  possible  the  production 
of  high  octane  number  blending  agents  for  aviation 
gasoline  on  a  scale  large  enough  to  warrant  wide  appli- 
cation." 

United  States  Rubber  Company 

Research  on  latex. — "Shortly  after  the  close  of  the  last 
world  war  the  United  States  Rubber  Company  began 
importing  latex  from  its  plantations.  It  appeared  im- 
mediately that  latex  could  be  used  for  a  number  of 
purposes,  including  the  direct  manufacture  of  rubber 
goods,  which  up  to  that  time  had  been  made  from  the 
coagulated  and  dried  rubber  shipped  from  the  East. 

"In  order  to  develop  such  processes  and  operate  them 
on  a  satisfactory  basis  a  large  amount  of  fundamental 
research  work  was  carried  on.  Among  other  matters, 
studies  were  made  of  the  viscosity  of  latex  in  relation 
to  its  concentration,  pH,  and  the  effect  of  nonrubber 
materials,  including  compounding  ingredients. 

"As  a  result  of  this  work  we  are  now  able  to  make 
reproducible  latex  compositions  and  to  maintain  the 
properties  of  these  compositions  over  considerable 
periods  of  time." 

Some  of  the  practical  applications  of  this  work  are 
the  following: 

Latex  thread  (Lastex). — This  is  widely  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  elastic  fabrics  and  garments. 

Latex  wire. — This  product  is  superior  to  wire  insulated  by  the 
older  methods  using  dry  rubber,  in  that  the  wall  thickness  is 
more  uniform  and  the  dielectric  properties  of  the  rubber  are 
superior.  As  a  result,  wires  made  by  this  method  have  a  smaller 
over-all  diameter  for  the  same  service  than  wires  made  by  the 
older  method. 

Latex  foam  sponge. — This  material  is  coming  into  wide  use  for 
cushions  for  automobiles,  furniture,  and  mattresses. 

Westinghouse  Electric 

&  Manufacturing  Company 

Electric  discharge  phenomena  in  gases. — ^"In  the  elec- 
trical industry,  there  has  been  considerable  fundamental 
work  in  the  ionization,  conduction  and  deionization  of 
gases  and  this  fundamental  work  has  led  to  valuable 
commercial  products  such  as  lightning  arresters  and 
circuit  breakers. 

"It  might  be  pointed  out  also  that  the  early  funda- 
mental work,  partly  in  industry  and  partly  in  the 
imiversities,  on  conduction  in  gases  at  reduced  pres- 
sures has  resulted  in  quite  a  long  trail  of  useful  products 
such  as  X-ray  tubes,  mercury  vapor  lights,  mercury 
rectifiers,  radio  and  industrial  tubes,  fluorescent  lights, 
photocells,  sterilizing  lights,  etc." 


104 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


General  Motors  Corporation 

Improvement  oj  antiknock  quality  oj  Juels. — ^"This 
research  program  was  started  in  an  effort  to  eliminate 
detonation  in  gasoline  engines.  Detonation,  or 'knock- 
ing,' results  in  low  economy  and  prevents  the  use  of 
high  compression  ratios  with  consequent  performance 
increases.  The  General  Motors  Research  Laboratories 
found  that  the  addition  of  tetracthyl  lead  to  gasoline 
raised  its  antiknock  value  so  that  engineers  could  use 
the  advantages  of  high  compression  in  engine  design. 
To  use  letracth^d  lead  without  causing  lead  deposits 
inside  the  engine,  it  must  be  mixed  with  a  bromine 
derivative,  ethylene-dibromide." 

Improvement  in  quality  oj  gasoline. — "The  General 
Motors  Research  Laboratories  engineers,  cooperating 
with  the  oil  companies,  have  about  doubled  the  yield 
of  gasoline  from  crude  oU.     The  inherent  antiknock 


value  of  gasoline  has  been  greatly  increased  and,  in 
addition,  the  chemists  have  found  many  ways  to  use 
petroleum  as  a  raw  material." 

Fuel  economies. — "In  1939  about  75  percent  of  the 
gasoline  sold  in  this  country  contained  ethyl  fluid.  The 
annual  gasoline  bill  of  the  United  States  is  about  4 
billion  dollars.  Engine  improvements  made  possible  by 
better  antiknock  fuels  have  about  doubled  the  power 
and  economy  without  increasing  the  size  of  the  engine. 
Refiners  now  soil  better  gasoline  at  a  lower  cost  to  the 
public  and  in  addition  have  found  ways  to  make 
alcohols,  solvents,  acetylene,  plastics,  resins,  artificial 
rubber,  and  a  host  of  other  things,  using  petroleum  as 
the  base  material.  No  quantitive  measurement  can  be 
applied  to  the  over-all  benefits  of  fuel  research,  but  they 
may  be  largely  credited  to  the  forward  research  policy 
of  General  Motors." 


FiGCRE  20. — Fundamental   Research   in   Reaction    Kinetics,   Emeryville   Laboratories,   Shell   Development  Company,   Emeryville, 

California 


I 


Industrial  Research 


105 


E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  &  Company 

Nylon. — In  the  12  j'cars  of  operation  of  fundamental 
research,  substantial  contributions  have  been  made  to 
the  company's  progress,  as  indicated  by  the  following 
description  of  the  nylon  development: 

The  first  study  undertaken  in  fundamental  research 
program  was  directed  to  a  better  understanding  of  how 
and  why  certain  molecules  unite  to  form  giant  molecules, 
such  as  those  found  in  rubber,  cellulose,  and  resins. 
Chemists  have  long  been  vitally  interested  in  giant 
molecules,  or  "superpolymers,"  and  in  learning  every- 
thmg  possible  about  the  mechanism  of  polymerization. 

Out  of  the  study  of  polymerization  begun  in  1928, 
fundamental  information  of  much  importance  was  devel- 
oped and  was  made  public  in  the  form  of  scientific 
papers.  It  was  demonstrated,  for  example,  that  cer- 
tain small  molecules  could  be  made  to  unite  in  such  a 
way  as  to  form  giant  molecules  of  great  length,  known 
as  linear  superpolymers. 

However,  after  this  fundamental  research  had  been 
un  ler  way  for  about  2  years,  it  was  noted  that  the 
molten  polymer  could  be  drawn  out  in  the  form  of  a 
long  fiber,  somewhat  like  that  of  silk,  and  that,  even 
after  the  fiber  was  cold,  it  could  be  further  drawn  to 
several  times  its  original  length. 


Wliile  this  original  fiber  was  not  very  strong  or  elastic 
and  was  softened  by  hot  water,  it,  nevertheless,  sug- 
gested the  possibility  that  some  related  type  of  super- 
polymer  might  give  fibers  which  would  possess  the  char- 
acteristics desired  for  use  in  textiles.  Further  research 
was  accordingly  directed  to  the  synthesis  of  a  super- 
polymer  from  which  strong,  elastic,  and  water-resistant 
fibers  would  be  drawn  or  spmi. 

Practical  research  directed  to  the  synthesis  of  a 
superpolymer  from  which  fibers  could  be  drawn  suitable 
for  textile  purposes  did  not  bear  immediate  fruit. 
Numerous  superpolymers  were  synthesized.  Some  of 
the  resulting  fibers  were  deficient  in  strength  and  elas- 
ticity, while,  others,  although  sufficiently  strong  and 
elastic,  softened  at  quite  low  temperatures,  or  were 
sensitive  to  water.  They  did  not  possess  the  properties 
required  of  a  textile  fiber. 

Finally  a  superpolymer  of  a  different  type  was  pre- 
pared, a  polyamide,  from  which  fibers  spun  by  hand 
were  found  to  possess  such  characteristics  as  to  warrant 
extraordinary  efforts  to  bring  the  development  to  com- 
mercial success.  Much  work  was  yet  to  be  done, 
however,  between  that  day  when  the  first  polyamide 
fiber  was  extruded  through  an  improvised  spinneret 
made  from  a  hypodermic  needle,  and  the  announce- 


FiGURE  21. — Ultracentrifuge  for  Determination  of  Molecular  Weights  of  Colloidal  Materials  Such  as  Proteins,  Cellulose  and  Rubber 
Experimental  Station  of  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and  Company,  Wilmington,  Delaware 


106 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


ment  of  nylon  several  years  later.  Many  dilFerent 
polyaniidcs  had  to  be  synthesized  before  supcrpolymcrs 
having  the  desired  characteristics  were  found;  it  was 
then  necessary  to  investigate  sources  of  raw  materials 
for  the  intermediates  needed  in  making  these  super- 
polymers,  and  to  devise  practicable  processes  for  nialv- 
ing  the  intermediates. 

Late  in  193S,  there  was  announced  the  development 
of  a  group  of  new  synthetic  superpolymers  from  which, 
among  other  possible  applications,  textile  fibers  could 
be  spun  surpassing  in  strength  and  elasticity  any 
previously  known  textile  fiber,  whether  cotton,  linen, 
wool,  silk,  or  rayon.  This  new  family  of  materials 
was  named  nylon. 

Fundamental  Research 
by  Small  Companies 

The  small  industrial  organization  has  been  variously 
defined.  Certainly  with  respect  to  the  largest  com- 
panies, one  wliose  not  worth  is  1  million  dollars  would 
be  considered  small.  Such  an  organization  on  the 
average  would  have  a  gross  income  of  1  million  dollars 
annualh^  and  could  support  a  research  staff  of  about  5 
scientifically  trained  personnel.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  company  whose  net  worth  is  5  million  dollars  ceases 
to  be  small  (if  engaged  in  manufacturing)  and  might 
be  termed  medium-sized.  It  could  sup{)ort  a  research 
staff  of  20  scientifically  trained  personnel. 

The  question  is,  Wliat  can  a  company  do — in  this 
category  of  less  than  20  research  men — in  the  field  of 
fundamental  research?  Its  managers  probably  feel 
that  its  resources  should  be  conserved  for  projects 
that  promise  relatively  definite  and  prompt  return; 
that  fundamental  research  should  not  be  undertaken 
unless  there  is  reasona])lo  assurance  of  financial  support 
over  a  period  of  years;  and  that  the  successful  pursuit 
of  fundamental  research  requires  a  staff  possessing 
widely  diversified,  higldy  specialized  talents.  Finally, 
they  may  feel  that  fundamental  research  is  a  variety 
of  "white  man's  burden,"  to  be  borne  by  the  imiversi- 
ties,  research  foundations,  and  large  industrial  com- 
panies. 

Such  reasoning  does  not,  in  the  writer's  opinion, 
close  the  case,  as  there  are  ways  by  wliich  a  small 
company  may  participate  in  fundamental  research  and 
profit  therefrom.  For  example,  it  may  sponsor  a 
project  in  a  university,  or  establish  a  fellowship  at  an 
endowed  research  institute  at  which  admirable  staff 
and  equipment  are  available  for  the  small  as  well  as 
the  large  organization.  It  may  participate  in  trade 
association  research  or  in  cooperative  group  research. 
It  may  retain  a  firm  of  competent  research  consultants. 


Fundamental  Research 
and  Foreign  Affairs 

In  the  light  of  world  jjolitics  as  this  is  written,  the 
importance  of  maintaining  and  expanding  research 
activities  in  America  becomes  particularh''  clear.  Our 
ability  as  a  Nation  to  hold  and  develop  foreign  trade 
and  to  provide  adequate  defenses  will  depend  in  no 
small  degree  upon  our  research  activities,  including 
those  of  the  most  fundamental  character. 

Twenty-five  years  ago  Germany  was  supreme  in 
dyes,  pharmaceuticals,  and  nitrogen  fixation,  simply 
because  she  had  built  efficient  industries  upon  a  broad 
base  of  fundamental  research  that  dated  back  10,  15, 
and  25  years.  No  imagination  is  required  to  appreciate 
what  this  supremacy  meant  in  her  world  commerce 
and  in  preparedness  for  war. 

Fortunately,  our  woeful  state  of  chemical  insuffi- 
ciency in  1914  is  one  lesson  America  took  to  heart. 
And,  if  we  are  to  survive  as  a  democracy  in  a  world 
seething  with  predatory  powers,  then  our  defenses 
must  be  made  secure,  literally  dowTi  to  the  last  atom.. 
Whether  or  not  we  relish  the  idea,  our  leadership  in 
science  must  not  be  relinquished  if  we  are  to  be  in- 
vincible in  the  arts  of  war  as  well  as  in  the  bloodless 
but  nonetheless  vital  struggles  of  world  commerce. 

Bibliography 

Books 

Boyd,  T.  A.  Research,  the  pathfinder  of  science  and  industry. 
New  York,  London,  D.  Applcton-Century  Company,  Inc., 
1935.     319  p.     "Pure  research  and  applied,"  p.  13-21. 

Dreaper,  W.  p.  Notes  on  chemical  research,  an  account  of 
certain  conditions  which  apply  to  original  investigation.  2d 
ed.  Philadelphia,  Blakiston,  1920.  195  p.  "Definition  of 
research,"  p.  26-28. 

Fleming,  A.  P.  M.,  and  J.  G.  Pearce.  Research  in  industry, 
the  basis  of  economic  progress.  London,  Pitman,  1922.  244  p. 
"Character  of  research,"  p.  11-22. 

Mees,  C.  E.  K.  The  organization  of  industrial  scientific  re- 
search. New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1920. 
175  p.     "Introduction,"  p.  1-21. 

National  Resources  Committee.  Technological  trends  and 
national  pohcy.  (Washington,  United  States  Government 
Printing  Office,  1937.)  388  p.  "The  interdependence  of 
science  and  technology"  (E.  C.  Elliott),  p.  93-94. 

Ross,  Malcolm,  ed.  Profitable  practice  in  industrial  research; 
tested  principles  of  research  laboratory  organization,  admin- 
istration, and  operation.  New  York,  London,  Harper  and 
Brothers,  1932.  269  p.  "Fundamental  and  applied  chemical 
research"  (C.  M.  A.  Stine),  p.  104-118.  "Research  in  pure 
science"  (W.  R.  Whitney  and  L.  A.  Hawkins),  p.  243-261. 

Weidlein,  E.  R.,  and  W.  A.  II amor.  Science  in  action;  a 
sketch  of  the  value  of  scientific  research  in  American  industries. 
New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1931.  310 
p.     "The  groundwork  of  industrial  research,"  p.  3-16. 


Industrial  Research 


107 


Journal  articles 

Dunn,  J.  T.  Academic  research  and  industry.  Chemical  Age 
(London)  U,  553  (1924). 

Dunn,  J.  T.  Tlie  services  of  science  to  industry;  jubilee  memo- 
rial lecture.     Chemistry  and  Industry,  56,  478  (1937). 

Langmuir,  Irving.  Fundamental  research  and  its  human  value. 
General  Electric  Review,  40,  569  (1937). 

Mees,  C.  E.  K.  The  production  of  scientific  knowledge.  Indus- 
trial and  Engineering  Chemistry,  9,  1137  (1917). 

Rice,  E.  W.  The  field  of  research  in  industrial  institutions. 
Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  199,  65  (1925). 


Steinmetz,  C.  p.  Scientific  research  in  relation  to  the  industries. 
Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  182,  711  (1916). 

Stine,  C.  M.  a.  Debunking  research.  Nation's  Business,  17, 
No.  2,  31  (Feb.  1929). 

Stine,  C.  M.  A.  Place  of  fundamental  research  in  an  industrial 
research  organization.  World  Power  Conference,  Chemical 
Engineering  Congress.     Transactions,  4,  699  (1936). 

Stine,  C.  M.  A.  Structure  of  an  industrial  research  organiza- 
tion.   Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  21,  657  (1929). 


SECTION  II 
6.  CAREERS  IN  RESEARCH 

By  W.  A.  Gibbons 
Director  of  General  Development  Division,  United  States  Rubber  Company,  Passaic,  N.  J. 


ABSTRACT 


Success  in  industrial  research  depends  primarily  on 
human  effort,  therefore,  a  discussion  of  the  qualifica- 
tions of  industrial  research  workers  is  important.  It  is 
believed  that  a  discussion  of  this  subject  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  individual  will  be  of  interest  to  the  uni- 
versities, to  employers,  and  in  particular  to  prospective 
research  workers.  The  report  is  intended  to  state  some 
of  the  results  of  experience,  and  in  order  to  make  it 
representative  it  has  been  reviewed  by  a  large  number  of 
research  directors,  whose  suggestions  have,  as  far  as 
possible,  been  included. 

A  number  of  qualifications  are  discussed,  with  ex- 
planations as  to  why  they  are  important.  Some  of 
these  qualifications  are  inherent;  others  may  be  acquired 
by  training.  It  is  emphasized  that  no  attempt  is  made 
to  state  the  degree  to  which  these  various  qualifications 
are  necessarj'.  The  field  of  research  is  so  broad  that  it 
is  not  possible  to  draw  specifications  for  any  standard 
type  of  individual.  If  it  were  possible,  it  would  not  be 
desirable,  because  different  types  of  work  require 
different  types  of  ability. 

Formal  training  of  one  kind  or  another  is  practically 
a  mandatory  requirement  for  one  who  hopes  to  become 
proficient  as  a  research  worker.  It  is  achieved  usually 
with  the  aid  of  a  properly  organized  and  equipped  uni- 
versity. Emphasis  should  be  put  on  the  broad  funda- 
mentals of  the  chosen  field  rather  than  on  specialization. 

The  importance  of  mathematics  in  connection  with  a 
scientific  training  is  discussed. 

Training  in  oral  and  written  presentation  of  facts 
is  generally  held  to  be  of  extreme  importance  to  the 
industrial  research  worker. 

As  to  duration  of  training,  it  is  the  consensus  of 
opinion  that  for  a  lifetime  career  in  research,  training 
equivalent  to  that  required  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
piiilosophy  is  highly  desirable.  On  the  other  hand,  for 
development  work  or  for  work  which  is  regarded  as  a 
training  for  some  other  field  of  industrial  activit}^  a 
shorter  period  of  training  may  be  adequate.  Graduate 
work  should  train  a  man  in  research  methods.  One  of 
the  most  valuable  features  of  graduate  training  may  be 
108 


the  close  association  of  the  graduate  student  with  a 
brilliant  leader  in  science. 

The  relation  of  academic  standing  to  success  in  indus- 
trial research  is  discussed,  with  the  conclusion  that 
while  success  cannot  be  predicted  on  the  basis  of  aca- 
demic standing,  it  is  generally  believed  that  to  succeed,  a 
student  should  be  in  the  upper  half  or  even  in  the  upper 
fourth  of  his  class.  It  is  also  agreed  that  good  academic 
standing  is  no  substitute  for  other  qualities,  and  is  in 
itself  no  guarantee  of  success. 

In  the  selection  of  a  position  it  is  desirable  for  the 
applicant  to  secure  as  much  information  as  possible 
regarding  the  requirements  so  that  he  may  determine 
whether  his  qualifications  and  aptitudes  are  suited.  It 
is  pointed  out  that  the  research  history  of  the  company 
is  also  a  matter  of  interest. 

Management  policies,  organization,  and  procedures 
are  discussed,  with  particular  reference  to  how  these 
relate  to  the  individual.  Specific  topics  discussed  are 
the  acquisition  of  experience,  evaluation  and  utilization 
of  ideas,  leadership,  ability  to  complete  as  well  as  start 
work,  planning,  essentials  and  nonessentials,  and  execu- 
tion. 

It  is  pointed  out  that  work  in  a  research  laboratorj' 
may  provide  training  for  positions  in  other  parts  of  the 
company. 

As  to  compensation,  it  is  believed  that  the  scientific 
men  in  industry  fare  as  well,  on  the  average,  as  men  of 
comparable  age,  experience,  and  abilitj'  in  other  in- 
dustrial activities.  In  addition,  there  are  a  number  of 
other  important  compensations.  A  low-paid  appren- 
ticeship is  ordinarily  not  required.  A  man  who 
possesses  the  qualifications  of  a  scientist  will  probably 
be  happiest  if  he  is  doing  this  type  of  work,  also,  he  will 
derive  satisfaction  from  the  fact  that  his  work  may  be 
of  great  and  lasting  importance.  Most  mdustrial 
Inboratories  permit  workers  to  publish  the  results  of 
tiieir  work  where  such  publication  will  not  be  prejudicial 
to  the  interests  of  the  company. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  industrial  research  in  tiiis 
country  will  experience  a  large  growth. 


Industrial  Research 


109 


Introduction 

Tho  resources  oi  the  United  States  for  industrinl 
research  are  measured  by  the  personnel  available  to 
carry  on  this  work.  This  statement  may  seem  an 
exaggeration  because  there  is  a  tendency  to  regard  the 
achievements  of  industrial  research  as  resulting  from 
physical  equipment  such  as  laboratories  and  apparatus. 
Wliile  these  are  essential,  they  arc  of  little  use  without 
the  proper  personnel.  In  the  last  analysis  the  achieve- 
ments of  industrial  research  are  the  results  of  human 
efTort.  For  this  reason  it  is  highly  important  to  con- 
sider carefull}'  the  question  of  scientific  personnel — 
what  kinds  of  men  are  most  suited  to  industrial  re- 
search, and  how  they  should  be  trained. 

While  a  number  of  previous  writers  have  discussed 
the  qualifications  required  for  research  work,  this  has 
been  done  largely  from  the  standpoint  of  informing 
the  prospective  employer  as  to  what  sort  of  men  he 
should  seek.  Furtheiinore,  in  many  cases  emphasis 
has  been  placed  on  one  or  two  qualifications.  It  is 
therefore  believed  that  a  study  of  this  subject  should 
be  of  value.  One  possible  benefit  of  such  a  discussion 
will  be  that  prospective  research  workers  will  have  a 
clearer  idea  of  the  desirable  qualifications  so  that  they 
will  be  better  able  to  prepai'e  themselves  for  a  career 
in  research.  It  may  also  attract  men  who  would  be 
admirably  suited  for  industrial  research  but  who  do 
not  realize  that  they  possess  the  proper  qualifications. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  discussion  will  be  of  use  to  the 
educational  institutions  of  the  country,  which  have  the 
responsibility  of  training  the  men  who  man  our  research 
laboratories.  A  fuller  understanding  of  these  problems 
should  assist  the  universities  to  select  and  encourage 
men  who  have  the  necessary  qualifications,  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  at  least,  and  to  train  them. 

It  is  not  intended  that  this  report  should  be  taken 
as  a  homily  addressed  to  young  men  about  to  engage 
in  a  career.  The  purpose  is  to  state  some  of  the  results 
of  experience  and  not  to  pronounce  dogma.  Sugges- 
tions are  made  on  those  subjects  where  experience  has 
shown  that  improvement  is  possible  by  conscious 
effort. 

Great  pains  have  been  taken  to  make  this  report 
representative.  It  was  prepared  in  cooperation  with 
research  directors  of  companies  employing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  industrial  research  personnel  of  the 
country,  and  their  criticisms  and  modifications  have, 
as  far  as  possible,  been  adopted.  Where  diverse  views 
are  held,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  these. 

A  research  director  who  has  reviewed  this  report 
saj's: 

In  industrial  research  there  is  a  great  deal  of  research  activity 
which  I  classify  as  applied  research  that  is  carried  on  in  close 
cooperation  with  mill  operations  and  is,  in  effect,  more  in  the 
form  of  development  work  in  mill  operations  making  use  of  the 


results  of  intensive,  more  fundamental  laboratory  effort.  I 
think  this  type  of  work  is  quite  often  overlooked  and  yet  I 
classify  it  quite  definitely  as  research.  It  is  perhaps  what 
might  have  been  called  in  older  days,  Yankee  intuition  or  Yankee 
cleverness  applied  to  mill  problems.  In  larger  organizations 
wliich  can  finance  large  research  laboratories  and  also  large 
development  laboratories,  there  is  opportunity  to  carry  the 
results  of  fundamental  research  through  rather  large  scale 
operations  in  a  development  laboratory,  but  with  smaller  or- 
ganizations it  is  necessary  to  make  the  jump  sometimes  rather 
drastically  from  small  scale  "test-tube"  experiments  to  mill 
operation,  and  this  jump  takes  a  lot  of  courage  and  careful 
application  of  fundamental  knowledge  combined  with  knowledge 
gained  from  practical  experience  together  with  a  good  measure 
of  common  sense  and  intuition. 

Oualifications  for  a  Career  in  Research 

The  field  of  industrial  research  is  so  broad  and  diverse 
that  there  is  no  standard  type  of  individual  worker 
therein  for  whom  specifications  can  be  drawn.  It  is 
possible,  however,  to  state  and  explain  a  number  of 
desirable  qualifications,  some  of  which  have  as  their 
basis  natural  aptitude,  while  others  may  be  acquired  by 
training.  It  is  not,  in  most  cases,  possible  or  desirable 
to  make  any  definite  statement  as  to  the  degree  or 
extent  to  which  these  qualifications  are  present,  and 
the  degree  to  which  they  are  present  is  probably  not 
the  same  for  any  two  individuals.  One  reason  for  this 
is  that  we  lack  the  means  to  measure  and  evaluate  these 
qualities.  Another  reason  is  that  the  field  of  research 
is  so  broad  that  various  qualities  are  desirable,  in  vary- 
ing degree,  for  different  kinds  of  work.  This  point  will 
be  discussed  in  more  detail  in  the  summaries  which 
follow  the  sections  on  qualifications  and  training. 

Personal  Qualifications 

Intellectual  integrity. — This  is  one  quality  that  should 
be  possessed  without  any  qualifications  as  to  degree. 
It  is  the  sine  qua  non  of  the  scientist.  By  this  term  we 
mean  not  only  the  willingness  but  also  the  ability  to 
recognize  the  truth.  It  is  vitally  important  that  a  man 
who  plans  to  do  research  work  be  capable  of  distinguish- 
ing truth  from  untruth,  and  of  being  able  to  differen- 
tiate that  which  may  be  true  from  that  which  has  been 
verified.  In  the  words  of  T.  H.  Huxley — "The  man  of 
science  has  learned  to  believe  in  justification,  not  by 
faith  but  by  verification."  Possession  of  this  quality 
imphes  the  ability  of  self-criticism,  and  an  objective 
rather  than  a  subjective  attitude  toward  facts. 

Scientific  curiosity  and  creative  urge. — These  have 
been  the  motive  forces  behind  many  of  our  great 
scientific  advances.  The  scientist  who  possesses  a 
high  degree  of  scientific  curiosity  is  prepared  to  seize 
upon  the  most  meager  clues.  Small  clues  have  some- 
times led  to  far-reaching  and  unexpected  results.  For 
example,  argon  was  discovered  as  a  result  of  an  obser- 
vation that  atmospheric  nitrogen  prepared  from  the  air 


no 


NationcU  Resources  Planning  Board 


had  a  slightly  greater  density  than  nitrogen  prepared 
by  chemical  means.  A  high  degree  of  scientific  curi- 
osity is  one  of  the  sources  of  that  driving  energy  which 
is  so  essential  to  creative  work. 

Enthusiasm  and  receptiveness  to  new  ideas. — These 
qualities,  which  are  closely  allied,  are  matters  of  the 
spirit,  and  have  characterized  all  great  scientists.  The 
man  who  lacks  them  will  find  it  difficult  to  succeed  in 
research  and,  in  most  cases,  should  be  encouraged  to 
adopt  some  other  calling.  On  this  type  of  individual 
an  important  research  executive  says: 

In  selecting  and  dealing  with  researcli  and  development  men 
for  a  number  of  years  I  liave  come  to  recognize  a  type  which 
seem  to  me  disqualifies  them,  no  matter  how  well  trained  they 
may  be  or  how  promising  tliey  may  otherwise  appear.  Tliis 
type  is  the  man  who  always  seems  to  have  a  negative  reaction  to 
everything  which  is  suggested.  Wlien  he  concentrates  at  all  it 
is  to  bring  liis  entire  mental  macliinery  into  action  on  the  negative 
instead  of  the  constructive  side  of  a  proposal.  He  uses  up  all  of 
the  time  of  his  directors  and  associates  in  an  attempt  to  con- 
vince them  that  the  thing  won't  work.  He  spends  ten  times  as 
much  time  trying  to  prove  that  it  will  not  work  as  would  be 
required  to  try  the  experiment.  He  drags  his  feet  in  the  sand 
on  every  program  with  which  he  is  connected. 

Ambition  and  diligence. — These  characteristics  are 
standard  practical  virtues,  but  we  use  the  terms  here 
in  a  somewhat  special  sense.  The  term  "ambition"  im- 
plies particularly  the  intense  desire  to  accomplish  well  the 
task  in  hand,  "a  worthy  eagerness  to  accomplish  some- 
thing great  and  good."  Diligence  does  not  mean 
merely  keeping  busy,  but  the  application  of  one's  whole 
attention  to  the  task.  The  exercise  of  diligence  requires 
mental  as  well  as  physical  activity,  both  focused  on 
essentials.  For  success  in  research,  there  is  no  substi- 
tute for  hard  work.  The  men  who  succeed  pay  little 
attention  to  the  clock  or  the  calendar  so  far  as  working 
hours  are  concerned.     One  research  director  writes: 

The  developments  which  advanced  American  industry  to  its 
present  point  were  not  made  by  men  who  worked  2,000  hours 
a  year  (including  hoUdays) ,  out  of  a  total  of  8,760  hours  available. 
It  would  be  interesting  to  know  how  many  hours  and  for  how 
many  years  the  directors  of  industrial  research  worked  (and 
probably  still  work)  at  their  jobs  during  the  years  in  which  they 
accompHshed  the  results  which  put  them  and  their  industries 
where  they  are  today. 

Ability  to  cooperate. — Writers  on  the  qualifications  for 
industrial  research  personnel  have  laid  particular  em- 
phasis on  the  need  for  cooperativeness.  Cooperation 
between  individuals  in  the  research  organization  and 
between  the  research  organization  and  other  units  or 
divisions  of  the  company  is  essential.  In  industrial 
research  work,  as  in  many  other  fields  of  endeavor,  it 
is  difficult  if  not  impossible  for  an  individual  to  succeed 
by  his  own  efforts.  The  research  worker  frequently  has 
to  seek  the  advice  and  assistance  of  his  fellows  who  have 
had  experience  that  may  be  useful  to  him,  and  he  must 
be  prepared  to  reciprocate  in  turn.     It  is  also  necessary 


to  secure  the  assistance  of  persons  and  facilities  in 
other  parts  of  the  company,  and  this  nmst  be  done 
through  a  spirit  of  cooperation.  Cooperativeness 
should  not  be  negative,  but  positive  and  rational.  It 
should  not  take  the  form  of  mere  acquiescence  as  that 
is  of  little  value  to  the  orgamzation  and  is  harmful  to 
the  infiividual.  Positive  and  rational  cooperativeness 
preserves  the  independence  of  the  individual  and  is 
beneficial  to  both  parties.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  we 
use  the  term. 

Perseverance. — The  will  to  succeed  will  prevent  the 
scientific  worker  from  being  too  easily  discouraged  or 
deterred  from  his  work  by  unsuccessful  results  or  by  the 
pessimistic  views  of  others.  This  quality  should  be 
exercised  with  judgment.  Much  useless  effort  has 
been  expended  in  the  past  by  workers  who  were  too 
persevering,  too  optimistic,  too  slow  to  face  the  facts, 
or  who  even  refused  to  face  the  facts.  A  person  with 
these  qualities  properly  balanced  will  know  when  to 
persevere  along  a  fixed  line  of  endeavor  and  when  to 
persevere  toward  the  same  objective  but  by  a  new 
route  where  results  indicate  that  a  change  in  plans  is 
necessary. 

Courage  and  self-confidence. — Scientific  research  re- 
quires courage  and  self-confidence.  These  qualities 
will  prevent  the  investigator  from  being  deterred  from 
entering  new  fields  because  they  are  new  and  particularly 
because  others  may  have  failed  in  similar  attempts. 
Courage  and  self-confidence  will  enable  a  person  who 
possesses  these  qualities  to  form  and  hold  liis  own  con- 
clusions as  long  as  facts  justify  doing  so.  He  will 
hold  these  conclusions  even  in  the  face  of  opposition 
which  is  based  on  prejudice.  He  will  also  have  the 
courage  to  give  up  his  opinions  when  facts  no  longer 
justify  their  retention. 

Judgment. — Judgment  has  been  defined  as  "the  power 
of  arriving  at  a  wise  decision  or  conclusion  on  the  basis 
of  indications  and  probabilities,  when  the  facts  are 
not  clearly  ascertained."  This  meaning  of  the  term 
is  here  relevant.  In  technical  work,  some  of  the  neces- 
sary facts  are  usually  understood  and  others  are  not. 
A  man  of  sound  judgment  will  take  both  the  known  and 
the  unknown  into  consideration  and  will  make  a  particu- 
lar effort  to  include  everything  that  may  be  important. 
He  will  not  waste  his  time  on  nonessentials.  He  will 
also  have  a  proper  regard  for  the  relationship  between 
the  advantages  and  disadvantages  which  may  result 
respectively  from  a  right  or  a  wrong  decision.  The 
ability  to  observe,  associate,  compare,  and  analyze 
forms  the  very  foundation  of  research  work,  whether 
academic  or  industrial. 

Imagination  and  ingenuity. — These  qualities  form 
the  basis  for  the  more  creative  tj'pes  of  research  that 
produce  inventions  relating  to  new  products  and  new 
processes.     These  result  much  more  frequently   from 


Industrial  Research 


111 


the  exorcise  of  imagination  and  ingenuity  than  from 
accidental  discovery.  In  work  of  tliis  type  these 
quaUties  are  regarded  as  essentials.  Resourcefulness 
in  experimentation  is  an  important  practical  embodi- 
ment of  these  qualities. 

Practicality. — ^This  characteristic  is  one  which,  accord- 
ing to  some  nontechnical  critics,  scientific  men  fre- 
quently lack.  This  discussion  is  limited  to  a  definition 
of  om-  meaning  of  this  term  and  the  extent  to  which 
it  is  important.  It  is  desirable  for  an  industrial  research 
worker  to  be  practical  in  the  sense  of  recogm'zing  as 
important  not  only  the  purely  scientific  aspects  of  his 
work  but  also  its  practical  consequences.  These  include 
the  cost  of  doing  the  work  and  the  commercial  effective- 
ness of  the  results.  While,  in  some  instances,  useful 
work  may  be  done  by  persons  who  disregard  these 
considerations  entirely,  in  most  cases  it  is  desirable 
that  the  research  worker  be  practical  to  this  extent  at 
least.  One  measure  of  practicality  is  the  pertinence  and 
applicabihty  of  results. 

Common  sense. — Conimon  sense  is  a  quality  just  as 
essential  in  research  work  as  in  other  walks  of  life. 
The  scientific  man  who  has  common  sense  and  exercises 
it  wiU  give  proper  weight  to  the  opinions  of  others  even 
though  these  are  not  expressed  in  tcclmical  tenns.  He 
will  be  tolerant  and  will  be  more  interested  in  the  spirit 
of  things  than  in  the  letter.  In  a  discussion  or  argu- 
ment he  will  regard  liis  point  as  being  won  when  an 
agreement  has  been  reached  on  essentials. 

Personality. — The  scientist  frequently  is  supposed  to 
be  deficient  in  personality.  It  is  not  our  purpose  at 
this  time  to  argue  that  question,  but  it  should  be 
pointed  out  that  a  good  personality  is  a  distinct  asset 
to  the  industrial  research  worker.  A  tactful  person- 
ahty  will  assist  the  individual  to  secure  the  cooperation 
of  others,  which  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  in 
industrial  work. 

The  qualities  above  mentioned  are  not  substitutes 
for  technical  abihty  nor  for  other  important  attributes, 
but  they  help  to  make  those  other  qualities  effective. 
It  should  be  stated  here  that  there  is  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  amount  of  emphasis 
that  should  be  placed  on  personality.  There  are  many 
instances  of  men  who  have  made  a  great  success  in 
research,  and  in  other  walks  of  life,  who,  in  the  opuiion 
of  their  fellows  have  not  possessed  a  normal  pereonality. 
Some  organizations  insist  on  a  pleasing  personality — 
others  say  that  it  is  of  minor  importance. 

Training 

For  a  career  in  industrial  research  sound  training  in 
one  of  the  sciences  and  its  related  subjects,  in  research 
methods,  and  m  certain  nonscientific  subjects,  is  gen- 
erally held  to  be  essential.  Industrial  research  labora- 
tories are  for  the  most  part  staffed  with  men  who  have 


had  such  training.  Also,  whether  this  ability  is  derived 
from  training  or  otherwise,  an  industrial  research  man 
should  know  how  to  work. 

The  first  scientists  in  industry  were,  in  many  cases, 
self-trained  or  had  received  only  rudimentary  training 
from  an  educational  institution.  As  manufacturing 
technique  has  become  more  precise  as  a  result  of  com- 
petition and  scientific  advances,  the  training  require- 
ments for  industrial  scientists  have  become  more  exact- 
ing. Therefore,  definite  and  comprehensive  scientific 
training  is,  in  practically  aU  cases,  necessary  for  one 
who  aspires  to  a  career  in  industrial  research  of  the 
type  with  which  this  report  is  concerned. 

We  are  not  considering  here  those  who  are  primarily 
inventors.  There  are  innumerable  instances  of  brilliant 
inventions  which  were  made  by  persons  having  little 
or  no  formal  training.  Genius  of  this  type  is  recognized 
and  its  value  fully  appreciated,  but  research  work 
requires  considerable  organized  knowledge  of  the  facts, 
principles,  and  methods  of  science,  and  of  their  applica- 
tion. This  knowledge  can  best  be  obtained  at  a  properly 
organized  and  equipped  university.  It  is  not  germane 
to  propose  cm'ricula,  but  rather  to  indicate  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  as  to  what  a  man  who  has  had  graduate 
training  in  science  should  know  and  be  able  to  do  when 
he  leaves  the  university.  The  discussion  includes  not 
only  scientific  training,  but  also  certain  types  of  non- 
scientific  training  which  are  considered  to  be  particularly 
useful. 

Scientific  training. — The  basis  of  a  satisfactory  train- 
ing for  industrial  research  is  a  thorough  grasp  of  the 
fundamentals  of  the  chosen  science.  The  term  "funda- 
mentals" as  used  herein  may  requu'e  further  definition. 
By  it  we  mean  those  classical  principles  which  have 
been  the  basis  of  a  gi'eat  expansion  of  our  scientific 
knowledge,  with  the  emphasis  on  the  applicability  of  the 
principle  rather  than  on  its  philosophical  significance. 

A  thorough  grasp  of  the  fundamentals  also  implies  a 
working  knowledge  of  them.  There  should  be  a 
recognition  of  how  these  principles  may  be  involved  in 
any  new  problem  or  in  the  explanation  of  new  phenom- 
ena. There  should  also  be  an  understanding  of  how  to 
apply  these  principles  to  the  solution  of  the  problem 
and  how  to  carry  out  this  application  in  the  laboratory. 

The  head  of  the  department  of  chemistry  in  one  of 
our  most  important  universities'  made  the  following 
comment  on  these  observations — 

Insistence  on  a  thoroiigli  working  knowledge  of  fundamental 
principles  is  entirely  sound  but  insufficiently  appreciated.  The 
route  to  such  a  knowledge  is  through  the  substitution  of  problem 
solving  courses  and  recitations  instead  of  the  descriptive  courses 
which  serve  too  often  to  mislead  the  student  into  believing  he 
has  attained  comprehension  when  he  has  merely  acquired  a  little 
specialized  scientific  jargon. 

The  graduate  research  should  also  be  a  "pure"  science  subject 
for  the  reason  that  the  methods  and  technique  of  pure  science 


112 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


are  tlie  models  which  all  practical  applications  follow  more  or 
less  closely.  There  is  also  llic  added  reason  that  science  is 
advancing  iiicomparal)ly  more  rapidly  today  than  it  was  twenty 
years  ago  and  the  youth  who  is  not  to  be  scientifically  outmoded 
in  a  decade  must  be  prepared  the  better  to  follow  the  advances 
of  science  per  se. 

One  of  the  commonest  criticisms  of  graduate  students 
who  apply  for  positions  in  industrial  research  is  that 
they  are  weak  in  their  gi-asp  of  these  fundamentals  and 
lack  a  working  knowledge  of  them.  A  broad  training 
with  particular  emphasis  on  these  classical  fundamentals 
is  more  desirable  than  a  highly  specialized  training  in 
some  one  teclmiquc,  the  utility  of  which  may  be  limited. 
It  is  also  of  far  more  value  for  research  work  than  a 
training  in  the  specific  industrial  apphcations  of  science. 

Related  sciences:  Scientific  training  for  industrial 
research  must  include  education  in  sciences  closely 
related  to  the  specialty  chosen.  AVliile  the  greatest 
amount  of  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  particular 
branch  of  science  selected  for  specialization  general 
familiarity  with  related  fields  is  often  of  considerable 
value.  For  example,  chemists,  particularly  the  phys- 
ical chemists,  should  have  considerable  familiarity  with 
physics,  and  physicists,  with  chemistry.  While  these 
related  sciences  arc  usually  required,  their  usefulness 
in  later  work  particularly  in  borderline  fields  may  not 
always  be  recognized  at  the  time  the  courses  are  taken. 
On  this  point  one  research  director  remarks  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  related  sciences  is  particularly  important  for 
a  man  who  works  in  a  comparatively  small  organiza- 
tion which  has  a  wide  field  of  problems. 

Mathematics:  A  training  for  industrial  research  work 
should  give  due  attention  to  mathematics.  An  under- 
standing of  this  subject  is  not  only  necessary  for  an 
understanding  of  physical  sciences,  but  in  recent  years 
mathematics  in  the  form  of  statistical  analysis  has  been 
applied  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  planning  of 
experiments,  in  the  analysis  of  experimental  data,  and 
in  the  control  of  production.  On  this  point  a  prominent 
professor  of  science  says : 

The  discipline  of  mathematics  is  much  too  long  delayed  in 
public  schools.  In  England  and  France  a  child  is  well  grounded 
in  geometry,  algebra,  and  trigonometry  at  the  age  of  sixteen, 
fully  two  years  earlier  than  here.  The  subject  is  also  one  of  the 
best  as  a  partial  means  of  differentiating  between  levels  of 
students. 

Nonscientific  training. — Science  students  tend  to  shun 
courses  intended  to  cidtivate  facilitj'  in  the  \vTittcn  and 
oral  presentation  of  facts.  This  may  be  because  they 
are  more  interested  in  substance  than  in  form.  For 
several  reasons,  it  is  particularly  important  for  the  sci- 
entific man  to  be  able  to  write  and  speak  clearly  and 
effectively.  Research  work  requires  more  WTiting  than 
other  fields  of  industrial  work.  The  subject  matter  of 
the  work  is  such  that  its  clear  presentation  is  frequently 
a  matter  of  some  difficulty.     Before  the  results  of  re- 


search work  can  be  used,  they  must  be  understood  and 
appreciated  by  others.  Therefore,  instruction  m  oral 
and  written  presentation  should  be  regarded  as  a  most 
important  part  of  training  for  research  work.  In  addi- 
tion, the  habit  of  taking  pains  in  WTiting  and  speaking 
should  be  cultivated.  "Easy  writing  makes  hard  read- 
ing."    Knowledge    of    cognate    subjects    is    essential. 

Social  contacts. — Extra  curricula  activities  also  have 
their  place  in  the  training  schedule.  Social  contacts, 
for  example,  may  serve  a  useful  purpose.  The  time  is 
past,  if  indeed  it  ever  existed,  when  there  was  any  rea- 
son for  the  scientist  to  look  and  act  differently  from  his 
fellow  men.  The  prospective  worker  in  industrial  re- 
searcli  may  proi)erly  regard  social  contacts  as  part  of 
his  training.  These  can  do  much  to  develop  a  satis- 
factory personality  and  an  understanding  of  human 
nature,  which  are  so  important  in  cooperative  work. 

Duration  of  training. — Opinions  differ  as  to  the  proper 
duration  of  training  for  a  scientist  who  desires  to  enter 
an  industrial  research  laboratory.  There  are  numerous 
instances  of  men  who  have  achieved  great  success  in 
industrial  research  with  little  or  no  graduate  training. 
In  certain  types  of  development  work  a  bachelor's  or 
master's  training  is  held  by  some  to  be  sufficient  or 
even  preferable.  This  is  particularly  true  for  those 
men  who  desire  to  work  in  an  industrial  research  lab- 
oratory in  preparation  for  a  career  in  some  other 
activity. 

For  a  lifetime  career  in  research,  and  particularly 
for  work  in  fundamental  research,  the  training  required 
for  a  doctor's  degree  is  believed  desirable  by  most  of 
the  research  directors  who  discussed  this  section  of  the 
report.  In  some  cases,  particularly  for  fundamental 
research,  post-doctorate  training  is  desirable. 

Postgraduate  work  should  give  the  student  training 
in  research  method,  and  should  develop  the  research 
attitude.  One  commentator  remarks,  "It  is  not  so 
nuich  an  opportunity  to  specialize  in  a  chosen  subject 
as  a  chance  to  develop  the  technique  and  capacity  for 
specializing  in  any  research  problem  which  may  later 
be  encountered." 

Postgraduate  work  permits  a  relatively  informal  asso- 
ciation of  the  student  with  the  research  professor  who 
has  demonstrated  his  research  ability.  It  is  through 
this  association  that  the  student's  faculties  for  attack- 
ing research  problems  are  developed.  In  fact,  the  belief 
is  widely  iiclil  that  the  most  important  training  the 
graduate  student  receives  is  obtained  in  this  way.  The 
history  of  science  from  its  earliest  beginnings  offers 
many  examples  of  brilliant  teachers  who  have  produced 
brilliant  students.     One  research  director  states: 

I  agree  that  the  great  value  of  post-graduate  training  is  in  the 
association  with  the  progress  of  work  and  thought  of  aole  leaders. 
By  Corollary,  post-graduate  work  in  a  scliool  which  is  simply 
filling  out  the  gaps  in  an  already  established  programme  where 


Industrial  Research 


113 


no  new  conceptions  or  creative  thouglit  is  evident,  is  not  of  great 
value.  In  that  event  an  industrial  research  laboratory  is  likely 
to  prove  more  dynamic  and  provide  better  training. 

Relation  of  academic  standing  to  success  in  industrial 
research. — There  is  no  general  rule  by  means  of  which 
success  in  industrial  research  can  be  predicted  on  the 
basis  of  academic  standing.  Academic  standing  tends 
to  measure  the  student's  abiUty  to  study,  to  under- 
stand, and  temporarily  to  remember,  and  is  silent  on 
the  highly  important  question  of  creative  ability,  and 
on  other  qualifications.  Another  reason  for  this  dis- 
crepancy is  that  the  terra  "industrial  research"  is  quite 
elastic  and  the  personnel  requirements  differ  between 
organizations. 

This  subject  was  discussed  by  a  number  of  research 
directors.  It  was  general!}'  believed  that  to  succeed  in 
research  a  student  should  be  in  the  upper  half  or  even 
upper  fourth  of  his  class.  Some  laboratories  have  aca- 
demic standards  controlling  the  employment  of  new 
men,  particularly  men  who  have  received  the  bachelor's 
degree.  In  several  cases  it  was  beheved  that  the  fact 
that  a  man  was  permitted  to  work  for  a  graduate  degree 
was  a  sufficient  evidence  of  proficiency  in  studies.  But 
there  was  general  agreement  that,  although  a  good 
academic  standing  is  desirable,  or  in  some  cases  essen- 
tial, it  is  no  substitute  for  other  essential  qualities,  and 
is  in  itself  no  guarantee  of  success. 

Resume  of  qualifications  and  training. — In  the  pre- 
ceding pages  we  have  discussed  the  various  quahfica- 
tions  including  training,  which  are  believed  to  be  im- 
portant for  a  successful  career  in  industrial  research. 
The  hst  is  formidable  but  without  minimizing  the  im- 
portance of  these  attributes  it  should  be  realized  that 
they  are  important  in  varj'ing  degrees.  Just  which  ones 
of  them  are  most  important  in  any  given  case  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  work  and  type  of  organization. 
For  fundamental  research  work  more  emphasis  will 
probably  be  placed  on  those  qualities  and  attaimnents 
which  are  usually  associated  with  purely  scientific  work, 
and  less  on  such  quahties  as  personality,  cooperative- 
ness,  practicality,  and  common  sense.  On  the  other 
hand,  problems  of  a  development  type,  such  as  the 
perfection  of  a  new  process,  may  emphasize  these  quali- 
ties, and  demand  less  in  the  way  of  scientific  curiosity, 
imagination,  and  an  intensive  training  in  pure  science. 
In  other  words  a  paragon  is  not  required  for  industrial 
research. 

This  summary  is  written  as  a  result  of  studying  a 
large  number  of  suggestions  from  research  directors 
who  have  read  the  foregoing  section.  As  far  as  possible, 
these  suggestions  have  been  included  in  the  final  revi- 
sion of  the  section.  The  replies  indicated,  however,  a 
considerable  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  relative  im- 
portance of  certain  qualities,  and  this  diversity  exists 
largely   because   the  inquiry   embraced   such   a  great 


variety  of  industries  whose  research  activities  cover  a 
wide  range  of  problems  and  rcsponsibihties. 

Selection  of  a  Position 

A  candidate  for  a  position  should  secure  as  much 
information  as  possible  about  exactly  the  qualifications 
required  and  siiould  compare  them  with  his  own.  The 
applicant  will  probably  be  on  the  safest  ground  if  he 
secures  a  position  that  requires  the  training  in  which  he 
specialized.  While  there  are  many  notable  exceptions, 
it  is  generally  true  that  the  best  training,  for  example 
for  organic  chemical  research,  is  speciaUzation  in  organic 
chemistry. 

If  the  candidate  feels  that  he  has  a  special  aptitude 
for  some  particular  type  of  work,  he  will  do  well  to  con- 
sider this  as  a  desirable,  although  perhaps  not  an  essen- 
tial factor  in  selecting  a  position.  For  example,  a  man 
who  much  prefers  to  do  fundamental  research  may  find 
it  worth  his  while  to  secure  a  position  of  tliis  type  in  an 
industrial  laboratory.  Most  large  laboratories  carry 
on  work  of  this  sort  though  only  a  portion  of  the  staff 
is  devoted  to  it. 

The  applicant  should  consider  a  number  of  othei 
points  relating  to  the  particular  organization  with 
which  he  may  become  associated.  The  matter  ol 
fmancial  terms  is  only  one  of  these  factors.  He  should 
also  consider  the  record  of  the  company  and  of  the 
industry.  Industries  and  companies  which  are  well 
established  and  which  have  demonstrated  that  researcli 
is  profitable  to  them,  offer  considerable  promise  from 
the  standpoint  of  stability.  In  such  cases  the  probabili- 
ties are  that  the  work  will  be  thoroughly  organized,  and 
that  for  the  first  few  years,  at  least,  the  new  employee 
will  have  considerable  assistance  in  the  way  of  training 
from  those  who  have  experience  in  the  technical  phases 
of  the  business. 

The  situation  is  somewhat  different  with  respect  Lo 
industries  or  organizations  wherein  research  is  fairly 
new.  In  these,  while  a  field  for  research  will  probably 
exist,  the  course  is  not  so  well  charted.  Matters  that 
have  been  in  the  art  or  handicraft  stage  will  need  to  be 
reduced  sooner  or  later  to  technical  terms.  Policies  for 
carrying  on  technical  work  will  not  be  so  definitely 
established.  In  general,  a  position  of  this  sort  will  offer 
considerable  opportunities  to  the  right  men  since  they 
will  be  among  the  first  to  enter  a  new  field. 

Both  types  of  work  have  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages, and  it  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  recommend 
either  in  preference  to  the  other,  but  merely  to  point 
out  the  difference  that  may  exist  and  of  which  the 
prospective  research  worker  should  take  account. 

He  should  consider  the  record  of  his  prospective  em- 
ployer from  the  standpoint  of  the  ability  of  the  organiza- 
tion to  utilize  the  results  of  research,  since  no  industrial 


114 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


research  organization  which  is  unable  to  get  its  results 
into  commercial  use  can  be  regarded  as  successful. 

The  candidate  should  give  consideration  to  the  type  of 
stafT  the  prospective  cmploj'cr  already  has  in  order  to 
determine  how  his  qualifications  and  methods  of  working 
would  fit  into  the  organization. 

In  most  organizations  great  emphasis  is  placed  on  the 
careful  selection  of  teclmical  personnel.  The  teclmical 
men  are  usually  selected  by  the  heads  of  the  research 
organization,  and  in  practically  all  cases  a  personal 
interview  is  involved.  This  may  give  the  candidate  an 
opportunity  to  secure  information  on  some  of  the 
points  we  have  discussed,  and  he  should  regard  this 
interview  as  of  equal  interest  to  himself  and  to  his 
prospective  employer.  It  gives  an  opportunity  for 
each  party  to  become  acquainted  with  the  other.  He 
should  not  hesitate  to  answer  fully  any  questions, 
whether  personal  or  technical,  and  should  not  hesitate 
to  ask  questions. 

In  some  cases  the  interview  may  develop  into  a  techni- 
cal discussion  which  may  appear  to  the  candidate  to  be 
suspiciously  close  to  an  examination.  In  most  cases 
these  discussions  are  not  carried  on  to  reveal  deficiencies 
in  the  candidate's  knowledge.  The  purpose  is  rather 
to  ascertain  the  lines  of  work  for  which  the  candidate  is 
best  suited. 

Careers  in  Research 
Organization 

In  this  section  we  shall  discuss  the  research  organiza- 
tion from  the  standpoint  of  the  individual. 

There  is  no  standard  form  of  research  organization. 
The  variety  of  the  work,  its  changing  character,  and  the 
fact  that  research  work  depends  on  a  peculiar  combina- 
tion of  individual  yet  cooperative  creative  effort, 
make  it  unwise  to  attempt  to  apply  any  standardized 
form  of  organization. 

One  of  the  objectives  of  organization  in  a  research 
laboratory  is  to  augment  the  efficiency  of  the  individual 
worker  with  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  others 
who  in  most  cases  have  had  more  experience  in  some 
phases  of  the  work.  The  young  man  entering  a  research 
organization  may  have  knowledge  of  the  newer  develop- 
ments in  science  which  the  older  men  do  not  have; 
they  in  turn  have  a  considerable  amount  of  knowledge 
regarding  the  problems  to  be  solved,  and  have  had 
experience  in  applying  science  to  their  solution.  The 
young  man  will  probably  be  assigned  to  a  group  headed 
by  an  older,  more  experienced  man  who  will  direct  his 
work  as  far  as  objectives  are  concerned,  advise  him 
regarding  methods  of  attaining  these,  and  contribute 
materially  to  the  proper  utilization  of  results. 

Another  objective  of  organization  is  the  coordination 
of  work.     Most  projects  require  for  their  completion 


the  solution  of  a  number  of  problems.  These  may  be 
quite  separate  scientifically,  but  they  have  to  be 
considered  in  relation  to  each  other  from  the  stand- 
point of  time,  cost,  and  technical  results.  Therefore, 
it  is  essential  that  the  various  persons  working  on  the 
separate  problems  act  as  a  team  under  the  leadership 
of  someone  in  charge  of  the  entire  project. 

The  piu'pose  of  the  organization,  then,  is  to  insure 
these  objectives,  to  define  responsibility,  and  yet  to 
leave  to  the  individual  as  much  scope  for  his  initiative 
as  his  ability  and  experience  seem  to  justify. 

Usually  the  research  men  will  be  assigned  to  work 
with  a  group  on  some  problem  that  has  been  selected 
by  the  management  because  it  is  important  to  the 
company  and  because  the  probabihty  of  its  solution  is 
sufficiently  high  to  justify  the  effort.  If  the  worker 
possesses  the  necessary  qualifications  he  will  have,  to  a 
considerable  degree,  the  quality  of  imagination  and  the 
creative  urge,  and  therefore  may  have  ideas  of  his  own, 
not  relating  to  the  problem  in  hand,  on  wliich  he  would 
like  to  do  some  work.  But  if  he  also  possesses  the 
qualities  of  practicality  and  cooperation,  this  situation 
will  not  cause  him  concern.  In  most  organizations 
men  are  encouraged  to  have  new  ideas,  and  to  present 
them  in  written  form  to  the  management.  In  some 
cases  the  management's  policy  may  be  to  have  some 
preliminary  work  done  by  workers  on  such  ideas.  In 
other  cases,  definite  authorization  is  required  for  any 
such  work.  The  decision  will  depend  not  only  on  the 
organization  but  also  on  the  immediate  importance  of 
the  work  in  hand,  and  on  the  apparent  value  of  the  new 
idea.  An  objective  and  practical  attitude  toward  this 
matter  is  necessary,  with  an  effort  to  consider  it  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  management,  without,  however, 
losing  interest  in  the  desirability  of  having  the  idea 
evaluated  whenever  this  can  be  done. 

When  the  worker's  idea  relates  to  the  problem  in 
hand,  he  will  usually  find  that  it  is  given  early  con- 
sideration, but  here  again  a  somewhat  objective  atti- 
tude is  desirable,  including  a  careful  consideration  of 
the  point  of  view  of  others  who  may  have  relevant 
knowledge. 

Dilenunas  of  this  sort  are  brought  about  by  the 
existence  of  one  of  the  qualities  which  underlies  the 
ability  to  do  useful  research,  namely,  the  creative  urge, 
and  a  proper  solution  of  such  dilenimas  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  both  the  worker  and  the  organization. 

Aids  to  the  worker. — The  scientific  research  student 
in  a  university  laboratory  in  most  cases  has  to  do  prac- 
tically all  the  work  relating  to  liis  problem.  Particularly 
in  the  larger  industrial  research  laboratories,  he  will 
find  a  different  state  of  affairs.  Library  facilities  will  be 
available  to  assist  in  literature  searches  and  the  prepa- 
ration of  bibliograpliies.  Koutine  tests  and  analyses 
will  be  made  by  service  departments.    He  will  thus  be 


Industrial  Research 


115 


able  to  work  more  effectively  and  to  concentrate  his 
efforts  on  planning:  and  experimentation. 

These  service  facilities  are  not,  however,  a  substitute 
for  experience.  He  will  as  rapidly  as  possible  familiar- 
ize himself  with  the  principles  underlying  them,  and 
with  the  special  techniques  of  his  industry.  In  some 
organizations  the  importance  of  this  is  recognized  by 
having  all  new  research  workers  serve  a  brief  apprentice- 
sliip  in  the  service  departments. 

Another  important  aid  to  the  research  worker  is 
discussion  with  othei-s  in  his  organization,  including 
particularly  those  outside  the  technical  unit.  Such 
conferences  give  him  an  excellent  opportunity  to  ac- 
quire knowledge  regarding  the  practical  and  commercial 
I)hases  of  the  problem.  They  also  help  develop  the 
important  arts  of  discussing  technical  matters  in  ordi- 
nary EngHsh,  and  of  presenting  ideas  and  facts  clearly. 

Progress  of  the  Research  Worker 

The  purpose  of  this  part  of  the  discussion  is  to  outline 
the  possible  progress  of  the  research  worker,  with  par- 
ticular reference  to  the  role  played  by  the  various 
quahties  and  abihties  discussed  earlier. 

Subordination  versus  assumption  of  responsibility.- — 
Here  we  are  stating  the  subject  as  a  dilemma,  and  the 
solution  depends  on  a  nimiber  of  circumstances  includ- 
ing the  degree  to  which  the  worker  and  his  superior 
possess  a  number  of  the  qualities  discussed  under 
"Qualifications  for  a  Career  in  Research."  A  properly 
qualified  superior  will  encourage  those  working  with 
him  to  take  responsibility  to  as  great  a  degree  as 
possible.  A  properly  qualified  research  worker  will 
accept  responsibility  to  as  great  a  degree  as  he  is  per- 
mitted. This  being  the  case,  the  only  question  then 
is  what  is  meant  by  "possible."  Someone  must  be 
responsible  for  the  success  of  the  entire  project  and  the 
final  decision  rests  with  tliis  incUvidual. 

This  situation  may  be  clarified  by  the  following 
method  of  approach.  The  worker  is  spending  the  em- 
ployer's money  in  an  endeavor  to  solve  a  problem. 
This  expenditure  includes,  in  addition  to  the  worker's 
salary  and  materials  used,  part  of  the  salary  of  those 
who  supervise  him,  particularly  his  immediate  superior. 
He  is  therefore  entitled  to  a  reasonable  amount  of  assist- 
ance from  his  superior,  but  he  will  become  a  more 
efficient  worker  to  the  extent  to  which  this  need  is 
reduced. 

An  equally  good  approach  was  suggested  by  a  com- 
mentator. 

I  have  frequently  heard  reference  to  the  desirability  of  a 
man  learning  to  distinguish  between  the  three  cases;  first,  a 
decision  which  he  is  entitled  to  and  should  make  on  his  own  re- 
sponsibility; secondly,  a  decision  which  he  should  make  but  of 
which  he  should  inform  his  superior;  and  third,  a  decision  requir- 
ing the  authorization  of  his  superior  before  it  is  consummated. 
If  a  man  in  research  can  learn  to  distinguish  as  to  these  three 
321835—41 9 


cases,  he  will  increase  his  own  responsibility  and  function  effi- 
ciently as  a  member  of  the  organization. 

As  the  worker  progresses  he  may  find  that  he  is  faced 
with  two  types  of  responsibility.  In  the  first  place  it 
may  be  his  responsibility  to  carry  a  project  through  to 
successful  completion,  then  later  he  may  be  faced  with 
the  responsibility  for  supervisory  and  executive  work. 
It  is  here  that  other  qualities  such  as  leadership,  com- 
mon sense,  and  judgment  will  become  increasingly 
important. 

Acquisition  of  experience. — In  industrial  research, 
experience  plays  a  role  of  peculiar  importance.  The 
scientist  who  has  done  research  work  in  connection 
with  his  postgraduate  course  knows  the  importance  of 
thoroughly  studying  the  literature  on  a  subject  before 
he  starts  to  work  on  it.  Wlien  he  enters  an  industrial 
research  organization  he  will  probably  find  that  the  same 
necessity  exists,  but  that  the  facilities  for  acquiring  this 
information  are  quite  different  and  more  complicated. 
Most  of  the  process  industries,  at  least,  did  not  have 
technical  origins,  but  started  as  arts  or  handicrafts. 
Progress  in  the  early  stages  was  largely  empirical  and 
was  in  many  cases  the  result  of  inventive  ability  rather 
than  thorough  study.  To  make  liis  efforts  of  the  great- 
est usefulness  the  research  worker  must  familiarize 
liimself  with  those  parts  of  the  industry  which  are 
related  to  his  work.  He  must  not  assume  that  because 
a  process  cannot  be  explained  or  a  material  described 
in  precise  scientific  terms  it  is  outside  liis  field  of  inter- 
est. Much  of  the  work  of  an  industrial  research  labora- 
tory consists  in  the  wise  application  of  technology  to 
just  such  situations. 

It  has  frequently  been  found,  however,  that  too 
much  experience  in  a  field  may  blind  a  person  to  the 
possibihty  of  doing  something  quite  different  and  better. 
Information  derived  through  experience  should  be 
treated  as  the  best  information  available  at  that  time, 
but  subject  always  to  further  change. 

Evaluation  and  utilization  of  ideas. — As  the  worker 
progresses  in  his  career  he  will  find  that  his  ability  to 
evaluate  and  to  utihze  ideas  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance,  whether  the  ideas  are  his  own  or  come  from 
another  source.  Tliis  ability  depends  in  part  on  his 
training  and  experience,  and  in  part  on  temperament. 
He  should  cultivate  the  habit  of  taking  a  constructive 
rather  than  an  instinctively  destructive  attitude  toward 
new  ideas.  By  "constructive"  we  do  not  mean  blind 
optimism  but  rather  an  attitude  of  examining  an  idea 
carefully  and  making  a  conscientious  effort  to  use 
whatever  is  good.  If  part  of  the  idea  is  unsatisfactory 
he  may  attempt  to  replace  it  with  something  better. 
He  should  not  make  undue  use  of  scientific  facts  or 
principles  to  destroy  new  ideas.  He  should  particu- 
larly remember  that  the  principal  use  of  scientific 
theories  is  to  suggest  action  and  should  not  get  into 


116 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


the  habit  of  developing  theories  for  (lie  purpose  of  dis- 
couraging action  on  new  ideas.  "A  destructively 
critical  attitude  will  discourage  others  from  giving 
ideas." 

Leadership. — As  the  research  worker  progresses  in 
the  organization  otlier  technical  people  are  usually 
assigned  to  work  with  him.  The  word  "with"  is  used 
advisedly,  because  in  most  research  organizations  the 
emphasis  is  on  cooperation  rather  than  subordination. 
His  attitude  shoidd  be  that  of  giving  encouragement 
and  assistance  to  such  men  as  have  been  assigned  to 
work  with  him  and  of  giving  them  every  facility  to  do 
their  work  with  as  little  interruption  or  digression  as 
possible.  To  get  the  best  results  he  must  be  scrupu- 
lously careful  to  make  sure  that  his  men  get  full  credit 
for  what  they  do.  He  should  study  his  personnel  care- 
fully, because  much  of  the  success  of  a  scientific  organ- 
ization, whether  large  or  small,  depends  upon  having 
men  do  the  work  for  which  they  arc  best  suited.  His 
studies  should  relate  not  only  to  the  abilities  of  his  men 
but  also  their  temperaments.  He  should  inspire  his 
men  with  confidence.  They  should  not  only  be  confi- 
dent of  his  ability  to  direct  their  work  but  they  shoidd 
also  be  confident  of  their  owti  ability  to  do  it.  To 
secure  this  result  he  must  know  how  and  when  to  en- 
courage or  criticize,  and  his  manner  of  doing  this  should 
be  adapted  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  person  with  whom 
he  is  dealing. 

Ability  to  complete  as  \t)ell  as  start  work. — Young  men 
in  business  are  frequently  criticized  because  they  seem 
to  be  much  better  at  starting  work  than  at  finishing  it. 
Industrial  research  workers  are  no  exception,  and  this 
difficulty  is  not  confined  to  the  young.  It  appears  to 
arise  in  part  from  the  incompatability  of  certain  of  the 
qualifications  discussed  in  the  first  part  of  this  report. 
Self  discipline  will  help  to  correct  this  tendency.  Some 
men,  particularly  in  their  earlier  years,  find  it  difficult 
to  pereevere  toward  a  definite  goal  because  their  imagi- 
nation and  creative  urge  continually  present  to  them 
new  and  therefore  more  attractive  ideas  that  divert 
their  attention.  In  other  csises,  flic  worker  will  tend 
to  become  interested  in  one  particular  phase  of  his 
work,  the  subject  matter  of  which  may  appeal  to  him 
for  its  own  sake.  In  both  cases  the  remedy  is  for  the 
man  to  have  a  clear  appreciation  of  the  objective  of  his 
work  and  a  realization  that  the  objective  is  the  im- 
portant tiling  to  attain.  In  other  rases  the  worker 
may  tend  to  spend  too  much  lime  on  one  particular 
phase  of  a  subject  because  he  feels  that  there  he  is  safe, 
and  because  he  lacks  the  courage  to  do  something  new 
and  unorthodo.x. 

In  still  other  cases,  the  difficulty  may  relate  more  to 
the  problem  than  to  the  man.  As  problems  progress, 
factors  are  frequently  involved  which  are  outside  the 
purely  scientific  domain  in  wliich  the  rosonrrli  worker  is 


primarily  trained.  For  example,  forms  of  apparatus 
that  have  been  used  in  laboratory  experimentation  may 
have  to  be  modified  or  even  replaced  by  something  quite 
different.  Economic  questions  may  become  important. 
Here  it  is  that  adaptability  and  versatility  enter.  The 
usefulness  of  the  research  worker  will  be  greatly  en- 
hanced if  he  has  sufficient  perspective  to  recognize  the 
importance  of  these  problems  and  is  sufficiently  versatile 
or  resourcefid  to  assist  in  solving  them.  This  is  true, 
even  though  he  may  not  be  primarily  responsible  for  the 
larger  scale  development.  If  the  research  man  finds 
that  he  lacks  the  proper  training  to  permit  him  to  cope 
with  these  factors  he  should  acquire  it  by  outside  read- 
ing and  by  conversation  with  those  who  have  such 
training. 

Planning.- — The  first  step  in  the  successful  solution  of 
a  research  problem  is  to  have  an  objective  that  is 
properly  defined,  stated,  and  understood.  Much  of 
the  work  done  in  imiversities  by  graduate  research 
workers  consists  of  finding  new  facts.  While  the 
objective  may  be  apparent  in  many  industrial  problems, 
insofar  as  approach  is  concerned,  it  is  not  so  simply 
stated.  The  work  frequently  arises  from  some  need, 
and  the  objective  is  to  meet  this  need,  subject  to  certain 
requirements.  In  other  cases,  the  purpose  may  be  to 
apply  new  facts  to  existing  conditions,  to  effect  an 
improvement,  or  to  find  a  use  for  new  facts.  These 
are  the  broad  objectives  of  many  industrial  problems, 
and  an  understanding  of  them  is  desirable.  It  is 
especially  important  for  the  worker  to  have  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  purpose  of  the  particular  part  of 
the  work  for  which  he  is  responsible,  including  the 
application  of  the  results  to  the  company's  needs.  A 
clear  understanding  of  the  immediate  objective  of  his 
work  will  assist  him  in  laying  his  plans  and  in  executing 
them,  and  in  bringing  out  details  which  might  otherwise 
be  overlooked.  If  he  constantly  keeps  the  objective 
in  mind  he  will  be  less  likely  to  digress  into  bypaths  or 
waste  time  on  nonessentials;  he  will  realize  that  everj' 
step  and  every  experiment  should  be  so  plaimed  that 
its  successful  accomplishment  will  bring  him  nearer  his 
objective. 

On  this  point  a  reviewer  makes  the  following  pertinent 
comment. 

It  is  of  interest  from  time  to  time  to  estimate  the  period  tliat 
would  have  been  required  to  complete  a  problem  if  uo  experiment 
had  been  wasted.  That  is,  once  we  have  Bnally  completed  a 
research  project,  how  much  time  would  be  necessary  to  conduct 
the  essential  work  to  prove  the  given  point.  Frequently,  this 
would  be  a  very  small  fraction.  Hence  the  incentive  to  careful 
planning. 

Another  pertinent  comment  on  this  section  was  made 
by  a  research  director. 

The  important  side  is  entirely  mental  and  experimentation  is 
for  the  purpose  of  confirming  the  ideas.  Successful  research 
does  not  depend  upon  the  volume  of  experiments  but  upon  clear 


Industrial  Research 


117 


thinking,  planning  and  observation  so  that  maxiniuni  iiifdrniation 
is  obtained  from  pach  experiment. 

Essentials  and  nonessentials.—  In  doing  sciciit ilic  woik 
in  industry  there  is  frequently  a  temptation  to  spend 
more  time  than  is  necessary  on  certain  features  of  the 
work.  This  may  be  because  the  subject  matter  of  this 
portion  of  the  work  appeals  to  the  worker  or  because 
facilities  or  ])revious  experience  are  avaihihle.  Here 
again  a  i)roper  appreciation  of  tlie  objective  will  serve 
as  a  guard  against  this  type  of  inefBcient  planning. 

E.xperiments  should  be  so  planned  that  the  results  will 
be,  as  far  as  possible,  unequivocal. 

In  plaiuiing  research  work  there  slioukl  i)e  du(> 
appreciation  of  the  relationship  of  the  cost  of  the  work 
to  its  ultimate  value.  The  cost  of  planning  work  is 
generally  small  compared  with  the  cost  of  doing  it,  and 
it  may  pay  to  spend  considenible  time  in  carefvd  jilan- 
ning.  In  most  cases  progress  is  made  by  consecutive 
steps,  that  is  to  say,  one  set  of  experimeiits  will  lead  to 
one  conclusion  and  further  work  will  be  based  on  this 
conclusion.  Expense  will  be  reduced  if  work  is  laid  out 
so  the  experiments  will  be  carried  out  in  logical  order. 

Execution. — While  it  is  not  possible,  of  course,  in  a 
report  of  this  sort  to  make  any  detailed  suggestions 
regarding  the  execution  of  research  work,  a  few  points 
warrant  mention. 

One  of  the  problems  that  frequently  faces  the  indus- 
trial research  worker  is  that  of  suitable  apparatus.  In 
many  cases  the  standard  forms  of  apparatus  are  not 
suited  to  the  work,  and  special  apparatus  has  to  be  pro- 
vided. Means  of  secm'ing  this  differ  with  the  organi- 
zation, but  it  is  true  that  in  many  cases  considerable 
time  may  be  required.  The  extent  of  refinement  de- 
manded should  be  in  proportion  to  the  needs  of  the 
case.  If  the  first  experiments  are  of  a  preliminary 
nature  the  research  worker  may  find  that  by  canvass- 
ing the  available  facilities  of  the  establishment,  discuss- 
ing the  matter  with  his  fellow  workers,  and  using  his 
own  ingenuity  he  can  secure  equipment  adequate  for 
the  immediate  purpose  with  comparatively  little  effort. 
Important  developments  have  often  been  started  with 
makeshift  apparatus.  Another  suggestion  is  that  full- 
est use  should  be  made  of  related  information.  This 
has  been  emphasized  previously  in  connection  with  the 
acquisition  of  experience. 

Future  of  the  Research  Worker 

In  most  research  organizations  it  is  felt  that  a  career 
is  offered  in  the  organization  itself  for  the  right  kind 
of  man.  Experience  in  a  research  organization  may 
also  give  a  man  a  training  that  will  qualify  him  for 
positions  involving  great  responsibility  in  other  parts 
of  the  company.  Frequently  men  are  transferred  from 
the  central  research  organization  to  positions  in  the 
operating  and  sales  departments.     Whether  or  not  this 


occurs  depends  on  tlu;  ((iialidc!) lions  and  i)rcfercnces  of 
the  individunl. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  in  some  industries  to  fill 
positions  in  other  departments  with  men  of  research 
training.  This  is  particularly  true  of  industries  built 
on  research,  and  whose  products  are  used  by  other  in- 
dustries. 

Compensations  of  the  Research  Worker 

Industrial  research  offers  to  the  properly  qualified 
man  an  opportiniity  to  make  a  good  living.  Although 
accurate  and  complete  data  on  financial  compensation 
are  not  available,  it  is  believed  that,  on  the  average, 
scientific  men  in  industry  fare  as  well  in  this  respect  as 
men  of  comparable  age,  experience,  and  ability  in  other 
industrial  activities.  This  statement  is  made  with  some 
reservation  owing  to  the  great  differences  which  exist, 
especially  between  industries.  On  this  point  one  lab- 
oratory reports:  "Our  salaries  in  this  laboratory  run  5  to 
10  percent  above  those  in  our  engineering  dei)artment 
for  men  with  corresponding  training  and  experience." 

A  chemist  or  engineer  is  rarely  required  to  serve  a 
low-paid  apprenticeship  comparable  with  that  required 
of  a  doctor  or  lawyer. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  make  any  definite  quantita- 
tive comparison,  as  to  financial  compensation,  between 
industrial  research  and  other  activities.  After  the 
initial  start,  compensation  is  a  highl3'  individualistic 
affair.'  One  survey  of  a  number  of  laboratories  led  to 
the  conclusion  that — 

so  far  as  tliis  particular  group  of  laboratories  is  concerned,  any- 
thing even  approacliing  a  common  ground  of  agreement  as  to 
the  market  value  of  any  particular  type  of  research  work,  any 
particular  educational  background  or  any  particular  amount  of 
experience,  skill  or  qualities  of  character,  simply  does  not  seem 
to  exist. 

This  is  probably  because  research  itself  is  an  indivitlual- 
istic  affair,  and  the  usefulness  of  an  individual  to  an 
organization  cannot  be  expressed  in  terms  of  any  simple 
standards,  such  as  age  or  experience,  applicable  to  a 
large  group  of  individuals. 

One  research  director  points  out  that  there  is  a  lower 
tm-n-over  of  research  workers  than  of  men  in  other 
business  activities.  Although  quantitative  data  are 
not  available,  it  is  certainly  to  the  interest  of  all  that 
this  should  be  procured. 

In  addition  to  financial  compensation,  there  are  a 
number  of  other  compensations  derived  from  a  career 
in  industrial  research  which  are  frequently  overlooked. 
One  of  these  is  the  satisfaction  a  man  derives  from  his 
vocation.  A  man  who  possesses  the  creative  urge  and 
scientific  curiosity  to  a  high  degree,  and  this  has  been 
characteristic  of  the  great  men  of  science,  will  probably 
be  happier  in  scientific  work  than  in  any  other  activity. 

I  From  a  report  of  the  Industrial  Research  Institute. 


118 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


This  is  true  whctluT  tlic  man  is  interested  in  finding 
new  facts  to  extend  our  houiidaries  of  knowledge  or  in 
the  development  and  application  of  new  techniques,  or 
lias  an  urge  to  discover. 

Another  compensation  is  the  satisfaction  derived 
from  doing  work  that  may  be  of  lasting  benefit.  If 
his  work  results  in  a  new  product,  the  research  man  will 
derive  ultimate  satisfaction  from  the  fact  that  this 
product  lias  not  only  been  of  benefit  to  his  own  organi- 
zation but  has  supplied  some  public  need.  If  his  work 
has  led  to  the  establishment  of  some  new  scientific 
truth,  the  use  of  this  bj-  his  fellow  scientists  will  be  an 
inspiration  to  him.  It  is  important  that  men  who  have 
made  valuable  contributions  receive  from  their  employ- 
ers proper  and  timely  recognition  for  their  work. 

Compensation  also  results  from  the  feeling  that  one's 
work,  although  on  a  small  scale,  may  have  results  of 
enormous  economic  imjiortance.  The  young  research 
worker  will  frequently  play  an  important  role  in  work 
of  more  lasting  and  objective  importance  than  the  young 
man  with  a  similar  period  of  experience  in  another 
occupation. 

The  desire  to  receive  public  recognition  of  one's  work 
is  very  natural.  Formerly  one  of  the  principal  dis- 
tinctions between  scientific  workers  in  universities  and 
those  in  industry  was  that  the  former  were  permitted 
to  publish  their  work,  whereas  it  was  generally  believed 
that  the  latter  were  not.  At  the  present  time  most 
industrial  research  laboratories  not  only  permit,  but 
encourage,  workers  to  publish  the  results  of  their  work 
when  such  publication  will  not  be  prejudicial  to  the 
interests  of  the  company. 

Probable  F"uture  of  Industrial 
Research  as  a  Career 

Any  discussion  of  industrial  research  as  a  career 
should  properly  include  a  consideration  of  the  future. 
Research  has  been  a  part  of  our  industrial  structure  for 
about  40  years,  but  during  the  first  two  decades  of  that 
period  it  was  barely  getting  under  way.  Most  of  the 
expansion  has  occurred  during  the  past  20  j-ears. 
Although  the  results  have  been  most  impressive,  it  is 
not  yet  a  large  factor  in  our  uidustrial  life  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  number  of  persons  employed  or  of  the 
expenditures  relative  to  the  value  of  products  manu- 
factured. There  is  ample  margin  for  growth.  Some 
of  the  reasons  for  further  growth  are:  (1)  The  growmg 
realization  by  industrialists  and  investors  that  research 
pays;  (2)  the  pressure  of  competition  both  from  within 
and  from  without  an  industrj-,  which  supplies  an  incen- 
tive to  develop  new  and  improved  methods,  and  im- 
proved products;  (3)  the  desire  for  expansion  and  di- 
versification of  products,  which  leads  to  work  on  new 
products;  (4)  new  discoveries  and  inventions,  including 
particularly  new  raw  materials. 


All  indications  point  to  the  permanence  of  industrial 
research  and  to  its  future  growth.  Based  on  the  expe- 
rience of  the  past  few  years,  it  appears  likely  that  the 
rate  of  growth  will  increase.  One  commentator  makes 
the  prediction  that — 

the  saturatiiin  point  i.s  not  likely  to  be  reached  until  all  iiidustri', 
on  the  average,  spends  about  three  percent  of  its  efifort  on 
research  and  development.  This  would  allow  for  a  manifold 
increase  within  the  period  of  time  we  can  roughly  foresee  now. 
Instead  of  fifty  thousand  employees  in  research,  one  million 
is  not  too  many  to  look  forward  to  over  the  period  of  the  next 
forty  years. 

Bibliography 

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New  York,  London,  D.  Appleton-Century  Company,  Inc., 
1935.     319  p. 

Fleming,  A.  P.  M.  Industrial  research  in  the  U.  S.  A.  London, 
Pub.  for  the  Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research 
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training  of  research  men,"  p.  46-47. 

Holland,  Maurice,  and  H.  F.  Pringle,  Industrial  explorers. 
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Mees,  C.  E.  K.  Organization  of  industrial  scientific  research. 
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Ross,  Malcolm,  ed.  Profitable  practice  in  industrial  research; 
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Brothers,  1932.     269  p. 

Weidlein,  K.  R.,  and  W.  A.  Hamor.  Glances  at  industrial 
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132. 

Weiss,  J.  M.,  and  C.  R.  Downs.  The  technical  organization,  its 
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Bacon,  R.  F.  Some  principles  in  the  administration  of  industrial 
research  laboratories.  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry,  35,  18  (1916). 

Benger,  Ernest  B.  The  organization  of  industrial  research. 
Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  S3,  572  (1930). 

Carty,  .L  J.  Relation  of  pure  science  to  industrial  research. 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers.  Proceedings,  55, 
1411  (1916). 

Clarke,  B.  L.  The  role  of  analytical  chemistry  in  industrial 
research.  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  S3,  1301 
(1931);  Journal  of  Chemical  Education,  I.',,  561  (1937). 

Coolidge,  W.  D.  Research  as  a  career.  The  Technology  Re- 
view, 36,  341  (1934). 

Freeth,  F.  a.  Industrial  research.  Journal  of  the  Society  of 
Chemical  Industry,  J,S,  1086  (1929). 

Holland,  M.  Bridging  the  gap  between  university  and  industry 
in  industrial  research.  Journal  of  Engineering  Education,  S6 
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Industrial  Research 


119 


Jewett,  F.  B.  Industrial  research.  Mechanical  Engineering, 
41,  825  (1919). 

Jewett,  F.  B.  Finding  and  encouragement  of  competent  men. 
Science,  69,  309  (1929). 

Jewett,  F.  B.  The  place  of  research  in  industry.  Avierican 
Petroleum  Institute.     Proceedings,  12,  Sect.  Ill,  27  (1931). 

Langmuir,  I.  Fundamental  research  and  its  human  value. 
General  Electric  Review,  J,0,  569  (1937). 

Langmuir,  I.  Science  as  a  guide  in  life.  General  Electric 
Review,  57,  312  (1934). 

Meldola,  R.  Education  and  research  in  applied  chemistry. 
Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  28,  554  (1909). 

Mills,  J.     S  or  D.     The  Management  Review,  20,  67  (1931). 

Mills,  J.  A  balanced  ration  of  work.  The  Technology  Review, 
36,  56  (1933). 

Mills,  J.  The  making  of  industrial  physicists.  Journal  of 
Engineering  Education,  28,  132  (1937). 

Moore,  W.  C.  What  a  young  graduate  will  encounter  in  indus- 
trial research.     Journal  of  Chemical  Education,  16,  386  (1939). 

Perry,  J.  H.  Man  location.  Chemical  and  Metallurgical  En- 
gineering, J,S,  68  (1936). 

Philip,  J.  C.  The  training  of  the  chemist  for  the  service  of  the 
community.     Chemistry  and  Industry,  55,  701  (1936). 

RossMAN,  J.  Stimulating  employees  to  invent.  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  27,  1380,  1510  (1935). 


Spooner,  T.  Father  of  invention.  Electric  Journal,  36,  92 
(1939). 

Stine,  C.  M.  a.  The  place  of  fundamental  research  in  an 
industrial  research  organization.  American  Institute  of  Chemi- 
cal Engineers.     Transactions,  32,  127  (1930). 

Walker,  W.  H.  Education  for  research.  Journal  of  Industrial 
and  Engineering  Chemistry,  7,  2  (1915). 

Warren,  H.  Industrial  research  as  a  career.  Engineering,  147, 
75  (1939). 

Weidlein,  E.  R.  The  administration  of  industrial  research. 
Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  IS,  98  (1926);  Mechani- 
cal Engineering,  48,  182  (1926). 

Weidlein,  E.  R.  American  industrial  progress  through  scien- 
tific research.  Chemical  and  Metallurgical  Engineering,  34, 
209  (1927). 

Weidlein,  E.  II.  Industrial  research  methods  and  workers. 
Journal  of  Engineering  Education,  21,  139  (1930). 

Weidlein,  E.  R.  Various  results  of  being  researchful.  Science, 
S2,  553  (1935);  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry, 
54,  1032  (1935). 

Whitney,  W.  R.  Encouraging  competent  men  to  continue  in 
research.     Science,  65,  311  (1929). 

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of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  32,  71  (1910). 


SECTION    II 
RESEARCH    AS    A    GROWTH    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 

By  Joseph  V.  Sherman 
Fiduciary  Counsel,  Inc.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


ABSTRACT 


Research  is  receiving  increasing  recognition  from 
industrial  management  as  a  means  of  expanding  earning 
power  through  the  (k>veIopnient  of  new  products  and 
processes.  That  it  has  played  an  important  part  in 
the  growth  of  many  companies  and  industries  can 
readily  be  demonstrated.  To  the  investment  analyst, 
the  research  expenditures  of  various  companies  therefore 
constitute  an  important  factor  in  determining  their 
long-term  outlook.  Because  of  inade((uate  data,  it  was 
neccssar}'  to  estimate  such  expenditures  based  upon 
the  number  of  workers  engaged.     A  survey  was  made  of 


a  cross  section  of  American  industry  to  determine  the 
average  expenditure  per  worker  and  this  was  applied 
to  the  number  of  workers  reported  to  the  National 
Research  Council.  The  estimated  aggregates  by  indus- 
try were  related  to  the  value  added  by  manufacture  in 
1937.  The  results  showed  wide  variation  among  indus- 
tries in  research  expenditures  per  $100  value  added  by 
manufacture,  indicating  vast  opportunities  for  profitable 
research  in  many  industries  in  which  it  is  at  present 
relatively  neglected. 


Scientific  research  is  one  of  America's  fastest  growing 
industries.  That  it  plays  a  vital  role  in  the  develop- 
ment of  new  products  and  processes  has  in  recentyears 
received  increasing  recognition  from  those  who  occupy 
positions  of  responsibility  in  practically  all  lines  of 
production.  The  rapid  growth  of  industrial  research 
laboratories  and  personnel  in  the  United  States  over  a 
period  of  years  has  been  clearly  demonstrated ;  it  remains 
only  to  translate  these  findings  into  dollars  and  cents. 

Those  who  direct  the  flow  of  capital  have  been  a  little 
more  remote  from  industrial  operations,  where  science's 
discoveries  and  inventions  bear  fruit,  than  those  who 
actually  supervise  production,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
that  they  have  been  a  little  slower  to  grasp  the  impor- 
tance of  research.  But  what  they  have  lacked  in  prompt- 
ness they  have  made  up  in  enthusiasm  and  today  we 
find  the  case  for  research  being  presented  by  many 
companies  in  their  annual  reports  to  stockholders. 

The  widening  acceptance  of  the  thesis  that  research 
promotes  the  growth  and  increases  the  earning  power 
of  companies  is  based  upon  records  of  a  great  nund)er  of 
cases  where  this  has  occurred  rather  than  on  any  com- 
prehensive analysis  of  data  for  industry  as  a  whole. 
It  has  been  noted  that  those  industries  which  have  been 
most  active  in  research  have  shown  the  best  growth 
trends. 

Wlmt  has  been  true  of  industries  has  also  been  true  of 
individual  companies.     Generally  speaking,  those  com- 
panies which  are  outstanding  in  their  research  activities 
120 


are  those  which  shape  up  as  the  best  managed  and  suc- 
cessful enterprises.  The  ability  to  take  advantage  of 
the  possibilities  of  research  in  expanding  sales  and 
otherwise  increasing  earning  power  is  a  ver\-  good  indi- 
cator of  the  alertness  of  management. 

The  vital  role  of  research  in  the  chemical  and  other 
rapidly  expanding  lines,  where  the  em])hasis  is  on  the 
continuous  development  of  new  jjroducts,  has  been 
pointed  out  frequently.  Tiiat  research  deserves  a  large 
part  of  the  credit  for  the  steady  growth  of  the  leading 
chemical  and  electrical  e(|uipment  companies  is  widely 
recognized. 

It  is  also  well  known  that  the  rapid  growth  in  con- 
sumption of  aluminum,  nickel,  vanadium,  tungsten, 
chromium  and  molybdenum,  and  other  light  or  alloy 
metals  is  due  largely  to  research  in  developing  new  uses 
for  these  metals.  Research  holds  forth  similar  possi- 
bilities for  magnesium,  beryllivmi,  and  many  of  the 
lesser-known  metals. 

The  possibilities  of  research  in  the  more  seasoned 
industries,  however,  are  not  so  obvious.  Yet  there  are 
numerous  cases  of  companies  which  have  been  enabled 
to  make  a  better  than  average  showing  or  even  covmter- 
act  an  unfavorable  trend  in  their  established  lines 
through  the  development  of  new  pi-oducts. 

This  was  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  agricultural 
equipment  field  during  the  past  decade.  For  some 
time  it  looked  as  though  the  mechanization  of  the 
farm  had  gone  aboiit  as  far  as  it  would.     Then  one 


Industrial  Research 


121 


company  surveyed  the  agricultural  scene  and  found  tliat 
mechanization  had  not  been  extended  to  the  small  farm 
of  less  than  100  acres.  It  brought  out  a  1-plow  tractor 
and  a  5-foot  combine,  which  the  trade  ijrcdicfod  would 
not  sell.  They  not  only  sold  but  substantially  increased 
this  company's  share  of  the  market  and  competitors 
were  soon  in  the  field  with  new  models  of  their  own 
design. 

The  influence  of  research  on  the  growth  of  industries 
has  been  clearly  shown  in  the  development  of  the 
Diesel  engine.  For  j^ears  the  apphcations  of  the 
Diesel  engine  had  been  limited  to  stationary  power 
and  marine  uses.  Gradually  the  light-weight,  high- 
speed engine  was  developed.  In  recent  years,  the 
Diesel  was  applied  in  trucks,  tractors,  and  locomotivc- 
imits  and  the  companies  which  developed  thes(^  new 
uses  have  notably  bettered  their  comi)etitive  positions 
in  their  various  fields. 

The  accumulation  of  many  such  cases  almost  forces 
the  conclusion  that  there  is  a  positive  correlation  be- 
tween research  expenditures  and  growth  in  earning 
power.  This,  however,  is  rather  difficult  to  measure 
because  of  the  lack  of  a  generally  accepted  definition 
of  research,  the  secrecy  on  the  part  of  many  companies 
regarding  expenditures  and  the  time  lag  between  such 
expenditures  and  an  earnings  return.  Research  ex- 
penditures represent  a  sacrifice  of  immediate  earnings 
in  anticipation  of  a  gi-eater  return  later  on,  the  time 
lag  bemg  greater  in  the  case  of  pure  research  than  in 
the  case  of  product  development. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  research  as  a  factor  in 
the  growth  of  companies  and  industries,  it  was  (h^'ided 
to  tabulate  the  size  of  research  personnel  ami  expendi- 
tures for  a  number  of  leading  conipanies  representing 
a  broad  cross  section  of  American  industry.  Accord- 
ingly the  following  letter  was  directed  to  a  selected  list 
of  companies: 

As  an  investment  counsel  organization,  we  are  making  a 
study  of  research  expenditures  in  various  industries.  Will 
you  be  good  enough  to  give  us  the  following  information  with 
reference  to  your  company: 

"The  approximate  amount  spent  for  scientific  research  and 
development  of  products  in  each  of  the  past  few  years  and  the 
number  of  men  engaged  in  such  work." 

While  it  is  our  intention  to  make  the  conclusions  drawn  from 
our  study  available  to  industry  generally,  we  shall  treat  any 
information  pertaining  to  your  particular  company  confidential, 
if  so  requested. 

Since  the  primary  purpose  of  the  inquiry  was  to 
obtain  whatever  data  on  research  might  be  available, 
the  request  was  worded  in  very  general  terms,  leaving 
it  to  the  individual  companies  to  determine  such  ex- 
pendittires  in  accordance  with  their  accounting  policies. 
It  soon  became  obvious  that  there  was  wide  variation 
in  the  definition  of  research  and  that  such  data  had 
little  value  for  comparing  the  activities  of  individual 


companies.  Furthermore,  many  companies  which  had 
reported  their  research  personnel  to  the  National 
Researcli  Council,  refused  to  give  out  any  information 
on  expenditures.  Obivously,  a  statistical  tool  was 
needed  for  estimating  expenditures  on  a  comparable 
basis. 

The  first  figure  sought  was  the  average  research  and 
development  expenditure  per  worker,  including  both 
salaries  and  the  pro  rata  cost  of  supplies,  equipment, 
and  overhead.  Once  this  was  obtained,  it  would  be 
possible  to  estimate  the  expenditures  for  each  company 
and  also  for  industry  as  a  whole,  based  on  the  number 
of  workers  reported  to  the  National  Research  Council, 
which  data  arc  ])robal)ly  more  nearly  comparable  than 
any  other. 

From  all  the  I'ejjlies  received,  those  were  selected 
which  stated  both  the  number  of  personnel  and  ex- 
penditures for  research  and  development.  While 
there  is  un(iouI)te(lly  consiileraide  difl'erence  of  computa- 
tion among  companies,  the  ratio  between  the  number 
of  workers  and  expenditures  for  any  one  company  is 
highly  significant,  since  they  both  come  under  that 
particular  company's  definition  of  research,  whatever 
it  may  be. 

Although  replies  were  received  from  a  great  many 
additional  companies,  which  gave  incomplete  data,  31 
companies  reported  both  the  personnel  and  expenditures 
for  research  and  development  in  1937.  This  is  sum- 
marized in  the  following  tabulation,  without  revealing 
the  names  of  the  individual  companies,  which  furnished 
this  information  in  confidence. 

Reported    lexearrh    ixpenditnies    and   personnel  for    representative 
CO  nipa  nies — 1937 


Company  No. 

Reported  re- 
search  ex- 
penditure 

Reported 

number  of 

reso.irch 

workers 

Research  ex- 
penditure 
per  worker 

1... 

2 

3 

4 . 

5 

6.. 

7.. 

8 

9 

:o             ..         

$9,363,000 

5,000,000 

3.821,956 

2,625,613 

2,600,000 

1,  800, 000 

1,600,000 

1,600,000 

1.  250,  000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

750.  000 

740.000 

600,000 

600,  000 

557,000 

.500,000 

442, 000 

434.  000 

400,000 

375,000 

300.00(.> 

300,000 

248,  400 

200,000 

200,000 

1.59.  000 

78,000 

77,000 

60,000 

20,000 

2,000 
1,500 
1,504 
686 
600 
400 
650 
225 
.303 
195 
165 
286 
177 
200 
80 
189 
200 
145 
166 
75 
40 
ISO 
60 
.36 
60 
.50 
20 
17 
22 
10 
3 

$4,682 
3,333 
2,  .541 
3,682 
4,167 
4,500 
2.909 
6,667 
4,125 
5,  128 

11 

12. 

13 

6.061 
2.632 
4.  181 

14.. 

15 

16 

17 

18. 

19 

3.000 
7.500 
2.947 
2.  ,500 
3,048 
2.619 

20                                      - 

a,  333 

21 

9.375 

22                                             

2.000 

23 

6,000 

24                                                          

6,900 

25                     .                 

3,333 

26         

4,000 

27                                         

7,950 

28                

4.  .588 

29                                               

3,600 

30                                

6,000 

31 

6,666 

Total 

38,  400,  969 

10,113 

3,797 

122 


These  31  companies  in  tlie  aggregate  reported  for 
1937,  resourcli  and  development  expenditures  of 
$38,400,969  and  pereonnel  of  10,113.  The  indicated 
average  e.\i)eiiditnre  per  worivcr  ^vus  $3,797.  There 
was  considerable  variation  among  companies  in  the 
average  expenditure  per  worker,  wliich  ranged  all  the 
way  from  $2,000  to  over  $9,000.  Althongli  there  was 
no  definite  relation  between  size  of  company  and  aver- 
age expenditure,  there  was  a  tendency  toward  larger 
average  expenditures  in  the  cases  of  the  smaller  com- 
panies. 

The  sampling  represents  approximately  one-fifth  of 
the  total  49,564  research  workers  in  the  United  States 
in  1938,  reported  to  the  National  Research  Council. 
Inasmuch  as  there  is  a  preponderance  of  large  compa- 
nies in  the  sampling,  the  average  expenditure  per 
worker  is  probably  a  little  low.  For  all  industry,  it  is 
probably  close  to  $4,000.  The  sampling  by  various 
industries  was  not  sufficient  to  warrant  any  conclusions 
as  to  variations  by  industry,  although  such  variations 
may  be  considerable. 

Some  corroboration  of  this  figure  is  obtained  in  the 
case  of  the  steel  industry  for  which  data  on  both 
research  personnel  and  expenditures  are  available.  The 
American  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  reported  that  the 
industiy  spent  in  1939  a  total  of  $10  million  for  research 
and  employed  nearly  2,550  chemists,  metallurgists, 
physicists,  and  other  trained  scientists  full  time  and 
1,300  others  on  a  part-time  basis.'  This  would  be 
equivalent  to  $3,922  per  full-time  worker.  If  half  of 
the  part-time  workers  are  added,  however,  the  average 
expenditure  would  be  reduced  to  $3,125,  which  seems 
too  low.  The  higher  figure  is  quite  close  to  the  average 
obtained  for  the  31  companies  representative  of  all 
industries. 

On  the  basis  of  $4,000  per  worker  for  49,564  reported 
as  engaged  in  research  in  1937,  the  total  e.xpoiiditure 
in  all  industrial  research  laboratories  would  have  been 
approximately  $200  million.  This  represented  0.29 
percent  of  national  income  produced  of  $70  billion. 

On  the  same  basis,  research  expenditures  were  esti- 
mated for  each  of  the  major  industrial  groups  and 
shown  as  a  percentage  of  the  "Value  added  by  manu- 
facture" in  1937  (U.  S.  Census  of  Manufactures).^ 
This  was  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  the  Work  Projects 
Administration  National  Research  Project '  generally 
followed  the  Census  classification  of  industries. 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 
Estimated  research  expenditures  by  industrial  groups 


Estimated 

Number 

Number 

research 

of  research 

of  research 

expeudi- 

workers, 

workers, 

tures  (in 

ture  (In 

cent  value 
added  by 
manufac- 
ture 

u  classi- 

as ad- 

thoasands 

thousands 

fied 

justed! 

of  dol- 
lars) 

of  dol- 
lars) 

MANUFACTI'RINO  INDUS- 

TRIES 

Food  and  kindred  prod- 

ucts   

1,424 

1.S93 

6.372 

t3, 354. 242 

0.19 

Textiles  and  their  prod- 

ucts -  - 

3fl7 

411 

1,644     2.972,485 

.06 

192 

215 

860      1.265-600 

.07 

Paper  and   allied  prod- 

ucts  

752 

842 

3.368 

852.695 

.39 

Chemicals     and     allied 

products 

9,M2 

10.678 

42.712 

1,  793,  583 

Z38 

Petroleum  and  Its  prod- 

ucts   

5.033 

S,«32 

22.528 

•2,001,002 

1.13 

Rubber  products 

2,250 

2.518 

10,072 

368,  772 

2.73 

Leather  and  Its  manufac- 

tures-      .- 

78 

87 

348 

592,043 

.06 

Stone,    clay,    and    n^ass 

products  -  -     . .     

1,404 

1,571 

C,2S4 

872,  746 

.72 

Iron  and  steel  and  Iheir 

products  not  including 

machinery 

1.531 

1,713 

6,852 

3,432,674 

.20 

Nonferrous    metals    and 

their  products 

1,197 

1,339 

5,356 

856,759 

.62 

Aericultural  implements 

dncludinE  tractors) 

1.805 

2,020 

8,080 

278,265 

2.90 

Electrical  machinerv.  ap- 

paratus and  supplies  . 

4.114 

4.604 

18,416 

1, 102, 134 

1.67 

All  other  machinerv    --. 

2.320 

2,596 

10.384 

2.086,705 

.50 

Motor    vehicles,    bodies 

and  parts 

1.953 

2,185 

8,740 

804,945 

1.08 

All  other  transportation 

equipment-., 

131 

147 

588 

1,081,189 

.05 

Miscellaneous    manufac- 

turing  

1.703 

'1,973 

>  7. 892  I  1,078,432 

(•) 

Total  above  indus- 

tries  

40,124 

160.496   24.894,272 

.64 

NO-NMANUriCTlKlNG 

IXDrsTRIES 

4,202 

4,702 

18.808  1 

utilities  (gas,  light,  and 

1  000 

1  119 

4  476 

Consulting   and   testing 

2,6(53 
571 

2  980 

11.920 

639 

2,556 

Total  nonmanufac- 

turing  Industries 

8.436 

9,440 

37.760 

44,292 

49.564 

198,256 

'  steel  industry's  1939  research  expenditures  total  $10,000,000.  Steel  Fadt,  No.  35. 
4  (August  1939). 

*  U.  S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  the  Census.  Biennial  census  of 
manufacturers— 1937.    Washington,  U.  S.  Government  Printing  OlTice,  1939. 

•  Perazlch,  G.,  and  Field,  P.  M.  Industrial  research  and  changing  technology. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Work  Projects  Administration,  National  Research  Project, 
Report  A'c.  Af-4, 1940. 


'  Classification  reported  by  W.  P.  A.  National  Research  Project,  based  on  data 
compiled  by  National  Research  Council  has  been  adjusted  for  various  groups  to 
bring  total  workers  to  49,564,  which  had  been  reported  for  all  industry  but  not 
classified. 

'  Sum  of  $1,513,340,000  value  of  rrude  petroleum  at  wells  in  the  United  States 
<V.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines),  plus  $5S7. 662.409  value  added  by  manufacture.  This 
adjustment  has  been  nece.-^sary  to  make  figures  comparable  with  number  of  research 
workers  which  included  those  engaged  in  oil  producing  as  well  as  refining  operations. 

'  In  addition  to  Census  of  Manufactures'  "Miscellaneous  industries,'  includes 
railroads,  steamship  companies,  retail  and  wholesale  firms,  and  other  service  indus- 
tries which  reported  comparatively  small  research  employment  and  which  are  not 
classified  separately. 

Estimated  research  expenditures  per  $100  value 
added  by  manufacture  in  1937  were  as  follows  for  the 
principal  industrial  groups: 

Agricultural  implements  (including  tractors) $2.  90 

Rubber  products 2.  73 

Chemicals  and  allied  products 2.  38 

Electrical  machinery,  apparatus  and  supplies 1.  67 

Petroleum  and  its  products 1.  13 

Motor  vehicles,  bodies,  and  parts —     1.  08 

Stone,  clay  and  glass  products .72 

Nonferrous  metaU  and  their  products 62 

All  other  machinery 60 


Industrial  Research 


123 


Paper  and  allioil  products $0.  39 

Iron  and  stool  and  tlieir  products  not  including  machinery.  .  20 

Food  and  kindred  products .19 

Forest  products .  07 

Textiles  and  their  products .  OG 

Leather  and  its  manufactures .06 

Transportation  eciuipment  other  than  motor  vehicles .  Oo 

All  manufacturing  industries .04 

The  niaiuifactiiring  industries  in  the  United  States 
in  the  aggregate  spend  for  scientific  research  only 
$0.64  out  of  every  $100  rahie  added  to  goods,  two- 
thirds  of  1  percent  of  the  total  value  added  by  manu- 
facture. That  tliis  could  profitably  be  increased  is 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  certain  industries  find  it  pays 
to  spend  more  than  2  percent.  The  majority  of  indus- 
tries, if  not  all  of  them,  are  far  from  the  point  where  the 
law  of  diminishing  returns  \\ill  make  further  expendi- 
tures less  profitable.  Probably  the  greatest  oppor- 
tunities from  the  standpoint  of  capital  lie  in  those 
industries  which  have  not  yet  fully  awakened  to  the 
possibilities  of  research  in  expanding  markets  and 
increasing  earning  power.  It  is  likely  that  the  most 
rapid  increases  in  research  efforts  will  occur  in  some  of 
those  lines  where  it  is  now  neglected.  Competition 
will  help  to  bring  this  about,  for  no  industry  or  com- 
pany can  long  maintain  its  trade  position,  if  it  fails  to 
keep  up  with  the  procession.  Research  will  no  doubt 
continue  to  be  one  of  America's  fastest  growing 
industries — a  fountain  of  perpetual  youth  for  the  old 
and  new  alike. 

Summary  and  Conclusions 

1.  The  importance  of  scientific  research  as  a  growth 
factor  in  industry  is  receiving  increasing  attention 
from  a  financial  and  investment  standpoint.  Although 
difficult  to  measure,  there  is  undoubtedly  a  correlation 
between  research  expenditures  and  the  growth  of  com- 


panies   and    industries.     This    view    is   supported    by 
numerous  case  histories. 

"2.  Based  on  a  survey  of  31  companies  representing  a 
broad  cross  section  of  American  industry  and  account- 
ing for  one-fifth  of  total  research  workers  in  the  United 
States  in  1937,  the  average  expenditure  was  found  to 
be  close  to  $4,000. 

3.  Total  research  expenditures  in  industrial  labora- 
tories in  the  United  States  in  1937  have  been  estimated 
at  approximately  $200  million,  equivalent  to  0.29  per- 
cent of  national  income  produced.  The  average  re- 
search expenditure  per  $100  value  added  by  manu- 
facture was  $0.64. 

4.  Research  expenditm-es  by  industries  showed  wide 
variation.  There  are  vast  opportimities  for  increasing 
earning  power  through  expanding  research  activities, 
particularly  in  those  industries  in  which  it  is  now 
relatively  neglected. 

Bibliography 

.Amerman,  G.  Controlling  the  costs  of  industrial  research. 
Chemical  Industries,  37,  535  (1935). 

The  costs  of  industrial  research;  a  summary  of  the  preparation 
of  cost  estimates,  the  research  budget,  and  comparison  of  actual 
cost  with  the  budget.     Chemical  Industries,  34,    217    (1934). 

Hamok,  W.  a.,  and  G.  U.  Beal.  Control  of  research  expense. 
Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  SJf,  427  (1932). 

Mees,  C.  E.  K.,  and  others.  (Symposium  on)  Management  of 
research.  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  2^,  65,  191 
(1932). 

National  Association  of  Cost  Accountants.  Present-day  prac- 
tice in  accounting  for  research  and  development  costs.  N.  A. 
C.  A.  Bulletin,  W,  sec.  3,  889  (1939). 

Kedman,  L.  V.  Research  as  a  fixed  charge.  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  34,  112  (1932). 

Seybold,  Roscoe.  Controlling  the  cost  of  research,  design, 
and  development.  New  York,  American  Management  Asso- 
ciation, 1930.     12  p. 


SECTION  I  I 
8.  INDUSTRIAL  RESEARCH  EXPENDITURES 

By  Karl  T.  Compton 

President,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technolog>-,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  Chairman,  Advisory  Committee  to  the  National 
Association  of  Manufacturers,  Committee  on  Patents  and  Research 


ABSTRACT 


A  suniinary  of  fiiidiiinjs  on  the  relation  of  research 
expenditures  to  annual  gross  sales  income  in  181 
companies. 


Break-down  by  sizes  of  companies 

Conipanies  reportiiiK  research  expenditures  (number) 181 

Usable  returns  as  related  to  capitalization  (number) 151 


Member  conipanies  of  the  National  Association  of 
Manufactiiror.<5,  in  a  letter  dated  April  2,  1940,  were 
asked : 

What  percentage  of  your  normal  aiiiiual  gross  sales  income  do 
you  spend  for  researcli? 

The  letter  accompanied  a  questionnaire  prepared  by 
the  National  Research  Council  for  its  Survey  of 
Research  in  Industry  with  which  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  Manufacturers  cooperated. 

Responses  received  numbered  892,  of  which  203 
included  reports  of  research  expenditures.  The  sample 
reporting  expenditures  represents  about  8  percent  of 
the  knowTi  industrial  researcli  laboratories. 

The  median  expenditure  of  the  companies  for  indus- 
trial research  was  found  to  be  2  percent  of  gross  sales 
income.  The  percentage  was  highest  in  small  com- 
panies. The  chemical  and  allied  products  industries,  on 
the  other  hand,  ranUtd  the  highest  in  percentage  of 
gross  income  for  research. 

Following  is  a  summary  of  the  leplies: 

Companies  reporting  research  expenditures  (number) 203 

Usable  returns  on  relation  of  research  expenditures  to  sales 

(number) 181 

Median  expenaiture  (percent) 2 

Number  of 
Distribution:  companU, 

Less  than  1  percent.               . 43 

1  to  2  percent. 49 

2  to  3  percent 36 

3  to  4  percent 22 

4  to  5  percent 3 

5  to  6  percent 13 

6  to  7  percent 4 

7  to  8  percent 0 

8  to  9  percent. 1 

9  to  10  percent i 

10  to  11  percent.. 7 

11  to  12  percent 1 

12  to  13  percent 1 

124 


Capitalization 

Number  of 
companies 

Median  oi- 
pendlture 
for  research 

$20,000  to  $75,000: 

1  to  2  percent _ 

1 
2 

1 

Pacini 

8  percent 

Total 

4 

S 

$100,000  to  $500,000: 

Less  than  1  percent  

5 
B 
C 
2 

4 

1  to  2  percent 

2  to'3  percent                         „ . 

3  to  4  percent . 

6  to  7  percent .__ 

10  to  1 1  percent .  . 

12  to  13  percent 

Total 

27 

2M 

$-.00,000  to  $1,000,000: 

Less  than  1  percent 

3 
4 
3 
4 

2 
1 

1  to  2  percent... .„.,.    . 

2  to  3  percent .' 

5  to  6  percent                 .    . 

6  to  7  percent 

Total... 

17 

2M 

$1,000,000  to  $2,000,000:  ■ 

Less  than  1  percent            

7 
10 
12 

8 
1 
•J 

1  to2pcrcent 

2  to  3  percent  

3  to  4  percent 

5  to  6  percent 

(i  to  7  percent-.. 

10  to  11  percent 

Total 

41 

2 

$2,000,000  to  $5,000,000: 

Less  than  1  percent                                    

3 
li 
3 

2 

1 

lto2percent 

2  to  3  percent... 

3  to  4  percent 

Total 

IS 

IM 

$5,000,000  to  $10,000,000: 

5 
3 
1 

1 

1  to  2  percent 

3  to  4  percent ........ 

Total 

10 

1 

$10,000,000  to  $50,000,000: 

Less  than  1  percent 

10 
8 
3 

1 

Total 

22 

1 

$50,000,000  to  $100,000,000: 

Less  than  1  percent 

4 

2 
1 

1 

1  to  2  percent _ 

2  to  3  percent 

Total-. - 

8 

Less  than  1 

Over  $100,000,000: 

Less  than  1  percent        ...  .- 

4 

1 

2  to  3  percent 

6to  6  percent 

Total 

7 

Less  than  1 

'In  this  cal«Eory  were  included  all  companies  reported  by  Dun  4  Dradstreet  as 
bavins  capitalization  "over  1  million  dollars"  but  tor  whom  specific  BEures  were  not 
available. 


Industrial  Research 

Break-down  by  types  of  industries 


125 


Industry 

Number  of 
companies 

Median  ex- 
penditure 

Chemicals  and  allied  products: 

Less  than  I  percent i 

Percent 

1  to  2  percent 4 

2  to  3  percent 7 

3  to  4  percent 7 

5  to  10  percent 4 

10  to  13  percent _ 4 

Total- - 

28 

3  to  4 

Miscellaneous  industries: 

1  to  2  percent 1 

2  to  3  percent 4 

3  to  4  percent 3 

5  to  6  percent _   __.  2 

Total ._     

10 

3 

Machinery,  not  including  transportation  equipment: 
Less  than  1  percent 6 

I  to2percent-.                    13 

3  to  4  percent  .                     8 

5  to  6  percent    .      .            .   _        4 

10  to  11  percent                   _    2 

Total 

47 

2 

Transportation  equipment,  air.  land  and  water: 

I  to  2  percent _ 6 

5  to  6  percent _ 2 

6  to  7  percent _ 1 

9  to  10  percent 1 

10  to  11  percent- 2 

14 

2 

1 

2 

Less  than  1  percent                               3 

5  to  6  percent  .                                                        1 

Total 

8 

1 

Printing,   publishing,   and   allied   products,   1    to  2 
percent:  Total 

3 

1  3 

Stone,  clay,  and  glass  products: 

Less  than  1  percent 5 

1  to  2  percent _  _   .                                 .7 

2  to  3  percent                                                           4 
:i  to  4  percent                                                           3 
4  to  5  percent                                                           I 

Total 

20 

m 

Iron   and  steel   and   their   products,    nut   including 
machinery: 

Less  than  1  percent 12 

1  to  2  percent 7 

■,:  to  3  percent 5 

3  to  4  percent I 

4  to  5  percent- -__ 1 

Total— - 

26 

Xonferrous  metals  and  their  products: 

Less  than  I  percent _ 1 

1  to  2  percent  — _ 3 

Total 

5 

. 



Break-down  by  types 

of  industries 

— Cont 

iiued 

Industry 

Number  of 
companies 

Median  ex- 
penditure 

Food  and  kindred  products: 
Less  than  1  percent 

.  4 

-  1 
.   .-.  1 

Percent 

2  to  3  percent- 

Total. 

6 

Hof  1 

i 

2 

Textiles  and  their  products: 

Less  than  1  percent 

I  to  2  percent 

4  to  5  percent 

Total - 

7 

Hot  I 

2 

I 

1 

1 

Products  of  petroleum  and  coal: 

Less  than  1  percent 

1  to  2  percent 

Total 

3 

Hofl 

Rubber  products: 

Less  than  1  percent- 

1  to  2  percent _._ __ 

Total 

2 

li  of  1 

Leather  and  its  manufactures:  Total. 

1 

Moofl 

Summary  of  break-down  by  types  of  indiislries 
Median  expenditure:  indmirit, 

3  to  4  percent Chenjical.s  and  allied  product.-. 

Miscellaneou.s  indiustries. 
2  percent Machinery,  not  including  trans- 
portation equipment. 
Transportation  equipment,  air, 

lanil,  and  water. 
I'"oiest  products. 

1  percent Paper  and  allied  products. 

Printing,  publishing,  and  allied 

products. 
Stone, clay,  and  glass  products. 
Iron  and  steel  and  their  prod- 
ucts      not     including     ma- 
chinery. 
Nonferrous    metals    and    their 
products. 

I.e.ss  than  1  percent Food  and  kindred  products. 

Textiles  and  their  products- 
Products     of     petroleum     and 

coal. 
Rubber  products. 
Leather  and  its  manufactures. 

While  broad  generalizations  cannot  be  made  from 
this  small  sample,  it  is  particularly  significant  to  note 
the  relation  of  expenditures  to  sizes  of  companies  and 
to  types  of  industries  in  the  cases  reported. 


SECTION    III 
EXAMPLES    OF    RESEARCH    IN    INDUSTRY 


Contents 


Page 

1.  Research  in  Aeronautics  129 

General  Discussion  129 
Historical  129 
International  Competition  in  Research  130 
Government  Influence  on  Research  131 
Research  of  the  National  Advisory  Com- 
mittee for  Aeronautics  134 
The  Institute  of  the  Aeronautical  Sci- 
ences 136 
Society  of  Automotive  Engineers  136 
The   Daniel   Guggenheim   Fund  for  the 

Advancement  of  Aeronautics  136 

University  Laboratories  137 

Independent  Workers  137 

Conclusion  137 

Progress  from  Improvements  137 

Research  Results  Leading  to  Improvements  139 

General  Aerodynamics  139 

Airplane  Design  141 

Engines  141 

Propellers  142 

Materials  142 

Accessories  142 

Military  and  Naval  Research  142 

Bibliography  143 

2.  Research  in  the  Petroleum  Industry  144 

Introduction  144 

Technical  Problems  Involved  145 

Production  146 

Motor  Fuels  by  Cracking  147 

Synthetic  Fuels  149 

Lubricants  150 

Addition  Agents  150 

Corollary  Effects  of  Petroleum  Research  151 
New  Discoveries  and  Conservation  of  Crude 

Supplies  151 

Effect  on  Automotive  Developments  151 

Other  Industries  Affected  152 

General  Effects  on  the  Public  Economy  153 

Effect  on  Employment  154 


Page 
Research  Methods  and  Policies  155 

How  and  Where  the  Research  is  Done  155 

Relation  to  the  Universities  156 

A  System  of  Free  Competition  156 

Research  in  the  Iron  and  Steel  Industry  157 

The  Role  of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Industry 

in  the  Development  of  Research  157 

Contributions  of  England  in  the  Nineteenth 

Century  158 

Contributions   of   the   United   States   in   the 

Nineteenth  Century  158 

Contributions    of    Other    Countries    in    the 

Nineteenth  Century  159 

World  Research  in  the  Iron  and  Steel  Indus- 
try, 1900  to  1930  159 

Comparison  of  Research  in  the  World,  1900 

to  1930  160 

Outstanding    Developments    in    the    World 

Iron    and    Steel    Industry,    1900   to   1930       161 
Present  Status  of  Research  in  the  Iron  and  Steel 

Industry  1 62 

Purpose  of  Research  in  the  American  Iron  and 

Steel  Industry  162 

Organization  of  Research  in  the  Steel  Industry       163 

Cost  of  Research  164 

Research  Personnel  164 

Metallurgical  Education  164 

Cooperative  Metallurgical  Research  in  the 
Iron  and  Steel  Industry  of  Germany  and 
England  166 

Cooperative  Metallurgical  Research  in  the 
Iron  and  Steel  Industry  of  the  United 
States  166 

Contributions  of  the  Manufacturers  of  Alloy- 
ing Metals  to  Research  in  the  Iron  and 
Steel  Industry  167 

Research  for  New  Markets  by  the  Manufac- 
turers of  Alloying  Metals  168 

Economic    Significance    of    Research    in    the 

American  Iron  and  Steel  Industry  168 


127 


SECTION    III 
1.    RESEARCH    IN    AERONAUTICS 

By  J.  C.  Hunsaker 
Professor  in  C:harge,  Department  of  Aeronautical  Engineering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technologj',  Cambridge,  Mass. 


ABSTRACT 


Tlie  rapid  development  of  an  important  industry 
from  the  Wright  Brothers'  original  invention  is  attrib- 
uted to  the  increasing  usefulness  of  the  airi)lane  as 
successive  improvements  took  place.  These  improve- 
ments residted  from  research  largely  controlled  by  the 
Government.  Research,  conducted  at  Government 
expense,  has  supplied  the  industry  with  general  infor- 
mation from  which  industry's  own  applied  research  has 
developed  improved  aircraft.  The  airworthiness  and 
safety  requirements  of  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Authority 


and  the  competition  fostered  by  the  Anny  and  Navy 
procurement  policies  have  the  effect  of  directing  applied 
research  along  lines  desired  by  the  Government. 
Competition  for  superior  i)erfonnance  has  tended  to 
concentrate  the  mainifacture  of  airplanes  and  engines 
in  flic  iiands  of  a  few  large  concerns  that  mainfain  out- 
standingly able  engineering  and  research  organizations. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  patent  situation  to  restrict  tlie 
number  of  concerns  in  the  industry. 


General  Discussion 


Historical 


The  aeronautical  industry  which  has  grown  to  adult 
stature  in  one  generation  is  a  romantic  example  of 
technological  change  profoundly  affecting  communica- 
tions, transportation,  and  national  defence.  By  the 
begimiing  of  the  century,  applied  science  had  prepared 
the  ground  for  the  airplane  and  all  of  its  elements  had 
been  experimented  with  by  the  pioneers.  They  knew 
about  the  monoplane  glider,  the  trussed  biplane  glider, 
the  internal  combustion  engine,  the  screw  propeller, 
and  the  launching  catapult.  While  the  pioneers  had 
experimented  with  various  means  to  control  flight  in  a 
heavier-than-air  vehicle,  it  remamed  for  the  Wright 
Brothers  to  apply  the  fiiaal  and  necessary  control  about 
the  three  axes  of  space  required  to  perfect  a  practical 
flying  machine. 

The  Wright  airplane,  demonstrated  for  the  first  time 
in  public  in  1908,  was  a  40-mile-per-hour  biplane  able 
to  fly  with  two  men  for  barely  an  hour.  Its  safety  was 
precarious  and  its  utility  of  an  extremely  low  order. 
No  one  then  inquired  about  safefy.  Today  transport 
planes  cruise  at  200  miles  per  hour  with  large  loads  of 
passengers  and  mails,  and  air-transport  lines  span 
oceans  and  continents  with  a  high  degree  of  safety,  com- 
fort, and  reliability.  Air  transportation  has  become  an 
important  business,  employing  thousands  of  men 
directly,  and  many  more  in  the  manufacturing  industry 
that  supplies  its  equipment.  The  parallel  development 
of  the  airplane  in  the  national  defense,  has  produced 


pursuit  airplanes  that  exceed  400  miles  per  hour  in 
speed,  and  military  bombers  that  can  carry  a  ton  or 
more  of  bombs  at  300  miles  per  hour.  Naval  aircraft 
include  high-performance  fighting  and  observation  air- 
planes carried  on  vessels  of  the  fleet  and  large  flying 
boats  operating  independently  as  a  striking  force. 

The  least  thoughtful  must  observe  that  air  transpor- 
tation is  profoundly  changing  the  geographical  factor 
in  our  social  and  political  isolation,  while  the  military 
use  of  the  airplane  has  created  the  new  concept  of  air 
power. 

The  first  chart  shows  the  chronological  increase  of 
speed  of  specially  built  racing  planes  since  1910,  with 
a  forecast  of  what  may  be  possible  in  the  next  5  years. 
These  world's  records  seemed  fantastic  when  fii'st  set 
up,  but  today's  transport  planes  fly  faster  than  the 
world's  record  in  1921,  and  pursuit  planes  now  exceed 
in  speed  the  world's  record  of  1932. 

The  improvement  of  the  airplane  has  gone  on  con- 
stantly since  the  first  Wright  biplane.  No  other  tech- 
nological innovation  ever  had  such  public  support. 
AVhile  the  airplane  became  the  object  of  intensive  study 
and  experimentation  by  governments,  young  men  witli 
the  vision  of  things  to  come  learned  to  fly  and  to  build 
improved  airplanes.  Teachers  of  science  encouraged 
their  students  to  investigate  the  new  art.  Societies 
were  formed  to  encourage  the  exchange  of  information 
and  to  promote  research  and  experiment. 

The  growth  of  the  aeronautical  industry  in  its  manu- 
facturing aspect  is  shown  in  table  1  in  which  war  fears 
after  Mimich   are  clearly  reflected.     The  charts  fol- 

129 


130 


A^ational  Resovrces  Planning  Board 


lowing  table  1  reflect   increasinp;  public  acceptance  of 
improved  service  of  our  airlines. 

International  Competition  in  Research 

The  beginning  of  organized  research  was  the  forma- 
tion in  England  of  the  Advisory  Committee  for  Aero- 
nautics in  1909  under  the  leadersliip  of  the  great 
physicist,  Lord  Rajdeigh.  Government  research  labo- 
ratories were  later  established  in  France,  Germany, 
Italy,  and  in  the  United  States.  From  the  first,  the 
best  scientific  brains  throughout  the  world  have  helped 
perfect  the  airplane. 

During  the  First  World  War  the  airplane  grew  in 
importance  and,  bj'  the  time  of  the  armistice,  multi- 
engined bombers  were  making  night  raids,  pursuit 
airplanes  carried  cannon  and  machine  guns,  and  flying 
boats  were  making  all-day  patrols  at  sea.  Command 
of  the  air  became  an  objective  of  national  efTort. 

The  modern  airplane  is  the  result  of  increasing 
knowledge  of  the  aeronautical  sciences,  applied  to  the 
Wright's  original  airplane.     Advances  in  airplane  per- 


formance and  utility  have  followed,  somewhat  discon- 
tinuously,  new  knowledge  in  aerodynamics,  metallurgy, 
structural  design,  fuel  technology,  and  engine  and  pro- 
peller design.  The  steps  are  sometimes  abrupt  as  in- 
ventions or  applications  occur,  such  as  the  National 
Advisory  Committee  for  Aeronautics  cowl  and  wing 
engine  location,  as  well  as  the  variable-pitch  propeller, 
and  high-octane  gasoline.  W^ith  every  such  step  in 
advance,  the  industry  has  expanded  and  employment 
increased.  The  growth  of  the  industry  under  com- 
petitive conditions  has  accelerated  the  improvement  of 
the  airplane.  Manufacture  in  this  country  has  now 
become  concentrated  in  strong  concerns  that  maintain 
outstandingly  able  engineering  stafTs,  with  ample 
experimental  budgets  and  superlative  test  equipment. 
For  example,  high-power  aviation  engines  are  currently 
made  by  tliree  concerns  only  and  propellers  by  two. 
In  1939  large  air  transports  were  sold  by  but  three 
firms.  This  concentration  of  skill  and  facilities  has 
come  about  because  of  free  competition  in  an  art  that 
is  rapidly  advanced  by  research. 


I      » — I r 


I      I      I      I      I       II 


I       I       I       I       I       I       I       I 1— I r- 


600 


SOO 


4-00 


500 


ZOO 


too 


WORLD    RECORO 

FOR 

/^AX/MUM   speeo 

O O     lANOPL/Kf^es 

O-  -  -O     S£/\  PL/\N£S 


I      I      I 


/9/0 


ZO  IS  30  'ss- 

Figure  22. — World  Record  for  Maximum  Speed 


4-0 


'4-5 


Industrial  Research 


131 


Government  policy  has  also  iiitoiisiliod  the  trend 
toward  concentration  because  the  safety  of  human  life 
is  so  dccidedh'  involved  that  only  the  very  best  design 
and  workmanship  can  be  certified  as  "airworthy"  by 
the  licensing  authority,  and  because  the  procurement 

Table  1. —  United  Slates  aircraft  production,  1926-40  ' 


Year 


1929. 
1930. 


1931. 
1932. 


1933. 
1934. 


1935. 
1936. 


193S. 


1940. 


Product 


/Planes. . . 
\Engines.. 
f Planes... 
\Engines.. 
t  Planes. .. 
\Engines.. 
rPlanes. . . 
\Engin6S.. 
fPlanes. .. 
\Engines.. 
f Planes. . . 
\Engines.. 
f Planes. . . 
\Engines.. 
f  Planes. . . 
\Engines.. 
f  Planes. . . 
lEngines.. 
/Planes... 
\Engines.. 
fPIanes. . , 
\Engines.. 
f  Planes. . 
lEngines.. 
fPlanes. . . 
'lEngines.. 
/Planes... 
\Engines.. 
I/Planes... 
jlEngines.. 


Units 


Number 
1,186 
842 
1,995 
1,410 
4,346 
3,496 
6,193 
6,S04 
3,437 
4,356 
2,800 
3,864 
1,396 
1,959 
1,324 
1,830 
1,615 
2,545 
1,568 
2, 965 
2,700 
4,237 
3,230 
6,084 


Dollar  value 

(including 

parts} 


DoUars 
13,000,000 

4,000,000 
20,  000, 000 
10, 000, 000 
43,000.000 
20,000.000 
62, 000.  000 
25, 000, 000 
35,000,000 
22,000,000 
33,000.000 
14,000,000 
20, 000. 000 
14,000,000 
23,000,000 

9.000,000 
26,000.000 
16,000,000 
22, 000,  000 
13, 000, 000 
40, 000, 000 
22,000,000 
56,000,000 
30, 000,  000 

!  115,000,000 
'  225, 000,  000 
"  500,  000,  000 


■  War  Department  restrictions  prevent  issuing  details  of  production  Tor  last  3  years. 

^  Planes  and  engines. 

3  Estimated  planes  and  engines. 


policy  of  the  Army  and  Navy  awards  contracts  for  the 
best  performance  rather  than  for  the  lowest  price. 
When  the  volume  of  orders  is  based  on  performance 
resulting  from  engineering  development,  a  great  pre- 
mium is  placed  on  intensive  research.  Only  the  success- 
ful bidder  recoups  his  engineering  expenses  and  is  in  a 
position  to  extend  his  facilities.  The  result  is  naturally 
to  concentrate  manufacturing  of  a  particular  type  of 
airplane  in  the  hands  of  the  most  competent  firms. 

There  is  nothing  to  prevent  a  new  concern  going  into 
the  business,  but  the  new  concern  must  have  ample 
capital  and  very  competent  engineers,  and  be  prepared 
to  spend  both  time  and  money  on  applied  research  in 
order  to  offer  a  product  to  compete  in  performance  with 
the  leaders.  A  new  concern  may  begin  as  a  design 
and  research  group  and  continue  as  such  until  it  can 
offer  an  important  improvement. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  basic  patent  situation  to 
prevent  more  airplane  firms  being  started.  The  air- 
plane of  today  is  fundamentally  the  concept  of  the 
Wrights,  and  their  jia tents  have  e.xpired.  While  a  large 
number  of  patents  cover  modern  methods  of  airplane 
construction,  these  are  pooled  with  the  Manufacturers' 
Aircraft  Association  in  a  cross-licensing  agreement  open 
to  all  mnnufacturers  who  wish  to  join. 

Government  Influence  on  Research 

The  dominant  position  of  research  in  aeronautics  is 
essentially  no  difl'erent  from  its  position  in  other  fields 


TOTAL  ROUTE  MILES 


1926 

8.2S2 

1927 

8,845 

1928 

15,590 

1929 

24,874 

1930 

29,887 

1931 

30,451 

1932 

28,550 

1933 

27,812 

1934 

28,084 

1935 

28,267 

1936 

28,874 

1937 

31.084 

1938 

35.492 

1939 

36,477' 

-At  o(  Jun»  30.  (qjq 


SO  40 

THOUSANDS  OF  MILES 


DOMESTIC 


INTERNATIONAL 


Source.   Air   Commerce   Bulletin 


1926 

152 

1927 

257 

1928 

1,077 

1929 

1 1 ,456 

1930 

19,662 

1931 

19,949 

1932 

19,980 

1933 

19,875 

1934 

22717 

1935 

32,184 

1936 

32,658 

1937 

32,572 

1938 

35707 

1939 

47,355' 

-  Ai  of  Jun«  10.  "9J9 


THOUSANDS  OF   MILES 


FionKE  23.— Total  Route  Miles 


321835—41- 


-10 


132 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


TOTAL  PLANE  MILES  FLOWN 


1926 

4,258771 

1927 

5,779,863 

1928 

10,400,239 

1939 

32,380,020 

1930 

31,992,634 

1931 

42,755,417 

1932 

45,606,354 

1933 

48771,553 

1934 

40,955,396 

1935 

55,380,353 

1934 

63,777,226 

1937 

66,071,507 

1938 

69,668,827 

1939 

81,466,900' 

-  D*<*«b«r,  1999,  •(tlMiatvd- 


DOMESTIC    AND    INTERNATIONAL 


MILLIONS  OF  MILES 


0  0  10 

CALENDAR  YEARS 


1936 

59,316 

1937 

90,636 

1938 

373,311 

1939 

2761,479 

1930 

4,952>9    1 

1931 

4,890,990 

1932 

5,565,533 

1933 

6,106,461 

1934 

8,109,377 

1935 

8,487,345 

1936 

9,834,544 

1937 

11,331,858 

1938 

11,389,300 

1939 

11,879,000' 

3  -  L«il  *  monlhi  vitimalaj. 


60  70  eo 

MILLIONS  OF  MILES 


FiQChE  24. — Total  Plane  Miles  Flown 


TOTAL  PASSENGER  MILES  FLOWN 


1 

1 

1926 

Not  Available 

1927 

1928 

1929 

1930 

84,014,572 

1931 

106,442,375 

1932 

1 27,038,798 

1933 

173,492,119 

1934 

187,858,629 

1935 

313,905,508 

1936 

435740,253 

1937 

476,603,165 

1938 

557719,268 

1939 

736,001,700' 

Oxsmbvf,  >4lq,  vtl-malad' 


DOMESTIC    AND    INTERNATIONAL 


BOO  70O  600 

MILLIONS   OF    MILfS 


1926 

1927 

1928 

1929 

1930 

1 

1931 

1 

1932 

■ 

1933 

■ 

1934 

■ 

1935 

■ 

1936 

^ 

1937 

^M 

1938 

■1 

1939 

^H 

Air  Co 


Bulletin 


CALENDAR  YEARS 


1926 

Not  Avoiloble 

1927 

1928 

1929 

1930 

19,732,677 

1931 

1 4,680,402 

1932 

21,147,539 

1933 

26,283.915 

1934 

38,792,228 

1935 

48,465,412 

1936 

58,543,618 

1937 

76,045,424 

1938 

77,836,916 

1939 

103,989,000' 

600  700  SOO 

MILLIONS  OF  MILES 


Figure  25. — Total  Passenger  Miles  Flown 


Industrial  Research 


133 


PASSENGER  REVENUE  (DOMESTIC) 

MILLIONS  OF   DOLLARS 

35 
30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 
19 

/ 

/ 

1931         4,123,347.60 
■  1932         5,602,72050 

1933  8,520,148  67 

1934  8,631,37016 

1935  15,811,53398 
-  1936       20,935,158  78 

1937  21,791,763.01 

1938  24,876,622.00 

1939  34,174,000.00  Est. 

> 

, . 

y^ 

■        J 

/ 

So 

Af>  Mail  Contractors  Only. 

/ 

IJI.I, 

f 

26        1927         1928         1929         1930         1931          1932         1933        1934         1935         1936         1937         1938         1939 

Figure  26. — Passenger  Revenue  (Domestic) 


PASSENGERS  CARRIED  (DOMESTIC) 

100000   PASSENGERS                                                                                                                (REVENUE  AND  NON-REVENUE) 

IB 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

> 

1926  5,782 

1927  8,661 

1928  47,840 

1929  159,751 

1930  374,935 

1931  469,981 

1932  474,279 

1933  493,141 

1934  461,743 

1935  746,946 

1936  1,020,931 

1937  1,102,707 

1938  1,343,427 

1939  1,877,700  Dec.  Es 

/ 

/ 

A 

ority 

/ 

<; 

oufce.   &vi7  A 

eronautics  Auth 

f 

^^ 

^^^^ 

-*«. 

^ 

19 

26         1927        1928         1929         1930         1931         1932         1933         1934         1935         1936         1937         1938          19 

39 

FiGURK  27. — Passengers  Carried  (Domestic) 


134 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


AVERAGE  PASSENGER  FARE  PER  MILE 

(DOMESTIC  OPERATIONS)                                           Souici-    Cf^>l  AeronnutKi  Authontv 

CENTS  PER  MILE 

'^   \ 

V 

^ 

L 

10   - 
S    - 

e  - 

4   - 
2   - 

^ 

\ 

1916         toil 
i9Jr          oio6 

I919              O't 
1919              Oil 
I9IO              0093 
1931              0.06T 
19)1             0  06l 
I91>             0.06t 
I93«             0.039 
I9«               O0S7 
1936              O.OJ7 
I93T              O.OS6 
1919              OOSI 
)9>9              O.OJt  ••t 

\ 

> 

k. 

\ 

^^ 

— 

^^ 

■■" 

^^ 

^^ 

■     • 

III 

CAL      1926       27         2$         29          30         31          32          33         34          35         36         37         38      1939 
YEARS 

Figure  28. — Average  Passenger  Fare  Per  Mile 

which  exploit  a  new  technology,  but  is  very  difrerent  in 
operation  owing  to  the  Government's  paramount 
interest.  An  industry  grows  naturally  from  discovery 
as  applications  prove  their  utility.  Examples  can  be 
found  in  chemistry,  metallurgy,  radio,  and  many  sorts 
of  special  machinerj'.  But  in  all  of  these  fields,  re- 
search is  conducted  liy  the  induslry  for  itself  and  is  un- 
coordinated, except  as  a  trade  association  or  patent 
pool  may  assist  members.  Such  private  research  is  not 
given  formal  direction  by  its  customers.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  aeronautical  itKhistry,  in  its  research,  experi- 
ments, designing  and  testing,  is  led  by  the  Government 
by  three  compelling  strands. 

First,  the  Government,  through  the  Civil  Aeronautics 
Authority,  permits  no  civil  airplane  to  be  flown  without 
technical  inspection  and  a  license  as  to  air  worthiness. 
For  example,  landing  and  take-ofl"  performance,  as  well 
as  control  and  stability  requirements  may  be  changed 
from  time  to  time  by  the  C.  A.  A.  as  a  result  of  experi- 
ence (accidents  perhaps)  or  as  a  result  of  National 
Advisory  Committee  for  Aeronautics'  research. 

Secondly,  the  Army  and  Navy,  as  purchasers  of  air- 
craft in  volume,  set  the  trend  of  design  by  their  speci- 
fications to  bidders.  No  recent  design  competitions 
have  failed  to  procure  airplanes  of  superior  performance 
as  compared  with  the  last  competition.  The  Govern- 
ment's requirements  are  set  somewhat  ahead  of  the  ex- 
isting state  of  the  art,  and  are  based  on  the  tactical 
needs  of  the  services.  Naturally,  the  industry  is  under 
compelling  pressure  to  direct  every  efTort  through  re- 
search and  development  work  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  competition.  The  Army  might  decide  that  per- 
formance will  be  judged  at  high  altitude.  Research  men 
would  then  have  to  work  on  superchargers  for  engines, 
pressurized  cabins  for  personnel,  jiropellers  geared  for 
take-ofT  at  ground  level,  speed  at  altitude,  and  a  host  of 
other  difficult  problems.     Similarly,   the  Navy  might 


stress  low  landing  speed  on  the  deck  of  an  aircraft 
carrier,  and  research  men  would  be  put  to  the  study  of 
high  lift  devices  for  wings  and  means  to  provide  control 
at  the  stall.  I>ikewise,  tactical  requirements  maj'  de- 
mand dive  bombing,  involving  terrific  speed  and  ac- 
celeration at  the  pull-out,  and  the  research  group  will 
then  have  to  study  compressibility  efTects  caused  by 
high  speed,  and  clastic  problems  of  wing  strength. 

Thirdly,  the  Government  leads  and,  to  a  large  degree 
coordinates,  research  in  the  industrj'  through  the 
N.  A.  C.  A.  This  Committee  consists  of  15  men  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  under  the  authority  of  a 
1915  Act  of  Congress.  Nine  members  represent  Gov- 
ernment departments  directly  concerned  with  aero- 
nautical progress  and  6  arc  appointed  from  civil  life 
but  must  be  "acquainted  with  the  needs  of  aeronautical 
science,  cither  civil  or  military,  or  skilled  in  aeronautical 
engineering  or  its  allied  sciences."  The  members  serve 
without  compensation.  For  many  years  the  chairman 
has  been  President  Joseph  S.  Ames  of  Jolms  Hopkins 
University,  recently  relieved  by  Dr.  Vannevar  Bush, 
president  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington. 
The  Committee  receives  annual  appropriations  from 
the  Congress  "to  supervise  and  direct  the  scientific 
study  of  th(>  problems  of  flight,  with  a  view  to  their 
practical  solution."  It  makes  an  annual  report  to  the 
Congress  via  the  President.  The  annual  appropria- 
tions, since  th(^  inauguration  of  the  Committee,  total 
about  $25,0()0,non.      (S(^e  tabic  2.) 

Table  2. — Approprinlions  of  the   National  Advisory   Committee 
for  Aeronautics,  1915-40 


Fiscal  year 

General 
research 
purposes 

Construc- 
tion 

Fiscal  year 

General 
research 
purposes 

Construc- 
tion 

1915 

$5,000 
6.000 
18,515 
87,600 
167,000 
170,200 
184,450 
188.900 
210.600 
307, 0(10 
437.000 
436,  785 
613,000 
62.5,0110 
623,770 

1930 

$745,000 

886,000 

1,051,070 

915,000 

709,260 

766,530 

1, 177,  550 

1,177,550 

1,380,8.50 

1,600.000 

223,980 

1, 849, 020 

$763,000 

1916           .  . 

1931 

435,000 

1917 

$69,000 
24,600 
38,000 

4,800 
1,5,6.50 
11.100 
1.5,000 

1932 

1918 

1933 

1919 

1934 

>  247,944 

1920 

1935 

>  478, 300 

1921 

1936 

1937  

1922 

1,367,000 

1923       

1938 

1939 

1939-40 

1940..  

Total.— 

353,000 

1924 

200,000 

1925 

33.000 
97,  216 

2.140,000 

1926 

2,330,980 

1928 

25,000 
5,000 

16,261,520 

8,653,389 

1929 

1  .\llottnt\nt  from  Public  Works  Administration  funds. 

Research  of  the 

National  Advisory  C^ommittec  for  Aeronautics 

Research  laboratories  and  staff  are  maintained  at 
Langley  Field,  Va.,  on  a  site  made  available  by  the 
War  Department.  The  Committee's  research  activity 
w-ill  be  practically  doubled  by  a  new  laboratory  now 
being  built  at  Moffett  Field,  Calif. 

The  N.  A.  C.  A.'s  work  is  primarily  concerned  with 
those  fundamental  problems  of  flight  which  are  basic 
to  the  entire  industry.     Such  research  does  not  concern 


Industrial  Research 


135 


PAYMENTS  TO  DOMESTIC  AIR  MAIL  CONTRACTORS 
AND  AIR  MAIL  POSTAL  REVENUE  (fiscal  years) 


20 


15    -  JI4  6IBOOO 


1         519  400  000 


$5  7J8  000 


ACTUAL  PAYMENTS 
TO  CONTRACTORS 

ESTIMATED 
POSTAGE  REVENUE 


Source.  Post  Office  Depiftment 


$16  326  40C 


1929-30   1930-31   1931-32   1932-33   1933-34   1934-35   1935-36   1936-37   1937-38   1938-39 


Figure  29. — Pavmcnts  to  Domestic  Air  Mail  Contractors  and  Air  Mail  Postal  Revenvie 


PAYMENT  PER  POUND-MILE  DOMESTIC  AIR  MAIL 


MILLS 
5 


V 

FiMol  Yeofi                   Pavmenli 
Ending                Per  Pound  ttile 
June  30iK 

(■n.lltl 

1932  3.18 

1933  4,01 

1934  2.69 

1935  1.30 

1936  1.24 

1937  1.03 

1938  1.04 

1939  1.10 

' 

/ 

\ 

- 

> 

V 

\ 

..^ 

..^^ 

OUeCE     Sb«c.o1  -abulalion.  P    0    Ds 

1926        1927       1928        1929       1930       1931        1932        1933       1934       1935       1936       1937        1938        1939       1940 


Figure  30. — Payment  Per  Pound-Mile  Domestic  Air  Mail 


136 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


a  specific  design  of  aircraft,  nor  is  research  conducted 
in  fields  of  aeronautical  science  already  adequately 
covered  by  the  industry.  For  example,  the  Committee's 
own  research  does  not  deal  with  the  metallurgy  of 
aluminum  and  steel,  refining  of  gasoline,  and  materials 
generally.  Nor  does  it  design  engines,  air|)lanes,  nor 
accessories  such  as  radio.  These  matters  are  known 
to  be  in  good  hands. 

The  Committee  conducts  scientific  labonilory  and 
free-flight  research  in  the  broad  field  of  aerodjTiamic 
structures,  and  publishes  results  of  value  to  designers 
affecting  wing  profiles  and  body  forms,  stability,  and 
control,  propellers,  and  methods  for  predictmg  airplane 
performance.  Tt  conducts  theoretical  and  experimental 
research  and,  in  general,  seeks  facts  and  principles 
where  knowledge  is  lacking.  This  includes  matters  of 
structural  strength,  the  combustion  process  and  cool- 
ing of  engines,  and  answers  to  many  fundamental  ques- 
tions arising  from  the  use  of  airplanes  by  the  several 
Government  agencies.  Besides  its  own  research  re- 
sults, the  Committee  makes  available  to  the  Army, 
Navy,  Civil  Aeronautics  Authority,  and  the  industry 
itself  information  obtained  from  abroad.  For  this 
purpose  it  maintained  an  Office  of  Aeronautical  Intelli- 
gence and  a  full-time  teclmical  assistant  in  Europe  sta- 
tioned at  the  American  Embassy  in  Paris. 

The  aeronautical  industry  is  supplied  with  basic 
scientific  information  for  its  own  design  and  research 
groups  to  apply.  The  results  of  N.  A.  C.  A.  research 
at  Langley  Field  could  not  have  been  acquired  by  the 
industry  independently,  as  the  cost  of  the  necessary 
equipment  is  far  beyond  the  means  of  a  young  industry. 
It  is  largely  by  the  intelligent  application  of  N.  A.  C.  A. 
aerodynamic  findings  by  clever  designers,  that  this 
vigorous  industry  has  been  able  to  advance  so  rapidly. 

Naturally  this  information,  when  a])plied  by  foreign 
competitors,  would  produce  equally  beneficial  results 
except  that  the  more  important  results  are  not  pub- 
lished until  American  industry  has  had  an  opportunity 
to  study  them.  American  designers,  guided  by  their 
owTi  research  groups,  seem  to  have  been  prompt  and 
skillful  in  the  application  of  such  results  and  have  had, 
perhaps,  greater  confidence  in  the  trustworthiness  of 
the  N.  A.  C.  A.  reports. 

The  N.  A.  C.  A.  conducts  fundamental  research  at 
public  expense,  which,  in  effect,  constitutes  a  sub- 
stantial subsidy  to  the  industry.  Such  a  subsidy  may 
be  looked  on  as  a  small  part  of  the  cost  of  procuring 
rapid  progress  in  an  art  vital  to  the  national  defense. 
Civil  aeronautics  benefits  directly  from  the  N.  A.  C.  A. 
research,  and  our  air  transport  system  now  leads  the 
world  in  every  aspect  of  good  service. 

The  N.  A.  C.  A.  performs  a  coordinating  function  by 
means  of  subcommittees  consisting  of  experts  from 
the  Government  agencies  and  from  various  branches 


of  the  industry.  Research  projects  are  initiated 
or  approved  by  appropriate  subcommittees.  Some 
projects  are  assigned,  by  contract,  to  university  or 
other  laboratories  where  special  facilities  or  qualified 
personnel  exist. 

As  a  result  of  N.  A.  C.  A.  leadership,  research  in  the 
industiy  has  become  applied.  Tlirough  N.  A.  C.  A. 
grants,  most  of  the  research  in  university  laboratories 
is  coordinated  with  that  at  Langley  Field.  Through 
Army  and  Navy  procurement  policy  and  Civil  Aero- 
nautics A\ithority  regulatory  functions,  applied  research 
in  the  industry  is  likewise  directed  along  lines  desired 
by  the  Federal  Government. 

We,  therefore,  have  the  unique  example  of  an  in- 
dustry, exploiting  a  new  field  of  technology,  for  which 
fundamental  research  is  conducted  for  its  benefit  by 
the  Government.  Applied  research  is  conducted  by 
units  of  that  industry,  but  under  conditions  that  give 
the  Government  effective  control. 

The  Institute  of  the  Aeronautical  Sciences 

An  important  factor  in  stimulating  research  efforts 
of  individuals  was  the  formation  in  1933  of  the  Institute 
of  the  Aeronautical  Sciences.  This  organization  of 
teclmical  people  includes  specialists  in  aerodynamics, 
structures,  engines,  metallurgy,  meteorology,  radio, 
piloting,  i)hysiology  and  all  of  the  sciences  applicable 
to  aeronautics.  By  means  of  national  and  regional 
meetings  and  by  the  publication  of  a  monthly  scientific 
journal,  research  problems  are  subjected  to  critical 
examination. 

Society  of  Automotive  Engineers 

The  Society  of  Automotive  Engineers,  primarily 
concerned  with  automotive  engines  and  vehicles,  has 
had  a  strong  influence  on  the  development  of  airplane 
engines  and  their  special  steels,  fuels,  lubricants,  and 
standardized  parts.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  first 
publications  dealing  with  the  baffling  of  air-cooled 
cylinders  and  the  cowl  with  trailing  edge  flaps  appeared 
in  the  Society  of  Automotive  Engineers'  Journal. 

The  Daniel  Guggenheim  Fund  for 
the  Advancement  of  .\oronautics 

In  many  sciences,  important  advances  have  been 
stimulated  by  the  great  foundations.  In  aeronautics 
the  stimidus  given  by  the  late  Daniel  Guggenheim  is 
still  felt.  In  1926,  he  established  a  fund  of  $2,500,000, 
later  increased  to  $3,000,000.  which  was  all  expended  by 
1930  in  aid  of  aeronautical  progress.  Substantial 
grants  were  made  to  eight  imiversities  for  aeronautical 
laboratory  buildings  on  condition  that  the  university 
authorities  maintain  courses  in  aeronautical  engineer- 
ing, and  in  addition  an  airship  institute  was  es- 
tablished.    These    Guggenheim    schools    have    been 


Industrial  Research 


137 


extremely  effective  in  supplymjr  the  cnf^ineerinp;  and 
research  personnel  needed  for  the  expansion  of  the 
aeronautical  industry  between  1930  and  1940. 

Projects  started  by  the  fund  which  have  had  a 
significant  effect  were:  Research  on  ice  formation 
(W.  C.  Geer);  model  airway  weather  service  and 
introduction  of  air  mass  methods  in  meteorology  (C.  G. 
Rossby);  blind-landing  research  (J.  11.  Doolittle); 
Safe  Aircraft  Competition  ($100,000  prize  to  Curtiss 
Tanager);  publication  of  the  Encyclopedia  of  Acro- 
djmamic  Theory  (W.  F.  Durand). 

University  Laboratories 

The  part  of  university  research  is  an  important 
though  secondary  one  in  the  growth  of  the  industry. 
University  laboratories  train  the  research  workers  who 
staff  both  Govermncnt  and  industrial  research  orgaiii- 
zations.  University  laboratories  dealing  with  problems 
of  aerodynamics,  radio,  acoustics,  physics,  metallurgy, 
chemistry,  electrical  engineering,  meteorology,  struc- 
tures, materials,  fuels,  lubricants,  engines,  etc.,  are 
frequently  employed  by  the  industry  or  by  the  Gov- 
ernment to  work  on  special  projects.  There  are  also, 
as  woidd  be  expected,  somewhat  infrequent  spon- 
taneous contributions  from  imiversity  laboratories 
which  prove  of  some  importance.  For  example, 
university  laboratories  have  made  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  current  methods  of  analysis  both  m  aerody- 
namics and  structures,  methods  of  vibration  elimmation, 
and  instrumentation  for  the  precise  measurement  of 
many  phenomena  from  fuel  detonation  to  propeller 
stresses. 

In  general,  research  in  university  laboratories  is  not 
so  closely  coordinated  as  is  the  case  in  Britain  or  Ger- 
many, but  no  doubt  in  time  of  war  the  N.  A.  C.  A. 
could  effect  the  necessary  organization  to  utilize  the 
available  personnel  and  facilities  effectively.  The 
principal  difficulty  seems  to  lie  in  the  fact  that  the 
university  research  worker  does  not  often  know  the 
relative  importance  of  the  many  problems  of  scientific 
interest,  nor  which  problems  are  already  being  worked 
on  elsewhere,  and  cannot  be  allowed  to  know  the  status 
of  many  problems  of  importance  to  the  national  defence. 

Independent  Workers 

The  university  laboratories  should  remain  free  to 
work  independently  on  research  problems  of  their  own 
selection  without  censorship  or  regimentation.  Too 
close  control,  enforced  in  an  effort  to  effect  close  co- 
ordination, can  result  in  such  regimentation  that  a 
research  project  may  be  suppressed  completely.  If 
the  coordinating  office  be  prejudiced  or  lacking  in 
imagination,  progress  can  be  greatly  delayed.  The 
air-cooled  engine,  when  first  proposed,  was  of  no  interest 


to  one  branch  of  the  Government,  but,  fortunately, 
another  branch  insisted  on  its  development.  Individ- 
ual workers,  in  the  aeronautic  field  as  in  others,  have 
been  the  source  of  many  good  ideas.  We  need  only  to 
recall  the  fundamental  work  of  Lanchester  or  Bryan  in 
England  and  of  Prandtl  in  Germany.  In  this  country, 
especially,  we  should  never  forget  that  the  airplane 
itself  came  from  two  completely  independent  persons, 
the  Wright  brothers. 

In  more  recent  times  organized  research  has  built  up 
the  basic  information  from  which  inventions  develop. 
The  practice  of  the  N.  A.  C.  A.  in  publishing  its  research 
results  makes  a  great  store  of  knowledge  available  not 
only  to  the  technical  groups  in  the  industry  but  also  to 
the  university  laboratory  and  the  individual  scientist. 

Conclusion 

Government  research  is  largely  responsible  for  re- 
markable progress  in  the  development  of  the  airplane, 
but  it  alone  could  not  have  made  the  improvements 
from  which  a  healthy  industry  has  developed.  Basic 
research  results  had  first  to  be  extended  and  applied 
by  the  research  groups  in  the  industry,  incorporated  in 
designs,  and  tested  in  competition  with  the  existing  art. 

While  Government  research  and  requirements  have 
dominated  the  growth  of  the  industry,  in  its  general 
effects  the  (ioveinmeut's  activity  has  been  wholesome, 
probably  because  the  industry  was  left  with  plenty  to 
do  for  itself,  and  also  because  airplanes  and  engines 
are  not  designed  by  the  Goverimient.  There  is  no 
Government  competition  with  industry.  The  Govern- 
ment sets  standards  of  quality  and  offers  help  in  the 
form  of  research  information  toward  attaining  such 
standards,  and  money  prizes  in  the  form  of  purchase 
orders  for  the  survivors  of  competition. 

By  a  combination  of  circumstances,  but  principally 
because  of  the  importance  of  improved  airplanes  to  the 
national  defense,  the  function  of  research  in  the  aero- 
nautical industry  has  been  paramount.  The  lesson 
seems  to  be  that  where  research  is  so  placed,  technical 
progress  is  rapid  and  commercial  success  follows. 

Evidence  of  sound  progress  is  given  by  the  downward 
trend  of  rates  charged  for  service  rendered  as  shown  on 
figures  28  and  29.  Passenger  fares  have  dropped  from 
12  to  5  cents  per  mile,  while  the  rates  paid  by  the  Post 
Office  for  the  carriage  of  air  mail  dropped  75  percent. 
The  result  is  a  profitable  industry,  able  to  create  further 
improvements  and  more  business. 

Progress  from  Improvements 

To  seek  the  cause  of  the  rapid  progress  of  the  aero- 
nautical industry  it  is  only  necessary  to  trace  the 
improvement  of  the  airplane  in  performance  and  utihty. 
The  obvious  steps  in  this  improvement  have  sometimes 


138 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


been  abrupt,  bill  apparent  periods  of  stngnntion  merely 
indicate  times  when  research  results  are  accumulating 
while  application  is  blocked  at  some  point.  At  any  one 
time  there  is  no  lack  of  good  ideas  but  the  ideas  may  be 
impractical  imtil  advances  have  been  nuule  in  related 
fields  of  science  and  teclmology.  A  tecluiical  advance 
comes  only  when  the  time  is  ripe.  High-compression 
engines  could  not  be  adopted  until  high-octane  fuel 
was  commercially  available.  Landing  gears  could  not  be 
retraced  \mtil  thick  cantilever  wings  were  in  use,  and 
it  was  not  worth-while  to  retract  them  until  the  speed 
of  flight  became  gi'eat  enough  to  put  a  premium  on 
saving  the  drag  of  such  exposed  jiarls  in  spite  of  the 
increased  weight  and  cost  of  the  retracting  mechanism. 

The  airplane  flies  in  accordance  with  aerodynamic 
piinciples  which  govern  the  phenomena  of  air  flow. 
Advances  in  aerodynamic  knowledge  set  the  trend  of 
design  and  stimulate  the  adoption  of  nonaerodynamic 
features,  which  in  themselves  may  load  to  further  im- 
provements in  performance.  Likewise,  the  engine  and 
propeller  are  fimdamental  to  the  mechanics  of  flight 
and  improvements  in  the  power  plant  are  reflected  in 
improved  airplane  performance.  Pilotmg  is  also  an 
essential  element,  and  improvements  in  aids  to  naviga- 
tion, in  weather  forecasting,  and  in  radio  have  been 
important  stimulants  to  the  growth  of  the  industry. 

The  effect  of  improvements  arising  as  a  result  of 
research  is  easily  traced  in  the  growth  of  air  transport 
from  a  daytime  air-mail  service  in  1924  to  the  overnight 
transcontinental  sleeper  service  we  have  today.  For 
the  year  1939  the  air-transport  planes,  on  domestic  air 
routes  only,  flew  approximately  80,000,000  miles. 
This  development  in  only  15  years  could  never  have 
happened  unless  the  public  patronized  the  planes  with 
increasing  confidence  as  the  service  improved. 

Dr.  Edward  Warner,  in  his  Cabot  Lectme  of  1938  at 
Norwich  University,  noted  five  major  steps  in  air  trans- 
port's technical  development: 

1925-29,  increased  wing  loading; 
1925-26,  multiengined  airplanes; 
1929-33,  N.  A.  C.  A.  cowling; 
1930-36,  high-octane  fuel; 
1933-34,  controllable-pitch  propeller. 

Each  of  these  steps  was  marked  by  the  general 
adoption  of  a  specific  design  feature  wliich  had  a  great 
effect  in  improving  the  performance  of  the  airplane  and 
consefjuently  the  service  offered  by  the  common  carriers. 
None  of  these  features  appeared  at  a  single  stroke,  but 
resulted  from  years  of  research  and  experiment  with  a 
few  false  starts  and  failures. 

To  consider  these  five  steps  in  order,  let  us  inquire  as 
to  increased  wing  loading.  The  weight  per  sciuarc  foot 
carried  by  the  wing  increased  only  from  about  8  pounds 
in  1918  to  10  pounds  by  1925.  Smaller  wings  for  the 
same  weight  of  airjjlanc  mean  more  sj)eed,  less  dead 


weight,  and  a  smoother  ride.  The  wing  loading  for  a 
given  safe  landing  speed  increased  after  1925  very 
slowly,  but  in  1929  the  Guggenheim  prize  was  won  by 
a  macliine  using  wing  flaps  temporarily  to  increase  the 
lift  when  landing.  By  1933  such  flaps  were  in  general 
use  on  air  transports,  permitting  a  wing  loading  of  15 
pounds  per  square  foot.  Research  had,  in  the  mean- 
time, shown  how  to  design  them  and  to  ])redict  their 
effect.  Wing  loading  has  since  doubled  with  a  corre- 
sponding reduction  in  wing  area. 

The  second  major  improvement  in  air  transport 
planes  came  with  the  introduction  about  1925  of  Ford, 
Fokker,  and  Jimkei's  midtiengined  planes.  Multien- 
gined bombers  had  been  used  in  the  First  World  War 
but  were  notoriouslj'  inefficient,  and  needed  all  of  their 
engines  to  l;ee])  in  the  air.  By  1935,  however,  inii)roved 
engines  and  aerodj'uamie  qualities  permitted  these  new 
transports  to  fly  with  one  engine  stopped.  Results  of 
research  allowed  the  use  of  this  design  feature  that 
greatly  increased  safety  and,  at  the  same  time,  made  it 
possible  to  build  larger  airplanes  to  carry  greater  loads 
with  lower  cost.  With  the  general  adoption  of  multi- 
engined transports,  the  industry  expanded  to  handle  the 
increased  traffic  that  resulted  from  reduced  fear  of  a 
forced  landing.  No  passengers  arc  now  carried  on  our 
air  hiu's  in  singlc-engincd  machines. 

The  third  major  step  in  improvement  and  in  the 
industry's  growth  had  its  origin  in  the  construction  in 
1927  by  the  N.  A.  C.  A.  of  a  wind  timnel  large  enough 
to  test  a  fuU-scale  airplane  with  its  regular  engine  and 
propeller.  AVith  this  equipment,  it  was  discovered  that 
a  very  large  part  of  the  head  resistance  of  the  airplane 
was  due  to  the  radial  air-cooled  engine.  The  engine 
had  to  be  exposed  to  the  wind  to  keep  it  eool,  but  in 
such  a  position,  the  air  flow  was  spoiled  for  part  of  the 
airplane  behind  it.  Systematic  research  disclosed 
means  to  smooth  ovit  the  flow  by  means  of  a  cowling  to 
lead  air  to  and  away  from  the  cooling  fins  of  the  engine. 
The  cowl  devised  bj'  Fred  E.  Weick,  now  known  as  the 
N.  A.  C.  A.  cowl,  reduced  engine  drag  75  percent.  This 
important  saving  permitted  a  sharp  increase  in  speed 
and  economy  of  transport  planes.  By  1933  the  N.  A. 
C.  A.  cowl  and  radial  engines  were  standard  on  all 
United  States  air  lines,  as  well  as  in  militarj'  service, 
ft  is  estimated  that  the  fuel  bill  in  1939  for  United 
States  domestic  air  lines  was  about  $5,r00,000  and  for 
the  Army  and  Navy  at  least  $f),250,nC0.  Ken  oving 
the  N.  A.  C.  A.  cowls  from  a  typical  transport  plane  or 
bomber  would  increase  the  drag  approxin'ately  30 
percent  or  reduce  the  speed  10  percent.  To  maintain 
the  same  speed,  the  national  fuel  bill  would  be  increased 
$3,375,000.  This  sum  represents  an  aimunl  recovery 
of  many  times  the  cost  of  the  research. 

The  N.  A.  C.  A.  cowl  when  first  applied  to  single- 
engine  airplanes  increased  speed  approximately  15  per- 


Industrial  Research 


139 


cent,  but  when  applied  to  the  tliree-engiiicd  airplanes  of 
that  day  resulted  in  no  increase  in  speed.  This  let!  to  a 
fundamental  investigation  by  the  N.  A.  C.  A.  to  de- 
termine the  cause  and  to  find  the  remedy.  By  a 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  net  efficiencies  of  various 
engine  nacelle  locations,  the  optimum  position  in  the 
wing  was  found.  This  N.  A.  C.  A.  (<ugine  location 
principle,  together  with  other  refinements,  had  a 
revolutionary  effect  on  military  and  commercial  avi- 
ation the  world  over.  It  changed  military  aviation 
tactics,  made  long-range  bombei-s  possible,  and  forced 
the  development  of  higher  speed  pursuit  planes.  In 
the  commercial  field  it  permitted  the  speeding  up  of 
cruising  schedules  on  tlie  air  lines  from  120  miles  per 
hour  of  the  Fords  to  the  180  miles  per  hour  of  the  new 
Douglas  planes.  The  overnight  transcontinental  run 
became  possible  and  the  air  Hues  vastly  increased  their 
appeal  to  the  public.  Even  in  the  midst  of  the  depres- 
sion, air  line  traffic  boomed. 

