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INTO
CHINESE SUPERSTITIONS
By Henry Dor6, S.J.
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH
WITH NOTES, HISTORICAL AND EXPLANATORY
By M. Kennelly, S.J.
First Part
SUPERSTITIOUS PRACTICES
Profusely illustrated
Vol. I
T'USEWEI PRINTING PRESS
Shanghai
1914
i£s*f
. ypy /y7y ^ , ? , /fttWsp^z^rZJLT
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iiiisiijyiic
INTO
CHINESE SUPERSTITIONS
By Henry Dore, S.J.
/H
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH
WITH NOTES, HISTORICAL AND EXPLANATORY
By M. Kennelly, S.J.
First Part
SUPERSTITIOUS PRACTICES
Profusely illustrated
Vol. I
T'USEWEI PRINTING PRESS
Shanghai
1914
111
D£/3
v. I
BRA'is;
t^Siry OF T<>£:
31.1832
PREFACE.
The present work, entitled "Researches into Chinese Supersti-
tions",, belongs to the well known series "Varietes Sinoloijiques",
or Miscellanies on China, published by the Jesuit Fathers of the
Shanghai Mission. The first volume was issued from the T'usewei
Press in the year 1911. Three others followed successively in 1912
and 1913, and were so appreciated that the French Academy of
"Inscriptions and Literature" granted them a special award. A fifth
is now in the press. The whole collection is to be completed in 1915,
and will comprise about eight volumes. The subject treated is of the
highest importance, not only from the religious standpoint, but also
because of the many interesting sidelights it casts on the social and
familv life of the Chinese people. As the original is in French, and
hence accessible only to a limited number of readers, it has been
requested to translate it into English. Such a vast undertaking and
the scholarly attainments it supposes would have appalled many.
The translator himself felt rather diffident, but encouraged by the
genial Director of the "Varietes Sinolog iques" ' , various Missionary
bodies, and several scholars in the East and at home, he energet-
ically set to work, and the volume now offered to the public is the
fruit of his labours.
The Author of the work is the Rev. Henry Bore, S.J. Labour-
ing as a Missionary for over twenty years in the two provinces of
Kiangsu and Nganhwei, he ever pursued the study of religions in
China, and the countless superstitions which swayed the social and
familv life of the people. For this purpose, he visited cities and
hamlets, temples and monasteries, questioning the people about
their Gods and Goddesses, their local divinities and deified Worthies,
thus collecting valuable materials for his future great work. What
he tells us therein, he has witnessed with his own e}Tes, or heard
from the lips of the people with whom he came into daily contact.
Real China exists little in the Open Ports. Civilisation has there
done its work, and raised the Chinaman to a higher level than his
fellow countrymen. Whosoever, therefore, would study him in real
— II —
life, must needs see him in the remote regions, the quaint old towns,
and the secluded villages of some distant province. This is what the
Missionary has done, and hence his descriptions ring genuine, and
echo his impressions in a manner which interest and charm the
general reader. To his personal observations, he has added a long
and serious study of all books relating to his subject. The learned
list of Chinese works placed at the head of this volume amply bears
out this assertion. From these, quotations and copious extracts are
given throughout the work. To the foreign authors indicated in
the French edition, the translator has added a few others, which
he thinks will be helpful to English readers. Mention may be par-
ticularly made of Dooliltle, who has written interestingly of "Pop-
ular Gods and Goddesses" in Southern China, also of Samuel Benl.
Sir Monier Williams, Hackmann, Macgowan, Legge and <lc Groot's
extensive work on the "Religious System of China". Several titles,
untranslated in the original French, have been rendered into English
in this edition, while short historical and explanatory notes have
been inserted, with a view to elucidating abstruse points of history
and doctrine which would otherwise remain a puzzle to many a
reader.
Pictures of Gods and Goddesses, of Genii and fabulous beings,
deified Worthies and Heroes have next been secured.' The rich store
of albums in the Sicawei Library has wonderfully helped in this
matter. Almost every article is illustrated. These pictures complete
the text, and exhibit graphically to the reader the belief of the
people.
The work will, doubtless, fulfil a useful and scientific purpose
both in the Far Fast and at home. The principal intention of the
Author in publishing it has been to help his fellow Missionaries in
the held, chiefly those recently arrived from home, and yet unac-
quainted with the life and religious conditions of the Chinese people.
These men shall one day be brought into contact with the super-
stitions nt the country. They must, therefore, have some knowledge
-I what the people think, believe and worship. Thus equipped,
they will offend less native prejudice and promote better the great
work of implanting Christian truth in the land.
— TIT —
The work will also prove valuable to the large and ever increas-
ing" number of scholars interested in the study of "Comparative
Religion". In this field of laborious research, the Missionary has
ever proved a most useful helper. His intimate knowledge of the
people, his life spent among them, enable him to appreciate thor-
oughly their religious ideas, and grasp the cryptic meaning and
purpose which underlie so many customs and practices.
A third and no less important service will be to exhibit to the
intelligent reading public the real aspect and conditions of religious
life among the Chinese people. Persons frequently ask the Mission-
ary "what is China's real religion? What do the people believe
and worship? What is their knowledge of the true God, of the soul
and of man's destiny? Uo they believe in an after-life and what are
the conditions of this life"? — The work here offered to the public is
the best reply to all these questions.
To begin by the soul, the generally accepted opinion is as follows:
Man has two souls — The first, or superior one, is called the Shen f^l
or Ilwun t$L, and emanates from the ethereal part of the Cosmos,
the great Yang j^ principle (1). It is manifested by the K'i ^ or
breath (vital force). After death, it ascends, according to the Anci-
ents, to the higher regions, there to live on as lucid matter, Shen-
ming %$ B£). According to modern Confucianists it vanishes entirely
at death. Buddhists would have it be re-incarnated into men or
animals (See on the System of the Metempsychosis p. 135-138),
while Taoists place it after death amidst the stars, ordinarily around
the Polar regions. The second, or material soul, is the Kwei $&,
which operates in living man under the name of P'eh fjj|. The
Kwei emanates from the earth or Yin f% principle (2), returning
thereto after death. It remains with the body in the grave, and
forms the ghost (see Note 1. p. 143) of the departed person (3).
(1) Williams defines this: "the pure, ethereal, subtle part of matter, out of which
Gods and souls are formed". Dictionary of the Chinese Language |^.
(2) According to Chinese philosophy, it is one of the primeval forces of Nature, from
which by its interaction with the Yang || principle, the whole universe has been produ-
ced. The inferior of the dual Powers, quiescent matter (Giles and William's Chinese
Dictionaries $$.).
(3) For more ample details See de Groot. The Religious System of China. Vol. IV,
p. 5,_ VVieger. Folk-Lore Chinois Moderne. Introduction § 9).
— IV —
The notion of the true God has_almost disappeared, or at least
is but dimly known. For the greater part of the people, their God
is the "Pearly Emperor", Yuh-hwang 3£ Jl, of Taoist origin ; Budd-
ha or Fuh f); Amitabha |$pJ $$ |?g $J (O-mih-t'o-fuh), the Ruler of
the Western Paradise; Kwan-yin || "&, the Goddess of Mercy;
some local or tutelary divinity to whom they give the title of ''Ven-
erable Sire or Lord", Lao-yeh % ff? 5 the God of.Jtliches, the God of
the Hearth, the God of Fire. Carpenters have their Patron God, also
play-actors, wrestlers, fencers, musicians, and even gamblers. It
would seem that every need of man has__its corresponding divinity,
the Gods being thus, as with the Romans, largely names for these
various needs, JNumina nomina". The literati acknowledge "Shang-
//" J- ^-, the Supreme Ruler; Heaven, T'ien ^ ; the Gods of Liter-
ature: Wen-ch'ang ^ ^§ and Kw'ei-sing 5£t j§k The modernists
among them are utter atheists and materialists. For them, God is
but an abstract principle, identified with Reason or Law, that is, he
is nothing else but the moral sense of man, exalted thus to be his
own Lord and Lawgiver. Practically, they are as superstitious as
the masses, and will burn mock-money, though this is a Buddhist
practice, at the tombs of their ancestors.
China's popular religion is, therefore, a medley of superstitions,
varying according to places, but essentially the same in their fun-
damental features. Hence the popular adage: "the three religions
■ in' one", Sun -hi no wei-yih J£ ^ ^ — . Each person in fact selects
or adopts what suits best his fancy, or meets his present require-
ments. The Powers of Nature, Spirits, the Hosts of Heaven, Genii
and deified Heroes, Ancestors are also worshipped; even animals,
especially the Dragon and the Tortoise, not omitting the mineral
world. The whole affords a pitiful spectacle which excites compass-
ion, and has held the people in bondage throughout the past, as
well as it degrades them at the present daw
The work, according to the Author's plan, will be divided into
three parts. — The first treats of ' 'superstitious practices in general" .
Whosoever has lived among the Chinese will readily acknowledge
that such practices are bound up with their every-day life, and
influence their actions from the cradle to the tomb. This part deals
— V —
also with ancestor worship, the ancestral tablet, burial of the dead,
and the sending of clothing and mock-money to the "Land of Shades"
for the use of the departed soul. Illustrations accompany each article,
depicting vividly Gods and Goddesses, Genii and Immortals, the
worship of the dead, amulets, charms and even ghosts. These
artistic pictures are all due to the T'usewei Press, and the intelli-
gent co-operation of M1'. Foucret, S..T., to whom I wish to express
here my sincere thanks.
The second part of the work shall offer to the reader a full and
interesting "biograplnj of Gods and Goddesses", mythical personages
and deified Heroes worshipped in the two provinces of Kiangsu and
Nganhwei. A short description of the various practices performed
by the people to honour them will complete this part.
The third part will be a "popular Iiistory of the Founders of the
three great religions of China: Confucius, Lao-tze and Buddha".
Some account will be also given of their principal doctrines, ethical
systems and general influence on the Chinese people. This part,
like the second, will be fully illustrated.
Such is, in brief, the great work undertaken by Father Henry
Dore, S.J. Though not exhaustive, it will fill a serious gap, and is
possibly the best account we can get on "Superstitions in China".
The book is written for the general piTblic, avoiding purposely too
abstruse discussions, and is based throughout on personal investi-
gations made on the spot. The first volume, now translated into
English, is here offered to the public. The others will follow in
due succession, and render, it is hoped, valuable service to all those
interested in China's religious life and customs.
M. Kennelly, S.J.
Sicawei College, Shanghai.
May 30, 1914.
— VII —
LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED FOR
THIS FIRST PART, 1 NT1TLED I
SUPERSTITIOUS PRACTICES IN CHINA.
IE
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3. it it ^
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b & $*
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A S WL *
91 * P & & 1 IB
WORKS WRITTEN IN THE CHINESE LANGUAGE.
Li-ki.
Sang-li.
Tuh-li-t'ung-k'ao.
Ml fit ft $c
Ml a § t? * ^ i\ 6
* & m & m a
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Wu-li t'ung-k'ao.
T'ung-tien.
Peh-lu-t'ung.
Yii-chow ta-i-i.
Sze-shu jen-wuh-k'ao.
Chu-tze yii-luh.
Jeh chi-hih.
Wu-king-i-i.
Li-ki tsih-shwoh.
Li-ki shuh.
Chu-tze yii-lei.
Yao-lu-lu-shu.
Fung-shen-kia li-tsih-shwoh.
Sheng-ki chuh-wen.
Sung-t'ao-knh ts'ing-i-luh.
Ming-ta-muh t'ing-yii-ki-t'an.
Chow-li chu-shuh.
Chow-li t'ien-kwan-shen-lu.
Chow-li ch'un-kwan ta-tsung-peh.
T'ung-suh-pien.
Tze-chi-t'ung-kien kang-muh.
Official Annals.
Ch'eu-chen pien-wang.
Peter Hwang, S. J. \chwan).
Ts'ien-Han-shu (Chang t'ang
m r m % be
jt # oe & f#)
m m m a
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— VIII —
Heu-Han-shu (Ts'ai-lun-chwan).
Fung-shi wen-kien-ki.
T'ang-shu (Wang-yiX-chwan)
T'ung-kien-kang-muh. Historical
Records reconstructed by Chu-
Sbeng Sung- toh-i. j hsi.
Li Tsi-wung tze-hsia-luh.
Yeh-hwoh-pien.
Sung Yii Wen-pao, ch'ui-kien-luh
wai-tsih.
Shi- with yuen-hui.
Ts'ing-kia-luh.
Kien-hu pu-tsih.
Sin-chi-luh.
Meng-hwa-luh.
Hai-yii ts'ung-k'ao.
T'ien-hsiang-leu ngeu-teh.
Yin-hsiieh-hsien-sui-pih.
Yuan-tien-chang.
Chao-king-ngan yun-luh-man-
Ta-hsioh. [ch'ao.
Chwang-tze.
Book of Odes § Ta-ya.
Kang-muh-tsih-lan.
Fan-yih-ming-i.
Wu Man-yun kiang-hsiang-tsieh-
wuh-shi.
Shan-hai-king.
Sui-shi-ki.
Sui-yuan-sui-pih.
Kien-hu-tsih.
Luh-k'i-hsiung Pen-king sui-hwa-
Kwah-ti-chi. [ki.
Yuh-hai.
Lih-hsioh-i-wen.
Lih-hsioh-i-wen-pu.
— IX
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Kiu T'ang-shu.
Sin T'ang-shu.
Luh-ming-shu.
Han-shu.
Sung-shu.
Tso-chwan.
Lo-king-kiai.
Ma-i-siang-fah (Physiognomy).
Ts'an-sing-pi-yao-tseu-kih-pien-
lan.
Ming-hsioh su-chi (Fortune-tell-
ing).
Ta-luh-jen-sin-yuan (Divination).
Ta-Han hsieh-t'ien kwan-fu-tze
tsi-shi kiu-kih-wen.
T'ai-shang san-kwan-king.
Siao-siang i-yao-ts'iien-chwan.
Sze-ming-ti-kiin king-tsao-ts'iien-
shu.
Sze-ming pao-hsiin (Hod of the
Kitchen).
Shen-men jeh-sung (Prayer-book
of Buddhist monks).
Hwang-lih (Imperial Calendar).
Hwui-t'u siang-meng ts'iien-shu
(On dreams).
Tseng-pu-pi chwan wan-fah-kwei-
tsung (Talismans and charms).
Kan-pao sheu-shen-ki (A work in
20 volumes, composed by Kan-
pao -^ ^, a native of Honan,
and published A. I). 317).
Sheu-shen-ki (Lire* of Hods and
Genii). A later edition. The same
■ work modified and augmented
was subsequently entitled :
— X
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Chung-tseng-sheu-shen-ki ('/i/su
called) :
Chung-tseng san-kiao yuen-liu
sheng-ti Foh-shi sheu-shen-ki.
Li-fang T'ai-p'ing kwang-ki.
Encyclopedia composed by Li-
/'<•"'</ ^ Wj A. D. 977. He was a
native of Chih-li and a Hanlin.
The work is more generally
known under the following title:
T'ai-p'ing-kwang-ki. Published
A. D. 981 . It was composed by
order of T'ai-tsung fc 9^, second
emperor of the Sung dynasty.
Li-lung wrote it assisted by 12
other literati. It contains much
that is valuable about Spirits
and superstitions.
Yiu-hsioh.
Fung-suh-t'ung.
Kin-kang-king.
Si-yiu-ki.
Fung-sh en-yen- i.
Yuh-lih ch'ao-chwan.
Ch'un-ts'iu.
Tsang-shu.
Ch'un-ts'iu -chwan.
Hsioh-king.
Yih-king.
Sien-cheh-lih-shu.
Sheu-shi-shnh.
Ta-t'ung.
Ta-t'ung-lih.
T'ung-shu.
Liang-k'i-man-chi.
Siin-tze.
9§ & M § ft
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xi —
Shui-king-tsih.
Fung-meng-cheng chi-nang.
K'i-men-ta-ts'iien.
Ling-ts'ien-shu.
T'iao-ts'ien-king.
Lang-ya-tai-tsui-picn.
Yen-wang-king.
Luh-lun-king.
Ku Mei chi-Aven-luh.
Meng-tze.
Tuh-shu-ki-shu-lioh.
Yuh-hsiah-ki-t' ung-shu .
Shi-wen-lei-tsii.
Chu-tze yii-luh.
Wang-wei ts'ing-yen-ts'ung-luh.
Tsin-shu.
Sui-shu.
Ki-k'ang-tseh-wu-kih-hsiung-lun.
Wang-fu ts'ien-fu-lun .
Ch'en-liu-fung-suh-chwan.
T'ung-tien (Chao-hwun-tsang-i).
Lia n g - pa n-ts ' i u -y ii - n ga n .
Ts'ih-siu-lei-kao.
Leng-kiah-king.
Yung-chwang siao-p'in.
Yoh-ki.
Shi-ming.
Jeh-chi-luh-chu.
Kung-sun-shuh-chwan.
Fan-shu.
Shi-ki (Han Hsiao Wu-ti).
Wang-vih ch'u-tz'o-chang-kiu.
Chu-tze ch'u-tz'e-tsih-chu.
Lu-shi.
San-kwoh-chi.
Tsih-shwoh ts'iien-chen.
by Peter Hwang, S. J.
— xn —
FOREIGN WORKS.
Rudiments du Parler Chiriois.
Textes Historiques.
Folk-Lore Chinois Moderne.
Synchronismes Chinois.
The Folk-Lore of China.
Chinese Folk-Lore.
Vegetarian Sects.
China and Religion.
Studies in Chinese Religion.
Chinese Buddhism.
Buddhism in China.
\ Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese.
Four Lectures on Buddhist Literature in China.
I land-Book of Chinese Buddhism.
Buddhism: Its Historical and Popular Aspects, in
Three Lectures.
Buddhism.
Buddhism as a Religion.
Calendar of the Gods in China.
Social Life of the Chinese.
Chinese Repository (Canton. XX Vol.)
The Chinese Recorder (Shanghai).
The Religious System of China (VI. Vol.)
The Li Ki or Book of Rites.
The Shi King or Book of Poetry.
Memoires concernant les Chinois (XVI Vol.
L. Wieger, S. ./.
Id.
Id.
M. Chang, S. J.
N. B. Denny*.
J. Mr Gowa n.
G. Miles.
E. H. Parker.
Id.
J. Edkins.
S. Beal.
Id.
Id.
E. J. Eitel.
Id.
Monier Williams.
H. Hackmann.
Timothy Richard,
J. Doolittle.
J. de Groot.
J. Legge.
Id.
Jesuit Missionaries in
Peking.
Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses (Vol. IX-X1II on China). Jesuit
Missionaries in China.
Lettres de Jersey (1880*1914). Shanghai Jesuit Mission.
Annates duMuse^Guimet (Vol. XI-XII. 1886). he Groot et-Chavannes.
Revue de I'Extreme-Orient IL Cordier).
Bulletin de la Societe Beige d'Etudes Coloniales.
Chinese Reader's Manual. \y. F. Mayers
— XIII —
Notes on Chinese Literature (New Edition).
Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
Chinese-English Dictionary
,4. Wylie.
Williams.
II. A. Giles.
Chinese Biographical Dictionary. Id'.
De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods. Book II). Cicero.
Metamorphoses. Ovid.
La Cite Antique. Fustel de Coulangei-
The Religions of the Ancient World. G. Rawlinson.
Classical Dictionary. J. Lempriere.
Smaller Classical Dictionary of Biography and
Mythology. W. Smith.
CONTENTS.
FIRST PART — VOLUME I.
— ^S|.*'|^H
CHAPTER I.
Birth and Childhood.
Page .
Article I. Before Birth 1
Gods specially worshipped in order to obtain children. — Super-
stitions practices in cases of laborious childbirth — Exposing
tablet of Goddess in house. — Consulting fortune-tellers to as-
certain sex of child. — Magic mirror to ward off evil influen-
ces.— Little images or statues representing children. — New-born
child offered to a God 2 — 7.
Article II. After Birth.
The first tubbing. — The seven-star lamp. — The peach-wood
arrows. — The devil thai ravishes children. — Peach-wood amu-
lets preventing demons from approaching children. — Amulet
made of dog's hair. — Wearing a necklace of copper coins. —
Killing a cock. — Names of animals or of slave-girls given to
male children. — Bell-charms attached to feet of children. — The
vermilion mark on the forehead. — Ill-treating corpses of little
children 8 — 12.
Article III. Superstitious customs concerning children.
Wearing the silver padlock. — The silver collar. — Ear-rings. —
A string of cash. — The eight diagrams. — The crown of hair
shaven oil. — The habit of a Buddhist priest or bonze. — The
dress of "the hundred families". — Burning old shoes. — Sus-
pending a fishing-net — Employing a sieve to scare away the
demons that ravish children. Amulets to ward off diseases from
children. — Dry (nominal) adoption. — Red cloth attached to the
extremity of the queue. — The peach-stone padlock. — Auspicious
wood for the child's cot 13—25.
— XV —
Page.
Article IV. Crossing the bamm 26 — 27.
CHAPTER II,
Betrothal and Marriage*
Article I. Betrothal 29 — 31.
Article II. Marriage.
Fixing its date. — Month. — Day. — Sending- auspicious presents
(flowers, fruit) 32 — 33.
Article III. Departure of the Bride 34 — 35.
Article IV. The Bride enters the house of the Bridegroom.
Arrival. — The marriage ceremony before the tablet of Heaven
and Earth, and the ancestral tablet. — Ordeal of seeing the bride.
Visiting the ancestral hall. — Burial rite of bride who has not
accomplished this latter ceremony 36 — 39.
CHAPTER III.
Death and Burial.
Article I. Before Heath.
Fetching the temple-god into the dying person's house. — Outfit
of the dead (Case of a man, a woman). — Garters — Girdle. —
Buttons. — Not allowed to expire on the family bed. — Bed-
curtains removed. — Also the pillow 41 — 44.
Article II. After Death.
Consulting the Imperial calendar. — Faying out the dead per-
son.— -Paper streamers suspended over door-way. — Informing
the local tutelary deity of the death of a person. — Bringing
back from the temple the soul of the deceased. — -Victuals provi-
ded for the journey. — -Paper sedan-chair for the soul. — -Burning
some old shoes of the deceased. — Attaching wisps of cotton-
wool round the neck of the corpse 45 — 46.
Article III. Placing the corpse In the coffin.
1°. Putting the corpse in the coffin. Choosing a lucky day. —
— XVI —
Big nail used for closing the coffin. — Putting a copper coin in
the mouth of the corpse. — The coffin. —Rice for appeasing the
hungry dugs in the nether world. — Mirror placed at feet of the
corpse. — (doth placed over the mouth. — Nails entwined with
some hairs of the deceased. — Closing down the lid of the coffin.
2". Objects placed beside the coffin. Paper tablet containing
the soul of the departed. — Rice placed at the rear of the deceas-
ed person's head. --Lamp with seven wicks. — Escorting the
soul over the bridge of anguish. — Condoling visitors bring mock-
money for benefit of the dead. — Funeral repasts given to relatives
and friends. — Children who leap over the coffin. — -Eating an
egg to get courage 47 — 52.
Article IV Burial.
Selecting a lucky site. — Carrying out the coffin. — Order of the
funeral procession. — -At the grave-side. — Coffins exposed and
covered with straw 53 — 57.
Article V. Alter the Burial.
Fixed times for mourning services. -- Hounding off the mound or
tumulus. — The departed spirit returns in search of daylight. —
Preparations made to receive him. — Anxiety entertained about
his destiny. — -Forwarding a paper house to the "world of
shades". -Burning straw -tresses for the benefit 'of the dead.-
I Hfering a lamp for the ghost. — "Ts'ing-ming", or annual festival
in honour of the dead. — Gathering the hungry and wandering
ghosts. — Sending winter-garments to the dead. — Floating little
lamps on streams to guide wandering ghosts. — Celebrating the
ghosts festival (fifteenth of the seventh month). — Various other
ceremonies to help departed souls 58 — 62.
Article VI. Superstitious papers burnt .at funerals.
Propitiating the funeral-god. — Burning a superstitious paper in
honour of the ten kings of Hades. — A god-undertaker supplies
,i conveyance lor the departed soul. — The god of the "hungry
ghosts" H3 — 66.
Article VII. Purchasing the right of way 67 — 68.
— XVII —
CHAPTER IV.
Petition-talismans (written charms) for the benefit of the Dead.
Article 1. Ordinary cases of dead persons.
Why the Chinese send petitions to their gods and burn written
charms in their honour. — Purifying- and rescuing charm granted
by Lao-kiin for the benefit of the dead. — Written charm burnt
and forwarded to Amitabha. — Another petition in similar style. —
Written charm burnt to obtain a happy rebirth. — Permit
delivered to the departed soul. Passport granting free passage
to soul on the way to the infernal regions. — Opening the cere-
mony of the "Lemuria" (for the benefit of wandering souls). —
Written charm opening the portals of the Buddhist paradise. —
Informing the ruler of Hades of the exemplary life of the
deceased. — Temporary seat of the soul (before the burial takes
place). — Wrapper designed to receive the soul. — Burning mock-
clothing for the benefit of the dead. — Forwarding a patent safe
to the nether world 69 — 83.
Article II. Petition-talismans (written charms) rescuing from the
"Moody pond".
Women who die in childbirth plunged into this pond. — Budd-
hist priests can deliver them therefrom. — Precious formula
burnt for this purpose. — Howling ceremony performed by
witches at Hai Chow 84 — 87.
Article III. Petition-talismans (written charms) for special cases.
For a person who has committed suicide. — For a person ass-
assinated.— For a person under a spell from evil spirits. — For
the victim of an unjust lawsuit. — For the victim of a felonious
murder. — For the benefit of a drowned person. — For a person
who has died in prison. — For the victims of calumny. — For a
person poisoned by doctors' prescriptions 88 — 96.
CHAPTER V.
Divers Superstitions for the benefit of the Dead.
Article I. The Ancestral Tablet 97 — 108.
— XVIII —
II. "Kotowing" to the Dead
III. Sacrifices offered to the Dead
IV. Mock-money
V. Buddhist Bells
VI. Sending Paper-houses to the Dead
VII. Placing Streamers on Graves ...
VIII. The Metempsychosis
IX. Murderous Ghosts
X. Evocation of the Dead
XI. Ceremonies for rescuing departed Souls
Pag
...109 —
no
...111 —
116
...117 —
123
...124 —
■127
...128 —
129
...130 —
■132
...133 —
■138
...139 —
■146
...147 —
■150
...151 —
■154
■ *» f I — «=»-
— XIX —
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
IHagrams ami "Charaels".
Page
1. Kwan-yin presenting a child to mothers praying for
offspring (Frontispiece)
2. Paper print (charm) representing the White-robed Kwan-
yin burnt in her honour to obtain posterity 1
3. Kw'ei-sing, the God of Literature, protects from on high
the new-born child. On a car is seen the academic
head-dress worn by scholars 2
4. Chang Kwo-lao offers a descendant to a newly married couple 3
5. The Celestial Fairy that bestows children. Borne on a
chariot, she presents a child to a happy household ... 4
6. The Ki-lin or Unicorn bestowing a child 5
7. Written charm for hastening delivery. The charm is
burnt, and the ashes mingled with wine are given to
the woman in labour 6
7L"S. Another efficacious charm for hastening delivery 7
8. Bowman shooting peach-wood arrows to scare away the
heavenly dog 8
9. Chang the Immortal, who protects children 10
10. Padlock assuring a long and happy life 13
11. Child wearing the silver collar 14
12. Boy wearing an ear-ring 15
13. Wearing a string of cash 17
14. Charm representing the eight diagrams 18
15. Child with crown of hair shaven off 19
16. Habit of Buddhist monk worn by children 20
17. Variegated dress known as that of the "hundred families" 21
18. The God of Longevity issuing from a peach 22
19. Luck}7 charm. May you have five male children, healthy,
rich, and attaining to the highest honours 24
19Lls. Allusion to the numerous children of Wen Wang. May
you have many children, and ma}7 one of them be a
first tripos 25
20. Brass mirror 34
— XX —
Page
21. Conducting- the bride to the bridegroom's house. The
slipper and the saddle 36
Tablet of Heaven and Earth 37
22. Nao Sin-fang. Ribald jesting 38
23. Han-k'eu-ts'ien. Coin pressed in the mouth of a corpse 47
24. Tao t'eu-fan. Rice placed behind the head of a corpse 50
25. Hearse accompanied b}r the funeral God 63
26. Ming-fu shih-wang. Charm for propitiating the ten kings
of Hades 64
21. Lung ch'eh Pu-sah. The God of the Dragon chariot
(hearse"), Undertaker in the nether world 65
28. Ku-hwun Pu-sah. The God protector of wandering ghosts 66
29. Purchasing the right of way 67
30. Purifying charm bestowed by Laotze 70
3 1 . Written charm despatched to Ti-ts'ang Wang, ruler of Hades 71
31bis. Passport to the nether world. Written charm burnt in
honour of Ti-ts'ang Wang, ruler of Hades 73
32. Written charm begging a happy rebirth 74
33. Permit exempting from tolls on the way to the Infernal
regions 75
34. Lu-yin tan-tze. Passport delivered to the departed soul 76
35. K'ai-tan for wandering souls on the way to Hades 77
36. The ke}' to the Ruddhist paradise 78
37. Certificate of good conduct sent to the ruler of Hades 79
38. Temporary seat of the departed soul 80
.'!'.). Wrapper containing the soul 81
40. Mock-clothing burnt for the benefit of the dead 82
41. Fire-proof safe burnt and forwarded to the dead 83
42. Fac-simile of the precious charm delivering from the
"bloody pond" 84
13. Written charm for the benefit of a woman dying in
childbirth 86
44. Charm delivering from Hades a person hanged 88
45. Charm delivering from Hades a person assassinated ... 89
46. Charm for the benefit of a soul under a spell 90
m. Charm delivering from Hades the victim of an unjust
lawsuit 91
— XXI —
Pag
48. Charm delivering from Hades a person who has been
murdered 92
49. Charm for the benefit of drowned persons 93
50. Charm for the benefit of persons who have died in prison 94
51. Charm for the benefit of persons calumniated ... 95
52. Charm for the benefit of a person poisoned by doctors'
prescriptions 96
53. Ancestral tablet (front and back parts) 107
54. "Kotowing" before a grave 109
55. Offerings placed before the Ancestral tablet Ill
56. Various kinds of mock-money 117
57. Buddhist bell and beads 124
58. Paper-house burnt for the benefit of the dead 128
59. Paper streamers placed on graves 130
60. The Wheel of the Metempsychosis 133
61-1. Metamorphosed into insects, worms, fish, and other animals 134
61-2. Metamorphosed into various kinds of shell-fish 135
61-3. Metamorphosed into various products of the vegetable
kingdom 136
61-4. Metamorphosed into various household articles, utensils
and instruments 137
62bis. Hsiung-shah. Ghost of deceased in masculine form.
— Tz'e-shah. Ghost of deceased in female form ... 143
62. Sung T'ai-tsu and the Ghost 144
63. Evocation of the Dead 147
64. Tso-chai. Buddhist service for releasing souls out of Hades 151
65. Written charm suspended in the midst of the hall ... 152
Charm suspended facing the North >>
Charm suspended facing the East >»
Charm suspended facing the South >>
Charm suspended facing the West >>
Fig. 1
La "Koang-yng" aux enfants.
Kwan-yin presenting a child to mothers praying for offspring.
Fig. 2
-t-tL ■*ii*A*&
'/'cJie-ma" de "Koang-yng" aux habits blancs, brule" en son honneur pour obtenir des enfants.
Paper print (charm) representing the White-robed Kwan-yin,
burnt in her honour to obtain posterity.
tsHr'^^
Temple of Heav
CHAPTER I.
BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD
II £ %J P#
Tan Sheng Yin Shi
ARTICLE I.
BEFORE BIRTH
To have a numerous posterity, is the great, if not the greatest
desire of all Chinese. Hence many are the divinities invoked in order
to obtain children ! The following' are a few of these Gods selected
from among hundreds.
A), (*ods specially worshipped in order to obtain children.
First of all we find the famous Goddess Kwan-yin or Kwan-yin
Pus ah M
*£■ 4*
;, whose worship is ever on the increase. A
picture representing her is found in all temples, and almost every-
where, one can see a small shoe or several of them deposited at the
foot of her statue. This is an offering made by some woman, who
1
has begged the Goddess to grant her a child. As a pledge of her
trust, the shoe has been placed there. Various are the customs
connected with this offering. Elsewhere, one of a pair of shoes
deposited at the feet of the Goddess, is borrowed, and when the
expected child is born, the shoe is restored, and as an ex-voto, a
new pair is added into the bargain. A sacred banquet frequently
accompanies the above act, to return thanks for the favour received.
In such cases a bonze recites a prayer in thanksgiving.
