Ridpath's history of the world; being an account of the principal events in the career of the human race from the beginnings of civilization to the present time, comprising the development of social institutions and the story of all nations

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Presented to the

LIBRARY of the

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

by

ST. MICHAEL"S
COLLEGE LIBRARY

CYCLOPAEDIA

OF

NIVERSAL HISTORY

BEING

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE CAREER OF THE
HUMAN RACE FROM THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVIL-
IZATION TO THE PRESENT TIME.

FROM

RECENT AND AUTHENTIC SOURCES.

COMPLETE IN THREE VOLUMES.

BY JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D.,

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN DEPAL-W UNIVERSITY ; AUTHOR OF A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC.

VOLUME II.— PART II.
THE MODERN WORLD.

)?i;0fasdij ^Hnslrnffb unify {Qaps, ©Ijarts. jSkddjts, ^oriraits, anil ^i

THE JONKS BKOTHKKS. I 'UBCIiSHINO COMPANY,

CINCI N N ATI, O.
BALCH BROTHERS ^ QRAHAM, BOSTON.

COPYRIGHTED, 1885, BY JOHN T. JONES.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

SOLD BY SUBSCRIPTION ONLY.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

BOOK EIQHTH.— THE ENQLISH REVOLUTION.

CHAPTER XXXIV.— FIRST Two STUARTS.

Philosophy of the Revolution considered.— Why
in England First ?— Strength of Monarchy in the
Island.— A Half-way Reformation.— Growth of the
House of Commons.— Audacity of Thought-
James Stuart named for the Throne.— His Charac-
ter.—Unpopularity of the King.— Ascendency of
Cecil. — Conspiracy in Favor of Arabella. — Protest-
antism of James. — History of the Gunpowder
Plot.— Details of the Scheme.— Guy Fawkes.— The
Conspirators uncovered. — They are executed.—
Nature of the Union. — Administration of James. —
Story of Carr.— Death of Cecil.— End of Walter
Raleigh.— Career and Work of Francis Bacon.—
The Great Trial.— James, a Man of Peace.— Mar-
riage Projects. — Henrietta Maria and Prince
Charles.— The Bohemian War. — Death of James. —
Translation of the Bible. — Betterment of Ire-
land. —Character of Charles I.— Buckingham and
the Queen.— Impracticality of the Stuarts.— Charles
would reduce the House of Commons. — War with
France. — Assassination of Buckingham. — Ascen-
dency of Strafford and Laud. — Parliament refuses
Supplies.— Sketch of the Star Chamber.— Charles
would use this Court. — Tonnage and Poundage
Scheme. — The King a Thorough Protestant. — The
League and Covenant. — Revolt .of the Men of the
North.— Parliament convened. — Bad Humor of
that Body.— Battle of New burn.— Puritanism in
the House.— Attack on Strafford.— Bill of Attain-
der passed.— Dilemma of the King. — Execution of
Strafford.— Fall of Laud.— Defiant Acts of Parlia-
ment—Charles in Scotland.— Rebellion in Ire-
land.—Action of the Commons.— The Anti-Stuart
Party.— Episcopacy and the State.— Portents of
Civil War, 753-771

CHAPTER XXXV.— CIVIL WAR AND COM-
MONWEALTH.

Parliament becomes Puritan. — Life of John
Hampden.— Early Years of Oliver Cromwell. —
He appears in Parliament. — Warwick's Sketch. —
Career of Sir Henry Vane. —Other Leaders. —
Charles would arrest the Members.— Outbreak of
Civil War. — Party Names. — Philosophical Divis-
ions.— The Legal-Reform Party.— The Political-
Revolutionary Party.— Guizot's Outline.— Episco-
pacy supports the King. — Presbyterians with the
Politico-Revolutionists.— Independents with the
Levelers. — Commanders on Both Sides. — The
King at Nottingham. —Nobility lends its Re-
sources.—Battle of Edgehill.— Siege of Reading.—

Successes of the Royalists.— Character of the Re-
cruits.—Popular Sympathy with the Republi-
cans.—Gains of the Puritan Cause.— Parliament
leagues with the Scots. — Campaigns of 1643. — Bat-
tle of Marston Moor. — Rout of the Royalists. —
Good Qualities of the Kinj:.— Ruin of his Cause
at Naseby. — Charles at Oxford.— Arrogance of the
Revolution.— Radicalism in Parliament— Ascen-
dency of Cromwell. — Progress of the Republicans
in the Field.— Charles delivers Himself to the
Scots. — Who sell him to Parliament— His Rash
Letter. — He is taken to Triplow Heath. — End of
Moderation.— The King at Hempden Court. — He
attempts to escape. — His Imprisonment. — He
meets the Commissioners.— Cromwell expurgates
the House. — Charles taken to Windsor. — His
Trial. — He is condemned and executed.— Estab-
lishment of the Commonwealth. — Alarm occa-
sioned by the King's Death. — Cromwell stamps
out the Irish Rebellion.— He goes against the
Scots. — That People support Prince Charles.— Bat-
tle of Dunbar.— Recklessness of Young Charles. —
Storming of Worcester. — The Prince escapes to
France.— Prostration of his Cause. — Foreign Rela-
tions of the Commonwealth. —War with the
Dutch.— Second Purgation of Parliament— Crom-
well's Will supreme.— His New Parliament.— Pro-
jects and Character of the House.— Establishment
of the Protectorate.— The New Frame of Govern-
ment.—Arbitrary Rule. — Plots of Oliver's Ene-
mies.— Rigor and Virtue of the Administration. —
Affairs in Ireland.— Foreign Relations of Eng-
land.— Opposition of the Radicals. — Abolition of
the Military System.— Shall Oliver be King?—
Troubles of the Protector.— Strength of his Gov-
ernment—His Death.— Richard in the Protecto-
rate.—His Weakness.— The Rump Parliament-
Gog and Magog.— Vain Projects.— Correspondence
of Monk with Charles.— Summoning of Parlia-
ment—New Writs issued.— Project of the Resto-
ration.—The Rising Tide.— Return of Charles II.—
Social Condition of the Kingdom, .... 771-794

CHAPTER XXXVI.— RESTORATION AND SEC-
OND REVOLUTION.