The  fourth  great  change  in  air-transport  e<iuipment 
came  about  without  benefit  of  Government  research. 
It  has  its  beginning  during  the  First  World  War  when 
the  General  Motors  Research  Corporation  and  the 
Cooperative  Fuel  Research  Committee  (Society  of 
Automotive  Engineers  and  the  American  Petroleum 
Institute)  undertook  research  on  the  knocking  of  auto- 
mobile engines.  Tliis  research  evolved  a  method  of 
measuring  knock  qualities  of  a  fuel  by  "octane  num- 
ber." Thomas  Midgely  found  substances  that  would 
raise  the  octane  rating  of  gasoline  and,  in  particular, 
tetraethyl  lead.  The  use  of  high  octane  fuel  permitted 
higher  compression  in  engines,  leading  in  turn  to  greater 
power  for  the  same  cylinder  volume  and  better  fuel 
economy.  The  air-transport  industry  did  not  benefit 
from  the  results  of  this  most  important  research  until 
1933  when  leaded  fuel  was  commercially  available  as 
well  as  engines  designed  to  use  it.  Since  then  the  oil 
industry  has  continued  to  raise  the  octane  rating  of 
aviation  gasoline  and  engine  designers  have  correspond- 
ingly increased  the  specific  output  of  their  engines. 

The  technical  improvement  in  both  fuel  and  engines 
has  come  from  research  by  the  industry,  but  high- 
output  engines  and  high-octane  gasoline  did  not  appear 
on  the  airlines  until  the  Army  and  Navy  had  established 
the  practicability  of  the  combination  and,  by  volume 
orders,  had  made  commercially  available  what  was  at 
first  only  experimental. 

The  fifth  major  improvement  in  the  airplane  also 
came  from  the  industry.  The  idea  of  a  controllable 
pitch  propeller  is  to  have  a  low  pitch  for  take-off  which 
can  be  changed  to  a  high  pitch  when  high  speed  is 
desired.  The  idea  is  not  new,  but  the  mechanical 
difficulties  are  formidable.  The  desire  for  such  a 
solution  did  not  become  pressing  imtil  1932  when  it 
was  clear  that  pay  loads  could  not  be  raised  to   an 


economical  hn'cl  without  better  take-off  power.  When 
the  controllable-pitch  proi)eller  was  really  needed,  it 
was  found  that  a  firm  in  tlu^  industry,  which  had  been 
conducting  research  lor  many  years,  had  a  practical 
type  ready  for  ap[)lication.  Since  1933  Hamilton- 
Standard  controllable-pitch  propellers,  following  F.  W. 
Caldwell's  designs,  have  been  standard  equipment  on 
all  ITnited  States  airlines.  The  improved  performance 
due  to  landing  flaps,  N.  A.  C.  A.  cowls,  high-octane 
fuel,  high-output  engines,  and  controllable-pitch  pro- 
pellers all  came  at  about  the  same  time.  Between 
1935  and  1938,  schedules  were  speeded  up,  frequency 
was  increased,  and  fares  were  lowered,  and  in  1939 
airlines  began  to  nuike  money. 

Many  other  improvements  beside  these  five  major 
ones  have  become  possible,  directly,  as  a  result  of 
research,  and  indirectly,  as  a  result  of  manufacturing 
profits  diverted  to  support  research.  A  complete 
survey  and  appraisal  of  research  results  and  their 
sources  would  be  too  long  to  record,  but  the  nature 
of  a  number  of  significant  improvements  is  indicated 
in  the  last  part  of  this  article. 

While  improvement  in  the  airplane  itself  is  the  funda- 
mental cause  of  the  growth  of  the  manufacturing 
business,  air  transport  lines  and  the  military  and  naval 
air  forces,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  other  factors 
are  essential.  In  air  transport,  for  example,  the 
carriage  last  year  of  more  than  2,000,000  passengers  in 
safety  and  comfort  required  careful  planning  and 
sound  policies  Ity  both  the  regulatory  authority  and 
by  management.  Also,  we  have  had  new  facilities 
on  airways  and  airports,  with  marked  progress  in 
applied  meteorology  and  in  radio  communications. 
The  radio  equipment  in  one  airliner  today  costs  more 
than  did  an  entire  airplane  a  few  years  ago.  One 
airline  maintains  a  chain  of  radio  stations  of  greater 
number  than  any  commercial  broadcasting  network. 
Progress  in  aeronautics  depends  on  progress  in  many 
arts  and  sciences  and  on  an  alert  management  working 
within  a  framework  of  wise  regulation. 

Research  Results  Leading 
to  Improvements 

General  Aerodynamics 

In  1901  the  Wright  Brothers  budt  a  small  wind 
tunnel  with  which  they  determined,  by  systematic 
experiment,  the  aerodynamic  effects  of  wing  curvature, 
plan  form,  aspect  ratio,  and  gap-chord  ratio.  These 
studies  are  significant  m  view  of  later  research  which 
has  found  only  one  other  basic  variable  of  wing  design, 
namely  thickness.  The  Wrights  also  checked  by  means 
of  a  glider  the  scale  effect  involved  in  converting  model 
data  to  apply  to  full-scale  wings.  From  their  research 
data,  the  first  successful  airplane  was  designed  and 
built.     During  the  next  10  years  others  took  up  wind- 


140 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


tunnel  experiments,  but  results  were  not  of  major 
importance.  In  general,  designers  tested  new  ideas  by 
trial  flights  or  by  ad  hoc  wind-tunnel  tests. 

During  the  First  World  War,  experimental  aerody- 
namics expanded  rapidlj',  but  the  pressure  for  routine 
testing  of  current  designs  side  tracked  systematic 
research.  The  momentum  of  the  war  period  carried 
on  for  several  3'ears,  but  by  1925  the  airplane,  although 
refined  as  a  result  of  manj'  minor  improvements, 
ceased  to  progress  by  customary  cut-and-tr\-  methods. 
The  airplane  designer  now  needed  fundamental  guidance 
in  applied  aerodjmamics.  He  received  it  in  full  measure 
from  the  National  Advisory  Committee  for  Aero- 
nautics whose  laboratories  at  Langlcy  Field,  started 
in  1917,  had  been  steadily  ])ublishing  systematic  wind 
tunnel  research  data.  Some  of  their  more  valuable 
contributions  are  listed  below: 

(1)  The  determination  of  the  aerodynamic  loadings  on 
wing,  tail,  and  control  surfaces  in  steady  flight  and  in 
maneuvers,  and  pressure-distribution  data  led  to  more 
economical  structural  designs.  Designers  became  con- 
scious of  the  relative  costs  of  drag  and  structural 
weight.  They  were  provided  wnth  criteria  and  methods 
of  analysis  from  which  they  could  proceed  with  con- 
fidence. The  wired  biplane  was  soon  replaced  by  the 
cantilever  monoplane. 

(2)  In  the  early  years  of  the  airplane,  wing  profiles 
were  drawn  up  arbitrarily  by  their  designers.  The 
N.  A.  C.  A.  published  characteristics  for  a  codified  and 
classified  series  of  systematic  variations.  Its  2,300 
series  has  been  notably  successful  and  has  had  world 
wide  application. 

(3)  High-lift  devices:  The  trailing  edge  flap,  the 
slotted  flap,  and  its  variants  were  invented  by  indi- 
viduals in  the  industry,  but  the  N.  A.  C.  A.  has  been 
of  great  assistance  in  evaluating  the  effectiveness  of 
such  devices  and  in  publishing  aerodynamic  data 
regarding  their  operation.  Such  devices  are  now  in 
general  use. 

(4)  Low-speed  control:  The  N.  A.  C.  A.  data  on 
flow  separation  and  stalling  led  to  the  design  of  im- 
proved methods  of  control. 

(5)  Spinning:  Special  laboratory  and  niathemalical 
analyses  by  the  N.  A.  C.  A.  of  this  dangerous  fault  in 
an  airplane  have  given  a  better  understanding  of  the 
mechanics  of  the  motion  and  the  cure  for  it.  Practical 
solutions  are  made  by  the  airplane  designer  (vertical 
tail-surface  location). 

(6)  Flutter:  Again  special  laboratory  and  mathemat- 
ical analyses  by  the  N.  A.  C.  A.  have  given  a  rational 
theory  of  the  mechanics  of  wing  flutter  as  a  foundation 
for  the  designer's  practical  solution  (mass  balancing  of 
control  surfaces). 

(7)  Rotating  wings:  The  N.  A.  C.  A.  has  supplied 


the  basic  theory  and  the  experimental  coefficients  for 
designers  of  helicopters,  autog3'ros,  and  other  rotating 
wing  craft.  The  inventions  have  come  from  individ- 
uals, the  theory  from  the  laboratorj-. 

(8)  Full-scale  testing:  N.  A.  C  A.  work  with  air- 
planes in  flight,  equipped  with  complete  instrumenta- 
tion to  record  behavior,  has  given  an  engineering  foun- 
dation to  performance  estimation.  In  particular,  flight 
check  on  spinning-tunnel  results,  full-scale  measurement 
of  profile  drag  by  the  use  of  the  wake  comb,  low- 
friction  laminar-flow  wings,  aileron-control  studies,  and 
Reynolds  Number  effects  have  supplied  fundamental 
data  and  methods  to  designers. 

(9)  Tank  testing:  The  design  of  flying  boats  is  based 
on  model  tests  in  the  towing  tank.  American  flying 
boats  now  enjoy  a  superiority  that  can  be  attril)iited  in 
large  part  to  the  research  work  of  the  tank  at  Langlev 
Field. 

(10)  Skin  friction:  The  theoretical  analysis  of  skin 
friction  (Prandtl  and  von  Karman)  has  been  develop- 
ing for  more  than  30  years,  but  its  practical  applications 
have  not  as  yet  been  impressive.  Langley  Field  wind- 
tunnel  work,  however,  has  given  important  guidance  to 
designers  by  evaluating  the  cost  in  drag  of  roughness  of 
surface.  Research  conclusions  have  recently  stimu- 
lated designers  to  the  introduction  of  flush  riveting  and 
new  standards  of  surface  smoothness  for  high  speed 
airplanes. 

(11)  Compressibility:  Progress  toward  higher  speeds, 
approaching  the  velocity  of  sound  where  the  compressi- 
bility of  the  air  changes  the  flow  pattern,  depends  on 
specialized  wind  tunnel  equipment.  Research  of  the 
N.  A.  C.  A.  has  given  designers  information  as  to  sharp- 
nosed  wing  and  propeller  profiles,  easier  body  forms,  and 
other  data  vital  to  the  design  of  high-speed  airplanes. 

(12)  Engine  cooling:  The  N.  A.  C.  A.,  by  means  of 
tests  in  its  large-scale  wind  tunnels,  showed  the  industry 
how  to  enclose  air-cooled  engines  %vith  minimum  drag. 
Progress  in  this  avenue  of  research  is  continuing  with 
the  promise  of  further  substantial  gains  in  speed  and 
economy. 

(13)  Engine  location:  Systematic  wind-tunnel  re- 
search by  the  N.  A.  C.  A.  on  the  best  location  for  engines 
of  multiengined  airplanes  has  had  the  efl"ect  of  stand- 
ardizing the  monoplane  wing  with  two  or  four  engines 
in  the  leading  edge.  This  contribution  to  practical 
design  originated  in  the  laboratorj-. 

(14)  Propellers:  By  means  of  systematic  studies  of 
model  propeller  performance,  the  aerodynamic  design 
of  airplane  propellers  has  been  standardized.  The 
mechanical  design  of  propellers,  notably  the  variable- 
pitch  constant-speed  feature,  was  evolved  by  the  in- 
dustry. The  N.  A.  C.  A.  contribution  is  to  the  predic- 
tion of  performance. 


Industrial  Research 


141 


Airplane  Design 

(1)  Multiengined  airplanes;  The  desire  to  build 
larger  airplanes  led  the  industry  to  undertake  multi- 
engined designs  as  soon  as  the  state  of  the  art  permitted. 
The  initiative  lay  with  the  industry. 

(2)  Steel  construction:  Beginning  with  Foldver's 
weldcd-mild-steel-tube  fuselage,  the  industry  quiclvly 
adopted  alloy  tubing  when  it  became  available  in  the 
automotive  industry. 

(3)  Stressed-skin  construction:  When  increased 
speeds  made  fabric  covered  frameworks  inadequate  to 
carry  high  local  air  loads,  the  industry  adopted  metal 
coverings.  Designers  had  to  use  this  skin  as  a  stress- 
carrying  element,  but  had  no  rules  to  guide  them. 
Research  at  the  N.  A.  C.  A.,  National  Bureau  of 
Standards,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  and 
California  Institute  of  Technology  provided  criteria 
for  allowable  stresses  in  thin  structural  elements.  It 
may  be  said  that  the  heavy  all-metal  monoplane  wings 
would  not  have  been  used  until  high  wing  loadings, 
cowled  engines,  retracted  landing  gears,  and  high  speeds 
were  current.  Also,  such  wings  could  not  be  designed 
with  confidence  until  research  data  were  available. 

(4)  Plastic  construction:  It  is  too  early  to  evaluate 
the  effect  of  reinforced  plastics  in  stressed-skin  airplane 
construction,  but  the  advantages  are  obvious  and  re- 
search in  the  industry  is  very  active.  One  may  predict 
with  confidence  that  a  successful  application  will  be 
made. 

(5)  Cantilever  monoplane:  This  development  was 
stimidated  by  N.  A.  C.  A.  aerodynamic  research  which 
showed  its  advantages  and  showed  that  a  thick  wing 
need  not  be  inefficient.  The  actual  construction  was 
undertaken  by  the  industry  when  duralumin  became 
available. 

(6)  Retractable  landing  gear:  Increased  speed  as  a 
result  of  aerodynamic  refinement  made  a  retracting 
landing  gear  worth-while.  The  idea  was  embodied 
in  a  racing  airplane  as  early  as  1922,  but  was  then  con- 
sidered impractical.  With  thick  cantilever  monoplane 
wings,  retracting  the  wheels  into  the  wings  became 
relatively  simple.  An  important  gain  in  speed  resulted . 
A  further  development  by  the  industry  is  a  mechanism 
bj'  which  the  landing  wheels  on  cantilever  struts  are 
rotated  during  retraction  so  as  to  fit  into  the  thin  wings 
of  a  pursuit  type  airplane. 

(7)  Tricycle  landing  gear:  The  placing  of  a  castering 
wheel  in  advance  of  the  main  landing  wheels  is  not  new 
but  has  been  revived  for  modern  transports  to  avoid 
instability  when  running  on  the  ground  and  to  facilitate 
the  use  of  the  new  "blind  landing"  system.  The  tri- 
cycle gear  is  not  in  itself  a  research  result,  but  its  re- 
adoption  was  the  result  of  N.  A.  C.  A.  research  indicat- 
ing its  fundamental  advantages,   and  was  necessary 


to  take  advantage  of  other  advances  in  the  art  which 
require  a  new  landing  technique. 

(S)  Hydraulic  retraction:  Research  in  the  industry 
has  developed  a  hydraulic  shock  strut  that  may  also 
be  used  to  retract  the  landing  wdieels.  This  device 
has  made  it  possible  to  build  "amphibians"  without 
excessive  weight  penalty. 

(9)  Retracting  wing  floats:  Similarly  the  industry 
has  developed  a  retracting  wing  float  for  high-speed 
flj'ing  boats. 

(10)  Wheel  brakes:  Wheel  brakes  independently 
operable  were  experimented  with  and  their  advantages 
for  maneuvering  airplanes  on  the  ground  and  for 
shortening  the  landing  run  weie  presented  by  Porter 
H.  Adams  in  1915.  They  were  introduced  in  industry 
in  1929.  The  gain  in  operation  efficiency  for  air  trans- 
port service  is  important. 

Engines 

(1)  Air-cooled  radial:  The  greatest  factor  in  the 
improvement  of  American  airplanes  in  the  1920's  is 
without  doubt  the  air-cooled  engine,  originally  devel- 
oped by  the  industry  with  Navy  backing.  Such  a 
light,  efficient,  and  reliable  power  plant  could  be  pro- 
duced only  when  research  and  development  work  in 
many  fields  had  progressed  to  the  point  of  useful  appli- 
cation. In  that  connection  may  be  mentioned  light- 
alloy  castings,  e.xhaust-valve  steel,  salt-cooled  valve 
design,  special  bearing  metals  and  lubricants,  light 
reduction  gears,  special-precision  machine  tools,  heat- 
transfer  data,  high-output  cylinder  design,  improved 
spark  plugs,  improved  steel  forgings,  etc. 

(2)  Twin-row  air-cooled  radial:  The  output  of  the 
air-cooled  engine  has  recently  been  greatly  increased 
by  tlie  twin  row  without  sensible  increase  of  frontal 
area.  Such  engines  are  made  possible  by  more  effective 
baffling  and  cooling,  vibi'ation  elimination,  better  con- 
trol of  carburetion,  and  in  general  by  an  enormous 
amount  of  research  and  testing  by  the  industry. 

(3)  Liquid-cooled  engines:  The  successful  develop- 
ment in  this  country  of  high-output  liquid-cooled  en- 
gines similar  to  those  in  use  abroad  for  high-speed 
pursuit  airplanes  is  a  notable  achievement.  This  type 
of  engine  has  been  produced  bj'  the  automotive  industry 
through  its  own  research,  with  Army  backing. 

(4)  Dynamic  damping:  The  practice  of  djmamic 
damping  of  crankshaft  vibration  has  greatly  improved 
engine  performance  and  safety.  A  widely  used  prac- 
tical solution  is  based  on  theoretical  work  in  a  uni- 
versity laboratory. 

(5)  Dynamic  suspension:  The  current  method  of 
mounting  engines,  by  so  positioning  the  angular  bracing 
with  relation  to  the  center  of  mass  of  the  engine  that 
engine  vi])ration  has  little  disturbing  effect  on  the  main 


142 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


structure,    is    also    based    on    theoretical    work    in    a 
university. 

Propellers 

(1)  Metal  propellers:  The  use  of  forged  duralumin 
i)lades  dates  from  1925  when  the  industry  developed 
from  Albert  Sjdvanus  Reed's  original  invention.  More 
recently,  research  efforts  in  the  industry  are  being 
directed  toward  hollow  duralumui  or  steel  blades,  or 
the  use  of  magnesium  or  reinforced-plastic  material  to 
avoid  increasing  weight  for  the  greater  power  required 
by  the  new  engines. 

(2)  Variable  pitch:  Metal  propeller  blades  with  var- 
iable pitch,  automatically  governed,  and  feathering, 
have  been  developed  by  the  industry  on  its  own  initia- 
tive, as  mentioned  previoush'. 

(3)  Stress  measurement:  The  design  of  metal  pro- 
pellers for  modern  engines  required  exact  knowledge  of 
the  distribution  of  stress  in  the  blade  imder  operating 
conditions.  Methods  for  making  such  measurements 
have  been  developed  by  the  industrj'  in  connection 
with  a  university  laboratory. 

Materials 

(1)  Duralumin:  This  strong  alloy  of  aluminum  was 
developed  and  made  generally  available  by  the  Alu- 
minum Compan}'  of  America  after  extensive  research 
undertaken  in  connection  with  the  Navy's  airship 
program. 

(2)  Stainless  steel:  This  remarkable  material  and 
means  to  spot  weld  it  are  available  in  the  metallurgical 
industry.  It  may  become  important  as  airplanes  in- 
crease in  size. 

(3)  Magnesium :  As  a  result  of  research  in  the  metal- 
lurgical industry,  alloys  of  magnesium  are  becoming  of 
increasing  use,  especially  for  engine  parts  and  castings. 

(4)  Extruded  sections :  The  industry  has  developed  a 
comprehensive  set  of  standard  structural  shapes  for 
extrusion  with  consequent  gain  in  efRciency  and  reduced 
cost  of  manufacture.  Research  by  the  industry  has 
established  the  stability  and  strength  properties  of  such 
sections. 

(5)  Plastics:  Many  uses  for  plastics  are  being  found; 
in  particular,  the  flexible  transparent  plastics  which 
replace  glass.  Research  is  conducted  by  the  industry 
and  by  the  government. 

Accessories 

(1)  Soundproofing :  The  industry  has  evolved,  tlirough 
its  own  research,  effective  methods  and  materials  for 
soundproofing  airplane  cabins.  The  improved  passen- 
ger comfort  has  done  a  great  deal  to  i)opularize  air 
travel. 

(2)  Fuel  tanks:  Research  by  the  industry  has  pro- 


duced safe  riveted  and  welded  fuel  tanks  and  tanks 
lined  with  synthetic  rubber. 

(3)  Supercharges:  Both  exhaust-driven  and  gear- 
driven  superchargers  have  been  developed  by  the  indus- 
try to  boost  the  power  of  engines  at  altitude.  As  a 
result,  air  transport  planes  can  fly  high  enough  to  avoid 
most  of  the  bad  weather. 

(4)  (ivro  pilot:  Firet  introduced  by  Sperry  in  1931, 
the  automatic  gyro  pilot  has  revised  flying  technique  as 
regards  large  airplanes  and  has  contributed  greatly  to 
safety  in  flight. 

(5)  Radio:  Direction  finders,  radio  beacons,  two-way 
radio  telephone  sets,  and  other  radio  aids  to  navigation 
have  had  an  important  effect  on  the  growth  of  air  lines. 
Without  radio,  operations  could  not  be  conducted  with 
safety  in  bad  weather.  Radio  eqiupment  is  the  result 
of  research  in  the  radio  industry. 

(6)  Gyro  compass,  sensitive  altimeter,  turn  and  bank 
indicator,  and  other  flight  instruments  have  been  devel- 
oped by  the  industry.     They  are  indispensable. 

(7)  De-icing  equipment:  To  permit  flight  under  icing 
conditions,  the  industrj''  developed  de-icing  equipment 
of  very  effective  nature.  Such  equipment  is  essential 
to  the  maintenance  of  schedules  on  northern  routes  in 
winter. 

(8)  Blind-landing  equipment:  Current  research  by 
the  industry  under  the  direction  of  the  Civil  Aero- 
nautics Authority  is  developing  radio  means  for  guiding 
an  airplane  to  a  landing  in  times  of  no  visibility. 
Blind-landing  research  was  initiated  in  1926  by  the 
Guggenheim  Fund,  and  the  first  demonstration  made 
by  Maj.  James  H.  Doolittle,  September  24,  1929.  It  is 
expected  that  the  next  important  improvement  in  air 
transport  service  awaits  the  successful  reduction  to 
practice  of  means  now  being  experimented  with. 

Military  and  Naval  Research 

Research  within  the  Army  and  Navy  deals  primarily 
with  the  adaptation  of  the  airplane  to  service  require- 
ments and  the  development  of  armament  and  other 
special  equipment.  For  this  purpose  both  the  Anny 
and  Navy  maintain  extensive  research  facilities  and 
scientific  staffs. 

Special  equipment  is  developed  witliin  the  service, 
with  N.  A.  C.  A.  advice  when  requested,  and  is  usually 
built  by  the  industry.  Examples:  Navigating  instru- 
ments, machine  guns,  cannon  and  moimts,  bombs,  bomb 
sights,  torpedoes,  catapults,  arresting  gear,  hoisting 
gear,  special  radio  and  signaling  apparatus,  photo- 
graphic and  mapping  equipment. 

Just  as  certain  improvements  in  the  airplane  leading 
to  greater  speed,  pay  load  and  economy  have  resulted 
in  the  growth  of  an  air  transport  industry,  so  also  have 
the  same  improvements  resulted  in  the  growth  of  the 
military  and  naval  air  forces.     The  relative  importance 


Industrial  Research 


143 


of  ail  air  force  depends  on  the  perfonnance  of  its  air- 
planes. When  bomb  loads  can  be  increased,  bombers 
become  more  useful  and  more  are  built,  together  with 
Hiore  pursuit  planes. 

The  Navy  has  developed  the  airplane  carrier  and  the 
catapult  in  order  to  equip  the  fleet  with  airplanes  which 
have  become  necessary  both  for  observation  and  as  a 
striking  force.  Improvements  in  the  airplane  are 
reflected  in  the  greater  role  assigned  by  the  fleet  to  its 
air  arm. 

Bibliography 

Research  in  Aeronautics  in  this  country  is  covered  by  the 
Annual  Reports  of  the  National  Advisory  Committee  jar  Aero- 
nautics (Government  Printing  Office,    Washington,  D.  C.)  and 


tlic  Journal  of  the  Aeronautical  Sciences  (New  Yorlc).  British 
research  results  are  to  be  found  in  the  Reports  and  Memoranda  of 
the  Aeronautical  Research  Committee  (H.  M.  Stationery  Office, 
London)  and  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Aeronautical  Society 
(London).  German  research  is  described  by  the  publications  of 
the  Dcutschen  Akademie  der  Luftfahrtforschung,  the  Lilienlhal- 
Gesellschaft,  and  in  the  periodical,  Luftfahrtforschung  (Berlin). 

Knf^ine  development  may  be  followed  through  the  Proceedings 
and  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Automotive  Engineers.  "The  Internal 
Combustion  Engine"  by  Taylor  and  Taylor  (International 
Textbook  Company,  Scranton,  Pa.)  contains  a  complete  bibliog- 
raphy. 

Aerodynamic  research  results  are  given  in  the  comprehensive 
si.\-volume  work,  "Aerodynamic  Theory,"  W.  F.  Durand, 
Editor-in-Chief,  published  by  Springer  (Berlin)  under  a  grant 
of  the  Guggenheim  Fund  for  the  Advancement  of  Aeronautics. 
The  contributions  of  the  many  authors  arc  fully  documented. 


SECTION    III 
2.    RESEARCH     IN     THE     PETROLEUM     INDUSTRY 

By  P.  K.  Frolich,  G.  H.  B.  Davis,  and  H.  G.  M.  Fischer' 

Director,  Chemical   Division;  Director,  Research  Division;  and  Manager,   Process   Division,   respectively,    Esso    Laboratories, 

Standard  Oil  Development  Company,  Elizabeth,  N.  J. 


A  n  S  T  R  A  C  T 


Research  has  played  an  important  part  in  the  period 
of  the  most  rapid  growth  of  the  polroloum  industry. 
It  has  been  uidispcnsablc  to  industry  in  meeting  tech- 
nical problems  arising  from  day  to  day.  In  produc- 
tion, research  has  put  on  a  scientific  basis  the  locating 
of  oil  reserves  and  made  possible  drilling  to  unprece- 
dented depths  and  recovering  the  maximum  yield  of 
oil.  In  manufacture,  research  has  brought  fuels  and 
lubricants  to  their  present  state  of  perfection,  and 
enabled  refiners  to  supply  the  changing  demands  for 
individual  products  with  a  minimum  of  loss  through 
byproducts  of  lesser  value.  The  successful  coordina- 
tion of  the  various  phases  of  technology,  geology, 
metallurgy,  chemical  engineering,  etc.,  in  the  past, 
promises  to  continue  to  assist  in  the  growth  of  the 
petroleum  industry  by  overcoming  technical  obstacles 
as  they  arc  encountered,  and  by  opening  up  new  fields 
of  development. 

The  eventual  beneficiary  of  all  the  contributions  of 
research  to  the  petroleum  industry  is  the  pulilic  as  a 
whole.  Improved  methods  involved  in  the  field  of 
oil  production  not  only  facilitate  obtaining  oil  from 
the  ground,  but  have  the  effect  of  conserving  petroleum 
resources.  Thus,  better  prospecting  and  better  oil  re- 
covery serve  to  expand  oil  reserves,  and  known  reserves 
instead  of  diminishing  are  growing  from  year  to  year. 
Improved  refining  methods  applied  to  automotive  fuels 
reduce  the  cost  of  gasoline  while  improving  its  per- 
formance characteristics;  and  improved  lubricant  re- 
fining: methods  result  in  similar  benefits  to  the  users. 


Improvements  in  refining  apply  in  the  same  way  to  all 
other  petroleum  products.  Moreover,  improved  re- 
fining methods,  besides  bettering  product  quality,  jI  o 
efifect  a  conservation  of  products.  For  example,  crack- 
ing permits  of  producing  increasing  percentages  of 
gasoline  from  crude  to  meet  the  proportionately  larger 
demand  for  gasoline  than  for  the  other  products. 
Other  processes,  such  as  polymerization,  hydrogena- 
tion,  alkylation,  etc.,  likewise  permit  of  converting  the 
less  useful  to  the  more  useful  products.  And  finally, 
the  conversion  of  hydrocarbons  to  other  types  of 
chemical  compounds  insures  that  every  constituent  of 
petroleum  will  come  to  some  useful  end. 

The  petroleum  industry  is  directly  a  major  factor  in 
industrial  employment.  The  extent  of  its  effect  on 
employment  indirectly,  through  related  industries,  can 
only  be  estimated,  but  is  undoubtedly  tremendous. 
The  growth  of  the  industry  to  its  present  proportions 
has  all  occurred  within  a  relatively  short  space  of  time. 
This  growth  has  paralleled  and  can  largely  be  attributed 
to  the  continuous  expansion  of  research  in  the  industry. 
And  the  uniform  growth  of  industry  as  a  whole,  is 
evidence  of  the  widespread  distribution  of  the  fruits  of 
research  throughout  the  industry.  On  the  basis  of 
accomplishments  to  date,  research  under  the  present 
policies  in  the  petroleum  industry  is  stimulating  the 
manufacture  with  lower  losses  of  better  products  at 
lower  costs. 

•The  authors  wish  to  expre.'ss  their  thanks  to  Mr.  R.  O.  Sloane  tor  his  diligent 
efforts  in  compilinR  and  organizing  the  work  presented  herewith. 


Introduction 

Tiie  inception  of  tlio  petroleum  industry  witii  the 
successful  drilling  of  the  first  oil  wells  some  80  years 
ago,  was  followed  by  a  gradual  and  continuous  growth 
which  at  the  turn  of  the  century  had  led  to  an  annual 
domestic  crude  oil  production  of  63,621,000  barrels. 
Impressive  as  this  may  have  appeared  to  an  earlier 
generation,  it  now  seems  a  rather  modest  growth  com- 
pared to  the  stibsequent  expansion  which  has  increascfl 
this  figure  approximately  twentj'-fold  to  1,264,256,000 
barrels  in  19.39.  The  importance  of  this  development — 
144 


which  may  be  followed  from  the  upper  curve  in  figure 
32 — can  best  be  appreciated  from  the  fact  that  it  has 
brought  the  petioleum  industry  up  to  the  rank  of  tl.c 
fifth  largest  industry  in  the  country. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  contribution  of  research, 
we  here  have  the  example  of  an  industry  that  from  a 
comparatively  modest  start  has  grown  to  large  size 
within  a  short  span  of  years.  During  a  large  portion 
of  its  earl}'^  history,  the  prospector  plaj'cd  a  dominant 
role  in  the  petroleum  industry.  This  was  the  period  of 
exploration  and  empire  building.     With  the  growing 


Industrial  Research 


145 


importance  of  refinery  operations,  the  engineer  came 
into  prominence;  this  was  at  a  time  somewhat  before 
the  advent  of  the  automobile,  when  more  emphasis 
was  being  placed  on  construction  and  operation  than 
on  process  development.  Problems  in  plant  control 
called  for  the  aid  of  the  chemist.  But  the  chief  con- 
cerns of  the  refinery  chemist  of  those  days  were  the 
smooth  operation  of  existing  equipment  and  the  main- 
tenance of  product  qvuility. 

The  recourse  to  organized  research  has  come  largely 
during  the  last  two  decades,  tlirough  the  wholehearted 
!ip[)lication  of  chemical  engineering  methods  and  the 
establishment  of  well  integrated  research  staffs.  With 
the  organization  of  research,  important  technical 
developments  quickly  followed.  The  automobile  and 
aviation  industries  as  we  know  them  today  could  never 
have  materialized  had  it  not  been  for  the  contributions 
made  by  the  technical  workers  in  the  petroleum  field. 
Moreover,  to  provide  an  adequate  supply  of  fuels  and 
lubricants,  meeting  more  and  more  exacting  require- 
ments with  respect  to  quality  and  performance,  it  has 
been  necessary  to  call  upon  the  closest  cooperation 
between  research  workers  in  many  fields,  such  as  engi- 
neering, metallurgy,  geology,  chemical  engineering,  and 
chemistry.  Although  the  greatest  proportion  of  re- 
search activities  has  been  concerned  with  problems 
arising  with  the  growth  of  the  automotive  industries, 
the  accomplishment  of  petroleum  research  extends  far 
beyond  this  field;  it  has  had  a  pronounced  effect  on  the 
development  of  a  variety  of  products  ranging  from 
industrial  fuels  and  lubricants,  domestic  fuels  and 
road-building  materials  to  an  ever  increasing  line  of 
specialty  products  and  chemical  derivatives. 

So  completely  has  the  petroleum  industry  turned  to 
research  for  guidance  that  today  the  industry  stands 
as  one  of  the  leading  cmploj-ei's  of  teclmically  trained 
personnel.  Through  the  aid  of  research  it  has  become 
one  of  the  pioneers  in  the  current  trend  to  produce 
better  things  at  lower  cost,  so  as  to  enable  industry  to 
pay  higher  wages  and  to  make  its  products  available 
to  the  greatest  number  of  people. 

In  reviewing  the  methods  and  accomplishments  of 
petroleum  research,  one  cannot  help  being  impressed 
with  their  consequences  in  the  larger  field  of  our  coun- 
try's social  economy.  The  present  paper,  therefore, 
while  citing  specifir  technical  achievements  will  also 
attempt  to  analyze  their  particular  implications  as 
they  affect  the  national  life. 

Technical  Problems  Involved 

Space  considerations  make  it  impossible  to  present 
more  than  a  small  fraction  of  the  contributions  made  by 
research  in  the  solution  of  the  technical  problems  that 
have  been  encoimtered  in  the  development  of  the  petro- 


FlGURE  31. —  Model  of  Pipe  still  Used  in  Dcvclopiiient  and 
Improvement  of  Processes,  Standard  Oil  Development  Com- 
pany, Elizabeth,  New  Jersey 


146 


Xational  Resources  Planning  Hoard 


leum  industry  as  we  know  it  today.  However,  the  fol- 
lowing illuslralioiis  will  serve  to  bring  out  many  of  the 
more  significant  phases  of  the  subject. 

Production 

The  initial  problems  in  oil  production  were  primarily 
of  a  specialized  engineering  nature.  Early  wells  were 
relatively  shallow,  but  the  perfection  of  methods  for 
drilling  to  greater  depths  was  soon  required.  In  addi- 
tion, it  became  necessary  to  improve  methods  of  pros- 
pecting. Well  drilling  was  too  costly  a  process  to  war- 
rant the  selection  of  drilling  sites  with  a  divining  rod. 
At  the  present  time,  with  the  assistance  of  geology, 
geophysics,  and  more  recently  geochemistrj^,  prospect- 
ing has  attained  a  remarkably  high  degree  of  perfection. 
Intensive  research  in  these  sciences  has  led  to  the  devel- 


opment of  new  methods  and  tools  which  have  played  a 
major  role  in  the  new  discoveries  that  have  made  it 
possible  to  supply  our  demands  for  crude  oil,  and  leave 
us  today  with  an  estimated  underground  reserve  of  some 
19,000,000,000  barrels.  Aside  from  aiding  in  the  loca- 
tion of  new  oil  deposits,  research  on  oil  production — 
applying  principles  of  chemical  engineering  operations — 
has  also  resulted  in  greater  efficiency  and  economy  in 
oil  recovery  by  such  means  as  more  efficient  well  spac- 
ing, controlled  flow,  gas  repressuring,  acidification,  and 
water  flooding.  These  improvements  in  the  eflSciency 
of  recovering  oil  from  the  ground  have  in  recent  years 
contributed  materially  toward  increasing  the  net 
reserves. 

Of  considerable  importance  as  a  conservation  measui'c 
is  the  improvement  in  locating  oil  deposits.  Indications 
of  this  improvement  are  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
petroleum  industry  has  been  able  to  maintain  the  num- 
ber of  dry  holes  among  completed  wells  at  approxi- 
mately the  same  percentage  over  a  number  of  years, 
in  spite  of  the  less  obvious  surface  signs  of  oil  as  drillings 
to  greater  depths  become  necessarj'.  The  percentages  of 
wells  wliich  found  oil  and  gas,  and  which  were  dry  over 
a  number  of  j-ears  in  the  United  States,  are  tabulated 
below: 

Table  1. — Oil  wells  completed  in  United  States  between  1910  and 

19S9 


Year 

Oil 

Gas 

Dry 

1910 

Percent 
73 
72 
S5 
66 
69 
70 
72 
72 
70 
68 

Percent 
10 
6 
13 

8 
8 
8 

Percent 

16 

1920                  

21 

1930 

32 

1933- 

27 

1934       .                 

24 

193S 

23 

1936 ; 

20 

1937 

20 

1938                                  ..     .. 

22 

1939  (estimated) 

24 

1925        1927 
Figure   32 


1929        1931 


1933        1935        1937       1939 


Production   and    Reserves   of    Crude    Oil    in    the 
United  States,  1925-39 


Together  with  improved  methods  of  locating  oil  de- 
posits have  gone  improvements  in  drilling  technique. 
These  improvements  permit  of  increasing  depth  of 
wells  and  speed  of  drilling.  There  has  been  a  continuous 
trend  toward  greater  drilling  depth,  the  first  test  at  the 
10,000-foot  level  having  been  reached  in  1931  with  first 
commercial  production  from  it  in  1937.  The  greatest 
advance  in  deep  drilling  has  occiurcd  since  1927,  and 
the  record-holding  depths  of  producing  wells  at  the  end 
of  each  year  since  1927  are  as  follows: 

Depth  of  record-holding  producing  wells 

Year:  Depth,  fed 

1927 7,591 

1928 8,523 

1930... 8,550 

1931 8,823 

1932.. 9,710 

1935 9,836 


Industrial  Research 


147 


1936... 

9,950 

1937 

11,302 

1938 

1 3.  200 

To  attain  the  present  drilling  doi)ths  has  called  for 
many  improvements  in  drilling  technique,  which  to- 
gether have  culminated  in  the  high  speed  drilling  now 
possible.  A  record  speed  is  believed  to  have  been  19 
days  for  a  10,000-foot  wildcat  subsequently  abandoned.' 
Among  factors  influencing  this  speed  are  increased 
rotating  speeds  from  125  revolutions  per  minute  of 
some  years  ago  to  an  extreme  of  750  revolutions  per 
minute.  In  addition,  the  weight  on  the  bit  has  been 
raised  to  5-15  tons  during  rapid  rotation,  depending 
upon  the  formation.  The  increased  drilling  efficiency 
has  reduced  cost  of  drilling  from  an  average  of  $8  per 
foot,  for  3,000-4,000-foot  wells,  to  $3-4  per  foot,  for 
5,000-6,000-foot  wells.= 

Well  logging  has  been  improved  in  recent  years  and 
is  still  a  subject  of  investigation  in  petroleum  produc- 
tion research.  A  recent  development  in  core  logging 
is  the  use  of  pressure  cores.  Pressiu-e  core  barrels 
allow"  cores  to  be  cut  and  brought  to  the  surface  under 
pressure,  uncontaminated  by  drilling  fluid.^  Cores 
obtained  in  this  way  "would  yield  precise  information 
regarding  reservoir  conditions,  such  as  the  quality  of 
oil,  gas,  and  water,  and  other  pertinent  subsurface 
data  regarding  reservoir  pressure  and  temperature  and 
the  permeability  of  the  sand."     A  number  of  problems 

1  Mills.  Brad.  Improved  practices  permit  high  speed  deep  drilling.  The  Oil 
Weeklu.  9i.  No.  8.  66  (July  31,  1939). 

3  Byles,  Axtell  J.  Record  oil  consumption  in  1939  brings  reduced  profits,  record 
taxes  to  U.  S.  producers.     World  Petroleum,  11,  No.  I.  21  (January  1940). 

'  Sclater,  K.  C.  A  review  of  oilfield  developments  and  drilling  methods.  The 
Petroleum  Engineer,  II,  No.  10, 13  (midyear  1940). 


involved  in  the  recovery  and  analyses  of  pressure 
cores  remain  to  be  solved.  In  the  meanwliile,  two 
additional  methods  of  well  logging  are  being  developed 
and  improved,  viz,  electrical  logging  and  gamma-ray 
logging.  By  electrical  logging  a  complete  fluid  log  of 
tlio  formations  penetrated  is  possible  by  means  of 
continuous  tests  on  the  mud  for  oil,  gas,  and  salinity. 
Gamma-ray  logging  is  based  on  the  radioactive  prop- 
erties of  rocks,  the  intensity  of  the  gamma  radiations 
being  used  to  identify  the  rock  formations. 

The  advances  in  oil-fleld  devt^lopmcuts  have  largely 
come  about  through  research,  and  the  achievements 
accomplished  justify  its  continuance  and  expansion. 
As  has  been  pointed  out,  whereas  "profits  resulting 
from  discovery  of  a  new  oil  field  are  earned  only  once 
.  .  .  profits  resulting  from  improvements  in  recovery 
methods  .  .  .  apply  to  all  future  time  .  .  .  ."  * 

Motor  Fuels  by  Cracking 

The  rapid  increase  in  automobile  production,  starting 
about  30  years  ago,  found  the  petroleum  industry  ob- 
taining a  country-wide  average  of  only  some  10-12 
percent  of  gasoline  from  its  crude  oil.  To  raise  this 
figure,  in  order  to  meet  the  growing  demand  for  motor 
fuel,  became  a  problem  of  vital  importance  to  the 
refiner.  As  recently  as  20  years  ago  the  naphtha 
stripped  from  crude  oil  ("straight  run")  and  recovered 
from  natural  gas  ("natural")  supplied  86  percent  of 
the  country's  gasoline.  At  that  time  the  refiner  had 
little  or  no  means  of  controlling  chemical  structure 
and  distribution  of  boiling  points  of  the  components 

'  Uren.LesterC.    Recent  trends  in  petroleum  production  research.    The  Petroleum 
Engineer,  11,  No.  10, 17  (midyear  1940). 


FiGORE  33. —  .\erial  View  of  Research  and  Development  Laboratories,  Universal  Oil  Products  Company,  Riverside,  Illinois 
321835—41 11 


148 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


of  gasoline,  ulllioiif;li  later  it  was  fuuiid  that  these 
properties  profoundly  influence  the  performance  of  the 
naphtha  fractions  in  the  internal  combustion  engine. 
However,  the  discovery  that  it  was  possible  by  thermal 
treatment  to  break  down  the  high  molecular  weight 
fractions  into  compounds  boiling  in  the  gasoline  range 
pointed  tlie  way  to  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  pro- 
ducing additional  motor  fuel  of  improved  quality. 

In  attemi)ting  to  trace  the  developments  that  have 
taken  place  during  the  last  two  decades  it  is  difficult  to 


consider  the  petroleum  and  automotive  industries 
separately,  as  there  is  not  always  a  clear  distinction 
between  which  was  cause  and  which  effect.  Both 
industries  can  perhaps  best  be  thought  to  have  devel- 
oped along  parallel  lines,  as  neither  could  have  reached 
its  present  state  of  development  without  the  impetus 
provided  by  the  other.  At  any  rate,  it  was  the  prob- 
lems which  arose  from  the  development  of  the  indus- 
tries jointly,  more  than  any  other  contributing  factor, 
that  forced  the  petroleum  industrj'  into  research  on  the 
chemistry  of  its  raw  materials,  products,  and  processes 
and  on  the  chemical  engineering  operations  involved. 
Out  of  the  research  have  come  our  modern  cracking 
operations  which  are  capable  of  raising  the  yield  of 
gasoline  on  crude  oil  from  an  average  of  some  20  per- 
cent to  more  nearly  G5-75  percent.  Actually,  a  lower 
average  figure  of  about  46  percent  is  currently  being 
realized  country-wide  because  of  the  demand  for  higher 
boiling  fractions,  notably  in  the  form  of  the  various 
types  of  fuel  oils,  kerosene,  and  lubricating  oils.  The 
increase  in  gasoline  yield  produced  by  cracking  over  a 
number  of  years  is  illustrated  in  figiu-e  35. 

A  comparison  of  the  trend  shown  in  figiire  35  with  the 
curve  for  gasoline  production  in  figure  36  gives  an  idea 
of  the  vast  scale  on  which  the  cracking  operations  are 
being  carried  out  to  supply  the  current  demand  for 
motor  fuel.  Considering  that  cracking  is  an  operation 
which  is  being  carried  out  at  temperatures  ranging 
from  850°  to  1,200°  F.  and  pressures  extending  to  1,000 
pounds  per  square  inch  or  more,  one  may  realize  the 
jiroblems  involved  in  equipment  design  and  operation. 
Tiie  early  cracking  units  of  25  years  ago  were  capable 
of  handling  only  a  few  hundred  barrels  of  charging 


PERCENT 
{ON  CRUDE) 
28 1 


y 


7 


^: 


STRAIGHT    RUN 


^ 


y 


A 


/ 


/. 


FiocRE  34. — Experimental   Oil   Cracking  Still,   Gulf   Research 
and  Development  Company,  Harmarville,  Pennsylvania 


Figure  35. — Variations  in  the  Consumption  of  Straight  Run, 
Cracked,  and  Natural  Gasolines  in  Terms  of  Percentages  of 
Crude  Oil,  1921-39 


Industrial  Research 


149 


stock  in  a  24-hoiir  day.  In  contrast  to  this,  the  largo 
combination  cracking  and  distiUation  units  now  in 
operation  range  in  capacity  to  over  35,000  barrels  per 
day,  and  the  operating  time  between  shut-downs  for 
cleaning  and  repairs  has  increased  from  1  day  to  3 
months  or  more.  The  severity  of  service  conditions 
for  the  equipment  employed  has  been  a  constant 
stimulus  to  metallurgists  to  produce  more  endm'ing 
materials  of  construction.  This  is  an  ever  present 
problem  because  the  petroleum  technologist  is  always 
ready  to  employ  conditions  of  temperature  and  pres- 
sure exceeding  those  possible  with  the  latest  develop- 
ments in  special  alloj's  and  steels. 

The  developments  in  cracking  have  not  been  confined 
to  increasing  gasoline  yield  but  have  also  led  to  marked 
improvement  m  qualit5\  By  way  of  illustration,  it 
has  become  possible  to  vaiy  the  volatility  within  wide 
limits  by  changing  the  ratio  of  low-  to  high-boiling 
material  produced,  a  matter  of  considerable  importance 
from  the  standpoint  of  adjusting  fuel  performance  to 
meet  seasonal  requirements.  Within  reasonable  limits, 
it  is  now  also  possible  to  alter  the  chemical  composition 
bj'  controlling  the  degree  of  branchiness,  the  unsatura- 
tion,  and  the  aroma ticity  of  the  hj'drocarbons  boiling 
in  the  gasoline  fractions,  which  in  turn  gives  products 
of  improved  antilcnock  performance  commonly 
expressed  in  terms  of  octane  number. 

A  further  advance,  improving  fuel  quality,  resulted 
from  the  introduction  of  reforming.  The  reforming 
operation  is  similar  to  cracking  except  that  it  is  con- 
cerned with  raising  gasoline  quality  rather  than  yield. 
By  the  application  of  heat,  the  higher  boiling  naptha 
fractions  of  low  octane  numbers  are  converted  through 
the  processes  of  isomerization,  cyclization,  and  de- 
hydrogenation,     into    compounds    of    higher    octane 


MlLLrON 
BARRELS 


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- 

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1921  1923  1925  1927  1929  I9JI  I9J3  1935  1937  1939 

Figure    36. — The    Production    of    Domestic    Gasoline    in    tlie 
United  States,  1921-39 


numbers,    with    some    attendant    decrease    in    boiling 
range  and  production  of  gaseous  degradation  products. 

The  extensive  use  of  cracking  and  reforming  intro- 
duced a  new  problem  to  the  industry,  because  of  the  in- 
stability toward  oxidation  and  i)olymerization  of  cer- 
tain of  the  unsaturated  compounds  produced.  To 
avoid  formation  of  gum  in  gasoline,  it  became  necessary 
to  develop  new  and  improved  treating  methods.  And 
besides  treating  methods,  oxidation  inhibitors  were 
developed  which  when  added  in  minute  quantities 
would  greatly  improve  the  stability  of  gasoline. 

Closely  related  to  cracking  is  the  high  pressure  hydro- 
genation  process  for  producing  gasoline  from  heavier 
hydrocarbon  fractions.  It  is  capable  of  wide  varia- 
tions in  operating  conditions  and  in  results  produced. 
Such  destructive  hydrogenation  can  cither  be  directed 
toward  the  production  of  gasoline  yields  far  in  excess  of 
those  which  can  be  obtained  by  any  cracking  process, 
or  toward  producing  gasoline  containing  aromatic 
type  products  of  very  high  octane  number. 

Efforts  to  replace  thermal  with  catalytic  cracking 
I)rocesses  are  already  producing  promising  results. 
Because  of  the  milder  operating  conditions  and  the 
selective  action  of  the  catalysts  employed,  it  is  possible 
in  this  manner  to  obtain  better  over-all  yields  of  desir- 
able products  and  a  gasoline  of  improved  octane  num- 
ber. Although  much  of  the  experience  gained  in 
thermal  cracking  can  be  applied  directly  here,  numerous 
new  problems  have  been  and  are  still  encountered  in  the 
development  of  both  catalysts  and  operating  conditions. 

Synthetic  Fuels 

The  need  for  higher  gasoline  yields  and  the  trend 
toward  gasolines  of  improved  performance  with  respect 
to  octane  rating  and  volatility,  both  worked  in  the  direc- 
tion of  more  extensive  as  well  as  more  intensive  crack- 
ing. Intensive  cracking  in  turn,  meant  a  gradually 
increasing  production  of  gaseous  byproducts,  which  in 
addition  to  the  amounts  already  available  as  natural 
gas,  became  a  serious  problem  to  the  industry.  A 
variety  of  methods  for  converting  at  least  some  of  these 
gaseous  hydrocarbons  back  into  higher  molecular 
weight  compounds  boiling  in  the  gasoline  range  have 
been  developed  in  recent  years  as  a  result  of  a  vast 
amount  of  research  work.  Some  of  the  methods  employ 
straight  thermal  polymerization  under  conditions  more 
severe  than  those  normally  employed  in  cracking  opera- 
tions. Other  methods  depend  upon  the  use  of  catalysts 
which  selectively  polymerize  the  imsaturated  constit- 
uents. Still  another  method  known  as  alkylation 
depends  upon  the  combining  of  an  olefin  with  an  iso- 
paraffin.  The  alkylation  process  can  be  carried  out 
either  by  the  use  of  high  temperatures  and  pressures,  or 
at  lower  temperatures  and  pressures,  by  employing 
sulfuric  acid  as  a  catalyst. 


150 


NationaJ\Resource8  Planning  Board 


In  contrast  to  the  more  or  less  random  reactions 
occurring  in  the  cracking  of  higher  hydrocarbons  to 
lower  ones,  it  is  possible  in  the  processes  concerned 
with  the  building  up  from  lower  to  higher  molecular- 
weight  hydrocarbons  to  direct  the  reactions  toward 
the  formation  of  a  smaller  number  of  reasonablj'  well 
defined  compounds,  thus  permitting  much  closer  con- 
trol over  both  boiling  point  and  chemical  structure  of 
the  products.  As  a  result,  methods  of  synthesis  have 
become  important  for  the  production  of  fuels  of  pre- 
mium quality,  particularly  from  the  standpoint  of 
knock-free  performance.  In  fact,  although  synthetic 
methods  originated  in  an  effort  to  utilize  byproducts, 
they  have  within  a  few  years  created  an  entirely  new 
trend  in  petroleum  technology,  in  that  the  industry  is 
now  concerned  with  finding  adequate  supplies  of  raw 
materials  for  their  future  expansion.  This  situation 
has  led  in  particular  to  an  active  search  for  new  methods 
of  producing  lower  olefins  by  selective  cracking  and 
catalytic  dehydrogenation  of  the  corresponding  paraf- 
fins, and  for  methods  of  isomerizing  available  olefins 
and  paraffins  into  more  desirable  structures.  There  is 
also  a  great  deal  of  activity  in  methods  of  separating 
these  lower  hydrocarbons  in  concentrated  form  from 
mixtures  containing  other  hydrocarbons,  with  varying 
emphasis  on  the  degree  of  purity.  Because  of  the 
superior  quality  of  the  svnthctic  fuels,  one  can  actually 
visualize  that  at  some  future  time  cracking  may  be 
directed  primarily  toward  the  production  of  such  low 
molecular  weight  olefins  as  are  best  suited  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  fuels  of  the  most  desirable  hydrocarbon 
structures — with  what  now  is  called  gasoline  as  a 
byproduct. 

Synthetic  fuels  are  the  only  sources  of  the  high  octane 
number  fuels  required  by  the  aviation  industry.  For 
commercial  aviation,  fuels  approaching  100  octane 
number  in  knock  rating  are  highly  desirable,  since 
they  allow  pay  loads  to  be  increased  by  decreasing  the 
fuel  consumption  for  a  given  power  output.  For  mili- 
tary aviation,  fuels  of  at  least  100  octane  number  are 
essential  to  obtain  the  maneuverability  called  for  in 
combat. 

Lubricants 

Among  the  numerous  products  of  petroleum,  lubri- 
cants are  next  in  importance  to  fuels.  They  cover  a 
wide  range  of  forms — from  automotive  and  industrial 
oils  to  greases  and  extreme  pressure  lubricants.  As 
in  the  case  of  fuels,  we  find  that  the  progress  made  in 
lubricants  has  largely  paralleled  developments  in  the 
automotive  field. 

Gradual  and  continuous  progress  in  distillation  and 
in  petroleum  treating  methods  has  led  to  corresponding 
improvements  in  the  general  quality  of  lubricating  oils. 
Within  the  last  10  years  or  so,  however,  several  proc- 


esses specific  to  lubricant  manufacture  have  been 
developed,  that  have  had  far  reaching  consequences  on 
both  performance  characteristics  and  manufacturing 
costs.  Modern  high  grade  lubricating  oils  are  conse- 
quently dccidedl.y  superior  to  the  products  supplied 
only  a  decade  ago  with  respect  to  most  of  the  properties 
by  which  quality  is  judged — such  as  stability  to  oxida- 
tion and  rate  of  deterioration  in  service,  cold-flow 
characteristics,  and  loss  in  viscosity  or  tendency  to 
thin  out  at  higher  temperatures. 

Petroleinn  research  has  contributed  toward  the  solu- 
tion of  lubricant  manufacturing  problems  along  various 
lines.  The  low-temperature  service  characteristics  of 
lubricating  oils  have  been  vastly  improved  by  the 
development  of  new  solvent  dewaxing  methods  and  of 
addition  agents  which  lower  the  pour  or  congealing 
point.  Refining  by  extraction  with  selective  solvents 
serves  to  remove  undesirable  constituents.  Removal 
of  these  constituents  by  solvent  extraction,  on  the  one 
hand,  produces  oils  more  stable  to  oxidation  and,  as 
a  result,  more  satisfactory  for  use  in  high  temperature 
service,  and  on  the  other  hand  brings  about  a  marked 
reduction  in  the  change  in  viscosity  with  temperature, 
thus  broadening  the  satisfactory  operating  range  for  a 
given  lubricant.  The  latter  characteristic  can  now  be 
still  further  improved  by  the  use  of  addition  agents 
which  tend  to  flatten  the  viscosit3'-temperature  curve. 
Characteristics  such  as  oiliness  and  resistance  to  oxida- 
tion can  be  improved  by  still  other  addition  agents  that 
are  constantly  being  developed. 

Aside  from  improving  quality,  the  newer  refining 
processes  have  also  made  it  possible  to  greatly  extend 
the  choice  of  crudes  that  can  be  used  for  the  production 
of  lubricating  oils.  Indeed,  stocks  that  previously 
were  considered  entirely  unsuited  for  work-up  into  any 
kind  of  lubricant,  may  now  serve  as  the  base  for  the 
highest  grade  products.  Similar  improvements  in 
manufacturing  costs  have  also  resulted  from  this 
progress  in  manufacturing  methods. 

Addition  Agents 

Early  in  the  history  of  petroleum  in  this  country  it 
was  recognized  that  certain  compounds  when  added  in 
small  amounts  considerably  modified  one  or  another 
characteristic  of  petroleum  products.  Materials  eflfec- 
tive  in  "dcblooming,"  or  removing  the  fluorescence, 
of  light  lubricating  oils  were  among  the  first  addition 
agents,  although  their  use  was  probably  never  very 
extensive  Materials  intended  to  stabilize  gasolines 
against  becoming  oflF-color  have  been  used  for  some 
time  and  are  being  quite  generally  employed.  These 
materials  are  for  the  most  part  conmiercially  available 
chemical  compounds.  More  recently  the  petroleum 
industry  has  found  that  compounds  heretofore  without 
industrial  application,  and  consequently  not  available 


Industrial  Research 


151 


oil  Uio  iniirkcl,  wore  particularly  effective  on  certain 
characteristics.  Tluis,  lead  tctractliyl,  until  sonu',  20 
years  ago  a  laboratory  curiosity,  is  now  being  enijjloycd 
to  the  extent  of  over  0.02  percent  in  more  than  2 
billion  gallons  of  gasoline  per  year.  The  manufacture 
of  lead  tetraethyl  has,  therefore,  necessarily  grown  to 
become  a  sizable  industry. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  among  lubricants, 
addition  agents  can  be  used  to  improve  viscosity- 
temperature  characteristics,  oiliness,  and  resistance  to 
o.xidation.  The  pour  point — or  congealing  point  of  an 
oil — may  also  be  improved  without  resort  to  excessive 
dewaxing  by  addition  of  a  suitable  pour  depressor. 
In  many  cases,  addition  agents  remain  in  the  experi- 
mental stage,  but  in  other  cases  they  arc  being  produced 
on  a  commercial  scale.  A  pour  depressor,  for  instance, 
has  been  available  to  the  industry  for  several  years. 
Without  addition  agents,  the  petroleum  industry  might 
well  find  itself  imable  to  meet  the  demands  placed 
upon  fuels  and  lubricants  by  modern  engines  and  other 
mechanical  equipment.  High  engine  operating  pres- 
sures generally  mean  also  high  bearing  loads  and  high 
temperatures.  Under  these  conditions  straight  petro- 
leum lubricants  may  fail,  however  well  they  are  refined. 
On  the  other  hand,  by  means  of  addition  agents  the 
lubricants  can  be  made  to  perform  satisfactorily.  It 
is  now  evident  that  the  demand  for  addition  agents  will 
grow,  and  that  their  preparation  gradually  is  creating  a 
new  branch  in  the  chemical  and  in  the  petroleum 
industries.  The  extent  of  this  branch  can  be  seen  from 
the  large  number  of  patents  issuing  in  the  field.  Over 
200  patents  on  lubricating  oil  additives  are  known  to 
have  been  issued  in  the  United  States  in  1938-39.* 
And,  in  view  of  the  complicated  chemical  nature  of 
some  of  the  additives,  it  is  not  surprising  that  many  of 
the  patents  were  issued  to  chemical  concerns  rather 
than  to  petroleum  refining  concerns.  The  future  may 
well  be  expected  to  see  both  a  considerable  grow^th  in 
volume  in  the  manufacture  of  addition  agents  already 
in  use,  and  the  development  of  many  more  agents  for 
specific  puri)oses. 

Corollary  Effects  of  Petroleum  Research 

Having  reviewed  some  of  the  more  important  tech- 
nical results  of  petroleum  research,  we  now  are  in  a 
position  to  consider  their  bearing  on  related  develop- 
ments in  other  industries  and,  in  general,  to  examine 
the  broader  aspects  of  the  subject  with  emphasis  on  the 
social  and  economic  effects  that  these  activities  have 
produced. 

New  Discoveries  and  Conservation 
of  Crude  Supplies 

From  time  to  time,  alarming  reports  have  appeared 
to  the  effect  that  our  supply  of  crude  oil  was  faced  with 

»  Van  Voorhis,  M.  G.    200  lubricant  additive  patents  Issued  in  1938  and  1939. 
National  Petroleum  News,  St.  No.  10,  R-66  (March  6,  1910J. 


a  serious  decliiic,  or  even  that  it  was  threatened  with 
exhaustion  within  a  very  limited  number  of  years. 
The  best  answer  to  these  reports  is  given  by  the  two 
curves  in  figure  32,  which  show  that  the  industry  by  and 
large  has  been  able  to  add  to  its  reserves  through  new 
discoveries  and  improved  production  methods.  In 
recent  years,  increases  in  reserves  have  considerably 
exceeded  the  volume  of  crude  taken  out  of  the  ground 
over  the  same  periods  of  time.  How  long  it  will  be 
possible  to  maintain  such  a  favorable  balance  is  ob- 
viously impossible  to  tell.  However,  the  fact  that  it 
has  been  done  so  far  is  to  the  credit  of  the  technologists 
responsible  for  the  location  and  efficient  recovery  of 
crude.  From  the  standpoint  of  more  complete  utiliza- 
tion of  a  valuable  raw  material,  we  have  here  additional 
developments  supplementing  those  in  the  cracking 
process  and  related  operations,  which  aim  in  the  same 
general  direction.  Without  the  increased  light-end 
production  by  cracking,  today  we  should  require  be- 
tween twice  and  three  times  as  much  crude  oil  as  at 
present  to  meet  our  country's  demand  for  gasoline. 

The  fear  of  a  crude  oil  shortage  appeared  particularly 
imminent  in  the  late  twenties,  when  it  was  predicted 
that  a  shortage  would  begin  to  be  felt  within  the 
next  decade.  As  we  have  already  seen,  this  situation 
was  relieved  by  discoveries  of  new  oil  reservoirs.  Had 
this  not  been  the  case,  however,  alternative  sources  of 
oil  could  have  been  made  available  by  means  of  high 
pressure  hydrogenation  by  extending  the  research  that 
had  led  to  its  development.  By  means  of  hydrogen- 
ation, crude  oil  can  be  converted  into  gasoline  in  better 
than  100  percent  yield  by  volume.  As  yet  the  need  for 
a  widespread  application  of  hydrogenation  has  not 
developed,  but  here  is  a  process  that — whenever  the 
need  may  arise — would  be  able  to  expand  greatly  the 
available  gasoline  supply,  admittedly  at  the  expense  of 
heavier  fuels. 

Effect  on  Automotive  Developments 

It  has  so  often  been  repeated  that  it  seems  trite  to 
mention  once  more  that  the  present-day  automobile 
engine  would  be  totally  incapable  of  operating  on  the 
fuels  in  use  in  the  early  twenties.  Yet,  one  can  hardly 
avoid  referring  back  to  the  early  twenties,  the  time  of 
the  discovery  of  the  antiknock  value  of  tetraethyl  lead, 
a  discovery  which  was  destined  to  have  such  an  im- 
portant bearing  on  engine  design  and  performance. 
Nor  can  one  avoid  referring  to  the  even  more  significant 
gradual  progress  in  cracking,  reforming,  stabilization, 
and  treating  operations  that  has  taken  place  since  that 
time.  These  and  all  other  contributions  to  improve- 
ment in  fuel  quality  have  been  parts  of  the  cooperative 
efforts  that  have  led  to  the  present-day  high  compression 
automobile  engine.  The  general  improvement  in  per- 
formance  is   familiar   to   every   driver   from   personal 


152 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


experience.  Clearly,  this  improvement  is  not  to  be 
attributed  to  the  progress  in  fuels  alone.  And,  an  indi- 
cation of  the  relationship  that  e.xists  between  the  parallel 
lines  of  development  of  fuels  and  of  engines  may  be 
obtained  from  figure  37,  which  shows  the  increase  in 
compression  ratio  and  improvement  in  octane  number 
by  years. 

The  high  speed  automobile  engine  with  its  high 
power  output  and  lightweight  construction  places  rigid 
requirements  on  lubrication.  As  we  have  already  seen, 
the  petroleum  industry  has  contributed  to  meeting  this 
requirement  by  the  development  of  oils  that  retain 
their  fluidity  at  low  temperature,  show  a  minimum 
change  in  viscosity  on  temperature  rise,  and  possess 
stabiUty  toward  oxidation  in  high  temperature  oper- 
ation. The  magnitude  of  the  problem  involved  in  im- 
parting oxidation  stability  may  be  appreciated  from  the 
fact  that  the  oil  temperature  in  the  crankcase  of  a  light 
passenger  car  engine  may  reach  as  high  as  285°  F. 
under  not  exceptional  driving  conditions,  and  on  the 
piston  crown  of  a  heavy-duty  bus  or  truck  engine,  the 
oil  film  is  exposed  to  temperatures  of  600°-700°  F. 

Maintaining  adequate  bearing  lubrication  in  the  face 
of  increasing  bearing  loads  is  an  ever-present  problem. 
The  need  for  a  change  from  white  metal  to  copper-lead 
and  silver-cadmium  alloy  bearings,  in  certain  types  of 
high  temperature  service,  has  introduced  additional 
comphcations.  The  problems  have  been  solved,  never- 
theless, by  the  development  of  lubricants  representing 
further  improvements  in  resistance  to  deterioration  in 
high  temperature  service  and  in  freedom  from  bearing 
corrosion. 

Special  problems  in  chassis  lubrication  have  been 
solved  through  cooperative  research,  and  new  extreme 
pressure  lubricants  have  permitted  the  wide  adoption 
of  hypoid  gears  for  power  transmission. 


OCTANE 
NUMBERS 


COMPRESSION 
NUMBERS 


JA 

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■ 

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^ 

70 

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C 

)MPRES 

ilON  RA 

TIOS  ^ 

/ 

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^ 

- 

66 

• 

/ 

V 

/' 

- 

■ 

X 

y 

^^ 

OCTANE 

NUMBi 

RS 

y 

/ 

62 

- 

. 

^ 

X 

GO 

1929        I930        1931         1932        1933        1934         1935        1936        r937        1938        I9J9 

Figure  37. — The  Trends  of  Octane  Gasoline  Ratings  and  Auto- 
mobile Engine  Compression  Ratios,  1929-39 


\Vhat  has  been  said  about  the  relation  of  petroleum 
research  to  developments  in  the  automobile  field  holds 
true,  in  general,  also  for  aviation — with  the  exception 
that  the  progress  in  this  case  has  been  even  more 
spectacular  from  the  standpoint  of  both  accomplish- 
ments and  the  speed  with  which  the  results  have  been 
forthcoming. 

Only  a  few  years  ago  the  aviation  industry  had  be- 
come standardized  on  a  73-octane-number  fuel  which — 
on  the  addition  of  3  cc.  of  tetraethyl  lead  per  gallon — 
could  be  brought  up  to  87-octane-number.  The 
horsepower  output  in  general  did  not  exceed  40  horse- 
power, per  cylinder.  At  present,  engines  of  well  over 
100  horsepower,  per  cylinder,  are  running  on  fuels  of 
up  to  100-octanc-number,  and  a  great  deal  of  research 
effort  is  being  expended  by  the  aviation  and  petroleum 
industries  on  extending  these  limits  still  further.  By 
going  from  an  aviation  gasoline  of  87  to  one  of  100- 
octane-numbcr,  it  has  been  possible  to  effect  a  15-  to 
30-percent  increase  in  power  for  take-off  and  climbing, 
or  a  20-percent  reduction  in  cruising  fuel  consumption. 
Where  engine  design  or  performance  requirements  are 
such  that  full  advantage  cannot  be  taken  of  the  100- 
octane-number  fuel,  fuels  of  intermediate  octane 
ratings  are  satisfactory  and  are  finding  a  wide  field 
of  use. 

Aviation  superfuels,  as  fuels  of  100-octane-number 
or  over  are  sometimes  called,  are  usually  mixtures  of  a 
special  aviation  gasoline  base  stock,  and  blending 
agents,  synthetic  or  natural,  to  which  have  been 
added  3  cc.  of  tetraethyl  lead  per  gallon.  The  syn- 
thetic blending  agents  are  produced  by  the  previously 
mentioned  polymerization  and  alkylation  processes. 
The  capacity  for  alkylation,  either  in  operation  or 
under  construction,  has  within  about  2  years  reached 
some  12,000  to  15,000  barrels  a  day.  To  provide 
sufficient  base  stock  of  suitable  high  octane  number, 
the  natural  supplies  are  at  present  being  augmented 
by  high  pressure  hydrogcnation. 

In  the  7  years  from  1932  to  1939  the  gasoline  con- 
sumed by  Government  and  civil  aircraft  in  the  United 
States  increased  twofold,  from  54  to  108  million  gallons 
annual^.  During  this  same  period  the  improvement 
in  aviation  lubricants  led  to  a  decrease  in  consiunption 
of  from  1  gallon  of  oil  per  37  gallons  of  gasoline  to  a 
ratio  of  1  to  42.« 

Other  Industries  Affected 

It  would  be  practically  impossible  to  enumerate  all 
the  industries  which  in  one  way  or  another  have 
benefited  directly  from  the  technical  accomplishments 
of  the  petroleum  industry.  A  plentiful  supply  of 
heavy  fuel  oil  has  had  a  profound  effect  on  develop- 

•  Norman,  H.  Stanley.  Aviation  gasoline  assaming  Increasing  Importance.  T\f 
Oil  and  Oat  Journal,  38,  No.  44,  21  (March  14,  1940). 


Industrial  Research 


153 


ments  in  ocean  transportation.  The  expansion  in  the 
use  of  oil  in  marine  transportation,  particularly  of 
Diesel  oil  in  recent  years,  can  be  seen  from  the  following 
table: 

Table  2. — Expansion  in  world-wide  marine  travsporlalion  between 
1914  and  1939 ' 


Item 

1914 

1935 

1939 

Tonnage 

Ships 

tons.. 

..number.. 

.percent ',. 
do-... 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

45,403,877 
24,444 

68,  609,  432 

29,763 

Propulsion  type: 

Fuel  oil 

Internal-combustion  (Diesel). 

2.65 
.45 

30.65 
17.42 

29.03 
24.36 

Total,  oil  fuel 

3. 10 

48.07 

63.99 

Coal 

Sail,  etc 

88.84 
8.06 

60.16 
1.78 

44.67 
1.34 

I  Figures  given  in  Lisle,  B.  O.  European  war's  influence  on  world  bunkering 
trade.  World  Petroleum,  10,  No.  11,  43  (November  1939),  from  information  given  in 
Lloyd's  Register  of  Shipping.    London,  Lloyds,  1939-40. 

'  Expressed  as  percentage  of  total  tonnage. 

The  marked  progress  in  range-burner  and  oil-burner 
performance  can  in  many  instances  be  attributed  to 
improvements  in  fuel  quahty.  The  expansion  that 
has  taken  place  in  the  field  of  oil  burners  can  be  meas- 
ured in  terms  of  an  mcrease  in  the  number  of  domestic 
oil-burner  installations — from  1  million  units  in  1934 
to  nearly  2  million  units  in  1939,  now  consuming  an 
aggregate  of  90  million  barrels  of  fuel  per  year.  Of 
the  millions  of  homes  using  automatic  heating  systems, 
approximately  57  percent  use  oil  fuel,  28  percent  gas, 
and  15  percent  stoker-fired  coal. 

Developments  in  distillate  fuels,  besides  their  impor- 
tance in  the  general  field  of  oil  fuels,  are  also  closely 
related  to  the  progress  in  Diesel  transportation.  Both 
stationary  and  automotive  Diesel  engines  have  con- 
fronted the  petroleum  technologist  with  complex  prob- 
lems in  both  lubricants  and  fuels. 

The  development  of  liquefied  hydrocarbon  gases  and 
of  equipment  for  their  use  have  led  to  their  application 
in  automotive  transportation  and  in  special  industrial 
operations — such  as  the  bright  annealing  of  brass — and 
to  a  particularly  important  application  in  supplying 
rural  districts  with  a  convenient  type  of  fuel. 

The  expansion  in  automotive  transportation  has 
called  for  more  and  more  extensive  road  building.  Here 
the  petroleum  industry  has  discharged  its  obligation  by 
contributing  improved  grades  of  asphalt  and  road  oils. 
It  is  significant  that  asphalt  consumption  for  street, 
highway  and  airport  pavements  has  increased  tenfold 
in  the  past  10  years.  Bituminous-surfaced  roads  con- 
stituted over  80  percent  of  all  of  America's  surfaced 
roads  in  1939.^ 

Specialty  products  have  been  developed  for  the  proc- 
ess industries.  By  way  of  illustration,  improved  petro- 
leum-base-soluble oils  are  to  an  increasing  extent  replac- 

'  Asphalt  consumption  for  paving  increases  tenfold  in  decade.  Nationtil  Petrokum 
News,  SI,  No.  12,  R-91  (March  20, 1940) 


ing  fatty  oils  in  the  leather  and  textile  industries. 
Considerable  success  has  also  been  met  with  in  researches 
on  such  products  as  insecticides  and  fungicides. 

In  recent  years,  the  petroleum  industry  has  entered 
the  strictly  chemical  field  to  an  increasing  extent.  In 
general,  the  developments  in  any  instance  arc  contin- 
gent upon  the  industry's  ability  to  supply  a  cheap  raw 
material,  or  to  show  a  low  processing  cost — or  frequently 
a  combination  of  both — or  else  the  ability  to  make 
available  an  entirely  new  derivative  that  does  not 
merely  duplicate  an  existing  chemical  product.  Note- 
worthy results  achieved  here  are  the  various  alcohols 
that  are  being  produced  in  increasing  quantities,  along 
with  other  solvents — such  as  highly  aromatic  naph- 
thas— of  importance  to  current  developments  in  paints, 
lacquers,  plastics,  etc.  The  subject  of  synthetic  rubber 
is  being  given  increasing  attention.  Important  develop- 
ments are  now  in  progress  in  this  country,  and  it  would 
seem  that  the  petroleum  industry  should  be  in  a  par- 
ticularly good  position  to  supply  the  raw  materials 
required  should  it  ever  become  desirable  to  compete 
with  the  imported  natural  product  on  a  volume  basis. 
According  to  recent  announcements,  the  production  of 
sjTithetic  rubber  from  petroleum  derivatives  will  soon 
be  carried  out  commercially  in  this  country. 

General  Effects  on  the  Public  Economy 

The  public  at  large  has  benefited  in  many  ways  from 
the  achievements  of  petroleum  research  reviewed  in  the 
previous  sections.  Tliis  fact  is  illustrated  by  the  in- 
creased efficiency  in  refinery  processing  which  con- 
tributes to  the  conservation  of  available  crude  supphes, 
by  the  unproved  car  performance  resulting  from  better 
fuels,  and  by  the  decreased  cost  of  repair  and  upkeep 
that  can  be  attributed  to  more  stable  lubricants  and 
cleaner  burning  fuels. 

Our  entire  mode  of  living  has  been  profoimdly  in- 
fluenced by  the  advances  in  automotive  transportation. 
We  find  petroleum  research  contributing  directly  to 
the  increased  passenger  car  registration,  low  cost  of 
travel  by  bus,  low  cost  transportation  of  merchandise 
by  motortruck,  and  decreased  cost  of  air  travel.  The 
low-cost,  high-quality  roads  made  possible  by  improve- 
ments in  asphalt  and  road  oils  have  helped  to  open  the 
country  to  the  motoring  public.  Even  the  increase  in 
tire  mileage  and  equally  amazing  lowering  in  tire  cost 
can  to  no  small  extent  be  attributed,  at  least  indirectly, 
to  hydrocarbon  solvents  and  other  petroleum  deriva- 
tives. At  some  future  date  the  petroleum  industry 
may  perhaps  also  contribute  the  rubber  that  goes  into 
the  manufacture  of  automobile  tires. 

The  advantages  that  have  accrued  to  the  public  have 
by  no  means  been  restricted  to  the  automotive  field. 
Far  from  being  engaged  chiefly  in  supplying  fuels  for 
industries  in  competition  with  older  means  of  trans- 


154 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


porlalioii,  the  petrolciun  iiulustiy  is  now  cooperating 
in  the  development  of  fuels  and  lubricants  for  Diesel- 
driven  rail  equipment,  with  which  the  railroad  induslrj' 
hopes  to  regain  lost  territory. 

Leaving  the  held  of  transportation,  wc  lind  that  the 
contributions  to  the  domestic  fuel  situation  have  placed 
the  convenience  and  comfort  of  the  oil  burner  within  the 
reach  of  the  average  citizen.  Like  the  rest  of  us,  the 
farmer  is  becoming  increasingly  dependent  upon  petro- 
leimi  products.  Peihaps  he  has  been  benefited  as  much 
by  the  industry's  contribution  to  his  fight  against  the 
insect  pests  in  their  various  forms  as  by  its  contribution 
to  his  transportation  facilities  and  the  mechanization 
of  his  equipment. 

Although  the  average  automobile  driver  docs  not 
think  of  tiiis  in  terms  of  petroleum  research,  he  knows 
full  well  that  his  bill  for  fuel  and  lubricants  has  under- 
gone a  most  noticeable  reduction  in  recent  years.  This 
is  illustrated  in  figin-e  38  which  shows  the  average  retail 
price  of  regular  gasoline  on  a  countrj'-widc  basis  from 
1921  to  1939.  Even  the  rapid  growth  of  taxation,  as 
expressed  by  the  difference  between  the  upper  and  lower 
curves,  has  not  succeeded  in  camouflaging  the  results 
produced  in  terms  of  decreasing  cost.  As  a  result  of 
the  decreasing  gasoline  price  it  has  been  possible  for 
Federal  and  State  authorities  to  collect  increasing  tax 
revenues  without  increasing  the  cost  of  gasoline  to  the 
consumer.  For  example,  comparing  the  years  1930 
and  1937,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  service  station  price  of 
gasoline  in  both  years  was  approximately  the  same, 
viz,  19.8  to  19.9  cents  per  gallon.  However,  the  in- 
creases in  the  tax  rate  and  in  gasoline  consumption 
woidd  permit  tax  revenues  to  increase  from  some 
$70,000,000   in    1930   to  over  $1,000,000,000   in    1937. 

Considering  that  the  refiner}'  billing  price  for  gasoline 
has  reached  the  low  level  of  5  cents  per  gallon — or  even 


CENTS  PER 

GALLON 


[ 

V 

\ 

\ 

- 

\ 

- 

■ 

^ 

y^S" 

KICE  ST 

iTION  PF 

ICE 

■ 

- 

\ 

^'^ 

\ 
\ 

N 

\ 

^ 

^^ 

'--^ 

- 

PR 

CE  EXCL 

UOING  T 

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i 
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, 

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less  * — it  is  unlikely  that  there  will  be  an\  further 
marked  decrease  in  cost  on  a  gallon  basis.  However, 
further  improvements  in  gasoline  quality — when  taken 
in  connection  with  possible  improvements  in  engine 
design — may  well  lead  to  an  additional  decrease  in  fuel 
cost  on  a  mileage  basis. 


Effect  on  Employment 

To  determine  the  full  effect  of  petroleum  research 
on  employment,  we  should  have  to  make  a  careful 
analysis  of  those  expansions — as  well  as  any  contrac- 
tions— in  industrial  activities  that  might  be  traced  to 
definite  technical  contributions  to  progi-e.ss  in  the  petro- 
leum field.  Such  a  survey  would  have  to  take  into 
consideration  all  kinds  of  automotive  transportation — 
including  the  manufacture  of  automobiles,  aircraft,  and 
motor-driven  farm  equipment,  together  with  all  con- 
tributory industries — railroad  transportation,  shipping, 
coal  mining,  distribution  systems  responsible  for  the 
delivery  of  domestic  heating  oil  and  bottled  gas  in 
rural  areas,  etc.  As  this  is  clearly  beyond  the  scope 
of  the  present  article,  we  shall  have  to  limit  our  dis- 
cussion to  employment  in  the  petroleum  industry  itself. 

The  many  technical  improvements  cited  in  the  earlier 
sections  have  quite  logically  resulted  in  an  increased 
efficiency  with  respect  to  the  manpower  required  in  the 
petroleum  industry's  production  and  manufacturing 
operations.  This  holds  true  particularly  for  the 
processes  involved  in  refining  of  petroleum  products. 
As  a  result  of  this,  the  number  of  wage  earners  employed 
in  the  United  States  in  petroleum  refining  per  million 
barrels  of  crude  oil  run  to  stills  has  decreased  from  234 
in  1899  to  70  in  1937.  However,  the  expanded  opera- 
tions have  more  than  compensated  for  this  trend, 
so  that  the  net  result  has  been  a  greatly  increased  rate 
of  employment,  as  shown  by  the  following  figures:' 

Eslimaled  United  Slates  refinery  wage  earners 

Year:  Xumbtr 

1900 13,550 

1910 14,700 

1920._- 61,300 

1930__- 76,200 

1939 -  83,200 

As  might  be  expected,  there  has  been  an  enormous 
increase  in  the  number  of  technical  men  employed. 
A  recent  survey  gives  the  following  figures  for  total 
personnel  engaged  in  petroleum  research : '" 


■920         1922         1924  1926  1928  1930  1932  1934         1936  1938         1940 

T'lGURE  38. —  Variations  in  tlie  Price  of  Gasoline  in  the  United 
States,  1920-39  (based  on  prices  in  50  cities) 


'  CiuU  coast  prices. 

•  Estimated  from  flpurcs  pivon  in  f.  P.  Department  of  Commerce.  Bureau  of  the 
Census.  Census  of  Manufacturers.  Washincton,  U.  S.  Government  rrinlinft 
Office. 

'•  Perazich,  O.,  and  Field,  P.  M.  Industrial  research  and  chanKing  technology. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Work  Projects  .\dministralion.  National  Research  Project, 
Peport  .Vo.  M-i.  1940,  pp.  4M2. 


Industrial  Research 

Research  personnel 
Vear:  Xumber 

1920 .        145 

1921 167 

1927 788 

1931 2,957 

1933 2,724 

1938 5,033 

Because  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining;  complete  informa- 
tion of  this  nature,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  figures 
are  on  the  conservative  side.  It  may  further  be 
assumed  that  somewhat  less  than  half  of  these  numbers 
represent  technically  trained  personnel.  This  rapid 
growth  has  placed  the  petroleum  industry  second  only 
to  the  chemical  industry  as  an  employer  of  research 
workers  in  relation  to  the  number  of  wage  earners. 

A  large  section  of  the  petroleum  industry  is  engaged 
in  selling  products.  As  indicated  above,  the  products 
may  vary  from  crude  oil,  automotive  fuels  and  lubri- 
cants, industrial  and  process  oils,  to  specialties  such  as 
pharmaceuticals  and  cosmetics.  Every  addition  to  the 
volume  or  variety  of  products  means  an  increase  in  the 
personnel  required  to  market  and  sell  the  products. 


155 

Research  Methods  and  Policies 

In  view  of  the  magnitude  of  the  lield,  it  may  be  useful 
to  attempt  an  analysis  of  the  way  in  which  research  is 
being  carried  out  by  the  petroleum  industry  and  of  tlie 
general  policies  that  govern  the  work. 
Flow  and  Where  the  Research  Is  Done 

In  the  early  days  of  petroleum  research  the  work  was 
sponsored  almost  entirely  by  the  major  oil  companies. 
This  situation  has  now  changed  completely  in  that 
research  may  be  said  to  be  carried  out  by  the  industry 
as  a  whole.  In  a  field  where  progress  is  so  rapid,  it 
becomes  necessary  for  the  management  in  any  one 
organization  to  depend  more  and  more  on  highly  skilled 
and  technically  trained  personnel  to  follow  the  current 
developments  within  the  whole  industry  in  onlcr  to 
keep  its  own  operations  abreast  of  competition.  Not 
the  least  important  duty  is  to  scrutinize  with  care  new 
developments  originating  cither  within  the  organization 
or  on  the  outside  so  as  to  avoid  costly  mistakes  in  tlieir 
evaluation. 

Common  interests  frequently  make  for  cooperation 
between    companies    on    joint    development    projects. 


Figure  39. — Subzero  Tcinpcratuies  tor  .Study  of  Oil,  Fuel,  and  Lubricant  Performances,  Standard  Oil  Development  Coniiiaii 

Elizabeth,  Now  Jersey 


156 


National  Resources  Planning  Board,  Industrial  Research 


Such  cooperative  programs  may  involve  equipment 
manufacturers  and  service  companies  whose  business 
is  closely  related  to  developments  within  the  petroleum 
industry.  The  joining  of  efforts  in  joint  projects  may 
be  stimulated  by  various  causes;  it  is  resorted  to  par- 
ticularly in  those  cases  where  otherwise  complications 
of  a  legal  nature  are  apt  to  seriously  delay  an  important 
technical  development  with  consequent  loss  to  the 
industry  as  a  whole. 

Research  programs  of  broad  interest  to  the  industry — 
or  to  an  important  group  within  the  industry — particu- 
larly when  they  are  on  problems  of  a  fundamental  char- 
acter, are  frequently  also  handled  on  a  cooperative 
basis.  Illustrations  of  this  are  the  project  on  the  com- 
position and  structure  of  petroleum  carried  out  at  the 
National  Bureau  of  Standards  under  the  sponsorship  of 
the  American  Petroleum  Institute;  the  Hydrocarbon 
Research  Project,  sponsored  jointly  by  25  oil  companies 
and  the  General  Motors  Research  Laboratories,  at 
Ohio  State  University;  and  the  studies  on  composition 
and  processing  of  Pennsylvania  crude  oil,  being  con- 
ducted at  Pennsylvania  State  College  for  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Grade  Crude  Oil  Association. 

Relation  to  the  Universities 

The  increased  employment  of  technical  personnel  by 
the  petroleum  industry  has  clearly  had  an  effect  on  our 
teaching  institutions.  This  is  particularly  noticeable 
in  the  case  of  the  chemical  engineering  education  in 
some  schools,  where  the  curricula  place  a  great  deal  of 
emphasis  on  the  unit  operations  employed  in  petroleum 
refining.  The  growing  trend  toward  instruction  in 
petroleum  technology  in  engineering  curricula  has  been 
stimulated  not  only  by  the  demand  forgraduates possess- 
ing specialized  training  along  such  Hues,  but  also  by  the 
return  to  the  teaching  profession  of  men  trained  in  the 
petroleum  industry,  particularly  in  its  research  and 
development  organizations.  Moreover,  many  profes- 
sors of  chemical  engineering  are  actively  engaged  as 
consultants  by  the  petroleum  industry  and  thereby 
acquire  an  intimate  knowledge  of  its  processes  and 
operating  methods. 

As  a  rcsidt  of  the  study  of  petroleum-refining  opera- 
tions by  institutions  of  learning,  there  has  been  a  marked 
contribution  from  leading  universities  to  the  progress 
in  petroleiun  along  chemical  engineering  lines.  Along 
strictly  chemical  lines,  however,  contributions  from 
universities  have  perhaps  not  been  so  pronounced.  In 
fact,  most  of  the  new  organic  chemistiy  dealing  with 
aliphatic  hydrocarbons  and  applicable  to  the  processing 
of  petroleum,  has  originated  within  the  petrf)leum  indus- 
try itself.  With  some  notable  exceptions,  our  univer- 
sities do  not  stress  sulficiently  strongly  teaching  and 
research  in  this  field.  Consideriiig  the  technical  and 
economic  importance  of  the  petroleum  industiy,  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  potentialities  of  its  basic  raw  material 


maj'  receive  more  attention  among  teachers  of  organic 
chemistry.  Physical  chemistrj'^,  through  its  newer 
trends,  already  promises  to  contribute  to  a  considerable 
degree  toward  the  solution  of  the  petroleum  industry's 
problems. 

A  System  of  Free  Competition 

It  is  to  be  expected  that  a  field,  in  which  technical 
progress  is  so  rapid,  should  leave  ample  room  for  free 
competition.  In  this  respect,  the  petroleum  industry 
has  retained  its  pioneering  aspect  even  at  this  late  date. 
In  spite  of  the  large  integrated  technical  organizations 
of  the  major  oil  companies — and  in  spite  of  the  coop- 
erative research  efforts  previously  discussed — there  are 
no  obstacles  in  the  way  of  individual  initiative.  In  fact, 
many  of  the  important  developments  in  petroleum  have 
been — and  continue  to  be — contributed  by  individuals 
not  directly  employed  by  the  industry. 

It  is  evident  that  research  can  defeat  any  attempt 
toward  monopolizing  a  broad  field  in  the  petroleum  in- 
dustiy, as  it  can  find  other  ways  and  means  of  accom- 
plishing the  same  or  even  better  results  than  currently 
obtained.  The  rate  at  which  new  processes  are  being 
developed,  with  the  attendant  threat  of  rapid  obsoles- 
cence, encourages  quick  utilization  of  new  developments 
both  by  the  inventor  himself  and  through  licensing  to 
competitors.  There  invariably  seems  to  be  more  than 
one  solution  to  a  given  problem,  as  illustrated  by  the 
numerous  cracking  processes  that  have  been  developed 
by  competing  oil  companies  and  individuals.  The  same 
situation  exists  in  the  more  recent  accomplishments, 
such  as  solvent  extraction,  where  a  large  number  of 
different  processes  are  in  commercial  operation,  and  in 
the  many  poh'mcrization  processes  for  the  production 
of  premium  fuels.  Even  catalytic  cracking,  which  was 
first  announced  only  2  j^cars  ago,  already  has  produced 
no  less  than  three  competing  processes. 

Characteristic  of  petroleum  research  also  are  its 
generous  contributions  of  subjects  for  inclusion  in 
programs  of  teclmical  society  conventions  and  meetings, 
and  of  papers  for  publication  in  technical  journals. 
The  publicity  given,  in  this  way,  to  the  results  obtained 
by  an  individual  or  by  a  group  of  individuals  encourages 
efforts  by  others,  where  a  more  secretive  policy  woidd 
tend  to  lessen  competition. 

Perhaps  the  general  spirit  of  community  of  interest 
in  the  field  of  petroleum  research  can  best  be  expressed 
by  a  quotation  from  the  acceptance  speech  recently 
given  by  a  petroleum  executive  on  the  occasion  of  an 
award  for  achievement  in  this  field  of  endeavor:  ".  .  . 
we  are  indebted  at  every  stage  of  the  development  to 
contriliutions  from  other  organizations — often  our  com- 
petitors." " 


"  Award  for  chemical  engineering  acbicTcment.  Acliievenicnt  via  group  effort. 
Howard,  F.  A.  Acceptance.  Oiemkal and  Maatlnrgical  Evglnttring,  JS.  751  (Decem- 
ber 1939). 


SECTION  III 
RESEARCH  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY 

By  Frank  T.  Sisco 
Metallurgist,  and  Editor,  Alloys  of  Iron  Research,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


ABSTRACT 


Research  by  the  iron  and  steel  industry  of  the  United 
States  (and  of  other  countries  as  well)  is  carried  out  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  methods  of  manufacture  and 
quality  of  products,  reducing  cost,  developing  new 
products,  new  uses  and  new  markets  for  old  products. 
In  addition  the  tcclmical  staff's  of  the  industry  carry 
out  considerable  research  jointly  with  the  users  of  steel 
and  act  as  consultants  to  steel  consumers  who  have  no 
research  laboratory  of  their  own.  During  the  last  10 
years  the  average  expenditure  for  research  has  varied 
between  $8  million  and  $10  million  per  year,  more  than 
10  times  the  amount  it  was  15  years  ago.  Although 
the  industrj'  as  a  whole  reduces  its  expenditures  for 
research  in  depression  years,  the  reduction  is  never  pro- 
portional to  reduced  production.  As  a  result  the  num- 
ber of  reports  of  research  published  increases  greatly 
in  depression  years. 

Large  steel  companies  have  a  central  research  lab- 
oratory in  which  research  of  value  to  the  company  as  a 
whole  is  carried  out,  which  acts  as  a  training  school  for 
plant  metallurgists,  and  which  cooperates  on  important 
problems  with  the  technical  men  in  the  various  mills. 
Research  personnel  is  largely  college  trained  and  in- 
cludes   metallurgists,    chemists,    engineers    of  various 


kinds,  and  many  others,  about  one-quarter  or  one-third 
of  whom  hold  doctors'  degrees. 

Although  considerable  cooperative  research  is  done 
by  the  iron  and  steel  industry  of  the  United  States,  this 
phase  of  research  has  not  been  developed  to  such  an 
extent  as  in  Germany  and  England.  Research  for  the 
benefit  of  the  entire  industry,  for  which  the  industry 
as  a  whole  supplies  the  funds  and  institutes  and  univer- 
sities supply  the  facilities,  is  the  weakest  phase  of 
ferrous  metallurgical  research  in  the  United  States. 

The  economic  consequences  of  research  by  the  iron 
and  steel  industry  in  all  the  principal  steel-making 
countries  have  been  far  reaching.  Pig  iron,  carbon 
steel,  and  alloy  steels  are  being  produced  to  quality 
standards  unheard  of  20  years  ago;  moreover,  this  im- 
provement in  quality  has  been  attained  wdth  no  in- 
crease, and  in  some  instances  with  a  large  decrease  in 
cost.  Increasing  the  quality  of  carbon  steel,  developing 
a  new  series  of  cheap,  high-strength,  low-alloy  steels, 
and  producing  stainless  steels  in  large  tonnages  have 
revolutionized  automotive  and  aircraft  design  and  have 
produced  changes  in  transportation,  oil  refining,  and 
other  industries  with  remarkable  savings  in  cost  and 
increase  in  efficiency. 


Research,  as  carried  out  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry, 
may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes;  viz,  process 
and  materials  research,  and  fundamental  research. 
Process  and  materials  research  is  naturally  the  most 
important  and  widely  practiced  and  has  a  fourfold  pur- 
pose: (1)  Improving  quality,  (2)  improving  methods  of 
manufacture  and  reducing  cost,  (3)  developing  new 
products,  and  (4)  developing  new  uses  and  new  markets 
for  old  products. 

Fundamental  research  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry 
seeks  to  discover  the  underlying  causes  of  metallurgical 
phenomena;  its  primary  aim  is  to  add  to  metallurgical 
knowledge,  and  it  is  usually  carried  out  in  the  universities 
and  technical  schools,  in  cooperative  research  institutes, 
or  in  Government  laboratories;  only  a  relatively  small 
part  has  been  done  in  steel-works  laboratories.     On  the 


other  hand,  most  of  the  process  and  materials  research 
is  carried  out  by  the  steel  industry,  although  the  staffs 
of  some  universities  and  research  institutes  direct  more 
effort  to  ferrous  materials  and  processes  than  to  the 
fxmdamentals  of  metallurgy. 

The  Role  of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel 
Industry  in  the  Development  of  Research 

Most  of  the  great  developments  in  the  iron  and  steel 
industry  occurred  in  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  As  showni  in  table  1,  nearlj'  40  percent  of 
these  originated  m  England  where  the  industrial  revolu- 
tion had  been  under  way  for  nearly  a  century,  far 
longer  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  |world.  Of  |the 
other  countries  which  are  now  leaders  in  iron  and  steel 
production,  the  United  States,  Germany,  and  France 

157 


158 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


each  contributed  about  20  percent  to  the  advance  of  the 
industry,  although,  as  table  1  indicates,  the  United 
States  was  far  behind  France  and  Germany  (at  the 
time  more  advanced  in  industrial  policy)  in  contribu- 
tions to  a  fundamental  knowledge  of  metallurgy. 

Table  1. — Advance  in  the  iron  and  sleel  industry,  1860  to  1900  ' 


Number  of  contributions  to— 

Country 

Improvement 

in  processes 

and  products 

Fundnmonlal 

mctallurcical 

Ifnowledge 

Total 

23 
20 
U 
9 
1 

25 
3 
10 
14 
6 

48 

United  States _ 

23 
24 

Frnnr^ 

23 

7 

Total 

67 

58 

125 

'  Data  for  table  1  based  on  Goodale,  S.  L.    Chronology  of  iron  and  steel.     Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  Pittsburgh  Iron  and  Steel  Foundries  Co.,  1st  ed.,  1920. 

Contributions  of  England  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century 

The  industrial  world  owes  a  large  debt  to  the  inven- 
tive and  scientific  genius  of  some  10  or  15  Englishmen 
who  in  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  revolu- 
tionized the  steel  industry  and  in  addition  founded  the 
science  of  physical  metallu^g3^  The  Bessemer  process 
of  refining  pig  iron  by  blowing  air  through  the  molten 
metal  was  invented  in  1856  by  Henrj'  Bessemer  and 
was  made  a  commercial  success  by  the  metallurgical 
genius  of  Robert  Mushct.'  This  process  made  it 
possible  for  the  first  time  to  produce  steel  cheaply  and 
in  large  tonnages  and  was  the  most  important  single 
factor  in  the  development  of  our  present-day  industrial 
economy,  which  is  built  upon  cheap  steel. 

Other  outstanding  developments  of  processes  in 
England  during  this  period  were  Siemens'  discovery  of 
the  regenerative  principle  which  resulted  in  the  open- 
hearth  process,  the  hot  blast  stove  for  the  blast  furnace, 
the  reversing  mill,  the  continuous  rod  mill,  and — per- 
haps most  important — the  discoveiy  by  Thomas  and 
Gilchrist  that  lime  removes  phosphorus  from  molten 
high-carbon  iron,  thus  making  it  possible  to  use  the 
enormous  world  deposits  of  iron  ore  containing  a 
relatively  large  amount  of  this  element. 

England's  contributions  to  the  development  of  ferrous 
materials  were  numerous.  The  most  outstanding  were 
Mushet's  air-hardening  tool  steel  and  Hadfield's  exten- 
sive work  on  alloys  of  iron  with  manganese,  chromium, 
and  other  elements  which  played  an  important  part  in 
the  development  of  knowledge  that  has  led  to  prescnt- 
dav  allov  steels. 


I  Wjlltam  Kelly  in  the  United  States  probably  anticipated  Bcssemer's  invention 
by  nearly  10  years  but  was  never  able  to  make  the  process  work  satisfactorily.  The 
eriilll  for  the  invention  Is,  therefore,  usually  given  to  Bessemer,  although  it  is  clalmeil 
by  some  that  without  the  help  of  Mushet  he  would  have  made  no  more  headway 
than  Kelly. 


During  this  period,  several  Englislmien  were  engaged 
in  fundamental  research  on  iron  and  steel.  Sorby  was 
the  first  to  use  the  microscope  for  the  study  of  the  struc- 
ture of  metals;  this  was  the  beginning  of  a  science  of 
physical  metallurgy.  Barrett  discovered  recalescence 
and  its  relation  to  the  hardening  of  steel,  and  Arnold 
did  pioneering  work  in  correlating  the  chemical  composi- 
tion and  the  properties  of  ferrous  materials.  Valuable 
textbooks  were  written  by  Percy,  on  the  metallurgy  of 
iron  and  steel  (1804),  and  by  Bell,  on  the  chemistry  of 
the  blast  furnace  (1872) ;  these  had  marked  influence  on 
the  iron  and  steel  industry  everywhere. 

Contributions  of  the  United  States 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century 

The  iron  and  steel  industry  of  the  United  States,  using 
the  developments  outlined  above,  grew  from  adolescence 
to  manhood  in  the  last  three  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  During  this  period,  pig-iron  production 
increased  from  2  to  14  million  tons  and  steel  production 
from  less  than  100,000  tons  to  10.5  million  tons.  The 
most  important  cause  of  this  rapid  expansion  was  the 
building  of  the  railroads;  miles  of  track  increased  from 
50,000  in  1870,  most  of  which  was  laid  with  iron  rails, 
to  260,000  in  1900,  nearly  all  of  which  was  laid  with 
steel  rails.  With  the  introduction  of  the  Bessemer 
process  other  uses  of  steel  expanded  rapidly,  especially 
for  bridges  and  buildings,  and  for  agricultural  purposes. 
Four  billion  dollars  was  spent  in  fencing  the  farms  of  the 
United  States  during  this  30-year  period;  at  least  75 
percent  of  tliis  sum  was  represented  by  purchases  of 
iron  and  steel  products. 

Between  1870  and  1900  the  steel  industry  of  the 
United  States  was  so  busy  building  up  the  coimtrv 
that  there  was  little  time,  and  less  incentive,  for  research 
even  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word.  Most  develop- 
ment work  had  as  its  primary  object  the  reduction  of 
cost;  this  was  so  successful  that  in  the  last  decade  of 
the  century  the  steel  industry'  of  the  United  States  was 
underselling  the  British  in  world  markets,  with  the 
result  that  the  British  Iron  anil  Steel  Institute  sent 
a  delegation  to  the  United  States  to  see  how  it  was 
done. 

Among  the  developments  which  were  important  in 
lowering  costs  were  more  efficient  blowing  engines  for 
blast  furances,  many  improvements  in  rolling  mills, 
most  of  which  came  from  the  fertile  brain  of  John  Fritz, 
and — most  important — the  development  of  efficient 
machines  for  large-scale  production  of  barbed  wire, 
fences,  nails,  and  springs.  Although  the  United  States 
did  not  pioneer  the  use  of  steel  for  building  and  bridge 
construction,  the  skyscraper  and  the  long  suspension 
bridge  are  American  ilevelopments. 

Only  one  noteworthy  development  in  steels  originated 
in  the  United  States  during  the  last  half  of  the  nme- 


Industrial  Research 


159 


tecnth  century,  but  this  probably  had  as  iTiiportant 
ramifications  in  industry  generally  as  any  tliat  ferrous 
metallurgy  has  known.  This  was  the  discovery  by 
Taylor  and  Wliite,  in  1894  to  1898,  of  high-speed  steel 
and  of  the  heat  treatment  necessary  to  give  the  steel 
its  unique  property  of  red  hardness,  i.  e.,  the  abihty 
to  keep  its  cutting  edge  when  operating  at  such  high 
speeds  that  the  tool  gets  red  hot.  The  steel  itself  was 
an  outgrowth  of  the  original  Mushet  air-hardening 
process,  but  the  heat  treatment  was  unique.  High- 
speed steel  completely  revolutionized  the  machine-tool 
industry  and  made  tungsten,  its  principal  alloying 
element,  a  strategic  material  of  first  inqjortance. 

Little  research  on  metallurgical  fundamentals  waa 
carried  out  in  the  United  States  before  1900.  Albert 
Sauveur  was  the  first  in  this  country  to  study  the 
structui'e  of  steel  with  the  microscope  (1891-93),  and 
Henry  Marion  Howe,  at  Columbia  University,  won 
world-wide  fame  as  an  investigator  of  the  constitution 
of  iron-carbon  and  other  alloys.  Howe's  book  on 
metallurgy,  published  in  1890,  was  for  many  years  a 
classic  in  this  field. 

Contributions  of  Other  Countries 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century 

As  pioneers  in  metallm-gical  research  both  Germany 
and  France  rank  as  high  as  the  United  States.  In 
one  sense  they  rank  higher,  as  Germany  was  producing 
only  10  to  17  million  tons  of  steel  and  pig  iron,  and 
France  oidy  5  to  7  million  tons,  as  compared  with  an 
annual  total  of  18  to  25  million  tons  for  the  United 
States. 

Research  in  France  during  the  last  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth centmy  resulted  in  a  number  of  important 
developments  in  processes.  French  engineers  dis- 
covered how  to  coke  bitimainous  coal  in  closed  retorts, 
so  that  the  valuable  byproducts  could  be  recovered, 
and  perfected  the  electric  arc  furnace  as  a  means  of 
melting  steel  and  nonferrous  alloys.  They  were  also 
the  first  to  build  armored  naval  vessels  and  to  use 
steel  in  building  construction.  As  the  result  of  re- 
search on  materials,  French  scientists  were  the  first  to 
produce  ferromanganese  on  a  commercial  scale  and 
were  primarily  responsible  for  the  discovery  of  iron- 
nickel  alloys  having  unique  expansion,  magnetic,  and 
electric  characteristics,  which  have  been  an  important 
factor  in  the  development  of  an  efficient  communications 
system.  In  research  in  fundamentals,  the  French 
rank  next  to  the  British.  Osmond  discovered  the 
allotropy  of  iron,  and  Le  Chatelier  perfected  the  pyrom- 
eter and  the  metallurgical  microscope;  these  were  of 
prime  importance  in  the  development  of  a  science  of 
physical  metallurgJ^ 

Of  the  24  important  contributions  made  by  Germans 
to  the  improvement  of  processes  and  products,  and  to 


furthering  metjillurgical  knowledge,  the  following  arc 
outstanding:  The  univ^ersal  mill,  the  hydraulic  forging 
press,  producing  cement  from  slag,  and  acetylene  which 
is  now  used  widely  in  welding.  Martens  and  Wedding 
made  important  contributions  to  physical  metallui'gy. 
Equally  outstanding  is  the  work  of  Woliler  who,  be- 
tween 1850  and  1870,  investigated  the  failure  of  metals 
under  repeated  stress  and  established  the  existence  of 
fatigue  phenomena. 

Of  the  countries  not  mentioned  only  Sweden  was  an 
early  contributor  of  anything  of  inq)ortance  to  the 
development  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry.  The  work 
of  Eggertz  on  chemical  analysis  of  iron  and  steel  is 
noteworthy,  as  is  Brinell's  development  of  a  simple 
test  for  determining  hardness. 

World  Research  in  the  Iron  and 
Steel  Industry,  1900  to  1930 

A  comparison  of  research  in  ferrous  metallurgy  over 
the  first  3  decades  of  the  twentieth  centm-y  for  the  four 
prmcipal  steel-making  countries  of  the  world  is  given 
in  table  2.  The  amount  of  research  in  any  one  coimtry 
naturally  varies  with  the  size  of  the  iron  and  steel 
industiy;  thus,  more  has  been  done,  especially  since 
the  First  World  War,  in  the  United  States  than  in 
any  other  country.  To  consider  only  the  vohmie  of 
actual  research  would,  therefore,  not  give  a  true  picture 
of  the  research-mindedness  of  the  industry  or  of  the 
country;  hence  recourse  was  had  to  calculation  of  a 
research  factor.  This  factor  was  obtained  by  dividing 
the  nimiber  of  reports  which  contributed  to  the  advance 
of  the  industry  or  to  fundamental  knowledge  in  ferrous 
metallurgy,  as  published  in  the  technical  press,  by  the 
total  production  of  steel  ingots  plus  pig  iron,  in  millions 
of  metric  tons.^ 

There  are,  of  couree,  several  objections  to  a  compari- 
son of  this  sort.  In  the  first  place,  the  results  of  many 
research  projects,  especially  those  which  produce  an 
improvement  of  processes,  are  never  published.  In  the 
second  place,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  separate 
reports  of  metallurgical  research  done  by  the  industry 
itself  from  reports  of  research  done  by  the  universities 
and  Government  laboratories.  This  is  especially  true 
for  Germany  where  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Institut  fUr 
Eiscnforschung  and  the  Technische  Ilochschule  at 
Aachen  (among  others)  do  a  large  amount  of  work, 
especially  of  the  more  fundamental  kind,  for  the  steel 
industry.  In  the  third  place — and  this  is  the  most 
important  variable — the  accuracy  of  such  a  comparison 


2  Data  on  stci'I-ingot  and  pig-iron  production  are  from  The  mineral  industry.  New 
York,  Scientific  Publishing  Co.,  1893-1935;  Minerals  yearbook.  Yearbook  of  the 
Bureau  of  Mines,  Washington,  U.  S.  Government  Printing  OfBce;  data  on  pub- 
lished papers  from  bibliographies  of  Alloys  of  iron  research.  (Monograph  series, 
6,000  papers).  New  York.  McOraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  1932-1939;  supplemented  by  a 
review  of  the  abstract  section  of  the  Journal  of  the  Iron  and  Sled  InstiliUe  (British), 
(1900-1930). 


160 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Table  2. — Amount  of  research  by  the  principal  iron-  and  slcel- 
making  countries,  1900  to  1930 


TOTAL  RESEARCH 


United  States 

Qermany  and 
Austria 

Great  Britain 

France  and 
Belgium 

Year 

a 

a 
s 

■25 

i^ 

p. 

C 

a 
1 

E 
o 
Z 

1 

i 

a 
S 

Bo 

o 

o  " 
•2h 

i§ 
1 

1 

a 

o 

M 

B 

3 

z 

s 

s 

1 

g 
1 

K 

a 

o 

X) 

a 

3 

z 

B 

a 
1 

O.S 

Is 

a 

o 

1 
z 

1 

1 

1900 

21.2 
43.7 
M.  1 
00.7 
85.3 
89.7 

79 
188 
121 
201 
109 
291 

3.20 
4.25 
2.28 
3.00 
1.98 
3.23 

17,7 
23  6 
32.7 
13  « 
17.1 
39.0 

81 
ISI 
149 
54 
97 

2,sn 

1  57 
7.7« 
1.57 

i.sr. 

5.70 
7.17 

14.1 
15.7 
1C.9 
15.5 
15.9 
15  1 

09 
123 
101 

86 

134 

1,87 
7.83 
5.94 
5.55 
I.Sl 
8.93 

6.1 
7.6 
10.9 
5  2 
14.8 
27.2 

34 

68 
44 

41 
47 
41 

5.  .S7 

IflOS 

1910        

8,9" 
4.011 

1919 

1923 

7.89 
3.18 

1928 

2,98 

3.00 

vol 

r,  32 

5,42 

FUNDAMENTAL  RESEARCH 

1900            .  . 

24.2 
43.7 
53.1 
66.7 
85.3 
81.7 

16   0.64 

17.7 
23.6 
32.7 
13.9 
17.1 
39.0 

2(1 
62 
47 
11 
27 
5fi 

1.13 
2.64 
1.43 
.SO 
L.'iO 
1.49 

14.  1 

\r,.7 

16.9 
1.^6 
1.5,9 
15.1 

19 
2S 
25 
24 
16 
23 

1.32 
1.75 
1.40 
L.W 
1.01 
1.52 

6.  1 
7.6 
10.9 
5.2 
14.8 
27.2 

14 
17 
21 
11 
7 
14 

2  20 

1905 

38 
27 
44 
47 
59 

.87 
.51 
.66 
.55 
.66 

2,25 

1910 

1.94 

1919 

2.08 

1923 

.46 

1928 

.51 

Average 

.66 

1.45 

1.43 

1.58 

as  is  given  in  table  2  depends  to  a  large  degree  on  the 
judgment  of  the  individual  making  the  comparison, 
especially  in  what  constitutes  significant  research. 

Each  of  the  factors  in  the  top  half  of  table  2  is  the  sum 
of  the  factors  obtained  for  four  main  divisions  of  metal- 
lurgical progress,  namely:  (1)  Important  developments 
in  the  manufacture  of  steel  and  cast  iron,  (2)  important 
developments  in  the  treatment  of  steel,  including  me- 
chanical working,  heat  treatment,  welding,  coatings, 
and  other  operations  connected  with  these,  (3)  research 
in  the  constitution  and  structure  of  carbon  and  alloy 
steels  and  plain  and  alloy  cast  irons,  and  (4)  research  in 
the  properties  of  ferrous  materials. 

Each  of  the  factors  in  the  lower  half  of  table  2  was 
obtained  by  taking  into  account  only  the  published 
papers  dealing  with  constitution  and  structure,  the 
physical  chemistry  of  steel  making,  theoretical  treat- 
ments of  mechanical  deformation,  theory  of  heat  treat- 
ment, and  other  subjects  which  were  considered  to  have 
advanced  the  science  of  physical  metallurgy. 

Comparison  of  Research 
In  the  World,  1900  to  1930 

If  it  is  assumed  that  the  data  given  in  table  2  repre- 
sent with  reasonable  accuracy  the  status  of  world 
research  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry  from  1900  to 
1930,  several  interesting  conclusions  can  be  drawn. 
First,  and  most  important:  It  is  clear,  considering  the 
size  of  the  industry  in  the  United  States,  that  only  about 
half  as  much  total  research  was  done  in  this  country 
between  1900  and  1930  as  in  each  of  the  other  three 


countries.  The  proportion  of  fundamental  research 
was  even  less.  Another  interesting  fact  is  that  the 
amount  of  fundamental  research  (in  relation  to  iron  and 
steel  production)  in  the  United  States  and  in  Great 
Britain  remained  fairly  constant  for  the  30  years  under 
consideration. 

In  German}-  and  France  the  amount  in  proportion  to 
production  varied  more  en-atically.  Fundamental  re- 
search in  Germany  fell  off  immediately  after  the  First 
World  War  but  bounced  up  remarkably  by  1923  when 
llie  inflation  was  at  its  height,  despite  the  fact  that 
production  did  not  increase  greatly.  France  con- 
tributed a  great  deal  proportionately  to  metallurgical 
knowledge  in  the  first  decade  of  the  century.  In  the 
third  decade  the  research  factors  are  much  lower;  the 
amoimt  of  research  did  not  increase  as  production 
increased.  Another  interesting  point  is  that,  although 
there  is  a  tendency  for  the  amount  of  research,  espe- 
cially of  the  fundamental  sort,  to  decrease  in  depression 
years,  the  research  factor  is  also  lower  when  there  is  a 
sudden  boom  in  the  industry.  Apparently  this  is  due 
to  lack  of  time  for  the  work  rather  than  to  lack  of 
money.  Such  a  condition  is  shown  for  the  United 
States,  Germany,  and  France  in  1910  (table  2). 

Despite  an  annual  production  of  steel  ingots  plus  pig 
iron  of  less  than  1  million  tons,  Swedish  metallurgists 
publish  between  10  and  20  papers  a  year  which  are 
without  question  definite  and  valuable  contributions 
to  the  iron  and  steel  industry,  especially  to  fundamental 
knowledge.  No  research  factors  have  been  calculated 
for  Sweden  as  the  number  of  papers  and  the  production 
of  ferrous  materials  are  so  small  that  such  a  factor  would 
mean  very  little.  Considering  the  size  of  the  country, 
however,  the  research  work  of  its  metallurgists  is  of 
considerable  importance. 

The  contributions  of  Italian  research  workers  to  the 
advance  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  have  been  few, 
with  the  exception  of  the  work  of  Stassano  on  the 
electric  furnace  and  of  Giolitti  on  heat  treatment. 
Reports  of  importance  varied  between  5  and  10  annu- 
ally in  1900  to  1930.  Italy's  combined  production  of 
pig  iron  and  steel  ingots  ranged  from  500,000  to 
2,000,000  tons  annually  in  the  same  period. 

Little  work  of  interest  was  done  by  Japanese  metal- 
lurgists until  after  the  First  World  War,  when  the 
research  of  Honda,  Murakami,  Sato,  and  a  few  others, 
most  of  whom  were  connected  with  the  Tohoku  Im- 
perial University,  attracted  attention.  Most  of  the 
work  of  the  Japanese  metallurgists  has  been  on  the 
constitution  of  carbon  and  alloy  steels  and  on  the 
development  of  magnetic  materials;  nearly  all  their 
reports  have  been  printed  in  English  or  German. 

Russia  contributed  little  to  the  advance  of  the  iron 
and  steel  industry  prior  to  the  revolution  and  practically 
nothing  between   1917   and   1925.     Of   the  relatively 


Industrial  Research 


161 


large  number  of  reports  published  in  J{ussi!ui  since 
1925  fewer  than  20  or  30  contain  anything  of  real 
value. 

Outstanding  Developments  in  the 

World  Iron  and  Steel  Industry,  1900  to  1930 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  paper  to  outhne  all 
the  important  developments  in  the  iron  and  steel 
industry  of  the  world  for  the  first  30  years  of  this 
century.  They  have  been  so  numerous  and  so  many 
printed  pages  would  be  needed  even  to  catalog  them 
that  it  is  necessary  to  limit  the  discussion  in  tliis 
section  to  a  few  outstanding  examples. 

It  is  only  necessarj*  Lo  note  that  the  output  of  the 
blast  furnace  approximately  tripled  between  1900  and 
1930  to  realize  that  a  large  amount  of  important  re- 
search has  been  done  on  this  phase  of  the  iron  and  steel 
industiy.  To  effect  this  progress,  extensive  studies 
have  been  made  on  the  beneficiation  of  ores,  the  im- 
provement of  the  quality  of  coke,  on  slag  reactions  and 
their  influence  upon  the  production  and  quality  of  the 
iron,  and  especially  on  the  general  design  of  the  furnace 
itself.  Improvements  in  these  directions  have  been 
achieved  in  all  principal  iron-making  countries  but  have 
been  particidarly  pronounced  in  the  United  States. 

The  most  important  research  work  in  steel  making, 
which  has  been  devoted  chiefly  to  the  physical  chemistry 
of  slag-metal  reactions  in  the  basic  open-hearth  process, 
was  pioneered  in  this  country  by  C.  H.  Herty,  Jr.,  and 
his  associates  under  the  auspices  of  the  Metallurgical 
Advisory  Board  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines 
and  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  and  in  Germany 
by  H.  Schenck  and  his  associates,  working  at  the  Krup}) 
laboratories.  This  work  got  actively  under  way  about 
1925  and  is  still  going  on  at  the  KJrupp  works  and  at  a 
niunber  of  places  in  the  United  States.  It  has  had 
important  ramifications  in  improving  the  quality  of 
carbon  steel  and  has  been  accompanied  by  valuable 
work  on  gases  and  nonmetallic  inclusions  in  molten  and 
in  solid  steel.  The  most  comprehensive  and  valuable 
work  along  this  line  in  England  has  been  that  of  a  com- 
mittee of  the  British  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  which 
started  in  1925  to  study  the  heterogeneity  of  steel 
ingots;  this  work  is  also  stiU  under  way. 

Alloy  steels,  the  development  of  which  started  late  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  were  used  rarely,  except  for 
armor  and  ordnance,  until  after  the  First  World  War, 
when  the  rapid  development  of  the  automotive,  air- 
craft, and  petroleiun-refining  industries  began  to  require 
relatively  large  tonnages.  This  is  shown  clearly  by  the 
increase  in  production  from  570,000  tons  in  1910  to 
about  4  million  tons  in  1930. 

Two  developments  in  alloy  steels  are  outstanding: 
The  "stainless"  materials  and  the  low-alloy  structural 


grades.  There  are,  as  is  well  known,  two  classes  of 
stainless  steels:  The  hard  cutlery  steels,  containing  0.30 
to  0.40  percent  of  carbon  and  11  to  14  percent  of  chro- 
mium, and  the  soft  austcnitic  steels,  widely  used  for 
structural  and  ornamental  purposes,  containing  low 
carbon  and  about  18  percent  of  cliromium  and  8  of 
nickel.  Credit  for  the  discovery  of  cutlery  steel  belongs 
to  Brearley,  an  Englislunan,  whose  research  resulted  in 
the  patenting  of  this  alloy  in  1913.  The  so-called  18-8 
steel  is  a  development  by  Strauss  and  Maurer,  working 
at  the  Krupp  laboratories  in  1909  to  1912.' 

The  large  class  of  low-alloy  steels  now  being  used 
widely  as  structural  materials,  especially  for  railroad 
rolling  stock  and  to  a  lesser  extent  for  ships,  bridges, 
and  buildings,  is  an  outgrowth  of  experience  with  a  few 


'  Thum,  E.  E.    The  book  ol  stainless  steels.    Cleveland,  American  Society  tor 
Mctnis,  1935,  pp.  1-8.    In  eh.  1  the  development  of  these  steels  is  discussed  In  detail. 


Figure  40. — Research  on  Creep  of  Steel,  Crane  Company, 
Chicago,  Illinois 


162 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


of  these  materials  in  the  United  States,  England,  and 
Geiinanj',  as  earlj'  as  1910  to  1915.  for  higlily  stressed 
members  of  bridges  and  ships.  Some  30  of  these  steels 
are  known  at  present,  most  of  which  were  placed  on  the 
market  in  the  last  10  j-ears.  The  economic  significance 
of  these  steels  is  discussed  in  a  later  section. 

There  are  two  ijnjiortant  advances  in  the  steel  in- 
dustry for  which  .iVjnerican  research  workers  are  almost 
solely  responsible.  One,  controlled  grain  size,  is  pri- 
marily a  metallurgical  development.  It  was  first  called 
to  the  attention  of  metallurgists  by  McQuaid  and  Elm 
in  1922  and  has  received  much  attention  in  the  past 
15  years,  with  the  result  that  grain  size  is  now  a  part 
of  some  steel  specifications.  Grain  size  affects  machin- 
ability,  response  to  heat  treatment,  and  the  hardness 
of  heat-treated  steels.  It  is  controlled  by  appropriate 
regidation  of  the  melting  process.  The  continuous-strip 
mill,  developed  by  the  American  Rolling  Mill  Company 
in  1925  and  1920,  has  reduced  the  cost  and  improved 
the  quality  of  thin  flat-rolled  steel  so  much  that  auto- 
motive design  has  undergone  radical  changes  in  the 
past  10  or  12  years.    This,  too,  is  discussed  later. 

Present  Status  of  Research  in  the 
Iron  and  Steel  Industry 

Although  metallurgists  have  been  employed  by 
American  steel  companies  and  although  sporadic  re- 
search has  been  undertaken  by  a  few  of  the  companies 
for  nearly  50  years,  metallurgical  research  as  an  organ- 
ized activity  of  the  industiy  became  widespread  only 
about  15  or  20  years  ago.  Credit  for  the  establishment 
of  the  first  research  laboratory,  designated  as  such,  at 
one  of  the  larger  plants  is  usually  given  to  the  American 
Rolling  Mill  Company,  which  began  research  on  ingot 
iron  as  early  as  1903;  6  years  later  12  research  workers 
were  employed  there. 

Most  of  the  smaller  steel  mills  making  a  specialty  of 
the  manufacture  of  alloy  and  tool  steels  employed  one 
or  more  research  metallurgists  between  1900  and  1920. 
In  many  cases,  however,  these  metallurgists  were  en- 
gaged in  "trouble  shooting"  rather  than  in  research 
work.  Between  1920  and  1930  the  value  of  research 
as  a  separate  centralized  activity  became  apparent  to 
some  of  the  larger  companies;  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
Company  began  research  on  a  large  scale  in  192G,  and 
Jones  and  Laughlin  followed  a  year  or  two  later.  The 
central  research  laboratory  of  the  United  States  Steel 
Corporation  was  established  in  1928,  although  the 
subsidiary  companies,  especially  Illinois  Steel  Com- 
pany and  Carnegie  Steel  Company,  had  employed 
metallurgists  and  other  technical  men  for  research  as 
early  as  1908.'' 


*  Private  coramunlcntlon  to  American  Iron  and  Stoel  Institute. 


Purpose  of  Research  in  the  American 
Iron  and  Steel  Industry 

As  noted  on  the  first  page  of  this  paper,  most  re- 
search in  the  iron  and  steel  industiy  is  on  processes  and 
products  for  the  purpose  of  improving  methods  of  man- 
ufacture and  quality  of  product,  reducing  cost,  and 
developing  new  products  and  new  uses  and  new  markets 
for  old  products.  Despite  frequent  statements  in  the 
popular  press  to  the  contrary,  the  iron  and  steel  in- 
dustry is  highly  competitive,  and  each  company  realizes 
only  too  well  that  a  competent  technical  sttiff  is  the 
best  insurance  for  keeping  constantly  abreast  of,  and 
if  possible  ahead  of,  technical  progress  in  the  industry 
as  a  whole.  Furthermore,  the  whole  industiy  i-ealizes 
that,  despite  the  fact  that  modern  civilization  is  built 
upon  steel,  constant  vigilance  is  necessary  to  prevent 
undue  inroads  by  competing  materials. 

The  teclmical  staff  of  a  steel  company  has  another 
duty,  which  is  frequently  overlooked ;  viz,  the  job  of 
acting  as  consultant  for  the  customer.  Many  small 
steel  consumers  and  some  large  ones  as  well — the  rail- 
roads are  an  outstanding  example  of  the  latter — have 
for  many  years  expected  the  steel  industry  to  do  prac- 
tically all  of  their  development  work. 

For  nearly  a  hundred  years  steel  making  and  the 
processing  of  steel  into  finished  and  semifinished  prod- 
ucts has  been  an  art  in  which  skills  of  a  high  order  have 
been  developed.  Despite  the  advancement  of  the  art. 
there  are  still  so  many  variables  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel  that  even  the  most  skilled  man  sometimes 
has  to  depend  upon  "intuition"  or  a  "hunch"  to  guide 
him  when  he  encounters  conditions  which  do  not  fit 
precisely  into  his  practical  experience.  The  result  is  a 
lack  of  uniformity  in  quality  which  costs  the  steel 
companies  large  sums  of  money  because  of  rejections  by 
the  customer.  Variable  quality  in  iron  and  steel  has 
always  been  a  problem  in  the  industry;  since  about  1920 
it  has  been  even  more  of  a  problem  than  before,  as 
customers'  requirements  have  become  increasingly 
rigid  year  by  year. 

One  of  the  principal  purposes  of  research  by  the  steel 
industry  has  been  to  investigate  the  causes  of  erratic 
quality  in  the  finished  product  and,  by  increasing 
technical  control  of  the  various  operations,  to  improve 
the  quality  of  the  product  and  render  it  more  uniform. 
One-third  of  the  money  spent  for  research  has  been 
used  for  this  purpose. °  One  of  the  most  common 
examples  of  the  effect  of  research  in  improving  quality  is 
the  automobile  fender.  Had  anyone  suggestetl  in  1925 
making  the  torpedo-type  fender — now  used  even  on  the 
cheapest  ears — by  deep  drawing  sheet  steel  in  one 
operation,  both  steel  makei-s  and  automotive  engineers 
would  have  questioned  his  sanitj'. 

•  steel  researeli  tiudget  for  1038  near  last  year's  peak  level.  Slerl  FartJ,  No.  27,  4 
(AuRust  19.38). 


Industrial  Research 


163 


Organization  of  Research  in  the  Steel  Industry 

Owing  to  the  wide  variation  in  size  of  the  individual 
units  of  the  American  iron  and  steel  industry,  and  to  the 
diversity  of  processes  and  products,  there  naturally  can 
be  no  standard  of  organization.  In  small  plants,  a 
technical  staff  of  2  to  20  men  can  handle  all  the  routine 
metallurgical,  chemical,  and  mechanical  testing — and 
occasionally  supervise  inspection  as  well — and  can  plan 
and  carry  out  a  considerable  amount  of  valuable 
research  work  in  improving  processes  and  materials. 

The  large  companj'  with  a  central  research  laboratory 
emploj's  50  to  75  men  in  this  laboratory  and  frequently 
20  to  50  additional  men  in  various  plants — or  depart- 
ments if  there  are  onlj^  1  or  2  plants.  The  large,  well- 
balanced  research  laboratory — of  which  there  are  a 
number  in  the  United  States — employs  metallurgists, 
physicists,  chemists,  mechanical  and  ceramic  engineers, 
and  a  number  of  other  technically  trained  men,  one- 
quarter  or  one-third  of  whom  hold  doctorates.  For 
example,  one  has  a  staff  of  technically  trained  men — 

skilled  in  methods  of  measuring  and  controlling  high  tempera- 
ture; in  methods  for  the  eUicidation  of  the  constitution  and 
behavior  of  refractories  and  slags;  in  thermodynamic  analysis  of 
the  chemical  reactions  involved  in  the  making  of  iron  and  steel; 
in  the  methods  of  identification  and  control  of  the  structure  of 


steels  and  conversant  with  the  relations  between  structure  and 
the  useful  properties  of  steels. 

Large  steel-plant  research  laboratories  act  as  training 
schools,  transferring  metallurgists  and  other  technical^ 
trained  men  from  the  various  plants  or  subsidiary  com- 
panies to  the  central  laboratory  for  a  year  or  two  of 
what  amounts  to  intensive  graduate  training,  thus 
giving  these  men  a  broad  view  of  research  as  it  is 
undertaken  for  the  good  of  the  company  as  a  whole. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  encountered  in 
organizing  and  operating  a  large  research  laboratory  is 
the  choice  of  problems.  Most  directors  of  research 
adopt  the  general  principle  that  the  solution  of  the 
problem  should  be  applicable  to  the  company  as  a 
whole,  leaving  to  the  metallurgists  of  the  various  plants 
or  subsidiary  companies  the  problems  of  more  restricted 
application  encountered  in  their  particular  plant,  with 
the  proviso,  of  course,  that  the  staff  of  the  central 
laboratory  should  always  be  available  for  consultation, 
if  necessary,  even  on  minor  difficulties. 

The  staff  of  the  central  laboratory  of  a  company  that 
makes  steel  also  frequently  cooperates  on  problems  with 
the  research  staff  of  the  company  that  fabricates  the 
steel  and  of  the  company  that  uses  the  fabricated 
article.     An  excellent  example  of  such  cooperation  is  in 


Figure  41. — Austempering  of  Steel,  American  Steel  and  Wire  Company,  Worcester,  Massachusetts.     (Subsidiary  of  United  States  Steel 

Corporation) 


321835 — 41- 


164 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


tlio  inaiiufacturo  of  pressure  vessels  for  use  at  lii<rh 
temperatures,  where  satisfactorj'  service  depends  quite 
as  much  upon  the  method  of  fabrication  and  \veldin<i 
of  the  vessel  as  upon  the  melting  practice  used  to  make 
the  steel. 

Cost  of  Research 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  accurately  the  amount  of 
money  spent  for  research  by  the  iron  and  steel  industry 
of  the  United  States.  For  the  past  5  years  or  more  it 
has  averaged  almost  $10,000,000  annually,  according 
to  a  survey  recently  made  by  the  American  Iron  and 
Steel  Institute,'  which  shows  tlic  following,  as  spent 
by  42  companies  representing  about  90  percent  of  the 
steel-making  capacity  of  the  country: 

Year:  EipendUuTi 

1929- $8,700,000 

1935 8,100,000 

1936 9,200,000 

1937 10,300,000 

1938 9,500,000 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  e.xpciiditure  for 
research  in  1938  was  only  8  percent  lower  than  in  1937 
despite  a  decrease  of  60  percent  in  steel  production. 
The  money  spent  for  research  is  distributed  approxi- 
mately as  follows: 

Project:  Percent 

Improving  quality 33 

Improving  methods  of  manufacture  and 

reducing  cost 19 

Developing  new  products 20 

Developing  new  uses  and  markets 28 

The  annual  appropriation  by  individual  companies 
is  naturally  not  available  for  publication.  A  survey 
made  13  years  ago'  indicated  that  for  12  large  steel 
plants  the  average  annual  research  expenditure  was 
$16,200.  This  is  undoubtedly  less  than  one-tenth  of 
the  average  expenditure  today.  Actual  research  appro- 
priations for  1939  by  1  large  and  2  medium-sized  steel 
companies'  were  as  follows:  Company  A,  $1,250,000, 
of  which  $950,000  was  for  salaries ;  company  B,  $285,000 ; 
company  C,  $278,000.  These  amounts  are  approxi- 
mately 10  times  the  amounts  spent  by  these  same 
companies  10  or  15  years  ago. 

Research  Personnel 

The  iron  and  steel  industry  employs  as  many  as  1,000 
college  graduates  annually,'  over  70  percent  of  whom 

•  Steel  research  cost  highest  on  record.  Stetl  FacU,  No.  13,  3  (May  1»36);  Steel 
Industry  Intensiflcs  Its  research  program  In  1937.  No.  19.  2  (May  1937);  Steel  research 
biidect  (or  1938  near  last  year's  peak  level.    No  27,  4  (August  1938). 

'  Davis,  R.  M.  Research  a  paying  Investment.  New  York,  National  Research 
Council,  division  of  enRlneering  and  industrial  research,  192S. 

'  Private  communication,  American  Iron  and  Steel  Institute. 

'  Steel  companies  plan  to  hire  many  young  college  graduates  In  1937.  Sleet  Foct4. 
No.  17,  3  (February  1937). 


have  engineering  degrees.  Of  593  recent  graduates 
employed,  149  were  mechanical  ongineei-s,  97  were 
chemists  and  chemical  engineers,  95  were  civil  engi- 
neers, 70  were  metallurgical  engineers,  57  were  mining 
engineers,  42  were  electrical  engineers,  and  83  had  other 
degrees.  Of  these  graduates,  21  percent  went  into  the 
metallurgical  department,  35  percent  went  into  open- 
hearth,  rolling-mill,  or  power-generation  work,  29 
percent  were  employed  in  other  operating  departments, 
and  15  percent  went  into  sales  and  administrative  work. 

Most  of  the  large  steel  companies  have  organized 
plans  for  selecting  college  graduates  and  maintain 
close  contact  with  the  principal  engineering  schools. 
A  number  of  the  companies  provide  summer  emploj'- 
ment  for  likely  undergraduates.  There  has  been  no 
lack  of  employment  for  graduate  metallurgists  from 
the  country's  outstanding  engineering  schools  during 
the  past  10  years;  even  in  1932-33  most  graduates 
were  placed  quicldy. 

In  general,  there  are  fewer  doctorates  in  metallurgy 
than  in  other  branches  of  science;  in  3  years  (1934-37) 
28  doctorates  were  awarded  to  metallurgists,  com- 
pared with  1,449  in  chemistry  and  178  in  agriculture.'" 
During  this  period  the  same  number  of  doctor's  degrees 
was  awarded  in  metallurgy  as  in  oriental  literature. 
The  relative^  small  number  of  doctorates  in  metallurgy 
awarded  at  American  universities  is,  however,  no 
criterion  of  the  number  of  scientists  with  doctor's 
degrees  employed  by  the  iron  and  steel  industry,  as 
many  of  these  were  trained  as  physicists  and  physical 
chemists. 

In  1937,  according  to  a  survey  made  by  the  American 
Iron  and  Steel  Institute,"  2,350  engineers,  metallur- 
gists, chemists,  physicists,  and  other  technical  men 
were  employed  full  time  in  the  research  laboratories 
of  the  steel  companies.  In  addition,  almost  1,200 
other  employees  devoted  some  part  of  their  time  to 
research  work. 

Metallurgical  Education 

College  curricula  in  metallurgy  have  not  been  stand- 
ardized in  the  United  States.  According  to  Stoughton, 
dean  of  engineering  at  Lehigh  University,"  who  studied 
the  metallurgical  courses  in  22  accredited  schools, 
all  curricula  included  some  courses  in  metallurgy  and 
mathematics,  chemistry,  physics,  and  English,  and 
most  included  drawing.     Only  9  included  a  foreign 


!•  Research— A  national  resource.  1.  Relation  of  the  Federal  Oovernment  to 
research.    Washington,  U.  S.  Government  Printing  Offlce,  1938,  pp.  172-173. 

"  Steel  Industry  Intensiflcs  Its  research  program  In  1937.  StteeX  Faett,  No.  19,  2 
(May  1937).  There  Is  some  disagreement  among  authorities  on  the  actual  number  of 
research  workers,  ascrlbable  to  the  fact  that  there  Is  disagreement  on  bovr  some 
workers  shall  be  classiQed. 

"  Stoughton,  Bradley.  The  training  of  a  metallurgist.  O'earbook  of  the  Ameri- 
can Iron  and  Steel  Institute.)  New  York,  American  Iron  and  Steel  Institute.  1939 
pp.  79-89. 


Industrial  Research 


165 


language,  wliioh  was  a  serious  liaiulicap,  as  at  least 
one-third  of  the  reports  of  metalhirgical  research 
pubHshed  in  recent  yeai's  have  appeared  in  German 
periodicals.  In  most  engineering  schools,  students  of 
ferrous  metallurgy  spend  75  to  100  hours  in  a  steel 
plant;  frequently  they  have  a  good  idea  of  the  opera- 
tion of  a  blast  furnace  before  they  even  calculate  a 
heat  balance. 

In  1936-37  there  were  1,630  students  in  metallurgy 
in  53  colleges  in  the  United  States,  out  of  a  total  of 
7,190  students  registered  in  all  branches  of  mineral 
tcciinology,"  or  nearly  23  percent.  Of  these,  131  were 
graduate  students  who  made  up  30  percent  of  those 
working  for  an  advanced  degree.  Owing  to  a  shortage 
of  experienced  metallurgists  in  this  country,  registra- 
tion has  increased  considerably  in  the  past  0  or  S  years; 
in  the  53  schools  surveyed  by  Plank,  937  were  registered 
in  metallurgy  in  1933-34  and  1,630  in  1936-37. 

"  I'lank.  William  B.    Mineral  technology  schools  continue  to  grow.    Mining  and 
MetaUurgy,  IS,  414  (September  1937). 


There  has  been  consideral)lc  tiiscussioii  in  recent 
years  on  whether  or  not  metallurgical  education  in  the 
United  States  sets  as  high  a  standard  as  it  is  reasonably 
possible  to  attain  in  a  4-year  course.  According  to 
Stoughton,  "the  characteristics  most  conducive  to 
success  and  of  most  service  to  industry  which  a  stu- 
dent can  gain  in  college  and  which  ho  did  not  have 
before  are  judgment  and  self-con fitlencc  based  on  a 
knowledge  of  fundamentals."  In  this,  American  metal- 
lurgical education  apparently  has  not  been  wholly 
successful,  as  is  evident  from  a  reading  of  some  of  the 
publications  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Engineering  Education."  The  chief  difficulty  seems  to 
be  that  the  world  has  changed  so  fast  that  metallurgical 
curricula  have  not  kept  pace.  It  is  generally  recognized 
now  '^  that  in  addition  to  fundamentals  of  metallurgy, 

"  See  for  example,  Collected  papers  of  the  session  on  mining  and  metallurgical 
engineering.  Societij  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education,  Bulletin  11,  1-90 
(March  1934). 

i>  Lcscohier,  D.  D.  The  place  of  the  social  sciences  in  the  trainioR  of  cnRincers. 
See  footnote  14,  or  Journal  of  Engineering  Education,  H,  414-21  (FebrUMry  1934). 


llGURE  42. — Vacuum  E.xlractiou  Apparatus  for  Control  of  O.xidcs  in  tilccl,  Republic  Steel  Corporation,  Cleveland,  Ohio 


166 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


stressed  by  Stoughton,  the  <iraduate  metallurofist  needs 
a  basic  training  in  social  and  economic  science  if  he  is 
to  cope  adequately  with  any  problems  in  the  steel 
industry  except  fundamental  research.  How  he  is  to 
attain  such  trainiii<r  in  a  4-year  course  is  at  present  an 
unsolved  problem.  The  general  aspects  of  metallurgical 
education  and  its  relation  to  research  are  discussed  in 
detail  elsewhere  '"  so  that  further  attention  here  is 
unnecessary. 

Cooperative  Metallurgical  Research 

in  the  Iron  and  Steel 

Industry  of  Germany  and  England 

The  amount  of  cooperative  research  participated  m  or 
sponsored  by  the  American  iron  and  steel  industry  has 
increased  in  the  last  20  years,  but  it  is  still  considerably 
less  than  that  so  aided  in  Germany  and  Great  Britain. 
The  organization  of  cooperative  research  in  Germany 
and  England  is  frequently  held  \ip  as  exemplary  of  a  far- 
sighted  program  and  should  be  outlined  briefly. 

According  to  Speller,"  cooperative  research  in  Ger- 
many is  divided  into  fimdamental  research  and  the  prac- 
tical application  of  tliis  in  industry.  Fundamental 
research  is  carried  out  by  some  35  institutes,  supported 
jointly  by  industrj'  and  the  Government;  for  research  in 
ferrous  metallurgy,  the  Kaiser  Wilhebn  Institut  fiir 
Eisenforschimg  is  IcnowTi  all  over  the  world.  This  insti- 
tute, founded  in  Diisseldorf  in  1918,  is  financed  by  the 
iron  and  steel  industry  through  its  organization,  the 
Verein  deutscher  Eisenliiittenleute — only  the  salary  of 
the  director  is  paid  by  the  Government — and  the  work 
is  supervised  by  tcclinical  committees  of  the  Vcrem,  who 
also  assign  to  the  research  laboratories  of  the  various 
steel  companies  problems  which  are  not  suitable  for  the 
institute,  and  who  supervise  the  practical  application  in 
tiie  mills  of  fundamentals  worked  out  at  the  institute. 

Two  systems  of  cooperative  research  are  used  in  Eng- 
land. One,  a  joint  project  sponsored  by  the  British 
Iron  and  Steel  Institute  and  the  National  Federation  of 
Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturers,  is  devoted  to  research  of 
value  to  the  industry  as  a  whole.  Joint  committees 
select  the  problems  and  arrange  for  the  work  to  be  done 
by  qualified  scientists.  The  Iron  and  Steel  Institute 
contributes  a  small  amount  of  money  and  affords  a 
medium  for  publication;  most  of  the  financial  support 
comes  from  the  federation.  Splendid  work  has  been 
done  on  this  joint  project  over  the  past  15  years;  the 
best-known  reports  are  the  series  on  the  heterogeneity 
of  steel  ingots,  alreadj^  mentioned,  and  on  corrosion. 

The  other  principal  British  instrumentality  for  co- 
operative research  is  the  Department  of  Scientific  and 


"  GlUctt,  H.  W.  Metallurgical  research  as  a  national  resource.  This  volume, 
pp.  289-306;  Gibbons.  W.  A.    Careers  In  research.    This  volume,  pp.  108-119. 

"  Speller.  F.  N.  Cooperative  research  In  the  iron  and  steel  industry.  (Yearbook 
of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Institute.)  New  York,  American  Iron  and  Steel 
InstltQte,  1931,  p.  43. 


Industrial  Research  started  in  19 IG.  This  is  financed 
l>y  the  industries  concerned  and  by  the  Government, 
each  contributing  about  half.  Publication  is  possible 
only  by  permission  of  both  industry  and  Government.  • 
Only  a  small  number  of  the  problems  investigated  are 
metallurgical. 

Cooperative  Metallurgical  Research 
in  the  Iron  and  Steel 
Industry  of  the  United  States 

In  the  United  States,  most  cooperative  metallurgical 
research  was,  until  about  1925,  carried  out  by  the  var- 
ious technical  societies,  either  alone  or  in  cooperation 
with  industry  or  with  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards 
or  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines.  The  most  im- 
portant and  best-known  work  undertaken  in  this  way 
was  that  on  the  corrosion  of  sheet  steel  in  the  atmos- 
phere, by  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials, 
and  that  on  the  effect  of  temperature  on  the  properties 
of  metals,  by  a  joint  committee  of  the  American  Society 
for  Testing  Materials  and  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers.  Another  such  valuable  coopera- 
tive project  is  the  study  of  soil  corrosion  of  pipe,  which 
has  been  under  way  for  10  years  at  the  National  Bureau 
of  Standards  with  the  cooperation  of  the  pipe  manu- 
facturers. The  iron  and  steel  industry  cooperated  in 
these  projects  by  supplying  materials  and  the  services 
of  technical  men  and,  in  some  cases,  by  contributions  of 
money.  There  is  one  large  endowed  organization, 
Battelle  Memorial  Institute,  which  is  equipped  to  under- 
take a  variety  of  research  problems  for  trade  associa- 
tions or  uadividual  companies — who  supply  most  of  the 
funds,  while  the  institute  supplies  the  facilities  and  the 
supervision — and  its  endowment  permits  it  to  undertake 
considerable  misponsoreil  metallurgical  research. 

There  are  three  relatively  large  cooperative  research 
projects  in  ferrous  metallurgy  in  this  country  which 
have  received  much  favorable  comment  throughout  the 
world.  The  first  of  these,  established  in  1926  and 
completed  in  1934,  was  organized  to  supervise  research 
in  steel  manufacture;  this  was  conducted  by  the 
Metallurgical  Advisory  Board.  Most  of  the  funds  were 
supplied  by  the  steel  industry;  research  facilities  and 
scientific  and  other  personnel  were  supplied  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Mines  and  by  the  Carnegie 
Institute  of  Technology  of  Pittsburgh.  Work  done 
under  this  project  on  the  physical  chemistiy  of  steel 
making  has  been  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  valuable 
fundamental  researches  in  steel  making  ever  attempted. 

The  other  two  projects,  .(Vlloys  of  Iron  Research  and 
Welding  Research,  were  organized  by  The  Engineering 
Foundation  and  sponsored  by  the  American  Institute  of 
Mining  and  Metallurgical  Engineers,  and  by  the 
American  Welding  Society  and  the  American  Institute 
of  Electrical  Engineers,  respectively.     These  two  proj- 


Industrial  Research 


167 


ects  are  financed  largely  by  industry,  by  research 
institutes,  Government  bureaus,  and  by  relatively  large 
appropriations  from  The  Engineering  Foundation's 
income  from  endowment. 

Alloys  of  Iron  Research  is  a  project  for  reviewing  the 
important  research  work  of  the  world  on  carbon  and 
alloy  steels  and  plain  and  alloy  cast  irons,  as  reported 
in  the  technical  literature  of  all  coujitries,  and  for  sum- 
marizmg  and  correlating  the  data  in  a  series  of  15 
monographs,  of  which  11  have  been  published.  The 
cost  of  this  project,  which  was  started  in  1930,  is  about 
$25,000  a  j'car.  Several  hundred  metallurgists  have 
contributed  enough  of  their  time  to  review  and  criticize 
before  publication  chapters  of  the  monographs  dealing 
with  subjects  in  which  they  are  especially  expert.  The 
primary  object  of  the  monographs  is  to  eliminate  long 
and  costly  searches  of  the  literature  by  research 
workers,  to  obviate  duplication  of  research  work  which 
has  been  reported  in  obscure  or  inaccessible  journals, 
and  to  encourage  research  to  fiU  the  gaps  in  our  knowl- 
edge of  ferrous  materials. 

Welding  Research,  also  under  the  direction  of  a 
technical  committee,  is  reviewing  the  literature  on 
welding  of  ferrous  and  nonferrous  materials,  but  unlike 
Alloys  of  Iron  Research  it  is  publishing  its  literature 
survey  as  frequent  brief  digests  of  a  specific  field.     It 


sponsors  and  supervises  laboratory  research  in  welding 
which  is  being  carried  out  in  a  number  of  universities  and 
plants.     Its  budget  is  appro.ximately  $20,000  per  year. 

Contributions  of  the  Manufacturers 

of  Alloying  Metals  to 

Research  in  the  Iron  and  Steel  Industry 

The  several  comj)anies  in  the  United  States — and  in 
other  countries  as  well — which  produce  nickel,  chromi- 
um, molybdenum,  tungsten,  silicon,  copper,  titanium, 
and  other  alloying  elements,  either  as  the  relatively 
pure  metals  or  as  ferroalloys,  and  sell  these  materials  to 
the  iron  and  steel  industry  for  the  manufacture  of  alloy 
steels  and  cast  irons  have  been  large  contributors  to  the 
advancement  of  knowledge  in  the  iron  and  steel  in- 
dustry. All  these  manufacturers  maintain  well- 
equipped  research  laboratories,  staffed  by  competent 
men,  and  carry  out  a  large  volume  of  important 
research  work.  Research  by  the  manufacturers  of 
alloying  metals  is  directed  primarily  toward  finding  new 
uses  for  their  metals,  in  other  words  toward  selling 
more  of  their  product.  All  of  them,  however,  have  a 
liberal  policy  of  publication  of  the  results  of  their 
research  in  the  technical  journals,  thus  inviting  discus- 
sion, not  only  by  metallurgists  of  steel  manufacturers 
but  also  of  competitors. 


Figure  43. — Apparatus  for  Spectrographic  Kxamination  of  Steel,  Bethlehem  Steel  Company,  Betliiehem,  Pennsylvania 


168 


A'ational  litsources  I'lanning  Board 


Most  of  llie  maiiufacliircMs  of  alloying:  metals  publish 
moiitiily  niagnziiics  wliicli  alToid  prompt  and  wide 
(iissemiiialion  of  data  of  value  to  metallurgists  in  the 
iron  and  steel  industry.  Most  important,  however, 
are  the  handbooks  published  by  the  manufacturers  of 
alloying  metals  and  b}'  some  of  the  steel  companies. 
These  books  arc  unique  in  advertising,  because  they 
are  important  sources  of  valuable  data  obtained  by 
research.  The  role  of  these  publications  in  the  Ameii- 
can   iron   and  steel   industry   is  stated  accurateh'   by 

Gillctt:  '« 

The  ultimate  purpose  of  handbooks  of  this  tj'pe  is  to  sell 
steel,  and  specifically  the  steels  made  by,  or  using  the  elements 
sold  by,  the  firm  that  prepares  the  book.  Po.'^sibly  there  comes 
in  also  the  a-speet  of  self-protection  against  complaints  that 
would  be  avoided  by  more  understanding  of  fundamentals  and 
hence,  more  intelligent  use  by  the  purchaser.  At  any  rate,  the 
dissemination  of  sound  technical  information  is  considered  so 
important  that  such  handbooks  have  ceased  to  be  mere  catalogs 
and  reiterations  of  the  virtues  of  "Three  Star  Double  Extra" 
brand,  and  contain  not  only  data  but  discussions  of  metallurgical 
principles  that  are  often  far  from  being  kindergarten  subjects. 
These  di.scussions  must  be  brief,  clear  and  correct,  for  the 
presti((.e  of  the  firm  is  involved.  Few  text  books  are  written 
with  the  care  for  correct  phraseology  that  one  meets  in  these 
books.  Consequently,  the  student  as  well  as  the  practicing 
metallurgist  values  them  highly — and  they  deserve  to  be  highly 
valued. 

Research  for  New  Markets  by  the 
Manufacturers  of  Alloying  Metals 

As  noted  in  a  previous  section  (p.  164), approximately 
50  percent  of  the  money  appropriated  for  research  by 
the  iron  and  steel  industry  of  the  United  States  is 
spent  for  developing  new  products  and  new  uses  and 
markets  for  old  products;  during  the  past  20  years, 
practically  all  the  money  appropriated  for  research  by 
the  manufacturers  of  alloying  metals  has  been  spent 
for  this  purpose. 

Almost  immediately  after  it  was  discovered  that 
nickel  and  chromium  increase  the  strength,  hardness, 
and  resistance  to  impact  of  carbon  steels,  steel  contain- 
ing these  two  metals  was  used  for  armor  plate  and 
ordnance  and  caused  a  revolution  in  ofTensive  and 
defensive  naval  warfare  in  the  first  decade  of  this 
century.  The  expanding  armament  programs  of  all 
nations,  which  culminated  in  the  First  World  War, 
demanded  such  large  quantities  of  these  alloying 
metals,  especially  nickel,  that  the  primary  object  of 
practically  all  research  before  1920  was  to  increase 
production  and  to  reduce  cost. 

Nickel  production  increased  from  10,000  short  tons 
in  1900  to  50,000  short  tons  in  1917,  about  half  of  which 
went  into  armament.  With  the  end  of  the  war  came 
the  collapse,  and  world  ])roduetion  of  nickel  ilropped  to 


about  10,000  tons,  the  1900  level.  It  became  painfully 
apparent  about  1920  that  no  permanent  benefit  would 
be  derived,  either  by  the  manufacturers  of  the  alloying 
metals  or  by  the  steel  industry  as  a  wliole,  from  metals 
whose  most  important  application  was  armament.  As 
a  result,  extensive  research  was  begun  to  find  new  and 
peacetime  uses  for  these  metals.  That  this  research 
has  been  successful  is  apparent  from  a  study  of  the 
statistics  of  production  of  alloy  steels  in  the  United 
States  during  the  period  (1920-35)  when  practically 
no  armament  was  made.  In  1920  alloy-steel  produc- 
tion was  1.5  million  tons,  in  1937  it  was  3.2  million  tons, 
which  went  into  automobiles,  railway  rolling  stock, 
ship-building,  oil-refining  equipment,  power-generating 
machinery,  tools,  agricultural  equipment,  architectural 
trim  and  building  construction,  electric-heating  appli- 
ances, and  many  other  products. 

Between  1920  and  1937,  The  International  Nickel 
Company  alone  spent  approximately  $18,750,000  in 
development  and  research  to  create  peacetime  uses  for 
nickel."  During  that  time,  the  yearly  production  of 
nickel  increased  from  10,000  to  125,000  short  tons,  of 
which  only  3  to  5  percent  was  used  in  steel  for  arma- 
ments between  1920  and  1935.  Even  in  1937,  when 
Europe  had  begun  to  rearm  on  a  large  scale,  less  than 
8  percent  of  the  world's  supply  of  nickel  was  used  in 
armaments.^"  Research  by  The  International  Nickel 
Company  and  by  manufacturers  of  other  alloying 
metals  has  developed  peacetime  uses  for  their  products 
to  the  point  that  complete  world  disarmament  would 
not  cause  a  ripple  in  their  yearly  production;  it  would, 
in  fact,  even  be  welcomed  because,  as  Stanley  pointed 
out,^'  "organization  for  war  has  had  a  depressive  rather 
than  a  stimulating  effect  on  total  nickel  consumption, 
since  the  loss  which  results  from  the  dislocation  of 
normal  industrial  routine  is  in  no  sense  compensated 
for  by  the  tonnage  consumed  in  armaments." 

Economic  Significance  of  Research 

in  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Industry 

The  principal  advances,  especially  in  processes  and 
materials,  that  have  resulted  from  research  in  the 
American  iron  and  steel  industry  have  been  discussed 
briefly  in  previous  sections  and  have  been  outlined  in 
greater  detail  elsewhere  in  this  book;"  hence,  only  a 
brief  summary  is  necessary  here. 

As  already  indicated,  the  first  and  most  important 
accomplishment  is  the  improvement  in  quality  with  no 


n  Gillctt,  n.  W.    D.  S.  S.  carlllo;  steels.    MelaU  and  Alloyt,  10,  MA  186  (March 
1939). 


"  Stanley,  R.  C.  Address  tn  shareholders.  The  Inlernational  Nickel  Co.,  March 
29.  1938. 

'•  I'mprietary  nickel  alloys.  Chemical  Aqc.  Mdallurtical  Stdlon,  S8,  8  (February 
5.  \'j:«). 

"  Stanley,  KoIhti  C.  The  nickel  indmlry  In  10.TS.  .-l/timinum  and  NunFerrniis 
Rtcim,  i.  «-6  (1938-39). 

n  Olllett,  H.  W.  Metallurrical  research  as  a  national  resource.  This  volumr, 
pp.  a-fS-SOS. 


Industrial  Research 


169 


significant  increase — indeed  in  some  cases  with  a 
decrease — in  cost.  This  has  been  especially  evident 
in  the  past  decade  and  has  affected  all  branches  of  the 
industry.  Pig  iron  is  more  uniform  in  composition  and 
quality  than  ever  before;  precision  melting  in  the 
basic  open-hearth  process,  with  instrument  control, 
with  slags  of  carefully  adjusted  composition,  and  with 
regulated  deo.xidation  to  produce  steels  of  specific 
grain  size,  is  now  common.  New  methods  for  exact 
control  of  the  Bessemer  process  and  for  improved  slag 
practice  are  being  used,  and  good  quality  free-machining 
steel  with  0.30  to  0.40  percent  of  sulfur  is  made 
regularly. 

Improvmg  the  quality  of  steel  without  a  significant 
increase  in  cost  to  the  consumer  is  an  accomplishment 
of  considerable  magnitude  as  the  stricter  metallurgical 
control  necessary  raises  the  basic  cost  of  the  material. 
According  to  White,"  unalloyed  steel  containing  0.25 
percent  of  carbon,  made  without  modern  metallurgical 
control  and  testing,  cost  $43.04  a  ton  in  1936.  The 
same  steel  made  with  complete  metallurgical  control 
and  testing,  costs  as  much  as  $60.48  a  ton,  a  possible 
increase  of  $17.44,  of  which  $3.23  represents  the  cost 
of  the  metallurgical  control  and  testing,  and  the 
remainder,  $14.21,  represents  the  increased  cost  of  the 
various  manufacturing  operations  owing  to  more  rigid 
quality  requirements. 

The  continuous  rolling  mill  has  been  responsible  for  a 
reduction  in  the  price  of  20-gage  sheet  steel  for  auto- 
mobile fenders  from  6  cents  a  pound  in  1923  to  3K  cents 
in  1936;  it  has  improved  the  quality  with  the  result  that 
the  deformation  possible  m  drawing  a  fender  crown 
has  increased  from  2%  inches  in  1923  to  16  to  18  inches 
in  1936.     Today,  only  the  nose  of  the  fender  is  polished, 

"White,  C.  M.  Technological  advances  in  steel  production.  (Yearbook  of  the 
American  Iron  and  Steel  Institute.)  New  York,  American  Iron  and  Steel  Institute, 
1937,  pp.  105-28. 


and  the  paint  consists  of  one  coat  of  primer  and  one 
coat  of  finish;  in  1923,  three  polishing  operations  and 
four  priming  and  finishing  coats  were  necessary.^* 

Research  in  corrosion  and  in  protective  coatings,  and 
the  development  of  alloy  steels,  have  more  than  doubled 
the  average  life  expectancy  of  all  iron  and  steel  m  the 
last  50  years.  In  1890,  the  average  life  was  15  years, 
in  1910  it  was  22  years,  and  in  1935  it  was  35.  A 
considerable  part  of  this  increase  is  due  to  higher  and 
more  uniform  quality,  with  fewer  early  failures. 

The  development  of  low-alloy  steels,  which  cost 
between  3J^  and  5  cents  a  pound  as  compared  with  2% 
cents  a  pound  for  unalloyed  structural  material,  has 
had — and  is  now  having — a  great  effect  on  the  design 
and  construction  of  railway  rolling  stock.  A  hopper 
car  constructed  of  low-alloy  steel  weighs  30,000  pounds 
and  carries  139,000  pounds  as  compared  with  a  weight 
of  44,000  pounds  and  carrying  capacity  of  125,000 
pounds  for  the  conventional  car.  This  is  equivalent 
to  converting  7  tons  of  dead  weight  into  revenue- 
producing  capacity.  Savings  accompanying  the  use  of 
higher  temperatures  and  pressures  in  power  generation 
and  in  oil  refining  are  even  more  spectacular  and  are 
due  almost  solely  to  the  development — much  of  it  in 
the  United  States — of  alloy  steels  which  resist  de- 
formation at  high  temperatures. 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  advances  in  the  iron  and 
steel  industry  of  the  United  States  in  the  past  15  or  20 
years  which  have  resulted  from  research.  The  list 
could  be  extended  almost  indefinitely;  enough  has  been 
said,  however,  to  show  that  research  in  the  iron  and 
steel  industry — which  has  certainly  only  begun — has 
had  a  strong  stimulative  effect  on  general  industrial 
progress  in  the  United  States. 

2'  Steel  makes  possible  new  styling  of  1937  mudcl  automobiles.  Sleet  Facts,  No.  16, 
3  (December  1936);  Quality  of  steels  has  increased  more  than  price  in  recent  years. 
No.  24.  4,  5  (February  1938). 


SECTION  IV 

LOCATION  AND  EXTENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  RESEARCH  ACTIVITY 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Contents 

Page 

Location  and  Extent  of  Industrial  Research  Activity  in  the  United  States  173 

Introduction  173 

Extent  of  Research  in  All  Industries  174 

Growth  and  Present  Status  of  Research  Employment  174 

Distribution  of  Research  Persoimel  by  Professions  176 

Establishment  of  Research  177 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Research  Laboratories  178 

Extent  of  Research  in  Individual  Industries  178 

Present  Research  Employment  in  Various  Industries  178 

Comparative  Research  Employment  in  Various  Industries:  1927-1938        178 

Relation  of  Research  to  Corporate  Size  179 

Distribution  of  Research  Establishments  by  Corporate  Size  179 

Distribution  of  Research  Persomiel  by  Corporate  Size  182 

Relation  of  Research  to  Sales  and  Net  Income  183 

Summary  and  Conclusions  185 

Bibliography  187 


171 


SECTION    IV 
LOCATION    AND    EXTENT    OF    INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH    ACTIVITY 

IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

By  Franklin  S.  Cooper 
Director  of  Research,  Haslcins  Laboratories,  Inc.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


ABSTRACT 


An  extensive  questionnaire  survey  relative  to  indus- 
trial research  has  been  conducted  by  the  National 
Research  Council.  The  results  have  been  analysed 
and  various  correlations  found.  A  total  of  2,350 
companies  reported  70,033  persons  engaged  in  technical 
research  in  American  industry.  Tliis  is  a  41  percent 
increase  over  the  personnel  reported  2  years  ago. 
Slightly  more  than  half  of  this  increase  represents  real 
growth.  The  remainder  is  due  to  the  increased  cover- 
age of  the  present  survey.  The  current  data  are 
combined  with  earlier  data  to  give  an  historical  chart 
of  the  growth  of  industrial  research  during  the  last  20 
years.  This  is  amplified  by  a  grapliical  representation 
of  the  "birth  rate"  of  industrial  research  since  1890, 
showing  the  rapid  establishment  of  research  during  the 
twenties  but  a  marked  slump  in  recent  years. 

The  relative  numbers  of  professionally  trained,  tech- 
nical, and  nontechnical  personnel  in  industrial  research 
is  found  to  be  approximately  as  2:1:1.  Most  of  the 
professionally  trained  workers  are  chemists  or  engineers. 

Charts  showing  the  research  personnel  in  the  various 


iiidustrios  serve  to  illustrate  the  very  great  disparity 
between  industries,  and  also  the  rate  of  growth  of 
research  witliin  a  given  industry. 

Correlations  are  established  between  the  financial 
size  (tangible  net  worth)  of  corporations  and  the 
number  of  research  personnel  employed.  These  illus- 
trate clearly  that  although  there  are  a  substantial 
number  of  small  and  medium-sized  corporations 
engaged  in  research,  the  total  research  efforts  measured 
by  number  of  workers,  is  relatively  small.  The  bulk 
of  the  industrial  research  effort  is  supported  by  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  large  corporations. 

Further  correlations  are  estabhshed  between  the 
number  of  research  personnel  and  the  sales  or  net 
income  of  corporations.  If  one  can  assume  an  "aver- 
age company,"  and  that  the  total  cost  of  research  is 
approximately  $4,000  per  man-year,  the  ratio  of 
research  expenditures  to  sales  is  0.6  percent  and  the 
ratio  to  net  income  is  6  percent. 

The  material  is  presented  in  graphical  form  witli  a 
brief  summary  at  the  end. 