T'ien-sien Sung-tze ^i j\\i :M ~f (lne Celestial Fairy granting
children), is exposed in several houses of pagans. This Goddess,
ol Taoist origin, seems to be none other than the daughter of the
God who dwells in the Sacred Mountain of the East. She is called
the T'ai-shan ^ |Jj Goddess, T'ai-shan Niayig-niang ^ (Jj i$ t£
(1), and is specially worshipped in Shantung \\] j|f, and all the
adjoining provinces. < >ther inferior Goddesses serve her as assist-
ants and seem charged with carrying out her orders. They may be
generally seen beside her, either in temples, or in pictures which
represent her. The following are the names of those commonly
found attending on her :
Ts'ui-sheng Niang-niang f|| ££. 1$ M-
The Goddess accelerating birth.
Sung-sheng Niang-niang gf ^ t& i$.
The Goddess granting children.
Tze-sun Niang-niang tF ^ ^ ^.
The Goddess bestowing posterity (sons and grandsons).
Chu-sheng Niang-niang ^ ^ fl| i$.
The Goddess of fecundity.
This last Goddess is particularly worshipped in several of the
Southern provinces. She is attended on by a host of female genii,
whose duty is to protect children.
The festival of this Chinese '-Fatal Sister" falls on the fifteenth
day o| the sixth month; meats placed on the family bed are offered
to honour her.
(1) See T ii ban Nianj! nianp Pao kiien ^ [\\ Q& £g 't!f 5g p. g. ->;
Fig. 3
Rising du haut des cieux protege le nouveau-nd. Sur un char on voit le bonnet des academiciens.
Kw'ei-sing, the God of Literature, protects from on high the new-born child.
On a car is seen the academic head-dress worn by scholars.
Fig. 4
Tchang Kouo-lao, le pourvoyeur d'enfants.
Chang Kwo-lao offers a descendant to a newly married couple.
— 3 —
Pictures represent her riding on a unicorn, or a phoenix, or
borne on the clouds of heaven ; she holds a child in her arms, and
her attendant ladies throng round to render her every service.
According to popular belief, at least in many places, this
Goddess receives from Yen Wang HI] 3E, the God of Hades, the
souls purified by expiations in the Buddhist hell, and by the series
of transmigrations deserved through their faults in some previous
existence. It is she who decides into what bodies these souls are
to be reborn on earth.
Elsewhere, prayers are preferably addressed to the Holy Mother,
Queen of Heaven, T'ien-heu Sheng-mu Ji fe H -fij:, whose statue
occupies the most honourable place in the temples known as Peh-
l:e fang ~gf -^ ^, or temples of the "Hundred Children".
Among other female deities, tutelary guardians of children,
mention may also be made of the Goddess that guides childhood,
the Goddess presiding over suckling, the Holy Mother, who grants
fecundity: Pao-sheng Sheng-mu f!£ d^ M -0J: etc...
Female deities are not alone invoked; a lew gods are likewise
particularly disposed to graciously hear the prayers addressed to
them for the obtaining of children. Thus Ngan-kung ^ Q, has
great repute in the district city of Fan-chang hsien fj| J| $£,
province of Ngan-hwei -^ $fr, and he is constantly worshipped in
order to obtain male children.
Families of official standing and literati frequently invoke Kwei-
sing ^[- j^, the God of Literature, and beg him grant them talented
offspring, who may win academic laurels at the examinations. For
the same purpose, a picture of Kwan-kimg ||j ^, is exposed in the
nuptial chamber of the young couple, offering them a youthful
descendant wearing the official academic head-dress.
At other times, we find Lit Tung-pin g -j|?j % and Kwan-kung
|| ^, bearing in their arms a male child. This is- an assurance
that the new home will be blessed with numerous progeny, reckon-
ing amongst them learned literati and remarkable state officials. It
is indeed a well known fact that Lu Tung-pin g -j|p] JfC, is one of the
__ 4 —
Immortals honoured by the literati, and that Kwan-kung |ffj £> ,
combines in his person the title of God of War and patron of
Literature.
Chang Kwo-lao ;Jj| ^ ^, sitting on a donkey, offers also a
descendant to the newly married couple, and a picture representing
him is often found in the nuptial chamber.
Pagans employ many luck-bearing pictures to secure the above
purpose. It is thus that one generally finds, either a unicorn with
a child sitting on it, or a phcenix holding a child, and wending its
flight towards some home ; also the well known pictures called the
"Hundred Children", on which are represented one hundred male
children, who share among themselves all the honours and dignities
of the world.
Fig. 5
T'ien sien song tse. Assise sur son char, elle porte un enfant a un heureux manage.
The Celestial Fairy that bestows children. Borne on a chariot,
she presents a child to a happy household.
Fig. 6
Ivi-ling song-tse, ou la licorne apportant un enfant.
The Ki-lin or Unicorn bestowing a child.
— 5 —
B). Sonic other superstitious practices.
1". Exposing the tablet (of a certain Goddess) in the house.
Tslui~sheng Niang-niang 0 ^ i$ $g. the Goddess hastening
birth, is held in great veneration.
When childbirth is too laborious, incense is burnt in her
temple, vows are made, or even her tablet is fetched with great
pomp and exposed in the house of the woman in labour ; the clothes
of the latter are laid upon this tablet, to urge the protection of the
Goddess.
K'o-ku Niang-niang ^ jfc ^ t&- formerly midwife at ffu-0
Chow ^p jH"|, in the province of Ngan-hwei 4£ $fc. and subsequently
deified, on account of the services she rendered during her earthly
career, is worshipped by all the women of the place, who organize
an annual procession in her honour. Shrines are erected to venerate
her, and her tablet occupies a prominent position in the temples
dedicated to the other local deities. This tablet is taken from house to
house, so that she may extend her protection to all cases of childbirth.
2°. Talismans.
Should childbirth be too delayed, recourse is had to Taoist or
Buddist monks, who write out paper talismans and charms. It is
but required to paste these on the woman's body to secure the
desired effect.
Many of these charms enjoy great repute. The common people
are thoroughly convinced, that when applied, the child will see the
light of day, even were it necessary that the mother's womb be rent
and split open.
Sometimes these charms are burnt, and the ashes, mingled
with some beverage, are administered to the patient in order to
hasten the delivery.
Annexed herewith (figures 7 and 7bifa) are models of two paper
charms, reputed infallible for hastening the delivery of women with
child.
Manner of using these charms. — They are burnt, and the ashes
steeped in wine, are given to the woman in labour.
— 6 —
3°. Fortune-tellers.
Women with child frequently consult fortune-tellers, to ascer-
tain the sex oi the child, which they are going to bring forth.
4°. The magic mirror.
Many women, while child-bearing, keep on their persons a
small brass mirror. This is intended as a charm to ward off all
evil influences, which might affect the child they bear in their
womb.
Thus protected, they may, without incurring danger, enter a
house where people wear mourning for a deceased person, and their
child will not thereby be exposed to die.
5°. Drawing lh<> horoscope.
The hour and day in which a child may be born affect
wonderfully, according to common belief, the future destiny of the
new-born babe. All details relating to these, are carefully noted
down, and the fortune-teller bases his conjectures thereon to draw
the horoscope of the child. Fancy figures are also used for simplify-
ing operations. On each of the members, represented in a diagram,
is written one of the twelve horary characters : one on the forehead,
another on the right arm, a third on the abdomen and so forth.
When the child is born, a glance is quickly cast on the part
oi the body coi responding with the hour- mark of his birth, and
l hence the future destiny of the child is augured (1).
6°. Little statues representing childreyi.
In some temples are found little statues representing children,
and people may wish to know why they have been placed there.
Consider a little the women who examine these statues most
carefully : when one of them has found a suitable little figure, she
places a string of cash around its neck; one of the Buddhist monks
attached to the temple, imposes a name on the little figure selected,
and the devotees are henceforth convinced that thev will obtain
See Dt nn\ i. flu Folklore of China. Ch IT. p. S.
"In birth, tlir forehead shows,
A fa'i' that never sorrow knows."
Fig. 7
3f
ft
Amulette pour hater la d^livrance. On brule la feuille, puis
on donne les cendres a boire dans du vin.
Written charm for hastening delivery. The charm is burnt, and the ashes mingled
■with wine are given to the woman in labour.
Autre talisman tres efficace pour activer la dt'livrance.
Another efficacious charm for hastening delivery.
children, who will bear the name applied to the little statue. This
means is frequently employed by those who have no male offspring
in the family.
7° New-born child offered to a God.
In other families, the following means is adopted. A vow is
offered to a particular divinity, and a promise made, that the new-
born child will be offered to him as a Buddhist monk, and that he
will don the monkish garb, in grateful acknowledgment of the
favour received.
In both cases, the child is ransomed, by offering an alms to the
temple, either in money or in kind. The practical side of the
bargain is never neglected !
A child-bearing woman should carefully avoid entering a place
where silk- worms are reared, and this for two reasons. Woman
being of the female or dark principle Yin (%, is bound to affect
them adversely, but the principal reason is that the silk-worms are
smothered in their cocoons, and hence it is to be feared that the
child in the mother's womb will meet with a similar fate.
— 8 —
ARTICLE II.
AFTER BIRTH.
1° The first tubbing. Si-tsao -j£ $|.
On the third day after a child is born, it is placed in a tub,
and carefnllv washed. When the operation is over, a fortune-
teller is summoned. Considering the circumstances of the day and
hour of birth, he forecasts what obstacle or ill-starred barrier, may
beset the pathway of the new-born child. In a word, he casts his
horoscope.
2°. The secen-slar lamp. Ts'ih-sing teng -£ Jfr j^.
If he must meet on his way the barrier of the seven early
diseases, Ts'ih-chao fung-kwan ^ i|Fj ||[ |||, he is destined to die
within seven days. In this untoward circumstance, seven lights,
called the seven-star lamp, Ts'ih-sing teng ^ Jjr j§. must be
prepared without delay, and are to be kept burning beside the child
during seven days and nights.
3°. The peach-wood arrows. Tao-tsien ^ ^.
If the wiles of some evil genius are feared, peach-wood arrows
are very often prepared, and shot by an archer in all directions, or
simply placed over the cradle of the child. Peach-wood, as we shall
see further on, is a powerful antidote against attacks by evil spirits.
Fig. 8
rcher tirant des fleches en bois de pecher, pour mettre en fuite le chien celeste.
Bowman shooting peach-wood arrows to scare away the heavenly dog.
i°. The devil that ravishes children. T'eu-sheng kweijfft £$&.
Frequently the fatal visit of the devil that ravishes children
T'eu-sheng kwei ifa & %., is the object of the greatest anxiety on
the part of parents. This matter shall be treated subsequently, when
dealing" with the superstitions concerning children. While writing
these lines, let me be allowed to adduce as an illustration of the
above superstition, a quite dramatic incident, which occurred in the
town of 1 1 wo Chow ^fl j>\]. The evil spirit T'eu-sheng hwei jfo £
^, appeared at first in the shape of a yellow dog, apparently that
of a neighbour, and threatened to ravish a child, who happened to
be then ailing.
The dog is immediately driven away ; then a dozen watchmen
are summoned, and armed with knives, they keep watch day and
night. The child thus escapes for the first time. A few days
afterwards, a cursed cat peeps in at the door. A second battle
must be now fought. This time, the mother herself takes an active
part in the struggle. Stripping off the child's clothes, she lays him
stark naked on the bed, in order to keep at a respectful distance the
villainous female form assumed by T'eu-sheng hwei f|j ^r j^. This
done, she takes in her hand the full apparel of the child, ascends
to the house-top, and there, in presence of all the neighbours
assembled to contemplate the scene, sets to curse T'eu-sheng-hwei
1wl QiL M,i casting in her face all sorts of pagan abominations, so
that, should she still preserve a remnant o§- shame, she durst not
intrude on the gaze of her child, while he is garbed as Adam in the
terrestrial paradise. \n line, she pours out such a volley of curses,
that the child escapes death, and she is congratulated by all her
friends.
5°. Peach-wooil amulets. Tao-fu Iffc ^".
It still happens that parents are so credulous as to believe in
the quaint stories of bygone times, which pretend that in order
to give solidity to the foundations of a large building, or to the
pillars of a bridge, the demons employ children as propping
stones. Soothsayers employ this tricky practice even at the present
day. Assuming a disconsolate appearance, they inform the parents
2
— 10 —
that their child has been chosen to impart solidity to such or such
a bridge in process of construction. Great anxiety is naturally
experienced. Peach-wood amulets are then made, and hung round
the neck of the child, thus preventing the demons from approaching
him.
6°. Amulet made of dog's hair to protect the child until it
first /cares the house. Keu-mao-fu ^pj ^§ $£. (dog-hair charm).
During the first month after birth, neither the child or its
mother may cross the threshold of the house. The child's head
must be first shaved; then a lock of his hair is mixed with some
dog's hair, rolled up into a ball and sewn on to his clothes, after
which he may be taken out. Henceforth, he can visit neighbours,
who have now nothing to fear from his presence. It would be a
great misfortune for a family, if a new-born child entered their
house before being a month old. Many superstitions would have
then to be resorted to in order to prevent impending evil.
In the Northern parts of China, even the threshing-ground in
front of the house, is dug up to ward off some terrible misfortune.
(1) The mother herself should first of all visit a member of her own
family before entering the house of a stranger.
7°. Wearing a necklace made of copper coins (cash). Ts'ien-
lung U* ||!.
Moreover, it is customary to hang a few coppers on a red
string, and place this on the neck of the god Ch'eng-hwang jjfc |$j|,
in his temple.
Ch'eng-hwang j$ |g| is the god of walled cities and moats, and
holds the rank of celestial madarin. When the necklace has been
worn some time by the god, it is placed on the neck of the child.
and used as a charm to ward off all untoward evils.
8°. Killing a cock. Sha-ki ^ |§.
In some places, it is customary to kill a cock on the third day
alter a child's birth. This sacrifice is offered to the ancestors of the
Foe "Bulletin de la Societe Beige a'etndes coloniales." Sep. Oct. 15th year.
Fig. 9
re-
TTJ>2
'C(L
O
'/
!s
~o;
Tchang-sien song-tse.
Chang the Immortal, who protects children.
— 11 —
family, whose lineal descent is maintained in the person of the
child. It is also to thank the (Goddess Sung-tze Niang-niang y£ ^f-
ijfl^ Jjl, the giver of children. Those who are too poor, may purchase
some meat, and offer it instead of a cock. If the fortune-teller
finds that the new-born child must pass the barrier of old age,
Lao-jen-hwan -%r J\ ||,, there is but one means to rescue him, from
the mortal danger to which he is exposed. An old man, willing to
take mourning, is chosen, and thanks to this device, the child will
escape all danger of death.
9°. Names of animal* or of slave-girls given lo male children.
Ch'uh-ming j§ fa, Ya-t'eu y |jjf .
It often happens that children are given the name of an animal,
as "little pussy", Siao-mao j]\ ^\\\ ; "little dog", Siao-heu ;J-» ^pj :
at other times, they receive the name of a slave-girl, Ya-teu y jpf .
The following is the reason of such appellations. People imagine
that by using a little cunning and trickery, they may succeed in
deceiving the wily elves, who seek to injure male children, but care
little to molest girls or animals. To put them on a false track, the
name of an animal or of a girl is given to the new-born male child,
whom one wishes to protect from their vexatious pursuits. Hearing
him called by these names, they are led to believe that he is indeed
a little animal, or at most a girl, and will thus abandon the idea
of cutting short his life.
10°. Little hell-charms. Ling-lze ^ ^ .
Many consider that the custom of attaching little bells to the
feet of a child, when it begins to walk, has had a superstitious
origin. The purpose was to frighten the malevolent spirits by means
of these bells and thus scare them off.
11°. The vermilion mark.
Red is the colour betokening joy, and is employed on marriage
days and other festal occurrences. It is a lucky omen. Hence
children may be seen bearing a vermilion mark on the tip of the
nose, on the forehead, or on the two cheeks, and this augurs
happiness.
— 12 —
12°. Ill-treating the corpses of little children.
When all the children die in a family, the custom of horribly
mutilating" a body is frequently resorted to. It is cut up with
knives, and sometimes even cruelly lacerated with the teeth, in order
to prevent it from returning-, and molesting those who may be
subsequently born. It is also customary in some places to hang
on the neck of the corpse a magic charm-bag, made of dog's hair
and other ingredients, in order to counteract any charms or witch-
craft it might use in case it returned to life once more.
Fig. 10
Le cadenas, gage d'une vie longue et heureuse.
Padlock assuring a long and happy life.
— 13 ^
ARTICLE III.
SUPERSTITIOUS CUSTOMS CO\(F,R\l\G CHILDREN.
/. Wearing the padlock. Tai-suo J^ ff|.
Many children wear a padlock attached to the neck with a
silver chain. This is intended to enchain them in somewise to
existence, and prevent their being ravished by death from their
affectionate parents. These padlocks may be found in all silver-
smiths" shops, and vary in si/e and shape. Sometimes the Budd-
hist or Taoist priests, Tao-shi p|| ^, tie them on with their
own hands round the necks of children. There are also the
"hundred family padlocks," Peh-kia-suo Hf % f|\ or those pur-
chased bv general subscription. Life and death depend alone on
God's will, and nobody has it in his power to enchain a person to
the present life. Experience proves every day, that death does not
respect those who wear padlocks as preservatives, any more than
those who fail to use them.
— 14 —
//. Wearing the silver collar. Tai-k'ilen ;i£ [f|j.
The collar is a ring made of silver, large enough to be taken
off or resumed at will, without it being necessary to disjoin it. It
is generally composed of a single piece, and the head can easily
pass through the opening. This ring is worn round the neck, almost
in the. same manner as a dog's collar. Would to heaven, some seem
to sav, that my child were as easy to rear and bring up as those
little whelps that are seldom ever sick, enjoy excellent appetite and
die but rarely. Such is in general the idea entertained about the
education of a child. It is merely the bringing up of a little dog.
Others, and 1 have heard the opinion expressed in the Hsia-ho
~J* '(?[ country, North Kiang-su fX jffc> pretend that this silver ring
hems in life, so to say, in the body of the child, and hinders the
soul from being separated from the body, much in the same way as
hoops prevent a barrel from falling to pieces.
Commonly this ring is called Keu-lr ixen ^p] [||J, or a dog-collar.
A person often meets friends of a family, offering one of these silver
rings, as a mark of congratulation, whenever a male child is born
to them.
Parents, fearing to be unable to bring up a child, lend him for
form sake to a neighbour. This latter, through a figure of speech,
becomes his foster father, the child being called his dry son, Knn-
eul-lzo ^ |E "?< and he presents him a collar as an adopted son.
At times, one meets children wearing a silver ring passed
through the nose, as is wont to be done with cattle.
Fig. 11
Jeune enfant portant le collier.
Child wearing the silver collar
Fig. 12
Le pendant d'oreille.
Boy wearing an ear-ring.
— 15 —
///.. Wearing ear-rings. Tai-eul-ch'ui-lze y$ J\. jj|| ^f-.
Boys wear an ear-ring attached to one of their ears during
childhood, and often even in more advanced age. Youths of twenty
summers and more may be found with this appendage, which is
made either of silver of gold.
The idea, generally connected with this practice, is the follow-
ing.
Only little girls wear ear-rings. Should I attach one on the
ear of my boy, the evil spirits, who ever seek to injure male child-
ren, shall be deceived by this device. Seeing an ear-ring, they will
take the individual wearing it for a girl, and thus will not molest
him. Some astrologers also say it is intended to deceive the female
constellations, that preside over the destiny of the family, and put
to death all its male offspring.
Persons give to this ear-ring the form of the weight of a clock,
as this represents according to their idea something heavy and
hard to raise. The evil spirits would thus be unable to snatch from
this world my beloved child, the weight attaching him to the ground
and riveting him to existence. Generally, it is the uncle of the
child who fixes the ear-ring on him.
If it be necessary to take it off, the child's own parents would
never dare lay their hand on it. This fact, I have witnessed several
times.
In order to deceive the evil spirits, who are thought to have
caused the death of a child, the name of a girl is given to the next
male child born.
To this practice must be generally ascribed the term "slave
girl" Ya-l'eu y JM> which is so frequently applied to male children.
In the district of Suh-tsien ^ j§, and the departments of P'i
Chow 2|$ 4>|>|, and Ilni Chow $fc ')]] (North Kiangsui, one finds
frequently little boys called by their pet name, Lih-k'eu j£ }n , or
Lik-shwan j£ f-^. These expressions denote that they have been
buckled, linked, solidly pinned together, after enduring great
trouble to secure them.
— 16 —
It is especially in the two following cases that these names are
given : when parents have been long childless, or when the eldest
children of a family have died. In almost all such cases, new-born
male children receive an ear-ring, as if they were girls.
Fig. 13
L'enfilee de sapeques.
Child wearing a string of cash suspended from the neck.
— 17 —
IV. Wearing a string of cash. Tai-ts'ien §^ |^.
This practice, it may be said, is universal. In some places,
all children have one or several copper-coins (cash), hung on a red
string and worn round the neck.
Ancient coins of the T'ang J^;, or Sung 5jc dynasty are prefer-
red. Among those of the late Manchu or T'sing -^ dynasty, cash
dating from the reign of K'ang-hsi j^ JSB, or Kia-k'ing fjL J|, are
also much prized.
This string of cash (comprising sometimes eight or ten coins' is
for the child a kind of talisman portending happiness, a prosperous
future, riches and well-being. It supplies the absence of the padlock,
and is an easier and less expensive practice.
*v\ -v «/^v*i^/V wvw\/w\
— 18 —
V. Wearing the eight diagrams. Tai-p&h-kwa ^ A ^ •
Other children wear in a like manner, attached to a cord and
hanging' from the neck, a rather large plate made of copper, silver
or mother-of-pearl. On one side are inscribed the eight diagrams
of Fuh-hsi ££ .||, commonly called "Puh-kwa A i[ \ while the
obverse of this large breast-plate or medal, bears the Shih-eul-shuh
t~ ZL Mi ol twelve animals representing the cycle of sixty years.
Sometimes these plates have the shape of a real medal. They bear
inscriptions resembling preservative talismans, and are accompanied
by pompons sentences assuring nntold prosperity in the future.
Fig. 14
L'amulette des huit trigrammes.
Charm representing the eight diagrayns.
Fig. 15
Enfant portant la couronne de cheveux.
Child with crown of hair shaven off.
— 19 —
VI. Wearing the crown of hair. Liu-ku |g ffi.
This practice consists in shaving' the summit of the head, and
leaving but a ringlet of hair over the forehead. On no account
must this crown be shaved till a child has attained the age of
sixteen, otherwise he will be exposed to an untimely death. The
following explains this apprehension. According to the fanciful
stories told by the Taoist priests "Tao.-shV jg {^, before a child
reaches the age of manhood, he must pass through certain barriers
occurring along the roadway of youth, and unless he bears this
distinctive mark, the road of life is barred against him and he meets
with death .
Fortune-tellers, after having examined the eight horary charac-
ters, which determine the exact time of a child's birth, calculate the
year and month, at which during the course of his life, he will
reach a particular barrier, then finally at what age he will attain
the last one. When all the barriers are passed, the crown of hair
may be shaved, as there is no further danger to be feared.
Note. — It seems that in some places this practice of shaving
the head is the general fashion, independently of any superstitious
notion, which may hare given rise tn it. In such a case, I consi<ier
that christian j>arents should avoid by all weans, not only to con-
sult the fortune teller, hut should likewise banish any belief what-
soever in these pretended passages through barriers, otherwise the.]/
commit a real superstitious act, by allowing this crown of hair to
be worn by their children.
These barriers are thirty in number; their names will be found
in one of the subsequent chapters.
— ;=|. * i=
— 20 —
VII. Wearing the habit of a bonze.
Chang hwo-shang i-shang If ^D foj ^ ^.
It must be generally admitted that parents who make their
children wear the habit of a bonze, do so a little through custom,
and without having any settled idea on the matter. Jt is, however,
difficult to admit that there is not at least some hankering after the
protection of the gods, Pu-sahs ^ |§, when one makes a child wear
the habit of their special ministers, the bonzes.
Others practise this superstition after full and mature consider-
ation, or even after having explicitly vowed to do so. If the god
or Pu-sah ^ f|f, grants me a child, I promise that he shall wear
the habit of a bonze till he reaches such an age.
Fig. 16
Forme de l'habit de bonze.
Habit of Buddhist monk worn by children.
Fig. 17
Specimen cTun habit des cent families.
Variegated dress known as that of the "hundred families'".
— 21 —
Wearing! the dress cf the hundred families.
Peh-kia-i -g % £.
Connected with what has been just stated on wearing the habit
of a bonze, is the custom of begging from door to door a piece of
cloth, and with the various and different pieces making a dress for a
child, upon whom one wishes to call down the blessing of the
gods. This child is cherished by all, every one considers him as
their own, and makes him a present of a dress, how then may
people not hope, that he will be preserved through the special
protection of the gods or Pu-sahs ^ pj$? Such is the reason which
has given rise to this curious custom.
To the same superstition may be attached the one called "the
string of the hundred families", Peh-hia-sien "g" ^ $|. A person
goes round begging a bit of thread from door to door. With these
various coloured threads, a kind of tassel is made, and hung on to
the dress of the child. The purpose is the same as in the preced-
ing case.
— 22 —
VIII. Shao-p'o-hai 'Js| $£ 3§j. Burning old shoes.
Kwa yu-vjang ^[. ^ $£). Suspending the fishing-net.
It is nowadays admitted among the common people, that evil
spirits, generally known as "T'eu-sheng-hwei" fj|j ^ j^f, spirits
that ravish children), endeavour during the first hundred days alter
the birth of a child, to spirit away its soul. These "T'eu-sheng-
ftwei" YfftT ^ Mi are none other than the souls of young girls who
have died unmarried.
They are not considered as really belonging to the human race,
and cannot be reborn as men, in the world beyond the grave. It is
for this reason that they wander here below, in quest of the soul of
a male child, which they would lain ravish, in order that through
this means they may be reborn as men in the womb of a mother.
When the hundred days are elapsed, they have no further
power over the life of a child. Should a child die before the hund-
red days are over, a person ascends to the house-top, and there
curses the "ravishers of children", and orders them to restore the
soul they have spirited away. To obviate any possible attack on
their part, the following devices are resorted to :
1°. All old shoes available are gathered, and every day during
one hundred days, a bit of one of these shoes is burnt beside the
cradle of the child, in order that the offensive smell, which fills the
room, may put to flight the ravishers.
2°. A large fishing-net, Wang |pf, is taken and disposed in the
form of bed-curtains, around the cot of the child. These fishing-
nets, as everybody knows, are smeared with hog's blood, to give
them more resistance and make them last longer. It is thus
imagined, that the spirits who ravish children, T'eu-sheng-kKPi f|f
# ^, seeing traces of blood or the net, will be frightened and
take to flight, without venturing to injure the child. Moreover,
each of the meshes of the net gives the illusion of an eye, and
seeing so many eyes riveted on them, the spirits take to flight.
-£=
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— 23 —
3°. A sieve, Shai-tze f$j -Tf*-, is likewise employed for the same
purpose, as each of the holes seems to be an eye.
IX. Chi siao-hai-ping-chi fu j-fe /]^ & fft 3l ^F-
Amulets to Kurd off diseases from children.
.Numerous are the superstitious practices imagined to cure sick
children. Taoist and Buddhist monks find here an inexhaustible
source of profit, and consequently have invented all kinds of health-
giving devices, through invoking a particular divinity, eluding every
unlucky star, and practising such and such a ceremony (See in the
Vth and XVIth volumes of superstitions practised in China, various
prayer-formulae, several lucky and unlucky stars, and numerous
paper-charms composed for this purpose). (1).
X. l|£ $$, Han-Lsin. Dry (nominal) adoption.
When fear is entertained that a child may die, he is adopted
into another family, and takes its name. Such adoption is purely
nominal. It is not guaranteed by a contract and gives no right to
an inheritance. The custom is based on the superstitious notion,
that an unlucky lot has befallen the family, and that the only means
of preserving a child, is to pass him over fictitiously to a more
fortunate household.
On the day that the dry adoption is concluded, the natural
father, in order to wish long life to his child, offers to the adopting
father a hundred small bread-loaves (provision for a hundred years),
the latter making a present to the child of a basket to hold the loaves.
The child'.s milk-name is also changed. A blue string is then placed
round his neck, appended to which is a number of cash (copper
coins) equal to the years he has lived, care being taken to add a
fresh coin every year, till he attains the age of fifteen, when it is
deemed that he has passed the thirty dangerous barriers, which
beset the path of all youngsters.
(1) See Zikawei fe gtfll albums V, VII.
— 24 —
XL. Pien-tze-shtmg kwa hung-pu g$ =f- _t #|< #Hfj .
Piece of red cloth hung on to the extremity of the queue.
When a child has had once the small-pox, a piece of red cloth
is attached to the extremity of the queue. This is somewhat of a
sign to remind Sien-ku lao-t'ai f[lj jfc ~j£ ~fc the old fairy goddess
not to send him again the same disease.
XII. Tao-huh-so ^ ^ |ij|\ Thr peach^stone padlock.
A kind of padlock is made by cutting the kernels of the flat-
peach P'an-lao ijlff f)[. The mother fixes one of these padlocks on
each of the child's feet, and employs for tying them on, the string
that binds the queue. The peach, as is well known, is the fruit
that confers immortality (1), being served up to the gods at the
Hat-peach festival, P'an-tao hwei $§ $fc ||\ in the palace of the
goddess Wang-mu Niang-niang 3E "^ M M (-)• The common
people believe that peach-stone padlocks confer longevity, bind
children to life, and have also a mysterious power for warding off
evil influences.
(1) See Mayers Chinese Reader's Manual "Tao" $fc (the peach) p. "213.
(2) Sec Mayers, ibid. "Si Wang-mu" @f Zt # itiie Western Royal Mother) p. 178.
Fig. 19
Porte-bonheur. Puissiez-vous avoir cinq garcons vigoureux,.
riches, montant de dignites en dignitds !
Lucky charm. May you have five male children, healthy.
rich and attaining to the highest honours!
Fig. 19
bii
Allusion aux cents enfants de Wen-wang. Ayez cent cnfants, et
que Tun d'eux soit regu premier acad^micien !
Allusion to the numerous children of Wen Wang. J\Iay you have many
children and may one of them be a first tripos!
— 25 —
XIII. Chw'ang j^. The child's cut.
The child's cot, if made of special wood, may also contribute
to the future happiness of the babe that will be laid therein. The
wood most sought after, is that of the peach-tree, 'T'ao-s/iu" \j[
$$, which confers longevity; also that of the jujube-tree "T.sao-.s/iu"
Ht Wfi as the word "Tsao" Jf| (jujube) is similar in sound to
"T.sao" Jp., which means early. This is a presage that the child
will early attain to official dignity. A third kind of wood employed
for children's cots is that of the pine, Sung-sltu ^ j$j$, as this tree
is ever green, and it is customary to sketch the God of Longevity
beside a pine-tree, hence it is a pledge of long life. A cot, made
of the wood of any of the above trees, combines every chance of a
glorious future.
rm ~ f
— 26 —
ARTICLE IV.
CROSSING THE BARRIERS.
M. IS Kwo-kwan.
Every child is destined to pass, in the early stages of its
existence, through a series of barriers, which occur either monthly
or annually along the path of life. It is only when the last one
has been passed, at the age of sixteen, that all danger is over.
We have already seen (p. 19), how the crown of hair, fashioned
on the head of children, is a passport or permit, thanks to which a
child succeeds in escaping every annoyance on the part of barrier-
spirits, who molest youthful wayfarers on the road of life.
We append herewith the names of the thirty barriers to be
passed, without entering into details as to the precautions which
are to be taken, on such or such a day, month or year, when one
may have to cross each of those difficult passages.
Should any desire to get more ample information on the matter,
they can consult the work entitled "Wan-pao-ls'ilen-shu "||J j|f ^
i§- '. Herein are found the whole collection of pictures illustrating
the thirty barriers, and indicating the means, all fancifully invented.
for passing through them free of toll.
— Barrier of the four seasons, guarded by a maleficent
demon.
— Barrier of the four pillars.
— Barrier of the demon Niu-wang ^ 3l (the Cow-
king).
4th ,, — Barrier styled the devil's gate, guarded by a mal-
eficent demon.
5th ,, — The Barrier where life is exposed.
6th ,, — Barrier of insurmountable difficulty.
,, - Barrier of the golden hen falling into a well.
8th ,, — Barrier of the private parts.
|st
Barr
ier
2nd
5 7
3rd
i *
— 27
9th Barrier
1 0th
\ \ th
1 9;h
1 — > )
13th ,,
1 /.th
15th ,,
16"* ,,
1 7 tb
IN1'
] qth
20th
9 1 St
opnd
23«* ,,
24th
05th
26th
27th
28th ,,
29th
30*h ,,
i all
2 m fen
3 ^11
5
6
#^
Barrier of the hundred days (1).