No Guarantees required of the King.— His
Character.— His Ministry.— Amnesty.— The Regi-
cides excepted.— Execution of Peters, Vane, and
Harrison.— Insult to Cromwell's Remains.— The
Army disbanded. — Act of Uniformity passed.—
Failure of the Ki.i>o,].al Scheme in Scotland.—
Sale of Dunkirk.— Collapse of Public and Pi
Virtue.— Puritanism to blame.— The Reaction

i

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

against it.— The Profligate Charles.— War with
Holland. — Battle of the Downs. — Van Tromp's
audacity. — The Year of Calamity. — Fire and Pesti-
lence.— Clarendon Overthrown. — Prince Rupert's
Ministry. — The Cabal. — Its Measures. — Naval Bat-
tle witli the Dutch. — The Dauby Ministry. — Policy
of the Government. — Guizot's Review of the Situ-
ation.— Comments on the Reign of Charles II. —
Fear of the Duke of York. — The Habeas Corpus
Act. — Titus Gates and the Popish Plot. — Popular
Dislike of the King. — Duke of Monmouth. — Cath-
olic Conspiracies. — The Rye House Plot. — Death
of Charles. — Evelyn's Sketch of his Character. —
James II. — His Intrigue with Rome. — Mon-
mouth's Rebellion. — He is executed. — Career of
Lord Jeffreys. — Destruction of the Duke of Ar-
gyll.—Discontent of the People. — Favor to the
Catholics. — Remonstrance of the Bishops. — Ques-
tion of the Succession. — Birth of the Pretender. —
His Place in History. — Correspondence with
Prince William. — Folly of the King. — Attempts
Conciliation in Vain.— Purpose of the Prince of
Orange.— He lands at Torbay. — His Reception. —
Growth of the Movement in his Favor.— Flight of
the King and Queen. — The London Mob. — James
leaves the Kingdom. — A Bloodless Revolution. —
Revival of London. — Milton and Bunyan. — Butler
and Pepys.— Dryden and Boyle, 794-809

CHAPTER XXXVII.— WILLIAM HI. AND
Louis XIV.

Nature of the Period. — Mazarin and the Boy
Louis. — The Latter asserts Himself. — He takes
the Field.— Marries Princess Maria Theresa.— The
King takes the Government upon Himself. — Col-
bert—Difficulty of French and Spanish Em-
bassadors. — Spain humbled.— L'Etat c'egt Moi. —
Absolutism of Louis XIV.— Antagonism of the
King and William of Orange.— Claim of the Latter
to the English Throne.— The Crown given to
William and Mary.— Their Characters.— The Bill
of Rights.— The English dissatisfied.— The Un-
courtly William.— Defeat of the Highlanders.—
Revolt in Ireland.— War in that Country.— Battle
of the Boyne.— Duke of Marlborough in Com-
mand.—The Catholic Exodus.— The Scotch reject
Episcopacy.— McDonald of Glencoe.— Massacre of
the Clan.— Affairs on the Continent.— Great
Power of Louis.— Turenne and Conde.— Peace con-
cluded.— Splendor of Louis and his Court.— Mad-
ame De Maintenon. — Aggressions of the French
King.— The Turkish Invasion.— Sobieski repels
the Ottomans. — Louis poses as the Grand Mon-
arch.—Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.— As-
< ney of Louvois.— Persecutions of the Hugue-
nots. Qorron of the I >I-MW made.— League against
Frain-e.-- Louis espouses tin- Cause of the .!;,•
Itea Kinir William in Holland.— Battle of La
1 1- -ue. - Nuval Engagements of 1093.— Crisis of
nin.— Battle of Marsaglia. — France well-nigh
ruined.— Plot of Louis and Leopold.— Attitude of
William III.— Siege of Namur.— Treaty of Rys-

wick. — Distress of Spain. — Charles of Austria and
Philip of Anjou. — Who shall have the Spanish
Crown ? — Bequest to the Prince of Bavaria. — Ar-
rangements of France and England. — Duplicity of
Louis. — The Beaten Monarchs. — Philip acknowl-
edged.— Arrogance of the French King. — Out-
break of the AVar of the Spanish Succession. —
Prince Eugene beats the French. — League against
Louis. — The Latter recognizes the Pretender. —
Queen Mary dies. — William III. follows. — Sketch
of Queen Anne. — She adopts the Policy of her Pre-
decessor.— Churchill at the Hague. — First Cam-
paigns of the War. — Battle of Blenheim. — Charles
III. in the Peninsula. — Joseph I. becomes Em-
peror.— Flight of Philip V. — Revolts against
Charles. — Louis proposes Peace.— Haughtiness of
the Allies. — English Reverses. — The Pretender in
Scotland.— Battles of 1708.— The Terrible Win-
ter.— Campaigns of 1709. — Philip V. regains the
Throne. — The Death of Joseph changes the Prob-
lem.— Charles becomes Emperor. — Fatality in the
Family of Louis. — Treaty of Utrecht. — Terms of
the Settlement. — Accession of the House of Han-
over.— Old Age of Louis. — Advice to his Great-
grandson. • — The Age of the Grand Monarch con-
sidered.—Supposed Literary Glory. — His Paternal
System applied to Authors and Artists. — That
System a Failure 809-839

CHAPTER XXXVIII.— CZAR PETER AND
CHARLES XII.