Introduction 

In  this  section  '  will  be  presented  a  factual  descrip- 
tion intended  to  answer  questions  as  to  the  extent  of 
industrial  research  at  the  present  time,  and  as  to  the 
statistical  record  of  its  growth  to  present  stature. 
The  information  on  which  the  several  tables  and  charts 
are  based  has  been  provided  by  industry  itself.  The 
data  have  been  collected  by  means  of  questionnaires 
submitted  by  the  National  Research  Council  to  all 
companies  known  to  maintain  research  laboratories, 
and  to  a  large  number  of  other  industrial  orgamzations. 
The  survey  was  assisted  by  the  splendid  cooperation  of 
the  National  Association  of  Manufacturers,  which  also 


'  Detailed  procedures  of  handling  the  data  for  this  section  will  be  described  in 
footnotes,  where  this  is  considered  essential  to  a  proper  interpretation  of  the  material 
presented;  and  further,  where  this  treatment  differs  from  that  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  Industrial  Research  and  Changing  Technology  (Perazich,  G.,  and  Field.  P.  M. 
Industrial  research  and  changing  technology.  Philadelphia,  Pa..  Work  Projects 
.Administration,  National  Research  Project,  Report  No.  M-4,  1940).  Since  the 
report  just  cited  contains  thorough  descriptions  of  the  statistical  procedures,  these 
will  not  be  repeated  here. 


submitted  the  questionnaire  to  its  membership.  The 
individual  returns  reflect  the  diversity  of  research 
activity  tlirougliout  the  country,  and  illustrate,  among 
other  things,  the  looseness  of  definition  of  the  term 
"research."  ^ 

The  data  collected  in  this  way  are,  of  couree,  not 
complete.  Many  organizations  doing  research  have 
not  been  reached,  nor  are  the  returns  received  always 
comparable.  However,  it  is  believed  that  the  coverage 
is  quite  adequate  to  yield  a  representative  and  qualita- 
tively correct  picture  of  present  day  industrial  research. 

In  one  respect,  the  information  available  is  not 
precisely  of  the  nature  most  desirable  for  the  correla- 
tions attempted.  E.xpenditurcs  for  research  are  usually 
expressed  in  terms  of  money,  and  it  would  be  desirable 
to  present  the  survey  data  in  the  same  terms;  however, 

'  The  distinction  between  research  and  nonresearch  personnel  was  left  to  the 
individual  company  answering  the  (juestionnaire.  In  some  cases  this  resulted  In 
the  Inclusion  of  personnel  engaged  in  control  and  te-ting;  In  other  cases  even  develop- 
ment engineers  were  excluded. 

173 


174 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


the  information  available  from  the  questionnaire  '  does 
not  permit  this,  and  research  expenditures  througliout 
this  section  have  been  given  in  terms  of  man-years. 
Broadlj'  speaking,  this  is  translatable  to  dollar  expendi- 
tures, although  the  conversion  ratio  will  differ  from 
company  to  company,  and  industry  to  industry. 
Several  estimates  of  the  cost  per  man-year  of  research 
have  been  made  in  the  hterature,  and  this  subject  has 
received  some  further  investigation  in  other  sections  of 
the  present  survey.  The  generallj^  accepted  figures  lie 
in  the  region  of  $4,000.     In  a  few  cases,  dollar  expendi- 

■  The  questionnaire  used  by  the  National  Research  Council  has  been  reproduced  In 

Industrial  Research  and  Changing  Technology,  p.  55.    Sec  footnote  1,  p.  173.    Some 

slight  changes  were  made  between  193Sand  1940,  the  principal  effect  of  which  was  to 

modify  and  tocxtend  somewhat  the  classes  of  research  personnel  Included  in  the  totals. 

Question  8  of  the  1940  questionnaire  reads  as  follows: 

"8.  Total  number  of  laboratory  personnel  (sum  of  a,  b,  and  c  below) : 

"(a)  Number  of  professionally  trained  members  of  the  scientific  staff  (including 

Director  of  Research): . 

Cbemists: .    Physicists: .    Engineers: . 

Metallurgists: .    Biologists  and  bacteriologists: . 

other  professional  personnel  (classified,  if  convenient): . 

"(6)  Other  technical  personnel  not  included  above: . 

"(<;)  Administrative,  clerical,  maintenance  personnel,  etc. ." 

In  general,  the  classifications  of  research  personnel  reported  in  1938  and  1940  are  the 
same,  except  for  those  companies  which  in  1938  limited  themselves  to  the  equivalent 
of  classes  a  and  b  of  the  1940  questionnaire. 


ture  scales  appear  in  the  following  charts,  in  addition  to 
the  man-year  scales,  but  ui  general,  it  was  felt  wiser  to 
present  only  the  data  as  collected,  and  leave  the  inter- 
pretation to  the  reader. 

Extent  of  Research  in  All  Industries 

Growth  and  Present  Status  of 
Research  Employment 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  measure  of  the  growth 
of  research  is  the  number  of  workers  cnagaged  in  this 
activity.  That  this  is  so  merely  reflects  the  fact  that 
research  is  a  handicraft  industry  and,  while  the  quality 
and  quantity  of  achievement  coming  from  any  one 
person  or  from  any  single  gi'oup  may  differ  within  wide 
limits,  the  fact  remains  that  the  producing  unit  is  the 
individual  worker.  In  a  very  general  way,  the  technical 
training  of  the  individual  is  also  a  secondary  consider- 
ation, since  the  achievements  which  may  be  expected 
from  a  given  group  of  higlily  specialized  men  depends 
on  their  being  implemented  by  an  adequate  corps  of 
technical  workers.  The  ratio  of  professionally  trained 
workers  to  teclmical  assistants  will,  of  course,  vary 
from  laboratory  to  laboratorj',  but,  assuming  that  each 


PERSONNEL   EMPLOYED  IN    INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH:  1920-1940 


60,000 


50,000 


40,000 


z 
z 
o 

U) 
(E 


o-     30,000 


< 


20,000 


10,000 


_L 


_L 


I 


1920      1921 


1927 


1933 


1938 


1931 

OATES  OF  NRG    SURVEYS 
NOTE     THE  UPPER  CURVE   SHOWS   TOTAL   RESEARCH  PERSONNEL   AS  REPORTED   TO  THE   NATIONAL   RESEARCH  COUNCIL 
(SEE  HOWEVER  FOOTNOTE  4)    THE    LOWER  CURVE   SHOWS  THE  CORRESPONDING   DATA  FOR  A   SAMPLE  GROUP  OF 
200  IDENTICAL   COMPANIES  WHICH  REPORTED   THROUGHOUT   THE   PERIOD 


1940 


FiouaB  44. — Personnel  Employed  in  Industri&l  Research:  1920-40 


Industrial  Research 


175 


has  arrived  at  the  optimum  ratio,  the  net  achievement 
to  be  expected  may  still  be  estimated  roughly  from  the 
total  number  of  workers. 

In  figure  44  is  shown  the  growth  of  research  employ- 
ment for  the  years  1920-40,  as  reported  to  the  National 
Research  Coimcil.  The  "Research  Personnel"  repre- 
sents the  total  number  of  employees  reported  as  engaged 
in  or  assisting  with  technical  research,  except  as  noted 
below.*  The  upper  curve  relates  to  all  of  those  com- 
panies which  reported  in  the  various  surveys,  and 
represents  therefore  an  over-all  figure  for  research 
employment. 

The  lower  curve  of  figure  44  indicates  the  trend 
toward  increased  research  staffs  in  existing  laboratories. 
It  shows  the  number  of  research  employees  °  of  200 

*  These  figures  are  drawn  from  questionnaire  surveys  conducted  by  the  National 
Research  Council  in  1920,  1921,  1927,  1931,  1933,  1938,  and  1940.  In  a  general  way, 
these  surveys  are  comparable.  There  has,  however,  been  a  continuing  increase  in 
the  number  of  organizations  covered,  particularly  during  the  period  1921-27.  Slight 
changes  in  the  wording  of  the  questionnaire  in  1938  and  again  in  1940  have  resulted 
in  the  inclusion  of  previously  unreported  classifications  of  research  personnel.  Con- 
sequently, the  data  shown  in  figure  44  for  1938  and  1940  have  been  adjusted  to  reflect 
the  actual  growth  in  those  classifications  reported  in  previous  surveys.  This  has  been 
done  by  the  exclusion  of  the  classes  of  personnel  first  covered  in  1938  and  1940.  The 
resulting  totals  will  be  referred  to  as  "comparable  totals." 

The  data  utilized  in  the  preparation  of  figures  44,  47,  49,  and  50  has  been  drawn  in 
part  or  entirely  from  tabulations  published  in  Industrial  Research  and  Changing 
Technology  (see  footnote  1),  which  is  based  on  the  National  Research  Council  surveys 
of  1920-38. 

•  The  number  of  employees  in  1938  and  1940  have  been  adjusted  for  comparability, 
as  explained  in  footnote  4. 


identical  companies  which  reported  throughout  tho 
period  1921-40.  This  group  of  companies  contains 
representatives  of  all  industrial  classifications. 

Both  curves  show  a  rapid  increase  between  1920  and 
1931,  a  considerable  drop  between  1931  and  1933,  and 
further  increases  between  1933  and  1940.  The  total 
for  all  companies  (upper  curve),  deviates  sharply  from 
the  total  for  identical  companies  during  the  early  years, 
duo  principally  to  the  effect  on  the  upper  curve  of  the 
increased  coverage  of  later  survej's.  The  over-all  rate  of 
growth  between  1921  and  1940  is  approximately  10  per- 
cent per  year  for  all  companies  (upper  curve),  and  5  per- 
cent per  year  for  the  identical  companies  (lower  curve). 

The  over-all  growth  (upper  curve  of  figure  44)  can  be 
broken  into  four  components:  (1)  The  increase  in  per- 
sonnel employed  by  those  laboratories  which  have  main- 
tained and  reported  research  tliroughout  the  period 
covered;  (2)  The  increase  in  personnel  due  to  the  estab- 
hshmcnt  of  new  laboratories;  (3)  the  apparent  increase 
in  personnel  resulting  from  the  increased  coverage  of 
succeeding  surveys;  (4)  the  apparent  increase  in  person- 
nel due  to  the  inclusion  in  recent  surveys  of  additional 
classifications  of  research  workers.  Components  (3) 
and  (4)  represent  an  apparent  rather  than  a  real 
growth." 

'  However,  component  (4)  has  been  excluded  from  figure  44.    See  footnote  4. 


THE    INCREASE   OF    RESEARCH   PERSONNEL    BETWEEN  1938    AND 
I940i  RELATIVE    IMPORTANCE   OF   THE    VARIOUS   COMPONENTS 

TOTAL    RESEARCH    PERSONNEL 

70,033 


49,467 


1940 


1938 
1 

REAL    GROWTH 

INCREASED  STAFF  OF  PREVIOUSLY  REPORTED  LABORATORIES 

PERSONNEL  OF  LABORATORIES  ESTABLISHED   1938-1940 

APPARENT    GROWTH 
PERSONNEL  OF  LABORATORIES  FIRST  REPORTED  IN  1940 

NEW  CLASSIFICATIONS  OF  PERSONNEL 

TOTAL  INCREASE 


20%  OVER    1938 
1%  OVER    1938 

11%  OVER    1938 
9%  OVER    1938 


41%   OVER    1938 


Figure  45. — Tbe  Increase  of  Research  Personnel  Between  1938  and  1940;  Relative  Importance  of  the  Various  Components 


176 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


The  relative  importiincc  of  those  four  components  in 
accounting  for  the  41  percent  increase  of  research 
personnel  between  193S  and  1940  is  shown  in  figure  45. 
Shghtly  over  half  of  the  total  increase  represents  real 
growth.  It  is  evident  that  this  is  due  almost  o.xchisivclj' 
to  the  increase  in  size  of  staff  of  existing  laboratories. 
It  might  be  expected  that  newly  organized  laboratories 
would  be  started  with  comparatively  small  staffs. 
Furthermore,  such  laboratories  are  easily  missed  by  a 
questionnaire  survey.  Even  so,  the  very  small  showing 
made  by  newlj'  organized  laboratories  suggests  tliat 
industrial  research,  considered  as  a  resource,  is  not  being 
expanded  in  one  of  the  two  ways  in  wliich  growth 
might  be  expected,  namel}',  the  extension  of  research 
to  new  industrial  organizations,  as  contrasted  with  the 
expansion  of  research  where  it  already  exists.  This 
will  be  discussed  further  in  connection  with  figure  46. 

Distribution  of  Research  Personnel 
by  Professions 

The  relative  importance  of  the  various  professions  in 
industrial  research  is  a  subject  of  some  interest.  It 
should  be  of  particular  significance  in  assisting  universi- 
ties to  guide  their  technically  minded  students  into 
fields  where  there  is  expected  to  be  a  demand  for 
workoi-s.     Studies  on  this  subject  have  pre\-iousl3-  been 


made,'  and  tiie  results  presented  iierewith  do  not  dilfer 
significantly',  but  do  serve  to  bring  the  subject  up  to 
date. 

Table  1  contains  an  analysis  of  the  professions  repre- 
sented in  industrial  research,  and  shows  both  the 
number  and  the  relative  importance  of  various  pro- 
fessions.* The  very  large  role  played  b}'  chemists  and 
engineers  is  clearly  significant,  even  though  it  may  be 
debatable  whether  the  number  of  chemists  and  engi- 

Table  1. — Occupational  classification  of  industrial  research 
personnel 


Typo  of  personnel 

Professionally  trained: 

Cliemists 

Physicists 

Engineers 

Metallurgists 

Biologists  and  bacteriologists 

Other  professional.. 

Total  professional 

other  technical 

Administrative,  clerical,  maintenance,  etc. 

Total : 


Number 


15,700 

2,030 

14,980 

1.955 

979 

909 


36,553 
16,400 
17,080 


70.033 


Percent 


22.4 
2.9 

21.4 
2.8 
1.4 
1.3 


52.2 
23.4 
24.4 


'  Industrial  research  and  changing  technology,  pp.  11-14,  78-79.    See  footnote  1. 

'  For  convenience,  the  number  of  workers  in  table  1  has  been  adjusted  to  equal 
the  total  number  of  research  personnel  reported  for  19<0.  by  computation  from  the 
percent  distribution.  The  latter  Is  based  on  the  following  representative  sample: 
1,699  companies  employing  43,748  personnel,  comprising  62.5  percent  of  the  folal 
personnel  reported  in  1940. 


THE 


"BIRTH   RATE" 


OF    INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH 


100 


z 
o 


^    > 


Z 
3 


X 

u 

t-  Ui 


o 
a. 
a: 
o 
o 


a: 

lU 
CD 

Z 
=> 
z 


1900 


Figure  46  —The  "Birth  Rate' 


1920 
of  Industrial  Research 


1940 


Industrial  Research 


177 


ncers  in  industrial  research  indicates  unusual  opportuni- 
ties in  these  fiehls  or  whether  it  represents  a  compara- 
tively large  supply  of  trained  workere  from  which  men 
are  drawn  for  jobs  not  strictly  in  line  with  their  training. 
It  is  perhaps  worth  noting  that  the  total  number  of 
professionally  trained  pei-sonncl  is  in  excess  of  the 
number  of  other  technical  and  nontechnical  people 
engaged  in  research.'  Whether  or  not  this  represents 
the  actual  situation  may  be  open  to  some  question,  but 
it  does  suggest  that  the  data  used  for  this  study  relate 
rather  closely  to  a  high  grade  of  technical  work,  and 
that  the  research  emplojTnent  data  have  not  been  over- 
loaded with  nonresearch  personnel. 

Establishment  of  Research 

If  one  turns  from  the  personnel  engaged  in  research 
to  a  consideration  of  the  number  of  laboratory  units 
involved,  the  data  show  that  some  2,350  companies 
have  reported  a  total  of  3,4S0  laboratories.'"  A  number 
of  these  companies  are  subsidiaries  of  other  corporations 

'  The  distribution  between  professional  and  nonprofessional  personnel  as  shown 
in  table  1  dISers  from  tha,t  reported  in  Industrial  Research  and  Changing  Technology. 
See  footnote  1.  The  difference  is  due  principally  to  inclusion  in  the  1940  survey 
of  classifications  of  research  workers  not  included  previously.    See  footnote  3. 


and,  grouping  these,  there  are  2,210  corporate  units  " 
which  consider  research  to  be  a  recognized  policy  of 
the  management. 

The  history  of  industrial  research  in  the  United 
States  is,  in  large  part,  the  history  of  the  establislmient 
of  research  by  these  managements.  This  is  shown  in 
figure  40  as  the  number  '^  of  corporate  imits  which  intro- 
duced research  as  a  recognized  function  in  each  year 
since  1890.  It  is  obvious  that  the  character  of  research 
has  varied  consid(>rably  since  the  early  laboratories 
were  established.  This  should  not  obscure  the  fact 
that,  well  before  1900,  a  certain  nimiber  of  industrialists 
had  concluded  that  organized  technical  fact-finding 
was  a  desirable  activity  for  their  organizations.  Nvi- 
merous  cases  have  been  reported  where  the  original 


<'  In  this  connection,  "laboratory"  is  interpreted  as  the  physical  unit  in  which  re- 
search work  is  done.  Major  divisions  of  the  research  activities  of  a  large  company 
have  been  counted  as  separate  laboratories.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  distinction 
between  "company"  and  "division"  is  frequently  merely  a  formal  one.  For  the 
above  reasons,  the  data  jiiven  for  numbers  of  companies  and  laboratories  should  not 
be  interpreted  ton  literally. 

'1  I.  e..  The  parent  company  together  with  all  subsidiaries. 

I*  Testing  and  consulting  laboratories  and  trade  association  laboratories  have  not 
been  included  in  figure  46.  With  this  omission,  the  total  number  of  corporate  units 
reported  is  1,789.  Of  these,  figure  46  includes  1,338.  The  sample  appears  adequate 
to  Indicate  trends. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION  OF  INDUSTRIAL 
RESEARCH    LABORATORIES 


EfiC-"   D0~  c  =  s  =  :5e.jTS  ONE   LABQPATOP' 


Figure  47. — Geographical  Distribution  of  Industrial  Research  Laboratories:    1940 


178 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


laboratory  was  little  more  than  a  raw  materials  and 
factor}'  control  proup,  but  has  since  developed  into  a 
"research"  prroiip  of  the  highest  caliber.  There  is  an 
unmistakable  peak  in  the  rate  at  wliirli  industry  became 
research-conscious  beginning  with  the  war  years,  and 
extending  into  the  1930's.  That  this  rate  of  establish- 
ment has  dropped  off  in  more  recent  years  is  equally 
apparent." 

The  reasons  for  this  decrease  in  the  rate  of  adoption 
of  research  by  new  managements  are  not  entirely  clear. 
They  may  relate  to  general  business  conditions,  to  a 
saturation  of  the  demand  for  research,  or  to  entirely 
different  causes.  The  trend  might  possibly  be  inter- 
preted as  a  saturation  of  the  opportunities  for  research, 
were  it  not  for  the  small  fraction  of  industry  which  is  so 
engaged.  In  any  case,  here  is  a  possible  opportunity 
for  constructive  effort  in  broadening  the  base  of 
industrial  research. 

Geographical  Distribution  of 
Research  Laboratories 

The  map,  figure  47,  indicates  very  clearly  the  con- 
centration of  industrial  research  laboratories  near  the 
large  industrial  centers,  with  special  emphasis  on  the 
Eastern  seaboard.  Each  dot  represents  one  laboratory. 
Divisional  laboratories  of  the  same  company  are 
shown  individually  wherever  they  are  geographically 
separate. 

Extent  of  Research  in 
Individual  Industries 

Present  Research  Employment  in 
Various  Industries 

A  comparison  of  the  relative  amounts  of  research  in 
the  various  industries  reveals  some  striking  contrasts. 
In  figure  48,  the  individual  bars  represent  the  expendi- 
tures for  research  measured  in  man-years  by  various 
industrial  groups."  A  rough  estimate  of  the  dollar 
expenditures  can  be  made  by  using  $4,000  as  an  average 
for  the  total  cost  of  research  per  man-year.  Outstand- 
ing examples  of  research-minded  industries  are  the 
chemical,  petroleum,  and  electrical  groups.  Motor 
vehicles  and  rubber,  considered  together,  also  rank  high . 

»  As  mentioned  on  page  176  the  method  of  collectinp  data  for  this  survey  tends  to 
underrate  the  number  of  small  companies  which  have  recently  established  research 
laboratories.  On  the  other  hand,  the  1940  survey  ha-s  pone  far  beyond  any  of  the 
previous  surveys  in  an  attempt  to  discover  companies  not  previously  reported.  In 
fact,  an  attempt  was  made  to  canvass  all  of  the  million-dollar  (and  larper)  manufac- 
turing companies  in  the  country.  Ilence,  it  Is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  small 
number  of  recently  established  laboratories  is  not  primarily  duo  to  incomplete  data, 
except  in  the  case  of  companies  under  a  million  dollars  (capitalisation). 

'*  The  in<]ustrial  groups  follow,  in  penoral,  the  United  States  Census  of  Manufac- 
tures classification  (U.  S.  Department  of  Commerce.  Bureau  of  the  Census.  Biennial 
census  of  manufacturers.  Washington,  U.  S.  Government  Printing  Office).  There 
are,  however,  some  difTerences.  The  exact  composition  of  the  groups  is  discussed  in 
Industrial  Research  and  Changing  Technology.  See  footnote  1.  Some  of  the  in- 
dustrial groups  might  appropriately  be  consolidated,  as  for  example,  "radio  apparatus 
and  phonographs"  with  "electrical  communication."  This  was  not  done  in  order  to 
present  the  present  data  on  a  basis  strictly  comparable  with  that  of  the  eailier  and 
more  detailed  report  cited  above. 


Comparative  Research  Employment  in 
Various  Industries:  1927-1938 

The  rate  of  growth  of  research  in  the  various  in- 
dustrial groups  is  showTi  by  figure  49,  which  compares 
research  employment  "  for  the  2  years  1927  and  1938. 
This  permits  also  an  examination  of  the  extent  of 
research  in  various  industries  at  each  of  these  two  dates. 
Of  the  industries  prominent  in  research,  petroleum 
shows  by  far  the  most  rapid  growth  during  this  eleven 
year  period.  Radio  and  foods  have  also  rapidly 
expanded  their  research  staffs. 

Both  figures  48  and  49  represent  the  total  research 
expenditure  by  the  industry,  but  without  considering 
disparity  in  size  between  industries.  If  one  wishes  to 
compare  one  industry  with  another  on  the  basis  of 
rcsearch-mindedness  alone,  the  differences  in  size 
should  be  taken  into  account.  This  has  been  at- 
tempted in  figure  50,  wliere  the  bars  represent  research 
expenditure  '"  as  a  percentage  of  the  dollar  value  of  the 
products  of  the  industry.  This  is  perhaps  a  crude 
method  of  adjusting  all  industries  to  the  same  base, 
but  the  errors  introduced  in  this  way  are  small  as  com- 
pared with  the  actual  differences  in  the  degree  of 
utilization  of  research.  It  is  interesting  that  some  of 
the  industries  which  lead  in  researcli  employment  drop 
to  somewhat  lower  ratings  when  the  size  of  the  industry 
is  taken  into  account,  whereas  other  industries  such  as 
radio  and  stone,  clay  and  glass  appear  to  better 
advantage. 

Summarizing  the  above  data  on  the  distribution  of 
research  by  industries,  the  one  outstanding  fact  is  the 
enormous  discrepancies  in  the  extent  to  which  research 
is  utilized.  Without  question,  the  opportunities  and 
the  needs  differ  from  industrv  to  industrj',  but  it  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  the  differences  in  opportunity 
can  be  so  large.  Moreover,  the  examples  of  rapid  re- 
search expansion  which  have  recently  been  set  hj  such 
long  established  industries  as  food  and  paper  indicate 
that  the  industrial  research  technique  is  widely  applica- 
ble. It  would  appear  that  fertile  fields  for  increasing 
the  Nation's  wealth  might  well  be  developed  by  the 
encouragement  of  research  throughout  the  entire 
industrial  structure. 


"In  comparing  figures  48  and  49  the  heights  of  the  bars  of  figure  48  should  be  reduced 
to  the  mark  near  the  top  of  the  bar.  This  Is  because  figure  48  represents  total  employ- 
ment, whereas  figure  49  shows  the  "comparable  totals"  referred  to  lo  footnote  4.  The 
latter  totals  are  indicated  in  figure  48  by  the  mark  on  the  bat. 

i>  Research  expenditures  were  computed  on  the  basis  of  $4.(X)0  total  cost  per  man- 
year.  This  is  oiwn  to  the  obvious  objection  that  the  figure  used  applies,  strictly 
speaking,  to  1910  and  not  to  either  1938  or  1927.  Even  (or  1910  It  represents  a  rough 
average  for  all  industries,  leveling  the  dillereneos  between  individual  industries. 

The  choice  of  the  dollar  value  of  output  rather  than  the  value  added  by  manufac- 
ture as  a  basis  of  comparison  between  industries  is  oix-n  to  the  same  objections  as  the 
common  method  of  expressing  research  in  terms  of  sales,  namely  that  certain  indus- 
tries handle  large  amounts  of  materials  but  perform  only  minor  manufacturing 
o|>eralions  on  these  materials,  whereas  in  other  industries,  the  reverse  is  true.  This 
objection  is  valid  only  to  the  extent  that  research  Is  a  more  valuable  tool  for  perfecting 
manufacturing  procedures  than  for  eflecting  economies  and  Improvements  In 
materials. 


Industrial  Research 


179 


Relation  of  Research  to  Corporate  Size  certain  minimum  of  financial  resources  before  its  cost 

Distribution  of  Research  Establishments  could  be  justified.     With  research,  however,  there  are 

by  Corporate  Size  numerous  cases  where  manufacturing  is  a  direct  out- 

The  research  function,  Uke  many  other  speciaUzed  growth  of  product  or  process  development  so  that  the 

corporate  acti\"ities,  might  be  expected   to  require  a  research    function    appears    in    comparatively    small 


INDUSTRY 

FOOD   AND  KINDRED   PRODUCTS 

TEXTILES  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 

FOREST  PRODUCTS 

PAPER  AND  ALLIED  PRODUCTS 

CHEMICALS  AND  ALLIED  PRODUCTS 

PETROLEUM  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURES 

RUBBER    PRODUCTS 

LEATHER  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURES 

STONE, CLAY.AND  GLASS  PRODUCTS 

IRON  AND  STEEL  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS, 
EXCLUDING    MACHINERY 

NONFERROUS  METALS  AND  THEIR 
PRODUCTS 

AGRICULTURAL    IMPLEMENTS 
INCLUDING   TRACTORS 

ELECTRICAL   MACHINERY,  APPARATUS 
AND  SUPPLIES 

RADIO   APPARATUS  AND  PHONOGRAPHS 
ALL  OTHER'MACHINERY 

MOTOR   VEHICLES, BODIES.AND  PARTS 

ALL  OTHER  TRANSPORTATION 
EQUIPMENT 

ELECTRICAL  COMMUNICATION 

UTILITIES     GAS,LIGHT,AND  POWER 

CONSULTING   AND  TESTING 
LABORATORIES 

TRADE  ASSOCIATIONS 
MISCELLANEOUS 


TOTAL    RESEARCH    PERSONNEL :  1940 


1000 


2000 


3000 


4000 


5000 


y'fjjj  'rrfnffrffnfftrf>}rff ' 


z//y/x/xxx.x^x^x///y/'X'/y^;^/^///y^/vy^^^^ 


661 


1000 


2000 


3000 


4000 


5000 


FiGTRE  48. — -Research  Employment  in  Various  Industries:  1940.     The  marks  on  the  bars  indicate  values  comparable  with  those  of 

figure  49.     See  footnote  15. 
321 R3.- — Jl 13 


180 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


organizations.  Moreover,  the  technology  of  certain 
industries  requires  the  services  of  liiglily  specialized 
control  and  development  personnel,  and  these  are  fre- 
quently reported  as  engaged  in  research. 

"  St«  footnote  1 1  for  dennltlon. 

»  Since  the  research-flnandal  relationsbips  of  commercial  laboratories  and  trade 
associations  differ  so  markedly  from  those  of  Industry  In  general,  these  organliatlons 
have  been  excluded  (rom  figures  SI  to  S3. 


The  relative  numbers  of  corporate  units  "  "  utihzing 
research  are  shown  in  figure  51,  grouped  according  to 
"financial  size,"  i.  e.  tangible  net  worth." 

'■  Tangible  net  worth  ratings  were  derived  from  balance  sheet  data  given  lo 
Moody's  Industrials  (1939).  The  rating  equals  net  worth  (reserves  excluded)  less 
Intangible  assets  (patents,  goodwill,  etc.).  lo  most  cases  Involving  subsidiary  com- 
panies, the  consolidated  balance  sheet  for  the  parent  company  was  used,  considering 
this  to  represent  the  floanclal  strength  of  a  management  which  malotaioed  resrarcb 


RESEARCH     PERSONNEL:    I927an<j  1938 
1000  20.00  3Q00  40,00 


5000 


FOOD  AND  KINDRED  PRODUCTS 
TEXTILES  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 
FOREST   PRODUCTS 

PAPER   AND  ALLIED    PRODUCTS 
CHEMICALS  AND  ALLIED    PRODUCTS 

PETROLEUM  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURES 

RUBBER     PRODUCTS 

LEATHER  AND  ITS  MANUFACTURES 

STONE, CLAY.AND  GLASS  PRODUCTS 

IRON  AND  STEEL  AND  THEIR   PRODUCTS 
EXCLUDING    MACHINERY 

NONFERROUS  METALS  AND  THEIR 
PRODUCTS 

AGRICULTURAL    IMPLEMENTS 
INCLUDING     TRACTORS 

ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY.APPARATUS 
AND    SUPPLIES 

RADIO  APPARATUS  AND  PHONOGRAPHS 
ALL  OTHER   MACHINERY 

MOTOR  VEHICLES, BODIES.AND  PARTS 

ALL   OTHER    TRANSPORTATION 
EQUIPMENT 

ELECTRICAL    COMMUNICATION 

UTILITIES    GAS, LIGHT, AND  POWER 

CONSULTING    AND  TESTING 
LABORATORIES 

TRADE   ASSOCIATIONS 
MISCELLANEOUS 


2000 


3000 


4000 


5000 


FiacRE  49. — Research  Employment  in  Various  Industries:  1927  anil  1938      The  upper  bar  of  each  pair  refers  to  1927;  the  lower 

bar  to  1 938 


Industrial  Research 

An   interesting  feature  is   the  comparatively  large 


|u  one  or  more  of  the  corporate  structures  at  Its  disposal.     Korolgn  ownership  was 
ignored,  the  ratings  referring  only  to  the  American  components. 

Independent  companies  under  a  m^lUion  dollars  were  rated  from  Dun  ami  Brad- 
street's  Reference  Book  (tWO),  using  their  "estimated  pecuniary  strength,"  the 
equivalent  of  tangible  net  worth. 


181 


nuinhcr  of  coriiorations  below  $1,000,000,  rangiri<;  down 
to  $50,000,  before  the  number  decreases  markedly. '" 

"  Tho  number  of  smaller  companies  Is  underestimated  to  a  certain  extent  duo  to  a 
lack  of  complete  ratings.  The  data  of  figures  51 ,  52,  and  53  represent  47  percent  of  the 
total  number  of  corporate  units  and  77  percent  of  the  total  personnel  reported  in  1940, 
so  that  the  distribution  should  bo  "fiualiUitively"  correct,  except  as  noted. 


RESEARCH    EXPENDITURES    AS   A    PERCENTAGE   OF 
DOLLAR    VALUE    OF   OUTPUT 

0.4  0.8  1.2 


FOOD  AND  KINDRED   PRODUCTS 

TEXTILES  AND  THEIR   PRODUCTS 

FOREST    PRODUCTS 

PAPER  AND  ALLIED    PRODUCTS 

CHEMICALS    AND   ALLIED  PRODUCTS 

PETROLEUM   AND  ITS  MANUFACTURES 

RUBBER   PRODUCTS 

LEATHER   AND  ITS  MANUFACTURES 

STONE, CLAY.AND  GLASS  PRODUCTS 

IRON    AND  STEEL  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 
EXCLUDING     MACHINERY 

NONFERROUS   METALS    AND  THEIR 
PRODUCTS 

AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS 
INCLUDING    TRACTORS 

ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY, APPARATUS 
AND  SUPPLIES 

RADIO   APPARATUS  AND  PHONOGRAPHS 
ALL  OTHER    MACHINERY 

MOTOR  VEHICLES, BODIES,AND  PARTS 

ALL  OTHER   TRANSPORTATION 
EQUIPMENT 

ELECTRICAL   COMMUNICATION 

UTILITIES     GAS, LIGHT, AND  POWER 

CONSULTING  AND  TESTING 
LABORATORIES 

TRADE  ASSOCIATIONS 
MISCELLANEOUS 


^^ 


~~1, 


NO  DATA 
NO  DATA 


NO  DATA 


•' '■•:'■% 


^zm 


mm^ 


^ 


■221 


^.        .     .v„"l,. 


NO  DATA 


NO  DATA 


NO  DATA 


0.4 


0.8 


1.2 


Figure  50. — The  Percentage  of  the  Dollar  Value  of  Products  of  Varioua  Industries  Expended  for  Research:  1927  and  1938.     The  upper 

bar  of  each  pair  refers  to  1927;  the  lower  bar  to  1938 


182 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Not  shown  on  the  figure  are  an  additional  eight  com- 
panies below  $2,000.  Above  $25,000,000  the  number 
or  organizations  engaged  in  research  drops  sharply, 
probably  reflecting  the  general  decrease  in  the  number 
of  larger  corporations  in  existence. 

Distribution  of  Research  Personnel 
by  Corporate  Size 

Although  the  extent  of  research  as  measured  by  the 
number  of  managements  engaged  in  it  is  a  significant 
aspect  of  the  size  distribution,  even  more  important  is 
the  total  number  of  research  personnel  employed.  The 
latter  is  not  only  indicative  of  the  distribution  of  em- 
plo5Tnent  and  employment  opportunities;  it  is  an  index 
to  both  the  expenditures  for,  and  the  achievements  to 
be  expected  from  industrial  research.     The  distribution 


by  size  of  industry  is  shown  "  in  figure  52  which  differs 
from  figure  51  in  that  the  bars  represent  research 
employment  reported  in  1940  instead  of  the  number  of 
corporate  units. 

The  small  contribution  to  total  research  employment 
made  by  the  small  and  middle-sized  corporate  units  is 
immediately  apparent.  Very  evidently  the  bulk  of 
industrial  research  contributions  are  being  supported 
by  a  rather  limited  number  of  large  corporations.  The 
actual  research  acliievements  as  well  as  the  latent 
possibilities  of  the  large  number  of  smaller  corporations 
should  by  no  means  be  ignored,  but  the  total  bulk  of 
their  research  effort  is,  at  present,  rather  small. 

Figures  51  and  52  suggest  a  comparison  of  the  average" 
number  of  research  workers  employed   by  corporate 

»  See  footnotes  18,  19,  and  20. 


INDEPENDENT  MANAGEMENTS  UTILIZING    RESEARCH, 
DISTRIBUTED  ACCORDING   TO  CORPORATE  SIZE 


1,000  (2P00) 


10.000 


100,000 


10,000,000 


100,000,000 


1,000,000 

DOLLARS 
TflNGIBLE  NET  WORTH   OF  INDIVIDUAL   CORPORATE  UNITS 
Figure  51. — Independent  Managements  Utilizing  Research,  Distributed  According  to  Corporate  Size:  1940 


1,000,000,000 


Industrial  Research 


183 


units  of  various  sizes.  This  is  shown  in  figure  53.  The 
left-hand  portion  of  the  curve  suggests  the  reahty  of  an 
"average  small  laboratory"  employing  6  to  10  workers 
and  serving  a  company  of  almost  any  size  under  half  a 
million  dollars.  Individual  cases,  of  course,  deviate 
markedly  from  the  average.  Above  $10,000,000,  the 
average  research  staff — and  average  research  e.vpendi- 
ture — increase  rapidly  with  the  size  of  the  corporate 
unit,  but  less,  however,  than  proportionately.  Between 
$10,000,000  and  $1,000,000,000,  a  hundredfold  increase 
of  corporate  size,  the  corresponding  increase  in  average 
research  employment  is  thirtyfold. 

In  considering  correlations  such  as  those  of  figure  53, 
the  question  naturally  arises  as  to  how  closely  individual 
cases  correspond  to  the  average.  Figure  54  presents 
the  situation  in  the  chemical  industry.  The  curve 
represents  average  research  employment  versus  cor- 


porate size;  the  individual  dots  correspond  to  total 
research  employment  by  individual  corporate  units. 
The  scatter  of  the  points  is  indicative  of  the  difference 
in  amount  of  research  done  by  companies  of  substan- 
tially the  same  financial  strength.  The  correlation  is 
rather  better  than  might  be  expected  in  an  industry 
so  diverse  in  both  composition  and  activities. ^^ 

Relation  of  Research  to  Sales 
and  Net  Income 

As  an  index  to  the  money  spent  for  research,  the 
ratio  of  research  expenditures  to  sales  is  frequently 
used.     This  ratio  has,  to  recommend  it,  the  similarity 


"  Another  factor  contributing  to  the  apparent  differences  is  llie  laolc  of  uniformity 
In  reporting  technical  assistants,  etc.,  on  the  questionnaires.  This  coulj  easily 
account  for  an  apparent  ratio  of  as  much  as  2:1. 


NUMBER   OF   RESEARCH    WORKERS  EMPLOYED    BY    THE   CORPORATE 

UNITS  IN  VARIOUS   SIZE    GROUPS 


5,000 


1,000  (2,000) 


10,000 


100,000 


10,000,000 


1,000,000 
DOLLARS 
TANGIBLE   NET  WORTH  OF  INDIVIDUAL  CORPORATE  UNITS 


100,000,000 


1,000,000,000 


Figure  52. — Number  of  Research  Workers  Employed  by  the  Corporate  Units  in  Various  Sized  Groups:  1940 


184 

to  other  operating  ratios,  many  of  which  are  based  on 
sales.  The  iniphed  assumption  is  that  the  amount  of 
research  is  directly  proportional  to  the  volume  of 
business.  The  data  available  from  the  questionnaires 
arc  quite  extensive  but  research  expenditures  are  given 
only  indirectly  in  terms  of  total  research  personnel. 
One  can,  however,  assume  a  figure  ($4,000)  for  the 
cost  per  man-year,  and  thereby  arrive  at  an  approxi- 
mate value  for  the  ratio  of  research  to  sales. 

Another  similar  index  is  the  ratio  of  research  expendi- 
tures to  net  income.  This  is  perhaps  the  more  signifi- 
cant ratio  for  a  management  considering  the  organi- 
zation of  a  research  laboratory,  since  it  relates  the 
proposed  expense  directly  to  the  revenue  available  for 
its  support,  until  such  time  as  it  shall  have  proved  itself 
a  justifiable  operating  charge. 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 

The  data^  have  been  presented  in  figure  55  as  the 
average  number  of  research  employees  maintained  by 
various  corporate  units,  distributed  according  to  their 
sales  and  to  net  income. 

The  research  expenditures,  measured  in  man-years, 
are  directly  proportional  to  both  sales  and  net  income 
over  a  wide  range.  This  has  been  tacitly  assumed 
before  in  the  use  of  the  ratios  as  an  index  figure  for 
research.  It  is  a  little  surprising,  however,  to  find  the 
relationships  so  close. 


n  The  data  for  sales  and  net  income  were  derived  from  Ihe  income  accounU  given  In 
Moody's  Industrials  (1939)  and  represent,  in  most  cases,  an  average  value  for  the 
3-ycar  period  1936-38.  Sales  represent  net  sales  where  these  are  given,  otherwise 
gross  sales,  or,  in  a  few  cases,  operating  revenues,  where  this  seemed  Justifiable. 
Net  income  Is  the  income  after  taxes  and  beture  dividends.  Subsidiaries  were  treated 
as  in  the  case  of  tangible  net  worth.  (S'ee  footnote  19.)  The  research  employment 
represents  the  total  research  personnel  figures  for  1938.  Commercial  laboratories 
ani  trade  associations  have  been  excluded. 


THE    AVERAGE    RESEARCH   STAFFS   MAINTAINED   BY  CORPORATE 

UNITS  OF  VARIOUS   SIZES 


1,000 


100 


o 


10 


^.  -" 


lOOPOO  IpOO.OOO  10,000,000 

DOLLARS 
TANGIBLE   NET    WORTH  OF   INDIVIDUAL   CORPORATE   UNITS 


100,000,000 


1,000,000,000 


FiaoRB  53. — The  Average  Research  Staffs  Maintained  liy  Corporate  Units  of  Various  Sizes:  1940 


IndusirkU  Research 


185 


Below  sales  of  approximately  $25,000,000  or  net 
income  of  approximately  $2,500,000,  other  considera- 
tions become  the  controlling  factors.  One  does  not 
find,  as  might  perhaps  be  expected,  that  the  above 
proportionality  sets  a  rather  sharp  lower  limit  to  the 
size  of  company  which  can  or  does  afford  to  do  research. 
Rather,  there  is  a  tendency  for  some  companies  whose 
sales  and  net  income  are  comparatively  low  to  maintain 
a  small  laboratory  regardless  of  their  volume  of  business. 
This  almost  certainly  does  not  represent  the  average 
case  for  companies  of  restricted  sales  and  income. 
However,  it  is  of  interest  that  in  the  exceptional  cases 
where  research  is  supported  at  all,  the  average  labora- 
tory staff  remains  approximately  constant  at  S  to  10 
workers,  and  its  size  is  independent  of  sales  or  income. 

For  the  more  representative  cases  where  the  pro- 
portionality holds  between  research  expenditures  and 
sales  or  net  income,  the  percentage  spent  for  research 
can  be  deduced  on  the  assumption  that  the  total  cost 
per  man-year  is  $4,000.     The  results  are  as  follows: 


Percent 

Research  expenditure  to  sales 0.  6 

Research  expenditure  to  net  income 6.  0 

These  are  over-all  ratios  for  industry  in  general. 

Summary  and  Conclusions 

1.  A  total  of  2,350  companies  have  recently  reported 
70,033  persons  engaged  in  technical  research  in  industry 
in  the  United  States. 

2.  This  is  a  41  percent  increase  over  the  personnel 
reported  2  years  ago.  Slightly  more  than  half  of  the 
increase  is  a  real  growth,  principally  of  the  staffs  of 
laboratories  established  prior  to  1938;  the  remainder  is 
an  apparent  growth,  due  to  extended  coverage  of  the 
1940  survey. 

3.  The  rate  of  increase  of  research  personnel  in 
industry  during  the  last  2  years  is  twice  the  average 
rate  for  the  last  20  years. 

4.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rate  at  which  research  is 
being  adopted  by  new  managements  appears  to  have 
fallen  off  substantially  in  recent  years. 


RESEARCH     STAFFS  MAINTAINED    BY   CORPORATE    UNITS 
OF   VARIOUS   SIZES    IN   THE    CHEMICAL     INDUSTRY 


100,000 


100  1,000  lopoo 

DOLLARS     IN    THOUSANDS 

TANGIBLE      NET    WORTH    OF    INDIVIDUAL    CORPORATE     UNITS 

Figure  54. — Research  Staffs  Maintained  by  Corporate  Units  of  Various  Sizes  in  the  Chemical  Industry:  1940 


1.000,000 


186  National  Resources  Planning  Board 

5.  The  contribution  by  newly  established  laboratories  9.  A  considerable  number  of  small  and  medium- 
to  the  increase  of  research  employment  within  the  last  2  sized  companies  conduct  research.  However,  most  of 
years  is  insignificant.  the  industrial  research  effort,  as  measured  by  person- 

6.  Of  the  total  research  personnel  reported,  slightly  nel,  is  supported  by  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
more  than  half  are  professionally  trained,  principally  large  corporations. 

as  chemists  and  engineers.     The  remainder  is  about  10.  On  the  average,  the  size  of  the  research  staff  is 

equally   divided   between   technical   and   nontechnical  related  to  the  financial  size  of  a  corporation  as  follows: 

workers.                                                                       ,    .             .  Tangible  net  worth:                                         uuZZaff 

7.  Comparison  of  the  extent  of  research  m  various  $1,000,000. 13 

industries  shows  very  great  differences:  the  number  of  $10,000,000 38 

research  employees  differs  between  industries  by  more  $100,000,000 170 

^,  ,         ,      If  11  •  .  $1,000,000,000 1,250 

then  a  hundredfold  m  extreme  cases.  >»  .      .       . 

8.  Some  industries,  even  these  with  long-established  11.  Assuming  the  average  total  cost  of  research  to 
technologies  have  shown  a  very  rapid  rate  of  growth,  be  $4,000  per  man-year,  the  ratio  of  the  research  expen- 
suggesting  that  industrial  research  is  more  nearly  ditures  of  an  "average  company"  to  its  sales  is  0.6 
universally  applicable  than  its  present  use  in  some  percent,  and  the  ratio  to  its  net  income  is  6  percent, 
other  industries  would  seem  to  indicate.  This  is  an  average  for  all  industries. 

THE    AVERAGE    RESEARCH    STAFFS    MAINTAINED   BY   VARIOUS   CORPORATE 
UNITS   DISTRIBUTED  ACCORDING  TO   SALES  AND  TO  NET  INCOME 


1,000 


100 


o 

n: 


10 


- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

/ 

- 

N 

ET  INCOME^^  / 

V    ■ 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

■ 

- 

I 

1,000 


10,000 


100,000 


1,000,000 

DOLLARS 

NET   INCOME-SALES 


10,000,000 


100,000,000 


1,000,000,000 


Figure  55. — The  Average  Research  Stafl's  Maintained  by  Various  Corporate  Units  Distributed  According  to  Sales  and  to  Net 

Income:  1938 


Industrial  Research 


187 


12.  In  general,  viewing  industrial  research  as  a 
national  asset,  its  rapid  growth  in  those  areas  where  it 
is  already  established  is  most  gratifying.  The  rate 
of  expansion  into  additional  areas  appears  to  be  de- 
creasing rather  than  increasing.  There  remain  a 
number  of  industries  to  which  research  methods  could 
almost  certainly  be  applied  with  profit  on  a  larger  scale 
than  they  now  are.  Finally,  the  total  volume  of  indus- 
trial research  being  conducted  by  small  and  medium 
sized  companies  is  relatively  small,  as  measured  in 
terms  of  personnel. 

The  above  are  some  areas  in  which  further  investiga- 
tion might  discover  opportunities  for  assisting  the 
growth  of  a  most  valuable  national  resource. 


Bibliography 

Books 

(Fairchild,  I.  J.)  Organizations  cooperating  with  the  National 
Bureau  of  Standards.  Issued  April  2C,  1927.  Washington, 
United  States  Government  Printing  Office,  1927.  11  p.  (Bu- 
reau of  Standards.     Miscellaneous  publication,  No.  96) 

National  Bureau  of  Standards.  Directory  of  commercial 
testing  and  college  research  laboratories.  Issued  July  25, 
1936.  Washington,  United  States  Government  Printing 
Office,  1936.     55  p. 

National  Research  Council.  Industrial  research  laboratories 
of  the  United  States.  Sixth  Edition,  1938.  Washington,  Na- 
tional Research  Council,  1938.     270  p. 


SECTION    V 
RESEARCH    ABROAD 


Contents 

Page 

Research  Abroad  191 

Introduction  192 

Research  in  Belgium  192 

Research  in  France  194 

Government  194 

Endowed  Institutes  195 

Learned  and  Technical  Societies  196 

Industry  196 

Research  in  Germany  197 

Government  Research  Institutes  197 

Universities  198 

Industry  199 

Scientific  and  Technical  Societies  and  Publications  202 

Research  in  Great  Britain  203 

Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research  204 

The  Fighting  Forces  206 

Universities  206 

Industry  207 

Societies  207 

Research  in  Italy  207 

The  National  Research  Council  208 

Government  209 

The  Pontifical  Academy  of  Sciences  209 

Universities  209 

Publications  and  Societies  209 

Industry  209 

Research  in  The  Netherlands  210 

Research  in  Scandinavian  Coimtries  211 

Research  in  Switzerland  212 

Research  in  the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics  213 

Research  in  China  215 

Research  in  Japan  216 

Research  in  Canada  217 

Bibliography  219 


189 


190 


National  Resources  Planning  Board,  Industrial  Research 


SECTION    V 
RESEARCH    ABROAD 

By  Dexter  North 
Washington,  D.  C,  Representative,  Arthur  D.  Little,  Inc.,  Cambridge,   Mass. 


ABSTRACT 


Industrial  research  is  being  actively  pui'sued  in  the 
major  industrial  nations  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the 
smaller  nations  of  which  certain  Latin-American 
countries  have  made  substantial  progress  recently. 
In  the  totalitarian  States  the  emphasis  of  research  is 
on  the  national  economy  and  preparedness.  These 
nations  also  are  characterized  by  the  large  extent  of 
government  support  and  coordination  of  research. 

The  Government  of  Great  Britain  also  actively  sup- 
ports industrial  research.  Its  trade  association  re- 
search laboratories,  for  which  the  Government  matches 
grants  made  by  industries,  are  unique  among  methods 
of  supporting  industrial  research.  Industry  in  Great 
Britain  has  been  slow  to  recognize  the  importance  of 
research  under  its  own  auspices  but  has  made  rapid 
advances  in  recent  years. 

Research  in  France  has  been  better  known  for  its 
accomplishments  in  pure  than  in  applied  science. 
Cooperation  between  industries  and  universities  has 
been  limited.  With  a  few  exceptions,  industries  have 
been  slow  in  applying  research  to  practice.  Industrial 
research  in  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands  has  followed 
rather  closely  the  needs  of  their  basic  industries  and 
development  of  colonial  raw  materials. 

Germany  was  one  of  the  first  nations  to  recognize  the 
importance  of  industrial  research,  which  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  remarkable  development  of  her  in- 
dustries in  the  quarter  century  prior  to  1914.  Close 
cooperation  between  universities  and  industries  was 
an  important  factor  in  this  development,  the  former 
engaging  principally  in  fundamental  research,  and  in- 
dustries in  applied  research.  The  Institutes  of  the 
Kaiser  Wilhehn  Society  also  were  of  material  aid  to 
industry.  Under  the  Nazi  regime  emphasis  on  research 
in  all  three  groups  was  changed  from  fundamental 
work  to  problems  of  more  immediate  national  interest. 
The  increase  in  university  enrollments  and  research, 
resulting  from  unemployment  dinging  the  depression, 
was  reversed  under  the  program  of  National  Socialist 
Government  so  that  a  shortage  of  research  workers 
eventually  arose.  The  self-sufficiency  program  of  the 
Government  has  multiplied  problems  of  research  workers 
many  fold. 


In  Italy  industrial  research  is  entirely  under  the 
control  of  the  Fascist  Government  and  is  directed  pri- 
marily toward  self-sufficiency  and  preparedness.  AH 
new  research  as  well  as  industrial  projects  must  be 
approved  by  the  National  Research  Council. 

Switzerland  has  directed  much  of  its  industrial  re- 
search to  the  needs  of  its  specialized  industries,  and  the 
development  of  intermediate  and  semi-finished  products 
formerly  imported.  The  Scandinavian  countries  have 
been  noted  for  their  cooperative  efforts  in  research,  and 
adhere  rather  closely  to  development  of  their  own 
natiual  resources. 

Industrial  research  was  practically  nonexistent  in 
Czarist  Russia.  The  universality  of  research  as  an 
important  part  of  the  Bolshevik  theory  has  been  demon- 
strated by  the  large  number  of  research  institutes  built 
in  the  Soviet  Union,  and  by  the  huge  scope  and  the  detail 
of  research  programs  in  both  applied  and  fundamental 
fields.  The  quality  of  Soviet  research  has  not  been 
uniformly  good. 

Japanese  occupation  has  dealt  a  crushing  blow  to 
industrial  research  in  China.  Establishment  of  small 
industries  in  the  remote  interior  has  been  accompanied 
by  a  limited  amoimt  of  research. 

Japan  was  quick  to  realize  the  important  role  which 
research  played  in  the  industrial  development  of  western 
nations  and  adopted  these  methods  for  her  own  ad- 
vancement. The  resulting  scope  of  industrial  research 
has  been  broad.  The  Japanese  Government  subsi- 
dizes research  to  a  considerable  extent.  Many  research 
institutes  have  been  established,  somewhat  along  the 
plan  of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Society  in  Germany.  In 
addition  to  carrying  forward  the  self-sufficiency  pro- 
gram, the  resources  of  Chosen,  Formosa,  and  Man- 
chukuo  are  being  actively  developed  through  research. 

Canada,  while  relatively  new  as  an  industrial  com- 
monwealth, is  advancing  rapidly  in  application  of 
science  to  industry.  Certain  manufacturing  establish- 
ments owned  or  controlled  by  American  or  British 
interests  receive  the  benefit  of  research  conducted  by 
the  parent  organizations.  The  Canadian  Government 
has  been  active  in  motivating  and  directing  industrial 
research. 

101 


192 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Introduction 

This  paper  describes  briolly  llie  urf^uniziiLioii  and 
extent  of  industrial  research,  and  of  government  and 
university  activity  in  this  field,  in  the  principal  indus- 
trial nations  abroad.  Because  of  the  many  changes 
in  the  nature  and  extent  of  industrial  research  which 
have  occurred  in  most  of  these  countries  since  the  out- 
break of  the  present  war,  treatment  is  confined  for  the 
most  part  to  the  period  preceding  September  1,  1939. 

Portions  of  the  statements  on  several  countries  have 
been  drawn  from  unpublished  reports  in  the  files  of  the 
National  Research  Council.  Valuable  assistance  both 
in  supplying  information  on  significant  aspects  of  re- 
search abroad  and  in  reviewing  this  paper  was  rendered 
by  Dr.  William  A.  Hamor,  Assistant  Director,  Mellon 
Institute  of  Industrial  Research,  by  Dr.  William  F. 
Zimmerli,  of  the  R.  and  II.  Chemicals  Department, 
E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and  Company,  Dr.  Ernest  W. 
Reid,  Carbide  and  Carbon  Chemicals  Corporation,  and 
Dr.  M.  J.  Kell}',  Director  of  Research,  Bell  Telephone 
Laboratories.  Doctor  J.  W.  Peter  Debye,  Director, 
Max  Planck  Institute,  Berlin,  Germany,  and  Visiting 
Professor  of  Chemistrj^,  Cornell  University,  was  ex- 
ceedingly helpful  in  contributing  first-hand  information 
on  observations  of  industrial  research  in  certain  Euro- 
pean countries. 

The  nations  whose  industrial  research  is  discussed 
are  Belgium,  France,  German}',  Great  Britain,  Italy, 
Netherlands,  the  Scandinavian  countries,  Switzerland, 
the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics,  China, 
Japan,  and  Canada.  It  is  recognized  that  important 
industrial  research  is  being  carried  on  elsewhere  but 
limitations  especially  of  time  and  space  have  precluded 
inclusion  of  such  countries.  Particular  mention  should 
be  made  of  the  recent  considerable  expansion  of  indus- 
trial research  in  Latin-American  countries,  notably 
Brazil.  Australia,  New  Zealand,  India,  and  South 
Africa  are  also  reported  active  in  industrial  research. 

Outside  of  the  United  States  research  has  been  con- 
ducted most  actively  in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  the 
Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics,  and  Japan.  Opin- 
ions differ  as  to  how  these  nations  should  be  ranked 
in  industrial  research.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to 
give  such  a  rating  nor  to  compare  the  research  stand- 
ings of  these  countries  with  that  of  the  United  States. 

It  is  indeed  significant  that  three  of  the  four  foreign 
nations  most  active  in  research  are  totalitarian  states. 
It  is  even  more  significant  that  the  research  policy  of 
each  has  been  concentrated  on  self-sufficiency  and  pre- 
paredness. Under  conditions  existing  in  the  world 
today  the  influence  of  such  policies  on  future  research 
may  well  be  profound. 

Industrial  research  in  the  principal  foreign  countries 
differs  in  other  respects  from  that  in  the  United  States. 


In  contrast  to  the  virtual  absence  of  coonlinulion  and 
complete  freedojn  from  governmental  control  of  re- 
search in  this  country,  coordination  and  government 
control  has  been  carried  to  the  liighest  degree  in  Ger- 
many, Italy,  the  U.  S.  S.  R.,  and  Jai)an.  Such  a  policy 
has  been  the  natural  development  of  totalitarian 
philosophy.  Although  it  may  eliminate  duplication 
and  assist  in  concentration  of  efforts  on  matters  of 
national  import,  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  encourage 
freedom  of  activity  on  the  part  of  the  individual 
research  worker,  or  to  promote  the  best  interests  of 
pure  science. 

In  all  countries  industrial  research  has  been  done 
confidentially,  but  in  var>-ing  degrees.  The  principal 
difference  has  lain  in  whether  research  results  which 
were  not  patentable  or  wliich  must  be  maintained 
confidential  because  of  their  nature  were  not  pulilished 
at  all  or  were  published  after  adequate  patent  protec- 
tion had  been  secured.  Residts  of  industrial  research 
have  been  published  more  openly  and  freely  in  the 
United  States  than  elsewhere.  Other  differences  in 
degree  of  privacy  of  industrial  research  have  existed 
in  restraints  ijnposed  on  attendance  of  research  work- 
ers at  scientific  and  technical  meetings,  and  in  general 
in  the  willingness  and  freedom  of  researchers  to  discuss 
their  problems. 

The  cartel  system,  as  practiced  internationally,  has 
been  cited  as  a  restraining  influence  on  industrial  re- 
search by  reason  of  its  tendency  to  produce  more  or  less 
static  conditions  in  an  industry.  Markets  and  prices 
are  usually  fixed;  hence  profits  are  less  dependent  on 
advances  made  through  research. 

Exchange  among  nations  of  scientific  and  technical 
information  in  applied  fields  has  been  fostered  in  indirect 
ways,  principal  among  which  have  been  meetings  of  in- 
ternational societies  and  congresses  such  as  the  Inter- 
national Union  of  Pure  and  Applied  Chemistry  and  the 
World  Power  Conference;  wide  circulation  of  scientific 
and  technical  publications  in  countries  other  than  those 
of  publication;  services  of  government  and  industrial 
agents  in  foreign  countries;  issuance  of  patents;  and 
more  recently  through  licensing  abroad  of  processes  and 
manufacture  of  new  products.  The  International 
Union  of  Pure  and  Applied  Chemistry,  an  outgrowth  of 
the  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry, 
has  for  its  purpose  the  encouragement  of  international 
chemical  science  and  the  fostering  of  knowledge  in 
industrial  chemistry.  Many  notable  papers  have  been 
presented  at  its  sessions. 

Research  in  Belgium 

Science  in  Belgium  has  traditions  dating  back  to  the 
great  period  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  course 
of  science  in  Belgium,  unlike  that  of  many  of  her  con- 


Industrial  Research 


193 


tinental  neighbors,  has  been  influenced  not  by  that  of 
Germany,  but  by  that  of  France  and  to  a  lesser  degree 
of  England. 

The  National  Foundation  for  Scientific  Research,  the 
universities,  and  private  organizations  have  been  the 
principal  agencies  conducting  research  in  Belgium. 
The  P'oundation  is  an  outstanding  example  of  the  impe- 
tus given  research  by  the  Belgian  Government  in  recent 
years.  Let  us  consider  first  the  activities  of  Government 
in  research,  either  through  direct  participation  or  indi- 
rect inspiration;  then  in  turn  consider  the  work  of 
educational  and  industrial  organizations. 

The  Belgian  attempt  at  government  research  or  gov- 
ernment subsidized  research  was  largely  inspired  by  the 
successful  plan  of  the  Department  of  Scientific  and 
Industrial  Research  in  England.  King  Albert  was  the 
first  to  give  national  emphasis  to  the  importance  of 
scientific  research.  His  eloquent  appeal  in  1927  for  the 
foundation  of  a  national  research  institute  resulted 
in  the  formation  of  the  National  Foundation  for  Scien- 
tific Research  (Fonds  National  de  la  Recherche  Scien- 
tifique)  with  a  capital  of  120  million  francs  (about 
$4,000,000)  subscribed  to  by  banks,  industrial  and  com- 
mercial organizations,  and  private  individuals.  Al- 
though the  Government  did  not  lend  financial  assistance, 
it  sponsored  the  scheme. 

The  Foundation  has  been  actively  and  exclusively 
concerned  with  basic  research.  Assistance  to  industry 
has  been  limited  to  scientific  investigations  susceptible 
of  promoting  industrial  development,  thus  excluding 
work  directed  primarily  to  perfection  of  industrial 
processes.  The  principal  fields  investigated  in  recent 
years  by  the  National  Foundation  have  been:  Disinfec- 
tion of  plants;  production  of  new  varieties  of  flax; 
behavior  of  metals  at  high  temperatures;  hydrogenation 
of  coal  tar  for  production  of  fuel  and  lubricating  oils; 
production  of  phenolic  resins  for  insulating  purposes; 
rubber  vulcanization  to  avoid  scorching;  study  of  the 
viscosity  of  drawn  glass  leading  to  improvement  in  the 
manufacture  of  window  glass;  alloys;  Diesel  motors; 
electric  welding;  wireless  telephony;  leather;  brewing; 
adhesion  of  enamels;  electrochemical  chlorination  of 
benzene.  Profits  derived  from  these  researches  are 
said  to  have  considerably  exceeded  the  subsidies  granted 
for  their  undertaking. 

Several  commissions  and  committees  coordinated  the 
work  of  the  Foundation  with  that  of  university,  indus- 
trial, and  national  agencies.  The  Commission  Science- 
Industrie,  with  an  annual  budget  of  1,000,000  francs 
(about  $33,000)  examined  over  1,000  apphcations  and 
granted  86  research  subsidies  in  the  first  10  years  of  its 
existence,  representing  a  total  of  6,564,760  francs 
($215,000).  It  also  passed  upon  subsidies  for  scientific 
research  granted  by  the  OSice  de  Redressment  Eco- 
nomique  (OREC). 


A  plan  for  Government  participation  in  scientific 
research  was  initiated  in  1937.  The  OREC  was 
established  to  aid  economic  recovery  and  was  em- 
powered among  other  duties  to  grant  subsidies  for 
research  to  industrial  or  agricultural  concerns.  Thus 
research  bearing  more  directly  on  industry  was  dealt 
with  by  the  Government,  and  scientific  research  by 
the  National  Foundation. 

Following  i-evaluation  of  gold  holdings  a  15  million 
franc  credit  was  allocated  for  research  over  a  5-year 
period,  of  which  5  million  francs  was  for  scientific 
research,  anil  10  million  for  the  creation  of  national 
institutes  and  laboratories  of  industrial  research,  the 
performance  of  technical  tests,  and  for  the  issuance  of 
certificates.  Beneficiaries  of  subsidies  were  required  to 
match  the  amount  of  any  subsidy  granted.  By  the 
end  of  1938  the  Government  was  faced  with  such 
financial  and  political  difficulties  that  no  further  credits 
for  research  were  granted  and  OREC  ceased  to  exist. 
Feeling  existed  in  some  quarters  that  the  increased 
governmental  activity  was  tending  toward  nationaliza- 
tion and  that  research  was  a  means  to  this  end.  State 
controlled  research  was  not  well  received  by  industry 
and  abandonment  of  Government  effort  was  viewed 
with  satisfaction. 

The  only  laboratory  established  of  several  contem- 
plated with  funds  earmarked  from  the  gold  revaluation 
was  the  National  Silicate  Laboratory,  a  nonprofit  or- 
ganization for  testing  raw  materials  and  finished  prod- 
ucts of  the  Belgian  silicate  industry.  Of  the  original 
subsidy  of  1  million  francs,  half  was  for  a  building  and 
equipment  and  half  for  an  operating  fund.  The 
laboratory  endeavored  to  replace  empirical  methods  in 
manufacturing  with  scientific  control.  All  projects 
were  treated  anonymously,  and  although  results  were 
not  published,  they  were  wadely  disseminated  among 
members.  Firms  receiving  material  benefits  from  such 
research  were  expected  to  reimburse  the  laboratory  for 
expenses  incurred  in  their  behalf. 

Fifteen  research  subsidies  totaling  1,500,000  francs 
($49,500)  were  approved  by  the  Commission  Science- 
Industrie  and  the  OREC  between  August  1937  and 
June  1938,  when  the  latter  went  out  of  existence.  The 
principal  investigations  carried  on  concerned:  Dielec- 
tric properties  of  insulating  materials;  mechanical 
stresses  in  pressiu-e  vessels,  and  standards  for  machine 
tools;  fruit  preservation  on  an  industrial  scale;  classi- 
fication of  Belgian  arable  land;  pilot  apparatus  for 
measuring  radio  interference  from  electrical  devices; 
properties  of  Belgian  clays;  nutritive  value  of  special 
fodders;  disinfection  of  plants  and  soils. 

The  Ministry  of  Economic  Affairs  maintained  an 
establishment  for  testing  firearms,  research  in  ballistics, 
and  other  scientific  work,  which  was  open  to  use  by 
firearms  manufacturers.     Late  in   1939  the  Ministry 


194 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


of  National  Defence  established  a  Bureau  of  Scientific 
Research  to  serve  as  a  liaison  organization  between  the 
National  Defence  Department  and  the  research  estab- 
Hshments  of  universities  and  industries.  Thus  much 
of  the  work  in  research  in  Belgium  in  recent  years  has 
been  undertaken,  or  at  least  greatly  influenced  by  the 
Government.  Let  us  now  briefly  consider  the  work  of 
other  agencies — foundations,  universities,  and  indus- 
trial organizations. 

La  Fondation  Universitaire  was  founded  in  1920  for 
the  advancement  of  science,  but  more  specifically  for 
aiding  Belgian  students  of  insufficient  means  to  enter 
institutions  of  higher  learning,  and  to  the  development 
of  scientific  methods  in  industry,  giving  support  to 
scholars,  researchers,  and  students  of  demonstrated 
ability. 

The  Fondation  Francqui  was  established  in  1932,  for 
development  of  advanced  education  in  Belgium,  com- 
plementing in  this  respect  the  Fondation  Universitaire 
and  the  National  Foundation  for  Scientific  Research. 
One  of  the  aims  of  the  Belgian-American  Educational 
Foundation,  Inc.,  was  to  assist  scientific  research. 

Since  it  was  primarily  an  industrial  country,  it  has 
been  necessary  for  Belgium  to  be  progressive  in  order 
to  compete  successfully  with  other  nations.  Compared 
with  several  European  countries,  it  has  been  more 
favorably  situated  with  respect  to  foreign  exchange  and 
therefore  has  been  able  to  import  substantial  quantities 
of  raw  material  for  conversion  into  finished  products. 

Research  by  Belgian  industry  was  similar  to  that  in 
France,  the  industries  being  basic  in  nature  with  little 
departure  from  them.  Some  work  was  done  on  ma- 
terials of  the  Belgian  Congo,  notably  copper,  radium, 
tantalum,  and  copal.  Technology  was  probably  more 
advanced  than  in  France.  Secrecy  concerning  new 
developments  was  the  usual  practice  but  perhaps  less 
extreme  than  in  France.  AppUed  research  in  general 
was  not  well  advanced. 

Union  Chimique  Beige,  Socidt6  Anonyme,  largest 
chemical  company  in  Belgium,  engaged  in  considerable 
applied  research,  but  information  on  whether  or  not 
it  did  fundamental  research  is  lacking.  Well  equipped 
research  laboratories  were  also  maintained  by  numerous 
other  industries  and  groups,  including: 

Comitfi  Electrotechnique  Beige. 

Laboratoire  de  Recherches  du  Groupment  Professionel  de 

Fabricants  des  Ciments  Beiges. 
Soci<St6    Financier    des    Transports    et     d'Entreprises    In- 

dustrielles. 
Soci^td  Beige  de  Germanique. 
Soci6t6  Beige  de  Radiophonie. 
Solvay  et  Cie. 
Soci6t6  Beige  de  L'Arfite  et  des  Produits   Chimiques   du 

Darly. 
Etablissements  Englebert. 

Ateliers  de  Contructions  Electriques  de  Charlerei. 
Soci£t€  Nationals  des  Chemins  de  Fer. 


Les  Produits  Organique  de  Tirlemont,  S.  A. 

Raffinerio  Tirlemontoise. 

Soci^td  Anonyme  des  Usines  Remy. 

Usincs  Duch6. 

Fabrique  de  Soie  Artificielle  de  Tubize. 

Soci6t6  G6n6ral  M6tallurglque  de  Hoboken. 

Soci6t6  Beige  de  I'Azote,  Ougrfie. 

The  principal  fields  of  industrial  research  included 
glass,  metallurgy,  metallic  carbides,  heavy  chemicals, 
glue  and  gelatin,  copal.  Research  in  inorganic  was 
considerably  more  advanced  than  in  organic  chemistry. 

Some  of  the  industrial  laboratories  have  cooperated 
with  universities,  notably  in  electrotechnolog}",  civil 
engineering,  and  microchemistry.  As  previously  des- 
cribed, the  National  Foundation  for  Scientific  Research 
gave  financial  assistance  to  industries  for  the  study 
of  scientific  problems  of  expected  benefit  to  the  national 
economy. 

Research  in  France 

France  has  a  glorious  history  of  the  development  of 
the  physical  and  biological  sciences  and  has  produced 
many  famous  scientists.  The  great  age  of  her  science 
commenced  in  the  seventeenth  century,  survived  the 
Revolution  and  reached  its  height  during  the  Napoleonic 
era  when  it  undoubtedly  led  the  world.  But  in  com- 
parison with  other  nations  this  progress  has  not  been 
maintained,  owing  perhaps  to  the  narrow  outlook  and 
lack  of  support  by  the  various  governments. 

The  First  World  War  and  the  subsequent  depression 
dealt  severe  blows  to  science,  and  in  fact  exerted  the 
opposite  effect  of  that  in  Germany  and,  to  a  less  extent 
in  Italy.  The  examples  of  these  nations,  however, 
served  to  awaken  scientists,  industrialists,  and  states- 
men to  the  importance  of  science  and  research  in  the 
economic  recovery  of  the  country.  New  institutes  were 
founded,  the  needs  of  French  industry,  and  the  reqiiire- 
ments  of  national  defense  were  recognized,  all  of  which 
required  much  larger  financial  aid  on  the  part  of  the 
government,  industry,  and  individuals  than  had 
previously  been  given. 

The  development  of  science  and  scientific  research  in 
France  has  always  been  uneven  and  spasmodic.  Prog- 
ress has  mainly  been  due  to  the  self-sacrifice  and  the 
detachment  from  industrial  considerations  of  the 
investigators  themselves.  This  detachment,  coupled 
with  the  temperament  of  the  French  people,  has  resulted 
in  the  country  faUing  behind  in  the  application  of 
scientific  discoveries  to  industry.  It  has  been  said  that 
a  French  scientist  forgets  an  investigation  on  its  com- 
pletion in  his  interest  to  commence  the  next. 

Government 

Although  the  scheme  for  reorganization  of  science  in 
France  had  not  been  completed  when  the  present  war 


Industrial  Research 


195 


began,  two  principal  sections  of  Government  controlled 
research  had  been  ofTicially  instituted — Le  Service 
Central  do  la  Recherche  scientifiquc  and  Le  Centre 
National  de  la  Recherche  scientifiquc  appiiquee,  which 
dealt  with  fundamental  and  applied  research,  re- 
spectively. Each  body  was  directed  by  a  Conseil 
superieur,  the  members  of  which  consisted  of  eminent 
scientists  and  representatives  of  interested  ministries. 
An  haute  comite  directly  responsible  to  the  Minister  of 
Education  coordinated  the  work  of  the  two  organiza- 
tions, which  were  financed  both  by  the  Government 
and  bj-  levies  on  industry. 

Le  Service  Central  de  la  Recherche  scientifiquc 
created  a  group  of  workers  whose  principal  function 
was  research  and  who  were  assured  both  of  advance- 
ment by  a  plan  similar  to  that  in  universities,  and  of 
economic  security.  Its  duties  were  advisory,  coordi- 
nating, and  financial.  It  planned  projects  and  brought 
together  resources  and  directors  for  projects.  Senior 
research  workers  directed  the  research  projects.  Under 
its  auspices  have  been  established  the  Astro-Physics 
Service,  the  Large  Scale  Chemistry  Laboratory,  the 
Atomic  Synthesis  Laboratory,  and  the  Institute  for 
Textual  History.  The  previously  created  Magnetic  La- 
boratory and  the  Physical  Institute  have  been 
reorganized. 

The  Centre  National  de  la  Recherche  scientifique 
appiiquee  was  established  by  decrees  in  1938,  one  of 
which  stated  its  purpose  as  follows: 

1.  To  facilitate  scientific  researches  or  undertakings  of  interest 
to  the  national  defense  in  establishing  all  possible  links  between 
the  research  services  of  the  corresponding  ministries,  those  of  na- 
tional education,  and  eventual!}',  qualified  private  organizations. 

2.  To  contribute  to  these  researches  or  undertakings  by  initiat- 
ing, coordinating,  or  encouraging  applied  scientific  research  carried 
out  by  the  research  workers  in  the  service  of  the  Ministry  of 
Education,  or  eventually,  of  private  organizations. 

3.  To  carry  out  all  justifiable  researches  for  which  cooperation 
shall  be  asked  by  private  enterprise  or  by  individuals. 

The  Centre  National  was  composed  of  the  following 
20  divisions: 


Water  power. 
Mines. 

Agriculture  and  fisheries. 
Metallurgy. 
Chemical  industry. 
Utilization    of     fuel     (boilers, 
steam  engines,  motors,  etc.). 
Machinery. 

Textiles,  wood,  and  leather. 
Building  construction. 
Lighting  and  heating. 


Physical  education  and  sport. 

Civil  engineering. 

Transport. 

Communications. 

National  defense. 

Printing,  cinemas,  etc. 

Light  industry,  furniture,  and 

domestic  engineering. 
Hygiene. 
Nutrition. 
Working  conditions. 


The  Office  National  des  Recherche  scientifiques  et 
industrielles  et  des  Inventions  was  created  in  1922  as 
successor  of  the  Direction  des  Recherches  scientifiques 
et  industrielles  et  des  Inventions,  to  foster  research 
required  by  the  public  services,  to  encourage  inventions. 


and  to  coordinate  pubhc  and  private  research  in  tiie 
interests  of  industry.  It  rendered  valuable  services 
until  the  time  of  disbandment  recently.  Its  functions 
have  presumably  been  transferred  to  the  newly  organ- 
ized Centre  National  de  la  Recherche  scientifique 
appiiquee. 

In  the  highly  unified  State  which  is  France,  the  edu- 
cational system  is  administered  from  a  central  author- 
ity, altliough  not  all  the  State-subsidized  educational 
estabhshments  are  under  its  direction.  A  principal 
group  in  this  system  arc  the  advanced  technical  schools, 
part  of  wliich  are  fiiuinccd  and  regulated  by  the  Govern- 
ment. Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  the 
Grand  Ecoles  such  as  the  Ecole  Polytechniquc  which 
is  attached  to  the  military  establishment,  and  the 
Ecoles  des  Mines  and  Ecoles  des  Ponts  et  Cliauss6es, 
which  are  attached  to  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works. 
The  Ministry  of  Education  has  charge  of  the  17  State 
universities  and  supervises  the  various  learned  societies 
such  as  the  Academy  of  Science  which  is  within  the 
Institute  de  France,  the  Academy  of  Paris,  of  Medi- 
cine, of  Surgery,  and  the  Regional  Academies.  The 
Ministry  provides  subsidies  for  these  academies  as 
well  as  for  other  organizations  under  its  supervision 
or  direct  control.  Subsidies  are  also  provided  for 
scientific  missions  abroad.  In  addition  there  are  a 
limited  number  of  privately  endowed  institutes,  such 
as  the  Institut  Pasteur.  The  research  laboratories 
of  the  College  de  France  in  Paris  has  been  conducting 
outstanding  research  in  physical,  organic,  and  inorganic 
chemistry. 

The  Ministries  of  Public  Health,  Public  Works,  Com- 
merce, Merchant  Marine,  Posts,  the  three  defense  min- 
istries, and  the  Ministry  of  the  Colonies  each  maintain 
special  laboratories,  and  in  certain  work  make  use  of 
laboratories  of  other  departments.  Certain  specialized 
technical  schools,  and  the  laboratories  for  the  govern- 
ment monopolies  on  tobacco,  matches,  and  explosives, 
also  come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  some  of  these 
ministries. 

Endowed  Institutes 

Several  endowed  or  semicndowed  research  institutes 
have  been  established  in  France,  of  which  the  Institut 
Pasteur  (1888)  and  the  Fondation  Curie  (1912)  are  the 
most  famous.  The  former,  comprising  more  than  35 
laboratories,  has  seen  the  development  of  similar  organ- 
izations throughout  the  world.  The  latter,  generally 
known  as  the  Institute  of  Radium,  conducts  research 
on  the  physiology  and  therapeutic  applications  of 
X-rays  in  the  treatment  of  cancer,  on  general  physics, 
radioactivity,  and  radiophysiology. 

The  Institut  de  Biologie-chimique  (1938)  conducts 
research  in  its  application  to  French  industry  and  agri- 
culture, particularly  in   the  physicochemical  sciences. 


321S:i,-i— 41- 


-1-1 


196 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


The  Institut  Oceanographique  studies  marine  life. 
The  Institut  Alfred  Fournicr  is  concerned  with  venereal 
diseases.  The  Fondation  Salgues  engages  in  investi- 
gations in  the  biological  sciences.  The  Institut  Marey 
is  an  association  for  the  study  of  methods  employed  in 
physiology.  The  Institut  d'Optique  is  interested  in 
the  development  of  the  science  and  industry  of  optics. 

Learned  and  Technical  Societies 

There  arc  upwards  of  36  societies  of  national  scope  in 
France,  of  which  7  are  of  a  general  nature  and  the  re- 
mainder devoted  to  the  fields  of  agriculture,  anthro- 
pology, astronomy  and  meteorology,  biology,  botany 
and  horticulture,  chemistry,  entomology,  geography, 
geology,  mathematics,  medicine,  physics,  and  several 
of  the  natural  sciences.  The  great  academies  are  di- 
rectly supervised  by  the  State  under  appropriate  min- 
istries. In  addition  there  are  many  regional  societies 
and  local  bodies  attached  to  the  universities. 

The  number  of  technical  societies  in  France  is  large. 
In  chemistry,  Soci6te  de  Chimie  industrielle  and  So- 
ci^td  de  Chimie  de  France  are  the  most  proniinent,  as 
is  Soci6t6  frangaise  de  physique  in  the  field  of  physics, 
Soci6t6  fran5aise  des  ^lectriciens  in  electricity,  Soci4t6 
de  biologic  in  biology,  and  Soci6t6  de  Chimie  biologique 
in  biochemistry. 

Industry 

Compared  with  other  major  industrial  nations  French 
industry,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  outstanding  firms, 
lags  seriously  in  ability  to  apply  results  of  research  to 
practice.  Industry  in  general  maintains  a  passive 
attitude  toward  improvements  in  products  so  long  as 
purchasers  are  satisfied.  The  French  chemical  in- 
dustry, since  1918,  has  undertaken  little  commercial 
development  of  processes  or  products  originated  in 
French  research  laboratories — whether  Government  or 
privately  owned.  Except  in  distillation  equipment, 
French  engineers  have  made  few  contributions  to  mod- 
ern chemical  equipment. 

The  French  people  are  not  development  minded. 
Secrecy  prevails  to  a  high  degree  both  in  established 
industries  and  in  new  developments.  Many  industries 
hand  down  secret  processes  from  father  to  son.  A 
common  practice  is  use  of  private  documents  describ- 
ing individual  researches  or  inventions,  which  are 
placed  in  depositories  for  future  use,  particularly  in 
the  event  of  patent  applications  by  others.  Conti- 
nental Europeans,  particularly  the  French,  tend  to  speak 
of  research  problems  finished  in  the  laboratory  as  com- 
mercially complete.  French  industrialists  are  reluc- 
tant to  go  through  the  pilot  plant  stage  of  development, 
preferring  often  to  buy  a  completely  developed  new 
process  with  a  performance  guarantee. 

The  purchase  of  "manufacturing  rights"  to  processes 
developed  abroad  has  been  a  feature  of  French  opera- 


tions but  has  not  been  particularly  beneficial  to  indus- 
try because  the  "rights"  covered  production  for  con- 
sumption in  France  only — not  export.  Such  processes 
have  not  undergone  further  development  but  have 
tended  to  remain  in  their  state  of  original  instal- 
lation. 

Industrial  research  and  science  in  the  universities 
are  much  less  closely  coordinated  in  France  than  in 
Germany  or  Great  Britain.  In  recent  years  lack  of 
funds  for  research  has  aggravated  the  situation. 
Labor  troubles  with  which  industry  has  had  to  contend 
have  cither  limited  the  funds  available  for  research  or 
when  available,  have  made  executives  reluctant  to 
spend  them  for  this  purpose. 

In  nearly  every  branch  of  French  industry  at  least 
one  outstanding  research  man  may  be  found.  In 
many  industries,  and  particularly  the  chemical  indus- 
try, teclmical  direction  is  frequently  by  Swiss  or 
Alsatians,  the  principal  reason  for  which  seems  to  be 
that  university  research  training  in  France  does  not 
meet  the  requirements  of  industry. 

The  number  of  industrial  research  laboratories  in 
France  is  comparatively  small.  Etablissement  Kuhl- 
mann,  largest  of  the  chemical  companies,  maintains 
the  most  extensive  in  that  field  and  is  active  in  research 
on  dyes,  organic  chemicals,  and  heavy  chemicals. 
Cie.  Gobain  conducts  research  in  its  lino  of  products — 
glass,  heavy  chemicals,  and  petroleum.  Cie.  Gau- 
mont,  one  of  the  largest  moving-picture  companies  in 
Europe,  also  manufactures  starting  and  ignition 
systems,  cameras  and  moving-picture  apparatus,  field 
glasses,  and  precision  specialties,  and  maintains  one 
of  the  largest  staffs  in  Europe  for  research  in  these 
fields.  The  Thomson-Houston  Company  maintains 
a  large  central  research  laboratory  for  its  activities  in 
electrical  machinery  and  supplies.  Societe  Chimiques 
de  la  Grand  Paroisse  has  been  investigating  the  pro- 
duction and  hydrogonation  of  shale  oil.  Other  indus- 
trial concerns  which  have  been  active  in  research 
include  Society  Anonyme  pour  I'Etude  et  Exploitation 
dos  Procedes  Georges  Claude;  Societe  Anonyme  des 
Etablissements  Roure  Bertrand  Fils  et  Justin  duPont; 
Societe  d'Eclairage,  Chauffage  et  Force  matrice; 
Societe  d'Electro-Chimie,  d'Eloctro-Metallurgie  et  des 
Aci^ries  (Savoie) ;  Societe  d'Elcctro-Chimie,  d'Electro- 
Metallurgie  et  des  Aci^ries  (Paris);  Compagnie  de 
Produits  chimiques  et  electrometallurgiques,  Alais, 
Forges  et  Camargue;  Societe  anonyme  des  Mati^res 
colorantes  et  Produits  chimiques  de  Saint-Denis; 
Soci^t^  des  Usines  Chimiques  Rhone-Poulenc;  Comp- 
toir  des  Textiles  artificiels. 

Noteworthy  research  accomplishments  have  been 
made  by  other  industries  such  as  alloys,  metallic  car- 
bides, naval  stores,  and  coal.  Research  on  raw  mate- 
rials of  the  French  colonial  possessions,  such  as  rubber, 


Industrial  Research 


197 


vegetable  oils,  phosphates,  and  agrieulliuul  j)i(i(hicts, 
has  constituted  an  important  sphere  of  activity. 

French  designers  of  packages  for  perfumes  and  cos- 
metics lead  the  world  and  have  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously exerted  a  world-wide  influence  on  industrial 
design,  not  only  in  packaging  but  as  well  in  architecture, 
furniture,  equipment,  automobiles,  railroads,  and  other 
lines. 

Although  considerable  research  is  conducted  bj'  trade 
associations,  it  has  been  difficult  to  ascertain  its  extent. 
The  French  rubber  plantation  interests  maintain  a 
research  institute  in  cooperation  with  similar  Dutch 
and  British  institutes  for  development  of  new  uses  for 
rubber.  A  foundry  research  bureau  was  organized  in 
1938. 

Research  in  Germany 

During  the  nineteenth  century  science  in  Germany 
made  tremendous  advances,  and  German  scientists 
were  encouraged  to  apply  the  results  of  their  discoveries 
and  inventions  to  the  development  of  industry.  The 
enormous  growth  which  followed  in  the  chemical, 
steel,  electrical,  and  other  industries  was  in  large 
measure  due  also  to  the  association  of  science  with  the 
traditions  of  German  learning  and  the  prestige  which 
science  gained  from  recognition  by  the  Government. 
The  Government  and  state  research  institutes,  the 
universities  anil  institutes  of  technology,  and  in- 
dustry all  played  important  parts  in  this  remarkable 
development. 

Germany  was  among  the  first  countries  to  recognize 
the  importance  of  research  in  science  and  industry 
before  the  World  War,  but  perhaps  the  most  brilliant 
period  in  her  science  occurred  when  a  defeated  nation 
turned  to  research  as  a  means  of  overcoming  the  mate- 
rial and  human  losses  sustained.  Before  the  depression 
Germany  was  one  of  the  leading  nations  in  organ- 
ized scientific  research.  With  the  ascendency  of  the 
Nazi  regime  a  change  took  place  in  the  attitude  of  the 
Government  toward  research,  the  efforts  of  which  were 
directed  to  the  interest  of  the  national  economy  and 
preparedness. 

Prior  to  1933,  the  foundation  of  research  and  science 
in  Germany  was  in  the  five  states,  each  of  which  luTil 
its  Department  of  Science  and  the  Arts.  The  iiighest 
developmi>nt  was  in  Prussia.  The  state,  through  the 
Prussian  Ministry  for  Science  and  the  Arts,  largely 
controlled  important  scientific  and  research  personnel 
b}'  such  means  as  financial  support  of  research  fellow- 
ships, consultation  fees,  and  guarantees  for  lectures. 

Following  the  lessened  ability  of  industry  to  bear  its 
share  of  financing  research  and  the  consequent  burden 
placed  on  the  state  in  the  post-war  period,  the  char- 
acter of  German  research  changed,  and  the  vohune  di- 
mmished  somewhat  by  1924.     During  the  depression 


with  its  attendant  unemployment,  the  proportion  of 
scientific  research  done  in  institutes  of  technology,  uni- 
versities, state  bureaus,  and  industry  became;  high,  and 
the  trend  of  industrial  research  turned  from  new  process 
developments  toward  improvements  in  old  processes. 

The  attitude  of  National  Socialist  Germany  toward 
research  is  indicated  in  the  following  preamble  to  the 
law  of  March  16,  1937,  establishing  a  National  Research 
Council  (Reichsforschungsrat) . 

The  great  undertakings  which  the  Four- Year  Plan  has  set  for 
German  science  make  it  necessary  that  all  the  forces  of  research 
which  can  contribute  to  the  fulfilling  of  these  tasks  be  centrally 
coordinated  and  set  in  motion.  The  principle  of  free  inquiry 
will  not  be  interfered  with  by  this  direction  of  certain  branches 
of  science  toward  the  goals  of  the  Four- Year  Plan,  nor  by  the 
centralized  allocation  of  research  funds,  nor  by  the  systematic 
assignment  of  problems,  since  freedom  of  inquiry  is  based  not, 
on  an  arbitrary  choice  of  problems,  but  on  the  independence 
with  which  the  research  process  is  carried  out.  At  an  liistorical 
moment  like  the  present,  when  scientific  investigation  has  the 
task  of  reaching  goals  on  which  the  existence  of  the  whole  Nation 
depends,  it  is  needless  to  explain  why  research  must  devote 
itself  to  this  type  of  problem,  and  thus  at  the  .same  time  pos- 
sibly have  to  neglect  less  important  and  less  urgent  problems — 
even  when  these  latter  may  be  more  in  keeping  with  the  investi- 
gator's previous  work  and  with  the  usual  dispensation  of  funds. 

The  policy  of  giving  a  political  coating  to  the  scien- 
tific pill  has  been  applied  alike  to  Government,  uni- 
versities, research  institutes  and  industry,  to  individual 
scientists,  and  to  organized  groups.  The  scientist  has 
to  demonstrate  his  usefulness  to  the  nation. 

Government  Research  Institutes 

There  are  numerous  research  institutes  in  the  various 
ministries,  both  of  the  Government  and  of  the  principal 
States.  These  cover  a  wide  range  of  subjects  from  the 
physical  and  natural  sciences  to  the  social  sciences  and 
the  humanities,  and  in  numerous  instances  the  work  is 
supported  in  part  by  industry. 

Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  the  Physikal- 
ische  Technische  Reichanstalt,  leading  research  bureau 
of  the  State  of  Prussia,  which  is  equivalent  to  our 
National  Bureau  of  Standards.  The  Staathches  Ma- 
terial Priifungsamt  is  the  testing  materials  laboratory 
for  Prussia.  The  Chemical  Technical  Institute  is 
concerned  with  chemical  and  physical  problems  relating 
to  general  chemistry,  explosives,  metallurgy,  and 
materials  testing. 

The  German  State  Council  for  Research  (1937)  has 
as  its  object  the  coordination  of  scientific  research, 
including  activities  of  industrial  research  laboratories. 
One  of  its  most  important  duties  is  furtherance  of  the 
Four- Year  Plan.  It  cooperates  with  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
Institutes.  Fourteen  departments  had  been  organized 
in  1937  as  follows: 

Physics,   including   mathematics,   astronomy,   and  meteor- 
ology. 
Chemistry  and  physical  chemistry. 


198 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Power  materials. 

Organic    industrial    materials,    artificial    products,    rubber, 

textiles,  etc. 
Nonferrous  metals. 

Geology,  including  mineralogy  and  geophysics. 
Agriculture   and   general    biology,    including    zoologj'    and 

botany. 
Forestry  and  timber  research. 
Military  science  and  technics. 
Electro  technics. 
Mining  and  smelting. 
Iron  and  steel. 

Medicine,  including  race  research  and  race  biology. 
Military  medicine. 

The  Government  of  Germany  did  not  fully  appre- 
ciate the  importance  of  scientific  and  industrial  research 
until  in  1911  von  Harnack,  a  disciple  of  von  Humboldt, 
stimulated  the  interest  and  secured  the  financial  back- 
ing of  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II  by  pointing  out  that  unless 
provision  were  made  for  research  facilities  Germany 
would  lose  its  leadership  in  science  and  research.  Thus 
was  founded  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Society  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science.  In  1937  it  consisted  of  a  group 
of  37  research  institutes  in  the  fields  of  physics,  chem- 
istry, biology,  medicine,  history,  law,  and  the  humani- 
ties. At  that  time  the  membership  was  about  675, 
and  the  number  of  investigators  upward  of  1,100. 
The  various  institutes  have  been  started,  fostered, 
and  maintained  by  the  Government  and  industry 
jointlj'  and  by  private  endowments,  although  most  of 
the  support  has  come  from  private  industry  and  the 
Government.  The  endowments  were  entirely  lost 
during  the  period  of  inflation,  and  the  Government, 
being  financially  embarrassed,  could  not  help  them. 
Industry  undertook  95  percent  of  the  support  of  the 
various  institutes.  Again  during  the  severe  economic 
crisis  beginning  in  1929,  some  of  the  institutes  experi- 
enced difficulty  in  continuing  their  research.  The 
National   Socialist   Government  granted   the   Society 


substantial  and  regular  financial  aid  in  return  for  which 
the  Society  promised  loyal  support  to  the  new  Govern- 
ment. According  to  the  new  statutes  the  President  of 
the  Society  alone  assumes  all  responsibility  and  is 
assisted  by  an  Advisory  Council.  The  newly  elected 
Senate  of  the  Society  consists  of  representatives  of 
science,  industry,  and  Governiuciit. 

Under  the  National  Socialist  Party  the  Society  has 
been  described  as  "the  general  stafl  of  German  science 
in  our  peaceful  campaign  for  the  spiritual,  cultural,  and 
material  development  of  our  people."  Keccnt  reports 
of  the  Society  have  stated  that  its  activities  were  widely 
increased  for  solution  of  problems  related  to  the  Four- 
Year  Plan  and  that  it  enjoyed  very  generous  Govern- 
mental support.  It  has  been  reported,  however,  that 
activities  of  some  of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Institutes  have 
been  curtailed  since  the  outbreak  of  the  war. 

Universities 

The  remarkable  industrial  growth  wliich  Germany 
experienced  up  to  3  or  4  years  ago  was  in  large  measure 
due  to  the  fruits  of  the  system  of  research  in  the  uni- 
versities and  its  coordination  with  industry.  In 
scientific  achievements  and  in  benefits  both  to  university 
and  industry  this  plan  excelled  that  of  any  other  nation. 
It  was  stimulated  by  the  ancient  traditions  and  ideals  of 
the  universities  which  developed  men  of  international 
fame  in  many  fields. 

The  backbone  of  fundamental  research  in  these 
universities  was  the  industry  sponsored  system  of  post- 
doctorate  research  assistants  to  professors,  who  some- 
times directed  the  work  of  as  many  as  20  or  30  men. 
Their  number  had  been  reduced  by  two  thirds  by  the 
spring  of  1939,  with  losses  still  mounting  in  the  fol- 
lowing summer. 

Owing  to  the  unemployment  situation  in  Germany 
up  to  about  1935  the  universities  were  crowded  with 


FiGDRE  57. — 'Kaiser  Wilhelm  Institute  for  Iron  and  Steel  Research,  Diisseldorf,  Germany 


Industrial  Research 


109 


students  and  it  appeared  that  German  industry  would 
not  be  able  to  absorb  all  of  the  graduates.  At  that  time 
there  was  serious  tallv  of  reducing  the  number  of 
students  enrolled  by  selective  examination.  As  the 
self-sufficiency  program  developed,  unemployment  was 
practically  eliminated  and  the  demand  for  technical 
men  absorbed  all  the  unemployed  with  a  resulting 
shortage  in  technicians.  The  3  j'^ears  of  combined 
military  and  work  service  required  of  all  J'oung  men, 
together  with  the  rather  unattractive  economic  stand- 
ing of  university  graduates,  tended  to  decrease  the 
number  of  students  in  universities,  thus  aggravating 
the  shortage  of  technically  trained  men.  Race  purges 
and  discouragement  over  the  future  outlook  in  the 
academic  field  also  contributed  to  this  shortage. 

Student  enrollment  in  nearly  aU  university  courses 
decreased  in  1936-37  to  57.8  percent  of  the  1932-33 
figures.  Those  in  engineering  sciences  dropped  from 
14,477  to  5,188  students,  and  in  mathematics  and 
natural  sciences  from  12,591  to  4,616  students.  The 
decrease  in  the  number  of  students  has  continued  and 
with  the  outbreak  of  war  some  of  the  universities  closed 
or  courses  were  eliminated.  The  university  courses, 
including  those  in  technical  subjects,  have  largely  been 
reduced  from  4  to  2  years. 

The  research  strength  of  universities  has  been 
weakened  In  other  ways.  Heads  of  universities,  if  not 
members  of  the  National  Socialist  Party,  have  been 
replaced  for  the  most  part  by  members  appointed 
largely  to  prevent  subversive  activities.  As  faculty 
chairs  have  become  vacant  for  normal  causes  or  other 
reasons,  they  have  been  filled  with  men  chosen  primarily 
for  their  party  records  and  secondarily  for  their  profes- 
sional qualifications.  A  generation  may  be  required  to 
restore  these  faculties  to  their  former  high  planes. 
Capable  assistant  professors  have  become  discouraged 
at  not  being  advanced  to  these  posts.  Students  have 
engaged  in  party  activities  with  the  result  that  studies 
became  of  secondary  interest.  Since  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  the  Government  has  brought  pressure  to  bear  on 
universities  as  well  as  industry  to  confine  research  to 
problems  concerned  with  national  defense. 

Illustrative  of  the  shift  of  university  research  from 
one  fundamental  field  of  endeavor  to  another  in  co- 
ordination with  the  progress  of  industry  is  the  change 
of  work  from  dyes  to  biological  chemistry.  Prior  to 
1914  a  very  large  part  of  the  research  on  dyes  was 
carried  on  in  the  universities  under  the  sponsorship  of 
industry.  After  the  war  the  dye  industry  increased 
at  such  an  amazing  rate  that  manufacturers  had  to 
take  over  most  of  the  research.  University  research 
workers  turned  their  efforts  to  biological  chemistry,  thus 
starting  Germany's  remarkable  era  of  development  in 
such    fields   as   vitamins,    hormones,   pharmaceuticals, 


and  tanning  materials.  This  situation  was  comparable 
to  that  existing  in  dyes  before  1914.  Industry  may 
eventually  take  over  research  in  biological  chemistry, 
as  it  did  in  dyes. 

Industry 

Germany  has  a  framework  for  industrial  research 
unequalled  except  in  the  United  States  and  up  to  1939 
its  research  organization  was  developing  more  rapidly 
than  ever.  Most  of  the  large  manufacturing  industries, 
particularly  metals  and  chemicals,  have  been  backed  by 
strong,  well  integrated  research  staffs  which  were 
frequently  larger  for  a  given  production  than  those  in 
the  United  States.  Characteristic  of  German  industry, 
especially  in  chemicals,  have  been  the  large  number  of 
small  and  moderate  sized  companies  employing  up  to 
50  research  workers.  In  recent  years  there  has  been  a 
very  marked  trend  away  from  the  so-called  "closeted" 
research,  more  especially  with  the  larger  companies,  but 
not  to  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  carried  in  the 
United  States. 

The  present  regime  appears  to  recognize  the  im- 
portance of  well  organized  industrial  research,  the 
efforts  of  which  are  being  directed  toward  self-sufficiency 
and  preparedness.  In  some  research,  including  that 
concerned  with  electric  communications,  biological 
chemistry,  and  certain  types  of  alloys,  Germany  excels 
the  rest  of  Eiu-ope,  but  is  second  to  the  United  States  in 
most  if  not  all  of  these  fields.  More  people  were 
engaged  about  1937  in  laboratories  for  electrical  com- 
munication development  and  research  in  Germany  than 
in  the  United  States,  almost  wholly  on  specific  develop- 
ments and  designs  immediately  required.  The  develop- 
ment of  tools  of  research,  in  which  Germany  was 
preeminent,  is  continuing,  as  witness  outstanding  work 
in  X-rays,  electronic  diffraction,  optical  instruments, 
and  other  fields.  Its  engineers  are  equal  to  the  best  in 
applying  the  results  of  research  to  practice,  although 
mechanization  of  industry  is  reported  to  be  less  de- 
veloped than  in  the  United  States. 

Recent  years  have  witnessed  a  pronounced  decline 
in  the  number  of  patents  under  the  new  regime,  and 
foreigners  have  experienced  increasmg  difficulty  in 
securing  patent  protection. 

In  the  past  decade  Germany  has  tended  to  license 
concerns  in  other  countries  for  the  utilization  of  new 
processes  and  manufacture  of  new  products.  These 
licenses  are  only  given  on  processes  or  products  on 
which  an  export  trade  could  not  be  reasonably  de- 
veloped. This  trend  is  due  to  the  fact  that  since  the 
war  of  1914-18  German  export  potentialities  have  been 
reduced  because  of  the  well  developed  industries  in 
former  export  fields.  Tariffs  or  embargoes  in  these 
countries  have  made  the  export  of  chemicals,  with  the 


200 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


exception  of  specialties,  almost  impossible.  To  obluin 
foreign  exchange  the  only  recourse  was  to  license 
processes.  A  number  of  German  manufacturers  main- 
tained representatives  in  other  countries  for  negotiating 
such  licenses.  Conversely,  manufacturers  in  Germany 
liavc  been  granted  licenses  to  use  processes  develojied 
in  the  United  Stales  and  other  countries.  Usuallj'  these 
licenses  include  technical  assistance  in  getting  processes 
into  commercial  production.  Recent  examples  of 
licensing  between  Germany  and  the  United  States  are 
those  involving  production  of  Buna  rubber  in  this 
country  and  of  nylon  in  Germany.  Exchange  of  tech- 
nical information  between  the  United  States  and 
Germany  in  this  manner  and  other  waj'S  has  materially 
aided    technological  development  in  both  covmtrios. 

The  largest  industrial  research  organization  in 
Germany  is  that  of  the  Interessen  Gemeinschaft 
Farbenindustrie  I.  G.,  commonly  known  as  the 
German  I.  G.  Originally,  this  organization  was  a  con- 
solidation of  well  integrated  competing  plants  each  with 
well  organized  and  complete  research  facilities.  Cen- 
tralization of  research  facilities  was  extremelj-  difficult 
but  has  made  great  progress  in  recent  years.  While 
not  entirely  limited  in  scope  of  research,  the  large 
laboratories  of  the  I.  G.  have  been  placing  thoir  nmiii 


emphasis  on  problems  related  to  plant  activities.  In 
cases  of  conflicting  interests,  problems  have  been  fre- 
quently assigned  to  or  divided  among  the  laboratories 
best  suited  to  handle  the  work.  A  definite  proportion 
of  fundamental  research  has  been  carried  out  in  all  the 
laboratories.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  at  the  Oppau 
laboratory  300  chemists  were  said  to  be  working  at  one 
time  on  development  of  catalysts  for  high  pressure 
synthesis.  These  laboratories  may  be  roughly  classified 
as  follows: 

I.«verkusen — vat  dyes,  rubber  chemicals  and  buna  service, 

inorganic  chemistry. 
Ludwigshafen — Azo  dyes,  plastics  and  synthetic  rubber. 
Elberfeld  and  Hoechst — ^pharmaceuticals. 
Wolfcn — Bitterfeld — cellulose,  rayon,  synthetic  fibers  and 

photography,  aluminum  and  metals. 
Oppau    and    Merzeberg — nitrogen,    carbon    monoxide   and 

hydrogunation  of  coal  (high  pressure). 

The  I.  G.  Farbenindustrie  has  lost  many  of  its  key 
research  men  in  recent  years,  partly  because  of  the 
necessity  of  transferring  technical  men  to  manufac- 
turing, partlj'  because  of  race  purges,  and  for  other 
reasons.  In  some  instances  replacements  have  been  as 
high  as  five  young  graduates  for  each  experienced  re- 
search   man.     In    other   instances    the   post-doctorate 


Figure  oS. — Laboratory  of  the  German  Interessen  Uesellschaft  Farbenindustrie 


IncOTpcTiittii 


Industrial  Research 


201 


assistants  of  professors  have  been  calletl  in,  to  the 
detriment  of  research  in  universities.  In  recent  years 
an  unusually  large  number  of  outstanding  research  men 
reached  tlie  age  limit  and  have  been  retired.  To 
maintain  continuity  in  researcii  traditions  and  to  profit 
from  their  experience  these  men  have  been  retained  as 
consultants  and  in  many  cases  deliver  lectures  on  tiicir 
research  experiences  to  the  younger  personnel.  Tlie 
experience  of  the  I.  G.  is  believed  to  be  typical  of  many 
other  firms  maintaining  large  research  staffs. 

German  research  in  electric  communications,  par- 
ticularly in  television,  surpasses  both  i:i  volume  and 
quality  tiiat  of  any  other  European  country.  Some  of 
the  work  is  done  in  Government  laboratories,  such  as 
that  of  the  Reichspost,  in  telephony,  radio,  and  tele- 
vision; some  in  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Institutes,  as  on  mag- 
netic alloj-s,  magnetic  measurements,  and  metallurgy; 
and  a  very  important  part  by  industry  itself.  The 
Siemens-Halske  and  Siemens-Schuchert  combine,  one  of 
the  largest  electrical  manufacturers  in  the  world,  does 
much  research  in  electric  commimications  other  than 
wireless,  telephony,  and  electric  power.  In  1937  this  or- 
ganization was  credited  with  a  staff  of  2,000  scientists. 
The  AUgemeine  ElectrizitJits  Gesellscliaft  (German 
General  Electric  Company)  engages  in  researcii  princi- 
pally on  electric  power.  In  1939  Telefunken  Gesell- 
schaf t  and  Fernseh  (Bosch  and  Zeiss-Ikon  interests)  were 
doing  90  percent  of  the  research  in  television,  with  re- 
search personnel  larger  than  tiiat  of  any  other  country. 

Other  great  research  laboratories  are  in  the  iron  and 
steel  industry  (Krupp,  Rochling  Iron  and  Steel  Works, 
Vereinigte  Stahlwerke);  glass  (Schott  and  Genossen, 
Osram);  nonferrous  metals  (Metall  Bank  A.  G.);  coal 
(Ruhr  Chemical  and  others) ;  photography  (Zeiss-Ikon) ; 
textiles;  shipbuildmg  (Deutsche  Werke);  electric  insula- 
tion (Hemisdorf-Schomberg) ;  potash  (several  potash 
producers  and  a  trade  association);  inorganic  chemicals 
(Goldschmidt  laboratories);  general  chemicals  (Degusa- 
Hiag);  fine  chemicals  (Chemische-Pharmazeutische, 
J.  D.  Riedel-E.  de  Haen);  synthetic  camphor  and 
menthol  (Schering-Kahlbaum). 

Many  trade  associations  in  Germany  maintain  ex- 
tensive research  laboratories,  of  which  those  in  the  coal, 
potash,  cement,  textiles,  porcelain,  varnish,  and  paint  in- 
dustries, among  others,  are  doing  the  most  outstanding 
work.  In  contrast  to  the  American  practice  of  organiza- 
tion of  trade  associations  by  the  industries  themselves, 
trade  associations  in  Germany  are  organized  by  and 
under  the  control  of  the  Government. 

A  comparison  of  research  in  the  German  coal  industry 
with  that  of  the  United  States  reveals  the  sharp  con- 
trast in  conditions  which  motivate  research  in  a  given 
industry.  In  the  United  States  the  coal  industry,  not 
having  prospered  relative  to  other  industries,  is  little 
able  to  engage  in  extensive  research.     In  this  country 


coking  of  coal  is  done  principally  by  steel  and  gas 
companies,  whereas  in  Germany  the  coal  industry 
itself  engages  in  tliis  operation.  Research  by  coal 
interests  here  has  been  directed  primarily  towards 
stokers  for  the  utilization  of  coal  as  is,  while  in  Germany 
and  England  efforts  have  been  toward  utilization  of  the 
higher  value  products  of  coal  carbonization  with  such 
developments  as  low  temperature  carbonization,  utiliza- 
tion of  the  new  types  of  tar  therefrom,  synthetic  motor 
fuel,  and  chemical  utilization  of  byproducts.  Research 
of  this  nature  in  the  United  States  is  conducted  mainly 
bj'  the  steel  companies  and  the  tar  distillers. 

In  recent  years  a  shortage  of  research  workers, 
especially  in  fundamental  lines,  has  arisen  in  Germany, 
not  only  from  causes  previously  mentioned  but  as  well 
from  the  smaller  number  of  university  graduates  and 
the  greatly  stimulated  tempo  of  industry.  These  con- 
ditions, together  with  the  trend  in  universities  from 
fundamental  to  applied  research  objectives,  hold  dim 
prospects  of  being  alleviated  and  are  causing  industry 
concern  about  the  future  supply  of  fundamental 
research  workers.  Industry's  desire  to  place  emphasis 
on  fundamentals  so  as  to  provide  a  training  ground  for 
future  personnel  is  hindered  by  reason  of  Government 
demands  for  research  promising  inunediate  results. 
Should  normal  conditions  again  obtain,  a  long  period 
will  be  required  to  train  a  new  generation  of  research 
workers  to  the  high  order  of  experience  and  ability 
which  characterized  pre-Hitler  Germany,  thus  render- 
ing post-war  recovery  more  difficult.  Yet  this  shortage 
of  research  workers  should  not  be  taken  to  mean  that 
industrial  research  in  Germany  has  deteriorated, 
although  some  observers  are  of  the  opinion  that  it  has 
become  more  superficial  with  the  change  of  emphasis 
under  the  dictates  of  political  exigencies. 

Germany's  plan  for  self-sufficiency  necessarily  brings 
upon  herself  the  tremendous  disadvantages  to  be  ex- 
pected from  an  economy  based  on  internal  rather  than 
international  considerations.  In  development  of  sub- 
stitute materials  and  products  from  domestic  resources 
so  as  to  reduce  the  volume  of  imports  to  a  minimum, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  extra  demands  on  Germany's 
raw  material,  labor,  and  energy  resources,  not  to  speak 
of  its  research  resources,  are  huge.  There  must  be 
more  labor  to  produce  the  extra  products  of  the  mines, 
the  fields,  and  the  forests,  more  equipment  to  move 
and  to  process  them,  in  turn  requiring  more  labor, 
more  chemicals,  more  energy,  and  so  on  almost  ad 
infinitum.  Shortages  exist  all  along  the  line.  The 
problems  of  applied  research  workers  are  thus  multi- 
plied manyfold. 

Before  permission  to  build  new  plants  is  granted, 
projects  must  first  be  demonstrated  as  in  the  interests 
of  self-sufficiency  or  national  defense.  Then  permits 
must   be   obtained    for  necessary   buildmg   materials, 


202 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


equipment,  raw  materials,  and  labor.  Dclaj's  in  de- 
livery of  equipment  arc  common.  The  time  required 
to  complete  new  projects  is  said  to  be  about  twice  the 
normal.  The  very  insistance  upon  use  of  domestic 
raw  materials  has  delayed  completion  of  some  projects 
by  several  years  because  of  the  necessity  of  research  on 
the  use  of  prescribed  materials.  An  example  of  such 
delay  is  production  of  the  cobalt  catalyst  required  for 
the  Fischer-Tropf  coal  hydrogenation  process. 

Scientific  and  Technical  Societies 
and  Publications 

A  statement  on  research  in  Germany  should  not 
omit  mention  of  the  important  role  which  licr  scientific 
societies  and  publications  have  played  in  the  dissemina- 
tion of  scientific  and  technical  information.  The 
societies  have  assisted  materially  in  dissipating  the 
secrecy  which  formerly  surrounded  so  much  of  German 
research.  The  leading  chemical  society,  Deutsche 
Chemische  Gesellschaft,  is  comparable  to  our  own 
American   Chemical  Society.     The  meetings   of  local 


«f' 


organizations  of  regional  universities  and  institutes  of 
technology  have  served  a  very  useful  purpose.  These 
semiannual  meetings  of  young  men  in  university  facul- 
ties (Privat  Dozenten  Sitzungen)  afford  opportunities 
for  the  younger  researchers  to  present  papers  covering 
their  work  to  their  colleagues  and  heads  of  departments. 
The  discussions  serve  to  stimulate  and  guide  the  men 
in  further  research.  The  meetings  serve  as  recruiting 
giounds  for  the  advancement  of  worthwhile  men. 
Such  a  plan  might  well  be  considered  for  adoption  in 
the  United  States. 

The  symposium  plan  by  which  a  few  leading  scien- 
tists or  technologists  are  invited  to  address  gatherings, 
and  at  which  discussion  and  interchange  of  ideas  are 
freely  engaged  in,  has  been  successful  in  Germany  and 
to  some  extent  in  England  and  other  European  coun- 
tries. By  this  means  university  and  industrial  re- 
searchers in  both  fundamental  and  applied  fields  are 
brought  more  intimately  into  contact  than  is  possible, 
for  example,  at  the  large  meetings  of  some  of  the 
professional  and  technical  societies  in  the  United  States. 


Figure  59.- 


Ptioto.  Grrman  LtbTw 
-Bacteriological  Analyses  by  Students,  Institute  of  Kesearcli,  Berlin,  Germany 


Industrial  Research 


203 


A  beginning  towards  the  symposium  plan  has  been 
made  in  this  country. 

In  most  of  the  sciences  Germany  has  pubhcations  of 
world-wide  reputation.  Its  Chemischcs  Zcntralblatt, 
abstract  periodical  for  chemistry  and  related  sciences, 
can  be  compared  only  with  our  own  Chemical  Ab- 
stracts and  the  British  Chemical  Abstracts. 

Research  in  Great  Britain 

Industrial  research  in  Great  Britain  differs  from  that 
in  most  important  industrial  nations  in  several  re- 
spects— some  favorable  and  some  unfavorable  by 
comparison.  The  outstanding  featm-e  in  Great  Britain 
is  the  active  Govermnent  participation  in  and  subsidy 
of  research  through  the  trade  association  system,  the 
special  boards  and  committees  representing  numerous 
industries,  and  the  Government's  own  research  labora- 
tories. Less  obvious  are  the  contributions  which 
British  scientists  in  applied  fields  have  made  through 
systematic  publication  of  critical  survej^s  of  technical 
knowledge. 

British  industry  has  been  slow  in  recognizing  the 
importance  of  industrial  research,  but  the  First  World 
War  caused  significant  advances  to  be  made  in  the 


application  of  science  to  industry.  Research  in  uni- 
versities has  overcome  to  a  considerable  extent  the 
stigma  which  once  attached  to  work  in  applied  fields. 
Lack  of  social  and  employer  recognition  of  the  profes- 
sional status  of  research  workers  in  industry  has  like- 
wise been  overcome  to  a  marked  degree.  The  former 
absence  of  cooperation  between  universities  and  indus- 
tries has  been  replaced  by  a  growing  frequency  with 
which  professors  serve  as  consultants  to  industry  and 
by  industry's  grants  to  universities  for  fellowships. 

Government  research  in  science  is  directed  mainly 
by  three  bodies  which  are  directly  responsible  to  Com- 
mittees of  the  Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial 
Research  (1915),  the  Medical  Research  Council  (1920), 
and  the  Agricultural  Research  Council  (1931).  The 
Roj'al  Society  also  assists  in  making  the  research 
resources  of  the  nation  available  to  the  Government. 
The  University  Grants  Committee  of  the  Treasury 
makes  large  grants  to  universities,  the  research  activ- 
ities of  which  share  in  the  benefits. 

Several  of  the  Dominions  maintain  research  organi- 
zations similar  to  those  in  England,  cooperation  with 
which  is  afforded  thi'ough  the  executive  council  of  the 
Imperial  Agricultural  College  (1929)  which  is  composed 


Figure  60. — The  \\  ellcome  Research  Institution,  London,  England 


204 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


of  nominees  of  llie  United  Kingdom,  tlie  Dominions 
and  India,  and  the  Colonial  Oiricc.  This  executive 
council  administers  several  bureaus  which  act  as  clear- 
ing houses  of  research  information. 

Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research 

The  Departuient  of  Scientific  and  Iinlustrial  Research  .  .  . 
was  tlie  outcome  of  a  widely  felt  need  for  action  to  remove  the 
defects  in  .  .  .  industrial  organization  revealed  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Great  War.  The  object  of  the  Government  was  stated 
to  be  "to  establish  a  ix>rmanent  organization  for  the  promotion 
of  scientific  and  industrial  research"  throughout  the  I'nited 
Kingdom  ...  in  peace,  even  more  than  in  war — thougli  for 
the  time  being  the  claims  of  the  defence  were  paramount.' 

The  directing  agency  of  the  Department  is  an  ad- 
visory council,  but  actual  supervision  is  by  special 
boards  or  committees.  The  functions  of  the  council 
arc  to  institute  specific  researches  to  establish  special 
institutions,  to  study  problems  in  particular  industries 
or  trades,  and  to  administer  research  studcnlships  and 
fellowships  for  recruiting  scienlilic  and  technical  j)ro- 
fessions.  The  expenditure  of  the  Department  in  1937- 
38  was  £872,127  gross  or  £037,200  net.  Total  receipts 
in  that  year  amounted  to  £234,927,  of  which  fees  for 
paid  work  were  £80,486,  contributions  to  cooperative 
research  £17,966,  payments  by  other  Government  De- 
partments for  services  rendered  £81,923,  and  the 
remainder  from  miscellaneous  sources. 

The  Department  maintains  8  special  research  estab- 


»  Heath,  Sir  Frank.  Government  and  scientific  rcscarcii.  London  and  tlie  ad- 
vancement of  science.  T>ondon,  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
1831,  ch.  5,  pp.  205-206. 


lishmcuts  and  some  30  boards  or  committees,  and 
cooperates  with  some  20  industrial  research  associa- 
tions, the  Medical  Research  Council  and  the  Agri- 
cultural Research  Council.  About  20  Government 
agencies  have  liaison  representatives  in  the  Depart- 
ment. 

The  special  research  establishments  are: 

National  Physical  Laboratory,  Teddington. 

Geological  Survey  and  Museum,  London. 

Fuel  Research  Station,  Greenwich. 

Low  Temperature  Research  Station,  Watford. 

Forest  Products  Research  Station,  Princes  Risborough. 

Chemical  Research  Laboratory,  Teddington. 

Radio  Research  Station,  Slough. 

The  boards  and  committees  are: 

Building  (Materials  and  Construction)  Research  Board 

Committee  on  Testing  Work  for  the  Building  Industry 

Chemistry  Research  Board. 

Food  Investigation  Board. 

Committee  of  Management,  Low  Temperature  Station  for 

Research  in  Biochemistry  and  Physics,  Cambridge. 
Metallurgy  Research  Board. 

Road  (Materials  and  Construction)  Research  Board. 
Water  Pollution  Research  Board. 
Atmosjiheric  Pollution  Research  Board. 
Dental  Investigation  Committee. 
Gas  Cylinders  and  Containers  Committee. 
Illumination  Research  Committee. 
Lubrication  Research  Committee. 
Road  Tar  Research  Committee. 
Steel  Structure  Research  Committee. 
Committee  on  the  application   of  X-ray   Methods  to   In 

dustrial  Research. 

The  trade  associations  are: 


jg^s 


igso 


Jg27 


■-.I 

■V 

Figure  61. — The  Paint  Research  Stuliun,  Teddington,  Kugland 


The  British  Cast  Iron  Research 
Association. 

The  British  Iron  and  Steel  Fed- 
eration (Iron  and  Steel  Indus- 
trial Research  Council). 

The  British  Refractories 
Research  Association. 

The  British  Electrical  and 
Allied  Industries  Research 
Association. 

The  British  Scientific  Instru- 
ment Research  Association. 

The  British  Association  of 
British  Paint,  Colour,  and 
Varnish  Manufacturers. 

The  Institution  of  Automobile 
Engineers  Research  and 
Standardization  Com- 
mittee 

The  British  Cotton  Industrv 
Research  Association. 

The  Wool  Industries  Research 
Association. 

The  Linen  Industry  Research 
Association. 

The  British  Launderers'  Re- 
search Association. 


Industrial  Research 


205 


The  British  Leather  Manufacturers'  Research  Association. 

The  British  Boot,  Shoe  and  Allied  Trades'  Research  Associ- 
ation. 

The  Research  Association  of  British  Rubber  Manufacturers. 

The  British  .Association  of  British  Flour  Millers. 

The  British  Association  of  Research  for  the  Cocoa,  Choco- 
late, Sugar,  Confectionery,  and  Jam  Trades. 

The  British  Food  Manufacturers'  Research  Association. 

The  Printing  and  Allied  Trades  Research  Association. 

The  British  Colliery  Owners'  Research  Association. 

The  British  Non-Ferrous  Metals  Research  Association. 

The  British  Coal  Utilization  Research  Association. 

The  British  Pottery  Research  Association. 

A  few  trade  associations  have  conducted  research 
without  benefit  of  Government  subsid}'  and  have  made 
important  contributions  to  the  advancement  of  their 
industries.     Among  such  organizations  are: 

The  International  Tin  Research  and  Development  Council. 
The  Gas  Research  Board  (sponsored  by  the  Institution  of 

Gas  Engineers  and  the  British  Gas  Federation). 
The  Shellac  Research  Bureau. 
Associated  Portland  Cement  Manufacturers,  Ltd. 
Institute  of  Brewing. 

The  Government  research  laboratories  have  many 
notable  accomplishments  to  their  credit.  While  they 
have  lagged  somewhat  behind  in  industrial  research,  the 
application  of  their  results  to  industry  will  probably  be 
further  extended. 

The  National  Physical  Laboratory  performs  both 
research  and  development  work.  It  plays  an  important 
part  in  cooperation  with  the  Department  of  Scientific 
and  Industrial  Research,  which  supports  a  considerable 
volume  of  the  research  activities.  Its  aerodynamics 
laboratory,  supported  almost  entirch^  by  the  Air 
Ministry,  is  the  most  important  center  of  aviation 
research  in  the  British  Empire  and  is  engaged  in  much 
war  work.  The  laboratory  is  understood  to  be  doing 
considerable  research  for  other  departments  of 
defense.  Its  gross  expenditures  in  1937-38  were 
£252,209,  and  receipts  £141,302. 

The  work  of  the  Fuel  Research  Board  corresponds 
closely  in  many  respects  to  that  of  the  Coal  Division  of 
the  United  States  Bm-eau  of  Mines,  its  main  object  being 
the  application  of  science  for  better  utilization  of  British 
coal  resources.  Its  gross  expenditures  in  1937-38  were 
£103,240  and  receipts,  £8,458.  The  Chemical  Research 
Laboratory  has  numerous  achievements  to  its  credit,  a 
recent  interesting  one  being  the  application  of  certain 
forms  of  synthetic  resins  to  purification  of  water. 

The  trade  association  plan  of  cooperative  research  has 
not  been  free  from  certain  disadvantages  and  criticisms. 

The  principal  difficulty  has  been  the  equitable  distribution  of 
the  results.  The  larger  companies  equipped  with  laboratories 
apply  the  results  of  fundamental  investigations  and  gain  a  com- 
mercial advantage.  It  has  been  a  problem  to  devise  a  plan  by 
which  the  smaller  concerns  can  participate  in  the  results  of 
cooperative  research  for  which  they  have  paid  their  proportionate 


share.  One  solution  has  been  to  encourage  the  small  concern  to 
u.se  the  laboratory  as  a  school  for  foremen  in  the  study  of  new 
processes.^ 

Sir  Frank  Healh,  former  secretary  of  the  Department 
of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research,  has  pointed  out 
other  difficulties  in  the  system.  Firms  have  failed  to 
use  discoveries.  A  discovery  made  by  one  research 
body  may  be  useful  to  another  industry,  yet  be  neg- 
lected. New  devices  have  been  "still-born,"  either 
because  plant  and  staff  necessary  to  translate  them  to 
commercial  practice  were  lacking  or  because  funds  were 
unavailable. 

Instances  of  the  iiuibility  of  certain  industries  in  need 
of  research  but  unable  to  raise  the  minimum  of  £5,000 
per  year  necessary  to  receive  Government  support  have 
been  numerous.  The  plastics  industry  has  secured 
what  service  it  can  from  the  Chemical  Research  Labora- 
tory at  Teddington.  For  the  same  reason  research  on 
hard  fibers  has  been  combined  with  that  on  linen,  and 
that  on  silk  with  research  on  cotton.  The  rayon  in- 
dustry formerly  had  its  own  laboratory,  but  transferred 
its  work  to  the  cotton  laboratory. 

The  necessity  for  meeting  the  £5,000  annual  quota 
has  compelled  some  of  the  association  laboratories  to 
devote  most  of  their  time  to  routine  testing  and 
trouble  shooting  in  order  to  keep  the  industries  sold 
on  the  value  of  the  work,  and  some  research  car- 
ried out  in  these  laboratories  has  been  done  almost 
surreptitiousl}'. 

It  is  obvious  from  a  review  of  the  work  undertaken,  that  the 
Department  (of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research)  furnishes 
research  personnel  and  facilities  for  the  work  of  industries  and 
associations  having  an  insufficient  volume  to  justify  separate 
organizations  of  tlieir  own.' 

When  the  British  Government,  after  the  war,  began  the 
creation  and  maintenance  of  state-subsidized  research  labora- 
tories for  certain  industries,  it  cannot  truthfully  be  said  that 
industry  in  general  in  England  was  research  conscious.* 

This  situation  has  undergone  great  change,  especially  in 
recent  years,  according  to  numerous  authorities.  In 
1937  it  was  said  that  "industry  in  England  is  'research 
minded'  and  apparently  feels  that  the  future  prosperity 
of  their  own  companies  and  the  nation  depends  upon 
the  results  of  research."  ^  In  the  same  yenv  it  was  re- 
ported that  the  keynote  of  organized  research  in 
England  was — 

Speed-up  and  extension  of  industrial  research  in  the  national 
program  .  .   .  particularly  the  scientific  refinement  of  existing 


2  Holland.  Maurice.  Research  in  Europe.  A  comparative  study  of  the  national 
and  industrial  organization.  Presented  before  the  Division  of  Engineering  and 
Industrial  Research  of  the  National  Research  Council,  November  U,  1924. 

'  Harris,  R.  C.  European  laboratory  tour  impressions.  What  we  found  behind 
the  scenes  in  European  research,  1937. 

*  Alexander,  E.  R.  Research  consciousness  among  leading  indt}str:al  nations. 
Broadcast  over  Station  WABC  August  12  1937. 

'  Sec  footnote  3. 


206 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


processes  and  technology  and  the  fullest  utilization  of  the  natural 
resources  and  advantages  which  it  now  possesses.' 

Bernal  '  states  that  it  has  been  extremely  difficult  to 
raise  money  for  cooperative  research  by  trade  associa- 
tions, giving  as  reasons  that  the  chief  competitive  value 
of  research  is  lost  if  carried  out  cooperatively,  and  the 
lack  of  appreciation  of  scientific  research  in  any  form. 
Nearly  all  the  reports  of  the  Department  of  Scientific 
and  Industiral  Research  have  shown  difficulties  in  per- 
suading industries  to  take  up  research.  Much  of  Eng- 
lish industry  consists  of  small  factories,  employing  from 
20  to  100  men.  Most  of  these  firms  do  not  have  the 
resources  to  undertake  research  and  many  have  diffi- 
culty in  maintaining  useful  contacts  with  national 
research  projects  through  their  trade  associations.  Fur- 
thermore, the  Government  has  been  reluctant  for  polit- 
ical as  well  as  economic  reasons  to  take  active  part 
in  the  application  of  science.  It  cannot  exploit 
or  sell  the  results  of  its  research  except  in  war 
emergency. 

The  Fighting  Forces 

Prior  to  1914-18  there  were  no  systematized  efforts 
to  study  the  service  which  science  could  render  to  the 
national  defense.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1914- 
18,  technical  research  in  the  fighting  services,  except  for 
that  carried  on  secretly  in  military  establishments, 
was  conducted  in  cooperation  with  the  Department 
of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research.  Coordination 
was  through  the  directors  of  scientific  research  from 
the  Admiralty  and  the  Air  Ministry,  and  from  the 
War  Office  by  various  boards  and  committees.  Medi- 
cal research,  however,  came  under  the  medical  directors 
general  of  the  three  fighting  services,  and  was  in  close 
cooperation  with  the  Medical  Research  Board.  The 
three  fighting  services  jointly  maintain  the  Research 
Department  at  Woolwich  for  research  on  explosives, 
metallurgy,  and  radiology.  In  addition  each  service 
has  one  or  more  specialized  research  establishments, 
and  uses  facilities  of  industrial  concerns.  At  Porton 
Field  research  in  chemical  warfare  has  been  particularly 
important. 

During  the  present  war  and  until  the  surrender  of 
France,  liaison  between  the  Advisory  Council  on  Scien- 
tific Research  and  Technical  Development  was  effected 
through  the  Mission  scientifique  franco-brittanique 
which  was  in  contact  with  the  entire  French  wartime 
scientific  organization.  A  direct  link  was  also  estab- 
lished between  the  Ministry  of  Supply  and  the  French 


•  Holland,  Maurice.  Higb^spot  Impressions  of  significant  trends  in  research  in 
England.  France,  Qermany.  What  wc  found  behind  the  scenes  in  Euroiwan  research, 
1937. 

'  Bemal.  J.  D.  The  social  function  of  science.  London,  O  Roullodge  and  Sons, 
Ltd.,  1S39. 


Minislerc  de  I'Armement,  the  facilities  of  which  were 
available  to  the  Advisory  Council  on  matters  relating 
to  scientific  invention  through  an  officer  of  the  Ministry 
of  Supply  located  in  Paris. 

An  advisory  research  council  has  been  formed  by  the 
Council  of  the  Chemical  Society,  the  principal  purpose 
of  which  is,  when  approached,  to  call  to  the  attention 
of  specialists  research  projects  which  may  be  of  aid  to 
the  nation  during  the  war. 

Universities 

Research  in  universities  in  England  is  principally 
fundamental  in  character.  Until  a  few  years  ago  aca- 
demic research  was  more  desirable  from  a  social  stand- 
point than  industrial  research,  so  much  so  that  industrial 
laboratories  were  unable  to  recruit  men  of  the  highest 
abilities  in  graduate  work  at  the  universities.  This 
condition  has  improved  greatly  in  recent  years,  however, 
and  in  fundamental  fields  has  become  less  surrounded 
by  secrecy  and  restraint.  It  was  also  formerly  con- 
sidered in  bad  taste  for  the  academic  researcher  to  let 
his  findings  be  applied  in  industry,  but  in  the  early 
part  of  the  last  decade  professors  in  universities  began 
to  cooperate  with  industry  by  serving  as  consultants. 
Imperial  Chemical  Industries,  Ltd.,  was  instrumental 
in  starting  this  movement,  which  has  proceeded  with 
increasing  momentvmi  up  to  the  present.  These  uni- 
versity research  workers  have  performed  excellent  serv- 
ices, at  the  same  time  maintaining  their  social  standings. 
Some  changes  were  made  in  the  curricula  of  technical 
courses  to  meet  requirements  of  industry,  and  some 
universities  initiated  courses  in  chemical  engineering. 
Chemical  engineers  heretofore  had  been  self-made — often 
mechanical  engineers  associated  with  chemical  enter- 
prises. Closer  cooperation  between  universities  and 
industries  has  also  been  fostered  by  the  establishment 
of  fellowships  and  the  donation  of  research  grants  to 
professors  by  industries  to  assist  in  purchasing  materials 
and  equipment. 

With  some  exceptions  imiversity  laboratories  have 
operated  under  the  disadvantages  of  small  size,  in- 
adequate equipment,  and  interference  of  teaching  with 
research.  The  large  grants  made  to  some  university 
laboratories  for  fundamental  research  have  been 
extremely  helpful  in  remedying  these  conditions. 
There  has  been  no  organized  direction  of  research  in 
universities.  British  university  scientists  are  rendering 
yeoman  service  for  the  national  defense,  notablj'  in 
military  gases. 

A  number  of  British  universities  have  been  active  in 
applied  research,  among  which  shoidd  be  mentioned 
Cambridge,  Oxford,  and  London  for  their  work  in 
chemistrj',  Leeds  in  textiles,  Birmingham  in  fuels,  and 
Sheffield    in    iron,    steel,     and     ferrous    alloys.     The 


Industrial  Research 


207 


universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  have  hkewise 
been  doing  considerable  applied  research. 

Industry 

The  development  of  industrial  research  owes  much  to 
the  professional  attention  accorded  in  England  to  the 
cultivation  of  knowledge  in  a  systematic  manner.  This 
began  in  an  important  way  toward  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  but  in  special  fields  had  its  begin- 
nings earlier.  Engineering  as  we  know  it  had  its  birth 
in  England  about  1750.  Since  that  time,  and  especially 
in  the  last  50  years,  applied  science  has  been  cultivated 
to  a  constantly  increasing  extent.  The  British  were 
leaders  in  industrial  development  prior  to  the  research 
era  in  industr}^.  Cliemical  engineering,  as  it  concerned 
the  design,  erection,  and  operation  of  plants  in  chemical 
and  related  industries,  had  its  birth  in  England,  the 
concept  of  unit  operations  having  come  later  in  the 
United  States.  Professional  recognition  came  to  be 
enhanced  by  publication  of  critical  sm-veys  of  technical 
knowledge,  of  which  prominent  examples  have  been 
Guttmann's  work  on  explosives,  Sir  Boverton  Red- 
wood's masterpiece  on  petroleum,  Cross  and  Bevan's 
classic  on  cellulose,  and  Lewkowitsch's  compilation  on 
oils  and  fats.  With  one  or  two  exceptions,  however, 
including  Imperial  Chemical  Industries,  Ltd.,  Eng- 
land probably  is  still  excelled  by  Germany  in  skill  of 
translating  results  of  applied  research  to  commercial 
practice. 

Results  of  research  by  British  industry  are  generously 
published  although  not  so  openly  and  freely  as  in  the 
United  States.  Research  executives  commonly  attend 
technical  meetings  but  their  subordinates  do  not  to  the 
extent  practised  in  this  country. 

Concurrent  with  the  change  in  attitude  toward 
applied  research  by  universities  a  similar  transformation 
occurred  in  industry,  which  placed  more  stress  on 
research  and  endeavored  to  make  up  for  lost  time.  The 
social  disadvantages  attaching  to  industrial  research 
have  been  largely  but  not  wholly  removed  since  the 
First  World  War.  The  practice  of  purchasing  processes 
and  products  developed  abroad,  however,  still  prevails 
and  is  a  natural  outlet  for  idle  capital. 

It  is  diiBcult  to  estimate  the  number  of  industrial 
research  laboratories  in  England:  Industrial  Research 
Laboratories,  prepared  by  the  Association  of  Scientific 
Workers,  is  far  from  complete.  Of  450  industrial  firms 
conducting  research,  only  80  replied  to  inquiries. 
Many  of  the  most  prominent  laboratories  are  omitted, 
among  them  those  of  British  Distillers,  Ltd.,  Anglo- 
Iranian  Oil  Company,  Unilever,  British  Celanese, 
Courtalds,  J.  Lyons  and  Company,  Buroughs-Wellcome, 
the  Gas,  Light,  and  Coke  Company,  South  jSIetro- 
poHtan  Gas  Company,  Mond  Nickel  Company,  the 
British  Aluminium  Company,  most  of  the  laboratories 


of  Imperial  Chemical  Industries  (which  had  18  research 
stations  operating  or  authorized  in  1938),  and  others. 

Bernal '  saj's,  however,  that  four-fifths  of  industrial 
research,  other  than  that  carried  on  by  the  Govern- 
ment, is  undertaken  by  no  more  than  10  large  firms. 
He  estimates  the  number  of  firms  maintaining  research 
laboratories  as  between  300  and  600,  and  the  total 
money  spent  on  industrial  research  as  perhaps  as  much 
as  £2,000,000  (exclusive  of  Government  expenditures). 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  routine  testing  is  included 
in  the  research  personnel. 

The  research  organization  of  Imperial  Chemical 
Industries,  Ltd.,  is  outstanding  and  has  received  many 
favorable  comments.  It  has  a  technical  development 
committee  and  an  executive  committee  on  develop- 
ment, which  is  tied  up  with  a  sales  committee,  to  make 
decisions  on  research  in  progress.  The  ability  of 
I.  C.  I.'s  engineers  to  convert  the  results  of  research 
to  practice  has  been  outstanding. 

Societies 

The  scientific,  professional,  and  industrial  societies 
represent  influences  tending  to  improve  conditions  sur- 
rounding research  both  in  fundamental  and  applied 
fields.  The  opportunities  afforded  at  their  meetings 
for  presentation  of  papers  on  new  subjects  and  sub- 
sequent discussion  thereof,  personal  contacts,  and  ex- 
change of  ideas,  have  assisted  materially  in  dispelling 
the  secrecy  which  formerly  characterized  much  of  the 
research  especially  in  applied  fields.  In  chemistry  and 
chemical  engineering  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry, 
the  Institute  of  Chemists,  and  the  Institution  of 
Chemical  Engineers  have  been  particularly  prominent 
and  have  done  much  to  elevate  these  professions  to 
positions  of  national  importance.  The  symposiimi 
plan,  developed  to  the  highest  degree  in  Germany,  is 
perhaps  next  most  advanced  in  England,  the  meetings 
of  the  Faraday  Society  being  a  particularly  good 
example. 

The  Royal  Society  of  London,  founded  in  1640, 
stands  in  close  and  important  relationship  to  the 
Goverimient  by  reason  of  the  nominations  which  it 
has  become  a  function  of  the  society  to  make  for  scien- 
tific positions  in  the  Government,  and  also  because  of 
the  special  research  problems  which  it  imdertakes  for 
the  Government  from  time  to  time.  The  Royal  Insti- 
tution (1799)  maintains  a  library  and  laboratories  and 
promotes  research  in  connection  with  the  experimental 
sciences. 

Research  in  Italy 

As  in  other  totalitarian  states  the  national  economy 
of  Italy  is  directed  toward  self-sufficiency  and  pre- 
paredness.    Italy  is  so  lacking  in  material  resources 


'  See  footnote  7 


208 


Ndlional  Resources  Planning  Board 


and  her  population  is  so  predominantly  agricultural 
that  her  aims  toward  self-sufficiency  have  been  realized 
only  in  relatively  small  degree.  One  of  the  principal 
directions  which  these  efforts  have  taken  is  the  manu- 
facture of  chemical  and  related  products  hitherto  im- 
ported. Other  major  activities  include  motor  fuel 
from  agricultural  materials,  low-temperature  distilla- 
tion of  lignite,  new  sources  of  cellulose,  new  fdiers,  and 
development  of  colonial  resources.  More  recently  de- 
velopment of  metallic  and  nonmetallic  minerals  and 
certain  coal  deposits  has  been  contemplated. 

Mussolini  and  high-ranking  officials  are  keenh-  aware 
of  the  importance  of  research  in  following  this  plan. 
The  national  economy  program  places  emphasis  on 
applied  rather  than  fundamental  research,  as  in 
Germany. 

The  National  Research  Council 

The  National  Research  Council  of  Italy  was  first  set 
up  in  1921,  but  with  its  peculiar  organization  was 
unable  to  yield  the  results  expected  of  it.  The  National 
Government,  recognizing  the  benefits  which  might 
accrue  from  such  an  institute,  however,  reorganized  it 
about  1928.     Under  a  better-defined  legal  status  the 


council  became  a  permanent  consulting  agency  of  the 
head  of  the  Government  and  of  the  Ministry  of  Public 
Instruction  for  all  problems  concerning  the  develop- 
ment and  progress  of  scientific  activity  at  home  and 
abroad. 

The  council  is  also  charged  with  the  control  of  scien- 
tific apparatus  and  biological  and  scientific  products. 
Its  approval  is  required  of  Government  loans  for  plant 
expansion,  new  equipment,  and  capital  accounts,  in 
connection  with  which  it  gives  technical  advice  and 
lends  assistance  through  Government  and  university 
research.  Representation  of  Italy  at  international 
scientific  and  technical  meetings  is  controlled  by  the 
council. 

The  National  Research  Council  is  supported  by 
funds  appropriated  by  the  Government,  by  the  Minis- 
tries which  call  upon  it  for  services,  by  industrial 
concerns  which  utdize  its  facilities,  and  by  royalties 
from  patents  held  by  it. 

The  National  Research  Council  is  organized  along 
lines  similar  to  the  coimcil  in  the  United  States.  The 
scientific  and  technical  divisions  correspond  closely  to 
our  own.  Committees  are  charged  with  specific 
research  problems  in  such  fields  as  industrial  develop- 
ment,   public    health,    engineermg,    and    agriculture. 


FiGCRB  62. — High-Speed  Wind  Tunnel,  Government  Aviation  Research  Center,  Guidonia,  Italy 


Hamilton  \\'right  Phot  i 


Industrial  Research 


209 


Its  functions  are  manifold.  It  seeks  to  eliminate 
injurious  industrial  competition  throu!j;h  research, 
equipment,  and  personnel.  The  montldy  research 
programs  of  aU  mdustrial,  miiversity,  and  Government 
research  laboratories,  which  are  required  by  the  State, 
are  reviewed  by  the  council  for  the  elimination  of  un- 
necessary duplication  and  the  assignment  of  specific 
problems  to  appropriate  laboratories.  It  compiles  and 
disseminates  technical  and  scientific  bibliograpliies  so 
that  the  work  of  Italian  scientists  may  become  better 
known  abroad,  and  studies  means  for  develoi)ment  and 
application  in  Italy  of  inventions  made  in  foreign 
lands. 

Government 

The  Ministry  of  Corporations  performs  duties  similar 
to  but  with  authority  extending  far  beyond  those  of 
our  Departments  of  Commerce  and  Labor.  Close 
cooperation  is  maintained  with  industry  through 
individuals  and  committees  on  problems  of  production, 
labor  relations,  and  improvements  of  processes  and 
products. 

The  Pontifical  Academy  of  Sciences 

The  Pontifical  Academy  of  Sciences,  an  international 
organization,  was  organized  in  1937.  In  its  first  year 
of  existence  an  inquiry  was  instituted  among  members 
to  determine  what  its  most  useful  fmiction  would  be. 
Replies  indicated  that  the  academy  should  not  restrict 
its  activities  to  publications  of  individual  scientific 
communications  but  should  take  advantage  of  the 
freedom  of  action  guaranteed  by  its  scientific  inde- 
pendence of  race  or  creed  to  strengthen  the  bonds 
between  the  various  sciences. 

Universities 

Research  in  Italian  universities  was  formerly  devoted 
principally  to  fundamental  research  and  hence  did  not 
result  in  training  men  entirely  suitable  for  industry. 
In  recent  years  the  industrial  progress  produced  by  the 
self-sufficiency  program  has  caused  the  scientific  and 
technical  schools  to  concentrate  their  efforts  on  training 
men  better  qualified  to  meet  the  enlarged  demands  of 
the  industries.  This  change  has  had  a  noticeable  effect 
on  the  type  of  research  being  carried  out  at  the  uni- 
versities, most  of  which  is  now  in  connection  with 
industries. 

The  Government  has  given  financial  support  to 
research  in  universities,  five  having  received  grants  for 
industrial  research  in  1939.  Examples  of  typical  ap- 
plied research  in  some  universities  are:  At  the  Poly- 
technic Institute  of  Milan,  a  new  process  for  production 


of  water  gas  by  the  reaction  of  steam  on  oil  gas,  and 
utilization  of  lignites;  at  the  Institute  of  Electro- 
chemistry, investigation  of  the  electrochemical  recovery 
and  extraction  of  copper,  nickel,  and  tin;  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Milan,  work  on  volcanic  gas;  at  Turin  Uni- 
versity, a  number  of  specific  organic  chemical  projects; 
at  Padua  University,  preparation  of  iron  oxides  and 
mineral  colors;  at  the  University  of  Naples,  develop- 
ment of  alpha  cellulose  from  Italian  raw  materials;  at 
the  University  of  Rome,  problems  of  high-pressure 
synthesis. 

Publications  and  Societies 

Excellent  scientific  and  technical  journals  are  pub- 
lished in  Italy.  In  the  chemical  field  Gazzetta  Chimica 
Italiana  and  Giornale  di  Chimica  Industriale  ed 
Applicata,  and  in  biology  Giornale  di  Biologia  In- 
dustriale, Agraria,  ed  Alimentare  have  presented  many 
fine  contributions.  Likewise  the  scientific  and  tech- 
nical societies,  as  for  example  the  Italian  Chemical 
Society  and  the  Society  of  Applied  Science,  have  made 
substantial  contributions  to  the  advancement  of  the 
several  disciplines  in  both  fundamental  and  applied 
fields. 

Industry 

The  growth  of  nationalism  in  the  development  of  the 
self-sufliciency  program  had  as  its  goal  the  restriction 
of  trade  among  the  nations  of  Europe.  The  capacity 
for  the  manufacture  of  chemicals  and  other  products 
required  in  Evu'ope  was  more  than  sufficient  to  supply 
normal  demands.  Nationalism  required  that  Italy,  as 
well  as  other  nations  not  normally  industrial,  develop 
complete  chemical  industries  within  their  borders. 
This  necessitated  use  of  facilities,  resources,  and  trained 
personnel  for  the  development  of  the  necessary  tech- 
niques which  were  well  established  in  other  countries. 
In  trying  to  accomplish  in  a  short  time  the  efficient 
results  achieved  by  gradual  development  in  other 
countries,  processes  were  developed  which  were  not 
always  economically  sound.  In  diverting  trained  per- 
sonnel to  this  type  of  work  very  little  real  research  in 
new  fields  has  been  carried  out. 

In  1934  an  Italian  professor  estimated  that  there 
were  about  60  industrial  research  laboratories  in  the 
northern  Italian  industrial  area  and  200  in  the  entire 
country.  Like  all  projects  for  new  manufacturing 
plants,  new  industrial  research  laboratories  must  be 
approved  by  the  National  Research  Council. 

The  Montecantini  Company,  by  far  the  largest 
chemical  manufacturer  in  Italy,  maintains  one  of  the 
largest  if  not  the  largest  research  staff  in  the  country. 
In  accordance  with  Fascist  policy  of  self-sufficiency, 
most  of  its  research  is  in  applied  fields,  and  in  the  past 


210 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


decade  the  company  has  initiated  production  of  many 
chemicals  not  previously  produced  in  Italy.  Recently 
the  company  allocated  a  sum  of  20,000,000  lire  for 
expansion  of  research  facilities  in  a  new  center  called 
the  Institute  Scientifico  per  Ricerchc  e  Spcrimentazioni 
Chimiche.  It  is  reported  that  the  laboratory  will  be 
the  most  comprehensive  in  Italy. 

One  of  the  materials  of  which  Italy  has  a  serious 
shortage  is  cellulose.  Much  effort  has  been  directed 
toward  utilization  of  such  cellulosic  materials  as  straw, 
cornstalks,  and  esparto,  and  in  the  development  of 
rayon  including  staple  fiber  and  other  fibers.  Produc- 
tion of  cellulose  from  straw  has  been  successfully  de- 
veloped, but  the  extent  to  which  it  has  relieved  the 
shortage  in  cellulose  is  not  indicated. 

Italy  has  been  a  leader  in  Europe  in  development  of 
rayon  and  new  textile  fibers.  Chatillon  S.  A.,  Cisa, 
and  Snia  Viscosa  have  conducted  research  in  rayon 
including  admixture  with  other  fibers.  The  latter  com- 
pany developed  the  woollike  casein  fiber  Lanital,  the 
virtues  of  which  as  a  substitute  or  supplement  for  wool, 
both  oconomicallj'  and  in  practical  use,  have  yet  to  be 
fully  demonstrated.  Most  of  the  requirements  of  casein 
for  this  new  fiber  are  imported. 

Societa  Boracifcra  di  Larderello  has  acliieved  con- 
spicuous success  in  the  development  of  boron  and  iodine 
products  and  utilization  of  steam  from  volcanic  fimia- 
roles.  Ufficio  Tecnico  Ammonia  Casale,  S.  A.,  is  noted 
for  its  development  of  the  Casale  process  of  nitrogen 
fixation.  Film-Fabrichc  Riunite  Prodotti  is  also  active 
in  research. 

The  Pirelli  Rubber  Company  has  been  engaged  in 
developing  a  process  for  manufacture  of  synthetic 
rubber  of  the  Buna  type,  but  as  late  as  last  summer  no 
decision  had  been  reached  as  to  whether  the  German 
process  based  on  acetylene  from  calcium  carbide  would 
be  used,  or  the  former  German  process  now  used  by 
Russia  employing  eth3'l  alcohol  as  a  raw  material.  It 
would  be  necessary  to  import  the  coal  for  manufacture 
of  calcium  carbide. 

Among  other  industries  which  have  been  developed 
recently  are  aluminum,  magnesium,  cadmium,  chemical 
pigments,  dyes,  varnishes,  pharmaceuticals,  electro- 
chemicals,  and  photographic  materials.  Plans  for  cul- 
tivation of  guayule  to  supplement  requirements  for 
latex  have  been  pushed.  Engineering  developments  in 
power,  including  use  of  natural  steam  of  volcanic  origin, 
and  clearing  of  swamplands,  such  as  the  Pontine 
Marshes,  where  a  model  town  has  been  built,  have 
typified  activities  in  other  directions. 

The  Institute  of  Ceramics  has  been  investigating  the 
substitution  of  domestic  for  imported  raw  materials  in 
the  ceramics  industry.  The  Scientific  Institute  of 
Industrial  Research,  Milan,  has  done  research  in  various 
fields.    A  recent  undertaking  was  the  study  of  a  new 


enzymic   action   on   broom    plant    for   production   of 
fiber. 

Research  in  the  Netherlands 

While  the  amount  of  industrial  research  in  the 
Netherlands  has  been  limited,  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  size  of  the  country,  it  has  been  outstanding  both  in 
amount  and  quality.  The  Phillips  Laboratory  at 
Eindhoven,  engaged  in  activities  similar  to  those  of  the 
General  Electric  Company,  is  one  of  the  most  outstand- 
ing in  Europe  as  regards  personnel  and  quality  of  work 
in  electronics,  radio,  television,  and  related  fields.  Its 
laboratories  are  especially  well  designed  for  carrying  out 
industrial-research  programs.  The  Shell  Company  has 
noteworthy  accomplishments  to  its  credit  in  petroleum, 
and  in  the  summer  of  1939  was  planning  extensive  addi- 
tions to  its  laboratories  in  Amsterdam  which  were  ex- 
pected to  make  them  among  the  largest  petroleum-prod- 
ucts research  laboratories  in  the  world.  The  States 
Mines,  although  Government  owned,  has  done  consider- 
able research  on  coal,  paid  for  from  profits  of  the  organ- 
ization's commercial  operations.  Cooperative  Super- 
phosphate Works  and  Koning  and  Bienfait  are  also 
actively  engaged  in  industrial  research.  The  work  of 
Kog!  and  of  Jansen  in  biochemistry  is  particularly  to  be 
noted.  Important  work  has  been  done  on  enamels  and 
chrome  leather. 

As  much  of  Netherlands'  trade  is  dependent  upon 
colonial  materials,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  research 
activities  is  focused  on  these.  Industrial  and  medical 
research  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  has  been  notable. 
Netherlands  has  led  the  world  in  research  on  cocoa  and 
chocolate  and  has  made  valuable  contributions  to 
knowledge  of  cinchona,  rubber,  and  shellac. 

Small  companies  not  maintaining  their  own  labora- 
tories have  procured  research  services  by  means  of 
fellowships  or  by  retaining  as  consultants  university 
professors  who  have  thus  served  two  or  three  concerns 
and  sometimes  have  been  directors  in  them.  Several 
companies  have  cooperated  in  the  building  or  equipment 
of  such  laboratories. 

The  universities  in  the  Netherlands  have  generally 
been  well  endowed  and  possessed  potentialities  for 
excellent  research  work,  the  outlook  for  which,  however, 
has  been  said  to  be  less  favorable  than  20  years  ago 
because  of  the  higher  costs.  The  universities  of 
Amsterdam,  Delft,  Groningen,  and  Leiden  have  been 
particularly  active  in  research.  The  Van  der  Waals 
Laboratory  at  Amsterdam  is  noted  for  Prof.  Michels' 
exceptional  fundamental  research  involving  very  high 
pressures. 

The  Amsterdam  Academy  of  Sciences  is  similar  to 
our  National  Research  Council,  and  there  are  many 
professional  and  scientific  societies  in  the  Netherlands. 


Industrial  Research 


211 


Research  in  Scandinavian  Countries 

The  industrial  research  of  Norwify  and  Sweden 
revoh^es  largely  around  the  utilization  of  their  natural 
resources — iron  ore,  cellulose,  arsenic,  pyrites,  hydro- 
electric power,  and  other  less  important  materials — 
rather  than  in  dissipation  of  efforts  toward  attaining 
self-sufEciency.  These  countries  are  more  noted  not 
only  for  their  engineering  sldll  but  also  for  their  recent 
accomplishments  in  basic  research.  Sweden  produced 
Nobel,  the  inventor  of  dynamite,  and  de  Laval,  inventor 
of  the  centrifuge. 

Svedberg,  developer  of  the  high-speed  centrifuge,  and 
his  assistants  at  the  University  of  Uppsala  are  doing 
the  most  outstanding  work  in  the  world  on  the  centri- 
fuge and  its  application  in  biological  and  chemical  fields. 
The  Academy  of  Science  in  Stockholm  has  constructed 
a  modern  and  well-equipped  physical-research  institute. 
The  laboratories  are  equipped  with  a  fine  cyclotron  and 
one  of  the  best  ruling  engines  for  diffraction  gradings. 
Here  is  being  conducted  under  Professor  Seigbahn  im- 
portant physical  research  of  a  very  high  order,  including 
X-ray  and  nuclear  research. 

Cellulose  is  a  product  which  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Finland  each  has  in  abundance,  and  each  has  been 
competing  with  the  other  on  improvements  in  processes 
of  recovery.  Sweden  has  been  conducting  much  re- 
search on  utilization  of  lignin  from  pulp  operations,  but 
the  results  are  said  not  to  be  encouraging.  Some  20 
mills  producing  alcohol  from  sulfite  waste  liquors,  how- 
ever, have  benefited  by  research.  Production  of  "tall" 
oil  from  sulfate  pulp  waste  is  mainly  a  Swedish  develop- 
ment. Production  of  gasoline  substitutes  from  wood 
has  been  under  investigation  there. 

Sweden  is  famous  for  its  iron-ore  deposits  and  its 
steel.  She  has  been  conducting  much  research  in  this 
field,  including  alloys.  The  pyrites  deposits  of  the 
country  have  yielded  sufficient  arsenic  as  a  byproduct 
to  exert  a  depressing  influence  on  the  world  market  for 
that  product.  Faced  with  legal  restrictions  on  disposal 
of  arsenical  residues,  Bolidens  Mines  has  conducted 
intensive  research  on  new  outlets  for  arsenic  and  par- 
tially solved  the  problem  by  use  of  arsenic  in  preserva- 
tion of  wood  poles  and  piles. 

Industrial  research  laboratories  which  have  been 
particularly  active  in  Sweden  include  those  of  the 
Allmanna  Svenska  Elektriska  AB.  Viister§,s  (electric 
equipment),  Allman  Telefen  AB.  L.  M.  Ericsson  (tele- 
phone equipment  wires  and  cables,  etc.),  AB.  Bofors 
(ordnance  forgings  and  castings,  tool  steel),  Bruks 
Korcerne  AB  and  Stora  Kopperbergs  Bergslags  AB, 
two  of  Sweden's  leadmg  iron  works,  Svenska  Cement- 
forsaljnings  AB,  an  association  of  Swedish  cement 
manufacturers,  and  Reymersholms  Galma  Industri 
(phosphates,  heavy  chemicals). 


The  Aga  Company  in  Sweden  has  done  applied  re- 
search on  a  variety  of  equipment  for  household  and 
commercial  uses,  such  as  stoves,  refrigerators,  and 
sweepers.  An  important  activity  of  the  Consumers' 
Cooperative  Union  in  Sweden  has  been  in  applied 
research  on  products  which  it  manufactures  for  use  as 
rubber  goods,  vegetable  oils,  rayon,  fertilizers,  food- 
stuffs, and  some  heavy  chemicals. 

The  Swedish  Iron  Masters'  Association,  composed  of 
most  of  the  Swedish  mining  companies,  has  done  much 
valuable  work  for  its  members,  and  has  assisted  them 
both  by  loans  and  tlxrougli  cooperation  with  the  Acad- 
emy of  Engineering  Sciences. 

A  proposal  has  recently  been  made  to  the  Swedish 
Riksdag  for  centralization  and  rationalization  of  scien- 
tific and  industrial  research.  The  central  institute 
would  become  a  foundation  supported  financially  by 
both  Government  and  industry,  with  the  Academy  of 
Engineering  Sciences  as  the  neutral  party.  Committees 
and  institutes  which  would  be  parties  to  this  plan  are 
as  follows: 

Committee   for   the   Study    of   Couplings  in  High-voltage 

Electric  Wires  and  Cables. 
Association  for  Rational  Textile  Washing. 
Forest  Scientific  Committee. 
Welding  Committee. 
Corrosion  Board. 
Gasgenerator  Board. 
Air-Conditioning  Committee. 
Cool-Technical  Committee. 
Aeronautical  Committee. 
Shale  Committee. 

Committee  for  Domestic  Motor  Fuel. 
Fuel-Technical  Committee. 
Swedish  Iron  Masters'  Association- 
Swedish  Cement  Association. 
Steamheat  Institute. 
Charcoal  Laboratory. 
Cement  Laboratory. 
Technical  X-ray  Central. 
Laboratory  for  Boilers. 
Electroheat  Institute. 
Central  Testing  Institute. 
Royal  Building  Board. 

Norway  had  its  Birkeland  and  Eyde,  codevelopers  of 
the  arc  process  of  nitrogen  fixation.  The  enterprise  and 
vision  of  these  men,  together  with  Norway's  ample 
supplies  of  hydroelectric  power  have  placed  that  country 
high  in  the  world's  nitrogen  and  electrochemical  indus- 
tries. To  be  sure  the  arc  process  for  fixation  has  been 
replaced  by  synthetic  ammonia,  but  Norsk-Hydro  con- 
tributed a  method  of  obtaining  the  soda  of  synthetic 
sodium  nitrate  from  sea  water.  More  recently  comes 
news  of  this  company's  process  for  recovery  of  potash 
from  the  same  source. 

Industrial  research  in  Nonvay  has  been  more  limited 
than  in  Sweden.  Although  the  Aluminum  Company 
of  America  and  Union  Carbide  and  Carbon  Corporation 


o2is;;3 


-41- 


212 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


each  have  plants  in  Norway  these  companies  have  con- 
ducted little  or  no  research  there  otiior  than  on  trouble 
shootuig  and  plant  problems. 

Norway  has  been  the  largest  producer  of  cod-liver  oil 
in  the  world.  The  Norwegian  canning  industry  has 
been  conducting  research  for  the  fishing  mdustries,  and 
recently  determined  the  vitamin  D  potency  of  different 
fish  and  fish  products. 

As  Denmark  is  a  small  and  predominantly  agricul- 
tural country,  the  extent  of  research  has  been  compara- 
tively small.  Nevertheless  in  some  fields  outstanding 
work  has  been  done.  Most  notable  perhaps  has  been 
the  work  at  the  laboratory  of  Professor  Niels  Bohr  in 
Copenhagen  on  atomic  structure  and  biophysics.  P.  A. 
Hansen's  work  in  zymologj^  at  the  Biotecknisko-Kemish 
Laboratory  is  world  famous,  as  are  S.  P.  L.  S0rensen's 
researches  in  the  same  field  and  in  hydrogen  ion  concen- 
tration at  the  Carlsberg  Laboratory  in  Copenhagen. 
The  University  of  Copenhagen  and  the  Polytechnic 
Institute  in  Copenhagen  have  been  doing  splendid  work 
in  pure  and  applied  science. 

Research  has  advanced  the  Danish  dairy  industry  to  a 
high  degree  of  excellence.  Danish  hydraulic  engineers 
are  credited  with  many  notable  accomphshments  in 
their  field.  The  chemical  industry  is  small  but  research 
has  accomplished  useful  ends  in  certain  branches  such  as 
fertilizers.  No  research  has  been  carried  on  in  Den- 
mark in  the  electrical  communications  field. 

The  Carlsberg  Brewery  was  bequeathed  by  its  found- 
ers to  the  support  of  scientific  research  and  art.  Amiual 
revenue  from  the  source  devoted  to  science  is  1,300,000 
kroner,  a  substantial  sum  for  a  small  country  such  as 
Deimiark. 

In  general,  support  of  industrial  research  by  the  gov- 
ernments of  the  Scandanavian  countries  has  been  un- 


R.  Hchudd  Photo 
FlQUUB   63. — Jungfrau    Institute  for   Scientific   Research,    The 
Jungfrau,  Switzerland 


important  but  in  recent  years  such  aid  has  increased 
substantially.  In  Sweden,  for  example.  State  grants 
in  aid  of  research  as  a  whole  did  not  average  over  40,000 
cro\v7is  annually  up  to  1935,  but  were  increased  to 
500,000  cro^vns  in  the  1938-40  budget.  In  addition  the 
Swedish  Aeronautical  Committee  received  an  appropri- 
ation of  2,500,000  crowns  for  experimental  work  and 
the  erection  of  laboratories  and  other  buildings.  The 
extent  of  cooperative  effort  has  been  one  of  the  more 
prominent  featiu-es  of  research  in  Scandanavia. 

Research  in  Switzerland 

Industry  in  Switzerland,  being  almost  wholly  de- 
pendent on  imports  for  its  raw  materials,  has  been  able 
to  compete  in  international  trade  by  concentrating  on 
the  superior  quality  of  its  products,  and  on  certain 
specialties.  Foremost  among  its  industries  are  watches, 
dyes  and  pharmaceuticals,  perfumes,  electrochemical 
products,  certam  textiles,  machinery,  and  foods.  In 
recent  years,  and  particularly  under  the  strained  inter- 
national relations  which  have  prevailed,  considerable 
efforts  have  been  devoted  to  make  the  country  less  de- 
pendent on  imports  of  certain  intermediate  and  finished 
products,  as  for  example,  alloy  steel  for  watch  springs, 
and  high-temperature  glass  for  use  in  X-ray  tubes, 
electronic  devices,  and  high-energy  incandescent  lamps. 
This  nation  has  been  a  leader  in  research  in  the  phar- 
maceutical field  and  in  power  engineering.  The  rela- 
tively high  level  of  education  and  freedom  from  political 
preoccupations  have  been  important  contributing  fac- 
tors in  developing  a  high  level  of  both  fundamental  and 
applied  research  in  Switzerland. 

Characteristic  of  Swiss  industry  are  the  many  small 
firms  which  conduct  research.  Most  manufacturers 
using  research  have  their  own  staffs  for  the  purpose, 
but  the  watclmiakers  have  a  central  research  group 
which  works  on  metals,  alloys  for  watch  springs,  tools, 
new  materials,  and  new  processes  for  watchmaking. 

Among  the  leading  firms  conducting  industrial  re- 
search are : 

Society  of  Chemical  Industry  of  Basle  (dyes  and  pharma- 
ceuticals) . 

Chemische  Fabrik  vormals  Sandoz  (dyes  and  pharmaceu- 
ticals) . 

J.  R.  Geigy,  S.  A.  (dyes  and  pharmaceuticals). 

Hoffmann-La  Roche  &  Co.  Chemical  Works  (pharmaceu- 
ticals). 

Soci6t6  de  Produits  Chimiques,  Vetilron. 

Aluminium-Industrie   A.    G.    (aluminum). 

Brown,  Boveri  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  of  Baden  (electrical  machinery). 

Nestle  and  Anglo-Swiss  Consolidated  Milk  Co.   (chocolate). 

The  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Zurich,  only  postgradu- 
ate national  teclmical  school  in  Switzerland,  conducts 
industrial  research  for  the  benefit  of  the  nation  as  a 
whole.     At  the  polytechnical  school  there  is  also   a 


Industrial  Research 


213 


small  but  highly  competent  group  engaged  in  pure 
physics  research  activities.  It  is  especially  well 
equipped  for  work  in  the  field  of  nuclear  research.  Re- 
search has  been  conducted  for  some  years  there  on  coal, 
which  is  significant  because  Switzerland  imports  all  its 
coal.  The  pm-pose  of  the  coal  investigations  is  to  limit 
imports  by  selection  of  those  kinds  which  most  cheaply 
satisfy  the  particular  uses  for  which  they  are  em- 
ployed. The  institute  recently  erected  a  laboratory 
for  industrial  research  to  aid  the  development  of  Swiss 
industries. 

As  in  the  Netherlands,  university  professors  often  act 
as  research  consultants  for  manufacturers,  who  purchase 
the  equipment  and  pay  for  such  additional  assistance  as 
may  be  necessary. 

The  Swiss  Government  does  Uttle  industrial  re- 
search although  it  is  active  in  agricultural  research. 
The  military  technical  service  maintains  a  munitions 
testing  unit  and  a  laboratory  for  the  study  of  war  gases. 