Barrier of the broken bridge.
Barrier of the nimble foot (kicks being here admin-
istered, one must be licet of foot so as to escape
Barrier of the five genii. ^them).
Barrier of the golden padlock.
Barrier of the iron snake.
Barrier of the bathing tub.
Barrier of the white tiger.
Barrier of the Buddhist monks
Barrier of the heavenly dog.
Barrier exciting heaven's pity.
Barrier of the luck and key (here the dcor must be
unlocked).
Barrier where the bowels are sundered.
Barrier where the head is broken.
Barrier of the thousand days.
Barrier of nocturnal weeping.
Barrier of the burning broth.
Barrier where children are buried.
Barrier where life is shortened.
Barrier of the general's -dagger.
Barrier of deep-running waters.
Barrier of fire and water.
17 fa ft H
is * % m
19 n ^ w
20 mmmm
21
7 & ii $ #
s t iff m
to mmm
ii in
12 3l j& m
13 && ffl
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16 e ^ m
n
22 fl" Ji
23 =f B
24 ^ Pf
25 # * II
26 a ^ n
28 jft!g£l]|lg
29 ^ 7K Ii
30 7k 'X m
(1) The demon that ravishes children "T'eu-sheng-kwei" (m ^ J&, has no further
power over a child after he has passed this barrier; his power expires when the hundred
days are over.
See above "Superstitions concerning children" § VIII p. '22.
— 28
-z^^
CHAPTER II.
BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE.
tr
Hiiiiii' Shi
ARTICLE I.
BETROTHAL (1).
In all marriages of Chinese, match-makers or Mei-jen ^ A.
plav a prominent part. When they have toured from the family of
the bridegroom's father to that of the bride, and enjoyed many a
heartv meal, meanwhile making overtures about the future marriage,
and when both sides have agreed on the amount of purchase-money,
which the bridegroom will pay to secure the bride, then talking
ends and a step is made to sign the written contract.
(1) The few superstitions customs on betrothal and marriage which we describe in
this chapter, have several points in common with those mentioned by D1 Weiger in his
work entitled "Rudiments". We have added thereto the local observances of Nganhwei
and Kiangsu, omitting those which have not gained currency in these two provinces.
— 30 —
1°. First document. Ts'ao-pali-tze j|l A ^p (rough draft of
the eight characters), elsewhere styled Hoh-s\$a.n-t'ieh fe Jf! i^f,
(card making the proposal), or also Sheng-heng £ J|f (comparing
horoscopes). The bridegroom writes on this card the two cyclic
characters, indicating the year of his birth, the two indicating the
month, the two indicating the day, and the two marking the hour,
making thus a total of eight characters :
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8.
Hence comes the name "draft of the eight characters". Upon receipt
of this card, the bridegroom's family reciprocates a similar one on
the age of the young lady. This card is exchanged, in order to enable
the fortune-tellers, to ascertain whether the destiny of the bridegroom
corresponds with that of the bride. These professional jugglers
compare the characters with the five elements: metal, wood, water,
fire and earth. They also compare the two cyclic animals, that have
presided over the birth of the youthful couple, in order to ascertain
whether they will abide together in harmony. According to the
set rules of the art, they will draw therefrom happy or unhappy
omens of the intended marriage. These rules are based on the
liking or disliking of the cyclic animals for each other: thus the
tiger is the sworn enemy of the serpent ; also on the juxtaposition
to or incompatibility of such an element with another, as for in-
stance fire and water. When this operation is over, the choice of a
lucky day is fixed upon, help being here afforded by the Imperial
calendar, commonly called "Hwang-lih-t'eu" Jl jg Jjjf, which
marks carefully the black (unlucky) and yellow (lucky) days. As
may be understood, this first exchange of documents on age, is a
test to ascertain whether the intended marriage may be brought to
a happy issue, or whether on the other hand there are fundamental
obstacles based on the superstitious rules of fortune-telling. In case
the marriage is deemed possible, another document is exchanged.
2°. Second document. Ting-ts'in-t'ieh % H [j]^ (card fixing
the marriage day).
This piece fixes the day on which the marriage will take place ;
it is sent by the bridegroom to the family of the bride. It informs
— 31 —
them that he has had the matter seriously examined bv those skilled
in the art, and that according to the cyclic characters on the age of
the respective parties, nothing has been found which would seem
opposed to the conclusion of the engagement. Moreover, those
consulted, have fixed the exchange of the contract to take place on
such a day of the month. This is what I beg to announce to you.
3°. Third document. Chw'an-heng-t'ieh fiji J^ tyfo (exchanging
horoscopes).
This is the real contract, attesting that an engagement has
taken place. It is also called "Hsia-shu" HF ^jf" (counterpart of the
contract), and the transaction is commonly rendered by the expres-
sion "Kwo-li" ^ jjj§} (sending of presents). This contract is drawn
up in double. It is the bridegroom, who sends first his contract to
the bride, or rather to her parents. An earnest, fixed by the
match-makers, accompanies it. This consists in a certain sum of
money, handed over to the family of the bride, also in a parapher-
nalia of hair-pins, ear-rings, rings, bracelets, and jewels according to
the standing of the parties. The bride's family, on its side,
prepares a betrothal contract, drawn up almost on the same terms
as that of the bridegroom, and forwards it to his family, in reply to
the one received from them. The betrothal is thus legally conclud-
ed, and terminates under the most favourable auspices. On the
occasion of the presents sent, there are often some customs which
are tainted more or less with superstition.
— 32
Hi Ki
The
cock. The ma
% T'v-
The
hare. ,,
titnu
The
tiger. ,,
If Chu
The
hog. >)
|| Lung
The
dragon. ,,
41 Niu
The
ox.
M s/ik
The
rat. ,,
jfH //eu
The
monkey.
ifefe S/ie/i
The
serpent. ,,
^ K'iXen
The
dog. ,,
^ F;n/;/
The
sheep. ,,
Jl Ma
The
horse. ,,
ARTICLE II.
Till. MARRIAGE.
Fixing its date.
It is generally the girl's family that fixes the month in which
the marriage is to take place, while that of the bridegroom decides
as to the day. Hence the two following pieces are exchanged :
A). Piece fixing the month for the marriage. — The choice of
the month depends on the cyclic animal that has presided over the
birth of the girl. The following are the rules laid down.
Should the damsel be born in the year of
the seventh month.
[place in idem.
the second
the third
the fourth
the fifth
the sixth
the eighth
the ninth
the tenth
the eleventh
the twelfth
B). Piece fixing the day of tlie month. — The girl having fixed
the month, the bridegroom now resumes his rights, and fixes the
precise day, in which the marriage will take place. This piece is
called •'Kia-ts'il-t'ieh" $| 5g> tyfo, or commonly "Hsia-ts'iX-t'ieh" ~F
51 tyfa, the marriage contract, or the marriage card.
Some time after having forwarded this missive, the bridegroom
sends his presents, to urge the giving away of the bride. These
presents are enclosed in a red box, as a warning to be ready, and
prepare all things for the day fixed by the fortune-tellers.
The bride's family sends the marriage outfit of their daughter:
household furniture and utensils, garments and auspicious presents,
— 33 —
varying- according to the place. These comprise leaves of immortals,
Wan-nien-ts'ing H £f ^f, for wishing long life; sprigs of fragrant
artemisia, to expel all evil influences; peony flowers Meu-tan-hwa !\'j:
j^ ;f£, portending riches; pomegranates Shih-liu ^ $fi, auguring
numerous progeny. These fruits contain a large number of kernels
or stones, called "7';e" -^ in Chinese; now, this character Tze ^f-
(kernel), is identical in sound with ize ^ , meaning children. Jujubes
are also offered, Tsau-tze Jj| ^f- (jujube) being pronounced in the
same manner as Tsao Ize JfL ^ , have) children quickly! Chestnuts,
Lih-tze |pi J-, form another word similar in sound with the two
characters Lih tze jfc ^ , meaning to beget children ; bran, Fu-t:e
|r£ ^f, is a term which has as homonym Fu Ize g* ^ , a rich son.
A present always received with pleasure on this occasion is
that of the seven kinds of grain "Ts'ih-tze-li" -£ -^ |^.
The zest of these expressions results from the pun on the
words. The character Tze -^ , kernel, grain, being identical in
sound with the character Tze -^, which means offspring.
The following are some of the fruits which enter into the
make-up of these presents.
The water-lily, the sun-flower, the seeds of the pumpkin, the
gourd and the water-melon, the pomegranate, the chestnut, the
pear and the peach.
The first contain a large amount of seeds, and this augurs a
numerous progeny.
The chestnut and the pear, Lih-tze ^ ^f- and Li-tze ^ ^ ,
closely resemble Lih-tze jyf ^ , to beget children.
The peach is the fruit that confers immortality. All these
terms are as many portents of future happiness.
— 34 —
ARTICLE III.
DEPARTURE OF THE BRIDE.
Before entering his sedan-chair to meet the bride, the young
man makes his obeisance before the tablets of Heaven and Earth,
and those of his ancestors ; he afterwards performs a similar series
of bowing before his parents, and all the neighbouring families.
Care has been taken to place a child in his sedan, thereby wishing
him to have one soon himself.
The customary ceremonies on the arrival of the bridegroom in
the family of his father-in-law being over, and dinner taken, a pair
of chopsticks is tendered to him, and also two wine-cups, wrapped
up in red paper. He is thus deemed to bear away the happiness
and abundance of the family. Care has been taken to turn the
front of the sedan-chairs, which bear the bride and bridegroom, in
the direction wherein is found the God of Joy that day. The Imper-
ial calendar and other superstitions guide-books indicate this
direction.
Sometimes, the bride is packed up like a bundle, in a large
wooden chest, and her feet are padlocked. Porters bear this box to
the sedan-chair, on the top of which is represented a unicorn,
holding a male child.
At the reai" of the bride's sedan, are suspended a sieve, Stial-
tze |^j ^f, and a metallic mirror, King ^, to render favourable
every evil influence.
Behind the sedan, an Imperial almanac, / .ili-l'eu |§| |[jf, is also
placed, as a portent of good ; lastly, the bride herself carries a
small mirror attached to her button-hole, and does not part with it
till she is seated on the nuptial bed. The reader can see, on the
adjoining page, a photo- engraving representing one of these mirrors.
It was purchased at Hai Chow $$ Jfl, North Kiangsu ?X |£,
and is about eight inches in diameter. The front side is polished
and shining, like an ordinary looking-glass; on the back, are two
embossed circles and four characters, Wu-tze teng h'o 3L i^ ^ #,
Fig. 20
Miroir en cuivre.
Brass miror.
— 35 —
Which mean, may your five children attain the highest literary
degrees !
In the middle, is a ring, soldered on to the metal plate, and bv
means of which it may be attached with a cord or a ribbon. Young
brides, in North Kiangsu yX jjjfc fix it on the abdomen, the day when
they proceed in a sedan-chair to the house of the bridegroom, and
likewise, when they return in a sedan to the family of their parents,
a short time after the marriage ceremony.
The female attendants, selected to form an escort of honour to
the bride, on the way from her paternal home to that of the bride-
groom, must be born under the auspices of a cyclic animal, living
in peace with the animal that presided over the birthday of the
bridegroom. Were these animals at enmity with each other, the
peace and prosperity of the future household would be endangered.
The following table exhibits the cyclic animals, which are
mutually at variance with each other.
The horse is the enemy of the ox,
The sheep ,, ,, rat,
The cock ,, ,, do
& '
The tiger ,, ,, serpent.
The hare ,, ,, dragon,
The hog ,, ,, monkey.
According to the above rules, the companions of the bride are
chosen.
— 36 —
ARTICLE IV.
THE BRIDE ENTERS THE HOUSE
01 THE BRIDEGROOM.
When the marriage procession reaches the bridegroom's house,
the encaged bride is taken out from the red sedan, and conducted to
the large reception-hall. (It happens more frequently that the bride
sits simply in the sedan). While this operation is being performed,
a man whose cyclic animal of birth can live in peace with those of
the new couple, tires off a string of crackers before the doorway.
When the bride leaves her cage, she is protected by means of a
sieve, which shields her, it is thought, from evil spirits (I). Some
pretend that only good influences penetrate through the holes of the
sieve; others explain the matter differently. The numerous holes of
the sieve, according to them, resemble so many eyes gazing stead-
fastlv on the evil spirits, that should they wish to injure the
youthful spouse, they are struck with terror at this sight, and
take to flight. Frequently, lucky influences are flashed on the
young lady, by employing a mirror, which throws rays of light on
to her person. Elsewhere, she carries simply on her person a brass
mirror, designed to ward off every evil influence, as has been stated
previously (p. 34). In some places, as at II wo Chow ^p j>\], and
Ha.n-sha.ri listen ^ [Jj JH (in the province of Nganhwei $£ Jjjjfc), on
the arrival of the bride, the ceremony of evaporating vinegar,
"Hsiang-t'an" ^ff ^, is practised. The vinegar, being brought
into contact with red-hot iron, rushes up in a column from the
vase, and this indicates the rapid increase of fortune which awaits
the new couple.
The bride, on coming out from the sedan, must lay her foot on
a saddle. Saddle, in Chinese, is expressed by the character Ngan
]$£, which is pronounced Ngan j|£, exactly similar in sound to Ngan
-^, meaning peace or tranquillity.
For the above operation, the bride has sometimes to borrow one
of the shoes of the bridegroom.
(1) Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, Vol. I. p. 83, finds this custom also existing
in Southern China. Here, the sieve "is put on the top of the sedan, over its door".
Fig. 21
Introduction de la fiancee dans la maison du mari. Le Soulier et la selle.
Conducting the bride to the bridegroom's house. The slipper and the saddle.
— 37 —
Frequently also, beneath the saddle, is placed the pack-saddle ol
a beast of burden, called in Chinese Shao-tai Jffi ^, a kind of wallet,
this expression corresponding in sound with another Shao-lai }f|" fP\
meaning to be blessed with offspring and have plenty children.
Previous to the arrival of the new couple for the celebration of
the marriage ceremony, it is customary in places of North Kiang-su
tt j$ti to prepare a bushel (peck), upon which are laid a balance
and a string of small copper coins (cash). The bushel or peck,
which is employed in measuring
grain, is the symbol of abundance;
the balance, employed in commer-
cial transactions, is a pledge of
success in business; finally, the
copper cash, which constitute the
monetary basis of China, vividly
represent fortune, so eagerly sought
after by all. This custom implies
both a wish of happiness and
riches for the newly married pair,
and is also a kind of talisman
tending to produce the desired good
effects. To neglect it in the cere-
mony, would, doubtless, injure the
future of the young couple.
The bride is conducted to the
table or altar, upon which stands
the tablet of Heaven and Earth (1);
candles burn and incense is lighted
in the censer.
Tablet of Heaven and Earth.
JflS^r
(1) The inscription on this tablet reads as follows: Spiritual seat of the true Lord
of Heaven and Earth, (ruling over) the three regions, the ten points of direction, and
all living creatures (souls).
The three regions of existence are, according to the Taoists, heaven, earth, and the
waters; according to the Buddhists, the regions of earthly longings, of form and formless-
ness (this latter place is the ante chamber to Nirvana).
The ten directions are the four cardinal points, together with the four intermediate
ones, to which are added ''above and below" (Note of English translator),
— 38 —
The bridegroom takes his place beside the bride, then both
bow profoundly kneel) before the tablet; the same ceremony is
repeated before the ancestral tablet, and also before the God of the
kitchen. Tsao-kun jj| Jj. after which they mutually salute each other,
and the marriage ceremony is accomplished 1 .
The new couple are next conducted to the nuptial chamber,
where both sit on the bed. the bride meanwhile holding; her eyes
downcast.
Now commences an abominable ceremony known by the name
of Nao-sin-fariQ pffj] 0f Jf , that is to say ribaldry, in all the coarse-
ness conveyed by this word. During three days and nights, all
may come in to see the bride, and pour out in her presence the
most impertinent remarks 2 . It is admitted that a grey-headed
old man may use on this occasion the language of the most dissolute
youth. Such are the horrors of pagranism. from which it would
seem that even the very notion of modesty has been banished.
(1) See Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese, Vol I. p. 85, the same ceremony as
practised in South China. Here both drink some wine from the same goblet, a cock
made of sugar is eaten, and the wedding dinner is partaken of.
Doolittle remarks that this is a very tryi s deal for the bride, as she may not
-•■ to be seen, nor absent herself from tl _ f the public. Ibid. p. 90.
CO
CO
— 39 —
In several places, it is customary for the newly married couple,
to visit the ancestral hall or Tz'e-t'ang fU j£ of the family, and
there worship before the tablets of the ancestors. I have seen this
ceremony performed at T'ai-p'in, fa -fa ^ j£f, in Nganhwei ^ M
province. In all cases, the bride must offer meats before the tablet
of her father-in-law and mother-in-law, if they happen to be
deceased. This is a strict duty for a married woman. (1).
Should the bride die before accomplishing this ceremony, Con-
fucius lays down the principle that the coffin should not be taken to
the hall of the eldest ancestor, nor the tablet placed beside that of
her venerable mother-in-law. Her husband must not walk in the
funeral procession) leaning on a stick, nor wear straw-sandals, nor
weep for her in a secluded chamber.
The corpse of the deceased must be taken back to her family,
and interred amidst its members, as she has not fulfilled her duties
of a daughter-in-law ,2).
C I Li-ki H |E or Look of Rites, Cb. V. Tseng tze-wen H" =f- $\ - )] |ffj (ft) J£ ffi]
* m m m b bb ^ Vi m mmt.m m.
r2i See Li-ki jj§ |E or JJook of ltites, Ch. V. Tseng-tze-weii "f^ -jr f^i wherein are rec-
orded the proper words of Confucius < stablishing these obs< rvances.
— 40
CHAPTER III.
DEATH AND BURIAL,
0
Peh Shi
ARTICLE I.
BEFORE DEATH.
As soon as the first symptoms of approaching death become
apparent, should the dying person be a child, the ceremony of
"summoning back the soul" (See chapter on this subject) is always
practised. Frequently also the soul of persons of more advanced years
is called back. I have seen it practised in regard to a young married
man, aged twenty-four years, and already the head of a family.
When the above rite has been unsuccessfully accomplished,
many have recourse to a supreme and last device, namely to bring
the temple-god or Pu-sah 3£ m, into the abode of the dying
person. This ceremony is called T'ai Pu-sah ffi 5£ ^j|. fetching
the Pu-sah |£ ^ or god.
— 42 —
People proceed to one of the local temples, and there look for
the statue of some famous Cf Pu-sah" ^£ ||?. It is placed on a kind
of portable altar-chair attached to two poles ; four men bear it on
their shoulders, while two others precede, beating gongs with all
their might, to warn that the god is passing by and pay him due
honour. It is needless to say that fire-crackers are plentifully sent
off. When the procession reaches the door of the dying man's
house, the god is received with full honours, and begged to gracious-
ly cure the sick person, or at least to indicate an efficacious
remedy in the case. The god is next taken to an apothecary's shop,
so that he may there select a remedy suited to the requirements of
the present ailment. One or two Taoist priests, Tao-shi jf| J^,
attend on each side of the Pu-sah |£ $|?, as he rests on the shoulders
of the bearers. The apothecary turns round, and points out with
the finger one of the drawers containing his drugs. Should the Pu-
sah ^ j|| remain still, it is a sign that the remedy is of no avail ;
should he advance or withdraw a little, or rather if his bearers help
him to proceed backwards or forwards, precisely at the moment when
the apothecary points out a remedy, this is the good one, and that
which must be obtained at any cost. Needless to add that the
apothecary speculates much on popular credulity to vend at a high
price an ordinary remedy.
The outfit of the dead.
In case of serious illness, and when the last moment draws
near, the outfit for the dead is prepared in all haste. This outfit
comprises the following articles :
A). In the case of a man — Boots and a ceremonial head-dress,
minus its red tassels (these two articles are generally made of paper);
the sole of the boots must be soft and flexible, hard-soled foot-wear
being unsuited for the dead ; a long gown and an overcoat or Wai-
t'ao ^ 3|S. These latter must not be furnished with brass buttons,
as they would be over weight}', and the deceased could not take
them over to the nether world. Such are the requirements in regard
to outer garments.
— 43 —
The under- wear, trousers and waistcoat, must be padded, even
in the summer season.
B). In the case of a woman. —A long gown, over-mantle and
veil, together with the under-wear above mentioned.
All these garments must be new as much as possible ; they
must not be fur-lined or have any skins of animals, and consequently
Qannel clothes must be likewise strictly discarded, lest the deceased
might be reborn into the body of an animal.
Generally, among the lower class of people, the whole under-
wear is made of white cotton-cloth.
The other garments are coloured, according to the taste of each
one. Red and yellow are, however, two colours reserved for scholars
and officials. Silk and satin may be generally used.
The two fastenings, called Kioh-tai-lze Jjjfl ^ -=p, which bind
the lower extremity of the trousers at the ankle, and the girdle
properly speaking, Tai-tze ^ ^, are carefully omitted, a simple
string being used instead to bind the waist.
The reason of this is the following: the girdle, Tai-tze ^ ^-,
is similarly pronounced in Chinese as T'ai-tze \% ^ , to bear away
or carry off children.
Hence, as it is feared above all, that the deceased might take a
fancy to carry away his children with him to the other world, he
is denied the use of a girdle.
This custom is based, as may be seen, upon mere punning on
the words. For the same reason, it is avoided putting the buttons
in the button-holes, K'eu-tze |p ^ , as this expression sounds like
K'eu-tze ^p ^, "to kidnap children".
The dying man also must in nowise be allowed to expire on
the family bed, as this would be subsequently haunted. In the
Northern parts of China, where the family bed is an adobe construc-
tion or K'ang jfc, it is said that if a person dies thereon, he will
have to transport dry clay-bricks in the nether world.
— 44 —
Great care is therefore taken to prepare another hed, employing
sometimes a simple door placed on two trestles, and on which the
dying man is laid. Howsoever weak he may be, he must be trans-
ported on this rough couch, even were it to cause his death. Let
him therefore die, but it will be in accordance with the laid-down
rules !
Those who assist a dying person are careful to take away all
the bed-curtains, as these, it is thought, resemble a fishing-net,
and if the dying person departs from this world surrounded by such
meshes, he will be changed into a fish in the other world.
A still more cruel custom consists in removing the pillow from
under the dying person's head, in order that the feet may not be
perceived. Should he happen to gaze on his feet when dying, great
misfortunes would befall his children. This absurd custom, doubt-
less, hastens death in manv cases.
— 45 —
ARTICLE II.
AFTER DEATH.
As soon as the dying person has given up the ghost, care is
immediately taken to consult the Imperial almanac, Hwa.ng-lih-treu
ill M JPh to observe whether the day is lucky or unlucky; in case
it happens to be unlucky, a sieve or a mirror is suspended over the
door-way.
The sieve allows but good influences to pass through it, while
the mirror has the power of changing evil into real happiness.
This preliminary operation over, it is proceeded to lay out the
dead person. First he is washed, then the black strings binding
the extremity of his queue are removed, and blue ones put on. A
person takes cotton-wool or a towel and wipes his face therewith.
He is afterwards dressed out in his mortuarv robes, which we have
previously described (p. 42).
Paper hangings are suspended over the door-way, to announce
that a person is dead in the family. These hangings vary in form
according to places; in some localities, they are dispensed with,
and it is deemed sufficient to affix a few written characters on the
outer walls of the house.
These preparations being carried out, as soon as night sets in,
the members of the family light up lanterns, and weeping, proceed
to inform the local tutelary deity T'u-ti Lao-yeh j^ i|j} ^ ^-, that
a member of the family has departed from this world. They beg
him to show kindness towards him, stating that during his mortal
career he was weak and infirm, and toiled hard along the pathway
of life. After a display of fire-crackers and the offering of incense,
each one goes home. The second day, all return, and bearing
lanterns, proceed to the temple of the local deity T'u-ti Lao-yeh j^
Ml $t M> this time for the purpose of bringing back the soul of the
deceased, which was deemed to be hospitably received in the temple.
But where is it to be found? In order to discover its whereabouts,
a copper coin (cash) is rubbed against the wall of the temple, and
where it adheres (whether through mere chance, or because it has
— 46 —
encountered a spider's web), there dwells the soul of the departed,
which is forthwith brought back.
When the house is reached, victuals to be used on the way, are
put in a kind of paper wallet, and placed on a paper sedan-chair or
a waggon, according to the locality. This being accomplished, the
departed soul is requested to take its seat on the paper waggon,
and start for the long journey of eternity. The waggon is then
set on fire, and the soul wings its flight to the nether world. fre-
quently on such occasions, some of his old shoes are burnt, care
having been taken to cut the soles in two ; through this device they
are despatched to him for use in the other world.
Oftentimes also, a small table covered over with ashes is placed
near the sedan or waggon, in order to act as a lift for the departed
soul, and help it to enter more conveniently the sedan-chair. Each
one hastens to examine whether the departing spirit has not left
some mark resembling ;i footprint on the ashes.
A rather quaint custom consists in attaching round the neck
of the deceased two wisps of cotton-wool, in order that he may bear
away the misfortune of the family, and preserve it from having a
too numerous brood of girls.
Fig. 23
Han-k'eou-tsHen. Sapeque serree dans la bouche du defunt.
Han-k'eu-ts'ien. Coin pressed in the mouth of a corpse.
— 47 —
ARTICLE III.
PLACING THE CORPSE IN THE COFFIN.
The corpse must be put into the coffin on a lucky day, as it
might otherwise contaminate the neighbourhood. Some families
await a day or even two before putting the body into the coffin.
In this latter case, a large kitchen-knife is placed on the corpse,
as it lies in the bier. This sharp cutting instrument is heavy, and
can be used as a defensive weapon. The deceased is rendered
unable to get away, and so his soul cannot further return to
molest the living.
For clearness sake, we shall mention briefly the ordinary
superstitions connected with the coffin itself, after which we shall
describe the divers objects placed in the mortuary room.
-1°. Placing the corpse in the coffin-the coffin itself.
In the Lower Yang-tze ^ ^ region, every coffin is closed
with a big nail, called Tze-sun-ting -^ ^ £]", ;'the posterity nail".
This is deemed essential in order to obtain numerous offspring.
The custom exists little in North Kiang-su yX j|fc- in Ngan-hwei
4£ HI;, however, all put a small copper coin 'cash) in the mouth ol
the corpse.
Sometimes the mouth is maintained open by means of a small
wooden wedge ; at other times, it is opened by loosening the jaws
contracted during the last convulsions of death. This solemn oper-
ation is carried out quite methodically. A pair of cords or threads
are placed crossing each other on the open coffin, one extending from
head to foot, the other being drawn over the face. They must meet
exactly over the mouth of the corpse, as it lies in the coffin.
At the point of intersection of the two threads, a third one is
suspended, bearing at its extremity a small copper coin (cash), which
drops down into the mouth of the corpse. It is left there some
time and then withdrawn. This is called Han-k'eu-ls'ien p£ p H>.
or coin pressed in the mouth.
The eldest son, if he be still young, treasures this coin, and
hangs it on his neck as an amulet'. Should he be unwilling to use
— 48 —
it, it is offered as a present to some other family, to be worn by the
eldest of the boys.
It may not be useless to remark here that many pagan children,
who wear coins (cash) hung on to the neck by a red string, have
among them one which has been pressed in the mouth of a corpse
Han-k'eu-ts'ien P#- □ §i, and another issued from the mouth of
Peh-lao-yeli £j qj£ J^ (See demon-scaring charms and amulets).
Frequently a little rice is placed in the mouth of the corpse,
previous to removing the wooden wedge; this is the farewell meal
given here below .
Let us now sec how the coffin, the last resting-place of man in
this world, is prepared. At the bottom of it are placed little
bundles containing dry lime, ashes and earth. These must be equal
to the number of years which the deceased has lived. It he dies at
sixty, sixty parcels must be placed in the coffin. All these materials
are wrapped up in paper "P'i-chi" fe $j£.
Sometimes a layer of cotton-wool is added to serve as a
mattress. At the head of the coffin is placed a cushion, called
Ling-kioh-chen |§ ^ 7^, (l) or buffalo-horn pillow, from its resem-
blance to the horned shape of the water-caltrop.
This pillow is composed of two parts juxtaposited, and must
not contain either straw or chaff, but only ashes and dry lime. The
upper covering is made of red cloth, the two corners (horns) being
turned upwards; the lower covering is of blue cloth, and the inferior
corners are turned downwards. Thev resemble a pair of crescents
juxtaposited. The head of the corpse is placed in the middle of the
upper crescent. 1 1 is dressed out in full mortuary robes, and cover-
ed over with a red wadded quilt as wide as the coffin. For the last
time, a little rice is put in the dead man's hands, in order that he
may apease therewith the hungry dogs of the village, which he must
cross on his way to the nether world.
(1) §|j Lin^'. The water-caltrop (Trapct bicomis), an aquatic vegetable, the fruit of
which is eaten.
— 49 —
This is called the viand for apeasing the dogs, Ta-heu-shih JT
£
Others, endowed with more foresight, add thereto a pair of
chopsticks, to be used as cudgels, in case the hungry dogs made a
too determined attack to bite him. A mirror is placed in an upright
position at his feet, in order that his own reflected image would
deliver him from any subsequent death. Dead twice lor all, he
could hardly die again !
Wealthy folks lay the corpse on a bed of gold or silver ingots.
This affords them happiness unalloyed, and assures the future of
their posterity (See on this ancient custom, Cli. V. Article \).
Most well-to-do people have their dead equipped with jewels, a
custom which provokes the cupidity of robbers, and it is highly
probable that the next step will be the violation of these rich tombs.
Chinese law visits this crime with the death-penalty.
When the corpse has been fully laid out in its grave clothes
and placed on the bier, a very clean towel is dipped in hot water,
and used in wiping for the last time the face of the deceased, after
which, the strip of cloth called Tsing-k'eu-pu -]f£ P rffl . or cloth
for washing the mouth, is nailed on. This extends entirely over
the coffin, beneath the cover, and is intended to prevent any dust
from entering, or falling on the face of the corpse.
Nothing further now remains but to close the collin. Care has
been taken to draw three hairs from the queue of the deceased:
these are entwined on three big nails intended for closing the lid
of the coffin. They are called "Wan-ting" Sjf. £]" or also "Cltwan-
ting ' |^. 3=]", that is entwined nails.
Here again there is a real pun on the two expressions : Wan-
ting f$- §]", to entwine a nail, and Wan-ting Bj£ "J*- posterity,
descendants.
Similarly, there is a play on the pronunciation of the words
Chwan-ting ijj^ ^T, to wind (something) round a nail, and C/w'an-
ting f|f. "J", to propagate posterity. In fine, it is an omen portend-
ing numerous descendants.
7
— 50 —
When the carpenter approaches to drive down the big nails
used for closing the coffin, the son of the deceased, kneeling beside
the mortal remains of his sire, shouts to him: "fear not. they are
going to nail down the coffin!"
In several places, it is the son himself who drives in the
first nail.
Likewise, when as stated above, the strip of cloth called Tsing-
k'eu-pu ffi P /fjj , is nailed on, the son has to warn his lather to
withdraw his hands, in order to avoid being wounded by the nails.
When all these preparations are over, the coflin is placed on
two trestles, in the middle of the mortuary chamber, awaiting the
burial.
2°. Oi>jP(ix placed h<>si<le Hip coffin.
At the head of the coffin, but to the front, and consequently
between the outer door and the coflin itself, is placed a small table.
It is important to understand well the objects laid on this table, as
it is in reality the centre of all superstitions.
A). In the centre of the table is erected the seat of the soul,
called Ling-tso-lze §g J^g -^ , or Hwun-p'ai-tze z^f }$. ^f (the ghost's
slab). This is a paper tablet, a kind of envelope or large rectangu-
lar red wrapper, supposed to contain the soul of the departed,
whose name is written thereon.
B). On the left of this tablet is laid a bowl of rice, in the
middle of which is placed a boiled or hard egg, having a hole pierced
in its upper part. Two chopsticks are stuck, either in the egg itself,
or in the rice, according to places. This offering is called the rice
(placed, at the rear of the head, Tao-Veu-fan $\ jijf §5-
C). On the right of the tablet, in a large bowl, is placed a
cock, slaughtered but uncooked; the feathers, except those of the
tail, have been entirely plucked off, and the head is turned towards
the coffin.
D). On the middle of the table, before the tablet, is a censer,
in which incense is burninsr.
Fig. 24
'■■ ;J\
. . ....
/ f^*"*, . "t***!!r."t^j","It. :
_J \
Tao-t'eou-fan. Le riz de derriere la tete.