Who shall be Master of the North ?— Accession
of the House of Romanoff. — Ivan and Feodor. —
Michael and Alexis.— Feodor III. — Accession of
Peter I.— Sketch of his Youth.— Force of his Ad-
ministration.— Enters the Navy. — Resides in Hol-
land.— His Studies in that Country and England. —
He begins his Reforms. — Makes Alliances. —
Course of Events in Sweden. — Youth of Charles
XII.— He begins badly.— Is aroused to Action.—
Joins Frederick of Holstein. — Conquers Den-
mark.—Peter at Narva.— Charles raises the Siege.—
Defeats the Poles. — Venus in his Camp.— Rally of
Peter.— Battle of Fraustadt.— Double-dealing of
Augustus. —The Emperor and Marlborough.—
Charles invades Russia. — Turns into the Ukraine. —
Battle of Poitava.— Charles at Bender.— The Sultan
joins him.— Catharine bribes the Turk.— Intrigues
of Charles at Constantinople. — He is ordered out
of the Turkish Dominions. — Scenes at Bender. —
Plans of the King.— He returns to Sweden.— De-
fends Stralsund.— Makes a Second Stand.— Schemes
of Baron Gortz.— His Plan divulged.— Death of
Charles XII.— Comments on his Career.— Methods
and Character of Peter.— St. Petersburg founded.—
Marriages of the Czar.— Treaty of Nystad.— Peter
as a Civilizer. — His Death, 840-864

CHAPTER XXXIX. — PROGRESS OF THE
AMERICAN COLONIES.

New France or Canada.— Hardships of the Pil-
grims. — Their Relations with the Indians. — Sam-

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

oset and Squanto.— Treaty with Massasoit.— iStand-
ish and the Natives.— A Bad Summer. — New
Settlements. — The Indians Friendly.— Cape Ann
and Salem.— Development of Massachusetts Bay. —
\Vinthrop Governor. — Boston founded.— The Bal-
lot-box introduced. — Peters and Vane. — Colonies
iit Concord and on the Connecticut.— Career of
Anne Hutchinson. — Founding of Harvard Col-
lege.—The Printing-press. — Growth of New Eng-
land.— The Union. — The Puritans favor the Com-
monwealth.— The Protector's Friendship. — Coming
of the Quakers. — They are persecuted. — The Regi-
cides in America. — Commissioners sent to New
England. — Philip's War. — Consolidation of the
Colonies under Andros. — Wars. — History of the
Salem Witchcraft. — Expedition against Port
Royal. — Subsequent History of Massachusetts. —
The Dutch on Manhattan Island. — Beginning oi

Civil Government.— The Charter of Privileges. —
Tin- I'atroons' Estates.— Swedish Colony on the
Delaware.— Stuyvesant Governor.— Patents of the
Duke of York. — Administration of Nicolls. — Lord
Lovelace. — Andros and Dongan.— Progress of Civil
Government. — Hostility of James II. — Rebellion
against Nicholson. — Administration of Bello-
mont. — Kidd the Pirate.— Cornbury and Love-
lace.— The Montreal Expedition. — Enterprises of
John Smith in Virginia. — The Starving Time. —
Jamestown abandoned. — Colonists return.— Ad-
ministration of Yeardley.— House of Burgesses. —
Slavery introduced.— Berkeley's Administration. —
Virginia favors the Stuarts. — Charles II. disposes
of the Province.— Bacon's Rebellion. — Culpepper's
Administration.— Royal Government established.—
William and Mary College. — The Minor Colo-
nies.—Pennsylvania in Particular 854-868

BOOK NINTH.— AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.

CHAPTER XL. — FIRST TWO HANOVERIANS.

Character of the Epoch. — Antecedents of the
House of Hanover.— George I. — Rebellion in Scot-
land.— The New Ministry. — The Gortz Imbroglio. —
Quarrel of the King and the Prince of Wales. —
Sophia and Konigsmark. — South Sea Bubble. —
The Explosion. — Overthrow of the Ministry. — Plot
of the Jacobites. — Wood's Monopoly. — Newton
and Swift. —The Dissenters favored. — Enlarge-
ment of Oxford and Cambridge. — The Unshaken
Walpole. — War of 1725. — Death of Sophia and the
King. — Accession of George II. — His History. —
Walpole his Favorite. — Like Father Like Son. —
Treaty of Seville. — Antecedents of Georgia. — The
Excise Scheme defeated. — Question of the Polish
Succession. — Matters before Parliament.— Pro-
posed Reduction of the Army. — Agreement with
Spain. — Outbreak of Hostilities. — The Austrian
Succession. — What was involved. — Retirement of
Walpole. — The Septennial Act debated.— George
II. espouses the Austrian Cause. — Battle of Det-
tingen.— Charles Edward would take the Scottish
Throne.— Preston Pans and Culloden, . . 869-879

CHAPTER XLL— REIGN OF Louis XV.

Philip of Orleans in the Regency.— Spanish
Complications. — War breaks out.— Albaroni
beaten. — John Law and the Mississippi Bubble. —
Nature of the Scheme.— Rage of Paris.— The Bub-
ble bursts. — Plague at Marseilles. — Ministry of
the Duke of Bourbon.— The King's Marriage.—
Administration of Fleury.— The Polish Succes-
sion.—War with Austria.— Bourbon Dynasty in
Italy.— Lorraine goes to France.— Shall Maria
Theresa be Empress?— Scene in the Hungarian
Diet.— French Invasion of Netherland.— Franco-
Prussian Alliance.— Career of Marshal Saxe.—
Francis elected Emperor.— Treaty of Aix-la-Cha-

pelle. — Apparition of Pompadour. — The Petticoat
Dynasty 879-886

CHAPTER XLIL— RISE OF THE HOUSE OF

HOHENZOLLERN.