The  number  of  scientific  and  technical  societies  in 
Switzerland  is  large. 

Research  in  the  Union  of 
Soviet  Socialist  Republics 

In  Czarist  Russia  science  was  encouraged  by  the 
Government  to  a  limited  extent  for  its  own  needs  in- 
cluding those  of  the  army,  and  to  present  a  showing  to 
the  rest  of  Europe,  but  to  the  great  mass  of  the  popu- 
lation it  was  nonexistent.  Russia  has  produced  great 
scientists,  such  as  Mendeleef,  famous  for  his  work  on  the 
periodic  law  of  the  elements,  and  more  recently  Ipatiev, 
whose  researches  are  the  basis  of  hydrogenation  of 
petroleum.  The  great  scientists,  however,  accomphshed 
their  work  largely  because  of  their  own  interest  and 
without  recognition  of  science  by  the  Government 
which  depended  for  its  needs  m  this  field  principally 
upon  the  work  of  Germany  and  France.  Many  foreign 
scientists  and  technicians  were  employed  as  consultants 
and  all  scientific  apparatus  was  imported.  Handicaps 
of  publication  of  research  results  were  great  in  the 
Czarist  days.  Before  the  revolution  industrial  research 
was  practically  nonexistent  although  noteworthy  work 
had  been  done  in  platinum  and  petroleum.  Scientific 
education  began  to  be  sought  and  new  educational 
facilities  served  to  train  some  of  the  first  Soviet  scien- 
tists. Many  of  the  graduates,  however,  escaped  from 
the  country  during  the  period  of  the  First  World  War, 
the  Revolution,  and  the  civil  war,  and  others  refused 
to  cooperate  with  the  new  system. 

Under  the  Soviet  regime  science  and  research  became 
part  of  the  plan  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  new  state. 
The  initial  problems  of  creating  a  Soviet  science  and 
technique,  while  at  the  same  time  solving  the  urgent 
needs  of  reconstruction,  were  exceedingly  difficult.     But 


ample  money  was  provided  and  men  were  made 
avadablo  although  for  the  most  part  poorly  trained. 
Many  foreign  technicians  and  consultants  were  em- 
ployed to  assist  in  starting  up  new  industries.  Edu- 
cational facilities  were  increased,  many  scientists  finally 
cooperating  upon  realization  that  the  new  Government 
intended  to  permit  them  much  greater  freedom  and  im- 
portance than  they  had  ever  enjoyed  previously.  In  the 
decade  from  1927  considerable  progress  was  made. 
Science  and  industry  were  closely  coordinated,  new 
teclmical  schools,  universities,  and  government  research 
institutes  were  established.  More  recently,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Soviet-German  agreement,  German 
scientists  and  technicians  have  been  rendermg  services 
in  production  and  technology,  particularly  in  the  ferti- 
lizer, textile,  and  petroleum  industries. 

The  first  basic  difl'erence  between  research  in  the 
Soviet  Union  and  in  Western  Europe  is  its  mtegral  re- 
lationship with  social  life  rather  than  any  peculiarities 
of  technical  methods.  The  primary  object  of  Soviet 
science  is  the  welfare  of  the  workers  rather  than  an  in- 
creasing profits  from  production.  Workers  are  en- 
couraged to  assist  actively  in  the  application  of  science 
to  industry.  The  second  important  difference  mheres 
in  the  high  degree  of  integration  of  Soviet  science.  The 
problems  are  not  faced  separately  but  as  an  intercon- 
nected whole.  Science  is  synthesized  into  a  unit — not 
compartmentalized — in  its  attack  upon  them.  The 
relations  of  laboratories  and  institutes  to  universities 
and  industry  are  carefully  planned.  The  size  of  agri- 
culture and  industry  necessary  to  produce  the  material 
needs  of  the  population  during  the  next  40  years  are 
calculated.  Appropriate  provision  is  made  for  the 
equipment  and  research  institutes  required  by  each 
industry  after  careful  study. 

Coordination  of  research  programs  is  accomplished 
by  a  series  of  committees,  each  of  which  lays  out  a  gen- 
eral plan  for  each  year.  Conferences  are  held  between 
representatives  of  fundamental  and  applied  research 
on  the  one  hand  and  applied  research  and  industry  on 
tiie  other  hand,  so  that  a  high  degree  of  coordination 
is  maintained  between  all  branches  of  research  and 
industry.  These  conferences  serve  to  advance  the 
Soviet  policy  of  rapid  introduction  of  inventions  and 
research  findings  into  industry. 

The  percentage  of  outstanding  research  workers  in 
Russia  is  small.  The  huge  niunber  of  poorly  trained 
and  mediocre  researchers  results  in  inefficiency,  although 
the  mass  effort  is  bound  to  produce  many  useful  rcsidts. 
Some  of  the  contributions  of  research  have  been  excel- 
lent, but  on  the  other  hand  many  are  known  to  be 
unreliable  and  superficial. 

In  the  Soviet  plan  of  organized  research  the  talents 
of  individual  research  workers  receive  special  conside- 
ration.    For  those  who  show  unusual  talent  and  ability, 


214 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


extensive  laboratories  arc  built,  equipped,  and  staffed 
with  as  many  men  ranging  from  scientists  to  mechanics 
as  may  be  necessaiy. 

Research  in  the  Soviet  is  not  conducted  with  the 
expectation  of  early  profits  by  any  industry,  conse- 
quently researchers  are  not  expected  to  show  inmiediate 
results.  On  the  other  hand,  the  variety  of  projects 
undertaken  at  some  institutes  renders  the  discovery  of 
entirely  new  regions  of  physical  knowledge  more 
difficult  than  if  concentrated  on  fewer  lines. 

The  most  outstanding  feature  of  research  in  the 
Soviet  is  the  magnitude  of  its  operations.  Bernal 
reports  that  the  budget  for  science  in  1934  was  a 
thousand  million  roubles,  a  far  greater  proportion  of 
national  wealth  than  is  devoted  to  science  in  any  other 
nation. 

The  detailed  and  mass  manner  in  which  Russia 
undertakes  a  research  problem  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
coal  sampling  and  testing  project  in  the  Don  River 
Basin  by  the  Coal  Research  Institute  of  Kharkov. 
These  coal  beds  of  many  strata  cover  an  area  of  per- 
haps 40  by  120  miles.     Samples  are  taken  at  frequent 


elevations  and  submitted  to  many  physical,  chemical, 
and  application  tests,  the  number  of  which  runs  into 
millions.  The  project  is  costing  millions  of  roubles. 
A  stall  of  80  cliemists  and  physicists  are  employed  on 
the  project  at  Kharkov  besides  many  field  workers. 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  structure  of  Soviet  sci- 
ence because  of  the  rapid  changes  that  occur  in  its 
organization.  The  highest  body  in  the  State  is  the  Su- 
preme Council.  Directly  responsible  to  this  body  are 
the  State  Planning  Conunission,  the  Council  of  Peoples' 
Commissars  (corresponding  rouglily  to  our  Cabinet,  al- 
though some  members  are  responsible  to  state  Supreme 
Councils  rather  than  to  the  federal  Supreme  Council), 
and  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  all  of  which  are  con- 
cerned with  science  and  research  in  one  way  or  another, 
in  accordance  with  the  Soviet  policy  that  science  must 
not  be  confined  to  one  department  but  must  be 
universal. 

The  duty  of  the  State  Planning  Commission  is  to 
work  out  the  details  of  the  rational  organization  of 
social  life  so  that  knowledge  may  be  used  with  greatest 
efficiency.     It  provides  a  framework  for  rationaliza- 


Sovitt  Foto  Agencii 
Figure  64. — Hydrogen  Liquefierin  the  Cryogenic  Hall  of  the  Institute  of  Physical  Problems  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  the  Union 

of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics 


Industrial  Research 


215 


tion,  anaong  other  things,  of  scientific  research.  An 
example  of  its  activity  is  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
strength  of  naaterials  required  for  high  tension  electric 
lines  and  high  pressure  turbines.  Such  researches  also 
lead  to  more  fundamental  investigations  into  the  prop- 
erties of  matter. 

In  the  Council  of  Peoples'  Commissars,  Commissar- 
iats ha\-ing  most  to  do  with  research  are  those  of  educa- 
tion, which  is  concerned  with  schools,  universities,  and 
science  schools  together  with  their  laboratories;  of 
health,  which  has  direction  over  hospitals  and  medical 
research  institutes;  and  those  of  the  several  industries. 

The  Commissariats  of  the  industries  are  particularly 
concerned  with  research  through  their  control  of  techni- 
cal traimng  colleges,  the  various  research  institutes  in 
fields  of  pure  science,  the  numerous  industrial  research 
institutes,  and  the  factories  and  their  laboratories. 

Most  of  the  fundamental  research  in  the  So\-iet  is 
conducted  in  research  institutes  such  as  the  Physico- 
Technical  Institute  of  Leningrad,  the  Institute  of  Chem- 
ical Physics  of  Leningrad,  the  Optical  Institute  of  Len- 
ingrad, the  Karpov  Institute  of  Physical  Chemistry, 
the  Physico-Technical  Institutes  of  Kharkov  and  of 
Dniepropetrovsk.  Research  in  these  institutes  is  con- 
cerned with  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  physical 
sciences  underhnng  the  technique  of  industrial  processes. 

Mam'  of  the  Commissariats  of  the  industries  have 
their  own  industrial  research  institutes  for  carrying  on 
research  in  the  entire  field  of  the  industry  concerned, 
such  as  oil,  coal,  m'trogen,  shipbuilding,  ferrous  metals, 
nonferrous  metals,  chemicals,  foods,  textiles,  and  leather. 
In  addition,  several  Commissariats  have  research  sta- 
tions or  experimental  plants  for  conducting  research, 
including  new  processes,  in  the  plant  itself. 

Fields  of  industry  in  which  notable  progress  is  claimed 
to  have  been  made  include  aliuninmn  from  ahmite  and 
nepheline,  phosphates  from  apatite  in  the  Kola  penin- 
sula, potash,  sodiima  salts  at  Karabugaz  near  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  hydroelectric  developments,  high  tension 
electric  power  transmission,  automobiles  and  tractors, 
airplanes,  gold  mining  machinery  and  technology,  phar- 
macy, photography,  rubber,  metallurgy,  milling  and 
baking,  sugar,  subtropical  products. 

The  Russian  Academy  of  Sciences  was  founded  by 
Peter  the  Great  about  1724-25.  There  was  no  great 
change  in  its  working  organization  until  about  10  years 
after  the  revolution.  Upon  inauguration  of  the  First 
Five-Year  Plan  the  Academy  was  reorganized  to  advise 
on  the  many  scientific  problems  arising  from  the  changes 
in  creating  the  new  form  of  social  life,  and  the  remnants 
of  the  Czarist  days  were  destroyed.  Now  its  principal 
function  is  to  coordinate  the  scientific  activities  of  all 
the  Commissariats  as  related  to  the  planned  economy  of 
the  Soviet.     The  Academy  runs  numerous  laboratories 


engaged  principally  in  long  term  research,  and  has  plans 
for  the  erection  of  many  new  ones.  Among  the  labora- 
tories under  its  direction  are  the  Biological  Institute, 
the  Institute  of  Human  Biology  and  Medicine,  and  the 
Physical  Institute. 

Two  of  the  best  features  in  Russian  research  are  the 
many  research  institutes  which  have  been  built,  and  as 
previously  pointed  out,  the  coordination  and  planning 
among  all  the  agencies  engaged  in  research,  but  the 
effectiveness  of  all  this  is  a  question  upon  which  infor- 
mation is  lacking. 

Research  in  China 

A  movement  for  national  science  in  China  began 
about  1925.  Since  the  occupation  of  a  large  part  of  the 
coimtry  by  Japan,  however,  research  has  suffered  a  se- 
vere blow.  Most  of  the  capable  scientific  and  technical 
men  have  had  to  devote  their  energies  to  other  tasks. 

The  development  of  small  industrial  units  in  the 
interior  of  China,  which  has  commenced  since  the 
Japanese  occupation,  is  not  conducive  to  research,  con- 
sequently the  Government  and  the  universities  are 
doing  most  of  it.  Nevertheless,  in  the  remote  western 
part,  many  scientists  and  engineers  trained  in  the 
United  States  are  engaged  in  development  of  unit  opera- 
tions as  short  cuts  to  industrial  processes  on  a  small  and 
decentralized  scale.  In  the  Government  the  Depart- 
ment of  Industrial  Research  was  doing  important  work 
at  Nanking  in  1937,  since  when  activities  have  been 
transferred  to  the  interior.  Metallurgy  and  motor  fuel 
substitutes  have  been  important  subjects  of  investiga- 
tion. 

The  Chinese  universities  are  doing  considerable  work 
in  applied  fields  and  some  in  fundamental  fields  where 
objectives  are  expected  to  be  obtained  reasonably  soon 
and  benefiting  industries  such  as  leather,  paints,  and 
ceramics.  The  University  of  Peiping  is  mentioned  in 
this  respect. 

Several  technical  and  trade  associations  in  China 
have  been  active,  among  them  the  Cliina  Pharmaceuti- 
cal Society,  the  China  Textile  Institute,  the  National 
Medical  and  Pharmaceutical  Association,  the  Chinese 
Chemical  Society  (which  publishes  a  journal),  and  the 
Chinese  Society  of  Chemical  Industry  (also  publishes  a 
journal).  It  is  reported  that  the  engineering  societies 
in  China  have  lapsed.  Among  these  were  the  Chinese 
Institute  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  and  the  Chinese 
Engineering  Society. 

The  National  Academy  of  China  was  founded  in  1928 
for  prosecuting  scientific  research  and  promoting  and 
coordinating  programs  in  the  country.  It  has  estab- 
lished nine  institutes  for  the  following  branches  of 
science:  Astronomy,  meteorology,  geology,  chemistrj', 
engineering,  psj'chology,  history,  and  philology,  and  the 


216 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


social  sciences.  Each  maintains  a  number  of  research 
fellows,  associates,  and  assistants  to  conduct  investiga- 
tions and  experiments  under  the  general  guidance  of  a 
director.  In  1937  the  appropriation  for  the  Academy 
was  $1,200,000.  The  Academy  is  doing  much  funda- 
mental research,  especially  in  telephony,  radio,  meteor- 
ology and  physics.  In  applied  research  it  is  active  in 
glass,  aluminum  from  alunite,  paints,  sulfuric  acid. 

The  National  Peiping  Academy,  also  founded  in  1928, 
has  two  research  institutes — for  the  physical  sciences 
and  technology,  and  for  the  biological  sciences. 

Other  important  research  organizations  in  China  are 
the  Geological  Survey  at  Peiping,  the  Fan  Memorial 
Biological  Institute,  the  Biology  Institute,  and  the 
Science  Society  of  China. 

Research  in  Japan 

The  Japanese  were  not  slow  to  recognize  that  science 
and  research  were  responsible  for  the  material  progress 
of  the  Western  nations,  and  adopted  these  means  to 
further  their  own  industrial  development.  The  growth 
of  research  in  Japan  has  been  rapid  during  this  century, 
especially  in  the  last  decade,  and  has  advanced  her  to 
the  rank  of  one  of  the  leading  nations  in  research.  In- 
dications point  to  continued  progress  in  this  direction. 
The  research  activities  of  Japan  have  largely  followed 
the  results  of  others.  Emphasis  of  research  has  been  on 
applied  rather  than  fundamental  aspects. 

Bernal  states  that  industrial,  Govermnent,  and  insti- 
tute laboratories  in  Japan  are  probably  larger,  better 
financed,  and  better  organized  in  relation  to  the  wealth 
of  the  country  than  those  of  any  other  nation,  but  that 
the  value  of  the  work  coming  from  them  is  more  open 
to  doubt.  The  organization  of  scientific  research  in 
Japan  is  based  upon  institutions  and  relationships 
usually  found  in  Occidental  countries.  From  Germany 
was  adopted  the  plan  of  research  institutes  such  as  those 
of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Society.  From  the  United  States 
was  used  the  pattern  of  our  National  Research  Coimcil 
but  with  greatly  expanded  powers.  Industrial  research 
in  Japan  is  extensively  supported  by  the  Government 
rather  than  by  private  enterprise.  The  indirect  method 
of  aiding  new  industries  through  partial  stock  ownership 
by  the  Government  is  also  employed. 

The  scientific  resources  of  Japan  are  distributed 
among  many  laboratories  and  institutes  in  departments 
of  the  Imperial  Government  and  of  the  prefectures  and 
municipalities;  the  universities  and  technical  schools 
vnth  their  associated  research  institutes;  numerous 
special  research  institutes,  museums,  libraries,  botanical 
and  zoological  gardens;  some  100  national  scientific  and 
technical  associations;  and  industrial  research  agencies. 
Within  the  Government  itself  upward  of  70  research 
institutes  are  distributed  under  7  diff"erent  departments. 


Indicative  of  the  broad  scope  of  research  activities  which 
the  Government  supports  entirely  or  in  part  are  the 
following  fields  of  investigation  by  some  of  the  principal 
research  institutes:  Aeronautics,  air  navigation,  aerol- 
ogy, meteorology,  astronomy,  seismology,  geophysics, 
geology,  agriculture,  fisheries,  forestry,  horticulture, 
hygiene,  tea,  sericulture,  zoology,  ornithology  and 
mamalogy,  biology,  chemistry,  nitrogen,  ceramics, 
fuels,  brewing,  steel,  military  research,  naval  research, 
railway  research. 

In  fields  associated  intimately  with  the  life  and  econ- 
omy of  the  nation,  Japanese  research  has  accomplished 
notable  results.  The  work  of  the  Japanese  Sericultural 
Experiment  Station  ranges  from  mulberry  trees  to  silk 
itself.  Japan  is  a  leader  in  research  on  fisheries  and 
pearls.  Valuable  work  has  been  accomplished  on 
camphor  and  menthol.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
at  least  three  commodities — silk,  camphor,  and  menthol, 
in  which  Japan  had  virtual  world  monopolies — have 
suffered  in  recent  years  from  competition  of  artificial 
or  synthetic  counterparts.  In  two  of  these,  silk  and 
camphor,  Japan  has  been  compelled  to  turn  to  develop- 
ment of  these  new  products.  She  has  led  the  world  in 
rayon  production  and  is  endeavoring  to  develop  some 
of  the  truly  synthetic  fibers.  Production  of  synthetic 
camphor  is  riunored  to  be  projected. 

In  general,  most  Japanese  research  is  directed  toward 
self-sufiiciency  and  preparedness.  The  last  3  years 
have  witnessed  special  emphasis  on  finding  substitutes 
for  imported  materials  and  the  utilization  of  larger  pro- 
portions of  cheaper  native  materials  with  foreign. 
Manufacture  of  products  not  previously  made  in  Japan, 
especially  chemicals,  has  proceeded  rapidlj^.  Production 
of  many  synthetic  products  has  closely  followed  foreign 
developments. 

Industrial  research  by  trade  associations  in  Japan  is 
very  limited,  owing  in  part  to  the  large  amount  of 
research  for  entire  industries  being  conducted  in  the 
various  institutes. 

Some  of  the  results  of  Japanese  research  are  dissem- 
inated in  the  form  of  lectures  before  technical  or  scien- 
tific societies,  and  some  are  published  chieflj'  in  the 
Japanese  language  but  to  some  extent  in  English  and 
German.  Under  existing  wartime  regulations,  prac- 
tically everything  pertaining  to  industrial  development 
and  output  is  covered  by  the  Military  Secrets  Law. 

The  number  of  research  institutes  in  Japan  is  so  large 
that  space  limitations  prohibit  their  listing  here. 
Activities  of  a  few  of  the  more  important  institutes 
will  serve  to  illustrate  the  thoroughness  with  which  the 
nation  is  employing  research. 

The  Japanese  Society  for  tlie  Promotion  of  Scientific 
Research,  founded  in  1932,  has  among  its  objectives  the 
encouragement  and  assistance  of  scientific  study, 
assistance  in  the  training  of  promising  scholars,  promo- 


Industrial  Research 


217 


tion  of  the  use  of  new  inventions  and  processes,  conduct- 
ing research  for  the  development  of  industry,  lending 
financial  assistance  to  scientific  expeditions,  publica- 
tion of  scientific  literature,  and  affording  financial 
assistance  for  such  publications. 

From  1933  to  1937,  inclusive,  2,048,379  yen  had  been 
granted  by  this  organization  for  the  pursuance  of  1,797 
scientific  problems,  divided  21.2  percent  in  chemistry, 
10.2  in  medicine,  10  in  physics,  7.7  in  mechanical  engi- 
neering, 7.2  in  agriculture,  6.6  in  electrical  engineering, 
5.3  in  zoology  and  botany,  4.7  percent  in  civil  engineer- 
ing and  architecture,  and  the  remainder  in  less  technical 
subjects.  Industrial  subjects  investigated  included 
problems  of  spinning  machines,  liquefaction  of  coal, 
ship  bottom  paint,  ancraft  engines,  tools  and  machines, 
power  engines,  chemical  instruments,  sand  iron,  mining, 
radio  apparatus,  active  carbon,  armor  plate. 

The  National  Institute  for  Physical  and  Chemical 
Research  is  a  semigovernment  institute  established  in 
1917  with  a  fund  of  $2,950,000.  Additional  support  is 
obtained  from  government  subsidy.  A  few  years  ago 
the  Institute  consisted  of  some  27  laboratories  for  vari- 
ous subjects,  each  with  its  separate  budget.  Some  of 
the  laboratories  are  located  in  universities  and  at  other 
institutions  where  the  investigators  are  located.  Fa- 
cilities are  said  to  compare  favorably  with  those  of  such 
research  institutes  as  our  National  Bureau  of  Standards, 
the  Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research 
in  England,  and  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Institutes  in  Ger- 
many. Industry  defrays  the  cost  of  investigations  in 
its  behalf  or  supports  fellowships  for  special  work.  The 
Institute  is  the  largest  center  of  industrial  research  in 
Japan.  Recent  activities  include  a  process  for  man- 
ufacture of  sake  or  rice  wine,  soybean  sauces,  vita- 
min A  from  cod-liver  oil,  and  vitamin  C  from  green 
tea. 

The  National  Research  CouncU  of  Japan  was  estab- 
lished in  1920  "to  encourage  and  coordinate  scientific 
and  technical  researches  at  home  and  to  cooperate  with 
other  countries,  with  the  view  to  promoting  national 
and  international  researches  in  these  fields."  The 
members,  who  are  appointed  by  the  Government,  are 
grouped  in  eight  scientific  divisions — astronomy,  geo- 
physics, physics,  chemistry,  geology  and  geography, 
biology  and  agi-iculture,  medicine,  engineering  and 
mathematics,  most  of  which  publish  journals. 

The  Tokio  Research  Institute  Laboratory,  financed 
by  the  Imperial  Government,  coordinates  its  activities 
with  Japanese  industry  principally  in  the  develop- 
ment of  new  processes  and  new  products.  It  also 
has  duties  similar  to  those  of  our  National  Bureau  of 
Standards. 

The  Imperial  Fisheries  Institute  is  supported  by  the 
Government  for  development  of  the  fisheries  industry. 
It  investigates  all  phases  of  the  industry,  as  zoology, 


habits  and  migrations  of  various  species  of  fish,  the 
nutritive  value  of  fish,  shellfish,  and  seaweeds,  utiliza- 
tion of  byproducts,  imjirovcments  in  processing  tech- 
nique, methods  of  capturing  fish,  design  and  equipment 
of  fishing  vessels.  The  Institute  also  renders  educational 
services. 

Other  government  supported  research  institutes 
are  the  Research  Institute  for  Iron,  Steel,  and  Other 
Metals  of  the  Tohoku  Imperial  University,  and 
the  College  of  Fisheries  at  the  Hokkaido  Imperial 
University. 

Development  of  the  resources  of  Chosen,  Formosa, 
and  Manchukuo  has  been  actively  pursued  by  means  of 
exhaustive  investigations  and  researches.  Separate 
organizations  have  been  established  for  each  of  these 
areas.  In  Formosa  work  has  been  conducted  on  such 
subjects  as  pulp  from  bagasse,  vegetable  tannins,  snake 
venom,  and  continues  on  camphor. 

In  Chosen  the  production  of  aluminum  from  alunite 
has  been  investigated,  and  production  of  carbon  black 
from  acetylene  has  been  developed.  The  feasibility  of 
growing  agricultural  products  of  industrial  value  has 
been  extensively  investigated. 

In  Manchukuo,  the  sponge  iron  and  aluminum  indus- 
tries and  alum  shale  as  a  source  of  aluminum  have  been 
under  development.  New  outlets  for  the  recently 
established  magnesite  industry  have  been  sought. 
Rayon  pulp  from  reeds  has  been  developed.  The  re- 
search department  of  the  South  Manchurian  Railroad 
has  been  the  most  active  industrial  organization  en- 
gaged in  industrial  development  in  Manchukuo.  It 
engages  in  both  fundamental  and  applied  research 

Research  in  Canada 

Canada  is  industrialized  relatively  much  less  than  the 
United  States,  consequently  its  industrial  research  is 
also  less  developed.  The  most  important  industrial 
research  in  Canada  is  concerned  mainly  with  its  natural 
resources  and  the  products  made  from  them.  The 
largest  enterprises  are  in  mining  and  metallurgy,  pulp 
and  paper,  utilization  of  agricultural  products,  and 
power  generation.  Consolidated  Mining  and  Smelting, 
International  Nickel  Company  of  Canada,  the  Alumi- 
num Company  of  Canada,  Deloro  Smelting  and  Re- 
fining Company,  International  Paper  Company,  the 
Howard  Smith  Paper  Mills,  Ltd.,  Lever  Brothers, 
Procter  and  Gamble,  and  Shawinigan  Water  and  Power 
Company,  Ltd.,  are  important  organizations  conduct- 
ing research  in  these  fields.  Shawinigan  Chemicals, 
Ltd.,  a  subsidiary  of  the  latter  company,  is  very  active 
in  research  on  acetylene  and  derivatives,  particularly 
vinyl  resins.  Imperial  Oil  Company,  Ltd.,  is  the 
only  petroleum  company  extensively  engaging  in 
research. 


218 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Canada  derives  substantial  benefit  from  the  industrial 
research  of  American  and  British  companies  which 
own  or  control  firms  in  Canada  both  with  and  without 
laboratories.  The  most  prominent  example  of  tliis 
is  Canadian  Industries,  Ltd.,  largest  chemical  company 
in  Canada,  which  is  controlled  by  Imperial  Chemical 
Industries,  Ltd.,  and  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and 
Company.  The  Canadian  company  is  Hcensed  to 
manufacture  man}'  of  the  products  developed  by  the 
other  two  and  receives  the  results  of  research  carried 
out  by  them  on  such  products.  Canadian  Industries, 
Ltd.,  also  conducts  its  own  research. 

The  Canadian  Pulp  and  Paper  Research  Institute 
at  McGill  University,  was  sponsored  by  the  Canadian 
Pulp  and  Paper  Association  which  constructed  a 
laboratory  at  a  cost  of  approximately  $400,000,  and 
endowed  the  university  with  a  fund  of  $100,000  to 
assist  in  carrying  out  research  at  the  laboratory.  The 
Association  also  provides  additional  annual  grants  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  contributes  toward  the  operat- 
ing expense  of  the  Pulp  and  Paper  Division  of  the  For- 
est Products  Laboratory  of  Canada.  The  Institute 
has  been  particularly  interested  in  the  utilization  of 
lignin  from  pulp  mills,  including  its  use  in  plastics.  A 
recent  project  of  unusual  interest  involves  production 
of  liquid  wood  by  a  method  of  hydrogenation. 

The  National  Research  Council  of  Canada  was 
organized  in  1916  under  the  pressure  of  war  conditions. 
Under  the  Act  of  Parliament  which  defines  the  duties 
of  the  Council,  it  is  specifically  stated  that  "The  Council 
shall  have  charge  of   all    matters    affecting   scientific 


and  industrial  research  in  Canada  which  may  be  as- 
signed to  it  by  the  Committee"  of  the  Privy  Council. 
The  President  of  the  Council  in  his  annual  report  for 
1938-39  states  that  "The  National  Research  Council 
lends  its  aid  impartially  to  the  producer  in  need  of 
scientific  assistance  in  the  solution  of  industrial  prob- 
lems and  to  the  consumer  whose  interests  are  best 
served  when  improved  products  are  made  available 
to  him  tlirough  the  application  of  science  to  the  better- 
ment of  his  material  needs." 

The  Council  undertakes  research  for  industry  either 
cooperatively,  as  on  projects  of  national  interest,  or 
at  the  expense  of  the  industry  concerned,  when  the 
work  can  be  done  more  advantageously  in  the  Council's 
laboratories  than  elsewhere.  Inventions  of  the  staff 
are  available  to  industry  on  a  roj^alty  basis. 

The  National  Research  Council  of  Canada  is  a  cor- 
poration which  receives  and  administers  its  funds  ac- 
cording to  the  act  creating  it,  and  in  accordance  with 
directions  received  from  the  Conunittee  of  the  Privy 
Council  for  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research  of  which 
the  Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce  is  chairman. 
Funds  for  its  support  are  derived  from  appropriations  by 
the  Dominion  Government,  contributions  toward  special 
researches,  royalties,  fees,  and  from  industrial  organi- 
zations and  private  individuals.  A  laboratory  costing 
approximately  $3,000,000  was  completed  at  Ottawa  in 
1932. 

The  Council  is  divided  into  six  divisions  as  follows: 
Biology  and  agriculture,  chemistry,  mechanical  engi- 
neering, physics  and  electrical  engineering,   research 


FiGCRE  65. — LahoratuiK's  ul  iho  Naiiduai  liiscarcii  t'ouncil.  Ottawa,  Canada 


Industrial  Research 


219 


plans  and  publications  section,  section  on  codes  and 
specifications. 

Typical  of  research  projects  conducted  by  the  Council 
in  the  last  year  are  refractory  materials  from  dolomite 
and  calcium  silicates,  chrome  brick,  metallic  magnesium, 
a  simple  process  for  extraction  of  radium  fi'om  Ca- 
nadian ore,  production  of  reiuiet  casein,  production  of 
face  pieces  for  gas  masks,  corrosion  resistance  of  alumi- 
num alloys,  efficiency  of  Manitoba  bentonites  for  oil 
refining,  and  textile,  laundering,  and  dry-cleaning  in- 
vestigations. 

Early  in  1940  perhaps  75  percent  of  the  work  under 
way  at  the  laboratoi'ies  in  Ottawa  had  a  war  bearing,  and 
over  60  definite  war  projects  sponsored  and  financed  by 
special  war  appropriations  were  in  progress  there  and  in 
outside   laboratories. 

In  the  last  fiscal  year  251  persons  were  employed  in 
all  the  laboratories,  of  which  number  103  were  univer- 
sity graduates. 

Two  provinces  in  Canada,  Ontario  and  Alberta,  have 
research  councils  or  foundations.  That  the  Province 
of  Quebec  is  becoming  research-minded  is  indicated  by 
the  formation  about  1937  of  a  commission  for  scientific 
research.  One  of  its  first  duties  was  to  take  an  in- 
ventory of  the  natural  resources  of  the  Province. 

The  Ontario  Research  Foundation  was  founded  in 
1928  by  the  Province  of  Ontario  to  carry  on  research 
work  and  investigations  for  the  improvement  and  de- 
velopment of  manufacturing  and  other  industries, 
discovery  and  development  of  the  province's  natural 
resources  including  byproducts  thereof;  development 
and  improvement  of  methods  in  the  agricultural 
industry;  scientific  research  and  investigation  for 
the  mitigation  and  abolition  of  disease  in  animal  and 
plant  life  and  the  destruction  of  parasitic  insect  pests; 
and  generally  the  carrying  out  of  other  research  work 
or  investigations  which  may  be  deemed  expedient. 

The  Foundation  is  divided  into  five  divisions:  Agri- 
culture, pathology  and  bacteriology,  textiles,  engineer- 
ing and  metallurgy,  chemistry,  and  biochemistry.  In 
1939  the  staff's  of  these  departments  totaled  34  in 
nimiber.  Total  expenditures  of  the  organization  in 
that  year  were  $233,000. 

The  Research  Council  of  Alberta  was  organized  in 
1921  along  much  the  same  but  less  ambitious  lines  as  the 
Ontario  Research  Council.  Its  laboratories  at  the 
University  of  Alberta  are  concerned  primarily  with 
fuels  and  road  materials. 

The  Dominion  Government  is  active  in  research 
looking  toward  development  of  Canadian  industries. 
Principal  bureaus  engaged  in  such  work  are  the  Bureau 
of  Mines,  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  and  the  Forest 
Products  Laboratory.  In  many  instances  industries 
contribute  to  the  support  of  research  projects  in  these 
bureaus. 


The  Bureau  of  Mines  encourages  industry  wherever 
possible,  with  research  and  investigative  work  in 
geology,  mineral  technology,  and  mineral  economics. 
Mining  operators  mak(!  frequent  use  of  the  Bureau's 
ore-dressing  and  metallurgical  laboratories. 

The  Bureau  of  Fisheries  has  done  nota])le  work  for 
the  Canadian  fisheries  industries,  as  in  the  development 
of  the  pilchard  oil  industry  in  British  Columbia. 

Of  the  Canadian  universities  which  conduct  research 
in  applied  fields  the  following  should  be  mentioned: 
Universities  of  Alberta,  Manitoba,  and  Saskatchewan 
for  their  research  relating  to  provincial  problems; 
University  of  British  Columbia  for  its  outstanding  in- 
struction of  young  men  in  applied  sciences,  especially 
chemical  engineering;  McGill  University  and  University 
of  Toronto  for  their  graduate  education  in  pure  science, 
especially  in  physics  and  physical  chemistry.  The 
University  of  Toronto  is  particularly  to  be  noted  for 
its  work  on  the  electronic  microscope. 

Scientific  and  technical  societies  are  very  active  in 
Canada.  Among  the  foremost  of  these  are  the  Royal 
Society  of  Cauda,  the  Canadian  Engineering  Society, 
and  Canadian  Institute  of  Chemistry  of  which  the 
Dominion  chemical  profession  is  justly  proud.  Most 
American  scientific  and  teclmical  gatherings  are  well 
attended  by  Canadians  in  spite  of  the  distance,  and 
there  are  in  general  very  close  relations  between  Ameri- 
can and  Canadian  scientists  of  all  kinds.  The  pro- 
vincial academies  of  science  are  numerous  and  have 
published  much  good  work. 

Bibliography 

Books 

Bernal,  J.  D.  The  social  function  of  science.  New  York, 
Macmillan  Company,  1939.     482  p. 

Crowther,  J.  G.  Soviet  science.  New  York,  E.  P.  Dutton 
and  Company,  1936.     342  p. 

Department  op  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research,  Lon- 
don.    Annual  reports. 

Holland,  Maurice.  Industrial  research  abroad.  (In  Ross, 
M.  H.,  ed.  Profitable  practice  in  industrial  research.  New 
York,  Harper  and  Brothers,  1932.     p.  119-152). 

Japan  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Scientific  Research. 
Annual  reports. 

National  Research   Council   of  Canada.     Annual  reports. 

Perrin,  Jean.  L'organisation  de  la  recherche  scientifique. 
Paris,  Hermann  et  Cie,  1938.     54  p. 

Various  Contributors.  What  we  found  behind  the  scenes  in 
European  research.     New  York,  1937. 

Journal  articles 

American  Chemical  Society.  Industrial  and  Engineering 
Chemistry  {News  Ed.).     Passim.     Foreign  news  letters. 

China  year  book,  The 

Gregory,  S.  A.,  and  Fremlin,  R.  The  organization  of  research 
in  France.     The  Scientific  Worker,  11,  No.  2  (1939). 

Hamor,  W.  A.  Industrial  research  in  1939;  advances  in  the 
United  States  and  other  countries.  Industrial  and  Engineer- 
ing Chemistry  {News  Ed.),  IS,  1  (1940). 


220 


National  Resources  Planning  Board,  Industrial  Research 


Hamor,  W.  a.  Industrial  research  progress  here  and  abroad 

during  1937.  Ibid.,  16,  1  (1938). 

Hauob,  W.  a.  Progress  in  industrial  research  here  and  abroad 

during  1938.  Ibid.,  17,  1  (1939). 


Hartshorne,  Edward  Y.  The  German  universities  and  the 
government.  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  oj  Political 
and  Social  Science,  SOO,  210  (November  1938). 

Holland,  Maurice.  From  kimono  to  overalls,  the  industrial 
transition  of  Japan.     Atlantic  Monthly,  I4S,  555  (1928). 


SECTION    VI 
MEN    IN    RESEARCH 


Contents 

Page 

1. 

Chemistry  in  Industrial  Research 

223 

Chemistry  and  Its  Field 

223 

Research 

224 

3. 

Incentives  to  Research 

224 

The  Conduct  of  Industrial  Research 

225 

Educational  Institutions 

225 

Consultants 

225 

Government  Laboratories 

225 

Trade  Associations 

226 

Endowed  Institutes 

226 

Research  Foundations 

226 

Costs 

227 

The  Time  Factor 

227 

Organizing  for  Research 

227 

New  Industries  Created 

228 

Monopohes  Broken 

228 

Improved  Products 

229 

Work  \Mth  Wastes 

229 

Cost  Reduction 

230 

New  Raw  Materials 

230 

New  Uses 

230 

New  Products 

231 

New  Processes 

232 

Materials  for  Equipment  Construction 

232 

Promises  for  the  Future 

233 

Bibliography 

234 

2. 

Physical  Research  in  Industry  as  a  National  Resource 

236 

Physics    Has     Profound     Influence    on 

Human 

Progress 

236 

The  Steam  Engine 

237 

Dynamo-electric  Machines 

237 

Applications  of  Light 

237 

Communication 

238 

The  Nature  of  Physics 

238 

Physics  SpeciaUzes  Effectively  in  the  Problems  of 

Individual  Industries 

238 

The  Oil  Industry 

238 

The  Lamp  Industry 

240 

The  Communications  Industry 

241 

Physics  Supplies  the   Instruments   for 

Measure- 

ments  in  Industry 

242 

Physics   Prepares   Apparatus   for  Later 

Applica- 

tions  in  Industry 

242 

High-Speed  Centrifuge 

242 

4. 

Cyclotrons,   Van  de   Graaf   Generators,   and 

Geiger-Counters 

243 

Color  Analyzers 

243 

Electron  Microscope 

244 

High-Speed  Photogiaphy 

244 

Photoelasticity 

244 

Electron  Diffraction 

245 

Extreme  Pressures 

246 

Extreme  Temperatures 

247 

Fundamental  Explorations  Provide  the 

Bases  of 

Future  Industries 

247 

Nuclear  Physics 

247 

Study  of  the  Solid  State 

248 

Solar  Energy 

249 

Faee 

Physics  Contriliutes  Indirectly  to  Progress  249 
Bibliography  251 
3.  The  Role  of  the  Biologist  in  Industry  253 
Introduction  253 
Industrial  Applications  254 
The  Food  Industries  255 
Meat  and  Meat  Products  256 
Fish  and  Sea  Foods  256 
Milk  and  Milk  Products  256 
Eggs  257 
Fruits  257 
Vegetables  258 
Fungi  258 
Commercial  Yeast  Manufacture  258 
Manufacture  of  Bacterial  Cultures  258 
Cereals  and  Cereal  Products  258 
Sugar  and  Sugar  Products  259 
Food  Fats  and  Oils  259 
Spices,  Condiments,  Unfermented  Beverages         259 
Fermented  Foods  260 
Fermentation  Industries  260 
New  Organisms  260 
Nutritional  Requirements  260 
Physical  Factors  260 
Biological  Products  261 
Vitamins  261 
Enzymes  261 
Hormones  and  Auxins  262 
Vaccines  262 
Sera  262 
Diagnostic  Agents  262 
Chemical  Products  263 
Chemotherapy  263 
Fungicides,   Insecticides,   Germicides,   Deter- 
gents 263 
Relation  of  Parasites  to  Industry  263 
Waste  Disposal  264 
Plant  and  Animal  Breeding  264 
Training  of  the  Industrial  Biologist  265 
Trends  in  Biological  Research  and  New  Develof)- 

ments  266 

Bibliography  266 

Industrial  Mathematics  268 

Introduction  268 

Mathematicians  in  Industry  268 

What  is  a  Mathematician?  268 

The  Place  of  the  Mathematician  in  Industrial 

Research  269 
Qualifications    Necessary    for   Success    as  an 

Industrial  Mathematician  270 

Employment  and  Supervision  270 
The  Mathematical  Research  Department  of 

the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories  271 
The  Mathematician  in  the  Small  Laboratory        271 

Number  Employed  272 

Future  Demand  272 

Source  of  Supply  272 

221 


222 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Mathematics  in  Industry 

Subjects  Used 

Types  of  Service  Performed  by  Mathematics 

Mathematics  in   Some   Particular  Industries 
Communications 
Electrical  Manufacturing 
The  Petroleum  Industry 
Aircraft  Manufacture 
Industrial  Statistics  and  Statisticians 

Statisticians  in  Industry 

Statistics  in  Industry 
Conclusion 
Bibliography 
Metallurgical  Research  as  a  National  Resource 
Scope  of  Metallurgy 

Economic  Consequences  of  Metallurgical  Research 
Group  vs.  Individual  Research 
Lessons  from  the  Past 
Machining  and  Machinability 
Joining  of  Metals 
Outstanding  Work  in  the  Steel  Industry 

Continuous  Rolling 

Continuous  Tubing 

Continuous  Forming  from  the  Melt 

Raw  Materials 

New  Viewpoints 

Copper  and  Phosphorus  in  Steels 

Stainless  Steels 

Clad  Metals 

Hydrogen  in  Steel 

The  Rare  Elements  Put  to  Use 
Nonferrous  Examples 

Zinc 

Magnesium 

Aluminum  and  Precipitation  Hardening 
Powder  Metallurgy 
Adaptations    From    Other    Sciences — Electron 

Diffraction 
Mineralogical  Methods  Utilized 
Instruments  and  Equipment 

The  Pyrometer 

The  Induction  Furnace 

New  Arms,  New  Conquests 
Provision  for  the  Future 

Whence  Will  Come  the  Fundamental  Metal- 
lurgical Research  of  the  Future? 

The  Supply  of  Future  Workers 
The  Personality  of  a  Research  Man 
The    Education     of    a     Metallurgical    Research 
Worker 

His  Development 

Job  Stability 

Working  Conditions 

The  Written  Word 

Cooperative  Effort 

Modes  of  Joint  Research 

Utilization  of  Outside  Aid  in  Research 
Public    Funds    Not    Available    for    Metallurgical 

Research 
Competition  vs.  Monopoly  in  Research 
Research  in  Relation  to  Employment 
Research  on  Research 
True  vs.  Alleged  Research 


Pago 

I'oge 

273 

Acceptance  of  Research 

304 

273 

Summary 

304 

277 

Bibliography 

305 

238 

6.  The  Chemical  Engineer  in  Industrial  Research 

306 

283 

Fields  of  Application 

307 

284 

Functions  in  Research  and  Development 

309 

284 

The  Pilot  Plant 

310 

285 

University  and  Institutional  Research 

310 

286 

Technological  Research 

311 

286 

Economic  and  Commercial  Research 

314 

286 

What  Lies  Ahead? 

314 

288 

Bibliography 

315 

288 

7.  Industrial  Research  in  the  Field  of  Electrical  Engineer- 

289 

ing. 

316 

290 

Introduction 

316 

290 

Evolution    of    Industrial    Research    in    Electrical 

291 

Engineering 

317 

292 

The  Consequences  of  the  Evolution 

318 

292 

Analysis  of  our  Current  Activities 

318 

293 

Measurements 

318 

293 

Electrical  Communications 

319 

294 

Electric  Illumination 

322 

294 

The   Generation,   Transmission  and   General 

294 

Utilization  of  Electric  Power 

323 

294 

Insulated  Electric  Cables  for  Power  Trans- 

294 

mission  and  Distribution 

324 

295 

Miscellaneous  Applications 

325 

295 

Future  Promises 

326 

295 

8.  Industrial  Research  by   Mechanical  Engineers 

328 

296 

Introduction 

328 

296 

Basis  of  This  Report 

328 

296 

Distinction    Between    Mechanical   Engineers 

296 

and  Others 

329 

296 

Process  Research 

330 

Inspection  of  Raw  Materials 

330 

297 

Study  of  Raw  Materials 

Study    of    Manufacturing    Equipment    and 

331 

297 

Processes 

332 

297 

Control  of  Production 

334 

297 

Management 

335 

298 

Product  Research 

336 

298 

Product  Development 

336 

298 

Are  Design  and  Development  Research? 

337 

298 

New  Products 

338 

New  L'ses  and  New  Markets 

339 

298 

Fundamental  Research 

340 

298 

Types  of  Research  Organization  in  Manufacturing 

342 

299 

Research  in  Operation-Type  Industries 

342 

Materials 

342 

299 

Operation 

343 

299 

New  Devices  and  Apparatus 

343 

300 

Management 

344 

300 

Conclusions 

345 

300 

Bibliography 

345 

301 

9.  The  Significance  of  Industrial  Research  in  Border-Line 

301 

Fields 

347 

302 

Introduction 

347 

Biochemistry 

348 

302 

Biophysics 

352 

303 

Geology — Geochemistry — Geophysics 

356 

303 

Rheology 

359 

304 

Conclusion 

359 

304 

Bibliography 

360 

SECTION    VI 
CHEMISTRY    IN    INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH 

By  Harrison  E.  Howe 
Editor,  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Washington,  D.  C. 


ABSTRACT 


This  brief  discussion  points  out  the  place  of  chemistry 
among  basic  sciences,  distinguishes  between  the  fields  of 
pure  and  applied  chemistry,  and  lists  the  following 
factors  as  those  which  motivate  chemical  research: 
Desire  for  new  knowledge,  dissatisfaction  with  a 
product  or  a  process,  hope  of  fulfilling  a  new  need, 
possibility  for  utilization  of  raw  materials  or  waste 
products. 

It  is  pointed  out  that  some  industries — being  born  of 
research — pursue  it  as  a  matter  of  course  and  owe  most 
of  their  success  to  such  a  policy.  Forward  looking 
executives  initiate  research  seeking  the  advantages  it  is 
known  to  afford.  In  addition  research  is  undertaken 
by  those  who  are  continually  combatting  or  actively 
creating  competition,  and  others  obliged  by  law  to  do 
so,  for  example,  those  who  must  dispose  of  waste  which 
is  either  a  nuisance  or  a  hazard. 

The  facilities  for  industrial  research  are  discussed. 
These  include  laboratories   of  manufacturers,   educa- 


tional institutions,  research  foundations,  endowed 
institutes  and  occasionally  those  of  the  Government, 
the  services  of  consultants  and  sometimes  of  trade 
associations. 

How  research  may  begin  is  indicated,  and  the  im- 
portance of  the  time  element  is  stressed  since  this  is 
often  overlooked  by  those  just  beginning  research. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  chapter  is  devoted  to 
accomplishments  of  chemical  research.  Examples  in- 
clude creation  of  new  industries,  breaking  of  monopolies, 
improvement  of  products,  utilization  of  wastes,  reduc- 
tion of  costs,  discovery  of  new  raw  materials  and  new 
uses  for  old  products,  manufacture  of  new  products,  and 
invention  of  new  processes. 

Future  trends  are  discussed  from  the  standpoint  of 
controlling  factors.  These  include  new  techniques, 
competitive  situations  which  may  develop,  and  public 
opinion.  Brief  mention  is  made  of  fields  in  which 
greatest  activity  is  expected  in  the  future. 


Chemistry  and  Its  Field 

Chemistry  may  be  defined  as  the  science  which  deals 
with  the  composition  of  matter  and  the  changes  it 
undergoes  under  various  conditions  of  temperature  and 
pressure.  The  chemist  is  particularly  concerned  with 
reactions  between  elements,  their  compounds,  and 
mixtures.  These  reactions  produce  still  other  com- 
pounds, and  todaj'  much  of  chemistry  has  to  do  with 
so  controlling  the  direction  and  extent  of  these  reac- 
tions as  to  produce  satisfactory  yields  of  predetermined 
new  compounds. 

Chemistry,  physics,  and  mathematics  are  the  basic 
branches  of  science.  Chemistry  is  one  of  the  funda- 
mental sciences,  hence  it  is  but  natural  that  its  field  of 
application  is  one  of  the  broadest.  This  accounts  in 
large  measure  for  the  early  application  of  chemical 
research  to  industrial  problems,  its  utilization  in  the 
broad  fields  of  biology  and  medicine,  and  for  chemistry 
as  employed  in  plant  control  even  where  physical  rather 
than   chemical   changes   are   involved.     For   example. 


chemical  analysis  is  important  in  determining  the  prop- 
erties of  metals  and  alloys  used  Ln  a  machine  shop 
where  the  transformations  are  almost  wholly  in  the 
field  of  physics.  The  types  of  research  in  which  chem- 
istry is  employed  will  be  discussed  later  and  in  greater 
detail. 

Two  great  divisions  of  chemistrj' — pure  and  ap- 
plied— are  still  recognized,  though  often  the  borderline 
is  indistinct.  "Pxu-e  chemistry"  is  the  term  used  to 
describe  work  undertaken  primarily  to  expand  knowl- 
edge in  the  science.  It  is  carried  on  without  reference 
to  the  possible  practical  application  of  the  new  truths 
discovered  or  of  the  new  data  established.  It  is  science 
for  the  sake  of  science,  and  in  the  past  there  have  been 
examples  of  workers  who  discontinued  a  chosen  line  of 
study  as  soon  as  it  became  evident  to  them  that  what 
they  were  doing  had  some  industrial  application.  The 
declaration  of  Millikan  that  "all  research  to  be  justi- 
fied must  ultimately  be  useful"  is  recognized  as  sound 
by  an  increasing  number  of  workers  in  pure  science. 

223 


224 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Kettering  once  said  that  the  principal  difTcrcnce  between 
pure  and  appHed  science  lies  in  the  fact  that  a  pure 
scientist  is  seeking  the  answer  to  some  problem  without 
any  particular  urgency,  while  the  worker  in  the  applied 
field  needs  his  answer  and  that  in  a  hurry. 

"Applied  chemistry"  is  a  designation  reserved  for 
work  undertaken  with  some  immediate  utilization  of  the 
results  intended.  There  is  a  definite  accomplishment, 
a  well  defined  goal,  a  practical  problem  in  mind  when 
the  work  is  planned  and  undertaken.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  a  more  commercial  flavor  than  the  so-called  pure 
research. 

There  is  no  essential  difference  in  the  degree  of 
difficulties  confronting  workers  in  these  two  fields  and 
the  demand  is  equally  high  for  training  and  capability. 
Much  of  the  best-kno^\Ti  and  valuable  research  in  the 
United  States  has  been  done  by  men  in  industrial  labora- 
tories, and  the  same  high  order  of  accomplishment  has 
characterized  industrial  research  abroad.  The  line  of 
demarcation  is  rendered  still  less  distinct  because  men 
primarily  engaged  in  pure  science  share  the  responsi- 
bility for  applied  science  by  engaging  as  consultants  for 
industries,  and  often  choosing  subjects  proposed  by 
industry  for  the  research  problems  of  their  graduate 
students.  The  arrangement  is  fortunate,  because  an 
insight  into  practical  problems  should  make  possible 
the  improved  training  of  men,  the  majority  of  whom 
later  enter  industry. 

Research 

Research  is  a  scientific  method  for  discovering  new 
information  which  can  be  employed  to  extend  Icnowl- 
edge  in  pure  science  and  to  the  solution  of  industrial 


Figure  bti. — Research  and  Development  Laboratories,  Bakelite 
Corporation,  Bloomfield,  Kew  Jersey.  (Unit  of  Union  Carbide 
and  Carbon  Corporation) 


problems.  It  is  a  way  to  learn  how  to  do  that  which  has 
not  been  done  previously  by  anyone.  Those  who  un- 
dertake research  should  have  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
what  has  already  been  accomplished  in  their  particular 
field,  and  their  search  should  begin  with  the  acquisition 
of  such  pertinent  knowledge  as  is  recorded  in  scientific 
literature  and  in  patents.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
research  workers  devoting  as  much  time  to  a  careful 
search  of  the  literature  as  to  experiments  subsequently 
conducted  in  the  laboratory. 

Incentives  to  Research 

\Miat  gives  rise  to  chemical  research  in  industr}'? 
A  necessary  attribute  of  the  successful  research  chemist 
is  an  inquiring  mind.  This  does  not  imply  mere 
curiosity  but  rather  an  intelligent  desire  for  new  knowl- 
edge with  a  view  to  its  application  to  theoretical  and 
practical  problems.  Some  unusual  phenomenon  may 
have  been  noted  and  the  man  with  an  inquiring  mind 
desires  to  ascertain  its  cause  and  its  possible  application. 
Learning  why  certain  reactions  take  place  usually  leads 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  factors  involved  which  will  enable 
the  worker  so  to  control  the  reaction  as  to  produce  the 
desired  result.  Oftentimes  dissatisfaction  wath  a  prod- 
uct or  a  process  initiates  chemical  research  to  ascertain 
what  is  wrong  and  how  to  correct  it.  The  effort  to  meet 
a  need  very  often  leads  to  a  research  project.  The 
researcher  realizes  that  some  demand  would  exist  for  a 
new  product  of  certain  characteristics.  He  designs  it, 
and  then  develops  a  process  for  its  production.  The 
rapidity  with  which  the  market  accepts  the  product  is 
a  direct  measure  of  the  accuracy  in  evaluating  the 
situation.  The  desire  to  use  a  certain  raw  material  is 
another  motive  for  undertaking  research.  Utilization 
or  prevention  of  a  waste  has  become  an  increasingly 
important  motive.  Increasing  cost  of  some  raw  mate- 
rials is  a  factor  but  even  more  important  is  the  stricter 
control  of  industrial  operations  in  growing  communi- 
ties where  the  number  of  ordinary  means  of  disposal 
become  smaller.  Some  wTiters  and  commentators  even 
place  injunction  proceedings  and  law  suits  in  the  list  of 
motivations  for  certain  types  of  research  programs  in 
industry. 

There  are  stiU  other  factors  that  exert  an  influence  in 
initiating  research  programs.  There  are  those  who  are 
just  naturally  in  research;  the  chemical  industry,  for 
example.  Research  is  its  outstanding  characteristic. 
There  is  a  constant  effort  in  the  chemical  industry  in 
particular  to  increase  yields,  to  decrease  and  utilize 
wastes,  to  improve  products,  to  lower  costs,  to  introduce 
something  new  and  useful  upon  the  market,  to  manu- 
facture and  sell  at  lower  prices  and  through  increased 
sales  still  further  to  reduce  costs.  All  this  involves 
chemical  research  from  start  to  finish. 

A  forward-looking  executive  also  employs  research  to 


Industrial  Research 


225 


meet  new  competition,  to  avoid  surprise  whicli  other- 
wise might  seriously  jeopardize  his  business,  and  to 
prevent  being  placed  at  a  great  disadvantage  should 
others  come  to  know  more  about  his  business  than  he 
does  himself.  In  a  sense  every  manufacturer  is  on  the 
defensive  unless  his  scientific  and  technical  staff  is  ever 
alert.  A  considerable  number  of  conditions  can  always 
develop  to  endanger  an  industry's  position,  no  matter 
how  strong.  There  is  often  the  possibility  of  some  new 
and  cheaper  raw  material.  A  new  process  or  improved 
equipment  may  entirely  change  the  economy  of  opera- 
tions. The  demand  and  market  for  his  products  can 
be  changed  by  the  introduction  of  competitive  products. 
New  laws  or  regulations  can  quickly  modify  the  indus- 
trial picture.  After  all,  it  is  these  uncertainties  that 
keep  business  from  becoming  a  rather  monotonous  game, 
and  research  accomplishments  in  any  of  these  sectors 
not  only  result  in  economic  advantages  but  provide 
stimulating  satisfaction  as  well. 

The  Conduct  of  Industrial  Research 

Research  in  industry  is  conducted  in  many  different 
ways,  the  most  satisfactory  depending  upon  varied 
factors.  Many  industries  prefer  to  install  their  own 
laboratories  and  to  proceed  in  their  own  way  with  or 
without  the  help  of  independent  consultants.  Some 
laboratories  may  be  found  where  one  man  carries  on 
the  work  with  only  the  assistance  of  a  laboratory  boy 
to  wash  the  glassware  and  collect  samples.  Indeed, 
in  some  instances  the  boy  may  be  absent.  The  other 
extreme  is  a  highly  successful  chemical  company  which 
in  recent  years  has  spent  as  much  as  seven  million 
dollars  annually  on  its  research  and  development  pro- 
gram. There  are  many  research  groups  of  different 
sizes  between  these  extremes,  set  up  in  accordance 
with  the  needs  of  their  organizations,  well  manned, 
well  equipped,  well  housed,  and  doing  important  and 
profitable  work. 

Educational  Institutions 

Some  industrial  research  is  conducted  in  educational 
institutions,  sometimes  by  members  of  the  teaching 
staff  who  can  devote  a  part  of  their  time  to  such  activi- 
ties, and  sometimes  through  fellowships  maintained  by 
the  industry  interested.  There  are  certain  advantages 
in  this  procedure,  particularly  in  the  lowered  costs  for 
the  work  and  the  fact  that  the  holder  of  the  fellowship 
may  in  this  manner  become  especially  trained  to  enter 
the  employment  of  the  sponsoring  manufacturer  upon 
graduation.  However,  there  are  certain  disadvantages 
in  that  the  student  cannot  receive  from  his  professor  all 
the  assistance  desirable,  the  work  is  not  in  close  con- 
tact with  the  plant,  and  it  is  not  always  easy  quickly 
to  apply  the  results  or  where  desirable  to  avoid  prema- 
ture pubhcity  for  what  has  been  found.     Perhaps  the 


most  important  disadvantage  is  that  the  byproducts, 
i.  e.,  skill,  provocative  suggestions,  outgrowths,  etc., 
of  the  research,  fail  to  take  root  in  the  business  for 
which  the  work  was  done.  Patents  present  a  particular 
difficulty  and  their  control  in  connection  with  university 
work  has  caused  a  number  of  different  procedures  to  be 
adopted. 

Consultants 

Some  firms  prefer  to  have  most  of  their  research  done 
by  consultants  on  a  retainer  basis.  Ethical  consultants 
seek  to  avoid  complications  by  confining  their  attention 
to  a  single  client  in  each  field  of  manufacturing  at  a 
time,  and  by  carefully  respecting  all  confidences.  The 
manufacturer  utilizing  the  services  of  consultants  can 
have  his  work  conducted  at  a  minimum  of  expense,  or 
can  invest  in  the  research  program  as  heavily  as  he 
sees  fit.  There  is  flexibility  in  the  nmnber  of  those 
assigned  to  his  work,  he  avoids  large  initial  expenditures 
in  equipment  and  gains  from  the  experience  of  those 
directing  his  work.  Frequent  reports  as  weU  as  direct 
personal  contacts  with  those  directing  the  program 
can  keep  the  manufacturer  closely  in  touch  with 
progress. 

Government  Laboratories 

Of  late  years  some  industrial  research  has  been  con- 
ducted in  the  laboratories  of  the  Federal  Government 
through  a  system  of  associates.  The  arrangement 
obligates  the  manufacturer  to  pay  the  salaries  of  the 
men  employed  on  his  problem,  and  perhaps  something 
for  necessary  materials,  and  gives  him  the  advantage 


Figure  67. — Research  Laboratory,  Monsanto  Chemical  Com- 
pany, St.  Louis,  Missouri 


22G 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


of  equipment,  buildings,  facilities,  and  direction  which 
otherwise  might  not  be  available  to  him.  The  basis 
upon  which  such  work  is  done  varies  in  different  depart- 
ments, but  in  general  the  manufacturer  has  a  minimum 
of  control,  the  results  are  available  for  immediate  pub- 
lication, and  the  nature  of  the  problem  is  usually 
determined  by  its  general  interest,  since  otherwise 
public  facilities  could  not  properly  be  made  available. 
Some  of  the  industrial  research  conducted  in  Govern- 
ment laboratories  has  been  in  fields  where  industrj'  has 
been  apathetic  and  needed  to  be  shown  by  some  prac- 
tical demonstration  the  great  assistance  science  can 
afford.  In  such  instances  the  intention  has  been  to 
initiate  the  work  but  not  to  carry  it  on  indefinitely, 
in  the  expectation  that  the  industry  concerned  would 
see  the  advantages  of  maintaining  its  own  facilities  for 
research  and  control. 

Trade  Associations 

Oftentimes  unsolved  problems  are  so  fundamental 
that  their  solution  should  be  undertaken  on  behalf  of 
all  the  individual  concerns  engaged  in  the  same  line 
of  manufacture.  Some  of  this  work  has  been  done 
successfully  through  trade  associations  which  have 
built,  equipped,  and  manned  special  laboratories  for 
the  purpose.  The  extent  to  which  individual  companies 
have  profited  or  can  profit  from  such  enterprises  de- 
pends directly  upon  the  capabOities  of  their  individual 
staffs.  Obviously  reports  of  such  research  mean  little 
to  the  nontechnical  man,  but  the  company  with  the 
best  scientific  staff  is  in  position  to  apply  the  new  data 
at  once,  and  thereby  to  obtain  a  substantial  advantage 
over  firms  lacking  good  scientific  departments.  Trade 
associations  have  done  much  good  work  that  has  been 
of  particular  value  to  the  smaller  units  in  that  ti'ade 
which  otherwise  might  not  have  profited  from  applied 
research. 

Endowed  Institutes 

The  endowed  institute  is,  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
a  recent  innovation.  Some  of  these  institutes  have  as 
a  definite  objective  training  men  in  addition  to  conduct- 
ing applied  research.  This  is  a  variation  of  the  fellow- 
ship system,  usually  employs  men  who  have  graduated 
many  of  them  with  the  highest  academic  degrees — and 
who  are  well  paid  by  the  donor  to  attack  definite  indus- 
trial problems  under  the  direction  of  experienced  investi- 
gators. Engaged  on  a  salary  basis,  they  sometimes 
have  an  opportunity  to  add  to  that  income  by  a  share 
in  patentable  results  of  their  own  work  or  by  some 
other  plan.  If  successful  with  their  problem  they  often 
proceed  to  the  industry  for  which  it  was  solved,  there 
to  supervise  the  manufacture  of  a  new  product  or  the 
operation  of  a  new  process  along  the  line  of  their  re- 


search, or  perhaps  to  continue  the  work  in  the  private 
laboratory  of  the  company. 

Research  Foundations 

Recently,  some  educational  institutions  have  set  up 
foundations  within  their  ow7i  organizations  to  carrj' 
on  this  type  of  industrial  research,  any  profit  augment- 
ing the  university's  funds  for  fundamental  research. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  success  of  such  plans  cannot  be 
uniform  and  that  many  factors  influence  them. 

Another  type  of  research  organization  is  the  research 
foundations,  of  which  there  are  several  in  the  United 
States.  These  foundations,  for  the  most  part,  are 
engaged  in  fimdamental  research,  with  the  advance- 
ment of  science  or  the  good  of  the  public  at  large  as 
their  principal  objective.  They  are  well  organized, 
amply  financed,  and  their  record  of  accomplislunent 
is  too  well  known  to  require  elaboration  here. 

The  question  naturally  arises — to  what  extent  do 
these  various  agencies  exchange  information?  Are  the 
results  of  their  work  made  public?  Obviously  the 
work  done  by  trade  associations,  in  certain  types  of 
endowed  institutions,  and  certainly  the  results  of 
research  in  Government  laboratories,  become  readily 
available  through  publication  and  otherwise  to  those 
who  have  supported  the  work  and  frequently,  in 
addition,  to  those  known  to  be  interested.  But  what 
about  results  achieved  in  private  laboratories  or  sup- 
ported by  individual  organizations? 

It  is  true  that  many  of  these  results  are  not  released 
before  patents  are  granted,  or  at  least  until  application 
for  patent  is  made.  The  reports  of  some  work  are  not 
available  to  outsiders  until  whoever  sponsored  it  feels 
justified  in  taking  this  step  or  unless  the  results  are 
in  such  form  that  they  will  give  no  material  aid  to  a 
competitor.  That  is  a  perfectly  proper  and  natural 
business  procedure.  On  the  other  hand  the  results 
of  a  vast  amoimt  of  research  are  made  freely  available 
to  all  who  are  interested.  Hundreds  of  scientific 
publications  throughout  the  world  regularly  print 
such  information.  There  are  abstract  journals  which 
publish  the  meat  of  these  articles  regardless  of  the 
language  of  original  publication. 

The  men  who  do  the  work  congregate  in  frequent 
meetings,  discuss  papers,  and  exchange  information  ui 
private  sessions.  The  rapid  rise  in  the  teclinological 
and  scientific  level  in  some  industries  can  be  traced 
directly  to  a  faltering  beginning  of  open  discussion 
between  the  research  and  teclmical  men  of  the  industry, 
who  were  at  first  brought  together  infrequently  and 
who  now  meet  semiannually  imder  the  auspices  of  the 
American  Chemical  Society  or  the  American  Institute 
of  Chemical  Engineers.  There  has  been  a  marked 
increase  in  the  willingness  of  the  larger  corporations 


Industrial  Research 


227 


to  share  with  the  smaller  companies,  usually  without 
charge,  some  of  the  results  of  their  own  research.  The 
establislmicnt  of  "teclmical  service"  by  those  who 
manufacture  a  product  or  equipment  has  brought  well- 
trained  men  into  the  plant  of  the  consumer  and  made 
available  to  him  the  results  of  costly  and  time-consum- 
ing investigations.  There  are  even  financial  organiza- 
tions which  make  it  their  business  to  help  by  bringing 
the  small  manufacturer  into  contact  with  a  larger  one 
who  is  willing  to  share  at  least  a  i)ortion  of  what  he 
has  learned  thi'ough  research. 

Advertising  agencies  have  been  known  to  assist 
manufacturers  to  improve  products  or  to  devise  new 
ones  bj'  brhiging  them  mto  contact  with  consultants 
and  other  groups  prepared  to  do  research.  The  agency 
profited  by  handling  an  increased  advertising  account. 
The  manufacturer  who  has  never  thought  of  industrial 
research  as  something  within  his  means  is  frequently 
surprised  to  learn  of  the  assistance  he  can  get  and  the 
extent  to  which  he  can  go  within  the  limits  of  his  purse, 
if  he  really  becomes  research-minded.  Today  there  is 
a  far  greater  exchange  of  information  in  the  ways 
mdicated,  and  in  accordance  with  agreements  made 
to  exchange  information,  than  is  generally  supposed. 
A  ready  exchange  of  information  along  some  lines  takes 
place  through  the  medium  of  an  informally  organized 
group  of  research  directors  who  meet  frequently  and 
discuss  a  variety  of  common  problems. 

Costs 

The  manufacturer,  large  or  small,  who  first  ap- 
nroaches  the  question  of  research  will  ask  early  in  his 
nvestigations,  "What  wdl  it  cost?"  The  answer  must 
differ  in  each  case.  Some  types  of  work  can  be  begun 
in  small  quarters  with  inexpensive  equipment.  Others 
may  require  a  large  investment  in  apparatus,  much 
space,  and  a  large  staff  of  trained  men.  In  addition  to 
equipment  and  space,  a  cost  of  between  $4,000  and 
$5,000  per  man  per  year  will  care  for  the  salary  and 
supplies,  including  some  special  laboratory  apparatus 
and  equipment,  stenographic  work,  etc.  It  obviously 
does  not  mean  that  all  men  will  receive  the  same 
stipend.  It  is  an  average  figure  for  a  group.  It  will 
be  obvious  that  research  is  one  of  those  ventures  that 
require  much  "educated  patient  money,"  to  quote 
the  late  Dr.  John  E.  Teeple. 

The  Time  Factor 

Patience  is  also  needed  between  the  time  an  idea  is 
conceived  and  its  result  is  in  commercial  production. 
Experienced  men  differ  as  to  this  time  factor,  but  it  is 
somewhere  between  5  and  10  years,  with  perhaps  7  or 
8  as  an  average.  Even  then  it  is  not  likely  that  per- 
fection will  have  been  attained,  and  research  continues 

.321835—41 IG 


for  years  after  a  product  has  become  commercial. 
Nothing  is  more  discouraging  to  the  research  man  than 
to  be  obliged  to  work  under  that  type  of  constant 
pressure  which  reflects  the  cash-register  attitude.  It 
is  not  to  be  expected  that  research  will  begin  at  once 
to  ring  up  the  profits.  Time  is  always  an  important 
element  and  short  cuts  to  success  are  infrequent.  It 
has  been  said  that  developing  a  new  idea  is  somewhat 
like  hatching  an  egg,  and  a  hen  cannot  be  hurried. 

Organizing  for  Research 

In  initiating  research  two  principal  problems  must 
be  solved — preparation  of  a  program  of  work  and  the 
selection  of  suitable  personnel.  There  must  be  a  care- 
ful choice  of  the  problems  to  be  attacked.  From  a 
large  number  of  problems  presenting  themselves,  those 
who  Ivnow  what  is  to  be  accomplished  and  who  are 
familiar  with  the  industry  must  make  a  well-considered 
choice  and,  having  done  that,  can  profitably  go  over  the 
ground  again  and  again.  The  president  of  a  large 
chemical  company  recently  said  that,  if  a  half  dozen  or 
so  out  of  200  suggestions  initially  proposed  become 
really  profitable  after  much  time  and  money  are  spent 
in  their  development,  his  concern  is  well  pleased. 

With  the  problems  selected,  it  is  somewhat  easier  to 
determine  the  type  of  men  required  and  recruit  them 
with  their  specialties  in  mind.  Specialists  alone,  how- 
ever, are  unlikely  to  obtain  the  best  results.  In  any 
such  group  a  man  broadly  trained  in  fundamental 
science  will  be  found  most  useful.  Long-established 
laboratories  will  usually  be  found  to  have  teams  of 
investigators  prepared  to  devote  their  energies  to  the 
assignments  given  them  by  the  director.  And  after 
years  of  work  in  a  particular  industry,  the  laboratory 
of  such  a  firm  naturally  becomes  adapted  tlu-ough  a 
process  of  selection  to  the  kind  of  work  most  likely  to 
confront  it. 

There  has  been  at  least  one  instance  where  a  well- 
to-do  concern  tried  the  plan  of  employing  a  considerable 
number  of  the  best-trained  men,  most  of  them  with 
good  scientific  reputations,  in  the  belief  that  if  such  a 
group  were  given  a  well-equipped  laboratory  and  worked 
there  for  a  time,  as  seemed  best  to  it,  something  revolu- 
tionary and  profitable  must  be  evolved.  But  there 
was  no  planned  program  for  this  highly  trained  group, 
and  the  undertaking  was  on  such  a  grand  scale  that, 
before  anything  sufficiently  fruitful  could  be  evolved, 
funds  became  scarce  and  the  scheme  was  abandoned. 
If  it  ever  achieved  success,  such  a  scheme  would  have 
required  years  to  show  a  profit. 

Looking  at  research  for  the  first  time,  anyone 
interested  is  likely  to  ask,  "Wliat  has  it  accomplished 
to  recommend  it  to  me?"  The  answer  can  be  a  very 
long  story.     The  rapid  rise  and  expansion  of  industrial 


228 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Figure  GS. — A  Chemical  Research  Laljoratory,  E.  I.  du  Pont 
de  Nemours  and  Company,  Incorporated,  Wihuington, 
Delaware 


America,  especially  in  the  last  25  years,  can  be  attrib- 
uted in  large  part  to  the  intensive  application  of 
research.  One  important  result  is  that  still  more 
research  has  been  undertaken. 

New  Industries  Created 

Alanj'  new  industries  have  been  created.  A  modern 
example  is  in  the  growing  utilization  of  fractions  of 
petroleum,  and,  indeed,  of  individual  hydrocarbons 
derived  therefrom.  Butane,  propane,  and  pentane  are 
among  those  raw  materials  that  have  lent  themselves 
to  the  production  of  new  lines  of  chemicals  and  the  s^ni- 
thesis  of  well-known  individual  compounds.  Today 
ethylene  is  made  the  source  of  manj'  millions  of  gallons 
of  alcohol,  while  acetone  and  even  glycerin  must  be 
numbered  among  items  S5mthesized  from  petroleum 
gases. 

One  of  our  best  examples  is  the  synthetic  resin 
industry,  because  of  its  impress  upon  nearly  every  other 
industry.  Early  in  our  century  the  literature  revealed 
some  experiments  in  organic  chemistry  which  had  not 
yielded  the  product  sought  by  the  initial  investigator, 
but  which  suggested  to  a  reader  a  new  line  of  research. 
The  result  was  the  synthetic  resin,  Bakclite,  a  conden- 


sation product  of  phenol  and  formaldehyde.  That 
appeared  in  1907,  smce  which  time  whole  new  groups 
of  resins  have  been  introduced.  Application  of  these 
materials  has  involved  research  and  ingenuity  almost 
on  a  par  with  the  preparation  of  the  resins  themselves. 
New  raw  materials  have  been  employed,  additional 
characteristics  have  been  imparted  to  the  resins,  and 
manufacturers  are  now  quite  likely  to  inquire  first  of  all 
as  to  whether  a  resin  will  serve  as  a  raw  material  before 
investigating  metals,  wood,  or  other  substances. 

The  manufacture  of  rayon  in  its  various  kinds  is 
well  known  as  a  new  industry  created  through  chemical 
research.  Though  begun  with  the  pioneer  work  of 
Chardonnet  in  the  gay  nineties,  it  is  still  a  subject  of 
intensive  research  and  the  improved  yarns  and  fabrics 
that  are  offered  year  by  year  to  the  consuming  public 
indicate  the  success  of  that  continuing  program.  Other 
kinds  of  synthetic  fibers  are  now  emerging  from  the 
research  laboratories. 

A  new  industry  was  created  when  chemists  joined 
engineers  in  a  search  for  the  reason  why  internal-com- 
bustion motors  developed  a  knock,  and,  having  dis- 
covered the  cause,  undertook  to  provide  a  solution. 
Thus  the  manufacture  and  distribution  of  tetraethyl 
lead  have  become  a  new  industry  of  great  magnitude. 

The  ehlorination  of  hydrocarbons  for  the  manufacture 
of  new  solvents  and  of  chemicals  wliich  until  lately  have 
been  almost  theoretical,  or  were  at  best  produced  only 
on  a  laboratory  scale,  is  another  instance  of  a  highly 
successfid  industry  built  entirely  on  chemical  research. 

The  list  of  new  industries  created  through  chemical 
research  in  particular  could  be  made  of  great  length, 
but  the  facts  are  well  known,  and  social  planners, 
economists,  and  those  interested  in  public  welfare  have 
come  to  regard  research  as  the  most  hopeful  soiutc  of 
newer  and  bigger  industries  that  would  be  potent  in 
helping  to  solve  the  complex  unemployment  problem. 

Monopolies  Broken 

Industrial  research  is  often  effective  in  breaking 
certain  types  of  monopolies.  It  is  more  effective  than 
legislation  in  accomplishing  this  end,  because  it  achieves 
its  objective  constructively,  finding  new  sources  or 
offering  equivalent  products  rather  than  destroying 
those  already  available.  Let  the  demand  be  insistent 
enough  or  the  monetary  reward  high  enough,  and 
research  will  be  initiated  to  circumvent  patents,  to 
produce  that  which  has  formerly  been  a  natural  national 
monopoly,  or  to  find  a  dissimilar  material  capable  of 
performing  the  same  service.  The  fixation  of  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen,  now  proceeding  in  all  important  coun- 
tries, effectively  destroyed  the  Chilean  monopoly  which 
had  existed  until  1912.  Sir  Wilham  Crookes'  fear  of 
famine  due  to  a  nitrogen  shortage  of  fertilizers  has  long 
since  vanished,  and  we  now  have  a  peacetime  world 


Industrial  Research 


229 


surplus  of  lixcd  nitrogen.  The  a%'ailability  of  low-cost 
synthetic  ammonia  has  given  rise  to  new  chemical 
processes,  and  the  high-temperature  high-pressure 
technique  concurrently  developed  has  become  the 
foundation  for  new  industries  and  the  improvement 
of  many  old  ones. 

Camphor  was  the  natural  national  monopoly  of 
Japan  until  25  years  ago.  The  high  prices  during  the 
World  War  enticed  the  research  chemist  to  synthesize 
it,  and  methods  were  developed  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  The  effort  was  sufficiently  successful 
to  bring  the  price  back  to  normal.  Further  improve- 
ments have  led  to  an  abundant  supply  of  both  technical 
and  U.  S.  P.  camphor  from  American  turpentine  as  the 
raw  material,  and  today  even  Japan  is  considering  the 
manufacture  of  S3'nthetic  camphor. 

Another  example  is  iodine,  long  a  monopoly  controlled 
by  Chile  and  a  byproduct  in  the  manufacture  of  nitrate. 
Now  this  useful  element  is  separated  from  the  brines 
and  bitterns  of  California,  and  Chile  has  lost  the  domi- 
nation of  the  market.  This  is  an  incomplete  list,  but 
serves  to  show  how  chemical  research  in  industry  can 
effect  changes  that  are  international  in  their  implications. 

Improved  Products 

From  the  list  of  products  improved  through  research, 
one  need  only  choose  examples  from  the  results  of  the 
last  year  or  two  to  emphasize  the  point  sufficiently. 

Shatterproof  glass  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin. 
The  original  cellulose  nitrate  interlayer  was  superseded 
by  cellulose  acetate  which  was  less  liable  to  discolora- 
tion, did  not  lose  its  transparency,  and  which  could  be 
made  by  a  continuous  process  with  less  wastage.  This 
was  an  improvement,  but  both  these  laminating  sub- 
stances were  brittle  at  low  temperatures  and  conse- 
quently did  not  then  afford  the  protection  expected 
of  safety  glass.  Acrylic  resin  and  vinyl  acetate  were 
also  used,  but  in  1939  a  polyvinyl  acetal  resin  was 
perfected.  This  resin,  which  is  exceedingly  elastic  and 
strong,  is  sandwiched  between  the  sheets  of  glass  with- 
out other  adhesive,  requires  no  edge  sealing,  retains 
its  elasticity  even  at  low  temperatures,  so  as  to  absorb 
much  of  the  energy  of  a  blow,  and  objects  striking  such 
glass  are  much  more  likely  to  rebound  from  it  than  to 
penetrate  it.  This  accomplishment  has  come  about 
through  cooperative  research  by  several  companies  and 
is  the  reward  for  constant  effort  to  devise  a  cheaper 
laminating  material  which  would  not  suffer  loss  of 
transparency,  which  would  resist  discoloration,  and 
remain  elastic  under  a  wide  variety  of  conditions. 

Varnish  and  similar  coatings  have  been  much  im- 
proved by  research  on  film-forming  oils  like  china-wood 
or  tung  oil,  the  oils  of  other  vegetable  and  plant  sources, 
the  most  recent  of  which  is  castor  oil.  ^\^len  dehy- 
drated,  castor  oil   becomes   an   excellent   unsaturated 


drying  oil,  with  properties  that  permit  tiie  use  with  it 
of  optimum  quantities  of  synthetic  resins  to  produce  a 
film  of  unusual  wearing  qualities.  The  story  of  lacquer 
is  certainly  now  well  known  but  is  an  excellent  example 
of  improving  products  through  research.  Modern 
lacquers  were  originally  based  on  cellulose  nitrate,  and 
while  vast  quantities  of  this  material  are  still  used  for 
the  purpose,  some  of  the  newer  alkyd  resins  are  widely 
employed,  and  the  user  now  enjoys  a  wide  choice  of 
these  coatings  to  meet  special  requirements.  The 
increase  in  the  number  of  lacquers  and  their  improve- 
ment has  been  a  beneficial,  though  revolutionaiy, 
influence  in  the  paint,  varnish,  and  lacquer  field. 

In  the  textile  field  improved  products  have  icsuUed 
from  chemical  methods  for  finishing  j'arns  and  cloth. 
The  use  of  moisture-repellent  finishes  is  now  standard 
practice,  and  this  treatment  also  confers  a  substantial 
degree  of  stain  resistance.  The  use  of  certain  synthetic 
resins  increases  resistance  to  creasing,  and  velvets  are 
now  produced  that  withstand  crushing  far  better  than 
previously.  Textile  printing  has  been  improved  by  the 
use  of  synthetic  pigmented  resins  dispersed  in  a  water 
emulsion  and  fixed  by  brief  heating  following  printing. 
The  improvements  in  the  textiles  themselves  are 
generally  recognized,  and  while  much  of  this  comes 
from  design  in  weaving,  knotting,  etc.,  chemical  research 
has  had  its  part  in  improving  the  raw  material  itself. 

Work  With  Wastes 

One  of  the  activities  of  which  the  research  chemist  is 
most  proud  is  the  prevention  of  wastes  or  their  utiliza- 
tion. While  much  of  this  work  in  the  past  has  been 
undertaken  for  economy's  sake,  it  is  recognized  that 
industry  has  some  obligations  to  its  community  and 
should  refrain  from  polluting  streams,  soil,  and  air. 
As  the  density  of  population  increases,  satisfactorj' 
waste  disposal  becomes  a  legal  requirement  in  some 
areas.  Cases  often  arise  where  the  prevention  of  a 
nuisance  is  the  sole  reward  the  manufacturer  can  expect 
from  the  treatment  of  waste,  but  there  have  been  a  few 
cases  where  monetary  profits  have  accrued. 

The  economics  of  waste  utilization  are  too  frequentl3' 
disregarded.  One  of  the  best  examples  is  to  be  found 
in  the  utilization  of  waste  corn  stalks,  cotton  stalks  and 
the  like,  frequently  proposed  as  sources  of  cellulose  to 
be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  rayon  or  paper  pulp. 
Anyone  skilled  in  the  art  knows  that  chemical  cellulose 
can  be  derived  not  only  from  corn  and  cotton  stalks  but 
from  many  other  cellulose-producing  plants.  What  is 
not  so  well  known  is  that  to  produce  a  satisfactory  grade 
of  cellulose  from  these  sources,  including  the  cost  of 
collection  and  storage  of  the  raw  material,  costs  much 
more  than  cellulose  produced  from  wood  and  cotton 
linters.  The  nature  of  the  latter  is  such  that  storage 
problems  are  minimized  and   the  high  concentration 


230 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


of  cellulose  in  them  constitutes  an  advantage  difficult 
to  equal. 

There  have  recently  come  upon  the  market  products 
from  the  waste  sulfite  liquor  of  the  pulp  industry. 
The  material  of  principal  value  in  tliis  liquor  is  lignin, 
and  foundry  core  binders  and  materials  for  highway 
construction  have  been  two  products  from  it.  More 
recently,  one  mill  has  devised  a  method  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  low-cost  plastic  from  sulfite  liquor,  and  of 
synthetic  vanillin  wliich  successfully  competes  in  the 
market  with  that  derived  from  coal  tar.  The  re- 
covery of  sulfur  dioxide  and  trioxide  from  smelter 
fumes  from  power  plants  has  been  successful.  Sulfuric 
acid  is  the  principal  product,  but  if  all  fumes  were  so 
used  so  much  acid  would  be  made  that  it  would  become 
something  of  a  nuisance.  Elemental  sulfur  is  also 
recovered  from  such  sources. 

The  carbon  dioxide  formerly  wasted  from  fermenta- 
tion operations  now  finds  sale  as  solid  carbon  dioxide 
or  dry  ice  for  refrigeration.  The  city  of  Milwaukee 
for  some  years  has  been  able  so  to  treat  its  sewage  as  to 
produce  a  fertilizer,  the  sale  of  which  has  materially 
lessened  the  cost  of  sewage  disposal.  The  sugar  in- 
dustry finds  a  steady  market  for  its  waste  molasses 
wliich  is  used  for  the  growth  of  yeast  and  the  production 
of  alcohol.  One  of  the  great  distilleries  has  devised  a 
process  for  treating  its  waste,  which  must  be  kept  out 
of  local  streams,  so  that  the  resulting  feedstuff  pays 
the  overhead  for  the  entire  plant.  Furfural,  which 
fmds  extensive  application  in  the  purification  of  rosin 
and  the  manufacture  of  lubricating  oils,  to  mention 
but  two  uses,  is  the  result  of  waste  product  utilization, 
since  it  is  derived  from  oat  hulls. 

Cost  Reduction 

The  reduction  of  costs  is  always  important  in  manu- 
facturing. Two  examples  should  suffice.  In  the 
slightly  more  than  50  years  that  aluminum  has  been  a 
commercial  metal,  the  price  to  the  consumer  has  been 
reduced  from  10  to  12  dollars  per  pound  to  the  point 
where  the  metal  in  foil  form  competes  with  paper  for 
making  milk  bottle  caps  and  to  provide  individual 
cases  for  cigars.  "Cellophane"  cellulose  film  was  intro- 
duced in  1926  and  since  then  its  price  has  been  reduced 
voluntarily  20  times.  Indeed,  it  has  come  to  be  rec- 
ognized that  the  philosophy  of  the  chemical  industry 
is  constantly  to  reduce  the  price  to  the  ultimate  con- 
sumer, for  each  reduction  tends  to  broaden  the  market, 
increase  the  demand,  and  make  possible  a  greater 
volume  of  production,  by  means  of  wliich  manufactur- 
ing costs  may  be  lowered  further  and  sellmg  prices 
reduced  again.  This  is  also  true  in  the  pharmaceutical 
industry  and  many  examples  could  be  cited  to  show 
how,  through  the  procedure  we  are  discussing,  the 
ultimate  consumer  has  reaped  monetary  benefit.     This 


was  accomplished  not  only  without  lowering  standards, 
but  generally  with  improved  quality. 

New  Raw  Materials 

Industries  are  sometimes  forced  to  find  new  raw 
materials  and  always  benefit  when  they  are  found,  if 
for  no  other  reason  than  because  they  have  a  wider 
choice  of  materials  and  cannot  be  so  easily  subjected 
to  price  control.  The  development  of  deli5^drated 
castor  oil,  mentioned  earlier,  will  serve  as  an  example. 
Its  importance  has  greatly  increased  since  difficulties 
in  the  Far  East  have  interfered  with  the  importation 
of  tung  oil.  Wliile  the  production  of  tung  oil  in  the 
United  States  is  increasing  rapidly,  the  vast  quantities 
required  in  the  varnish  industry  still  make  necessary 
large  imports.  The  dehydrated  castor  oil  replaces  much 
of  this  tung  oil  and  thereby  relieves  that  pressure.  The 
castor  beans  for  the  production  of  this  oil  are  normally 
imported — •  coming  in  greater  part  from  South  America, 
with  some  from  India.  Wliether  they  can  be  produced 
on  a  commercial  basis  in  the  United  States  in  competi- 
tion with  excellent  growing  conditions  for  perennial 
plants  and  cheap  labor  for  harvesting  the  beans  re- 
mains to  be  seen.  A  paper  mill  in  New  England  has 
developed  a  satisfactory  method  for  the  production  of 
pulp  from  hardwood,  and  by  so  doing  has  brought  into 
the  field  of  its  raw  materials  great  stands  of  satis- 
factory woods  which,  coming  as  they  do  from  varieties 
not  heretofore  so  utilized,  add  enormously  to  raw 
material  supply.  The  work  that  has  been  done  in 
the  South  looking  to  the  use  of  southern  pines,  par- 
ticularly for  the  production  of  pulp  satisfactor}^  to  the 
rayon  industry,  for  the  manufacture  of  kraft,  and  now 
for  newsprint,  is  a  similar  example. 

One  of  the  most  conspicuous  instances  of  finding  a 
new  source  concerns  the  separation  of  bromine  from 
sea  water.  This  became  imperative  when  the  greatly 
increased  demands  for  bromine  arose  with  the  use  of 
tetraethyl  lead.  Until  this  development,  our  bromine 
was  derived  from  the  brines  of  northern  Michigan. 
But  this  source  was  thought  to  be  insufficient  and,  fol- 
lowing pioneering  research  on  the  part  of  several  groups, 
it  is  now  recovered  from  the  sea.  Subsequent  develop- 
ment has  been  very  rapid. 

New  Uses 

Another  service  to  industry  consists  in  the  search 
for  new  uses  that  will  increase  the  market  demand  for 
products.  The  diverse  applications  of  synthetic  resins 
offers  one  of  the  best  examples.  It  has  been  found  that 
urea,  originally  produced  for  fertilizer,  later  used  as  a 
raw  material  for  a  resin,  promotes  healing  of  wounds, 
and  that  pectin  is  efficacious  in  preventing  bleeding  at 
bodily  surfaces.  Liver,  once  a  waste  in  the  packing 
industry,  has  become  the  raw  material  for  medicinal 


Industrial  Research 


231 


preparations,  as  has  the  pancreas,  used  in  the  production 
of  insuUn.  And  stainless  steel  has  reached  a  new 
dignity  in  becoming  the  alloy  for  coinage  in  one  of  the 
European  countries.  It  is  also  used  as  the  palate  por- 
tion of  artificial  dentures. 

New  Products 

When  we  come  to  new  products,  the  list  could  be 
made  most  extensive.  One  great  company,  reviewing 
the  more  important  developmental  lines  over  a  10-year 
period,  discussed  12  groups  of  products,  none  of  which 
had  been  in  production  at  the  beginning  of  the  period. 
These  12  lines  accounted  for  about  40  percent  of  the 
company's  total  sales  volume  for  the  year  reported. 
Other  industries  can  show  variants  of  this  ratio.  At  the 
moment  we  hear  most  of  new  fibers  like  nylon  yarn, 
which  has  a  higher  strength-elasticity  factor  than  that  of 
any  textile  fiber  now  in  common  use,  whether  cotton, 
linen,  rayon,  or  silk,  to  offer  new  competition  for  natural 
bristles  used  in  various  brushes,  to  become  a  coating 
material,  and  which  will  doubtless  find  many  appli- 
cations in  other  directions.  Vinyon  is  another  of  the 
new  fibers,  resistant  to  dilute  acids  and  alkalies,  and 
therefore  gaining  in  popularity  as  a  medium  for  filtra- 
tion. Glass  fiber  with  surprising  properties  when  one 
considers  glass  as  it  is  ordinarily  met  is  now  available 


in  colors  and,  as  a  nonflammable,  enduring  fabric,  is 
pushing  its  way  in  competition  with  Imen  and  cotton 
for  draperies,  table  covers,  and  in  the  electrical  industry 
as  a  competitor  with  asbestos.  Kodachrome  brings 
pleasure  and  instruction  to  millions,  being  the  most 
successful  of  the  ])liotogiai)hic  films  reproducing  a  scene 
in  natural  colors.  The  vitamins,  so  mysterious  30 
years  ago,  have  been  isolated  in  numbers  as  research 
has  gone  on  and,  of  the  15  now  recognized,  8  have  been 
synthesized.  Some  of  these  are  available  at  a  price 
lower  than  when  derived  from  natural  sources.  Vita- 
mine  Bi,  now  known  as  thiamin  chloride,  is  available 
at  such  cost  that  it  can  be  used  profitably  to  aid  the  root 
development  of  plants.  It  will  be  used  to  replace 
vitamin  Bj  removed  from  wheat  flour  by  milling.  A 
high  Bi  yeast  now  on  the  market  when  used  in  amounts 
for  leavening  will  restore  the  B,  of  white  flour  removed 
by  milling.  Indole  acetic  acid  and  propionic  acids  also 
function  as  synthetic  auxins  in  promoting  root  develop- 
ment in  vegetative  reproduction  of  plants  from  cuttings. 
The  new  medicinals  that  have  been  born  of  reseai'ch 
are  of  greatest  importance  and  comprise  a  very  long 
list  of  their  own.  We  hear  much  of  sulfanilamide  and 
its  derivatives  and  rightly  so,  as  measured  by  the  results 
that  have  been  accomplished.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
however,  that  the  further  development  of  these  deriva- 


■  ^.; 

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iir 

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Figure  69. — Main  Library,  The  Dow  Chemical  Company,  Midland,  Micliigan 


232 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


lives  may  produce  results  no  less  startling  than  those 
that  are  on  record.  This  planned  group  research  is  an 
excellent  example  of  the  modern  method  wherein  in- 
stead of  just  continuing  work  with  the  hope  of  finding 
something  useful,  the  objective  is  definitely  outlined  and 
careful  plans  are  made  for  the  campaign  whieli  sliould 
end  in  its  achievement. 

The  necessity  of  finding  a  nontoxic  and  nonflamma- 
ble refrigerant  for  use  in  largo  systems,  not  only  for 
household  refrigerators  but  for  air-conditioning,  led  to 
the  development  of  a  family  of  fluorinated  hydrocarbons 
one  of  which  is  dichlorodifluoromethane  now  called 
"Freon."  This  is  an  instance  of  an  invention  made  to 
order  to  meet  a  distinct  need.  The  wetting  agents  and 
detergents  are  new  products  of  importance  wherever 
aqueous  solutions  are  employed,  whether  for  textiles, 
dyeing  and  finishing,  or  in  the  laundries  or  machine 
shops  for  cleansing.  The  control  of  surface  tension  and 
the  prevention  of  precipitation  of  the  calcium  and 
magnesium  salts  which  cause  hardness  in  water  have 
come  within  the  last  decade  and  are  used  all  the  way 
from  the  removal  of  oil  films  from  machine  parts  and 
laundering  of  clothes  to  dentifrices. 

The  synthetic  rubberlike  plastics  are  among  the 
newer  and  most  exciting  materials  of  this  sort  and  have 
long  been  sought  by  the  research  chemist.  Neoprene, 
Thiokol,  Koroseal,  and  Buna  have  become  common 
names  and  represent  various  materials  each  of  which  is 
superior  to  natural  rubber  for  some  particular  service. 
Butyl  rubber,  Chemigum,  and  Ameripol  were  intro- 
duced in  1940.  So  old  a  material  as  glass  is  constantly 
improved  and  new  kinds  made  available.  One  of  the 
latest  of  these  is  shrunk  glass,  produced  by  dissolving 
certain  constituents  from  the  finished  molded  ware  and 
then  submitting  the  residtant  piece  to  further  heat  treat- 
ment. The  final  product  is  approximately  one-half  the 
bulk  of  the  initial  piece  and  in  the  process  it  acquires 
many  of  the  valuable  properties  of  fused  silica.  The  field 
of  insecticides  is  so  important  in  our  continuing  battle 
with  the  insects  that  advances  there  are  of  public  in- 
terest. Investigations  showing  how  to  separate  and  use 
active  principles  from  heretofore  little  Imown  plants  like 
derris  and  cube  have  been  very  helpful.  Research  also 
has  devised  and  continues  to  discover  new  organic  and 
inorganic  compounds  that  have  proved  very  efficient 
against  certain  pests. 

New  Processes 

New  processes  are  not  uncommon  where  chemical  re- 
search is  being  applied.  Ethanol,  long  derived  only  by 
the  fermentation  of  sugars  and  starches,  is  now  syn- 
thesized by  the  millions  of  gallons  from  petroleum  gases. 
The  most  recent  process  for  making  urea  produces  that 
compound  from  carbon  dioxide  and  ammonia.  In  1939 
methanol  (crude  natural)  was  produced  by  wood  dis- 


tillation to  the  extent  of  4,659,589  gallons  and  by  syn- 
thetic process  from  carbon  mono.xide  and  hydrogen  to 
the  amount  of  34,255,699  gallons. 

The  contact  process  for  the  manufacture  of  sulfuric 
acid,  using  either  the  platinum  or  vanadium  catalyst, 
has  largely  replaced  the  lead  chamber  method,  and 
phosphoric  acid  is  produced  by  new  electrolytic  proc- 
esses. It  was  a  new  process  for  the  production  of 
phthalic  anhydride  that  made  possible  at  reasonable 
costs  the  production  of  large  amounts  required.  New 
processes  for  the  production  of  cyanide  arc  more  than 
merely  interesting  in  view  of  the  growing  importance 
of  that  chemical  as  a  raw  material  for  many  uses. 
Acetic  acid  and  acetic  anhydride  are  no  longer  made  as 
they  were  even  25  years  ago.  Conversations  with  the 
manager  of  any  chemical  plant  will  reveal  the  fact  that 
whereas  the  concern  began  by  manufacturing  its  prod- 
ucts in  certain  ways,  marked  improvements  have  been 
made  through  research  with  distinct  gains  in  economy 
of  operations.  Simplification  of  processes  and  in- 
creased efficiency  are  the  order  of  the  day. 

Materials  for  Equipment  Construction 

Many  of  these  processes  have  had  to  wait  for  better 
construction  materials  and  praise  must  be  given  those 
whose  brilliant  work  has  supplied  such  needs.  Low-cost 
oxidation  of  synthetic  ammonia  to  concentrated  nitric 
acid  was  not  possible  until  the  advent  of  stainless  steel. 
Glass-lined  equipment,  or  that  made  entirely  of  special 
glass  or  fused  quartz  has  been  required  for  other  proc- 
esses. The  ceramic  industry  has  played  its  part  in 
improving  its  wares  and  the  production  of  entirely  new 
equipment  from  clays  and  similar  raw  materials.  Auto- 
matic control,  improved  methods  of  heating,  the  devel- 
opment of  the  exceedingly  important  high-temperature 
high-pressure  technique  are  among  the  marvels  of  our 
time.  Even  advances  in  methods  of  transportation  and 
improvements  in  packaging  have  all  plaj'ed  their  part 
in  rounding  out  a  procedure  that  has  made  the  chemical 
industry  itself  and  also  as  a  contributor  to  other  indus- 
tries, so  great  and  vital  to  the  American  people.  It  well 
justifies  the  designation  of  a  "key  industry."  All  of 
these  things  are  fruits  of  persistent  research  conducted 
in  continuity. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  in  which  fields  the  most  has  been 
done.  If  we  use  the  publication  of  scientific  papers  and 
of  patents  as  a  criterion,  we  may  gain  some  idea  of  the 
extent  of  research  activity.  If  measured  by  the  pub- 
lished abstracts  of  such  scientific  papers,  we  find  first 
place  in  pure  science  belonging  to  biological  chemistry, 
second  to  general  and  physical  chemistry,  and  the  third 
to  organic  chemistry.  Industrial  chemistr^^  shows  soils, 
fertilizers,  and  agricultural  poisons  first,  foods  second, 
pharmaceuticals,  cosmetics,  and  perfumes  third,  dyes 
and  textile  chemistrv  fourth.     If  we  turn  our  attention 


Industrial  Research 


233 


to  the  patent  record,  the  chemical  industry  and  mis- 
cellaneous in(histrial  products  stand  first,  dyes  and 
textile  chemistry  second,  metalku-gy  and  metallography 
third,  apparatus,  plant  equipment,  and  unit  operations 
fourlli.     These  arc  from  a  list  of  thirty  classifications. 

Promises  for  the  Future 

As  for  the  future,  we  may  quote  Willis  R.  Whitney, 
who  said,  "The  impossible  is  only  what  we  have  not 
learned  to  do."  Research  is  planned  and  carried  on 
toda}'  in  a  manner  that  affords  the  outstanding  indi- 
vidual the  support  of  an  organized  group  of  which  he 
becomes  the  leader.  An  objective  having  been  deter- 
mined, a  campaign  is  carefully  devised  to  achieve  it. 
Thus  some  years  ago  Irving  Langmuir  became  interested 
in  filaments  for  electric  lights  and  in  the  electrical  con- 
ductivity of  gases  and  began  his  experiments  accord- 
ingly. It  was  in  the  pursuit  of  this  work  that  certain 
new  data  were  established  leading  to  the  first  of  the 
modern  incandescent  electric  lamps,  wherein  gases 
like  argon  are  used  in  place  of  exhausting  tlie  bulb  to  a 
point  approaching  a  vacuum.  The  result  has  been  of 
enormous  economic  benefit  to  lamp  users  and  the  re- 
search has  brought  still  other  gains.  Dr.  Langmuir's 
work  on  thin  films  is  another  classic  example  of  initial 
results  of  research  originating  with  an  individual  and 
carried  forward  by  him  with  the  assistance  of  an  appro- 
priate research  group. 

New  methods  developed  concurrently  and  in  the 
hands  of  the  well  trained  researcher  offer  new  possibili- 
ties in  the  future.  We  have  come  to  use  procedures 
calling  for  infrared  rays  and  X-rays,  catalysis,  in  the 
solid,  liquid,  or  vapor  phase,  very  high  or  very  low 
temperatures,  not  only  in  investigation  but  in  actual 
production.  New  equipment  of  glass,  stainless  steel, 
clad  metals,  silver,  ceramics,  resins  or  any  other 
material  required  is  available  as  never  before,  and  the 
giant  vessels  in  which  the  cracking  of  petroleum  and 
catalysis  are  carried  on  in  many  industries  entitle  the 
steel  industry  to  a  word  of  praise.  New  theories  are  no 
less  valuable  a  tool  than  are  possibilities  of  new  equip- 
ment. Considerations  of  monomolecular  layers,  of 
atomic  structure,  of  quantum  mechanics,  and  of  isotopes 
are  useful  and  some  of  them  so  new  that  evaluation  of 
their  future  trends  is  difficult.  The  importance  of 
cumulative  recorded  experience  must  not  be  overlooked. 
Here  again  the  scientific  literature  takes  its  place  as 
perhaps  the  most  important  tool.  The  rapid  progress 
of  the  day  can  be  credited  in  large  measure  to  the 
cumulative  dividend  the  present  enjoys  on  the  work  of 
the  past.  It  is  the  recorded  accumulation  of  some  200 
years'  research  that  is  brought  to  play  on  today's 
problems. 

Then  too  there  are  more  and  better  trained  men 
available  than  ever  before  and  there  is  greater  fiiith  in 


the  possibilities.  The  change  in  attitude  toward 
applied  research  in  industry  that  has  taken  place  in  this 
century  is  of  the  utmost  significance.  It  is  a  change 
from  conducting  resean^h  in  secret,  and  with  some 
apologies  for  this  evidence  of  supposed  weakness  in  an 
organization  to  pleasure  in  advertising  the  fact  that  the 
pursuit  of  science  by  the  best  possible  means  is  one  of 
the  greatest  assets  of  an  industrial  organization.  Once 
abandoned  in  time  of  emergency,  today  research  is 
accelerated  under  similar  conditions  by  farseeing  execu- 
tives.    All  these  are  factors  in  our  new  progress. 

It  is  sometimes  asked  why  so  large  a  percentage  of  the 
research  workers  are  in  chemistry.  This  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  fundamental  position  that  cliemistry 
holds  and  consequently  its  applicability  to  practically 
all  industry,  as  well  as  its  utilization  in  most  branches 
of  science.  Industry  demands  the  continual  develop- 
ment of  new  and  better  products.  The  industries  need 
exact  and  specific  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  their 
materials,  whether  they  are  engaged  in  applied  physics 
or  applied  chemistry.  The  methods  employed  by  a 
manufacturer  must  be  equal  or  superior  to  those  of  his 
competitors  if  he  is  to  maintain  his  place.  In  all  these 
circumstances   chemistry   is  needed. 


Figure  70. — Entrance  to  Research  L.iljoratorv,  AI>liott  Labora- 
tories, North  Chicago,  Illinois 


234 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


The  chemist  has  perhaps  felt  himself  to  be  more  a 
part  of  industry  than  have  other  scientists.  In  contrast 
with  some  other  groups  he  was  early  engaged  as  a 
consultant  and  as  an  active  worker  on  manufacturing 
problems.  The  pure  and  the  applied  scientist  in  this 
field  have  worked  together  more  harmoniously  and  each 
has  been  more  willing  to  credit  the  other  with  his  con- 
tributions than  in  other  countries  or  among  other 
sciences  in  the  United  States.  Perhaps  the  advances 
which  it  was  able  to  bring  about  in  the  early  days  had 
much  to  do  with  attracting  industry  to  the  potentialities 
of  applied  chemistry  and  thus  gave  it  something  of  a 
running  start  in  its  service  to  the  manufacturer. 
Further  and  careful  consideration  of  the  types  of  prob- 
lems upon  which  most  manufacturers  wish  assistance 
seems  to  indicate  that  chemistry  is  and  promises  to 
continue  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  possible  aids. 

It  must  be  remembered  too  that  the  consulting 
chemist  really  pioneered  in  the  specialty  of  being  the 
someone  to  whom  industry  coidd  go  for  assistance,  and 
that  the  earliest  popularization  or  humanization  of 
science  was  done  by  chemists.  All  this  must  have  had 
an  influence  on  the  trend  that  has  resulted  in  so  large 
a  proportion  of  all  those  in  industrial  research  having 
been  trained  as  chemists.  May  there  not  also  be  some 
relation  between  the  training  of  these  men,  who  early 
leani  analytical  methods,  learn  how  to  distinguish 
between  the  important  and  the  unimportant,  how  to 
watch  for  those  small  differences  that  so  greatly 
dctennine  final  results,  and  the  alert  inquiring  mind 
that  characterizes  the  successful  chemist? 

Trends  are  influenced  by  public  demands  for  improved 
and  new  products,  by  the  success  of  new  techniques,  by 
competitive  situations  that  call  for  the  production  of 
better  materials  and  ways  to  circumvent  the  restric- 
tions of  monopoly,  whether  in  the  control  of  sources  of 
raw  materials  or  in  the  patented  control  of  materials 
and  processes,  and  by  public  opinion  in  many  direc- 
tions. The  type  of  work  discussed  here  is  certain  to 
continue  as  long  as  consumers  are  dissatisfied  with 
present  materials,  as  long  as  there  is  a  demand  for  a 
greater  variety  of  manufactured  products  and  for 
sometliing  new,  and  as  long  as  the  scientist  himself  is 
motivated  by  the  desire  to  know  why  things  behave  as 
they  do.  Chemistry  applied  in  industry  is  in  only  the 
initial  phase  of  its  development. 

Bibliography 

Books 

DoNCAN,    R.    K.     The    chemistry    of   commerce.     New    York, 

London,  Harper  and  Brothers,  1907.     262  p. 
Farnham,  D.  T.,  Hall,  J.  A.,  King,  R.  W.,  and  Howe,  H.  E. 

Profitable     science     in     industry.     New     York,     Macmillan 

Company,  1925.     291  p. 


Haynes,  Williams.  Chemical  pioneers.  New  Y'ork,  D.  Van 
Nostrand  Company,  Inc.,  1939.     288  p. 

Holland,  Maukice,  and  Pringle,  H.  F.  Industrial  explorers. 
New  York,  London,  Harper  and  Brothers,  1928.     347  p. 

Howe,  H.  E.  Chemistry  in  the  world's  work.  New  York, 
D.  Van  Nostrand  Company,  Inc.,  1926.     244  p. 

.Morrison,  A.  C.  Man  in  a  chemical  world;  the  service  of  chemi- 
cal industry.  New  York,  London,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
1937.     292  p. 

Slcsson,  E.  E.  Creative  cliemistry;  descriptive  of  recent 
achievements  in  the  chemical  industries.  New  York,  Century 
Company,  1919.  311  p.  New  edition,  revised  by  H.  E. 
Howe,  1930.     341  p. 

Journal  articles 

Baekeland,  L.  H.     Bakelite  as  an  example  of  the  impress  of 
chemistry  upon  industry.     Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemis- 
try, 37,  538  (1935). 
Benger,  E.  B.    Rayon  industry,  economic  and  technical  aspects. 

Ibid.,  28,  511  (1936). 
Braham,  J.  M.     Developments  in  nitrogen  fixation.     Ibid.,  H, 

791  (1922). 
Bridgwater,  E.  R.     Economics  of  synthetic  rubber.    Ibid.,  28, 

394  (19.36). 
Brown,   B.   K.     Research  and  invention  in  the  petroleum  in- 
dustry.    Ibid.     (.News  Edition),  18,  347  (1940). 
Chemical  Industry.     Fortune,  16,  83  (December  1937). 
Cramer,  Robert,  and  Wilson,  J.  A.     Scientific  sewage  disposal 
at  Milwaukee.     Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  SO,  4 
(1928). 
Crossley,    M.    L.     Tlie    sulfanilamides    as    chemotherapeutic 

agents.     Ibid.     (News  Edition),  IS,  835  (1940). 
Edgar,     Graham.     Tetraethyl    lead,    manufacture    and    use. 

Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  31,  1439  (1939). 
Frary,  F.  C.     Ahiniiiium  in  the  chemical  industry.     Ibid.,  2f>, 

1231  (1934). 
Gann,   J.   A.     Magnesium   alloys,   recent  progress.     Ibid.,   14, 

864  (1922). 
Gubelmann,   I.  and   Elley,   H.   W.,     American  production  of 

synthetic  camphor  from  turpentine.     Ibid.,  26,  589  (1934). 
Hamor,   W.   a.     Industrial  research  in   1939;  advances  in  the 
United  States  and  other  countries.     Ibid.,  18,   1,  49  (1940). 
Hamor,  W.   A.     Industrial  research  progress  here  and  abroad 

during  1938.     Ibid.  17,  1  (1939). 
Hamor,  W.  A..     Progress  in  industrial  research  here  and  abroad 

during  1937.     Ibid.,  (News  Edition),  16,  1  (1938). 
Henderson,   W.   F.,  and   Dietrich,  H.   E.     Cellulose  sausage 
casings.     Industrial    and    Engineering    Chemistry,     18,     1190 
(1926). 
Howard,   G.   C.     Utilization  of  sulfite  liquor.     Ibid.,   26,  614 

(1934). 
Howe,  H.   E.     Progress  in  garbage  reduction.     Ibid.,  19,  608 

(1927). 
Hyden,    W.    L.     Manufacture   and    properties   of   regenerated 

cellulose  films.     Ibid.,  21,  405  (1929). 
KiLLEFER,  D.  H.     Drying  oUs.     lUd.,  29,  1365  (1937). 
Koch,  Albert.     Buna  rubbers.     /6td.,  52,  464  (1940). 
Kraybill,  H.  R.  and  others.     (Symposium  on)  Industrial  utili- 
zation of  agricultural  products.     Ibid.,  SI,  141  (1939). 
Landis,  W.  S.     Fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen.     Ibid.,  7,  433 

(1915). 
MiDGLEY,  Tho.mas,  Jr.,  and  Hexne,  A.  L.     Organic  fluorides  as 

refrigerants.     Ibid.,  22,  542  (1930). 
Mellon  Institute.     Researches  of  Mellon  Institute,   1939-40. 
Ibid.     (News  Edition),  18,  287  (1940). 


Industrial  Research 


235 


Olsen,  J.  C,  and  Maisner,  Herman.  Catalysts  in  sulfuric 
acid  manufacture — vanadium.  Industrial  and  Engineering 
Chemistry,  29,  254  (1937). 

Paine,  H.  S.,  Thdrber,  F.  H.,  Balch,  R.  T.,  and  Richee,  W.  R. 
Manufacture  of  sweet  potato  starch  in  the  United  States. 
Ibid.,  SO,  1331  (1938). 

Plummer,  J.  H.  Glass  fiber,  mechanical  development.  Ibid., 
SO,  726  (1938). 

Research  Foundation  of  Armour  Institute  of  Technology. 
Research  Progress  at  Research  Foundation  of  Armour  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  1938-1939.  Ibid.  [Xews  Edition),  17,  622 
(1939). 

ScHANTZ,  J.  L.,  and  Marvin,  Theodore.  Waste  utilization; 
land  reclamation  through  chemical  industry.  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  SI,  585  (1939). 


Stewart,  L.  C.     Commercial  extraction  of  bromine  from  sea 

water.     Ibid.,  26,  361  (1931). 
Thomas,  C.  A.,  and  others.     Symposium  on  automatic  control. 

Ibid.,  29,  1209  (1937). 
Weidlbin,   E.   R.     Progress  through  cooperation;  history  and 

development  of  laminated  safety  glass.     Ibid.,  SI,  563  (1939). 
Wesson,  David.     Cottonseed  and  its  products.     Ibid.,  18,  938 

(1926). 
Weston,  R.  S.,  and  others.     (Symposium  on)  Industrial  wastes. 

Ibid.,  31,  1311  (1939). 
Williams,  R.  R.     The  beriberi   vitamin.     Ibid.,  29,  980  (1937). 


SECTION    VI 
2.    PHYSICAL    RESEARCH    IN    INDUSTRY    AS    A    NATIONAL 

RESOURCE 

By  L.  O.  Grondahl  and  Elmer  Hutchisson 

Director,  Research  and  Engineering,  Union  Switch  and  Signal  Company,  Swissvale,  Pa.;  and  Head,  Department  of  Physics, 
University  of  Pittsburgh;  Editor,  Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  respectively. 


ABSTRACT 


The  profound  influence  that  physics  has  had  on 
human  progress  is  illustrated  by  means  of  the  steam 
engine,  dynamo-electric  machines,  sources  of  light, 
and  communication.  From  this  is  developed  a  defini- 
tion of  physics,  and  an  orientation  in  regard  to  the 
field  that  shoidd  be  included  in  the  discussion.  At 
present  physics  is  deliberately  made  use  of  as  a  tool 
to  help  in  the  development  of  specific  industries.  This 
is  illustrated  by  work  in  geophysics,  in  the  lamp  in- 
dustry, and  in  communications. 

Since  physics  is  primarily  a  quantitative  science,  it 
has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  measurements,  and  supplies 
practically  ail  the  measuring  instruments  used  in  the 
physical  sciences,  pure  and  applied.  Many  of  the  in- 
struments and  much  of  the  apparatus  that  is  developed 
by  physics  is  not  immediately  applicable,  but  finds  its 


application  in  later  developments.  Numerous  illustra- 
tions of  developments  that  are  expected  to  find  such 
applications  are  given. 

Physics  is  a  basic  science,  and  much  of  the  work  done 
in  physics  is  at  least  originally  of  a  purely  theoretical 
interest.  Applications  frequentlj^  follow  even  when 
the  early  results  seem  far  removed  from  anything  of  a 
practical  nature. 

Finally,  physics  contributes  indirectly  to  progress  in 
many  lines  because  it  has  an  effect  on  the  thinking 
processes  not  only  of  the  scientist  but  of  people  who 
come  in  contact  with  his  work.  It  produces  an  opti- 
mistic attitude  towards  problems,  and  a  conviction 
that  solutions  can  be  found  if  all  the  facts  are  known, 
and  are  properly  correlated. 


In  the  last  SO  years  physics  has  exerted  a  more  powerful  beneficial 
influence  on  the  intellectual,  economic,  and  social  life  of  the  world 
than  has  been  exerted  in  a  comparable  time  by  any  other  agency  in 
history.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  however,  many  people  do  not  know 
who  the  physicist  is  or  what  he  does.  The  public  is  continually 
excited  about  this  or  that  issue  of  politics,  tariffs,  codes,  or  interna- 
tional relationships  which  are  of  far  less  human  import  than  the 
past  and  future  of  accomplishments  in  that  body  of  science  repre- 
sented by — the  American  Institute  of  Physics.  Its  influence  has 
far  exceeded  that  of  wars,  political  alignments  or  social  theories.' 

Many  textbooks  of  physics  begin  with  a  prosaic 
definition  of  physics  as  the  science  of  energy  and  matter. 
In  fact,  the  subject  is  often  treated  in  that  mamier,  and 
students  find  it  dull  and  uninteresting,  and  believe  that 
like  a  dead  language  physics  is  unchanging  and  fully  de- 
veloped. It  is  our  purpose  here  to  show  that  this  is  far 
from  the  truth.  Rather,  physics  is  a  vital  living 
science,  changing  and  expanding  at  an  extraordinary 
rate.  It  enters  every  phase  of  our  everyday  hfe,  and  in 
research  it  offers  industry  an  opportunity  for  fabulous 
returns  on  its  investment.     The  developments  of  the 


•  Compton,   K.   T.,   et   al.    Symposium.    Physics   in    Industry. 
American  Institute  of  Physics,  1937,  p.  ix. 

236 


New   York, 


past  few  years  have  been  so  startlmg  that  even  a  state- 
ment as  strong  as  the  one  of  President  Compton,  quoted 
above,  needs  but  few  examples  to  substantiate  its  truth. 
In  what  follows  an  attempt  will  be  made  first  of  all  to 
show  the  place  of  plu'sics  in  our  everyday  existence. 
Next,  typical  examples  of  the  application  of  phj^sics  m 
the  lamp  industry,  in  oil  prospecting,  and  in  the  coni- 
niimications  industry  will  demonstrate  the  kind  of 
scientist  the  physicist  is  and  how  he  works.  Finally, 
after  a  review  of  the  use  of  physical  instruments  as  tools 
in  industry,  an  attempt  will  be  made,  upon  the  basis  of 
the  pure  research  now  going  on  in  university  and 
similar  laboratories,  to  suggest  possible  trends  in  the 
industrial  pliysics  of  tomorrow. 

Physics  Has  Profound  Influence 
on  Human  Progress 

The  true  value  of  physics  in  the  past,  present,  and 
future  development  of  our  civilization  is  not  easily 
estimated.  Such  devices  as  the  wheel,  the  wheel  and 
a.xle,  the  wedge,  pulleys,  time  systems  and  means  of 
measuring  time,  the  compass,  and  many  others  were 


National  Resources  Planning  Board,  Industrial  Research 


237 


developed  before  there  were  physicists  or  the  profession 
to  which  they  belong.  Nevertheless  the  work  of  the 
inventors  and  of  those  who  developed  these  devices  was 
physics.  They  have  beconae  such  an  integral  part  of 
our  civilization  that  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  life  without 
them. 

The  Steam  Engine 

It  is  difficult  also  to  unagme  modern  civilization 
without  some  of  the  more  recent  developments  in  which 
the  organized  science  of  physics  played  a  part.  The 
early  steam  engine  of  Newcomen  was  very  inefficient  m 
transforniing  heat  energy  into  mechanical  energy  and 
could  hardly  have  become  very  significant  industriafiy. 
James  Watt  realized  that  much  more  energy  would  be 
available  if  it  were  possible  to  let  the  steam  expand  in 
the  cylinder  before  it  was  allowed  to  escape.  As  a 
result  of  this  simple  consideration,  the  steam  engine 
became  so  much  more  efficient  that  it  developed  mto  a 
practical  device.  Because  of  its  convenience  as  a  source 
of  power  it  contributed  in  large  measure  to  the  uidustrial 
revolution  then  m  progress.  The  importance  of  the 
steam  engine  in  ocean,  river,  and  railway  transportation, 
and  in  the  production  of  electric  power,  gives  evidence 
of  the  major  role  that  physics  has  played  in  the  develop- 
ment of  modern  industry. 

Dynamo-electric  Machines 

Similar  illustrations  may  be  taken  from  other  fields. 
The  two  physicists,  Faraday  in  England  and  Henry  in 
this  country,  began  a  series  of  purely  scientific  experi- 
ments which  led  to  the  dynamo-electric  machines  of 
today.  These  machines  have  made  possible  electrically 
powered  transportation  on  both  land  and  sea,  electrical 
ilhunination  that  allows  us  to  carry  on  practically  all 
our  activities  at  night  as  well  as  in  daylight,  and  power 
for  all  types  of  electrical  communication.  The  develop- 
ment not  only  of  the  elementary  dynamo-electric 
machines  themselves,  but  of  their  practical  forms  and  of 
the  systems  making  practical  use  of  them,  has  been  an 
accomplishment  of  physics  and  physicists. 

Applications  of  Light 

In  the  field  of  light  we  have  illustrations  of  a  some- 
what different  natm-e.  Modern  artificial  illumination 
has  been  made  possible  as  a  result  not  only  of  the 
development  of  the  dynamo-electric  machines  that 
supply  the  power,  but  also  as  a  result  of  the  develop- 
ment of  light  sources  themselves.  The  step-by-step 
improvement  of  the  incandescent  lamp,  which  will  be 
discussed  later,  with  its  rapidly  increasing  efficiency 
and  decreasing  cost,  has  resulted  from  the  application 
of  fundamental  physical  principles. 


Many  other  applications  of  the  science  of  light  occur 
in  industry.  In  ferrous  and  nonfcrrous  metallurgy, 
the  methods  of  spectroscopic  analysis  have  become 
indispensable.  These  methods  are  based  upon  the  fact 
that  light  can  be  separated  into  its  component  colors. 
When  the  source  of  light  is  a  metal  vaporized  in  an  arc 
the  colors  can  be  separatetl  still  fuilher  into  discrete 
lines  characteristic  of  individual  chemical  elements. 
By  spectroscopic  analysis  it  has  been  possible  to  detect 
impurities  in  alloys  and  in  supposedly  pure  metals  and 
even  to  determine  quantitatively  the  amount  of  these 
impurities.  The  importance  of  this  method  of  analysis 
can  be  understood  only  by  a  full  realization  of  the  effect 
of  small  quantities  of  impurities  on  metallic  systems  and 
the  occasional  resultant  failures  of  those  systems. 
Spectroscopy  has  made  possible  the  accurate,  quick,  and 
efficient  analyses  that  are  necessary  for  the  control  of 
furnace  charges  and  for  the  control  of  alloy  compositions. 

In  another  type  of  analysis  the  invisible  longer  wave 
length  portion  of  the  spectrum  is  of  use  in  studying 
absorption  to  determine  very  quickly  some  of  the 
groupings  in  organic  compounds.  By  this  method  it  is 
possible  to  determine,  for  instance,  the  state  or  the 
condition  of  the  oils  used  in  paint  vehicles,  or  of  various 
types  of  gums  or  of  lubricants,  without  having  to 
decompose  the  organic  compounds  and  try  to  put  them 
through  an  ordinary  chemical  analysis,  which  is  a  very 
difficult  and  a  long  process.  Stiidy  of  progressive 
changes  in  organic  compounds  by  this  method  is  of 
enormous  importance,  as  can  be  realized  when  one 
remembers  the  many  organic  materials  that  have 
become  commercially  useful  in  the  last  few  years,  as, 
for  instance,  plastic  materials,  of  which  there  are  at 
present  hundreds  to  choose  from,  with  all  sorts  of 
characteristics,  and  paint  veliicles  which  change  gradu- 
ally upon  exposure  to  increased  temperature,  variable 
humidity,  or  sunlight.  The  ability  to  follow  the 
transformations  in  the  formation  and  aging  of  such 
compounds  provides  an  indication  according  to  which 
the  chemist  can  direct  his  course.  Apparatus  used  for 
this  purpose  may  be  made  to  draw  a  curve  which  the 
operator  soon  learns  to  recognize,  since  distinctive 
shapes  are  caused  by  the  presence  of  definite  groups  of 
atoms. 

A  very  mteresting  recent  application  illustrates  the 
way  in  which  physics  has  invaded  the  field  that  was 
formerly  reserved  for  the  chemist.  In  the  analyses  for 
gaseous  impurities,  such  as  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air 
that  we  breathe,  or  of  poisonous  gases,  it  has  been  found 
possible  by  physical  means  to  determine  in  a  few  seconds 
the  quantity  of  an  impurity  in  any  sample  of  air  even  if 
present  to  the  extent  of  only  one  part  in  a  million. 
The  analysis  may  be  made  continuously  with  permanent 
records.  The  apparatus  is  selective  and  can  be  ar- 
ranged to  read  the  amount  of  carbon   monoxide,  of 


238 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


carbon  dioxide,  or  of  any  one  of  a  great  number  of 
other  individual  gases  entirely  independently  of  the 
presence  of  other  impurities.  In  this  method  also  the 
selective  absorption  of  light  by  difFcrcnt  materials  is 
basic. 

Communication 

Other  illustrations  of  the  way  in  which  physics  has 
contributed  to  our  everyday  life  may  be  taken  from  the 
field  of  communication.  In  the  physics  laboratories  of 
35  or  40  years  ago  a  great  deal  of  work  was  done  on  the 
discharge  of  electricity  through  gases  at  low  pressures. 
From  these  experiments,  physicists  learned  of  the 
existence  of  electrons  and  of  their  behavior  under 
various  conditions.  They  learned  that  an  incandescent 
filament  is  a  copious  source  of  electrons  and  how  to 
control  these  electrons.  These  studies  led  to  the  devel- 
opment of  vacuum-tube  amplifiers,  without  which  our 
modern  communication  systems  would  be  unpossible. 
These  vacuum-tube  amplifiers  form  the  basis  of  the 
communication  equipment  used  in  radio,  in  carrier- 
current  telephony  and  telegraphy,  and  in  any  apparatus 
in  which  the  current  is  too  weak  to  operate  instruments 
or  apparatus  directly.  Thus  there  has  been  made 
possible  not  only  longer  overland  communication  but 
overland  and  transoceanic  communication  without 
wires  or  cables,  the  communication  from  ship  to  shore 
and  vice  versa,  communication  between  trains  and 
stations,  between  airplanes,  between  airplanes  and 
their  landing  fields,  and  between  police  offices  and 
police  cars.  These  are  all  two-way  communications. 
The  currents  set  up  in  the  receiving  apparatus  in  each 
case  are  so  feeble  that  their  usefulness  would  be  prac- 
tically negligible  without  help  from  vacuum-tubes.  It 
can  be  truly  said  that  the  whole  art  of  electrical  com- 
munication is  a  product  of  physics,  and  physicists  have 
led  in  its  technical  advance. 

The  Nature  of  Physics 

From  the  illustrations  given  above  it  is  possible  to 
develop  a  definition  of  physics  and  to  give  a  fairly  clear 
idea  of  what  a  physicist  is  and  docs.  In  its  broadest 
sense  physics  includes  in  its  scope  the  study  of  all  the 


Figure  71. — Vacuum  Tubes  for  the  Production  of  Ultrashort 
Electromagnetic  Waves,  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories,  New- 
York,  Xew  York 


materials  and  forces  of  nature.  It  will  have  been 
noted  that  physics  furnished  the  fundamental  principles 
of  the  developments  which  have  been  described.  The 
physicist  also  developed  apparatus  in  which  these 
fundamental  principles  were  applied.  The  investi- 
gations in  physics  laboratories  proceed  from  the  dis- 
covery of  a  new  principle  and  the  study  of  its  various 
applications  to  the  determination  of  its  place  in  the 
larger  scheme. 

When  this  work  is  successful  it  gives  complete 
quantitative  relations  and  enables  one  to  predict  what 
will  happen  under  given  circumstances  and  to  set  up 
the  apparatus  to  produce  desired  results.  If  the  phe- 
nomenon is  a  new  one  of  wide  application,  such  as  the 
electromagnetic  relations  that  form  the  basis  of  the 
development  of  dynamo-electric  machinery,  or  such  as 
the  physical  characteristics  of  metallic  filaments  that 
could  be  used  in  incandescent  lamps  or  electronic  tubes, 
the  result  is  the  creation  of  a  completely  new  industry 
or  even  of  many  industries. 

Physics  has  been  described  as  the  science  of  energy 
transfonnations,  and  if  one  studies  the  fields  mentioned 
above  it  is  seen  that  this  definition  applies  very  gener- 
ally. Dynamo-electric  machines,  for  instance,  transform 
the  energy  of  heat  in  the  steam  engine  to  electrical 
energy  in  the  dynamo.  In  the  motor,  electrical  energy 
is  transformed  into  mechanical  energy  to  be  used  in  the 
apparatus  being  driven.  In  telephony  the  transforma- 
tion is  from  sound  energy  to  electrical  energy,  and  back 
again  to  mechanical  energy  and  soimd.  In  instruments 
also  it  can  be  shown  that  Ln  nearly  all  cases  the  action 
depends  upon  a  transformation  of  energy  from  one  form 
to  another.  In  a  clock  the  transformation  is  from  the 
potential  energy  of  a  coiled  spring  or  of  raised  weights 
to  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  pendulum  and  the  moving 
wheels,  and  finally  part  of  the  energy  is  dissipated  as 
heat  through  the  friction  of  the  moving  parts.  In  all 
cases  energy  is  transferred  from  one  part  of  the  apparatus 
to  another,  and  in  the  transfer  it  is  also  frequently 
changed  from  one  form  to  another.  All  such  apparatus 
and  instruments  are  products  of  physics. 

Physics  Specializes  Effectively  in 

the  Problems  of  Individual  Industries 

The  Oil  Industry 

In  the  oil  industry  one  of  the  problems  that  has  been 
attacked  by  physicists  is  the  exploration  for  new  oil 
deposits.  The  problem  is  to  find  rock  structures  that 
are  typical  of  locations  where  oil  is  to  be  foimd.  One 
approach  to  this  problem  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
different  layers  of  rock  have  different  densities,  and  any 
initial  deformation  in  a  stratum  relative  to  the  other 
strata  in  the  district  will  produce  a  change  in  the  gravi- 
tational attraction  for  bodies  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 


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As  a  background  for  this  system  of  exploration  there  is, 
first  of  all,  the  determination  of  the  general  law  of 
gravity,  and,  secondly,  the  development  of  instruments 
that  are  delicate  enough  to  be  influenced  by  any  small 
variations  In  the  distribution  of  the  different  rock  layers. 
The  general  principles  were  known  to  university  physi- 
cists long  before  any  practical  application  was  made  in 
the  oil  mdustry.  When  it  was  realized  that  such  a 
practical  application  coidd  be  made,  the  oil  industry 
established  laboratories  in  which  groups  of  physicists 
were  engaged  in  the  work  of  making  this  type  of  explo- 
ration practical.  First  it  was  necessary  to  calculate 
from  the  law  of  gravity  the  results  to  be  expected  from 
typical  rock  deformations  that  were  known  to  exist  in 
oil-bearing  districts.  When  it  had  been  determined 
that,  because  of  anomalies  in  the  rock  structure,  the 
variations  in  the  gravitational  attraction  for  bodies  on 
the  earth's  surface  were  great  enough  to  be  read  on 
instruments,  the  next  step  was  to  develop  instruments 
that  were  sufficiently  sensitive  and  rugged  and  suffi- 
ciently quick  in  operation  to  be  practical  for  field  explora- 
tion. An  instrument  that  reads  gravitational  force  to 
1  part  in  10,000,000  must  also  be  rugged  enough  to  be 
carried  on  an  automobile  or  a  truck,  and  convenient 
enough  to  be  set  up  at  any  field  location  and  to  allow  a 
reading  to  be  taken  in  a  reasonable  length  of  time.  This 
means  that  the  apparatus,  among  other  things,  must  be 
insensitive  to  minor  vibrations  and  to  temperature 
changes  that  are  likely  to  be  encountered  in  the  field. 
Many  types  of  apparatus  were  developed  which  met 
these  requirements,  and  as  a  result  of  this  work  the 
amount  of  gravitational  exploration  that  had  been 
done  in  the  last  few  years  is  many  times  as  great  as 
that  which  has  been  done  by  all  methods  during  all  the 
rest  of  the  world's  history. 

After  these  measurements  have  been  made  to  deter- 
mine gravity,  it  is  necessary  to  map  and  to  interpret 
them  in  terms  of  subterranean  structures.  Again,  a 
very  complicated  application  of  physics  and  mathe- 
matics, together  with  geology,  is  required.  The  physics, 
taken  together  with  the  mathematical  calculations, 
describes  the  possible  structures  insofar  as  their  densi- 
ties and  locations  are  concerned,  and  the  geology 
interprets  the  structure  in  terms  of  the  likeliliood  that 
oil  is  present.  These  methods  can  be  applied  also  to 
exploration  for  other  types  of  mmerals  whenever  they 
are  associated  in  any  way  with  variations  in  densities 
and  vertical  positions  of  rock  layers. 

Magnetism  has  been  known  for  many  hundred  years, 
especially  as  applied  in  the  use  of  a  magnet  as  a  com- 
pass. University  and  other  laboratories  have  been 
studying  the  magnetic  characteristics  of  materials  over 
a  long  period  of  time.  It  has  been  found  that  not 
only  iron  and  compounds  of  iron,  but  practically  every 
type  of  material  has  measurable  magnetic  character- 


istics. It  is  known  that  igneous  rocks  whicii  form  tlie 
substratum  under  all  sedimentary  rocks  are  more 
strongly'  magnetic  than  the  latter.  Hence  it  is  i)os- 
sible  to  use  sensitive  magnetic  apparatus  to  determine 
api)roximate  depth  and  slope  of  the  upper  surface  of 
the  igneous  substratum.  The  story  of  this  tyi)e  of 
exploration  is  very  similar  to  that  mentioned  above, 
insofar  as  it  is  absolutely  dependent  on  the  develop- 
ment of  sensitive  apparatus  to  make  measurements. 
An  industrial  physicist  is  employed  to  carry  the 
development  on  from  the  point  at  which  his  academic 
brother  left  it.  Apparatus  is  j)roduced  which  is 
sensitive,  rugged,  and  relatively  unaffected  by  vibra- 
tions and  temperature  variations.  The  physicist  is 
familiar  with  this  type  of  development  and  has  the 
benefit  of  the  work  of  many  predecessors  who  have 
overcome  similar  difficulties  in  other  circumstances. 

Another  procedure  used  in  geophysical  exploration 
is  the  study  of  the  transmission  of  mechanical  waves 
or  of  sound  through  the  subterranean  structures.  A 
charge  of  dynamite  is  exploded  in  a  hole  that  has  been 
drilled  to  the  necessary  depth  to  give  it  adequate  con- 
tact with  the  rock  layers.  The  compressional  wave 
produced  by  the  exjjlosion  is  transmitted  through  the 
earth  and  comes  to  the  surface  again  in  other  neighbor- 
mg  locations  after  being  bent  because  of  the  gradual 
changes  Ln  wave  speed  m  underlying  rocks  or  after 
being  reflected  at  the  surface  separating  rocks  of  one 
structure  from  another  having  a  different  wave  speed. 
Here  again  it  was  necessary  to  develop  sensitive 
apparatus  not  only  for  recording  the  arrival  of  com- 
pressional waves  but  also  for  recording  the  time  that 
elapses  between  the  discharge  of  the  dynamite  and  the 
reception  of  the  wave  at  a  distant  location.  The  data 
obtained  can  be  used  in  many  ways  to  determine  the 
subsurface  contours  of  various  rock  layers,  w-hich, 
together  with  geological  knowledge  about  the  neighbor- 
hood, give  even  more  direct  and  useful  information 
than  that  obtained  in  gravitational  exploration. 

All  three  methods  of  exploration  are  used  by  the  oil 
companies  at  the  present  time.  Although  the  forma- 
tions discovered  do  not  always  contain  oil,  the  prob- 
ability of  finding  oil  is  considerably  increased  over  that 
which  obtains  when  wells  are  drilled  at  random.  The 
cost  of  drilling  is  so  great  that  even  a  small  increase  in 
the  probability  of  finding  oil  makes  the  exploratory 
research  carried  out  by  the  physicist  worth  many  times 
its  cost. 

Of  the  many  other  applications  of  physics  in  the  oil 
industry  we  mention  only  two.  Until  a  few  years  ago 
it  was  a  common  experience  that  when  a  deep  well  was 
drilled  by  the  rotary  method  the  hole  would  not  be 
straight.  The  drill  would  gradually  veer  in  one  direc- 
tion or  the  other,  so  that  the  location  of  the  bottom  of 
the  hole  was  indeterminate.     A  physical  study  of  the 


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cause  of  this  uncertainty  made  it  possible  to  develop  a 
cure.  By  means  of  a  rigid  guide  above  the  drill  bit  and 
by  the  accurate  control  of  the  pressure  on  the  drill, 
holes  can  now  be  sunk  to  any  required  depth  without 
significant  change  in  direction. 

Another  very  important  and  profitable  study  that 
has  been  made  by  physicists  is  concerned  with  the  flow  of 
oil  in  rocks.  Oil  is  usually  found  in  a  variety  of 
porous  rocks  such  as  sandstones  or  limestones.  The 
rate  at  which  it  can  flow  through  a  porous  rock  was 
determined  in  the  laboratory.  From  these  studies  the 
rate  at  which  oil  can  be  removed  from  deposits  of  limited 
area  without  restricting  the  total  output  is  now  under- 
stood and  may  have  considerable  economic  importance. 

It  is  perhaps  worth  emphasizing  again  that  what 
physics  has  done  in  the  oil  industry  is  to  teach  the 
principles  that  are  applicable,  to  develop  instruments 
that  are  sufficiently  sensitive  and  rugged  to  make  meas- 
urements in  the  field,  and  to  interpret  the  measurements 
in  terms  of  subterranean  structure.  It  has  changed 
oil  prospecting  from  a  matter  of  chance  to  an  exact 
scientific  procedm-e  which  has  enormously  increased  the 
availability  of  sources  of  oil. 

The  Lamp  Industry 

The  application  of  physics  in  the  development  of 
the  various  types  of  illumination  in  the  last  30  or  40 
years  provides  another  example  of  its  use  in  industry. 
It  was  early  realized  that  electrical  energy  may  be  used 
to  produce  light.  The  simplest  and  the  most  direct  way 
to  accomplish  this  is  to  allow  the  electrical  energy  to 
heat  a  solid  to  incandescence.  The  most  convenient 
form  that  such  a  solid  could  take  for  tliis  purpose  is  a 
long,  high-resistance  filament,  and  the  earliest  practicable 
filament  was  the  carbon  filament  originally  developed 
by  Edison.  It  had  its  imperfections  in  that  the  tem- 
perature at  which  it  could  be  operated  was  low,  its  life 
was  short,  and  the  color  of  the  light  produced  was  red- 
dish. The  ambition  to  produce  a  more  efficient 
filament  from  these  standpoints  stimulated  the  work  on 
tungsten  and  other  materials.  Much  of  this  work  is  of  a 
physical  nature  and  was  carried  out  in  physics  labora- 
tories. Many  things  had  to  be  studied.  Fu'st  of  all, 
it  was  found  impossible  to  draw  timgsten  into  a  fine 
filament.  Cooperation  between  physicists  and  metal- 
lurgists finally  resulted  in  the  production  of  ductile 
tungsten. 

Then  began  the  most  interesting  part  of  the  develop- 
ment. A  careful  study  of  the  radiation,  the  effect  of  the 
temperature  of  the  filament  on  the  nature  of  the  light 
emitted  and  on  the  life  of  the  filament,  gradually  pro- 
vided information  that  became  useful.  Originally  the 
filaments  were  operated  in  a  vacuum.  A  study  of  the 
effect  of  the  presence  of  inert  gases  on  the  evaporation 
and  the  deterioration  of  the  filament  showed  that  it  was 


advantageous  to  surround  the  filament  with  such  a  gas 
at  appreciable  pressures.  The  presence  of  the  gas  re- 
tarded evaporation  and  permitted  the  operation  of  the 
filament  at  a  very  much  higher  temperature.  The 
higher  temperature  produced  whiter  light,  and  also  re- 
sulted in  the  emission  of  a  greater  portion  of  the  energy 
in  the  visible  part  of  the  spectrum,  giving  a  higher 
efficiency.  In  the  construction  of  these  lamps  it  was 
necessary  to  apply  physical  apparatus  and  measm-ing 
instruments  in  many  ways.  It  was  necessary,  for  in- 
stance, to  study  metal-to-glass  seals  so  as  to  produce 
a  perfectly  airtight  bulb  in  which  the  filament  could  be 
housed.  This  necessitated  the  comparison  of  coeffi- 
cients of  expansion  of  various  kinds  of  glass  and  metal 
and  the  development  of  combinations  of  glasses  and 
metals  to  make  seals  that  were  absolutely  tight  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures  and  that  remained  so  during  the 
heating  and  cooling  which  the  lamp  experiences  in  use. 

The  study  of  the  radiation  from  the  filament  itself 
required  the  use  of  optical  pyrometers,  with  which  it 
was  possible  to  determine  the  exact  temperatures  of  the 
filament  at  any  one  spot.  To  avoid  false  readings  from 
the  surface,  the  filaments  were  made  tubular  and  the 
temperature  of  the  interior  was  read  tlu-ough  very 
minute  holes  through  the  side  of  the  tube. 

Photometric  measurements  were  necessary  to  deter- 
mine the  light  intensity  of  the  source.  To  obtaLa  use- 
ful information  these  measiu-ements  had  to  be  made  in 
all  directions  from  the  lamp,  thus  enabling  one  to  inte- 
grate the  total  radiation  either  mathematically  or  by 
means  of  integrating  photometers.  A  spherical  photo- 
meter, with  which  the  total  amount  of  light  in  all  di- 
rections could  be  determined  by  a  single  reading,  was 
one  of  the  physical  developments  that  resulted.  It  was 
desirable  also  to  determine  the  distribution  of  light 
throughout  the  spectrum.  This  feat  was  accomplished 
by  applying  the  photometer  to  individual  portions  of 
the  spectrum  in  an  apparatus  known  as  a  spectrophoto- 
meter. 

In  the  early  stages  of  the  development  of  the  modern 
lamp,  the  research  laboratory  assigned  itself  the  job 
of  finding  out  everytliing  it  possibly  could  about  heated 
filaments.  One  of  the  discoveries  was  that  the  inert 
gas  used  in  the  lamp  formed  a  sheath  around  the  fila- 
ment and  thus  decreased  the  rate  of  evaporation.  By 
coiling  the  filament  springwise  this  protective  sheath 
became  more  effective,  and  the  efficiency  was  increased. 
The  rather  novel  suggestion  was  then  made  to  coil  the 
coil  into  sort  of  a  superspring.  On  trial,  it  was  found 
that  this  procedure  increased  the  efficiency  still  further, 
and  it  is  done  in  making  most  of  our  lamps  of  today. 

This  brief  history  of  the  research  on  the  incandescent 
lamp  illustrates  well  how  the  physicist  works.  Ordi- 
narily he  is  not  trying  to  make  minor  improvements  in 
design.     Instead  he  studies  the  fundamental  process 


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241 


of  converting  heat  energy  into  lifi;lil.  As  a  result  his 
progress  seems  slow.  He  is  not  able  lo  predict  before- 
hand just  what  he  will  find  or  what  changes  he  will 
make.  Yet  he  can  always  be  sure  that  the  more  he 
knows  about  these  fundamental  processes  the  greater  is 
his  chance  of  producing  a  major  improvement.  In  the 
lamp  industry  each  improvement  took  from  5  to  10 
years  of  research,  yet  each  repaid  the  company  many 
times  over  for  its  investment.  Since  the  time  of  Edison 
the  efficiency  of  the  lamp  has  been  improved  almost  a 
thousand  percent.  It  has  been  calculated  that  if 
Edison's  lamps  were  used  to  produce  our  present  il- 
lumination our  annual  light  bill  would  be  $3,500,000,000 
greater  than  it  is  at  present. 

A  more  recent  development  in  light  sources  goes  back 
to  another  branch  of  physics;  namely,  to  the  electric 
discharges  in  gases  at  low  pressures.  In  the  nineties 
of  the  last  century,  experiments  with  such  tubes  were 
very  popular  in  physics  laboratories.  Although  these 
experiments  were  performed  without  immediate  prac- 
tical purposes  in  mind,  it  has  been  found  in  the  last  few 
years  that  the  light  so  produced  may  be  used  as  a  source 
of  very  practical  illumination.  The  color  produced  by 
the  passage  of  electricity  through  a  gas  depends  upon 
the  nature  of  the  gas,  and  different  gaseous  combinations 
give  varied  light  effects.  The  striking  colors  produced 
are  used  extensively  today  in  advertising.  High- 
intensity  mercmy  and  sodium  vapor  lamps  are  used 
for  airport  and  highway  lighting,  searchlights,  and  other 
purposes.  By  introducing  fluorescent  materials  into 
the  glass  tube  in  which  the  discharge  is  taking  place  it 
is  possible  to  produce  colored  and  also  nearly  white  light 
with  extremely  high  efficiency.  The  various  stages  of 
development  from  the  discharge  tube  to  a  practical 
source  of  light  with  an  efficiency  considerably  gi'eater 
than  that  of  the  incandescent  filament  is  a  long  and 
interesting  story,  but  in  its  essentials  it  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  incandescent  filament  lamp. 

The  Communications  Industry 

The  field  of  commmiication  has  already  been  men- 
tioned as  one  in  which  the  application  of  physics  has 
been  important.  In  a  wire  as  in  a  radio  telephone  the 
sequence  of  operations  calls  into  play  an  unusual  num- 
ber of  physical  principles  and  also  a  vast  number  of 
different  types  of  apparatus  used  to  transform  physical 
energy.  The  sequence  is  about  as  follows:  The  voice 
produces  disturbances  in  the  air  which  move  the  dia- 
phi'agm  of  a  microphone.  The  diapliragm  produces  a 
change  in  pressure  on  the  carbon  granules  assembled 
in  a  capsule,  and  thereby  produces  modulations  of  the 
current  through  the  carbon  granules.  This  current  is 
sent  out  on  the  line  either  directly  or  else  amplified 
through  vacuum  tube  amplifiers  to  increase  its  power. 
If  it  is  desired  to  transmit  several  messages  over  a  pair 


of  wires  at  the  same  time,  so-called  carrier  telephony  is 
used,  in  which  the  voice  current  changes  or  modulates 
a  carrier  current  of  a  higher  frecjuency.  After  the 
modulation  it  may  again  be  amplified  and  passed  to  a 
teleplione  line  or  cable,  or  in  the  radio  telephone,  to  a 
radiating  antenna.  If  the  receiving  station  is  far  away 
there  may  be  vacuum-tube  repeaters  to  pick  up  the 
message  and  transmit  it  at  a  higher  power  level.  At  the 
receiving  end  another  filter  ])icks  one  message  out  of  a 
great  number,  an  amplifier  increases  its  power,  a  de- 
modulator separates  the  voice  frequencies  from  the 
carrier  frequency,  and  finally  an  earphone  or  the 
loudspeaker  directly  transmits  the  sound  to  listeners. 
Thus,  the  telephone  is  a  peculiarly  good  example  of 
the  fact  that  physics  is  the  science  of  energy  transfor- 
mations. The  following  sequence  of  energy  transfor- 
mations are  represented:  Mechanical  energy  of  the 
vocal  cords  is  changed  into  mechanical  energy  in  the 
form  of  compressions  and  rarefactions  in  the  air,  which 
is  then  used  to  energize  the  diaphragm  of  the  micro- 
phone. This  energy  is  transformed  into  electrical 
energy  of  the  same  frequency  by  the  action  of  the 
diaphragm  on  the  carbon  granules.  The  electrical 
energy  is  amplified,  modified,  and  transmitted  over  the 
line  or  tlu'ough  space.  During  these  steps  the  electrical 
energy  is  progressively  changed,  but  it  remains  electrical 
or  magnetic  until  it  reaches  the  diaphi-agm  of  the  ear- 
phone or  the  loudspeaker.  Here  it  is  transformed  into 
mechanical  energy  again.  The  diaphram  of  the  loud- 
speaker agitates  the  atmosphere  and  the  listener  receives 
the  mechanical  rarefactions  and  condensations  in  the 
air  on  his  eardrum. 

The  remarkable  developments  in  telephone  communi- 
cation have  resulted  from  the  convergence  of  physical 
investigations  in  many  different  fields.  First  of  all 
there  have  been  the  investigations  of  sound  production 
by  the  vocal  cords  and  of  the  modification  of  that  sound 
by  the  shape  of  the  mouth  and  related  cavities.  Meth- 
ods of  analysis  of  sounds,  both  vocal  and  instrumental, 
have  been  developed  to  determine  their  component 
frequencies,  the  relative  energies  in  these  frequencies, 
and  the  ways  in  which  they  combine  and  can  be  repro- 
duced and  separated  out  again  as  a  result  of  the  com- 
pound vibrations  or  responses  of  electrical,  magnetic, 
electronic,  and  mechanical  devices. 

Other  investigations  that  have  converged  on  the 
effective  transmission  of  sound  have  been  the  study  of 
responses  of  diapliragms  and  of  their  construction  so  as 
to  make  the  responses  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible  over 
the  audible  range,  and  the  study  of  the  behavior  of 
masses  of  carbon  granules,  both  as  regards  the  resistance 
of  the  mass  and  the  variations  of  these  resistances  with 
pressure,  and  the  reproducibility  and  permanence  of 
such  resistance  changes.  The  contributions  of  the  early 
experiments    on    electrical    discharges    in    gases    have 


242 


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already  been  mentioned.  As  a  result  of  the  study  of 
the  behavior  of  hot  filaments,  the  discovery  has  been 
made  that  electrons  are  given  out  by  incandescent  solids, 
that  these  electrons  will  carry  currents,  that  the  number 
emitted  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  hot  surface, 
and  that  they  can  be  controlled  by  a  very  small  amount 
of  energy  applied  to  an  adjacent  electrode.  These 
discoveries  resulted  in  the  development  of  the  vacuum- 
tube  amplifier,  without  which  modern  loud  distance 
communication  would  be  impossible.  Likewise  elec- 
tromagnetic and  crystal  filters  were  developed,  which 
enabled  the  communications  engineer  to  select  from  the 
complete  range  any  band  of  frequencies  that  he  wished. 
A  very  important  scries  of  investigations  concerned 
magnetic  characteristics  of  materials  that  could  be  used 
as  cores  for  transformers  and  for  loudspeakers,  or  ear- 
phones, and  of  the  permanent  magnetic  materials  that 
were  used  in  combination  in  some  of  the  later  types  of 
apparatus. 

These  studies  of  fundamental  principles  and  the  devel- 
opment of  materials  and  apparatus  to  provide  efficient 
means  for  the  necessary  energy  transformations  are  in 
the  field  of  physics.  Thus  we  have  an  example  in  which 
many  different  branches  of  physics  have  converged  to 
produce  one  practical  accomplishment  of  immeasur- 
able value  to  society.  On  the  other  hand,  in  many 
cases  a  single  development  in  physics,  the  vacuum  tube 
for  instance,  has  produced  entire  new  industries  and 
has  found  practical  applications  in  almost  every 
industry. 

Physics  Supplies  the  Instruments 
for  Measurements  in  Industry 

One  of  the  many  accompHshments  of  physics  has 
been  the  development  of  instruments.  For  instance, 
in  aviation  we  have  measuring  instruments  for  deter- 
mining the  direction  of  flying,  the  orientation  of  a  plane, 
the  location  of  a  landing  field  when  "flying  blind,"  the 
speed  of  the  plane,  the  drift  of  the  plane,  the  distance 
from  the  ground,  etc.  Many  different  devices  have 
been  developed  for  each  one  of  these  purposes,  and  all 
are  based  on  a  direct  application  of  physical  principles. 
That  the  instrumentation  has  already  reached  a  high 
state  of  development  is  evidenced  by  the  remarkable 
safety  records  of  our  commercial  air  lines. 

Such  applications  of  instruments  and  measuring 
devices  in  any  particular  field  could  be  multiplied  prac- 
tically ad  libitum.  We  shall,  however,  content  our- 
selves with  mentioning  a  few  specific  instruments  which 
are  in  regular  use  at  the  present  time. 

Noise  meters,  a  development  which  has  been  con- 
tributed to  largely  by  the  telephone  development 
described  above,  enable  anyone  to  determine  the  level 
of  disturbing  noises  in  an  industrial  plant  or  on  a  street, 
to  determine  the  origin  of  the  noises  and  in  that  way  to 


supply  the  first  essential  knowledge  toward  their 
elimination. 

Another  interesting  instrument  that  has  come  into 
use  in  the  last  few  years  is  a  vibration  meter,  which  can 
be  applied  to  any  piece  of  machinery  to  determine  the 
magnitude,  direction,  and  exact  nature  of  its  vibrations 
and  to  lay  the  foundation  for  the  elimination  of  the 
undesirable  vibrations. 

X-rays  serve  many  purposes,  such  as  finding  blow- 
holes in  castings,  faults  in  rolled  steel,  or  faults  in  welds. 
They  can  be  used  also  for  analyzing  crystals  or  deter- 
mining the  exact  crystal  structure  of  a  material,  and 
even  the  distances  between  the  atoms  in  the  different 
layers  of  the  crystal.  X-rays  are  of  great  importance 
in  metallurgy  and  in  the  physical  study  of  structural 
materials. 

The  cathode-ray  oscillograph  is  a  recent  addition  to 
instruments  that  are  useful  for  studying  electric  circuits. 
It  depends  on  the  action  of  an  electric  or  a  magnetic 
field  on  a  beam  of  electrons  and  makes  it  possible  to 
observe  at  a  glance  the  wave  form  or  the  nature  of  the 
distortion  in  an  electric  current  produced  by  any  piece 
of  apparatus  that  is  subjected  to  study.  The  cathode- 
ray  tube  is  used  in  television,  position  indicators  in 
flj^ing,  and  in  many  other  applications. 

The  sterilizing  effect  of  ultraviolet  radiations  of 
certain  frequencies  has  been  investigated  by  physicists 
in  cooperation  with  biologists  and  others  and  has 
resulted  in  the  development  of  a  lamp  which  produces 
radiations  of  a  frequency  peculiarly  adapted  to  destroy- 
ing infection  or  undesirable  germ  life  of  any  kind.  It  is 
applicable  in  medicine,  in  the  food  industry,  in  the 
purification  of  water,  and  in  the  sterilizing  of  eating 
utensils. 

Physics  Prepares  Apparatus  for 
Later  Applications  in  Industry 

Instruments  of  great  value  to  industry  are  often  born 
in  the  laboratory  of  the  pure  scientist.  In  an  effort 
to  extend  the  frontiers  of  knowledge  new  instruments  or 
new  methods  of  developing  extreme  pressures,  high 
speeds,  high  or  low  temperatures,  etc.,  are  discovered 
which  go  far  beyond  what  are  considered  present  needs 
of  industry.  It  seems  profitable  to  review  some  of  the 
present  procedm-es  of  the  laboratory  to  find  those  most 
likely  to  be  used  more  extensively  in  the  future  in 
industry. 

High-Speed  Centrifuge 

High  rotational  speeds  have  long  held  the  interest  of 
physicists.  Recently,  new  advances  in  experimental 
technique  have  allowed  rotational  speeds  as  high  as 
20,000  revolutions  per  second  to  be  obtained.  The 
only  reason  for  this  limit  is  that  the  rotator  flies  apart 
at  appreciably  higher  rotational  speeds.     The  centrifu- 


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gal  forces  that  occur  at  the  edge  of  such  a  rotator  arc 
ahnost  inconceivably  large.  A  force  8,000,000  times 
that  of  gravity  is  possible.  If  the  force  of  gravity  were 
as  great  a  dime  would  weigh  more  than  16,000  pounds. 
To  obtain  such  high  speeds,  the  rotor  is  mounted  in  a 
vacuum,  supported  by  an  external  stream  of  air  and 
driven  through  a  flexible  shaft  connected  to  an  air 
turbine. 

So  far  ultra-speed  centrifuges  of  the  type  described 
have  been  used  primarily  in  biological  fields.  The 
forces  are  so  great  that  heavy  molecules  can  be  separated 
from  light  ones.  Thus  tobacco  mosaic  and  yellow  fever 
viruses  have  been  concentrated  and  hormones  have  been 
isolated.  Wfierever  rapid  settling  of  liquids  or  sedi- 
ments in  liquids  is  required,  the  ultracentrifuge  has 
been  very  useful.  So  many  new  lines  of  work  have  been 
opened  in  biological  and  medical  fields  by  the  new 
techniques  in  high  rotational  speeds  that  it  is  practically 
certain  that  a  multitude  of  industrial  uses  will  appear 
as  soon  as  the  possibilities  are  fully  understood. 

Cyclotrons,  Van  de  Graaf  Generators, 
and  Geiger-Counters 

The  intensive  study  of  the  atomic  nucleus  by  aca- 
demic physicists  during  the  past  decade  has  led  to  the 
development  of  many  new  processes  and  instruments. 
Perhaps  the  most  striking  discovery  of  all  is  that  high- 
speed ions  are  able  to  transmute  one  chemical  element 
into  another.  Many  of  the  materials  formed  by  this 
transmutation  have,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  prop- 
erties of  the  new  elements,  the  characteristic  of  being 
radioactive  like  radium.  Thus  by  bombarding  ordinary 
table  salt  by  high-speed  atomic  particles  a  radioactive 
form  of  sodium  can  be  produced  which  for  some  medical 
purposes  is  more  valuable  and  much  cheaper  than 
radium  itself.  Nearly  every  chemical  element  can  be 
made  radioactive;  thus  one  can  have  radioactive  iron, 
copper,  zinc,  tin,  etc. 

Two  different  types  of  machines  have  been  developed 
to  produce  radioactive  elements.  In  each  the  essential 
purpose  is  to  produce  high-speed  atomic  particles  which 
upon  striking  ordinary  elements  produce  transmutation. 
One  of  these  machines  is  the  cyclotron,  so-called  because 
it  makes  the  atomic  particles  move  in  a  circle  and 
brings  their  speeds  up  to  the  desired  value  by  a  small 
increase  each  half  revolution.  Twenty  or  thirty  cyclo- 
trons, each  costing  from  $20,000  to  $1,500,000,  have 
been,  or  are  being,  built  in  this  country.  The  demand 
for  radioactive  materials  is  so  great,  however,  that 
many  more  will  need  to  be  built  very  soon.  The  second 
type  of  machine  for  producing  high-speed  atoms  is  the 
Van  de  Graaf  electrostatic  generator.  This  is  essen- 
tially a  direct-current  generator  that  develops  a  poten- 
tial of  from  3  to  5  million  volts.  This  high  voltage 
causes  charged  atomic  particles  to  crash  down  a  tHl)e 

321S35— 41 17 


with  such  speed  that  some  of  the  atoms  of  any  element 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  tube  will  be  disintegrated. 
Four  or  five  such  machines,  costing  up  to  $150,000 
apiece,  have  been  built  in  this  country.  While  their 
primary  purpose  is  to  study  nuclear  structure  they  may 
possible  be  used  inihistriaily  in  many  other  ways  in 
the  future.  For  instance,  there  is  much  discussion 
regarding  the  transmission  of  power  by  high-voltage 
direct  current.  It  has  even  been  suggested  that  the 
"atom  smasher"  of  today  may  be  used  for  the  commer- 
cial transmission  of  electrical  energy  tomorrow. 

Radioactive  materials  produced  by  the  cyclotron 
and  the  electrostatic  generator  are  useful  in  medical 
therapy.  They  can  be  used  in  industry  for  testing 
thick  welds  in  the  same  way  that  radium  and  X-rays 
are  now  being  used.  Their  most  important  use  arises, 
however,  because  of  a  new  instrument  known  as  a 
Geiger-counter,  which  has  been  greatly  improved  in 
recent  years  Radioactive  elements  exhibit  their  radio- 
activity because  of  the  continual  emission  of  high  speed 
fragments  or  high  energy  radiation.  Each  of  these 
fragments  can  produce  a  discharge  in  a  Geiger-counter, 
thus  enabling  single  particles  from  radioactive  elements 
("tracer  atoms")  to  be  counted.  If  one,  for  instance, 
chinks  a  solution  containing  radioactive  sodium,  it  is 
possible  by  means  of  a  Geiger-counter  to  measure  the 
time  it  takes  for  the  sodium  to  enter  into  the  blood 
stream  and  reach  the  finger  or  any  other  part  of  the  body. 
Likewise  calcium  can  be  traced  directly  from  an  indi- 
vidual's food  to  his  teeth.  Of  industrial  importance  is 
the  possibility  of  tracing  by  radioactive  atoms  the 
diffusion  of  copper  atoms  in  iron,  gold,  or  even  in 
copper  itself.  There  must  be  many  industrial  processes 
in  which  tracer  radioactive  elements  would  be  useful. 
With  the  modern  Geiger-counter  the  tracing  of  1  part 
in  100,000,000  or  even  more  can  be  carried  out  with 
certainty  by  simple  standard  equipment. 

Color  Analyzers 

Color  is  used  in  almost  every  industry,  yet  its  exact 
definition  is  essentially  unknown.  Manufacturers  of 
paint,  ink,  cloth,  paper,  glass,  and  other  commodities 
give  names  to  colors  even  though  they  realize  that 
these  names  can  in  no  way  specify  the  color  exactly. 
A  dye  manufacturer  who  makes  one  batch  of  color  1 
year  cannot  match  it  a  year  later  because  his  original 
samples  may  have  faded.  To  remedy  these  defects  in 
the  specification  of  color  the  physicist  has  designed  a 
colorimeter  which  draws  a  curve  which  is  characteristic 
of  each  specific  color  alone.  If  two  samples  of  materials 
have  the  same  color  curve,  they  will  be  found  identical 
in  color  not  only  by  daylight  but  also  imder  all  forms 
of  artificial  light. 

This  instrument  is  called  technically  a  "recording 
spectrophotometer."     It  measures   and   records   auto- 


244 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


matically  the  reflecting  power  or  the  transmission  of  a 
given  sample  for  all  wave  lengths  in  the  spectrum. 
Many  manufacturers  of  inks  and  other  materials 
wherein  color  must  be  specified  exactly  are  already 
using  this  instrument  to  make  precise  colorimetric 
measurements. 

Electron  Microscope 

Much  research  has  been  carried  out  in  the  last  few 
years  on  the  paths  that  electrons  take  when  accelerated 
by  grids  and  rings  in  tubes.  It  has  been  found  that 
certain  arrangements  of  electrodes  or  coils  have  exactly 
the  same  focusing  properties  for  electron  beams  as  glass 
lenses  have  for  light  beams.  Thus  it  is  quite  possible 
to  build  electron  microscopes  that  are  superior  to  optical 
microscopes  for  some  purposes.  This  is  particularly 
true  where  a  heated  metal  is  being  observed.  Such  a 
metal  emits  electrons  which  can  be  accelerated  by  ap- 
plying a  small  voltage.  If  these  electrons  impinge  upon 
a  flouorescent  screen  they  produce  an  optical  image 
that  shows  variations  in  the  composition  or  condition 
of  the  surface  of  the  metal.  Since  the  lengths  of  the 
electron  waves  can  be  made  as  small  as  desired,  there  is 


FiGUKE  72. — High-Speed  Photographs  of  Combustion  in   Gaso- 
line Engine,  General  Motors  Corporation,  Detroit,  Michigan 


no  limit  to  the  theoretically  possible  resolution  which 
can  be  achieved,  as  there  is  in  an  optical  microscope. 
The  electron  microscope  should  have  many  applications 
in  metallurgical  and  other  fields  as  its  properties  become 
better  known. 