Tao-t'eu-fan. Rice placed behind the head of a corpse.
— r>1 —
E\ On each side of the tabid are two large candlesticks, in
which two candles burn constantly.
F). < >n the front of the table, near the corner, is a small
Chinese lamp, fed with oil.
G\ Several add to the above a pair of chopsticks, a wine-cup, a
jar of wine, a wash-hand-basin for toilet purposes, and a pair of shoes.
the soles of which are cut in two and wrapped up in cotton-cloth.
Under the coffin, between the two benches, is placed a lamp
not unfrequcntly equipped with seven wicks, Ts'ih-sing-teng Jfc Jl
£j|), which burns day and night.
To the rear of the lamp is placed a mirror, wherein is reflected
the image of the coffin. This coffin is thus reckoned as two, hence
for some time to come no other death will occur in the family. The
lamp is often placed on the grindstone of the household.
The annexed engraving illustrates all this ceremonial.
3°. Escorting the soul. Fung-ling :£<\ j||.
I Mi the third or fifth day alter death, wealthy families invite
Buddhist priests to help the soul over the bridge (doubtless, the
bridge of anguish, spanning the red torrent, and from the summit
of which, the two demons Short-life and Quick-death, cast into the
waters beneath the souls travelling over it). (1).
Buddhist pi iests arrive in procession, and at evening, assemble
in front of the house of the deceased. Outside the principal door,
a rough construction resembling a bridge is erected, by means of
tables placed with the four feet upwards ; to each foot of these tables
is attached a lighted lantern.
At the entrance to the bridge is placed an elevated platform,
on which the principal Buddhist priest ascends, wearing his live-
cornered cap. Standing on the platform, he recites some incantation
classics, then scatters cakes on the ground, which are scrambled
for bv the spectators; the priests then depart and the ceremony is
concluded.
ill S c Ynh-lib ch'ao-chw'an 3LM & # Treatise on the Infernal regi
— 52 —
4°. Awaiting the burial.
Whether the coffin be kept for a long or short time in the
house of the departed, matters little; it is the tablet, seat of the
soul, that becomes the object of all customary superstitions.
Every person coming- to the house of the deceased, must bring
some mock-money, which is presented to the person appointed for
receiving" guests.
The guest will then burn the mock-money, and offer his con-
dolences to the son of the deceased, who bows his acknowledgments
kneeling on the ground, to show thereby how profound is his grief.
The tablet remains exposed during forty-nine days, or the full
space of seven weeks.
During this time, a series of funeral repasts is given and
presents are received. Among the latter, may be found "mourning
scrolls", Wan-chang ^ 1(1^-, or large inscriptions written on rectan-
gular pieces of satin, silk, or cloth, and which are carried on the
burial dav in honour of the deceased.
While the coffin rests on the trestles, little children are wont
to leap over it, in order to obtain courage.
We shall see in like manner, how the egg placed in the bowl
of rice, beside the head of the corpse, is eaten for the same purpose.
A pun is made on the word "Tan" gr, meaning an egg, and "Tan'
)]f?:, courage. Eating this egg will inspire courage.
— 53 —
ARTICLE IV.
BURIAL.
1°. Preparing the burial.
Almost everywhere, a skilled geomancer is summoned to inspect
the environs, and select a suitable spot as a burial-place. His duty
is also to indicate the direction in which the coffin must be laid.
On this depend fortune, literary degrees, and a numerous posterity.
Future happiness is influenced by the judicious choice of a burial-
site (1).
Generally, the geomancer, after having selected a favourable
site, takes a live cock, and traces with the bill of the bird a kind of
cross on the ground : he then pours thereon some native wine.
Wealthy folks have a solemn ceremony for dotting the character
Chu 3£, on the tablet of the deceased (2 .
For this purpose they invite a literary graduate, who dressed
out in official robes, ascends majestically a platform, takes with
solemnity in his hand a pencil dipped in vermilion, and makes the
famous dot on the top of the character Chu 3£ . This is called dotting
the character Chu 3; or Tien-chu lf£ 3£. The ceremony is rather
expensive, but also what honour it confers on the family ! The rite
is accomplished either in the ancestral hall or at the burial ground.
In this latter case, some eminent person must be also invited
to perform the solemn bowings to the Farth, made on the brink of
open grave just before lowering the coffin. The person, who thus
officiates, is styled Tz'e-t'u fpj J- (he who sacrifices to the Farth .
while the one who has dotted the character Chu y£, is called Tien-
chu-kwan |^ i ^ (he who superintends the dottinu of the cha-
racter).
2°. Carrying nut the coffin.
While Buddhist or Taoist priests. "Tao-shi" & ±, surround
the corpse and terminate the liturgic prayers: as mock-mone> i-
(1) See article on Fung-shui JK, fa. Ch. V I I.I § 2.
(2) See Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. I. p. 207.
— 54 —
being burnt in abundance, the coffin is at last taken out. 'This is
a solemn moment, and loud lamentations break forth. One of the
Taoist priests, armed with a large kitchen-knife, strikes the coffin,
and breaks with a second blow an empty bowl. The purpose of
this is to awaken the defunct, and warn him to make ready for the
approaching journey.
Immediately afterwards, the heavy coffin is lifted up and borne
to the middle of the road, as also the table, upon which has been
placed the tablet of the deceased.
The eldest son. leaning on the coffin, kneels down before the
corpse: he wears full mourning dress, and bears on his head the
three-ridged cap. San-liang-kwan 5£ ^ 7^. so called from its pe-
culiar shape.
The Buddhist priests invite him to take his father's tablet and
fetch it back home, after which he returns and follows the funeral
procession, leaning on the hearse. lie bows his respects to the
bearers, and begs them to carry gently his venerable sire. In case
they may fulfil this duty negligently, he is armed with a kind of
wand, entwined with a long strip of white paper, and styled Tao-
sang-pang j$\ fljjs \i'fj. wherewith he can chastise them if they jolt
too much the corpse in the coffin 1 .
On the top of the coffin is placed a rooster, one of its legs being
attached by a string to the carrying-poles 2). The word cock, Ki
$ffi- i-s pronounced almost in the same manner as "Kih" "j^j, mean-
ing good luck. The bird is therefore of good omen (3).
Let us remark by the way, that if the deceased had but an
only son of tender years, all precautious are taken lest he would bear
him away to the world of spirits. When the coffin is taken out of
the house, the little lad is placed in a large basket, and hoisted by
(1) In several places, this strip of white paper, enfcwim d round a bamboo, is used a
a mark to guide the departed spirit back to the grave.
(2 In Southern China a white cock is used. Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese.
Vol. I. p. 214
3 Si e el,. X. Article VIII.
.1.1
means of a cord and pulley fixed in a cross-beam, to beneath the
roof of the house. He is thus kept out of danger, and the deceased
must depart without him.
3". Order of the funeral procession 1 .
a). The procession opens by two men carrying a pair of stream-
ers or hags, made of white paper, and called "Yin-lv. fan-tze <j|
lift //iff "? "j or landmarks to guide the spirit on its way to Hades.
b). They are followed by a person scattering mock-monev. lie
carries a basket filled with a plentiful supply of paper-coin, and
strews it along the way. to enable the departed spirit to purchase
its passage, and secure "the right of way" to the world of shades '1 .
c). Two large paper figures called T'ung-nu jj| -fc. and
T'ung-nan j| -^, a damsel and a youth {S). The first bears a tea-
cup and tea-pot: the second carries a tobacco-pipe and pouch. They
are designed to act as slaves or servants to the dead man in the
infernal regions.
d). Two miniature mountains, one styled the golden mountain.
Kin-shan ^ |Jj , made of gold-gilt paper; the other called the silver
mountain, Yin-shan §f< |Jj , made of silver-gilt paper. Both are
destined to furnish the deceased with an inexhaustible supply of
gold and silver (4).
e . Two bearers carry a paper sedan-chair, Lu-kiao 0 i|£j. for
the benefit of the deceased.
f). There are also mock-steeds, with their riders, all in paper,
it is needless to say.
g). Two paper swash-bucklers, called the '"gods opening the
way'" K'ai-lu-shen |$ jjft >|itji, or Ta-lu-shen :}T ]Jff ftp. Their duty is
to clear the road, and disperse all intruders who might obstruct the
way (5).
(1) See also D.oolittle. Social Life of the.Cbiuese. Vol. I. p. 200.
(2) s,-o C\,. III. article VII. infra.
(3) Doolittle mils them the "golden hi 1" and the "gemmeous lass". Ihid. p. 213.
ili Two famous temples, are erected on golden ami silver Islands, opposite Chen-
kiang JK }!., province of Kiang-su JX Wf;-
(5) Thpy arc from ten to fifteen feet long, and, four or five in diameter. Thej are
burnt in Eroni of the grave. Doolittle. loc cit. p. 203.
— 56 —
< >ne of them bears a club, and the other an axe.
h). After these are borne the tablets of the spirit of the deceas-
ed, P'ai f$-. Following the practice of high officials, they are
accompanied by a host of youthful attendants. Kang-p'ai ^X J|^,
carrying' various insignia. The deceased is deemed to have acquired
an increase of dignity in the nether world, hence he is accompanied
by his insignia of rank.
i). At the extremity of bamboos are carried special insignia,
such as mav be seen in processions in honour of the gods: Ts'un-
fn, hvan-kia, (upturned) hands, adzes and hammers etc... all in
tinfoil.
Wealthy people have these instruments carried in front of the
coffin. They are carved in wood, and covered over with tinfoil.
p. The procession of Taoist, Tao-slii ^ -_[;, or Buddhist priests,
wearing the surplice or coloured cope Kia-sha '£? |^ (1), and playing
the flute, beating cymbals, or murmuring some liturgical prayers.
k). four literary graduates, acting as masters of ceremonies,
and conducting the funeral rites.
4°. At the grave-side.
As soon as the procession has left the city or village, all these
insignia are burnt, and thus deemed forwarded to the deceased, to
be used by him in the land of shades sometimes, however, they
are fired at the grave-side). Generally, the only objects retained.
are the two white paper-streamers, Yin-lu fan-tze pj) 5ft j^§ "?' which
are stuck in the ground, on each side of the coffin of the departed,
in order that his soul, after its flight through the air, may easily
find again the grave (2).
While the coffin is being lowered into the grave, mock-money
is burnt and music played ; lire-crackers are sent off in abundance,
lamentations and wai lings are redoubled, and all kneel clown to bow
a last farewell to the deceased.
(1) From the Sanscrit Kasha ya, a coloured garment. Nowadays, a cope or outer
ni,lr worn In Buddhist priests when officiating. It is made of very thin cotton or gauze.
(2) See article on Streamers, Ch. V. Article VII. infra.
— 57 —
Frequently also, a paper sedan-chair is burned, to be used bv
the departed spirit when travelling to the lower regions (1), to which
he is conducted by a kind of usher-demon, called Yin-kwei t'ung-tze
31 % M ■? (the lad leading the soul).
Each disembodied spirit has a name written on its forehead :
"honourable penitent", "obedient servant"... etc. It is Tsao-kiin
'iti 3n) the kitchen-god, who thus marks his devotees, recommending
them to the mercy of the ruler of Hades.
One meets frequently along the country, in the midst of the
fields or on the hill-sides, coffins simply covered over with straw or
wild plants. It is interesting to know the reason thereof.
Three reasons are generally assigned for this custom.
1°. The time for the burial of the deceased was found to be
unlucky, the fortune-tellers having declared, that a burial on that
special day would bring misfortune on the descendants, hence the
coffin has been simply laid on the ground, and temporarily covered
over, awaiting a lucky day in which the burial may take place.
2". A lucky burial-place for the coffin has not yet been found.
Geomancers, either cannot agree, or the famiW wishes to obtain a
lucky spot, but the owrner, guessing the intention of the purchaser,
raises the price. In such cases, the coffin is laid on a temporarv
resting-place, awaiting a full burial ceremony when the site has
been purchased.
3°. Women, who die in childbirth, are, as we shall subseq-
uently see, most harshly treated by Buddhism. The coffin, in which
their mortal i"emains are placed, must remain exposed in the open
during three years. It is sometimes covered over with straw, but
it is not allowed to bury it, or raise a mound over it. It is thus
that this inhuman doctrine brands with a public stigma the memory
of those unfortunate victims.
(1) It is charitably supposed he would enjoy riding, instead of being obliged to walk
to the infernal regions. Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. I. p. 174.
8
— 58 —
ARTICLE V.
AFTER THE BURIAL.
Fixed lime* for mourning services.
The third day after the burial, the ceremony called "returning
to the mountain" Fu-shan ^ fjj (grave-side) is performed. Four
bowls of meat are offered, pork, fowl, fish and pea-curd. On the
table are placed a pair of chopsticks, a jar of nine and a wine-glass.
Two tresses of rice-straw, having a number of knots correspond-
ing to the years the deceased lived here below, are placed on each
side of the grave : the extremity of these is then Hied to keep company
with the departed spirit. They are called "smoke faggots" Yen-
heu-pa @ §1 4E» and remnants of them are found frequently near
graves. On the same occasion, fire-crackers are sent off and mock-
money is burnt on the grave.
This ceremony is sometimes called "rounding off the mound or
tumulus" Yuan-fen [gj J§|.
It is especially on that same day that the departed spirit returns
to its former home, seeking daylight (literally his eye-sight Yen-
kwang fig -fa), of which he had been recently deprived there.
So far, every care has been taken not to disturb anything in
the house. It is not swept, and clothes and bed-coverlets are left
unwashed, lest the deceased, on returning, would not enjoy again
the light of day or recover his eve-sight. Now, in what manner of
way does the departed spirit return?
Some say that he scrambles down through the chimney, and
so a little ladder made of bamboo or reeds is placed against the
fireplace, to facilitate his entering the house.
Others prefer believing that he climbs over the garden-wall,
so again a little ladder is placed there to help him over.
("are has been taken to spread some fine ashes over the lloor of
the room, in order to discover from his footprints, whether he has
been reborn as a man or has entered the body of a brute. That
night is a sleepless one for the members of the house, and if the
— 59 —
least noise is heard at the door or the window-sill, immediately all
lights are put out.
An egg has been carefully prepared for him and placed in a
bowl, as also a single chopstick, in order to detain him further.
As a matter of fact, it is a most difficult task to eat a hai'd
egg, when one is provided with only one chopstick.
The expected visit being over, the egg- is given to children in
order to increase their courage, Tan-tze la jjjf ^f jz ; a pun being-
made on the word Tan ^ egg, and Tan )J§ the gall, which is con-
sidered the seat of courage in China.
The offering of a house, provided with furniture, servants and
other requisites, the whole in paper, is made on the forty-ninth day
after death, at least generally (l). It is burnt, and thus conveyed
to the world of shades for the benefit of the deceased.
Frequently, a second paper-house is burnt for those who have
attained the age of fifty or sixty years. This offering is made at
the end of the third vear.
Lastly, it may sometimes happen that an old man has no
surviving children, and that some of his brothers or next of kin are
already deceased.
As he will thus have nobody to offer him a paper-house after
death, he anticipates on the event, and burns one for his own use,
having taken care to forward it to one of his relatives in the nether
world, begging him to keep it in store for him, until the day when
he shall come to enjoy it. The Chinaman is far-seeing, whatever
people may say to the contrary ! The offering of this paper-house
is called "providing for old age" Cheu-ling jqj |§ft.
"Straw-tresses" or Fan-k'uen ^ |||j. Who has not seen along
country roads and by-ways, the remnants of straw-tresses placed on
graves'? These tresses or circlets of straw are called Fan-k'uen f)^
(1) In Southern China, this is also a very busy and eventful daw 'the mourning
family provides a feast for invited relatives and friends. After this date, the ottering of
lice to the deceased is discontinued : he must henceforth cook his own food. Doolittle,
Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. I. p. 187.
— 60 —
ffrfi "?• Chinese cooks use them to warm the
pgj, or Fan-ku-tze \
various dishes served up as an accompaniment to cooked rice.
These old straw-tresses are placed on the graves of children, to
prevent the "heavenly dog" T'ien-keu % $), from devouring them
(1). They are thus encircled or hedged in, so to speak, in their
graves, and cannot be withdrawn from them. Moreover, the heaven-
ly dog takes the tress for a collar, and retreats in all haste, in
which case he resembles much the dog of the fable, that had little
love for his collar.
The following are some of the fixed times, in the course of the
\Tear, when certain mourning ceremonies are practised for the benefit
of the dead.
On the first day of the first month, they are wished a happy
new year, crackers are exploded, and mock-money is placed on the
< )n the thirteenth day of the first month, the first year after
death, a lamp is placed on the grave of the deceased, with a box of
matches beside it, in order that the departed spirit may light it
again himself, in case it went out. This lamp is called the "ghost's
lamp" Kwei-teng fy f^. Many wealthy folks place large vases filled
with oil near the graves of their dead. These vast receptacles are
in reality lamps and burn for whole months.
At the festival of the tombs or Ts'ing-ming Jpf 0^ (clear-
brightness), celebrated about April 5, all grave-mounds must be
repaired, rounded off and cleaned ; a round sod of fresh earth is dug
up, and placed on the summit of the conical tumulus. This round
sod of earth, it is thought, represents the ceremonial head-dress
worn by the Chinese. Fire-crackers are exploded, mock-mone}' is
burnt, and the ceremony is brought to a close by a series of bow-
ings towards the ground. Sometimes, meats are placed on a
table before the grave, and offered in sacrifice to the manes of the
departed. In the province of Kiang-su yX i|ft, mock-money is placed
in a hamper of rice-straw tresses, and burnt, imagining to i-emit
thus a corresponding amount to the land of shades.
(1) See above p. {
— 61 —
In the country round Shanghai J^ ffj, a brisk business is done
in these hampers of rice-straw tresses. Boat-loads of them arrive
constantly, and being burnt, are conveyed to the world of spirits.
On the fifteenth of the seventh month, the visit to the ancestral
graves is renewed, and sacrifice olTeied to the manes of the dead.
It is at this time that the tutelary god of the city, Ch'eng-hwang J)^
|$J|, acting as celestial mandarin, gathers the hungry and wandering
ghosts, Ku-hwun ^ z$| (neglected or orbate spirits), and offers them
presents consisting of mock-money, mock-clothing, meats and cakes,
all made of paper (1), in order to escape their vengeance. This
ceremony is called "gathering the spirits", Sheu-kwei l\*i J^|.
( )n the first of the tenth month winter garments are offered to
the dead. They are burnt on the graves, and thus forwarded to the
spirit-land. It is a matter of fact that all these clothes, caps, boots,
shoes and dresses etc... are made of paper. Mock-money is also
added. The ceremony is calling "letting out the spirits", Fang-
kwei jfc $&.
On the anniversary of the death of a person, it is customary to
proceed to his grave and offer mock-money. This is "the remem-
brance offering", and shows that his memory is still fresh in the
minds of the living.
Generally, at the four principal periods, Sze-tsieh [5<| |jj, or tri-
monthly festivals, that is : the first day of the year, the festival of
the tombs Ts'ing-ming -^ 0$, the fifth of the fifth month, and the
fifteenth of the eighth month, a commemorative service is held in
honour of the dead.
On the fifteenth day of the first month, at nightfall, guide-
lamps, Lu-teng {£$• jig, are lighted. These little lamps are placed
on the brink of running streams, to guide the souls of those who
died in early lifetime. Yen-wang fff] ^E, tlie God of Hades, has not
(1) It is a matter of wonder that the immense number of these hungry and naked
spirits can be contented with such scant and poor provisions. Doolittle. Social Life of the
Chinese. Vol. I. p. 206.
— 62 —
received them, so they wander over the world, and not knowing
where to go to, live by rapine and plunder. Thanks to these little
lamps, they can tind their way and be reborn.
The fifteenth of the seventh month is commonly called "the
ghosts' festival", Kwei-tsieh % |p. Little lamps, prepared with
rush-pith wicks entwined with cotton-wool and steeped in oil, are
lighted. The rind of a water-melon serves as a bowl. These lamps
are set floating, and wafted by the stream and the cool evening
breeze, are borne on canals and rivers, with a view to helping the
souls of drowned persons to find their way and be reborn.
The seventh month is that of the dead, and is entirely given
over to helping the departed souls. Buddhist and Taoist priests
perform various expiatory ceremonies, and make processions every
evening through towns and villages, preceded by cymbals and
musical instruments, for the purpose of alleviating the condition
01
wandering souls.
Fig. 25
0^
ft #
/
w
^ W-
^
cg^
^
^4
^^^
— ^TtT^S^
^
^1
Or
(f
k4\v
Le char funebre conduit par l'esprit Sco-chen.
Hearse accompanied by- the funeral God.
— 63 —
ARTICLE VI.
SUPERSTITIOUS PAPERS BURNT AT FUNERALS.
Chi-ma $£ JB|.
A large amount of superstitious papers is employed at funerals,
fancying' thereby to benefit the dead. On these papers are pictures
of various divinities, or of imps of the infernal regions, who may
render service to the departed souls in the nether world. It is thus
sought to secure their good-will on behalf of those who have depart-
ed from this life. Herewith are a few specimens of such papers,
offered merely to whet curiosity, for if we wished to be complete,
many more would have to be added.
1°. Propitiating the funeral god. Sao-shen Pu-sah |^ fl$ H $§.
On the burial day a paper is burnt, bearing on it the represen-
tation of a hearse, and the god who leads the procession, Sao-shen
Pu-sah ^§ # # §|.
It is he who must carefully lead the funeral procession to the
grave. It is therefore important to ingratiate oneself with him.
Above the hearse, Sang-ch'eh Jjj| jjf^ floats the evil star of the
deceased, under its male (Hsiung $f|), and female (Tz'e lftf|) form (1).
(1) This star is the Hwun-k'i i£| f^ (the breath of the soul), a phantom or spectre,
which assumes a male and female form. In apparitions, the male form is said to have the
body of a cock, while the female has that of a hen. See p. 135, infra. Also illustration 62. bis.
— 64 —
2°. The ten kings of Hades. Ming-fu Shih-Wang IE Jft -f- 3: (1).
After a person's death, it is customary to burn a superstitious
paper Cki-tna $£ ,6|, in honour of the ten gods of Hades, hence the
name given to it. This custom owes its origin to the Buddhist
doctrine on the ten divisions of hell, over which preside ten demons,
the names and functions of whom will be given in Book II, of this
work. A petition is therefore addressed to them, begging that they
be merciful to the deceased, who is to appear before their judgment
seat.
On each side of the tablet or little print, burnt in their honour,
are found the buffalo-headed Niu-t'eu i^- gjf, and the horse-faced
Ma-mien §§ [ffl, assistants of the underworld.
(1) % W Ming-fu. The dark or obscure region, the underworld, Hades.
Fig. 26
Ming-fou-che-wang .
Ming-fu-shih-wang . Charm for propitiating the ten kings of Hades.
Fig. 27
Long-tche pou-sah, le pourvoyeur de vehicules dans Fautre monde^
Lung-cheh Pu-sah. The God of the Dragon-chariot (hearse),
Undertaker in the nether morld.
fl
— 65 —
3°. The (jo<l of the dra.gon-cha.riol (hearse). Lung-ch'eh Pu-sah
m* M &■ M
On this third print is represented, according to the means ot
conveyance employed in the locality, either a sedan-chair, preceded
and followed by bearers of official insignia, or a cart drawn by horses.
In both cases the idea is the same, the purpose being to represent
some means of conveyance for the departed soul, whereby it may
travel over the long road leading to the lower regions. These
conveyances are supplied by a "god undertaker", called Lung-ch'eh
Pu-sah ff| ipl 3& $||. Hence this superstitious picture is burnt in
his honour, to secure his good-will towards the soul which he is to
lead to the nether world.
66 —
\u. The god of the hungry ghosts. Ku-h\('uh Pu-sah ^
The above merciful title is generally given to Ti-tscang-\vang
'life 4& ~E (U- 'l 's ne who has spread among the people ihe cere-
monies intended to help those abandoned ghosts See his life . By
burning this picture, on which he is represented gathering" these
outcasts, who have failed to find the road of rebirth, he is begged
to lead unerringly and promptly the soul of the deceased to its
destined place and abode.
Hence, as will be seen further on, this god is considered as
the undisputed lord of the "Land of Shades". It is therefore of
the utmost importance to secure his protection.
Oftentimes, this superstitious paper is called ''Muh-lien" § j^t.
such being the name given to this god as a Buddhist priest.
Very frequently also, a superstitious picture, Chi-ma %fc @|,
representing the kitchen god. is burnt, for it is he, it must noc be
forgotten, who inscribes on the forehead of the soul to be judged,
the characters which will partly decide its destiny, according as they
appear favourable or unfavourable.
After having placed the coffin in the grave, it is customary in
some places to burn a superstitious picture, Chi-ma $j£ j^, in
honour of the tutelary god of the mountain, Shen-shan f^ [i| (2),
who watches over the burial ground. It is his duty to keep watch
over the grave of the departed, and prevent any such misfortune as
violation of the tomb. He is generally represented as watching
beside the coffin at the entrance to the graveyard. He is thus the
warden of the deceased, and also of the mound or tumulus raised
over the grave.
1 1 The ruler of Hades, and as such, much ivy. red by the people. He has under him
twelve myrmidons, executioners of all horrors and pains, from which, however, if assid-
uously worshipped, he can deliver departed souls. Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion,
p. 211.
(-> In Southern China, the hill gods are also worshipped, as it is believed they
protect the graves of those who are buried there. Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese,
Vol. [.p. 206.
Fig. 28
Kou-hoen pou-sah, le protecteur des ames abandonnees.
OKu-hwun Pu-sah. The God protector of wandering ghosts.
— 67 —
ARTICLE VII.
PURCHASING nil. RIGHT OF WAY.
Mai-lu-l*'ien ^ j& ££.
Formerly Kao-ch'ai ]9j %_. a follower of Confucius, and district
magistrate of Ch'eng h-<it>n ;^ |£. damaged the crops, when bur}'ing
his wife. Shen-sinng l\) jjffi, son of Tze-ch.nng ^ »jjf, warned him
thereof and begged him to compensate for the loss. Kno-ch'ai "jfrj ^
refused, stating that if he purchased the right (if way for the burial.
il would be setting up a precedent detrimental to many others (1).
According to the custom at present prevailing, when a coffin is
borne to the grave, a poison is specially detained to march at the
head of the procession, and scatter mock-money along the road.
This is called "purchasing the right of way", and is more or less
connected with the historical incident attributed to Kao-ch'ai 'jfFf ^.
In Japan, whenever a burial takes place, a tent is erected,
beneath which incense is burnt before the corpse. This is called
the ''orphan tent". A person is detained to precede the procession,
and scatter copper coins along the road. This is called "purchasing
the right of wav". The poor and beggars come and gather up
these coins. It would, therefore, seem that the custom passed over
from Japan to China (2).
Kao-ch'ai ^ ^ was wrong in refusing to make good the
damage caused to the crops on the burial day of his wife. The
reason which he adduces is not convincing, and the example set by
him must not be followed, for whosoever causes damage to another
must compensate him for the loss. In line it is not a question
about purchasing the right of way. Such are the just reflexions of
serious Chinese writers.
(•>) See Li-ki ,j|[ |£ or Book of Rites. Ch. T'an-kung-hsia H ^ "],", (Yuan JO edition
A. I). 131-2. foi. fiO). f$0ift^Hiflt74L!lf'HfgEl H'C
(2) Shi-wi yiuin-hwei g $ BYS? & & & *«. ft *E flfi ff- nv A ffl £■ ffe IW #
i & b a jg m. m ^ ^mm m~z & m. % 0 # 1. >i m
nw^-
i.«iiixi. £ - a # m tfc $ m m fir. # * w. $s & tt ^ t % # ±. & ft
IXS B # it A * IB £.
— 68 —
In regard to this Japanese custom of scattering pieces of copper
coin along the way, it is hard to say whether the real purpose is to
give an alms to the poor, or to disperse the crowd of vagabonds
who obstruct the road, and may injure the crops along the way,
exposing thereby to compensate for the damage caused by them.
Be that as it may, it is the custom nowadavs, to scatter mock-
money without burning it, along the way of the procession. This is
what all are agreed to call: "purchasing the right of way".
Every public or private property has a road leading to it, and
all may use this way free of cost. This is quite true, but pagan
Buddhists believe that wandering and hungry ghosts crowd round
on a burial day to get some alms, and if refused, it is feared they
will obstruct the procession.
\n former times, no mock-money was scattered along the way
on burial days, and the procession met with no accident for all that.
Never, in fact, was it heard that the procession halted in the middle
of the journey, or had been compelled to return.
The followers of Confucius, to act, as they say, in accordance
with the intention of Kao-ch'ni ~0j ^fe, purchase the right of way
for the funeral procession. In so doing, however, they deceive
simple folks, and deceive also themselves. This custom is universal
throughout Kiang-nan jJX. fll .
CHAPTER IV.
PETITION-TALISMANS FOR THE BENEFIT
OF THE DEAD.
ARTICLE I.
ORDINARY CASES OF DEAD PERSONS.
Buddhist and principally Taoist priests, Tao-shi jg -±, whose
imagination is fertile in inventing means of getting money, have
given full scope to their researchful genius, especially in varying
the nostrums useful to the dead, and helpful for the souls in the
nether world. The vulgar mass needs ceremonies, which appeal to
the eye, impress the imagination, and are also well adapted to the
idiosyncrasy of the Chinese people, as well as to the manner of death
of the deceased. It is to meet these two requirements, that they have
imagined to address petitions to their gods, begging them to show
mercy to the dead. To such petitions, they add talismans or charms,
which have, as they consider, the power of delivering the soul from
Hades, and assuring it a happy rebirth. Variety dispels all monotony,
so their petitions and talismans vary according to the god invoked,
or the manner of death of the person for whom one intercedes.
These petition-talismans arc printed by shops known as "su-
perstitious paper shops" Chi-ma~tien $j£ % j£, which sell all such
articles commonly used by the people. When somebody is near
— 70 —
dying, a person hastens to purchase one of these petition-papers,
and warn the king of Hades that a soul is soon to appear before
his judgment seat. After death, petitions vary, according to the
causes which have brought it on. Thus, there are some for all
cases, others for those who die by hanging or drowning, or who
have committed suicide, etc...
When Buddhist or Taoist priests, Tno-shi jfr J;, perform their
respective ceremonies for the benefit of the dead, these petition-
talismans are burnt, in order that they may reach more expeditiously
the god to whom they are addressed.
Burning is the great means of communication between the
present world and that bevond the grave. We shall give here a few
of these papers, which are generally and most commonly employed
in places throughout the province of Nrjan-hwei ^ $fr.
1". Lao-hiXn ^ ;§" (printed on yellow paper).
This pa pel reads as follows :
Talisman of the Honourable Lao-hiXn, T'ai-shang Lao-kini -fa
\- g- /| ;| , to purify and saVe the souls of the dead.
This talisman has been planted by I.ao-hi'i.n jj£ g", for the benefit
of all the dead. It will help to cleanse their bodies, refine their vir-
tues, blot out their faults, render them stainless, and utterly efface
even the last remnants of the sins which they have committed in a
previous existence (allusion to the doctrine of the metempsychosis).
Cleansed from all earthly dross, they shall be deemed worthy to be
admitted into the presence of Yen-wang \$) -f, (2). In witness where-
of, we accomplish to-day this expiatory ceremony allusion is here
made to the Taoist priests, Tao-nhi jfr -|;, who must be invited to
pray and burn the above mentioned petition . and burn this talisman,
in full compliance with the orders received Irom Lao Itc j$£ -^ .
U i Lao kirn ^ ^ <>v Lao-tze ^ ^f-, the old or venerable philosopher. Born B.C. 604;
time and place of death unknown. He founded the Taoist system of philosophy and mysti-
cism, improved upon by his disciples. In A 1 >. fi(J(i, the emperor Kao-tsung ^j ■£ of the
T'ang jjf dynasty bestowed on him the title pk I . ^£ TG H il?. the Great Supreme, the
Emperor of the Dark First Cause. Again in A.J). 1013, the title j\ _h 3L Ha was added
by Imperial command. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual. Lao-tze ^ ^f.
(2) The ruler of Ha'des.
•^•K^^^SSH'^
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— 71 —
Such a year,... month,... and day,...
This petition-talisman is employed by Taoiot priests.
2°. Petition-talisman in honour of Amitabha (O-mi-t'o-fuh |S|iT
M P6 W ;""/ the inll'r °f Hades (Ti-ls'ang-wang -jfc fa £).