Beginnings of Brandenburg. — Character of the
Great Elector. — The Foundations of Prussia laid. —
Policy of the Elector.— The Salzburger Protest-
ants.— Organization of the Potsdam Guards. — The
Tobacco Cabinet. — Polish Rule renounced by
Prussia. — Battle of Fehrbellin. — Decay of Haps-
burg.— The "Empire Outside."— Siege of Bel-
grade.—Charles VI. and Augustus III. — France
goes to War with the Empire.— Stanislas driven
from Poland. — Treaty of Vienna. — Antipathy of
Hapsburg and Hohenzollern. — Events after the
Treaty. — The Russo-Austrian Alliance. — Decline
of Austria. — Condition of Affairs in Prussia. — Pro-
gressive Character of the Government. — Demoral-
ization of the Empire.— Birth and Youth of Fred-
erick II. — A French Education. — Marriage Project
of the Mother.— Frederick deserts.— The Father's
Wrath. — Katte is hanged. — The Prince condemned
to Death.— His Marriage with Elizabeth Chris-
tina— He is reckoned a Dreamer. — Accedes to
the Throne. — Sudden Display of Character. — The
Pragmatic Sanction to be tested. — Character of
Maria Theresa. — Charles Albert and Augustus
III. — War of the Austrian Succession. — Frederick
claims Silesia. — And takes it, — Battle of Moll-
witz. — Europe against Theresa. — She appeals to
the Hungarian Diet.— Charles VII. is crowned. —
Battle of Chotusitz. — Cession to Frederick. — Eng-
land interferes. — Frederick treats with France. —
He invades Bohemia. — Death of Charles VII. —
Frederick's Prospects darkened. — His genius
awakened.— Battle of Hohenfriedberg. — Wrath of
Theresa. — Prussian Victory at Sorr. — Frederick
j turns unto Saxony. — Silesia is ceded to him. —

IV

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.— Frederick's Salutary
Measures.— His Habits and Methods of Govern-
ment.—Religious Toleration in Prussia.— Anec-
dotes of the King. — He imitates the Great Elec-
tor.—Distrusts the Treaty.— Foresees Another
Conflict 886-904

CHAPTER XLIH.— THE SEVEN YEARS'
WAR.

First Hostilities of America.— Maria Theresa
hates Frederick.— She makes a French Alliance. —
The Russian Elizabeth.— She Leagues Herself with
Theresa. — Frederick discovers the Plot. — He re-
solves on War.— He makes a Treaty with Eng-
land.—Invades Saxony.— Battle of Lobositz.— Swe-
den joins the Anti-Prussian League. — Number of
Frederick's Enemies.— Death of Schwerin.— Battle
of Kollin.— Frederick's Greatness.— Seeming Ruin
of the Prussian Cause.— Battle of Rossbach. — Rout
of the French. — Extent of the Losses. — Frederick
turns into Silesia.— Daun joins Charles of Lor-
raine.—Battle of Leuthen.— Plan of the Conflict. —
Rout of the Austrians. — Distress after the Battle. —
Appeals of Maria Theresa. — Frederick's Popular-
ity in England. — Russian Invasion of Pomerania. —
Battle of Zorndorf. — Valor of Seidlitz.— Maria
Theresa unconquered.— Prussian Disaster at Hoch-
kirch. — Desperate Straits of Frederick. — Union of
the Austrian and Russian Armies. — Battle of Ku-
nersdorf. — Ruin of the Prussians. — Quarrel of Daun
and Soltikoff.— Frederick drains Prussia.— Daun's
Plan for 1760.— Battle of Liegnitz.— The Allies ad-
vance on Berlin. — The City taken. — Battle of Tor-
gau. — Heroism of Zieten. — Condition of Affairs at
End of 1760. — Opening of Next Year's Campaign. —
Indecisive Results. — Gains of the Allies during
the Autumn.— Unconquerable Will of Frederick. —
Peter becomes Czar. — He makes Peace with Fred-
erick.— Successes of Prussia. — The Czar murdered.—
Can Frederick manage Catharine? — Discourage-
ment of Austria. — Tendency to Peace. — Treaty of
Fontainebleau.— Terms of Settlement, . . 905-920

CHAPTER XLIV. — INTERCOLONIAL CON-
FLICT IN AMERICA.

The Field of Operations.— Position of the Anglo-
American Settlements. — Territorial Claims of Eng-
land.— Claims and Settlements of the French. —
The Jesuits explore the North-west. — Explora-
tions of Joliet and Marquette. — Expedition of La
Salle. — He descends the Mississippi. — Brings a
Colony from France. — Settles in Texas. — Is mur-
dered.—Jesuit Missionary Stations.— Animosity of
France and England. — Conflict of the Frontiers-
men.— lExploring Parties of the Ohio Company. —
Forts Le Bceuf and Venango. — Alarm of the In-
dians.— Mission of Washington to the French. —
Hardships of the Journey. —Expedition of Trent. —
Fort Du Quesne founded. — Outbreak of War.—
Washington at Great Meadows.— He falls back. —
The French attack Fort Necessity. — Congress of
the Colonies at Albany.— Franklin's Plan of Go\f

ernment— The Scheme is rejected. — A British
Army sent to America. — Braddock advances on
Fort Du Quesne. — Is routed by the French. — Brit-
ish Expedition into Acadia. — Expulsion of the
French. — The Latter are driven into Exile. —
Campaign against Fort Niagara. — Battle of Lake
George.— Operations of 1756. — Loudoun appointed
to Command.— The Indians repressed. — Lou-
doun's Failure. — Capture of Fort William Henry. —
Pitt comes into Power. — New Corps of Officers. —
Capture of Louisburg. — Attack on Ticonderoga. —
The English take Frontenac. — Recovery of
Du Quesne. — Capture of Niagara by the En-
glish.— Ticonderoga taken. — Wolfe ascends the St.
Lawrence. — Battle of the Montmorenci. — Wolfe
gains the Plains of Abraham. — The Battle. — Death
of Wolfe and Montcalm. — Quebec surrendered to
the English.— A Lingering Warfare. — 'Terms of
the Treaty of Paris, 921-933

CHAPTER XLV. — LAST YEARS OF FREDER-
ICK THE GREAT.