High-Speed  Photography 

For  many  years  high-speed  photographs,  particularly 
of  sound  waves  and  bullets  in  motion,  have  been  taken 
by  the  light  of  the  electric  spark.  Until  recently  this 
photography  has  been  confined  to  the  laboratory,  since 
it  was  difficult  to  obtain  sufficient  illumination  to  take 
ordinary  pictures.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  a 
violent  discharge  of  an  electrical  condenser  through  a 
gas-filled  tube  provides  an  intense  flash  of  light  of  very 
short  duration.  With  such  a  flash  extraordinary  pic- 
tures of  objects  in  motion  can  be  taken.  Striking 
examples  of  pictures  of  a  swinging  tennis  racket,  golf 
club,  or  other  sports  equipment  have  been  published 
in  the  popular  magazines  and  newspapers.  A  succession 
of  such  pictures  show  in  detail,  for  instance,  how  an  air 
bubble  is  formed  by  a  drop  splashing  into  a  liquid 
surface,  or  the  way  in  which  a  golf  club  is  bent  in  striking 
a  golf  ball.  Although  industrial  applications  of  high- 
speed photography  do  not  receive  the  publicity  of  these 
other  applications,  there  have  been  very  many  useful 
applications,  and  there  wiU  undoubtedly  be  many  more. 
In  the  textile  industry  great  difficulty  was  caused  by  the 
snagging  of  the  thread  coming  off  a  very  high  speed 
spindle.  The  speed  was  such  that  it  was  impossible  to 
see  what  made  the  thread  catch.  However,  a  high- 
speed photograph  showed  immediately  that  a  loop 
was  being  formed  as  well  as  how  this  loop  became 
entangled.  In  the  airplane  industry  high-speed  pho- 
tography permits  the  direct  measurement  of  the  dis- 
tortion of  a  fuU  sized  airplane  propeller.  Although  the 
propeller  rotates  at  full  speed,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a 
precision  of  0.02  of  an  inch  in  these  measurements. 
The  design  of  silent  fan  blades  was  aided  by  high  speed 
pictures  of  the  formation  of  vortices  using  smoke 
mixed  with  the  air. 

Photoelasticity 

With  increased  competition  in  industry,  the  elimina- 
tion of  excess  weight  has  become  a  very  important 
factor.  To  determine  the  size  of  any  part  of  an  engi- 
neering structiu-e  and  exclude  unnecessary  material  one 
must  know  how  the  stresses  are  distributed.  The 
mathematical  calculation  of  the  stress  distribution  in  an 
irregularly  shaped  member  is  often  so  difficult  that  only 
a  rough  approximation  can  be  made.  To  obtain  more 
exact  analysis  of  the  stress  distribution  a  method  has 
been  devised  making  use  of  polarized  light.  This 
method  of  analysis  has  received  considerable  stimulation 
in  the  past  few  years  by  the  introduction  of  the  material 


Industrial  Research 


245 


known  as  "polaroid,"  which  enabU>s  lart;c  beams  of 
polarized  light  to  bo  formed  at  low  expense.  If  one 
uses  two  sheets  of  polaroid  with  their  axes  at  right  angles 
to  one  another,  no  light  will  penetrate;  however,  if  a 
celluloid  model  of  a  particular  engineering  structure  is 
placed  between  those  two  sheets  of  polaroid  and  a  load  is 
added,  the  points  of  maximum  stress  become  bright 
with  closely  spaced  bands  of  color.  It  has  been  possible, 
for  instance,  to  reduce  greatly  the  weight  of  an  eyebolt 
by  cutting  away  those  parts  shown  under  polarized 
light  to  be  of  little  use  for  carrying  the  stress.  By 
careful  measurements  with  polarized  light  combined 
with  accurate  measurements  of  the  change  in  thickness, 
it  is  possible  to  make  a  complete  analysis  of  the  dis- 
tribution and  magnitude  of  all  of  the  stresses.  This  is 
particularly  easy  to  do  in  thin  and  plane  objects,  but 


by   recent   methods   can    also   be   done   for  objects   of 
irregular  dimensions. 

Electron  Diffraction 

A  remarkable  discovery  was  made  in  an  industrial 
research  laboratory  a  few  years  ago.  This  discovery 
was  that  an  electron  behaves  as  though  it  has  associated 
with  it  a  wave  length  in  the  same  sense  that  light  waves 
and  X-rays  have  wave  lengths.  When  electrons  pass 
through  a  thin  layer  of  any  material  or  are  reflected 
from  its  surface  and  allowed  to  impinge  on  a  photo- 
graphic plate,  they  make  a  permanent  record  of  a 
diffraction  pattern  similar  to  what  one  sees  when  looking 
at  a  distant  light  through  an  umbrella.  The  pattern  is 
characteristic  of  the  material  placed  in  the  path  of  the 
electrons.     An  electron  diffraction  camera  is  a  relatively 


FiouKJi  73. — Photoelastic  Pattern  of  Roller  Bearing  Stresses      Points  of  Maximum  Stress  Occur  Where  the  Lines  are  Spaced  tlu' 

Closest,  Timken  Roller  Bearing  Company,  Canton,  Ohio 


246 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Figure  74. — Electron  Diffraction  Pattern  of  (a)  Plated  and  (b)  Stripped  Metal  Surface  (after  H.  R.  Xelson) 


simple  piece  of  equipment.  It  is  only  necessary  to 
have  a  heated  source  of  electrons  and  a  high-voltage 
supply  to  accelerate  them  in  a  tube.  Since  the  electrons 
are  scattered  primarily  by  surface  atoms,  while  X-rays 
are  scattered  deep  in  the  metal,  electron  difl'raction  is 
most  useful  in  studying  surface  properties.  It  has  been 
used,  for  instance,  to  identify  various  oxide  coatings, 
tarnishes,  and  other  corrosions  produced  on  the  surfaces 
of  metals.  If  one  wants  to  know  the  structure  of  an 
electroplated  surface,  electron  diffraction  can  usually 
give  the  answer.  Until  recently  it  has  been  difl&cult  to 
determine  exactly  the  structure  of  thin  films  because 
X-rays  pass  through  them  so  easily.  Electron  diffrac- 
tion on  the  other  hand  tells  us  a  great  deal  about  the 
structure  of  these  thin  films.  Polished  and  buffed 
surfaces  are  increasing  in  importance  in  industry  and 
electron  diffraction  provides  evidence  as  to  whether 
such  surfaces  are  crj'staUine  or  amorphous,  and  also  as 
to  the  changes  in  a  surface  as  buffing  progresses.  These 
are  only  a  few  of  the  possible  applications  of  electron 
diffraction  in  industry.  Wliorever  the  nature  of  a 
surface  comes  into  question,  use  can  be  made  of  this 
tool. 

Extreme  Pressures 

A  very  interesting  curve  has  been  drawn  showing 
how  the  largest  obtainable  pressure  has  increased  with 
time.  This  curve  has  started  upward  rapidly  in  the 
past  few  years;  in  fact,  it  has  more  than  doubled  in 
about  3  years.  It  is  now  possible  to  study  in  the 
laboratory  pressures  up  to  1,500,000  Ib./sq.  in.  It 
may  be  wondered  why  it  is  desirable  to  stuily  such 
extreme  pressures,  but  when  one  realizes  that  enor- 
mous pressures  often  occur  in  industry  in  liypoid  gears, 
ball  bearings,  glass  cutters,  and  rifles,  the  interest  is 
understandable.  Many  strange  phenomena  occur  at 
extremely    high    pressures.     For    instance,    chemical 


reactions  that  do  Jiot  take  place  at  ordinary  pressures 
can  sometimes  be  promoted  by  an  increase  in  pressure. 
Under  high  pressures  it  is  possible  to  bend  glass  without 
breaking  it,  to  precipitate  colloidal  particles  from  a 
solution,  and  to  produce  many  other  unusual  effects. 
Studies  have  been  made  of  the  penetration  of  liquids 
and  gases  into  solids.  It  is  found,  for  instance,  that 
under  great  pressure  hydrogen  penetrates  into  steel 
sufficiently  to  decrease  its  tensile  strength  bj'  more 
than  one-half.  A  recent  important  industrial  study  has 
concerned  the  effect  of  extremely  high  pressures  on 
lubricating  oils.  In  fact,  it  is  only  because  of  the 
development  of  lubricants  working  well  at  extreme 
pressures  that  the  use  of  hypoid  gears  in  automobiles 
has  become  possible.     In  view  of  the  great  number  of 


FiGURK  75. — Motion  of  a  Pelton  Wheel  Frozen  with  tlie  .Aid  of 
lligh-Spced  Photograjjliy  lafter  Harold  E.  Edgerton) 


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247 


unusual  effects  produced  at  extremely  high  pressures, 
it  is  anticipated  that  such  investigations  will  lead  to 
many  applications  in  industry. 

Estreme  Temperatures 

Advances  in  experimental  teclmiqucs  of  all  Ivinds 
sooner  or  later  become  useful  in  industry.  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  the  extremes  of  temperatures 
recently  attained  in  the  laboratory  will  find  many 
industrial  uses.  For  instance,  recent  methods  of  cooling 
by  using  a  magnetic  field  have  led  to  the  production  of 
temperatures  oidj'  a  small  fraction  of  a  degree  above 
the  absolute  zero.  At  these  temperatures  the  electrical 
resistance  of  many  materials  drops  to  zero  so  that  a 
current  started  in  a  loop  of  wire  will  continue  for  many 
days  without  any  supply  of  energy.  With  such  tem- 
peratures all  gases  can  be  liquefied.  One  type  of  liquid 
helium  exhibits  a  very  unusual  property  of  having 
almost  zero  viscosity;  this  means  that  it  will  flow 
through  tubes  under  a  very  small  pressure  gradient. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  temperature  scale  progress 
has  also  been  made,  for  instance,  in  the  development  of 
blocks  to  stand  the  liigh  temperatures  that  occur  in  a 
glass-melting  tank.  In  the  laboratory  it  has  been 
possible  to  achieve  temperatures  up  to  20,000°  for 
short-tune  intervals  by  exploding  fine  wires.  While 
these  high  temperatures  have  not  yet  become  of  com- 
mercial importance,  they  offer  considerable  possibility 
for  the  future. 

Fundamental  Explorations  Provide 
the  Bases  of  Future  Industries 

Physics  is  outstandmgly  a  practical  science  and  there 
is  very  little  that  the  physicist  discovers  that  does  not 
eventually  come  into  practical  use.  The  person  who 
applies  the  discoveries  of  the  physicist  is  usually  an 
engineer.  \Miile  the  engineer  is  making  the  application, 
the  individual  for  whom  the  name  physicist  is  reserved 
is  busy  discovering  new  phenomena  which  will  probably 
be  applied  by  the  next  generation  of  engineers. 

Thus  to  learn  what  kind  of  physics  will  be  applied  in 
the  futui'e  one  can  hardly  do  better  than  to  observe 
the  fundamental  discoveries  now  being  made  in  the 
pure  research  laboritories  in  the  imiversities,  in  indus- 
try, and  in  the  large  governmental  departments. 

Nuclear  Physics 

In  the  universities  it  is  quite  apparent  that  much  of 
the  pure  research  is  concerned  with  the  atom.  Many 
physicists  are  engaged  in  trying  to  understand  the 
structure  of  the  atomic  nucleus.  Mention  has  already 
been  made  of  the  artificial  radioactive  elements  pi'o- 
duced  as  a  byproduct  of  these  investigations,  and  which 
are  so  useful  as  tracers.  Besides  radioactive  materi- 
als it  has  also  been  possible  to  produce  gold,  silver. 


helium,  and  other  stable  elements  by  the  transmutation 
of  less  valuable  materials.  Although  at  present  it 
does  not  seem  likely  that  these  processes  will  develop 
into  practical  sources  of  materials  in  quantity,  the 
investigations  will  pay  for  th<>msolves  many  times  in 
the  uses  that  have  already  been  mentioned.  Other 
valuable  ai)i)lications  are  very  likely  to  follow. 

There  is  still  another  commercial  possibility  which 
may  arise  from  the  study  of  atomic  nuchu.  It  has 
been  discovered  recently  that  when  uranium  is  bom- 
barded with  either  slow-moving  or  very  fast-moving 
neutrons  (atomic  particles  with  no  charge),  elements 
are  produced  which  have  approximately  half  the  atomic 
weight  of  the  uranium  and  at  the  same  time  a  new 
batch  of  neutrons  is  liberated.  The  new  elements  arc 
emitted  at  tremendously  high  speeds,  and  thus  have  a 
large  amount  of  energy  which  can  be  transformed  into 
heat.     This  experiment  immediately  suggests  that  if 


Figure    70. — Tlie    ".Mom    Smasher,'      W  '     ;    l       ,  .    i 
Lal)oratory,  East  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania 


search 


248 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


the  neutrons  can  be  used  to  disintegrate  more  uranium 
atoms,  which  in  turn  will  give  out  neutrons,  the  process 
wiJl  be  continuous  and  the  heat  produced  may  be  used 
as  a  source  of  power.  The  only  question  is  whether 
enough  neutrons  can  be  produced  to  keep  the  reaction 
going  continuously.  The  evidence  here  is  not  yet 
conclusive,  and  while  it  looks  as  if  there  are  not  quite 
enough  neutrons  produced  to  obtam  power,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  such  power  could  be  obtained  by  the  splitting 
of  other  atoms.  Thus,  while  a  few  years  ago,  the  ques- 
tion of  the  obtaiumg  of  power  from  the  energy  bound 
up  in  the  atoms  was  only  discussed  speculatively  in 
popular  scientific  magazines,  it  has  now  become  a  very 
important  practical  question  to  the  physicist.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  if  a  method  of  this  kind  can  be 
worked  out,  it  will  be  possible  to  obtain  power  at  a 


considerably  lower  cost  than  it  is  now  obtained  from 
coal. 

Study  of  the  Solid  State 

The  physicist  has  also  been  busy  studying  the  outer 
structure  of  atoms.  By  means  of  the  spectroscope  he 
has  been  able  to  identify  many  atoms  by  the  color  of 
the  light  they  emit.  Using  this  color  he  can  in  turn 
discover  the  number  of  electrons  and  their  arrangement 
in  the  outer  structure  of  the  atoms.  Until  recently  his 
knowledge  was  restricted  to  atoms  which  were  widely 
separated  as  in  gases.  Calculations  have  now  been 
made  to  determine  the  forces  that  act  between  atoms 
and  thus  hold  them  together  in  solids.  Such  calcula- 
tions have  allowed  the  elastic  properties,  the  density, 
and  the  heats  of  vaporization  of  very  simple  metals 


FiGDBE  77. — Viscosimeter  for  Dctertnination  of  the  Absolute  Viscosity  of  Glass,  Owens-Illinois  Glass  Company,  Toledo,  Ohio 


Industrial  Research 


249 


like  sodium  ami  i)otassiiim  to  be  calculated  theoretically 
in  good  agreement  with  the  experimental  values.  Of 
course,  such  metals  are  not  of  great  practical  use,  but 
the  physicist  has  also  used  X-rays  to  determine  the 
crystal  structure  of  the  metals  actually  utilized  in 
practice.  While  complete  calculation  of  the  atomic 
properties  of  these  rather  complicated  metals  has  not 
yet  been  worked  out,  there  is  no  question  but  that  in 
a  few  years  it  will  be  possible  to  calculate  many  of  the 
properties  of  such  metals  as  copper  and  iron  as  well  as 
of  sodium  and  potassium.  An  intensive  study  of  the 
physical  properties  of  many  of  the  useful  metals,  and 
particularly  of  their  alloys,  has  led  to  the  discovery  that 
there  is  an  internal  order  in  atoms  besides  the  ordinary 
crystal  structure,  which  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the 
physical  properties  of  the  alloys.  The  physicist  is  even 
beginning  to  discuss  such  questions  as  the  diffusion  of 
atoms  in  metals,  strain  and  age  hardness,  and  other 
properties  that  formerly  were  considered  to  be  entirely 
within  the  realm  of  metallurgy.  By  bringing  together 
the  knowledge  of  individual  atoms  and  the  forces  acting 
between  them  with  that  of  the  large  scale  properties  of 
metals  such  as  hardness,  tensile  strength,  etc.,  the 
physicist  hopes  to  provide  a  scientific  basis  for  solving 
many  of  the  problems  now  existing  in  the  field  of 
metallurgy.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the  future  the 
physicist  may  be  able  to  predict  properties  of  alloys, 
particularly  from  his  knowledge  of  the  structure  of 
their  atoms. 

Solar  Energy 

An  extremely  attractive  field  of  research  is  the  better 
utilization  of  the  energy  of  the  sun.  It  has  been  shown 
that  we  receive  on  the  earth  from  the  sun  about  200,000 
times  as  much  energy  per  day  as  we  are  now  using  from 
all  sources.  If  a  small  fraction  of  the  energy  thus 
received  every  day  from  the  sun  could  be  turned  to 
useful  purposes,  an  enormous  increase  in  the  wealth 
of  the  world  would  occur.  The  standard  of  living  which 
can  perhaps  be  measured  in  terms  of  the  power  avail- 
able per  individual  would  be  greatly  increased  at  no 
one's  expense.  With  this  in  mind  large  grants  of  money 
have  been  given  to  two  institutions  to  carry  on  research 
in  the  further  utilization  of  this  tremendous  source  of 
energy.  There  are  several  ways  in  which  a  greater 
utilization  of  this  energy  might  take  place.  For  in- 
stance, if  it  were  possible  efficiently  and  economically 
to  carry  out  in  the  laboratory  the  synthesis  of  com- 
pounds carried  on  every  day  by  plant  life  with  the  aid 
of  clilorophyll  and  the  sun,  a  source  of  energy  would  be 
available.  One  might  perhaps,  merely  by  exposing  a 
particular  kind  of  storage  battery  to  light,  produce  a 
chemical  reaction  which  would  charge  the  battery.  If 
that  could  be  done,  a  very  convenient  source  of  power 
would  be  available.     We  have  all  seen  small  photo- 


graphic exposure  meters  which  when  pointed  toward 
the  sun,  indicate  the  intensity  of  the  current  that  is 
passing.  By  investigation  of  suitable  metals,  would  it 
perhaps  bo  possible  to  make  such  photocells  on  a  large 
scale  and  to  obtain  large  currents  that  would  be  useful 
as  sources  of  power?  Still  another  example  in  which 
current  is  obtained  is  the  thermocouple,  in  which  a 
temperature  difference  between  two  metallic  junctions 
produces  a  feeble  current.  Unfortunately  the  tem- 
perature rise  produced  by  the  sun  is  not  large  enough 
to  give  us  large  ciUTcnts  from  a  thermocouple.  Per- 
haps, however,  if  different  metals  or  new  alloys  were 
used  in  making  the  thermocouple,  larger  currents  could 
be  obtained.  All  of  these  processes  need  further  re- 
search before  anything  definite  can  be  said.  Even  the 
direct  concentration  of  sunlight  by  mirrors  needs  further 
research  before  it  can  be  said  definitely  that,  in  the 
future,  houses  will  not  be  heated  or  cooled  by  sunlight 
rather  than  by  gas  or  electricity.  Research  such  as 
this,  from  which  results  probably  cannot  be  expected 
for  a  long  period  of  time,  is  best  carried  on  in  the 
universities  and  in  governmental  and  privately  endowed 
laboratories,  but  it  is  quite  likely  eventually  to  provide 
new  industries. 

Physics  Contributes  Indirectly  to  Progress 

In  the  foregoing  discussion  tlie  direct  results  of  the 
application  of  physics  in  industry  have  been  stressed. 
There  are,  however,  many  indirect  effects  which,  though 
important,  remain  intangible.  For  instance,  the  exist- 
ence of  a  research  laboratory  in  an  industrial  plant  has 
a  stimulating  effect  upon  the  mental  attitude  of  the 
entire  industrial  organization.  The  interest  of  the 
individual  in  the  plant  is  broadened  and  extended 
beyond  his  daily  task.  He  begins  to  make  suggestions 
for  improvements  in  design  and  technique.  Tlie 
physicist,  with  his  Icnowledge  of  fundamental  principles, 
can  often  be  of  service  in  directing  these  suggestions 
along  promising  lines. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  indirect  result  of  the 
application  of  science  in  industry  is  the  increased  faith 
aroused  in  the  mind  of  the  industrialist  in  the  fact  that 
nature  is  orderly  and  that  natural  phenomena  take  place 
according  to  definite  rules  which  are  known,  or  may  be 
learned,  if  research  be  undertaken.  The  taking  of 
adequate  data  under  controlled  conditions,  the  analysis 
of  these  data,  and  the  final  drawing  of  conclusions  with- 
out prejudice,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  work  of  a 
true  scientist,  gradually  have  their  effect  on  the  think- 
ing of  those  with  whom  the  scientist  is  associated.  A 
discipline  is  established  which  influences  the  attitudes 
of  others  not  only  toward  laboratory  problems  but 
toward  shop  problems  and  any  other  difficulties  that 
may  arise.  As  a  result  of  this  change  in  attitude  many 
of  those  problems  which  "can't  be  solved"  have  been 


250 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


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Industrial  Research 


251 


solved.  The  realization  that  there  is  a  vast  amount  of 
information  which  may  be  used,  and  the  experience  that 
when  such  information  is  made  available  solutions  are 
developed,  inevitably  stimulates  an  optimism  about  the 
possibility  of  mastering  industrial  problems  and  over- 
coming obstacles  generally. 

It  is  believed  that  in  the  above  presentation  it  has 
been  showTi  that  the  quotation  used  at  the  beginning  is 
not  an  overstatement.  The  broad  basis  in  facts  and 
principles,  in  technology  and  instrumentation,  on  which 
industry'  is  built  is  predommantly  physics  and  it  follows 
that  physical  research  in  industry  is  one  of  our  most 
important  and  most  valuable  national  resources. 

Bibliography 

Books 

Harbison,    G.    R.     Atoms    in    action.     New    York,    William 

Morrow  and  Companj',  1939.     370  p. 
CoMPTON,    K.    T.,    AND   OTHERS.     Phj'sics   in    industry.     New 

York,  American  Institute  of  Physics,  1937.     290  p. 

Journal  articles 

APPLICATIONS    OF    PHYSICS    IN    SINGLE    INDUSTRIES 

Aeronautics: 

MiLLiK.\N,  C.  B.     The  physicist  gets  air  minded.     Journal 
of  Applied  Physics,  8,  107  (1937). 
Agriculture: 

Barton,  H.  A.     Physics  in  the  production  and  use  of  bulk 

crops.     Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  8,  639  (1937). 
Harrison,  G.  R.     The  application  of  physics  to  agriculture. 

Review  of  Scientific  Instrinnents,  7,  295  (1936). 
Maxwell,  L.  R.,  and  Hendricks,  S.  B.,  X-rays  in  agri- 
culture.    Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  9,  237  (1938). 
Automotive  industry: 

RiCHTMTEB,  r.  K.     Phj'fiics  and  the  automotive  industry. 

Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  9,  350  (1938). 
Symposium   on   Physics  in  the   Automotive   Industry. 
Review  of  Scientific  Instruments,  9,  122  (1938). 
Building: 

Burchard,  J.  E.     Building,  the  forgotten  child  of  physics. 
Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  8,  10  (1937). 
Carbon  dioxide  industry: 

Ewell,  A.  W.     Physics  in  cold  storage.     Journal  of  Applied 

Physics,  S,  530  (1937). 
KiLLEFFER,  D.  H.     The  industry  of  solid  carbon  dioxide. 
Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  8,  589  (1937). 
Electrical  power: 

Slepian,  J.     Some  physical  problems  in  the  electrical  power 
industry.     Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  8,  152  (1937). 
Glass  industry: 

Sullivan,     E.     C.     Accomplishments     of     the     industrial 
physicist    in    the    glass    industry.     Journal    of   Applied 
Physics,  8,  122  (1937). 
Iron  foundry: 

Vincent,  H.  B.,  and  Sawyer,  R.  A.     The  spectrograph  in 
the  iron  foundry.     Journal  of    Applied    Physics,    8,    163 
(1937). 
Lamp  industry: 

Forstthe,    W.    E.     The   physicist   and    the    incandescent 
lamp.     Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  8,  522  (1937). 


Metal  industry: 

Jeffries,   Z.,   and   Adams,    E.    Q.     Physics   in   the   metal 
industry.     Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  8,  48  (1937). 
Mines: 

Greenwald,  II.  P.  Further  notes  on  the  physics  of  subsi- 
dence and  ground  movement  in  mines.  Journal  of 
Applied  Physics,  9,  5G7  (1938). 
Greenwald,  H.  P.  The  physics  of  subsidence  and  ground 
movement  in  coal  mines.  Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  8, 
462  (1937). 
Oil  industry: 

FoOTE,  P.  D.     Let  the  plnsicist  change  your  oil.     Journal 

of  Applied  Physics,  8,  19  (1937). 
Nettleton,  L.  L.     Applied  physics  in  the  search  for  oil. 
American  Physics  Teacher,  S,  110  (1935). 
Optical  industry: 

Rayton,  W.  B.     Physics     in    optical     instrument     manu- 
facture.    Review  of  Scientific  Instruments,  7,  328  (1936). 
Paper  industry: 

Samson,  E.  W.     Ph.vsics  in  the  paper  industry.     Journal 
of  Applied  Physics,  8,  455  (1937). 
Pharmacy: 

McFarlan,   R.    L.     Physics  in  pharmacy.      Ibid.,  9,    573 
(1938). 
Plastics  industry: 

Wearmouth,  W.  G.     Physics   and    the   plastics  industry. 
Chemistry  and  Industry,  57,  1176  (1938). 
Rubber  industry: 

Busse,  W.  F.     Physics  of  rubber  as  related  to  the  automo- 
bile.    Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  9,  438   (1938);  India 
Rubber  World,98,  41  (Aug.  1,  1938);5S,  42  (Sept.  1,  1938). 
Textile  industry: 

Fabr,   W.   K.     Structure  of  the  cotton  fiber.     Journal  of 

Applied  Physics,  8,  228  (1937). 
HuTCHissoN,  E.     Physics  in  the  textile  industry.     Ibid.,  8 

227  (1937). 
ScHWARz,    E.    R.     Textile   research  at  the    Ma.ssachusctts 
Institute  of  Technology.     Ibid.,  S,  544  (1937). 

developments  in  techniques 

Beams,   J.    W.     High    rotational    speeds.     Journal   of   Applied 

Physics,  8,  795  (1937). 
Buckley,  O.  E.     The  evolution  of  the  crystal  wave  filter.    Ibid., 

S,  40  (1937). 
Davisson,  C.  J.     What  electrons  can  tell  us  about  metals.   Ibid., 

8,  391  (1937). 
Den  Hartog,  J.  P.     Vibration  in  industry.     Ibid.,  8,  76  {1937). 
Edgerton,  H.   E.;  Germeshausen,  J.  K.,  and  Grier,  H.  E. 

High  speed  photographic  methods  of  measurement.     Ibid.,  8, 

2  (1937). 
Elting,  J.  P.     The  place  of  statistics  in  textile  research.     Ibid., 

8,  239  (1937). 
Grabau,  M.     Polarized  light  enters  the  world  of  everyday  life. 

Ibid.,  9,  215  (1938). 
Hardy,  A.  C.     The  physical  basis  of  color  measurement.     Ibid., 

8,  233  (1937). 
Horger,    O.    J.     Photoelastic   analy.sis   practically    applied   to 

design  problems.     Ibid.,  9,  457  (1938). 
Johnson,   R.    P.     Simple    electron   microscopes.     Ibid.,  9,  508 

(1938). 
Morse,  P.   M.;    Boden,  R.  H.;   and  Schecter,  H.     Acoustic 

vibrations    and     internal     combustion    engine    performance. 

Ibid.,  9,  16  (1938). 
Nelson,  H.  R.     Metallurgical  applications  of  electron   diffrac- 
tion,    /bid.,  a,  623(1938). 


252 


National  Resources  Planning  Board,  Industrial  Research 


Norton,  J.  T.  Uses  and  limitations  of  X-ray  diffraction  meth- 
ods.    Ibid.,  S,  307  (1937). 

PouLTER,  T.  C.  The  study  of  extreme  pressures  and  their  im- 
portance in  the  investigation  of  engineering  problems.  Ibid., 
9,  307  (1938). 

Roberts,  R.  B.,  and  Kuper,  J.  B.  H.  Uranium  and  atomic 
power.     Ibid.,  10,  612  (1939). 

APPLIED    PHTSICS    AS    A    PROFESSION 

Barton,  H.  A.  Report  of  conference  on  applied  physics. 
Review  of  Scientific  Instruments,  7,  113  (1936). 

Conference  on  Applied  Phtsics.     Ibid.,  6,  31  (1935). 

Conference  on  Industrial  Physics,  2d  Conference.  Elec- 
trician, 118,  411  (1937). 

Dodge,  H.  L.  Training  of  physicist  for  industry,  American 
Physics  Teacher,  4,  167  (1936). 

Grondahl,  L.  O.  The  role  of  physics  in  modern  industry. 
Science,  70,  175  (1929). 

Harrison,  G.  R.  The  applied  physicist.  Journal  of  Applied 
Physics,  8,  569  (1937). 

Hdtchisson,  E.     Applied  physics.     Ibid.,  8,  75  (1937). 

Hdtchisson,  E.  Conference  on  industrial  physics.  Review  of 
Scientific  Instruments,  6,  381  (1935). 

Hutchisson,  E.  Opportunities  in  applied  physics.  Journal 
of  Applied  Physics,  S,  297  (1937). 

Industrial  Physics;  Conference  and  Exhibition  at  Leeds; 
Applications  in  the  Textile  Industries.  Electrician,  122, 
394    (1939);  Electrical  Review  (hondou),  124,  \%Z  (1939). 


Mills,  J.  The  making  of  industrial  physicists.  Journal  of  Engi- 
neering Education,  28,  132  (1937). 

National  Physical  Laboratory.  Annual  report.  Applica- 
tions of  physics  to  industry.  Chemical  Age  (London),  S8,  303 
(1938). 

National  Physical  Laboratory.  Annual  report.  Applica- 
tions of  physics  to  industry.  Chemical  Age  (London),  40, 
255  (1939). 

Olpin,  a.  R.  Training  of  physicists  for  industrial  positions. 
American  Physics  Teacher,  5,  14  (1937). 

Physics  as  Applied  to  Industry.  Institute  of  Physics  Con- 
ference at  Manchester.  Chemical  Age  (London),  32,  329 
(1935). 

Saxl,  I.  J.  Don't  overlook  the  physicist.  Nation's  Business, 
25,  26  (1937). 

Ulret,  D.  The  physicist — engineer  in  research  and  industry 
Journal  of  Engineering  Education,  27,  782   (1937). 

descriptions  of  laboratories 

Briggs,   L.   J.     The   National   Bureau   of  Standards.     Journal 

of  Applied  Physics,  8,  298  (1937). 
CooLiDGE,    W.    D.     The   research    laboratory   of   the    General 

Electric  Company.     Ibid.,  8,  34  (1937). 
Langmuir,  I.     The  new  laboratory  of  the  Mellon  Institute  of 

Industrial  Research.     Ibid.,  8,  536  (1937). 
Troller,     T.     The     Daniel     Guggenheim     Airship     Institute. 

Ibid.,  9,  24  (1938). 
Vagtborg,   H.     The  research  foimdation  of  Armour  Institute 

of  Technology.     Ibid.,  9,  562  (1938). 


\ 


SECTION    VI 
3.    THE    ROLE    OF    THE    BIOLOGIST    IN    INDUSTRY 

By  E.  B.  Fred  and  C.  N.  Frey* 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Bacteriology,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wisconsin;  and  Director,  Fleischmann  Laboratories, 

Bronx,  New  York,  respectively 


ABSTRACT 


Biological  science  has  made  rapid  strides  during  the 
last  30  years,  largely  due  to  the  impact  of  the  ever- 
expanding  physical  sciences.  To  attempt  in  a  brief 
summary  to  point  out  isolated  significant  influences 
which  have  contributed  to  the  development  and  the 
technique  of  industry  is  certain  to  confuse  rather  than 
to  add  to  our  understanding  of  the  place  of  biology  in 
the  modern  world,  and  especially  in  modern  industry. 
Rather  we  must  emphasize  the  contributions  of  a  few 
fundamental  generalizations  relying  on  the  proper 
orientation  of  certain  basic  concepts  common  to  all 
science  to  give  us  an  insight  into  the  scientific  methods 
which  have  made  the  highly  technical  industries  of 
today  possible. 

The  scope  of  this  work  can  be  determined  by  a 
study  of  the  Tnble  of  Contents  of  the  report  of  biology 
in  industry.  A  general  discussion  of  the  place  of 
biology  in  science  and  industry  and  the  work  which 
the  biologist  can  do  are  given.  Some  of  the  most 
significant  industrial  applications  are  briefly  dis- 
cussed. Special  attention  is  given  to  the  food  indus- 
tries and  to  certain  fields  such  as  the  fermentation 
industries,  fats,  oils,  etc.  Nutritional  requirements  of 
man  and  animals  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  newer 
knowledge  are  considered.     Biological  products,  hor- 


mones, vaccines,  enzymes,  vitamins,  receive  attention, 
but  one  must  admit  not  in  the  proportion  which  their 
great  importance  merits.  Chemical  products,  chemo- 
therapy, fungicides,  etc.,  and  parasitology,  waste  dis- 
posal, plant  and  animal  breeding,  are  considered  briefly, 
and  from  these  vast  fields  a  few  outstanding  contribu- 
tions are  listed. 

The  important  work  of  training  the  biologist,  which 
lies  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  universities  and  the 
colleges,  would  merit  comprehensive  study,  but  no 
extensive  effort  was  made  to  analyze  this  situation. 
However,  it  is  pointed  out  that  constant  remodeling 
of  the  work  of  the  university  is  necessary  in  view  of  the 
growth  of  scientific  knowledge,  in  order  to  meet  the 
changing  needs  of  industry. 

Trends  in  biology  arc  significant  insofar  as  they 
mdicate  the  influence  which  great  scientific  leaders  and 
great  discoveries  and  developments  in  the  physical 
sciences  have  had  on  the  biological  sciences.  Future 
development  will  naturally  be  dependent  on  the  progress 
of  those  sciences  which  supply  biology  with  special  tech- 
niques, but  biology  is  developing  within  itself  a  body  of 
knowledge  that  will  lead  to  important  discoveries. 

•Appreciation  Is  oipressed  to  Dr.  Q.  Laniiis,  of  the  Fleischmann  stafl,  for  his 
assistance. 


Introduction 

Since  prehistoric  times  biological  processes  have 
played  an  important  part  in  the  growth  of  civilization, 
but  until  recently  all  developments  were  chance  occur- 
rences, and  rule-of-thumb  methods  controlled  industrial 
procedures.  Beginning  with  Linnaeus  in  the  early 
eighteenth  century,  the  classification  and  integration  of 
biological  knowledge  have  fairly  revolutionized  our 
industrial  biological  economy.  This  systematization 
of  information  regarding  biology  has  proceeded  apace 
in  four  main  directions.  First,  we  have  developed  the 
concept  of  organization,  embodying  the  wide  aspect 
of  organic  evolution;  second,  we  have  studied  structure, 
morphologj',  and  histology;  third,  has  emerged  the  idea 
of  function,  physiology;  and  fomlh  and  most  recently, 
we  have  attacked  the  problem  of  mechanism,  genetics, 
biochemistry,  and  related  phases. 


Application  of  science  in  the  fields  of  nutrition, 
medicine,  agriculture,  and  manufacturing  has  lifted 
civilized  man  from  a  creature  of  circumstance  to  a  posi- 
tion of  dominant  control  of  the  physical  aspects  of  his 
environment.  Pasteur's  biological  experiments,  based 
on  the  best  scientific  chemical  and  physical  knowledge 
of  the  time,  led  the  way  for  the  control  and  practical 
suppression  of  the  epidemics  and  pestilences  which  had 
harried  mankind  for  so  long.  Establishment  of  his 
concepts  of  the  nature  of  life  has  facilitated  the  rise  of 
our  great  food  preservation,  processing  and  storage 
industries,  banishing  the  ancient  spectre  of  famine  from 
the  scene  of  any  nation  which  will  intelligently  apply 
them.  Recognition  of  the  vitamins  and  hormones  as 
instruments  used  in  the  mechanics  of  growth  and  life  pro- 
cesses promises  to  raise  the  physical  activities  of  a  popu- 
lation to  a  degree  of  efficiency  never  before  conceived. 

253 


254 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


As  the  individual  who  is  to  develop  and  guide  indus- 
trial applications  of  this  stupendous  body  of  knowl- 
edge, the  modern  biologist  can  no  longer  afford  merely 
to  chase  butterflies  or  dig  for  worms.  The  heretofore 
mysterious  and  occult  life  processes  are  now  shown  to 
abide  by  the  fundamental  laws  of  physics  and  chem- 
istry. But  the  arrangement  and  interaction  of  com- 
ponents within  the  cell,  of  cells  within  the  organism,  of 
individuals  within  a  society  superimposes  upon  physical 
and  chemical  phenomena  a  new  and  profoundly  effective 
factor;  that  which  we  call  organization.  Not  only 
must  the  modern  biologist,  whom  for  our  purposes  we 
might  call  a  "biological  engineer,"  be  thoroughly  fa- 
miliar with  physics  and  chemistry  and  their  language, 
mathematics,  but  he  must  also  have  some  comprehen- 
sion of  the  possibilities  inherent  in  organization. 
Biologists  find  it  difficult  to  qualify  in  all  these  respects, 
consequently  modern  industrial  biological  laboratories 
usually  represent  several  classes  of  training — chemists, 
physicists,  bacteriologists,  endocrinologists,  etc.,  co- 
operating as  best  they  may  in  the  work  of  the  industry. 

The  revolutionary  ideas  arising  from  Wohler's  syn- 
thesis of  urea  released  a  flood  of  biological  investigations. 
The  controversy  between  Liebig  and  Pasteur,  the  syn- 
theses accomplished  by  Emil  Fischer,  the  contributions 
made  by  Lamarck,  Darwin,  and  Mendel,  and  the  recent 
spectacular  researches  of  Warburg  and  other  contem- 
poraries on  the  structure  and  function  of  the  enzymes 
comprise  a  background  representing  the  modern  biolo- 
gist's point  of  view.  Without  this  background  the 
biologist  would  be  hampered  severely  in  his  work. 

The  biologist  never  has  a  simple  system,  since  his 
most  important  object  of  study,  the  living  form,  is  most 
complex.  At  first  thought,  it  might  be  said  that  the 
single-celled  organism,  e.  g.,  a  yeast  cell,  is  a  simple 
structure.  Quite  the  opposite  is  true;  it  must  possess 
within  one  cell  all  the  potentialities  of  a  complete  organ- 
ism; and  hence  is  more  complex  functionally,  and  often 
structurally,  than  any  individual  cell  of  a  "higher" 
(i.  e.,  more  complex)  plant  or  animal  Living  matter 
carmot  be  perfectly  controlled;  hence  the  perfect  ex- 
periment is  impossible  in  biology.  Many  trials  must 
be  made,  and  often  statistics  must  be  invoked  to  aid 
in  the  interpretation  of  results.  The  chemist  and 
physicist  find  it  hard  to  appreciate  the  difficulties  of 
biological  research.  The  engineer  may  design  a  plant 
perfect  in  construction  which  fails  in  operation  because 
he  faded  to  consider,  or  science  did  not  have  available, 
the  precise  laiowledge  necessary  to  control  production. 

This  report  has  been  prepared  from  the  information 
supplied  by  research  directors  of  a  number  of  industrial 
laboratories  and  university  men  interested  in  biology. 
It  is  hoped  that  it  will  point  out  some  of  the  things  that 
biologists  can  do  for  industry.  If  it  appears  that  the 
biological   investigations   lag   behind    those    in    other 


divisions  of  the  natural  sciences,  it  is  because  biology 
deals  with  phenomena  which  are  complicated,  variable, 
and  not  easily  susceptible  of  experimental  manipulation. 
The  investigator  must  be  familiar  with  the  biological 
system  which  he  is  attempting  to  study — the  condition 
of  the  living  thing.  It  is  clear  that  certam  biological 
experiments  require  not  only  knowledge  of  physics  and 
chemistry  but  also  a  knowledge  of  the  normal  living 
organism,  the  "biological  system."  If  there  is  a  imique 
biological  viewpoint  it  is  associated  with  an  under- 
standing of  this  relationship  and  the  possibilities  in- 
herent m  organization. 

Industrial  Applications 

Industries  vary  greatly  in  the  extent  to  which  they 
utilize  biological  research.  The  manufacture  of  vac- 
cines, antitoxins,  and  many  pharmaceuticals  involves 
the  most  meticulous  biological  control.  At  the  other 
extreme  we  have  the  metallurgical  industries  where  the 
biologist  is  concerned  only  with  employee  welfare  or 
waste  disposal.  In  any  event  we  may  define  the  in- 
dustrial biologist  from  the  standpoint  of  this  report  as 
one  engaged  in  research  on  biological  material  regardless 
of  his  previous  training.  According  to  the  figures 
obtained  by  questionnaires,  there  are  about  1,000 
biologists  engaged  in  industrial  research  in  the  United 
States,  but  under  the  above  classification  a  much  larger 
number  would  be  included. 

It  usually  requires  the  cooperation  of  many  scien- 
tifically framed  investigators  to  place  a  product  on  the 
market.  The  sources  of  raw  materials  must  be  care- 
fully investigated.  Their  cost  and  imiformity  and  the 
economics  of  bringhig  them  to  the  factory  door  are 
matters  of  prime  importance.  Once  the  laboratory  has 
developed  a  product  and  controls  satisfactorily  its  mii- 
formity,  flavor,  color,  consistency,  therapeutic  or  nutri- 
tive value,  and  other  properties,  the  cost  of  elaboration, 
methods  of  packaging,  distribution,  keeping  quality, 
and  superiority  over  competitive  products  must  be 
considered  as  important  factors.  When  the  product  is 
ready  for  market  a  consumer  preference  test  is  neces- 
sary. Ways  of  utilizing  waste  products  must  be  de- 
veloped as  these  may  become  important  sources  of 
revenue  in  reducing  the  over-all  processing  cost.  The 
knowledge  of  the  "biological  engineer"  is  of  great  value 
in  the  consideration  of  these  problems.  The  biologist 
wdl  also  be  consulted  in  the  labeling  and  advertising 
of  all  foods  and  drugs  in  accordance  with  the  regula- 
tions of  the  Food  and  Drug  Administration  (Federal 
Security  Agency)  and  of  the  Federal  Trade  Commission. 
Modern  advertising  and  labeling  of  such  products  must 
also  be  coordinated  with  the  Federal  and  State  regu- 
latory laws.  This  immense  task  requires  training  and 
experience  in  legal  as  well  as  scientific  fields. 

We  shall  pass  over  with  brief  mention  those  industries 


Industrial  Research 


255 


directly  concorned  with  medicine.  The  development  of 
cliemothcrapeiitic  agents  such  as  sulfanilamide  is 
largely  the  result  of  mtensive  study  in  industrial  labora- 
tories as  well  as  m  endowed  medical  laboratories. 
Research  on  the  endocrines  has  led  to  the  commercial 
exploitation  of  the  hormones.  Isolation  and  study  of 
the  viruses  may  lead  soon  to  developments  of  industrial 
significance. 

In  agriculture  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
genetics  and  physiology  has  led  to  an  astonishing 
increase  in  quahty  and  productivity.  Not  only  have 
plant  and  animal  strains  been  developed  for  specific 
pur]5oses  and  adaptable  to  specific  environments — 
resistant  or  immune  to  certain  diseases — but  in  many 
instances  the  ability  of  these  strains  to  utilize  more 
efTectively  the  potentialities  of  the  enviromnent  in 
providing  food  and  clothing  for  men  have  been  raised  to 
a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  Knowledge  of  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  has  made  its  contribution  to  this 
advance,  as  has  research  by  plant  pathologists,  genetr- 
icists,  biochemists,  bacteriologists,  entomologists,  and 
workei-s  m  other  fields.  Some  of  tliis  research  was 
unorgairized,  some  was  due  to  industrial  organizations, 
while  probably  the  most  has  come  from  the  State 
supported  agricidtural  experiment  stations. 

The  field  of  nutrition  has  undergone  a  near  revolu- 
tion. Newer  knowledge  of  the  mechanism  of  biological 
processes,  the  function  of  the  vitamins,  the  importance 
of  minerals,  and  studies  of  energy  transformations, 
immensely  accelerated  by  the  use  of  radioactive  and 
isotopic  "tracer"  atoms  within  the  animal  body  in 
relation  to  the  foods  utilized  has  had  great  industrial 
repercussions.  Tliis  has  also  indirectly  iiifluenced 
agricvdture;  studies  in  animal  husbandry  and  nutrition 
have  shown  how  to  feed  for  lean  meat,  for  egg  produc- 
tion, and  even  for  better  wool  and  fur.  Although 
research  in  this  field  was  initiated  maiidy  in  the  uni- 
versities a  rapidly  increasing  amount  is  being  done  in 
strictly  industrial  laboratories,  wliile  nearly  an  equal 
amount  in  the  colleges  is  now  being  subsidized  by 
industry. 

Transportation  and  storage  become  big  problems  in 
the  economy  of  civilized  man,  and  in  most  cases  some 
processing  to  improve  characteristics  of  the  product 
and  prevent  deterioration  is  necessary  after  harvesting, 
whether  the  crop  be  plants,  animals,  or  micro-organisms. 
During  processing  the  cells  and  structure  of  the  product 
may  be  changed,  and  appearance,  digestibihty,  flavor, 
odor,  tenderness,  etc.,  be  favorably  or  unfavorably 
influenced,  but  the  control  measures  of  the  biologist  and 
his  other  scientific  collaborators  should  be  avadable. 
Ripening  processes  involve  enzymic  changes,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  control  these  changes  in  the  product  due 
to  its  own  enzymes  or  to  those  of  invading  micro- 
organisms.    The  battle  between  the  biologist  and  the 


spoilage  micro-organisms  is  a  continuous  one,  and  the 
outcome  is  dependent  U|)on  the  information  furnished 
by  biological  research.  It  is  in  tlu;  jjrcservation  of 
foods  that  the  research  biologist  has  made  some  of  his 
most  imi)ortant  contributions.  The  biologist  is  also 
conccM-ned  in  keeping  out,  killing,  or  removing  diseast!- 
producing  organisms,  both  infectious  and  those  produc- 
ing to.xins.  A  great  deal  of  the  research  in  tliis  field  is 
due  to  industrial  organizations. 

The  Food  Industries 

Tlie  food  in(lustri(^s  have,  in  general,  been  slower  to 
use  biologists  and  their  discoveries  than  have  some  otlier 
industries;  this  is  probably  due  to  their  firm  anchorage 
in  the  methods  of  antiquity.  A  few  of  the  biological 
sciences,  however,  are  well  represented  in  some  of  the 
food  industries  at  present.  Bacteriologists,  for  ex- 
ample, are  considered  necessary  collaborators  in  re- 
search on  milk  products,  meats,  and  canning.  Re- 
searches in  relation  to  the  adidteration  of  foods  and 
drugs  have  been  carried  on  intensively  by  chemists  and 
bacteriologists.  There  exists,  however,  a  real  need  for 
more  emphasis  on  investigations  of  the  histology  of 
useful  plants.     Food  microscopy,  as  it  is  called,  is  a 


FiGUKE   79. — .Stmlyiiif;   ().\iil:i,ti(in-H(.'iliR-(ion   Sy-stcins,    Flei.scli- 
maini  Laboratories,  New  Vork,  New  York 


256 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


neglected  field.  Especially  neglected  have  been  studies 
relative  to  the  structure  of  the  seed  kernel.  In  the 
following  discussion  of  the  problems  in  connection  with 
some  of  the  more  important  food  industries,  a  few 
examples  of  the  use  of  biologists  in  research  will  be 
cited  and  their  more  extensive  use  suggested. 

Aleat  and  meat  products. — Studies  of  the  growth, 
breeding,  and  nutrition  of  meat  animals  obviously 
involve  research  by  many  kinds  of  biologists.  Then 
from  the  time  the  animal  is  killed  until  its  meat  is  con- 
sumed there  is  work  for  biologist  and  chemist  in  deter- 
mining methods  for  reducing  to  a  minimum  undesir- 
able chemical  and  physical  changes  and  encouraging 
desirable  changes.  Recent  studies  by  bacteriologists 
on  the  amount  and  kind  of  contamination  by  micro- 
organisms at  different  stages  during  the  handling  of 
meat  in  the  packing  plant  have  shown  the  importance 
of  further  research.  The  growth  of  micro-organisms 
and  consequent  spoilage  of  meat  is  an  ever-present 
problem  to  be  solved.  The  biologist  must  investigate 
not  only  changes  due  to  micro-organisms,  but  also 
those  due  to  enzymes  of  the  meat  or  to  purely  chemical 
reactions.  Thus  the  chilling  of  meat  or  freezing  by 
cither  quick  or  slow  methods  brings  problems  to  the 
biologist,  who  must  be  trained  in  anatomy,  histology, 
and  microscopy  as  well  as  in  biophysics  and  biochem- 
istry. The  biologist  encounters  special  problems  in 
changes  in  taste  or  odor  and  in  loss  of  "bloom"  and 
other  changes  in  pigmentation  including  discolorations. 
The  oxidation  of  fats,  use  of  antioxidants,  and  the 
causes  of  rancidity  still  present  many  problems.  In- 
vestigation is  needed  on  ripening  and  "tenderizing" 
meats  and  on  their  nutritive  value. 

Preservation  of  meat  and  meat  products  by  heat 
presents  the  biologist  with  problems.  While  the  proc- 
essing of  canned  meats  by  the  usual  steam-pressure- 
cooker  methods  still  deserves  study,  less  adequately 
explored  is  the  field  of  processing  certain  canned  meat 
products  such  as  luncheon  meats  or  hams  so  that  only 
part  of  the  micro-organisms  present  will  be  killed,  yet 
the  product  will  keep  for  a  reasonable  time  at  low 
storage  temperatures. 

Curing,  piclding,  smoking,  and  drying  of  meats  are 
being  investigated.  The  bacteriology  of  the  brine 
used  in  curing  hams  and  bacon  needs  study  to  enable 
better  control  of  the  curing  process.  This  may  lead  to 
the  use  of  pure  cultures,  an  example  of  which  is  the 
addition  of  cultures  of  lactobacilli  to  a  certain  tangy 
sausage  with  consequent  improvement  in  the  quality 
of  the  product. 

Fish  and  seafoods. — In  general  the  sea-food  industry 
faces  problems  similar  to  those  of  the  meat  industry. 
An  important  difference,  however,  is  the  fact  that  fish 
and  other  sea  foods  usually  are  not  grown  but  must 
be  sought  where  they  grow  in  nature  (an  exception  is. 


of  course,  the  breeding  of  game  fish  and  planting  of 
lakes  and  streams  primarily  for  the  sake  of  the  sports- 
man). Nevertheless,  the  ichthyologist,  limnologist, 
and  biochemist  are  carrying  on  research  of  benefit  to 
the  commercial  fisherman.  Two  interesting  examples 
of  this  aid  are:  A  study  of  the  habits  of  fish  to  guide 
the  fisherman  to  the  best  places  to  net  fish;  a  study  of 
the  organic  matter  content  of  the  water,  or  rather  its 
availability;  this  can  be  measured  by  determining  the 
rate  of  bacterial  nndtiplication  and  the  rate  of  oxj'gen 
absorption  in  the  water  due  to  bacterial  action.  The 
case  of  decomposition  of  fish  (and  other  sea  foods) 
both  by  autolysis  and  by  microbial  action,  and  the  fact 
that  fishes  usually  are  harvested  at  some  distance  from 
the  place  of  processing,  have  given  the  biologist  espe- 
cially difficult  problems. 

Milk  and  milk  products. — While  mdk  may  not  be 
considered  an  industrial  product  when  first  produced, 
it  becomes  one  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  market-milk 
plant,  the  cheese  factory,  condensery,  or  other  process- 
ing plant.  The  dairy  industry  is  making  more  use  of 
biologists  than  are  some  of  the  other  food  industries. 
Bacteriologists  and  biochemists  in  particular  are  doing 
research  on  milk  and  milk  products,  especially  on  as- 
pects of  sanitation,  preservation,  nutritive  properties, 
and  utilization  of  byproducts. 

Milk  is  subject  to  contamination  by  micro-organisms 
which  may  grow  and  cause  spoilage,  as  well  as  by  path- 
ogenic bacteria.  Because  the  delicate  flavor  of  milk 
and  certain  of  its  physical  characteristics  are  so  readily 
changed  by  some  of  the  commonly  used  methods  of 
food  preservation  like  heat  and  freezing,  its  preservation 
presents  problems  different  from  those  encountered  in 
most  foods.  Asepsis,  cooling,  and  pasteurization  are 
commonly  employed,  but  use  of  pressure,  sound  waves, 
ultraviolet  rays,  etc.,  is  being  studied.  Sanitary  con- 
trol is  not  only  of  interest  to  the  market  milk  industry 
but  also  to  the  ice  cream  industry,  because  of  the  in- 
creasing stringency  of  laws  concerrung  the  bacterial 
content,  more  especially  that  of  Escherichia  coli,  in  ice 
cream.  The  butter  industry  is  faced  with  problems 
concerning  the  original  cream  as  well  as  the  butter 
which  has  been  in  cold  storage  for  months.  The  biolo- 
gist is  of  assistance  in  the  investigation  of  the  harmful 
processes  which  may  take  place.  Evaporated  milk 
presents  problems  especially  to  the  biochemist  interested 
in  the  coagulability  of  the  casein  as  influenced  by  com- 
position of  the  milk.  Both  the  nutrition  expert  and 
the  bacteriologist  find  unsolved  problems  concerning 
the  proper  processing  of  the  canned  product. 

Fermented  milk  products  are  manufactured  partly  as 
a  means  of  preservation  of  milk,  but  primarily  for  their 
inherent  characteristics.  Fermented  milk  drinks  (but- 
termilks) are,  for  the  most  part,  prepared  with  more 
than  one  species  of  micro-organism,  and  the  resulting 


Industrial  Research 


257 


mbccd  fermentation  presents  special  problems.  Cheese 
making  usually  involves  the  activity  of  still  more  spe- 
cies of  micro-organisms  and  presents  problems  of  even 
greater  complexity.  The  bacteriology,  physical  chem- 
istry, and  biochemistry  of  most  of  the  hundreds  of 
kinds  of  cheese  are  still  not  clear,  and  an  enormous 
amount  of  research  will  be  necessary  before  the  cheese 
maker  can  manufacture  consistently  a  product  of  the 
highest  quality. 

Nutritional  studies  on  milk  and  milk  products  are 
assuming  increasing  importance.  Vitamin  and  mineral 
content,  change  of  alpha  lactose  to  the  beta  form, 
production  of  soft-curd  milk,  irradiation  of  milk, 
activation  and  feeding  of  yeast  to  cows  to  increase  the 
vitamin  D  content  of  their  milk,  and  the  effect  of  the 
form  of  lactic  acid  upon  assimilation  are  all  subjects  of 
present  interest  and  research. 

Eggs. — Stored  eggs  are  subject  not  only  to  spoilage 
by  micro-organisms  but  also  to  deterioration  due  to 
their  own  enzymes.  The  industry  is  interested  in 
improvements  over  the  usual  chilling  or  "cold-storage" 
preservation;  these  include  oiling  of  the  shell,  with  or 
without  replacement  of  the  air  Ln  the  egg  with  carbon 
dioxide,  and  storage  in  an  atmosphere  with  a  controlled 
content  of  carbon  dioxide  or  ozone.  The  freezing  and 
drying  of  eggs   also   present   unsolved   problems;   for 


instance  the  diying  of  egg  white  by  the  usual  methods 
used  for  milk  injures  the  whipping  quality. 

Fruits. — It  is  evident  that  various  biologists  would  be 
concerned  in  research  on  fruit  production,  and  large 
producers  are  employing  biologists  to  assure  greater 
yields  and  improved  quality.  The  transportation  and 
storage  of  fruits  present  difficulties  that  differ  in  some 
respects  from  those  encountered  with  animal  products. 
In  most  fruits  and  vegetables  the  cells  remain  alive 
long  after  harvesting  and  continue  respiration  and  other 
functions.  Most  fruits  reach  a  certain  stage  of  ripe- 
ness or  maturity  desired  by  the  consumer  and  must  be 
marketed  at  that  stage.  For  these  reasons  the  time  of 
harvesting,  the  methods  of  handling,  the  use  of  artificial 
agents  or  specific  chemicals  such  as  ethylene  for  increas- 
ing the  speed  of  ripening,  are  all  of  great  importance 
and  are  the  subject  of  considerable  research  by  biol- 
ogists. Prevention  of  mold  and  bacterial  growth  is 
also  an  important  problem.  The  optimum  temperature 
of  storage  varies  with  the  fruit  to  be  stored  and  temper- 
atures that  are  but  slightly  too  high  or  too  low  may  ruin 
the  product.  Investigations  on  this  subject  by  plant 
physiologists  and  biochemists  continue,  but  these 
researches  now  are  concerned  chiefly  with  a  study  of 
controlled  atmospheres  about  the  fruits,  with  special 
attention  to  concentrations  and  proportions  of  oxygen 


Figure  80. — Corner  of  Food  Technology  Laboratory,  General  Foods  Corporation,  Hoboken,  New  Jersey 


258 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


and  carbon  dioxide,  and  to  the  use  of  ozone.  Investi- 
gations on  the  method  of  extracting  and  preserving 
fruit  flavors  for  use  in  gelatin,  ice  cream,  and  candy  are 
being  carried  on  in  a  number  of  industries. 

Freezing  of  foods  is  a  large  and  rapidly  growing 
industry.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are  being  frozen 
chiefly  by  quick  freezing  methods,  although  some  fruits 
are  frozen  more  slowly.  Ucvelopment  of  quick-freezing 
methods  has  opened  a  large  field  of  research  by  biol- 
ologists,  for  fruits  and  vegetables  suitable  for  canning 
are  not  necessarily  adapted  to  freezing,  and  old  varieties 
are  being  tested  and  new  varieties  sought.  Inactivation 
of  enzymes,  especially  of  those  of  vegetables,  is  being 
investigated,  for  the  enzymes  are  not  destroyed  by  low 
temperatures  and  may  cause  appreciable  changes  in  the 
frozen  product.  The  chemical  and  physical  changes 
which  take  place  between  harvesting  and  thawing  of 
the  frozen  product  before  consumption  also  are  receiving 
the  attention  of  biochemists  and  biophysicists. 

Most  fruits  are  so  acid  that  spoilage  of  the  canned 
product  is  not  a  major  problem,  although  occasionally 
difficulties  arise  in  the  preservation  of  such  fruits  by 
drying.  Physical  and  chemical  changes  in  the  plant 
cells  which  take  place  during  harvestmg,  lye  treatment, 
sulfuring,  drying,  and  "sweating"  are  subjects  for 
research.  The  treatment  of  fresh  fruits  to  destroy 
molds  and  bacteria  may  extend  the  marketing  period. 

Vegetables. — The  problems  in  connection  with  the 
freezing  of  vegetables  have  been  discussed  under  the 
heading  "fruits."  Biologists  have  been  helpful  to  the 
canning  industry  in  its  packing  of  vegetables.  The 
production  of  vegetables  suitable  for  canning  has 
inspired  some  important  linos  of  research.  A  notable 
example  is  the  discovery  that  deficiency  of  soils  in  boron 


FniUHK  SI.      PliutuL-lc'clric  Cipldriiiiilc  r  iiir   MrasiiriiiK   Aiiumiil 
of  Vitamin  .A  in   Foods,  Purina  Mills,  St.   Louis,   Missouri 


is  responsible  for  "black  heart"  in  caiming  beets. 
Geneticists  and  plant  breeders  are  engaged  in  producing 
new  varieties,  especially  suited  to  processing  and 
shipping. 

Tlie  canner  is  always  torn  between  the  desire  to  heat 
the  canned  product  as  little  as  practicable,  so  as  to 
avoid  harm  to  the  quality  of  his  product,  and  to  admin- 
ister a  severe  heat  treatment  to  assure  the  inactivation 
of  all  spoilage  organisms.  The  bacteriologist  has 
studied  the  heat  resistance  of  spoilage  bacteria,  the 
sources  of  these  organisms,  and  new  methods  of 
processing.  He  is  at  present  interested  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  new  high-temperature  short-time  methods. 

Fungi. — The  cultivation  of  mushrooms,  molds, 
yeasts,  and  bacteria  for  use  as  foods  is  a  large  industry 
in  itself  with  many  possibilities  as  yet  unexplored.  The 
industry  in  the  United  States  produces  annually  about 
18  million  pounds  of  muslu-ooms.  This  is  a  good  illus- 
tration of  how  sound  biological  methods  make  possible 
great  industries.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  mushroom 
industry  is  mainly  due  to  two  biological  processes,  the 
development  of  pure  culture  methods  of  growing 
spawn  and  improvement  in  the  preparation  of  compost 
humus. 

Commercial  yeast  manufacture. — The  cultivation  of 
yeasts  for  food,  for  various  vitamins  or  vitamin  pre- 
cursors, for  leavening  of  bread  dough,  for  manufacture 
of  beer,  wines  and  other  foods  and  beverages  has  been 
the  basis  of  research  by  the  biologists  who  are  still 
studying  the  physiological  characteristics  of  yeasts  and 
efficient  methods  for  their  cultivation.  Studies  in  this 
field  have  thrown  light  on  the  chemical  and  physiological 
processes  in  higher  plants  and  animals. 

Manufacture  of  bacterial  cultures. — Many  food  indus- 
tries use  pure  cultures  of  bacteria  and  the  preparation 
of  these  cultures  is  a  considerable  industry  in  itself. 
In  the  dairy  industries  starter  cultures  are  needed  for 
the  manufacture  of  cheese,  butter,  and  fermented 
milks.  The  production  of  special  enzjmies  not  only  from 
bacteria  but  also  from  yeasts  and  molds  for  use  in 
food  and  other  industries  is  increasing  in  importance. 
The  successful  growth  of  leguminous  crops  such  as 
alfalfa,  clover,  peas,  and  soybeans,  often  depends 
upon  the  use  of  suitable  cultures  of  the  nodule-forming 
organisms — the  symbiotic  rhizobia.  Obviously  the 
bacteriologist  finds  research  necessary  to  determine 
methods  for  the  preparation  of  effective,  long-lived 
cultures  which  are  able  to  perform  the  functions 
expected  of  them.  The  growth  of  cultures  for  the 
production  of  enzymes  introduces  problems  not  only 
of  yield  but  of  isolation  and  purification  of  the  product. 
It  is  anticipated  that  research  work  on  enzyme 
products  will  continue  to  grow  m  importance. 

Cereals  and  cereal  products. — The  cereal  industries 
are  faced  with  problems  in  grain  production,  processing, 


Industrial  Research 


259 


nutritive  properties,  and  spoilage.  Only  during  the 
past  10  years  has  the  extensive  use  of  combine  harvest- 
ing so  changed  the  biological  character  of  wheat  as  to 
impose  difficult  problems  for  the  milling  industry  in 
enzymic  control.  Often  problems  of  flavor  control  are 
associated  intimately  with  biological  effects. 

In  the  baking  industry,  for  example,  ropiness  of 
l)read  and  spoilage  by  molds  continue  to  cause  trouble. 
Recently  it  has  been  found  that  the  salts  of  acetic  and 
])ro])ionic  acid  are  valuable  in  the  prevention  of  molds 
on  bread.  The  physical  properties  of  the  finished  bread 
continue  to  be  investigated  and  improvements  in  flavor 
are  being  sought.  The  weevil  hazard  is  one  to  which 
all  makei-s  of  meals,  cereals,  and  crackers  must  attend. 
The  number  of  breakfast  foods  has  multiplied  greatly 
in  recent  years  and  the  efl'orts  continually  being  made 
to  improve  their  flavor  and  dietetic  value,  as  well  as 
vitamin  and  mineral  content,  demand  careful  biological 
testing.  Recent]}'  the  restoration  of  vitamin  Bi  to 
white  bread  by  means  of  special  milling  processes,  the 
addition  of  thiamin,  or  the  use  of  high  Bi  yeast  have 
been  the  subjects  of  intensive  research. 


Siigar  and  sugar  ■products. — Although  the  microbial 
content  of  sugars  for  canning  now  is  being  controlled 
in  a  fairly  satisfactory  manner,  thanks  to  past  research, 
there  is  still  room  for  improvement.  Occasional  lots 
contain  large  enough  nund)ers  of  spores  of  thermophilic, 
anaerobic  bacteria  to  make  them  unsuitable  for  use 
by  the  canner.  The  need  for  further  research  and 
continuous  control  of  manufacturing  methods  is  indi- 
cated. Spoilage  of  honey,  sirups,  and  candies  also 
needs  further  study. 

Food  Jats  and  oils. — The  nutritive  value,  causes  of 
deterioration  and  methods  of  preservation  of  fats  and 
oils  are  subjects  for  further  study  by  biologists.  The 
influence  of  various  catalysts  on  oxidative  changes  in 
fats  and  oils  brings  about  changes  in  flavor.  Micro- 
organisms, especially  molds,  have  been  shown  to  be 
responsible  for  both  oxidative  and  hydrolytic  changes. 

Spices,  condiments,  and  unjermented  beverages. — The 
antiseptic  and  germicidal  power  of  spices  and  condi- 
ments, and  their  preservation  and  use  for  the  control  of 
the  bacterial  content  of  foods  continue  to  be  subjects 
for  research.     Biologists  find  subjects  for  research  in 


Figure  82. —  Corner  of  Research  Laboratory,  Swift  and  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois 


321835- 


-18 


260 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


the  removal  of  the  cofTee  "bean"  from  outer  skins  and 
pulp  and  a  possibly  controlled  fermentation  of  the 
coffee  bean  to  improve  flavor  and  aroma.  Likewise, 
the  removal  of  cocoa  beans  from  pod  and  pulp  and  the 
accompanying  fermentation  are  being  studied,  as  is 
the  "fermentation"  of  tea  leaves.  Important  studies 
on  the  staling  of  coffee  have  recently  appeared. 

Fermented  foods. — The  biologist  is  essential  to  indus- 
tries which  manufacture  fermented  foods  like  sauer- 
kraut, picldes,  olives,  fermented  milks,  vinegar,  and 
beverages  such  as  beer,  and  wines.  Bacteriologists 
and  biochemists  have  developed  satisfactory  methods 
for  the  preparation  of  sauerkraut  and  have  investigated 
the  bacterial  flora  and  causes  of  spoilage.  Similar 
work  on  cucumber  pickles  and  olives  is  occupying  the 
attention  of  biologists  in  these  industries.  Although 
the  manufacture  of  vinegar  by  fermentation  has  been 
carried  on  for  centuries,  methods  of  production  have 
recently  been  so  greatly  improved  as  to  be  almost 
completely  revolutionized. 

In  fermentation  industries  like  brewing  and  wine 
making,  the  yeasts  used  are  studied  for  food  require- 
ments, methods  of  propagation,  maintenance  of  desired 
characteristics,  and  possible  improvement  of  their 
activity.  The  aging  of  the  products,  maintenance  or 
improvement  of  their  quality,  and  prevention  of  spoil- 
age also  are  being  investigated. 

A  recent  development  of  great  importance  to  the  food 
industry  is  the  development  of  a  yeast  containing  10  to 
20  times  as  much  vitamin  Bi  as  that  of  ordinary  beer  or 
baker's  yeast.  The  development  of  special  strains  of 
yeast  and  methods  of  growing  for  the  production  of 
ergosterol  and  riboflavin  are  examples  of  research  in  this 
field.  A  special  yeast  high  in  invertase  activity  has  also 
been  recently  developed. 

Fermentation  Industries 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  present  annual  produc- 
tion of  fermented  products  and  chemicals  produced  by 
fermentation  is  about  as  follows: 

Malt  liquors,  1,669  million  gallons. 

Wines  and  spirits,  145  million  gallons. 

Industrial  alcohol,  152  million  gallons. 

Acetone    (including   synthetic)    and    butyl   alcohol,    150 

million  pounds. 
Lactic   acid,    1,292,000   pounds   edible   and   5-7   million 

pounds,  technical. 
Citric  acid,  15  million  pounds. 
Gluconic  acid,  500,000  pounds. 
Sorbose,  100,000  pounds. 

New  organisms. — In  the  highly  competitive  fermenta- 
tion industries  there  is  a  constant  pressure  for  improve- 
ment of  the  processes,  as  witness  the  numerous  patents. 
While  it  is  not  possible  to  patent  an  existing  micro- 
organism as  such,  it  is  considered  a  point  of  novelty  and 


a  patentable  feature  if  one  has  developed  an  organism 
having  characteristics  commercially  significant.  If  a 
company  is  not  to  be  the  prey  of  any  inventor  who 
comes  to  offer  a  new  organism,  it  should  itself  ex- 
plore the  possibilities  of  isolation  and  testing  of 
new  organisms.  Some  large  companies  recognize  this 
and  have  in  their  employ  trained  bacteriologists  or 
mycologists. 

Changing  economic  conditions  may  so  affect  the  avail- 
ability or  price  of  the  raw  carbohydrate  for  the  fermen- 
tation as  to  cause  a  change  in  desirability  of  an  organism 
for  a  given  fermentation.  For  example,  in  the  early 
years  of  butyl  fermentation,  the  Weizmann  organism 
held  the  field  because  of  its  superiority  in  the  production 
of  butyl  alcohol  and  acetone  from  com.  Some  10  years 
ago  molasses  displaced  com,  and  immediately  butyl 
organisms  of  a  new  type  were  in  demand.  Their  dis- 
covery was  an  assignment  for  the  microbiologist,  and  to 
his  credit  may  it  be  said  that  by  deliberate  selection 
from  many  new  isolations  of.  butyl  bacteria  he  found  new 
species  and  particular  strains  far  superior  to  the  original 
commercial  butyl  types.  A  spectacular  current  devel- 
opment is  a  new  technique  for  the  controlled  adaptation 
of  micro-organisms. 

Nutritional  requirements. — It  is  obvious  that  to  grow 
bacteria  and  yeast  one  must  supply  the  proper  food. 
Unfortunately  all  the  factors  involved  in  the  growing 
process  are  not  known  even  by  the  best  informed.  The 
gross  energy-yielding  nutrients  are  known  but  the  re- 
quirements for  optimum  functioning  are  but  imperfectly 
understood.  It  is  becoming  increasingly  evident  that 
bacteria  and  even  higher  plants  require  vitamins  just  as 
much  as  do  higher  animals.  In  nature  micro-organisms 
may  obtain  these  substances  from  one  another  or  from 
other  plant  and  animal  materials.  In  industrial  opera- 
tions the  micro-organism  is  shut  off  from  associated 
organisms  and  must  depend  upon  the  food  supply  offered 
or  upon  its  own  synthetic  powers.  By  and  large,  shot- 
gun methods  of  supplying  these  feeds  are  employed, 
such  as  use  of  extracts  of  natural  materials  in  the  fermen- 
tation mashes.  When  it  is  not  known  what  growth 
factors  are  required,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  except 
by  trial  and  error  experimentation  whether  or  not  the 
factor  needed  is  present  in  the  extract.  In  microbiology 
the  necessity  for  growth  factors  has  long  been  appreci- 
ated. Because  of  recent  developments  in  animal  nutri- 
tion, advance  Ln  the  knowledge  of  the  nutrition  of 
micro-organisms  has  been  accelerated. 

Physical  factors. — Consideration  must  be  given  also 
to  such  factors  as  optimum  temperature,  hydrogen- 
ion  concentration,  and  oxidation-reduction  potential. 
Means  of  control  of  these  factors  are  well  known  to  the 
biologist  but  their  need  is  frequently  not  recognized  by 
plant  operators. 


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261 


Biological  Products 

Vitamins. — In  the  last  decade  the  vitamins  have 
moved  on  from  the  research  laboratory  to  a  place  in 
industry.  The  developments  in  the  vitamin  field  are  an 
excellent  example  of  research  work  leading  to  the 
establishment  of  new  industries.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  sales  value  of  pharmaceutical  vitamin  products,  such 
as  Viosterol,  cod-liver  and  Haliver  oils,  amounts, 
annually,  to  $125,000,000  in  the  United  States.  The 
value  of  food  products  sold  on  the  basis  of  their  v^itamin 
content  must  amount  to  many  times  that  of  the  phar- 
maceutical products.  Milk  and  cereals  which  have 
been  treated  so  as  to  enhance  or  restore  their  vitamin 
potency  are  produced  in  large  volume.  Oleomargarine 
fortified  with  vitamin  A  is  another  product  featuring  the 
vitamin  content  as  a  basis  of  sale.  Most  infant  foods 
are  now  prepared  with  carefid  regard  for  their  vitamin 
content.  Many  poultry  and  dog  feeds  are  compoimded 
with  a  view  to  insuring  an  adequate  supply  of  these 
nutritional  elements,  and  sales  are  promoted  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  by  the  advertising  of  the  vitamin 
content.  The  volume  of  this  business  is  increasing 
rapidly. 

Restoration  to  food  products  of  various  vitamins 
removed  in  processing  is  today  one  of  the  outstanding 
questions  under  discussion  by  nutritionists,  medical 
men,  and  food  manufacturers.  Although  there  is  no 
general  agreement  as  to  the  proper  extent  of  such  resto- 
ration or  fortification  or  the  procedure  that  will  best 
conserve  the  public  health,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  tendency  is  toward  increasing  the  vitamin 
content  of  foods. 

In  the  beginning  the  recognition  of  the  existence  of  a 
vitamin  was  the  work  of  the  biologist,  or  of  chemists 
trained  in  biology,  and  all  through  the  stages  of  puri- 
fication, isolation,  and  synthesis  the  work  is  guided  by 
biological  assay.  Without  this  guidance  the  chemist 
would  be  imable  to  plan  his  work  or  to  know  the  results 
obtained. 

When  the  interest  in,  or  need  for,  a  vitamin  has 
reached  the  dimensions  of  a  public  demand,  the  problem 
becomes  one  of  manufacture.  Then  the  work  of  the 
chemist  and  the  engineer  becomes  of  importance.  But 
even  here,  satisfactory  control  of  the  quality  of  the 
product  must  be  maintained.  Where  suitable  chemical 
methods  become  available,  the  biological  assay  gives 
place  to  the  chemical  analysis  for  vitamin  control.  The 
use  of  micro-organisms  in  place  of  rats  for  assaying 
vitamin  products  is  a  recent  development. 

Enzymes. — The  enzyme  rennin  has  been  used  in  the 
cheese  industry  for  centuries.  However,  only  relatively 
recently  has  the  importance  of  this  class  of  very  reactive 
agents  in  the  chemical  processes  of  the  living  cell  been 
recognized.  Still  more  recently  the  possibility  of 
extracting  enzymes  from  the  tissues  and  of  using  them  to 


cause  desired  chemical  transformations  in  industry  has 
been  attended  with  considerable  success.  The  number 
and  kinds  of  enzymes  are  enormous,  and  their  discovery 
and  application  present  fields  for  practically  unlimited 
research. 

There  are  available  commercial  enzyme  preparations 
such  as  invcrtase  from  yeast,  pepsin,  rennin,  papain, 
pancreatic  extracts,  diastatic  malt  extracts,  and  micro- 
bial proteases  and  amylases.  Other  types  of  enzymes 
could  no  doubt  be  prepared  in  large  quantities  if 
applications  were  developed. 

Two  of  the  well-known  commercial  uses  of  enzymes 
are  found  in  the  leather  and  textile  industries.  Origi- 
nally in  the  tanning  industry,  the  sweating  of  hides 
was  followed  by  puering  with  dog  or  bird  excreta, 
and  in  the  textile  industry  dosizing  of  fabrics  was  done 
in  stagnant  water.  Following  the  discovery  that  the 
desired  reactions  are  due  to  specific  enzymes,  the  use  of 
crude  mixtures  of  animal  feces  was  discarded  and  a 
standardized  enzyme  preparation  was  substituted. 

In  the  food  industries,  many  applications  of  enzymic 
properties  have  been  made.  Invertase  preparations 
are  widely  used  to  produce  a  noncrystallizable  soft 
cream  center  for  chocolate-coated  confections.  In- 
vertase is  also  being  used  in  effecting  the  partial  hy- 
drolysis of  sugar  syrups.  In  the  meat  industry,  plant 
proteases  like  papain  and  bromelin  have  been  success- 
fully used  to  make  various  meat  products  tender.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  food  industries  are  primarily 
interested  in  the  inhibition  of  enzymatic  action;  for 
example,  quick-frozen  foods  are  first  scalded  to  render 
the  enzymes  inert. 

Studies  of  the  enzyme  systems  in  citrus  fruits  have 
resulted  in  a  process  for  stabilizing  the  natural  clouding 
of  citrus  juice,  and  there  is  in  use  also  a  process  for 
drying  orange  pulp  for  cattle  feed  which  uses  enzymic 
action  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the  driers.  In  the 
production  of  pectin  from  apple  pomace,  the  disturbing 
presence  of  starch  has  been  eliminated  by  the  applica- 
tion of  fungous  amylases.  Other  fungous  preparations 
containing  pectinase  have  recently  been  introduced  for 
the  clarification  of  various  fruit  juice  beverages.  In 
the  brewing  industry,  bacterial  amylase  preparations 
are  in  use  for  the  liquefaction  of  unmalted  cereals  such 
as  corn  and  rice.  Proteolytic  enzymes  are  used,  not 
only  in  the  early  stages  of  manufacture  to  render  soluble 
the  proteins  of  the  mash,  but  also  in  the  final  clarifica- 
tion of  malt  beverages  by  removal  of  the  protein  haze. 

For  the  manufacture  of  various  sizing  pastes  to  be 
used  in  the  paper  industry,  amylases  offer  particular 
advantages  because  of  the  various  grades  of  material 
which  can  be  uniformly  produced.  Other  interesting 
applications  of  enzymes  include  their  use  to  digest  the 
gelatin  in  the  recovery  of  silver  from  used  photographic 
films  and  in  the  deproteinizing  of  rubber  to  produce 


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a  higlJy  water-resistant  product,  as  well  as  the  use  of 
pancreas  extract  for  the  production  of  soft-curd  milk. 

The  levels  of  phosphatase  in  milk  and  in  blood  vary 
with  the  degree  of  infection.  The  phosphatase  test, 
which  depends  upon  the  heat  stability  of  the  enzyme, 
is  used  in  industry  to  determine  whether  milk  is  pas- 
teinized  at  the  correct  temperature. 

In  the  first  steps  of  commercial  preparation  of  certain 
antitoxins,  successful  use  has  been  made  of  proteolytic 
enzymes  to  digest  and  in  this  waj^  to  remove  contami- 
nating proteins.  The  successful  use  of  proteolytic 
enzymes  to  separate  mixtures  of  hormones  also  has  been 
carried  out. 

The  industries  described  above  by  no  means  exhaust 
the  commercial  uses  of  enzymes,  and  it  is  not  too  much 
to  predict  for  the  future  still  more  industrial  applica- 
tions. It  may  be  said  that  these  substances  are  poten- 
tially useful  to  any  industry  which  is  concerned  with 
products  of  a  carbohydrate,  proteinaceous,  or  fatty 
nature. 

Hormones  and  auxins. — Hormones,  the  secretions  of 
the  ductless  glands  of  animals,  play  a  role  in  embryo 
development,  in  the  coordination  of  the  secretion  of 
digestive  enzymes,  in  the  function  of  the  nervous 
system  (neurohormones),  in  the  control  of  the  metab- 
olism of  carbohydrates,  fats,  and  proteins,  in  growth, 
and  in  reproduction.  Many  of  these  regulators  involved 
in  the  control  of  vital  processes  in  both  plants  and 
animals  have  been  isolated  in  a  higlily  purified  form  or 
have  been  synthesized. 

The  early  recognition  that  many  abnormal  and  dis- 
turbed functions  of  man  and  animals  ai'e  the  result  of 
the  production  of  too  much  or  too  little  of  certain 
endocrine  glandular  secretions  resulted  in  the  develop- 
ment of  methods  of  treatment  by  the  injection  or  in 
certain  cases  the  feeding  of  gland  substances.  Classical 
cases  are  the  use  of  insulin  for  the  treatment  of  diabetes 
mellitus,  the  use  of  sex  hormones  to  aid  in  the  physiolog- 
ical adjustment  (treatment  of  the  symptoms)  at  the 
time  of  the  menopause,  and  the  purification  of  the 
pituitary  hormone  used  in  ciiildbirth.  In  plant  cultiu'e, 
liormone  extracts  and  auxins  are  used  by  florists  and 
horticulturists. 

The  advent  of  hormones  in  the  treatment  of  various 
disorders  has  made  it  necessary  for  the  biologist  to 
survey  the  hormone  content  of  the  endocrine  glands  of 
various  species,  and  thus  to  guide  the  chemist  in  the 
selection  of  the  most  potent  sources  of  a  particular 
hormone.  It  is  the  function  of  the  chemist  to  isolate, 
purify,  and  synthesize  these  active  substances  and  of 
the  biologist  to  study  their  consequences  on  living 
organisms. 

Vaccines. — Man  has  learned  some  of  the  ways  by 
which  one  biological  form  protects  itself  against  the 
predator}^    action    of    another.     This    knowledge    has 


enabled  him  to  devise  ways  of  aiding  the  fonn  attacked. 

The  observations  of  Jenner  made  on  cowpox  led  to 
vaccination  as  a  protective  measure  against  smallpox. 
The  knowledge  was  not  further  significant,  since  it  indi- 
cated nothing  as  to  the  mechanism  involved.  It 
remained  for  Pasteur  to  make  observations  on  chicken 
cholera,  antlu-ax,  and  rabies  that  did  reveal  something 
of  the  processes  concerned  and  the  road  to  be  traveled 
to  reach  other  goals.  The  manufacture  of  vaccines  to 
be  used  in  preventing  typhoid  fever,  cholera,  plague, 
yellow  fever,  cattle  tick  (Texas)  fever,  blackleg,  hog 
cholera,  tuberculosis  in  man  and  animals,  demands  a 
high  type  of  biological  service.  Research  in  this  field 
may  lead  to  the  prevention  of  many  other  diseases  of 
man  and  animals.  Witness  the  recent  development  of 
vaccination  for  yellow  fever  and  for  equine  encephalo- 
myelitis, a  disease  transmissible  to  man.  Without  the 
former  our  air  lines  to  South  America  would  probably 
not  be  permitted  to  operate.  "Jungle  yellow  fever"  in 
South  America  now  presents  a  diflerent  aspect  of  an 
old  problem.  Recently  a  peculiar  type  of  malaria 
brought  from  Africa  by  airplanes  offers  a  new  problem 
for  control.  , 

Sera. — Protective  substances  such  as  antitoxins  may 
be  produced  with  an  appropriate  stimulus,  and  these 
may  be  used  to  prevent  or  cure  disease.  Antisera  for 
diphtheria,  tetanus,  anthrax,  hog  cholera,  and  other 
diseases  are  widely  used.  The  manufacture  and  stand- 
ardization of  sera  demand  the  most  exacting  work  with 
the  organism  used  to  produce  the  stimulant,  the  animal 
producing  the  serum,  and  the  animals  used  to  determine 
the  potency  of  the  serum.  It  is  chemical  work  with 
reagents  from  living  forms. 

Diagnostic  agents. — The  diagnosis  of  typhoid  fever, 
of  Bang's  disease  in  domestic  animals,  and  of  white 
diarrhea  in  chicks  is  made  by  use  of  suspensions  of  the 
causal  organism.  Tuberculosis  is  detected  by  using  a 
fraction  of  the  cell  content  of  the  tubercle  bacillus.  The 
eradication  of  bovine  tuberculosis  in  the  United  States, 
now  nearly  complete,  has  been  accomplished  bj-  the 
destruction  of  the  infected  animals  as  shown  b}-  this 
test.  The  results  of  its  use  in  man  still  show  the  need  of 
research  directed  toward  the  improvement  of  the  prod- 
uct. In  each  of  these  fields  the  selection  of  the  organism 
and  its  nutrition  are  most  important,  as  evidenced  by 
recent  work  on  the  selection  and  cultivation  of  the  par- 
ticular strain  of  diptheria  bacillus  to  be  used  in  the 
preparation  of  toxins  and  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  in  the 
making  of  tuberculin.  Other  examples  are  the  Weil- 
Felix  reaction  in  the  diagnosis  of  typhus  fever  and  the 
complement-fixation  and  other  tests  for  syphilis.  Two 
diseases  in  which  important  use  is  made  of  the  testing 
of  individual  susceptibility  are  the  Sliick  test  for  diph- 
theria and  the  Dick  test  for  scarlet  fever.  The  very 
latest  tools  of  the  physical  chemist,   the  ultracentri- 


Industrial  Research 


263 


fuge,  electrophoresis,  and  (lifl'iision  apparatus,  arc  em- 
ployed in  determining  tlie  purity  and  nature  of  tuber- 
lin.  Further  biological  research  is  still  needed  on  this 
product. 

Chemical  Products 

Chemotherapy. — The  treatment  of  disease  with  chem- 
ical substances  that  selectively  destroy  the  harmful 
organism  without  doing  serious  injurj^  to  the  animal  is 
the  object  of  numerous  researches.  The  recent  dis- 
covery of  sulfanilamide  and  its  remarkable  therapeutic 
properties,  and  the  still  more  recent  findings  of  Dubos 
regarding  the  products  of  micro-organisms  to  be  used 
in  the  treatment  of  disease  indicate  the  significance  and 
possibilities  of  research  iir  this  field. 

Fungicides,  insecticides,  germicides,  detergents. — The 
crops  of  the  farmer  are  constantly  being  threatened  by 
parasitic  plants,  smuts,  mildews,  rusts,  and  wilts,  and 
by  such  insects  as  the  grasshopper,  the  potato  beetle, 
the  codling  moth;  his  animals  are  threatened  by  various 
micro-organisms.  The  building  industry  must  consider 
the  wood-destroying  fungi,  blue  stain  fungi,  and  insects 
such  as  termites.  The  textile  industry  also  must  give 
consideration  to  the  same  agencies,  for  all  textiles  are 
exposed  to  the  destructive  action  of  fungi  and  bacteria, 
and  the  textiles  made  from  animal  fibers,  such  as  silk 
and  wool,  are  attacked  by  clothes  moths  and  other 
destructive  insects.  The  organic  matter  produced  on 
the  farm  is  exposed  to  attacks  of  varied  rodents,  as  is 
organic  matter  in  transportation  and  processing. 

The  development  of  products  used  to  protect  material 
against  the  action  of  these  various  destructive  forms 
is  an  important  industry  in  which  the  biologist  must 
find  a  place.  The  larger  producers  of  these  products 
find  it  necessary  to  maintain  experimental  colonics  of 
the  species  to  the  influence  of  which  their  products 
are  exposed.  In  dealing  with  green  plants,  there  has 
been  developed  a  method  for  controlling  the  growth  of 
weeds  by  the  use  of  sodium  chlorate. 

The  detergent  industry  is  a  very  old  one.  However, 
it  is  one  in  which  great  progress  has  been  made  during 
recent  years.  The  value  of  soaps  as  agents  to  remove 
and  to  inhibit  the  growth  of  various  mici-o-organisms 
has  not  been  recognized.  The  development  of  any 
compound  which  shall  have  marked  action  as  a  wetting 
agent  has  found  great  use  not  only  in  the  textile  indus- 
try but  also  in  the  application  of  fungicides  which, 
without  adequate  wetting  power,  cannot  be  uniformly 
distributed  over  the  surface  of  plants  on  which  they 
are  used.  The  biological  role  of  detergents  has  not 
been  widely  recognized.  In  the  cleansing  of  all  types 
of  food  utensils,  especially  those  in  which  various  types 
of  bacteria  exist,  reliance  has  been  placed  on  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  micro-organism  by  some  harmful  agent  such 
as  heat.     In  many  connections  this  agency  has  distinct 


limitations.  It  can  be  partially  overcome  through  the 
action  of  effective  detergents  which  will  aid  in  removing 
protective  films  of  organic  matter  as  well  as  micro- 
organisms. There  has  been  rapid  development  in  all 
of  these  fields  in  recent  years,  but  much  still  remains  to 
be  accomplished.  The  use  of  dilute  solutions  of  sodium 
hydrate,  trisodium  phos[)hate,  and  metasilicatc  in  the 
dairy  has  aided  in  the  i)roduction  of  milk  with  low 
bacterial  content. 

Relation  of  parasites  to  industry. — The  harmful  effect 
of  parasites  on  workers  in  certain  countries  offers  a 
serious  handicap  to  industry.  Investigations  have 
shown  that  the  presence  of  a  hundred  or  more  hook- 
worms exerts  a  measurable  eft'ect  on  the  mental  and 
physical  development  of  an  individual.  The  occurrence 
of  hookworm  and  malaria  in  certain  sections  may 
become  so  prevalent  that  it  is  advantageous  to  locate 
the  industrial  plants  outside  these  endemic  areas.  The 
coffee  and  tropical-fruit  industries  must  operate  in 
endemic  areas  of  parasites,  hence  the  clear  recognition 


Figure  83. — Determination  of  Thermal  Death  Time  of  Micro- 
organisms, H.  J.  Heinz  Laboratories,  Pittsburgh,  Penn- 
sylvania 


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National  Resources  Planning  Board 


of  the  great  importance  of  having  workers  free  of 
parasitic  disease. 

The  relation  of  parasitology  to  food  industries  is 
well  known.  Often  fish  are  from  lakes  harboring  the 
larval  forms  of  Diphyllobothrium  latum — the  fish  tape- 
worm. Fish  arc  intermediate  hosts  also  of  various 
other  parasites  of  man  and  domestic  animals.  The 
development  of  the  fur-farming  industry  has  brought 
with  it  the  use  of  fish  as  feed  for  foxes,  minks,  and  other 
animals.  This  new  and  widespread  use  of  fish  has 
been  accompanied  by  serious  outbreaks  of  parasitic 
diseases.  Especially  is  this  true  where  the  fish  harbor 
larvae  of  the  trematode,  Troglotrema  salmincola,  which 
carries  to  dogs  a  virus  disease. 

The  relation  of  such  a  parasite  as  Trichinella  spiralis 
in  pork  constitutes  a  major  parasitological  problem  for 
the  meat-packing  industry.  The  presence  of  human 
tapeworm  cysts  Ln  pork  and  beef  (measly  pork  and 
beef)  is  also  a  constant  source  of  loss  and  annoyance 
to  the  packing  industry. 

Quite  apart  from  the  direct  influence  on  man,  the 
occurrence  of  parasitic  diseases  such  as  cattle  tick 
fever  in  cattle,  stomach  worms  and  liver  flukes  in  sheep, 
results  in  great  economic  loss  to  the  food  industries. 

Waste  Disposal 

The  wastes  of  many  industries  are  organic  in  nature, 
or  at  least  affect  life  in  the  soil  or  in  the  water  to 
which  these  wastes  may  be  added.  The  disposal  of 
industrial  wastes  must  be  accomplished  through  the 
use  of  natural  agencies.  In  many  instances  these  agen- 
cies cannot  be  used  in  their  nonnal  environment,  and 
artificial  systems  must  be  developed  for  the  disposal 
of  the  particular  waste.  A  system  effective  in  one 
coimection  may  not  operate  in  another,  since  the  kind 
of  organism  concerned  wiU  depend  upon  the  nature  of 
the  waste;  and  since  the  organisms  may  differ  in  their 
demands,  the  systems  must  provide  varied  environ- 
ments. Thus,  the  activated-sludge  process  for  the  dis- 
posal of  household  sewage  and  industrial  waste  should 
be  adapted  to  each  particular  problem. 

The  disposal  of  industrial  wastes  must  be  accom- 
plished without  endangering  the  health  of  man  or  his 
food  supply.  The  disposal  must  also  be  carried  on 
under  such  conditions  that  the  area  in  which  it  is 
taking  place  is  not  made  less  attractive  for  man. 

The  loss  of  fertilizing  value  connected  with  the  older 
systems  of  waste  disposal  was  great.  The  newer  sys- 
tems seek  to  leave  some  part  of  the  organic  matter  in 
such  form  that  it  can  be  returned  to  the  land  to  aid  in 
maintaining  the  farmer's  production  of  organic  matter. 
Much  has  been  accomplished  in  this  direction.  It  is 
very  probable  that  adequate  research  by  chemists  and 
biologists  will  result  in  still  further  conservation  of 
these  valuable  fertilizing  materials.     Apart  from  sew- 


age, there  are  other  waste  products  to  be  considered, 
such  as  smelter  gases,  etc. 

Plant  and  Animal  Breeding 

One  of  the  most  important  advances  in  biological 
research  in  recent  years  is  involved  in  the  discovery  of 
the  significance  of  chromosomes,  the  gene  hypothesis, 
polyploidy,  and  in  general  the  mechanism  of  genetics. 
The  amazing  results  obtained  from  the  development 
and  application  of  genetics  to  the  com  plant  offer  a 
striking  example.  At  present,  about  65  percent  of  the 
corn  acreage  in  the  com  belt  of  the  United  States  uses 
hybrids  which  are  distinctly  superior  in  yield,  resistance 
to  weather  and  disease  and  in  quality  to  the  open- 
pollinated  varieties  of  corn.  This  great  movement  is 
a  direct  outgrowth  of  the  fundamental  genetic  re- 
searches on  the  effects  of  inbreeding  and  cross-breeding. 

Without  genetic  knowledge,  hybrid  com  would  prob- 
ably have  been  long  delayed  because  the  first  step — 
selecting  parent  lines  in  self-poULnated  stocks — appears 
to  be  sharply  away  from  rather  than  toward  the  goal  of 
better  com.  Now  the  com  breeder  is  approaching  a 
position  in  which  he  can  synthesize  hybrid  strains  espe- 
cially weU  suited  for  various  industrial  purposes — e.  g., 
sirups,  dextrose,  alcohol,  plastics,  etc. 

Resistance  to  Fusarium  conglutinans,  the  fimgus 
which  causes  cabbage  yellows,  is  another  discovery  of 
gene  relationship  that  makes  possible  continuance  of 
cabbage  production  in  various  old  producing  regions 
of  the  United  States  in  which  the  soil-borne  organism 
has  become  thoroughly  established.  In  a  similar  way, 
the  pea-canning  industry  has  made  use  of  the  discovery 
of  a  dominant  gene  conferring  immunity  to  common 
pea  wilt  (Fusarium  orthoceras  var.  pisi).  Ten  years 
ago  the  industry  was  tlu-catened  with  failure  from  the 
lack  of  a  supply  of  raw  matei'ials  as  a  result  of  the  wide 
prevalence  of  this  soil-borne  fungus.  Several  seed  com- 
panies and  experiment  stations  have  since  supplied  a 
fidl  line  of  varieties  in  which  this  gene  is  incorporated, 
so  that  the  problem  is  no  longer  important. 

Breeding  for  disease  resistance  is  only  a  small  part 
of  the  work  of  the  geneticists.  Among  the  new  devel- 
opments in  this  field  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
production  of  auto  and  allopolyploidy  by  the  use  of 
heat,  colchicine  and  various  well-known  chemical  sub- 
stances, including  some  of  the  auxins.  An  illustration 
may  be  mentioned;  the  seed  houses  now  offer  for  sale 
newly  developed  polyploid  marigolds. 

Many  examples  may  be  cited  from  the  animal  king- 
dom; the  cross-breeding  program  of  the  poultry  industry 
is  a  good  illustration  of  the  application  of  genetics. 

In  order  to  combine  the  good  qualities  of  two  breeds 
of  poultry,  the  following  cross  is  made:  Barred  Plym- 
outh Rock  juales  are  crossed  with  New  Hampshire 
females.     The  cross  results  in  a  barred,  quick-feathermg 


Industrial  Research 


265 


individual  showing  rapid  growth  and  reduced  mortaUty. 
The  market  value  of  the  first  generation  individuals  is 
high  because  of  rapid  growth  and  rapid  feathering. 

Another  example  of  genetic  information  may  be 
drawn  from  the  use  of  sex-linked  genes  for  distinguish- 
ing the  sex  of  chicks  at  hatcliing.  One  important 
means  is  found  in  the  recessive  sex-linked  gene  for  long 
primary  and  secondary  feathers  in  contrast  to  the 
dominant  short  primaries  and  secondaries  of  certain 
breeds.  At  least  one  well-known  hatchery  has  been 
offering  autosexed  cliicks  for  sale  on  the  basis  of  this 
genetic  test.  Likewise,  a  dominant  sex-linked  gene 
for  barring  of  feathers  has  served  as  a  means  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  sexes  at  hatching.  At  hatcheries  it  is 
important  to  know  which  of  the  chicks  are  male  and 
which  are  female,  so  that  the  cockerels  may  be  sold 
and  the  pullets  be  kept  for  egg  production. 

The  application  of  the  principles  of  genetics  to  various 
problems  in  plant  and  animal  biology  has  led  to  an 
astonishing  increase  in  productivity  and  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  product. 

Training  of  the  Industrial  Biologist 

The  expanding  of  the  general  body  of  knowledge 
through  training  in  the  fundamental  disciplines  becomes 
increasingly  important.  The  industrial  biologist  must 
have  a  solid  foimdation  of  chemistry  and  physics  to 
supplement  biology  so  that  he  may  think  correctly 
regarding  living  things  (that  are  not  reagents  iia  a 
bottle)  in  terms  of  their  fundamental  life  processes  and 
reactions.  The  superstructure  wiU  of  necessity  be 
varied.  It  may  be  anatomy,  gross  or  microscopic; 
physiology,  broad  or  in  its  narrower  phases  of  endo- 
crinology; it  may  be  microbiology,  represented  by 
bacteriology,  virology,  parasitology,  protozoology.  It 
may  be  evolution  as  in  genetics,  nutrition,  broad  or 
narrow,  and  it  may  be  the  interaction  of  all  phases  of 
the  environment  on  one  form,  ecology.  In  food 
research,  apart  from  the  background  subjects,  the 
biologist  should  have  knowledge  of  the  recent  develop- 
ments in  genetics,  histology,  and  plant  pathology. 
The  most  important  thing  is  the  scientific  and  philo- 
sophical foundation  on  which  any  desired  kind  of  a 
structure  can  be  built,  and  onto  which  another  can  be 
moved  to  replace  the  first.  While  the  schools  can 
supply  a  relatively  permanent  foundation,  the  first 
superstructure  will  need  constant  remodeling  to  meet 
changing  needs  and  new  developments.  More  empha- 
sis should  be  placed  on  the  supposedly  fixed  parts  of 
the  endeavor  rather  than  on  details  and  decoration. 
The  universities  must  maintain  great  teachers  and 
continue  the  development  of  fundamental  research. 

Biologists  specialize  in  one  or  more  branches  of  the 
general  field  and  caU  themselves  according  to  their 
major  subject;  e.  g.,  bacteriologists,  cytologists,  endo- 


crinologists, parasitologists,  and  so  on.     Some  of  the 
main  divisions  and  subdivisions  follow: 


Anatomy. 

Bacteriology. 

Botany. 

Cytology. 

Dendrology. 

Ecology. 

Embryology. 

Endrocrinology. 

Entomology. 

Epidemiology. 


Genetics. 

Helminthology. 

Histology. 

Ilydrobiology. 

Immunology. 

Limnology. 

Microbiology. 

Mycology. 

Paleobotany. 

Paleontology. 


Parasitology. 

Pathology. 

Pharmacognosy. 

Pharmacology. 

Physiology. 

Plant  Pathology. 

Protozoology. 

Psychology. 

Toxicology. 

Zoology. 


These  various  subjects  emphasize  a  special  sphere 
of  the  more  general  subject  of  botany  or  zoology. 
Often  these  are  disconnected  and  fail  to  give  the 
student  a  well-coordinated  outline  of  the  subject  as  a 
whole.  One  obvious  feature  of  all  biological  study  is 
the  multiple  interaction  of  numerous  factors  that  go 
to  make  up  the  general  pattern  of  life.  The  biologist 
must  always  keep  in  mind  that  every  organism  is  a 
dynamic  entity  formed  into  a  more  or  less  stable 
pattern.  He  is  working  with  hfe  and  must  not  for- 
get the  complexity  of  the  system  and  also  that  no 
sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between  the  organism  and  its 
immediate  surroundings. 

The  course  work  given  in  chemistry  and  physics  is 
often  organized  to  train  professionals  ui  these  fields 
and  not  to  tram  persons  who  wish  to  learn  chemistry, 
physics,  and  mathematics  as  an  aid  to  some  other 
profession.  The  biologist  has  great  need  for  physics, 
chemistry,  and  mathematics  as  well  as  for  good  founda- 
tion in  the  biological  sciences,  but  he  may  not  have 
time  to  pursue  the  same  instruction  usually  given  for 
the  major  students  in  chemistry,  physics,  and  mathe- 
matics. A  more  modest  offering  in  number  of  divisions 
with  emphasis  on  the  fundamental  science,  seems 
desirable. 

From  what  has  gone  before,  it  is  clear  that  the 
research  worker  in  biology  should  have  a  broad  and 
fundamental  training.  Similarly  it  is  essential  that  the 
personnel  in  charge  of  the  scientific  control  of  a  biological 
process,  and  the  officials  directing  government  regulatory 
activities  have  fundamental  and  comprehensive  biologi- 
cal training.  Too  often  application  of  the  results  of 
research  is  unduly  delayed  or  frustrated  by  the  lack  of 
adequately  trained  personnel  to  carry  the  work  beyond 
the  laboratory. 

The  social  implications  of  biological  research  have  not 
received  general  recognition.  Fortunately,  there  is 
growing  up  a  certain  awareness  among  research  workers 
of  the  impact  of  discovery  upon  social  organization  and 
welfare.  The  problems  that  may  develop  from  research 
in  biology  and  their  social  consequences  deserve  con- 
sideration. There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  biologist 
of  the  future  will  consider  carefully  the  social  and 
economic  influences  that  may  result  from  his  researches. 


266 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Is  it  possible  to  train  individuals  for  siuh  a  broad 
field?  The  answer  must  conic  from  biological  dcpart- 
ments  in  the  colleges  and  universities  throughout  the 
country.  It  is  their  opportunity  and  their  responsi- 
bility to  develop  the  inquisitive  mind  as  well  as  to 
point  out  the  application  of  scientific  discoveries  to 
industry. 

Trends  in  Biological  Research  and 
New  Developments 

The  history  of  biology  is  marked  by  many  changes  in 
the  major  lines  of  investigation.  Beginning  with  sys- 
tematic reports  on  classification,  there  have  been  periods 
of  intensive  study  of  various  subjects,  depending  upon 
the  powerful  personality  and  creative  mind  of  a  great 
leader  and  the  discovery  and  application  of  new  and 
important  apparatus  or  methods;  the  microscope;  the 
Mendelian  method  of  mvestigating  inheritance;  the  con- 
cept of  hydrogen-ion  concentration,  etc.  These  and 
other  discoveries  have  exerted  a  profound  influence  on 
the  development  of  biological  research.  Biology  origi- 
nally was  limited  to  a  study  of  plants  or  animals  as  they 
occur  in  nature — "natural  history."  Now  biologists 
are  concerned  with  the  experimental  approach  or  with  a 
study  of  the  nature  and  mode  of  action  of  the  living 
organism. 

The  recent  development  in  food  research  illustrates 
this  point.  The  studies  have  been  made  along  two 
lines:  (1)  Investigations  relating  to  raw  materials,  the 
production  of  varieties  adapted  to  special  conditions, 
and  (2)  investigations  of  various  methods  for  processing, 
e.  g.,  quick  freezing  of  fruits,  vegetables,  and  meats; 
the  storage  and  transportation  of  food  products  in  an 
atmosphere  rich  in  carbon  dioxide  and  nitrogen  but  low 
in  oxygen  and  at  low  temperatures. 

The  study  of  enzymes,  their  properties,  mode  of 
action  and  their  role  in  normal  and  pathological  con- 
ditions is  one  of  the  attractive  fields  of  investigation. 
The  great  problem  is  to  get  these  agents  in  purified  form 
and  to  study  their  properties. 

The  manufacture  of  hormones  for  the  treatment  of 
disturbances  in  metabolism  and  stimulating  the  growth 
of  both  plants  and  animals  is  another  important  indus- 
try that  requires  the  attention  of  research  workers 
broadly  trained  in  biology  and  chemistry. 

There  exists  today  a  growing  appreciation  of  the 
importance  of  viruses  and  of  the  need  for  further 
research.  This  subject  may  be  divided  into  three  main 
lines:  (1)  The  general  properties  of  viruses;  (2)  methods 
of  infection;  (3)  the  occurrence  of  viruses  in  diseases. 
The  cultivation  of  viruses  on  the  chorio-allantoic 
membrane  of  the  developing  chick  embryo  and  by 
other  methods  has  proved  an  invaluable  tool  and 
already  the  practical  applications  are  so  important  that 
extensive  investigations  are  planned  in  this  field. 


The  development  of  sulfanilamide  and  related  com- 
pounds has  opened  the  door  to  a  better  understanding 
of  the  value  of  certain  chemical  compounds  in  the  treat- 
ment of  diseases.  Chemotherapeutic  agents  used  in 
the  treatment  of  streptococcal  infections,  pneumonia, 
and  menmgitis  have  also  produced  amazing  results. 
At  present  the  organic  chemists  and  biologists  are 
carrj'ing  on  extensive  investigations  in  this  field. 

One  of  the  most  significant  trends  is  that  of  vitamin 
research.  The  discovery  of  better  and  more  sensitive 
methods  for  detecting  symptoms  of  a  deficiency  of  the 
vitamins  has  been  one  of  the  major  aims  of  recent 
research.  An  entirely  new  concept  is  now  developing. 
The  vitamins  are  but  part  of  an  enzyme  mechanism 
involving  usually  a  protein  combination.  The  func- 
tion and  interaction  of  these  systems  in  the  living  organ- 
ism offer  a  challenge  to  the  investigator. 

Fimdamentally  these  developments  have  been  a 
result  of  the  break  with  tradition  and  the  liberation  of 
men's  minds  which  occurred  during  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  Freedom  of  initiative  and  enter- 
prise have  permitted  the  application  of  basic  discoveries 
to  human  welfare.  The  swing  of  the  pendulum  is  now 
in  the  other  direction  and  in  many  coimtries  the  in- 
creasing authority  of  government  may  hamper  and 
delay  or  discourage  new  developments.  Sympathetic 
cooperation  between  govemuTent  and  industry  and 
maintenance  of  a  symbiotic  relationship  between  State- 
controlled  and  privately  controlled  research  laboratories 
must  be  fostered  if  the  fruits  of  our  expanding  sj^stem  of 
knowdedge  are  to  be  enjoyed  by  all.  But  men  of  thor- 
ough scientific  trainmg,  wide  vision,  and  sound  ethics 
must  staff  these  organizations  for  effective  results. 

There  exists  extensive  opportunity  for  the  biologist 
who  has  a  broad  fimdamental  knowledge  of  chemistry' 
and  a  close  acquaintance  with  physics  in  addition  to  a 
well  roimded  training  in  general  biology. 

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rial Fund  Quarterly,  18,  248  (1939). 

Northrop,  J.  H.  The  formation  of  enzymes.  Physiological 
Revieivs,  17,  144  (1937). 

Northrop,  J.  H.,  and  Herriott,  R.  M.  Chemistry  of  the 
crystalline  enzymes.  Annual  Review  of  Biochemistry,  7,  37 
(1938). 

Strickland,  E.  H.  Parasites,  friends  of  mankind.  Scientific 
Monthly,  39,  252  (1934). 

Thomson,  D.  L.,  and  Collip,  J.  B.  Endocrine  glands.  Annual 
Review  of  Physiology,  2,  309  (1940). 

Wallerstein,  Leo.  Enzyme  preparations  from  micro-organ- 
isms; commercial  production  and  industrial  application.  In- 
dustrial and  Engineering  Chemistry,  31,  1218  (1939). 

Went,  F.  W.  Auxin,  the  plant  growth-hormone.  Botanical 
Review,  J,  162  (1935). 


SECTION    VI 
4.    INDUSTRIAL    MATHEMATICS 

By  Thornton  C.  Fry 
Mathematical  Research  Director,  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


ABSTRACT 


The  report  consists  of  three  major  sections.  The  first 
discusses  mathematical  specialists  in  industry,  calls  at- 
tention to  the  essentially  consultative  character  of  their 
work,  and  makes  some  observations  regarding  the  edu- 
cation, employment,  and  supervision  of  this  type  of 
personnel. 

The  second  section  deals,  not  with  the  work  of  these 
specialists,  but  with  the  uses  to  which  mathematics  is 
put  at  the  hands  of  industrial  workers  in  general,  the 
various  ways  in  which  it  contributes  to  the  economy 


and  effectiveness  of  research,  and  the  kinds  of  mathe- 
matics that  are  most  used.  A  number  of  illustrations 
are  given,  together  with  brief  surveys  of  the  utilization 
of  mathematics  in  four  important  industries :  commimi- 
cations,  electrical  manufacturing,  petroleum,  and  air- 
craft. 

The  third  section  is  devoted  to  statistics,  which 
touches  industrial  life  at  rather  different  points;,  and 
hence  could  not  conveniently  be  included  in  the  gen- 
eral discussion. 


Introduction 

Mathematical  technique  is  used  in  some  form  in  most 
research  and  development  activities,  but  the  men  who 
use  these  techiiiques  would  not  usually  be  called 
mathematicians. 

Mathematicians  also  play  an  important  role  in  in- 
dustrial research,  but  their  services  are  of  a  special 
character  and  do  not  touch  the  development  program 
at  nearly  so  many  points. 

Because  of  this  contrast  between  the  ubiquity  of 
mathematics  and  the  fewness  of  the  mathematicians, 
this  report  is  divided  into  sharply  differentiated  parts. 
Under  "Mathematicians  in  Industry"  an  attempt  is 
made  to  explain  what  sort  of  service  may  be  expected 
of  industrial  mathematicians,  and  to  develop  some 
principles  of  primary  importance  in  employing  and  man- 
aging them.  An  attempt  is  also  made  to  appraise  future 
demand  for  men  of  this  type,  and  to  discuss  the  sources 
from  which  they  can  be  drawn.  Under  "Mathematics 
in  Industry"  appear  brief  surveys  of  the  extent  and 
character  of  the  utilization  of  mathematics  in  a  few 
special  hadustrics,  and  examples  of  specific  problems 
in  the  solution  of  which  mathematical  methods  have 
been  necessary  or  advantageous. 

In  these  two  sections  mathematics  is  interpreted 
broadly  to  include  not  only  the  fundamental  subjects, 
algebra,  geometry,  analysis,  etc.,  but  also  their  mani- 
festations in  applied  form  as  mechanics,  elasticity, 
electromagnetic  theory,  hydrodynamics,  etc.  Statis- 
tics, however,  touches  industrial  activity  in  a  rather 
268 


different  way,   and   is   therefore   discussed   separately 
under  a  third  heading,  "Statistics  in  Industry." 

One  observation  which  will  be  made  in  more  detail 
later  is  worthy  of  mention  here,  because  of  the  present 
and  prospective  scarcity  of  suitably  trained  industrial 
mathematicians.  Though  the  United  States  holds  a 
position  of  outstanding  leadership  in  pure  mathematics, 
there  is  no  school  which  provides  an  adequate  mathe- 
matical training  for  the  student  who  wishes  to  use  the 
subject  in  the  field  of  industrial  applications  rather  than 
to  cultivate  it  as  an  end  in  itself.  Both  science  generally, 
and  its  industrial  applications  m  particular,  would 
be  advanced  if  a  group  of  suitable  teachers  were  brought 
together  in  an  institution  where  there  was  also  a  strong 
interest  in  the  basic  sciences  and  in  engineering. 

Mathematicians  in  Industry 
What  is  a  Mathematician? 

If  every  man  who  now  and  then  computes  the  aver- 
age of  a  set  of  instrumental  readings  or  solves  a  differ- 
ential equation  is  a  mathematician,  there  are  few  re- 
search workers  who  are  not.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
only  those  who  are  primarily  engaged  in  making  addi- 
tions to  mathematical  loiowledge  are  mathematicians, 
there  are  almost  none  in  industry.  Neither  definition 
is  sound.  The  first  is  absurd;  the  second  not  closely 
related  to  the  essential  natm-e  of  mathematical  thought. 
This  report  adopts  a  definition  based  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  the  man's  thinking  rather  than  the  ultimate  use 
to  which  his  thinking  is  put. 


Industrial  Research 


269 


Some  men  would  be  called  mathematicians  in  any 
man's  language;  others  physicists  or  engineers.  These 
typical  men  are  differentiated  in  certain  essential  respects : 

The  typical  mathematician  feels  great  confidence  in 
a  conclusion  reached  by  careful  reasoning.  He  is  not 
convinced  to  the  same  degree  by  experimental  evidence. 
For  the  typical  engineer  these  statements  may  be  re- 
versed. Confronted  by  a  carefully  thought-out  theory 
which  predicts  a  certain  result,  and  a  carefully  per- 
formed experiment  which  fails  to  produce  it,  the  typical 
mathematician  asks  first,  "What  is  wrong  with  the  ex- 
periment?" and  the  typical  engineer,  "What  is  wrong 
with  the  argument?"  Because  of  this  confidence  in 
thought  processes  the  mathematician  turns  naturally 
to  paper  and  pencil  in  many  situations  in  which  the 
engineer  or  physicist  would  resort  to  the  laboratory. 
For  the  same  reason  the  mathematician  in  his  "pure" 
form  delights  in  building  logical  structures,  such  as 
topology  or  abstract  algebra,  wliich  have  no  apparent 
connection  with  the  world  of  physical  reality  and  which 
would  not  interest  the  typical  engineer;  while  conversely 
the  engineer  or  physicist  in  his  "piu-e"  form  takes  great 
interest  in  such  useful  information  as  a  table  of  hard- 
ness data  which  may,  so  far  as  he  is  aware,  be  totally 
imrelated  to  any  theory,  and  which  the  typical  mathe- 
matician would  find  quite  boring. 

A  second  characteristic  of  the  typical  mathematician 
is  his  highly  critical  attitude  toward  the  details  of  a 
demonstration.  For  almost  any  other  class  of  men  an 
argimient  may  be  good  enough,  even  though  some  minor 
question  remains  open.  For  the  mathematician  an  ar- 
gument is  either  perfect  in  every  detail,  in  form  as  well 
as  in  substance,  or  else  it  is  wrong.  There  are  no  inter- 
mediate classes.  He  calls  this  "rigorous  thinking,"  and 
says  it  is  necessary  if  his  conclusions  are  to  be  of  per- 
manent value.  The  typical  engineer  calls  it  "hair  split- 
ting," and  says  that  if  he  indulged  in  it  he  would  never 
get  anything  done. 

The  mathematician  also  tends  to  idealize  any  situa- 
tion with  which  he  is  confronted.  His  gases  are  "ideal," 
his  conductors  "perfect,"  his  surfaces  "smooth."  He 
admires  this  process  and  calls  it  "getting  down  to  essen- 
tials"; the  engineer  or  physicist  is  likely  to  dub  it  some- 
what contemptuously  "ignoring  the  facts." 

A  foiu-th  and  closely  related  characteristic  is  the 
desire  for  generality.  Confronted  with  the  problem  of 
solving  the  simple  equation  a;  ^—  1  =  0,  he  solves  x"—  1  =0 
instead.  Or  asked  about  the  torsional  vibration  of  a 
galvanometer  suspension,  he  studies  a  fiber  loaded  with 
any  number  of  mirrors  at  arbitrary  points  along  its 
length.  He  calls  this  "conserving  his  energy";  he  is 
solving  a  whole  class  of  problems  at  once  instead  of 
dealing  with  tliem  piecemeal.  The  engineer  calls  it 
"wasting  liis  time";  of  what  use  is  a  galvanometer 
with  more  than  one  mirror? 


In  the  vast  army  of  scientific  workers  who  cannot  be 
tagged  so  easily  with  the  badge  of  some  one  profession, 
those  may  properly  be  called  "mathematicians"  whose 
work  is  dominated  by  these  foxir  characteristics  of 
greater  confidence  in  logical  than  experimental  proof, 
severe  criticism  of  details,  idealization,  and  generaliza- 
tion. The  boundaries  of  the  profession  are  perhaps  not 
made  sharper  by  this  definition,  but  it  has  the  merit  of 
being  based  upon  type  of  mind,  wliich  is  an  attribute 
of  the  man  himself,  and  not  upon  such  superficial  and 
frequently  accidental  matters  as  the  courses  he  took  in 
college  or  the  sort  of  job  he  holds. 

It  is,  moreover,  a  more  fundamental  distinction  than 
can  be  drawn  between,  say,  physicist,  chemist,  and 
astronomer.  That  is  why  the  mathematician  holds 
toward  industry  a  different  relationship  than  other 
scientists,  a  relationship  which  must  be  clearly  under- 
stood by  management  if  his  services  are  to  be  success- 
fully exploited. 

The  Place  of  the  Mathematician 
in  Industrial  Research 

The  typical  mathematician  described  above  is  not 
the  sort  of  man  to  carry  on  an  industrial  project.  He 
is  a  dreamer,  not  much  interested  in  things  or  the 
dollars  they  can  be  sold  for.  He  is  a  perfectionist, 
imwiUing  to  compromise;  idealizes  to  the  point  of 
impracticality ;  is  so  concerned  with  the  broad  horizon 
that  he  cannot  keep  his  eye  on  the  ball.  These  traits 
are  not  weaknesses;  they  are,  on  the  contrary,  of  the 
highest  importance  in  the  job  of  finding  a  system  of 
thought  which  wiU  harmonize  the  complex  phenomena 
of  the  physical  world,  that  is,  in  reducing  nature  to  a 
science.  The  job  of  industry,  however,  is  not  the 
advancement  of  natural  science,  but  the  development, 
production,  and  sale  of  marketable  goods.  The 
physicist,  the  chemist,  and  especially  the  engineer, 
with  their  interest  in  facts,  things,  and  money  are 
obviously  better  adapted  to  contribute  directly  to 
these  ends.  To  the  extent  that  the  mathematician 
takes  on  project  responsibility,  he  is  forced  to  compro- 
mise; he  must  specialize  instead  of  generalize;  he  must 
deal  with  concrete  detail  instead  of  abstract  principles. 
Some  mathematicians  cannot  do  these  things  at  all; 
some  by  diligence  and  self-restraint  can  do  them  very 
well.  To  the  extent,  however,  that  they  succeed  along 
these  lines  they  are  functioning  not  as  mathematicians 
but  as  engineers.  As  mathematicians  their  place  in 
industry  is  not  to  supply  the  infinite  attention  to 
practical  detail  by  wliich  good  products,  convenient 
services,  and  efficient  processes  are  devised ;  their  func- 
tion is  to  give  counsel  and  assistance  to  those  who  do 
supply  these  things,  to  appraise  their  everyday  prob- 
lems in  the  light  of  scientific  thought,  and  conversely  to 


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National  Resources  Planning  Board 


translate  the  abstract  language  of  science  into  terms 
more  suital)le  for  concrete  exploitation. 

In  other  words,  the  mathematician  in  industry,  to 
the  extent  to  which  he  functions  as  a  mathematician, 
is  a  consultant,  not  a  project  man. 

Qualifications  Necessary  for  Success 
as  an  Industrial  Mathematician 

The  successful  industrial  mathematician  must  not 
only  be  competent  as  a  mathematician;  he  must  also 
have  the  other  qualities  which  a  consultant  requires : 

First,  though  his  major  interests  will  necessarily  be 
abstract,  he  must  have  sufficient  interest  in  practical 
affairs  to  provide  stimuli  for  usefid  work  and  to  recon- 
cile him  to  the  compromises  and  approximations  which 
are  necessary  even  in  the  theoretical  treatment  of 
practical  problems.  This  usually  means  that  the  type 
of  mathematician  who  coidd  not  do  a  good  engineering 
job  if  he  turned  his  hand  to  it  will  not  get  on  very  well 
in  an  industrial  career. 

Second,  he  must  be  gregarious  and  sympathetic. 
If  he  shuts  himself  off  from  his  associates,  much  of  his 
thinking  will  have  no  bearing  on  their  needs  and  that 
which  does  Avill  exert  less  influence  than  it  might.  If 
he  docs  not  translate  his  thoughts  into  their  language, 
they  will  miss  the  significance  of  much  of  his  work  and 
he  will  have  but  a  limited  clientele. 

Third,  he  must  be  cooperative  and  imselfish.  A  man 
cannot  be  at  once  consultant  and  competitor  to  his 
associates.  Self-seeking  attempts  to  gain  credit  for 
his  contributions  to  the  industry  will  inevitably  alienate 
his  clientele.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this:  In  the 
first  place  a  mathematician's  appraisal  of  mathematical 
work,  even  if  made  from  a  detached  point  of  view,  is 
heavily  weighted  on  the  side  of  its  fundamental  scien- 
tific significance,  whereas  its  industrial  value  should  be 
judged  on  very  different  grounds  and  can  best  be 
appraised  by  the  engineer.  In  the  second  place,  the 
engineer  in  charge  of  a  project  can  give  credit  without 
embarassment  for  help  received;  it  is  to  his  credit  to 
have  known  where  help  was  to  be  had.  The  same 
story  told  by  another,  and  particularly  by  the  consult- 
ant himself,  has  an  entirely  different  flavor. 

Fourth,  he  must  be  versatile.  Jobs  change,  and 
even  the  same  job  may  give  rise  to  questions  which 
require  very  different  mathematical  techniques. 

Fifth,  he  must  be  a  man  of  outstanding  ability.  No 
one  wants  the  advice  of  mediocrity.  Among  industrial 
mathematicians  there  is  no  place  for  the  average  man. 

Employment  and  Supervision 

Perhaps  the  greatest  hazard  in  hiring  mathematicians 
for  industry  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  employment 
officer  is  not  often  a  judge  of  mathematical  ability. 


Paradoxically,  however,  his  mistakes  are  not  usually 
made  in  judging  mathematical  aptitude,  since  general 
scholastic  rating  is  an  unusually  trustworthy  index  of 
mathematical  ability.  But  because  of  a  feeling  of 
incompetence  bred  by  liis  lack  of  mathematical  lore, 
he  spreads  the  mantle  of  charity  over  other  character- 
istics with  regard  to  which  he  should  trust  his  own 
judgment.  If,  for  example,  the  applicant  gives  an 
incoherent  account  of  the  problems  on  which  he  has 
been  working,  the  interviewer  excuses  it  on  the  groimd 
of  his  own  lack  of  mathematical  training,  an  excuse 
which  would  be  quite  adequate  if  the  circumstances 
demanded  that  he  meet  the  applicant  on  the  applicant's 
ground.  Wliat  he  overlooks  is  that  the  applicant  has 
failed  to  meet  him  on  his  own  ground;  has  failed,  in 
other  words,  to  display  the  essential  ability  to  translate 
his  thoughts  into  the  language  of  his  hearer.  Or  per- 
haps a  personality  defect  is  excused  on  the  ground 
that  "after  all,  he  will  be  working  by  himself  and  won't 
have  to  meet  people,"  whereas  in  fact  the  real  value  of 
a  consultant  comes  not  in  what  he  does  at  his  desk, 
but  in  how  much  of  it  gets  tlirough  to  his  associates. 
The  applicant  who  is  boastful  or  pushing  or  querulous 
should  not  be  hired  on  the  general  theory  that  "all 
mathematicians  are  queer." 

High  standards  in  all  such  matters,  and  an  interest 
in  practical  things  as  well,  are  as  important  as  technical 
mathematical  ability.  These  are  stiff  specifications, 
and  the  men  to  fill  them  are  not  to  be  found  in  every 
market  place.  They  are,  however,  the  requirements 
implicit  in  the  nature  of  the  job  and  no  good  can  come 
from  failing  to  recognize  them. 

After  the  right  man  is  hired,  he  is  not  a  difficult  person 
to  supervise  if  his  function  as  a  consultant  to  the  rest 
of  the  staff  is  kept  clearly  in  mind.  The  broad  ob- 
jectives must  be  to  avoid  barriers  which  would  tend  to 
deter  his  associates  from  seeking  his  services,  and  to 
assure  that  his  work  is  justly  appraised  and  fairly 
compensated. 

The  three  barriers  most  likely  to  arise  between  him 
and  his  associates  are  jealousy,  red  tape,  and  un- 
availability. 

Jealousy  is  unavoidable  if  the  man  himself  is  self- 
seeking;  once  such  a  man  is  hired  trouble  is  inevitable. 
But  the  man  is  not  always  to  blame.  A  generous  and 
cooperative  recruit  will  be  spoiled  by  an  atmosphere 
too  highly  charged  with  progress  reports,  or  by  a  salary 
policy  which  bases  revisions  upon  the  dollar  value  of 
the  last  year's  work.  Actually  the  "progress"  which  is 
significant  to  management  will  be  far  more  accurately 
appraised  by  his  colleagues  than  by  himself,  hence  his 
reports  have  little  value  except  as  they  give  him  an 
opportunity  to  review  and  criticise  his  own  activities. 
If  too  much  emphasis  is  placed  upon  them,  even  tliis 
value  will  be  lost  and  they  will  be  written  in  the  spirit 


Industrial  Research 


271 


of  making  a  case  foi-  himself,  which  is  exactly  the  spirit 
most  certain  to  breed  jealousy.  Similarly,  a  salary 
policy  based  on  dollar  returns  is  essentially  unjust,  for 
the  money  value  of  various  bits  of  theoretic^al  work  luis 
almost  no  correlation  with  the  scientific  acumen  which 
they  requhe.  This  does  not  mean  that  a  mathe- 
matician's pay  should,  in  the  long  run,  be  independent 
of  the  dollar  value  of  his  services.  It  means  only  that 
whether  he  gets  a  raise  this  year,  and  how  big  it  shall 
be,  should  properly  be  based  on  the  size,  cliaracter  and 
satisfaction  of  his  clientele,  and  not  upon  the  commer- 
cial importance  of  the  questions  they  saw  fit  to  bring 
him  last  year. 

Ked  tape  is  easily  avoided  by  avoiding  it.  No 
engineer,  whatever  his  rank  in  the  organization,  ought 
ever  need  permission  to  consult  a  mathematician  in 
the  company's  employ,  and  the  mathematician  in  turn 
ought  not  need  a  specific  work  order  or  expense  allow- 
ance before  giving  his  advice.  In  this  respect  ho  should 
be  on  the  same  basis  as  the  free  lance  investigators 
who  are  to  be  foimd  in  most  large  research  laboratories, 
and  who  are  generally  known  as  staff  engineers. 

Unavailability  is  a  more  serious  matter.  It  is  well 
recognized  that  in  industrial  research  the  urgent  job 
always  tends  to  take  precedence  over  the  important 
one.  Left  to  themselves,  fundamental  studies  give 
way  to  the  detailed  development  "which  ought  to  go 
into  production  next  month."  Mathematical  studies 
are  no  more  susceptible  than  other  fundamental 
research  to  such  interruptions,  but  the  effect  upon  the 
career  of  the  mathematician  may  be  more  far  reaching, 
for  as  soon  as  he  is  assigned  an  urgent  project  of  special 
character  his  availability  as  a  consultant  ceases  or  at 
best  is  temporarily  impaired.  If  his  value  to  the 
industry  is  greater  as  a  project  man  than  as  a  con- 
sultant this  need  not  be  a  cause  for  regret;  but  to  turn 
a  good  mathematician  into  a  poor  engineer,  or  an 
irreplaceable  mathematician  into  a  replaceable  engmeer, 
is  unfortunate  for  both  employer  and  employee. 

The  Mathematical  Research  Department 
of  the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories 

In  the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories,  men  of  this  type 
have  been  grouped  together  as  a  separate  organization 
imit.  They  have  no  more  specific  function  than  to  be 
helpful  to  their  associates  in  other  parts  of  the  Labora- 
tories. No  engineer  is  obliged  to  consult  them  about 
any  phase  of  his  work;  no  particular  jobs  come  to  them 
by  reason  of  prerogative;  conversely,  there  is  no  sort 
of  help  which  an  engineer  or  physicist  may  not  seek 
from  them  if  he  so  desires.  No  routine  need  be  com- 
plied with  in  advance  in  order  to  secure  their  services, 
and  no  report  is  required  afterwards,  though  written 
reports  are  frequently  prepared  when  needed  for  scien- 
tific record.     The  expense  of  the  group  is  distributed 


broadly  over  the  activities  of  the  Laboratories,  not 
charged  to  specific  jobs.  Every  eflort  is  made  to 
maintain  a  spirit  of  service  among  the  members  of 
this  group,  and  thougli  rosponsil)i!ity  for  engineering 
projects  occasionally  descends  upon  them,  it  is  regarded 
as  an  undesirable  necessity  to  be  avoided  whenever 
possible  and  litiuidatcd  at  the  earliest  opportunity. 

The  group  has  functioned  successfully  for  a  number 
of  years.  Its  members  arc  respected  by  their  engi- 
neering associates,  and  like  their  jobs.  Information 
regardmg  their  activities  reaches  management  almost 
entirely  thi'ough  spontaneous  acknowledgments  made 
by  the  engineers  they  assist.  These  expressions  of 
appreciation  are  generous,  but  rather  erratic  in  that 
they  concentrate  attention  first  on  one  man,  then  on 
another,  as  the  genius  and  training  of  the  individual 
happen  to  click  with  the  important  job  of  the  moment. 
This  has  not  affected  the  morale  of  the  group  adversely, 
probably  because  a  serious  effort  is  made  to  avoid 
erratic  salary  revisions  in  which  the  man  who  is  at  the 
moment  in  the  limelight  benefits  at  the  expense  of 
others  who  are  doing  equally  good  but  less  conspicuous 
work. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  men,  tlie  principal 
advantages  of  being  associated  together  instead  of 
distributed  through  the  engmeering  departments,  is  the 
stimulus  of  contact  with  men  of  like  interests.  From 
the  standpoint  of  management,  the  advantages  are 
wider  availability,  greater  flexibility  in  matching  the 
talents  of  the  man  with  the  requirements  of  the  job, 
and  a  more  uniform  appraisal  of  ability  because  of 
supervision  by  a  man  of  adequate  mathematical  back- 
ground. 

So  far  as  is  known,  mathematicians  have  not  been 
organized  into  separate  administrative  groups  in  other 
industries.  In  most  laboratories  their  numbers  have 
been  thought  too  small  to  make  such  an  arrangement 
feasible,  and  they  have  been  treated  as  staff  engineers 
distributed  throughout  the  various  general  departments. 
It  is  believed,  however,  that  tliere  are  a  few  industries 
in  which  this  arrangement  could  be  introduced  with 
profit  at  this  time,  and  that  it  has  sufficient  merit  to 
justify  its  adoption  wherever  possible. 

The  Mathematician  in  the  Small  Laboratory 

Wliat  has  been  said  above  relates  primarily  to  condi- 
tions in  large  industries.  The  qualifications  for  success 
in  the  small  industry  are  not  dissimilar,  though  the 
relative  emphasis  to  be  placed  upon  them  is  somewhat 
different.  Matters  of  personality  (gregariousness,  un- 
selfishness, etc.)  are  not  quite  so  important,  because 
they  are  oft'set  to  some  extent  by  the  friendly  coherence 
of  the  small  group.  On  the  other  hand,  a  strong  in- 
terest in  things  as  well  as  ideas,  and  the  ability  to 
translate  from  the  language  of  concrete  experience  to 


272 


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that  of  abstract  thought  and  conversely,  take  on  even 
greater  importance.  As  Dr.  H.  M.  Evjen,  himself  a 
worker  in  a  small  laboratory,  says: 

In  order  to  be  of  optimum  value,  the  mathematician  must 
keep  in  close  touch  with  realities.  In  a  sufficiently  large  organi- 
zation, employing  both  theoretical  and  experimental  men,  the 
best  results,  therefore,  can  be  obtained  only  by  the  closest 
cooperation  between  the  two  groups.  In  smaller  organizations, 
employing — for  instance — only  one  scientifically  qualified  man, 
it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  this  man  should  be  of  the  theoretical 
or  the  experimental  type.  If  he  is  a  theoretical  man,  no  success 
can  be  expected  unless  he  is  willing  to  roll  up  his  sleeves  and  get 
his  feet  firmly  planted  on  the  ground.  In  fact,  even  if  he  has 
highly  qualified  experimental  assistants,  he  should  not  feel  averse 
to  "getting  down  in  the  dirt."  Secondhand  information  is 
always  of  inferior  quality     *     *     * 

The  mathematician  not  only  is  useful  as  an  auxiliary  to  whom 
the  practical  man  can  turn  with  special  problems.  A  properly 
trained  mathematician,  with  a  sufficiently  broad  vision,  can  be 
very  much  more  useful  as  an  active  participant  in  the  industrial 
problems.  Due  to  his  training  in  exact  thinking  he  should  be 
better  able  to  see  through  the  maze  of  intricate  details  and 
discover  the  fundamental  problems  involved. 

Number  Employed 

The  number  of  mathematicians  employed  in  com- 
munications, electrical  manufacturing,  petroleum,  and 
aircraft,  is  estimated  at  about  100.  The  number  em- 
ployed in  other  places  is  no  doubt  somewhat  less,  but  it 
is  probably  not  an  insignificant  part  of  the  whole,  since 
mathematicians  are  found  here  and  there  in  some  very 
small  industries.  For  example,  the  Brush  Development 
Company  with  a  total  engineering  force  of  only  17,  has 
found  it  desirable  to  supplement  this  group  with  a  man 
hired  specifically  as  a  consultant  in  mathematics. 

It  is  perhaps  not  too  wade  of  the  mark  to  estimate  the 
total  number  at  150,  not  including  actuaries  and 
statisticians. 

This  number  can  be  checked  in  another  way.  The 
membership  list  of  the  American  Mathematical  Society 
lists  202  men  with  industrial  addresses.  Of  these,  102 
are  in  financial  and  insurance  firms  and  are  presumably 
statisticians.  The  remaining  100  names  are  those  of 
industrial  employees  with  mathematical  interests  strong 
enough  to  belong  to  an  organization  devoted  exclusively 
to  the  promotion  of  mathematical  research.  Some  of 
these  are  not  mathematicians  by  the  definition  adopt- 
ed in  this  report.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
also  158  names  for  which  only  street  addresses  are 
given,  some  of  whom  are  known  to  be  Industrial 
mathematicians.  Balancing  these  uncertainties  against 
one  another,  and  remembering  that  many  industrial 
mathematicians  find  little  profit  in  belonging  to  an 
association  devoted  primarily  to  pure  mathematics, 
the  estimate  given  above  does  not  appear  unreasonable. 

Future  Demand 

The  appraisal  of  future  demand  is  even  more  specu- 
lative than  the  estimation  of  present  personnel.     Two 


statements,  however,  seem  warranted:  (1)  The  demand 
for  mathematicians  will  never  be  comparable  to  that  for 
physicists,  chemists  or  engineers.  (2)  It  will  certainly 
increase  beyond  the  number  at  present  employed. 

The  first  statement  is  justified  by  the  fact  that  physi- 
cists, chemists,  and  other  experimental  workers  deal 
directly  with  the  natural  laws  and  natural  resources 
which  it  is  the  business  of  industry  to  exploit,  whereas 
mathematicians  touch  these  things  only  in  a  secondary 
way. 

The  second  statement  would  perhaps  be  granted  on 
the  general  ground  that  throughout  the  whole  of  in- 
dustry research  is  becoming  more  complex  and  theo- 
retical, and  hence  the  value  of  consultants  in  general, 
and  of  mathematical  consultants  in  particular,  must 
increase.  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  rely  solely 
on  such  general  considerations.  Direct  evidence  exists 
in  certain  industries,  notably  aircraft,'  where  many  of 
the  major  research  problems  are  generally  recognized 
to  be  more  readily  accessible  to  theoretical  than  experi- 
mental study,  and  in  certain  others,  such  as  industrial 
chemistry,^  where  one  may  reasonably  assume  that 
modem  molecular  physics  will  soon  begin  to  play  an 
important  part  in  determining  speeds  of  reaction. 
There  is  also  the  general  alertness  of  executives  to  the 
dollar  value  of  a  theoretical  framework  in  planning 
expensive  experunents  and  the  gradually  changing 
attitude  toward  mathematics  that  stems  from  it.  As 
Dr.  W.  R.  Burwell,  chairman  of  the  Brush  Develop- 
ment Company,  writes: 

There  is  a  definite  trend  toward  a  greater  use  of  mathematics 
in  industry  which  is  somewhat  commensurate  with  the  trend 
toward  the  acceptance  of  research  and  development  departments 
as  necessary  adjuncts  to  successful  businesses.  It  is  becoming 
more  and  more  generally  recognized  that  mathematics  is  not  only 
a  necessary  tool  for  all  engineers,  physicists  and  chemists  who 
make  any  pretense  of  going  beyond  strictly  observational 
methods  and  experimental  solutions  to  their  problems  but  that 
it  is  also  performing  an  important  function  as  the  recording  me- 
dium for  those  generalizations  which  lay  the  foundation  for  the 
advances  of  scientific  knowledge.     *     *     * 

Even  in  an  organization  as  small  as  ours,  the  use  as  a  consultant 
is  really  important  and  we  are  constantly  having  instances  where 
the  mathematician  because  of  his  training  is  serving  as  an  in- 
terpreter of  mathematical  and  physical  theories,  sometimes  in- 
fluencing the  direction  of  experimental  work  and  sometimes  ehm- 
inating  the  need  for  it. 

If,  therefore,  the  estimate  of  150  mathematicians  in 
industry  at  present  is  realistic,  it  may  not  be  too  wide 
of  the  mark  to  forecast  several  times  that  number  a 
decade  or  so  hence. 

Source  of  Supply 

Based  on  these  estimates,  a  demand  for  new  personnel 
of  the  order  of  10  a  year  may  be  predicted.  This  num- 
ber sounds  small;  but  if  we  reiterate  that  mediocrity 


'  See  pp.  285-266. 


'See  pp.  284-285. 


Industrial  Research 


273 


has  no  place  in  the  consulting  field,  and  that  these  10 
must  be  exceptional  men,  it  does  not  seem  unreasonable 
to  ask  where  they  may  be  found. 

Most  mathematicians  now  in  industry  were  trained 
as  physicists  or  as  electrical  or  mechanical  engineers 
and  gravitated  into  their  present  work  because  of  a 
strong  interest  in  mathematics.  Few  came  from  the 
mathematical  departments  of  universities.  As  scien- 
tists they  are  university  trained,  but  as  matliematicians 
they  are  self-educated. 

Their  training  has  not  been  ideal.  Industrial  mathe- 
matics is  being  carried  on  by  graduates  of  engineering 
or  physics  not  so  much  because  of  the  value  of  that 
training  as  because  of  the  wealoiess  of  mathematical 
education  in  America.  The  properly  trained  industrial 
mathematician  shoidd  have,  beyond  the  usual  coui-ses  of 
college  grade,  a  good  working  background  of  algebra 
(matrices,  tensor  theory,  etc.),  some  geometry,  particu- 
larly the  analytic  sort,  and  as  much  analysis  as  he  can 
absorb  (function  theory,  theory  of  differential  and 
integral  equations,  orthogonal  functions,  calculus  of 
variations,  etc.).  These  should  have  been  taught  with 
an  attitude  sympathetic  to  their  apphcations  and  rein- 
forced by  theoretical  courses  in  sound,  heat,  hght,  and 
electricity,  and  by  heavy  emphasis  upon  mechanics, 
elasticity,  hydrodynamics,  thermodynamics,  and  elec- 
tromagnetic field  theory.  He  should  understand  what 
rigor  is,  so  that  he  will  not  unwittingly  indulge  in  un- 
sound argument,  but  he  should  also  gain  experience  in 
such  useful  but  sometimes  treacherous  practices  as  the 
use  of  divergent  series  or  the  modification  of  terms  in 
differential  equations.  He  should  have  enough  basic 
physics  and  chemistry  of  the  experimental  sort  to  give 
him  a  reahstic  outlook  on  the  power  as  well  as  the 
perils  of  experimental  technique.  By  the  time  he  has 
acquired  this  training  he  will  usually  also  have  acquired 
a  Ph.  D.  degree,  but  the  degree  itself  is  not  now,  and  is 
not  lilvely  to  become,  the  almost  indispensable  prere- 
quisite to  employment  that  it  is  in  university  Ufe. 

There  is  nowhere  in  America  a  school  where  this 
training  can  be  acquired.  No  school  has  attempted  to 
build  a  faculty  of  mathematics  with  such  training  in 
mind.  Hence  industry  has  had  to  make  such  shift  as 
might  be  with  ersatz  mathematicians  cidled  from  de- 
partments of  physics  and  engineering.  To  make  matters 
worse,  a  student  with  strong  theoretical  interests  who 
enrolls  in  physics  these  days  is  almost  certain  to  spend 
most  of  his  time  on  modern  mathematical  physics, 
which  insists  almost  as  little  upon  fidelity  to  experience 
and  experiment  as  does  "pure"  mathematics,  from  which 
it  differs  more  essentially  in  matters  of  language  and 
rigor  than  of  general  philosophic  attitude.  At  the 
moment,  therefore,  engineering  schools  must  be  looked 
upon  as  the  most  hopeful  sources  of  industrial 
mathematicians. 


Historically  it  is  easy  to  explain  how  this  situation 
came  about.  Fifty  years  ago  America  was  so  backward 
in  the  field  of  mathematics  that  there  was  not  even  a 
national  association  of  mathematicians.  A  quarter  of 
a  century  later  it  was  just  coming  of  age  in  mathematics 
and  was  properly,  if  not  indeed  necessarily,  devoting  its 
entire  attention  to  improving  the  quaUty  of  instruction 
in  the  "pure"  field.  The  first  faint  indications  that 
industrial  mathematics  might  some  day  become  a 
career  had  indeed  begun  to  appear,  but  they  were  not 
impressive  enough  to  attract  the  attention  of  imiversity 
executives. 

Today  wo  lead  the  world  in  pure  mathematics,  and 
perhaps  also  in  that  other  field  of  mathematics  which 
has  somehow  come  to  be  known  as  modern  physics. 
We  have  strong  centers  of  actuarial  and  statistical  train- 
ing. But  in  the  field  of  apphed  mathematics,  wliich  is 
the  particular  subject  of  this  report,  we  stand  no  further 
forward  than  at  the  turn  of  the  century,  and  far  behind 
most  European  countries. 

A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  it  would  have  been  difficult 
to  find  suitable  teachers.  Just  now  it  could  be  done, 
primarily  because  a  number  of  European  scholars  of  the 
right  type  have  been  forced  to  come  here  and  a  few 
others  have  developed  spontaneously  within  our  own 
borders.  There  are  perhaps  half  a  dozen  of  them,  but 
they  are  so  scattered,  sometimes  in  such  unpropitious 
places,  as  to  have  httle  influence  on  the  development  of 
industrial  personnel. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  no  university  with  strong 
engineering  and  science  departments  has  seen  fit  to 
bring  this  group  together  and  establish  a  center  of 
training  in  industrial  mathematics.  We  have  estimated 
a  demand  of  about  10  exceptional  graduates  per  year. 
If  that  estimate  is  even  remotely  related  to  the  facts, 
such  a  department  would  have  a  most  important  job 
to  do. 

Mathematics  in  Industry 

Subjects  Used 

As  Dr.  H.  M.  Evjen,  research  physicist  of  the  geo- 
physical section  of  the  Shell  Oil  Company,  remarks: 

Higher  mathematics,  of  course,  means  simply  those  branches 
of  the  science  which  have  not  as  yet  found  a  wide  field  of  appli- 
cation and  hence  have  not  as  yet,  so  to  speak,  emerged  from 
obscurity.     It  is,  therefore,  a  temporal  and  subjective  term. 

If  this  is  accepted  as  a  definition  of  higher  mathe- 
matics— and  it  is  a  valid  one  for  the  pure  science  as  well 
as  for  its  apphcations — it  follows  automatically  that 
industry  relies  principally  upon  the  lower  branches. 
What  it  uses  much  ceases  by  the  very  muchness  of  its 
use  to  be  high.  The  theory  of  linear  differential 
equations,  for  example,  is  a  subject  by  which  the 
average  well-trained  engineer  of  1890  would  have  been 


274 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


DETERMINANTS 

WVW- 


D  = 


z,  -z„  -z,3  o  -z,5  z„ 

^12     ^2      ^23  ~^24    ^      ~^26 

Z,3  -Z„  Z3  -Z3,  Z3,  o 

o  -z,,  -Z3,  Z,  Z,,  z,, 

Z„  O  -Z3S  -z,,  z,  -z,, 

z„  -z,.  o   z..  z..  z. 


-16 


-26 


46 


-56 


k=l 


Driving  point  impedance  in  mesh  j  =  Z(jj)=  -ry~ 

Transfer  impedance  between  meshj  and  mesh  k=  Z{A)  =  -¥y- 

(  Djk  =  the  first  minor  of  the  element  Zjk  in  D  ) 


Many  properties  of  the  complicated  networks  studied  at  Bell  Telephone  laboratories  are  most 

fwnTeniently  eipressed  by  means  of  determinants.  Above  are  shown  a  sii-mesh  network;  its 

**cir«uit  discriminant**,  D;  and  some  formulae  which  illustrate  how  simply  the  properties  of  the 

system  can  be  found  from  D.  Note  that,  since  Zjk  =  Zkji  D  is  symmetrical. 

Figure  84 


Industrial  Research 


275 


completely  baffled.  The  well-trained  engineer  of  1940 
takes  it  in  bis  stride  and  ree:ards  it  as  almost  common- 
place. Tbe  well-trained  engineer  of  1990  will  cerlainly 
regard  as  equally  commonplace  the  llicory  of  analytic 
functions,  matrices,  and  tbe  cbaractcristic  numbers 
(Eigenwerte)  of  difl'erential  equations,  wbicii  today  are 
thougbt  of  as  quite  advanced. 

Witb  tbis  as  a  background,  there  need  be  no  apology 
associated  with  the  statement  that  such  simple  processes 
as  algebra,  trigonometry,  and  the  elements  of  calculus 
are  the  most  common  and  the  most  productive  in 
modern  industrial  research.  They  freciuently  lead  to 
results  of  the  greatest  practical  importance.  The 
single  sideband  system  of  carrier  transmissioTi,  for 
example,  was  a  mathematical  invention.  It  virtually 
doubled  the  number  of  long-distance  calls  that  could  be 
handled  simultaneously  over  a  given  line.  Yet  the 
only  mathematics  involved  in  its  development  was  a 
single  trigonometric  equation,  the  formula  for  the  sine 
of  the  sum  of  two  angles. 

Next  in  order  of  usefulness  come  such  subjects  as 
linear  differential  equations  (e.  g.,  in  studying  the 
reaction  of  mechanical  and  electrical  systems  to  applied 
forces,  the  strains  in  elastic  bodies,  heat  flow,  stability 
of  electric  circuits  and  of  coupled  mechanical  sj^stems, 
etc.);  the  theory  of  functions  of  a  complex  variable 
(particularly  in  dealing  with  potential  theory  and  wave 
transmission,  propagation  of  radio  waves  and  of  currents 
in  wires,  gravitational  and  electric  fields  as  used  in 
prospecting  for  oil,  design  of  filters  and  equalizers  for 
communication  systems,  etc.);  Fourier,  Bessel,  and 
other  orthogonal  series  (in  problems  of  heat  flow,  flow 
of  currents  in  transmission  lines,  deformation  and 
vibration  of  gases,  liquids  and  elastic  solids,  etc.);  the 
theory  of  determinants  (particularly  in  solving  compli- 
cated linear  differential  equations,  especially  in  the 
study  of  coupled  dynamical  systems);  and  the  like. 

Less  frequently  we  meet  such  subjects  as  integral 
equations,  which  has  been  made  the  basis  of  one  version 
of  the  Heaviside  operational  calculus  and  which  has 
also  been  used  in  studying  the  seismic  and  electric 
methods  of  prospecting  for  oil;  matrix  algebra,  which 
has  been  applied  to  the  study  of  rotating  electric  ma- 
chinery, to  the  vibration  of  aircraft  wings,  and  in  the 
equivalence  problem  in  electric  circuit  theory;  the 
calculus  of  variations,  in  improving  the  efficiency  of 
relays;  and  even  such  abstract  subjects  as  Boolean 
algebra,  in  designing  relay  circuits;  the  theory  of  num- 
bers, in  the  design  of  reduction  gears  and  in  developing 
a  systematic  method  for  splicing  telephone  cables; 
and  analysis  situs,  in  the  classification  of  electric 
networks. 

Least  frequently  of  all,  but  by  no  means  never,  the 
industrial  mathematician  is  forced  to  invent  tecbnitiues 


wbicii  till'  pure  mathennitician  has  overlooked.  The 
method  of  symmetric  coordinates  for  the  study  of  poly- 
phase power  systems;  the  Heaviside'  calculus  for  the 
study  of  transients  in  linear  dynamical  systems;  the 
method  of  matrix  iteration  in  aerodynamic  theory;* 
nuich  of  tbe  technique  used  in  the  design  of  electric 
filters  and  etjualizers — these  may  stand  as  illustrative 
examples. 

The  student  of  modern  mathematics  will  be  impressed 
at  once  by  two  aspects  of  this  review:  first,  by  the  heavy 
emphasis  on  algebra  and  analysis  and  the  almost  com- 
plete absence  of  geometry  beyond  the  elementary 
grade;  second,  tb<^  complete  absence  of  the  specific 
techniques  which  play  such  a  large  role  in  modern 
physics  and  astrophysics.  It  is  not  easy  to  say  just 
why  advanced  geometry  plays  no  larger  part  in  indus- 
trial research;  however,  the  fact  remains  that  it  does 
not.°  As  regards  modern  physics,  one  may  perhaps 
extrapolate  from  past  history  and  infer  that  what  is  now 
being  found  useful  in  interatomic  physics  will  soon  be 
needed  in  industrial  chemistry.  In  making  this  extra- 
polation, however,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the 
physics  in  question  is  for  the  most  part  a  mental  dis- 
cipline, its  connection  with  the  world  of  reality  still 
ill-defined  and  incompletely  understood.  Therefore  it 
may  not  prove  to  be  as  quickly  assimilable  into  tech- 
nology as  have  other  disciplines  whose  symbols  could 
be  more  immediately  identified  with  experience.* 

Finally,  we  must  remark  upon  two  facts:  (1)  that 
approximate  solutions  of  problems,  and  hence  methods 
of  iteration  (successive  approximation),  play  a  much 
more  conspicuous  role  in  applied  mathematics  than  in 
the  pure  science;  (2)  that  the  highly  convenient  assump- 
tion that  linear  approximations  to  natural  laws  (such 
as  Hooke's  law  and  Ohm's  law)  are  sufficiently  exact 
for  practical  purposes  is  less  often  true  than  formerly 
was  the  case,  so  that  nonlinear  differential  equations 
are  of  great  importance  to  the  modern  engineer. 

'  Heaviside  was  not  himself  an  industrial  employee,  but  the  reformulation  of  his 
work  in  terras  of  inteKral  equations  and  its  interpretation  in  terms  of  Fourier  trans- 
forms were  both  carried  out  in  America  by  industrial  mathematicians. 

<  This  method  was  developed  in  the  National  Physical  Laboratory  of  England,  in 
the  course  of  studies  which  in  America  would  probably  have  been  undertaken  by  a 
Government  or  industrial  laboratory. 

'  Mr.  Hall  0.  Hibbard.  of  the  Lockheed  Aircraft  Corporation,  comments  on  this 
remark  as  follows:  "It  is  possible  that  the  usefulnessof  this  principle  of  mathematics 
has  been  overlooked  to  a  large  extent  in  certain  fields  where  it  might  be  applied  to 
advantage.  In  particular,  that  phase  of  engineering  known  as  "lofting,"  which 
deals  with  the  development  of  smooth  curved  surfaces,  might  ofTer  an  interesting 
field  for  certain  types  of  advanced  geometry.  Practically  all  of  this  work  is  now  done 
by  "cut  and  try"  methods,  and  the  application  of  mathematics  would  no  doubt  save 
a  great  deal  of  time.  The  same  thing  is  true  in  the  field  of  stress  analysis,  where  a 
great  deal  of  time  is  absorbed  in  determining  the  location  and  direction  of  certain 
structural  members.  It  is  even  possible  that  the  application  of  vector  analysis 
technique  would  greatly  simplify  certain  forms  of  structural  analysis,  particularly 
space  frameworks.  The  lack  of  application  of  geometry  in  these  fields  is  probably 
due  to  the  wide  gap  that  exists  between  the  mathematician  and  the  'practical' 
designer  and  draftsman,  .\dvanced  geometry  might  also  turn  out  to  be  a  very  useful 
tool  in  connection  with  problems  that  we  tire  no-.v  encountering  in  the  forming  of 
flat  sheet  into  surfaces  with  double  curvature,  an  operation  that  is  extensively  em- 
ployed in  aircraft  manufacture." 

•  In  this  contieetiou.  see  the  quotation  from  Dr.  E.  f.  Williamson  pp.  C84-2S.'i. 


:;2is:;.j  -41- 


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Bicircular   Coordinates 


Figure  85 
{x-\-coth  uy-\-y'^=csch^  u;  a;^+(y— cot  0)^=csc'0 
u=log  irjr^) 

Using  the  bicircular  system  of  coordinates  facilitates  finding  the  distribu- 
tion of  electric  charge  on  two  parallel  conductors,  and  thence  their 
capacity.  Rotating  the  bicircular  system  about  the  vertical  axis  gen- 
erates a  toriodal  coordinate  system  which  facilitates  determining  the 
capacity  of  a  torus. 


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277 


Types  of  Service  Performed  by  Mathematics 

Leaving  aside  the  important  but  rather  trite  obser- 
vation that  mathematics  is  a  hxnguage  which  simpHfics 
the  process  of  thinking  and  makes  it  more  rehable,  and 
that  this  is  its  principal  service  to  industry,  we  may 
distinguish  certain  less  inclusive,  but  perhaps  for  that 
reason  more  illuminating,  categories  of  usefulness. 

First:  It  provides  a  basis  for  interpreting  data  in 
terms  of  a  preconceived  theory,  thus  making  it  possible 
to  draw  deductions  from  them  regarding  things  which 
could  not  be  observed  conveniently,  if  at  all. 

(a)  An  illustration  is  the  standard  method  for  locating  faults 
on  telephone  lines.  Mathematical  theory  shows  that  a  fault  will 
affect  the  impedance  of  the  line  in  a  way  which  varies  with 
frequency  and  that  the  distance  from  the  place  of  measurement 
to  the  fault  can  be  deduced  at  once  from  the  frequencies  at 
which  the  impedance  is  most  conspicuously  affected.  This  is 
obviously  much  more  convenient  than  hunting  the  fault  directly. 

(6)  A  second  illustration  is  the  mapping  of  geological  strata 
by  means  of  measurements  made  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
One  method  extensively  employed  uses  a  large  number  of  seis- 
mographs, each  of  which  records  the  miniature  earthquake  shock 
produced  at  its  location  by  a  charge  of  dynamite  set  off  at  a 
known  place.  A  theory  of  reflection  and  refraction  similar  to 
that  used  in  geometrical  optics  shows  that  certain  observable 
characteristics  of  these  records  are  related  to  the  depth  and  tilt 
of  the  underground  layers,  and  hence  enables  the  situation  of 
these  layers  to  be  plotted.  By  this  means  the  location  of  the 
highest  point  of  an  oil-bearing  stratum  can  be  found  and  the 
most  favorable  position  for  drilling  determined. 

Underground  geology  is  also  studied  by  means  of  gravity, 
electrical  or  magnetic  measurements  upon  the  surface.  In  this 
case  the  basic  theory  is  that  of  the  Newtonian  potential  field, 
and  the  interpretation  of  the  data  leads  into  the  subject  of 
inverse  boundary  value  problems,  which  is  still  insufficiently 
understood.  Enough  progress  has  been  made  in  several  geo- 
physical laboratories,  however,  so  that  the  gravity  method  is 
now  being  widely  used,  and  the  electiical  methods  appear 
promising  for  some  applications. 

Second:  When  data  are  incompatible  with  the  pre- 
conceived theory,  a  mathematical  study  frequently  aids 
in  perfecting  the  theory  itself.  The  classical  illustration 
in  pure  science  is  the  discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune. 
The  motion  of  the  planet  Uranus  was  found  to  be  in- 
consistent with  the  predictions  of  the  Newtonian  theory 
of  gravitation,  if  the  solar  system  consisted  only  of  the 
seven  planets  then  known.  Mathematical  investiga- 
tion indicated,  however,  that  if  an  eighth  planet  of  a 
certain  size  was  assumed  to  be  moving  in  a  certain 
orbit,  these  discrepancies  disappeared.  Upon  turning 
a  telescope  to  the  spot  predicted,  the  new  planet  was 
found. 

An  illustration  comes  from  the  aircraft  industry.  I 
quote  it  from  a  report  sent  me  by  Mr.  C.  T.  Reid, 
Director  of  Education  of  the  Douglas  Aircraft  Company: 

(c)  The  behavior  of  airplanes  with  "power  on"  did  not  check 
closely  enough  with  stability  predictions  which  had  been  made 
without  consideration  of  the  effects  of  the  application  of  power; 
therefore,  a  purely  mathematical  analysis  of  the  longitudinal 


motion  of  an  airplane  was  carried  out,  involving  the  solution  of 
three  simultaneous  linear  first-degree  differential  equations.  The 
results  led  to  the  development  of  equations  for  dynamic  longi- 
tudinal stability  with  "power  on"  which  enable  the  aerody- 
namicist  more  accurately  to  predict  the  stability  characteristics 
of  a  given  design.  "Powcr-on"  dynamic  longitudinal  stability 
is  an  important  design  criterion  in  aircraft  construction. 

(d)  Another  illustration  arises  in  communication  engineering. 
Theoretical  studies  had  established  the  fact  that  vacuum  tubes 
would  spontaneously  generate  noise  because  of  the  discrete 
character  of  the  electrons  of  which  the  space  current  is  composed. 
The  theory  predicted  how  loud  this  noise  would  be  in  any  par- 
ticular type  of  vacuum  tube,  a  most  significant  result  since  it 
established  a  limit  to  the  weakness  of  signals  which  could  be 
amplified  by  this  type  of  tube.  The  predictions  of  the  theory 
were  supported  by  experimental  data  so  long  as  the  tubes  were 
operating  without  appreciable  space  charge.  But  it  was  found 
that  when  space  charge  was  present  the  noise  level  fell  far  below 
the  predicted  minimum.  In  this  case  the  missing  factor  in  the 
theory  was  immediately  obvious,  but  an  understanding  of  the 
mechanism  by  which  the  reduction  was  affected  and  its  incor- 
poration into  the  theory  in  a  workable  form  required  an  extensive 
and  difficult  mathematical  attack. 

Third:  It  is  frequently  necessary  in  practice  to  extra- 
polate test  data  from  one  set  of  dimensions  to  a  widely 
different  set,  and  in  such  cases  some  sort  of  mathejnat- 
ical  background  is  almost  essential. 

An  e.xample  of  this  kind  of  service,  concerned  with  the 
theory  of  arcs  in  various  gases,  is  furnished  me  by  Mr. 
P.  L.  Alger,  stafl'  assistant  to  the  vice  president  in 
charge  of  engineering,  of  the  General  Electric  Company: 

(e)  An  example  of  this  kind  of  problem  is  that  of  the  theory  of 
arcs  in  various  gases.  It  has  been  experimentally  known  that 
the  duration,  stability  and  voltage  characteristics  of  electric 
arcs  in  different  gases  and  under  different  pressures  vary  very 
widely.  The  behavior  of  such  arcs  is  of  great  importance,  both 
in  welding  and  in  the  design  of  circuit  breakers  and  other  pro- 
tective devices.  Recently  a  mathematical  theory  has  been 
developed  which  relates  the  arc  phenomena  to  the  heat  transfer 
characteristics  of  different  gases.  This  theory  has  given  ex- 
cellent correlation  between  the  known  experimental  results  and 
has  enabled  very  useful  predictions  of  performance  under  new 
conditions  to  be  made.  The  theory  has  been  applied  in  the  de- 
sign of  high  voltage  air  circuit  breakers,  which  are  of  important 
commercial  value,  and  it  is  also  greatly  curtailing  the  time  and 
expense  necessary  to  develop  many  other  devices  in  which  arc 
phenomena  are  of  importance. 

A  second  example,  furnished  me  by  Mr.  Reid,  has  to 
do  with  the  interpretation  of  wind-tunnel  data  in 
aerodynamics: 

(/)  Here  it  is  obviously  impracticable  to  perform  full-scale 
tests  of  such  parts  as  wings  or  fuselage,  much  less  of  entire 
aircraft,  and  the  extrapolation  from  the  results  of  wind  tunnel 
measurements  to  the  full-scale  characteristics  of  airplanes  must 
be  based  on  theoretical  considerations. 

Fourth:  Mathematics  frequently  aids  in  promoting 
economy  either  by  reducing  the  amount  of  e.xperi- 
mentation  required  or  by  replacing  it  entirely.  In- 
stances of  this  kind  are  met  eveiywhere  in  industry, 
not   only  in  research   activities  but  in  perfecting  the 


278 


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CONTINUED 

FRACTIONS 

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A  mathematical  method  of  systematically  designing  a  circuit  of  predetermined 
impedance  has  been  developed  in  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories.  The  given 
impedance,  as  a  function  of  frequency,  is  expanded  in  a  Stieltjes  continued 
fraction,  whose  -terms  give  the  electrical  constants  of  the  desired  network. 

Figure  86 


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279 


design  of  apparatus  and  in  its  subsequent  manufacture 
as  well. 

Mr.  Alger  describes  in  general  terms  one  situation 
frequently  met  in  research  activities  as  follows: 

The  first  type  of  problem  is  one  in  wliich  there  are  so  many 
different  independent  dimensions  of  a  proposed  shape  to  be 
chosen,  or  in  general  so  many  independent  variables,  that  it  is 
hopeless  to  find  the  optimum  proportions  by  experiment.  The 
truth  of  this  can  readily  be  seen  when  it  is  realized  that  the  num- 
ber of  test  observations  to  be  made  increases  exponentially  with 
the  number  of  variables.  If  10  points  are  required  to  establish 
a  performance  curve  for  one  variable,  1,000  observations  will  be 
required  if  there  are  3  independent  variables,  and  a  million  if 
there  are  6  variables. 

As  an  illustration  he  cites  the  following  problem: 

(g)  An  example  of  this  kind  of  problem  is  that  of  designing  a  T 
dovetail  to  hold  the  salient  poles  in  place  on  a  high  speed  syn- 
chronous generator.  A  large  machine  of  this  type  may  have  10 
or  more  laminated  poles  carrying  heavy  copper  field  coils,  each 
assembled  pole  weighing  several  tons  and  traveling  at  a  surface 
peripheral  speed  of  3  miles  a  minute.  The  centrifugal  force  on 
each  pound  of  the  pole  then  amounts  to  approximately  500 
pounds.  The  problem  of  designing  dovetails  to  hold  these  poles 
in  place,  even  at  over  speed,  is,  therefore,  one  of  great  importance 
and  technical  difficulty.  For  each  such  dovetail,  there  are  7 
different  dimensions  which  may  be  independently  chosen. 
While  empirical  methods  have  enabled  satisfactory  results  to  be 
obtained  in  some  cases,  application  of  mathematics  has  recently 
enabled  marked  improvements  in  dovetail  designs  to  be  made. 
Generally  speaking,  these  improvements  have  permitted  an 
overall  strength  increase  of  20  percent  to  be  obtained  under 
steady  stresses  and  much  higher  gains  to  be  made  under  fatigue 
stress  conditions;  while  at  the  same  time  the  certainty  of  obtain- 
ing the  desired  results  on  new  designs  has  been  very  greatly 
enhanced. 