We, your faithful followers, N... (names inserted here), in this
month (name of month), with all the members of our household, the
pious son, his relatives and kinsfolk, prostrate before Amitabha, 0-
mi-t'o-fuh |5pT fl$j |?g ^ P, the ruler of Hades, Ti-ts'ang-wang ffo $$
3E, and the ten gods of the infernal regions, do hereby implore your
great mercifulness. We even venture to draw up a written engage-
ment with you. and as contracting parties, we offer up our prayers
for so and so, X... (name inserted here), aged... (here his age), and
born in such a year... and month... and at such a day... and
hour..., whose soul has returned to the realm of the Immortals.
How rapid is the flight of years! In truth, life lasts but a
moment ! We remind you amidst tears of the arrival of this beloved
being, whom death has ravished from our gaze. Deliver him, we
humbly beseech you, from the land of suffering, and graciously
grant him to be reborn in a state filled with happiness and joy.
At present, in such a month... and on srtch a day... we
accomplish this ceremony for his benefit, to open up for him the
road leading to a new rebirth, amidst prosperity and glory. Thanks
to your unbounded mercifulness, great Amitabha, O-mi-t'o-fuh ppT
ffl P6 rfr" and thou ruler ol Hades, Ti-ts'ang-wang jfo ^ 3E, we
hope that his soul will be admitted into the abode of peace and
happiness; we reckon also that this ceremony, performed for his
benefit, will deserve for him the happiness of being reborn into the
body of a man. Once more. O-mi-t'o-fuh |JpT ~jffi |?£ $, Jii-lai-fuh
jlP ?fc >$ (2) and Tz'e-kwang-fuh *& jt jfo (3), we humbly beg you
to save his soul.
(lj Amitabha (boundless light). The celestial prototype corresponding to the historical
Guatama. Also the sovereign lord of the Western heavens, and hence highly popular
among the Chinese. Hackmann. Buddhism as a Religion, p. 159.
(2) A translation of the "Sancrit Tata-gata" or the "Thus come Buddha". One
whose comfng and going accords witb thai of his predecessor. The highesl appellation
given to every Buddha. Giles. Chinese-English "Dictionary. Jii-lai jl\\ 5^-
(3) The mercifully enlightening Buddha.
— 72 —
"When the lotus-flower opens, the fruit is already in formation
(man being reborn partakes already of the nature of Buddha) ; but
when the flower fall's., the fruit is quite formed"' (thus does death
achieve the work of Nirvana, and thanks to such a state, man
becomes a perfect Buddha1. We respectfully offer to you this petition
for the benefit of such a soul, and in order that it may reach you,
we burn it. Done in such a year..., month..., and dav...
This petition is drawn up on yellow paper, and is exclusively
reserved to Buddhist priests.
Fig. 31
bis
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ffitt- »«
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Passe-port pour l'autre vie. Brule en Thonneur de Ti-ts'ang Wang.
Passport to the nether world. Written charm burnt in honour of
Ti-ts'ang Wang, ruler of Hades.
— 73 —
Second petition couched in similar style.
10
oo
Petition-talisman begging a happy rebirth.
Taoist priests, Tao-shi jjf J^. burn this petition in order that
the deceased may be reborn into the body of a man, or at least into
the body of a genial animal. It is printed on yellow paper, and
addressed to Lao-kiln j£ jg .
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Passe-debout pour la douane sur la route des enfers.
Permit exempting from tolls on the way to the Infernal regions.
75
4°. Permit (for Irnnxit) delivered to the departed *oid
Buddhist priests print on yellow paper, bearing the Imperial
colours, a permit (for transit), which they deliver to a departed soul,
and through means of which it can pass without any difficulty the
barrier found on the way leading to the infernal regions. It is an
order given to the barrier-keepers not to hinder in anywise the
passage of such a soul. Taoist priests, Tuo-slii jiff ^, may also
grant a similar official permit. These people shrink from nothing.
\A/WVWWV \f\- Vi/V»/VW«
76
5°. Passport granted to tho soul. Lu-yin 0 *-j|.
This is a certificate delivered by competent authority, and secur-
ing full freedom of passage to the soul along" the road leading" to the
world beyond. The deceased, thanks to this badge, passes the
barriers free of toll, and is assured of protection throughout the
way. On the document are the bearer's name, as also the year,
month and day, on which it has been delivered. This passport is
on vellow paper and is burnt at the burial service.
Lou-yng tan-tse. Passe-port de Fame.
Lu-yin tan-tze. Passport delivered to the departed soul.
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77 —
n Vi
6°. Opening the ceremony of the Lemuria (1). K'ai-t'an
This petition is burnt for the benefit of wandering and vaga-
bond souls, who have been unable to find the road to rebirth in the
womb of a mother. All good spirits, as well as the soul of the
deceased, whose name is on the print, are begged to protect them
from malevolent demons. This charm is placed on the platform
erected for Buddhist and Taoist priests, Tao-shi jj£ ■]-, and burnt at
the opening of the expiatory ceremony for the benefit of the dead.
(1) Originally Remuria, but corrupted to Lemuria. A festival instituted by Romulus
to appease the manes of his brother Remus. The ancient Greeks and Romans supposed
that the souls of the dead wandered all over the world and disturbed the peace of its
inhabitants. Among them were good spirits, called Lares familiares (ancestors), and evil
ones, known by the name of Larvae or Lemures. To appease those latter, the Lemuria
were celebrated, and lasted three days and three nights. On this occasion, it was usual
for the people to burn black beans, as the smell was supposed to be insupportable to the
evil spirits. They also muttered magical words, and by beating kettles and drums,
believed the ghosts would depart and no longer molest the living (See Lempriere's
Glassicul Dictionary. Lemuria).
7S
7°. Opening the portals of the Buddhist paradise. K'ai-t'ien
This charm, endowed, it is believed, with marvellous cflicacity,
is considered as the key of heaven, and infallibly procures happiness
to the soul for whose benefit it is burnt. It rescues from the
infernal regions the soul to whom it is remitted, and opens wide
for it the portals of the Buddhist paradise. This warrant from
Above is printed on yellow paper, carefully dated, and bears the
name of the departed soul.
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- 79 —
8°. Informing the ruler of Hades (1).
This is a proclamation, written by the Abbot of a Buddhist
monastery, in Kiang-su fx. f||, and pretending to inform the god of
Hades, Ti-ls'ang-wang J{{i ^ }£, that such a person, recently
deceased, has been a faithful follower of Buddha, and as such,
deserves to be mercifully treated in the nether world.
The document, duly prepared, is on yellow paper. To obtain
it, one may apply to the Superior of a monastery, who signs it, and
indicates the name of his monastery, the year, month and day,
when it has been issued for the benefit of such a departed soul.
(1) In Southern China, a ceremony for informing the ten rulers of Hades, of the
death of a person, takes place on the sixth day. Taoist priests officiate. Doolittle. Social
Life of the Chinese. Vol. I. p. 182.
— 80 —
9°. Temporary seat of the soul.
At a funeral, this paper is suspended from a reed or bamboo,
and the soul of the departed is requested to come and establish his
seat therein, in order to receive the offering's of clothing- and mock-
monev remitted for his benefit to the lower world.
Fig. 38
Siege transitoire de Tame.
Temporary seat of the (departed) soul.
Fig. 39
La bourse de Tame.
Wrapper containing the soul.
— 81
10°. The enoelope of the soul.
This is a tablet or envelope, folded in rectangular shape. It
resembles much one of those large envelopes employed for sending
official letters in China, and is, in tine, a kind of paper wrapper
designed to receive the soul. It is fixed upright on the little table,
behind the coffin, and beside the rice placed at the rear of the
deceased's head, Tao-t'eu-fan j$\ jjjj" D£ (1).
This is the first seat of the soul, or temporary one, awaiting
the time when the tablet will be permanently set up.
ft is only the rightful heir of the deceased who may hold this
important paper. 1 have seen cases in which plaintiffs have taken
it to officials, as a proof of their legitimate claims. The annexed
illustration is a fac-simile of one of these envelopes, which has been
presented to the Han-shun hsien ^ |Jj §£ magistrate by the
prosecuting party, to prove their right to the inheritance of the
deceased. It was considered as a piece of evidence in the lawsuit,
which took place over the dividing of the property.
(1) See above, p. 50. Objects placed beside the coffin.
11
— 82
11". [turning mock-clothing for the benefit of the dead.
In shops dealing in superstitious objects, sheets of yellow paper
are found, upon which are printed the likeness of coats and boots,
as generally worn by the living.
To these sheets are usually added some sentences or petitions,
designed to afford relief to the soul, for whose benefit this mortuary
outfit will be burnt. At the approach of winter, every filial son
must prepare such an outfit for his deceased father or mother.
When he has provided all the mock-clothing, intended to be conveyed
to the dead, he proceeds to their grave, and burns thereon the entire
outfit for their benefit, in order that they may not suffer too much
J J
from the cold in the nether world (P.
(1) This ceremony takes place on the first of the tenth month (See ;< 1 >■ > \ e, p. 61
? v*#i{?
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Fig. 41
Coftre-fort en papier.
Fire-proof safe burnt and forwarded to the dead.
Fig. 41
Coffre-fort en papier.
Fire-proof safe burnt and forwarded to the dead.
88 —
12". Sending a paper-safe to Ihe dead.
Property does not seem to be any better protected by the
majesty of the law in the nether world than in the present one, so
it can hardly be called "the better world". In this realm of briberv
and knavery, a good safe is indispensible, in order to secure protec-
tion from burglars. Thus, the custom arose of sending a paper-safe,
which being burnt, was conveyed to the departed soul. He would
use it, to store safely therein his treasures of gold and silver. It is
a gleam of civilisation, penetrating among those "gentlemen of the
lower regions''. Formerly, people were contented with sending
them the objects used during a previous existence : houses, horses,
servants, a complete outfit of clothes, paper trunks and articles of
furniture ; but since modern industry has turned out fire-proof safes,
equipped with safety locks, these valuable inventions are now for-
warded them, and this fills up the cup of their happiness, by securing
them the perpetual enjoyment of their treasures. Truly, Buddhism
is a religion of progress!
— M —
ARTICLE II.
PETITION-TALISMANS RESCUING EROM THE
"BLOODY POND" (1 ).
The bloody pond, Hsueh-hu jfQ. $Jj, also called the "pool of the
bloody pail", is an immense expanse filled with blood and mire,
into which are plunged those unfortunate mothers who die in
childbirth, and what is still more distressing, according to the
teaching of modern Buddhism, every woman who has given birth
to a child, is rendered thereby unclean, and must remain plunged in
the "bloody pond", until rescued therefrom. Now, to sectire this
desired result, it is absolutely necessary to invite Buddhist priests
to pray for them. Such is the theory (2).
This ceremony is very expensive, and brings in a large annual
income to all these impostors. 1 had been lucky enough to secure
two papers commonly used in such ceremonies.
The first is a petition-talisman, which differs but little from
the generalit}* of these classics, invented to relieve similar ills of
suffering humanity. It is burnt during the expiatory ceremony,
performed either by Buddhist or Taoist priests, Tao-xhi ^ i- It
is printed on yellow paper, and bears the name of the victim, as
also the year, day and hour, in which the ceremony took place.
The other is a much more important document, as it grants to
the Buddhist priests a special warrant or diploma, conferred on
them by Buddha himself, whereby they are officially patented and
granted the perpetual and exclusive right of performing this melan-
choly function. Considering the importance and difficulty of secur-
ing this paper, we give it here translated in full.
The precious formula of the "bloody pail" composed by Buddha,
and conserved in the great Buddhist repository "Ta.-tnRng-king" A"
(1) This ceremony is also practised in Southern China, its object being to save the
spirit of a deceased mother from this pretended punishment. Doolittle. Social Life of
the Chinese. Vol. I. p. 196.
(2) See Chap. V. Article XI infra.
Fig. 42
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Facsimile of the precious charm delivering from the "bloody pond".
— 85 —
"Muh-lien g jig", having travelled to Chui-yang lisien jg |(§
%. in Yu Chow ffl j'\], saw a hell called the "pool of the bloody
pail" (so called from its resembling a lake), and of such extent that
it required eight hundred and forty thousand days to cross over it.
Therein are found one hundred and twenty kinds of torture: iron
beams, iron pillars, iron collars and chains. [n the southern part
of this pond are plunged a countless number of women, their hair
dishevelled and their hands bound with shackles. The ruler of
Hades compels them thrice a day to drink blood, and should thev
refuse, he threshes them soundly with iron rods. Muh-lien g jj$.
touched with compassion, on hearing them groan beneath the lashes,
said to the ruler of Hades : '-Why don't their husbands come
here"? — ''This punishment, replied Yen-wang fUj 3^, is not for
their husbands. They are here, because in giving birth to children,
they have discharged polluted blood, which offends the Spirits of the
Earth. Moreover, they have washed their blood-stained clothes in
rivers and streams, whence men and women draw this contaminated
water, and make therewith tea, which they afterwards offer to the
gods. Offended by such irreverence, these latter despatch a celestial
warrior, who writes the names of the guilty in the book of good
and evil, then after death, they have to undergo this punishment .
— Muh-lien @ j^, overwhelmed with sadness, asked the ruler of
Hades, how, in order to requite the benefit of existence, he could
deliver his mother from the "bloody pond". The ruler replied: "by
honouring one's parents, worshipping the Buddhist Trinity (1).
above all by inviting the Buddhist priests to perform the ceremony
of rescue, during which they must recite the (annexed) prayer. Then
in the midst of the "bloody pond" variegated lotus flowers will
appear, a skiff despatched from the flotilla of anguish will meet her,
and bear her to the banks of the Nai-ho ^ jp[ (2). where she can
be reborn in a blissful land". Kwun-yin ||| ^ (3), by order of
(1) That is "Buddha, the Law (Dha'rma) and the Church (Sanga)". Also called the
three "Precious Ones". Eitel. Handbook of Chinese Buddhism.
(2) The Buddhist river Styx, so called, because the soul cannot help crossing it.
Sixty days after death, paper boats are burnt to help the soul to cross over it. Failing
this device, the soul may be drowned. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language. ^ JSJ,
(3) The Goddess of Mercy.
— 83 —
Buddha, enjoined on Muh-lien g j^L lo exhort the faithful to write
out this formula and distribute it to women, in order that by recit-
ing it, they mav escape falling into the "bloody-pond" at their
death, be reborn in a land of joy and happiness, possess all the
favours of fortune and glory, through the protection of the eight
guardians of the heavenly dragon. Muh-lien g ^ thanked effus-
ively, offered sacrifice to Kwan-yin j|| ^, and withdrew" (1).
Follows the Sanscrit text of the above prayer, transliterated by
means of Chinese character writing.
This prayer is burnt by the Buddhist priests, during the cere-
mony which they perform, for the purpose of rescuing from the
"'bloody pond" all women who have given birth to children, and not
merely those who have died in childbirth. Thus, Muh-lien's g j|t
mother did not die in giving him birth, and nevertheless, according
to this paper, she was detained in the "bloody pond".
This ceremonv is based on an absolutely false and unnatural
principle, which sets down as a sin deserving hell the propagation
of the human race through legitimate means.
This hell is called the pool of the "bloody pail". An allusion
is here made to a Chinese vessel employed at parturition. This
vessel or pail is called "p'en" ^, and it is this same character
(term), which enters into the composition of the expression Hsueh-
p'en-ch'i jfn ^ ']■&• or "pond of the bloody pail". It is well known
that the Buddhist priest Muh-lien g j£|, mentioned here, is none
other than the famous Ti-ts'ang-wang j;-j{j ^ 3E? deified by Budd-
hists, and worshipped at Kiu-hwa-shan \ lj| jjj , in the province
of Ngan-hwei ^ ^. He was one of the most cunning men, and
the original propagator, if not the inventor of this horrifying doc-
trine, which inspires such fear into pagan women, and fills the
coffers of Buddhist priests (2).
This legend of the bonze Muh-lien g jifi, rescuing his mother
from hell, is, as may be understood, a repetition of the story
(1) See Notice on Ti-ts'ang Wang Jft 0. J, the ruler of Hades, Book III.
(2) See Life of Ti-ts'ang-wang ife M 3E- Book II.
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— 87 —
attributed to Maudgalyayana (1), the cherished pupil of Buddha, and
who delivered his mother from hell.
The Taoist priestesses, Tao Nai-nui jjf| ^ ty*j. witches inhabit-
ing Hal Chow i% j'[\, have availed themselves of the popular belief
in the "bloody pond'1 Hsueh-hu-ch'i jfn. ^ fljj. At the foot of
Pagoda Hill, T'ah-shan j$ fjj , in the district of Shuh-yang-hsien
tfc Wi if" may be seen a muddy swamp, and this, according to
these witches, is the "bloody-pond", into which are plunged women
who have died in childbirth, and even others who have simply
brought forth children. The problem, therefore, is to release them
from the filthy pool in which their souls are immersed.
A difficult task indeed, according to the witches, and in order
to succeed, they must assemble in large numbers. Families inter-
ested in the success of the undertaking invite, therefore, all the
witches of the neighbourhood, offer them a hearty meal and then
conduct them to the brink of the Pagoda Hill pond, T'ah-shan J*f
[1| . Having" reached the pond, they set up howling and beating on
pieces of wood, after which the relatives of the deceased stir up the
mud with sticks, search in the pond, and pretend to release there-
from the soul of the unfortunate woman. When the comedy is over.
all return home, and make a handsome offering to the old witches,
Tao-nai-nai ^ ^fj ffl, to thank them for their good work and their
excellent howling. The people of the locality call the ceremony an
assembling, Tso-hwui fjjft ^.
(1) One of the disciples of Sakyamuni, especially noted for his magic powers, through
which he transported an artist to Tuchita, to get a view of Buddha, and make a statue of
him. He also went to hell and released his mother. Eitel. Handhook of Chinese Huddhism.
— 88
ARTICLE III.
PETITION-TALISMANS FOR SPECIAL CASES.
1°. For the benefit of a person who has commuted suicide
(printed on yellow paper).
According to the Buddhist doctrine, as exposed in the treatise
on the Infernal regions, Yuh-lih-ch'ao-chw'an 3i M. $t 1W-' a^
those who have committed suicide without sufficient reason, are
confined after their death in a special place called the '"city of
suicide victims", Wang-sze-ch'eng ^:fj 3*E J$. Buddhist priests
have invented a charm, which, according to them, has the power of
releasing from this dismal abode the soul of the person who has
committed suicide, and conferring upon him the favour of a new
rebirth.
The fatal cord that has caused his death is solemnly execrated.
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— 89 —
2°. For the benefit of a person assassinated (printed on yellow
paper).
It is stated in the treatise on the Infernal regions, Yuh-lih-
ch'ao-chw'an 3£ jg £j} fi^, that the soul of a person unjustly put
to death, or who died as a result of wounds received, enjoys freedom,
and pursues the assassin in order to he avenged on him. The
victim is not satisfied until he has delivered him over to the infernal
judges, and feasted his eyes on the spectacle of his torture. It is
only then that he can he reborn in the womb of a mother.
The annexed charm or talisman is designed to hasten the day
of this happy rebirth. The dagger or sword which slew the victim
is solemnly execrated, and the Avish expressed that they be broken
to pieces.
12
— 90 —
3". For a person harassed by evil spirits (printed on yellow
paper].
This charm has the power of hastening' the rebirth of those
unfortunate souls that are harassed by evil spirits. Buddhism teaches
that maleficent demons roam over the world seeking vengeance on
mortals, and that they frequently kill persons who do not protect
themselves from their attacks. Chinese doctors find here a means
of evading responsibility when their prescriptions fail. They then
vend at an exorbitant price certain magical nostrums designed to
break the spell which threatens life. Experience has taught them
"to make hay while the sun shines". Buddhist and Taoist priests,
Tao-shi jff ^, lose no time in imitating them, and if death ensues,
they burn this petition in order to rescue the victim's soul.
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— 91 —
'i°. For the victim of an unjust lawsuit.
The Chinaman is a born wrangler. Persons are occasionally
met with whose death has resulted from the strain, worry and
endless vexations caused by court underlings, who protract the
pleadings, and beneath a show of justice aim at the final ruin of
the victims. Sometimes, in order to put an end to their existence,
these swallow a large quantity of opium, and proceeding to the
house of their opponent, seek thereby to ruin him by dying at his
door, all other means having failed . This is the supreme vengeance
of the weak against the powerful.
The annexed talisman or paper charm is designed to deliver
the soul from punishment in the infernal regions, and help it to be
reborn in a happier state of existence.
— 92 —
5°. For the victim of a felonious murder (written on yellow
paper).
When it happens that a person has been waylaid, has fallen
into the trap laid for him, or dies as the result of wounds and ill-
treatment received, Taoist priests, Tao-shi ^ J^, are summoned,
and burn the annexed charm for the purpose of delivering his soul
from the punishment inflicted in hell, and helping it to re-enter the
wheel of the metempsychosis (1).
(1) This symbolises the ever recurring series of evanescent phenomena, all evolving
from eternal cosmic matter. The six spokes of the wheel represent the six different
regions in which one may find a new existence: the heavens, the Titanic world, the
man-world, the animal world, the region of ghosts and hell. Hackmann. Buddhism as a
Keligion. p. 165.
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— 93
6". For the benefit of drowned persons (written on yellow
paper).
We shall give further on, chapter VIII, article 14, details of
the ceremony which the Taoist priests, Tao-shi af| ^, perform to
rescue from the waters the soul of a person who has been drowned.
Here, we shall deal onlv with the written charm, whereby his soul
is delivered from hell, and helped to be reborn in another body.
This paper is burnt during the ceremony performed after his death,
and in case his corpse still floats on the surface of the ocean waves,
or lies immersed in lakes, rivers or canals, the ruler of Hades must
make all endeavours to rescue his soul out of the depths. The
victim's name and the date on which the ceremony has been
performed, are carefully written on the petition-talisman.
— 94 —
7°. For a person who has died in prison (written on yellow
paper).
Oftentimes, prisoners who die in the loathsome gaols of China
are secretly buried, and one is apprized of their death only long
afterwards. For the benefit of those unfortunate victims, Buddhist
priests burn the annexed charm during the ceremony performed
to relieve their souls in the underworld.
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8°. For the victims of calumny (written on yellow paper).
This is a charm designed for delivering- calumniated persons,
and thanks to which, justice will be rendered them in the nether
world. Here below, the reputation of these people has been blasted,
and grief has shortened their days ; the impartial judges of Hades
will now rehabilitate their memory, and reward them for the suffer-
ings they have endured. The punishment of his calumniators and
a felicitous career in a future existence, such are the wishes expressed
for the benefit of the victim. The annexed paper charm is designed
to procure him this twofold favour.
— 96 —
. 9°. For a person poisoned by doctors' prescriptions (written
on yellow paper).
This is, indeed, a wonderful charm, and one which can be
frequently employed in China. With reference thereto, the Chinese
tell a story which well depicts the situation. Once upon a time,
the god of Hades fell ill, and despatched one of his attendants to the
world of the living to fetch him a good doctor. You will recognize
him, said he, in the following manner. Examine closely the houses
of the medical profession, and count the number of souls that beset
their doors, to avenge themselves on them for having poisoned them
in a previous existence. The man at whose door you shall find the
smallest number, is the one you must invite to come and cure me.
The imp departed to fulfil his errand ; thousands of avenging souls
crowded round the doors of the whole profession. He began to
despair, when at last he espied a door at which stood only one soul
who came there to seek vengeance. Elated with joy, he fetched
him to the god of Hades, and rendered an account of his mission.
The god questioned the medico, and said : when did you begin to
practise your profession '?-- Only a short time ago. — How many
patients did you treat? — Only one. — And he died, didn't he? —
Yes — (iet away, you are no better than the others!
It is a stroke of genius on the part of Buddhist and Taoist
priests, Tao-shi ^ i, to have invented such a beneficent charm in
favour of so many unfortunate beings, who daily fall victims to the
insensate treatment of countless self-commissioned quacks. This
paper at least is designed to relieve their souls, while their bodies
have been stricken down bv death.
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CHAPTER V.
DIVERS SUPERSTITIONS FOR THE BENEFIT
OF THE DEAD.
ARTICLE I.
THE ANCESTRAL TABLET.
Muh-chu # ± (1).
In ancient times, neither the tablet nor the personator was
employed at funerals and sacrifices offered to the dead. It was
only when the burial was over that a personator was chosen,
and the tablet erected. The ceremony took place in the mortuary
room, where sacrifice was offered. We shall explain the essentials
of these two ceremonies and the purpose for which thev are
performed.
(1) Literally the "wooden host". The addition of the dot (as described above, p 53
makes? the disembodied spirit presoit, as though it $• elm. indwelt, lived therein), ;niil
1 berefore efficacious, Ling j||. '"' able to take care of the survivors. Giles. Chinese-English
Dictionary rfc.
13
— 98 —
I. The Personator, Shi p.
1°. What is a personator?
A personator, Shi J3 , represents the dead person. One of the
members of the family is chosen to represent the dead person,
during the sacrifice which is offered to the departed soul. He must
be of the same sex as the defunct, that is, men must be represented
by a male person, while deceased women are to be personated by
one of their own sex.
The personator of a dead man is chosen from among his
legitimate grandsons (1) ; if he has none, one of his grand-nephews
is taken, a relative at least in the fifth degree of consanguinity;
should there he none of this degree, one is chosen in the husband's
family, outside the fifth degree. A son, whose father is still living,
cannot fulfil the office of personator.
The woman, personating a dead person of the female sex, must
be the wife of one of the grandsons.
After the burial of the married couple, each one has a per-
sonator, but only the one representing the husband appears in the
ceremony.
A table with meats on it is prepared for the sacrifice. The
personator is then brought in and sits down with his face turned
southwards, the tablet being at his right. The worshippers, who
are of equal descent with the deceased person, bow to the personator.
All, even the elders, kneel twice towards the ground, offer him
meats and invite him to drink. He feigns to eat and drink for
form sake. The Emperor, high officials of State and mandarins,
have alone personators ; youths and the common people are entitled
to none. Youths, who die before attaining the age of virility, are
divided into three different classes: the first, comprising those from
sixteen to nineteen; the second, those from twelve to fifteen; the
(1) See the Li-ki flf§ |E, or Book of Rites. Ch. V. Tseng tze wen # ^f ffl. The follow-
ing are the exact words of Confucius: ft =f- Eh ft Jffi ^ # & % ^ , P j$ V\ $• % #J K'l
— 99 —
third, those from eight to eleven years. Children, who have not
yet attained seven years, and those below, are quite unnoticed in
the line of descendants.
The above was the custom in ancient times in choosing a
personator.
2°. Whence originated the idea of having a personatoi '
The origin of this custom is a disputed point. We will expose
here the principal opinions held by the literati.
a). The first opinion is that of Tu-yiu ■$. fft (1), of the T'ang
J* dynasty. It disapproves of the custom. The following are the
words of this writer: "The ancients employed a personator. This
rite deserves censure, and has been abolished by our greal Worthies.
One vied with the other in practising it. Now that an era of
progress has set in, and these silly customs have disappeared, it is
important not to revive them ; common sense bids to refrain from
them. Some half-baked literati of our days would fain re-establish
tliis ceremony of the personator. This is quite absurd." "^f A ffl
p #, M ± -£ m m z is. m m a ® * at n * ft ±, m
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b). The second opinion holds that the personator is as it were
the image of the soul, Shen-siang M
»■
The chapter on the ceremonial concerning the Border sacrifices
taken from the Book of Kites, Li-ki hiao-V eh-sheng /pf fg £ft ffi ij£.
says : "the personator is the image of the departed soul", Slf.ij
shen-siang yeh p, flf) j% 4.
(1) A scholar of profound erudition, who held high offices of Stab' under Teh T-unj
fg £p, ami Hsien Tsung J? g?, A J). 806 821, of the T:ang j* dynasty. Mayers. Chinese
Reader's'Manual.
(2) See General Repertory, T'ung-tien jj§ Jfe The original, written bj Tu yiu fft $j
sec above) comprises two hundred books. It is divided into eight sections, one of which
is on rites. In 1717, an Imperial mandate ordered to add a supplement. This was published
in one hundred and forty four bonks. In 173(>, a third part was added, giving details E0.1
the Manchu dynasty. This latter has one hundred books. Wylie. Notes on Chinese
Literature, p. (>>!.
— 100 —
P;ni Ku J'jf. fH (1), who lived in the time of the Han g| dynasty,
writes: ''The personator is found in the ceremony wherein sacrifice
is offered to ancestors, because the soul emitting no perceptible
sounds and having no visible form, the loving sentiment of filial
piety finds no means of displaying itself, hence a personator has
been chosen to whom meats are offered, after which he breaks the
bowls, quite rejoiced, as if his own father had eaten plenty. The
personator, drinking abundantly, imparts the illusion that it is the
soul which is satiated". $ ± Jjlf # W P #, 0 % # M Z. &
i,Ii:I^#^.SIII'S fh % ». * & P M 1
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It must be inferred from these words that the personator was
not then considered as the agent or seat of the soul, for these two
writers affirm: "the personator is the image of the soul" -"the
personator drinking imparts the illusion that it is the soul which is
satiated"'. p, # \% 4 P W * # £ #•
The meaning is obvious. The personator is, therefore, not
considered in this ceremony as the agent or seat of the soul, but
merely as its representative, or as a kind of living medium, who
was sometimes dressed up in the clothes of the departed person, in
order to make the illusion more apparent 3 .
c). Third opinion. The personator is but the bearer of the
ancestral tablet. In the work entitled Yi'i chow ta-i-i ^ 'jjf ;fc |£
|f|, it is said: "the personator is employed during sacrifices to the
dead, in order to carry the ancestral tablet". #g £ "P\ P > #T W
ft * £ 4-
(1) Appointed Imperial historiographer by Miug-ti 1$ if?. He wrote the treatise
entitled ••Annals of the White Tiger" Pehhu t'ung |=| £§ 11. which he left, unfinished.
Being involved in the rebellion of Teu-hsien g Jr, he was casi into prison and died there
A. I). 92. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual p. ICG.
(2) AnnaN of the White Tiger, Peh-hu t'ung £ fit H.
(3) See Wieger. Textes philosophises, pp. 57 and 77: also pp. 137 and 156. All these
lexis sh..\v thai the personator was but the image of the son! or the living likeness of the
dead person.
— 101 —
Jt is the grandsons who fulfil this function, and take the tablel
out. Should they be too young and unable to fulfil this duty, then
a person is appointed to carry it. The function of the personator
is to carry the ancestral tablet, hence there is no need of having
such a one immediately after death, as the tablel is not vet erected.
ft % $k P, * £ *±ftt
The work entitled, Tsih shwuli Is'iien rln'ii |j| |^ g£ ifL, sums
up in a few words the sense of this text: "the filial son chooses
a personator to carry the tablet, but not to be the resting place of
the soul of the dead person. His intention is therefore manifest".
5fe il p m n & * ±. hj # vx m **, * m h m-
In fine, in the three preceding opinions, the writers either
condemn the custom of employing the personator, or restrict his
function to that of carrying the tablet, or at most only see in him
an image of the dead person's soul.
d). The fourth opinion confutes the whole trend of thought
found in the works of the ancient literati, and maintains unhesitat-
ingly that the personator is not only a pure image of the soul, but
must be considered as the seat and agent of the soul of the dead
person.
The two most famous champions of this new school are Ch'eng
I-chw'an fM ffi )W i1^- known also as Ch'eng-i @ gf{ or Ch'eng
Ming-Lao fg ^ ^f, and chu-hsi ^ -^ (2).
The former writes: "the ancients, when sacrificing to the
dead, employed the personator, because the soul and the vital
force of the dead person alter being separated from the body, seek
(1) This writer lived A. D. 1033-1107. Wholly absorbed iu philosophical researches,
he acceded tint late to official position. His criticisms on the classics o] cl a new i ru. in
Chinese philosophy and were adopted by his great successor, Chu-hsi ^c >;£. Mayer's.
Chinese Reader's Manual, p 34.
(2) A. I). 1190-1200. Born in Fo kien, fg Wi where his father (a native of Ngan-hwei
5£ W) w;ls theu in official employ. He devoted his early years to the study of Buddhism
and Taoism, hut abandoned then, for Confucianism and the ancient classics, of which he
became the great expounder and commentator, his opinions being followed even to the
present day. Within the last one hundred and fifty years, critics have \ igorously impugned
the doctrines of his school. Mayers. Chinese Readi i ' .Manual, p. 2-j,
— 102 —
an agent of the same nature, $ 5J< -^ ptf( Ifn 1$c • Now, men being all
of the same kind, the father and the children being all of one farmh-
and of the same stock, the soul of the departed person is requested
to come and establish its seat in one of them as in an agent."