Self-consciousness of the American Colonies. —
Absolutism of George III. — Growth of the French
Nation. — Rise of Prussia. — Catharine II. in Rus-
sia.— Accession of the Third George. — His Popu-
larity. — His Marriage. — His Policy respecting the
Seven Years' War.— Treaty of 1762.— Pitt and the
Whigs in Power.— Career of John Wilkes. — He is
outlawed and imprisoned. — The People rally to
his Support. — He takes his Seat in Parliament. —
George III. would restore the Maxims of the Ja-
cobites.— English Literature supports Despotism. —
The Stamp Act is passed. — Extension of British
Influence in the East. — War with Hyder Ali. —
Warren Hastings. — His Previous Career. — His
East Indian Administration. — His Impeachment. —
Closing Years of the Reign of Louis XV. — Over-
throw of Choiseul. — Suppression of the Jesuits in
France and Spain. — Extension of the King's Pre-
rogatives. — Free Thought appears in France. —
Frederick's Methods after the War. — His Arbi-
trary Rule. — Daily Habits. — Anecdotes of the
King. — Growth of the Prussian People. — Last
Days of Frederick. — Greatness of Maria Theresa. —
Principles of her Administration. — Project for the
Partition of Poland. — Question of the Bavarian
Electorate. — End of Maria Theresa. — Russia after
the Reign of Peter. — Ascendency of Menshikoff. —
Catharine II. — Sketch of her Character. — Her
Marriage with Peter. — Her Career of Audacity. —
Imprisonment and Murder of Peter III. — Cath-
arine Empress. — Plots and Counterplots. — Drown-
ing of Ivan. — Growth of Russia during the Reign
of Catharine. — Her Statesmen. — Scandals of hei
Court. — The Thirteen American Colonies. — Popu-
lation.— Rank of the Colonies. — Character of the
People. — Temper of Different Sections. — Liberty
prevalent. — New England leads in Education. —
Schools. — Colleges. — Newspapers. — Cities. — Books.
Promising Youth. — Want of Thoroughfares. — Agri-
culture.— Ship-building. — Manufactures. — Right of
the Colonists to the Continent, 933-948

CONTENTS OF VOLUME IIL

BOOK TENTH.— THE AQE OR REVOLUTION.

CHAPTER XL VI. — WAR OF AMERICAN IN-
DEPENDENCE.

Greatness of the Last Quarter of Century
XVIII. — Character of the Epoch. — European
Monarchy. — The King a Feudal Suzerain. — Eccle-
siastical Domination over Society. — The Graduated
Nobility. — Primogeniture. — Entails. — The Out-
break First in America. — Afterwards in France. —
Heroic Character of the Revolution. — Causes
of the Conflict. — Arbitrary Government.— Influ-
ence of France. — Inherited Character of the Colo-
nists.— Growth of Public Opinion. — Character of
the King. — Parliamentary Acts destructive of Lib-
erty.— The Importation Act.— The Writs of As-
sistance resisted. — Parliament would tax Amer-
ica.— Colonial Opposition.— Controversy about the
French War. — Passage of the Stamp Act. — Its
Provisions. — Excitement produced in America. —
Patrick Henry and the Scene in the House of Bur-
gesses. — Resistance Elsewhere. — First Colonial
Congress. — The Stamp Act a Dead Letter. — It is
repealed. — New Duties imposed. — Action of Mas-
sachusetts.— Gage enters Boston. — The People de-
clared Rebels. — Riots in New York and Boston.—
Boston Tea Party. — Boston Port Bill. — Assem-
bling of the Second Congress. — Crisis in Massa-
chusetts.— Battles of Concord and Lexington. —
Rally of the Patriots.— Ethan Allen takes Ticon-
deroga.— Breed's Hill fortified. —The Battle.— The
Country aroused. — Leaders in Congress. — Wash-
ington Commander-in-Chief. — Sketch of his Pre-
vious Life.— The Patriot Army.— The Americans
look to Canada. — Montgomery's Expedition. — His
attack on Quebec. — He is defeated and killed. —
Arnold's Expedition. — Siege of Boston. — Affairs at
Dorchester .Heights. — Howe obliged to evacuate
the City.— The British attempt to capture Charles-
ton. —They appear before New York.— The Hes-
sians employed. — Movement for Independence. —
The Measure before Congress. — Adoption of the
Declaration. — The Principles Enunciated. — Influ-
ence of Paine. — Assembling of the British at New
York.— Howe tries Conciliation. — Battle of Long
Island. — Rout of the Americans. — Effects of the
Disaster. — Movements of the Two Armies above
New York. — Washington driven into New Jer-
sey.— He retreats across the Delaware. — Parker's
Conquest of Rhode Island. — Capture of Lee. — Bat-
tle of Trenton. — Sudden Revival of the American
Cause. —Battle of Princeton. — New Jersey recov-
ered.— Burning of Danbury. — Meigs takes Sag
Harbor. — The British retire to New York. — Nego-
tiations opened with France. — Marquis of La Fay-
ette.— Burgoyne invades New York.— Ticonderoga
taken. — Battle of Bennington. — Affair at Fort
Schuyler. — Gates in Command of the Army. — Bat-
tle of Saratoga. — Burgoyne's Peril. — He and his
Army surrendered. — Howe sails against Philadel-
phia.— Battle of Brandy wine. — Conflict at German-