A  second  e.^ample  was  brought  to  my  attention  by 
Mr.  L.  W.  Wallace,  Director  of  the  Engineering  and 
Research  Division  of  the  Crane  Company: 

(A)  A  pipe  fitting  weighing  several  hundred  pounds  and  in- 
tended for  high  pressure  service  had  a  neck  of  elliptical  cross- 
section.  As  originally  designed,  the  thickness  of  the  casting 
was  intentionally  not  uniform,  the  variations  having  been  intro- 
duced empirically  to  strengthen  it  where  strength  was  supposed 
to  be  most  needed.  A  redesign  carried  out  on  the  basis  of  the 
theory  of  elasticity  showed  the  distribution  of  metal  to  be  in- 
efficient and  resulted  in  a  new  casting  in  which  the  weight  was 
reduced  by  half,  while  at  the  same  time  the  bursting  strength 
was  doubled.  The  method  used  in  arriving  at  this  result  is  an 
interesting  illustration  of  sensible  mathematical  idealization. 
The  casting  was  regarded  as  an  elliptical  cylinder  under  hydro- 
static pressure.  As  the  stresses  for  this  idealized  structure  were 
already  known,  the  design  problem  reduced  at  once  to  the 
simple  matter  of  establishing  thicknesses  sufficient  to  withstand 
these  stresses. 

Another  example  from  the  field  of  geophysical  pros- 
pecting is  furnished  by  Mr.  Eugene  McDermott,  Presi- 
dent of  Geophysical  Service  Inc.: 

(t)  A  specific  case  of  mathematical  research  in  instrument 
design  was  recently  encountered.  The  instrument  in  question 
was  intended  for  the  measurement  of  gravity.  After  the  machine 
had  been  completely  built  it  was  found   to  be  unexplainably 


inaccurate.  After  weeks  of  trial  and  error  it  was  turned  over 
to  a  mathematician  to  try  to  find  the  trouble.  He  soon  showed 
by  simple  trigonometry  that  the  axis  of  the  instrument  would 
have  to  be  located  on  its  pivot  with  an  accuracy  which  is  not 
attainable.  He  also  pointed  out  a  means  of  avoiding  this 
feature  by  a  relatively  simple  change  in  design,  and  this  appears 
to  have  remedied  the  trouble. 

Another  illustration  from  the  petroleum  industry, 
but  this  time  concerned  with  the  production  of  oil 
rather  than  prospecting  for  it,  comes  from  Dr.  E.  C. 
Williams,  Vice  President  in  charge  of  research  of  the 
Shell  Development  Company: 

0)  The  petroleum  industry  has  one  important  problem  not 
found  in  other  fields;  it  has  to  do  with  oil  production  from  the 
ground.  A  mathematical  problem  arising  from  this  subject  is 
the  following:  The  oil-gas  mixture  underground  flows  under 
pressure  through  porous  media;  with  a  certain  spacing  of  wells, 
determine  the  most  economical  way  to  recover  this  mixture. 
This  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  asking:  "In  what  way  can  the 
largest  fraction  of  the  oil  be  obtained  over  a  certain  period  of 
time?"  Simplified  problems  of  this  kind  have  been  solved  by 
potential  theory  methods,  since  classical  hydrodynamics  be- 
comes too  involved,  and  in  the  general  problems  where  the 
flow  constants  vary  with  liquid-gas  composition,  etc.,  partial 
differential  equations  are  found  which  can  be  solved  by  approxi- 
mate methods.  On  the  basis  of  the  solution  of  this  mathematical 
problem,  aided  by  extensive  laboratory  determinations  of  the 
required  constants,  one  is  able  to  find  the  best  of  several  ways  of 
producing  from  a  given  oil  field. 

As  a  final  example  under  the  heading  of  economy,  we 
may  mention  the  flight  testing  requirements  imposed 
upon  the  aircraft  industry  by  the  Civil  Aeronautics 
Authority.  Of  these,  Mr.  E.  T.  Allen,  Director  of 
Flight  and  Research  of  the  Boeing  Aircraft  Company, 
says: 

(fc)  It  was  formerly  required  that  each  type  of  transport 
plane  must  be  tested  at  all  the  altitudes  at  which  it  was  intended 
to  be  flown,  and  at  all  flying  fields  where  it  was  expected  to  be 
used.  The  cost  of  such  testing  was  extremely  high.  A  mathe- 
matical study  of  steady  flight  performance  has,  however, 
identified  the  basic  parameters  and  established  their  relations  to 
one  another.  This  has  made  possible  a  scientific  interpretation 
of  flight  test  data  taken  at  any  suitable  location  convenient  to 
the  aircraft  factory,  and  a  reliable  conclusion  therefrom  as  to  the 
performance  to  be  expected  under  other  conditions.  This  has 
greatly  reduced  both  the  cost  and  the  time  necessary  to  establish 
performance  figures. 

Fifth:  Sometimes  experiments  are  virtually  impos- 
sible, and  mathematics  must  fill  the  breach.  An 
example  comes  to  me  from  Mr.  Hall  C.  Hibbard,  Vice 
President  and  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Lockheed  Aircraft 
Corporation: 

(0  An  unfortunate  phenomenon  that  must  be  dealt  with  in 
aircraft  design  is  a  type  of  violent  vibration  which  may  be  set 
up  in  the  wings  if  the  plane  is  flown  too  fast.  It  is  known  as 
flutter,  and  is  highly  dangerous,  since  the  vibrations  may  be  of 
such  intense  character  as  to  cause  loss  of  control  or  even  struc- 
tural failure.  The  technical  problem  is  therefore  to  be  sure  that 
the  critical  speed  at  which  flutter  would  occur  is  higher  than  at 
any  at  which  the  craft  would  ever  be  flown.     It  is  a  phenomenon 


280 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


(oUifjiic    CJuiegrali 


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H^^[iivrkwx  dx-jy^^ 


o 


o 


Some  simple  engineering  prob- 
lems require  advanced  mathe- 
matics in  their  solution.  This 
is  true,  for  example,  in  the 
computation  of  the  magnetic 
field  outside  the  spiral  grid  of 
a  vacuum  tube,  a  problem  of 
interest  to  Bell  Telephone  Lab- 
oratories. If  the  grid  is  closely 


^ 


; ^  coiled,    the    current    can    be 

treated  as  a  continuous  cylin- 

.  drical  sheet,  of  radius  a.  Then 

/  /   /  '   the  component  of  the  magnetic 

1  field  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 

/    '   '      grid  at  a  distance  r  from  the 

f   A    ,       axis  is  given  by  the  above  func- 

/   '  tion  of  two  Elliptic  Integrals 

whose  "modulus"  is  k=a/r. 


Figure  S7 


Industrial  Research 


281 


with  respect  to  which  wind  tunnel  experimentation  is  clifTieult 
and  flight  testing  very  dangerous.  It  has  been  the  subject  of  a 
number  of  mathematical  investigations,  the  results  of  which 
have  reached  a  sufficiently  advanced  stage  that  they  are  now 
being  used  to  predict  the  critical  speeds  and  flutter  frequencies 
of  aircraft  while  still  in  the  design  stage.  Even  more  important, 
the  mathematical  investigation  of  this  problem  jioints  the  way 
to  modifications  of  design  which  will  insure  that  lluttor  cannot 
occur  in  the  usable  speed  range. 

Telephony  provides  a  second  example: 

(to)  The  equipment  in  an  automatic  telephone  exchange  must 
be  capable  of  connecting  any  calling  subscriber  with  any  called 
subscriber.  It  consists  of  several  stages  of  switches,  each  of 
which  can  be  caused  to  make  connection  with  a  number  of  trunks 
which  lead  in  turn  to  switches  in  the  next  succeeding  stage. 
Enough  switches  must  be  provided  so  that  only  a  very  small 
proportion  of  subscribers'  calls  will  fail  to  be  served  immediately. 
Since  the  demands  made  by  the  subscribers  fluctuate  from 
moment  to  moment,  the  number  of  switches  required  depends 
in  part  upon  the  height  to  which  the  crests  occasionally  rise  in 
this  fluctuating  load.  It  is  also  influenced,  however,  by  the  way 
the  trunks  are  arranged,  by  the  order  in  which  the  switches 
choose  them,  and  by  many  other  factors.  Experimental  ap- 
praisal of  the  effect  of  these  various  factors  is  impossible,  both 
because  it  would  be  very  costly,  and  because  it  would  be  exceed- 
ingly slow.  Mathematically,  however,  they  have  been  studied 
by  the  theory  of  a  priori  probability,'  which  is  used  not  only  in 
determining  how  much  apparatus  to  install  in  a  working  exchange, 
but  also  in  comparing  the  relative  merits  of  alternative  arrange- 
ments while  in  the  development  stage. 

Sixth:  Mathematics  is  frequently  useful  in  devising 
so-called  crucial  experiments  to  distinguish  once  for  all 
between  rival  theories.  A  famous  example  in  the  field 
of  physics  was  the  study  of  the  refraction  of  starlight 
near  the  sun's  disk,  which  afforded  a  means  of  deciding 
between  Newtonian  and  relativistic  mechanics.  In 
this  case,  mathematical  investigation  showed  that  the 
result  to  be  expected  was  different  according  to  the 
two  theories,  and  astronomical  observations  confirmed 
the  prediction  of  relativistic  mechanics.  In  the  indus- 
trial field,  an  example  of  this  kind  comes  to  me  from 
Dr.  Joseph  A.  Sharpe,  Chief  Physicist  in  the  Geophysi- 
cal Laboratory  of  the  Stanolind  Oil  and  Gas  Companj': 

(n)  As  an  example  of  the  second  sort  of  use  of  analysis  there  is 
the  case  of  our  study  of  "ground-roll,"  the  large  amplitude, 
low  frequency  surficial  wave  which  caused  so  much  grief  in  the 
early  days  of  seismic  reflection  prospecting  when  filters  were  not 
used  as  extensively  as  at  present.  We  hope  to  use  our  study  of 
this  wave  motion  as  an  aid  to  a  better  understanding  of  the 
properties  of  the  surficial  layers  of  soil  and  their  effects  on  the 
reflected  waves  in  which  we  are  primarily  interested. 

Two  views  on  the  ground-roll  are  current,  although  neither  is 
based  on  very  much  observation,  and  this  of  an  uncontrolled 
sort.  One  view  states  that  the  ground-roll  is  an  elastic  wave. 
Analysis  predicts  that  this  wave  w  ill  have  a  certain  velocity  in 
relation  to  the  velocities  of  other  waves,  that  it  will  have  a  certain 
direction  of  particle  motion  and  relation  of  maximum  horizontal 
to  maximum  vertical  component  of  displacement,  that  it  will 
attenuate  with  distance  according  to  a  certain  law,  that  it  will 

'  Nol  statistics,  which  is  a  pofteriori  probability.    This  is  one  of  the  few  cases  in 
industry  where  the  a  priori  theory  finds  application. 


attenuate  with  depth  in  a  certain  way,  and  that  its  velocity  will 
follow  a  certain  dispersion  law.  The  second  view  maintains 
that  the  "ground-roll"  is  a  wave  in  a  viscous  fluid,  and  analysis 
predicts  a  behavior  which  is  similar  in  certain  cases,  and  different 
in  others,  to  that  of  the  elastic  wave.  Having  the  predictions  of 
the  analysis  at  hand,  we  are  enabled  to  devise  a  group  of  obser- 
vations, and  the  special  equipment  for  their  i)rosocution,  which 
will  provide  crucial  tests  of  the  two  hypotheses. 

Seventh:  Mathematics  also  frequently  performs  a 
negative  service,  but  one  which  is  sometLnics  of  very 
great  importance,  in  forestalling  the  search  for  the 
impossible;  for  many  desirable  objectives  in  industry 
are  as  unattainable  as  perpetual  motion  machines,  and 
frequently  the  only  way  to  recognize  the  fact  is  by 
means  of  mathematical  argument. 

(o)  A  certain  type  of  electric  wave  filter  which  is  usually 
referred  to  as  an  "ideal"  filter  would  be  very  useful  if  it  could  be 
produced.  However,  it  has  been  shown  mathematically  that 
such  a  structure  would  respond  to  a  signal  before  the  signal 
reached  it;  in  other  words,  that  it  would  have  the  gift  of  prophecy. 
Since  this  is  absurd,  it  follows  that  no  such  filter  can  be  built, 
and  consequently  no  one  tries  to  build  it. 

Still  another  example  from  the  field  of  communica- 
tion deals  with  the  design  of  feedback  amplifiers. 

(p)  In  practice,  any  amplifier  is  intended  to  handle  signals  in 
a  given  frequency  band.  For  various  reasons,  it  is  preferable  not 
to  have  it  amplify  disturbances  outside  this  band,  and  hence  its 
gain  characteristic  is  made  to  drop  off  as  rapidly  as  possible  out- 
side the  limits  of  the  useful  band.  It  has  been  shown  theoreti- 
cally, however,  that  the  gain  cannot  decrease  at  more  than  a 
certain  rate,  which  can  easily  be  computed,  without  causing  the 
amplifier  to  become  unstable.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  allowable 
rate  at  which  the  gain  may  fall  is  often  surprisingly  low,  and  a 
great  deal  of  design  effort  would  be  wasted  in  the  attempt  to 
obtain  an  impossible  degree  of  discrimination  if  the  theoretical 
limitations  were  unknown. 

Eighth:  Finally,  mathematics  frequently  plays  an 
important  part  in  reducing  complicated  theoretical 
results  and  complicated  methods  of  calculation  to 
readily  available  working  form.  So  many  and  so  varied 
are  the  services  falling  in  this  category  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  illustrate  them  by  means  of  examples.  We 
arbitrarily  restrict  ourselves  to  two,  chosen  primarily 
for  the  sake  of  variety.  The  first  comes  from  Mr. 
Hibbard : 

(?)  In  aircraft  design  the  metal  skin,  though  thin,  contributes 
a  larger  part  of  the  structural  strength.  Nevertheless,  such  thin 
metallic  plates  will  buckle  or  wrinkle  after  a  certain  critical  load  is 
exceeded.  Beyond  this  point  the  usual  structural  theories  can- 
liot  be  applied  directly,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  introduce 
new  methods  of  attack  to  predict  the  ultimate  strength  of  the 
structure.  These  stiffened  plates  are  difficult  to  deal  with  theo- 
retically, but  by  interpreting  the  effect  of  the  stiffeners  as  equiva- 
lent to  an  increase  in  plate  thickness  or  a  decrease  in  plate  width, 
the  calculations  can  be  brought  within  useful  bounds. 

The  reduction  of  electric  transducers  to  equivalent 
T  or  n  configurations,  the  interpretation  of  the  elastic 
reaction  of  air  upon  a  microphone  as  equivalent  to  an 
increase  in  the  mass  of  its  diaphragm,  the  postulation  of 


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THE  ISOGRAPH 

The  Isograph  was  developed  in  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories 
to  find  mechanically  the  complex  roots  of  polynomials  of  high 

n 

degree.     Let   the   polynomial   to   be  factored   be  p{z)='SajZ' 

0 

n  n 

or  2ojHcos7e  +  i2a/-'sinje  if  2=r(cos9  +  isine).     The  isograph 

0  i 

maps  the  complex  values  of  p{z)  as  the  variable  describes  the 
circle  |2|=''-  This  graph  loops  the  origin  once  for  each  root 
smaller  in  absolute  value  than  r.  The  number  of  roots  between 
trial  values  of  r  is  determined  by  counting  loops,  and  by  inter- 
polation a  value  of  /•  is  found  for  which  the  graph  passes  through 
the  origin.  This  value  of  r  and  the  corresponding  value  of  9 
define  the  real  and  imaginarj-  parts  of  a  root. 


Figure  88 


Courtesy  Beit  Teitphone  Laboratories 


Industrml  Research 


283 


an  "image  current"  as  a  substitute  for  the  currents 
induced  in  a  conducting  ground  by  a  transmission  line 
above  it,  and  a  host  of  other  common  procedures  could 
be  cited  as  similar  instances  of  simplification  based 
upon  more  less  valid  mathematical  reasoning. 

The  second  example  is  furnished  by  Dr.  E.  U.  Condon, 
Associate  Director  of  the  Research  Laboratories  of  the 
Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company : 

(r)  In  the  manufacture  of  rotating  machinery  it  is  of  extreme 
importance  to  have  the  rotating  parts  dynamically  balanced,  in 
order  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  vibration  reaction  on  the  bear- 
ings which  unbalance  produces.  Theory  shows  the  phases  and 
amplitudes  of  the  bearing  vibrations  produced  by  excess  masses 
located  at  various  places  on  the  rotor;  conversely,  by  solving 
backward  from  observed  vibration  data,  one  can  compute  what 
correction  is  needed  to  eliminate  the  unbalance.  Recently  a 
most  valuable  machine  has  been  developed  which  not  only 
measures  the  unbalance,  but  also  automatically  shows  what 
correction  should  be  made,  thus  eliminating  the  necessity  for 
these  calculations. 

The  rotor  to  be  balanced  is  whirled  in  bearings  on  which  are 
mounted  microphones  that  generate  alternating  voltages  corre- 
sponditig  to  the  vibrations  of  the  bearings.  These  voltages  are 
fed  into  an  analyzing  network,  which  automatically  indicates 
the  correction  needed  in  order  to  achieve  dynamic  balance.  In 
some  cases  the  output  of  the  balancing  machine  has  been  arranged 
to  set  up  a  drilling  machine  so  it  will  automatically  remove  the 
right  amount  of  metal  at  the  right  place.  These  machines  are 
finding  application  in  the  manufacture  of  small  motors,  of  auto- 
mobile crankshafts,  and  in  the  heavy  rotors  of  power  machines. 

In  the  same  class  would  come  the  isograph,  by  means 
of  which  the  complex  roots  of  polynomials  can  be 
located;  the  tensor  gage  which  registers  the  principal 
components  of  strain  in  a  stressed  membrane  without 
advance  knowledge  of  the  principal  axes;  and  slide 
rules  for  a  great  variety  of  special  purposes  such  as 
computations  with  complex  numbers,  the  calculation 
of  aircraft  performance,  aircraft  weight  and  balance, 
and  the  like.  Perhaps  we  ought  also  include  in  the 
same  category  the  use  of  soap-bubble  films  for  the  study 
of  elastic  stresses  in  beams,  the  use  of  current  flow  in 
tanks  of  electrolyte  for  the  study  of  potential  fields,  and 
the  use  of  steel  balls  rolling  on  rubber  membranes 
stretched  over  irregular  supports  as  a  means  of  study- 
ing the  trajectories  of  electrons  in  complicated  electric 
fields.  These  are  all  mechanical  methods  for  saving 
mathematical  labor,  but  they  are  more  than  that,  for 
they  all  rest  upon  a  foundation  of  mathematical  theory. 
They  are,  in  fact,  examples  of  the  use  of  mathematics 
to  avoid  the  use  of  mathematics. 

Mathematics  in  Some  Particular  Industries 

Commvnications. — The  communication  field  is  the 
one  in  which  mathematical  methods  of  research  have 
been  most  freely  used.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact 
that  the  transmission  of  electric  waves  along  wires 
and  through  the  ether  follows  laws  which  are  partic- 
ularly amenable  to  mathematical  study;  partly  also  to 


the  fact  that  so  much  of  the  research  has  been  central- 
ized in  a  single  laboratory,  thus  bringing  together  a 
large  number  of  engineers  into  a  single  compact  group 
and  justifying  the  employment  of  consultative  special- 
ists. Most  important  of  all,  however,  is  the  fact  that 
there  are  two  devices — -vacuum  tubes  and  electrical 
networks — without  which  modern  long-distance  teleph- 
ony would  be  impossible;  and  one  of  these,  the  elec- 
trical network,  is  and  has  been  since  its  earliest  days 
almost  entirely  a  product  of  mathematical  research. 
Mathematics  has  thus  been  as  essential  to  the  develop- 
ment of  Nation-wide  telephony  as  copper  wire  or 
carbon  microphones. 

Number  of  Mathematicians:  The  Mathematical  re- 
search Department  of  the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories 
contains  14  mathematicians.  Perhaps  an  equal  num- 
ber of  men  scattered  through  various  engineering 
departments  should  also  be  classified  as  mathematicians 
according  to  the  definition  adopted  for  this  report. 
Say  a  total  or  25  or  30  for  the  Bell  Laboratories,  a  few 
more  for  the  Bell  System  as  a  whole,  and  perhaps  40 
or  50  for  the  entire  communication  field  including  the 
companies  interested  in  radio  and  television.  A  few 
of  these  men  carry  on  a  considerable  amount  of  experi- 
mentation, but  their  significant  work  is  theoretical. 

In  addition,  there  is  a  much  larger  number  of  men 
who  use  mathematical  methods  extensively  in  their 
daily  work  but  whose  mental  type  is  not  that  which  we 
have  described  as  mathematical  and  who  arc  therefore 
not  included  in  the  numbers  quoted  above.  This  is 
true  in  particular  of  the  engineers  who  have  the  responsi- 
bility for  designing  networks. 

Uses  of  mathematics:  Mathematical  activity  is 
most  intense:  (1)  in  designing  wave  filters  and  equal- 
izers; (2)  in  studing  transmission  by  wire  and  ether, 
the  concomitant  problems  of  antenna  radiation,  and 
reception,   inductive  interference  between  lines,   etc.; 

(3)  in  studying  various  problems  related  to  the  standard 
of  service  in  telephone  exchanges,  such  as  the  amount 
of  equipment  required,  the  probability  of  delays  and 
double  connections,  the  hunting  time  of  switches,  etc. ; 

(4)  in  providing  a  rational  basis  for  the  design  of  in- 
struments, such  as  transmittei'S  and  receivers,  vacuum 
tubes,  television  scanning  devices,  etc.;  (5)  in  develop- 
ing efficient  statistical  methods  for  the  plarming  and 
interpretation  of  experiments  and  for  controlling  the 
quality  of  manufactured  apparatus. 

Future  prospects:  During  the  last  20  years  the  num- 
ber of  men  employed  in  communication  research  has 
increased  with  great  rapidity,  but  this  rapid  expansion 
appears  to  be  about  over.  A  large  increase  in  the 
mathematical  personnel  of  the  industry  therefore  ap- 
pears unlikely.  It  seems  inevitable  that  the  problems 
will  increase  in  complexity,  and  that  theoretical  methods 
will  become  increasingly  important,  but  it  is  believed 


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National  Resources  Planning  Board 


that  this  trend  will  be  matched  by  progressively  better 
trained  engineering  personnel,  rather  than  by  an  in- 
creased number  of  mathematicians.  Indeed,  unless  the 
qualifications  of  the  mathematicians  rise  progressively 
with  those  of  the  engineers,  it  may  turn  out  that  less 
rather  than  more  will  be  employed. 

Electrical  manufacturing. — Substantially  all  the  re- 
search in  the  power  fields  is  carried  on  by  a  few  electrical 
manufacturers.  The  power  companies  usually  accept 
and  exploit  such  equipment  as  the  manufacturers 
supply,  and  contribute  to  improved  design  principally 
through  their  criticisms  of  past  performance.  Many  of 
their  engineers,  however,  are  individually  active  in  the 
invention  and  development  of  improved  equipment. 

Number  of  mathematicians:  The  number  of  mathe- 
maticians in  the  industry  is  smaller  than  in  communica- 
tions, and  is  not  easy  to  estimate  because  their  work  is 
less  segregated  from  other  activities.  The  total  num- 
ber who  would  here  be  rated  as  mathematicians  is 
probably  about  20. 

As  in  communications,  some  are  engaged  partly  in 
experimental  work.  There  are  some,  however,  whose 
relationship  as  consultants  is  clearly  recognized,  and 
there  is  evidence  that  management  is  becoming  in- 
creasingly conscious  of  the  nature  and  value  of  their 
services. 

Uses  of  mathematics:  Mathematical  activity  is  most 
intense:  (1)  in  studying  structural  and  dynamic  prob- 
blems,  such  as  the  strain,  creep,  and  fatigue  in  machine 
parts,  vibration  and  instability  in  turbines  and  other 
rotating  machinery,  etc.,  (2)  in  appraising  the  evil 
effects  of  suddenly  applied  loads,  lightning  or  faults 
upon  power  lines,  and  their  associated  sources  of  power, 
and  devising  methods  to  minimize  these  effects,  (3)  in 
studying  system  performance,  particularly  the  most 
effective  or  economical  location  of  proposed  new  equip- 
ment, and  the  evaluation  of  performances  of  alternative 
transmission  or  distribution  systems,  (4)  in  refining  the 
design  of  generators,  motors,  transformers  and  the  like, 
so  as  to  improve  their  electrical  efficiency  and  reliability, 
and  in  similar  improvement  of  the  thermal  efficiency  of 
turbines,  (5)  in  the  design  of  miscellaneous  instruments 
and  apparatus. 

Statistical  methods  are  being  introduced  into  manu- 
facturing and  research,  but  are  not  yet  utilized  to  the 
same  extent  as  in  telephony. 

Future  prospects:  The  amount  of  money  spent  on 
development  in  these  industries  is  gradually  increasing, 
and  as  in  other  fields  the  problems  are  becoming  more 
complex.  Hence  a  slow  increase  in  the  number  of 
mathematicians  seems  probable,  with  rising  standards 
in  the  qualifications  required,  not  only  as  to  mathe- 
matical training,  but  as  to  temperament  and  personality 
as  well. 

The   petroleum   industry. — The   petroleum   industry 


consists  of  many  producing  units  of  various  sizes,  highly 
competitive  in  character,  and  surrounded  bj'  a  number 
of  consulting  service  organizations,  all  of  which  are 
small.  The  larger  producing  companies — and  within 
their  resources,  the  service  units  also — maintain  re- 
search laboratories.  They  tend  to  be  secretive  about 
the  developments  which  take  place  in  these,  sometimes 
to  a  surprising  degree.  Hence  there  is  much  duplica- 
tion of  effort,  particularly  in  such  matters  as  the  design 
of  instruments  for  geophysical  prospecting,  and  in 
methods  of  interpreting  the  data  derived  from  them. 

Number  of  mathematicians:  The  industry  employs 
more  mathematicians  than  is  generally  appreciated, 
some  of  them  men  of  very  considerable  ability.  The 
total  of  first-rank  men  is  perhaps  15  or  20.  Due  to  the 
small  size  of  the  individual  research  staffs,  however, 
most  of  these  men  carry  considerable  project  responsi- 
bility along  with  their  theoretical  work.  This  is  the 
normal  state  of  affairs  in  small  groups :  the  abnormality 
is  the  lack  of  contact  with,  and  stimulus  from,  similar 
men  in  other  companies. 

Uses  of  mathematics:  Petroleum  research  extends  in 
three  directions:  prospecting  for  oil,  producing  it,  and 
refining  it. 

There  are  five  recognized  methods  of  prospecting: 
gravity,  seismic,  electric,  magnetic,  and  chemical.  In 
the  first  four,  important  mathematical  problems  arise  in 
designing  sufficiently  sensitive  instruments  and  in  in- 
terpreting data.  The  fifth  requires  the  use  of  statistical 
methods. 

Research  on  methods  of  producing  a  field  has  led  to  a 
few  mathematical  studies  of  underground  flow,  and 
would  undoubtedly  give  rise  to  others  if  the  results  of 
these  studies  could  be  profitably  applied.  However, 
since  the  rate  at  which  oil  is  brought  to  the  surface  is 
almost  entirely  determined  by  law,  and  the  same  is 
indirectly  true  of  well  location  also,  mathematical 
consideration  of  the  subject  is  largely  sterile,  at  least  so 
far  as  American  oil  fields  are  concerned. 

The  third  activity — refining — is  essentially  a  chemical 
industry.  Hence  the  following  remarks  by  Dr.  E.  C. 
Williams,  Vice  President  in  charge  of  research  of  the 
Shell  Development  Company,  presumably  apply  not 
only  to  the  petroleum  business,  but  to  manufacturing 
chemistry  in  general: 

The  two  chief  problems  in  chemistry  are  (aside  from  the 
identification  on  substances):  The  calculation  of  chemical  equi- 
librium and  the  calculation  of  the  rates  of  attainment  of 
these  equilibria.  Tlie  first  problem,  involving  thermodj'namics 
and  statistical  mechanics,  is  rather  well  understood  and  usually 
by  very  simple  computations  information  sufficiently  accurate  for 
industrial  application,  at  least,  can  be  found.  Frequently,  when 
several  equilibria  are  possible  simultaneously,  complicated 
equations  arise,  but  we  rarely  solve  them  directly,  but  rather  sot 
up  tables  of  the  dependent  variable  (the  per  cent  conversion 
possible)  as  a  function  of  the  independent  variables  (temperature, 


Industrial  Research 


285 


piessure  concentration).  The  sources  of  these  data,  however,  are 
numerous  and  at  times  require  complicated  mathematics,  as  in 
the  calculation  of  thermodynamic  properties  from  spectroscopic 
data  via  quantum  statistics. 

The  situation  is  much  less  favorable  in  the  calculation  of  the 
rates'  of  chemical  reactions.  A  semicmpirical  method,  based 
on  quantum  mechanics,  has  been  applied  with  a  little  success  to 
some  of  the  simplest  reactions  taking  place  in  the  gas  phase,  but 
virtually  no  progress  has  been  made  in  the  more  important  field 
of  heterogeneous  reactions  (reactions  of  gases  on  surfaces,  for 
example).  We  may  say  that  no  satisfactory  mathematical  theory 
for  such  calculation  e.xists  at  the  present  time.  Some  progress  is 
being  made,  but  we  are  far  from  being  able  to  predict  a  suitable 
catalyst  for  any  desired  reaction.  For  the  present  we  are  happy 
to  be  able  to  account  for  observations  made  on  some  simple 
reactions. 

Future  prospects:  It  is  inconceivable  that  research  in 
the  industry  will  not  continue  at  at  least  its  present  level. 
Hence  more,  rather  than  less,  mathematical  work  will 
probably  be  undertaken  in  prospecting  and  in  refining. 
A  demand  of  moderate  proportions  should  exist  for  able 
mathematicians  with  a  suitable  background  of  geology 
and  classical  physics  for  the  geophysical  work,  and  of 
physical  chemistry  and  molecular  physics  in  the 
chemical  field. 

Aircraft  manufacture.- — The  aircraft  industry  also 
consists  of  a  number  of  independent  units,  and  is 
higlily  competitive.  It  is  a  new  industry  m  which 
rapid  technical  development  and  rapid  increase  in  size 
has  been  the  rule.  It  has  depended  primarily  upon 
govermnent-supported  laboratories  and,  to  a  lesser 
extent,  upon  the  universities  for  its  research,  and  has 
busied  itself  with  the  exploitation  of  that  research  in 
the  advancement  of  aircraft  design.  No  unit  of  the 
industry  has  had  or,  for  that  matter,  now  has  a  research 
laboratory,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  words  would  be 
used  in  older  and  larger  businesses,  but  the  beginnings 
of  research  departments  have  appeared,  and  individual 
researchers  and  research  projects  are  clearly  recognizable. 

Number  of  mathematicians:  Some  men  in  the  engi- 
neering departments  of  these  companies  should  un- 
doubtedly be  classed  as  mathematicians,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  make  even  an  approximate  estimate  of 
their  nimiber.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  cite  pertinent 
information  which  bears  on  the  importance  of  mathe- 
matics to  the  industry. 

The  design  of  a  modem  four-engine  transport  plane 
requires  about  600,000  hours  of  engineering  time  up  to 
the  point  where  complete  working  drawings  have  been 
prepared.  About  100,000  hours  are  spent  on  mathe- 
matical analysis  of  structures,  performance,  lift  distri- 
bution and  stability.  Most  of  this  work  is  routine, 
but  some  is  fundamental  in  character,  as  is  evident  from 
several  of  the  examples  mentioned  earlier  in  this  report. 

Of  670  men  in  the  engineering  department  of  one  of 
the  larger  companies,  about  25  have  mathematical 
training  beyond  that  usually  obtained  by  engineers. 


and  10  or  so  of  these  arc  using  this  advanced  training 
to  a  significant  extent. 

Uses  of  mathematics:  In  designing  an  airplane,  five 
factors  are  of  particular  importance.  These  may  be 
used  to  indicate  the  directions  in  which  mathematical 
research  may  be  expected. 

(/)  Performance  Uhat  is,  pay-load,  range,  speed,  climbing  rate  etc.) 

In  the  past,  forecasts  of  perfonnance  have  been  based 
almost  entirely  on  empirical  data.  Mathematical 
methods  of  estimation  are  now  being  developed  from 
hydrodynamic  theory,  however,  and  are  being  used  to 
an  increasingly  greater  extent. 

(2)  Lift  and  Drag  {i,  e.,  the  force  variation  over  the  wings) 

Tills  is  the  principal  objective  in  the  aerodynamic 
design  of  the  wing.  The  technique  of  prediction  rests 
on  two  supports:  wind  tunnel  experiments  and  airfoil 
theory,  by  means  of  which  experimental  data  are  inter- 
preted and  apphed.  For  example,  airfoil  theory  sug- 
gests the  shape  of  airfoil  to  avoid  unfavorable  pressure 
distributions  and  is  leading  to  improved  wing  sections. 
This  part  of  aircraft  design  is  already  higlily  mathe- 
matical, but  a  number  of  fundamental  problems  still 
remain  unsolved.  For  example,  the  theory  is  still 
unable  to  predict  stall,  and  too  httle  is  known  about 
optimum  shapes  or  about  turbulence,  though  the 
recently  developed  statistical  theory  of  turbulence  has 
contributed  to  the  understanding  of  the  airflow  over  an 
airplane  and  resulted  directly  in  a  decrease  in  airplane 
drag  and  consequent  improvement  in  performance. 

(S)  Stability  (inherent  steadiness  of  motion) 

The  stability  of  an  airplane  in  flight  is  inherent  in  its 
aerodynamic  design  and  quite  distinct  from  its  control 
or  maneuverability.  The  theory  of  "small  oscilla- 
tions" has  been  successfully  applied  to  rectilinear  flight. 
More  recently  the  problem  of  predicting  the  response  of 
an  airplane  to  control  maneuvers  has  used  the  Heaviside 
operational  calculus.  Current  problems  of  dynamical 
stability  in  which  applied  mathematicians  are  interested 
are  the  behavior  of  an  airplane  when  running  on  the 
ground  and  the  behavior  of  seaplanes  when  running 
on  the  water  (porpoising) . 

(4)  Structural  safety 

Very  precise  appraisal  of  structural  strength  is 
required  in  aircraft  design.  In  most  industries  inac- 
curacy can  be  compensated  by  increased  factors  of 
safety,  but  the  pay-load  of  an  airplane  is  so  small  a 
proportion  of  its  total  weight  that  slight  increases  in 
factors  of  safety  would  seriously  reduce  its  carrying 
power  or  even  make  it  imable  to  get  off  the  ground. 
Mathematical  methods  have  always  been  used  in  this 


286 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


phase  of  aircraft  design  in  so  far  as  they  were  available. 
The  standard  technique  is  first  to  design  a  part  on  the 
basis  of  calculated  strength,  then  build  and  test  it,  and 
if  the  tests  do  not  agree  with  predictions,  revise  the 
design  and  build  and  test  the  modified  part.  This 
process  is  continued  as  many  times  as  necessary  to 
attain  a  satisfactory  result.  It  is  slow  and  expensive. 
Theoretical  methods  are  now  reliable  enough  that  the 
majority  of  structural  tests  confirm  predictions  with 
sufficient  accuracy  to  require  no  revision.  However, 
new  problems  constantly  present  themselves — the 
introduction  of  pressurized  cabins  recently  gave  rise  to 
several — and  hence  continual  mathematical  study  is 
required.  A  beginning  has  also  been  made  in  the  use  of 
the  principles  of  probability  in  setting  up  structural 
loading  factors. 

(5)  Flutter 

We  have  already  commented  upon  the  impractica- 
bility of  studying  this  phenomenon  by  any  means  other 
than  the  mathematical.  The  general  equations  are 
complicated  and  have  only  been  solved  by  making 
important  simplifying  assumptions.  The  results  are 
serviceable  for  check  purposes,  but  need  further  elabora- 
tion. The  importance  of  the  problem  increases  pro- 
gressively as  more  efficient  planes  are  designed,  and  the 
necessity  for  an  adequate  mathematical  theory  is 
becoming  critical. 

Future  prospects:  It  appears  inevitable  that  from 
motives  of  economy  the  industry  will  rely  increasingly 
upon  theoretical  methods  of  design  and  that  mathe- 
matics will  play  a  larger  part  in  the  future  than  at 
present.  It  is  also  probable  that  for  competitive  reasons 
the  various  companies  will  supplement  government 
research  by  fundamental  studies  of  their  own.  Further- 
more, in  view  of  the  present  fragmentary  state  of  aero- 
dynamic theory,  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  part  of 
the  research  effort  was  devoted  to  the  improvement  of 
the  basic  theory  itself. 

The  reliability  of  these  predictions  is,  of  course, 
conditioned  by  the  financial  prospects  of  the  industry. 
Just  now,  war  orders  are  causing  abnormal  inflation  of 
earnings ;  when  these  cease,  retrenchment  will  be  inevi- 
table. The  industry  is  not  highly  mechanized,  however, 
and  hence  its  present  cycle  of  inflation  does  not  imply 
so  large  an  expenditure  for  plant  as  would  be  true  in 
most  manufacturing  fields.  For  this  reason,  the  period 
of  deflation  may  prove  to  be  one  of  large  war  profits  in 
the  bank  but  insufficient  orders  to  occupy  the  time  of 
many  competent  technical  men  whom  the  management 
would  be  reluctant  to  let  go.  If  this  should  occur,  an 
almost  explosive  development  of  research  may  take 
place. 

Wliether  the  development  is  explosive  or  not,  how- 
ever, it  is  probable  that  the  industry  will  soon  become 


one  of  the  largest  employers  of  industrial  mathemati- 
cians. 

Industrial  Statistics  and  Statisticians 

The  subject  of  statistics  enters  the  business  world  at 
points  quite  distinct  from  those  touched  by  the  rest  of 
mathematics.  Moreover,  the  types  of  business  activity 
to  which  it  most  frequently  applies — insurance  and 
finance,  economic  forecasting,  market  surveys,  elas- 
ticity of  demand  against  price,  benefit  and  pension 
plans,  etc. — belong  to  the  field  of  economics  which  is 
the  subject  of  a  separate  report,  and  need  not  be 
touched  on  here. 

There  are  certain  other  respects  in  which  statistical 
theory  could  be  of  great  service  in  industry,  but  they 
have  been  exploited  to  only  a  limited  extent.  This 
report  must  therefore  point  out  these  hopeful  fields 
rather  than  record  achievements  in  them. 

Statisticians  in  Industry 

By  "statistician"  we  mean  a  person  versed  in  and 
using  the  mathematical  theory  of  statistics,  not  one 
who  collects,  charts,  and  scrutinizes  factual  data.  In 
the  business  world  the  word  is  more  often  used  in  the 
latter  sense. 

There  is  a  very  great  difference  between  the  number 
of  statisticians  in  industry,  and  the  number  of  men 
interested  in  some  form  of  statistics.  How  great  the 
discrepancy  is  will  be  clear  from  a  comparison  of  the 
membership  of  the  American  Statistical  Association, 
which  devotes  itself  to  the  application  of  statistics  in  its 
broadest  sense,  and  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mathe- 
matical Statistics,  which  confines  itself  narrowly  to  the 
development  of  statistical  technique.  The  former  lists 
277  names  with  industrial  addresses;  the  latter  only  10. 

Statistics  in  Industry 

Dr.  W.  A.  Shewhart,  research  statistician  of  the  Bell 
Telephone  Laboratories,  has  delineated  broadly  and 
succinctly  the  field  in  which  statistics  may  be  expected 
to  find  application  as  foUows: 

Since  inductive  inferences  are  only  probable,  or,  in  other 
words,  since  repetitions  of  any  operation  under  the  same  essential 
conditions  cannot  be  expected  to  give  identical  results,  we  need 
a  scientific  method  that  will  indicate  the  degree  of  observed 
variability  that  should  not  be  left  to  chance.  Hence  it  appears 
that  the  use  of  mathematical  statistics  is  essential  to  the  develop- 
ment of  an  adequate  scientific  method,  and  that  mathematical 
statistics  may  be  expected  to  be  of  potential  use  wherever  scien- 
tific method  can  be  used  to  advantage. 

More  specificaUy,  there  are  five  recognizable  types  of 
industrial  engineering  activity  in  wliich  statistical 
theory  either  is,  or  should  be  used. 

(a)  In  studying  experimental  data  to  determine 
whether  the  observed  variations  should  be  regarded  as 


Industrial  Research 


287 


accidental  or  significant.  An  example  is  found  in  the 
field  of  geochemical  prospecting.  The  surface  soil 
overlying  regions  in  which  there  is  oil  contains  a  higher 
proportion  of  hydrocarbons  and  waxes  than  occur  in 
other  locations.  Chemical  analj'sis  of  surface  soil 
therefore  affords  a  means  of  prospecting  for  oil.  Mr. 
Eugene  McDcrmott  writes: 

In  the  geochemical  method,  it  was  found  necessary  to  deter- 
mine between  samples  showing  significantly  high  analysis  values, 
and  those  w'hich  were  normal  values.  These  normal  sample 
values,  of  course,  had  considerable  variation  between  themselves, 
due  to  analysis  and  in  larger  part  sampling  errors.  After  exam- 
ining these  data  for  a  long  period  of  time,  it  was  decided  to 
approach  the  problem  statistically.  This  disclosed  at  once  that 
areas  surveyed  could  be  divided  into  positive  (having  significant 
values,  and  hence  favorable  from  the  standpoint  of  petroleum 
possibilities),  negative  (no  significant  values  and  unfavorable  for 
petroleum)  and  marginal  (indeterminate).  The  latter  case  is 
always  the  most  difficult  one  in  surveying,  and  while  we  are  now 
able  to  recognize  it,  further  work  is  needed  to  fully  interpret  it. 
This  kind  of  mathematics  is  being  applied  at  the  present  moment, 
and  bids  fair  to  solve  the  problem. 

(6)  In  planning  the  kind  of  experiments  from  which 
such  data  arise.  Wliether  variations  are  or  are  not 
significant  depends  in  no  small  degree  upon  the  fashion 
in  which  the  data  were  taken.  Consideration  of  the 
experiment  in  advance  from  a  statistical  point  of  view 
often  results  in  economy  of  procedure,  or  even  points 
the  difTerence  between  a  trustworthy  and  a  meaningless 
result. 

The  following  example  is  quoted  from  an  address  by 
Dr.  R.  H.  Pickard,  Director  of  the  British  Cotton 
Research  Association: 

To  illustrate  the  advantage  of  good  experimental  design  I  may 
refer  to  some  experiments  carried  out  at  the  Shirley  Institute 
to  find  the  effect  of  various  treatments  on  a  quality  of  cloth. 
This  quality  varies  considerably  at  different  parts  of  the  same 
piece  of  cloth,  and  in  order  to  measure  the  effect  of  the  treatments 
the  tests  are  repeated  systematically  so  that  the  variations  are 
"averaged  out."  Some  of  the  natural  variation,  however,  is 
systematic,  and  by  adopting  a  "Latin  Square"  arrangement  of 
treatments  on  the  cloth  (such  as  is  much  used  in  agricultural 
yield  trials),  these  systematic  variations  are  eliminated  from  the 
comparison,  and  in  the  instance  quoted  the  result  was  to  reduce 
by  one-half  the  number  of  tests  necessary  for  a  given  significance 
as  compared  with  a  random  arrangement.' 

To  the  extent  to  which  biology  becomes  an  important 
element  in  industrial  research — and  it  would  appear  to 
be  on  the  point  of  doing  so  in  such  fields  as  food  manu- 
facturing— it  can  be  expected  that  the  type  of  statistical 
work  listed  under  (a)  and  (6)  will  rapidly  increase. 

(c)  In  laying  out  an  inspection  routine.  Manufac- 
turing inspection  frequently  yields  data  which  are  best 
interpreted  statistically,  either  because  only  spot-checks 
are  taken,  or  because  the  method  of  inspection  gives 
measurements  which  are  themselves  subject  to  acci- 


dental fluctuation.  In  such  cases  statistical  theory  is 
of  great  advantage  in  setting  up  an  efl'ectivc  and  eco- 
nomical inspection  program.  It  is  being  so  used  in 
certain  industries,  notably  in  electrical  manufacturing 
and  textiles,  but  the  potential  field  of  usefulness  is  far 
from  covered. 

The  following  example  is  quoted  from  an  address  by 
Mr.  Warner  Eustis,  staff  officer  on  research  of  the 
Kendall  Company: 

Surgical  sutures  are  twisted  strands  of  sheep  intestine,  which 
has  been  slit  lengthwise  *  *  *  After  a  stated  number  of  days 
a  sewing  with  such  material,  implanted  in  the  body  during  a 
surgical  operation,  will  be  digested  and  disappear  as  the  healing 
processes  progressively  take  up  the  load  originally  held  by  the 
suture  *  *  *  Here  is  a  product  which  it  is  impossible  to 
test  in  any  way  without  destroying  the  product,  especially  as 
each  suture  is  sealed  in  an  individual,  sterilized  tube.  Our 
final  product  tests  must  all  be  conducted  by  breaking  open  a 
sterile  tube  and  testing  the  product  therein.  The  quality 
appraisal  of  such  a  product  naturally  rests  upon  probability, 
rather  than  upon  an  actual  testing  of  each  item.  Due  to  the 
nature  of  such  a  product,  in  which  a  single  failure  may  destroy 
human  life,  the  need  for  accurate  quality  appraisal  is  super- 
lative.' 

(d)  In  the  control  of  manufacturing  processes.  In- 
spection is  not  merely  a  means  of  discarding  bad  prod- 
uct; it  is  also  a  means  of  detecting  trouble  in  the  factory. 
This  is  obvious  in  the  extreme  cases  when  the  product 
is  unusually  bad.  By  the  use  of  suitable  routines  set 
up  in  accordance  with  statistical  theory,  the  day-to-day 
results  of  inspection  can  be  used  to  detect  incipient 
degradation  in  the  process  of  manufacture  which  might 
otherwise  escape  notice.  This  procedure  is  used 
extensively  by  the  Western  Electric  Company  in  assur- 
ing uniform  quality  in  many  items  of  manufacture,  and 
to  a  lesser  extent  in  other  industries.  Of  it,  Mr.  J.  M. 
Juran,  manufacturing  engineer  of  the  Western  Electric 
Company,  says: 

Too  frequently  we  have  seen  an  inspection  group  grow  lax 
in  vigilance  until  a  complaint  from  the  customer  wakes  them  up. 
They  promptly  swing  the  pendulum  a  full  stroke  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  the  factory  groans  in  its  effort  to  meet  the  now 
unreasonable  demands.  A  sound  and  steady  control,  like  a 
sound  currency  in  commercial  relations,  gives  factory  foremen  a 
feeling  of  confidence  and  gives  the  consumer  a  feeling  that 
control  is  being  exercised  before  the  product  reaches  him.'" 

(e)  In  writing  rational  specifications.  Obviously,  if 
such  a  procedure  helps  the  manufacturer  to  assure  uni- 
form quality,  it  is  also  of  value  to  the  purchaser  of  his 
products.  Hence  the  subject  of  statistics  enters  into 
the  writing  of  the  buyer's  specifications.  It  has  been 
so  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  Bell  System  in  con- 
nection with  telephone  apparatus,  and  by  the  United 


'  Pickard,  R.  H.   The  application  of  statistical  methods  to  production  and  research 
in  industry.    Journal  of  the  Royal  Statistical  Society,  Supplement,  1,  No.  2,  9-10  (1934). 


•  Eustis,  Warner.  Wliy  the  Kcnddll  Company  is  interested  In  statisticul  methods. 
Industrial  Stutistics  C<mference,  Proceedings,  143-144  (held  at  Ma.ssachusetts  Institute 
ot  Technology,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  September  8-9,  1938). 

">  Juran,  J.  M.  Inspectors'  errors  in  quality  control.  Mechanical  Engineering, 
57, 643-644  (October  1935). 


288 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


States  Government  in  the  purchase  of  munitions. 
However,  it  must  still  be  rated  as  a  relatively  undevel- 
oped field.  Of  it,  Captain  Leslie  E.  Simon,  Ordnance 
Department  of  the  United  States  Army,  says : 

Statistical  methods  have  proved  to  be  a  powerful  tool  in  the 
critical  examination  of  some  ammunition  specifications  prior  to 
final  approval.  Their  use,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  is  almost 
essential  in  determining  a  reasonable  and  economic  standard  of 
quality  through  the  method  of  comparing  the  quality  desired 
with  that  which  can  be  reasonably  expected  under  good  manu- 
facturing practice.  In  like  manner,  the  statistical  technique 
renders  a  valuable  service  in  framing  the  acceptance  specifications. 
Through  its  use  the  quantity  and  kind  of  evidence  which  will  be 
accepted  as  proof  that  the  product  will  meet  the  standard  of 
quality  can  be  clearly  expressed  in  a  fair,  unequivocal,  and  opera- 
tionally verifiable  way. 

Conclusion 

It  is  perhaps  imusual  to  conclude  a  survey  of  this  sort 
by  stating  the  impressions  which  it  has  made  upon  its 
writer.  In  the  present  instance,  however,  the  element 
of  self-education  has  been  so  large  that  these  impressions 
may  summarize  the  report  better  than  any  more  formal 
recapitulation.     They  are: 

(1)  Because  of  its  general  significance  as  the  language 
of  natural  science,  mathematics  already  pervades  the 
whole  of  industrial  research. 

(2)  Its  field  of  usefulness  is  nevertheless  growing, 
partly  through  the  development  of  new  industries  such 
as  the  aircraft  business,  and  partly  through  the  incor- 
poration of  new  scientific  developments  into  industrial 
research,  as  in  the  apphcation  of  quantum  physics  in 
chemical  manufacturing  and  statistical  theory  in  the 
control  of  manufacturing  processes. 

(3)  The  need  for  professional  mathematicians  in 
industry  will  grow  as  the  complexity  of  industrial 
research  increases,  though  their  number  wUl  never  be 
comparable  to  that  of  physicists  or  chemists. 


(4)  There  is  a  serious  lack  of  university  courses  for 
the  graduate  training  of  industrial  mathematicians. 

(5)  Management,  which  is  already  keenly  alive  to 
the  importance  of  mathematics,  is  also  rapidly  awaken- 
ing to  the  value  of  mathematicians  and  the  pecuhar 
relationship  which  they  bear  to  other  scientific  per- 
sonnel. 

This  last  observation  is  not  trivial.  There  was  a 
day  when,  in  engineering  circles,  mathematicians  were 
rather  contemptuously  characterized  as  queer  and  in- 
competent. That  day  is  about  over.  Just  now,  an 
attitude  more  commonly  met  is  one  of  amazed  pride  in 
pointing  to  some  employee  who  "isn't  like  most  mathe- 
maticians; he  gives  you  an  answer  you  can  use,  and 
isn't  afraid  to  make  approximations."  As  the  proper 
function  of  the  industrial  mathematician  becomes  better 
understood,  these  proud  remarks  will  no  doubt  cease. 
Those  who  are  adapted  to  the  job  will  be  taken  for 
granted;  the  others  will  be  recognized  as  personnel 
errors  and  not  mistaken  for  the  professional  type. 
Perhaps  the  present  report  may  speed  this  day.  If  so, 
it  will  have  been  a  service  to  the  profession  and  to 
industry. 

Bibliography 

Books 

FisHEH,  R.  A.  The  design  of  experiments.  Edinburgh,  Lon- 
don, Oliver  and  Boyd,  1935.     252  p. 

Shewhart,  W.  a.  Statistical  method  from  the  viewpoint  of 
quality  control.  Washington,  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Graduate  School,  1939.     155  p. 

Journal  articles 

EusTis,  Warner.  Why  the  Kendall  Company  is  interested  in 
statistical  methods.  Industrial  Statistics  Conference,  M.  I.  T., 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  September  8-9,  1938.  Proceedings,  p. 
143-144. 

PiCKARD,  R.  H.  Application  of  statistical  methods  to  produc- 
tion and  research  in  industry.  Chemistry  and  Industry,  5!;. 
1008  (1933). 


SECTION    VI 
METALLURGICAL   RESEARCH   AS    A    NATIONAL   RESOURCE 

By  H.  W.  Gillett 
Chief  Technical  Adviser,  Battelle  Memorial  Institute,  Columbus,  Ohio 


ABSTRACT 


Metals  are  necessary  to  every  industry.  Implements 
for  agriculture,  machines  and  tools  for  manufacturing, 
reaction  vessels  for  chemistry,  all  the  means  of  trans- 
portation, trains,  trucks  and  passenger  cars,  planes, 
steamships,  electric  power  lines,  the  telephone  and  tele- 
graph, the  printing  press,  household  furnaces  and  stoves, 
gas  and  water  piping,  electric  lights,  the  tin  cans  on  the 
pantry  shelf — indeed  anything  one  cares  to  name — 
relies  directly  or  indirectly  upon  metals. 

The  welfare  of  the  ultimate  consumer  demands  that 
metals  and  alloys  of  suitable  properties  and  reasonable 
cost  be  supplied  to  meet  present  needs  and,  when  differ- 
ent properties  or  further  reductions  in  cost  are  called  for 
to  meet  new  needs  or  changing  economic  conditions, 
that  no  stone  be  left  unturned  to  fill  the  needs. 

The  metal-producing  and  metal-using  industries  have 
filled  present  needs  and  are  preparing  to  meet  new  ones 
through  research,  carried  on  from  the  urge  of  the  profit 
motive.  Fruitful  metallurgical  research  could  be  cited 
that  would  fill  many  volumes.  A  few  cases,  selected  as 
representative,  are  mentioned  in  connection  with  aliuni- 
num,  copper,  zinc,  magnesium,  corrosion-resistant  steels, 
high-speed  and  cemented-carbide  tools,  railway  raUs, 
continuous  rolling  of  flat  steel  products,  that  have 
brought  benefits  to  the  ultimate  consumer,  created  em- 
ployment, and  provided  fimds  for  the  tax  gatherers. 

It  is  characteristic  of  metal-producing  industries  that 
quantity  production  is  essential  for  economy.  This 
requires  huge  expenditures  of  capital  for  plant  and 
equipment.  Large,  strongly  financed  firms,  in  some 
special  cases  even  quasi  monopoHes,  are  the  rule.  Such 
firms  take  a  long  view ;  they  plan  for  their  future  exist- 
ence. They  consider  it  as  necessary  to  insure  a  steady 
flow  of  technological  improvements  in  products  and  proc- 
esses, and  the  development  of  entirely  new  products,  as 
it  is  to  arrange  for  ample  supplies  of  raw  materials. 
Hence  well-manned  and  well-equipped  research  and 
development  groups  axe  an  essential  part  of  the  corpo- 
rate set-up  in  aU  major  metallurgical  industries.  Tlie 
utilization  of  research  lias  not  yet  proceeded  so  far  in 
those  industries  as  in  the  chemical  industries,  but  the 
rate  of  increase  in  metallurgical  research  has  been  rapid 
in  the  last  decade,  and  shows  no  signs  of  slowing  up. 


The  research  laboratories  of  the  metallurgical  indus- 
tries are  operated  on  a  teamwork  basis  and  advances 
are  made  nowadays  on  the  basis  of  intensive  work  of  a 
group  rather  than  by  the  sole  effort  of  a  lone  investi- 
gator. This  trend  extends  beyond  the  confines  of  a 
single  firm,  in  that  secrecy  is  at  a  minimum  and  free 
exchange  of  information  at  a  maximum. 

Several  strong  technical  societies,  other  special 
groups  organized  for  interchange  of  information,  and 
the  trade  and  technical  metallurgical  journals  provide 
means  of  disseminating  and  reaping  information.  To 
this  situation  may  be  ascribed  the  fact  that  metallurgi- 
cal research  workers  are  recruited  not  only  from  students 
of  special  metallurgical  courses  in  the  imiversities,  but 
equally  from  the  ranks  of  physicists,  chemists  and  engi- 
neers who  have  a  scientific  foundation  from  their  college 
coiu-se  and  superimpose  on  this,  by  their  own  study  of 
the  available  metallurgical  literature,  the  requisite 
specific  metallurgical  information. 

Thus  the  wiU  to  carry  on  continuous  research  exists 
m,  and  a  supply  of  qualified  personnel  for  research  is 
available  to,  the  metallurgical  industries.  As  apprecia- 
tion spreads  of  the  necessity  for  research,  many  com- 
panies already  engaged  in  research  find  special  metal- 
lurgical research  problems  cropping  up  that  are  outside 
the  range  of  experience  of  their  own  staff  and  for  which 
equipment  is  lacking  in  their  own  laboratories.  Simi- 
larly, firms,  especially  among  users  of  metallurgical 
products,  not  yet  able  to  finance  permanent  research 
staffs  and  equipment  are  faced  with  the  problem  of  find- 
ing means  for  the  solution  of  the  problems.  If  the 
problem  is  common  to  a  number  of  firms,  they  may  pool 
their  interests  and  engage  in  joint  research,  often 
through  the  instrumentality  of  a  committee  of  a  tech- 
nical society.  Such  joint  problems,  as  well  as  the  in- 
dividual problems  of  the  single  firms  referred  to  above, 
have  to  be  farmed  out  to  laboratories  staffed  and 
equipped  for  metallurgical  work.  Such  laboratories, 
established  as  engineering  experiment  stations  of  uni- 
versities and  as  specialized  research  institutes,  are  ex- 
tensively utilized.  Conditions,  therefore,  are  favorable 
for  the  continual  flow  of  research  required  for  the 
metallurgical  needs  of  the  nation. 

289 


290 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Scope  of  Metallurgy 

Advanceinciit  in  metallurgy  is  important,  not  only 
to  the  industries  that  are  recognized  as  primarily 
metallurgical,  but  to  every  industrj',  for  all  industries 
depend  upon  metals,  either  directly  as  forming  a  part 
of  the  product,  or  indirectly  in  the  form  of  machinery 
and  tools,  or  still  more  indirectly,  in  transporting  raw 
materials  and  finished  products. 

The  modern  airplane  is  the  result  both  of  research 
in  aerodjnamics  and  the  like  and  also  of  research  on 
materials  of  construction.  In  the  engine,  many  metals 
are  used  the  successful  extraction  of  which  from  the 
ores,  as  well  as  their  purification,  alloying,  heat  treat- 
ment, and  even  their  machining  to  size,  are  the  fruits 
of  long-continued  research  by  many  individuals  and 
organizations.  In  an  airplane  itself  the  materials  are 
largely  cliromium-molybdenum  steel  and  strong  alumi- 
num alloys,  with  stainless  steel  as  a  possible  alternative 
for  the  latter. 

The  automobile  likewise  calls  for  a  variety  of  alloy 
steels;  for  nonferrous  alloys  in  bearings,  radiator, 
storage  battery,  head  lamps,  cylinder  heads,  etc.;  for 
cast  iron   for  cylinder  blocks  and    braking    sm-faces. 


FicuRK  M). —  Ir-iupiin  I'rccisioii  .Metal  Working  Machine,  Alu- 
minum Research  Laboratories,  Alun;inuro  Company  of 
America,  New  Kensington,  Pennsylvania 


special  alloys  for  pistons,  wide  steel  sheets  of  high  form- 
ability  and  suitable  weldability  for  the  body,  zinc-base 
die  castings  for  the  grilles,  and  stainless  or  chromium 
plated  steel  for  hub  caps  and  trim.  All  these  various 
metallic  materials  are  chosen  for  their  particular  com- 
binations of  mechanical  properties,  reliability,  cheap- 
ness, formability,  machinability,  appearance, and  so  on 
Among  the  paramount  characteristics  of  materials  for 
low-cost  production  are  the  ability  to  be  formed  and 
machined  readily.  Likewise,  effective  forming  equip- 
ment and  cutting  tools  are  required.  In  assembly, 
rapid  welding  is  almost  as  important  as  are  machin- 
ing and  grinding  for  bringing  pieces  to  the  required 
dimensional  limits.  In  inspection  for  that  dimensional 
accuracy,  which  permits  the  use  of  interchangeable 
parts,  gages  that  are  wear-resistant  and  metallurgically 
stable  in  their  own  dimensions,  are  prerequisites. 

The  railroads  need  rails  and  wheels  that  will  not  fail 
in  service  and  materials  for  car  construction  of  high 
strength-weight  ratio  that  afford  safety  with  minimum 
dead  load  and  maximum  pay  load.  Marked  advances 
have  been  made  in  providing  metallurgical  products 
that  fill  these  needs. 

The  electrical  industry  has  succeeded  in  halving  the 
coal  required  per  kilowatt-hour  as  compared  with  re- 
quirements of  about  a  decade  ago,  and  in  vastly  in- 
creasing the  illumination  produced  per  kilowatt  from 
electric  lights  in  about  the  same  period.  Steels  that 
permit  the  boilers  and  turbines  to  operate  at  higher 
temperatures  and  pressures  were  essential  in  the  one 
case,  ductile  tungsten  in  the  other 

Advances  in  the  chemical  industry  bring  increased 
demands  on  metallurgy  for  materials  of  construction 
that  combine  the  other  necessary  properties  with  corro- 
sion resistance  under  many  unusual  and  difficult  condi- 
tions. Other  industries  the  final  products  of  which  are 
wholly  nonmctallic,  such  as  the  lumber,  paper,  textile, 
plastics,  glass,  and  ceramic  industries,  require  metals 
with  special  characteristics  for  saws,  calendering  rolls 
Fourdrinier  wires,  sulfite  digesters,  looms,  rayon  spin- 
nerets, molds,  furnace  parts,  and  so  on.  Anything  made 
by  machinerj'  indirectly  requires  that  there  be  metals  in 
the  machines  and  metal-cutting  tools  for  making  them. 
Modern  agriculture  must  have  tools,  tractors,  and  other 
machines  for  tilling,  cultivating,  and  harvesting.  The 
food  industries  require  metals  in  their  processing  equip- 
juent  as  well  as  tin  cans  to  hold  the  product.  Road 
making  calls  for  rock  crushers,  and  so  on.  All  the 
transportation  industries,  the  petroleimi  industry,  the 
electrical  industry,  indeed,  any  industrj^  you  care  to 
name,  vitally  depends  on  metallurgy. 

Economic  Consequences  of  Metallurgical  Research 

The  service  and  satisfaction  to  the  public  provided 
by  the  products  of  metallurgical  research  which  meet 


Industrial  Research 


291 


the  varied  requirements  of  all  these  industries,  the 
employment  given  in  their  manufacture  and  servicing, 
the  taxes  paid  to  government  from  the  new  or  rejuve- 
nated industries  thus  made  possible,  and  the  conserva- 
tion of  natural  resources  secured  by  fitting  the  materials 
to  their  jobs  and  taking  less  and  less  material  to  do  the 
same  work,  are  apparent  to  any  thoughtful  observer. 

It  is  essential  to  the  national  economy  that  the  stream 
of  technological  progress  flows  freely.  Engineering 
advances  cannot  go  far  without  simultaneous  or  pre- 
ceding advances  in  creating  new  metallurgical  materials. 
Metallurgical  research  is  an  essential  national  resource, 
because  technological  advances  do  not  just  happen 
automatically;  they  have  to  be  produced  deliberately. 
The  results  are  manifold.  To  pick  an  example  from  the 
metallurgical  industries,  the  development  of  aluminum 
from  the  position  of  a  chemical  curiosity,  rarely  seen 
outside  of  museums,  to  that  of  an  everyday  material  of 
construction  for  utilitarian  service  in  pots  and  pans,  in 
gleaming  transport  planes,  in  streamlined  railway 
coaches  and  in  multitudes  of  applications  more  familiar 
to  the  engineer  than  to  the  public,  did  not  just  happen 
by  itself.  This  development  has  been  the  fruit  of 
research.  Research  has  built  the  American  aluminum 
industry  from  the  very  first  day  when  the  young  student, 
Hall,  who  knew  very  well  just  what  he  was  seeking, 
made  his  first  few  pellets  of  the  metal,  on  through  the 
early  days  when  it  had  to  sell  for  $5  per  pound,  through 
the  period  during  which  its  utility  was  demonstrated, 
to  the  consequent  building  up  of  a  demand  that  led  to 
large  production  and  thereby  to  a  steady  lowering  of  its 
cost,  until  it  now  sells  at  17  cents  per  pound.  In  this 
development  there  has  been  created  a  huge  industry 
that  gives  employment  and  provides  funds  for  the  tax 
gatherer.  Employment  is  created  and  taxes  are  paid, 
not  only  by  the  aluminum  industry  itself,  but  also  by 
the  aircraft  industry  (which  would  have  difficulty  in 
making  planes  of  requisite  strength  and  lightness  with- 
out the  strong,  light  aluminum  alloys),  and  by  every 
other  user  of  aluminum. 

Nor  did  the  aluminum  industry  discontinue  research 
once  a  market  was  established.  The  competition  of 
other  metals  demands  continuous  research  which  is 
being  carried  on  upon  an  ever  expanding  scale.  A 
recent  statement  by  the  President  of  the  Aluminum 
Company  of  America '  says  that  no  increase  ^  in  the 
price  of  aluminum  to  domestic  customers  is  contem- 
plated because  the  "benefits  of  research  and  develop- 
ment permit  the  company  to  expect  lower  costs  and  it 
intends  to  share  such  economies  with  consumers  of 
aluminum."  This  published  statement  is  significant 
because  it  shows  that  the  management  is  aware  that 
the  public  understands  research,  appreciates  its  possi- 

'  To  share  economy.    Automotive  Industries,  SI,  643  (December  15,  1939). 
>  The  price  W3S.  in  fact,  reduced  early  in  1940  and  again  in  the  (all. 
321S35 — 11 20 


bUities,  and  values  its  results.     It  was  not  necessary  to 
append  a  footnote  defining  research. 

Group  vs.  Individual  Research 

The  common  metals  are  used  widely  not  only  because 
of  their  properties,  but  equally  because  of  their  reason- 
able cost.  To  attain  reasonable  costs,  quantity  pro- 
duction and  a  very  high  investment  in  equipment  are 
generally  necessary.  Units  in  the  metallurgical  indus- 
tries are  therefore  likely  to  be  large  and  to  require  ample 
financing.  To  develop,  test,  and  install  the  production 
equipment  necessary  for  the  fruition  of  a  research  idea 
in  the  metallurgical  field  is,  in  these  days,  seldom  within 
the  means  of  an  individual.  Capital  must,  therefore, 
be  attracted  or,  conversely,  industries  already  capital- 
ized must  do  research  for  themselves  and  on  their  own 
problems.  One  has  to  go  a  long  way  back  in  the 
metallurgical  industries  to  find  an  analogy  to  Good- 
year's  kitchen-stove  laboratory,  and  to  his  own  produc- 
tion and  sale  of  raincoats  to  get  funds  for  the  further 
investigation  of  rubber  and  the  development  of  its 
other  uses. 

Perhaps  the  closest  analogy  in  metallurgy  goes  back  to 
the  case  just  mentioned  of  Hall  who,  while  a  student  in 
chemistry  at  Oberlm,  carried  out,  as  an  extracurricular 
activity,  individual,  very  small-scale  experiments  on 
the  production  of  aluminum,  succeeded  in  attracting 
capital,  and  established  the  basis  for  the  American 
aluminum  industry.     It  is  a  far  cry  indeed  from  that 


Figure    90. — Spectroscopic    Examination    of    Metals,    Chrysler 
Corporation,  Detroit,  Michigan 


292 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


individual  research  eflFort  and  its  crude  equipment  to 
the  comnuinity  of  effort,  the  large  personnel,  and  the 
speciaUzed  equipment  and  facilities  of  the  research 
laboratories  of  the  Aluminum  Company  of  America 
today,  and  the  pilot-plant  set-up  required  to  translate 
the  resultant  research  findings  into  practice. 

Whereas  the  large,  strong  organization  can  finance 
long-tcnn  projects,  can  bide  its  time  to  utilize  the 
results,  and  can  insure,  by  sheer  number  of  the  inves- 
tigations in  hand,  that  some  few  of  them  will  prove 
money  makers  in  time,  the  small  firm  must  have  more 
immediate  results.  Conversely,  the  small  finn  is 
usually  in  competition  with  a  smaller  number  of  other 
finns  (because  it  usually  markets  its  products  within  a 
smaller  area),  and  is  more  flexible  in  its  abdity  to  install 
an  improvement  promptly.  The  small  firm  may  not 
be  justified  in  building  up  a  research  staff  of  its  own 
with  the  equipment  necessary  for  effective  work. 
Here  a  qualified  consultant,  an  engineering  experiment 
station,  or  an  independent  specialized  research  labora- 
tory, may  be  of  service  in  providing  the  fundamental 
information,  and  the  impartial  viewpoint  that  the  small 
organization  often  lacks,  and  may  supplement  these  by 
whatever  measure  of  experimental  work  the  specific 
problems  demand  and  justify.  There  are  free-lance 
metallurgists  who  came  up  through  the  ranks  in 
laboratories  engaged  in  group  research  who  now  act  as 
consultants.  Laboratory  facilities  and  other  men  to 
use  them  must  be  provided  by  the  client  to  put  the 
research  suggestions  of  such  free-lancers  into  effect. 
Because  of  the  thousands  of  plants  engaged  in  making 
products  out  of  metals,  this  problem  of  how  the  smaller 
unit  may  enjoy  the  fruits  of  research  is  even  more 
pressing  than  it  is  in  most  fields  outside  of  metallurgy. 

In  view  of  the  trend  toward  group  attack  on  metal- 
lurgical research  problems,  it  may  be  asked  whether 
the  uidividual  investigator  has  become  extinct.  He  is 
becoming  more  rare,  but  is  far  from  extinct.  The 
writer  recalls  with  interest  witnessmg  early  experiments 
on  the  manufacture  of  steel  automobile  brake  drums 
centrifugally  lined  with  wear-resisting  cast  iron,  carried 
on  by  an  experimenter  whose  colleagues  called  him 
"Angle-iron  Joe."  This  was  because  he  would  not 
wait,  when  struck  with  an  idea,  to  have  the  drafting 
room  design  and  the  machine  shop  construct  his  ap- 
paratus, but  would  himself  put  together,  from  angle 
iron  and  whatever  else  was  handy,  equipment  that  would 
serve,  and  serve  promptly,  wlule  the  idea  was  hot,  to 
tell  him  whether  it  had  merit.  Within  a  period  that 
was  amazingly  short  as  most  research  projects  go,  Joe 
had  evaluated  the  compositions,  temperatures,  speeds, 
and  fluxing  operations  necessary  for  good  bonding  and 
for  the  desired  metallographic  structure,  and  was  able 
to  direct  the  draftsmen  and  mechanics  in  the  con- 
struction   of    apparatus    which    went    into    successful 


commercial  production.  The  method  and  the  product 
are  now  standard.  The  development  was  put  into 
immediate  use  by  Joe's  employer,  but  the  initial  dem- 
onstration was  sufficiently  convincing  that,  had  he  been 
a  free  lance,  it  would  not  have  been  difficult  to  find 
backing. 

Lessons  From  the  Past 

The  problems  of  how  to  insure  that  the  stream  of 
metallurgical  research  shall  continue  to  flow  in  steadily 
increasing  volume  is  not  different  in  principle  from  the 
broader  one  facing  research  in  all  industry.  We  may 
expect  to  find  the  same  general  pattern  for  successful 
research  in  every  industry.  However,  there  has  been 
enough  experience  with  metallurgical  research  to  make 
a  few  of  its  case  histories  and  certain  generalizations 
drawn  therefrom  worth  considering  here.  The  success- 
ful research  of  the  past  should  pouit  the  way  for  research 
of  the  future. 

Machining  and  Machinability 

As  epoch-making  a  metallurgical  research  project  as 
has  ever  been  carried  out  was  that  of  the  engineers 
Taylor  and  WTiite,  who,  with  research  equipment 
advanced  for  its  day,  but  so  crude  in  the  light  of 
modern  practice  as  to  make  one  wonder  how  they  made 
it  work,  developed  for  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.  tungsten 
high-speed  steels  not  very  different  from  those  used 
today,  and  thereby  revolutionized  the  art  of  cutting 
metals.  What  this  has  meant  in  terms  of  increased 
macliine-shop  production  and  lowered  cost  is  simply 
incalculable. 

So  vital  did  high-speed  tools  become  in  the  manu- 
facture not  only  of  peacetime  products,  but  also  of 
munitions,  that  tungsten  became  a  strategic  material 
and  its  domestic  scarcity  and  the  necessity  for  its 
importation  became  matters  of  great  military  concern. 
However,  domestic  molybdenum  had  meantime  ap- 
peared on  the  scene.  Its  economical  production  from 
the  huge  deposit  of  ore  low  in  molybdenum  would,  in 
earlier  days,  have  been  very  difficult,  but  it  was  actually 
made  easy  by  virtue  of  previous  research  on  the  flotation 
of  copper  ores.  The  flotation  process  had  been  the 
key  to  the  utilization  of  the  great  deposits  of  lean 
porphyry  copper  ores,  and  to  the  maintenance  of 
copper  in  the  class  of  relatively  cheap  metals  despite 
the  depletion  of  rich  ores.  This  also  is  a  dramatic 
story  in  itself.  Interestingly  enough,  these  lean  copper 
ores  themselves  contain  molybdenum,  though  it  occurs 
only  to  about  1  one-hundredth  to  5  one-hundredths  of 
1  percent  of  the  weight  of  the  ore,  and  its  presence  was 
for  a  long  time  unsuspected.  The  application  of 
selective  flotation,  a  further  development  of  research, 
now  makes  these  lean  copper  ores  an  important  source 
of  molybdenum  as  a  byproduct. 


Industrial  Research 


293 


Some  early  experiments  made  in  England  while 
molybdenum  was  a  "rare"  and  expensive  metal, 
coupled  with  the  chemical  and  metallurgical  similarity 
of  tungsten  and  molybdenum,  suggested  the  use  of 
molybdenum  as  a  substitute  for  tungsten  in  making 
high-speed  steel.  Research  at  Watertown  Arsenal,  un- 
dertaken from  the  strategic-materials  point  of  view, 
showed  it  to  be  more  potent  than  tungsten  in  high- 
speed steel,  weight  for  weight,  and  when  "bugs"  cropped 
up  due  to  certain  idiosyncrasies  of  the  molybdenum 
steels,  these  accessory  problems,  too,  were  solved. 
Coincidentally,  research  on  molybdenum  steels  for  auto- 
motive and  aircraft  use  had  developed  such  properties 
and  created  such  a  demand  for  the  metal  that  its 
production  had  risen  and  its  price  had  fallen  to  a  point 
where  it  was  cheaper  to  make  a  tool  steel  with  molyb- 
denum than  with  tungsten,  though  the  demand  for 
tool  steel  alone  would  not  have  produced  a  great  volume 
of  production  or  a  significant  drop  in  price.  Foreseeing 
this  situation,  metallurgists  who  made  tools  and  tool 
steels  stayed  with  the  problem  of  overcoming  the 
difficulties  and  utilizing  the  advantages.  As  a  result 
molybdenum  high-speed  tools  are  proving  so  satis- 
factory that  there  is  today  no  apprehension  whatever 
about  a  wartime  shortage  of  tungsten.  Indeed,  mo- 
lybdenum itself  is  among  the  materials  that  Americans 
are  requested  not  to  export  to  nations  that  practice 
aggression  against  weaker  nations  and  bomb  noncom- 
batants.  Research  has  shifted  the  situation  from  one 
where  only  10  years  ago '  our  lack  of  tungsten  was  a 
serious  strategic  liability  to  one  where  our  abundance 
of  molybdenum  is  a  strategic  asset. 

Nor  did  research  on  cutting  tools  stop  there.  Ce- 
mented carbides  of  tungsten,  tantalum,  and  the  like 
have  been  developed,  by  long  and  patient  research 
backed  by  ample  capital,  into  tools  the  cutting  power 
of  which  surpasses  that  of  high-speed  steel  tools  as 
much  as  those  surpassed  the  carbon-steel  tools.  In 
consequence  materials  formerly  classed  as  nonmachin- 
able,  even  with  high-speed  tools,  now  are  cut  readily. 
As  for  materials  still  untouchable  by  the  carbide  tools, 
we  have  artificial  abrasives  developed  by  electro- 
chemical research,  and  marvelous  machine  tools  for 
machining  by  grinding,  which  make  it  feasible  to  shape 
almost  any  metallic  product,  no  matter  how  hard  it 
may  be. 

Not  only  has  research  developed  the  cutting  tools, 
but  the  metals  to  be  cut  have  been  modified,  without 
much  sacrifice  of  essential  mechanical  properties,  so 
that  they  may  be  more  readily  machined.  Beside  the 
older  free-cutting  steels  and  leaded  brasses,  we  now 
have  stainless  steel  plus  seleniimi,  copper  alloys  plus 
telluriimi,  aluminum  alloys  with  a  variety  of  additions. 


'  Taylor,  R.    Strateelc  raw  mattrials.    Meltti  and  Atloys,  I .&  l\97t) . 


and  recently  carbon  and  alloy  steels  plus  lead,  each  of 
which  additions  increases  machinabUity,  often  without 
material  sacrifice  of  mechanical  properties. 

Every  one  of  these  developments  in  machining  and 
machinability,  outside  of  the  work  of  Watertown 
Arsenal,  was  carried  out  by  private  capital  for  the  ulti- 
mate purpose  of  private  gain,  and  all  utilized  the 
brains  of  many  research  workers  and  the  best  of  modern 
equipment.  Many  of  the  projects  were  costly  to 
carry  out  and  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  the  average 
individual  investigator  unable  to  command  ample  re- 
search facilities,  and  equally  beyond  the  scope  of  most 
university  laboratories. 

Joining  of  Metals 

Second  only  in  unportance  in  fabrication  to  the 
machining  of  metal  parts  is  their  joining.  Welding 
has  grown  from  a  rule-of-thumb  operation  employed 
for  unimportant  joints,  to  one  that  can  be,  and  often 
is,  of  hair-trigger  accuracy,  controlled  by  devices  of 
great  precision,  for  example  in  the  assembly  of  auto- 
mobile bodies.  Welding  of  rails  into  long  lengths,  of 
ships,  of  structural  steel  (with  avoidance  of  the  noise 
of  riveting),  of  jointless  pipe  lines,  of  airplane-engine 
supports,  and  of  fuselage  and  wing  structures  is  a 
commonplace  today.  Even  the  welding  procedures 
stiU  carried  out  by  hand  are  systematized,  the  worlonen 
being  carefully  chosen,  trained,  and  tested  for  ability, 
and  the  welds  subjected  to  X-ray  and  other  tests  to 
insure  soundness. 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  mechanical  developments  in 
all  the  dozen  or  more  different  welding  methods  has 
come  a  recognition  of  the  metallurgical  principles  in- 
volved, the  development  by  metallurgists  of  steels 
suitable  for  welding,  and  of  fluxes  and  fluxing  methods, 
all  to  the  end  that  reliable  welds  may  be  made  con- 
sistently. Mechanical,  electrical,  and  metallurgical 
engineers  have  all  cooperated  in  these  advances. 

Another  important  method  of  joining  is  by  copper 
brazing  in  some  suitable  reducing  atmosphere.  This, 
and  the  analogous  processes  of  bright  annealing  and 
clean  hardening  of  steels  in  controlled  atmospheres, 
have  been  developed  through  the  joint  efforts  of  the 
chemist  and  the  metallurgist. 

StiU  another  valuable  means  for  joining  a  wide  variety 
of  aUoys  is  the  relatively  new  family  of  silver  solders, 
materials  characterized  by  ease  of  application,  joint 
strength,  and  ability  to  withstand  elevated  tempera- 
ture. The  expense  of  using  silver  as  an  important  con- 
stituent of  the  solder  is  fully  justified. 

Outstanding  Work  in  the  Steel  Industry 

Since  steel  is  the  most  important  member  of  the  fam- 
ily of  alloys  the  bulk  of  metallurgical  research  relates  to 
steel. 


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Continuous  Rolling 

Tlie  development  of  the  continuous  rolling  mill  for 
the  steel  mdustry  was  a  successful  and  profitable  under- 
talcing,  which  has  materially  reduced  the  cost  of  flat 
steel  products  to  the  ultimate  consumer  and  greatly 
extended  their  use.  The  work  (which  involved  more 
mechanical  and  electrical  than  strictly  metallurgical 
research)  necessary  to  bring  this  idea  to  its  present 
position,  probably  comprises  the  most  expensive  research 
project  ever  undertaken  in  the  field  of  metals. 

To  one  acquainted  with  the  old-time  method  of 
rolling,  with  its  many  roll  stands,  great  amount  of  back- 
breaking  handling  of  materials,  and  dependence  upon 
the  roller's  judgment,  not  to  mention  the  irregular 
quality  of  the  products,  the  modern  continuous  mill 
with  its  few  stands  but  its  myriads  of  precise  controls, 
and  the  uniform  quality  of  the  product,  is  a  revelation 
indeed.  When  these  mills  were  under  erection,  there 
were  dire  prophecies  of  overcapacity.  The  judgment  of 
steel  industry  executives  that  a  better  and  cheaper 
product  would  find  new  uses  has  been  abundantly 
justified.  Every  home  now  has  conveniences  it  did  not 
have  in  earlier  days,  the  availability  of  which,  at  a  price 
justifj'ing  their  purchase,  can  be  traced  to  the  avaO- 
ability  of  good,  cheap,  flat-rolled  steel  as  raw  material. 
The  sum  total  of  employment  resulting  from  the  change 
in  practice  is  also  undoubtedly  on  the  right  side  of  the 
ledger. 

Continuous  Tubing 

Even  before  this  continuous-rolling  development  an 
analogous  one  was  getting  started  in  the  production  of 
welded  tubing.  A  tiny  plant  worked  out  a  method  for 
drawing  heated  flat  stock,  "skelp,"  through  sets  of 
rolls  in  such  fashion  as  to  cause  the  edges  to  weld,  and 
to  subject  the  weld  to  mechanical  working.  First 
developed  for  very  small  sizes  of  tubing,  it  was  found 
to  give  very  clean  welds,  to  be  susceptible  of  accurate 
control  and  hence  to  be  suitable  for  handling  long 
lengths.  That  is,  the  process  can  use  the  long  coils  of 
flat  stock  produced  by  the  continuous  rolling  process  so 
its  development  was  favored  by  the  recent  availability 
of  suitable  stock. 

Over  the  last  20  years  the  process  has  been  improved, 
adapted  to  fairly  large  sizes,  and  implemented  with 
suitable  equipment  and  control  devices,  until  it  has 
made  large  inroads  upon  the  older  method  of  pulling 
the  skelp  tlu-ough  a  bell  to  force  the  edges  into  welding 
contact.  Many  of  the  larger  producers  of  tubing  have 
changed,  or  are  changing,  to  the  process.  This  is  true 
not  only  in  the  United  States,  but  all  over  the  world. 
The  original  tiny  plant  with  its  handful  of  men  and  small 
production,  something  like  an  experimental  pilot  plant 
of  today,  has  flowered  amazingly.  The  "big  fellows" 
accepted  a  scheme  worked  out  by  a  "little  fellow." 


This  shows  that  the  lone  inventor  still  has  a  place. 
In  this  case  the  inventor  was  fortunate  in  being  able 
himself  to  enter  production  and  demonstrate  the  vir- 
tues of  the  product  by  its  salability  in  a  competitive 
market. 

Continuous  Forming  From  the  Melt 

Efi^orts  are  being  put  forth  to  carry  the  idea  of  con- 
tinuous forming  to  its  logical  conclusion  by  starting 
with  molten  metal  continuously  cast  as  a  strip  or  a  rod, 
and  processing  it  to  thinner  strip  or  to  wire  without 
interruption.  Plenty  of  difficulties  still  beset  these 
efforts.  One  cannot  yet  evaluate  them  on  the  basis 
of  fully  proven  achievement,  but  they  do  show  promise 
of  improvements  to  come  that  may  be  as  revolutionary 
as  was  the  continuous  mill. 

Raw  Materials 

Research  in  the  utilization  of  the  raw  materials  of 
the  steel  industry  has  not  been  neglected.  In  blast- 
furnace practice  research  has  produced  notable  results 
in  the  use  of  lower  grade  iron  ores,  reduction  in  coke 
consumption,  and  the  production  of  a  more  uniform 
product.  In  basic  open-hearth  steel  making  the  results 
obtained  during  the  last  20  years  have  been  amazing 
in  the  conservation  of  fuel,  in  greater  production,  and 
above  all  in  the  improvement  of  quality.  A  very  note- 
worthy instance  has  been  the  study  of  open-hearth 
slags  and  the  application  of  the  principles  of  physical 
chemistry  to  the  process.  It  has  been  research  work  of 
the  best  kind. 

Research  in  the  field  of  molding  sands  has  been  very 
fruitful  in  foimdry  practice,  and  the  resultant  savings 
to  the  foundry  industries  have  been  very  large,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  assurance  of  more  uniform  and  better 
quality  of  castings. 

Research  in  the  refractories  industries  has  been  very 
helpful  to  the  metallurgical  industries,  and  in  many 
cases  has  been  carried  out  because  the  iron  and  steel 
and  other  metallurgical  industries  asked  for  better 
refractories. 

The  iron  and  steel  industry  is  "research  minded." 
The  men  in  charge  of  production  are  never  satisfied. 
They  constantly  seek  for  more  and  improved  products. 
Every  time  a  blast  furnace  or  open  hearth  is  rebuilt 
something  new  is  tried,  sometimes  along  radical  lines. 
This  attitude  of  mind  is  an  enormous  national  resource. 

New  Viewpoints 

Possession  of  the  research  point  of  view  is  a  precious 
possession.  It  steers  one's  mode  of  thinking  into  new 
channels,  leading  to  new  seas  and  new  lands  of  research 
advances  whose  existence  was  hitherto  unsuspected. 
Thum  *  comments  that  some  recent  outstanding  met- 

<  Thum,  E.  E.    Editorial— Where  do  we  go  from  here?    Metal  Progress,  St,  643-49 
(November  1937). 


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295 


allurgical  advances  violate  established  concepts  so 
grossly  as  to  appear,  at  first  sight,  to  run  counter  to 
fundamental  laws.  He  says  that  really  fundamental 
advances  are  likely  to  come  when  someone  pulls  his 
mind  out  of  the  rut  that  every  other  mind  is  following 
and  goes  ofT  in  an  entirely  different  direction.  The 
research-minded  man  is  far  more  likely  to  jump  out  of 
the  rut  than  is  the  production-minded  man. 

An  example  of  this  is  the  shift  in  the  classification  of 
phosphorus  in  steel  from  the  category  of  a  poison,  to 
that  of  a  tonic,  as  Sauveur  ^  phrased  it.  In  the  very 
early  days  of  steel,  high-phosphorus  steels,  in  which 
experience  dictated  that  the  carbon  must  be  low,  were 
in  use,  because  it  was  not  known  how  to  remove 
phosphorus.  But  as  advancing  teclmology  made  it 
more  feasible  to  lower  the  phosphorus  content,  and 
since  high  phosphorus  causes  cmbrittlement  in  the 
presence  of  too  much  carbon,  practice  and  specifica- 
tions changed  to  limit  that  element  to  the  lowest 
practical  level.* 

Copper  and  Phosphorus  in  Steels 

Some  25  years  ago  a  committee  of  the  American 
Society  for  Testing  Materials  undertook  research  on 
the  resistance  to  atmospheric  corrosion  of  steels  of 
varying  copper  content.  This  was  done  because  of  a 
controversy  between  two  factions  of  metallurgists,  one 
advocating  a  copper  content  of  some  0.20  percent,  the 
other  advocating  "extreme  purity,"  i.  e.,  avoiding  all 
copper  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  experimental  method 
was  adopted  of  exposing  a  large  number  of  sheets  of 
known  composition  at  a  number  of  different  locations 
and  observuig  their  resistance  to  the  elements  year  by 
year.  The  experiment  took  years  for  completion. 
Not  only  was  it  made  evident  long  before  all  the  sheets 
had  rusted  through  that  copper  was  a  help,  in  resisting 
the  effects  of  such  exposure,  but  Storey,'  taking  the 
phosphorus  content  into  consideration  as  well,  pointed 
out  that  it  also  was  helpful. 

Much  later  in  the  search  by  research  men  for  still 
better  corrosion  resistance  of  bare  steel  in  the  atmosphere, 
primarily  from  the  point  of  view  of  roofing  materials, 
it  was  found  that  a  low-carbon  steel  with  the  phosphorus 
shockingly  high  according  to  ideas  then  prevalent,  plus 
copper  and  small  amoimts  of  other  alloying  elements, 
not  only  had  somewhat  improved  corrosion  resistance, 
but  a  yield  strength  double  that  of  ordinary  structural 
steel,  plus  satisfactory  formabUity    and    weldability.^ 


•  Sauveur.  A.  A  review  of  progress  in  lerrous  metallurgy.  Steel,  99,  38  (July  6, 
1936). 

•  Gillett,  H.  W.  Phosphorus  as  an  alloying  element  in  steel.  MetaU  and  Alloyt,  6, 
280,  307  (1935). 

'Storey,  O.  W.  Discussion  (Corrosion  resistance  of  steel).  Transaclicms  oj  the 
American  EUclwchemkal  Socieli/,  S9,  121  (1921). 

'  Epstein,  S.  J.,  Nead,  J,,  and  Halley,  J.  W.  Choosing  a  composition  for  low-alloy 
high-strength  steel.  Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  and  Metallurgical 
Engineers,    tiO,    309    (1936). 


Furthermore  this  was  all  accomplished  at  a  very  low 
cost  for  alloying  elements  and  without  any  need  for 
heat  treatment.  The  suitability  of  such  steel  for 
bridges,  ships,  railway  cars,  truck  bodies,  and  so  on  was 
obvious.  A  score  of  other  steels  of  equal  yield  strength 
and  good  corrosion  resistance,  some  containing  more 
expensive  alloying  elements  without  phosphorus,  others 
containing  phosphorus  and  still  cheaper  ingredients  as 
alloying  materials  came  on  the  market  in  quick  succes- 
sion to  fill  a  real  need  and  form  a  brand  new  class  of 
structural  steels." 

Once  an  erroneous  belief  is  wiped  out  by  some  bold 
research  worker,  a  long  train  of  industrial  consequences 
is  likely  to  result,  involving  many  other  experimenters. 

Stainless  Steels 

Another  case  of  a  long  train  of  experiment  is  the 
recent,  but  well-known  stainless  steel,  18:8,  containing 
18  percent  of  chromium  and  8  percent  of  nickel,  the 
research  development  of  which,  along  with  that  of  the 
plain  chromium  stainless  steels,  it  would  be  interesting 
to  trace  in  detail  were  space  available,  since  their  cor- 
rosion resistance  and  mechanical  properties  make  them 
extremely  serviceable  for  a  wide  range  of  corrosive 
conditions.  It  is  commercially  too  expensive  to  make 
18:8  with  a  very  low  carbon  content  i.  e.  less  than  about 
0.06  percent.  In  welding  18:8  containing  even  this 
small  proportion  of  carbon,  an  embrittling  separation 
of  carbides  occurs  as  the  metal  cools  from  the  welding 
temperature  by  a  precipitation  phenomenon  akin  to 
that  which  occurs  in  the  heat  treatment  of  duralumin. 
To  prevent  this  an  element  is  added  that  will  form  a 
more  stable  carbide  and  one  less  prone  to  dissolve  and 
precipitate  in  this  fashion;  molybdenum  (the  presence 
of  which  is  also  helpful  in  resisting  some  special  condi- 
tions of  corrosion)  is  useful  and  titanium  and  colum- 
bium  are  especially  potent.  The  addition  of  titanium 
or  columbium  was  the  direct  result  of  logical  thinking 
about  the  phenomena  concerned,  but  their  effective- 
ness had  to  be  proved  by  exhaustive  experiment.  In 
the  case  of  columbium,  the  world  had  to  be  scoured 
for  ores  of  this  then  rare  metal  to  make  sure  that  an 
adequate  commercial  supply  would  be  available. 
This  was  no  task  for  an  individual  researcher  not  backed 
by  ample  funds. 

Clad  Metals 

Once  the  technical  value  of  the  18:8  type  of  steel 
became  established,  the  economic  angle  appeared. 
On  the  basis  of  "save  the  surface,  you  save  aU,"  many 
began  to  ask  whether  a  thin  skin  of  stainless  would 
not  suffice  and  whether  a  "clad"  material,  ordinary 
steel  with  a  mere  fUm  of  stainless  on  the  surface,  could 

•  Lorig,  C.  H.,  and  Krause,  D.  E.    Phosphorus  as  an  alloying  element  In  low 
carbon,  low  alloy  steels.    Metals  and  Alloys,  7,  9,  61,  69  (1936). 


296 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


not  be  developed.  Alclad  aluminum,  a  similar  product 
consisting  of  a  strong  aluminum  alloy  base  carrying  a 
pure  aluminum  surface  had  previously  been  developed 
and  found  wide  use  in  aircraft. 

The  cost  of  the  cladding  process  proved  so  high  with 
18:8  that  the  expected  margin  of  saving  was  difficult 
to  attain,  but  effort  is  being  continued  with  signs  that 
ultimate  success  may  be  in  sight. 

Hydrogen  In  Steel 

Failure  through  transverse  fissures  of  rails  in  railway 
service  has  caused  bad  wrecks  and  given  railroad  exe- 
cutives much  cause  for  worry.  Means  were  developed 
for  detecting  fissured  rails  in  track  and  removing 
them  before  failure,  but  this  was  cure  rather  than  pre- 
vention. The  source  of  fissures  was  long  in  dispute 
but  is  now  regarded  as  preexistent  internal  shatter 
cracks  formed  as  the  rail  cools  after  hot-rolling.  Cer- 
tain slow  cooling  schedules  have  been  found  to  prevent 
cracking  and  are  applied  commercially  to  almost  all 
rails.  It  is  now  evident  that  the  presence  of  hydrogen 
fosters  cracking  and  means  to  insure  its  absence  are 
being  sought. 

The  Rare  Elements  Put  to  Use 

Even  in  the  limited  number  of  cases  mentioned 
above,  from  the  hundreds  of  equal  import  that  could 
be  cited,  the  elements  molybdenum,  tantalum,  selenium, 
tellurium,  beryllium,  titanium,  and  columbium  have 
been  mentioned  as  alloying  elements  commercially 
utilized  in  steel,  each  of  which  does  a  specific  job  ex- 
cellently. There  is  also  hydrogen  which  is,  in  the  case 
cited,  harmful.  Ten  years  ago  a  book  on  metallurgy 
written  from  the  point  of  view  of  commercial  practice 
would  have  omitted  all  these  elements  save  molyb- 
denimi,  and  one  of  15  years  ago  would  very  likely  have 
omitted  that.  The  metallurgist  of  today  recognizes 
that  there  doubtless  are  no  useless  or  meffective  ele- 
ments, and  that,  as  in  the  instances  cited  of  phos- 
phorus and  lead  in  steel,  even  the  familiar  ones  may 
at  any  time  turn  up  in  a  new  role. 

Nonferrous  Examples 

While  one  naturally  picks  the  steel  industry  to  sup- 
ply outstanding  examples  of  successful  research,  case 
histories  are  not  lacking  in  the  nonferrous  industries. 

Zinc 

Zinc  is  a  cheap  metal.  On  a  volume  basis,  it  is  a 
vcrj'  cheap  metal.  Its  low  melting  point  allows  it  to 
be  die-cast  readily,  with  high  production,,  low  cost  of 
operation,  and  remarkable  precision  of  dimensions.  In 
the  early  days  there  were  two  chief  grades  of  zinc,  one 
rather  high  in  impurities  but  acceptable  for  galvanizing, 
the  other  a  high-purity  99.95  percent  product  smelted 


from  naturally  pure  ores.  Even  using  this  high-purity 
zinc  as  a  material  for  alloys  to  be  die-cast,  the  castings 
were  not  stable  and  were  prone  to  crack  in  time.  Such 
zinc  die-castings  had  small  commercial  utility.  In  the 
search  for  methods  of  utilizing  some  complex  ores  con- 
taining zinc,  electrolytic  refining  was  tried  and  after 
painstaking  research  was  made  both  successful  and 
economical.  When  the  solutions  used  were  purified  as 
the  process  itself  demanded  the  product  was  zinc  of 
99.99  percent  purity.  Coincidentally  with  this  de- 
velopment research  had  shown  how  to  make  and  handle 
the  die-casting  alloys  to  insure  stability  and  it  had 
become  clear  that  high  purity  was  essential.  Not  only 
was  the  pure  electrolytic  metal  at  hand,  but  an  electro- 
thermic  process  was  also  developed  which  produced 
99.99  percent  zinc.  From  here  the  zinc-base  die- 
casting  industry  progressed  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Not 
only  the  decorative  grilles  on  motorcars,  which  could 
be  made  from  other  materials,  though  not  so  cheaply 
for  equal  decorative  appearance,  but  more  vital  parts 
such  as  fuel  pumps  for  motorcars  and  many  parts  of 
other  industrial  machines  are  now  zinc  die-castings 
which  serve  adequately  and  cut  costs  materially. 

Magnesium 

A  sizeable  magnesium  industry  is  being  built  up  Ln 
the  United  States  based  on  the  use,  as  a  raw  material, 
of  byproducts  of  the  chemical  utilization  of  natural 
brines  and,  in  a  plant  now  being  constructed,  on  the 
utilization  of  sea  water.  These  are  very  cheap  sources 
of  supply.  Though  it  is  occurring  more  slowly,  the 
development  of  magnesiiun  is  following  the  pattern  of 
that  of  the  aliuninuin  industry,  in  spite  of  the  handicap 
of  lack  of  corrosion  resistance  in  some  environments. 
Research  has  steadily  improved  the  corrosion  resistance 
and  the  mechanical  properties  of  the  magnesium  alloys 
so  that  they  are  finding  extended  use.  Due  to  special 
economic  and  political  factors,  the  production  and  use 
of  magnesium  has  advanced  faster  in  Germany  than  in 
the  United  States,  since  some  of  the  applications  do  not 
meet  the  same  competition  there  from  other  materials 
of  construction  that  they  do  here.  Extension  of  our 
use  of  magnesium  on  a  purely  engineering  basis  is 
certain,  because  much  research  has  already  been  done 
and  the  producers  have  a  definite  program  for  continued 
research  that  will  inevitably  result  in  still  better  mate- 
rials. The  price  has  already  been  progressively  lowered 
so  that  the  costs  of  magnesium  and  aluminum  are 
practically  equal  on  a  volume  basis. 

Aluminum  and  Precipitation  Hardening 

About  30  years  ago,  Wilm,  working  in  a  Govern- 
ment research  laboratory  in  Germany,  discovered  the 
heat-treatable  strong  aluminum  alloy  duralumin.  Its 
heat  treatment  was  on  an  empirical  basis  and  its  use 


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297 


did  not  develop  rapidly,  though  some  was  used  in 
Zeppelins  during  the  World  War.  About  20  years  ago, 
Merica  and  coworkers  at  the  National  Bureau  of 
Standards  discovered  and  clearly  set  forth  the  principles 
involved,  putting  the  precipitation  hardening  by  heat 
treatment  on  a  rational  basis.  It  was  then  possible  to 
concoct  other  alloys  that  fitted  in  with  the  principles 
in  the  hope  of  securing  analogous  strengthening  by 
analogous  heat  treatment,  and  to  subject  known  alloys 
to  suitable  treatment  in  the  hope  of  improving  their 
properties.  Today  hundreds  of  useful  alloys  with  a 
desirable  combination  of  formerly  unattainable  proper- 
ties are  in  commercial  service.  Beside  a  variety  of 
aluminum  alloys  there  are  many  copper-base  alloys, 
including  beryllium  copper;  steels,  such  as  copper 
steels;  lead-base  alloys,  nickel-base  alloys,  and  special 
iron-tungsten  and  iron-molybdenum  alloys  the  useful 
properties  of  which  depend  on  the  application  of  these 
principles.  Improved  methods  of  heat  treating  high- 
speed steels  are  based  on  them  also.  The  principles 
likewise  explain  some  harmful  changes  in  low-carbon 
steels  and  in  various  alloys  at  high  temperature  and 
make  it  possible  to  avoid  them  to  some  degree. 

Merica's  work  was  one  of  the  outstanding  examples 
of  the  value  of  getting  at  fundamentals  and  of  steering 
thinking  into  new  channels.  Getting  our  thinking  out 
of  ruts,  often  by  borrowing  ideas  and  methods  from 
other  fields,  is  not  the  least  important  byproduct  of 
research.     Another  example  of  this  may  be  cited. 

Powder  Metallurgy 

Analogous  to  the  practice  common  in  the  ceramic  and 
plastics  industries,  of  making  products  by  agglomeration 
rather  than  by  melting,  the  idea  of  pressing  and  sinter- 
ing metal  powder  into  coherent  porous  products,  which 
may  or  may  not  then  be  worked  into  less  porous  form, 
has  already  been  utilized  in  making  ductile  tungsten 
and  the  tungsten  carbide  tools.  "Powder  metallurgy" 
for  the  manufacture  of  porous,  oil-retaining  bearings, 
and  as  an  alternative  to  forming  by  casting,  or  forging, 
or  machining  from  solid  stock,  is  on  the  horizon  as  a 
possibly  important  new  branch  of  metallurgy,  applicable 
also  to  the  production  of  alloy  combinations  that  cannot 
readily  be  made  by  older  methods.  In  specific  in- 
stances the  method  is  well  established;  its  widespread 
application  is  now  more  a  matter  of  economics  than  of 
technology. 

Adaptations  From  Other  Sciences — 
Electron  Diffraction 

The  application  of  the  skills  of  other  sciences  to 
metallurgy  is  indispensable.  Within  the  last  decade 
the  physicist  has  developed  a  new  tool,  electron  diffrac- 
tion, which  showed  promise  of  giving  information  about 
conditions  at  the  surface  of  metals,  the  mechanism  of 


the  progress  of  corrosion,  etc.,  that  it  was  impossible  to 
procure  by  previously  existing  methods.  Metallurgical 
research  workers  soon  took  up  the  new  tool  and  devel- 
oped the  necessary  special  technique,  with  great  ad- 
vantage to  metallurgical  science.  Entirely  invisible 
films  only  about  a  fifth  of  a  millionth  of  an  inch  tliick 
deposited  upon  the  surface  of  metals  have  not  only 
been  shown  by  electron  diffraction  to  be  present  there, 
but  the  composition  and  structure  of  the  films  have 
been  established  by  the  same  means.'" 

Mineralogical  Methods  Utilized 

The  mineralogist  has  accumulated  information  on  the 
composition  and  means  of  recognizing  naturally  occur- 
ring minerals,  and  together  with  the  physical  chemist, 
has  developed  methods  of  charting  and  recognizing  what 
might  be  termed  artificial  minerals.  He  has  used  the 
petrographic  microscope  in  his  work,  much  as  the  metal- 
lurgist uses  the  metallurgical  microscope.  Those  metal- 
lurgists engaged  in  the  smelting  of  ores  find  it  necessary 
to  purify,  or  "beneficiate"  the  ores  by  mechanical  sep- 
aration of  their  wanted  from  their  unwanted  constit- 
uents. One  method  of  separation  is  the  flotation 
process  previously  mentioned  in  connection  with  molyb- 
demmi  and  copper.  To  make  these  separation  processes 
applicable,  the  ore  must  be  groimd  so  that  the  particles 
of  the  desirable  and  the  undesirable  constituents  are 
separated.  If,  however,  the  constituents  are  in  such 
intimate  mineralogical  combination  that  separation  by 
grinding  is  impossible,  mechanical  separation  processes 
are  inapplicable  and  chemical  methods  must  be  sought. 

Application  of  mineralogical  knowledge  and  technique 
allows  the  metallurgist  to  start  at  once  upon  the  proper 
road  of  investigation.  Mineralogical  technique,  includ- 
ing the  use  of  polarized  light,  also  serves  the  metallurgist 
in  the  study  of  nonmetaUic  impmities  occurring  as 
inclusions  and  thereby  enables  him  to  detect  the  source 
of  the  impurities  and  take  steps  toward  eliminating 
them. 

The  physicist  has  developed  the  use  of  polarized  light 
for  studying  stress  distribution  in  transparent  models. 
This  is  a  matter  of  applied  mechanics  rather  than 
metallm-gy,  but  it  greatly  helps  the  metallurgist  in  that 
it  proves  that  the  designer  can  do  much  to  mitigate 
stress  concentration  by  proper  attention  to  geometric 
form  and  is  thereby  enabled  to  reduce  his  demands 
for  materials  capable  of  resisting  such  high  stress 
concentrations. 

Instruments  and  Equipment 

Modern  metallurgical  research  requires  equipment 
and  instruments  for  precise  quantitative  measurements 
to  an  ever  increasing  degree.     A  great  change  in  flying 

"  Nelson,  H.  R.    The  low  temperature  oiidation  of  iron.    Journal  of  Ckemical 
Physics,  6.  606-n  (1938). 


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National  Resources  Planning  Board 


has  taken  place  in  the  past  decade;  the  airplane  pilot 
no  longer  flies  "by  the  seat  of  his  pants,"  but  with  the 
aid  of  an  imposing  array  of  instruments.  This  change 
is  paralleled  in  the  research  laboratory.  The  analogy 
is  recognized  in  that  the  cockpit  of  today's  plane  is 
often  termed  a  "flying  laboratory."  Research  on 
new  or  more  precise  instruments  and  more  dependable 
metallurgical  tools  is  as  necessary  as  is  the  research  that 
uses  them. 

The  Pyrometer 

Although  the  metallurgist  now  assumes  that  precise 
measurement  and  control  of  temperature  are  axiomatic 
in  any  metallurgical  process  involving  heating,  this  was 
not  always  so.  The  development  of  the  thermocouple 
and  of  other  means  for  measurement  of  temperatures 
was  basic  for  all  later  developments  in  metallurgical 
science  and  technology. 

The  Induction  Furnace 

The  development  of  the  high-frequency  induction 
furnace  by  Northrup,  useful  as  it  has  proved  to  be 
commercially,  was  an  especial  boon  to  metallurgical 
research,  for  it  increased  the  speed  and  precision  with 
which  melts  of  desired  composition  could  be  made. 
Incidentally  Northrup  was  a  professor  when  he  began  to 
work  on  his  idea,  but  the  commercial  sponsorship  and 
financial  backing  of  the  Ajax  Electro  thermic  Corpora- 
tion with  its  hope  of  private  gain,  were  essential  to  the 
embodiment  of  the  idea  in  tangible,  useful  form. 

New  Arms,  New  Conquests 

As  fast  as  we  can  free  ourselves  from  the  shackles  of 
old  modes  of  thinking  and  devise  and  utilize  new 
instruments  and  more  powerful  tools,  we  can  tackle 
problems  that  were  hitherto  unsolvable. 

New  facts  and  new  principles  remain  to  be  unearthed 
and  new  applications  of  old  ones  remain  to  be  made. 
The  residts  should  be  as  potent  in  serving  human  needs, 
developing  industries  and  bringing  employment,  and 
wiping  out  dependence  on  strategic  materials  derived 
from  abroad  as  those  unearthed  in  the  past  have  been. 

Provision  for  the  Future 

If  we  admit  this,  and  if  we  admit  that  metallurgy 
underlies  all  industry,  we  are  ready  to  ask  what  pro- 
vision is  being  made  for  continuation  and  expansion  of 
metallurgical  research. 

Whence  Will  Come  the  Fundamental 
Metallurgical  Research  of  the  Future? 

It  is  often  stated  that  the  universities  are  the  fountain 
heads  of  "pure"  or  "fundamental"  research  from  which 
flow  the  ideas  on  which  the  applied  research  of  future 
generations  will  be  based.     This  is  hardly  accurate  in 


metaUurgy.  Even  the  initial,  crude  developments  are 
likely  to  require  expensive  special  equipment  for  the 
purchase  of  whicli  university  funds  are  seldom  avail- 
able. Smoothing  out  the  crudities  requires  years  of 
continuous  effort,  a  time  extending  beyond  that  of  a 
graduate  course,  so  that  the  professor  must  work 
through  a  succession  of  students,  each  new  one  lacking 
the  background  of  the  previous  ones. 

With  a  commercial  urge  and  the  prospect  of  gain  to 
be  derived  from  utilizing  information  as  soon  as  it  is 
found,  a  well-financed  industrial  research  group  is  far 
more  likely  to  delve  widely  and  deeply  than  a  uni- 
versity can.  With  the  incentive  of  commercial  need, 
the  research  laboratories  of  the  General  Electric 
Company  "  sought  ductile  tungsten  for  the  electric  light 
more  doggedly  and  at  far  greater  expense  than  could 
have  been  the  case  in  academic  circles.  A  greater 
amount  of  theoretical  work  in  metallurgy  that  might 
appear  to  be  of  highly  abstruse  nature,  but  which  was 
required  to  forge  a  needed  link  in  a  commercial  research 
chain,  is  encountered  in  the  Bell  Laboratories  and  the 
research  laboratories  of  the  Westinghouse  and  General 
Electric  companies,  than  in  the  universities.  Within 
the  limitations  of  permissible  cost  of  equipment,  the 
Metals  Research  Laboratory  of  Carnegie  Institute  of 
Technology,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
and  a  few  other  schools,  are  working  on  fimdamental 
metallurgical  research  problems  with  new  information 
as  much  an  objective  as  the  training  of  men.  Battelle 
Memorial  Institute  is  doing  the  same  sort  of  thing  in 
several  lines,  notably  in  cast  iron,  on  its  own  endow- 
ment. But,  by  and  large,  the  bulk  of  the  fundamental 
work  is  carried  on  at  the  direct  expense  of  industry,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  work  on  rate  of  transformation  of 
steel  at  moderate  and  low  temperatures,  at  the  Research 
Laboratory  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation. 

Universities  today  are  looked  to  more  for  the  raw 
material  from  which  research  men  are  made  than  for  a 
completely  finished  product,  or  for  research  results  in 
themselves. 

The  Supply  of  Future  Workers 

Supplying  such  raw  material  is  as  essential  as  is  the 
provision  of  instruments  and  equipment  for  research. 
One  is  of  no  more  value  without  the  other  than  is  a 
plane  without  a  pilot  or  a  pilot  without  a  plane.  Unless 
the  supply  of  research  workers  in  metaUurgy  is  main- 
tained and  augmented,  a  dearth  of  good  men  is  immi- 
nent as  soon  as  the  metallurgical  industries  become  as 
research-minded  as  the  chemical  industries  are  today. 

Expert  opinion  '^  states  that  of  all  professions  research 
is  the  most  short-handed,  there  being  a  smaller  reservoir 
of  competent  men  compared  to  the  need  for  them  that 

"  Hoyt,  S.  L.    Ductile  tungsten.    Metals  and  Alloys,  6,  n  (1935). 
'>  Job  hunters.     Time,  p.  34  (December  25,  1939). 


Industrial  Research 


299 


will  exist  when  conditions  improve.  There  certainly 
is  no  large  reservoir  of  men  already  experienced  in  or 
being  directly  trained  for  metallurgical  research,  and 
the  situation  would  be  truly  serious  wore  it  not  for  the 
still  fairly  adequate  supply  of  raw  material  in  the  chem- 
ists, physicists,  and  engineers  that  are  being  turned  out 
from  the  colleges. 

Evaluation  of  what  is  needed  in  a  metallurgical  re- 
search man  and  of  the  various  means  that  may  be  taken 
to  produce  such  men,  may  therefore  be  considered  as 
one  of  the  primary  topics  in  this  discussion. 

The  Personality  of  a  Research  Man 

To  set  the  stage  so  that  ever  recurring  dramas  of 
metallurgical  research  can  continue  to  be  played  in  our 
national  theater,  we  must  have  players  who  know  how 
to  develop  the  plot  while  speaking  their  lines,  for  there 
are  no  set  lines  and  no  prompt  book  in  research — every 
scene  calls  for  new  dialogue.  Not  every  man  is  a  good 
actor,  nor  is  every  man,  even  with  long  technical  train- 
ing, a  research  man.  The  research  man  must  have 
insatiable  curiosity,  pertinacity,  and  optimism,  for  he 
is  hunting  for  something  about  the  very  existence  of 
which  he  is  uncertain  and  he  must  not  be  dismayed  by 
early  failures  to  find  it.  He  must  know  the  basic 
principles  of  the  sciences  concerned  in  his  particular 
branch  and  must  superimpose  on  this  knowledge  the 
detailed  information  called  for  in  his  particular  project. 
Up  to  a  certain  point  the  basic  training  of  the  bio- 
chemist and  the  metallurgist  might  well  be  very  similar, 
but  the  specific  training  of  each  would  not  greatly  serve 
the  other. 

The  Education  of  a  Metallurgical 
Research  Worker 

In  earlier  days  there  was  no  formal  scholastic  training 
in  metalliu-gy;  the  metallurgists  were  educated  in  the 
courses  in  engineering,  chemistry,  or  physics  and  picked 
up  their  own  metallurgy.  It  is  still  not  very  important 
that  a  research  worker  in  metallurgy  have  a  formal 
metallurgical  training  in  his  4-year  college  course.  He 
must  be  trained  in  modes  of  exact  thinking,  know  a 
variable  factor  when  he  sees  it,  and  know  that  he  must 
hunt  for  it  when  he  does  not  see  it.  There  are  able 
research  metallurgists  today  who  were  self-educated 
beyond  high  school,  though  they  are  few.  There  are 
many  who  have  had  no  metallm-gical  training  at  all  in 
college  but  who  were  so  well-grounded  in  the  basic 
sciences  that  they  were  able  to  pick-up  the  needed 
metallurgical  information  very  promptly  by  their  own 
efforts.  Indeed,  many  employers  of  research  workers 
are  not  at  all  concerned  about  an  applicant's  ignorance 
of  metallurgy  if  he  has  a  somid  foundation  and  the  will 
to  learn  what  he  needs  to  but  does  not  yet  know.  For- 
mal courses  in  metallurgy  and  metallurgical  engineering 


are  not  yet  given  in  very  many  imiversities,  and  the 
courses  that  arc  usually  given  must  prepare  production 
men,  sales  engineers,  and  perhaps  future  teachers  as 
well  as  research  men.  Hence,  the  curricula  can  hardly 
be  expected  to  be  aimed  to  turn  out  finished  research 
metallurgists.  This  is  no  cause  for  worry.  It  will  be 
cause  for  worry  if  too  specialized  metallurgical  courses 
begin  to  crowd  the  fundamental  com-ses  out  of  the 
curriculum. 

His  Development 

After  a  youngster  has  secured  a  sound  backgroimd 
in  the  exact  sciences,  and  cither  in  college  or  by  his 
own  study  has  procured  metallurgical  information,  he 
still  has  to  develop  that  ability  to  tackle  the  unknown 
which  differentiates  the  research  from  the  production 
man  or  the  sales  engineer.  This  research  ability  to 
stand  on  his  own  feet  may  be  gained  by  the  right  type 
of  man  either  in  graduate  work  or  in  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion in  a  research  laboratory.  A  man  cannot  linow, 
until  he  has  tried  it,  whether  he  is  the  research  type  or 
not.  The  research  laboratories  of  large  metallurgical 
organizations  often  bring  promising  youngsters  in  from 
the  production  and  control  groups  temporarily  and  send 
out  with  such  groups  for  a  time  men  who  have  served 
some  apprenticeship  in  the  research  laboratory.  This 
is  done  not  only  with  the  aim  of  giving  each  group  an 
appreciation  of  the  other's  problems,  but  also  with  the 
idea  that  some  of  each  ^vill  make  the  change  permanent 
rather  than  temporary,  thus  fitting  the  square  pegs  into 
the  square  holes. 

The  process  of  natural  selection  and  advancement 
from  subordinate  to  more  responsible  research  positions 
may  not  develop  leaders  rapidly  enough.  The  necessity 
for  doing  routine  research  work  may  not  give  time  for 
roimding  out  the  man  into  one  capable  of  constructive 
thought.  The  metallurgical  industries  are  therefore 
sho\ving  interest  ki  schemes  by  which  a  promising 
youngster,  usually  one  with  a  year  or  more  of  graduate 
work  in  academic  research,  is  given  a  fellowship  in  a 
research  organization  to  work  imder  close  supervision 
of  experienced  research  men  on  a  problem  chosen 
primarily  to  train  the  man  in  research  methods  and 
modes  of  thinking  rather  than  for  its  immediate  value 
to  the  sponsor.  Alternatively,  men  in  research  or- 
ganizations may  be  sent  at  company  expense,  or  may  go 
volimtarily  at  their  own  expense,  to  a  university  for 
graduate  work.  Either  plan  is  generally  far  more 
fruitful  than  for  the  man  to  work  directly  on  for  a 
Ph.  D.  after  procuring  his  first  degree  and  without 
any  interim  spent  on  research  or  practice  outside  the 
academic  cloisters. 

There  is,  in  normal  times,  no  oversupply  of  men  of 
proved  capabilities  for  constructive  metallurgical  re- 
search.    Long-range  planning  for  the  maintenance  of  a 


300 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


supply  is  worth  while.  High  school  boys  should  be 
given  some  inkling  of  the  possibilities  of  metallurgy  as 
a  career  so  that  they  may  consider  it  as  one  of  the 
alternative  occupations  for  which  they  might  prepare 
while  still  undecided  about  what  they  want  to  do. 
Thus  some  might  so  choose  their  college  courses,  though 
not  necessarily  by  taking  metallurgy,  that  they  would 
be  sought  by  the  metallurgical  industries.  This  would 
aid  in  long-range  planning  for  a  steady  supply  of  men 
for  research. 

Job  StablUty 

It  is  likewise  important  to  make  sure  that  men  fitted 
for  ultimate  success  in  research  and  with  some  accu- 
mulated experience  are  not  unnecessarily  diverted  from 
research,  or  so  placed  that  their  past  experience  is  not 
utilized.  During  valleys  of  the  depressions  of  the  past 
decade,  especially  the  first  one,  some  metallurgical  re- 
search groups  built  up  during  the  previous  boom  years, 
or  somewhat  replenished  during  periods  of  temporary 
improvement,  were  scattered  overnight  by  executive 
decision,  and  many  research  metallurgists  were  thrown 
into  the  ranks  of  the  imemployed.  Those  executive 
decisions  in  many  cases  have  been  repented  and  the 
research  staffs  again  augmented,  but,  since  the  capable 
men  usually  found  jobs  with  firms  that  did  not  disrupt 
their  research  groups,  their  experience  was  lost  to  their 
former  employer.  Security  of  tenure  in  research  jobs 
seems  greater  now  than  at  any  time  in  the  past. 

Working  Conditions 

Consistent  with  the  trend  toward  picking  men  with 
the  right  type  of  mind  for  research  and  who  intend  to 
make  research  their  sole  business,  is  the  trend  toward 
providing  environment  and  working  conditions  that 
will  favor  efficient  work.  Many  research  laboratories 
are  planned  not  merely  for  convenience,  but  attention 
is  also  paid  to  dignity  of  architecture.  Numbers  of  such 
laboratories  have  been  built  in  the  last  decade  and 
stand  as  evidence  of  the  importance  of  environment. 
In  the  direction  of  effective  research,  care  is  taken  that 
the  men  have  time  to  think.  Extreme  pressure  for 
immediate  results  exerted  on  a  research  man  seldom 
helps  to  produce  those  results.  An  atmosphere  of 
much  greater  freedom  than  needs  to  be  accorded  the 
men  of  the  routine  control  laboratory  is  called  for. 

Both  for  reasons  of  the  workers'  satisfaction  and  to 
promote  efficiency  in  their  work,  there  is  a  growing 
tendency  towards  complete  relief  of  the  research 
organization  from  the  responsibilities  of  production 
control  and  trouble  shooting.  While  every  effort  is 
made  to  have  the  research  men  in  constant  touch  with 
the  practical  conditions  of  production  so  that  they  will 
keep  their  feet  on  the  ground  and  be  able  to  solve 
problems  that  arise,  research  is  more  and  more  being 


made  a  continuing,  full-time  activity  rather  than  knit- 
ting work  to  be  picked  up  and  dropped  according  to 
the  ebb  and  flow  of  plant  difficulties. 

Reasonable  freedom  for  the  research  worker  to  pub- 
lish his  results  and  thus  secure  professional  recognition 
is  a  factor  in  his  satisfaction  with  his  job,  and  generally 
benefits  the  employer  as  much  as  it  does  the  employee. 
"Public  relations"  are  benefited  by  pubhcation. 

Tlie  Written  Word 

No  one  thing  affects  the  satisfaction  and  the  efficiency 
of  a  research  worker  more  than  the  availability  of  proper 
library  facilities.  The  library  is  the  most  important 
tool  of  research.  Moreover,  if  we  are  not  to  require 
prior  formal  metallurgical  instruction  of  those  engaging 
in  metallurgical  research,  but  intend  to  leave  the  door 
open  to  those  of  different  basic  training,  upon  which 
they  themselves  must  superimpose  a  specific,  self- 
acquired  metallurgical  education,  the  means  for  self- 
instruction  must  be  at  hand.  The  availability  of 
printed  metallurgical  information,  therefore,  should  be 
considered  here.  This  situation  is  very  satisfactory. 
The  sharing  of  technical,  scientific,  and  research  infor- 
mation in  metallurgy  is  carried  on  to  high  degree 
through  the  publications  of  the  American  Society  for 
Metals,  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  and  Metal- 
lurgical Engineers,  The  American  Foundrymcn's  Asso- 
ciation, the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials, 
the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  the 
Electrochemical  Society,  and  others,  together  with  tech- 
nical and  trade  journals  not  connected  with  any  society. 

British  society  publications  and  journals,  pretty 
much  counterparts  of  the  American  ones,  and  a  smaller 
number  of  useful  metallurgical  journals  in  Swedish, 
French,  German,  Italian,  Japanese,  and  Russian,  ab- 
stracted by  United  States  and  British  abstract  services, 
add  to  the  bulk  of  printed  information.  The  majority 
of  the  pages  published  on  metallurgy  contain  reports  on 
research.  Indeed,  though  a  metallurgical  society  starts 
out  with  the  primary  aim  of  service  to  the  practical  man 
and  plans  to  make  its  meetings  of  the  order  of  foreman 
conferences,  in  time  it  comes  to  placing  emphasis  on 
research  in  its  publications.  The  early  proceedings  of 
the  American  Brass  Foundrymcn's  Association,  now  the 
Institute  of  Metals  Division  of  the  A.  I.  M.  E.,  compared 
with  the  often  very  abstruse  theoretical  publications  of 
the  Division  today,  show  this.  So  do  the  early  trans- 
actions of  the  American  Society  for  Steel  Treating,  com- 
pared with  those  of  its  successor,  the  American  Society 
for  Metals.  The  same  tendency  is  working  in  the 
American  Electroplater's  Society  and  the  Wire  Indus- 
tries Association.  The  appreciation  of  research  and  the 
development  of  means  for  the  dissemination  of  its  re- 
sults are  characteristic  of  metallurgical  societies. 

Outstanding  as  a  means  of  making  new  metallurgical 


Industrial  Research 


301 


information,  obtained  by  research,  available  in  authen- 
tic and  condensed  form,  are  the  handbooks  put  out  by 
the  A.  S.  M.,  the  A.  F.  A.,  the  American  Welding  So- 
ciety, and  others.  These  are  prepared  by  hundreds  of 
experts  who  give  their  time  free  as  a  professional  obli- 
gation. This  allows  wide  distribution  of  the  handbooks 
at  very  low  cost. 

Making  readily  available  the  research  information  of 
the  world  literature  in  its  field  is  the  task  of  the  Alloys 
of  Iron  Research  Committee  which  is  in  process  of  pre- 
paring monographs  on  the  important  iron -alloy  sys- 
tems. This  useful,  expensive,  and  still  unfinished  proj- 
ect was  financed  in  part  by  Engineering  Foundation,  the 
National  Bureau  of  Standards,  and  Battelle  Memorial 
Institute,  in  large  part  directly  by  the  metallurgical 
industries.  There  is  nothing  on  foot  in  this  country  of 
a  similar  nature  for  the  alloys  of  copper,  but  this  gap 
is  being  filled  by  publications  of  the  British  Copper 
Development  Association. 

That  one  has  to  go  outside  the  United  States  to  find 
cooperative  effort  of  just  this  type  in  the  copper  indus- 
try might  be  taken  as  evidence  for  the  statement  some- 
times made  that  this  industry  is  not  so  research-minded 
nor  so  cooperative  as  other  metallurgical  industries. 
The  accusation  is  not  justified  as  respects  the  producers 
of  copper.  That  of  something  short  of  perfection  in 
cooperativeness  of  the  fabricators  is  more  difficult  to 
refute.  That  individual  firms  in  the  industry  are  doing 
highly  useful  research  is  known  to  those  behind  the 
scenes.  The  lack  of  appreciation  of  this  among  other 
scientists  seems  primarily  due  to  the  contrast  in  the 
publication  policies  of  this  industry  with  those  of  the 
steel  industry.  Such  a  case  emphasizes  the  public- 
relations  aspect  of  publications. 

Textbooks  and  books  of  general  metallurgical  infor- 
mation written  for  reference  use  rather  than  for  the 
classroom,  and  summaries  of  information,  so-called 
"correlated  abstracts,"  in  restricted  fields  are  appearing 
in  greater  numbers  and  of  better  quality.  The  tech- 
nical societies  hold  symposia  at  which  available  infor- 
mation is  reviewed  to  date  and  publish  the  papers  pre- 
sented. By  these  means  the  assimilation  of  metallur- 
gical research  is  facilitated  and  home  study  is  made 
more  feasible  than  if  the  whole  mass  of  literature  had 
to  he  assembled  and  digested  by  each  one  who  wanted 
to  use  it. 

Assimilation  through  the  spoken  word  is  sought 
through  the  local  chapter  and  regional  meetings  of  such 
societies  as  the  A.  S.  M.  and  A.  F.  A.,  which  as  a  rule 
are  planned  to  be  more  of  an  educational  character  than 
are  the  annual  meetings  of  the  various  societies.  How- 
ever, a  feature  of  some  annual  meetings  is  a  special 
series  of  educational  lectures,  and  some  local  technical 
groups  conduct  what  might  be  termed  adidt-education 
evening  schools  in  metallui^y.     The  the  willingness  of 


metallurgical  industries  to  publish  their  research  findings 
and  to  try  to  help  the  other  fellow  in  the  expectation 
of  improving  the  whole  industry  is  noteworthy. 

Cooperative  Effort 

An  outstanding  example  of  lack  of  secrecy  and  active 
pooling  of  infonnation  is  the  open-hearth  committee 
of  the  A.  I.  M.  E.,  at  whose  meetings  open-hearth 
steel  furnace  operators  from  all  the  steel  companies  get 
together  to  discuss  experiences  in  increasing  output, 
lowering  costs,  and  increasing  quality  and  uniformity. 
Great  franloiess  is  a  feature  of  the  meetings. 

There  is  much  joint  research  effort  among  different 
firms  faced  with  the  same  metallurgical  problems. 
Such  activities  are  handled  through  committees  of 
existing  trade  associations,  of  technical  and  scientific 
societies,  or  through  temporary  organizations  set  up 
for  the  particular  occasion,  which  are  not  intended  to 
continue  after  the  present  joint  problems  have  been 
solved.  Examples  of  these  are  the  support  by  the 
American  Electroplater's  Society,  the  Non-Ferrous 
Ingot  Producers'  Association,  and,  of  the  temporary 
organization  type,  the  Associated  Silver  Producers' 
work  on  development  of  industrial  uses  for  silver. 
Cooperative  work  of  industry  with  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
is  also  carried  on. 

More  widespread  use  of  Government  facilities  is 
hampered  by  the  patent  policy  of  certain  departments 
of  the  Govenmient  which  allows  Government  employees 
to  take  out  personal  patents  on  work  they  do  in  the 
Government  laboratories.  Certain  departments  frown 
on  this,  but  in  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards,  the 
Bureau  of  Mines,  and  the  various  research  divisions  of 
the  Army  and  Navy  an  employee  may  elect  to  take 
out  patents  for  himself,  and  if  he  does,  the  cooperato." 
must  make  arrangements  with  the  employee  for  the  use 
of  the  patents.  This  situation  often  prevents  industry 
from  taking  its  problems  to  the  Government  labora- 
tories when  patentable  features  are  likely  to  grow  out 
of  the  work.  In  most  university  research  foundations 
and  the  research  institutes  the  patentable  features  are 
entirely  the  property  of  the  sponsor.  Patents  are 
seldom  as  important  in  joint  projects  as  they  are  in 
projects  of  an  individual  sponsor. 

As  a  rule  the  Government  laboratories  arc  more 
eager  to  cooperate  actively  with  a  representative  group 
on  a  joint  problem  than  with  a  single  firm,  so  on  both 
sides  the  conduct  of  a  joint  investigation  at  a  Govern- 
ment laboratory  may  have  favorable  consideration. 

Modes  of  Joint  Research 

Committees  of  technical  societies  often  meet  research 
problems  the  solution  of  which  would  be  to  the  joint 
advantage  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  industry 
they  represent.     This  is  particularly  the  case  as  respect- 


302 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


ing  metallurgical  problems  with  the  American  Society 
for  Testing  Materials  and  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  both  of  which  have  research 
committees  on  various  topics  as  well  as  committees  for 
drafting  specifications  and  codes.  The  American  Weld- 
ing Society  has  many  metallurgical  problems.  In 
these,  as  well  as  in  some  other  metallurgical  societies, 
experimental  research  is  carried  on  when  the  need  war- 
rants, usually  as  a  committee  or  subcommittee  project. 
The  project  may  take  the  form  of  splitting  the  work 
into  small  sections  each  of  which  is  carried  out  in  the 
laboratories  of  the  committee  members,  with  subsequent 
pooling  of  results,  the  cash  outlay  being  absorbed  by 
the  respective  budgets  of  each  cooperator.  The  work 
is  subject  to  such  delay  as  the  exigencies  of  the  other 
work  of  the  laboratory  may  demand.  This  method  is 
much  used  on  small  problems  and  often  as  an  initial 
stage  in  larger  ones. 

When  the  effort  required  is  beyond  that  which  can 
be  slipped  in  along  with  the  other  work  of  the  co- 
operators,  the  committee  collects  funds  from  those  who 
stand  to  benefit  and  who  are  willing  to  cooperate  finan- 
cially, and  the  work  is  hired  done.  Sometimes  a  re- 
search engineer  is  hired  and  facilities  for  his  work 
secured  at  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards,  a  uni- 
versity, or  an  institute.  Rarely  is  experimental  work 
for  the  benefit  of  a  group  done  for  pay  in  the  laboratory 
of  one  of  the  member  companies,  as  this  is  seldom  ac- 
ceptable to  the  other  cooperating  firms,  though  the 
method  has  been  used.  More  commonly  the  project 
is  fanned  out  to  a  research  foimdation  or  research 
institute. 

For  example,  work  thus  financed  on  various  phases 
of  problems  of  metals  at  high  temperature  has  been 
simultaneously  in  progress  at  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  the  engineering  research  division  of  the 
University  of  Michigan,  and  at  Battelle  Memorial 
Institute  for  the  joint  research  committee  of  the  A.  S. 
T.  M.  and  A.  S.  M.  E.  on  Effect  of  Temperature  on  the 
Properties  of  Metals,  while  small  projects  on  which 
work  was  donated  by  the  laboratories  of  several  manu- 
facturers were  also  in  hand. 

Utilization  of  Outside  Aid  in  Research 

The  successful  conduct  of  a  variety  of  joint  research 
problems  has  made  it  increasingly  evident  that  a  firm 
does  not  necessarily  have  to  carry  on  all  its  research 
under  its  own  roof. 

Business  instability  and  fear  of  conditions  beyond 
the  control  of  business,  indeed,  make  firms  with  mani- 
fold research  problems  and  limited  research  staffs  hesi- 
tant to  build  up  large  permanent  staffs  and  to  install 
elaborate  equipment  for  their  work  and  more  prone  to 
farm  out  specific  problems  to  outside  laboratories. 
Competently  handling  such  farmed-out  problems  under 


adequate  supervision  and  with  adequate  equipment  is 
not  easy  for  the  average  university  professor  who  does, 
or  should,  make  instruction  his  first  duty.  He  lacks 
the  time,  and  also  his  laboratory  facilities  for  instruc- 
tion are  not  adequate  for  research  that  must  yield  com- 
mercial results.  Hence  "engineering  experiment  sta- 
tions" or  special  "research  foundations"  with  full-time 
or  nearly  full-time  professors  to  direct  research,  and 
with  equipment  suited  to  certain  restricted  lines  of  re- 
search, have  sprung  up  in  considerable  profusion,  be- 
sides the  research  institutes  the  sole  purpose  of  which  is 
to  provide  research  facilities  for  industry.  Several  of 
these  various  types  of  organizations  are  specializing  in 
metallurgical  research,  and  these  are  kept  increasingly 
busy. 

Public  Funds  Not  Available 
for  Metallurgical  Research 

There  is  no  mechanism  by  which  the  metallurgical 
industries  can  get  their  research  done  at  public  expense 
save  to  the  extent  to  which  they  can  secm-e  cooperation 
or  housing  for  research  associates  at  Government 
laboratories  such  as  those  of  the  National  Bureau  of 
Standards  or  the  Bureau  of  Mines.  Through  transfer 
funds  to  the  former,  the  Navy  and  the  National  Ad- 
visory Committee  for  Aeronautics  have  had  important 
metallurgical  work  done  on  their  problems,  the  results 
of  which  have  been  valuable  to  industry.  The  Naval 
Research  Laboratory  has  done  useful  work  on  steel 
castings.  Though  these  researches  have  industrial 
value,  that  is  a  byproduct,  the  primary  investigation 
having  been  made  to  secure  information  directly 
needed  for  purely  governmental  purposes.  While 
these  and  other  Government  laboratories  are  not  im- 
mindful  of  research  on  fimdamentals  that  affect  the 
metallurgical  industries,  there  is  no  Government 
research  agency  to  serve  metallurgy  in  any  way  com- 
parable to  that  of  the  Federal  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  the  State  Agricultm-al  Experiment  Stations 
for  agriculture.  Nor  is  there  any  analogy  to  agricul- 
tural "extension"  work.  Through  the  Department  of 
Science  and  Industry,  England  matches  pound  for 
pound  up  to  a  certain  limit,  the  research  funds  pro- 
vided by  industry  for  such  laboratories  as  those  of  the 
British  Cast  Iron  Research  Association,  etc.,  in  which 
public  funds  are  devoted  to  metallurgical  research 
topics  selected  by  industry.  The  scheme  is  intended 
to  encourage  research  by  and  for  those  who  might  not 
otherwise  engage  in  it. 

The  endowed  research  organizations,  as  a  group,  do 
not  do  much  in  metallurgy.  The  projects  of  the 
National  Research  Council  have  in  the  past  almost 
invariably  been  very  far  afield  from  anything  metal- 
Im-gical.  The  Engineering  Foimdation  has  provided 
funds  to  start  work  on  several  projects  of  metalliu-gical 


Industrial  Besearch 


303 


interest,  including  valuable  pioneer  work  on  fatigue  of 
metals,  and  has  contributed  to  specific  projects  of  the 
A.  S.  T.  M.-A.  S.  M.  E.  joint  high-temperature  com- 
mittee, as  well  as  to  the  alloys-of-iron  research,  which 
latter  is,  however,  not  of  an  experimental  nature. 
Battelle  Memorial  Institute  is  an  exception,  since  it 
docs  metallurgical  research  on  its  own  funds  and 
publishes  the  results.  State  and  other  university 
experiment  stations  do  some  valuable  metallurgical 
research  at  State  expense.  But  in  all  these  cases  the 
endowed  or  publicly  supported  institution  selects  the 
topic  for  research.  In  the  United  States,  when  a 
metallurgical  firm  or  a  group  of  firms  wants  a  specific 
research  problem  investigated  it  foots  the  bill  itself. 
From  past  results  this  does  not  appear  to  be  a  bad 
method  for  the  future,  so  long  as  the  incentive  for 
private  gain  remains  characteristic  of  the  economy  of 
our  Republic. 

Competition  vs.  Monopoly  in  Research 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  prospect  of  private  gain 
stimulates  most  of  the  worth-while  metallurgical  re- 
search, active  competition  within  a  given  field  does  not 
necessarily  make  for  the  type  of  research  that  does  the 
country  the  most  good  in  the  long  run.  Indeed,  the 
opposite  may  be  true. 

Good  research  costs  money.  The  subsequent  develop- 
ment work  and  application  to  production  usually  costs 
much  more  money.  This  money  is  more  readily 
obtained,  and  accounting  more  clearly  shows  a  profit 
on  investing  it,  when  a  strong  firm,  even  a  quasi- 
monopoly,  is  involved  than  when  there  are  many  pro- 
ducers of  the  same  commodity.  There  is  less  delay  in 
imdertaking  research  that  will  bring  out  the  possibili- 
ties and  limitations  of  the  commodity  and  thus  make  it 
possible  for  engineers  to  use  it  more  intelligently. 
There  is  no  domestic  competition  by  primary  producers 
of  aluminum."  Primary  and  secondary  aluminum 
compete,  and  aluminum  competes  with  steel,  copper, 
and  other  metals.  Plastics  offer  potential  competition 
to  metals.  There  is  no  permanent  gain  in  exerting 
sales  effort  to  force  a  commodity  into  a  service  for 
which  it  is  neither  technically  nor  economically  adapted. 
As  Van  Deventer  of  the  Iron  Age  phrases  it,  each  ma- 
terial has  its  own  "supremacy  areas"  in  which  its 
technical  superiority  is  so  marked  that  it  can  readily 
overcome  a  cost  handicap  (silver  in  electrical  contacts 
is  a  good  example) ;  other  areas  in  which  substitutes  are 
plentiful  and  the  choice  is  to  be  made  on  the  basis  of 
economics ;  and  still  others  in  which  alternative  materials 
are  better  both  technologically  and  economically.  As 
knowledge  and  experience  grow  these  areas  shift.  Re- 
search to  bring  about  a  shift  into  supremacy  area  or  to 
evaluate  the  shifts  likely  to  occur  through  the  research 

■>  Since  this  was  written,  a  second  producer  is  arranging  to  enter  the  field. 


improvement  of  competing  materials  can  be  of  immense 
value  to  the  sales  department. 

The  domestic  producers  of  aluminum  are  outstanding 
in  doing  and  reporting  research  that  gives  the  cold 
facts  about  the  properties  so  far  built  into  aluminum 
alloys.  When  they  report  on  fundamental  facts,  such 
as  on  the  equilibrium  diagrams  for  ahnninum  alloj^s, 
those  repoits  are  based  on  as  precise  work  as  any  done 
in  metallurgy  and  are  accepted  as  quite  as  credible  as 
if  the  work  had  been  done  by  the  National  Bureau  of 
Standards. 

Very  extensive  research  and  development  work  by 
the  producers  of  nickel  has  brought  early  and  complete 
information  on  its  usefulness  as  a  metal  and  in  alloys. 
If  the  nickel  business  were  split  up  among  a  lot  of 
producers,  each  much  less  able  to  finance  research,  the 
sum  total  of  research  information  on  nickel  would 
probably  be  far  less  than  we  have  today. 

Conversely,  silicon  is  produced  by  many  firms,  and 
in  various  forms,  as  ferro-silicon,  silvery  pig,  etc.  No 
one  controls  the  "ores"  of  silicon.  There  are  a  number 
of  alternate  sources  for  many  uses.  While  research  on 
silicon  is  not  wholly  lacking,  there  is  no  comprehensive 
program  for  developing  its  potentialities  comparable 
with  those  for  aluminum  or  nickel.  We  lack  under- 
standing of  the  role  of  ladle  additions  of  silicon  to  cast 
iron  and  use  such  additions  empirically,  probably 
ineflRciently.  Were  there  some  firm  to  whom  silicon 
were  the  "only  child,"  one  might  reasonably  expect 
that  such  a  problem  would  not  long  remain  unsolved 
by  research. 

That  research  is  most  easily  inaugurated  and  financed 
by  strong  firms  with  a  large  volume  of  business  that 
does  not  have  to  be  divided  among  many  competitors 
does  not  mean  that  research  is  not  being  done  profitably 
by  small  metallurgical  units  in  highly  competitive 
situations.  It  is  so  done,  as  has  been  brought  out  by 
some  of  the  case  histories  cited  earlier. 

Research  in  Relation  to  Employment 

As  Stevenson  '*  points  out,  labor -making  inventions 
leading  to  new  industries  require  both  longer-term 
research  and  more  financial  courage  than  the  mere 
perfection  of  processes  in  minor  details  that  lead  to 
lahoT-saving.  It  takes  courageous  leadership  to  de- 
velop and  exploit  new  and  unusual  projects.  If  1  out 
of  10  off-the-trail  research  projects  started  by  a  re- 
search organization  pans  out  worthy  of  commercial 
application,  the  organization  is  fortunate.  The  other 
9  have  to  be  paid  for.  Only  when  the  management 
has  the  nerve  to  explore  all  10  prospects  thoroughly 
can  it  hope  to  mine  the  rich  ore  bodies  that  will  repay 
the  exploration  costs  for  aU.    Not  only  must  the  man- 

'«  Stevenson,  A.  R.  Requisites  for  engineering  leadership.  Mtchanical  Enntnter- 
ing,  61,  S03-6  (December  1939). 


304 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


agement  have  the  vision  and  the  financial  resources  to 
ask  for  and  pay  for  the  development  of  new  things, 
but  it  must  have  research  talent  available  that  is 
competent  to  undertake  the  development  with  a  reason- 
able chance  of  success.  There  are  a  score  of  men  who 
can  hck  a  plant  production  problem  and  work  out  a 
way  of  doing  a  job  more  efficiently  to  one  who  can  blaze 
a  trail  to  a  new  industry  that  will  employ  many  more 
men. 

There  are  blind  spots  in  metallurgical  research  like 
the  one  just  mentioned  concerning  silicon,  and  for 
another  example,  the  broad  problem  of  finding  what 
properties  are  really  needed  in  a  bearing  metal,  and 
how  to  measure  them.  These  need  extensive  research. 
Sufficiently  comprehensive  work  has  not  been  set  in 
motion  upon  them,  nor  is  there  readily  available  the 
mechanism  for  bringing  together  those  who  need  light 
on  some  of  the  many  facets  of  the  problem  and  arrang- 
ing for  the  long-term  financing  that  would  be  required. 
There  are  committees  who  could  make  such  a  task  of 
starting  things  their  business,  but  these  projects  do  not 
start  themselves. 

Research  on  Research 

One  of  the  most  baffling  problems  met  by  the  metal- 
lurgical consultant  is  presented  when  a  firm  or  a  trade 
association  of  an  industry  says,  "We  are  sold  on  the 
general  idea  that  research  is  necessary  for  progress, 
but  we  have  not  been  able  to  settle  upon  specific  re- 
search problems  whose  solution  would  advance  our 
position,  much  less  are  we  able  to  determine  the  one 
or  two  problems  that  deserve  first  attack.  What  shall 
we  do?" 

Here  research  to  determine  the  futiu-e  course  of  other 
research  is  called  for.  The  best  way  to  find  the  spots 
to  which  we  have  hitherto  been  blind,  is  to  illuminate 
the  background.  If  the  suitability  of  the  firm's  plant, 
equipment,  and  personnel  is  evaluated,  some  special 
strength  or  weakness  may  be  imcovered  that  makes  it 
obvious  that  work  on  a  specific  product  or  on  strengthen- 
ing some  weak  link  in  the  process,  is  in  order. 

In  the  case  of  a  whole  industry,  if  an  evaluation  is 
made  of  the  "supremacy  areas,"  including  the  nature 
of  present  and  potential  competition,  with  a  clear  state- 
ment of  the  scientific  fundamentals  on  which  the  tech- 
nology and  economics  of  the  industry  are  based,  these 
facts,  put  down  in  black  and  white,  generally  clarify 
the  situation.  Such  an  evaluation  usually  brings  to 
light  problems  whose  immediate  importance  is  recog- 
nized by  all,  once  they  are  clearly  stated.  Then 
research  may  be  applied  to  these  problems. 

True  vs.  Alleged  Research 

There  are  "research  departments"  in  metallurgy,  as 
in  other  industries,  that  give  lip  service  to  research 


and  are  really  nothing  more  than  control  laboratories 
under  a  more  imposing  name,  so  called  for  the  adver- 
tising value  of  that  name.  These  cases  are  less  common 
than  formerly  and  it  often  happens  that  because  the 
name  is  used  more  thought  is  given  to  the  possibilities 
of  real  research  and  it  is  finally  undertaken.  However, 
statistics  purporting  to  show  the  funds  and  the  man- 
power applied  to  research  are  likely  to  include  both  the 
alleged  and  the  real,  and  are  therefore  of  doubtful 
value. 

Acceptance  of  Research 

On  the  whole  research  has  proved  its  utility  to  the 
metallurgical  industries,  and  is  accepted  by  them  as 
one  of  the  essential  steps  in  maintaining  present  mar- 
kets, finding  new  markets,  creating  employment,  and 
cutting  over-all  production  costs  so  that  in  spite  of 
mounting  labor  cost  and  taxes,  their  products  may  still 
go  to  the  customer  at  steadily  decreasing  prices  and  with 
wider  distribution. 

It  is  this  final  effect  upon  the  consumer  that  classes 
metallurgical  research  among  national  resources,  to  be 
conserved  and  fostered. 

Summary 

To  sum  up,  metallurgical  research  is  demanded  in 
order  to  promote  progress  in  the  production  and  use  of 
metals,  not  only  in  instances  where  the  final  products 
are  metafile,  but  equally  where  the  metals  are  inci- 
dental. 

MetaUurgical  research  is  provided  by  the  laboratories 
of  the  producers  of  metallic  raw  and  semifinished  mate- 
rials. Such  laboratories  have  to  deal  with  a  mixture 
of  process  improvement,  product  control,  service  to 
customers  which  may  involve  some  research,  searching 
for  new  applications  to  broaden  the  market,  mainte- 
nance of  the  competitive  position  against  substitute 
materials,  and  such  delving  into  fundamentals  as  these 
problems  require. 

MetaUurgical  research  is  provided  by  the  research 
laboratories  of  industries  which  use  metals  and  have 
specific  problems  to  which  improved  metals  are  the 
answer.  These  laboratories  have  no  predilection  for 
one  metal  over  another;  they  run  the  whole  gamut. 
Their  attack  may  thus  often  be  broader  than  that  of 
those  who  have  a  specific  axe  to  grind. 

MetaUurgical  research  is  provided  by  joint  research 
on  specific  problems  where  producer  and  user  cooperate, 
exemplified  by  A.  S.  T.  M.  committee  projects. 

MetaUurgical  research  is  provided  by  specialized 
institutes,  which  serve  to  extend  the  facUities  of  aU  the 
groups  above  mentioned,  as  weU  as  to  do  fundamental 
metaUurgical  research  on  their  own  initiative. 

Metallurgical  research  is  provided,  on  a  smaUer  and 
usually  a  more  localized  basis,  by  university  experiment 


Industrial  Research 


305 


stations  and  by  the  part-time  consulting  service  of 
individual  professors. 

Metallurgical  research  is  provided  by  Government 
research  laboratories,  which  are  increasingly  engaged 
upon  problems  relating  to  national  defense,  but  pay 
attention  also  to  problems  confronting  the  metallurgical 
industries. 

Finally,  metallurgical  research  is  provided  as  a  by- 
product of  the  training  of  research  workers  by  the 
universities,  their  major  and  essential  contribution 
being  the  initial  training  of  the  individuals  who  will 
ultimately  bear  the  burden  of  the  metallurgical  research 
of  the  future. 

Moreover,  the  results  of  metallurgical  research  are 
made  public  and  shared  in  a  cooperative  spirit,  even 
though  individual  profit  is  necessarily  the  ruling  motive. 

All  these  kinds  of  metallurgical  research  are  essential. 
None  is  so  fully  developed  as  it  will  be,  but  even  in 
their  present  status,  they  all  together  form  no  incon- 
siderable item  in  an  accounting  of  national  economic 
resources. 

Bibliography 

Books 

American  Foundrymen's  Association.  Alloy  cast  irons. 
Chicago,  1939.     257  p. 

American  Foundrymen's  Association.  Cast  metals  hand- 
book.    1940  ed.  Chicago,  1939.     532  p. 

American  Society  for  Metals.  Metals  handbook.  Cleve- 
land, 1939.     1803  p. 

American  Welding  Society.  Welding  handbook.  New  York, 
1938.     1211  p. 

Edwards,  J.  D.,  Frary,  F.  C,  and  Jeffries,  Z.  The  aluminum 
industry.  New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc., 
1930.     2  v.,  1228  p. 


Various  Authors.  "Alloys  of  iron,"  a  series  of  books  on  the 
metal,  iron,  and  alloys  of  iron  with — carbon,  silicon,  molyb- 
denum, tungsten,  copper,  nickel,  and  chromium.  (Volumes 
on  manganese,  vanadium  and  nonmetallics,  in  preparation.) 
New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1932-40. 

Journal  articles 

American    Society    for    Testing    Materials.     Proceedings, 

1900-1940.     Especially  reports  of  committees  on  corrosion  of 

iron    and    steel,   corrosion   of  nonferroua  metals  and  alloys, 

fatigue  of  metals,  and  effect  of  temperature  on  the  properties 

of  metals. 
Clamer,   G.   H.     The  development  of  the   coreless   induction 

furnace.     Metals  and  Alloys,  6,  119  (1935). 
Clamer,   G.   H.     The  development  of  the  submerged  resistor 

induction  furnace.     Ihid.,  5,  242  (1934). 
Dix,  E.  H.,  and  Bowman,  J.  J.     Fifty  years  of  aluminum  alloy 

development.     Ibid.,  7,  29  (1936). 
Gann,  J.   A.     Magnesium,    growth    of  an  American  industry. 

Metal  Progress,  SI,  33,  84  (Apr.,  1932). 
Gillett,    H.    W.     Cooperative    metallurgical    research,    how? 

Metals  and  Alloys,  2,  360  (1931). 
Gillett,    H.    W.     Metallurgical    research   from    the    chemical 

point  of  view.     Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  SS,  232 

(1930). 
Herty,  C.  H.,  Jr.,  and  Coworkers.     General  topic.  Physical 

chemistry   of  steel   making;   Specific   titles,   see   Cooperative 

bulletins,  nos.  64-69,   1934,  Carnegie  Institute   of   Technology 

and  Mining  and  Metallurgical  Advisory  Boards. 
Hoyt,  S.  L.     Ductile  tungsten.     Metals  and  Alloys,  6,  11  (.1935). 
Hoyt,   S.   L.     Economic  results  of  metallurgy.     Ibid.,  6,   113 

(1934). 
Johnston,  J.    Applications  of  science  to  the  making  and  finishing 

of  steel.     Mechanical  Engineering,  67,  79  (1935). 
Wadhams,  a.  J.     Nickel  and  its  alloys.     Mining  and  Metallurgy, 

10,  183  (1929). 
Williams,  C.  E.     Recent  developments  in  the  American  iron  and 

steel  industry.     Iron  and  Steel  Institute  (British)  Journal,  1S8, 

11  (1938). 
Zimmerman,    R.   E.     Coupling    sales    to    research.     American 

Iron  and  Steel  Institute  Yearbook,  28,  203  (1938). 


SECTION    VI 
6.    THE    CHEMICAL    ENGINEER    IN    INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH 

By  Sidney  D.  Kirkpatrick 
Editor,  Chemical  and  Metallurgical  Engineering,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


ABSTRACT 


Although  comparatively  a  newcomer  among  the 
scientific  and  engineering  professions,  the  chemical 
engineer  has  rapidly  assimied  an  important  responsi- 
bility in  industry.  His  work  has  been  largely  con- 
cerned with  the  development  and  application  of  those 
manufacturing  processes  that  involve  chemical  and 
certain  physical  changes  in  materials.  Thus  he  finds 
his  principal  opportunity  in  the  chemical  and  so-called 
"process"  industries. 

Chemical  engineering  research  per  se  is  largely  con- 
fined to  the  improvement  of  processes  through  the 
quantitative  study  of  the  fundamental  theory  under- 
lying the  unit  physical  operations,  such  as  distillation, 
evaporation,  absorption,  filtration,  mixing,  and  agita- 
tion, and  the  unit  chemical  processes,  such  as  oxidation 
and  reduction,  chlorination,  nitration,  and  sulphonation. 
A  much  broader  field  of  activity  hes  in  "development" 
work  as  contrasted  with  the  research  of  the  laboratory. 
Here  the  chemical  engineer  supplements  the  creative 
work  of  the  research  scientist  by  translating  his  labora- 
tory studies  into  larger-scale  operations.  This  trans- 
lation is  often  effected  in  the  semiworks  or  pilot  plant 
which  has  thus  come  to  be  known  as  the  true  habitat 
of  the  chemical  engineer.     It  is  here  that  he  studies  a 


new  process  under  plant  conditions,  designs  and  con- 
structs   the    equipment    for    conmiercial    production. 

By  training  and  experience  the  chemical  engineer  is 
often  well  quahfied  to  determine  the  economic  feasibility 
of  many  research  projects.  An  increasing  number  of 
chemical  engineers  are  therefore  employed  in  com- 
mercial and  market  studies  that  help  to  give  direction 
and  effectiveness  to  programs  of  technological  research. 
Much  of  the  success  of  chemical  industry  in  the  develop- 
ment of  new  products  and  processes  has  resulted  from 
the  fact  that  its  research  has  been  conducted  on  an 
engineering  basis  from  the  first  selection  of  the  project 
to  the  final  utilization  of  the  product  in  the  plant  of 
the  customer. 

Despite  recent  progress  in  chemical  engineering  re- 
search, many  features  of  equipment  design  and  opera- 
tion remain  on  an  empirical  basis.  They  await  funda- 
mental study.  There  is  hkewise  abundant  opportunity 
to  extend  the  application  of  fmidamental  data  and 
principles  to  many  industries  that  have  not  yet  been 
benefited  by  this  relatively  new  technology.  In  the 
words  of  a  great  mining  engineer,  "Chemical  engineer- 
ing, more  than  any  other,  may  be  called  the  engineering 
of  the  future." 


Research  is  an  important  function  but  scarcely  the 
primary  activity  of  the  chemical  engineer  in  industry. 
His  contribution  supplements  and  helps  to  make  effec- 
tive the  work  of  the  research  scientist  by  translating 
the  findings  of  the  laboratory  into  terms  of  large-scale 
plant  operations.  This  is  more  accurately  described 
as  process  development  work  and  in  many  industrial 
organizations,  research  and  development  are  closely 
linked  activities.  They  are  usually  administered  in  the 
same  department  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  say 
where  the  one  begins  and  the  other  leaves  off. 

The  relation  of  development  work  to  the  other  duties 

of  the  chemical  engineer  is  evident  from  the  following 

definition  of  chemical  engineering,  wliich  was  suggested 

by  the  writer  in  1935  and  has  since  been  adopted  by  the 

306 


American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers'  Committee 
on  Chemical  Engineering  Education.' 

Chemical  engineering  is  that  branch  of  engineering  concerned 
with  the  development  and  application  of  manufacturing  processes 
in  which  chemical  and  certain  physical  changes  of  materials  are 
involved.  These  processes  usually  may  be  resolved  into  a  coor- 
dinated series  of  unit  physical  operations  and  unit  chemical 
processes.  The  work  of  the  chemical  engineer  is  concerned  pri- 
marily with  the  design,  construction,  and  operation  of  equipment 
and  plants  in  which  these  unit  operations  and  processes  are  ap- 
plied. Chemistry,  physics,  and  mathematics  are  the  underlying 
sciences  of  chemical  engineering  and  economics  its  guide  in 
practice. 

Chemical  engineering,  as  we  know  it  today,  is  a  com- 

1  Newman,  A.  B.    Development  of  chemical  engineering  education  in  the  United 

States.    American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers,  Supplement  to  Tranaaclions,  Si, 
No.  3a,  7(1938). 


National  Resources  Planning  Board,  Industrial  Research 


307 


paratively  new  profession.  It  may  be  said  to  have  had 
its  origin  in  the  unit-operation  concept  first  presented 
by  the  late  Dr.  Arthur  D.  Little  in  December  1915,  in  a 
report  to  the  Corporation  of  the  Massachu-setts  Institute 
of  Technology,  which  ultimately  led  to  the  foundation 
of  the  School  of  Chemical  Engineering  Practice  at  that 
institution.  Dr.  Little  then  defined  chemical  engineer- 
ing in  these  terms :  ^ 

Any  chemical  process,  on  whatever  scale  conducted,  may  be 
resolved  into  a  coordinated  series  of  what  may  be  termed  "unit 
actions"  as  pulverizing,  mixing,  heating,  roasting,  absorbing, 
condensing,  lixivating,  precipitating,  crystallizing,  filtering,  dis- 
solving, electrolyzing  and  so  on.  The  number  of  these  basic  unit 
operations  is  not  very  large  and  relatively  few  of  them  are 
involved  in  any  particular  process  .  .  . 

As  this  concept  of  chemical  engineering  gradually 
displaced  the  older  methods  of  teaching  industrial 
chemistry  in  our  educational  institutions,  its  practi- 
tioners in  industry  began  to  apply  quantitative  study 
to  the  fundamental  principles  and  theories  underlying 
these  unit  operations  and  processes.  Thus  developed 
what  is  truly  chemical  engineering  research  as  dis- 
tinguished from  purely  chemical  research.  Dr.  Little  ' 
well  stated  its  objectives  in  the  following  words: 

Chemical  engineering  research  ...  is  directed  toward  the 
improvement,  control  and  better  coordination  of  these  unit  oper- 
ations and  the  selection  or  development  of  the  equipment  in 
which  they  are  carried  out.  It  is  obviously  concerned  with  the 
testing  and  the  provision  of  materials  of  construction  which  shall 
function  safely,  resist  corrosion,  and  withstand  the  indicated  con- 
ditions of  temperature  and  pressure.  Its  ultimate  objective  is 
so  to  provide  and  organize  the  means  for  conducting  a  chemical 
process  that  the  plant  shall  operate  safely,  efficiently,  and 
profitably. 

Fields  of  Application 

The  introduction  of  the  dollar  sign  into  the  chemical 
equation  proved  a  potent  stimulant  for  industrial  re- 
search. As  new  products  and  processes  began  to 
emerge  from  the  laboratories  in  ever  increasing  number, 
more  and  more  companies  came  to  realize  that  their 
future  dividends  depended  upon  scientific  development. 
Dirringthe  1920's,  therefore,  there  was  a  steady  growth 
in  research  activities  and  a  corresponding  increase  in 
the  requirements  for  technically  trained  personnel. 
The  number  of  chemical  engineers  entering  research 
and  development  work  followed  the  general  trend,  but 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  some  industries  there 
was  much  greater  demand  than  in  others.  In  other 
words,  there  was  a  relatively  deeper  penetration  or  ac- 
ceptance of  chemical  engineering  in  those  industries 
that  could  make  most  effective  use  of  men  with  this 
training. 


•  Little,  Arthur  D.  Twenty-five  years  of  chemical  engineering  progress;  silver 
anniversary  volume.  (American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers.)  New  York, 
D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  Inc.,  1933,  p.  7. 

'  Twenty-five  years  of  chemical  engineering  progress,  pp.  7-8.    See  footnote  2. 

321835 — 11 21 


Among  the  first  to  utilize  the  services  of  the  chemical 
engineer  were  the  more  strictly  chemical  industries — 
i.  e.,  the  producers  of  heavy,  inorganic  chemicals,  elec- 
trochemical products,  coal-tar  dyes  and  synthetic 
organic  chemicals,  explosives,  artificial  resins,  fibers, 
and  plastics.  The  basic  chemistry  of  most  of  these 
processes  was  relatively  well  known,  but  there  was 
urgent  need  for  better  engineering  in  its  application. 
Even  by  1925  it  had  been  estimated  that  the  chemical- 
engineering  penetration  in  this  field  was  practically 
complete  as  regards  the  acceptance  of  chemical  engi- 
neers in  development  work  and  the  supervision  of 
plant  operation.  Today  these  strictly  chemical  indus- 
tries employ  appro .ximately  4,000  chemical  engineers, 
of  whom  750  to  1,000  are  engaged  in  research  and 
development  work. 

Somewhat  slower  to  accept  chemical  engineering  in 
the  beginning,  but  now  among  its  most  ardent  sup- 
porters, are  certam  of  the  so-called  process  industries 
such  as  petroleum  refining,  coal  processing,  and  pulp 
and  paper  manufacture.  These  industries  all  depend 
upon  such  fundamental  unit  operations  as  heat  trans- 
fer, distillation,  evaporation,  and  fluid  flow,  for  which 
there  was  abundant  opportunity  to  apply  improved 
processes  and  equipment,  with  resultant  savings  in 
capital  and  operating  costs.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  to  find  that  even  ten  years  ago  the  petroleum- 
refining  industry  was  the  largest  single  employer  of 
chemical  engineers,  accoimting  for  12.30  percent  of  the 
graduates  of  the  classes  of  1920-29,  according  to  a 
survey  made  by  the  American  Institute  of  Chemical 
Engineers.* 

Pulp  and  paper  and  coal  processing  at  that  time 
employed  only  4  and  4.30  percent  respectively  of  the 
chemical  engineering  graduates  of  the  1920-29  classes. 
But  it  should  be  remarked  that  the  great  recent  growth 
of  the  paper  industry,  particularly  in  the  Southern 
States,  is  rapidly  changing  this  relationship.  So,  too, 
is  the  allied  development  of  cellulose  products  for 
resins,  lacquers,  and  rayon.  Perhaps  there  should  also 
be  included  m  this  second  group  the  manufacturers  of 
rubber  goods,  fertilizers,  sugar,  and  certain  food  prod- 
ucts in  which  it  has  been  estimated  that  there  has  been 
a  chemical-engineering  penetration  of  at  least  50 
percent.* 

This  leaves  still  a  third  classification  of  industries  in 
which  chemical  engineering  has  made  relatively  slower 
progress — with  50  percent  or  less  penetration.  Among 
these  are  leather  and  textile  processing,  which  are 
typical  of  those  iiidustries  that  are  higlily  developed  as 
arts  but  not  as  chemical-engineering  operations.  To  a 
lesser  degree  the  same  situation  applies  in  the  manu- 

'  White,  Alfred  H.  Occupations  and  earnings  of  chemical  engineering  graduates. 
American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers,  Transactions,  ST,  221-50  (1931). 