Chu-hsi $f. J3r (Yu&n-hwui 7c Uf|;, the eminent scholar and
head of the modern school, writes with no less clearness. "In
ancient times all employed a personator when sacrificing to the
dead. Since the descendants continue the life of their ancestors,
the personator shares, therefore, in the life of the departed person,
and the ancestor's soul descends undoubtedly upon his descendants,
and reposes therein to enjoy the sacrifice offered." p $1 3*E llf, |fj]
1 - %• m % ± #■ & n m at ? «, it m nk * (0-
As to the exact time when this custom commenced and ended,
we have but the testimony of the two works: the "General Repertory"
T'ung-tien jg ]fe, and "Daily Jottings" Jeh old luh Q 4|| $| (2),
which inform us vaguely that it began to fall into disuse towards the
close of the ('how f§\ dynasty, and that under the Ts'in ^ and Han
"J| dynasties it was no longer practised. It is noteworthy, however,
to remark that at the time of Confucius it nourished vigorously, as
may be seen by the quotations which we base given from the Book
of Rites, Li-hi jjj| %. Besides, Pan-hu Jjf [i| , who lived under the
Han 1^. dynasty, seems to say that the custom prevailed in his days,
and he describes the purpose thereof as a rite of which he was an
eye-witness.- -The text quoted above seems to suppose this.
II. The Tablet.
1°. What is the tablet of the dead?
After the burial and the sacrifice to the dead, a wooden tablet,
muh-chu ;fc 3i (literally " wooden host"), was erected.
(1) See liecords of the Sayings of Chu-tze, Chu tze yii lull ifc ^F" jm sit, collected and
published b\ bis disciples in one hundred and forty books, A. D. 1270. "Vvlir. Notes ou
( 'hinese Liters t Lire. \>. 85.
(2) A collection of notes on a variety of subjects, being the result of thirty years
jottings during the daily readings of the author, Kit Yeri-wu H^ff^. It comprises 32
books, and was published about the year 1673. Wylie. ibid. p. 163.
— 103
In making- it, the wood of the mulberry-tree was employed,
hence also the name given to it of mulberry-wood tablet, sang-chu
At the end of the first year, a sacrifice known as Lien-t&i $j
%£ was offered, so called from the white silk cap. lien-hvran ^ Jg,
which the son of the deceased wore on the occasion. The sacrifice
being over, the mulberry-wood tablet was buried, and replaced by
one made of chestnut wood, and hence called the chestnut-wood
tablet, lih-chli |j| ^. it was elected in a place of honour.
An Imperial tablet was one foot two inches long, while that of
dukes could be but of one foot in length.
On the mulberry-wood tablet, no carving or painting was allow-
ed ; on the back of the chestnut-wood tablet the posthumous or
temple name of the deceased was written.
According to some writers, officials and literati had no wooden
tablet : that of officials was made of silk cloth mounted on a wooden
framework, shuh-poh j^ ^ : the literati had but a tablet made of
tressed straw, hieh-mao $§ ^.
The assertion which maintains that in ancient limes officials
and literati had no wooden tablet, is admitted by the following
scholars :
HsiX-shen f^ jy| (1) and Cheng-yuan i||$ tu, both of the Han
M dynasty (A. J). 25-221).
7V it i.i-I ing \ji fj|, who lived under the Southern Liang dynasty.
Nan-liang ~\$ $fc (2).
Kia Kung-yen J!( ^ /H, of the T'ang )|f dynasty (A. J). 620-
907).
Sze Ma-wen ji\ J^ jjj^, who lived under the Sung '^ dynasty
(A. D. 960-1280).
(1) Celebrated as a scholar under Hsien-ti jfafc ^, A. L>. 190-221. Author of the diction-
ary Shw.oh-wen §5£ ^t, the first lexicon if the Chinese language.
(2) This short-lived dynasty reigned A. D. 502-550. North and South were then
divided between rival houses.
— 104 —
The contrary proposition, endeavouring to prove that in ancient
times officials and literati had a wooden tablet, is held bv the
folloAving scholars :
Sii-miao f£ fg (1), of the Tsin |f dynasty (A. [>. 265-290).
Yunn-yih 7C ']'fl, prince of Tscing-ho v^j "juT. who lived at the
time of the Northern Wei dynasty, Peh-wei -|t H (-)•
This latter opinion seems more in accordance with the teaching
of the Book of Rites, Li hi fig fE , chapter XX. § Tsi-fnh £5 j£ (3).
from the period of the Wei |)|3 and Tsin H- dynasties, down to
those of T'ang j|f and Sung ^ , the officials and literati had no
right to have a wooden tablet, muk-cliu ^ 2fe, erected to their
memory; they were only entitled to the tz'e-p'ai Ifiji] jjj^, or tablet
in the family ancestral hall, also known as shen-p'ai jjj^ )$i, the
spirit's tablet. This could be of one foot and an inch in length, four
inches and a half wide, and live lines thick. Eight characters were
engraved thereon to indicate that it was the seat of the soul of
such an ancestor, with his posthumous or temple name, or of such
an illustrious dame.
For a man : $l jj& % i£ £j ± ftfl Jg
For a woman : & A M 5% Z. $? M
At the time of the Sung ^ dynasty (A. I). 960-1280), the
founders of the modern school : Cheng /-c/nv'ar/ fj: fffi J||, and fhv
Yu&n-hwui ^ 7l flff, fixed the shape of the wooden tablet, muh-
chu t|v i-
Henceforth, officials and literati had their wooden tablet. It
could be one loot two inches in height, three inches in width, and
a little over an inch thick. The two upper corners project about
half an inch. An inch further down, a line is drawn to separate
the upper part from the lower, leaving empty one third of an inch
(1) Third century A.]'. Official and contemporary with Ts'ai-yung 1|| H,, famous
scholar, humorist and Bpicnrian, whose genius illumined the turbulent epoch of the
close of the Han $§' dynasty. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 197.
(2 The Northern Wei |J|, or Toha Tartars, held sway in Shansi |ll [5] and Honan ;3]"
]^j from A. D. 3S6-536.
(3) See Tn-li t'ung-k'ao fg g§ S #
10
.)
on the top, and about an inch on the back part. In the centre is
inscribed or written : tablet of the soul of such a one, belonging to
such a generation, of such a dignity, title and rank.
The present-day custom is to write both on the front and
back part of the tablet, parallel to the central inscription, the
exact date of the birth and death, the name of the district city,
and the ward or parish of the deceased ; also the name of the hill
(burial place), and the direction in which the coffin of the defunct
has been placed. On the front tablet is written the following inscrip-
tion : "tablet of the soul of such a person, official of such a name,
and of such a district1-; or in case of a woman : "tablet of the soul
of such a woman, bearing such a title". — The two tablets are then
placed together and inserted into the piedestal. Such are the rules
which hold at the present day (1).
Nowadays also, commoners and peasants, all without exception,
may erect a tablet in honour of their ancestors. Let us examine
the reasons which originally determined the setting up of the tablet.
2°. For what purpose was the tablet erected f
a). It is the image of the soul and a tangible symbol erected
to the memory of the deceased, affording thereby a fixed object for
filial piety.
At the time of the Han |J| dynasty, the scholar Hsu-shen f£
lit wrote: "the tablet is the image of the soul; having rendered
the last sad duties to his sire, the filial son has no object whereon
he may fix his affection, hence he offers sacrifice and erects a tablet.
zfc # ft ft 4, # •? 8E IP, & M ft ft, ffc J3l JM M ± ± (2).
Pan-ku 3#£ [g, another scholar, who lived under the same
dynasty, wrote similarly: "the soul, properly speaking, has no
dwelling place ; the filial son fixes his affection on the tablet, and
employs it to draw the attention of succeeding generations", ft ;$
M t, # ¥ % £ M ±, fC ■* % pT *P (3).
1 1) See the Wu-li t'ung-k'ao % fi| £§ #, and Tu-li t'ung-k'ao '$. W. M #
(2) See the Wu-king i-i S. M !& tl-
(3) See Annals of the White Tiger, Peh-hu t'ung fi J^ Ji-
14
c
— 106 —
Ch'eng Peh-yu J$ fg B^f, who lived in the time of the T'ang
j|f- dynasty, sa}rs : "as the heart of the filial son found no object
worthy of his affection after the burial of his father, he bethought
himself of erecting a (commemorative) tablet. ]|| f|? j^ ^ ;£ ;fr,
s & m %, & it ft ^ (i)'.
The famous scholar, Ch'en Kao |fif« $£, of the Y"ua?i 7c dynasty,
quoting" the words of the scholar Fang ~jf , writes as follows: "In
truth, the soul has no fixed abode, so it cannot be attached to any
material resting-place. What people have agreed to call the seat of
the soul, is in reality a seat erected for the living". iji$ 4te ~}j ^L>
% if m m &< m ft hl #. # a it 2. 5 (2).
According to these ancient writers, the original purpose in
erecting the tablet was, therefore, to have a tangible symbol of the
departed soul, affording a fixed object to the filial piety of the
descendants, but it was never intended to make thereof the abode or
seat of the soul of the dead person.
b). The soul of the deceased abides really in the tablet.
We now come to a more modern phase of thought, which has
been gradually evolved.
Under the T'ang Jff- dynasty, K'ung gin-tali Q II jH (3) wrote
as follows : "the tablet is the seat wherein dwells the departed soul.
* ± m n & ft (4).
Under the Sung ^ dynasty, Ch'eng I-chw'an f| ffi J||, a
writer already quoted, holds the following language : "Should a
sacrifice be offered to ancestors without erecting them a tablet, their
soul has no seat wherein to dwell. ^| Inj #& yfc ±, |lj ft Tfi #;.
According to Chu-hsi ^ J|F, the ancient rite concerning the
tablet was to establish a seat, wherein one desired the ancestral soul
(1) See the Wu-li t'ung-k'ao £ fg J§ ;%.
(2) See the Li-ki tsih-shwoh jjif f£ %k IS-
(3) A. D. 574-648. A descendant of Confucius in the 32lul degree, and a distinguished
scholar and public functionary. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual.
(1) See Discussions on the Book of Rites, Li-ki shu $$ fE, Ufa.
Fig. 53
&
it
4#4
^2
ii»
Figure de la tablette des ancetres.
A'ncesfraZ tablet (front and back parts).
— 107 —
to reside. -£ 2L # ±, f£ 1L - Jg, #C fft 3§ £ $j- 4$ $ ^ 4 (I).
Some modern writers have given various absurd explanations of
the ancient classics. From these erroneous comments results the
popular belief that the soul of the defunct resides really in the tablet.
It is, therefore, fancied that one will enjoy happiness by repeatedly
bowing and praying before it. Likewise, it is considered that mis-
fortune will befall people, if this duty is either neglected or discarded.
Popular credulity is in nowise puzzled by any amount of anom-
alies or contradictions. The tablet is not erected until the burial has
taken place, how then can it be explained, why the soul, which
dispensed with a seat before the burial, now comes and abides
therein, when the name of the deceased person is affixed thereon?
Moreover, how explain why the soul, which is thought to be
fixed on a piece of cloth borne before the coffin, seeing its name
inscribed on the tablet, suddenly abandons its first resting-place,
and hastens to take up a new seat on the tablet?
In fine, the tablet cannot be erected but once, hence in case it
is broken or lost in any way, where will the poor soul henceforth
reside ?
3°. Description of the ancestral tablet.
This tablet is composed of two upright pieces, each, however,
of unequal length.
The first, which is the longer and thicker, is generally inserted
on a carved block or piedestal. It is placed to the rear. The top
portion is sometimes carved, and almost always painted red and
varnished. It varies in form, assuming at times a semi-circular
shape (see annexed figure), and at others resembling a truncated
pyramid.
The second piece, which is the shorter, is placed to the front.
It bears the prescribed inscription, which, on ordinary occasions,
meets the eye of the visitor. Lest the characters, however, might
(1) See Chu hsi's Miscellanies. Chu-tze yii-lei ^ ^ ff
— 108 —
be effaced in the course of time, the same formula, with details of
birth, death and date of burial, is also inscribed on the longer piece
placed at the back.
This second inscription is invisible, being- hidden from view by
the front piece.
The two pieces of the tablet are placed together, impinging on
each other, their surfaces having been planed smooth. When both
are thus placed, one would hardly suspect that there are two dis-
tinct pieces.
n
0
— 109 —
ARTICLE II.
"KOTOWING" TO THE DEAD.
K'eu-pai wang-jen Pp ^ rjj \.
The kind of obeisance mentioned here is common] v called
"kotowing", K'o-t'eu £* Jjjf, or knocking the head on the ground.
A full description of it is found in the Book of Rites, Li-hi jjjf fg,
chapter T'an-kung |J ^.
The following- are the very words of Confucius himself: "gener-
ally", says he, "guests who come to condole are first saluted bv
kneeling towards them, and knocking the head on the ground to
manifest one's grief. However, the process of knocking the head
on the ground, before bowing to the guests, is a more expressive
manner of showing grief, and I prefer the latter way, in cases when
mourning lasts for three years". JfL T 0 , # M Jn # |I H ^,
* ii 4, m m m % n &, # m 4, -a * m ± *, ^ % £
This ritual bowing before the corpse, or when performed during
the period of mourning, is technically termed K'i-sang ^f ^g, and
consists in kneeling, opening the hands and placing them forward on
the ground, knocking the head on the ground, and maintaining that
posture even for some time, K'i-liu |§ •[§ (remaining bowed down).
The custom of bowing to the dead, kneeling towards them,
and knocking the head on the ground, goes back to the remotest
times (1), and each one practises it as he deems fitting. (Man being-
dead, his soul is separated from the body, which is henceforth but
a lifeless corpse. Nevertheless, those mortal remains, though deprived
of the spirit that animated them, are an essential part of the human
being, and as such deserve respect. Special ceremonies have always
been employed in honouring them, and this is quite in accordance
with reason. The manner, in which the Chinese people consider
(1) See Ritual of Mourning, Sang-li & jg, ffc Jf fit UP, Kff ft ffi M ^ W, ff fl£ t
a, n # b as.
— 110 —
nowadays such honours, is quite different from the above standpoint,
hence the Catholic Church has prohibited them).
The common people treat at present a corpse as if it were an
intelligent being, and call the tomb the sepulchre of the soul, Ling-
kiu fl ^ (1). Over it are affixed inscriptions begging- the protec-
tion of the soul, Ling-yiu fH ^f , the table placed beside it is called
the throne of the soul, Ling-tso Hf j^S, while the tablet is stvled
the seat or resting-place of the soul, Ling-wei f|| fi- This tablet
bears in Chinese the name of Ling-p'ai f£ )$., or also Pang-t'ieh
W fMl' anc* consists of a strip of white cloth, one foot in length and
a little over three inches wide, upon which is written: "tablet of
such or such a person. It is placed on a small table beside the
coffin, and is afterwards burnt at the burial service together with
some mock-money.
During lifetime, kneeling is not practised indiscriminately
towards everybody. How then does it happen that when a person
is dead, be he a young man or an inferior, superiors and elders,
forgetting their dignity, kneel down and bow before his corpse,
fearing even to be too sparing of their prostrations? Should you
ask them why they so act, they will tell you they hope the deceased
will procure them happiness, or they fear his maleficent influence;
in fine, they consider him as the dispenser of happiness or misfor-
tune. It is for this reason that they kneel and bow repeatedly
before him. Let us now suppose that two or three intelligent
persons, though kneeling before the corpse of the deceased, have no
intention of begging him to grant happiness or avert misfortune,
but wish merely to observe an outward rite of civility towards him,
it is nevertheless obvious, that the wise conduct of these two or
three men of common sense, will be quite inefficient to dispel the
silly hopes entertained by thousands, nay by hundreds of thousands
of men, hence the Catholic Church has been compelled to prohibit
such honours.
(1) Ling fg. The disembodied spirit, manifesting itself in an efficacious manner, and
henceforth protecting descendants.
Fig. 55
1 '
S**«± -'-^^gpsSgfe ■■'■ :'^?<m*0$W^:*?^^^^^^:fi ?s«;:;;
Oblations devant la tablette des ancetres.
Offerings placed before the Ancestral tablet.
— 111 —
ARTICLE III.
SACRIFICES OFFERED TO THE DEAD.
Tsi-tsien wang-jen ^| ^ A>
Rich and poor, all offer meats to deceased parents. This custom
goes back to the remotest antiquity. It is a strict duty to prepare
wine, meats, fruit and vegetables, which are placed on a table, and
the dead are invited to come and partake thereof.
This ceremony is practised when the corpse is placed in the
coffin, also on the burial day, and on the two anniversaries of the
birth and death of. the deceased (1).
The tenth anniversary of the death of the deceased is celebrated
as the fiftieth ; on the sixtieth anniversary, a congratulatory address
is read, and presents are offered in the same manner as among the
living.
The work entitled: Fungshen-kid litsih shwoh ^§§ ^f 5^ fiH ;KI
f£, says: "Since presents and congratulations are offered during
lifetime, why not manifest after death one's filial piety, by offering
sacrifice on the anniversary day of the demise of the deceased?" (2).
The "Prayer-formularies for birthdays and death anniversaries",
Sheng-ki chuh-wen £ ,gt fft "<&;, give the congratulatory formula
to be used on the occasion: "In such a year, month and day, I,
the filial son (here name is inserted), beg to offer a petition to such
a grandee (3), and say to him : years flit away with wonderful rapi-
dity; on the annual anniversary of thy birth, I was wont to congra-
tulate thee while thou wert still living, now that thou art no more,
could I possibly forget thee? My filial affection is undying; beneath
the immense vault of the heavens, I invite thee to drink and eat of
(1) See Yao liu la shu #fc W. ft #■
(2) See Fung-shen-kia li-tsih-shwoh g| # % M ft M- $1 # £ ^, i£ # K Hi 1 1
(3) After death the soul is raised to higher dignity and rank. S.-e above, p. 56.
— 112 —
these meats, which with my whole heart I offer thee, and beg thee
to graciously accept'1 (1).
The Ritual of Mourning, Sang-Ii |jfi fiff, employs almost the
same phraseology. If we seek the reason, whence originated these
offerings made to the dead in ancient times, we find it is not precise-
ly to furnish food to the departed souls, but rather to manifest
filial piety. Failing other means, the customs holding during life
are availed of and applied to the dead. Such an offering is, there-
fore, but a mark of undying affection, and means in nowise that
the dead will partake of the meats offered.
The work known as Sung-t'ao-kuh ts'ing-i-luh ^ |>|J *£ fjtf
S ^, contains the following : the wooden (artificial) fruits placed
before the tablet of the ancestor of the Chow dynasty, Chow T'ai-t^u
Jp) ^C fit (2), were seen to assume the appearance of natural ones".
In the work entitled Ming-tu-muh fing-yil hi-t'an 0£j ^jj-fl ^
i§ M IB f^> we re&d : "nowadays, rich and poor, place on the
burial day, natural or artificial fruits before the tablet of a dead
person. The artificial fruits are painted in imitation of natural ones".
These ritual offerings of both natural and artificial fruits, indicate
obviously, that the intention was not to offer them as food to be
eaten by the dead.
Only . the living, who have a material body, are capable of
eating; after death, the soul is separated from the body, which is
soon corrupted and crumbles to dust. Henceforth, the disembodied
spirit endures neither hunger nor thirst ; how then can it need any
food? Even the ignorant understand these principles. Unfortunately,
Buddhist doctrine has invaded the people's mind, pretending that
souls in the nether world still need drink and food, that their
(1) See Sheng-ki chuh-wen £ & jjjfc &. « $= 0 fl, %■ f- £, jg Hg £ j* # & ^
ft s a, m /? % m, ^ m m '&, # ©e w r- a ^ m. £, & m m m, -% ^ ® s, m
(2) The Posterior Chow, Heu-chou ^ Jj§, is the last of the five ephemeral dynasties
which succeeded the downfall of T'ang )§*. It ruled Central China, A. D. 051-960, amidst
the greatest confusion and turmoil.
— 113 —
descendants should furnish them therewith, and oiler them meals
at stated periods, failing which they become "hungry ghosts" 1).
These nonsensical ideas are so ingrafted in the popular mind
that it is difficult to extirpate them. Meats and wine are offered,
because it is fancied the dead eat and drink in reality 2). In order
to understand better the attitude of the Chinese mind, with reference
to these sacrifices offered to the dead, let us put the question by
way of objection, and see how it is avoided solving it. Nothing
depicts better the mind of a person, than the manner in which be
beats about the bush, when an objection is urged against his system.
Objection,— Chinese books contain the following: "After three
days fasting, the ears become deaf and the eyes are overcast". Now
it happens, that in the course of a year, sacrifices are offered at most
only six or seven times to the dead, whence it results that they
remain one or two months without eating or drinking, the meats
previously offered being all consumed. Did they really stand in need
of food, wouldn't they have died of hunger many a day ago?
As to the manner of making these offerings, people are con-
tented with placing the meats on a table, and when the sacrifice is
over, every bit of meat and every drop of wine still remains there ;
the ancestors have tasted nothing, so then of what avail is the
sacrifice ?
Every intelligent person ought to manifest his filial piety in
conformity with reason, and in a manner advantageous to his parents.
But isn't it highly unreasonable to invite a spiritual soul to come
and partake of material food?
(1) Buddhism has borrowed from China its ancestor worship, though opposed to the
leading doctrine of Buddha. In large monasteries, ancestral tablets are erected to the
souls of the cremated members of the community, in exactly the same manner as the usual
monuments of the kind. Once every year, a festive rite, accompanied by an offering, taki -
place before all the ancestral tablets in the monastery. Hackmann. Buddhism as a
Religion, p. 229.
('-') See Ming-tu-mub t'ing-yii ki-t'an BJ] $|5 & 1*> pf§ $£ g£. ^ ± $; %_ %. H # %
#. £ i m m % m ra &• % ± £ * ft « m t. ab m vi &
\:>
— 114 —
What would a person say of a son, who prepared a banquet
for his parents, when they were several thousand miles away from
him, and knowing they could not return?
Such acts are in nowise inspired by filial piety, but denote a
total lack of practical common sense.
Reply. — The above logical conclusion seems to be implied in
a passage from the Book of Kites, Li-hi jjjf} f£, chapter T'an-kung
Iff ^7, where we find the following: "When a man has given up
the ghost, it is customary to set out beside him dry flesh and
pickled meats. When he is borne to the grave, the flesh of the
victims offered is placed on little carriages, which follow the hearse.
After the burial service meats are offered him, but nobody has ever
seen the dead person partake of these offerings" (1).
One would expect here to see the obvious conclusion drawn:
therefore, it is needless to offer him anything, since he never
enjoys it. We are, however, deceived ; the Book of Rites, Li-hi jjjf|
|E, concludes quite otherwise. Here is what it says: "From the
remotest antiquity, such offerings have never been neglected, in
order not to abandon the dead. Therefore this custom which some
people reprove, is in nowise blameworthy" (2). It has ever existed,
therefore it is good; it is the custom in China, therefore we practise
it. This clinches the question.
\'id(jo meliora proboque, deteriora sequor ! (3).
It is even customary in some places to prepare an opium-pipe
and a little recipient filled with the drug. Both are placed on
the table together with the offerings, in order that the deceased
may enjoy his pipe after dinner, as he was wont to do while living.
This is a rather modern innovation.
(1) Li-kiftfjB. Ch. T'an-kung. Section II. Pt. II. n° 8.
(2) *& k m m z. u, n It at m ft £, m m m & £, * m % % m £. # •&<
s h ut w *, * z m vt in, n $ k % & -a, m ^ z. m m ft m #, # * a £
(3) I see the better way. and I approve, and yet I follow what is worse. Ovid. Meta-
morp. VII. IS.
— 1 1 5 —
If we consider attentively the innermosf thoughts of pagan
Chinese, we ever discover lurking at the bottom ol their heart a
more pressing motive, more or less avowed. They cherish the hope
that their parents will protect them, shower blessings on them, and
it is often for this purpose that offerings are made to them.
People of this kind believe more or less in the existence of
"hungry ghosts", a doctrine invented by Buddhists, but sacrifice in
the dead to secure happiness and avoid misfortune, and qo1 merely
for the purpose of manifesting filial piety. As proof thereof, we
read in the "Glosses to the Chow Ritual", Chow-li chu-shu J£] jjj« ^
ffl, (t\ that all the ministers sacrificed in their private shrines, and
after the sacrifice, offered the flesh of the victims to the prince, to
procure him happiness, as they fancied. Every person offering sacri-
fice draws down happiness on himself: should lie offer part of the
victim to the prince, he makes him a present of happiness.
Elsewhere we find: "the victims offered in sacrifice are shared
with the prince and grandees, and those who receive these meats
receive the blessings of the spirits, Kwei-shen J^, tffy; it is for this
reason that both raw and sodden meats are offered" (2).
We find likewise the same doctrine exposed in the work entitled
"Record of popular customs", T'ung-wsuh-pien $% (ft $|j (3): "On
this belief are founded the various names given to these meat-oblations
by those who offer them: "present of happiness", Fuh-li fg fj|,
while the distributing of them is called "distribution of happiness",
San-fuh fr fg" (4).
At the present day, those who make these sacrifices and offer-
ings, have the intention of either presenting food to the dead, or of
securing happiness, both of which are contrary to sound reason.
(1) See Chow-li chu-shu J5] ^ f£ gr£. Chow-li t'ien kwan shen-fu Jnl fg ^ If ))* H.
it a g ^ §§c m. & &, a m r*j j&* i, m z. & m, & m #, /l ^ m ± a ^ *g, ^
H £ £ *I **, tfc z & fg.
(2) See Chow-li ch'un-kwan-ta-tsung-peb jjf) fig ^ 'g" ± ^ ffi.
(3) See T'ung-suh-pien ffi # M. J* ^ A II? ft ®, B B W., ft life, 0 ®C IS.
(4) Those who receive these offerings, after a sacrifice, eat and drink their happiness
Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language jjjgj.
— 116 —
Hence, in the seventh year of the reign of K'ien-lung Ifc \%f?.
Pope Benedict XIV issued a Bull (1), forbidding the offering of such
sacrifices to the dead. The Church proscribes these ceremonies,
because the rite is opposed to sound reason.
We have seen above, how scholars themselves, brought up
in the midst of paganism, condemn these customs as tainted with
Buddhist errors.
It is historically proved that the custom originated in the
remotest times of the Chinese nation. History, as a matter of fact,
informs us that the Emperor Shun ^ (2), invested Chu ^, son of
the defunct emperor Yao a=§, with the feudal demesne of ccT;ni" -ft,
on condition that he would offer annually a ritual sacrifice to the
Manes of his (Shun's) father (4).
This is the first official record wherein we find that sacrifices
were offered to the dead.
(1) This document is dated 11th July, 1742. It was not, however, published till the
II"1 August following. It finally settled all disputed points.
(2) One of the three great Emperors of the legendary period. Paid to have ruled
China B. C. 2255-2205.
(3) See Tze-chi t'ung-kien kang-mub jf *S & §i IS B. Sfg^&^fl-J^fcjjiE.
Fig. 56
Le papier-monnaie. Divers genres.
Various kinds of mock-money.
— 117 —
ARTICLE IV.
MOCK-MONEY.
Chi-ts'ien
At the time of the Western or Former //an, Ts'ien-han nt $|
(B.C. 206 — A. D. 25), wealthy folks placed pieces of copper money
in the coffins with the dead. During the reign of the Emperor Wu-ti
jfc iff (B.C. 140-86), robbers violated the tomb of his ancestor,
Wen-ti -£ ^f, and appropriated the silver deposited therein (1).
During the reign of the Eastern or Later Han dynasty, Heu-
han f|t M (A. D. 25-221), while the Emperor Hwo-ti %] rf? A. I).
39-106) ruled the country, Ts'ai-lun ^ jj| (2\ bethought himself
of employing the bark of trees and other materials for paper-
making, hence it is at this time that people began to use it for
writing purposes.
This document is found in the work entitled "Chronicles of the
Later Han jj|, referring to Ts'ai-lun ^ jfa" (3). During the two
dynasties of Wei |^ and Tsin §, that is to say from the commen-
cement of the Three Kingdoms, San-kwoh _5£ |gtj (A.I). 22 1-'i20),
cunning knaves cut up paper and offered it instead of money to the
Spirits, Kwei-shen Jfi jji^, but this custom was not yet general (4).
T'ang Yuan-tsung j^- 7C tj£> given to various superstitions, and
a votary of all kinds of gods, established as High Master of Ceremo-
nies Wang-yiX ^E J&i the twenty-sixth year of his reign, in the
period K'ai-yuan ffi 7C (A. D. 739). This minister, with the
(1) See Chronicles of the Former Han jijif §ji. Ts'ieu-han-ehu Chaug-t'aiig-chwan 0ij
m # m % \%-
(2) The reputed iuventor of paper-making in China. He was the first who substituted
silk and ink for the bamboo tablet and stylus. Chief eunuch and chamberlain of the
Imperial household: he was ennobled as Marquis of the Dragon Pavilion, Lnng fc'ing-hen
nl ¥ {Jt- Giles. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, p. 751.
(3) Heu-han-shu Ts'ai-lun-chwan % ^ # ^ ft %. % M W %t % |g f# &f $f Si
& m m, m ft m m<m m vx * m n.
(4) See Fung shi wen kien ki ft fc frl JL f E. $g m IH, f& ft # :£ #, M $& U &
— 118 —
approval of his Lord, began to burn mock-money at the Imperial
sacrifices. Learned persons of those days condemned this practice as
contrary to established rites, and thus it was not then introduced
as a custom among the people, but became popular later on. It has
existed thenceforward down to the present day, in which we find it
practised throughout all China (I).
This custom of burying bullion with the dead, if it did not,
even at the time of the Han -^ dynasty, excite the cupidity of robbers,
it removed at least from circulation a valuable commodity, by hiding
it in the ground. < )n this score it deserved to be abandoned, and
thus people henceforth began to use paper money (2).
In later times, a novel contrivance was imagined, that of mak-
ing gilt paper ingots resembling silver and gold, also perforated
paper, which was burnt and reduced to ashes for the benefit of the
dead.
The origin of this use of paper instead of money goes back, as
Ave have seen, to Wang-yii 3l iH> who lived in the time of the
T'ang JH dynasty. He used it in the Imperial sacrifices, and the
people followed his example. In his days, however, learned persons
combated the innovation, so that it did not extend immediately, but
at last it became general, and could not be extirpated without diffi-
culty. There were not wanting, however, men of common sense,
who unmasked its inanity. Among them, we may mention the
following :
(1) See Chronicles on the Books of the T'ang J|f dynasty. T'ang-shu Wang-yub chwan
£ ifi; T. m IS- T'ung-kien Kang-muh & g£ {ft §• 5&*7C^tt»)S,#,SSJ»^Jilf,
ffl % - + * *z, m nmni® g $, m w ^±M,^^^mmm,ni^m m,
a b$ *n m #, & n z., wl * fig m n , & T) f& m $ t$, rfn * k ^ it m, m. m m
(21 Bnvying real money with the dead was common during the Han Jf|" dynasty, and
in subsequent times. The use of paper money began during the dynasties of Wei f|| and
Tsin ^ (third and fourth century). It had at first a hard struggle against orthodoxy,
which absolutely refused to approve a thing unknown to the holy ancients. In the seventh
century, it took the shape it possesses to-day. The Confucian school of philosophy, which
nourished during the Sung -£ dynasty (tenth century), sanctioned its use in the worship of
111'- dead. De Groot. The Religious System of China. Vol. II. p. 71 I.
— 119 —
During the reign of Chen-tsung ^ ^ (A. D. 998-1023 , oi the
Sung 5jc dynasty, there lived an official called Wang Sze-tsung 3f
l'pj ^, his surname being H si-yuan ft ^c, a native of Fen-chow :fy
$\, in the province of Skansi |i| g".
Fulfilling the functions of Prefect of the second order, he forbade
all unorthodox sacrifices, and had the temples of the false gods
razed to the ground. Later on, he was promoted to the rank of
viceroy. Being on his death-bed, and seeing his family burning
pieces of silk in order to procure happiness, he cried out with a
strong voice and ordered them to cease, saying: "if the Spirits are
intelligent, how can they accept bribes"? (1
During the reign of Hwei-tsung ffi £ a. 1). L101-11 26 . also
of the Sung ^ dynasty, the two ministers Kao-fung ffi \\\'f and
Liao Yung-ckung 0 || cf), presented a petition, in order to obtain
that the burning of paper-money be prohibited, saying: "perforat-
ing paper, so as to make it resemble money, and binning it to
procure happiness, is an absurd practice and a silly delusion. If the
Spirits are endowed with intelligence, it is really insulting them" (2).
While the coffin of the Emperor Kao-tsung l^j ^ was being
borne to the grave, all the officials burned mock-money before his
remains, whereupon the heir-apparent, subsequently Hsiao-lsung
^ ^ (A. D. 1163-1190), showed his disapproval and rebuked them
as follows : "mock-money is a Buddhist practice to deliver the soul
from Hades ; my Holy Sire needs no such things" (3).