town. — Forts Mercer and Milllin. — Washington at
White Marsh.— Winter at Valley Forge.— CommiB-
sioners sent to France. — Influence of Franklin. —
Sketch of his Life. — War between England and
France.— Battle of Monmouth.— Lee court-mar-
tialed.—The French and American attack on New-
port. — Failure of the Movement.— Butler and his
Indians. — Cherry Valley. — British take Savan-
nah.—Putnam at Horse Neck. — Clinton takes
Stony Point.— The Place recaptured by Wayne.—
Expedition against the Indians. — Georgia overrun
by the British.— Desultory Fighting.— Battle of
Stono Ferry. — Disastrous Attempt to retake Sa-
vannah.— Paul Jones's Victory.— Discouraging
Condition of the Americans.— The British take
Charleston. — Minor Engagements in the South. —
Marion and Sumter. — Battle of Sander's Creek. —
King's Mountain. — Monetary Condition of the
Country.— Treason of Arnold. — Capture of An-
dre.— He is executed.— Treaty with Holland. —
Mutiny.— The Movement checked.— Attempt to
capture Arnold.— The Traitor in Virginia. — Greene
in Carolina- — Battle of Cowpens. — Greene's Re-
treat.— He returns into Carolina. — Battle of Guil-
ford. — Hobkirk'sHill. — Eutaw Springs. — Execution
of Hayne. — The British driven into Charleston. —
Virginia ravaged. — Cornwallis retires to York-
town. — He is blockaded.— Yorktown besieged by
the French and Americans. — Surrender of the
British Army.— End of Hostilities. — Terms of the
Treaty of 1783.— The British leave America.—
Washington resigns his Command. — Bad Condi-
tion of the American Government. — Efforts to Ef-
fect a Union.— Articles of Confederation.— Nature
of the Confederative System. — Its Inefficiency. —
Chaotic Condition of the Republic. — Assembly at
Annapolis. — The Constitutional Convention. —
The Instrument adopted. — First Division of Par-
ties.— A Tripartite Government. — Nature of the
Constitution. — The President. — The Judiciary. —
Question of Amendments. — Extinction of the Con-
federation.—Organization of the North-western
Territory. — Washington elected to the Presi-
dency, 949-985

CHAPTER XL VII. — THE FRENCH REVOLU-
TION.

Reign of Priests and Nobles.— The French
People.— How the Lands of tin- Kingdom were
owned. — Despotism of Louis XIV. — Degradation
of Man. — Government of the Grand Monan-b. —
Reign of Louis XV. — Burdens of the French Na-
tion.— Insurrection of the Mind. — Intellectual Au-
dacity of the Epm-h. — The Encyclopaedists. — Char-
acter of thei r Work . — I n (1 uence of the Encyclopedic
Francaise. — D'Alembert and Diderot. — What they
would give the Human Race. — The Encyclopedic
Methodique.— The Mind liberated.— What the
French Revolution was. — Louis XVI. — He reaps

VI

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

the Whirlwind. — He calls Parliament. — Financial
Difficulties of the Kingdom. — "After us the
Deluge!" — Turgot and Necker. — Influence of the
Latter in the Kingdom. — His Financial System.—
He is opposed by the Nobility. — Franklin in
Paris. — Favor of Voltaire. — Policy of France dur-
ing our Revolution. — Battle of Ushant. — French
Fleet on the American Coast. — Spain goes to War
with England.— Work of D'Estaing.— The Span-
iards besiege Gibraltar. — Effects of the American
Revolution in France. — Great Reputation of
Franklin. — French Enthusiasm. — Calonne ap-
pointed Minister of Finance. — His Theories. —
Prosperity by Debt. — The Notables convened. —
Overthrow of Calonne. — -The States-general of
France.— Le Tien filat.— Sketch of the States-gen-
eral.— Dates of their Meetings. — Preliminary Dis-
cussions.—The Bed of Justice. — Other Expedi-
ents. — The States-general called. — Election of
Delegates. — Assembling of the Body. — How shall
the Voting be done? — The Issue made up. — Ne-
gotiations between the Orders. — Triumph of the
Commons.— The National Assembly.— The Priv-
ileged Orders already broken. — France quivers. —
Famine.— Man looks up at the Bastions. — Many
Royalists with the People.— Marie Antoinette. —
Camille Desmoulins.— First Blood of the Revolu-
tion.—Storming of the Bastile.— The National As-
sembly in Paris.—" To-day the People conquer
their King."— Flight of the Nobles.— The Con-
stituent Assembly.— Folly of Louis XVI.— A Hol-
low Peace.— Leaders of the Assembly.— Mirabeau
in Particular.— Left, Right, and Center.— Revolu-
tion in the Provinces.— The Month of Abolition. —
What Things were swept away. — The Evening of
the 4th of August.— The New Constitution. — Bread
Riot in Paris.— Blind Humanity in the Streets of
Versailles.— Can the Royal Family be saved? —
The Human Tigers at their Work.— "To Paris
with the King!" — Louis a Prisoner.— More Inno-
vation.—The Ground cleared for Civilization. —
Attack on the Church.— The Political Clubs ap-
pear.—The Jacobins in Particular. —Spread of
Radicalism.— The Nobles will return and re-take
France.— The 14th of July.— Death of Mirabeau.—
Louis looks to the Swiss Guards.— The Emigrant
Army on the Frontier.— The Royal Family.— Their
Flight.— The King taken and brought back.— Ad-
journment of the Constituent Assembly.— Agita-
tion throughout Europe.— Alarm of the Bour-
bons.—What the Monarchs did. — Convening of
the Legislative Assembly.— The Girondists.— Hos-
tility of Austria. — Declaration of War.— Procla-
mation of the Duke of Brunswick.— A Fatal Meas-
ure for the King.— Formation of the National
Guard.— Hatred of Monarchy.— La Marseillaise.—
The Attack on the Tuileries.— Heroism of the Swiss
Guard.— Louis in the Temple.— Apparition of the
Guillotine.— The Reign of Terror begins.— Slaugh-
ter of the Priests.— The September Massacres.—
Leaders of the Revolution. — Sketch of Danton. —
His Party. —Marat and his Character.— Robes-
pierre.—His Previous Career. — France in the