'  Industry's  common  bond  In  chemical  engineering.  Chemical  and  Metallurgical 
Engineering,  SB,  5  (January  1928). 


308 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


facture  of  ceramics  and  of  glass,  soaps,  fats  and  oils, 
and  perhaps  even  in  that  of  paint  and  varnish,  although 
the  introduction  of  synthetic  resins  and  newer  pig- 
naents  has  recently  stimulated  great  interest  in  new 
technology  in  this  field.  None  of  the  last-named  in- 
dustries accounted  for  more  than  1  percent  of  the  1920- 
29  graduates  according  to  the  American  Institute  of 
Chemical  Engineers'  study.  By  the  same  token,  how- 
ever, it  is  in  these  industries  that  most  remains  to  be 
done  and  wherein  there  are  the  most  attractive  oppor- 
timities  for  capitalizing  on  scientific  research  and 
chemical-engineering  development. 

Adequate  statistics  are  lacking  for  the  total  number 
of  chemical  engineers  engaged  in  research  and  in  de- 
velopment work.  The  survey  made  by  Professor 
White  for  the  American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers 
in  1931  would  seem  to  mdicate  that  for  the  men  re- 
ceiving bachelor's  degrees  in  the  classes  of   1920-29 


approximately  25  percent  were  engaged  in  research 
and  semiplant  development.  An  even  larger  proportion 
of  those  with  graduate  training  arc  so  employed. 

Dr.  Harry  A.  Curtis,  has  estimated  that  fuUy  30 
percent  of  all  chemical-engineering  graduates  go  into 
seniiworks  development  of  one  kind  or  another.* 

In  the  study  made  by  George  Perazich  for  the  na- 
tional research  pioject  of  tlie  Work  Projects  Ad- 
ministration "  it  was  shown  that  of  approximately 
20,000  research  employees,  5,635,  or  28.5  percent,  were 
chemists  and  4,594,  or  23.2  percent,  were  engineers. 
Applying  these  percentages  to  all  industries,  Perazich 
estimated  that  the  total  number  of  engineoi-s  might  be 
10,000,  but  no  attempt  was  made  to  classify  them  as 
chemical,  electrical,  and  mechanical  engineers. 

•  Curtis,  H.  A.  Discussion  of  Pierce,  David  E.  The  half-way  house.  American 
Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers,  Transactions,  19,  100-11  (1933). 

'  Perazich,  George.  Growth  of  research  in  the  United  States,  1920-38.  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  Work  Projects  Administration,  national  research  project,  1940,  p.  321. 


Figure  91. — Pilot  Plant  for  Study  of  Soybean  Oil  Extraction,  Ford  Motor  Company,  Saline,  Michigan 


Industrial  Research 


309 


Functions  in  Research  and  Development 

Until  about  20  yeare  ago,  chemists  and  chemical 
engineers  were  used  almost  interchangeably  in  research 
and  devclopmcDt  work.  At  that  time  it  was  common 
practice  to  start  all  new  men  in  the  analytical  labora- 
tories and  subsequently  to  transfer  into  research  those 
who  developed  originality  and  creative  abilities.  Some 
of  those  unfitted  for  investigational  woriv  went  into 
production  or  sales,  wliile  a  few  remained  in  the  labora- 
tory as  routine  analj'sts.  Thus  personal  characteristics 
and  aptitude  rather  than  training  and  experience  were 
the  usual  bases  of  selection.  Sometinaes  the  process 
worked  admirably,  but  often  it  resulted  in  vocational 
misfits. 

Universities  perhaps  contributed  to  this  unfortunate 
situation  somewhat  by  encouraging  chemical-engineer- 
ing graduates  to  go  into  laboratory  research  even  thougli 
they  were  inadequately  trained  for  this  important 
work.  likewise,  manj^  research  chemists  were  urged 
imwisely  to  enter  pilot-plant  and  development  work 
for  which  they  lacked  the  engineering  laiowledge  and 
training. 

Gradually,  however,  this  situation  has  been  cor- 
rected. There  has  arisen  a  fairly  definite  rUnsion  of 
functions    and    responsibility    between    chemists    and 


engineers  in  research  and  dcveloimient  work.  W.  L. 
Badger,  former  professor  of  chemical  engineering  at  the 
University  of  Michigan  and  now  manager  of  the  con- 
suiting  engineering  division  of  the  Dow  Chemical 
Company,  has  outlined  this  division  as  follows:* 

1.  The  strictly  laboratory  work  (i.  e.,  the  beaker  and  test- 
tube-scale  operations)  should  be  done  by  the  man  with  chemical 
background  and  training.  Engineering  considerations  do  not 
ordinarily  enter  into  the  actual  conduct  of  research  at  this  stage. 

2.  The  pilot  plant,  semiworks,  or  similar  development  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  the  chemical  engineer,  not  only  with  regard  to 
the  work  itself  but  also  with  regard  to  its  direction.  Through 
this  stage,  however,  the  chemist,  although  not  taking  the  re- 
sponsibility, should  be  closely  associated  with  the  engineer. 

3.  The  design  of  the  final  plant  and  its  operation  are  the  work 
of  the  chemical  engineer  alone.  Once  the  process  has  passed 
the  pilot-plant  stage,  the  function  of  the  chemist  is  largely  to 
control  quality  and  to  advise  in  case  of  chemical  difficulties. 

An  important  advantage  of  tliis  form  of  organization 
is  that  the  close  association  of  the  chemist  and  the 
chemical  engineer  prior  to  and  during  pilot-plant 
operations  makes  possible  an  exchange  of  knowledge 
and  experience  that  could  not  be  obtained  through 
reports  or  infrequent  conferences.  This  exchange  of 
experience,  and  the  enthusiasm  and  inspiration  that 


*  Private  communication. 


Figure  92. — Chemical  Engineering  Laboratory,  Aluminum  Research  Laboratories,  .Aluminum  Company  of  .\merica,  Xew  Kensington, 

Pennsylvania 


310 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


accompany  it,  fonn    an   essential  part  of   successful 
development  work. 

Dr.  M.  C.  Whitaker,  vice  president  of  the  American 
Cyanamid  Company,  calls  attention  to  the  direct  con- 
tribution the  chemical  engineer  can  often  make  by 
advising  research  men  as  to  the  feasibility  of  proposed 
operations  as  well  as  by  helping  them  to  design  special 
types  of  laboratory  equipment  required  for  this  work. 
In  a  private  communication,  he  writes  as  follows: 

Chemical  engineers  fit  into  our  research  and  development  pro- 
gram from  the  time  the  job  leaves  the  research  laboratory  until 
the  customer  has  bought  our  goods  and  actually  used  them  up  in 
his  own  operations.  In  other  words,  chemical  engineers  take 
the  laboratory  processes,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  research 
chemists  they  design,  develop,  and  operate  pilot  plants  for  ex- 
perimental production.  Then,  on  the  basis  of  this  experience, 
they  design  and  install  the  full-scale  production  equipment, 
direct  the  operation  of  the  plants,  collaborate  with  the  sales 
department  in  the  introduction  of  the  new  materials,  and,  finally, 
instruct  the  customer  in  his  application  and  use  of  the  end 
products  of  our  research. 

This  haison  function  of  the  chemical  engineers  is 
becoming  more  and  more  important  in  modern  industry. 
This  is  especially  true  La  the  larger  companies  where 
the  transition  from  the  laboratory  to  the  pilot  plant 
and  from  semiworks  to  full-scale  production  is  often 
between  different  departments  or  widely  separated 
plants.  In  a  small  plant,  however,  which  can  employ 
only  one  or  two  chemical  engineers,  there  is  not  likely 
to  be  any  such  well-defmed  division  of  duties.  Here  the 
chemical  engineer  must  not  only  do  the  pilot-plant  work 
but  may  be  responsible  for  designing,  building,  and 
even  operating  the  commercial  plant. 

In  general,  however,  most  companies  try  to  divorce 
research  from  plant  operation  not  only  because  the 
latter  is  a  full-time  job  but  also  because  it  generally 
calls  for  quite  different  qualifications.  Nevertheless, 
some  very  successful  companies  make  it  a  practice  to 
start  their  young  chemical  engineers  at  the  bottom  of  a 
development  group  and,  after  they  have  advanced  to 
the  point  where  they  can  undertake  it,  to  assign  them  to 
a  problem  through  the  design,  construction,  and  operat- 
ing steps,  and  finally  make  them  operating  heads  of 
the  process. 

The  American  Potash  and  Chemical  Corporation  fol- 
lows a  modification  of  this  procedure.  Its  research 
director,  Mr.  W.  A.  Gale  writes: 

On  new  developments  we  usually  assign  the  investigation  to 
some  one  man  who  will  be  expected  to  carry  the  problem,  if  all 
goes  well,  through  all  the  various  stages  of  preliminary  develop- 
ment. The  detailed  design  and  construction  of  the  commercial 
plant  is  handled  by  the  engineering  department,  but  the  research 
and  development  department  must  develop  the  preliminary 
design  and  specifications,  such  as  volumes  of  material  to  be 
handled,  quantities  of  heat  to  be  transferred,  and  general  type 
of  equipment  and  flow  sheet  arrangement,  and  must  prepare 
preliminary  estimates  of  operating  costs.  Then  when  the  plant 
is  finally  built,  the  research  man  will  know  more  about  it  than 


almost  anyone  else,  so  he  will  be  given  a  large  part  in  supervising 
the  testing,  training  of  the  crew,  and  preliminary  operations 
until  such  time  as  the  plant  is  turned  over  to  the  production  de- 
partment as  a  smoothly  operating  unit.  For  this  work  we  find 
that  a  man  with  good  chemical-engineering  training  is  much 
more  useful  to  us  than  a  man  who  has  been  trained  just  as  a 
chemist  or  physicist. 

The  Pilot  Plant 

The  true  habitat  of  the  chemical  engineer  is  in  what 
David  E.  Pierce,*  of  Charles  Lennig  and  Company,  has 
called  the  "halfway  house  of  industry" — the  semiworks 
or  pilot  plant  in  which  is  determined  the  success  or 
failure  of  most  new  processes.  Here,  halfway  between 
the  test-tube  research  and  full-scale  operations,  the 
chemical  engineer  finds  his  greatest  opportunity.  It  is 
his  function  to  study  a  new  process,  to  check  its  be- 
havior imder  plant  conditions,  and  to  perfect  the 
design  and  construction  of  the  equipment  before  the 
project  is  ready  for  commercial  production.  Dr.  L.  H. 
Baekeland  is  usually  credited  with  the  advice  "Make 
your  mistakes  on  the  small  scale  and  your  profits  on 
the  large." 

Pierce  has  summarized  the  four  functions  of  the 
semiworks  plant  as  follows: 

1.  To  study  new  processes  or  new  types  of 
equipment  in  order  to  secure  data  for  plant  design ; 

2.  To  study  proposed  variations  in  old  processes 
in  order  to  increase  yield  or  quality,  or  to  improve 
the  design  of  equipment ; 

3.  To  make  sample  batches  of  new  products  for 
introduction  to  the  trade;  and 

4.  To  manufacture  for  sale  new  or  special  prod- 
ucts for  which  the  demand  is  not  yet  large  enough 
to  justify  full-scale  plant  operations. 

University  and  Institutional  Research 

Not  all  chemical  engineers  in  research  and  develop- 
ment work  arc  directly  employed  in  industry.  Many 
are  in  the  universities  where  an  increasing  volume  of 
both  fundamental  and  apphed  research  work  is  being 
done.  As  will  be  noted  later,  the  chemical  engineer's 
direct  contribution  to  fundamental  research  is  largely 
confined  to  studies  of  the  physical  and  chemical  factors 
affecting  the  unit  operations  and  processes.  Such 
investigations  are  concerned  with  advances  in  theory 
and  knowledge  of  the  underlying  principles.  Only 
recently  has  there  developed  any  appreciable  need  in 
university  research  organizations  for  chemical  engineers 
who  are  proficient  in  pilot-plant  design  and  operation. 

This  situation  does  not  necessarily  obtain  in  some  of 
the  public  and  privately  endowed  research  institutions. 
Governmental  departments,  as  exemplified  in  the  set-up 
of  the  foiu"  new  regional  laboratories  of  the  United 

•  pierce,  David  E.    The  half-way  bouse.   American  Inslitule  of  Chemical  Engineers, 
Tiansactions,  19, 100-Ul  (1933). 


Industrial  Research 


311 


States  Department  of  Agriculture,  under  the  Bureau  of 
Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Engineering,  definitely 
provide  for  chemical-engineering  divisions  to  have 
charge  of  the  semicommercial  development  and  the 
small-scale  manufacture  of  products  resulting  from 
research.  The  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research, 
in  Pittsburgh,  and  the  Battello  Memorial  Institute,  at 
Columbus,  Ohio,  are  both  large  employers  of  chemical 
engineers.  Mr.  Clyde  E.  WiUiams,  director  of  Battelle, 
states  that  approximately  15  percent  of  their  entire 
technical  staff  have  had  chemical-engineering  training. 
Although  a  number  serve  as  operators  of  chemical 
pilot-plant  equipment,  many  are  also  serving  as  super- 
visors, research  engineers,  and  assistants  in  such  fields 
as  electrochemistry,  ceramics,  fuels,  nonfcrrous  metal- 
lurgy, powder  metallurgy,  and  many  other  phases  of 
iron  and  steel  research.     Mr.  Williams  vsrrites: 

We  choose  and  advance  men  largely  on  their  qualifications 
and  abilities  to  do  good  research  work.  In  other  words,  the 
primary  requirements  are  broad  training  in  fundamentals,  abil- 
ity to  apply  results,  and  to  think  in  a  practical  manner;  imagina- 
tion, inquisitiveness,  and  ability  either  to  direct  or  to  conduct 
research  investigations.  Chemical  engineers  are  chosen  for 
certain  problems  because  of  their  specialized  training  or  experi- 
ence, but  on  the  whole  their  ability  to  master  and  apply  funda- 
mentals is  more  important  than  the  type  of  training. 

These  research  institutes  work  closely  with  the  re- 
search and  development  departments  of  the  industrial 
companies  that  sponsor  their  projects.  Often  a  com- 
parable function  is  served  by  a  firm  of  consulting 
chemical  engineers.  Several  of  the  larger  organizations 
in  this  field  maintain  extensive  laboratory  facilities  and 
pilot  plants,  well  staffed  with  competent  personnel  for 
carrying  on  research  and  plant  development  work. 
There  are  many  more  research  consultants,  however, 
who  merely  serve  as  advisers  to  industry — contributing 
the  advantage  of  an  outside  viewpoint  and  the  value  of 
diversified  experience,  both  of  which  are  helpful  in  the 
solution  of  research  problems  and  the  direction  of  in- 
dustrial development. 

Technological  Research 

The  earliest  practitioners  of  chemical  engineering 
relied  largely  on  the  accumulated  experience  of  those 
who,  by  methods  of  trial  and  error,  had  slowly  devel- 
oped the  first  crude  chemical  manufacturing  processes. 
Empirical  considerations  stiU  control  many  features  of 
equipment  design,  construction,  and  operation  in  chem- 
ical industries.  There  is  still  some  truth  in  the  old 
saw  that  the  engineer  is  a  man  who  must  draw  sufficient 
conclusions  from  insufficient  data.  Nevertheless,  fun- 
damental research  is  gradually  changing  what  was  once 
an  art  into  something  that  today  approaches  a  more  or 
less  exact  science. 

Dr.  Charles  M.  A.  Stine,  of  the  du  Pont  Company, 


noted  the  significance  of  this  trend  a  dozen  years  ago 
when  he  remarked :  '° 

Perhaps  the  characteristics  which  most  clearly  differentiate 
the  chemical  engineerint;  of  today  from  the  earlier  activities  of 
those  interested  in  this  field  is  the  quantilative  treatment  of  the 
various  unit  operations,  and  it  is  this  exact  and  quantitative 
treatment  of  these  operations  which  constitutes  the  province  of 
modern  chemical  engineering. 

Further  evidence  from  the  same  source  may  be  noted 
in  the  publications  on  chemical  engineering  which  have 
come  from  the  experimental  station  of  E.  I.  du  Pont 
de  Nemours  &  Company,  Inc.,  in  the  period  1930-40. 
A  comprehensive  list  compiled  for  the  writer  by  Thomas 
H.  Chilton  shows  42  papers  dealmg  (quantitatively  in 
most  cases)  with  the  following  unit  operations:  Fluid 
flow  (11  papers),  heat  transfer  (7  papers),  distillation, 
boiling  and  condensation  (9  papers),  absorption  (4 
papers),  drying  (2  papers),  mechanical  separation 
(1  paper).  Five  other  papers  dealt  with  corrosion  and 
materials  of  construction  while  2  were  concerned  with 
broader  reviews  of  research  problems. 

In  his  Chandler  Medal  lecture  at  Columbia  Univer- 
sity on  November  16,  1939,"  Chilton  gave  an  account 
of  an  extended  series  of  chemical  engineering  researches 
attempted  to  formulate  quantitative  expressions  for 
predicting  the  rate  of  transfer  of  materials  to  fluids 
in  motion.  Ivnowledge  of  these  rates  is  essential  in 
order  to  predict  the  size  and  performance  of  equipment 
used  for  absorption,  condensation,  distillation,  extrac- 
tion, and  humidification — important  unit  operations  in 
most  of  the  process  industries.  Research  of  this  sort 
not  only  simplifies  the  problems  of  chemical  engineering 
design,  but  is  of  great  practical  value  that  can  be  meas- 
ured in  increased  yield,  improved  quality,  and  worth- 
while economies  in  fuel  and  power  consumption. 

The  petroleum  industry  has  likewise  been  a  produc- 
tive source  of  fundamental  chemical  engineering 
research  on  distillation,  heat  transfer,  and  the  diffu- 
sional  processes.  Publications  from  industrial  labora- 
tories of  the  Standard  Oil  Development  Company,  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  of  Indiana,  the  Atlantic  Refin- 
ing Company,  the  Universal  Oil  Products  Company, 
the  Cities  Service  Company,  the  Gulf  Oil  Company, 
and  the  Shell  Development  Company,  have  been  espe- 
cially noteworthy.  The  public  utilities,  as  represented 
by  the  Utilities  Research  Commission  at  the  University 
of  Illinois  and  the  United  Gas  Improvement  Company 
of  Philadelphia  have  sponsored  invaluable  research  on 
the  important  unit  operations  and  processes  involved  in 
fuel  production  and  utilization.  All  this  has  been 
reflected  in  more  eflBcient  equipment  and  processes  for 
these  industries. 


10  stine,  C.  M.  A.  Chemical  engineering  in  modern  industry.  American  InstUutt 
of  Chemical  Engineers,  Transactions,  SI,  46  (1928). 

"  Chilton,  Thomas  H.  Engineering  In  the  service  of  chemistry.  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Si,  23-31  (January  1940). 


312 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Manufacturers  as  well  as  users  of  chemical  engineer- 
ing equipment  have  participated  in  this  advance.  The 
experimental  station  established  a  number  of  years  ago 
by  the  Swenson  Evaporator  Company  at  the  University 
of  Michigan  and  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  W.  L. 
Badger  and  coworkers  "  has  contributed  valuable 
knowledge  and  experience  that  have  been  the  basis  of 
improved  design.  Work  done  at  the  Western  Precipi- 
tation Companj''s  laboratories  in  Los  Angeles  on  elec- 
trostatic precipitation  "  is  typical  of  fundamental 
investigations  carried  on  by  an  equipment  manufac- 
turer. Extensive  facilities  for  this  type  of  investiga- 
tional work  are  maintained  by  the  Dorr  Company  at 
Westport,  Conn.,  by  the  Lummus  Company  in  Eliza- 
beth, N.  J.,  the  M.  W.  Kellogg  Company  Ln  Jersey 
City,  E.  B.  Badger  &  Sons  Company  in  Boston — to 
name  only  a  few  laboratories  that  have  been  described 
in  current  literature. 

Apart  from  quantitative  research  on  the  imit  opera- 


'*  Hebbard,  G.  M.,  and  Badger,  W.  L.  Steam-film  heat  transfer  coefScients  for 
vertical  tubes.  Industrial  and  Engineering  Cbemistry,  £6,  420-24  (April  1934);  Logan. 
L.  A.,  Fragen,  N.,  and  Badger,  W.  L.  Liquid  film  heat— transfer  coefficients  in  a 
vertical-tube  forced  circulation  evaporator.    1044-47  (October  1934). 

"  Lissman,  Marcel  A.  An  analysis  of  mechanical  methods  of  dust  collection. 
Chemical  and  Metallurgical  Engineering,  57,  630-34  (October  1930). 


tions  and  the  design  and  performance  studies  of  the 
equipment  manufacturers,  there  is  a  broad  field  of 
chemical  engineermg  activity  concerned  with  the  devel- 
opment of  entirely  new  manufacturing  processes.  Here 
all  of  the  chemical  engineer's  knowledge  and  resource- 
fulness are  called  into  use.  Most  important  of  his 
responsibilities  are  the  lay-out  of  the  process  flow  sheet 
based  on  material  balances,  heat,  and  power  followed 
by  the  design  or  the  selection  of  the  necessary  equip- 
ment of  the  proper  materials  of  construction,  tlirough 
the  testing  and  experimental  operation  of  the  pilot 
plant  and,  finally,  to  the  transition  to  full-scale 
production. 

One  can  read  an  absorbing  account  of  15  years  spent 
in  such  a  development  by  Dr.  A.  M.  McAfee  '*  of  the 
Gulf  Refining  Company.  In  1915  he  read  a  paper  before 
the  American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers  propos- 
ing the  use  of  anhydrous  aluminum  cliloride  in  refining 
petroleum.  This  material  was  then  only  a  laboratory 
reagent,  selling  for  $1.50  a  pound.  But  if  his  refining 
process  was  to  succeed,  he  needed  tons  of  it  and  it  had 
to  be  cheap.     Therefore  he  and  his  associates  at  Port 

'*Mc.\fee,  A.  M.    The  manufacture  of  commercial  anhydrous  aluminum  chloride 
American  Imtitule  of  Chemical  Engineers,  Transaction,  SI,  209  fl.  (1929). 


FiGUKE  93. —  Modern  Dubljscracking  Plant,  Modeled  in  Wood,  Equiflux  Heater  at  Left,  Universal  Oil  Products  Company,  Chicago, 

Illinois 


Industrial  Research 


313 


Arthur,  Tex.,  started  a  series  of  experiments  tliat  ex- 
tended over  a  period  of  15  years  and  naturally  involved 
many  disappointments.  However,  in  1929  he  was  able 
to  report,  again  to  the  American  Institute  of  Chemical 
Engineers,  that  a  successful  process  had  been  developed 
by  which  aluminum  chloride  could  be  made  from  crude 
bauxite  ore  and  chlorine  at  the  rate  of  75,000  pounds 
per  day  and  at  a  cost  which  permitted  its  sale  in  car- 
load lots  at  5  cents  per  pound. 

Many  equally  interesting  stories  of  chemical  engineer- 
ing developments  might  be  cited  except  for  the  fact  that 
they  have  seldom  been  told  in  their  entirety.  One  nota- 
ble exception  ''  is  the  Victor  Chemical  Companj^'s  de- 
velopment of  the  fuel-fired  blast  furnace  for  phosphoric 
acid.  Another  is  in  the  case  of  the  work  on  phosphatic 
fertilizers  done  at  Muscle  Shoals  by  the  Chemical  Engi- 
neering Division  of  the  Tennessee  Valley  Authority 
under  the  direction  of  its  former  chief  chemical  engineer. 
Dean  Harry  A.  Curtis  of  the  University  of  Missouri."' 
In  this  comprehensive  series  of  articles  are  cited  all  of 
the  many  difficulties  that  arise  to  block  the  path  of  the 
chemical  engineer  in  a  t3'pical  large-scale  development 
of  new  manufactui'ing  processes. 

In  1933  Chemical  and  Metallurgical  Engineering 
announced  a  biennial  award  for  chemical  engineering 
achievement  to  recognize  those  companies  that  had 
made  outstanding  contributions  to  the  industry  antl 
profession  as  a  result  of  broader  participation  on  the 
part  of  chemical  engineers.  The  first  companj"  to  win 
th's  award  was  the  Carbide  and  Carbon  Chemicals 
Corporation  for  its  pioneering  work  in  building  a  syn- 
thetic organic  chemical  industrj-  in  this  country  based 
on  the  hydrocarbons  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas. 
This  was  a  typical  American  development,  resulting 
from  original  research  conducted  m  the  laboratories  of 
Mellon  Institute  by  American  chemists  and  then  trans- 
lated into  commercial  development  by  American  chem- 
ical engineers,  first  in  a  pilot  plant  at  Clcndenin, 
W.  Va.,  and  later  in  a  tremendous  industry  at  South 
Charleston,  W.  Va.  The  second  award  for  chemical 
engineering  achievement,  in  1935,  went  to  the  oi'ganic 
chemicals  department  of  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  & 


"Essterwood,  Henry  W.  Manufacture  of  phosphoric  acid  by  the  blast  furnace 
method.    American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers,  Transactions,  S^,  1-20  (1933). 

"Curtis,  H.  A.  The  manufacture  of  phosphoric  acid  by  the  electric  furnace 
method.  American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers,  Transactions,  SI,  278-95  (1934- 
1935):  T.  V.  A.  make^  HjPOi  electrically  at  Wilson  dam.  Chemical  and  Metallurgi- 
cal Engineering,  it,  320-24  (June  1936);  Making  concentrated  superphosphate  at 
T.  V.  A.  fertilizer  works.  <f,  488-91  (September  1935);  The  air-nitrogen  industry  at 
home  and  abroad.  S3.  408  (July  1926);  Curtis,  Harry  A.,  Miller,  Arthur  M.,  and 
Junkins,  J.  N.  T.  V.  A.  estimates  favorable  costs  for  concentrated  superphosphate — 
n.  JJ,  647-50  (December  1936);  Curtis,  Harry  A.  Re:  Phosphoric  acid  costs.  44.75 
(February  1937);  Curtis,  Harry  A.,  Copson,  Raymond  L.,  and  .\brams,  Armand  J. 
Metaphosphate  investigation  aims  at  cheaper  fertilizers.  U.  140-142  (March  1937); 
Curtis,  H.  A,,  Miller,  A.  M.  and  Newton,  R.  H.  T.  V,  A.  reviews  its  experience  in 
phosphate  smelting.  iS,  116-20  (March  1938);  Process  developments  at  T.  V.  A. 
phosphoric  acid  plant.  iS,  193-97  (April  1938);  Curtis,  H.  A.,  Copson,  R.  L.,  Abrams, 
A.  J.,  and  Junkins.  J.  N.  Full-scale  production  of  metaphosphate  achieved  at  Wilson 
dam.  45,  318-22  (June  1938);  Curtis,  H.  A.,  and  Heaton,  Roy  C.  Design  for  a  phos- 
phate furnace.   45,  536-40  (October  1938). 


Companj',  for  the  development  from  acetylene  of  the 
synthetic  rubber  known  as  neopreno  and  the  synthesis 
of  camphor  from  American  turpentine.  Hero  the  aca- 
demic researches  of  the  late  Father  J.  A.  Nieuwland, 
supplemented  by  the  work  of  du  Pont  organic  chemists, 
were  made  productive  through  chemical  engineering 
development  work  of  a  high  order.  The  next  award, 
in  1937,  was  to  Monsanto  Chemical  Compatiy  which  in 
that  year  had  completed  a  program  of  chemical  engi- 
neering research  and  development  and  had  built  a  large 
electric  furnace  plant  in  Tennessee  for  the  production 
of  elemental  phosphorus  in  tank-car  quantities.  This 
opened  a  whole  new  field  for  phosphorus  as  a  heavy 
chemical  in  industry. 

The  most  recent  award  in  this  series  was  made  in 
December  1939  to  the  Standard  Oil  Development 
Company,  which  has  long  been  a  leader  in  developing 
and  appljnng  chemical  engineering  processes  in  petro- 
leum refining.     It  had  introduced  high-pressure  hydro- 


FiGUHE  94. — Pilot  Plaiit  fur  Manufacture  of  Chemicals  from 
Petroleum,  Emeryville  Laboratories,  Shell  Development 
Company   Emeryville,  California 


314 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


genation  and  other  catalytic  processes  that  have  aided  in 
the  development  of  modem  aviation  fuels,  synthetic 
rubber,  and  similar  products  from  petroleum.  The 
achievements  of  these  four  companies,  all  of  which 
are  large  employers  of  chemical  engineers  in  their 
research  and  development  departments,  are  cited  here 
because  they  are  typical  of  the  progress  that  has  been 
made  since  1929  by  many  other  process  industries. 

Economic  and  Commercial  Research 

Very  early  in  the  development  of  any  chemical 
product  or  process,  someone  must  answer  to  manage- 
ment's satisfaction  several  simple  but  soul-searching 
questions,  such  as:  "Is  it  feasible?  Can  it  be  made 
commercially?  About  what  will  it  cost?  "V^Tiere  and 
how  much  of  it  can  be  sold?" 

This  preliminary  appraisal  of  a  research  project  is 
often  a  chemical  engineering  function  and  responsibility. 
It  has  been  pointed  out  by  Dr.  John  H.  Perry  "  of 
the  du  Pont  Company  that  a  competent  chemical 
engineer  of  broad  experience  and  sound  business  judg- 
ment can  often  do  more  to  promote  the  economical 
development  of  new  products  than  almost  anyone 
else  in  an  industrial  organization.  If  through  prelim- 
inary feasibility  studies,  it  is  possible  to  weed  out  the 
projects  that  could  not  possibly  yield  a  fair  return  on 
the  necessary  investment  in  research  and  development, 
a  great  saving  can  be  effected.  In  like  manner,  it  is 
often  possible  to  apply  similar  studies  to  choice  of 
raw  materials  or  to  alternative  processes  well  in  advance 
of  laying  out  a  research  program. 

In  some  of  the  larger  chemical  companies,  these 
feasibility  studies  are  made  by  a  separate  division  of 
the  development  department  devoted  to  chemical  engi- 
neering economics.  Such  an  agency  collects  and  inter- 
prets data  not  alone  from  research  but  also  from  pro- 
duction and  sales  departments.  When  a  problem  is 
presented,  it  must  correlate  all  the  known  or  estimated 
factors  (economic,  technical,  medical,  legal,  financial, 
and  public  relations)  and  arrive  at  a  convincing  answer 
on  which  management  can  base  its  most  important 
decisions. 

Another  tj^pe  of  economic  research  is  of  an  explora- 
tory nature.  Instead  of  waiting  to  have  new  ideas 
originate  in  the  research  department,  the  chemical 
engineering  scouts  search  out  opportunities  from  the 
field  by  studying  consumer  needs  and  the  competitive 
situation  as  regards  supply  and  demand.  They  often 
initiate  negotiations  for  licensing  of  patented  processes 
and  carry  on  other  functions  in  advance  of  the  regular 
research  program. 


It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to  imply  that  feasi- 
bility studies  are  confined  to  any  preliminary  stage  of 
research  or  development  work.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
much  of  the  work  of  the  chemical  engineer  in  the  pilot 
plant  is  concerned  with  the  feasibility  of  equipment  and 
processes  as  determined  by  comparative  yields,  per- 
formance, and  costs.  Economic  balance  also  enters 
into  the  selection  of  proper  materials  of  construction 
to  resist  corrosion,  heat,  or  abrasion,  and  of  adequate 
packaging  and  shipping  containers.  In  short,  what 
Dr.  Little  meant  by  the  "introduction  of  the  dollar 
sign  into  the  chemical  equation"  calls  for  a  high  order 
of  chemical  engineering  economics  all  along  the  line. 

In  recent  years  many  of  the  scientific  principles  and 
practices  long  applied  to  research  and  production  have 
been  extended  into  the  field  of  marketing  and  distribu- 
tion. As  a  result  there  has  been  an  increasing  demand 
for  chemical  engineers  in  sales-development  work.'* 
Market  analyses  and  sales  studies  designed  to  find  new 
outlets  for  new  or  existing  products  are  being  made 
constantly  by  well-staffed  departments  in  many  com- 
panies. Closely  allied  with  men  in  such  departments 
are  employees  engaged  in  customer  research  or  in  tech- 
nical service  work  carried  on  to  study  the  problems  of 
the  consumer  and  assist  him  in  the  use  of  proper  mate- 
rials or  equipment. 

Market  analyses  and  technical  service  may  seem 
somewhat  remote  from  chemical  engineering,  yet  both 
form  important  parts  of  the  successful  program  of 
research  and  development.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  much 
of  the  success  of  chemical  industry  in  recent  years  has 
resulted  from  the  fact  that  its  research  has  been  con- 
ducted on  an  engineering  basis  from  the  first  selection 
of  the  project  to  the  final  utilization  of  the  product  in 
the  plant  of  the  customer. 

What  Lies  Ahead? 

Despite  the  remarkable  progress  that  has  been  made 
in  the  application  of  chemistry  in  industry  through 
modern  chemical  engineering  developments,  much 
remains  to  be  done.  Our  present  knowledge  of  the 
theoretical  principles  underlying  many  of  the  unit 
operations  is  fragmentary  and  far  from  satisfactory. 
Even  our  empirical  knowledge,  painfully  gained  through 
costly  trial  and  error,  often  proves  entirely  inadequate 
because  we  lack  quantitative  measures  of  performance 
under  varying  conditions.  From  the  standpoint  of 
theory,  there  is  a  better  understanding  of  the  under- 
lying thermodynamics  and  reaction  kinetics  of  many 
of  the  unit  chemical  processes ;  yet  in  practice  the  yields 
obtained  in  many  organic  chemical  industries  are  still 


"  Perry,  John  H.    But  is  it  feasible?    Chemical  and  Meialluriieal  Engineering,  iS. 
75  (February  1936). 


"  Tyler,    Chaplin.    Chemical    engineering    economics.    New    York,    London, 
McQraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  Inc.,  2d  ed.,  1938. 


Industrial  Research 


315 


pitifiillj'  low.  More  fundamental  research  is  sorely 
needed,  if  these  industries  are  to  reach  the  same  high 
level  of  chemical  engineering  efficiency  that  is  common 
practice  in  many  of  the  inorganic  fields. 

A  symposium  on  "Unit  Operations  Appraisals," 
published  in  May  1934,"  included  a  series  of  technical 
"balance  sheets"  in  which  the  known  assets  of  funda- 
mental data  were  set  down  alongside  of  corresponding 
liabilities.  For  heat  transfer,  flow  of  fluids,  distillation, 
evaporation,  and  drying,  there  was  an  impressive  array 
of  facts  and  figures  on  the  assets  side,  balanced  against 
somewhat  fewer  but  stiU  serious  liabilities.  In  the  case 
of  mixing  and  agitation,  absorption  and  adsorption, 
filtration  and  other  mechanical  separations,  there  was 
an  overbalancing  list  of  liabilities — of  facts  and  data  yet 
needed  to  give  a  true  understanding  of  underlying 
theory. 

Some  progress  has  been  made  by  chemical  engineers 
in  transferring  such  liabilities  into  assets  during  the  past 
6  years,  but  there  are  still  too  many  gaps  existing  in  oiu- 
theoretical  knowledge  of  the  imit  operations  as  T.  H. 
Chilton  has  clearly  shown  in  his  Chandler  Medal 
address^"  and  in  a  summary  of  unsolved  problems  which 
he  presented  before  the  Chemical  Engineering  Division 
of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Chemical  Engineer- 
ing Education  in  1938.^' 

Apart  from  this  fundamental  study  that  is  so  neces- 
sary and  important,  there  is  still  a  great  opportunity  for 
future  rewards  to  those  who  will  carry  chemical  engi- 
neering research  and  development  into  the  older  indus- 
tries that  have  been  slow  to  accept  this  relatively  new 
technology.  Food-processing,  leather,  and  textile  op- 
erations represent  promising  fields  for  this  type  of  culti- 
vation. The  transformation  that  has  been  effected  in 
petroleum  refining  and  coal  processing,  for  example,  can 
be  duplicated  in  certain  other  industries,  once  their 
problems  are  subjected  to  sound  research  and  the  results 
applied  through  efficient  engineering  developments.  In 
this  process,  the  chemical  engineer  is  destined  to  play 
an  increasingly'  important  role.  The  late  John  Hays 
Hammond  expressed  this  view  in  these  words :  ^^ 

Chemical  engineering,  more  than  any  other,  may  lie  called  the 
engineering  of  the  future.  .  .  .  The  chemical  engineer  stands 
today  on  the  threshold  of  a  vast  virgin  realm ;  in  it  lie  the  secrets 
of  life  and  prosperity  for  mankind  in  the  future  of  the  world. 


'•  Symposium  of  unit  operations  appraisals.  Chemical  and  Metallurgical  Engineer- 
ing, il,  ■232  B  (May  1934). 

"  See  footnote  19. 

'1  Chilton,  Thomas  H.  Timely  research  problems  in  chemical  engineering  adapt- 
able to  universities  and  colleges.  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemiiiry  {News  Ed.), 
16,  417-21  (August  10,  1938). 

"Jackson,  Dugald  C,  Jr.,  and  Jones,  W.  Paul,  editors.  The  profession  of  engi- 
neering.   New  York,  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  Inc.,  1929,  pp.  114-16. 


Bibliography 

Books 

American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers.  Twenty-five 
years  of  chemical  engineering  progress.  New  York,  D.  Van 
Nostrand  Company,  Inc.,  1933.     373  p. 

Badger,  W.  L.,  and  McCabe,  W.  L.  Elements  of  chemical 
engineering.  2d  ed.  New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Com- 
pany, Inc.,  1936.     660  p. 

Curtis,  H.  A.  Fixed  nitrogen.  New  York,  Reinhold  Publish- 
ing Corporation,  1932.     517  p. 

Groggins,  p.  H.  Unit  processes  in  organic  synthesis.  2d  ed. 
New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1938.     709  p. 

Haynes,  Williams.  Chemical  economics.  New  York,  D.  Van 
Nostrand  Company,  Inc.,  1933.     310  p. 

Hempel,  E.  H.  The  economics  of  chemical  industries.  New 
York,  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  1939.     259  p. 

Nelson,  Wilbur  L.  Petroleum  refinery  engineering.  New 
York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1936.     647  p. 

Perry,  J.  H.,  and  Calcott,  W.  S.,  eds.  Chemical  engineers' 
handbook.  New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc., 
1934.     2609  p. 

RiEGEL,  E.  R.  Industrial  chemistry,  3d  ed.  New  York, 
Reinhold  Publishing  Corporation,  1937.     851  p. 

Tyler,  Chaplin.  Chemical  engineering  economics.  2d  ed. 
New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1938.     241  p. 

Walker,  W.  H.,  Lewis,  W.  K.,  McAdams,  W.  H.,  and  Gilli- 
LAND,  E.  R.  Principles  of  chemical  engineering.  3d  ed. 
New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1937.     749  p. 

Journal  articles 

Burke,  S.  P.,  and  Plummer,  W.  B.  Gas  flow  through  packed 
columns.  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  20,  1196 
(1928). 

Chillas,  R.  B.,  and  Weir,  II.  M.  Design  of  fractionating 
columns,  with  particular  reference  to  petroleum  distillation. 
Transactions  of  the  American  Itisiitvte  of  Chemical  Engineers, 
SS,  79  (1929);  hidustrial  a?id  Engineering  Chemistry,  Z2,  206 
(1930). 

Chilton,  Thomas  H.  Timely  research  problems  in  chemical 
engineering  adaptable  to  universities  and  colleges.  Industrial 
and  Engineering  Chemistry  {News  Ed.),  16,  417  (1938). 

Hamor,  W.  a.  Industrial  research  in  1939.  Ibid.,  IS,  1,  49 
(1940). 

.Iohnstone,  II.  F.,  and  Singh,  A.  D.  Recovery  of  sulfur  dioxide 
from  waste  gases,  design  of  scrubbers  for  large  quantities  of 
gases.     Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  29,  286  (1937). 

Miller,  Benjamin.  Fluid  flow  in  clean  round  straight  pipe. 
Transactions  of  the  Americaii  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers, 
32,  1  (1936). 

Morris,  F.  H.,  and  Whitman,  Walter  G.  Heat  transfer  for 
oils  and  water  in  pipes.  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry, 
20.234  (1928). 

Murphree,  E.  V.  Relation  between  heat  transfer  and  fluid 
friction.     Ibid.,  2.i,  726  (1932). 

Murray,  Irvin  L.  Graphical  solution  of  problems  involving 
solvent  recovery  by  scrubbing.     Ibid.,  S2,  165  (1930). 

Rogers,  M.  C,  and  Thiele,  E.  W.  Pressure  drop  in  bubble- 
cap  columns.     Ibid.,  26,  524  (1934). 

SiEDER,  E.  N.,  and  Tate,  G.  E.  Heat  transfer  and  pressure 
drop  of  liquids  in  tubes.     Ibid.,  28.  1429  (1936). 

Smoker,  E.  H.  Analytic  determination  of  plates  in  fractionat- 
ing columns.  Transactions  of  the  Institute  of  Chemical  Engi- 
neers. 34,  165  (1938). 


SECTION    VI 
7.    INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH    IN    THE    FIELD    OF    ELECTRICAL 

ENGINEERING 

By  Dugatd  C.  Jackson  and  Harold  B.  Richmond 

Professor   Emeritus,   Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology',  Cambridge,   Mass.;  and  Treasurer,   General   Radio    Company, 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  respectively 


INTRODUCTION 


This  report  is  divided  for  convenience  into  three  sec- 
tions individually  dealing  with:  (1)  The  evolution  of 
industrial  research  in  the  electrical  engineering  field, 
(2)  the  current  activities  of  such  research  in  this  field, 
and  (3)  the  promise  of  results  wliich  lie  with  industrial 
research  in  the  field.  In  considering  this  question  of 
industrial  research  and  the  qualities  of  its  contributions 
to  the  welfare  of  our  population,  it  will  be  helpful  to 
keep  in  mind  the  order  and  nature  of  research  processes, 
which  are  in  categories  somewhat  as  follows: 

(a)  Some  individual  thinks  out  and  in  concrete  terms 
proposes  a  desirable  objective  of  research,  which  in  the 
electrical-engineering  field  may  relate  to  producing  an 
improved  means  of  communication,  a  more  efficient 
process  in  electric-power  generation  or  transmission,  a 
device  to  perform  a  task  previously  unaccomplished, 
some  means  for  preventing  some  type  of  apparatus 
fault,  or  any  one  of  many  unsolved  items  of  importance; 
or  it  may  relate  to  something  far  more  fundamental 
that  possesses  the  possibility  of  leading  to  revolutionary 
inventions  if  the  research  discloses  additional  facts 
regarding  natural  phenomena  which  may  be  given 
serviceable  application; 

(6)  One  or  more  individuals,  stimulated  into  action 
by  this  idea,  make  critical  observations,  measurements, 
and  calculations  which  throw  new  light  on  the  problem 
being  considered  and  ultimately  provide  data  indicating 
the  desirability  or  probable  uselessness  of  continuing 
the  investigation  and  inquiry  in  an  exacting  waj^  to  its 
limit; 

(c)  If  the  efforts  in  category  (6)  indicate  the  desir- 
ability of  proceeding,  and  financial  support  may  be 
relied  on  for  further  research,  a  suitable  group  of  engi- 
neers, scientists,  and  artisans  may  be  set  to  work  in 
extending  the  observations,  measurements,  and  calcu- 
lations, in  winch  performance  it  may  be  needful  to  con- 
ceive and  put  into  effect  new  processes  of  measurements 
and  calculations,  and  to  design,  build,  test,  and  modify 
for  retesting  new  apparatus  or  products.  This  may  be 
pressed  forward  until  a  usefid  new  or  improved  result 
is  achieved,  or  until  failure  of  the  particular  attempt  is 
admitted. 

It  will  be  noted  that  industrial  research  is  an  active 
316 


process  intended  to  yield  new  products  and  benefits. 
When  successful  in  this  intent,  it  expands  the  opportuni- 
ties for  employment  in  the  manufacturing  and  operat- 
ing industries.  Inasmuch  as  the  process  is  based  on 
hope  and  requires  the  expenditure  of  time  and  money  in 
advance  of  any  assurance  of  a  return  in  compensation 
for  this  effort,  it  is  notably  dependent  on  the  courage 
and  enterprise  of  men  of  ideas  who  are  willing  to  risk 
their  time,  their  money,  or  both  in  the  hope  of  a  profit- 
able result  for  the  adventure. 

Experience  in  the  repetitive  processes  of  making 
things  usually  will  gradually  disclose  methods  for  less- 
ening the  labor  of  making  the  particular  things  or  for 
lessening  their  cost,  even  without  the  benefit  of  exacting 
research.  But  the  gradual  exhaustion  of  natural  re- 
sources tends  to  make  the  procurement  or  production 
of  some  tilings  more  difficult  or  expensive,  and  the  level 
of  general  living  is  likely  to  decline  unless  improve- 
ments and  new  products  and  processes  can  be  discovered 
which  may  offset  the  declining  situation.  It  is  in  this 
matter  of  disclosing  improvements  and  discovering 
new  products  and  processes  that  industrial  research  has 
proved  itself  so  serviceable  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States.  With  adequate  research  wisely  prosecuted  we 
may  expect  continuously  to  develop  an  enlarging  variety 
of  improvements  and  of  new  products  and  processes  (in 
whatever  field  the  research  is  carried  on)  which  confer 
new  conveniences  on  the  public,  arouse  new  demands, 
and  (through  the  need  for  production  to  satisfy  the  de- 
mands) cause  an  expanding  market  for  labor.  In  this 
way,  research  proves  itself  to  be  an  important  national 
resource  for  the  piu-pose  of  first  maintaining  and  then 
raising  the  level  of  Uving,  and  for  expanding  employ- 
ment for  those  who  desire  to  be  employed. 

The  aim  of  this  report  is  to  show  briefly  what  indus- 
trial research  in  the  electrical-engineering  field  has 
done,  is  doing,  and  may  be  expected  to  do — and  why 
it  should  be  generally  recognized  as  a  national  resource ; 
as  well  as  how  the  many  engineers  and  special  scien- 
tists engaged  in  the  work  contribute  to  maintaining 
the  resource.  In  consideration  of  the  limited  space 
available  for  the  report,  it  has  been  thought  best  to 
refrain  from  using  statistical  expositions  or  charts. 


National  Resources  Planning  Board,  Industrial  Research 


3i: 


Evolution  of  Industrial  Research 
in  Electrical  Engineering 

Electrical  onginccring  roots  in  the  discoveries  of 
Hiun])hrey  Davy,  Michael  Faraday,  Andr6  Ampere, 
Clerk  Maxwell,  Joseph  Henry,  and  their  contempo- 
raries; H.  von  HelnihoUz,  Wilhelm  Roentgen,  Ileinrich 
Hertz,  and  their  contemporaries;  and,  in  and  near  our 
day,  Henry  A.  Rowland,  J.  J.  Thomson,  Lord  Ray- 
leigh,  Lord  Rutherford,  together  with  many  contem- 
poraries of  distinction  as  well  as  many  men  still  crea- 
tively active  in  physical  science. 

These  men  have  engaged  in  research  for  the  purpose 
of  identifying  natural  phenomena  and  seeking  out 
their  relationships,  and  they  usually  have  worked  in 
laboratories  supported  in  educational  institutions  or 
in  endowed  research  establishments.  They  seldom 
have  given  direct  attention  to  useful  applications  of 
their  discoveries.  Other  men,  industrially  minded, 
have  followed  up  and  continue  to  follow  up  the 
fundamental  discoveries,  producing  further  discoveries 
and  establishing  inventions  tlu'ough  which  the  dis- 
coveries have  been  made  useful — that  is,  through  which 
the  discoveries  are  made  to  contribute  to  comfort, 
convenience,  and  safety  of  human  Ufe. 

The  earlier  of  these  industrially-minded  men  usually 
worked  as  individuals,  gathered  assistants  about  them, 
and  ultimately  built  up  an  industry  or  industries  of 
importance  around  their  inventions  when  competent 
fortune  was  with  them.  Notable  examples  are  Werner 
von  Siemens,  of  Germany;  Z.  T.  Gramme  and  others, 
of  France;  Paul  Jablochkov,  of  Russia  and  France; 
Guglielmo  Marconi,  of  Italy;  John  Hopkinson,  Lord 
Kelvin,  S.  Z.  Ferranti,  and  others,  of  Great  Britain; 
Alexander  Graham  Bell,  Charles  F.  Brush,  Thomas  A. 
Edison,  Elihu  Thomson,  Edward  Weston,  Lee  De 
Forest,  Frank  J.  Sprague,  William  Stanley,  George 
Westinghouse,  Nicola  Tesla,  and  contemporaries,  of 
the  United  States,  plus  many  men  who  are  now  active. 

Out  of  the  situation  thus  described  have  stemmed 
most  of  our  now  comprehensive  processes  for  quick 
electric  communication  of  intelligence  by  wires  and 
radio;  electric-power  generation,  transmission,  and 
distribution;  electric-power  utilization  in  industry  and 
in  the  household;  electric  illumination;  electrometal- 
lurgy; electrochemistry;  medical  services  of  electricity 
such  as  X-ray  treatments  and  diathermy;  and  other 
applications  that  pervade  nearly  every  walk  of  life  and 
most  industries. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  research  in  the  sense 
here  used  consists  of  the  processes  of  identifying  addi- 
tional facts  among  the  phenomena  of  nature  and  of 
discovering  hitherto  unknown  interrelationships  be- 
tween such  facts — that  is,  it  is  research  within  the 
scope  of  the  natural  sciences.  Industrial  research  has 
for  its  objects  the  formulation  of  improvements  in  the 


useful  applications  of  natural  phenomena  or  in  dis- 
covering new  applications  of  such  phenomena.  Indus- 
trial research  therefore  may  involve  fimdamental 
investigation  relating  to  phenomena  in  the  hope  of 
disclosing  unportant  basic  discoveries  which  there- 
upon may  be  directed  toward  useful  applications, 
as  well  as  directing  investigations  toward  usefully 
applying  hitherto  known  phenomena.  Industrial- 
research  laboratories  usually  work  in  this  broad  field. 

An  industrial  concern  that  has  been  born  out  of  the 
womb  of  research  is  likely  to  maintain  its  growth  by 
contributions  from  research;  making  of  research,  as 
the  concern  grows,  a  coordinated  division  of  the  total 
organization.  This  has  been  notably  the  result  in  the 
electrical-engineering  field.  The  Edison  Electric  Light 
Company,  the  Thomson-Houston  Electric  Company, 
the  Brush  Electric  Company,  the  Sprague  Electric 
Railway  and  Motor  Company,  and  lesser  concerns,  now 
joined  together  as  the  General  Electric  Company, 
center  enormous  activities  around  a  great,  productive, 
highly  organized  central  research  laboratory  and  a 
number  of  collateral  laboratories,  presided  over  by 
engineers,  inventors,  and  discoverers  in  various  special 
sciences.  The  like  is  true  of  the  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Manufacturing  Company,  the  American  Telephone 
and  Telegraph  Company,  the  great  broadcasting  com- 
panies, and  a  host  of  smaller  manufacturing  and  operating 
companies,  within  the  electrical-engineering  field. 

It  is  out  of  that  process  that  came  the  following 
many  features  which  are  constantly  in  our  lives: 

The  telephone  system  competent  for  use  as  a  general 
social  instrument,  which  contributes  to  intimacy  in 
the  communities  and  to  unity  of  the  Nation; 

Electric  illumination  competent  for  use  equally  in 
homes,  factories,  and  outdoor  areas,  through  which 
added  hours  of  comfort,  convenience,  and  safety  have 
been  conferred  on  life ; 

Electric  heating  competent  for  use  over  the  extraor- 
dinary range  from  heavy  electrometallurgical  proc- 
esses to  personal  uses  in  the  home; 

The  radio  broadcast  competent  for  daily  recreation 
and  aid  in  education  of  the  famihes  of  a  nation  and  for 
exchange  of  news  between  nations; 

The  control,  protection,  and  conversion  of  generated 
electrical  power  which  make  such  power  competent 
for  use  in  almost  any  walk  of  life ; 

And  a  multitude  of  other  effects  that  have  brought 
electrical  devices  and  electrical  influences  in  a  wide  way 
into  the  hves  of  citizens,  through  uses  in  their  homes, 
in  their  facilities  of  transportation,  and  in  their  places 
of  employment. 

The  generation  and  transmission  of  electric  power 
in  the  abundant  way  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
present  day  are  largely  the  outcome  of  long-continued 
industrial   research.     Some   of   the   later   applications 


318 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


of  electric  power  to  the  purposes  of  transportation 
may  be  ascribed  to  industrial  laboratory  research;  and 
so  on  through  the  electrical-engineering  arts. 

The  Consequences  of  the  Evolution 

Industrial  research  and  the  accompanying  discoveries 
and  inventions  in  the  electrical-engineering  field  have 
been  constant  contributors  to  the  comfort,  convenience, 
and  economy  of  living,  and  at  the  same  time  have 
contributed  to  health,  productivity,  contentment,  and 
happiness  in  the  Nation. 

Through  such  research  and  inventions,  the  standards 
of  quality  and  the  cost  of  telephone  apparatus  and 
plant  have  been  so  improved  in  two-fifths  of  a  century 
that  telephone  service  has  been  changed  from  the  status 
of  a  frequently  used  business  instrumentality  and  a 
home  luxury  to  the  status  in  tliis  country  of  a  common- 
place essential  of  business  and  of  a  family  utility  which 
vies  with  the  automobile  in  popularity. 

In  the  automobile  itself,  the  same  processes  of  organ- 
ized research,  discovery,  and  invention  have,  through 
the  electric  means  for  starting,  ignition,  and  lighting, 
contributed  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  that  vehicle 
as  an  agency  of  transportation  and  recreation. 


FiGDEE  95. — Assembling  of  Million-Volt  X-ray  Unit,   General 
Electric  Company,  Schenectady,  New  York 


Electric  lamps  are  notable  examples  of  the  results  of 
industrial  research  in  the  electrical-engineering  field. 
They  are  the  direct  ofi'spring  of  industrial  research  and 
its  associated  discoveries  and  inventions.  The  econ- 
omy of  present-day  artificial  illumination  is  a  monument 
to  the  process.  For  example,  during  the  last  third  of 
a  century  research  and  invention  relating  to  the  ordinary 
incandescent  lamp  have  resulted  in  more  than  doubling 
the  output  of  light  per  imit  of  electrical  energy  ex- 
pended, while  the  cost  of  lamp  units  for  general  use 
has  fallen  to  a  fraction  of  the  former  figures,  and  incan- 
descent lamps  (with  their  safety,  convenience,  and 
satisfaction  for  the  home,  office,  store,  and  factory) 
have  in  this  country  substantially  displaced  the  cruder 
and  less  safe  illuminating  agents  of  previous  generations. 
During  the  same  period,  the  price  of  electric  power  per 
kilowatt-hour  has  steadily  fallen  as  a  consequence  of 
the  same  influences,  but  not  to  so  large  a  proportion. 

Such  examples  can  be  carried  on  to  a  multitude  of 
instances.  Even  pressure  vessels  like  high-pressure 
steam  boilers  and  hydraulic  penstocks  are  more  econom- 
ically made  by  using  electric  welding  (a  product  of 
research  and  invention)  in  substitution  for  the  older 
method  of  riveting.  But  space  does  not  justify  further 
illustrations.  Industrial  research  in  each  decade  is 
primarily  concerned  with  the  conditions  of  that  decade, 
as  well  as  being  earnest  with  anticipation  and  pre- 
vision for  the  future.  Therefore  the  foregoing  brief 
review  of  the  evolution  during  former  periods  must 
suffice  for  the  description  of  past  conditions. 

Analysis  of  Our  Current  Activities 

We  will  now  turn  to  those  present-day  activities 
which  are  notably  characterizing  industrial  research  in 
the  electrical-engineering  field. 

Measurements 

An  industry  is  not  at  full  stature  until  it  possesses 
precision  instruments  for  the  measurements  with  which 
to  guide  its  industrial  processes,  nor  is  a  nation  in  full 
stature  as  an  industrial  nation  until  it  is  competent  to 
design  and  manufacture  all  precision  instruments 
needed  for  use  in  its  industries,  both  as  working  tools 
for  measurements  and  as  precise  control  standards. 
The  problems  of  standards  of  manufacture  and  precise 
standards  in  methods,  and  in  instruments  for  measure- 
ments, have  proved  worthy  of  extended  research. 
Electrical  engineering  has  been  fortunate,  since  (spring- 
ing as  it  did  from  strictly  scientific  grounds)  logical 
units  were  early  derived  and  methods  of  measurements 
were  set  up.  An  early  committee  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  was  a  pioneer 
in  this  respect.  At  the  present  day,  levels  of  precision 
in  electrical  measurement  challenge  the  precision  of 


Indusfnal  Research 


319 


mcasuri'ments  available  in  every  other  field  of  science 
or  engineering.  Out  of  the  early  work  grew  the  manu- 
facture in  the  hands  of  von  Siemens,  Carpentier,  Wes- 
ton, and  others,  of  accurate  electrical  measuring  instru- 
ments for  general  use;  and  now  the  mission  of  filling 
the  market  demand  for  electrical  measuring  instrmnents, 
of  both  refined  and  commercial  precision,  has  become 
an  important  industry  of  itself. 

To  produce  these  results,  close  association  has  been 
necessary  among  electrical  engineers,  physicists,  metal- 
lurgists, physical  chemists,  and  other  specialists,  in  a 
manner  readily  secured  in  a  well-balanced  industrial 
research  organization.  Advances  in  all  fields  of  science 
and  engineering  require  new  instruments  of  types  and 
precisions  adapted  to  the  needs  of  advancing  frontiers. 
The  industrial  research  of  electrical  instrument  makers 
has  broadly  fruited  in  showing  the  way  for  producing 
new  types  of  instrxmients,  and  in  improving  the  pre- 
cision while  reducing  the  cost  of  older  types. 

Progress  has  depended  upon  finding  or  producing 
new  materials  for  this  use  and  also  upon  learning  how 
to  use  existing  materials  better.  Examples  of  these 
paths  of  progress  are  to  be  observed  in  new  alloys, 
such  as  alloy  metals  of  special  electrical  qualities  or  of 
very  high  magnetic  permeability  and  low  coercive  force 
and  others  of  very  high  coercive  force;  in  new  insulating 
materials  (dielectrics) ;  in  modifications  in  the  forms  of 
parts  and  modifications  of  materials  themselves  intro- 
duced to  improve  instrumental  torque;  in  the  manu- 
facture of  permanent  parts  by  molding  or  die-casting 
so  as  to  reduce  costs  and  improve  reliability;  and  in 
many  other  details. 

Recently,  entirely  new  fields  of  measurement  and  of 
equipment  control  have  been  opened  up  by  the  intro- 
duction of  electronic  devices,  which  have  brought  into 
the  zone  of  practicability  types  of  measurements 
previously  unattainable,  and  likewise  have  made  con- 
trol methods  more  economical  and  convenient  for 
various  electrical  devices.  The  photoelectric  effect  has 
been  discovered  and  brought  into  a  multitude  of  uses 
in  measuring  and  controlling  devices.  These  improve- 
ments have  also  facilitated  telemetering  and  accom- 
panying processes  of  remote  control  in  a  variety  of 
situations. 

The  recent  rapid  march  toward  use  of  ultrahigh- 
frcquency  ciUTents  in  the  radio  and  associated  fields 
has  imposed  on  the  laboratories  a  big  responsibility 
which  they  have  met  admirably  by  developing  new 
or  modified  methods  of  measurements  adapted  to  the 
cuTumstances.  These  make  possible  measurements  of 
satisfactory  precision  in  parts  of  the  electric-wave 
spectrum  previously  untouched.  The  use  of  piezo- 
electric crystals  as  standards  of  frequency  and  time, 
and  the  development  of  a  whole  family  of  equipment 
for  precise  frequency  and  time  measurements,  have 


come  out  of  the  industrial  lal)oratories  in  quite  recent 
years,  and  have  supported  the  practicability  of  notable 
advances  in  the  commmiications  art,  such  as  narrow- 
frequency  control  for  radio  frequency  bands,  picture 
transmission,  and  the  rudiments  of  television. 

Electrical  Communications 

Our  greatest  systems  of  electrical  communications 
are  legitimate  children  of  the  industrial  research  labora- 
tory. Alexander  Graham  Bell,  aided  by  Thomas  A. 
Watson,  was  at  work  developing  harmonic  (multiple) 
telegraphic  apparatus  when  he  discovered  the  principle 
of  telephony  and  produced  the  first  transmitters  and 
receivers.  Other  able  men  came  into  the  field  to  make 
discoveries  and  inventions,  and  organized  research 
became  more  and  more  productive,  until  research 
laboratories  supported  in  the  electrical-communications 
field  became  established  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 
The  laboratory  of  the  American  Telephone  and  Tele- 
graph Company  (the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories)  is 
the  most  extensive  and  important  of  them,  but  there 
are  several  other  very  notable  American  laboratories 
in  this  field. 

Ocean  telegraphy  through  submarine  cables  was 
made  a  success  and  improved  similarly.     The  genius 


Figure  96. — Vacuum  Electric  Furnace  for  Production  of 
Single  Cr.vstals  of  Gold  and  Copper.  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Manufacturing  Company,  East  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania 


320 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


in  mathematics  and  physics  and  their  appHcations  of 
Lord  Kelvin  (then  Sir  William  Thomson),  with  the  aid 
of  other  competent  men,  guided  the  promoters  and 
manufacturers  to  improved  processes  of  manufacture, 
improved  processes  of  laj'ing  deep-sea  cables,  and  im- 
proved methods  of  testing  them.  Moreover,  they 
invented  unique  new  instruments  for  sending  and  re- 
ceiving messages.  It  was  this  process  of  industrial 
research  dedicated  to  the  purpose  of  scientific  discovery 
and  invention  which,  in  spite  of  the  early  failures  of 
cables,  made  ocean  telegraphy  a  success  and  has  con- 
tinued to  contribute  improvements.  Land  telegraphy 
has  hkewise  profited,  and  is  profiting,  from  such  or- 
ganized industrial  research. 

Radio  telephony  and  telegraphy  are  other  extraordi- 
nary results  of  industrial  research.  Following  the 
hint  inherent  in  the. electromagnetic-wave  experiments 
of  Heinrich  Hertz,  Marconi  began  his  effort  to  apply 
electromagnetic  waves  to  wireless  communications. 
When  he  transferred  his  work  from  Italy  to  Great 
Britain,  a  research  organization  was  gathered  together 
to  press  forward  the  apphcations,  which  met  with  so 
much  success  that  similar  laboratory  organizations 
entered  the  field  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Several 
of  the  most  important  of  these,  including  that  of  the 
Radio  Corporation  of  America,  now  are  located  in  this 
country. 

The  addition  of  the  triode-vacumn  tube  of  De  Forest, 
and  great  inventions  by  others,  brought  corresponding 
processes  into  the  field  of  telephony  with  wire  circuits, 
with  extraordinary  results  in  improving  telephone 
service  and  lowering  the  prices  necessary  to  be  charged 
to  users  of  such  service. 

The  numerous  improvements  have  so  bettered  the 
service  and  lessened  the  cost  of  telephone  and  telegraph 
service  that  in  this  Nation  the  public  has  profited  in 
multiple  degree  for  all  the  large  expenditures  put  into 
the  telephone  and  telegraph  researches;  in  addition  to 
the  individual  citizens  having  gained  so  much  in  con- 
venience and  in  recreation  from  the  wire  and  the  radio 
communication  systems. 

Active  research  continues  in  many  industrial  research 
laboratories  associated  with  the  communications  art, 
with  the  result  that  scientific  discoveries  and  inventions 
are  leading  to  further  improvements.  Recent  advances 
have  added  materially  to  the  national  economy  and  to 
opportunities  for  national  recreation.  New  telephone- 
transmission  channels  have  been  secured  through  the 
use  of  high-frequency  carrier  currents,  and  recently 
the  so-called '  'coaxial ' '  cable  has  been  added .  Increased 
speed  of  transmission,  increased  numbers  of  usable 
transmission  channels  in  a  circuit,  and  decreased 
cost  of  plant  have  been  produced  as  the  results  of  newly 
discovered  materials  (such  as  magnetic  alloys  and 
improved  insulations)  and  from  better  understanding 


of  the  electrical  properties  of  materials  and  of  electric- 
circuit  combinations.  Thereby  the  quick  transmission 
of  intelligence  has  become  a  relatively  low-cost  product, 
associated  with  all  the  favorable  implications  of  mass 
distribution  of  such  a  powerful  influence  as  electrical 
intercommunications  for  producing  unity  throughout 
the  population. 

Specifically  in  the  telephone  field,  research  has 
resulted  in  (and  is  continuing  to  provide)  economy 
of  installation  and  operation  through  the  effects  of  im- 
proved cable  facilities,  carrier  and  broad-band  systems 
of  transmission,  better  understanding  of  transmission 
phenomena  accompanied  by  improved  structure  of 
circuits,  switching  methods,  insulating  materials,  vac- 
uum-tube design,  the  utilization  of  piezoelectric  crystals 
for  electrical  filters  and  for  standards  of  frequencies. 
This  not  only  is  contributing  new  techniques  to  im- 
prove service  and  decrease  prices  for  local  communica- 
tions, but  also  is  promoting  speed  and  economy  of 
communications  over  long  distances. 

In  the  radio-broadcast  field  important  research  is 
progressing  in  various  lines  among  which  we  may  note 
the  effort  to  overcome  disturbing  effects  caused  by 
"static"  and  other  extraneous  noises.  Progress  of 
particular  promise  is  shown  in  what  is  known  as  "fre- 
quency modidation"  and  "phase  modulation,"  and 
combinations  thereof,  and  these  results  may  contribute 
great  improvement  to  the  quality  of  broadcast  recep- 
tion. Such  associated  important  radio  procedures  as 
route  and  landing  guides  for  airplanes  and  other  radio- 
wave  applications  are  the  outcome  of  long  and  intensive 
laboratory  research;  and  constant  extension  of  such 
service  is  observable. 

In  the  oldest  field  of  wire  communication,  namely, 
wire  telegraphy,  the  developments  have  particularly 
taken  the  form  of  improved  factors  governuig  speed  of 
transmission,  increased  utilization  of  wire  plant,  and 
extension  of  wire  facilities  for  additional  uses  such  as 
picture  (facsimile)  transmission  and  the  use  of  tele- 
typewriters, with  the  printer-telegraph  system  made 
capable  of  use  on  a  toll  basis. 

In  general,  industrial  research  in  the  electrical  com- 
munications field  has  been  of  a  basic  character  relating 
to  circuit  theory  and  to  circuit  networks  which  apply 
to  steady-state  conditions  of  the  currents,  transient 
conditions,  and  line  transmissions;  and  also  to  the 
prevention  of  mterference  between  circuits  within  the 
communications  field,  and  between  high-voltage  power 
circuits  and  communications  circuits;  to  means  of 
shielding  circuits,  the  invention  of  repeaters  and  their 
introduction  into  the  operating  circuits,  and  to  me- 
chanical acoustic  systems.  Basic  studies  of  materials, 
particularly  of  magnetic  and  electric  materials,  have 
brought  great  fruit  from  the  work  carried  on  in  the 
commimications  laboratories,  and  those  laboratories  of 


Industrial  Research 


321 


themselves  may  be  cited  as  exemplars  of  industrial 
research  as  a  national  resource. 

Such  laboratories,  besides  producing  new  and  desir- 
able results  of  commercial  utility,  even  touch  upon  the 
conservation  of  natural  resources  which  are  expendable. 
Continuous  and  helpful  studies  are  made  of  the  con- 
ditions of,  causes  of,  and  means  for  combating  decay 
of  wooden  poles  and  cross  arms  used  to  support  over- 
head wires,  the  corrosion  of  metallic  wires  and  metallic 
devices,  the  protection  of  cable  protective  sheaths  from 
corrosion  by  electric  cm-rents  in  the  earth,  and  from 
other  such  deleterious  effects.  Even  the  character  and 
quality  of  the  tools  and  implements  used  in  manu- 
facturing apparatus  and  in  the  construction  of  plant 
have  been  and  are  being  subjected  to  research,  with 
advantages  derived  thi'ough  improving  the  accuracy 
and  speed  of  manufacture  and  the  ease  and  safety  of 
installation. 

In  the  field  of  electronics,  which  now  has  so  great  an 
influence  in  electrical  communications,  research  has 
included  and  stUl  includes  many  features  of  service  and 
promise  besides  those  already  referred  to,  such  as: 
Electron  optics,  especially  in  relation  to  television,  but 


finding  application  in  electron  microscopes  and  other 
devices,  and  thereby  opening  new  vistas  for  industrial 
physicists;  properties  of  coatings  for  television  tubes, 
with  a  side  contribution  to  the  production  of  liigli-efTi- 
ciency  fluorescent  lamps;  controls  tlii'ough  photoelectric 
cells  for  various  situations;  medical  aids  through  dia- 
thermy; electron  multipliers  and  allied  devices;  new 
types  of  oscillators,  which  come  into  a  multitude  of 
services. 

In  the  field  of  radio  communications,  development  of 
the  use  of  ultrahigh  frequencies  is  receiving  empha- 
sized attention,  and  radio  waves  of  frequencies  above  30 
megacycles  per  second  are  being  given  useful  applica- 
tions in  such  relations  as  police  communications,  har- 
bor-craft communications,  au-plane  communications  and 
airplane  guidance,  urban  broadcasting,  governmental 
communications,  television,  and  facsimile  broadcasting. 
How  far  these  developments  can  go  is  still  for  the 
laboratories  to  determine,  but  it  is  worthy  of  comment 
that  even  some  extremely  high-frequency  waves,  often 
called  "microwaves"  because  of  their  short  lengths, 
show  promise  of  utility.  New  types  of  vacuum  tubes 
are  being  developed  to  accompany  such  service. 


Figure  97. — Surge  Generator,  Wagner  Electric  Corporation,  St.  Louis,  Missouri 


322 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


Tlio  development  of  television  processes  is  receiving 
very  intensive  attention  in  the  laboratories,  in  the 
expectation  of  raising  its  commercial  utility.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  facsimile  transmission,  to  the  improve- 
ment of  which,  as  concerns  the  quality  of  received 
pictures  and  speed  of  sending  and  receiving,  the  labora- 
tories are  giving  active  attention. 

Electric  Illumination 

^irtificial  illumination  has  been  a  need  of  mankind 
since  prehistoric  man  began  to  use  burning  brands  for 
torches.  Indeed,  demand  by  mankind  for  artificial 
illumination  is  so  great  that  we  may  justly  refer  now  to 
such  illumination  as  a  necessity  for  comfort,  conven- 
ience, and  security.  The  characteristics  of  electric 
illumination  are  of  so  desirable  a  nature  that  its  im- 
portance is  outstanding  compared  with  other  means 
for  artificial  illumination ;  and  we  are  indebted  to  indus- 
trial research  for  its  development.  That  is,  electric 
illumination,  like  electrical  communications,  is  strictly 
the  child  of  industrial  research. 

Arc  lamps  arranged  with  individual  mechanisms 
which  made  many  lamps  operable  in  series  in  constant- 
current  circuits,  and  incandescent  lamps  constructed 
somewhat  as  at  present  (i.  e.,  consisting  of  a  hermeti- 
cally sealed  evacuated  glass  bulb  containing  a  mounted 
filament  of  conducting  but  high-resistance  material,  and 
leading-in  wires  sealed  Ln  the  glass  to  enable  electric 
current  to  be  carried  to  the  filament),  were  both  origi- 
nated near  the  opening  of  the  fourth  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  arc  lamp  referred  to  was  the 
invention  of  Charles  F.  Brush  and  the  incandescent 
lamp  the  invention  of  Thomas  A.  Edison,  each  one  as 
the  consequence  of  experimental  investigation  directly 
aimed  at  the  result  ultimately  accomplished.  Various 
inventors  had  preceded  Edison  and  Brush,  but  had  not 
brought  their  researches  to  the  point  of  successful 
invention. 

Many  able  men  entered  the  field  after  the  successful 
inventions  were  made  known,  Avdth  the  result  that  great 
laboratory  activity  grew  up  and  has  continued  for  the 
improvement  of  electric  illuminating  devices.  The 
Brush  type  of  arc  lamp  has  been  largely  displaced  b)' 
better  means  for  illuminatmg  areas  for  which  the  earl}^ 
arc  lamps  were  adapted,  and  the  incandescent  lamp 
has  gone  through  a  series  of  extraordinai-y  improve- 
ments. Collateral  research  has  resulted  in  additional 
and  special  types  of  electric  lamps,  such  as  the  so-called 
mercury-vapor  lamp,  the  neon  tube,  and  fluorescent 
lamps  which  are  already  in  considerable  use  and  which 
hold  great  promise  for  future  improvements.  The 
result  has  been  to  produce  safer  light,  more  illiunina- 
tion  for  given  money  expenditure  by  the  users,  protec- 
tion of  the  eyesight  of  those  who  read  and  study,  and 
greater  safety  for  those  who  work  or  move  in  hazardous 


situations  which  are  not  well  lighted  b}'  natural  means. 

The  researches  securing  these  results  arc  the  joint 
efforts  of  physiologists,  physicists,  chemists,  and  engi- 
neers, sometimes  working  individually,  but  conunonly 
worldng  in  harmonious  cooperation.  From  Mr.  Edison's 
most  active  days  to  the  present  time,  industrial  re- 
search laboratories  have  intensively  dealt  with  the 
scientific  problems  of  illumination  per  se  and  with 
measures  for  providing  effective  illumination  by  means 
of  devices  (lanips)  that  convert  electrical  energy  into 
light. 

The  outcome  of  industrial  research  in  the  field  of 
ordinary  illumination  has  given  us  improvements  in 
three  categories: 

(1)  Improvements  obtained  through  better  knowl- 
edge of  the  relations  of  lighting  to  seeing.  Here  are 
problems  of  physiology  and  psychology  added  to  prob- 
lems concerning  the  arrangements  and  types  of  lighting 
devices,  all  of  which  are  featm-es  of  laboratory  research. 
The  effects  of  eye-fatigue,  elimination  of  glare,  and  the 
relations  of  brightness  and  contrasts  all  come  in,  as 
also  do  the  problems  of  getting  the  light  where  it  is 
most  needed.  The  latter  involve  investigation  of  many 
types  of  light  sources  available  for  use  in  electric  light- 
ing, their  adaptation  to  specific  situations,  and  the 
adaptation  of  reflectors  and  lenses. 

(2)  Safety  problems  associated  with  illumination 
also  come  into  the  purview  of  industrial  research,  from 
the  results  of  which  du'ections  may  be  formulated  for 
applj'ing  light  so  as  to  reduce  or  eliminate  hazards  where 
hazards  might  exist. 

(3)  The  cost  of  lamps  and  of  illumination  have  been 
notably  reduced  as  an  outcome  of  research,  and  there- 
fore the  conditions  for  users  have  been  improved. 

Lamps  themselves  have  been  completely  revised 
as  the  result  of  research.  The  carbon  filaments  of 
Edison  and  Swan  have  changed  to  filanients  of  the 
metal  tungsten,  and  tliis  of  itself  was  accomplished 
only  after  long  and  exhaustive  research.  One  problem 
was  to  produce  from  reputedly  nonductile  timgsten  an 
extremely  fine-drawn  filament.  The  highlj'  exhausted 
bulb  of  Edison  has  become  a  bulb  still  highly  exhausted 
of  its  ah"  but  then  modified  b}^  the  introduction  of  nitro- 
gen and  argon  or  corresponding  special  gases.  These 
and  other  changes  of  oiu"  ordinary  incandescent  lamps 
effected  as  the  result  of  exacting  industrial  research 
have  brought  the  lamps  to  manj'  times  the  efficiency  as 
converters  of  electrical  energy  into  light  as  compared 
with  the  efficiency  of  the  original  Edison  lamps  of  60 
years  ago.  Furthermore,  lamps  are  now  made  that  have 
individually  much  greater  light  output  than  Edison 
found  it  practicable  to  make  even  in  his  later  days  of 
lamp  manufacture. 

Associated  with  these  changes,  research  has  shown 
the  way  to  design  improved  and  more  accurate  proc- 


Industrial  Research 


323 


esses  of  making;  the  lamps  and  improved  tools  for 
carrying  on  the  processes,  so  that  the  prices  of  lamps  to 
the  purchasers  have  been  greatly  reduced.  This  price 
reduction  has  amounted  in  round  numbers  to  60  percent 
in  20  years.  With  a  consumption  of  normal  size  incan- 
descent lamps  (i.  e.,  excluding  miniature  lamps  and 
special  lamps)  amountmg  to  over  a  million  and  a  half 
lamps  per  working  day,  the  annual  money-saving  to 
light  users  resulting  from  lowered  lamp  prices  and  im- 
proved lamp  efficiencies  that  reduce  the  consumption  of 
electric  power  far  outweighs  the  annual  cost  of  the  re- 
search carried  on  to  secure  the  results,  while  there  is 
promise  of  further  favorable  results  from  continuation 
of  the  researches. 

The  average  price  of  electric  power  used  for  lighting 
has  gone  do\vn  dm-ing  the  past  20  years,  and  the  tend- 
ency of  users  has  been  to  increase  the  amount  of  light 
provided.  This  comes  to  pass  by  the  use  of  more  lamps 
and  the  use  of  lamps  of  larger  light  output.  But  even 
thus  we  have  not  reached  a  sound  level  of  general- 
purpose  illumination  at  night.  This  objective  may  not 
be  reached  until  research  has  shown  how  we  may  pro- 
duce and  use  lamps  of  other  and  still  more  efficient 
types  in  general  service. 

Research  has  also  aided  in  the  production  of  lamps 
of  special  types  which  are  now  available  for  many  pur- 
poses, some  of  which  were  previously  mentioned,  as  well 
as  special  lamps  available  for  special  purposes.  Exam- 
ples of  the  latter  are  lamps  rich  in  ultraviolet  radiation 
for  use  in  medical  treatment  and  in  sterilization  and 
irradiation  operations  of  various  kinds;  and  lamps  rich 
in  the  infrared  (or  heat)  radiation,  which  have  multiple 
uses  in  industry  for  heating  and  drymg  and  are  also  of 
therapeutic  value  for  heating  in  the  mstance  of  some 
human  diseases.  Research  in  the  special  types  of 
lamps  has  also  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  variety 
of  lamps  for  decorative  and  for  advertising  purposes. 
The  application  of  special  light  sources  to  stroboscopic, 
rapid  photography  is  itself  contributing  to  more  con- 
venient study  of  many  industrial  processes.  All  of 
these  are  in  addition  to  the  special  vapor  lamps,  such 
as  the  mercury-vapor  and  sodium-vapor  devices  which 
are  widely  used  in  industrial  lighting  and  highway 
lighting. 

As  the  results  of  research  are  stUl  bringing  improved 
economies  to  the  users  of  lamps  as  well  as  improving  the 
adaptabifity  of  electric  lamps  to  their  purposes,  still 
further  favorable  results  of  such  research  may  be  antici- 
pated. As  yet  we  have  not  even  approached  the  limit 
of  efficiency  in  the  conversion  of  electrical  energy  into 
light,  and  there  are  great  possibilities  inherent  for  re- 
search here. 

:!21835 — 41 22 


The  Generation,  Transmission,  and 
General  Utilization  of  Electric  Power 

Here  again  the  successful  results  of  today  have  been 
arrived  at  by  the  joint  efforts  of  mathematicians, 
physicists,  chemists,  metallurgists,  and  engineers.  Since 
the  period  some  decades  ago  when  electric-power  deliv- 
ery became  an  essential  service  in  American  commu- 
nities, industrial  research  has  been  continuously  applied 
in  the  effort  to  discover  new  processes  and  to  improve 
the  old  so  that  the  delivery  of  power  might  be  made 
more  uniform  and  reliable  and  the  cost  be  reduced  so 
that  the  price  charged  to  the  consumers  could  be  ac- 
cordingly reduced  and  the  availability  of  the  electricity 
increased.  The  effort  has  been  rewarded  by  an  extraor- 
dinary expansion  in  the  use  of  electric  power  in  this 
country. 

Research  has  been  intensive  in  this  field  and  also  of 
wide  range,  even  though  we  omit  from  consideration  the 
prime  movers  associated  with  power  generation,  which 
of  themselves  are,  in  their  effectiveness,  the  outcome  of 
much  research.' 

Electric-power  research  has  extended  from  aspects 
concerned  with  the  metallm'gy  of  the  steel  cores  of 
electrical  machinery  (to  assure  a  suitable  combination 
of  magnetic  and  electrical  qualities)  to  such  matters  as 
the  protection  of  macliinery  and  circuits  from  damaging 
attacks  which  may  be  caused  by  lightning — a  very  wide 
field.  It  has  included  both  alternating-current  prob- 
lems and  dii-ect-current  problems,  and  the  conversion 
of  one  character  of  currents  into  the  other;  the  cooling 
of  electrical  machinery  by  air,  water,  and  hydrogen; 
the  elasticity,  plasticity,  and  creep  of  metals;  the 
qualities  of  electrical  insulating  materials;  the  control 
and  protection  of  electric  circuits;  electric  arcs  in  both 
their  useful  and  their  destructive  aspects;  methods  of 
testing  machines  and  circuits;  improvements  for  small 
motors;  construction  of  silent  fans;  electrostatic  air 
cleaning;  mduction  heating;  incremental  distribution 
of  loads  between  machines  and  between  circuits;  travel- 
ing waves;  and  many  other  features  for  which  improve- 
ments obviously  have  been  needed  or  regarding  which 
it  has  appeared  that  research  might  disclose  serviceable 
residts.  In  some  instances,  however,  research  is 
undertaken  because  a  particular  field  has  not  previously 
had  exacting  research  attention  and  there  appears 
reasonable  promise  of  useful  fruit  to  be  gathered  by 
such  attention. 

There  arc  many  manucfaturers  of  electrical  machin- 
ery and  circuit  equipment  in  this  country,  several  of 

'  The  outcomes  of  researches  in  the  theoretical  thermodynamics,  the  properties  of 
steam  at  high  pressures  and  superheated  temperatures,  the  design  and  construction 
of  large  steam  turbines  and  of  high-pressure  boilers  have  greatly  advanced  the  art  of 
electric-power  generation  from  fuels. 


324 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


them  of  very  comprehensive  importance.  All  the  more 
important  of  these,  and  many  of  the  lesser  companies, 
carry  on  organized  research,  and  important  proportions 
of  their  products  are  formed  on  the  results  of  the 
research.  Many  such  concerns  add  to  the  range  of 
their  own  research  by  cooperating  with  university 
laboratories  or  with  special  research  institutions. 

Ever  since  John  Hopkinson,  some  50  years  ago, 
published  the  rational  theory  of  the  magnetization 
cm'vo  of  the  complex  magnetic  circuit  of  a  dynamo, 
designers  and  inventors  have  struggled  by  experimental 
and  mathematical  research  to  find  means  for  reducing 
the  various  losses,  reducing  the  weight,  reducing  the 
bulk,  and  reducing  the  cost  of  electrical  generators  and 
motors  per  unit  of  output,  and  for  improving  their 
reliability.  The  features  involved  have  related  to 
ferrous  metallurgy;  the  qualities  of  insulating  materials; 
problems  of  heat  flow  and  heat  transfer  for  cooling 
purposes;  problems  of  air  resistance;  problems  of 
lubrication;  problems  of  welding  versus  casting  of 
frames;  problems  of  stamping,  slotting,  and  securing 
disks;  and  various  other  matters  affecting  the  structure 
of  such  machines  and  the  materials  entering  into  them, 
besides  the  problems  of  adapting  the  machines  to  the 
service  needs  of  users.  The  improvement  of  the 
product  has  been  gradual  and  its  extent  is  not  fully 
realized  by  present-day  users;  but  comparisons  of 
generators  and  motors  available  30  years  ago  with  the 
present-day  product  show  results  that  notably  justify 
the  intense  work  of  innumerable  able  men  and  the 
large  research  expenditiu^es.  Space  does  not  afford 
opportunity  here  to  examine  the  matter  in  detail,  but 
the  fact  stands  forth  that  our  present  reliance  on 
electric  power  as  a  national  resource  rests  strongly  on 
the  improvements  arising  from  this  continuous  re- 
search. Further  research  promises  to  disclose  still 
further  advantages. 

Equally  intensive  and  continuous  research  has  char- 
acterized the  field  of  circuits  for  the  transmission  and 
distribution  of  the  electric  power  and  the  equipment 
associated  with  such  circuits.  Transmission  voltages 
have  been  raised  and  reliability  improved  by  researches 
in  the  field  of  insulation  for  both  overhead  and  under- 
ground lines.  Reliability  of  transmission  has  been 
secured  by  applying  the  residts  of  research  relative  to 
transforming  and  switching  devices,  and  the  difficulties 
relating  to  "stability"  for  power  systems  have  been 
greatly  diminished  by  similarly  intensive  research.  The 
safety  of  circuits  for  the  distribution  of  the  electric 
power  on  the  premises  of  customers  has  been  similarly 
established.  The  present  voltage  considered  the  upper 
limit  for  alternating-current  power-transmission  circuits 
has  not  far  exceeded  220,000  volts.  It  is,  however, 
contemplated  using  287,000  volts  on  the  lines  from 
Boulder  Dam  to  Los  Angeles.     What  research  may 


accomplish  in  raising  this  for  the  purpose  of  mcrcasing 
the  economical  distance  over  which  power  may  be 
transmitted,  and  what  may  be  accomplished  with 
high-voltage  direct  currents,  have  not  yet  been  disclosed 
by  the  researches  now  under  way. 

Methods  of  testing  machines  and  circuits  in  situ  have 
been  developed;  and  coordination  of  insulation  is 
studied  for  the  purpose  of  improving  reliability  of  the 
power  systems,  which  associates  with  studies  for  improv- 
ing the  details  of  the  system  structures.  The  preven- 
tion of  harmful  effects  of  traveling  electromagnetic 
waves  on  high-voltage  circuits  has  received  adequate 
attention,  as  have  the  problems  of  the  most  efficient 
distribution  of  incremental  loads  between  generators 
and  circuits.  Many  featm-es  of  the  physical  strength  of 
circuits  and  associated  devices  have  required  extended 
research.  The  problems  of  corona  caused  by  electronic 
discharge  between  conductors  have  been  grappled  with 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  deleterious  effect  on  insula- 
tors and  insulating  materials  and  avoiding  excessive 
power  waste  on  transmission  lines.  Metallurgical  and 
mechanical  problems  relating  to  the  electrical  conduc- 
tivity and  the  mechanical  strength  of  the  materials 
available  for  line  conductors  have  received  their  propor- 
tion of  research  attention.  Even  the  prevention  of 
vibration  of  costly  conductors  erected  in  long  spans, 
which  vibration  causes  breakage  from  fatigue  stresses, 
has  called  for  attention  by  men  familiar  with  the  theories 
of  vibrations  and  with  vibration  phenomena. 

Intense  lightning  effects  are  characteristic  of  many 
zones  in  this  country,  and  are  natural  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree  in  most  parts.  These  have  been  the  cause  of 
much  damage  to  high-voltage  electric-power  systems 
and  of  interruptions  to  service.  Elaborate  researches 
in  the  field  of  lightning  phenomena,  the  characteristics 
of  lightning,  and  means  for  preventing  damage  to 
electric  systems  by  lightning  strokes  have  enlarged,  and 
are  still  enlarging,  our  knowledge  of  these  matters  with 
the  result  that  lightning  protection  of  power  systems  is 
reasonably  complete. 

Insulated  electric  cables  for  high-voltage  power 
systems  are  so  important  a  factor  that  this  subject  is 
here  assigned  the  next  section  for  itself. 

Insulated  Electric  Cables  for 

Power  Transmission  and  Distribution 

The  increasing  voltage  needed  for  the  delivery  of 
great  bulks  of  power  from  urban  power  stations,  and  the 
reluctance  of  city  governments  to  permit  heavy  circuits 
for  high- voltage  power  to  be  established  overhead  in  the 
streets,  brought  the  problems  of  underground  cables 
very  much  to  the  foreground.  This  imposed  a  major 
problem  of  research  on  the  cable  manufacturers  and  the 
power  companies,  which  is  related  to  the  conductors  and 
their  mutual  arrangements;  the  insidating  materials. 


Industrial  Research 


325 


their  qualities,  and  their  arrangement;  and  the  character 
of  the  protective  sheaths  for  the  cables  and  materials 
available  therefor.  Many  manufacturers  of  cables,  and 
power  companies  which  are  users  of  cables,  have  carried 
on  such  research.  Some  of  this  has  not  been  of  exactin<; 
scientific  character,  but  much  of  it  has  been,  and  con- 
tinues to  be,  higlily  commendable  for  its  scientific 
character  and  the  resiUts  produced. 

As  elsewhere  in  industrial  research  relating  to  elec- 
trical engineering,  men  of  a  variety  of  learning  and  skills 
have  been  needed  for,  and  have  participated  in,  cable 
research.  On  account  of  the  materials  to  be  used  and 
their  structural  associations,  the  researches  have  called 
on  chemists,  physicists,  metallurgists,  mathematicians, 
and  engineers.  The  problems  to  bo  attacked  are  atomic 
and  molecular,  electrical,  physical  (in  the  sense  of  struc- 
tural), and  chemical  (in  the  sense  of  general  and  organic 
chemistry).  Efforts  are  directed  to  discovering  im- 
proved selection  and  arrangements  of  materials,  to  the 
improvement  of  cables  of  known  types,  and  to  the 
reduction  of  costs  of  manufactiu-e,  so  that  users  may 
secure  cables  of  higher  voltage  ranges,  greater  reliability, 
and  longer  life,  and  withal  secure  cables  of  the  needed 
qualities  at  lower  prices. 

Cables  may  be  made  up  with  one  conductor  within  a 
protective  sheath  or  with  several  conductors  within  a 
common  sheath,  and  may  be  used  for  a  tliree-phase 
circuit,  for  example,  with  three  single-conductor  cables 
or  with  one  three-conductor  cable.  Copper  of  high 
electrical  conductivity  is  the  approved  material  for  the 
conductors  of  insulated  cables,  but  the  form  of  the  cross- 
section  of  the  conductor  has  some  significance.  How- 
ever, the  major  problems  of  high-voltage  cables  relate 
to  the  insulation  and  its  protection.  Cables  compe- 
tent to  transmit  power  of  moderately  high  voltage  (say 
66,000  volts)  came  into  some  use  early  in  the  decade  of 
1920-30,  and  thereafter  their  use  was  extended  rapidly. 
Cables  for  commercial  power  transmission  have  now 
been  produced  for  voltages  as  high  as  220,000  volts; 
but  the  problem  of  full  reliability  in  service  is  still  in 
the  domain  of  research. 

The  materials  now  most  used  commercially  or  experi- 
mentally for  high-voltage  cable  msulation  are  oil-im- 
pregnated paper  of  specific  quality,  rubber  compounds, 
synthetic  rubber  substitutes,  varnished  cambric,  free-oil 
and  gas  filling,  the  last  two  being  associated  with  suita- 
ble separators  for  the  conductors  and  with  suitable 
supply  tanks,  and  sometimes  with  means  for  main- 
taining a  relatively  high  pressure  in  the  tanks.  Rubber 
compounds  and  synthetic  rubber  substitutes  are  usually 
confined  to  low-voltage  conductors,  as  also  are  insu- 
lating coverings  composed  of  asbestos,  glass  fabrics,  and 
certain  plastics. 

The  problems  of  heat  conductivity,  heat  dissipation, 
and  the  safe  temperatures  for  various  insulating  mate- 


rials make  disturbing  relations  as  also  do  corona  effects 
in  unhomogeneous  arrangements.  The  producers  of 
refined  petroleum  oils  and  the  manufacturers  of  certain 
resins  and  other  chemical  compounds  have  actively 
joined  in  the  researches  relating  to  the  applicabilitj'  of 
their  products  to  cable  and  wire  insulation. 

Among  the  outcomes  of  research  in  this  field  are 
improvements  in  the  methods  of  measuring  the  quali- 
ties of  insulating  materials  and  of  cable  insulations,  and 
also  in  methods  of  periodically  testing  cables  in  situ 
to  discover  whether  they  are  deteriorating.  The  latter, 
of  course,  is  a  preventive  against  deterioration  being 
allowed  to  go  to  the  point  of  insulation  break-down  and 
consequent  interruption  of  the  electric  service  at  some 
moment  of  inconvenience  for  the  power  users,  since  the 
tests  will  show  whether  a  cable  should  be  replaced. 

Protective  sheaths  composed  of  lead  have  long  been 
a  subject  of  concern  because  of  their  mechanical  frailty 
and  in  certain  circumstances  their  readiness  for  cor- 
rosion or  fatigue.  Research  has  not  found  a  substitute 
but  has  pointed  the  way  to  eliminate  some  of  the 
causes  of  weakness  of  lead  sheaths  and  shows  promise 
of  discovering  some  improved  lead  alloy,  or  alloys, 
which  may  serve  the  purpose  more  satisfactorily. 

Wliile  the  great  problems  of  electrical  conductor  insu- 
lation relate  to  the  higher  voltages  used  in  power  trans- 
mission, the  annual  expenditure  in  this  country  for 
insulated  conductors  to  be  used  for  low-voltage  circuits 
on  consumers'  premises  has  led  to  active  research  by 
some  companies  in  the  effort  to  find  more  favorable 
compounds  for  the  substance  of  such  insulation  ma- 
terials. Considerable  progress  has  been  made  of  recent 
years,  but  apparently  more  may  be  accomplished. 

Miscellaneous  Applications 

Innumerable  commercial  applications  of  electricity 
have  been  improved  by  the  results  of  research  which 
have  not  been  referred  to  La  the  foregoing,  just  as  innu- 
merable details  have  not  been  mentioned  specifically, 
although  such  details  are  within  the  fields  discussed 
where  industrial  research  has  served  importantly.  For 
examples  there  are  numerous  household  conveniences 
such  as  electric  refrigerators,  air-conditioning  devices, 
and  the  like,  which  are  tlie  outcome  of  extended 
research. 

Space  does  not  warrant  discussing  these  various 
features,  but  one  special  application  commands  men- 
tion, namely,  electric  welding.  Wlien  Elihu  Thomson 
introduced  the  resistance-welding  process  and  de 
Meritens  introduced  the  arc-welding  process,  these  at 
first  received  relatively  scant  attention  except  for  places 
where  complete  assurance  of  the  integrity  of  a  weld  was 
not  of  primaiy  importance.  However,  in  later  years,  X- 
ray  and  corresponding  methods  of  examining  completed 
welds  have  been  proved  to  be  practicable  and  electric 


326 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


welding  ha^  taken  an  important  place  as  a  substitute 
for  the  riveting  of  pressure  vessels  and  conduits,  as  a 
means  for  fabricating  machine  frames  instead  of  using 
castings,  in  ship  building,  and  in  other  operations. 

The  status  of  the  electrical  engineer  in  the  welding 
field  is  peculiar  because  electrical  energy  and  its  appli- 
cation are  only  a  small  part  of  the  whole  problem. 
There  has  seemed  to  be  less  interest  by  the  metallurgist, 
the  chemist,  and  the  mathematical  physicist  in  the 
complex  problems  involved  in  welding  research.  It  has 
remained  for  the  electrical  engineers  and  the  mechanical 
engineer  to  coordinate  this  work  in  the  promotion 
of  better  electric  welding,  although  much  electric- 
welding  research  is  carried  on  outside  of  the  scope  of 
electrical  engineering  and  is  not  referred  to  here. 

In  the  general  field  of  application,  research  in  electric 
welding  has  followed  the  following  closely  related  lines: 

1 .  Residual  stress  studies. 

2.  Transient  heat  flow. 

3.  Chemistry  of  steel  through  the  critical  zone 

4.  Means  for  assuring  the  integrity  of  welds. 

Still  more  knowledge  is  required  to  permit  a  wider 
application  in  pressure  vessels  such  as  high-pressui-e 
steam  boUers,  where  code  authorities  have  set  various 
limitations  to  avoid  chances  of  failure.  The  accimau- 
lated  knowledge  of  the  reliability  of  results  from  electric 
welding  has  made  possible  savings  in  the  costs  of 
structures  such  as  pressure  vessels,  high-pressure  steam 
piping,  stainless-steel  rail  cars,  automobile  bodies, 
elements  of  airplanes,  ship  frames  and  huUs. 

In  the  equipment  aspect  of  arc-welding,  the  most 
important  project  is  that  of  improving  the  electrodes 
used  in  the  processes.  This  is  required  not  so  much 
from  the  standpoint  of  adaptability,  as  because  it  is 
extremely  important  that  the  chemical  reaction  in  the 
arc-welding  process  shall  be  that  of  reduction  and  not 
oxidation  of  the  welding  metal.  This  necessitates  close 
control  of  the  atmosphere  around  the  welding  arc, 
particularly  to  prevent  the  hot  metal  which  has  passed 
through  the  arc  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  air 
until  it  has  had  time  to  cool.  These  electrode  researches 
have  resulted  in  an  increased  specific  gravity  of  welds 
and  tensile  strength  above  that  of  the  parent  metal, 
and  in  a  better  control  of  the  materials  from  which 
the  wire  welding-rods  are  made.  Other  means  of 
preventing  the  welding  area  from  being  affected  by 
oxidation  have  been  invented  for  circumstances  where 
the  work  can  be  brought  to  the  plant  instead  of  the 
welding  equipment  being  taken  to  the  work.  An 
example  is  in  what  is  known  as  atomic-hydrogen  welding 
which  was  itself  derived  from  an  industrial  research 
laboratory. 

In  the  field  of  apparatus  associated  with  electric 
welding,  considerable  research  has  been,  and  is  being, 
carried  on  to  improve  the  sources  of  welding  currents 


through  the  use  of  electronic  tubes  of  higii  power  to 
replace  the  more  cumbersome  motor-generator  units. 

Future  Promise 

In  each  of  the  divisions  heretofore  discussed,  it  will 
be  noted  that  important  results  from  continuous  re- 
search have  been  and  are  being  achieved.  It  is  im- 
portant now  to  observe  that  in  most  of  the  fields 
the  possibilities  of  industrial  research  are  by  no  means 
exhausted.  Indeed,  greater  results  may  be  anticipated 
in  the  future  than  heretofore,  as  a  consequence  of  con- 
tinued prosecution  of  active  research  in  the  wide  fields 
of  electrical  engineering.  As  labor-saving  machinery 
is  introduced  to  a  greater  and  greater  extent  in  the  old 
industries  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  cost  of  prod- 
ucts, and  the  laboring  population  also  perhaps  increases 
somewhat,  the  encouragement  of  research  as  a  national 
resource  for  developing  new  industries  and  new  aspects 
of  old  industries  becomes  of  emphasized  importance. 

The  past  and  present  cost  of  industrial  research  in 
the  electrical-engineering  field  has  been  repaid  to  the 
users  of  electrical  equipment  and  service  in  multiple 
degree  by  the  reduced  prices  of  products  and  services, 
their  greater  adequacy  for  their  purposes,  and  the 
conveniences  therefore  confeiTed  on  the  population 
of  the  couatry.  With  the  conditions  of  increasing  use 
of  labor-saving  machinery  and  the  growth  of  the 
laboring  population  just  referred  to,  the  contributions 
which  industrial  research  may  make  to  national  welfare 
are  broadened  in  importance  and  the  extension  of  such 
research  deserves  a  generous  national  attitude  which 
will  reestablish  the  readiness  of  manufacturers  to  enter 
upon  new  industries  and  new  aspects  of  old  industries 
as  a  matter  of  adventure,  supported  by  the  hope  of 
establishing  permanent  advanced  steps  from  which 
additional  opportunities  for  employment  may  arise  and 
some  financial  profit  may  result. 

Suitable  industrial  research  also  notably  contributes 
through  its  results  to  the  stability  of  existing  manu- 
facturing and  operating  industries,  which  gives  a 
stabilizing  influence  on  employment.  Moreover,  it  is 
usual  for  industrial  research  laboratories  to  make  early 
publication  of  novel  results  secured,  resting  reliance  on 
the  patent  laws  to  protect  the  reasonable  rights  of  the 
originators  in  the  field  of  commercial  development. 
For  such  publication  there  are  journals  of  national  pro- 
fessional societies  in  the  electrical-engineering  field  and 
of  societies  associated  with  various  special  sciences. 
These  journals  are  hospitable  to  research  articles  and  to 
articles  relating  to  science  and  to  engineering  inventions 
which  originate  with  men  of  the  staffs  of  research 
laboratories.  The  meetings  of  the  societies  provide 
forums  for  the  discussion  of  research  and  the  develop- 
ment of  inventions.  In  some  instances,  the  laboratory 
itself  publishes  a  periodical  journal  with  a  high  scientific 


Industrial  Research 


327 


standard  and  a  wide  circulation  in  electrical-engineering 
circles.  In  such  ways,  among  others,  information  from 
the  laboratories  has  come  to  be  both  promptly  and 
widely  disseminated.  As  a  consequence,  the  industrial 
research  laboratories  have  become  in  America  among 
the  most  important  distributors  to  the  public  at  large 
of  knowledge  of  sciences  and  their  applications. 

There  is  a  sequence  leading  tlirough  problems  of 
industrial  research  which  it  is  needful  to  keep  in  mind 
because  it  consumes  time.  For  illustration,  Michael 
Faraday,  besides  many  other  great  achievements,  in 
the  first  third  of  the  nineteenth  century  thought  out  and 
experimentally  demonstrated  the  phenomena  of  electro- 
magnetic induction  and  also  outlined  the  conception  of 
fields  of  force  and  lines  of  force.  Maxwell  thereafter  syn- 
thesized such  ideas  by  means  of  powerful  mathematical 
treatment,  thereby  formulating  the  idea  of  electro- 
magnetic waves  in  space.  Hertz  experimentally  proved 
the  truth  of  Maxwell's  predictions  regarding  electric 
waves  and  provided  means  for  producing  and  for 
detecting  such  waves  in  a  range  of  wave  lengths.  The 
way  was  then  open  for  the  inventor,  Marconi,  to  carry 
forward,  and  wireless  communication  of  intelligence 
sprang  into  being  as  the  child  of  his  labors.  This  con- 
tinuous sequence  of  events  occupied  over  a  centmy  of 
active  reflection  and  research  for  bringing  modern 
radio  broadcasting  to  fruition.  Industrial  research, 
such  as  that  of  Marconi  and  his  associates  and  succes- 
sors, means  seeking,  seeking,  seeking  for  results  on  the 
basis  of  knowledge  already  abroad  and  fortified  by 
additional  knowledge  which  the  effort  of  seeking  may 
disclose.  The  latter,  as  a  byproduct,  often  gives  a  lead 
into  additional  threads  of  useful  research  and  ap- 
plications. 

Such  is  the  character  of  time-consuming  sequences 
that  usually  precede  the  great  inventions  from  which 
influential  industries  arise,  and  industrial  research  must 


be  maintained  in  the  broad  field  extending  from  touch 
with  basic  discoveries  in  science  to  the  final  great 
and  small  inventions.  A  notable  contribution  to  the 
speedy  application  of  new  knowledge  to  serviceable 
purposes  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  industrial 
research  laboratories,  which  promptly  seize  on  each 
new  discovery  in  science  for  the  purpose  of  examining 
into  its  possible  aid  to  human  comfort  and  convenience. 
The  length  of  period  between  original  discovery  and 
useful  application  is  shortened  by  the  processes  of  the 
industrial  research  laboratories. 

In  all  of  these  industrial  aspects  in  the  electrical-en- 
gineering field,  it  is  those  trained  in  the  basic  features 
of  the  sciences  and  economics  pertaining  to  the  field, 
i.  e.,  the  electrical  engineers,  who  are  needed  for  leader- 
ship ;  and  around  them  are  gathered  groups  of  men  and 
women  who  are  specialists  hi  the  various  sciences.  These 
groups  are  themselves  a  national  asset  when  wisely 
guided,  because  they  disclose  the  foundations  of  new  in- 
dustries and  of  improvements  to  old  industries  from 
which  are  secured  wider  opportunities  for  employment  of 
many  citizens  and  additional  comfort,  convenience,  and 
security  for  the  citizenship  at  large.  Electrical  engi- 
neering, including  all  of  its  power  branches  and  its 
associated  branches  of  illumination  and  communica- 
tions, is  a  relatively  new  art.  Revolutionary  advances 
which  have  arisen  within  the  field  to  the  benefit  of 
mankind  are  within  the  memory  of  mature  adults,  and 
hardly  more  than  a  beginning  has  been  made.  Indus- 
trial research  in  the  field,  guided  by  competently  expe- 
rienced electrical  engineers,  and  liberally  encouraged, 
therefore  must  be  mentioned  among  the  important 
national  resources  of  the  United  States.  Its  further 
expansion  may  be  supported  with  assurance  of  value 
to  be  returned  to  the  national  economy  and  of  service 
contributed  to  welfare  in  our  national  life. 


SECTION    VI 
8. INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH    BY    MECHANICAL    ENGINEERS 

By  Harvey  N.  Davis  and  C.  E.  Davies 

President  of  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J.;  and  Secretary  of  The  American  Society  of  Mechanical 

Engineers,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  respectively 


ABSTRACT 


Tliis  report  describes  the  functions  performed  by 
mechanical  engineering  research  skill  in  various  phases 
of  industry.  The  information  in  this  report,  obtained 
by  correspondence  from  over  400  individuals  in  55 
different  industries,  reflects  the  views  of  industry  itself 
about  the  part  played  by  mechanical  engineers  in 
research  and  reveals  the  widely  varying  understanding 
of  men  in  industry  about  the  purposes  and  values  of 
research. 

The  conclusions  of  the  report  are : 

Many  correspondents  emphasize  the  difficulty  of 
attempting  to  classify  industrial  research  activities 
according  to  the  particular  engineering  or  other  dis- 
ciplines within  wliich  they  fall  or  according  to  the 
particular  academic  training  of  those  engaged  in  them. 

While  testing  of  raw  materials,  of  work  in  process,  or 
of  finished  product  involves  activities  that  are  usually 
of  a  routine  rather  than  a  research  nature,  a  considerable 
amount  of  true  research  is  often  found  associated  with 
or  inspired  by  these  inspectional  activities. 

Research  with  respect  to  the  materials,  equipment, 
methods,  and  processes  of  manufacture  is  one  of  the 
commonest  and  most  important  types  of  activity  of 
mechanical  engineers  in  industrial  research  today. 

Development  of  better  products  and  of  new  products 
is  a  second  very  important  type  of  research.  On  it  all 
progress  in  the  essentially  mechanical  industries 
depends. 

Opinions  differ  widely  as  to  where,  if  anywhere,  a  line 
should  be  dra^vn  between  normal  engineering  design, 
engineering  development  work,  and  research.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  the  writers  of  this  report  that  research 
activities  and  the  research  spirit  and  technique  should 
be  broadly,  rather  than  narrowly,  conceived. 

Research,  and  particularly  field-research,  for  new 
uses  and  new  markets  for  old  products  is  of  the  greatest 
importance. 


Fundamental  research,  broadly  defined  as  including 
data  gathering  as  well  as  investigations  of  a  more  purely 
theoretical  nature,  is  very  common  in  industry,  and  is 
very  often  an  activity  of  mechanical  engineers. 

Research  in  universities  and  engineering  schools 
which  is  partly  or  wholly  paid  for  by  individual  indus- 
trial chents  or  cooperating  industrial  groups  consti- 
tutes an  important  part  of  the  great  volume  of  industrial 
research. 

Management  can  well  be  thought  of  as  a  branch  of 
mechanical  engineering.  It  is  certainly  a  type  of  work 
in  wliich  a  great  many  mechanical  engineers  are 
engaged.  It  is  a  field  in  which  much  is  being  done 
that  well  deserves  to  be  called  research.  It  is  a  field 
in  which  much  more  organized  research  should  be 
undertaken  by  industry. 

The  formal  organization  of  a  company's  research 
activities  varies  widely  as  between  companies  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  and  amounts  of  experience  in  research,  but 
not  in  any  significant  way  as  between  different  industries 
as  such. 

While  the  activities  of  public  utihties  seem  to  differ 
in  kind  from  those  of  factories,  the  differences  are 
probably  more  apparent  than  real,  and  the  research 
activities  of  utilities  are  as  diverse  and  important  as 
are  those  of  manufacturing  establishments.  Research 
in  management  is  probably  relatively  better  developed 
among  public  utilities  than  in  industry  generally. 

The  writers  of  this  report  suggest  for  the  considera- 
tion of  those  interested  in  industrial  research  the  thesis 
that  everything  that  anybody  in  industry  does  in 
the  coiu'se  of  his  daily  work  is  either  routine  or  research. 
It  is  suggested  that  the  universal  acceptance  of  this 
thesis  as  a  matter  of  definition  would  do  much  to 
clarify  the  thinking  of  industry  with  respect  to  the 
fundamental  basis  of  its  present  prosperity  and  future 
security. 


Introduction 
Basis  of  This  Report 

The  purpose  of  this  report  is  to  describe  the  functions 
performed  by  mechanical  engineering  research  skill  in 
328 


various  phases  of  industry.  The  wide  usefulness  of 
mechanical  engineering  research  has  made  it  necessary 
to  secure  aid  from  a  surprising  variety  of  industries. 
Information    has    been    obtained    from    organizations 


National  Resources  Planning  Board,  Industrial  Research 


329 


belonging  to  55  different  industries  ranging  from  iron 
and  steel,  power,  machinery  and  tools,  and  motor 
vehicles,  through  chemicals,  ceramics,  electrical  ma- 
chinery, and  petroleum,  to  food,  clothing,  amusement 
equipment,  beverages,  musical  mstrumcnts,  and  in- 
surance, and  even  large  mail-order  houses  and  depart- 
ment stores. 

The  approach  to  industry  for  this  information  was 
made  by  means  of  over  600  letters  sent  to  executives  in 
charge  of  research  in  selected  firms,  and  to  the  members 
of  the  various  research  committees  of  The  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers.  These  letters  were 
pm-posely  plu-ased  briefly,  merely  defining  industrial 
research  in  the  words  of  Dr.  C  F.  Hirshfeld  as  "or- 
ganized fact  fmding  of  any  sort  that  is  financed  by 
industry,"  and  asking  for  "a  brief  statement  of  the 
research  functions  performed  by  mechanical  engineers 
in  your  organization,"  even  if  "this  fact-finding  function 
in  yoxir  company  is  not  formally  organized  as  a  research 
laboratory."  Because  of  this  brevity,  the  material 
submitted  is  neither  homogeneous  nor  exhaustive — a 
quantitative  survey  of  industrial  research  is  being 
undertaken  by  others — but  also  because  of  this  ap- 
proach many  of  the  answers  contain  points  of  view, 
opinions,  and  side  lights  on  research  that  might  not 
have  been  elicited  by  more  formal  and  meticulous 
questioning.  Over  400  letters  have  come  from  mem- 
bers of  more  than  325  industrial  and  other  organiza- 
tions, the  responses  ranging  all  the  way  from  "we  are 
unable  to  cooperate  in  the  matter  referred  to"  to 
extended  descriptions  and  stimulating  essays  on  re- 
search, some  of  them  in  printed  form.  To  all  of  the 
cooperating  individuals  and  to  the  organizations  they 
represent  giateful  acknowledgment  is  hereby  made  for 
their  cooperation,  which  has  often  involved  an  expendi- 
ture of  much  time  and  effort. 

Quotations  from  these  letters  form  a  considerable 
part  of  this  report.  For  the  purpose  of  clear  condensa- 
tion, the  phrasing  of  the  writer  has  not  always  been 
followed  exactl3',  even  in  matter  within  quotation 
marks,  for  which  liberties  apologies  are  hereby  offered; 
but  it  is  believed  that  the  meaning  of  the  original  writer 
has  been  preserved  in  all  cases. 

Distinction  Between  Mechanical 
Engineers  and  Others 

One  of  the  difficulties  emphasized  by  many  corre- 
spondents is  that  of  distinguishing  between  "mechanical 
engineers"  and  other  sorts  of  engineers,  particularly 
chemical,  electrical,  textile,  and  agricultural  engineers, 
and  also  between  engineers,  metallurgists,  physicists, 
and  certain  types  of  chemists.  One  correspondent 
writes,  "Thus  it  may  be  said  that  our  industrial  research 
performed  by  mechanical  engineers  covers  a  very  wide 
field  and  a  field  which  frequently  overlaps,  or  which  is 


coordinated  with,  research  by  chemical  engineers  along 
more  clearly  defined  chemical  engineering  lines." 
Another  writes,  "It  is  quite  impossible  to  differentiate 
mechanical  from  chemical  engineering  research  in  our 
organization."  In  another  field,  a  research  executive 
writes,  "Our  industrial  research  work  is  a  mixture  of 
mechanical,  chemical,  and  petroleum  engineering. 
From  a  management  viewpoint,  it  has  been  found  that, 
with  the  exception  of  certain  specialized  work,  an  en- 
gineer with  a  degree  in  any  of  the  engineering  sciences, 
who  is  aggressive,  adaptable,  and  possessed  of  vision, 
will  work  into  industrial  research  quite  nicely."  In 
another  company  the  "chief  petroleum  engineer"  is  a 
mechanical  engineer.  A  rubber  manufacturer  writes, 
"The  limitation  to  mechanical  engineers  in  your  letter 
is  difficult  as  the  work  of  mechanical,  electrical,  chemi- 
cal, etc.,  engineers  is  interlocked  and  interdependent." 
The  vice  president  in  charge  of  research  of  a  large  non- 
ferrous  metal  industry  wi'ites:  "To  sum  it  up,  it  is 
difficult  to  say  how  much  the  mechanical  engineer  alone 
contributes  to  research  in  ovu"  own  experience.  I  would 
rather  say  that  he  is  an  important  partner,  his  impor- 
tance being  greater  in  the  more  strictly  mechanical  in- 
dustries, and  less  in  other  industries."  And  the  head 
of  a  governmental  bureau  says  of  an  unusually  com- 
prehensive research  program  that  "all  of  it  is  under  the 
leadership  and  direction  of  engineers,  physicists,  and 
chemists,  with  no  possibility  of  segregating  them." 

Wliere  a  distinction  is  made,  opinions  differ  as  to  the 
importance  of  the  work  of  the  mechanical  engineers. 
The  director  of  one  industrial  research  laboratory  writes, 
"At  the  possible  risk  of  offending  the  mechanical  engi- 
neers, it  is  our  opinion,  based  upon  our  own  experience, 
as  well  as  upon  the  contacts  which  we  have  had  with 
other  industries,  that  industrial  research,  or  organized 
fact-finding  of  the  more  fundamental  character  in  the 
field  of  mechanics,  is  carried  out  primarily  by  physicists 
rather  than  by  mechanical  engineers."  But  the  direc- 
tor of  the  technical  di\'ision  of  another  company  writes, 
"It  would  be  proper  to  say  that  all  of  our  research  is  in 
the  field  of  mechanical  engineering  as  you  define  it. 
The  physicist  and  chemist  that  we  employ  assist  in 
problems  related  to  engineering."  A  research  engineer 
in  an  aviation-engine  factory  writes,  "Too  much  semi- 
fundamental  work  is  laid  out  and  attempted  by  physi- 
cists, chemical  engineers,  and  chemists.  In  conse- 
quence, the  application  of  their  results  is  an  attempt  to 
apply  the  specific  to  the  general  without  information 
sufficiently  broad.  In  my  opinion,  work  on  engine 
principles  should  be  conducted  or  directed  by  mechan- 
ical engineers";  and  the  director  of  still  another  indus- 
trial research  laboratory  writes,  "Our  feeling  is  that,  as 
evidenced  by  oiu-  work  for  the  past  10  years,  the  mechan- 
ical engineer  at  this  laboratory  wUl  imdertake  any  prob- 
lem that  comes  to  liim,  of  whatever  nature.     My  hst 


330 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


indicates  the  wide  variety  that  will  turn  up,  running  all 
the  way  from  a  new  vehicle  for  the  exploration  of  marsh 
territory  otherwise  impenetrable  to  the  development  of 
accurate  instruments  for  investigating  oil  mider  condi- 
tions at  the  bottom  of  a  well.  In  general,  we  wUl  tackle 
any  mechanical,  electrical,  or  civil  engineering  problem 
that  is  handed  to  us  and  any  similar  problems  that  may 
be  passed  along  to  us  by  other  groups,  particularly  the 
chemical  group.  The  effect  of  machines  is  so  great  on 
the  perfonnance  of  fuels  and  lubricants  that  in  all  cases 
the  mechanical  engineer  must  have  a  hand  in  the  design 
of  the  test  apparatus,  so  as  to  standardize  mechanical 
effects,  before  the  chemist  can  determine  any  tiling  much 
about  the  beha^'ior  of  a  lubricant  as  such,  the  mechan- 
ical effects  being  very  much  greater  in  magnitude  than 
the  total  differences  between  lubricants." 

These,  and  other  statements  in  the  letters  received, 
emphasize  strikingly  the  futility  of  attempting  to 
classify  industrial  research  workers  according  to  the 
disciphnes  in  wliich  they  were  originally  trained.  There 
is  far  more  difference  between  a  research  man,  a  produc- 
tion man,  and  a  salesman  than  there  is  between  a 
mechanical  engineer,  a  chemical  engineer,  a  physicist 
and  a  chemist.  In  Dr.  Hirshfeld's  words,  "For  real 
success  (in  industrial  research)  a  very  thorough  ground- 
ing in  many  different  and  extensive  fields  of  knowledge 
is  required."  Similarly  an  executive  in  a  public  utility 
writes,  "E.xcept  as  a  narrow  specialist,  the  mechanical 
engineer,  hke  the  electrical  engineer,  the  physicist,  the 
chemist,  the  metallurgist,  loses  his  identity  in  organized 
research.  Research  is  effective  only  to  the  extent  that 
it  brings  to  bear  on  its  problems  the  help  of  all  branches 
of  science  that  may  contribute."  And  an  instrument 
maker  writes:  "Our  field  of  work  is  so  diversified,  com- 


FicuRB  98. —  Et|uipineiit  for  liivcsiigatiori  of  lloat.  ])ist,riliution 
in  a  Conventional  Railway  Journal  Box  Assembly,  Railway 
Service  and  Supply  Corporation,  Indianapolis,  Indiana 


prising  measuring  problems  in  electricity,  magnetism, 
hght,  heat,  ra(Uant  energy,  sound  and  mechanical  phe- 
nomena, that  whether  the  engineer  is  nominally  an 
electrical  or  a  mechanical  engineer,  he  becomes,  after  a 
training  period,  actually  an  applied  physicist  in  a  broad 
sense." 

No  attempt  will  therefore  be  made  to  define  a  "me- 
chanical engineer"  for  the  purposes  of  tliis  report.  Any- 
one working  in  a  field  commonly  thought  of  as  within 
the  wide  range  of  mechanical-engineering  acti\'ities 
deserves  attention;  so  also  does  anyone  who  thinks  of 
liimself  as  a  mechanical  engineer  but  who  works  in  some 
apparently  remote  and  unrelated  field,  for  these  men 
may  be  showing  the  way  to  new  research  opportunities 
of  great  potential  value  to  industry  and  of  equally  great 
interest  to  adventurous  engineers  looking  for  careers. 

This  uncritical  attitude  with  respect  to  exact  defini- 
tions is  encouraged  by  a  statement  from  a  large  auto- 
mobile maker  to  the  effect  that  "mechanical  engineering 
enters  into  every  phase  of  our  work.  It  is  necessary  to 
have  mechanical  engineers  in  our  metallurgy,  physics, 
and  chemistry  departments,  in  addition  to  the  straight 
mechanical  engineering  departments  that  handle  prob- 
lems in  appUed  mechanics,  engine  development,  and 
many  related  subjects." 

Process  Research 

Since  this  report  is  concerned  with  industrial  research, 
the  major  field  of  activity  from  which  its  material  must 
necessarily  be  drawn  is  manufacturing  or  production, 
and  it  is  no  sm-prise  to  find  more  or  less  formally  organ- 
ized fact-finding  penneating  every  phase  of  produc- 
tive activity.  To  quote  Dr.  Hirshfeld  again  it  is  evi- 
dent that  "almost  every  department  can  profit  from 
organized  fact-finding  studies." 

A  rough  but  useful  classification  of  the  various  phases 
of  production  is  one  that  distinguishes  between  process 
and  product,  and  the  material  to  be  presented  in  the 
major  part  of  this  report  will  be  arranged  on  the  basis 
of  this  distinction. 

Inspection  of  Raw  Materials 

One  of  the  earhest  forms  in  wliich  what  were  often 
called  "research  laboratories"  appeared  in  industry 
was  a  department  set  up  for  the  testing  of  materials 
purchased  for  use  in  manufacture.  Such  procedures 
have  been  common  in  industry  for  many  years,  but  it 
is  customary  nowadays  to  speak  of  them  scornfully,  if 
at  all,  in  any  report  on  "research."  It  is  true  that 
I'outine  testing  is  very  far  indeed  from  research.  Never- 
theless, the  inspection  of  raw  materials  should  not  be 
ignored  in  any  attempt  to  describe  comprehensively 
the  research  function  in  industry,  for  two  reasons. 

In  the  first  place,  groups  strictly  limited  to  raw-ma- 
terials testing  may,  and  often  do,  attack  and  solve 


Industrial  Research 


331 


problems  of  instrumentation  and  method  and  of 
"following  up  special  tests  under  oi)erating  conditions" 
by  means  of  what  cannot  but  be  regarded  as  industrial 
research.  One  iiulustrial  executive  said,  and  many 
perhaps  might  have  said:  "1  pei-sonally  think  the  work 
our  materials-testing  group  does  is  so  high  grade  that 
it  should  bo  classified  as  research.  The  department 
concerned,  however,  questioned  whether  it  shoidd  be 
so  classified." 

A  second  reason  for  mentioning  materials  testing  in 
any  survey  of  industrial  research  is  tliat  what  starts  as 
a  routine  testing  laboratory  so  often  develops  later  into 
a  research  department  in  the  strictest  and  most  useful 
sense.  That  tliis  has  been  the  normal  thing  in  industry 
has  been  stated  as  follows  by  Dr.  C.  E.  K.  Mees:  "The 
function  of  the  research  department  has  broadened 
very  much  in  the  last  25  years.  Originally  laboratories 
were  introduced  into  industry  to  deal  with  the  works 
processes,  the  control  of  raw  materials,  and  the  testing 
of  the  finished  product.  Then  the  laboratories  began 
to  develop  new  processes  which  could  be  applied  in 
manufacturing.  Then  they  began  to  produce  entirely 
new  products,  untU  finally  the  research  division  of 
industry  has  taken  for  its  province  the  whole  technical 
future  of  the  business  and  even  of  the  industry  as  a 
whole." 

Study  of  Raw  Materials 

One  of  the  first  of  the  additional  functions  whicli  a 
routine  materials-testing  laboratory  commonly  assmnes 
is  that  of  studying  the  physical  properties  of  the  various 
raw  materials  available,  both  to  insure  wise  choice 
among  them  and  to  determine  their  limitations  for 
design.  Often  tliis  leads  to  the  use  of  materials  new 
to  the  particidar  industrial  organization  concerned. 
Sometimes  it  leads  to  the  development  of  wholly  new 
materials  or  to  wholly  new  uses  of  materials  that 
have  been  developed  for  some  quite  different  purpose. 

This  study  of  raw  materials  is  one  of  the  commonest 
research  functions  in  industry.  Perhaps  half  of  those 
who  have  supplied  material  for  this  report  have  ex- 
pUcitly  mentioned  research  on  materials. 

Thus  a  manufacturer  of  compressors  writes:  "In  our 
standard  designs  we  use  valves  of  the  poppet  type  of 
forged  steel,  or  ring-plate  valves  of  stainless  or  Swedish 
steel,  or  diaphragm  valves  of  the  flexing  type  using 
Swedish  steel.  Each  of  these  materials  must  be  evalu- 
ated, as  well  as  its  design  limitations  for  application,  in 
order  to  produce  a  satisfactory  valve;  and  further,  the 
metals  and  shapes  of  the  seats  on  wlaich  the  valves  work, 
and  the  restraining  medium  to  control  their  flexing  or 
lift,  must  also  be  researched  for  design  and  application 
limitations." 

Many  other  users  of  iron  and  steel  report  researches 
on  those  materials,  such  as  "extensive  research  into  the 


development  of  stabilizcnl  and  oilier  stainless  steels,  as 
well  as  assisting  in  dcvclopnicut  of  satisfactory  high 
chrome  irons  for  use  in  corrosive  conditions  at  high 
tempeniturcs";  "research  in  high-tenaperature  ma- 
terial" for  steam-  aiul  mercury-turbine  and  exhaust- 
driven  supercharger  blades;  investigations  on  the  "creep 
and  relaxation  of  turbine  materials  at  elevated  tem- 
peratures and  the  fatigue  strength  and  internal  damp- 
ing of  blade  and  rotor  materials  at  room  and  high  tem- 
peratures"; "analysis  and  survey  of  pipe  characteristics 
for  drilling  wells  of  various  types";  and  many  studies 
on  such  matters  as  "corrosion  problems,"  which  appear 
over  and  over  again  throughout  industry,  "methods 
of  heat  treating,"  "stresses  in  materials  of  engine  con- 
struction," "radiography  and  creep  testing,"  "best 
materials  from  the  standpoint  of  machinabdity  or 
plant  production,"  "materials  best  suited  (to  our 
product)  from  the  standpoint  of  life,  economy,  and  per- 
formance," "the  use  of  carbon-molybdenum  steel  plate 
for  high-temperature  pressure  vessels,"  "the  develop- 
ment and  use  of  70,000  p.  s.  i.  tensile-strength  carbon- 
steel  plate  for  steam  dnuns  and  pressure  vessels," 
"permissible  stress  under  conditions  of  plastic  flow," 
and  many  other  kindred  subjects. 

All  tliis  is,  of  course,  research  that  is  primarily  metal- 
lurgical in  nature;  but  in  surprisingly  many  cases  it  is 
reported  as  done  either  by  mechanical  engineers  and 
metallurgists  working  in  collaboration  or  by  mechanical 
engineers  as  such.  Many  industrial  firms  also  report  a 
growing  research  interest  in  plastics,  a  field  where 
mechanical  engineers  are  likewise  apparently  working 
in  close  collaboration  with  chemists. 

Other  studies  of  raw  materials  that  have  been  re- 
ported deal  with  "the  proper  types  of  materials,  such  as 


FicuKt:  !il<.  M|ueeze"  Test  Machine  for  Subjecting  Passenger 
Cars  to  Compression  Load  of  900,000  pounds,  Tennsvlvania 
Railroad  Kesearch  Laboratories,  Altoona,  Pennsylvania 


332 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


bronze,  monel,  stainless,  etc.,"  for  various  types  of  oil 
filters,  with  "the  selection  of  suitable  materials,  both 
ferrous  and  nonferrous,"  for  railway  signal  systems  by 
one  firm  and  for  piston  rings  another,  with  "the  investi- 
gation of  new  materials  for  cylinders  of  internal-com- 
bustion engines,"  with  "trying  different  materials, 
mainly  for  bearing  qualities"  for  surveying  instruments, 
with  "the  study  of  construction  materials  for  oil  refiner- 
ies," with  "a  general  study  of  pitting  and  galling  of  gear 
teeth,"  with  "the  rubbing  qualities  of  various  materials 
for  labyrinth  seals"  in  steam  turbines,  with  "the  flexi- 
bility and  strength  of  control  bellows,"  with  "obtaining 
contact  material  which  will  stand  up  better  under 
the  make  and  break  of  current  in  voltage-control 
devices  on  automobile  generators,"  with  "better  life  of 
refractories"  in  cement  kilns,  with  "the  application  and 
use  of  precious  metals  as  linings  for  certain  types  of 
reaction  vessel,"  and  with  "the  development  of  suitable 
muds  for  oil-well  drilling." 

Instances  of  this  sort  could  be  multiplied  almost 
indefinitely;  indeed  every  factory  has  its  raw-material 
problems  and  sooner  or  later  brings  a  process  of  organ- 
ized fact  finding  to  bear  on  them.  In  activities  of  this 
sort,  mechanical  engineers  are  making  one  of  their 
major  contributions  to  industrial  research. 

Study  of  Manufacturing  Equipment  and  Processes 

From  organized  fact  finding  about  materials  to  be 
used  in  manufacture,  it  is  but  a  step  to  a  similar  study 
of  the  processes  and  machines  used  in  the  fabricating 
process.  This  constitutes  perhaps  the  major  field  in 
industrial  research  today.  It  is  a  field  in  which  me- 
chanical engineers  are  likely  to  play  a  large  part  in  every 
industry  and  a  predominating  part  in  many  industries. 
It  is  the  field  in  which  mechanical  engineers  are  making 
what  is  probably  their  greatest  contribution  to  indus- 
trial research. 

A  classical  example  of  industrial  research  of  this  type 
of  the  very  highest  quality  and  with  the  most  far-reach- 
ing consequences  is  Frederick  Winslow  Taylor's  work 
on  the  art  of  cutting  metals  and  the  closely  related 
development  and  introduction  of  high-speed  cutting 
tools  by  Taylor  and  White.  The  current  phase  of  the 
long  stream  of  research  activity  started  by  these 
pioneers  is  represented  on  the  one  hand  by  the  Metals 
Cutting  Handbook  published  by  a  research  committee 
of  The  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  in  the 
fall  of  1939  and  on  the  other  by  a  number  of  recent 
developments  in  hard-cemented-cai-bide  cutting  tools. 

Many  correspondents  emphasize  this  function  of  the 
mechanical  engineer  in  industrial  research.  One  rub- 
ber manufacturer  writes,  "The  mechanical  engineer's 
function  is  to  handle  the  physical  design  of  the  product 
and  the  manufacturing  problems  pertaining  to  it"; 
another  in  the  same  field  assigns  to  mechanical  engi- 


neers "the  development  of  machines  for  new  products 
and  new  ways  of  obtaining  certain  results";  a  third 
writes,  "Special  machines  for  manufacture  of  product 
are  designed  and  built  to  improve  quality  or  reduce  cost. 
Many  of  these  are  unique  and  hitherto  unknown";  and 
a  fourth  is  investigating  "ventilation  and  air-condition- 
ing problems,"  and  the  development  of  "apparatus  to 
maintain  uniformity  of  materials  in  process." 

Two  makers  ofpower-plant  equipment  mention  "the 
development  of  new  fabricating  methods,  equipment, 
or  procedure"  and  "investigations  to  determine  labor- 
saving  devices  and  reductions  in  manufacturing  costs; 
also  to  solve  difficulties  in  manufacturing  and  produc- 
tion." 

One  oil  refinery  writes:  "Our  mechanical  engineers 
are  concerned  with  evaluating  the  factors  involved  in 
heat  transfer,  temperature  control,  and  agitation  during 
processing  as  they  affect  the  quality  and  nature  of  our 
products."  Another  writes,  "While  our  research  activ- 
ities require  chemical  engineers  to  a  greater  degree 
than  mechanical  engineers,  the  latter  are  of  consider- 
able importance  to  us  generally  and  indispensable  in 
many  cases.  For  example,  in  our  processing  we  are 
continually  improving  both  apparatus  and  process, 
and  while  we  can  purchase  various  units  to  be  assem- 
bled, the  coordination,  the  combinations,  and  partic- 
ularly the  instrumentation  require  systematic  re- 
search." A  tliird  mentions  a  mechanical  engineer  who 
"is  an  expert  on  distUlation.  He  carries  out  experi- 
mental work  on  distillation  columns  to  determine  the 
best  type  of  packings,  contact  media,  and  mechanical 
design."  And  an  oU-producLng  company  mentions 
"investigations  of  control  equipment  for  high-pressure 
wells." 

An  ordnance  maker  writes,  "Our  mechanical-engi- 
neering research  program  covers  improvements  to 
product  and  improvements  to  process"  and  continues, 
"Research  work  to  improve  processing  includes  the 
development  of  special  machinery  to  reduce  labor, 
increase  output,  and  improve  quality;  also  to  consoli- 
date two  or  more  machine  operations,  to  adapt  new  fabri- 
cating techniques  to  existing  components  and  to  rede- 
sign product  where  possible  to  take  advantage  of  stand- 
ardization of  components,  etc." 

In  a  glass  factory  "an  important  part  of  the  work  of 
our  mechanical  engineers,  independently  and  in  collab- 
oration with  our  other  technical  people,  is  connected 
with  research  in  the  improvement  of  glass  making, 
especially  with  regard  to  new  and  improved  mechanical 
equipment  in  the  manufacture  of  glass." 

From  various  manufacturers  of  optical  goods  came 
the  following:  "Considerable  time  is  spent  on  processing 
as  connected  with  design,  mainly  for  the  improvement 
of  the  product,  but  also  for  reduction  of  cost  of  manu- 
facture";  "another  function,   which  is  probably   the 


Industrial  Research 


333 


larger  field,  is  the  study  of  factory  inethods  and  proc- 
esses and  the  design  of  new  equipment  based  on  the 
findings  of  these  studies";  "the  research  activities  of 
our  mechanical-engineering  staff  include  the  develop- 
ment of  new  production  equipment  and  methods  and 
the  design  of  original  tools  to  improve  quality,  speed  up 
production,  and  reduce  manufacturing  cost." 

An  excellent  example  of  cooperative  research  on  proc- 
esses is  the  cottonseed  research  program,  which  was 
set  up  in  1932  "to  study  the  mechanical  problems  in- 
volved in  storing,  conditioning,  and  cooking  cottonseed," 
in  the  coiu^e  of  which  it  has  been  discovered  "that 
cottonseed  can  be  successfully  cooked  under  pressure 
conditions  at  temperatures  formerly  thought  "destruc- 
tive," with  lowered  costs,  reduced  losses,  and  greatly 
improved  control.  Progress  is  also  reported  on  im- 
proving methods  of  separating  the  kernels  of  cotton- 
seed without  loss  of  absorbed  oil  in  the  hulls  and  of 
extracting  the  oil  from  the  cottonseed  meats  with  a 
minimimi  waste  of  oil  left  in  the  cake. 

A  locomotive  builder  "is  devoting  considerable 
attention  to  the  development  and  extension  of  fusion 
welding,  both  in  its  apphcation  to  locomotive  construc- 
tion and  in  other  general  fabrication  work.  In  this 
connection  recent  extensive  fatigue  tests  have  been 
made  to  establish  the  value  of  fillet  welds  in  locomotive 
tender  tank  construction." 

A  manufacturer  of  photographic  materials  lists  eight 
"items  of  research  work  performed  by  mechanical 
engineers  in  [his]  organization,  either  solely  or  with  the 
collaboration  of  physicists  or  chemists,"  all  of  which 
concern  process  unprovement,  ranging  from  "investi- 
gation of  heat  transfer  coefficients  under  conditions 
not  usually  encountered  in  industiy,"  through  "uivesti- 
gations  of  atmospheric  impurities  and  means  for  theii' 
removal,"  to  "investigation  and  development  of  special 
methods  of  preventing  and  controlling  fires,  explosions, 
decompositions,  etc." 

Fundamental  research  in  the  chemical  industries  is, 
of  course,  primarily  in  the  hands  of  chemists  and 
chemical  engineers,  but  here,  as  elsewhere,  mechanical 
engineers  play  a  large  part  in  process  improvement. 
Thus  a  pharmaceutical  house  reports  "a  great  deal  of 
work  on  the  distillation  of  aqueous  and  alcoholic  solu- 
tions at  low  temperatures,"  on  "the  properties  of  gela- 
tin and  the  manufacturing  of  gelatin  capsules,"  and 
on  "stainless-steel  welding  and  finishing  applications 
as  affecting  pharmaceutical  products"  as  done  by 
mechanical  engineers.  One  of  the  largest  chemical 
organizations  in  the  country  reports  that  "the  research 
functions  performed  by  mechanical  engineers  in  this 
company  are  for  the  two  main  purposes  of  developing 
useful  design  information  for  new  equipment  and 
processes  and  for  use  in  improving  yields  and  cutting 
costs  on  old  ones,"  and  lists  some  25  specific  problems 


"along  strictly  mechanical  lines"  in  which  their  indus- 
trial research  groups  are  interested.  In  another  large 
chemical  organization,  a  "division  specializing  in  the 
production  of  fine  organic  chemicals  and  synthetic 
coating  resins  utilizes  engineering  research  in  the 
development  of  (1)  special  heating  equipment  for 
sensitive  reactions,  (2)  highly  specialized  apparatus 
for  catalytic  reactions,  (3)  more  effective  devices  for 
agitation,  and  (4)  automatic  process  control."  A 
third  large  chemical  organization  lists  10  "major  types" 
of  research  items  about  evenly  divided  between  process 
and  product  research,  and  adds:  "From  the  above  it  is 
evident  that  the  mechanical  engineers  in  our  organiza- 
tion are  engaged  in  research  in  many  of  the  fundamen- 
tal branches  of  mechanical  engineering.  Production 
methods,  machine  design,  handling  of  liquids  and  gases 
with  special  reference  to  heat  transfer,  and  the  cutting 
and  shaping  of  metals  are  among  the  most  important 
of  these." 

In  the  electrical  manufacturing  industries,  mechanical 
engineers  play  an  important  part.  One  of  the  largest 
companies  in  tliis  field  "pioneered  in  the  development 
of  large  electric  furnaces  for  use  in  copper  brazing  parts 
for  [its]  own  production,"  developed  "several  very 
ingenious  balancing  machines"  which  "have  made 
possible  the  present  day  large  steam  turbine,"  and  con- 
ducted "researches  in  welding  [which]  have  led  to  the 
substitution  of  fabricated  parts  in  the  frames  of  larger 
motors,"  to  name  but  three  of  many  significant  re- 
searches. Sunilar  studies  of  the  possibility  of  "substi- 
tuting fabricated  steel  for  castings,  utilization  of  die 
castings,  plastics,  etc."  are  reported  from  a  variety  of 
other  manufacturing  establishments.  Another  elec- 
trical concern  reports  "a  large  amomit  of  work  to  de- 
velop improved  equipment  for  observations  of  the 
vibrations  in  large  machines,"  work  on  "the  determina- 
tion of  stress  concentrations"  by  photoelastic  methods, 
and  work  on  "mechanical  problems  in  building  and 
operating  transformers,"  again  to  name  but  three  of 
many  examples.  One  of  the  somewhat  smaller  com- 
panies writes:  "Our  mechanical  engineering  research 
activities  are  confined  to  developments  incident  to 
products  we  manufacture  and  to  the  solution  of  manu- 
facturing problems,  such  as  design  of  suitable  auto- 
matic machinery  which  is  not  otherwise  available  for 
economic  and  accurate  production  of  our  products." 
And  another  smaller  company  has  a  mechanical  engi- 
neering group  "which  designs  equipment  for  the  manu- 
facture of  radio  receiving  tubes"  and  another  which 
"designs  equipment  for  the  manufacture  of  incandes- 
cent and  fluorescent  lamps." 

Important  as  are  the  process  researches  of  mechan- 
ical engineers  in  all  these  various  industries,  it  is  prob- 
ably in  the  metal  industries,  particularly  iron  and 
steel,  that  engineers  are  most  indispensable  m  laying 


334 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


the  foundations  for,  and  carrying  througli  improvements 
in,  manufacturing  methods. 

In  the  nonferrous  field  one  company  reports:  "Me- 
chanical engineers  in  our  various  fabricating  plants, 
working  in  conjunction  with  our  central  engineering 
department,  research  laboratories,  and  metallurgists, 
are  always  striving  to  improve  the  fabrication  process. 
This  work  continually  involves  the  design  of  new  im- 
proved equipment,  such  as  rolling  mills,  remelting  and 
heat-treating  furnaces,  ingot-pouring  equipment,  level- 
ing or  flattening  machines,  forging,  casting,  and  ex- 
trusion equipment,  and  handling  devices  for  use  with 
this  equipment";  and,  according  to  another  firm 
making  die-castings  "further  development  and  ex- 
pansion of  the  die-casting  process  is  dependent  largely 
upon  research  of  mechanical  engineering,  directed 
toward  the  improvement  of  dies,  machinery,  and 
equipment." 

A  chief  metallurgical  engineer  in  a  large  steel  com- 
pany writes:  "The  mechanical  engineer  imdoubtedly 
has  a  definite  place  in  research  conducted  by  the  steel 
industry,  but  he  is  seldom  classified  as  a  research 
worker.  His  work  is  usually  practical  research  with  a 
view  of  improving  processes,  production  of  a  superior 
product,  and  economies  of  operation,  and  the  import- 
ance of  his  work  is  recognized  by  all."  Another  large 
steel  company  reports  research  work  handled  by  me- 
chanical engineers  on  "the  investigation  and  develop- 
ment of  mechanical  manufacturing  devices,"  on  "the 
investigation  of  ways  and  means  for  eliminating  the 
cause  of  mechanical  defects  in  products,"  and  on 
"special  problems  involving  heat  transfer,  air  condi- 
tioning, etc.,  in  conjimction  with  combustion  engineers." 

A  steel-fabricating  plant  writes,  "We  have  a  mechan- 
ical and  metallurgical  research  department  which  is 
concerned  with  the  development  of  equipment,  proc- 
esses, technique,  new  materials,  etc.,  for  welding,  hot 
working  of  metals  and  the  fabrication  of  pipe,  pressm-e 
vessels  and  other  equipment."  Another  fabricating 
plant  reports  research  by  mechanical  engineers  with 
respect  to  "improvement  in  pipe  mill  processes  and 
equipment,  looking  to  reduced  cost  and  product 
quality,"  and,  in  particular,  with  respect  to  "mass 
production  of  precision  pipe  threads."  A  third  fabri- 
cating organization  assigns  mechanical  engineers  to 
fact-finding  work  "particularly  with  respect  to  can 
making  and  can  sealing  machinery,"  and  lists  8  or  10 
"typical  problems  now  under  investigation,"  such  as 
"determination  of  the  fabricating  factors  influencing  the 
strength  of  soldered  side  seams,  both  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  mechanics  of  the  can  body  and  the  applica- 
tion of  solder  thereto,"  "development  of  a  satisfactory 
method  for  the  high-speed  soldering  of  black  iron  cans," 
and  "elimination  of  solder  particles  and  dust  from  the 
inside  of  the  can." 


These  examples,  and  many  others  that  could  be 
cited,  show  the  great  diversity  of  the  industries,  and 
the  wide  variety  of  the  problems,  with  respect  to  which 
mechanical  engineers  are  performing  useful  and  im- 
portant research  services  by  studying  and  perfecting 
manufacturing  equipment  and  processes. 

Control  of  Production 

Like  the  inspection  of  raw  material  coming  into  the 
manufacturing  plant,  the  inspection  of  parts  in  process, 
the  control  of  the  process,  and  the  inspection  and  test 
of  the  finished  product  embody  much  that  is  routine 
and  far  removed  from  research.  However,  these 
fimctions  often  provide  useful  operating  data  and 
several  companies  that  have  contributed  to  this  report 
have  shown  convincingly  that  the  research  method 
and  approach  have  been  used  to  great  advantage  in 
their  inspection  or  quality  control  procedure. 

One  large  chemical  manufacturer  reports  that  one  of 
its  divisions  uses  engineering  research  to  advantage  in 
the  "development  of  automatic  process  controls." 
Similarly  a  soap  manufacturer  places  responsibility 
upon  the  engineering  staff  for  "control  of  process 
variables"  and  a  petroleum  refiner  states  that  systematic 
research  is  required  in  order  "to  coordinate  and  combine 
successfully  the  instrumentation  required  in  process 
control."  A  lubricant  manufacturer  requires  a  high 
degree  of  research  skill  in  the  development  of  new  or 
improved  physical  testing  equipment  for  controlling  the 
quality  and  uniformity  of  his  product.  Two  tire 
fabricators  devote  much  research  effort  to  the  techniques 
of  product  testing,  and  one  has  developed  an  elaborate 
method  for  continuous  testing  with  recording  machines 
to  control  the  accuracy  of  the  tests.  A  clay-product 
producer  has  developed  by  reasearch,  "laboratory  and 
plant  control  equipment  which  has  eliminated  the 
uncertainty  of  the  human  element,  making  it  possible 
to  scientifically  control  the  quality  of  our  product." 
In  the  same  general  way  a  cordage  mill  and  a  maker  of 
dental  supplies  regard  the  development  of  inspection 
and  test  methods  as  important  research  functions,  and 
a  manufacturer  of  machine  tools,  small  tools,  and  gages 
uses  "mechanical  engineers  in  research  work  connected 
with  following  the  product  during  its  manufacture, 
and  ascertaining,  in  cooperation  with  the  inspectors, 
that  it  functions  as  planned." 

The  search  for  better  instrumentation  for  routine 
inspection  work  has  ramifications  that  can  lead  far 
afield  from  inspection  routine.  In  this  category  belongs 
the  research  that  led  to  such  fundamental  standards  as 
Johansson  gage  blocks,  and  to  all  the  secondary  gages 
that  have  made  mass  production  possible.  Here  also 
belongs  the  research  that  has  led  to  the  many  ingenious 
automatic  inspection  devices  and  machines  to  be  found 
in   mass-production   plants.     Examples   are   machines 


Industrial  Research 


335 


that  autoniatically  sort  finished  pieces  according  to  lino 
gradations  of  size  within  the  estabHshcd  manufacturing 
tolerances,  machines  that  automatically  reject  defective 
pieces,  machines  that  sort  pieces  according  to  color, 
machines  that  continuously  measure  and  control  the 
thickness  of  the  product  of  a  continuous  paper  mill, 
inspection  devices  that  permit  the  rapid  inspection  of 
the  form  of  screw  tlireads,  or  "the  testing  and  charting 
of  the  accuracy  of  the  involute  curve  of  gear  teeth,"  or 
"the  lead  of  helical  gears,"  and  devices  of  extraordinary 
sensitiveness  for  the  rapid  inspection  of  surface  finishes. 
Here  also  belongs  the  research  that  has  led  to  the  many 
available  counting  devices  both  of  the  scale  and  of  the 
electron-tube  types. 

Finallj^,  in  this  category  belongs  a  deal  of  research 
on  the  problem  of  sampling,  ranging  from  the  elemen- 
tary heaping  and  quartering  technique  for  coal  sampling 
that  every  engineering  student  knows,  to  some  of  the 
most  obtruse  statistical  theory  yet  developed,  the 
latter  being  the  contribution  of  a  well-known  industrial 
laboratory. 

It  would  be  a  serious  error  to  assume  that  the  field 
of  routine  inspection  is  one  that  does  not,  at  times,  give 
rise  to  important  and  profitable  research,  even  in  the 
narrowest  and  most  limited  sense  of  that  word. 

Management 

To  many  it  may  seem  strange  to  find  a  section  on 
management  in  a  report  on  the  research  activities  of 
mechanical  engineers.  Since,  therefore,  some  sort  of 
a  preface  to  such  a  section  is  obviously  desirable,  the 
following  remarks  of  the  late  Dr.  C.  F.  Hirshfeld  are 
offered  as  a  sort  of  text: 

When  I  was  a  student  my  dean  stressed  the  fact  that  he 
regarded  an  engineer  as  a  technically  trained  businessman.  As 
I  have  grown  older,  and  I  hope  wiser,  I  have  appreciated  more 
and  more  the  significance  of  that  statement.  It  is  true  that  we 
have  a  place,  and  a  large  place  for  what  I  call  technicians,  men 
whose  skill  is  limited  to  the  application  of  technical  knowledge 
to  the  technical  solution  of  technical  problems.  But  I  think  it 
is  equally  true  that  we  have  a  scarcity  of  engineers  in  the  sense 
in  which  my  wise  old  dean  conceived  them.  We  do  not  have 
nearly  enough  men  who  have  combined  a  technical  training 
with  an  inborn  or  an  acquired  business  sense  and  with  business 
knowledge.  It  is  only  in  the  hands  of  such  individuals  that 
industrial  research  may  be  expected  to  reach  the  real  heights  of 
accomplishment  .  .  .  Much  more  profit  may  at  times  be 
obtained  from  organized  factfinding  in  the  so-called  nontechnical 
or  business  departments  than  from  technical  improvement. 

Even  if  this  be  granted,  some  will  still  argue  that 
management  research  belongs  to  the  social  sciences 
rather  than  to  engineering.  But  does  this  not  imply  an 
unduly  limited  view  of  what  constitutes  engineering? 
Engineering  has  been  defined  as  the  art  of  mobilizing 
materials,  money,  and  men  for  the  accomplishment  of 
projects  beneficial  to  mankind.     Why  should  materials 


research  alone  be  considered  to  the  exclusion  of  research 
on  the  mobilization  of  money  and  of  men? 

Furthermore,  it  should  be  remembered  that  modern 
management,  in  the  sense  of  an  activity  that  can  be 
rationally  discussed  and  philosophized  about,  grew  out 
of  the  thinking  of  engineers.  Taylor,  Gantt,  Gilbreth, 
and  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  other  pioneers  in  this  field, 
were  engineers.  And  most  of  today's  consultants  in 
this  field  not  only  were  trained  as  engineers,  but  carry 
that  designation  on  their  current  letterheads. 

That  management  should  be  regarded  as  belonging 
to  the  field  of  mechanical,  rather  than  some  other 
branch  of  engineering,  is  perhaps  more  debatable.  But 
it  may  be  remembered  that  management,  in  the  sense 
in  which  it  is  here  thought  of,  is  an  aspect  of  produc- 
tion or  manufacturing,  and  that  production  is  more 
akin  to  mechanical  than  to  most  other  branches  of 
engineering.  It  is  commonly  a  mechanical  engineer 
who  feels  most  at  home  in  a  machine  shop  or  a  factory. 
By  the  same  token,  The  American  Society  of  Mechani- 
cal Engineers  alone  among  the  major  engineering 
societies  has  an  active  professional  division  interested 
in  management. 

Finally,  an  examination  of  the  discussion  that  follows 
will  disclose  specific  activities,  here  classed  as  manage- 
ment activities,  that  not  only  lie  definitely  in  the 
mechanical  engineering  field,  but  are  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  require  experience  in  that  field  for  their  successful 
prosecution. 

The  work  commonly  called  plant  engineering,  like 
other  sorts  of  work  already  discussed,  has  its  routine 
side,  particularly  in  maintenance.  But  even  here  there 
is  much  chance  for  the  research  spirit  in  the  choice  of 
materials  and  methods.  An  example  is  whether  to 
use  brushes  or  spray  guns  in  maintenance  painting  in  a 
given  plant  under  given  labor  conditions.  Power-plant 
operation  in  a  manufacturing  plant  also  demands  fact 
finding  in  the  shape  of  operating  statistics,  fuel  studies, 
load  studies,  and  the  like,  that  arc  well  above  the  level 
of  routine.  Decisions  on  all  such  matters  are  com- 
monly made  by  the  plant  engineer,  usually  a  mechanical 
engineer.  Indeed,  to  be  a  top-notch  plant  engineer 
requires  a  keen  fact-finding  instinct  and  an  unusually 
wide  range  of  knowledge  and  experience. 

Similar  problems  are  met  by,  and  similar  initiative 
is  required  of,  specialists  in  building  management  in 
metropolitan  centers.  Such  men  are  often  mechanical 
engineers. 

Plant  lay-out,  and  particularly  the  routing  and  han- 
dling of  material  in  a  plant,  also  require  organized  fact 
finding  and  independent  thinking,  and  this  is  a  function 
commonly  performed  by  mechanical  engineers.  It  is 
specifically  mentioned  by  informants  as  diverse  as  a 
manufacturer  of  roller  chains,  a  manufacturer  of  lead 
pencils,  a  manufacturer  of  men's  shirts,  and  a  manu- 


336 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


facturer  of  soap.  Two  oil  companies  mention  the 
lay-out  and  development  of  pipe-line  projects  which 
are,  in  a  sense,  plant  lay-out  jobs,  as  the  work  of 
mechanical  engineers. 

Safety  is  an  important  aspect  of  plant  management. 
One  large  research  laboratory  writes:  "Safety  is  a  matter 
of  prime  concern  imder  the  general  jurisdiction  of 
mechanical  engineers.  It  involves  statistical  analysis, 
detailed  study  of  specific  machines  and  apparatus,  and 
continuous  inspection  of  conditions.  The  effort  by  our 
mechanical  engineers  to  increase  safety  in  our  plants 
as  well  as  safety  of  users  of  our  products  involves 
research  in  its  broadest  sense."  Several  other  infor- 
mants mention  safety  work,  either  in  general  or  m  the 
form  of  dust  control.  Two  managers  of  engineering 
and  inspection  departments  of  insurance  companies 
report  extensive  programs  for  promoting  safety  in  the 
plants  of  their  chents.  One  writes:  "By  correlation  of 
industrial  injuries,  our  mechanical  guard-design  unit 
develops  new  safeguards  for  the  point  of  operation  of 
industrial  machines,  either  as  a  secondary  protective 
device  or  for  installation  upon  the  machine  at  the  time 
of  originalmanufacture." 

Time  and  motion  study  is  mentioned  by  a  number  of 
companies,  ranging  from  steel  foundries  to  sQk  mills, 
and  three  informants  mention  the  determination  of 
costs  as  a  research  function  of  their  mechanical  engi- 


FiQURE  100. — Wind  Tunnel  Apparatus,  Aerodynamics  Labora- 
tory, Chrysler  Corporation,  Detroit,  Michigan 


neers.  One  correspondent,  a  sales  engineer,  writes: 
"In  the  organizations  with  which  I  have  been  connected, 
it  has  looked  to  me  as  though  the  subject  of  cost  analysis 
should  be  a  regular  engineering  function  rather  than  a 
clerical  function."  A  large  electrical  manufacturing 
concern  is  regularly  recruiting  mechanical  engineering 
seniors  for  its  accounting  and  commercial  departments, 
as  well  as  for  its  teclmical  work. 

All  tliis  may  be  summed  up  in  two  sentences  from  the 
admirable  report  prepared  by  the  Detroit  Edison  Com- 
pany for  the  Joint  Patent  Inquiry,  which  show  the 
persisting  influence  of  the  late  Dr.  Hirslifeld  in  his  own 
company. 

Under  a  policy  of  more  than  20  years'  standing,  research 
investigations  arc  not  necessarily  confined  to  engineering  prob- 
lems. The  scientific  process  is  equally  applicable  to  other  fields, 
and  has  been  successfully  applied  in  this  company  by  the  research 
department  to  the  fields  of  purchasing,  accounting,  personnel, 
sales,  and  particularly  to  standardization  in  all  branches  of  the 
company's  activities. 

Product  Research 
Product  Development 

Every  manufacturing  plant  provides  for  testing  its 
finished  product  either  by  sampling  or,  in  the  case  of 
larger  units,  by  block  or  other  tests.  Some  of  this 
work  is  pure  routine;  some  of  it  is  indistinguishable  in 
method  and  spirit  from  inspection  of  work  in  progress, 
which  has  already  been  discussed.  But  often  either 
the  product  or  the  circumstances  are  such  as  to  make 
this  product  testing  real  research. 

A  striking  example  is  the  acceptance  test  of  a  large 
unit  such  as  a  boiler  or  steam-driven  turbogenerator, 
particularly  if  it  is  of  a  new  design  or  size.  Often 
facihties  are  not  available  for  thoroughly  testing  such 
a  imit  until  it  has  been  installed  in  its  final  location  in 
a  customer's  plant,  and  the  elaborate  tests  which  are 
then  made  on  it  by  the  manufacturer  and  the  customer 
in  collaboration  constitute  real  research  on  the  part  of 
both.  To  the  former  these  tests  yield  confirmation  of 
theory  and  of  assumed  design  constants  and  data  on 
which  all  further  advances  in  his  art  will  in  part  rest. 
To  the  customer  such  tests  give  the  data  which  he  will 
use  in  plamiing  the  operation  of  his  whole  power  system 
under  all  the  varying  loads  that  it  will  have  to  carry. 
In  such  a  case  product  testing  is  fact-finding  research 
of  the  highest  order. 

More  often  the  research  aspect  of  product  testing 
consists  of  performance  or  endurance  tests  of  selected 
samples  undertaken  to  check  materials,  design,  or 
fabrication  with  a  view  to  future  improvement  of  the 
product.  There  are  many  examples  of  this  sort  of  thing 
in  the  letters  on  which  this  report  is  based.  A  steel-tube 
manufacturer  defines  it  as,  "special  testing  to  develop 
more  complete  knowledge  of  characteristics  of  estab- 


Industrial  Research 


337 


lished  standard  products,"  and  an  optical  company  as 
"the  study  of  the  performance  of  our  product  with  the 
goal  in  mind  of  using  the  results  of  such  research  in 
supervising  the  redesign  of  the  product."  As  an 
example  of  it,  a  maker  of  agricultural  machinery  reports: 
"Before  any  new  machines  (are  released)  or  alterations 
are  placed  on  existing  machines  they  are  first  sent  to 
what  we  term  our  dynamometer  department  (where 
each  machine  undergoes)  a  very  thorough  test  to 
determine  whether  it  has  sufficient  strength  and  whether 
shaft  bearings  and  shafts  have  sufficient  capacity  for 
the  work  they  are  to  perform."  Another  writes, 
"Research  on  all  phases  of  track-type  tractor  and 
road-machinery  design  and  performance  (looks)  toward 
constructions  that  will  reflect  more  effective  utilization 
of  materials,  increased  life  and  versatility  of  machines, 
reduction  of  the  physical  effort  necessary  for  operation, 
and  greatly  improved  performance."  A  manufacturer 
of  railroad  cars  reports:  "We  have  conducted  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  test  work  on  our  car  structures  in 
order  to  check  analysis,  and  connections,  deflections, 
and  similar  features.  There  have  also  been  compression 
tests  made  on  our  car  structures  to  loadings  approxi- 
mating 1  million  pounds  compression."  A  roller- 
bearing  maker  writes:  "Many  of  our  investigations 
deal  with  fatigue  and  we  have  a  large  laboratory  for  the 
testing  of  full-size  members  in  fatigue  .  .  .  Theorptical 
as  well  as  practical  results  are  being  derived  from  such 
fatigue  tests.  An  example  of  practical  results  obtained 
is  the  revision  of  axle-design  standards  of  the  Associ- 
ation of  American  Railroads."  A  maker  of  vacuum 
cleaners  reports:  "The  cleaner  research  laboratory 
evaluates  performance  of  complete  macliines  as  to 
efficiency  and  human-energy  expenditure,  carpet  struc- 
tures, and  general  problems  of  carpet  wear  and  care; 
the  parts  test  laboratory  determines  the  operating  life 
of  elements,  combinations,  and  complete  structures 
under  controlled  conditions  of  temperature,  humidity, 
light  and  oxygen  exposure."  And  another  firm  reports : 
"Life  tests  under  varying  conditions,  strength  tests 
etc."  of  the  parts  of  the  delicate  precision  measuring 
instruments  that  are  their  product. 

It  is  perhaps  in  the  automobile,  auto  accessory,  and 
internal-combustion  engine  fields  that  performance  and 
endurance  testing  of  both  standard  and  new  designs  arc 
most  highly  developed,  and  so  familiar  that  none  of  the 
many  reported  instances  need  be  quoted  here.  Further- 
more automobile  builders  have  developed  to  a  fine  art 
what  can  be  called  field  testing  of  their  product,  as  have 
oil-well-equipment  makers,  oil  refiners,  locomotive 
builders,  makers  of  agricultural  machinery,  and  many 
others.  One  correspondent  remarks:  "I  wonder  if  we 
are  not  too  inclined  to  label  as  fundamental  research 
(only)  that  work  which  is  carried  on  in  the  laboratory. 
When  the  laboratory  worker  removes  his  white  smock 


and  goes  into  the  field  and  changes  his  micrometer 
caliper  for  a  yardstick,  most  people  are  inclined  to  think 
that  the  fundamental  nature  of  his  work  has  changed, 
even  though  he  is  just  as  truly  searching  for  new  facts 
and  new  ways  to  put  established  facts  to  work." 
Many  examples  of  field  testing  could  be  cited  if  space 
permitted,  including  the  practice  of  many  companies  of 
installing  the  first  example  of  a  new  model  or  design  in 
their  own  shop  or  power  plant  for  regular  service  under 
observation. 

Only  slightly  different  from  field  testing  of  samples  of 
one's  product  is  "accumulating  and  correlating  field 
data  regarding  the  behavior  in  practice  of  our  rolling 
mills  and  auxiliary  machinery,  from  the  standpoint  of 
power  requirements,  capacities,  and  durability";  or  the 
rule  of  a  maker  of  hydraulic  turbines  that  "tests  con- 
ducted in  the  (model  testing)  laboratory  be  checked  in 
the  field  as  far  as  possible";  or  the  considerable  field 
research  by  a  loom  manufacturer,  "to  determine  the 
causes  for  troubles  which  appear  in  the  field"  which 
was  made  the  basis  of  a  complete  redesign  of  their 
standard  loom ;  or  the  practice  of  a  ball-  and  roller-bear- 
ing maker,  which  has  in  its  laboratory  "what  we  con- 
sider an  important  division  known  as  the  retiurned 
goods  department,  from  which  data  is  obtained  as  to 
the  cause  of  failures  in  the  field." 

Are  Design  and  Development  Research? 

The  preceding  section  of  this  report  inevitably  brings 
up  the  question  of  the  distinction,  if  any,  to  be  made 
between  ordinary  design,  development  engineering,  and 
research.  Those  who  have  responded  to  the  inquiry 
for  data  vary  greatly  in  their  unconscious  or  conscious 
reaction  to  this  problem  of  definition.  One  man 
writes,  "The  term  research  is  applied  to  our  laboratory 
for  reasons  which  are  largely  commercial."  A  great 
many  report  without  hesitation,  as  a  part,  or  all,  of 
their  research  activities,  work  done  in  "laboratories 
devoted  to  the  design  and  development"  of  their 
products.  Others  say  explicitly,  "Research  and  devel- 
opment are  conducted  as  joint  activities."  And  some 
mention  among  their  research  facilities  an  "experimental 
department"  which  designs  and  builds  new  experimen- 
tal machines  and  improvements  on  existing  machines. 

Many  correspondents  explicitly  state  then-  uncer- 
tainty as  between  research  and  design.  Thus:  "The 
distinction  between  research  and  engineering  design  is 
not  plainly  marked.  Much  original  data  must  be 
obtained  before  a  successful  design  can  be  made  and  the 
designation  as  research  is  therefore  appropriate"; 
"Much  of  the  work  done  in  our  technical  division  inter- 
locks between  design  and  research";  "The  functions  of 
the  (engineering  and  research)  departments  often  over- 
lap, and  no  sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between  them"; 
"In  solving  these  problems,  it  has  been  found  expedient 


338 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


to  combine  the  work  of  research  and  development"; 
and  "Our  entire  engineering  organization  constitutes 
a  research  group  working  all  the  time  toward  these 
objectives  of  better  products  at  a  more  economical 
price." 