Chu-hsi 4c ^ savs : "Nowadays, whenever a burial takes
place, one must bring mock-money, coloured paper, silks and other
needless articles. When they have been burnt, nothing remains
1 1) See Last Memorials of the Sun- Emperors, Sheng-tsung tob-i 1? t£ ^ *§• ft ~v:
% ft, m $b & g m w.
(2) See Li Tsi-wung tze hsin luh $ 81 M H Hg & & ^ $fl, ^C g ft <$, % ifJ 4\
m m m % m ®, if i; tit m m © m, n vx m m a* jt m #, * *n ffl m & ft, n
m m xm z m,^ ft t %. z ® n %, s %mv\%,m2. « ft £ 3ti pi 1&.
l3l See Yeb-hwoh-pien $? $ gg. $S£g 7!/ fl ft # K IWg|,*.*l-± #T
Stjfl.
— 120 —
but the ashes, useless alike for the living and the dead. These
practices are far inferior to those of ancient times, when people
offered real silver and garments, each one according" to his filial
piety and means, or merely a foot-length of cloth, a bushel of millet",
as he pleased.
The Book of Elites, Li-I:i jjjg f{£, contains the following : "lavish
prodigality is blameworthy as much as stinginess; sincere respect
excludes both extremes. Tearful regrets, if not accompanied by some
offerings at burials, are inadequate in the eyes of every enligthened
person" (1).
As may be seen from this quotation, Chu-hsi £fc Jt prefers
presents in kind, as was the custom in ancient times. Offerings
must be made and mock-money presented, but these though worth-
less for the living and the dead, are still better than nothing at all.
As a matter of fact, all the literati burn mock-money for the benefit
of their deceased ancestors. They inveigh in line style against this
ridiculous ceremony, but in practical life totally forget their pompous
outpourings. Many a reader might be pleased to hear the reasons
advanced in defence of such strange conduct. I beg, therefore, to
expose briefly here a few of the arguments exchanged between
foreign missionaries and the literati. Some of these I have heard,
and others I have proposed personally. No better means could be
found, showing the flimsy character of their motives for adhering to
a ceremonv, which in reality they acknowledge as absurd, but still
wish to practise through fear of offending national customs.
The Missionary. — Man, during his life here below, is exposed
to hunger, and seeks wherewith to apease it ; he suffers from cold,
and requires clothes to protect himself; without money he cannot pro-
cure the good things of life, hence the necessity of having money. After
death, the body crumbles to dust ; the soul, being a spiritual sub-
stance, sutlers neither from hunger or cold. Had it a heap of gold,
all would be absolutely useless; Of what avail then is paper-money?
li See Sung-yii wen-pao ch'ui-kien-luh wai-tsik $j? if £ %*} Vfc gl] # ^|< J|. 4" A
'U $ mmmm *& m m \% &mKm, s* £ % m m s, % % « * m m t. m.
— 121 —
The Chinaman. -Confucius says that we must treat our de-
ceased parents in the same manner as when they were living. Now,
a loving son must procure money, to help his aged parents in their
needs, and it is for this reason that we offer them paper-money.
The Missionary. - You must treat your deceased parents in
the same manner as when they were living. Well, during then-
lifetime, did you give them paper instead of money? When there-
was no rice in the house, and they requested you to procure them
some, what would they say. if you gave them but a bundle of paper-
ingots, covered with tinfoil, to purchase eatables?
The Chinaman. — Mock-money is the currency used bv the
ghosts, kwei J^. It is forwarded them by burning it; that's the
custom.
The Missionary. — Now, after burning the paper, what re-
mains? Merely a little ashes. No intelligent person, either in this or
the ghost-world, w7ould ever take ashes for money. Make that exper-
iment, burn a little paper, and with the ashes which remains, try
to buy whatever you please, the vendor will laugh at you, or perhaps
consider himself insulted by the very fact of your offering him ashes,
instead of the coin of the realm. Do you then take your deceased
parents for idiots ?
The Chinaman. — Bv no means, but we consider that in for-
warding them this burnt paper-money, they can use it to bribe a
little the executioners of the lower world, and thanks to these pre-
sents secure thereby their favour, abridge the time of their expiation,
and obtain some mitigation of their sufferings.
The Missionary. — In the present world, gaolers may accept
bribes, and without the approval of the judges mitigate the sentence
of prisoners, but in the nether world the demons cannot cheat the
supreme Ruler, all-powerful, -all-knowing, and who will grant no
favours to those who have fallen into his hands. Moreover, who
has ever seen the ghosts, Kwei fy, come and gather up the ashes
of burnt paper-money? On the contrary, do we not see every day
the remains of these ashes trodden under foot, abandoned near the
16
— 122 —
graves, or swept by the winds into drains and sinks? The ruler of
Hades never comes to gather them up, why then burn them for him?
Besides, do you consider him so silly, as to be unable to distin-
guish ashes from real gold and silver?
The Chinaman . — 1 am ignorant as to the condition of things
in the nether world, but 1 know it is my intention in offering paper-
money, to manifest my filial piety towards my deceased parents ;
there is nothing in that but a good and noble feeling.
The Missionary . — Without doubt, your purpose is good and
noble-minded, but it is exceedingly to be regretted that you employ
a means quite opposed to the end that you seek. Let me simply tell
you that vou grossly insult your parents, for in offering them ashes
as real money, von deceive them, you treat them as absolute idiots,
who cannot even discern a heap of ashes from a silver ingot. They
must curse you in the nether world, and deplore your hick of intelli-
gence in practical matters. The first rule of filial piety is to practise
it in an intelligent manner.
The Chinaman. — J don't object, but it is the custom in China,
and we find that any one who fails to observe it, is lacking in filial
piety.
The Missionary. — Since you have quoted at the outset the
authority of Confucius, you will not take it ill of me to quote him
also in this discussion. All those who, according to you, do not
burn paper- money for the benefit of their deceased parents, lack
filial piety; but have you well considered the extent of your words?
Confucius, your greatest Sage, has never burnt paper-money, for the
very good reason that the art of making paper was invented only
several hundred years after his death. This invention is due to
Ts'ai-lun ^ jfa. Therefore, in your opinion, Confucius was lacking
in filial piety. All your Sages of ancient times, Yao M (1),
ll Yao 0§, stands at the dawn of Chinese history as a model of all virtue. He
ascended the throne B. C. 23f'7, and reigned over 70. some say even over 90 years. Mayers.
Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 27'2.
— 123 —
Shun ^ (1), Yii the Great -fr f% (2), the duke of Chow. Chow
Kung J$ ^ (3), Meng-tze jg ^ (4), so many illustrious personam
down to Wnng-yii 3£ 3E&, who lived in the YIN1' century of the
christian era, and all these Lacking in filial piety, for it was the
above Wang-yiX 3£ J&, who first introduced this custom , and histo-
rians attack his memory, because by this absurd invention he
abandoned the ancient traditions of his ancestors, preferring the si 11 \
nonsense of Buddhists, to the customs handed down from the remotest
antiquity.
I have never found a scholar, who has been able to reply to this
last argument. Confucius showed filial piety without burning mock-
money, so I can well follow his example. This short dialogue
exhibits amply why paper-money is burnt for the benefit of the dead.
(1) Another of the legendary heroes of China's Golden Age. He succeeded Yao ^ on
the throne, and mourned for him during three years. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual.
(-2 1 Successor to Shun ${r. He completed the work of controlling the waterways oi
China. Confucius said of him that he displayed the utmost filial piety towards the Spirits.
Mayers. Ibid.
(3) Younger brother of the first sovereign of the Chow JU dynasty. He is ranked
in virtue, wisdom and honours, as yielding place only to the great rulers of antiquity, Sao
% and Shun ffi. He died full of years B. C. 110.">. Mayers. Ibid.
(4) Mencius. B. C. 372-289. Philosopher a«d moralist, second only to Confucius,
whose doctrines he expounded and commented. His works, collected by his disciples, form
one of the Four classics. Mayers. Ibid.
— 124 —
ARTICLE V.
BUDDHIST BELLS.
Tolling of Buddhist IjpII*. Chvoang-fan-chung |f ^ fit.
In almost all Buddhist monasteries, may be seen a bell, which
is tolled by the monks morning and evening. These regular tollings
comprise a series of 108 strokes. This number 108 represents :
1°. The twelve months of the year = 12.
2°. The twenty-four divisions of the Chinese year, correspond-
ing to the different positions which the sun occupies with reference
to the 12 signs of the zodiac. These 24 terms, or tsieh fp, divide
the solar year into 24 periods of almost equal duration. They are the
following: Slight cold, Great cold, Beginning of Spring. Bain water,
Excited insects, Vernal equinox, Pure brightness, Corn rain, Beginn-
ing of Summer, Small fulness (grain fills), Sprouting seeds (grain
in ear), Summer solstice, Slight heat, Great heat, Beginning of
Autumn, Stopping of heat, White dew, Autumnal equinox, Cold
dew, Frost's descent, Beginning of Winter, Slight snow, Heavy
snow. Winter solstice = 24.
3°. The 72 divisions of the Chinese year into terms of 5 days.
Each of these terms of five days is denominated "Hen" |^|. Now,
the number 72 X 5 gives the Chinese year of 360 days.
Adding up the months, the twenty-four terms or tsieh fp, and
the periods of five days or "hen" j|}|, in a year, we have the total
of 12 + 24 + 72 = 108. It is the whole year which is thus entirely
devoted to the honour of Buddha.
The manner of ringing these 108 strokes varies according to
different places. The following are a few selections.
1°. At Hang-chow jfc >}]], Capital of Chekiang '$f ££ province,
the tolling is regulated by the following quartet, which has become
a popular tune ;
Cloche et chapelet bouddhiques.
Buddhist bell and beads.
— 125 —
At the beginning, strike thirty-six strokes ;
At the end, still thirty-six again ;
Hurry on with the thirty-six in the middle:
You have in all but one hundred and eight, then stop.
36 + 36 4-36 = 108.
2°. At Shao-hsing $g M, another quartet has the following :
Lively toll eighteen strokes ;
Slowly the eighteen following ;
Repeat this series three times,
And one hundred and eight you will reach.
(18 -f 18) X 3= 108.
3°. At T'ai-clww ■£* '}\\, another city in Chekiang ffi fr pro-
vince, we find the following ditty :
At the beginning, strike seven strokes ;
Let eight others follow these ;
Slowly toll eighteen in the middle ;
Add three more thereto ;
Repeat this series thrice ;
The total will be one hundred and eight.
(7 -f 8 -f 18 -f. 3) X 3 = 1 08.
Why these bells are tolled. — Although the manner of ringing
differs according to different places, it is fancied everywhere, that
the sound of the bell procures relief and solace to the souls tormen-
ted in the Buddhist hell. It is thought that the undnlatorv vibra-
tions, caused by the ringing of the bells, provoke to madness the
king of the demons, T'oh-wang jVf; 2i, render him unconscious,
blunt the sharp-edged blades of the torturing tread-mill, and also
damp the ardour of the devouring flames of Hades.
At the death of the first Empress Ma J§, of the Ming 0^
dynasty, every Buddhist monastery tolled thirty thousand strokes
for the relief of her soul, because according to the Buddhist doctrine,
the departed on hearing the ringing of a bell revive. It is for this
— 126 —
reason that the tolling must be performed slowly (1).
Chinese writers refute these Buddhist notions about bells.
We read in the Lii-shi ch'un-is'iu g ^ ^ ^ (2), that the
Emperor Hwang-ti jif ^f (3), ordered Ling-lun \§ f§} to cast twelve
bells, in order to fix the musical notes (4).
The work known as Yoh-ki |(j§ §£ (Memorial of Music), says :
"the tolling of bells is used as a signal" $\ 1/1 ffi.
According to these two writers, such is the precise purpose for
which bells are used. They either give forth musical notes, or they
are rung to give signals (of joy, sadness or alarm...), but there was
never any idea of employing them to rescue the dead. The work
entitled "Shi-ming" fp ^ I Buddhist names'1, has the following: "the
bell is a hollow instrument ; the larger it is, the deeper are its
sounds, but who could cast one large enough to make its tollings
heard in the infernal regions? Even should that happen, such a sound
is but a mere empty noise, incapable of awing the ruler of Hades,
and powerless also to break the sharp-edged tread-mill which tortures
the damned. Wealthy families, desirous of rescuing from hell the
(! See Liang-pan ts'iu-yu-hoh M *& %k ffi i£.
Ts'ih siu lei kao -t %■ M Wl- Shi wen lei tsii % ^C
Leng-kia king $§ fj&B $!. Yung chw'ang siao p'in ;jg l]lf /J> n".
*^Ktitin8-w?A t, * ik ft «, t£ & m ■£ m, & m ® m ^ m,
kn fc 'HI iz,ilH + ^fi5 + ^, 1'M = + ^¥ ,§, i«-IA»
,§., $3 PI 8K e. fg + A. It + /l, H m ^ $ - W A, £ ffl 1: E, M » -fc. & $ A,
* Pnl + A & ft H, H ® 6£ ft * H @. = £ * ^ - W Ai # g «p g € n> B
i5i a a v m m m m m &, nt * w jm, gg $«#?,£ * # «, 0/1 ft * © m %
«t#ftiHitt,igfflti *fe ft g g #, f$ it '2 Id «, « # w -m m.
(2) A miscellaneous treatise in 2G books, embodying many historical facts regarding
the early history of China, for which it is the only authority. The work is ascribed to Lii
Peh-wei g ~%. ijt, who lived in the 3rd century B. C. Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature.
p. 157.
(3) The Yellow Emperor, so called because he reigned under the influence of the
element earth. One of the five legendary sovereigns who ruled at the dawn of Chinese
history, B. C. 2697-2597. He is looked upon as the founder of the Empire, and the inventor
of music and Fine Arts. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual.
(4) See Hwo-wu-yin ^[1 3l W Mayers says these musical bells were also used for
denoting the 12 seasons.
— 127 —
souls of their ancestors, offer presents to the Buddhist monasteries,
in order that the monks would toll the bells unceasingly day and
night, and perform this service even for several successive days.
They may toll them till they deafen the ears of the neighbours, who
curse and swear at them ; they mav ring till the bells burst, they
will never thereby rescue a single soul ou1 of Hades. It matters
little whether they toll a brass bell or strike on a wooden one, the
result is practically useless in both cases" i\ .
(-11 See. Buddhist mimes. Shi-ming ff %. g| ^ ■&, ^ fj? M *, '£ M. M £, fl'J §¥
w m m, m £ t& m ^ & * t. m< & & m m m m m ¥, m b is &, ^ ti fi £
m m, m tg « m % .*, » #r &j ^ ¥, ^ s 2 *, $ @ is & m, # it « m m, &
m Jn it, k & ^ : *g, n: is ©: 0, $ m. m m & i^, m % t# m, rp ® a* $ *£ n &
#, * ^ te is *s - 31, £ ® P *1 8, JE & ®: * a «• -^ k •
— 128 —
ARTICLE VI.
SENDING PAPER-HOUSES TO THE DEAD.
Chi-fang-tze §fc M =? ■
In the province of Nga.n-h.wei 4£ |^, it is customary at the
death of a person to offer him a paper-house, as well as the imple-
ments, clothes and precious objects, which he was wont to use
while living. All these paper articles are burnt, and thus conveyed
to the departed soul (1).
Paper-houses, similar to the above, are also used throughout
Kiang-su •/£ ffft province. The framework is made of reed-splints,
covered over with paper of various hues. The parlour, inner passage-
ways and rooms, resemble as closely as possible the homestead
formerly occupied by the deceased. Tables, chairs, a divan, tea-
poys, in fine all the requisites of a well furnished house are disposed
therein.
The paper-house is then taken to an open space, and there
burnt, in order to have it conveyed to the nether world for the
benefit of the dead.
Reasoning with these folks is useless. After death, they are
told that the body crumbles to dust, and that the soul needs no
house to dwell therein. Admitting even that it did, a paper-house
would afford protection neither from wind nor rain, and much less
after it has been burnt, as the wind scatters the ashes on all sides,
and nobody gathers them up, to rebuild the house in the world of
shades, and thus render it serviceable to the dead.
You will ever get the same answer. It is the custom ! It
matters little as to how things stand in the nether world. Burning
is the means of communication between the living and the dead.
No son, without being wanting in filial piety, can fail to send
(1) Yin hsueh kan sui pih flj 8 |f Eg *. %k f& A 5E, & ft! ?K B - M, # *- M
m m & m & * ft & * ft vj. m.
Fig. 58
Une maison de papier.
Paper-house burnt for the benefit of the dead.
— 129 —
to his aged parents in the nether world a full-furnished home, and
should neo-converts to Christianity refuse to comply with these
unjust requirements, they are forthwith condemned by public op
in ion and cruelly persecuted.
The custom of making these paper-houses existed already at the
beginning of the Yuan j£ dynasty. In A.I). 12X7. in the VIIth
year of the style Chi-yuan jg 7c, during the reign of the Emperor
Shi-tsu |ti- jji§. (1), the President of the Hoard of Punishments offi-
cially informed the Emperor, that among the common people, money
was needlessly wasted in making paper-houses and other superstitious
objects, and he petitioned that such abuses should be suppressed. An
Imperial Edict was forthwith issued, forbidding to make any such
paper-houses, as well as paper-manikins and paper-horses (2).
It seems very probable that the custom of burning paper-houses
for the benefit of the dead, has been correlative with that of burning
mock-money, paper-horses etc... This latter began under the T'a.ng
^ dynasty, A. D. 739. People fancied, that since it was sufficient
to burn ingots of paper-money for the benefit of the dead, they could
also through the same process send them other things in kind :
clothes, houses etc... These paper-houses are equipped with all
necessary household articles : wardrobes, chairs, tables, a cooking-
stove, kitchen utensils, servants etc... Nothing in tine is wanting,
not even the requisites for opium smoking. This is the last stage
of modern progress.
(1) Better known to foreigners as Kubhil Khan. After subduing China, In- 1 sUblished
the Mongol dynasty, which ruled the country A. D. 12S(,-13C8
J 1 Yuan tien chang 76 A #• li" )M M 7C "t ^, M ^ Mi * * ffi, & ffi $> & M
17
— 130 —
ARTICLE VII.
PLACING STREAMERS OX GRAVES.
Chi-fan-tze & jjg ?■
In ancient times, a small Hag was erected beside the grave, in
order to distinguish it from others by means of this special mark.
At the present day, many persons place a bamboo on the house-
top. Buddhists teach that the departed soul, wandering in space,
uses this as a landmark to discover its tomb. It is for this reason
that a tall bamboo is chosen, to the extremity of which is attached
a streamer, Fan-tze f^ ^- , II uttering in the air (1).
The ancients set up a flag beside the grave, in order to indicate
its ownership and distinguish it from others, while at the same
time the name of the deceased was written on a board placed in
front of the coffin.
Nowadays, people believe in the teaching of the Buddhist priests,
who assert that the departed soul wanders in space, and cannot
find out its resting-place; a high pole is, therefore, set up and a
streamer attached to the extremity of it. The streamer bears the
name of the deceased, who, thanks to this device, is enabled to find
out his way.
Buddhists hold that the soul after death, either goes to the
Western Paradise (2), or it must pass through the eighteen de-
partments of Hell, or return to the world of the living through the
process of the metempsychosis. Now, here we find these same people
(1) See Ch'ao kin- ugan Chen luh man ch'ao M JR S ft H ¥k #. ~£ % M M U
m, m n # £ m m '& m m- & vx m m £, & ® £ m ft ^ m & & m, m k &
m m #, m n # £ *s, ^ ® * % n itb m m, m. n *s * m m< ^ a m m, % t.
urn.
|2) A latter-day substitution for Nirvana, a pbilosopbical conception too abstruse for
tbe popular imagination. Tins so-called happy land is ruled by Amitabba and the Bod-
liissatvas, Kwan-vin and Ta Shih-cbi (the Indian Mahastbama), the "three Holy Ones" of
Buddhism. Haekiuann. Chinese Buddhism, p. 213.
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— 131 —
teaching that the soul wanders in space, withoul knowing where to
go to; that it even requires to see its name written on a strip of
cloth, in order to find out its dwelling-place. Is not all this sell
contradictory ?
In the work entitled "the Great Learning" Ta-hsioh A ^ (1
the poet says: "the twittering yellow bird (a species ol oriole) rests
on a corner of the mound". Confucius said : "when it rests, it knows
where to rest. Is it possible that a man should not be equal to
this bird"? This means that every being knows its proper resting-
place.
This yellow bird, which is so tiny among the feathered tribe,
Hits in the air, and has no need of a landmark to fly to the corner
of the mound, where it chooses to alight.
If really the soul of man, as Buddhism teaches, wanders in
space and cannot find out its grave, without seeing" this guiding
flag, then we must admit that man's soul is less intelligent than
the little yellow bird. Formerly, a distinguished Chinese grandee
said in eulogising the Emperor Yao ^ : "he has ascended bevond
the fleecy clouds, and dwells in the happy land of rulers" (2).
The Book of Odes, Shi-ta-ya ff A 5f|. says: "Wen Wang %
3£ (3) is on high ; the wise kings and the three sovereigns are in
heaven" # ^ £ _fc. = Ja £ Ji-
The place where the good are rewarded, cannot be the same as
that where the wicked are punished.
(1) One of the four lesser Classics. It contains 11 chapters, one by Confucius, and
the 10 others by his disciple Tseng-ts'an ^ 3$|. Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 7
(J, See Chwang-tze £ -f. % A %, & U W IX fft M, & S * 2, M M % tt, fj
m m % m jfc, £ a n- & % in n-& & m m a je, m s .if: 2. A 1 % £ ft m
(3) The posthumous and canonised title given to Si-Peb M i& (tbe Western chieftain .
duke of Chow Jg). He was a pattern of princely virtues, and united the principal chiefti
against the misrule of the Shang jgj dynasty, which his son, W'u Wang R 3r , succeeded in
overthrowing B. C. 1122. Mayers. Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 177.
— 132 —
Tyrants like Kieh % (1), and Chow $- (2), wicked men like Tao-
chi ^ iS (3), cannot by any means live together with Yao ^ and
Wen Wang ^£ ^E, and dwell in the blissful abode of rulers. Such
are the principal arguments whereby Chinese writers refute the above
Buddhist doctrine. Our great Worthies dwell in a happy land, the
realm of rulers, whence tyrants are excluded. Therefore souls do
not wander in space as Buddhists assert.
(1) Kieh-kwei |j| §|, the last ruler of the Hsia "H dynasty. Voluptuous, cruel and
extravagant, he became an object of hatred to his people, and was compelled to flee to Nan
ch'ao ^ ^ (in the present province of Ngan-hwei), where he died B.C. 17'ifi. Mayers.
Chinese Reader's Manual.
(2) Chow-sin £j" 5^. the abandoned tyrant, who closed the Shanj,' $|j dynasty. Among
his vices, were extravagance and unbridled lust. Defeated by Wu Wang, he rled to a tower,
set it on fire, and perished miserably in the flames. Mayers. Ibid.
(3) A leader of thieves; a sort of Robin Hood in early Chinese history.
Fig. 60
La roue de la metempsycose.
The wheel of the Metempsychosis.
— 133 —
ARTICLE VIII.
i hi: metempsychosis.
Lun-hwui ijtjft ;^|.
The metempsychosis is a Buddhist doctrine, teaching thai man's
soul alter death may be reborn, either in another human being or
into the body of one of the brute kind.
At the death of a person, according to Buddhists, "the kin- oi
the revolving wheel", Ckwen-lun Wang |f ij$j- 3: (1), who presides
over the tenth department of Hades, examines and weighs 1 lu- o-ood
and evil deeds of men during their mortal existence, and accordirjo
to their merits or demerits, sends them to the four great continents
(2), in order that they may be reborn there as men or women,
enjoy a long" or short life, and be either rich or poor.
The soul of great sinners is handed over to the demon-torturer
Yeh-ch'a ^ % (3), who slays it with peach-rods. After its death,
it is transformed into a murdered ghost or Tsih ^, hence the pagan
saving: "man after his death becomes a Kwei j||, and the Kwei j^
is transformed into a Tsih ^jf". The head and face of this murdered
ghost are changed, and he is reborn in the womb of a mother, or
emerges from an egg. He appears in the forenoon and expires in
the afternoon, and may crawl or run on the ground. His expia-
tion over, he is reborn as a man, but in some wild country, where
he dwells in caverns or holes, and is clothed with animal skins.
When, through his endeavours, he has repaired the past, he is
(1) The revolving wheel symbolises Uie doctrine of transmigration, ami answers to the
Sanscrit "Scmsaru" ^ Jfc ^< $£. the great sea of life and death, human existence, which
must be crossed to reach Nirvana. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese Dictionary.
(2) According to the cosmogony of the Buddhisl Sutras, these lour continent
islands, lie respectively South, East, North, and West of M( Mem, the sacred mountain
forming the centre of the universe. India and China are comprised within the limits of
the first continent. Mayers. Chinese Header's Manual, p. 310.
(3) In Sanscrit "YaJcsha,". These demons air messengers of Yam a, the judge of the
dead, and especially of the Dragon King, who guards the seas around M1 .Mem. They are
represented with red hair, green faces, bare legs, and carry a tripod on their shoulders,
Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language i$E %■
— 134 —
granted the favour of a new existence, and may be reborn as a Chi-
nese citizen.
Those, who during their lifetime, have practised the four social
virtues of equity, rectitude, meekness and justice, are sent to the
realm of perfect bliss, Kih-loh-kwoh ^ |^f gf], the Buddhist para-
dise of the West, where there is perpetual happiness, and no end of
feasting and dancing (1).
The realm of perfect bliss. Kih-loh J$ji |^§, lies ten thousand
million miles to the West of China. No pain or suffering is found
there, and all that is harmful or unpleasant is banished therefrom
(2). According to Buddhists, those who have led a perfect life go
to this happy land of Kih-loh Jfy\ |^, situated ten thousand million
miles to the West. Now, the entire circumference of the earth is
but twenty-five thousand miles. It is, therefore, mere mockery to
place the Western Paradise so far away, and these folks deserve the
utmost contempt of all learned persons. Such are some of the reflex-
ions of "Young China".
Summary of lh<> arguments set forth by Chinese writer* against
the existence of the Western Paradise.
According to this opinion, the bad are transformed into fish,
worms, birds, or brutes. Now, if a person but considers attentivelv
the whole world, evil-doers form no small portion of humanity, so
after a certain number of generations, no real men would be found
on this earth, all those who were formerly men, having been changed
into fish, insects, birds or brutes.
The population of the globe is ever increasing, and the present-
day statistics show it is many thousand times greater than in the
(1) See the Classic of YTen-wang, Yen wang-king M ± £«. il A - K, l§ $m 3: S[i
m & # ± » m, m £ ^ a. 8 # ijli * u m a &, # m % * m x s * a m,
ji m m it* m %. & &, % « % m & f* ti "& m m, # m & ar, n *. w % m it,
w $ % ^ ^ i& %, & % ^ it %, & it #i m, # n a £, © m x % m. m z. ts,
m « s m ± k, m & ¥ ^ m &, in m m >t> m m, ynnm^m a £, /l ®
je t » #, ig a « & m m m nt if.
(2) Record of popular customs, T'ung-suh-pien jj§ ^ IS- @! # 3&. "t" M tft M, ^F
w ft % mm % & m%> m a % mmm,=. m s.m m.
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— 135 —
early period of the world's history; if we, therefore, admit as Budd-
hists do, that this immense number of beings may be reborn, then
uobody can engage in marriage, as it may happen that the husbands
wife would be his own mother, or the wife may have for husband
her own father, reborn into the world.
Officials may no longer beat the common people: a master ma}
have no servants, lest these menials be his own patents, superiors,
teachers or friends, who have returned to a new existence.
Moreover, if after death, men become fish, insects, birds or
brutes, no one may henceforth employ water-buffaloes for ploughing
the fields, or may ride a horse to travel over the country.
Lice, mosquitoes, all kinds of insects, may also bite, sting and
annoy you as they please, and you dare not kill them, lest they be
your own parents or kinsfolk, who have returned to the present
world.
The metempsychosis destroys all social relations, renders lite
intolerable, and is opposed to common sense.
Mencius, Meng-tze ^ -^p, says : "the nature of the dog is the
same as that of the ox, but man's nature differs from both. Human
beings are absolutely different from brutes". If man may be reborn
as a brute, then his natxire differs in nowise from that of the beasts
of the field.
All the extravagances of Buddhist monks and adherents, making
vain and fruitless efforts to avoid killing sentient beings, result
from this ridiculous doctrine. Should any one attempt to draw all
possible consequences therefrom, and put them into practice, he
would doubtless be considered as a madman. Theoretically, these
Chinese writers display much common sense, as everybody sees, but
in ordinary life, no one scarcely pays attention to what they say.
Compendious view of the system of the Metempsychosis.
For the sake of clearness, it is considered useful to give a con-
cise view, a brief summary, outlining the general features of the
— 136 —
Chinese belief in the system of the metempsychosis. The spirit
reborn is the superior or rational soul, called according to circum-
stances Hwun jfc, Slieu jjj$, or Kwei fy (1). This soul may be re-
incarnated in sundry manners.
1". By way of possession, entering into the body of a living
man and abiding therein. It then uses his eyes to see, and his
mouth to speak, etc... Such a man has thus two distinct souls,
namely his own, and that which temporarily indwells in him, as in
cases of diabolical possession. These two souls, according to orthodox
Buddhists, cannot enter the one into the other.
According to the followers of Chu-hsi's ^ ^ school, these two
souls may co-penetrate and coalesce into one soul, in the same
manner as two glasses of water poured into a bottle, combine and
form but one bottle of the same liquid.
2°. Hi/ returning and re-entering the same body. A departed
soul may sometimes return into the body which it has abandoned
at death (2), provided the corpse has remained uncorrupted (3). On
such a belief is founded the error, nowadays so common, of recalling
the soul.
t
3°. By way of substitution. If a soul, deprived of its own
body for some reason or other, finds along its way the still uncorr-
(11 The universe is a compound of an infinite number of Kwei jjfj, and Shen jj$, con-
tinuously infused into men and animals. In ancient times, the Chinese knew but the Kwei
j|[, the Shen jji$ came later on. The Kwei $| is the material soul, emanating from the- earth,
and returning thereto after death. It remains with the body in the grave. The Shen jf$
is the superior soul, emanating from tbe ethereal part of the cosmos, the great Yang $H
principle. It is manifested by th<- k'i ^, or breath. After death, it ascends to the higher
regions, there to live on as lurid matter, Sben-ming jf$ (JJj. The hwun z$| is the energy of
the SI in i jjSiJI. De Groot. The Religious System of China. Vol. IV. p. 5. (the soul in philosophy).
(2) During lifetime, Chinese adniii the temporary separation of the soul from the
body, as in dreams and occasionally in trance and coma. These cases are, however, hut
insensibility. After death, the soul may also return, and this may take place after months
and years. Cases of revival are even chronicled in the Standard Histories All these tales
heir a deep Buddhist tinge. De Groot. The Religious System of China. Vol. IV. p. 123j
nscitation by one's own soul).
(3) Or at least, in a condition good enough for the soul to re-settle in it. I>e Groot.
Ibid. p. 130.
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— 137 —
upted corpse of a man, or the body of a brute, it may enter therein,
and make it a substitute for its own body. It corruption has but
invaded a single member or part of the body, this would ool prove an
insurmountable obstacle to the above end, as is shown by the legend
of T'ieh Kwai-li g$ #} ^, whose soul entered the body of a beggar,
though already in process of corruption (I).
4°. By way of rebirth. This is the ordinary process. The
excarnated soul, that seeks to be reborn, enters into the womb of a
pregnant woman (2), and animates the foetus, which so far had but
an inferior soul. Frequently, it enters into the foetus in the latter
stage of pregnancy, and then childbirth is generally advanced. Le-
gends even state that sons were thus reborn in the womb of their
own mother, and died at the very instant that their new bodv saw
the light of day. — The same theory applies to rebirth in the body
of a brute. The souls of men may be re-incarnated as beasts (3).
It must be remarked that the souls of those who die through
suicide, or by the hand of an enemy, constitute a special class
among the "hungry ghosts" Ku-hwun Jg£ j$|, who wander in space,
and may be assimilated to the Indian Pretas (4).
Unable to secure rebirth, at least in general, until they have
taken vengeance on their murderer, they seek to put to death a
living person, or persuade him to commit suicide, in order that his
U) See Wieger. Folklore. N° 19.
(2) This process in generally known by the term t'eu-t'ai $£ j}r, "to make cue's way
into a uterus". De Groot. The Religious System of China. Vol. IV. ch. 9. p. 143 (the re-
incarnation of souls through birth).
(3) In the Buddhist system, souls of men may lie re-incarnated as bi asts, as a punish-
ment for their demerits in life; while reversely, souls of animals may pass into men as a
reward for their virtuous life and conduct. De Groot. Ibid. p. 153.