Hands of the Trio.— Conflict on the Rhine.— Battle
of Jemappes.— Overthrow of the Monarchy. —
Shore and Mountain. — Liberty, Equality, Frater-
nity.— The King brought to Trial.— He is con-
demned and executed. — Fate of Louis XVII. —
Madness of Europe. — League against France. —
William Pitt the Leader.— Old and New Europe
arrayed.— Dumouriez goes to the Wall. — Ascend-
ency of the Jacobins. — Fall of the Girondists. —
Charlotte Corday disposes of Marat.— Execution
of the Girondists.— War on the Horizon.— Law of
the Suspected. — Marie Antoinette executed.— End
of Egalite.— The New French Era.— Reign of Au-
dacity.— Apotheosis of Reason. — Insurrection of
La Vendee.— Revolt of Lyons. — Affairs at Tou-
lon.—It was Napoleon. — Sketch of his Youth and
Education. — Parties in the Convention. — De-
struction of the He"bertists. — Robespierre wrestles
with Danton. — The Giant is thrown. — Ascendency
of Robespierre.— Terrors of his Reign.— He is
guillotined.— Break-up of the Jacobin Club.— The
Reaction.— The Assignats. — Suffering in Paris. —
The Bread Riot.— Conspiracies of the Royalists. —
The White Terror.— The French Armies.— The
Array against the Republic.— The French Cause
in Belgium and Holland. — The Batavian Republic
proclaimed.— Position of Prussia.— French Arms
victorious.— England takes the Sea. — Second Insur-
rection of the Vendeans. — Affairs at Quiberon. —
The Revolt suppressed. — Constitution of 1793. —
The Directory established.— Bonaparte puts down
the Mob in Paris.— End of the National Conven-
tion.— Revival under the Directory. — Disposition
of the French Armies. — Operations of Moreau and
Jourdan. — Napoleon heads the Army of Italy. —
His Progress South of the Alps. — Battle of Lodi. —
Siege of Mantua. — Battle of Arcole. — Treaty with
the Italians.— Results of the Campaign. — Napoleon
invades Austria.— Treaty of Campo Formio.— Bad
Faith of Venice.— The Cisalpine Republic organ-
ized.— Overthrow of the Papal Power. — Rome in
the Hands of the French.— Switzerland revolu-
tionized.— Vain Project against Ireland.— Results
of the First Revolutionary Epoch. — Project of in-
vading England. — Napoleon prefers Egypt.— The
Expedition organized.— Affairs in Malta. —Alex-
andria captured.— Battle of the Pyramids.— The
Bay of Aboukir. — The Syrian Expedition.— Bona-
parte returns to Egypt.— Sails for Europe.— New
Coalition against France. — Naples taken by the
French. — War with Austria. — Slow Progress of the
French Arms on the Rhine. — Bad Success in
Northern Italy. — Battle of the Trebia.— End of
the Cisalpine Republic. — Suvarof quits Western
Europe. — Napoleon's Purposes. — Overthrow of the
Directory. — Establishment of the Consulate.— The
New Form of Government. — Constitution of the
Year VIII., 985-1056

CHAPTER XL VIII.— CONSULATE AND EM-
PIRE.

The Ascendency of France.— Napoleon her
Idol.— His colleagues.— Outflashings of his Gen-

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

VII

ins. — He would establish Peace. — Kings who could
not hear. — Bonaparte crosses the Alps. — Battle of
Marengo. — Death of Desaix. — Cisalpine Republic
reorganized.— Successes of Moreau. — Battle of
Hohenlinden. — Peace of Luneville. — Death of
Kleber. — Battle of Aboukir. — The French retire
from Egypt.— Unpopularity of England. — The
Armed Neutrality. — England's Maritime Suprem-
acy.— Treaty of Amiens. — Terms of the Settle-
ment.— Napoleon Consul for Life. — The Civil
Glory of France. — The Code Napoleon. — Return
of the Emigrants. — Revolt in St. Domingo. — Career
of Toussaint L'Ouverture.— The Islanders gain In-
dependence.— Conduct of Napoleon and his Ad-
versaries.— England renews the War. — Seizures by
the Two Nations. — The First Consul sells Louisi-
ana.— Plot for his Assassination. — Execution of
D'Enghien. — Napoleon Emperor. — Organization of
the Government. — The Coronation. — Sketch of
Josephine. — The Emperor takes the Iron Crown. —
Ascendency of Pitt in England.— Murder of Paul
I. — Will Bonaparte invade England? — He turns
upon Austria.— Surrender of Mack at Ulm.— The
Emperor in Vienna.— Performance of Alexander
and William III.— Battle of Austerlitz.— Wreck of
the Third Coalition. — Austria seeks Peace. — Treaty
of Presburg. — Battle of Trafalgar. — Greatness of
Lord Nelson.— His Wrongs.— Death of Pitt.— Fox
succeeds him. — Frederick William treated with
Contempt. — Affairs in Naples. — King Joseph Bo-
naparte.— Napoleon sets up Kings and Princes. —
End of the German Empire. — Proposed Restora-
tion of Hanover to England. — The Emperor falls
on Prussia. — Battle of Jena. — Dismay in Prussia. —
The Berlin Decree. — England's " Order in Coun-
cil."— The Milan Decree. — Destruction of Com-
merce.— Attempt to detach Poland from Russia. —
Battle of Eylau.— Friedland.— Treaty of Tilsit-
Terms of the Settlement.— The English bombard
Copenhagen. — Hostility against her. — European
Ports closed against England and Sweden. — Depo-
sition of Gustavus IV. — Napoleon busies Himself
with the Spanish Peninsula.— Condition of Affairs in
Portugal. — Exile of the Bragancas. — The Emperor
breaks with the Pope. — Jerome's American Mar-
riage.— Pius's Ridiculous Bull.— Imbroglio of the
Spanish Bourbon. — Charles IV. dethroned. — The
Business of Bayonne. — Disappointment of Ma-
rat—Outbreak of the Peninsular War. — Folly of
Napoleon. — First Conflicts in the Peninsula. —
Siege of Saragossa.— England takes Advantage of
Conditions in the Peninsula.— Congress at
furt. — Proposition for Pence. — England loves Bour-
bon.— Napoleon invades Spain. — Ruin of Sir John
Moore.— England would destroy the Coalition.—
Austria goes to War. — Magic of Napoleon's Move-
ments.— lie defeats the Austrian* at Aspern ami
Wagram. — Francis sues for Peace. — The Settle-
ment.--Imprisonment of the Pope.— Sorrows of
Josephine. — She is divorced. — Maria Louisa el
in her Stead.— The Event Philosophically consid-
ered.— Birth of the King of Rome. — King Louis of
Holland. — He breaks with his Brother. — And is