And  some  hesitate  to  call  anything  research.  Thus 
one  chief  engineer  writes:  "Wliether  the  (development) 
work  outlined  in  the  above  paragraph  would  come 
under  the  classification  of  research  is  a  matter  of 
opinion.  We  do  not  classify  any  of  our  experimental 
work  as  such,  but  undoubtedly  some  of  it  is  purely 
research";  and  another  says,  "We  believe  that  we 
would  be  rated  more  as  a  fact  finding  or  experimental 
laboratory  than  a  research  laboratory  in  the  pure  sense 
of  the  word,"  thus  modestly  declining  to  accept  Dr. 
Hirshfield's  broad  definition  of  industrial  research. 
This  is  the  more  remarkable  in  that  tliis  same  man  goes 
on  to  say,  "As  differentiated  from  design  engineers,  we 
have  mechanical  engineers  in  our  laboratory  who  follow 
the  general  principle  of  making  critical  expei'iments 
with  simple  apparatus  to  prove  a  principle  before  this 
principle  is  applied  to  the  finished  design.  In  most 
cases  a  single  principle  of  a  multiple  operation  machine 
will  be  explored,  and  when  established,  tests  will  pro- 
ceed to  the  next  principle.  The  results  of  these  experi- 
ments are  all  assembled  in  a  final  design  and  the  appara- 
tus is  sent  to  the  laboratory  for  testing  and  revision." 
Many  would  feel  that  no  better  description  of  the  spirit 
and  method  of  industrial  research  could  be  asked  for. 

An  interesting  comment  comes  from  the  assistant 
director  of  research  of  an  aircraft  company:  "At  the 
outset  it  must  be  understood  that  the  nature  of  research 
differs  widely  in  different  fields.  In  the  aeronautical 
field  the  majority  of  work  which  we  normally  define 
as  'design  work,'  and  not  as  'research'  would  be  con- 
sidered as  'research'  in  many  other  industries.  This  is 
because  the  design  of  aircraft  and  their  engines  makes 
constant  use  of  new  materials,  methods,  and  processes, 
so  that  the  designing  engineer  is  unable  to  refer  to  hand 
books  and  much  of  the  time  cannot  refer  to  standardized 
practice.  We  do  not  consider  the  work  of  such  men 
as  research  although  it  might  reasonably  be  regarded 
as  such." 

And  finally  the  vice  president  of  a  large  metals 
industry  company  defines  "The  ideal  (research)  labora- 
tory" as  consisting  of  four  divisions:  (1)  n  fundamental 
research  division  working  "without  relation  to  any 
specific  problem,"  (2)  a  division  working  "on  special 
specific  problems  of  the  particular  industry  which  have 
a  sales  value,"  (3)  a  liaison  and  development  division, 
the  duties  of  which  are  to  act  as  a  contact  between  (1), 
(2),  and  production,  and  to  have  charge  of  all  experi- 
mental installations  which  put  into  effect  the  ideas 
developed  by  (1)  and  (2),  after  which  they  should 
be  turned  over  to  the  production  departments,  which 


should  not  be  expected  to  do  the  development  work, 
and  (4)  a  control-of-process  and  trouble-shooting  depart- 
ment. 

There  is  no  question  but  that,  under  Dr.  Hirshfeld's 
definition  of  research  as  being  "in  spite  of  all  the  mys- 
tery that  has  been  thrown  about  it  in  recent  years,  .  .  . 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  an  organized  effort  to 
determine  facts,"  a  large  proportion  of  the  develop- 
ment work  in  industry,  and  a  certain  proportion  of 
normal  design  work,  deserves  to  be  rated  as  industrial 
research. 

New  Products 

The  invention,  development,  and  commercial  launch- 
ing of  new  products  is  what  is  commonly  regarded  as 
the  major  objective  of  industrial  research,  and  practi- 
cally every  large,  live  industrial  concern  devotes  a 
considerable  amount  of  effort  and  money  to  this  phase 
of  its  research  program.  Reports  that  have  come  in 
to  the  effect  that  such  research  is  being  seriously  under- 
taken by  industry  are  too  numerous  even  to  summarize 
in  this  report.  An  adequate  picture  can  be  obtained 
only  by  the  quantitative  type  of  survey  that  is  being 
undertaken  by  the  National  Research  Council. 

It  might  be  well  at  this  point  to  call  attention  to 
a  vague  but  significant  distinction  between  invention, 
in  the  popular  sense  of  a  radical  departure  from  previ- 
ously existing  products  or  processes,  and  development 
of  new  products  or  processes  that  grow  out  of  older 
ones.  Invention,  in  this  sense,  is  the  romantic,  spec- 
tacular side  of  new  product  research,  but,  commercially 
speaking,  it  is  relatively  unimportant  either  in  volume 
or  in  fmancial  return.  The  really  remunerative  new 
products  are  usually  the  result  of  patentable  or  other 
developments  just  ahead  of  the  crest  of  current  prac- 
tice in  well-established  fields.  Wholly  new  ideas,  par- 
ticularly those  which  lead  to  new  industries,  are  few 
and  far  between,  and  a  long,  hard  road  com.monly  lies 
between  conception  and  commercial  success. 

New  product  research  and  development  is  often  care- 
fully organized  and  systematized.  Thus  a  manufac- 
turer of  agricultural  machmery  writes:  "This  company, 
in  its  work  in  product  development  and  improvement, 
carries  on  a  constant  and  continuing  program  of  organ- 
ized fact  finding  on  which  to  build  its  program  of  de- 
velopment. This  fact  finding  begins,  necessarily,  in  the 
field  with  its  customers  to  obtain  from  them  the  basic 
data  regarding  the  requirements  of  machinery  they 
would  like  to  have.  This  information  is  then  assem- 
bled from  all  parts  of  the  country,  correlated  and  com- 
piled, and  then  placed  before  new  product  committees 
for  individual  machines.  On  these  committees  for 
each  important  list  of  machines,  sit  an  engineer,  a  repre- 
sentative from  the  manufacturing  department,  and  a 
sales  representative.     This  basis  of  fact  then  becomes 


Industrial  Research 


339 


the  determining  factor  in  the  decisions  that  arc  made 
by  these  committees  regarding  placing  of  new  products 
in  manufacture.  After  this  step  is  taken,  and  decision 
is  made  to  manufacture  a  new  machine,  tlie  engineering 
department  takes  up  the  problem  of  designing  the  ma- 
chine, and  the  selection  of  materials  and  parts  so  as  to 
meet  the  requirements  specified  by  the  committee,  in- 
cluding the  price  at  which  it  must  be  sold." 

Another  manufactm'cr  in  the  same  industry  WTites: 
For  example,  13  years  a<.-o  we  recognized  the  need  for  better 
equipment  for  the  building  of  terraces  and  other  earth  structures 
designed  to  prevent  the  erosion  of  farm  lands.  We  studied  soil 
behavior  and  the  fundamentals  of  moving  soil  in  fields.  This 
resulted  in  the  development  of  machines  with  blades  or  mold- 
boards  of  proper  curvature  to  prevent  adhesion  of  soil  and  to 
reduce  power  input.  This  work  resulted  in  the  production  of  a 
line  of  terracing  equipment. 

Similar  instances  could  be  given  for  almost  any  other 
industry  of  the  way  in  which  careftd  planning,  amount- 
ing almost  to  a  routine,  underlies  most  of  the  new  pro- 
ducts research  of  today. 

A  few  examples  are  given  below  of  new  products  re- 
sultmg  from  industrial  research.  These  examples  are 
selected  from  the  dozens  mentioned  in  letters  received, 
to  say  nothing  of  hundreds  or  thousands  that  might 
have  been  mentioned  if  the  letters  of  inquiry  had 
stressed  a  desire  for  such  information.  Those  quoted 
have  been  selected,  not  on  the  basis  of  relative  merit 
or  importance,  but  merely  to  show  the  range  and  variety 
of  industries  profiting  by  this  kmd  of  research. 

Among  the  new  products  reported  are :  Special  boiler 
furnaces  for  bm'ning  bagasse,  wood  chips,  sawdust, 
waste  liquor  from  refuieries,  and  other  refuse  fuels; 
hjxlrogen-cooled  high-speed  electric  generators  and 
sj^nclrronous  converters  with  low  windage  losses;  manj' 
different  experimental  locomotives  (20  by  one  firm) 
"most  of  them  built  in  cooperation  with  various  rail- 
roads interested  in  developing  better  motive  power"; 
streamlined  trains,  unit-container  freight  cars,  and  other 
novel  rolling  stock;  nonicing  carburetors  and  wing 
deicers  for  ahcraft;  automatic  oxyacetylene  welding 
machines  "designed  to  take  the  personal  equation  out 
of  welding";  coated  weld  rod  with  satisfactory  slag 
characteristics  and  phj-sical  properties;  precision  grind- 
ers with  kerosene-lubricated  spindles;  diamond-dust- 
impregnated  gi-inding  and  cutting-off  wheels;  meters 
and  control  equipment  for  various  industrial  processes, 
similar  to  those  now  standard  for  boiler  fm-naces; 
remote  metering  and  control  apparatus  with  a  range  of 
hundi'eds  of  miles;  geophj'sical  instruments  of  very  high 
precision  and  sensitiveness  for  oil  prospecting;  deep 
oil-well  equipment  for  drilling,  directional  drilling, 
surveying,  sampling,  and  air-hft  and  mechanical  pump- 
ing; new  machines  and  processes  for  the  paper-makmg 
industry;  special  handling  equipment  in  connection  with 
dehiunidification  in  the  manufacture  of  shoes;  develop- 

321835 — 41 23 


ment  of  new  services  and  tlu;  machinery  required  for 
those  services  "so  as  to  bolster  up  the  dwindling 
laundry  volume  (in  1930)";  and  a  new  kind  of  pneumatic- 
tube  system  for  handling  books  between  the  old  and  new 
buildings  of  the  Library  of  Congress. 

New  Uses  and  New  Markets 

Even  commoner  than  new-products  research,  and 
even  more  important  from  the  commercial  point  of 
view,  is  the  search  for  new  uses  and  new  markets  for 
established  products  that  is  going  on  in  nearly  every 
industrial  establishment  in  the  country.  To  the  extent 
that  it  is  planned  and  organized,  and  particularly  to 
the  extent  that  it  involves  field  investigation  and  devel- 
opment of  techniques  and  processes,  it  well  deserves  to 
be  regarded  as  industrial  research  of  a  high  order. 
Much  of  this  work  is  done  in  customers'  plants  rather 
than  in  headquarters  laboratories,  and  out  of  it  has 
emerged  a  rapidly  growing  consulting  engineering 
service,  called  sales  engineering,  that  is  profoundly 
modifj^ing  both  the  technique  of  salesmanship  and  the 
former  position  and  fimction  of  the  independent  con- 
sulting engineer.  Occasionally  the  organized  search 
for  new  uses  and  new  markets  develops  into  a  careful 
long-range  study  of  industrial  and  even  economic,  social, 
and  political  trends,  thus  contributing  to  that  most  im- 
portant of  all  industrial  functions,  the  work  of  the 
admmistrative  or  "high-command"  phase  of  manage- 
ment. 

Some  illustrations  of  this  type  of  research  are  as  fol- 
lows. A  ball-  and  roller-bearhig  manufacturer  wTites: 
"Our  engineering  department  is  set  up  in  several  di- 
visions which  in  combination  cover  the  entire  industrial, 
automotive,  and  aircraft  fields.  You  can  well  imagine 
that  where  we  are  supplymg  bearings  to  every  type  of 
industry  we  have  a  wide  variety  of  engineering  activity, 
both  in  the  way  of  recommending  proper  application  of 
bearings  as  well  as  following  up  their  performance." 
Another  firm  in  the  same  field  wTites:  "We  have  one 
group  which  devotes  its  time  to  a  study  of  the  appli- 
cation of  bearings  to  many  types  of  imits  in  industry. 
In  fact,  wherever  shafts  rotate  new  bearing  problems 
are  presented,  and  these  are  studied  by  mechanical 
engineers  who,  as  a  rule,  spend  much  of  their  research 
tune  in  the  plants  of  manufacturers  using  om-  products. 
The  various  details  of  the  design  of  the  bearing  mount- 
ing and  of  the  lubrication  and  use  of  the  bearing  are 
studied,  and  recommendations  made  not  only  as  to 
bearings  but  as  to  the  design  of  surrounding  parts 
used  therewith." 

A  metals  producer  writes:  "Our  mechanical  engineers 
are  continually  working  with  the  users  of  alimiinum 
and  its  alloys  in  an  effort  to  make  better  and  more 
economical  use  of  this  material.  Applications  include 
transportation  equipment,  refrigerating,  air-condition- 


340 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


ing,   and  chemical-  and   food-processing  equipment." 

A  rubber  manufacturer  maintains  research  groups 
covering  "The  apphcation  of  rubber  or  rubber  and  steel 
to  the  automotive  trade,"  and  "new  uses  for  latex 
products — examples:  Cushions,  thread,  mattresses, 
springs,"  and  says  "the  plastic  field  is  expanding  so 
fast  that  new  uses  are  of  almost  daily  development." 

A  maker  of  power-plant  equipment  writes,  "Con- 
siderable time  is  devoted  to  furnishing  consulting 
services  to  our  customers  who  encounter  problems 
with  our  products";  an  oil  company  uses  engineers  in 
the  field  to  give  "engineering  advice  to  users  of  pe- 
troleum products";  another  uses  mechanical  engineei's 
for  "cooperating  with  designers,  manufacturers,  and 
operators  of  all  types  of  mechanical  equipment  in 
connection  with  design  problems,  metallurgical  prob- 
lems, lubricating  problems,  corrosion  problems,  methods 
of  applying  lubricants,  filtering  and  reconditioning  of 
lubricants,  as  well  as  all  phases  of  petroleum  products 
used  in  industry  as  an  ingredient  in  the  manufacture 
of  products  for  commerce — for  instance,  ink  oils,  rust 
preventives,  paper  sizing,  leather  oils,  wood  preserva- 
tives, rubber  pigments,  paint  pigments,  etc." 

In  the  sales  field,  a  manufacturer  of  abrasives  has  a 
sales-research  engineer  who  investigates  "  sales-research- 
engineering  questions  by  frequent  visits  into  the  field 
and  into  customers'  plants";  a  fabricator  of  iron  and 
steel  engineering  specialties  says  that  its  engineering 
service  department  "was  organized  about  eight  years 
ago  for  the  dual  purpose  of  training  our  sales  engineers 
and  developing  a  fact-finding  set-up  concerning  the 
various  fields  of  application  for  our  products";  and  an 
oil  company  writes, "  In  our  field  work  some  two  hundred 
mechanical  engineers  are  employed  in  direct  selling, 
whose  duties  are  to  cooperate  with  manufacturers  of 
mechanical  equipment,  etc.,  wherein  petroleum  prod- 
ucts play  a  part.  Any  and  all  problems  that  arise 
wherein  the  possibility  of  research  and  improvement 
may  show  promise  are  cleared  tlu^ough  this  office  and 
our  laboratories." 

Finally  a  steel  foundry  writes  that  mechanical 
engineers  are  in  charge  of  some  of  its  market  surveys; 
and  an  oil  company  uses  "mechanical,  chemical,  and 
petroleum  engineers  practically  interchangeably"  in 
studying  the  "new  equipment  requirements  of  industry" 
by  means  of  the  "survey  and  analysis  of  trends  in 
industry,  such  as  advancement  in  metallurgy,  new  pro- 
cesses in  industry,  changes  in  code  requirements,  etc." 

How  much  farther  this  customer-contact  work  will 
develop  in  the  future  in  the  way  of  studying  the  broader, 
long-range  trends  of  industry,  and  how  considerable  a 
part  engineers,  and  particularly  mechanical  engineers, 
working  in  management,  will  play  in  this  development, 
remains  to  be  seen.  This  is  probably  one  of  the  most 
fruitful  research  opportunities  for  engineers. 


Fundamental  Research 

The  contributors  to  this  report  describe  a  considerable 
extent  and  variety  of  fundamental  research  in  their 
organizations.  By  fundamental  research  is  meant 
accumulating  the  scientific  data  and  formulating  the 
general  principles  underlying  the  design  of  one's 
product  as  contrasted  with  studying  particular  applica- 
tions of  such  data  and  principles. 

This  is  a  somewhat  broader  definition  than  that  of 
one  correspondent  who  thinks  of  fundamental  research 
"as  a  blanket  investigation  with  the  object  of  turning 
up  whatever  hidden  facts  may  lie  in  the  unexplored 
field,"  or,  as  Dr.  Hirshfeld  puts  it,  "scientific  or  pure 
research  with  no  immediate,  practical  goal  in  sight." 
Fundamental  research,  even  in  this  restricted  sense,  has 
been  found  to  pay  by  some  companies,  particidarly  by 
the  chemical  and  pharmaceutical  industries,  and  by 
certain  well-known  electrical  and  commimi  cation  com- 
panies.    Dr.  Hirshf eld's  wise  comment  is: 

It  is  as  )et  too  early  to  say  that  in  all  cases  (industrial  research) 
may  be  extended  profitably  into  what  we  generally  refer  to  as 
pure  research.  However,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  this  will 
be  recognized  as  a  fact  in  the  years  to  come.  It  seems  to  me  that 
the  history  of  industrial  research  points  inevitably  in  that 
direction. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  report,  however,  fundamental 
research  is  taken  to  include  not  only  "scientific  or  pure 
research"  in  the  sense  indicated,  but  also  a  large  amount 
of  collecting  of  data,  of  measuring  the  properties  of 
materials,  and  of  studying  general  rather  than  particular 
problems,  such  as  surface  finishes,  corrosion,  and  heat- 
transfer,  that  build  up  the  stored  information  on  which 
later  engineering  development  must  depend.  Of  this 
sort  of  fundamental  research  industry  does  a  great  deal. 

One  phase  of  such  activity  is  library  research.  Many 
industrial  concerns  maintain  their  own  technical  li- 
braries, and  so  called  "special  librarians"  form  a 
recognized  branch  of  the  librarian's  profession.  Some 
concerns  have  speciaUsts  whose  sole  function  is  carrying 
through  literatiu"e  searches  on  demand.  Many  formally 
organize  the  routing  of  current  technical  magazines  and 
reports  through  their  research  and  engineering  de- 
partments. 

Turning  to  fundamental  researcli  itself,  an  interest- 
ing residt  of  analyzing  the  letters  received  is  the  emer- 
gence of  a  considerable  number  of  fimdamental  problems 
that  are  common  to  a  variety  of  industries.  It  will  be 
possible  to  mention  only  a  few  of  them.  Thus  fimda- 
mental problems  in  stress  analysis  are  being  explored 
by  builders  of  dirigibles,  railway  signals,  steam  and 
water  turbines,  firearms,  pipe,  shoe  machinery,  loco- 
motives, railway  cars,  oil-pimaping  machinery,  tin-can- 
making  machineiy,  and  many  others.  Heat  transfer  is 
reported  to  be  the  concern  of  boiler  makers,  refrigerator 
manufacturers,  insidation  manufacturers,  chemical  con- 


Industrial  Research 


341 


ccrns,  oil  rofiiiers,  photograpliic-siip])!}'  iiiak(M-s,  and  a 
host  of  others.  Fluid  flow  is  a  fundamental  problem  for 
makers  of  air  brakes,  chemicals  and  fans,  oil-well  and 
pipe-line  operators,  and  makers  of  soap,  cotton-spiniiiii<j 
macliiuery,  shoe  machinery,  piuups,  turbines,  and  nuiiiy 
other  products.  Different  aspects  of  the  general  prob- 
lem of  combustion  affect  boiler  makers,  Diesel-engine 
buOders,  gasoline-engine  builders,  oil  refiners,  coal 
miners,  and  a  variety  of  accessory  manufacturers. 
Lubrication  and  corrosion  touch  nearly  every  manu- 
facturer. Thert!  are  also  many  examples  of  narrower 
interests  such  as  the  effect  of  moisture  on  leather  in 
shoe  factories,  and  the  creep  problem  in  solder  in  tin- 
can  factories.  And  all  manufacturers  of  raw  materials 
do  extensive  research  to  provide  prospective  users  with 
fundamental  data  on  the  various  properties  of  their 
materials. 

A  few  letters  report  specific  projects  in  vivid  enough 
detail  to  be  worth  quoting.  A  manufacturer  of  textile 
machinery  writes:  "We  have  a  group  of  ten  men  study- 
ing better  means  and  methods  for  improving  the  draft- 
ing operation  of  fibers  which  means  studies  of  speed, 
sm'face  characteristics,  densities,  and  other  factors  that 
affect  the  attenuation  of  fibers  from  the  bulk  form  to 
the  finished  yarn."  A  manufacturer  of  cotton  textiles 
reports  comprehensive  research  programs  to  secure 
fundamental  data  showing  the  effect  on  various  fabrics 
of  teinperaturcs  from  room  to  600°  F.,  of  pressures  from 
zero  to  60,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  of  various 
amounts  of  moisture.  A  maker  of  household  appliances 
writes  that  an  "acoustical  laboratory  devotes  itself  to 
the  measurement  and  analysis  of  noise  and  the  develop- 
ment of  means  of  suppression."  A  manufacturer  of 
machine  tools  reports  investigations  to  "cover  such 
matters  as  fundamental  studies  of  metal-cutting 
processes — to  determine  the  action  of  metal-cutting 
tools  in  the  removal  of  chips;  the  study  of  cutting  forces, 
tool  life,  finish,  etc.  Also  the  study  of  stresses  and  de- 
flections in  machine-tool  structures  and  component 
parts,  and  the  development  of  new  mechanisms  and 
hydraulic  and  electric  devices  and  circuits." 

Many  other  specific  examples  of  fundamental  indus- 
trial research  are  to  be  found  in  the  literatiu-e  or  are 
matters  of  common  knowledge.  Among  them  are 
many  systematic  studies  of  the  thermal  properties  of  a 
variety  of  woriving  substances  suitable  for  use  in  prime 
movers  or  refrigerating  machines,  particularly  mercury, 
ammonia,  ethyl-chloride,  and  a  variety  of  special  re- 
frigerants known  mostly  by  trade  names.  Many 
examples  of  fundamental  research  in  industrial  labora- 
tories are  to  be  found  in  the  field  of  applied  mechanics, 
ranging  from  studies  of  balancing  and  other  vibration 
problems  and  of  transients  such  as  water  hammer  and 
phenomena  in  surge-tanks,  to  studies  of  the  mechanics 
of  transmitting,  recording,  and  reproducing  speech  and 


of  the  very  complicated  phenomena  of  architectural 
acoustics.  Much  fundanuMital  researcli  has  lately  been 
concentrated  on  surface  finishes,  ranging  from  molecular 
theoiy  of  surfaces,  to  studies  of  metliods  of  producing 
super-finishes,  and  studies  of  their  effects  ou  machine 
performance. 

A  very  considerable  amount  of  fundamental  research 
is  going  on  in  universities  and  engineering  schools  that 
is  inspired  by  and  partly  or  whoUy  paid  for  by  industry. 
Usually  this  begins  as  private  research  by  some  mem- 
ber of  the  teaching  staff,  to  whom  industry  turns  as  his 
reputation  becomes  established,  or  for  whom  support  is 
secured  from  industry  through  private  approaches  or 
through  such  intermediaries  as  the  Engineering  Founda- 
tion. Wind  tunnels  and  towing  tanks  all  over  the 
country  are  notable  examples  of  this  sort  of  industrially 
supported  research.  So  also  are  a  number  of  well- 
known  hydraulic  laboratories.  At  one  college,  one 
finds  a  nationally  known  specialist  on  grinding,  at  an- 
other, one  on  lubrication,  at  another,  one  on  the  design 
and  performance  of  gears,  at  another,  one  on  surface 
finishes,  and  so  on  through  a  long  list  of  widely  varying 
specialties.  If  it  were  possible  to  assemble  a  complete 
account  of  all  the  industrially  supported  fundamental 
research  that  is  gomg  on  in  universities  and  engineer- 
ing schools  in  this  country,  either  under  contracts  en- 
tered into  by  the  institution  itself,  or  in  connection 
with  the  private  consulting  practice  of  individual  mem- 
bers of  teaching  staffs,  the  unportance  of  this  sort  of 
activity  in  any  survey  of  mechanical  engineering  re- 
search would  be  even  more  universally  recognized  tiian 
it  is. 

Any  program  of  fundamental  research  should  have  as 
one  of  its  most  important  functions  a  policy  of  dissemi- 
nation and  publication  of  the  residts  obtained.  It  is, 
of  course,  of  prime  importance  that  the  organization 
itself  should  understand  and  use  the  fundamental  data 
and  theory  developed  by  research.  One  organization 
"coordinates  its  studies  through  committees  so  that 
findmgs  in  fundamental  research  are  quickly  brought 
to  the  attention  of  those  who  will  ultimately  use  the 
new  knowledge,  at  the  same  time  providing  a  seminar 
in  which  theory  can  be  tempered  with  practice."  Pub- 
lication of  fundamental  research  results  to  the  engineer- 
ing profession  is  increasingly  regarded  as  a  responsibil- 
ity of  industry  and  time  and  effort  are  spent  to  make 
the  results  usable  by  the  general  pubHc.  Thus  in  a 
memorandum  on  mechanical  research  prepared  by  an 
electrical  company  there  appears  the  following  state- 
ment. This  company  "has  made  it  a  policy  to  pubhsh 
new  findings  as  soon  as  reasonable  protection  has  been 
secured  under  the  patent  laws.  A  major  part  of  our 
findings  are  not  patentable,  particularly  in  the  field  of 
pure  research.  This  practice  is  beneficial  to  industry  at 
large  and  is  particularly  helpful  to  those  in  educational 


342 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


work  who  are  attemptiug  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times. 
It  is  felt  that  tliis  poHcy  promotes  the  understanding 
and  use  of  our  products,  and  gives  us  our  proportionate 
share  of  the  increased  business." 

Types  of  Research  Organization 
in  Manufacturing 

Industrial  research  is  conducted,  according  to  the 
letters  received,  under  a  wide  variety  of  organizational 
set-ups.  In  the  simplest  cases,  common  in  small  organiza- 
tions, such  research  as  is  done  is  instigated  and  carried 
through  by  some  of  the  same  men  who  are  doing  the 
production  work  itself.  In  companies  large  enough  to 
have  a  separately  organized  engineering  department, 
research  is  often  a  function  of  that  department.  The 
next  step  is  ordinarily  the  organization  of  a  separate 
research  department,  often  with  materials  testing  and 
routine  inspection  as  the  backlog  of  its  work. 

In  still  larger  companies  one  begins  to  find  decentral- 
ization into  more  or  less  autonomous  branch  plants  on 
a  product  or  a  geographical  basis,  or  both.  In  such 
cases  one  often  finds  an  engmeering  department  asso- 
ciated with  each  branch  performing  research  along  with 
other  functions  for  the  particular  product  or  area  in- 
volved. In  still  larger  decentralized  organizations, 
there  will  be  a  separate  research  department  as  well  as 
an  engineering  department  for  each  branch. 

The  ne.xt  step  in  complexity  of  research  organization 
is  the  establishment  of  a  central  research  laboratory'  to 
supplement  and  unify  the  work  of  the  separate  branch 
engineering  or  research  departments.  In  such  cases 
there  usually  is,  at  least  on  paper,  a  definite  basis  for 
an  appropriate  division  of  labor  between  the  central 
research  laboratory  and  the  branch  laboratories  or 
engineering  departments.  Either  the  central  laboratory 
undertakes  such  work  as  is  of  interest  to  several  or  all 
of  the  producing  branches,  leaving  to  the  branch  labora- 
tories the  work  germane  only  to  their  own  branches;  or 
the  central  laboratory  undertakes  the  "fundamental" 
research,  namely  that  not  immediately  applicable  to 
some  current  production  problem,  leavmg  the  "applied" 
or  "practical"  research  to  those  more  directly  concerned. 

Finally  there  is  often  some  delegation  of  research 
activity  outside  the  industrial  organization  altogether. 
This  maj'  take  the  form  of  joint  or  cooperative 
research  by  a  group  of  organizations  within  an  industry, 
through  an  association  or  institute.  In  such  a  case 
the  association  or  institute  is  likely  to  concentrate 
on  research  intended  to  improve  the  competitive  posi- 
tion of  the  industry  as  a  whole  against  other  industries, 
though  some  fundamental  research  of  interest  to  the 
industry  as  a  whole  may  also  be  undertaken. 

Another  form  of  delegated  research,  now  becoming 
more  common  than  formerly,  is  that  undertaken  by  an 
independent   research    institute,    such    as    the   Mellon 


Institute  in  Pittsburgh  which  has  served  as  a  model 
for  several  others,  or  by  a  university  or  college,  under 
a  contract  of  some  sort  with  an  industrial  client  who 
bears  a  large  part  or  all  of  the  research  expense. 

An  admirable  example  of  cooperative  delegated 
research  was  the  Steam  Research  Program  sponsored 
and  directed  by  a  special  research  committee  of  The 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  financed 
by  a  considerable  number  of  industrial  firms,  and  car- 
ried on  at  two  universities  and  at  the  National  Bureau 
of  Standards,  which  has  led  to  three  international 
steam  conferences,  to  an  internationally  agreed-upon 
"skeleton  steam  table,"  to  revised  and  much  more 
reliable  working  steam  tables  in  three  different  countries, 
and  to  greatty  reduced  uncertainties  whenever  the 
performance  of  steam-driven  machinery  is  discussed 
across  international  boundaries. 

Other  examples  with  which  the  authors  happen  to 
be  familiar  are:  An  extensive  program  of  research  on 
the  art  of  cutting  metals  recently  concluded,  one  on 
so-called  caustic  embrittlement  in  boilers  and  on  other 
aspects  of  feed-water  composition  and  treatment,  one 
on  the  characteristics  and  operation  of  super-pressure 
boilers,  one  on  fatigue  and  one  on  creep  of  metals,  and 
one  on  various  aspects  of  the  fluid-meter  problem. 
Still  other  examples  of  admirable  cooperative  dele- 
gated industrial  research  can  be  found  in  the  records  of 
the  Engineering  Foundation  and  of  several  of  the  major 
national  engineering  societies. 

Research  in  Operation-Type  Industries 

Because  their  product  differs  from  that  of  manu- 
facturing industries  with  a  corresponding  difference  in 
organization,  it  is  necessary  to  give  different  treatment 
in  this  report  to  tlie  public  utilities,  electric,  gas,  rail- 
road, telephone,  and  telegraph.  In  these  industries, 
as  in  manufacturing,  research  permeates  every  phase  of 
operation,  though  in  varying  degrees  of  formal  organ- 
ization, and  the  mechanical  engineering-research 
responsibilities  are  substantial. 

In  describing  the  research  functions  performed  by 
mechanical  engineers  in  the  public  utilities,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  modify  somewhat  the  classification  used  for 
the  manufacturing  industries.  In  the  paragraphs  that 
follow  all  the  utilities  will  be  discussed  together  under 
the  following  headings:  Materials,  operation,  new 
devices  and  apparatus,  and  management  and  pro- 
motion. 

Materials 

Among  the  critical  problems  of  the  electrical  industry 
the  fuel  problem  looms  largest  because  fuel  is  the 
largest  single  item  of  material  cost  in  the  generation  of 
electricity.  The  sampling  and  testing  of  incoming 
shipments  of  coal  borders  on  the  routine,  but  the  inter- 


Industrial  Research 


343 


pretation  of  the  results  and  their  transfer  into  gencra- 
ting-station-operation  procedures  involves  a  high  degree 
of  skill  in  research.  Efforts  to  reduce  air  pollution 
involve  research  problems  not  only  in  the  choice  of 
fuels,  but  also  in  the  design  of  combustion  apparatus, 
and  devices  for  the  removal  of  impurities  in  the  stack 
gases.  Other  materials  problems,  quite  common 
tliroughout  the  steam-generating  electric  industry, 
depending  also  on  the  metallurgist  and  the  chemist, 
include  improved  condenser-tube  materials,  low  priced 
noncorrosive  metals,  a  low  priced  noninflammable 
lubricant,  etc. 

In  the  gas  and  railroad  industries,  the  testing  of 
materials  has  the  same  important  place,  coal  being  the 
principal  material  as  in  the  steam-generating  electrical 
industry. 

One  of  the  telegraph  companies  reports  that  among 
the  research  functions  performed  by  mechanical 
engineers  in  the  organization  is  an  "investigation  of 
materials  for  use  in  telegraph  lines  and  equipment, 
including  timbers,  metals,  paper,  insulating  and  mag- 
netic materials,  weatherproofing,  and  other  finishes, 
etc." 

The  materials  problem  can  best  be  summed  up  in 
the  words  of  one  of  the  electric  utilities  as  follows: 
"Scientists  create  new  materials  and  engineers  make 
use  of  them  but,  somewhere  between  the  scientists  and 
the  engineers,  a  great  deal  of  work  must  be  done  to 
reduce  the  new  material  to  something  that  can  be 
reproduced  with  consistent  known  properties  having 
value  suitable  for  the  engineers'  calculations.  Fur- 
thermore, it  is  necessary  that  some  form  of  test  be 
devised  that  will  enable  engineers  to  be  sure  that  the 
material  measures  up  to  the  standards.  Many  re- 
search-department problems  arise  from  such  necessities, 
particularly  the  problem  of  developing  accelerated  aging 
techniques  that  will  give  in  a  short  time  some  measure 
of  the  long-time  performance." 

Operation 

The  spectacular  research  problems  in  the  electrical 
industry  are  frequently  those  concerned  with  causes 
of  operating  difiicidties.  The  reason  of  this  is  the  size 
of  the  units  involved  and  the  large  savings  to  be  made 
by  removing  the  difficvdties.  Furthermore,  because 
the  facilities  for  test  under  operating  conditions  are 
generally  not  available  in  the  plant  of  the  manufac- 
turer, the  utility  is  frequently  called  upon  to  cooperate 
with  the  manufacturer  by  providing  space,  steam,  some 
labor,  and  sometimes  research  skill.  The  most  inter- 
esting recent  example  of  this  is  the  construction  by  a 
manufacturer  and  installation  in  a  utility  plant  of  a 
10,000-kilowatt  turbogenerator  with  optical  means  for 
investigation  of  blade  vibration,  a  phenomenon  which 
has  caused   operating   failures  of   impulse  blading  in 


superposed  turbines  operating  at  elevated  temperatures 
and  pressures.  A  second  interesting  example  is  re- 
ported as  a  "field  investigation  and  research  carried  on 
jointly  by  manufacturer  and  purciuiscr  on  large  boiler 
etjuipment,  to  determine  actual  in  relation  to  theoretieal 
circulation,  slag  characteristics,  heat  input  rates,  etc. 
It  would  bo  impractical  for  the  manufacturer  to  erect 
and  test  boilers  in  his  shops;  therefore,  tests  and  investi- 
gations must  be  carried  on  in  the  purchaser's  plant 
and  with  his  cooperation."  Another  utility  reports 
research  with  the  manufacturer  into  the  causes  for 
the  unsatisfactory  functioning  of  pulverized-coal  burn- 
ere.  Many  other  examples  have  been  reported  show- 
ing the  large  measure  of  cooperation  between  the  equip- 
ment supplier  and  the  public-utility  operator. 

In  the  same  way,  the  number  and  diversity  of  the 
causes  of  operating  difficulties  sought  out  by  the  oper- 
ator alone  is  very  impressive.  A  few  are  fatigue  failure 
of  high-pressure  fan  blades,  turbine-foundation  vibra- 
tion, mechanism  of  failure  of  boiler  tubes,  reverse  flow 
in  condenser  tubes,  the  elimmation  of  arching  in  coal 
down-takes,  the  elimination  of  caustic  embrittlement, 
the  elimination  of  slagging  in  boiler  furnaces,  and  the 
determination  of  magnitude  of  vibration  and  exact 
location  of  unbalance  in  rotating  equipment.  An 
impressive  bit  of  instrumentation,  reported  by  one 
operator,  is  "the  adoption  and  development  of  the  wet 
and  dry  magnetic  methods  of  testing  ferrous  turbine 
blades  to  eliminate  cracked  and  defective  blades  and 
the  resulting  development  of  jigs  and  measuring 
devices  to  accurately  determine  the  root  clearances  of 
turbine  blades  for  replacements,  to  assist  in  setting 
up  the  desired  specifications  of  root  clearances  for  safe 
turbine  operation." 

In  the  gas  industry  the  problem  of  determining  the 
causes  of  operating  difficulties  has  the  same  general 
character,  a  few  technical  problems  mentioned  by 
correspondents  being  the  fatigue  failure  of  metals, 
pipe-joint  troubles,  pipe  coatings,  and  corrosion. 

In  the  railroad  industry,  the  operating  difficulties 
that  are  being  subjected  to  active  current  research 
seem  to  concern  lubrication,  boiler  safety  devices, 
and  air-conditioning  of  passenger  cars. 

New  Devices  and  Apparatus 

Another  group  of  interesting  problems  comes  to  light 
imder  the  heading  of  new  devices  and  apparatus. 
Here  the  research  problems  deal  with  fact  finding  to 
define  the  conditions  the  new  devices  or  apparatus  are 
to  meet,  the  decision  as  to  the  suitability  of  commercial 
apparatus,  and  fact  finding  leading  to  the  design,  con- 
struction, and  test  of  the  new  equipment. 

Examples  that  have  been  reported  under  this  head- 
ing by  the  electric  utilities  are  numerous  and  only  a 
few  will  be  listed  to  demonstrate  the  research  quality  of 


344 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


the  problem.  They  include  a  new  development  in  gas 
scrubbers  for  stoker-fired  boilers,  new  apparatus  for 
concentrating  and  dewatering  fine  solid  matter  in  order 
that  it  may  be  handled  with  commercial  apparatus 
without  creating  a  nuisance  when  being  handled 
through  the  city  streets,  development  of  a  muffler  for 
noise  generated  in  electric  substations  by  rotating 
electrical  machinery  and  carried  to  the  surrounding 
neighborhood  by  air-intake  and  discharge  ducts,  the 
development  of  high-pressure  commercial  steam-gen- 
erating units,  and  high-temperature  superheaters, 
finding  suitable  filtering  materials  for  removing  oil 
from  the  compressed  air  to  pneumatic-control  appara- 
tus, and  a  temperature-compensated  gas  meter. 

As  the  gas  industry  is  a  bit  more  stabilized,  new 
devices  and  apparatus  for  operation  do  not  appear  as 
frequently,  but  reports  were  received  of  research  in 
new  test  equipment. 

It  is  with  real  regret  that  we  are  unable  to  include 
the  complete  statement  prepared  by  the  telephone 
industry  of  problems  concerning  new  devices  and 
apparatus  in  the  mechanical  field,  that  was  presented 
at  the  request  of  the  writers  of  this  report.  Merely 
naming  some  of  these  problems  will,  however,  convey 
some  impression  of  the  high  quality  of  scientific  work 
done. 

1.  Increasing  the  intelligibility  and  naturalness 
of  transmission  of  the  human  voice  by  telephone 
instruments  through  research  by  mechanical 
impedance  measurements,  as  well  as  by  other 
means. 

2.  Development  of  the  crossbar  switch  for 
closing  independently  any  one  of  200  sets  of  con- 
tacts, the  important  magnetically  operated  ele- 
ment in  the  most  recent  form  of  dial  switching 
equipment. 

3.  High-speed  motion  camera  to  take  4,000 
pictures  per  second. 

4.  Design  of  the  gothic  U-type  relay  which  de- 
pended on  sound  mechanical  engineering  in  two 
factors,  first,  design  of  contact  springs,  requiring 
an  elaborate  extension  of  the  classical  beam 
theory;  second,  reduction  of  vibration  manifested 
as  "contact  chatter." 

5.  Protection  of  equipment  to  resist  earthquake 
shock. 

6.  Development  of  portable  engine-driven  gen- 
erators for  power  supply  in  event  of  fire,  flood,  and 
the  like. 

7.  Determination  of  satisfactory  tension  loadings 
of  filaments  of  cathode  tubes  to  prevent  creep  or 
stretching. 

8.  Development  of  optical  measuring  equipment 
for  fragile  grids  in  vacuum  tubes  for  three  mega- 
cycle coaxial  cables. 


9.  Development  of  synthetic  sapphire  bushing 
for  nonlubricated  bearing  in  external  anode  water- 
cooled  tubes. 

10.  Development  of  light,  strong,  hand  tool 
for  rolling  sleeve  on  line  wire. 

11.  Development  of  technique  of  pressure  test- 
ing of  nitrogen-filled  cables. 

12.  Development  of  strand  dynamometer  for 
use  in  connection  with  placing  of  aerial  telephone 
cables. 

Management 

Whatever  its  size  and  whatever  its  field  no  public 
utility  can  operate  at  fuU  capacity  24  hours  a  day  7 
days  a  week,  but  it  must  nevertheless  be  always  ready 
to  meet  any  demand  that  may  be  put  upon  it.  In  an 
electric  utility  this  means  generating  capacity;  in  the 
gas  industry  it  means  storage;  on  a  railroad  it  means  a 
sufficient  reserve  of  freight  cars  and  of  motive  power; 
on  a  telephone  system  it  means  the  right  number  of 
operators.  In  all  cases  there  is  need  for  planning 
based  on  a  high  quality  of  fact  finding. 

Making  the  most  effective  and  economical  use  of 
existing  equipment  under  various  loads  also  requires 
fact  finding  and  interpretation  of  a  high  order.  An 
electric  utility  has  to  solve  such  problems  as  balancing 
each  encountered  load  between  its  steam  and  water- 
power  stations  and  between  its  base  load,  ordinary 
operating,  and  stand-by  generating  stations  in  the  most 
desirable  way ;  making  effective  use  of  existing  or  possible 
tie-ins  with  neighboring  systems  to  increase  use  factors 
and  standby  capacity;  increasing  its  own  use  factor  by 
diversification  of  power  sales  and  by  sales  research  with 
respect  to  new  services  and  new  uses;  working  out 
mutually  profitable  arrangements  with  large,  and,  it  is 
to  be  hoped,  ultimately  with  small  customers,  with 
respect  to  byproduct  power,  process  steam,  byproduct 
fuels,  and  the  like;  and  reducing  the  commercial  cost 
of  handling  small  customers. 

In  the  gas  industry,  where  industrial  customers  are 
relatively  even  more  important,  sales  research  plays  a 
very  large  part  in  maintaining  and  increasing  the  pros- 
perity of  an  operating  company,  and  many  important 
devices,  lying  definitely  in  the  mechanical  engineering 
field,  have  been  developed  for  customer  use  by  research 
engineers  in  gas  companies.  Also  each  operating  unit 
of  the  gas  industry  has  an  important  research  problem 
in  determining  its  own  policy  with  respect  to  domestic 
heating. 

The  operating  problems  of  a  great  railroad  system 
range  from  load  assignments  for  every  type  of  loco- 
motive over  each  division  of  the  system,  through  the 
establishment  of  intricate  sj-stems  for  keeping  track  of 
and  allocating  roUing  stock  of  all  kinds,  to  the  extensive 
study  of  rival  means  of  transportation  and  customers' 


Industrial  Research 


345 


needs  and  desires  as  a  basis  for  competing  for  his  trans- 
portation dollar. 

A  telegraph  or  telephone  company  has,  among  other 
things  to  think  systematically  about,  a  complicated  and 
important  personnel  problem. 

All  of  these  are  management  problems  deserving  of, 
and  often  subjected  to,  industrial  research  of  the  highest 
order.  To  the  extent  that  engineers,  and  particularly 
mechanical  engineers,  are  more  and  more  tending  to 
dominate  the  field  of  management,  these  may  all  be 
claimed  as  appropriate  opportunities  for  the  application 
of  the  research  skill  of  mechanical  engineers. 

Conclusions 

1.  Many  correspondents  emphasize  the  difficulty  of 
attempting  to  classify  industrial  research  activities 
according  to  the  particular  engineering  or  other  dis- 
ciplines within  which  they  fall,  or  according  to  the 
particular  academic  training  of  those  engaged  in  them. 

2.  While  testing  of  raw  materials,  of  work  in  process, 
or  of  finished  product  involves  activities  that  are  usually 
of  a  routine  rather  than  a  research  nature,  a  consider- 
able amount  of  true  research  is  often  found  associated 
with  or  inspired  by  these  inspectional  activities. 

3.  Research  with  respect  to  the  materials,  equip- 
ment, methods,  and  processes  of  manufacture  is  one 
of  the  commonest  and  most  important  types  of  activity 
of  mechanical  engineers  in  industrial  research  today. 

4.  Development  of  better  products  and  of  new 
products  is  a  second  very  important  type  of  research. 
On  it  all  progress  in  the  essentially  mechanical  indus- 
tries depends. 

5.  Opinions  differ  widely  as  to  where,  if  anywhere,  a 
line  should  be  drawn  between  normal  engineering 
design,  engineering  development  work,  and  research. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  the  writers  of  this  report  that  re- 
search activities  and  the  research  spirit  and  teclmique 
should  be  broadly,  rather  than  narrowly,  conceived. 

6.  Research,  and  particularly  field-research,  for  new 
uses  and  new  markets  for  old  products  is  of  the  greatest 
importance. 

7.  Fimdamental  research,  broadly  defined  as  includ- 
ing data  gathering  as  well  as  investigations  of  a  more 
purely  theoretical  nature,  is  very  common  in  industry, 
and  is  very  often  an  activity  of  mechanical  engineers. 

8.  Research  in  universities  and  engineering  schools 
which  is  partly  or  wholly  paid  for  by  individual  indus- 
trial clients  or  cooperating  industrial  groups  constitutes 
an  important  part  of  the  great  volume  of  industrial 
research. 

9.  Management  can  well  be  thought  of  as  a  branch  of 
mechanical  engineering.  It  is  certainly  a  type  of  work 
in  which  a  great  many  mechanical  engineers  are 
engaged.  It  is  a  field  in  which  much  is  being  done  that 
well    deserves    to   be   called   research.     It    is    a    field 


in  which  mucli  more  organized  research  should  be  under- 
taken by  industry. 

10.  The  formal  organization  of  a  company's  research 
activities  varies  widely  as  between  companies  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  and  amounts  of  experience  in  research,  but 
not  in  any  significant  way  as  between  different  indus- 
tries as  such. 

11.  Wliile  the  activities  of  public  utilities  seem  to 
differ  in  kind  from  those  of  factories,  the  differences  are 
probably  more  apparent  than  real,  and  the  research 
activities  of  utilities  arc  as  diverse  and  important  as  are 
those  of  manufacturing  cstablislmients.  Research  in 
management  is  probably  relatively  better  developed 
among  public  utilities  tlian  in  industry  generally. 

12.  The  writers  of  this  report  suggest  for  the  consider- 
ation of  those  interested  in  industrial  research  the  thesis 
that  everything  that  anybody  in  industry  does  in  the 
course  of  his  daily  work  is  either  routine  or  research.  It 
is  suggested  that  the  universal  acceptance  of  this  thesis 
as  a  matter  of  definition  would  do  much  to  clarify  the 
thinking  of  industry  with  respect  to  the  fundamental 
basis  of  its  present  prosperity  and  future  security. 

Bibliography 

Books 

HiRSHFELD,    C.   F.     Industrial  research.     Princeton,  Princeton 

University  press.     Journal  articlea,  1938.     27  p.  (Cyrus  Fogg 

Brackett  Lectureship). 
Bailey,  A.  D.     Engineering  research.     CombusHon, /,  24  (1930). 
Bailey,    A.     D.     Research    motivates    engineering    activities. 

Electrical  World,  95,  1281  (1930). 
Baker,  T.  S.     Perils  and  profits  of  research.     Mechanical  Engi- 
neering, 50,  823  (1928). 
Cammen,  Leon.     A  chance  for  engineering  progress.     Ihid.,  5i, 

859  (1932). 
De  Baufre,  W.  L.     Fundamentals  of  research.     Ihid.,  J,7 ,  886 

(1925). 
DuRAND,  W.  F.     Science  and  engineering,     /fctt/.,  4S,  337  (1926). 
Ferris,  J.   P.     Researcli  for  industrial  pioneering.     Jhid.,  64, 

249  (1932). 
Greene,  A.  M.,  Jr.     The  present  condition  of  research  in  the 

United  States.     A.  S.  M.  E.  Transactions,  41,  31  (1919). 
Hessenbrtjch,    G.    S.     Research  and   industrial   wastes.     Me- 
chanical Engineering,  4^,  104  (1920). 
HiRSHFELU,  C.  F.     Research  and  social  evolution.     Ibid.,  4^, 

103  (1920). 
HiRSHFELU,  C.  F.     Research  in  industry.     Zfcirf.,  53,  498  (1931). 
Hoover,   Herbert.     The   nation  and  science.     Ibid.,  49,   137 

(1927). 
Hoover,  Herbert.     Vital  need  for  greater  financial  support  to 

pure  science  research.     Ibid.,  48,  6  (1926). 
Jacobus,  D.  S.     Stimulation  of  research  and  invention.     Ibid., 

46,  575  (1924). 
Jewett,  F.   B.     Finding  and  encouragment  of  competent  men. 

Ibid.,  51,  443  (1929). 
Jewett,  F.  B.     Modern  research  organizations  and  American 

patent  system.     Ibid.,  64,  394  (1932). 
Kettering,   C.   F.     Research  and  social  progress.     Ihid.,  68, 

211  (1936). 
KoEHLER,  Arthur.     Faith  in  research.     Ibid.,  64,  755   (1932). 


346 


Nativnal  liesuurces  Planning  Board,  Industrial  Research 


Langmcir,    Irving.     Fundamental    research    and    its    human 

value.     General  Electric  Review,  40,  569  (1937). 
Potter,  A.  A.     Federal  government  and  research.     Mechanical 

Engineering,  61,  376  (1939). 
Potter,  A.  A.     Research  and  invention  in  engineering  colleges. 

Ibid.,  6e.  196  (1940). 
Sibley,     Robert.     Engine  ring  research  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Ibid.,  49,  1293  (1927). 
Skinner,   C.    E.     Opportunity   for  industrial   research.     Ibid., 

40,  23  (1918). 
Smith,   M.   W.     The  importance  of  research  and  development 

in  maintaining  technical  progress.     The  Engineering  Journal, 

SI,  508  (1938). 


Walker,  P.  F.     Need  of  research  in  the  industrial  field.     Me- 
chanical Engineering,  4~i  487  (1920). 
Whitney,  W.  R.     Encouraging  competent  men  to  continue  in 

research.     Ibid.,  51,  443  (1929). 
White,  A.  E.     Dividends  from  research.     A.  S.  T.  M.  Bulletin. 

May,  1938,  p.  5. 
Whitney,  W.  R.     Stimulation  of  research  in  pure  science  result 

ing   from   needs   of  engineers   and   of   industri'.     Mechanical 

Engineering,  49,  134  (1927). 
Wickenden,  W.  E.    Research  in  the  engineering  colleges.     Ibid., 

51,  585  (1929). 
Woods,  B.   M.     Place  of  the  university  in  industrial  rcsearch- 

Ibid.,  55,  167  (1933). 


SECTION    VI 

THE    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH    IN 

BORDER-LINE    FIELDS 

By  Caryl  P.  Haskins 
President,  Haskins  Laboratories,  Inc.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


ABSTRACT 


The  significance  of  research  and  development  along 
the  frontiers  of  industrial  research  represented  by  the 
border  lines  between  sciences  is  considered.  An  account 
is  given  of  some  recent  industrial  developments  in  bio- 
chemistry, biophysics,  geology,  geochemistry,  geophys- 


ics, rheology,  and  mineralogy.  Consideration  is  given 
to  the  place  of  these  border-line  sciences  in  the  modern 
industrial  picture  and  to  the  educational  facilities  avail- 
able for  workers  who  may  contemplate  entering  them. 


Introduction 

The  history  of  scientific  research  demonstrates  very 
clearly  that,  in  popidar  scientific  usage,  the  term 
"border-line  research"  has  been  widely  taken  to  signify, 
in  fact  "embryo  scientific  field."  In  every  epoch  there 
has  been  a  considerable  number  of  real  and  exception- 
allj'  able  pioneers  who  have  undertaken  the  large  task 
of  training  themselves  in  the  region  of  the  borderland 
between  two  sciences,  so  that  that  gap  might  be  healed 
over,  usually  long  after  the  structures  on  both  sides  had 
been  solidly  fonned.  It  took  great  ability  and  great 
courage  for  men  to  do  this.  As  in  any  other  field  of 
pioneermg,  exceptionally  broad  ability,  flexibility  of 
outlook,  and  the  capability  of  unitmg  effort  under  con- 
ditions often  confusing  and  discouragmg,  were  required. 

American  scientific  thought  of  today  surely  is  based 
on  broader  concepts  than  ever  before.  Concomitant 
with  this  condition,  the  status  of  the  border-line  science 
worker  among  the  majority  of  his  feUows  has  been 
radically  altered.  Within  so  short  a  period  as  the  last 
10  years,  the  methods  of  work  of  the  border-line  scien- 
tist have  received  recognition  to  a  very  marked  degree. 

The  extraordinarily  rapid  development  of  the  con- 
ventional sciences  in  recent  years  has  resulted  in  their 
approach  on  many  fronts,  and  has  created  a  large  num- 
ber of  new  border  lines  which  hitherto  went  unsuspected. 
This  fact,  and  its  general  recognition,  are  gradually 
bringing  pressure  to  bear  on  our  educational  system  to 
design  standardized  courses  that  will  aid  the  border-line 
men  in  acquiring  the  training  which  they  so  sorely  need. 
Research  in  border  lines  has  already  attained  consider- 
able recognition,  and  its  position  will  unquestionably 
become  additionally  secure  with  the  passage  of  time. 

Work  in  border-line  sciences,  however,  is  rapidly 
increasing  in  difficulty  as  investigation  of  the  more 


superficial  fields  is  completed.  Individual  men  are 
being  called  upon  to  possess  a  more  and  more  extensive 
and  specialized  knowledge  of  each  of  the  fields  in  which 
they  have  chosen  to  work.  The  ideal  worker  in  a 
given  border  fine  should  possess  as  extensive  experience 
and  information  in  each  of  the  sciences  which  his  work 
touches  as  the  most  specialized  workers  in  those  pure 
fields.  The  human  limitation  for  the  individual,  except 
for  the  very  rare  and  outstanding  genius  of  universal 
capabilities,  is  very  obvious. 

The  evident,  though  as  yet  scarcely  explored,  solution, 
is  the  very  closely  integrated  border  line  group,  made 
up  of  highly  trained  specialists  in  each  of  the  sciences 
along  the  edges  of  which  the  group  plans  to  work,  who, 
while  thoroughly  and  possibly  somewhat  myopically 
competent  in  knowledge  of  their  fields,  are  yet  so  closely 
knit  to  one  another  that  the  organization  as  a  whole 
functions  as  a  unit,  as  a  superorganism,  as  it  were, 
with  powers  far  greater  than  would  be  the  sum  of  those 
of  its  individual  components.  The  formation  and 
operation  of  such  groups  require  special  conditions  and 
the  task  is  not  easy — the  very  hardest  part,  like  that  of 
building  a  ship,  being  the  attainment  of  the  condition 
in  which  each  component  of  the  structure  ceases  to  be 
an  individual  unit  and  becomes  a  part  of  the  whole. 
Difficult  though  it  may  be,  this  development  represents 
one  of  the  most  important  modern  trends  in  scientific 
research.  Attempts  to  achieve  the  ideal  condition  are 
being  made  in  several  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
abroad,  with  varying,  but  on  the  whole  encouraging, 
success. 

As  always  in  our  modern  social  structure,  the  ten- 
dencies that  have  become  so  markedly  evident  in  pure 
scientific  research  have  been  closely  paralleled  in  research 
in  industry.     Industries  which  are  primarily  dependent 

347 


348 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


upon  research  in  border-line  fields,  or  which  make 
large  use  of  such  research,  have  appeared  in  very  con- 
siderable numbers  over  the  past  20  years.  The  group 
method  of  research  has  received  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  its  impetus  from  industrial  effort,  for  the 
technique  is  as  applicable  there  as  anywhere  else.  We 
shall  be  concerned  in  this  section  with  this  service  of  re- 
search  in   border-line   fields   to   industrial   enterprise. 

In  defining  the  scope  and  extent  of  border-line 
research,  especially  in  its  industrial  apphcation,  it  is 
necessary  to  set  fairly  arbitrary  limits.  As  has  been 
indicated,  a  discipline  which  was  considered  as  a  bor- 
der line  in  one  generation  will  be  considered  as  an  es- 
tablished field  in  the  next.  Thus,  the  border-line 
science  of  biochemistry  is  in  the  transition  stage  between 
its  classification  as  a  border  line  and  its  recognition  as 
a  full  discipline.  It  is  just  at  the  peak  of  the  active 
and  highly  productive  stage  which  usually  marks  this 
transition.  It  has  journals  and  texts  of  its  own,  but 
it  still  lacks  the  status  of  physical  chemistry.  Bio- 
physics is  in  a  less  developed  phase,  where  it  may  defi- 
nitely be  classed  as  a  border  line.  There  are  still  rela- 
tivly  few  really  competently  trained  workers  in  the  field, 
there  is  no  adequate  journal,  there  are  few  good  text- 
books, yet  work  in  that  discipline  is  of  the  very  highest 
importance. 

Geochemistry  and  geophysics,  because  of  their 
relative  youth  and  the  restricted  practical  applications 
which  have  so  far  been  made  of  them,  except  of  geo- 
physics in  mining  and  metallurgical  spheres,  are  today 
to  be  definitely  regarded  as  among  the  younger,  border 
line  sciences. 

If  for  the  frame  of  reference  in  which  judgment  as  to 
the  character  of  a  discipline  is  made,  its  industrial  appli- 
cation is  taken,  several  other  fields,  not  ordinarily 
considered  border  line  in  character,  should  be  included. 
If  we  include  in  our  definition  of  border-line  disciplines 
not  only  those  which  overlap  the  sciences  in  their  treat- 
ment of  subject  material,  but  those  which  are  today  in 
the  pioneering  stage  of  industrial  application,  we  can- 
not ignore  the  special  sciences  of  geology  with  its 
subscience  mineralogy,  and  of  rheology.  Mineralogy 
has  hardly  budded  from  geology  as  a  special  science, 
and  it  is  today  one  of  the  frontier  disciplines  from  the 
standpoint  of  its  application  to  a  well-defined  class  of 
industries.  Rheology,  the  science  of  the  study  of 
plastic  flow,  is  a  recent  arrival  from  the  domain  of 
physics.  Recently,  in  the  United  States,  it  has  acliieved 
the  dignity  of  a  joiu-nal  of  its  own,  and  it  includes  a 
sufficient  number  among  its  professional  disciples  to 
warrant  the  maintenance  of  a  national  society.  It  is 
the  handmaiden  of  a  considerable  range  of  industries, 
though  its  application  there,  as  that  of  a  consciously 
organized  science,  is  of  very  recent  date.  It  is  especi- 
ally helpful  in  the  chemical  industries,  especially  in 


that  extremely  important  and  still  rapidly  developing 
field  of  plastics. 

Geology  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  sciences,  and  surely 
can  present  no  claim  to  be  of  border-line  character  on 
the  first  definition.  But  upon  the  second,  its  claim  is 
very  real.  Its  first  apphcation  to  industry  is  not  of 
very  recent  date,  for  a  qualitative  knowledge  of  geology 
has  of  course  long  been  a  part  of  the  stock  in  trade  of 
every  mining  engineer.  The  recent  highly  significant 
extensions  of  geological  science  and  method,  however, 
its  inclusion  within  its  operating  resources  of  many 
novel  teclmiques,  and  the  expansion  of  its  field  of 
interests  have  in  recent  years  very  greatly  changed  the 
science  as  a  whole  and  widened  and  radically  modified 
its  industrial  applications.  It  should,  therefore,  quite 
definitely  be  included  among  the  border  lines  of  the 
second  class. 

The  fields  which  have  thus  been  selected  as  repre- 
sentative in  the  classes  of  border-hne  disciplines  which 
we  have  defined  include  biochemistry,  biophysics, 
geology,  geochemistry,  geophysics,  and  rheology.  We 
may  consider  each  of  these  very  briefly  to  point  out 
some  of  the  more  representative  developments  of  the 
fields,  and  some  of  the  more  obvious  opportunities 
which  may  await  development  in  some  of  them  and  in 
the  method  of  border-line  research  in  general. 

Biochemistry 

The  science  of  biochemistry  in  general  is  the  servant 
of  a  very  large  number  of  industries,  most  of  which, 
naturally  enough,  concern  living  matter  in  some  form. 
Prominent  among  the  commercial  enterprises  so  served 
are  the  industries  dealing  with  food  packing  and  preser- 
vation, food  production  (the  agricultural  industries), 
biologically  produced  solvents,  pharmaceuticals,  leather, 
gums,  resins,  oils,  fats,  waxes,  soaps,  and  other  plant 
and  animal  byproducts,  to  mention  only  a  represent- 
ative few. 

The  science  of  the  application  of  chemical  methods  to 
the  preparation  of  foods  found  its  beginnings  in  the  days 
of  Liebig.  That  of  the  disinfection  and  preservation  of 
food  materials  and  the  manufacture  of  products  by 
controlled  fermentation,  not  to  mention  the  entire 
recognition  of  biochemistry  as  a  coherent  discipline,  is 
surely  due  to  the  genius  of  the  immortal  chemist-biolo- 
gist Pasteur.  If  biochemistry  thus  originated  in  a 
i-easonably  remote  period,  its  meteoric  rise  to  the  front 
rank  of  dynamic  sciences  has  been  a  development  of 
the  last  30  years,  and  its  widespread  industrial  applica- 
tion has  come  even  more  recently.  Today,  a  large 
number  of  highly  important  industries  are  primarily 
dependent  for  their  technological  advance  upon  the 
science  of  biochemistry,  and  biochemistry  serves  a 
further  considerable  number  in  subsidiary  fashion. 


Industrial  Research 


349 


Typical  of  the  more  vital  modern  industries  which 
are  largely  served  technically  by  biochemistry  are  the 
entire  food  industry,  phai'maceuticals,  the  agricultural 
industry  with  its  many  ramifications,  those  chemical 
industries  which  are  particularly  concerned  with  sol- 
vents derived  from  living  organisms  and  other  chemicals 
most  efficiently  biologically  produced,  the  leather 
industry,  and  industries  dealing  with  the  production  and 
preparation  of  natural  gums,  resins,  waxes,  and  fats, 
and  their  intermediary  or  byproducts.  These  industries 
make  up  a  block  of  commercial  and  technological 
activity  which  is  of  very  great  importance  to  the 
Nation  as  a  whole,  both  in  the  relatively  indispensable 
quality  of  the  products  manufactured  and  in  the  relative 
volume  of  commercial  exchange  involved. 

The  contributions  of  biochemistry  to  the  food  indus- 
try have  been  legion,  but  it  wiU  be  worth  while  in 
passing  to  mention  a  few  of  the  more  striking  and  more 
recent  ones,  as  typical  of  many  more.  The  entire 
practice  of  food  refrigeration,  of  great  importance  to 
national  health  and  the  foundation  of  a  large  industry, 
has  been  almost  uniquely  the  product  of  the  efforts  of 
the  biochemist,  the  biophysicist,  and  the  mechanical 
and  refrigeration  engineer.  To  the  biochemist  has 
fallen  the  task  of  determining  the  optimum  conditions 
of  refrigeration  for  various  edible  commodities,  and  of 
investigating  minutely  the  physical,  but  especially  the 
chemical,  changes  that  take  place  in  food  preservation. 
His  has  been  the  responsibihty  of  studying  the  incidence 
and  growth  of  molds  and  fungi  under  conditions  of 
refrigeration,  the  changes  of  cell  structure  in  refriger- 
ated foods,  the  stability  of  vitamin  content  under 
these  conditions,  the  action  of  natural  enzymes  at  low 
temperatures,  and  the  rates  of  gas  exchange  in  refriger- 
ated foods,  to  say  nothing  of  that  most  difficult  and 
important  subject  of  investigation,  the  absorption  of 
objectionable  odors  by  refrigerated  foods  of  delicate 
flavor.  The  work  of  the  biochemist  in  food  preserva- 
tion tas  reached  a  climax  of  importance  in  two  closely 
related  fields.  The  first  is  that  of  the  so-called  "quick 
freezing"  of  foods — a  process  now  of  high  importance. 
The  great  importance  of  flavor  and  texture  in  quick- 
frozen  foods  has  necessitated  an  extremely  careful 
study  of  the  modification  of  cell  structure  under  freez- 
ing, with  a  view  to  eliminating  mechanical  distortions  of 
cell  walls  and  destruction  of  cell  products  insofar  as 
possible.  It  has  also  necessitated  a  much  intensified 
investigation  of  the  activity  of  enzymes  in  frozen  food, 
with  a  view  both  of  eliminating  the  harmful  effects  of 
autolysis  on  the  one  hand  and  of  preserving  insofar  as 
possible  the  valuable  properties  of  vitamins  on  the 
other.  The  second  field  where  biochemical  research  in 
food  preservation  has  been  of  particular  value  has 
involved  the  ripening  and  the  preservation  of  fruit. 
Studies  of  the  rate  of  respiration  and  other  gas  exchange 


in  bananas  have  Ix^on  important  to  the  successful  mass 
transportation  of  that  fruit  which  now  forms  the  basis 
of  a  major  industry.  Biochemical  studies  of  the  re- 
action of  pigments  in  the  fruit  skin  to  ethylene  com- 
pounds and  other  related  chemicals  have  made  possible 
the  artificial  ripening  methods  now  such  a  boon  to  the 
citrus  industry. 

Studies  of  the  processes  of  drying,  lyeing,  and  sul- 
furing  in  fruit  preservation  have  been  of  equal  value, 
and  their  successful  prosecution,  very  largely  by  bio- 
chemical methods,  has  made  possible  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  American  raisin,  dried  apricot,  and 
prune  industry.  Hand  in  hand  with  this  work  has  come 
the  study  of  the  biochemicar  action  of  preservatives, 
especially  in  the  fruit-juice  field,  both  upon  the  product 
and  upon  the  consumer. 

The  biochemistry  of  enzyme  changes  in  meats  is 
quite  as  important  as  that  of  vegetable  foods.  The 
enzyme  papain,  and  some  of  the  other  naturally  occur- 
ring enzymes  of  fruits,  notably  of  the  pineapple,  have 
been  found  to  have  a  very  marked  action  on  meat  prod- 
ucts, and  have  now  been  commonly  adapted  for  the 
"tenderization"  of  sausage  coverings  in  that  industry, 
with  good  success.  The  mechanism  of  the  action  is 
being  studied  further.  It  has  been  found  that  the  color 
of  beef,  a  very  important  quality  in  determining  its 
marketability,  bears  a  close  relation  to  the  biochemistry 
of  the  meat,  and  that,  other  things  being  equal,  meat 
of  a  higher  sugar  content  tends  to  be  of  a  more  brilliant 
red  color. 

The  biochemistry  of  bacteria  is  an  extremely  impor- 
tant fi^eld  for  the  food  industiy.  On  the  one  hand, 
knowledge  of  this  kind  permits  closer  and  more  intelli- 
gent control  of  noxious  micro-organisms  at  every  stage 
of  food  preparation  and  preservation.  On  the  other — 
and  almost  equally  important — it  opens  to  industry 
the  important  fields  of  the  cultivation  of  beneficial 
strains.  The  applications  are  multifarious.  Bacterial 
reactions  are  at  the  base  of  very  many  activities,  includ- 
ing manufacture  of  cheeses  and  alcoholic  beverages 
among  the  consumables,  the  production  of  many  com- 
mercial solvents  and  other  chemicals,  which  at  present 
are  or  may  be  synthesized  by  bacteria  more  economically 
than  by  any  other  means,  and,  not  the  least  important, 
the  preparation  and  preservation  of  farm  stock  feeds 
for  the  agricultural  and  agronomical  industries.  An 
important  field  has  also  developed  rather  recently  about 
the  use  of  bacteria,  and  especially  of  microfungi, 
directly  as  food.  The  high  food  value  of  the  larger 
fungi,  as  exemplified  in  the  mushrooms,  has  long  been 
recognized.  It  has  only  been  fairly  recently,  however, 
that  the  great  value  of  some  of  the  yeasts  for  direct 
consumption  has  attracted  the  attention  whicli  it 
deserves.  This  is  a  relatively  virgin  field  which  the 
work  of  the  biochemist  alone  can  be  expected  to  expand. 


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The  preparation  of  important  chemical  byproducts 
from  vegetable  sources  is  another  very  important 
biochemical  field.  We  have  briefly  mentioned  the  ex- 
traction and  study  of  plant  enzymes  which  has  fallen 
to  the  work  of  the  biochemist.  Equally  important  is 
the  study  of  such  fruit  bj'products  as  pectin,  obtained 
both  from  the  larger  fruits  and,  oddly,  from  fungi.  The 
detection,  extraction,  and  preparation  of  natural  resins, 
gums,  oils,  fats,  soaps,  and  waxes  is  an  especially  im- 
portant biochemical  procedure.  Although  the  syn- 
thetic plastics  industry  has  displaced  the  use  of  some 
natural  gums  and  resins,  there  are  very  many  which, 
either  by  virtue  of  natural  superioritj',  susceptibility  to 
economical  production,  or  both,  are  destined  to  remain 
predominant  for  many  years  to  come,  if  not  per- 
manently. The  biochemistry  of  these  products,  of 
their  production,  and  of  the  plant  which  produces 
them,  are  of  the  highest  industrial  importance.  Chicle, 
the  product  of  a  tough-leaved  bush  of  the  tropics,  lies 
at  the  base  of  the  entire  chewing-gum  industry,  and  a 
suitable  artificial  substitute  has  not  been  found. 
Natural  dammars  and  lacs  are  irreplaceable  for  many 
uses.  The  biochemistry  of  many  of  the  plant  oUs,  and 
particularly  that  of  their  successful  hydrogenation  and 
other  chemical  modification,  has  become  of  the  very 
highest  importance  to  the  food  industry.  The  hydro- 
genation of  cottonseed  oil  has  placed  at  our  command 
a  higher  hydrogen-content  natural  oil,  analogous  in 
many  ways  to  some  of  the  animal  fats,  at  a  hitherto 
impossibly  low  cost.  Further,  the  substances  so  pre- 
pared are  in  effect  new,  and  totally  imlike  naturally 
occurring  products  in  many  of  their  properties. 

Biochemistry  is  at  least  as  essential  to  the  pharma- 
ceutical as  it  is  to  the  food  industry.  The  plant  and 
animal  vitamin  industry  exceeds  $120,000,000  in  its 
annual  sales.  Most  of  these  vitamins  are  biochemi- 
cally prepared  from  a  great  variety  of  sources,  and 
are  purified  and  finished  for  medical  use.  We  have 
said  a  little  of  enzymes  in  their  relation  to  the  prep- 
aration of  foods.  As  general  biologies,  a  very  large 
number  of  them  are  biochemically  isolated  from  both 
plant  and  animal  sources  and  are  annually  placed  on 
the  market.  Rennin,  invertase,  papain,  pancreatic 
extracts,  pepsin,  amylase,  microbial  proteases  are  all 
relatively  commonplace  today,  and  they  find  the  great- 
est variety  of  uses.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of 
these  is  still  in  medicine,  but  others  are  very  nearly  as 
conspicuous.  Enzymes  play  an  extremely  important 
part  in  the  tanning  industry,  whUe  invertase  is  widely 
used  in  the  hydrolysis  of  sugar  sirups.  Enzyme  diges- 
tion of  the  gelatin  base  is  an  important  step  in  the 
recovery  of  silver  from  photographic  film,  often  a  very 
economically  important  jirocedure  to  the  cinema  in- 
dustry. 

Quite  as  important  as  the  vitamins  and  enzymes 


obtained  from  plants  and  plant  products  are  some  of 
the  other  substances  biochemically  produced  from 
them.  The  chemistry  of  natural  flavorings  and  per- 
fumes is  very  important  both  in  their  production  and 
for  their  successful  imitation  in  the  synthetic  industry. 
The  biochemistry  of  plant  flower  colorings  is  of  interest 
to  the  synthetic  dye  industry.  Important,  especially 
in  medicine,  is  the  biochemistry  of  plant  alkaloids. 
Quinine,  caffeine,  the  cocaine  derivatives,  and  many 
other  plant  alkaloids  stand  as  examples  of  the  work 
which  biochemistry  has  done  in  this  field. 

The  biochemistry  of  narcotics,  sedatives,  and  anaes- 
thetics began  as  an  essentially  nonindustrial  study, 
devoted  to  the  noncommercial  alleviation  of  human 
suffering.  The  tremendous  amount  of  information 
which  it  has  accumulated,  however,  as  to  the  action  of 
special  chemical  groups  in  human  anaesthesia  and 
narcosis,  as  well  as  in  germicidal  and  toxic  action,  has 
become  an  important  base  of  the  entire  pharmaceutical 
industry.  The  knowledge  gained  in  recent  j'ears  has 
been  so  remarkably  precise  in  nature  that  it  is  at  pres- 
ent possible  to  build  a  compound  biochemically  to 
specification,  so  that  it  will  be  a  narcotic,  a  sedative,  an 
anaesthetic,  or  a  toxic  substance,  or  may  combine  any 
or  all  of  these  properties.  No  single  field  of  biochemical 
work  has  been  of  higher  medical  value.  Closely  related 
to  this  field  is  that  of  chemotherapy,  with  its  industrial 
production  of  germicidal  agents,  and  of  such  justly 
famous  substances  as  sulfanilimide  and  sulfathiazole. 
The  preparation  of  vaccines  and  of  other  disease-pre- 
venting and  immunization  sera  is  a  closely  related 
activity  and  is  one  of  the  most  difficult,  as  well  as  the 
most  significant,  fields  of  all  biochemistry.  Important 
too  are  the  diagnostic  agents  which  are  being  developed 
in  the  biochemical  laboratories  of  pharmaceutical  con- 
cerns. 

The  textile  industry  is  by  its  very  nature  intimately 
dependent  upon  biochemistry.  Studies  of  the  bio- 
chemistry of  silk,  wool,  and  cotton  have  on  the  one 
hand  vastly  improved  the  qualities  of  these  products 
over  the  last  several  years,  and  on  the  other  have 
given  great  impetus  to  the  production  of  synthetic 
materials.  Recent  biochemical  studies  of  the  structure 
of  cellulose  and  lignin  have  been  of  interest  for  the 
production  of  artificial  cellulose  compounds  of  com- 
mercial importance,  such  as  cellulose  nitrate,  cellulose 
acetate,  and  ethyl  cellulose,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
various  products  derived  from  lignin  on  the  other. 

The  agricultural  industries  are  effectively  served  by 
biochemical  science.  We  have  already  considered  the 
importance  of  biochemistry  in  the  identification,  isola- 
tion, and  modification  of  plant  and  animal  products. 
It  is  eciually  significant  in  the  rearing  and  care  of  the 
productive  organisms.  The  study  of  soils  and  of  the 
composition  and  action  of  fertilizers  has  formed  a  very 


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active  part  of  bioohoniical  activity  over  tlic  past  several 
years  as  have  biochemical  studies  of  bacterial  nitrof^cn 
fixation,  a  process  the  understanding  and  abetting  of 
which  is  so  vitally  imjiortant  to  the  large-scale  restora- 
tion of  depleted  soils  through  crop-rotation  methods. 
Biochemical  investigations  of  insecticides  and  fungi- 
cides are  of  great  commercial  and  economic  value,  and 
are  being  undertaken  in  the  laboratories  of  several  of 
the  larger  chemical  companies.  An  especially  interest- 
ing and  important  modern  feature  of  this  investigation 
has  been  the  development  of  substances  toxic  to  inverte- 
brate life,  and  therefore  excellent  insecticides  or  fungi- 
cides, and  yet  nontoxic  to  warm-blooded  animals. 
Such  insecticides  may  be  spraj^ed  upon  crop  plants 
until  their  maturity,  and  no  labor  is  necessary  in 
removing  traces  of  the  chemicals  before  processing. 
Many  of  these  substances  are  themselves  vegetable 
alkaloids,  which  were  originally  detected,  extracted, 
and  concentrated  by  biological  means. 

The  production  of  solvents  and  other  commodities  of 
direct  industrial  utility  by  biological  means  is  usually 
a  process  primarily  involving  bacteriological  techniques, 
and  therefore  peculiarly  well  served  by  biochemistiy 
at  every  step  of  the  way.  The  most  important  of 
such  commodities,  of  course,  is  alcohol,  but  others  are 
continually  coming  to  the  fore. 

The  leather  industry  is  one  which  is  today  consider- 
ably served  by  biochemical  techniques.  The  processes 
of  tanning  have  always  been  recognized  as  primarily 
biochemical,  but  it  is  only  within  comparatively  recent 
years  that  efTort  has  been  made  on  a  really  serious 
scale  to  understand  the  methods  involved  or  to  improve 
them.  Though  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  arts,  tanning 
until  very  recent  years  has  been  an  almost  entirely 
empirical  process.  The  recent  contributions  of  bio- 
chemistry, however,  have  been  considerable.  Con- 
trolled tanning  through  the  quantitative  use  of  enzymes 
is  being  studied  extensively.  The  nature  of  the 
chemical  changes  which  are  undergone  by  leather  in 
the  course  of  the  process  are  being  thoroughly  investi- 
gated, and  many  modifications  have  been  introduced 
into  the  final  product.  The  leather  industry  is  one 
which,  at  the  moment,  does  not  face  direct  serious 
competition  from  any  synthetic  product  of  like  proper- 
ties, but,  for  very  many  purposes,  it  must  resist  the 
encroachments  of  artificial  substitutes  equally  or  nearly 
equally  good.  The  flexible  and  semiflexible  resins  and 
modified  rubber  or  rubber-containing  products  will 
serve  many  of  the  uses  of  leather.  There  are,  however, 
still  enough  large-scale  applications  remaming  in  in- 
dustry for  which  leather  is  uniquely  suitable  to  justify 
very  much  further  work  on  the  biochemistry  of  the 
product  and  its  preparation. 

The  leather  industry  has  rather  recently  posed  some 
extremely    interesting    problems    in    the    biochemical 


field  of  bacterial  disinfection.  Many  liides  which  are 
sent  to  tanneries,  especially  from  the  East,  have  been 
stripped  from  animals  which  have  perished  from 
anthrax,  and  the  danger  of  the  communication  of  the 
disease  to  tannery  workers  is  very  serious  indeed. 
The  problem  of  sterilizing  such  hides  is  an  extremely 
important  and  difficult  one.  Heat  sterDization  is  out 
of  the  question,  as  are  most  chemical  treatments, 
because  of  the  irreparable  damage  which  they  do  to  the 
quality  of  the  hides.  Much  interesting  work  has  been 
done  with  gaseous  disinfectants,  but  the  combined 
necessity  of  high  toxicity,  liigh  penetrating  power,  and 
low  injuriousness  to  the  hides,  the  chemical  composition 
of  wliich  rather  closely  approaches  that  of  the  organisms 
that  are  to  be  eradicated,  makes  of  this  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  industrially  important  of  modern  bio- 
chemical problems. 

Though  biochemistry  is  chronologically  one  of  the 
older  of  the  border-line  fields,  its  industrial  applica- 
tions are  very  far  from  having  reached  a  level  of  satu- 
ration. Opportunities  too  numerous  to  list  individually 
are  continually  presented  to  biochemistry  in  the  service 
of  industry.  The  biochemistry  of  plant  alkaloids  is 
still  in  its  relative  infancy,  both  on  the  purely  investi- 
gative and  on  the  applicational  sides.  The  chemistry 
of  immunization  reactions  in  the  human  body  is  of 
the  highest  importance  for  the  preparation  of  suitable 
vaccmes  and  toxin-antitoxins.  The  biochemistry  of 
cancer  is  of  course  very  little  understood  today,  despite 
recent  investigations  into  the  rate  and  character  of  the 
metabolism  of  cancer  cells  and  the  various  aberrant 
features  of  their  metabolic  mechanism.  No  problem 
could  be  a  more  important  one  for  biochemistry,  both 
from  the  standpoint  of  pure  medicine  and  that  of 
industrial  disease. 

There  are  very  many  plant  products  and  byproducts 
which  present  most  important  economic  implications 
for  the  future.  The  solution  of  the  problems  concerned 
in  their  extraction  and  their  suitable  marketing  will  be 
the  task  of  biochemistry.  New  drying  oils  are  needed 
for  the  paint  and  varnish  industry.  Tlie  range  of 
plants  that  may  directly  supply  these  oils  has  been 
fairly  well  investigated  for  this  hemisphere.  The 
investigation  has  only  been  begun,  however,  among 
plants  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  especially  in  the 
New  World,  and  the  most  important  things  may  remain 
to  be  discovered.  It  will  be  the  task  of  the  biochemist 
to  devise  the  methods  of  assay  which  the  botanist  wiU 
apply  in  his  search,  to  perfect  methods  of  extraction 
and  analysis  of  the  oil.  Even  more  important  than  this, 
however,  because  of  the  much  wider  field  which  it  opens, 
is  the  biochemist's  investigation  of  the  natural  drying 
oils  known  at  present,  with  the  view  of  artificially 
altering  their  structure  and  so  introducing  properties 
as  new  and  as  valuable  as  those  of  an  entirely  new 


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National  Resources  Planning  Board 


product.  Work  of  this  kind  constitutes  a  far  wider 
sort  of  exploration.  Its  success  has  already  been 
attested  on  numerous  occasions,  most  dramatically, 
perhaps,  through  the  various  hydrogenation  techniques. 
The  field  of  biochemistry  is  sufficiently  well  recog- 
nized, and  has  been  established  long  enough  for  its 
educational  facilities  to  be  obtained  readily.  Bio- 
chemistry is  recognized  as  a  definite  entity  in  the 
chemical  departments  of  most  of  our  outstanding  uni- 
versities, and  a  good  share  of  educational  time  and 
talent  is  devoted  to  its  better  students.  The  principal 
improvement  for  which  we  can  hope  is  that  the  educa- 
tional facihties  in  the  field  may  be  broadened  in  geo- 
graphic scope,  so  as  to  mclude  a  good  many  of  our 
smaller  institutions  of  learning  from  which  they  are 
now  absent.  The  situation  is  far  from  being  as  satis- 
factory as  this  in  the  border-line  field  which  we  shall 
next  consider. 

Biophysics 

The  science  of  biophysics  is  designed  to  fiill  the  same 
borderline  position  between  the  domain  of  physics  and 
biology  as  is  occupied  by  biochemistiy  between  biology 
and  chemistry.  It  is,  however,  a  very  much  newer 
science  than  the  latter,  and  much  less  completely 
recognized  today.  By  the  same  token,  its  very  best 
days  lie  all  before  it,  and  we  are  only  beginning  to 
conceive  of  its  coming  immense  industrial  importance. 
It  is  one  of  those  border-line  fields  which  is  deserving 
of  the  most  vigorous  and  active  encouragement.  For, 
just  as  chemistry  as  an  industrial  science  is  far  more 
widely  recognized  today  than  physics  in  the  same  role, 
although  physics  is  potentially  quite  as  important,  so 
the  position  in  industry  of  the  handmaiden  of  physics, 
biophysics,  is  not  so  clearly  understood  as  is  that  of 
biochemistry.  Biophysics  is  still  in  that  stage  where 
the  industrial  importance  of  certain  special  applications 
of  the  science  is  widely  recognized  and  acknowledged, 
but  only  the  veriest  beginning  has  been  made  of  linking 
these  isolated  bits,  and  the  methods  wiiich  achieved 
them,  into  a  unified  and  coordinated  discipline,  backed 
by  a  suitable  educational  system  and  suitable  profes- 
sional recognition.  All  this  must  come  in  the  future, 
but  the  sooner  it  can  arrive,  the  sooner  and  the  more 
will  American  industry  profit. 

It  must  suffice  here  to  notice  in  passing  some  of  those 
isolated  and  more  striking  examples  of  the  industrial 
applications  of  biophysics,  considering  those  as  illus- 
trative of  the  sort  of  service  which  would  be  performed 
over  a  much  broader  field  by  a  unified  discipline.  We 
may  then  consider  for  a  moment  some  of  the  steps 
wliich  might  profitably  be  taken  in  the  direction  of  the 
establishment  of  such  a  discipline. 

Biophysics  is  concerned  with  physical  processes  in 
Uving  material,   with   the   use   of  physical   means   in 


measuring  biological  reactions,  and  with  the  reactions 
of  biological  materials  to  physical  agents.  In  conse- 
quence, its  work  fails  rouglily  into  two  main  divisions. 
The  first  deals  with  the  reactions  of  living  organisms  to 
physical  agents,  such  as  heat,  light,  and  the  various 
radiations  of  longer  or  shorter  wave  length.  The 
second  is  concerned  with  the  accmate  physical  measure- 
ment of  biological  processes  by  means  of  instruments 
devised  espcciallj'  for  the  purpose  and  made  possible 
through  the  discipline  of  biophysics.  Both  fields  have 
extremely  important  industrial  as  well  as  medical 
applications.  The  two  spheres  cannot  be  entirely 
delimited  artificially,  so  that  it  is  inevitable  that  each 
field  to  be  cited  will,  in  many  cases,  share  the  charac- 
teristics of  both. 

Biophysicists  have  made  a  beginning  in  the  study  of 
the  reactions  of  living  organisms  to  electromagnetic 
radiations  throughout  the  spectrum,  and  the  applica- 
tions which  have  already  been  made  to  medicine  and 
to  industry  have  been  considerable.  Since  the  work  is, 
relatively  speaking,  only  begun,  the  future  seems  most 
promising. 

Biophysical  investigations  in  the  shorter  wavelength 
radio  region  have  resulted  in  the  development  of  the 
"fever  machine,"  and  the  development  of  the  fever 
therapy  methods  in  medicine.  Other  industrial  appli- 
cations have  stemmed  from  the  same  method.  Such  is 
the  use  of  short-wave  radio  fields  in  relation  to  the  dry- 
ing of  oils,  the  condensations  of  resins,  and  other  modi- 
fications in  industrially  important  products.  It  has 
even  been  investigated  in  relation  to  the  preparation  of 
special  types  of  food  products,  such  as  some  of  the  dried 
cereals,  and  no  one  can  tell  what  the  future  may  bring 
in  further  applications  of  the  method. 

Biophysical  investigations  in  the  infrared  region  have 
resulted  in  the  development  of  the  infrared  "translux" 
viewer,  of  special  value  in  certain  types  of  cancer  diag- 
nosis. Investigations  of  particidar  importance  to  the 
agricultural  and  agronomic  industries  have  been  made 
of  the  effect  of  infrared  irradiation  upon  photosyn- 
thesis in  green  plants,  and  upon  the  rate  of  laying  and 
rate  of  growth  of  birds  in  the  poultry  industry.  A  par- 
ticularly interesting  application  of  infrared  spectro- 
scopy has  recently  been  made  to  important  studies  in 
photosynthesis,  the  infrared  absorption  spectrum  of 
carbon  dioxide  being  used  as  a  delicate  criterion  of  the 
rate  of  absorption  of  this  gas  by  crop  plants  under  var- 
ious conditions  of  soil,  moisture,  and  illumination.  The 
study  of  soil  heating  in  relation  to  root  growth  and 
crop  production  is  also  a  most  important  one  for  the 
agricidtural  industry.  Special  infrared  lamps  have  been 
developed  to  aid  in  the  drying  of  natural  oils  in  paints 
and  varnishes. 

Because  of  the  relatively  much  longer  time  that  the 
visible  spectrum  has  been  studied  by  man,  and  because 


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353 


of  the  relatively  large  number  of  measiirin<i  instruments 
that  have  been  developed  in  this  field,  biojjhysic'al  in- 
vestigations in  this  region  have  been  unusually  profuse 
and  of  unusual  significance. 

Extensive  studies  have  been  made  of  the  bactericidal 
action  of  light,  and  the  resiUts  have  been  put  to  good 
practical  use  in  industry  and  in  medicine.  Similarly, 
studies  of  the  ctrccts  of  light  on  the  more  important  of 
the  useful  micro-organisms,  notably  on  the  butyric  and 
lactic  acid  bacteria  and  the  fungi  involved  in  the  making 
of  cheese  have  had  important  repercussions  on  proce- 
dures in  the  dairy  industry.  Many  more  studies  of  this 
kind  are  badly  needed,  in  view  of  the  ever-increasing 
range  of  bacterial  and  fungus  forms  that  are  becoming 
of  industrial  significance. 

The  careful  study  of  the  effect  of  visible  light  of  dif- 
ferent wave  lengths  on  photosynthesis  has  been  of  the 
very  highest  importance  to  agriculture.  The  investiga- 
tion of  the  mechanism  of  photosynthesis,  wliich  is  only 
in  its  infancy,  has  been  prinaarily  a  biochemical  matter, 
but  the  biophysicist  has  contributed  the  methodology 
for  the  direct  investigation  of  plant  growth  in  light  of 
differing  quality,  and  in  differing  total  illuminations. 
The  demonstration  of  the  striking  differences  in  the 
requirements  of  various  crop  plants  has  alone  more  than 
justified  this  work.  The  residts  have  already  led  to 
marked  modifications  in  commercial  greenhouse  tech- 
nique, and  may  go  much  further.  The  dairy  and 
poultry  industries  have  likewise  been  much  influenced 
by  studies  of  the  effects  of  quantity  and  quality  of 
illumination  upon  the  rate  and  total  production  of  milk, 
egg,  and  meat  products.  Modifications  of  the  fii'st  and 
second  have  been  especially  industrially  important. 

Biophysical  studies  in  the  region  of  the  visible  spec- 
trum have  been  of  consequence  in  quite  another  field, 
important  to  industrial  medicine  and  to  industry  as  a 
whole — the  field  of  opthalmology,  and  the  study  of  the 
effect  of  intensity  and  quality  of  light  on  the  human  eye. 
Studies  in  the  relative  sensitivity  of  the  human  retina 
to  different  portions  of  the  visible  spectrum  have  en- 
abled progressive  industrialists  to  provide  the  quality  of 
shop  and  office  illumination  to  promote  the  highest  effi- 
ciency of  work  and  the  greatest  happiness  to  workers. 
Physical  studies  in  the  production  of  suitable  fluorescent 
light  sources  have  aided  this  development  enormously 
in  the  last  several  years.  On  the  other  hand,  biophys- 
ical studies  in  the  reaction  of  the  himian  eye  to  various 
qualities  and  quantities  of  light  have  resulted  in  the 
development  of  methods  of  opthalmological  diagnosis 
and  treatment  of  very  high  value  to  industrial  medicine. 

When  we  enter  the  ultraviolet  region,  we  first  come  to 
deal  with  rndiations  of  sufficient  quantum  energies  to 
produce  fairly  extensive  ionization  in  the  biological 
materials  upon  which  they  impinge,  resulting  in  the  pro- 
duction of  numerous  effects  which  yield  much  material 


of  interest  for  the  investigation  of  the  biophysicist.  The 
chemical  changes  which  ultraviolet  radiation  may  bring 
about  have  enabled  biophysicists  to  be  of  great  indus- 
trial service  in  devising  means  for  the  artificial  irradia- 
tion of  processed  foods  and  of  suitable  sterols,  with  con- 
sequent vitamin  production.  The  process  has  come  to 
have  fully  as  much  industrial  advertising  as  scientific 
value,  and  is  in  some  danger  of  having  its  merits  over- 
stressed  thereby,  but  there  is  no  denying  its  wide  appli- 
cability and  industrial  and  medical  import.  Of  similar 
importance  have  been  biophysical  studies  of  the  effects 
of  ultraviolet  illumination  on  the  human  skin  and  eye, 
the  production  of  erythema,  and  the  synthesis  of  vita- 
mins under  these  conditions  of  extreme  significance  to 
medicine  and  to  industry. 

The  property  of  ultraviolet  light  of  inducing  fluores- 
cence in  various  substances  has  led  to  important  bio- 
physical applications,  both  industrially  and  medically. 
In  many  cases  living  organisms  fluoresce  differently 
from  their  nonliving  counterparts,  and  the  property  may 
be  made  of  importance  in  a  large-scale  distinction  be- 
tween the  two.  Medically  this  has  proved  of  impor- 
tance in  the  examination  of  teeth.  In  industry,  it  can 
be  put  to  analogous  use. 

Biophysicists  have  made  extensive  industrial  use  of 
the  bactericidal  properties  of  ultraviolet  light.  As  a 
disinfecting  agent,  ultraviolet  light  is  especially  suitable 
in  treating  surfaces  where  no  part  is  in  shadow,  because 
of  the  limited  penetrating  powers  of  light  of  this  wave 
length.  Special  sterilizing  lamps  have  been  developed 
by  industry  which  have  proved  especially  useful  in  the 
disinfection  of  mUk  and  water  supplies,  where  it  has 
been  possible  to  flow  the  liquid  past  the  light  source  in 
very  thin  sheets.  The  lamp  has  achieved  a  more  limited 
application  in  the  disinfection  of  refrigerators,  and  to  a 
certain  extent,  in  the  treatment  of  fruits,  where  it  has 
been  desirable  to  produce  sufficiently  intense  illumina- 
tion to  eliminate  deep  shadows.  Lamps  designed  for 
the  irradiation  of  patients  or  animals  suffering  from 
rickets  can,  by  the  use  of  suitable  soiu-ces  and  filters, 
be  converted  into  sterilizing  agencies,  thus  making  the 
tool  one  of  unusual  flexibility. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  use  of  ultraviolet  light 
may  be  efficacious  in  the  treatment  of  certain  types  of 
surface  cancers.  This  potentially  important  industrial- 
medical  application  must  await  further  biophysical 
study.  In  photography,  however,  ultraviolet  light 
sources  are  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  biophysical  in- 
vestigator, both  because  their  fluorescence-inducing 
properties  make  them  of  great  value  in  the  fluorescence 
microscope,  and  because  their  high  absorption  in  cel- 
lular nuclear  material  and  this  high  resolving  power 
make  them  of  gi-eat  use  in  cell  photomicrography.  The 
fluorescence  microscope  finds  very  considerable  indus- 
trial application  in  the  analysis  of  materials  which  are 


354 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


composed  of  an  intimate  mixture  of  substances,  where 
it  is  desirable  to  estimate  at  a  glance  the  relative  com- 
position. It  is  much  used  in  the  textile  industry  in 
this  way.  The  absorption  ultraviolet  microscope  finds 
its  greatest  use  in  medicine. 

The  very  great  industrial  and  medical  importance  of 
X-rays  is  well  knowTi.  In  this  field  perhaps  more  than 
any  other,  further  investigations  of  the  biophysicist  are 
needed,  on  both  the  medical  and  the  industrial  sides. 
The  subject  of  rontgenographj'^,  the  taking  and  the 
interpretation  of  clinical  X-raj'  photographs,  has  be- 
come a  science  within  itself,  of  the  very  highest  im- 
portance for  industrial  medicine.  No  tool  is  so  useful 
as  the  X-ray  tube  in  the  diagnosis  of  industrial  injuries, 
and  none,  perhaps,  has  been  so  rapidly  or  so  markedly 
developed  within  recent  years.  In  this  work  the 
biophysicist  has  had,  and  wUl  continue  to  have,  a  con- 
trolling part,  for  no  field  demands  a  more  intimate  com- 
bination of  physical,  biological,  and  medical  knowledge, 
and  in  no  other  field  are  the  requirements  in  regard  to 
the  accuracy  and  the  completeness  of  information  in 
these  various  fields  on  the  part  of  the  worker  more 
strict.  Very  recent  developments,  such  as  the  modern 
extremely  high  voltage  X-ray  tube,  various  techniques 
of  stereoscopic  photography,  and  constantlj'  changing 
techniques  of  interpretation  of  rontgenograms,  are  aU 
indicative  of  the  rapid  development  of  the  field  and 
the  activity  of  biophysical  research  in  it. 

The  second  great  biological  application  of  X-ray 
techniques,  and  perhaps  the  most  wndely  known,  is  to 
cancer  therapy.  Here  too  the  biophysicist  is  of  pi-ime 
importance  in  a  subject  very  close  indeed  to  uadustry. 
The  requirements  for  the  treatment  of  deep-seated 
tumors  have  given  great  stimulus  to  the  development 
of  the  technique  of  producing  high-voltage  X-rays,  and 
have  influenced  X-ray  tube  design  as  much  as  any  other 
factor.  Recentlj',  the  application  of  new  types  of  high- 
voltage  sources,  such  as  the  Van  de  Graaf  generator, 
has  brought  about  interesting  advances.  Much  work 
has  been  done  in  the  impregnation  of  tumors  with  the 
salts  of  elements  of  high  absorbing  power  for  X-rays, 
with  the  purpose  of  trapping  as  much  energy  as  possible 
within  the  tumor  mass. 

Quite  as  important  as  the  influence  of  biophysics  on 
X-ray  tube  design  has  been  its  development  of  tools  for 
measuring  total  applied  X-ray  dosage,  upon  which 
X-ray  therapy  has  depended  for  its  quantitative  inter- 
pretation. Extensive  researches  in  various  forms  of 
ionization  chambers  have  evolved  types  which  are  com- 
pact, portable,  easily  used,  and  quite  accurate  as  rela- 
tive standards,  and  other,  more  bulky  designs  which 
yield  accurate  absolute  measurements  and  serve  as 
calibration  standards.  These  designs  have  been  taken 
over  into  industrial  uses  quite  apart  from  the  medical 
services  which  they  were  originally  expected  to  perform. 


A  third  application  of  biophysics  in  the  field  of  X-rays, 
which  gives  interesting  promise  and  is  as  yet  in  the 
very  preliminary  stages  of  its  development,  is  the  pro- 
duction of  mutations  in  various  crop  plants  of  interest 
by  irradiation  of  germ  cells.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
that  new  forms  of  plant  life  can  be  produced  in  this 
fashion  which  will  have  the  true  characteristics  of  in- 
duced mutations.  They  will  breed  true  to  the  new  type 
for  an  indefinite  number  of  generations  after  the  irradi- 
ation has  been  performed,  and  m  some  cases  the  muta- 
tion may  be  such  as  to  enhance  the  commercial  value 
of  the  altered  product.  A  thorough  estimate  of  the 
commercial  practicabilitj-  of  this  procedure  must  be 
left  to  the  biophysicist  of  the  future. 

Cathode  rays  have  been  used  by  the  biophysicist  in 
applications  on  the  whole  very  similar  to  those  of  X-rays 
and  ultraviolet.  It  has  been  found  that  cathode  rays, 
like  ultraviolet  light,  will  increase  the  vitamin  content 
of  irradiated  sterols,  although  the  very  limited  pene- 
trating power  of  the  beam  sets  a  definite  limit  to  the  in- 
dustrial practicability  of  the  method.  Cathode  rays, 
again  like  ultraviolet  light,  cause  fluorescence  in  many 
materials,  and  this  property  finds  industrial  applicabil- 
ity. Mutations  can  also  be  produced  under  cathode 
irradiation.  Finalh",  cathode  rays  have  been  shown  to 
have  definite  therapeutic  value  in  certain  cases  of  skin 
cancer,  where,  because  of  the  very  high  absorption  of 
their  energy  over  short  distances,  they  may  be  of  greater 
value  than  X-rays. 

Newest  of  all  the  radiations  to  be  considered  as  a 
practicably  useful  tool  by  the  biophysicist  is  the  neu- 
tron, and  here  the  possibilities  are  almost  unexplored 
and  are  highly  exciting.  Very  little  information  has  as 
yet  been  obtained  of  the  therapeutic  value  of  neutrons, 
but  experiments  of  many  types  are  very  actively  under 
way.  A  property  of  neutrons  of  great  interest  is  their 
power  of  inducing  artificial  radioactivity  in  elements  of 
importance  to  the  physiologist.  This  quality  has  made 
possible  the  initiation  of  a  wide  program  of  biophysical 
experiments  with  the  so-called  tracer  elements,  in  which 
the  progress  of  the  element  through  the  human,  animal, 
or  plant  body  can  be  accurately  traced  and  recorded 
with  ionization  counters,  by  virtue  of  the  energy 
spontaneously  released  by  the  radioactive  element. 
Researches  of  this  sort  are,  of  course,  by  no  means 
confined  to  biological  subjects,  and  may  find  important 
industrial  applications,  such  as  in  the  detection  of  minute 
traces  of  various  impurities  in  metals,  and  the  study  of 
the  rate  of  passage  of  substances  through  othi-r  sub- 
stances. These  developments  have  in  turn  initiated 
further  intensive  research  in  the  perfection  of  the  design 
of  Geiger  counters,  to  mcrease  their  sensitivity^  and 
their  range,  which  in  its  turn  may  have  important  indus- 
trial repercussions.  Finally,  the  use  of  neutrons  in  spe- 
cial types  of  rontgenography  seems  a  definite  possibil- 


Industrial  Research 


355 


ity,  and  their  properties  in  this  connection  may  be 
destined  to  render  them  of  considerable  utility  hi  bio- 
physical research,  as  well  as  in  biophysical  industrial 
application. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  consequences  for  industry 
and  for  industrial  medicine,  cited  merely  as  examples 
of  the  investigations  of  the  biophysicist  into  the  reac- 
tion of  radiations  and  living  thmgs.  The  entire  field  is 
relatively  new,  and  the  number  of  workers  therein  is  at 
present  so  meager  as  to  imply  that  the  most  important 
results  remain  for  future  workers  to  produce.  The  en- 
couragement of  further  research  in  such  fields,  and  the 
provision  of  adequate  facilities  for  training  in  it  can 
hardly  fail  to  j-ield  large  returns. 

We  may  turn  for  a  moment  to  the  consideration  of 
some  of  the  more  striking  individual  contributions, 
direct  and  indirect,  which  biophysics  has  made  to 
industry.  One  of  the  greatest  single  contributions  has 
been  the  development  of  extremely  sensitive  measuring 
devices  for  following  reactions  in  processes  involving 
plant  or  animal  products  and  their  adaptation  to  indus- 
tr3^  Conspicuous  among  these  have  been  potentio- 
metric  devices,  "pH  meters"  developed  for  laboratory 
use  and  fm-ther  adapted  to  large-scale  industrial 
operation.  Alany  products  wliich  are  prepared  on  a 
large  scale,  notabh^  in  the  food  industry,  change  in 
conductivity  during  the  operation,  and  specific  conduc- 
tivity can  be  used  as  a  measure  of  the  finishing  of  the 
product.  For  such  opei'ations  physical  devices  which 
will  give  nearly  continuous  readings  of  specific  conduc- 
tivity are  of  immense  value  as  indicators,  and  are  widely 
used.  An  interestmg  application  of  tliis  sort  is  to  be 
found  in  the  standard  manufacture  of  tomato  ketchup 
and  of  fruit  juices  in  the  food  industry.  Photoelectric 
devices  play  a  very  important  part  industrially  in  many 
of  the  biological  industries  whose  activities  include  pro- 
cesses where  colorimetric  indicators  are  required.  They 
are  particularlj-  widely  used  m  the  food  industries  in 
the  standardizing  of  colored  products,  and  in  the  textile 
manufactures.  Spectrophotometric  apparatus  is  a 
vital  part  of  research,  control,  and  production  equip- 
ment in  very  many  industries  where  color  is  an  impor- 
tant characteristic  of  the  goods  manufactured.  Densito- 
meters find  a  somewhat  similar  use  in  the  biological 
industries,  being  designed  especially  for  the  delicate 
measurement  of  quantities  of  light  absorbed  in  different 
materials.  An  instrument  of  very  recent  design  which 
is  of  particular  use  m  the  biological  industries  is  the 
so-called  "color  analyzer,"  wliich  is  a  special  type  of 
spectrophotometer  designed  to  reproduce  the  absorption 
curve  of  colored  substances  throughout  the  visible 
spectrum. 

Equipment  for  the  observation  of  reactions  at  abnor- 
mally high  and  abnormally  low  pressures  repre- 
sents an  important  contribution  of  the  physicist  to  the 


biological  industries.  Many  important  biological  re- 
actions, especially  in  tlio  food  industries,  will  readily 
take  place  at  abnormal  pressures  which  cannot  be 
carried  out  under  atmospheric  conditions. 

The  tcclmique  of  centrifugiug  and  ultracentrifuging 
are  nearly  vital  to  the  food  and  pharmaceutical  indus- 
tries, and  equipment  of  this  sort  represents  a  very 
important  contribution  of  biophysics  on  the  side  of 
instrumentation.  Ordinary  centrifuges  find  much  use 
in  processes  of  separation,  precipitation  of  solid  from 
liquid  materials,  and  the  breaking  of  emulsions.  Ultra- 
centrifuges  find  their  principal  biological  use  in  the 
separation  of  sera,  viruses,  and  hormones,  and  in  the 
separation  of  various  other  mixtures  of  molecules  of 
high  molecular  weight.  Filtration  equipment  is  equally 
important  to  the  biological  industries  in  the  separation 
of  particles  of  differing  sizes  of  a  somewhat  larger  size 
range.  Recently  the  techniques  of  biophysics  have 
supplied  some  new  and  radical  filter  designs  of  greatly 
improved  utility,  notably  a  filter  manufactured  from 
sections  across  bundles  of  tuiy  glass  tubes  cemented 


Figure  101. — Six-Plate  Centrifugal  Molecular  Fractionating 
Still  in  Operation.  Distillation  Products,  Incorporated, 
Rocliester,  New  York.  (Subsidiary  of  General  Mills,  Incor- 
porated, and  Eastman  Kodak  Company) 


321So5— 41- 


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356 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


together,  the  bore  of  the  tube  being  controlled  and 
uniform,  so  that  the  "pore  size"  of  the  filter  is  predeter- 
mined. Techniques  of  pressure  and  vacuum  filtration 
have  been  developed  to  a  high  degree  in  the  biological 
industries.  The  application  of  supersonics  to  suspen- 
sions has  been  widely  used  in  the  biological  industries  as 
a  means  of  promoting  reactions,  of  settling  suspensions, 
of  breaking  or  forming  emulsions,  and,  occasionally  for 
the  disinfection  of  such  liquids  as  milk,  since  it  has  been 
shown  that  under  certain  conditions  cavitation  may  be 
fatal  to  bacteria. 

High-speed  photography  is  of  very  considerable 
importance  to  a  number  of  biological  industries  in  the 
analysis  of  various  unit  operations  in  their  processes 
and  in  the  study  of  the  fundamental  physical  properties 
of  some  of  the  substances  they  handle.  As  such,  the 
method  is  used  more  nearly  as  an  analytical  than  a 
routine  tool. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  physical  tools  which 
find  wide,  if  scattered  or  occasional,  use  in  the  biological 
industries  in  special  applications  of  analysis  or  process 
work.  Such,  for  example,  is  the  absorption  electron 
microscope,  for  which  uses  are  only  begirming  to  be 
found,  and  the  applications  of  which  will  probably 
widen  rapidly  in  the  coming  years.  Such  too  are  the 
various  designs  of  Geiger  counter,  the  principal  bio- 
logical uses  of  which  have  centered  about  the  appli- 
cation of  tracer  elements  to  the  analysis  of  biological 
processes,  already  considered.  Electrocautery  instru- 
ments, and  the  fever-therapy  equipment  previously 
described  find  principal^  medical  applications,  although 
the  latter  may  be  of  some  use  in  the  foods  mdustries. 
And  finally,  electric  soil-cable  heating  has  important 
agricultural  applications. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  miscellaneous  ways 
in  which  physics  and  biophysics  serve  industry.  They 
have  been  selected  almost  at  random,  to  give  a  sampling 
of  the  extent  of  that  vast  but  new  and  very  rapidly 
growing  field  in  which  the  biophysicist  of  the  future 
cannot  but  be  of  the  very  greatest  industrial  service. 

Biophysics  has  been  recognized  as  a  science  so  very 
recently  that  adequate  academic  facilities  for  training 
in  the  field  are  still  woefully  lacking.  The  adequately 
equipped  biophysicist  must  first  of  all  be  possessed  of  a 
sound  working  Icnowledge  of  experimental  physics,  and 
must  have  the  "feel"  for  the  handling  and  the  applica- 
tion of  physical  tools.  Adequate  educational  facilities 
for  this  side  of  his  training  are  available  in  abundance 
in  the  ordinary  good  undergraduate  and  graduate 
courses  in  experimental  physics  in  most  of  the  uni- 
versities of  the  country.  Much  more  important  even 
than  this,  however,  the  biophysicist  must  have  an 
extremely  good  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of 
biology.  If  he  is  in  academic  or  theoretical  work,  he 
must  be  competent   to   choose   for  his   experimental 


material  biological  organisms  which  will  be  pre- 
eminently suited  to  his  needs.  Superficially  similar 
organisms  differ  so  widely  in  this  regard  that  a  good 
choice  of  material  may  be  one  of  the  most  important 
steps  in  assuring  the  success  of  an  undertaking.  In 
industry  it  is  predominantly  important  that  the  bio- 
physicist be  widely  familiar  with  the  range  of  biological 
materials  with  which  he  will  be  required  to  deal,  m 
order  that  his  design  and  use  of  physical  equipment 
shall  be  adapted  in  the  best  possible  manner  to  the 
work  in  hand. 

The  educational  facilities  for  posts  of  this  sort,  either 
in  industrial  work  or  in  academic  fields,  are  pitifully 
meager  in  this  country.  A  very  few  universities  have 
set  up  biophysical  departments,  and  are  attempting  to 
design  courses  to  meet  a  growing  need,  but  in  most 
cases  students  are  obliged  to  select  courses  in  two  very 
different  fields  considerably  at  random,  with  no  mature 
coordinator  to  help  them  solve  a  very  difficult  problem. 
The  difficulty  is  increased  for  the  student  by  the  fact 
that  it  is  only  very  recently  that  the  two  subjects  have 
been  related  even  in  academic  minds,  so  that  he  is 
virtually  obliged,  first  of  all,  to  discover  for  himself 
the  intimate  relations  between  the  fields,  and  then  to 
unearth  courses  which  will  make  the  details  of  these 
relationships  clear  to  him — all  at  a  period  of  extreme 
youth  and  with  a  very  limited  experience  and  per- 
spective. This  is  an  extremely  difficult  task  but  one 
whose  successful  solution  is  of  very  great  future  moment 
to  a  large  division  of  industrial  research.  The  designing 
and  execution  of  courses  in  biophysics  and  the  delinea- 
tion of  the  work  of  the  biophysicist  as  a  recognized 
profession  is  one  of  the  most  important  tasks  facing 
the  universities  and  industry  in  the  immediate  future. 

Geology — Geochemistry — Geophysics 

Geology,  geochemistry,  and  geophysics  are  so  very 
closely  linked  in  both  scientific  and  industrial  practice, 
and  particularly  in  the  latter,  that  it  has  seemed  best  to 
treat  their  activities,  and  the  work  of  the  men  in  them 
who  serve  industry,  as  a  single  unit. 

Geology  is  in  its  very  essence  a  border-line  discipline, 
both  in  its  academic  characteristics  and  in  its  industrial 
applications.  From  its  very  inception  geology  has 
been  a  composite  science,  consisting  essentially  of 
special  applications  of  physics,  chemistry,  and  biology. 
In  undertaking  to  describe,  and,  insofar  as  possible,  to 
explain  the  features  of  our  nonliving  environment  it 
has  had  to  include  within  itself,  by  definition,  a  very 
large  range  of  subjects  and  fragments  of  subjects.  This 
fact  is  reflected  in  the  number  of  subsciences  into 
which  the  discipline  has  been  divided.  Cosmic  geology, 
geognosy,  petrology,  lithology,  dynamical  geology, 
structural  geology,  physiography,  paleontology,  stratig- 
raphy, economic  geology,  mining  geology,  glaciology. 


Industrial  Research 


357 


oceanography,  metamorphic  theology,  and  mineralogy 
are  all  recognized  as  scientific  entities. 

The  portions  of  geology,  geochemistry,  and  geophy- 
sics which  are  of  particular  industrial  service  are  those 
which  relate  especially  to  the  fields  of  mining  and 
metallurgy,  petroleum  production,  the  production  of 
natural  gases,  soil  study,  geodesy,  seismography,  and 
water  research.  The  last  four  of  these  fiekls  of  activity 
are  more  suited  to  governmental  than  to  private  enter- 
prise, because  of  the  bulk  and  expense  of  the  research 
required,  and  the  public-service  nature  of  the  results 
expected.  They  have,  accordingly,  been  very  largely 
shouldered  bj-  governmental  agencies,  and  hence  are 
not  of  primary  concern  here,  vitally  essential  though 
they  are  to  hmnan  welfare. 

Of  the  several  industrial  activities  of  the  United 
States  which  are  primarily  served  by  the  border  lines 
of  geology,  geochemistry,  and  geophysics,  the  two  most 
unportant  are  certainly  the  mining  and  petroleum 
industries.  The  mines  of  the  United  States  employ 
collectively  over  1,100,000  workers  of  whom  roughly 
750,000  are  employed  in  the  production  of  coal,  and 
another  200,000  in  metal  mines  and  metallurgical 
works.  The  United  States  is  probably  the  world's 
largest  producer  of  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  zinc,  produces 
roughly  10  percent  of  the  world's  silver,  and  in  1934 
produced  30  percent  of  the  world's  coal.  Both  in  the 
mining  of  metals  and  in  metallurgy,  geology,  geochem- 
istry,  and  geophysics  play  predominantly  important 


parts.  The  function  of  geology  in  facihtating  the 
location  of  natural  ores  is  as  old  as  mining  itself,  but 
has  recently  been  widely  extended.  Geochemistry 
plays  an  especially  important  role  in  preliminary  ore 
analysis.  Descriptive  industrial  geology  as  a  field 
science  contributes  predominantly  to  the  large-scale 
assaj'ing  of  terrain  in  the  prospecting  of  original  mine 
sites,  to  the  identification  of  ore-bearing  strata  once 
the  mine  is  opened,  and  to  the  determination  of  the 
mechanics  of  the  way  in  which  those  strata  shall  be 
exploited.  Petrography  and  mineralogy  are  of  especial 
importance  in  the  prospecting  of  both  mine  sites  and 
ores,  and  industrial  workers  trained  in  these  fields  find 
wide  opportunities  of  work.  The  large-scale  handling 
of  ores,  and  the  extractive  and  refining  processes  for 
their  metals  developed  in  connection  with  them,  are 
peculiarly  the  province  of  mineralogy  and  especially 
of  geochemistry.  Modern  methods  of  ore  flotation, 
ore  roasting,  and  other  extractive  processes  bear  wit- 
ness to  the  contributions  that  have  been  made  in  this 
field.  Recently,  entirely  new  mining  techniques  have 
been  required  by  the  development  of  the  important 
som'ces  of  radium  in  Canada.  Some  of  these  have 
been  provided  by  the  mining  engineer,  in  the  over- 
coming of  the  tremendous  physical  handicaps  of  mining 
in  such  cold  and  inaccessible  regions.  Others,  however, 
necessitated  by  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  chemical 
product,  have  been  provided  by  men  from  the  ranks 
of    geochemistry    and    geophysics. 


Figure  102. — Research  Department  Library,  American  Can  Company,  Maywood,  Illinois 


358 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


The  researches  of  Hall  in  the  ahiininum-nietallurgy 
field  provide  a  classic  and  outstanding  example  of  the 
titanic  contributions  that  chcniistn'  can  bring  to 
metallurgy  and  the  mining  industry.  The  magnetic 
prospecting  for  metallic  ore  deposits  provide  as  great 
a  tribute  to  the  geophysicist  in  this  field.  The  Frasch 
process  for  the  extraction  of  sulfin-  provides  an  equally 
classic  example  of  the -work  of  the  geophysicist  in  a 
nonmetaUic  mining  field.  The  introduction  of  hot 
water  through  pipe  drills  to  sulfur  deposits  to  melt  the 
sulfur,  and  the  subsequent  forcing  in  of  air  under 
pressure,  and  the  literal  blowing  to  the  surface  of  99 
percent  pure  sulfur,  the  whole  operation  being  con- 
ducted through  a  single  set  of  three  concentric  pipes 
sunk  at  one  drilling,  has  further  advanced  the  whole 
sulfur-mining  industry  than  a  century  of  previous  work. 

The  mining  and  processing  of  asbestos  exemplifies  to 
a  high  degree  the  contributions  of  geochemistry  and 
geophj'sics  to  both  the  production  and  processing  of  a 
unique  and  valuable  product.  Asbestos  varies  in 
quality  enormously  with  the  nature  of  its  deposits  and 
to  a  certain  extent  with  the  method  of  its  extraction. 
These  differences  are  very  largely  related  to  the  nature 
of  the  ores  with  which  it  is  associated,  and  the  methods 
for  the  essays  of  these  ores  have  been  almost  entirely 
the  work  of  the  geologist  and  his  physical  and  chemical 
congeners.  The  processing  of  the  material  is  an  even 
more  critical  business,  and  here  the  geochemist  and 
the  geophysicist,  and  especially  the  former,  are  all- 
important.  Very  recently  the  geochemist  has  been 
able  to  demonstrate  that  asbestos  maj'  be  combined 
mechanically  with  certain  other  substances  to  yield  a 
product  having  a  whole  new  range  of  physical  proper- 
ties, unsuspected  hitherto  for  asbestos,  while  none  of 
its  known  valuable  qualities  are  sacrificed.  This  opens 
up  a  very  large,  and  entirely  new  field  for  the  geo- 
chemist of  the  very  greatest  interest. 

The  petroleum  and  natural-gas  mdustry  is  one  which 
is  especially  indebted  to  the  geophysicist  on  the  pros- 
pecting and  to  the  chemist  on  the  refining  and  prepara- 
tive sides.  The  geophysicist  has  completely  revolu- 
tionized the  once  cumbersome  technique  of  oil  pros- 
pecting by  his  development  of  gravitational  methods, 
described  elsewhere  in  this  report.  The  production  of 
sturdy  field  equipment,  for  the  simultaneous  detection 
of  both  the  vertical  and  horizontal  components  of  the 
force  of  gravity,  of  sufficient  delicacy  to  identify  the 
presence  of  large  masses  of  subterranean  water  or  salt 
in  the  "salt  domes,"  yet  so  rugged  as  to  permit  of  its 
transport  across  country  by  truck  and  its  continuous 
use  at  a  field  site,  represents  an  important  contribution 
to  the  advance  of  a  major  industry.  Very  recently 
the  geophysicist  has  made  another  outstanding  contri- 
bution to  this  field,  unexpectedly  enough  by  an  applica- 
tion of  the  mass  spectrograph,  whose  original  designers 


sm-ely  had  in  mind  for  it  applications  far  different 
from  those  of  the  petroleum  industry.  It  has  been 
found  possible,  by  making  very  careful  borings  in  an 
area  suspected  of  containing  petroleum  and  taking 
progressive  gas  samplings,  to  detect  with  the  mass 
spectrograph  the  existence  of  heavy  petroleum  mole- 
cules in  concentrations  heretofore  far  too  low  for  identi- 
fication. By  checking  at  intervals  along  the  explora- 
tory shaft,  it  is  possible  to  identify  increases  in  concen- 
tration of  petroleum  gases,  with  the  consequent  proba- 
bility of  the  proximit}'  of  oil,  with  a  rapidity  and  above 
all  a  delicacy  which  would  have  staggered  the  imagina- 
tion of  any  petroleum  industrialist  but  a  very  short 
time  ago. 

If  the  work  of  the  geophysicist  is  all-important  in 
the  prospecting  of  petroleum,  that  of  the  chemist  is 
equally  so  in  the  preparation  of  the  product,  once 
obtained.  The  complex  maze  of  modern  refining  and 
fractionating  processes,  the  entire  science  of  cracking, 
the  existence  of  the  present  range  of  special-purpose 
treated  petroleum  products,  are  all  the  work  of  the  field 
chemist,  aided  by  the  piu"e  petrolemn  chemist  of  the  lab- 
oratory. To  these  two  do  we  owe  two  things  of  tremen- 
dous importance  in  petroleum  affairs — the  enormous 
range  of  uses  to  which  petroleum  products  can  be  put, 
and  the  great  abundance  of  suitable  petrolemn  crack- 
ing and  fractionation  products  for  the  immense  drain 
wliich  their  principal  use  as  a  fuel  puts  upon  the  existing 
natural  supply.     These  are  vital  contributions  indeed. 

Not  the  least  important  field  in  which  the  geochemist 
and  the  geophysicist  have  worked  has  been  that  of  coal 
mining,  a  field  requiring  whoUy  different  techniques 
from  those  pertaining  to  any  other  extractive  process. 
To  a  greater  degree  than  elsewhere,  perhaps,  these 
have  been  contributed  by  the  mining  engineer.  The 
identification  of  coal  strata,  however,  has  been  very 
considerably  the  task  of  the  geologist,  and  research 
in  the  preparation  of  the  product  has  fallen  predomi- 
nantly on  the  shoulders  of  the  geochemist  and  geophysi- 
cist. We  owe  to  them  the  present  range  of  uses  of 
coal  and  coal  products. 

The  study  of  soils  and  of  the  processes  of  erosion  is 
peculiar  to  geolog}^  and  to  geochemistrj^  and  geophysics. 
Like  seismography,  water  research,  weather  study,  and 
geodesy,  it  tends  at  once  to  requii-e  research  on  so  large 
a  scale,  and  its  results  tend  to  be  of  such  general  national 
value  that  it  properly  belongs  rather  to  the  field  of 
national  than  of  industrial  research.  However,  its 
results  are  of  such  interest  to  agricultural  industry  that 
it  surely  merits  passing  notice  in  a  treatment  of  this 
kind.  The  study  of  the  physical  characters  of  the  soil, 
all-important  to  agriculture,  is  the  work  of  the  geophysi- 
cist. It  has  been  carried  fonvard  in  the  last  years  in 
the  United  States  and  in  the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist 
Republics  to  a  greater  extent  than  anywhere  else  in  the 


Industrial  Research 


359 


world.  The  studj-  of  the  nutritive  content  of  soils  is  a 
primary  concern  of  the  geochemist,  and  very  much  work 
has  been  done  here.  The  study  of  soil  erosion  is  of  such 
oustanding  national  imjjort,  and  has  been  so  highly 
publicized  in  recent  years  that  further  mention  need  not 
be  made  of  it. 

Rheology 

Rhcology,  the  science  of  flow,  is  so  closely  associated 
in  its  work  with  the  sciences  of  mechanics  and  of  physical 
chemistrj'  that  it  has  only  fairh-  recently  been  distin- 
guished from  them  as  a  separate  discipline.  It  is  very 
probable  that  the  force  which  brought  about  this  dis- 
tinction was  the  unusual  industrial  applicability  of  the 
techniques  of  the  science.  Fairly  recently  the  science 
of  rhcology  has  acquired  an  American  journal  devoted 
to  its  work  and  the  status  of  an  essentially  separate 
science. 

Since  rheologj'  is  primarily  concerned  with  the 
process  and  mechanics  of  flow  in  gaseous,  liquid,  and 
solid  substances,  there  are  very  few  industrial  processes 
to  which  the  properties  of  materials  are  of  predominant 
importance  which  do  not  employ  it.  It  is  important  in 
studies  of  the  rates  of  flow,  the  viscosity,  the  turbulence 
of  flow  of  gases  in  heating  plants  and  in  mdustries 
manufacturing  gaseous  products.  It  is  highly  impor- 
tant to  the  aeronautical  industry,  for  studies  of  the  rheo- 
logical  characteristics  of  air  are  of  extreme  interest  to 
the  aeronautical  engineer.  Studies  of  processes  of 
liquid  flow  are  indispensable  to  the  chemical  engineer, 
who  may  have  to  deal  with  liquid  flow  on  a  plant  scale. 
Studies  of  flow  in  both  Uquids  and  solids  are  vital  to 
such  chemical  enterprises  as  the  plastics  industry, 
where  the  control  of  major  processes  depends  upon 
frequent  accurate  determinations  of  viscosity  in  the 
liquid  phase,  and  the  rate  of  flow  or  deformation  in  the 
solid  condition.  The  question  is  of  equal  importance 
to  the  glass  uidustrj^,  to  many  food  industries,  and 
indeed  to  any  industrial  process  where  the  physical 
state  of  the  product  must  be  altered  during  preparation. 
Determinations  of  viscosity  constitute  one  of  the  most 
delicate  and  reliable  indicators  of  the  progress  of  a 
chemical  reaction,  and  one  of  the  most  outstanding 
processing  characteristics  of  many  valuable  chemical 
products.  Rheology  is  also  the  handmaiden  of  many 
of  the  engineering  sciences,  being  notably  useful  to 
engineers  engaged  in  road  building,  in  the  engineering 
of  water%vays,  and,  through  its  contributions  to  the 
study  of  photoelasticity,  in  structural  engineering. 
Wherever  the  flow  of  Uquids  or  the  deformation  of 
solids  must  be  adequately  determined,  dependence  is 
placed  upon  the  rheologist. 

Rheolog}'  is  a  border-line  science  in  the  sense  that  it 
depends  upon  specialized  branches  of  physics  and  physi- 
cal  chemistry.     It  has   essentially   taken   these   over 


unchanged,  however,  and  merely  combined  them  for 
use.  Li  this  sense,  it  is  less  specifically  a  border-line 
field,  and  more  nearly  represents  a  combination  of  two 
already  highly  dcvoloped  branches  of  science.  For 
this  reason,  the  student  desiring  to  enter  rheology  as  a 
profession  possesses  rather  good  educational  advan- 
tages. His  field  will  not  require  so  broad  or  general 
an  education  as  is  demanded  by  some,  and  he  will  be 
able  to  adopt  the  educational  facilities  already  available. 
The  design  of  specialized  rlieological  courses  in  the 
universities,  however,  has  none  the  less  lagged  consid- 
erably behind  the  need  for  them,  and  the  initiation  of 
such  courses,  ready-made  after  careful  consideration, 
would  constitute  a  boon  to  a  very  wide  section  of  Ameri- 
can industry. 

Conclusion 

It  has  been  the  purpose  of  this  section  only  to  draw 
some  attention  to  the  immense  importance  of  border- 
line fields  of  research  in  our  national  scene,  and  to 
attempt  by  citing  a  few  specific  industrial  examples 
further  to  emphasize  and  delineate  the  picture.     There 


Figure  103. — Source  of  Pure  Beams  of  Protons  for  Biophysical 

Research 


360 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


is  little  doubt  that  in  man_y  respects  the  worker  in 
border-liiie  fields  represents  the  spear  head  of  research. 
The  consoHdation  and  coordination  of  scientific  infor- 
mation from  nianj^  fields  and  the  welding  of  it  into  a 
powerful  new  tool  to  attack  new  and  important  regions 
of  the  unknown  has  always  been  a  tendency  of  any 
youthful  human  endeavor.  The  worker  in  border  lines  is 
a  pioneer,  and  as  such  an  immense  national  resource. 
As  such,  too,  he  faces  the  grave  disadvantages  of  lack  of 
suitable  training  facilities  and  often  the  lack,  at  least 
temporarily,  of  any  suitable  professional  status  to 
assure  that  slight  measure  of  prestige  among  his  fellows 
which  is  often  necessary  to  perform  good  work.  \Vliat- 
ever  can  be  done  in  the  future  to  supply  him  with  both 
of  these  highly  essential  working  tools  will  contribute 
enormously  to  the  preservation  and  enhancement  of 
one  of  our  greatest  sources  of  national  wealth. 

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Arnold  and  Company.,  1927.     248  p. 

VooT,  J.  H.  L.  On  the  average  composition  of  the  earth's 
crust.     Oslo,  Ikommisjon  hos  J.  Dybwad,  1932.     48  p. 

VoN  Hevesy,  G.  Chemical  analysis  by  X-rays  and  its  appli- 
cations. New  Y'ork,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc. 
1932.     333  p. 

geophysics 

American  Geophysical  Union.  A  survey  of  research  prob- 
lems in  geophysics.  Washington,  National  Research  Council, 
1921.     p.  545-601. 

Berget,  a.  The  earth;  its  hfe  and  death.  New  York,  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons,  1915.     371  p. 

Eve,  a.  S.,  and  Keys,  D.  A.  Applied  geophysics  in  the  search 
for  minerals.  London,  Cambridge  University  press,  1933. 
296  p. 

Fisher,  0.  Physics  of  the  earth's  crust.  London,  Macmillan 
Company,  1881.     299  p. 


1  ltd  list  rial  Rcsi'ttrcli 


361 


Jeffbets,  H.  The  earth;  its  origin,  history,  and  physical  con- 
stitution.    2d  ed.     Cambridge,  Cambridge  University  press, 

1929.  346  p. 

Nadai,  a.  Plasticity.  (Tr.  by  A.  M.  Wahl).  New  York, 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1931.     349  p. 

Pautsch,  E.  Methods  of  applied  geophysics.  Houston,  Tex. 
Minor  Printing  Company,  1927.     82  p. 

ScHWARZ,  E.  H.  L.  Casual  geology.  London,  Blackie  and  Son, 
Ltd.,  1910.     248  p. 

Stetson,  H.  T.  Earth,  radio,  and  stars.  New  York,  McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1934.     336  p. 

SvERDRCP,  H.  V.  Physics  and  geophysics.  Berkeley,  Calif., 
University  of  California  press,  1939.     23  p. 

MINERALOGY 

B.1YLEY,  W.  S.  Descriptive  mineralogy.  New  York,  D.  Apple- 
ton  and  Company,  1917.     542  p. 

BtJRT,  F.  A.  Soil  mineralogy.  New  York,  D.  Van  Nostrand 
Company,  1927.     82  p. 

Dana,  E.  S.  A  textbook  of  mineralogy.  London,  Chapman  & 
Hall,  Ltd.,  1932.     851  p. 

English,  G.  L.  Getting  acquainted  with  minerals.  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  Mineralogical  Publishing  Company,  1934.     324  p. 

George,  R.  D.  Common  minerals  and  rocks.  Denver,  Col., 
Eames  Brothers,  1917.     463  p. 

Hawkins,  A.  C.  The  book  of  minerals.  New  York,  J.  Wiley 
and  Sons,  Inc.,  1935.     161  p. 

Kraus,  E.  H.,  Hunt,  W.  F.,  and  Ramsdall,  L.  S.  Mineralogy; 
an  introduction  to  the  study  of  minerals  and  crystals.  New 
York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company.,  Inc.,  1936.     638  p. 

MiERS,  Sir  H.  S.  Mineralogy;  an  introduction  to  the  scientific 
study  of  minerals.     London,  Macmillan  and  Company,  Ltd., 

1930.  658  p. 

Phillips,  A.  H.  Mineralogy;  an  introduction  to  the  theoretical 
and  practical  study  of  minerals.  New  York,  Macmillan 
Company,  1912.     699  p. 

Rdtley,  F.  Elements  of  mineralogy.  London,  T.  Murby  and 
Company,  1916.     394  p. 

rheology. 

Barr,  Guy.  A  monograph  of  viscometry.  New  York,  Oxford 
University  Press,  1931.     318  p. 

Bingham,  E.  C.  Fluidity  and  plasticity.  New  York,  McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1922.     440  p. 


Bingham,  E.  C.     An  investigation  of  the  laws  of  plastic  flow. 

Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1916.     p.  309-353. 

(U.  S.  Bureau  of  Standards,  Scientific  papers  No.  278). 
Dunstan,  a.  E.     The  viscosity  of  liquids.     London,  New  York, 

Longmans,  Green  and  Company,  1914.     91  p. 
Gibson,    R.    O.     The    viscosity    of    gases   at    high    pressures. 

Amsterdam,  H.  J.  Paris,  1933. 
Hatschek,  E.     The  viscosity  of  liquids.     London,  G.  Bell  and 

Sons  Ltd.,  1928.     239  p. 
Herschel,  W.  H.     Saybolt  viscosity  of  blends.     Washington, 

Government  Printing  Office,  1920.     21  p. 
Michell,  a.  G.  M.     Viscosite  et  lubrifiation.     Paris,  Gauthier, 

Villars  et  Cio,  1927.     (Tr.  by  A.  Froller.)     68  p. 
Scott  Blair,  G.   W.     An  introduction  to  industrial  rheology. 

PhUadelphia,  BUiki.ston  Company,  1938.     143  p. 
Williams,    G.    V.     The   dependence   of  ionic  mobility  on   the 

viscosity  of  the  medium.     Easton,  Pa.,  Eschenbach  Printing 

Company,  1913.     20  p. 

MINING    engineering. 

Beringer,  B.  Under(i;round  practice  in  mining.  London, 
Mining  Publications  Ltd.,  1928.     255  p. 

Bhagg,  Sir  W.  H.  Creative  knowledge.  Old  trades  and  new 
science.     New  York,  Harper  and  Brothers,  1927.     258  p. 

Brinsmade,  R.  B.  Mining  without  timber.  New  York, 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1911.     309  p. 

Cash,  F.  E.  Methods,  costs,  and  safety  in  stripping  and  mining 
coal,  copper  ore,  iron  ore,  bauxite,  and  pebble  phosphate. 
Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1929.     275  p. 

Crane,  W.  R.  Ore  mining  methods.  New  York,  J.  Wiley  and 
Sons,  Inc.,  1917.     277  p. 

Dawkins,  W.  B.  On  the  relation  of  geology  to  engineering. 
London,  The  Institute,  1898.  (Repr.  Minutes  of  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  134,  sess.  1897-98. 
Pt.  4.) 

Eaton,  L.  Practical  mine  development  and  equipment.  New 
York,  McGraw-HiU  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1934.     405  p. 

Hoover,  H.  C.  Principles  of  mining,  valuation,  organization 
and  administration,  copper,  gold,  lead,  silver,  tin,  zinc.  New 
York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1909.     199  p. 

Lewis,  R.  S.  Elements  of  mining.  New  York,  J.  Wiley  and 
Sons,  Inc.,  1933.     510  p. 

Yeatman,  p.,  Ricketts,  L.  D.,  Tally,  R.  E.,  and  Others. 
Choice  of  methods  in  mining  and  metallurgy;  a  record  of  ex- 
perience in  making  engineering  decisions.  New  York. 
McGraw-HiU  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1932.     178  p. 


SECTION    VII 
APPENDIX 


Contents 

Page. 

1.  The  RelatioDshi])  of  the  National  Research  Council  to  Industrial  llesearch  365 

Relationship  to  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  365 

Relationship  to  Research  Agencies  366 

Relationship  to  Industiy  366 

Division  of  Engineering  and  Industrial  Research  368 

Bibliogi-aphy  369 

2.  Acknowledgments  370 


363 


SECTION    VII 

1.    THE    RELATIONSHIP    OF    THE    NATIONAL    RESEARCH 
COUNCIL    TO    INDUSTRIAL    RESEARCH 

By  Albert  L.  Barrows 
Executive  Secretary,  National  Research  Council,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Relationship  to  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 

The  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  the 
National  Research  Council  is  an  operating  agency,  is 
a  body  of  some  310  eminent  scientific  men  of  the 
United  States,  organized  in  1863  at  the  request  of 
President  Lincoln,  and  chartered  at  that  tune  by  Con- 
gress to  advise  the  Government  in  scientific  and  tech- 
nical matters.     Its  charter,  in  part,  reads  as  follows — 

.  .  .  the  Academy  shall,  whenever  called  upon  by  any  depart- 
ment of  the  Government,  investigate,  examine,  experiment,  and 
report  upon  any  subject  of  science  or  art,  the  actual  expense  of 
such  investigations,  examinations,  experiments,  and  reports  to 
be  paid  from  appropriations  which  may  be  made  for  the  purpose, 
but  the  Academy  shaU  receive  no  compensation  whatever  for 
any  services  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

Since  its  establislmient  the  National  Academy  has 
taken  a  place  as  a  body  of  distinguished  scientists  of 
the  United  States  among  the  scientific  societies  of  the 
country.  Its  function,  also,  as  scientific  adviser  to  the 
Government  has  been  continued  through  response  to 
requests  from  tinie  to  time  and  this  function  has,  in 
fact,  been  much  increased  in  recent  years. 

When  in  191G  it  became  apparent  that  the  United 
States  could  hardly  escape  being  drawn  into  the  First 
World  War,  the  Academy  made  special  tender  of  its 
services  to  the  Government,  and  at  the  request  of 
President  Wilson  organized,  as  a  measure  of  national 
preparedness,  a  special  advisory  body  in  the  form  of 
a  large  committee,  with  a  number  of  subcommittees, 
to  which  was  given  the  name  of  National  Research 
Coimcil.  This  Council  was  composed  of  scientific  men 
and  engineers  who  were  themselves  associated  with 
educational  and  research  institutions  and  industrial 
corporations.  The  Council  served  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment during  the  First  World  War  in  coordinating  and 
making  available  to  the  Government  the  research 
resources  of  nongovenunental  institutions  and  in  bring- 
ing these  resources  to  bear  upon  urgent  scientific  prob- 
lems of  munitions,  of  military  equipment,  of  public 
health,  of  food  and  nutrition,  and  of  other  exigencies 
of  the  emergency.  During  this  time  the  Council  acted 
as  the  Department  of  Science  and  Research  of  the 
CoimciJ  of  National  Defense,  and  as  the  Scientific  and 


Research  Division  of  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  Army. 
The  Council  had  numerous  contacts,  also,  with  the 
Navy  Department  and  with  other  governmental  agen- 
cies in  connection  with  scientific  war  problems. 

Upon  the  close  of  the  war  the  National  Research 
Council  was  perpetuated  by  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences,  again  at  the  request  of  President  Wilson, 
expressed  in  an  Executive  Order  (No.  2859,  May  11, 
1918).    The  contiiming  purpose  of  the  Council  is — 

.  .  to  promote  research  in  the  mathematical,  physical,  and 
biological  sciences,  and  in  the  application  of  these  sciences  to 
engineering,  agriculture,  medicine,  and  other  useful  arts,  with 
the  object  of  increasing  knowledge,  of  strengthening  the  national 
defense  and  of  contributing  in  other  ways  to  the  public  welfare, 
as  expressed  in  the  Executive  order  of  May  11,  1918  (Articles  of 
Organization,  National  Research  Council,  Article  I). 

In  order  to  carry  out  this  purpose  and  to  coordinate 
the  major  organizations  and  institutions  of  the  country 
in  the  support  of  scientific  research,  the  Council  is 
composed  of  representatives  of  about  85  national 
scientific  and  technical  societies.  These  society  repre- 
sentatives constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  member- 
ship of  the  Council.  In  addition,  many  of  the  scientific 
bureaus  and  agencies  of  the  Federal  Government  are 
also  represented  in  the  Council  by  Presidential  designa- 
tion, and  a  lunited  number  of  members  are  chosen  at 
large.  The  total  membership  is  about  220,  including 
many  men  from  fields  of  engineermg  and  from  industrial 
research  laboratories.  This  membership  is  grouped 
into  9  divisions  representing  the  major  fields  of  science 
and  certain  general  interests  of  the  Council  in  the 
international  relationships  of  science  and  in  the  educa- 
tional aspects  of  research.  Withm  these  divisions  are 
organized  a  large  number  of  committees,  the  member- 
ship of  which  brings  about  1,150  additional  persons 
into  active  association  with  the  Council. 

The  National  Research  Council  may  be  regarded, 
therefore,  as  an  operating  agency  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  organized  to  assist  the  Academy 
in  carrying  out  its  prescribed  functions  and  to  relate 
the  Academy  to  many  other  scientific  and  technical 
agencies  of  the  country  for  the  purpose  of  advancing 
scientific  research  ua   the  United  States.     For  these 

365 


366 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


purposes  the  Council  brings  to  the  Academy  recognized 
contacts  with  a  great  many  of  the  research  organiza- 
tions and  institutions  of  the  country,  and  in  addition 
the  Council  is  provided  with  executive  officers  whose 
business  it  is  to  effect  timely  encouragement  of  re- 
search in  the  major  fields  of  science. 

When  the  National  Resources  Planning  Board 
requested  the  National  Research  Council  in  the  spring 
of  1939  to  make  a  study  of  the  capacity  of  industrial 
corporations  in  the  United  States  for  scientific  research, 
and  especially  the  trends  of  the  research  undertaken 
by  the  laboratories  of  these  firms,  the  Council  recog- 
nized this  as  a  major  problem  affecting  all  fields  of 
science,  and  made  this  study  an  enterprise  of  the  Coun- 
cil as  a  whole.  To  take  immediate  charge  of  the  study 
the  CouncU  appointed  a  committee  of  26  members,  in 
addition  to  a  Director  for  the  study  and  a  staff  of  several 
associates.  By  the  time  the  report  upon  this  study  is 
finished  work  upon  it  will  have  occupied  the  greater 
part  of  a  year. 

Relationship  to  Research  Agencies 

The  Council  has  always  recognized  the  research 
institutions  of  industry  as  an  important  part  of  the 
whole  research  resource  of  the  country.  These  indus- 
trial research  agencies  have  increased  very  greatly, 
both  in  number  and  in  the  extent  of  their  operations, 
during  the  past  25  years.  This  is  shown  in  a  general 
way  by  the  increase  in  the  number  of  firms  maintaining 
laboratories  as  a  part  of  their  establishments  from 
about  300  in  1920  to  over  2,200  in  1940.  Many  of  the 
men  who  have  contributed  largely  to  scientific  progress 
are  engaged  in  industry,  and  a  very  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  membership  of  the  National  Research 
Council  is  drawTi  from  industrial  circles. 

The  changing  proportions  within  recent  years  of  the 
relative  parts  which  each  of  the  major  groups  of 
research  agencies  (educational,  governmental,  and 
industrial)  play  in  the  progress  of  science  is  in  itself 
significant.  The  colleges  and  universities  which  are 
the  traditional  abode  of  learning,  and  which  still 
continue  to  contribute  strongly  to  the  increase  of  knowl- 
edge through  research,  have,  however,  the  additional 
peculiar  function  of  training  scientific  personnel  for 
research  work  of  all  the  other  types  of  scientific  institu- 
tions. The  Federal  Government,  and  to  some  extent 
the  State  governments,  have  been  obliged  to  expand 
their  research  facilities  greatly  in  order  to  provide  the 
information  needed  to  perform  their  administrative 
functions  in  law  enforcement  and  in  the  promotion  of 
pubUc  welfare.  Many  lines  of  basic  research,  also,  can 
only  be  undertaken  by  agencies  equipped  with  such  au- 
thority or  facilities  as  the  Government  inherently  posses- 
ses. There  has,  therefore,  been  a  great  expansion  of  the 
scientific  work  of  Government  agencies  in  recent  decades 


In  industry  the  urge  for  the  greater  and  greater  use  and 
development  of  additional  systematic  knowledge  to  apply 
in  the  useful  arts  is  mainly,  if  not  wholly,  activated  by  the 
desire  for  ultimate  financial  profit.  This  urge  is  sharp- 
ened by  competition  not  only  within  an  industry  but  also 
between  industries.  It  has  been  a  very  potent  factor 
in  the  development  of  special  research  agencies  in 
industrial  enterprises,  and  these  agencies  have  added  in 
constantly  increasing  measure  to  the  store  of  funda- 
mental and  applied  scientific  knowledge.  Althougli 
precise  figures  are  lacking,  it  is  easily  recognized  that, 
while  money  spent  for  university  research  has  increased 
markedly  during  these  years,  this  increase  has  not 
been  nearly  so  great — either  proportionally  or  abso- 
lutely— as  the  increase  of  funds  devoted  to  scientific 
research  by  industrial  establishments. 

The  CouncU  has  aided  the  Academy  from  time  to 
tinae  in  solving  the  scientific  problems  referred  to  it  by 
Government  agencies,  and  the  Council  has  been  enabled 
through  large  funds  placed  in  its  hands  to  assist  the 
research  work  conducted  in  educational  and  special 
research  institutions  by  means  of  research  grants. 
The  Council  has  also  attempted  to  aid  in  advancing  the 
types  of  research  wliich  are  developed  in  industry,  as 
well  as  in  strengthening  industrial  research  capacity. 
This  has  been  done  both  by  direct  action  upon  selected 
research  problems  arising  in  certain  industries,  and  also 
by  organizing  studies  of  conditions  attending  the  prog- 
ress of  research  in  industry. 

The  research  enterprises  in  which  the  CouncU  was 
engaged  during  the  First  World  War  pertained  largely 
to  problems  relating  to  supply  of  military  materiel,  and 
a  number  of  these  projects  were  carried  over  under  the 
permanent  organization  of  the  Council.  These  in- 
cluded continuing  problems  in  various  industries;  such 
as  heat  measurement,  steel-making  processes,  heat 
treatment  of  steels,  production  of  high-speed  tool  steel, 
hardness  testing,  fatigue  of  metals,  welding  research, 
prime  movers,  fertilizers,  synthetic  drugs,  ceramic 
research  problems  of  neurology  and  psychiatry,  and 
medical  problems  of  industry. 

Relationship  to  Industry 

In  the  report  of  the  National  Research  Council  to 
the  Council  of  National  Defense  for  the  years  19 IS  and 
1919,  the  following  paragraphs  occur: 

One  of  the  most  striking  consequences  of  the  war  is  the 
increasing  general  reahzation  of  the  primary  importance  of 
scientific  research  to  the  whole  question  of  national  defense, 
as  well  as  to  the  successful  prosecution  of  industry  and  the 
greatest  measure  of  economy  of  resources  after  the  war.  The 
necessity  of  research  work  as  the  only  means  of  solving  many 
military  and  industrial  problems  has  been  realized  fully  in 
many  foreign  countries  where,  despite  the  stress  of  war  and  of 
the  excessively  heavy  burdens  imposed  by  it,  very  large  sums 
have  been  appropriated  for  its  promotion  and  support. 


Industrial  Research 


367 


Impressed  bj-  the  great  importance  of  promoting  the  appU- 
cation  of  science  to  industry  in  this  country,  the  National 
Research  Council  toolc  up  the  question  of  the  organization  of 
industrial  research  in  the  belief  that  this  matter  should  be 
furthered  in  every  way  possible  and  as  rapidly  as  may  be.  The 
National  Research  Council  considers  that  cooperation  among 
capital,  labor,  science,  and  management  constitutes  the  best 
general  means  of  financing  and  directing  the  extended  laboratory 
investigations  and  the  large  scale  experimental  and  develop- 
mental work  required  for  adeqviate  industrial  research.  Ac- 
cordingly it  inaugurated  an  Industrial  Research  Section  to 
consider  the  best  methods  of  achieving  such  organization  of 
research  within  an  industry  or  group  of  related  industries. 

On  this  basis  place  was  made  in  the  permanent 
organization  of  the  Council  for  an  agency  to  serv^e 
the  research  interests  of  industry.  It  was  felt  at  firet 
that  tliere  was  need  in  many  industries  for  an  increased 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  research  in  industrial 
development.  In  the  years  unniediately  following  the 
First  World  War  much  of  the  attention  of  the  Division 
of  Engineering  and  Industrial  Research  of  the  Council, 
and  of  a  Div-ision  of  Research  Extension  (maintained 
in  the  Council  for  several  years  for  this  express  purpose) 
was  devoted  to  encouraging  a  recognition  in  industrial 
circles  of  the  unportance  of  making  research  a  guide 
in  manufacturing  processes  and  in  the  supplying  of 
new  and  attractive  products. 

This  function  has  been  carried  out  in  various  waj-s 
in  addition  to  the  studj'  of  direct  research  problems  in 


industry.  For  instance,  a  number  of  conferences  have 
been  held  for  the  consideration  of  the  important 
potential  relationships  between  industry  and  the  uni- 
versities in  research  matters.  These  relationships  con- 
sist in  part  of  means  for  utilizing  university  research 
facilities  for  work  upon  fundamental  research  problems, 
and  the  draft  upon  universities  for  the  training  of 
scientific  personnel  in  industry.  In  the  opposite 
direction,  also,  industry  has  a  distinct  contribution  to 
make  to  university  research  work  through  intrinsic 
additions  to  knowledge  and  through  the  stimulus  that 
comes  to  research  and  the  sharpening  of  its  focus  from 
the  insistence  of  manufacturing  needs  and  operations. 
It  is  distinctly  a  two-way  cooperative  relationsliip. 

Through  its  Division  of  Engineermg  and  Industrial 
Research  the  Council  has  also  conducted  special  studies 
of  such  matters  as  the  effect  of  the  depression  of  1930 
and  subsequent  years  upon  the  course  of  research  in 
certain  industries.  It  has  encouraged  the  publication 
of  volumes  commenting  upon  the  industrial  research 
situation,  such  as  Profitable  Practice  in  Industrial 
Research,  and  Industrial  Explorers.  Representatives 
of  the  division  have  frequently  appeared  before  trade 
associations  to  encourage  applied  science. 

This  division  has  conducted  a  number  of  tours  to 
selected  industrial  research  laboratories  m  the  United 
States  and  one  such  trip  to  visit  laboratories  in  Eng- 


iiiii  I  ii   I 


Figure  104. — National  Academy  of  Sciences  and  National  Research  Council,  Wasliington,  D.  C. 


368 


National  Resources  Planning  Board 


land,  Germany,  and  France.  These  were  organized  to 
give  industrial  and  financial  executives  an  opportunity 
to  see  how  certain  successful  industrial  research  labora- 
tories have  been  set  up,  what  their  work  consists  of, 
and  how  this  scientific  work  has  been  built  into  the 
organization  of  these  companies.  The  division  has  had 
numerous  advisory  contacts  also  with  many  industries 
and  individual  corporations  during  the  past  20  years. 

In  other  parts  of  the  National  Research  Council,  also, 
relationships  with  industry  have  been  developed  and, 
through  the  Council,  industry  has  itself  contributed  in 
important  ways  to  the  general  progress  of  science  in 
this  country.  Most  notable  perhaps  of  these  contribu- 
tions from  industry  was  support  (totalling  over  $84,000) 
given  by  a  large  number  (about  180)  of  industrial  con- 
cerns to  the  pubHcation  of  the  International  Critical 
Tables  of  Numerical  Data,  Physics,  Chemistry,  and 
Technology,  issued  by  the  Council  during  the  period 
from  1926  to  1933;  and  the  subsequent  contribution  by 
many  corporations  to  the  Annual  Tables  of  Constants 
and  Numerical  Data  of  Chemistry,  Physics,  Biology, 
and  Technology,  published  in  Paris. 

Groups  of  firms  in  various  industries  have  from  time 
to  time  made  use  of  facilities  offered  by  the  Council  for 
coordinating  research  effort  upon  scientific  or  technical 
problems  arising  in  those  industries.  Large  contribu- 
tions in  funds,  in  services,  and  in  apparatus  have  been 
made  by  industrial  firms  to  the  Council  for  the  support 
of  such  projects.  In  engineering  these  have  included, 
for  example,  investigations  upon  electrical-core  losses, 
heat  transmission,  the  preservation  of  marine  piling, 
fatigue  phenomena  of  metals,  industrial  lighting,  and 
highway  construction  and  management.  Industry  has 
contributed,  also,  to  research  undertakings  sponsored 
by  other  divisions  of  the  Council,  such  as  studies 
of  pyrometry,  colloids,  catalysis,  ring  systems  in  chem- 
istry, chemical  economics,  petroleum  geology,  the  chem- 
istry and  pharmacology  of  narcotic  drugs,  food  and 
nutrition,  reforestation  and  germination,  agricultural 
uses  of  sulfur,  the  standardization  of  biological  stains, 
diseases  of  Cuban  sugarcane,  and  problems  of  person- 
nel in  industry.  The  auspices  of  the  Council  have  been 
utilized  for  a  number  of  years  to  hold  a  series  of  con- 
ferences on  electrical  insulation  and  for  other  confer- 
ences in  which  industrialists  have  frequently  joined 
with  academic  scientific  men.  Industry  has  also  con- 
tributed through  the  Council  to  the  support  of  research 
undertakings  bearing  less  directly  upon  industrial 
problems,  as  for  instance,  an  extended  program  of  re- 
search upon  the  biological  effects  of  radiation.  Certain 
other  projects  of  the  Council  have  contributed  more  or 
less  directly  to  the  support  of  industrial  science,  such 
as  the  publication  of  an  Annual  Survey  of  American 
Chemistry  over  a  period  of  some  10  years.  The  Comi- 
cil  has  also  administered  considerable  funds  supplied  by 


industrial  corporations  for  investigations  carried  on  by 
the  National  Bureau  of  Standards  as  a  part  of  the  co- 
operative program  of  the  Bureau  for  service  to  industry. 
Of  the  post-doctorate  fellows  appointed  by  the  Council 
during  the  past  20  years  in  the  fields  of  chemistry  and 
physics,  over  one-sixth  (89)  are  now  engaged  in  indus- 
trial work  and  several  past  fellows  of  the  Council  in 
medicine  or  in  the  biological  sciences  are  connected  with 
industrial  operations. 

During  recent  years  it  has  seemed  on  the  whole  that 
the  attitude  of  industry  toward  research  has  changed. 
The  value  to  industry  of  progressive  and  often  exceed- 
ingly broad  and  fundamental  research  has  come  to  be 
more  and  more  generally  recognized.  Financing  con- 
cerns ai'e  paying  attention  to  the  research  policies  of 
the  corporations  to  which  they  lend  aid.  Attention  has 
accordingly  shifted  from  the  question  of  undertaking 
any  research  program  at  all  to  the  conditions  under 
which  research,  set  up  as  an  accepted  part  of  the  in- 
dustrial establishment,  may  guide  industrial  develop- 
ment with  increasing  efficiency  and  profit. 

Division  of  Engineering  and  Industrial  Research 

Taking  advantage  of  this  turn  of  interest  it  was 
possible  for  the  Council's  Division  of  Engineering  and 
Industrial  Research  two  years  ago  to  organize  an  Indus- 
trial Research  Institute,  composed  of  member  firms 
which  contribute  funds  for  the  support  of  the  work  of 
the  Institute.  The  objective  of  this  organization  is  to 
provide  a  forum  for  the  study  and  discussion  of  prob- 
lems of  common  interest  affecting  the  utilization  of 
science  for  industrial  purposes.  These  problems  in- 
clude such  matters  as  sources  and  training  for  scientific 
personnel,  job  analysis  in  the  laboratory,  relations  of 
the  laboratory  to  the  production  and  sales  departments 
in  different  types  of  corporations,  financial  incentives, 
patent  policies,  and  the  various  relationships  between 
xmiversities  and  industry  in  matters  of  research. 

In  the  structure  of  the  National  Research  Council 
many  of  the  direct  relationships  and  obhgations  of  the 
Council  to  scientific  work  in  industry  are  represented 
through  the  Council's  Division  of  Engineering  and  In- 
dustrial Research  (which  has  its  offices  with  a  full-time 
staff  in  the  Engineering  Societies  Building  in  New  York 
City).  In  order  that  the  Council  may  be  able  to  dis- 
charge its  functions  in  uidustrial  fields,  this  Division  has 
recently  been  reorganized  and  its  membership  now  con- 
sists of  three  parts,  a  third  representing  the  engineering 
and  technical  societies  of  the  country,  of  which  some  18 
will  in  rotating  course  be  represented  from  time  to  time, 
a  third  selected  from  the  membership  of  the  Engineering 
Section  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  a 
third  selected  at  large,  totalling  27  members  altogether, 
and  including  university  men,  directors  of  industrial 
laboratories,  men  of  affairs,  and  uidustrial  and  financial 


Industrial  Research 


369 


executives.  The  Division  is  constituted  in  this  way  in 
order  to  be  widely  representative  of  all  scientific  in- 
terests affecting  industrial  progress  and  able  to  view  not 
only  advancement  of  research  in  industry,  but  also  the 
long-range  relationships  of  this  advance  to  its  benefit 
to  industry  itself,  and  to  its  responsibilities  to  the  social 
and  economic  welfare  of  the  country  and  of  the  Govern- 
ment. 


Bibliography 

Books 

Angell,  J.  R.  The  development  of  research  in  the  United 
States.  (Reprint  and  circular  series  of  the  National  Research 
Council,  No.  6).  Washington,  D.  C,  National  Research 
Council,  1919.     19  p. 

Angell,  J.  R.  The  National  Research  Council.  In  Yerkes, 
R.  M.  New  world  of  science.  New  York,  Century  Company, 
1920.     443  p.     p.  417-438. 

Hale,  G.  E.  A  national  focus  of  science  and  research.  {lie- 
print  and  circular  series  of  the  National  Research  Council,  No. 
39).  Washington,  D.  C,  National  Research  Council,  1922. 
[16]  p.     (Reprint  from  Scribner's  Magazine,  November  1922). 

Hale,  G.  E.,  and  others.  The  national  importance  of  scientific 
and  industrial  research.  [Bvlhlin  of  the  National  Research 
Council,  No.  1).  Washington,  D.  C,  National  Research 
Council,  1919.     43  p. 

Hale,  G.  E.  War  services  of  the  National  Research  Council, 
/n  Yerkes,  R.  M.  New  world  of  science.  New  York,  Century 
Company,  1920.     443  p.     p.  13-30. 

Hutchinson,  C.  T.  Report  [to  the  Engineering  Foundation] 
on  the  origin,  foundation,  and  scope  of  the  National  Research 
Council.     New  York,   PJngineering  Foundation,   1917.     8  p. 

Kellogg,  Vernon.  The  National  Research  Council.  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  National  Research  Council,  1922.     8  p. 

National  Research  Council,  .\nnual  report.  Wa.shington, 
D.  C.     Published  annually  since  1916. 

National  Research  Council.  A  history  of  the  National 
Research  Council.  (Reprint  and  circular  series  of  the  National 
Research  Council,  No.  106).  Washington,  D.  C,  National 
Research  Council,  1933.     61  p. 


National  Research  Council.  List  of  publications  of  the 
National  Research  Council  and  its  fellows  and  partial  list 
of  papers  having  their  origin  171  the  activities  of  its  committees 
to  January  1,  1926.  (Reprint  and  circular  series  of  the  National 
Research  Council,  No.  73).  Washington,  D.  C,  National 
Research  Council,  1926.     70  p. 

National  Research  Council.  War  organization.  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  National  Research  Council,  1918.     26  p. 

U.  S.  President,  1913-1921  (Woodrow  Wilson).  Executive  order 
[requesting  National  Academy  of  Sciences  to  perpetuate  Na- 
tional Research  Council  and  defining  duties  of  National 
Research  Council].     May  11,  19 IS.     1  p. 

Journal  articles 

Barrows,  A.  L.  The  National  Research  Council.  An  organi- 
zation for  the  coordination  and  direction  of  America's  scientific 
resources.     Glass  Container,  S,  12  (1924). 

Hale,  G.  E.  National  Research  Council.  Basis  of  organization 
and  means  of  cooperation  with  state  councils  of  defense. 
Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  183,  759  (1917). 

Hale,  G.  E.  Preliminary  report  of  the  Organizing  Committee 
to  the  President  of  the  Academy.  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  S,  507  (1916). 

Howe,  H.  E.  The  National  Research  Council — its  scope  and 
plans.     Textile  World,  57,  952  (Feb.  7,  1920). 

Kellogg,  Vernon.  Le  Conseil  national  de  recherches  des 
fitats-Unis.  La  Coopiration  Intellecluelle:  Revue  mensuel,  I, 
no.  5,  279  (1929). 

Kellogg,  Vernon.  National  Research  Council.  North  Amer- 
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Kellogg,  Vernon.  National  Research  Council.  International 
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Kellogg,  Vernon.  The  National  Research  Council.  Educa- 
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Kellogg,  Vernon.  Work  of  the  National  Research  Council. 
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organization  of  science.     Nation's  Business,  7,  no.  11,  29  (1919). 

National  Research  Council.  Published  in  Americana  each 
year  since  1923. 

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the  Chairman,  published  annually  in  Science  since  1933-34). 


SECTION    VII 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


Cooperation  in  the  preparation  of  this  report  was 
obtained  from  many  sources,  including  the  dii'ectors  of 
most  research  laboratories  and  many  leaders  in  the  var- 
ious branches  of  applied  science.  It  is  all  but  impossi- 
ble to  mention  here  a  complete  list  of  those  to  whom 
recognition  is  due. 

The  several  authors  and  the  many  collaborators  and 
reviewers  who  contributed  unhesitatingly  of  time  for 
which  there  was  already  great  demand  are  cited.  Many 
organizations  with  which  the  authors  are  associated 
have  been  most  generous  in  granting  the  significant 
amounts  of  time  required. 

In  the  Government,  special  assistance  was  given  by 
the  State  Department,  the  War  and  Navy  De- 
partments, the  National  Biu-eau  of  Standards,  the 
Bureau  of  Mines,  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce,  the  National  Mediation  Board,  and  the 
Library  of  Congress.  The  Work  Projects  Administra- 
tion, National  Research  Project,  contributed  generously 
in  extending  data  based  on  studies  of  the  director- 
ies of  research  laboratories  of  the  National  Research 
Council. 

The  National  Association  of  Manufactm-ers  coop- 
erated generously  in  a  canvass  of  its  membership  for 
research  data. 

Officers  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  and  the 
Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations  gave  helpful 
information  and  suggestions. 

Dun  and  Bradstreet,  Incorporated,  and  Moody's 
Investor's  Service  made  available  published  reference 
material  which  was  of  assistance  in  the  preparation  of 
statistical  portions  of  the  report. 


Research  laboratories  sent  illustrations  which  have 
been  inserted  as  presenting  pictorially  some  of  the 
physical  facilities  and  aspects  of  industrial  research. 
Space  limitations  necessitated  omission  of  much  inter- 
esting and  valuable  pictorial  material,  and,  obviously, 
only  a  few  of  the  2,264  laboratories  could  be  represented. 
Selections  were  made  from  photographs  readily  avail- 
able and  suitable  for  publication,  and  which  serve  the 
desired  purpose. 

Haskins  Laboratories,  Incorporated,  Arthur  D.  Little, 
Incorporated,  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology made  generous  special  arrangements  permitting 
staff  members  the  tune  requii'ed  for  direction  and  con- 
duct of  the  Survey. 

Miss  Florence  Hellman,  Chief  Bibliographer,  Library 
of  Congress,  prepared  a  working  bibliography  which 
included  many  of  the  references  now  appearing  in  the 
report. 

The  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  as  an 
organization  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the  section, 
"Industrial  Research  by  Mechanical  Engineers." 

Mr.  F.  T.  Letchfield  made  a  preliminary  review  of 
the  problem  and  presented  to  the  Academy  a  discussion 
of  the  general  scope.  His  study  was  used  as  a  basis  for 
the  agreement  between  the  National  Resources  Plan- 
ning Board  and  the  Academy.  Many  of  the  sugges- 
tions in  his  report  were  most  helpful  to  the  Committee 
and  the  Staff  in  the  conduct  of  the  work. 

To  a  large  number  of  individuals  who  have  contrib- 
uted generously  of  time  and  effort  the  Committee  feels 
that  it  has  great  obligation.  Without  this  cooperation 
the  report  could  not  have  been  compiled. 


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