A little after death, if a | erson examine- carefully what pari of the body remains warm
the longest, one'may devine what the character of the next birth will be. Beal.ACatena
of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, p. 41.
(i) The highest ord«r of famishiui; ghosts. Some live on earth, ami are visible at
night. They comprise 36 classes. Others live in hell or in the world underneath the
continent. All persons who have acquired an evil '"Karma" by tlicii covetous, m-uavd dis-
position, are reborn as Pretas. They are tormented bj an unappeasable hunger. Beal. Ibid.
p. 67.
IS
— 138 —
soul may take the place of their own. When they have thus found a
substitute, they may seek a new rebirth. It happens, however, that
some of them who consent to forgive their enemies, may be re-incar-
nated earlier.
The souls of persons who have died by hanging, or assassin-
ation, accuse unceasingly their murderers before the infernal judges,
until they obtain full justice. When they are re-incarnated before
having taken vengeance on their enemies, they ever seek to commit
suicide in their new existence.
The annexed illustration, taken from the "treatise on the Budd-
hist hell1' Yuh-lih cli'ao-ch.w'a.n 3£ jjj§ j$ fijj£, represents the 10th divi-
sion of Hades, where each one secures re-incarnation in a subsequent
existence, there to be rich or poor, to be reborn as a brute, a bird,
a fish, or an insect, according to one's merits or demerits in a
previous life.
— 139 —
ARTICLE IX.
MURDEROUS GHOSTS.
Pi-shah jg f*.
It is commonly believed among the people, that the soul after
death may return to the house, and kill the survivors. Hence ori-
ginated the custom of fleeing- from this murderous -host, or perfor-
ming a special ceremony to receive it when it returns, so that it
may not injure anybody.
The serious Historic Annals: Tze-chi-L'ung-kien kang-muh i|f
la M im §S| §eJ (1), mention as an important event the apparition
of the ghost of Yiu ^f , a member of the family then ruling the
principality of Cheng ffj$ (2), who was assassinated B.C. 542. Men-
tion of the very name of Yiu ^ made everybody tremble. Did it
cross the mind of a person to say: "Yiu ^f is coming", imme-
diately everybody took to flight. Now, it happened in the second
month of the year, at the time the penal code was modified, that
somebody saw the ghost ol Yiu ^f in a dream. He was arrayed in
military armour, and addressed to him the following words: "this
year, on the 49th day of the cycle, 1 will kill Tai ^, and the follow-
ing vear on the 39tl3 day of the cycle, it will be Twan's fx turn.
Evervthing happened as announced, and the people were so wild
with fear, that the minister Ch'an /§r officially ordered Liang-chi
j^ jh> Yiu's ^ son, to sacrifice to the Manes of his father. This
prevented all further evil, and the fear of the people was allayed" (3).
(1) Published at the close of the Ming HI) dynasty bj Cli'eii Jen sih [$ -fc t$r, national
historiographer. Revised later on. a new edition, comprising !»1 books, was issued in 17<»S.
Wylie. Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 26.
(2) An important feudal State at the time of the Chow jg) dynasty, B.C. 771 500. To-
day the prefecture of K'ai fung-fu |pj §f Jff\ in Honan, of which province it occupied aboui
a half. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language .§£.
(3) See Tze-chi-t'ung-kien kang-muh ^ j£ M £g M @. MB A * 3 M YX i& *• H id
* m £. m % £. * *n m #. m m « 2. m. - n< m m m ft # w. <f. 0 s * £
»isffi!!.ii!ifiS,^x)i?asifc^i:f-s*.aAa if- s ^ ft #. n
a $ it. # w n. f- * a & « & it. m » £, 7> it.
— 140 —
The work entitled: T'an-t'ai-ch'ang poh-shi Lu Ts'ai peh-ki-
llh M -k % If i S ^ W ,§i M, which treats of superstitious
practices at the time of the T'ang ^ dynasty, has the following':
"in these days people lied from returning murderous ghosts. The
soul of a person who dies on a Sze g, day of the calendar, is a
murderous masculine ghost. It returns to the house on the forty-
seventh day after death, and kills little girls of thirteen and fourteen".
"The feminine murderous ghost comes from the South, and kills
pale-faced boys in the third house. It returns twice to the house
of death, to wit on the twentieth day and on the twenty-ninth".
On such days, those who are afraid, run away. During the
Sung 5Jc dynasty, Yi'i Wen-pao jfc ~$C $fy , wrote the following:
"Soothsayers consider the number of days that have elapsed since
the demise of a person, and deduce therefrom that the murderous
ghost will kill all those who arc born on such or such days. Even
the most filial son will run away on these occasions" (1).
At the present day, only those who dwell to the North of the
deceased person's house take to flight. Those living to the South,
invite Taoist priests, Tao-shi ^ff -j^, to come and receive the ghost,
and recite incantation classics to ward off all danger. Soothsayers
indicate beforehand, the persons the ghost will kill on the burial
day, on the day of his return after the burial, directions that render
places particularly dangerous, and what persons are exposed to his
malevolence.
To corroborate their predictions, they quote Peh-hoh f=l $!§•
who saw the soul of a deceased person, after passing through the
twenty-four departments of Hades (2), return therefrom to molest
(1) See Ch'ui-kien-lub wai-tsih pft £l] ft fl. %. M ± & M ± & t W & M if. 1"
m m ft m #. in e n e #. m m #. m ra + -t h ® %. % m -i- s m m &. m
® *b *. m m # £ s. % ft & x ii3. i? m m %. vi a k z. b *i «. m =? b n
%. m * * w m ^ m sl z a. # $ b#. /l & %■ it #. m m ? # & as at.
(2) That is the eight hot hells, the eight freezing ones, and the eight of utter dark-
ness. Life may last hundreds of years in each of these hells. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary, p. 82,
— 1 VI —
the living. To protect mortals from any evil that may then befall
them, he composed his work, entitled the "classic of the six trans-
migrations'1, Luh-lun-king ■>'- i^ |t£. According to this work, if the
deceased has departed from this world, on the days marked in the
calendar by the cyclic characters Ch'eu ^ft:, Wei ^, HsiXh /£, the
murderous ghost will appear in feminine form. If the demise has
taken place on the days marked by the characters Tze ^ . Yin jpf,
Sze f^, Wu ^p, Shen ^, the returning ghost will assume a mascu-
line form.
Should the deceased die on the days corresponding to the cha-
racters Mao ^p, Ch'en j|p|, Yin ]|f, Ilni ^. the returning ghost will
be hermaphrodite.
The returning ghost of a person deceased on a Tze ^ day,
murders men aged between thirty and forty ; if a person has died
on a Kiah-tze Ep -^ day, the ghost murders, when its corpse is
buried, all male persons born in the year Sin-ch'eu ^ $■. The
spectral visitor is eighteen feet high, and returns on the eighteenth
dav after death. Persons deceased on a Ping-tze p^ -^ day, murder
when the corpse is entombed, all those born in the cyclic year Ting-
ch'eu ~~f J. The phantom is sixteen feet high, and returns on the
sixteenth day after death.
If a person dies on a Ch'eu jJ: day, his returning ghost will
murder in the Eastern quarter all young girls aged between twenty
and thirtv. Should one die on a Yih-ch'eu £ ^ day, the ghost will
murder, when the corpse is cncoffined, all persons born in the year
Sin-sze -5£ Q. The spectre is sixteen feet high, and returns on the
sixteenth dav after death. At last, if a person dies on a Ting-ch'eu
-y :g. dav, his returning ghost will murder, when the coffin is
entombed, all those born in the year Kwei-wei ^ ^. The phan-
tom is fourteen feet high, and returns on the fourteenth day after
death.
Should a person die on other, days than the above, a similar
reckoning is made, based on the combination of the "ten celestial
— 142 —
stems", Shih-kan -f- -^ (1), and the "twelve earthly branches", Ti-
<'l}i ^lil ^ (2l, and thence soothsayers foretell what kind of people
may be attacked, the direction from which the ghost will come, his
height, and the exact day in which he will return.
Preservation from ghost attacks. — The following- is the method
employed to escape from the malevolent attacks of a returning ghost.
On the day in which he is to return, Taoist priests, Tao-shi j$j[ J^,
are invited to the house, and draw up written charms, which those
threatened wear on their persons. The priests must be numerous
for the reciting of prayers and incantation classics. Should the per-
sons [exposed to danger be of the poorer class, and unable to bear
the expenses required on such occasions, then their only remedy is
to leave the house on the ill-starred days.
At the present day, the above are the practices generally follow-
ed (3).
Ask a Taoist priest, Tao-shi jj£ -J-, how he ascertains the exact
height of the returning ghost? He will tell you the phantom will
(1) These cyclic characters are the following : Kiali ^. Yih £,. Ping JS], TingT, Wn
J'£, Ki cL. Keng [$[. Sin 3p, Jen :£, Kwei^. They have dual combinations, corresponding
to the Yang |j§ and Yin $§£ principles, the five elements and the planets.
(2) The 12 branches are thus enumerated by the Chinese: Tze -£-, Ch'eu 3t, Yin
H, Mao 0[J, Ch'eu Jg. Sze El- Wn T- Wei £, Shen p£, Yiu j§. Hsiih $, Hai %. The com-
binations of the 10 stems with the 12 branches, form the sexagenary cycle or Kiah-tze ^
■J-, invented it is said B.C. 2637, and designed to give names to years. Other combinations,
owing to the supposed connection of these characters with the elements, the symbolical
animals, and the zodiacal signs, play a great part in Chinese divination, and furnish the
groundwork for the soothsayer's skill in forecasting the destiny of mortals. Mongols, Ko-
reans, Japanese. Siamese and Annamese, all believe in these occult influences.
:! See the "Classic of the six transmigrations". Lull lun king ^ $fa M. ii 3t ZA< $Z
h % #, m m &. fSB^f* b n #, m m #. w u m % h jb m, m mm #.
;i =r B *e#,^fii**H + w± m + vi t it m f • ^ f e ft #, & n# 4k &
$ 3i %■ m £ £ a, ^ ■§; - * a x, t§ + a b ^ isi. n -f a % #, $ m # ft
Ti^i4iA,^S-*>NJi, S + * B & 0. HlBJEt, t#-t
W _h H + \>X T * * f • £ a H » #, SSt B$ ^ ft ¥ Ei ^ #f £ ;£ A, # Hi - *
* K, £g + * B ^ 0. T ft B % #, $ "# & 41 51 * ¥ Jff 4 2 A, & « - 5t
ffl /*, M + ffl B fs 0. & % ^ 4& B #, Ig * T 5 #, SO gfc « ffl # -fnj A, M «
« T ot H, £g fi H ^ 0. £ «* SM £ S, JK B# W ffi ft H ft, IR « % ±, # 3£ ^
mm i^mm m k. % §l % z m, mnmm mm, m b *$ & *i> S &. «; a &
iii $s £ ffi ■&.
Fig. 62
bis
mm
Hiong-cha. La mauvaise dtoile masculine du mort. Tse-cha. La mauvaise dtoile feminine du mc
Hsiung-shah. Ghost of deceased in rnasculine form. Tz'e-shah. Ghost of deceased in female form
— 143 —
be as many feet high, as the number of days that intervene between
death and his spectral apparition. Thus, if he returns alter sixteen
days, he will be sixteen feet high.
What is this phantom, this returning ghost, called Shah fffc,
and which assumes a male and female form, Hsiung-shah "Jjfe fik and
Tz'e shah jlfc| ^C? This spectral visitor or Shah ^t, is the murderous
breath of the departed soul, Hwun-h'i zji| ^ (1).
In apparitions, the feminine spectre has the head of a woman
and the body of a hen ; while the masculine phantom appears with
the head of a man and the body of a cock (2).
For this reason, during the ceremony, which takes place on the
day of the ghost's expected return, a rough sketch is made, called
"the image of the returning ghost"; a hen is also attached to the
leg of a small table, with the purpose of insinuating to the trouble-
some visitor, that all precautions have been taken to protect the
household from his petty annoyances, and hence he must behave
himself properly.
How is it known that the returning ghost has the body of a hen?
Formerly, in the province of Hupeh $$ 4fc, Shang-liang ^ J^,
grandson of the prince of Ch'u $£ (3)', a man endowed with extraor-
dinary strength and courage, did not believe in returning ghosts. On
the appointed day, when his brother recently deceased, was to return
il) The Chinese are haunted with a continual fear of spectres, and believe that the
departed soul may frequently become a malicious ghost. The Shall i& belong - to this latter
class. The word denotes "murderous, killing", and attests amply its dangerous character.
It is a metamorphosis of the breath of the corpse, the "Mara" (evil influence) of the Yin $§£.
It always escapes from the corpse at night, on the first, second, or third day after death, or
even later. Expert soothsayers inform the family of the exacl date. De Gn>oi The Reli-
gious System of China. Vol. V. p. 777.
(2) A hook of the ninth century described them as bird-shaped. One of these birds
was caught in a net in the plains of Shansi |i| glf. It was of a blue colour and over five
feet high. Scarcely was it taken out of the net, when it disappeared from sight. De Groot«
Ibid. p. 770.
(3) A large Feudal State in the Chow j§ dynasty, existing from B.C. 74n:i:'o. It
occupied Hukwang, and parts of Honan and Kiangsu. Its capita] was King ehow-fu Iff] •|ii
!ff. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language.
— 144 —
(in ghost shape) to the house, Shang-liang /fpj" ^ sat down at a
small table beside the coffin, and began to quaff wine till the mid-
night-hour.
He then beheld a numerous band of demons surrounding' the
house; the air shook with their presence. All of a sudden, a hen as
big as a crane, striking with its bill, and its eyes aglow with anger,
alighted on the coffin.
Shang-liang 'fpj ^ advanced, and seized it with his left hand,
his right meanwhile holding his glass brimfull of wine. Then, add-
ressing the monster, he said: "You returning ghost, why don't you
fear me?" Sightseers, standing near the door, hearing these words,
were so alarmed that their knees quaked, and they trembled from
head to foot. Shan-liang 'jpj' fj^ showed the L;host out, without
receiving the least harm, and lived afterwards to a ripe old age.
Another extraordinary fact, T'ai-tsu \^ jjj§_, founder of the North-
ern Sung 4fc 5|c dynasty (A. I). 960), before he became emperor,
chanced to enter one day into a house. The inmates, fearing a ghost
who was to return, had all lied. The prince found a cock in the
guest-hall, and had it placed over the lire to be cooked, but he was
compelled to leave without enjoying it.
When the people of the house returned, they saw in the cooking-
pan the head of a man. It was thus ascertained that returning
ghosts had the head of a man and the body of a cock (1).
But why then, in the ceremony prepared for the receiving of
the ghost, is a hen always chosen, and never a cock?
Formerly, say the Taoist priests, Tao-shi ^ff J^, all returning
ghosts assumed a masculine form, but from the time that Sung-
T'ai-tsu ^ -fc jjj§ had one stewed in the cooking-pan, there were
never since only feminine ones.
Finally, are not people constantlv found who do not believe in
(1) See Kien-hu-tsib $* % ^, & ^ jg $ B#, ffi A A % K M VI & # * ffi, W
ii £ m, m m #. £, * & m m, £ % & % %. * a m.
Fig. 62
Song T'ai-tsou et le revenant.
Sung T'ai-tsu and the Ghost.
— 145 —
these ghosts, and on the days when they are announced to return,
stay quietly at home and never experience the least annoyance?
These ghosts exist when one believes in them ; if one does not
believe in them, then they do not return. Such is the answer given.
Who is Pek-hoh £ $|, the author of the "Classic of the six
transmigrations", Luh-lun-hing ;£$&$£, which lays down the rules
governing the return of these ghosts, indicating the day when it
will take place, and what persons will be killed by them?
We know nothing about him, reply the Taoist priests, Tao-shi
M i; "*e S° wherever we are invited to perform certain ceremonies.
Although we generally follow the same method as our predecessors,
still we sometimes make a few modifications, so that the liturgy
varies according to places. This business is our means of subsistence,
and we have no time to investigate these questions.
Such is the practical dialogue, which may be imagined as hav-
ing taken place between a Taoist priest, Tao-shi ^ -£, and any
one who wishes to understand thoroughly these vain practices. How
explain why the ghost returns on such or such a day, and is unable
to do so on others? Why doesn't it stay a little longer? What makes
it depart in such haste?
If on the appointed days, some annoyances occur in homes,
they must be attributed to the Evil One, whose interest it is to
maintain these erroneous opinions; certainly it is not the soul of
the deceased person, that returns to its former home, to molest the
inmates thereof.
Chao Tung-shan j|j| jff \[\ , a scholar of Chekiang ffi yX pro-
vince, kept watch beside the coffin of his father before it was borne
to the grave, and said in reference to this subject: "what son would
ever leave the coffin of his father shut within an empty room, and
flee to escape from his malevolent influence? And is it admissible
that a father would harm his own son, even if the latter slept alone
in the mourning" shed from morning till night?'' (1).
(1) See Ch'ui-kien-luh-wai-tsih pfc glj # ^ ft. £ ti $L % I £. ^ Sfc & M & #
mmm.
19
— 146 —
This sorry custom has taken a general hold on the common
people, and only those who belong to the enlightened class can have
courage enough to break off with a state of things so universally
admitted.
The work entitled : Yao-yih-kia kwei t'ung-suh-pien |^ E ^
S j| fl? II' speaks in a similar manner. Its author, Ku-mei j|| $g,
says: "through hearing soothsayers talking about ghosts, the entire
population of Kiangsu jj (ifo has ended by believing in them. As
for me, I believe in no such nonsense. When my mother died, 1
sat up alone beside her mortal remains, to fulfil my duties towards
her, and I never saw or heard anything whatsoever. Hence 1 conclude
that all these ghost stories are absolutely unfounded" (1).
N. B. In several families among the common people, ashes are
strewn on the floor, or before the door-way of the deceased person's
home. The following morning, a minute examination is made, to
see whether there are any footprints or other marks found thereon,
indicating that the soul has returned. Sometimes a ladder made of
reeds, is placed against the garden-wall, to enable the ghost to climb
over it easily.
In case the footprint of a bird has been noticed, it is forthwith
inferred that the soul has been re-incarnated in the' body of a bird.
Should Pussy happen to run over the sifted ashes, immediately the
conclusion is drawn that the deceased has been transformed into a
cat. From the marks left on the ashes, one is enabled to conjecture
what is the destiny of the soul in the nether world.
ill See Ku-mei chi wen-kih M. M £3 BM& flf ± S W- gfc IB1 & $k • & <% it |£
m n £ m. -? m * m. jg- % «i $s, m ^ /t m % m m ±, m m & m. & s a %
«$M
liti^";4 'iiA'vV mvtiAi V'i ' ••"*»*
Ceremonie de revocation des morts.
Evocation of the Dead.
— 147 —
ARTICLE X.
EVOCATION OF THE DEAD.
Cha.o-vja.ng :fg £;.
The evocation of the dead is practised as a general custom
in all pagan localities.
Whenever a member of a family dies, his relatives go and
consult a magician or a witch, well known in the country as a me-
dium, who is wont to conjure up the soul, and question it as to its
condition in the nether world. This is the evocation of the dead, as
we see it practised in many other parts of the world, the method
only being a little different owing to the influence of local circum-
stances.
Generally, at least in these provinces, it is an old woman or sor-
ceress, who acts the principal part. This is in the main only a pure
comedy, whence the Evil One benefits, implanting thereby more
strongly in the minds of pagans, a thousand absurd errors on the
state of the soul after death. Whosoever desires to evoke a departed
soul, must do so through a living medium. In the apartment, where
the ceremon}T is to take place, a table is prepared upon which are
placed offerings for the soul : mushrooms, cooked vegetables and
even meats.
A lamp is lighted, doubtless to guide the soul in the realm of
darkness, whence it is requested to return. Beside the table is
placed some rice in a bushel or other vessel, and over the rice a ba-
lance is laid. Such are the articles generally employed, though they
may vary according to the wealth of the family, and the resources
of the place. The sorceress, fulfilling the office of medium, covers her
head and face with a piece of cloth, evokes the departed soul with
whom one wishes to communicate, then mutters in a drawling and
inarticulate tone some twaddle about her visits to the "land of
shades".
The only requisite conditions to be a reputed medium is a
— 148 —
thorough grasp of the erroneous opinions which prevail in the locality,
and ability to turn them to account in a clever manner. The follow-
ing are some of the questions generally addressed to the deceased,
whose soul is believed to use the mouth of the medium, to commu-
nicate for a moment with those interested in its welfare.
Do you suffer in the nether world? Will your punishment last
long? When will you leave Hades? What is your state in the un-
derworld? Do you fulfil any official function? Are you in need of
money, clothes? What may we do to help you? Will such an un-
dertaking, in which we take great concern, succeed or not? When
are we going to die ourselves?
One can thus see what a vast field is open to inquiry. Satan
seizes the opportunity to sow the seeds of error, either by allowing
the medium to descant as he pleases, or inspiring him to deliver
misleading replies. All the errors of Buddhism are exhibited in a
sitting of a few minutes: hell is not eternal; the dead eat, drink,
need clothes and money in the nether world, hold honourable posi-
tions, and may be re-incarnated in men, animals, fish etc...
Generally these sittings are but a clever blind, in which the
medium deceives those simple folks, who are so silly as to have
recourse to him. It is a trade, a remunerative business, which he
carries on dissembled beneath the thick piece of cloth covering his
face, and hiding the movement of the lips, while he counterfeits his
voice to render his oracular sayings more mysterious.
If sometimes, there are answers which apparently surpass the
average knowledge of these cunning knaves, they must be attributed
to the "Father of lies", who seeks to excite the admiration of his
deluded victims.
Some fewr }rears ago, a wealthy man, named Hsu Shi-yin ]f£ -^
|i£, died at Yun-ls'ao jig \fj . His widow, anxious to know how he
fared in the nether world, proceeded to Wuhu fiiE $JJ, in the provin-
ce of Nganhwei ^ ^, to consult an old sorceress highly reputed
in the neighbourhood. To make some return, at least in kind words,
for the handsome remuneration she received, the disconsolate widow
— 149 —
was assured that her husband held an official position in the under-
world, "the land of shades11, Yin-kien |^ f0^, and therefore she should
but rejoice over his happy lot.
Not unfrequently, these magicians employ a youth (I), from 12
to 25 years of age. They hypnotise him, either directly or through
some expert, who administers to him ashes from a burnt charm,
adding thereto various gestures and hand-signs made over the head.
All persons are not equally capable of being hypnotised ; the better
subjects are generally frail, hysterical youths (2), whose life has been
rather disorderly. When the medium has been hypnotised, the
sorceress questions him, and the departed soul replies through his
mouth. This kind of evocation is practised at Wuhu Jim ;$j, one of
the Open Ports in the province of Nganhwei ^ Jjfjfc. I have had
ample proofs thereof, and have known all those concerned in the
case. In one case even, after the ceremony was over, a widow
who had consulted the medium on the state of her husband, wished
to burn mock-money, and in so doing set fire to a neighbouring
house.
In some places of Kiangsu yX H province, these magicians em-
ploy little images of idols or Pu-sahs |£ j|§. They must pray long
and fulfil manv ceremonies before rendering their image efficacious
(3).
When at last it is possessed by the God, divinised, ling H, as
pagans say, they use it as a medium, placing it on their bosom.
(1) These youths are called Ki-t'ung fil ]§£, that is divining youths, or simply T'ung-
tze, jf£ -J-, young diviners. When attached to a temple or family altar, they are called
Shen-t'ung jjjf jf, youths possessed by a god. De Groot. The Religious System of China.
Vol. VI. p. 1269.
(2). They must be a nervous, impressionable, hysterical kind of people, physically
and mentally weak, and th: ivfore easily stirred to ecstasy. The strain on their nerves
cannot be borne for many years, and hence they all die young. De Grcot. The Religious
System of China. Vol. VI. p. 1269 (possessed mediums).
(3;. In Southern China, this image is made of the wood of the willow-tree It is
exposed to the dew for 49 nights, after which it is believed to have the power of speaking.
The holder professes to send it into the world of spirits, to find the person about whom
intelligence is sought. Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. II. p. 115.
— 150 —
begging it to find out such and such a soul with whom one wishes
to communicate, and the little statue replies to all questions add-
ressed to the departed soul, as if the spirit dwelt within the image.
It may be admitted that there are frequently cunning feats of ven-
triloquism, which completely delude the beholders (1). There are,
however, cases in which it is difficult to hazard an opinion.
The following custom is found in some places, as in Hsii-chow-
fu ^ '}\\ Jft, and elsewhere. When a woman wishes to become
a medium, she goes to an old witch, and begs her to communicate
to her, her evoking power. The initiation is carried out as follows:
the old witch has in her possession several funerary urns, each of
which contains sealed up the soul of a deceased person. The appli-
cant approaches quite close to one of the urns ; the old witch then
uncorks the vessel, and the imprisoned soul of the dead person
escapes into the body of the novice, and henceforth abides within her.
its indwelling presence is apparent to her; she is fully conscious
that it accompanies her everywhere, and can inform her on the state
of such or such a soul, which has departed to the underworld.
The annexed illustration exhibits the customary ceremony em-
ployed in this branch of necromancy. The petitioners may be seen
kneeling, addressing their questions to the medium, and listening
to the answers which she deigns to give them.
(1) Doolittle admits also this conclusion: "the questions are addressed to the me-
dium ; the replies appear to come from her stomach. There is probably a kind of ventri-
loquism employed. The fact that the voice proceeds professedly from the stomach of the
medium doubtless helps to delude". Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. II. p. 115 (Female
mediums between the living and the dead).
Fig. 64
La ceremonie du Tso-tchai.
Tso-chai. Buddhist service for releasing souls out of Hades.
— 151 —
ARTICLE XI.
CEREMONIES FOR RESCUING DEPARTED SOULS.
Tso-chai ffc % — Ta-tsiao fl* !§•
These ceremonies vary from place to place, and even when perfor-
med by one Buddhist priest or another. Each one follows his own
fancy, his peculiar contrivances, calculated to impress the ignorant
and bring grist to the mill. They may be performed by Buddhist or
Taoist priests, Tao-shi ^ ^, at the pleasure of the family. The
Buddhist ceremony, however, is generally called Tso-chai f$[ j|f,
performing services for releasing a soul; while that performed by the
Taoists is styled Ta-tsiao :jT |$|, thanking their gods for deliverances.
1°. Passing over the magic bridge. Kwo-sien-k'iao j^ f[Jj ;ffj.
The disembodied soul, according to Buddhists, must pass over
a long and dangerous bridge (I), which spans a foaming torrent,
and obstructs the road towards a new existence. Demons hold all
the dangerous points, and cast into the surging waters beneath, the
unfortunate souls that venture on the way. To help to pass over it,
Buddhist priests have imagined to construct a mock-bridge made out
of tables and boards, erected in front of. the deceased person's house (2).
The tables on the top are placed with the feet turned up, and
from each foot is suspended a lantern ; pieces of cloth tied to bam-
boos act as a railing and help to prevent the spirits from toppling
over. At nightfall the bridge is lighted up, and a procession of
Buddhist priests arrives, beating wooden clappers and playing on
various instruments. While they mutter their formulas, others climb
on to the artificial bridge, and play the part of infernal imps (3).
(1) Only those who'are good are supposed to be able to pass over it safely ; the wicked
are believed to fall over its sides into the waters beneath it, where they perish. Doolittle.
Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. II. p. 105 .popular superstitions).
(2) The ceremony is supposed to render the passage of the bridge more feasable and
safe. Doolittle. loc. cit.
(3) In Southern China these imps have their faces painted, and are dressed in green-
ish or striped clothing, as the Chinese thus imagine spirits to dress. They generally
comprise a tall white devil, short black devil, and sometimes a beggar or a female. Doolittle.
Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. II. p. 105.
— 152 —
The filial son, who wishes to see his parents over this bridge
of sorrows, takes in his hands the tablet of the deceased, and sets
out to cross the bridge. He is stopped by a Buddhist priest, person-
ating an infernal imp, who opposes his passage ; the filial son falls
on his knees, begs and entreats, but all to no purpose. In order
to proceed, he must pay down a certain amount. A few paces fur-
ther on another imp gesticulates frantically; money must be again
disbursed, otherwise he will hurl over the railing the son and his
tablet. After much parleying, a bulk sum of money is agreed upon
and paid out on the spot. And so on till\the end.
The passage over the bridge has told heavily on the purse of the
too credulous son, but has swelled the pockets of the pate-shaven
monks. All is a regular comedy, as every reader can see, but a
remunerative one indeed.
2°. Releasing from the Buddhist purgatory . P'o-ti-yuhffiffcffi.
Buddhist and Taoist priests, Tao-slii JH J^, vie with one an-
other in inventing all kinds of cunning devices, designed to deliver
departed souls from the hands of Yen-wang ff*] 3E> the- ruler of
Hades. One of the principal ceremonies is that known as "rescuing
from purgatory" P'o-ti-yuh $$f f|jj $^ (1). The images of the ten
rulers of Hades are exposed ; offerings are made, and prayers add-
ressed to each of the superintendents of the ten departments of the
lower world. When they have been duly informed and propitiated,
the soul is deemed rescued from hell or rather from purgatory, as
this place of expiation is of but temporary duration (2).
Five written charms, printed on five different sheets of paper,
are employed in this ceremony of "releasing from purgatory1' P'o-
(1) Ti-yuk Jft Jfft Earth-prison, corresponding to the Sanscrit "Naraka", that is the
abode of wicked men. It contains 8 large hot departments, 8 cold ones, and 8 of utter
darkness, with minor small ones. The torments and length of life differ in each. Yama
and his lictors rule over the unhappy wretches, and the various degrees of torture. His
sister performs the same duties in regard to female criminals. Eitel. Sanscrit-Chinese
Dictionary.
(2) The Buddhist hell or purgatory is not a place of final retribution, but one of the
six phases of transmigration, or conditions in which sentient beings may find a new
existence. See above, p. 92. Note.
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— 15:5 —
ti-yuh $£ -jfe |R, which is performed by Taoist, Tao-shi ^T ±, and
especially by Buddhist priests. During the ceremony, these sheets
are hung up facing the four points of the compass in the order
prescribed by the text; a fifth one is suspended in the middle oJ the
hall. When the chanting of the liturgy is over, music played and
fire-crackers exploded, these five charms arc burnt and thus forwarded
to Hades, in order to deliver from the sufferings of hell, the soul for
whose benefit the expiatory ceremony has been performed.
This ceremony of releasing from the Buddhist purgatory, P'o-
ti-yuh $£ jjjj ^, is frequently practised, and is a profitable source
of income to the clergy (1).
3°. Rescuing from the bloody pond. Hsueh-hu jjfl. $J].
This detestable Buddhist doctrine condemns to be plunged into
a bloody pond, all women who die in childbirth, and even married
women who die several years subsequent to their having children.
They have no hope of being rescued therefrom, and must remain
immersed in this filthy sink, amidst intolerable suffering, until they
become totally annihilated, that is till the end of the world. The
only remedy available is to have recourse to Buddhist and Tin list
priests, Tao-shi |f| -j^, who by their magic formulas are empowered
to deliver them.
A rough sketch of the deceased woman is sometimes made,
with the eight characters of her horoscope, Pah-tze /V '/-*, at the
foot. This pictm-e is pasted on the monastery bell (2), in order thai
through its tollings, the soul of the deceased may be gradually res-
cued from the pool of mud and blood in which it is plunged.
At other times, the priests burn paper-boats, called "life-boats",
designed for crossing this bloody pond. The reader may see above.
Chapter IV, Article II, a written charm and the Chinese text of the
(1) Buddhist or Taoist priests, Tao-shi *| ±, can alone deliver souls out of this
ahode of suffering. Williams. Dictionary of the Chinese Language, life ©t
(2) See above, p. 125, how the tolling of Buddhist bells procures relief and solace to
the souls in hell.
20
— 154 —
prayer, designed to rescue all women who have brought forth child-
ren, from the bloody pond into which they are plunged, as well as
the story of this horrible practice, invented by the Buddhist priest
Muh-lien g jg, or rather propagated in China through his efforts (1).
Pagan women have a terrible fear of this "bloody pond", and
when the mother of a family dies, no expense is spared (2), and Budd-
hist and Taoist priests, Tao-shi ^ -^, are invited to chant prayers,
in order to rescue her soul without delay from the "bloody pond".
(1) See p. 81 -85. The precious formula of the "bloody pond", composed by Buddha.
("2) In Southern China the rich have this ceremony performed several times, or at
least once on a grand scale, before the conclusion of their public mourning ceremonies.
Doolittle. Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. I. p. 197.
155 —
•z&fe
Dore, Henri
Researches into Chinese
superstitions.
v. 1
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