dethroned.— Revolt of the Tyrolese. —Career of
Hofer.— Napoleon's Weaknesses.— He persecutes
De Stael.— Progress of the Peninsular War.
tie of Talavera.— Wellesley in the Torres Vedras.—
Struggle for Ciudad Roderigo. — The English on the
Offensive.— Defeat of Soult.— Wellington takes the
Field.— Badajos taken. — Battle of Salamanca.—
The War undecided.— Change in Russian Policy. —
The Czar's Causes of Complaint.— Napoleon's
Plans. — Alexander breaks the Peace.— The Cri-
sis precipitated by Sweden.— Bernadotte Crown
Prince. — French Army in Pomerania.— Bernadotte
appeals to the Czar.— Gigantic Preparations of the
Two Emperors. — Can Napoleon tread down Rus-
sia?—His Court at Dresden.— The Declaration of
War.— The Grand Army.— Passage of the Nie-
men.— The Corsican confronted by Nature. — The
Elements at War. — Battle of Smolensko. — Russians
fall back towards the Capital. — Borodino. — Kutu-
soff abandons Moscow. — Napoleon enters. — The
Conflagration breaks out. — Bonaparte proposes
Peace. — Beginning of the Retreat. — The Russians
close around the French.— Horrors of the March. —
The French reach Konigsberg. — Napoleon reaches
Paris. — Where were his Veterans?— Symptoms of
an Uprising against France. — Battles of May,
1813.— Hamburg retaken.— The Fifth Coalition.—
Battle of Dresden. — Bad Success of Napoleon's
Marshals.— Struggle before Leipsig.— Death of
Poniatowsky. — Retrograde Movement of the
French. — Genius of Napoleon. — Disintegration of
the French Empire. — Defection of Murat. — The
Invasion of France begun. — Overthrow of the
French Power in Spain. — Tubs for the Medieval
Monsters. — Incoming of the Avalanche. — Prodig-
ious Efforts of Napoleon. — The Allies take
Paris. — Action of the Senate. — First Abdication. —
Return of Louis XVIII. — Napoleon goes to Elba. —
Old France dead after all. — Demands of the Roy-
alists.— Louis of Bourbon and Charles Stuart. —
The Restoration can not undo the Revolution. —
Treaty of 1814.— Terms of the Settlement.— What
the Summer brought forth. — Assembling of the
Congress of Vienna. — Napoleon leaves Elba. — Up-
rising in his Favor.— The Restoration vanishes. —
The Empire reinstated.— Bonaparte would Nego-
tiate.—The Hundred Days.— The Allies blacken
the Horizon.— Courage of Napoleon.— Approach
of Wellington and Bliicher. — Preliminary Con-
tliets. — Napoleon's Plans.— Sketch of the Situa-
tion.—Waterloo.— Destiny ends it.— Heroism of
that Day.— Last of the Old Guard.— The Empire
in the Dust.— Unconditional Abdication.— Banish-
ment of Xap.,Ieon.— End of his Career. — His Re-
mains brought Home to France.— Fate of his Mar-
shals.— Mural.- Ney. — TheAl in Paris. —
France underfoot. — Sun unary of Results, 1057-1128

( HATTER XLIX. AMERICAN EVENTS:
WAR OF 1812.

Inauguration of Washington. — Embarrassments
of the New Government. — Executive Departments
organized. — Hamilton masters the Debt Ques-

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

tion. — Location of the Capital. — Harmar defeated
on the Maumee. — Vermont admitted. — St. Glair's
Defeat. — Doings of Citizen Genet.— British Ag-
gressions on American Commerce. — Jay's Treaty. —
Tribute to Algiers.— The Farewell Address.—
Adams elected President. — Drawing of Party
Lines.— Impudence of Adet— Complication with
France. — War imminent. — Preparation. — The
American Navy.— Sea Fights of 1800.— Ascendency
of Napoleon.— He seeks Peace.— Death of Wash-
ington.—Census of 1800.— Washington City.— Bad
Management of the Federal Party.— Jefferson
elected President. — Division of the North-west
Territory. — Louisiana purchased from France. —
Chief-justice Marshall. — War with Tripoli. — Ex-
ploit of Decatur.— Emperor Yusef brought to
Terms. — Burr kills Hamilton. — Jefferson re-
elected. — Explorations of Lewis and Clarke. —
Burr's Conspiracy. — Destruction of American
Commerce by England and France. — Chesapeake
and Leopard. — The Embargo Act. — Fulton and his
Steamboat.— Summary of Events. — Madison for
President.— Repeal of the Embargo. — Stubborn-
ness of Great Britain. — Free Trade and Sailors'
Eights.— Third Census.— War with the Shaw-
nees. — Tippecanoe. — President and Little Belt. —
Twelfth Congress. — Declaration of War. — Hull in
Michigan. — Desultory Fighting. — Hull's Surren-

der.— Constitution and Guerriere. — Wasp and
Frolic. — Other Naval Battles. — Expedition of Van
Rensselaer. — Affairs at Black Rock. — Divisions of
the Army. — Affair of the River Raisin. — Siege of
Fort Meigs. — Defense of Fort Stephenson. — Perry's
Victory on Lake Erie. — Battle of the Thames. —
Hostility of the Creeks. — The Savages defeated. —
Jackson subdues the Nation. — Americans capture
Toronto. — General Wilkinson in Command. — Ex-
pedition against Montreal. — Chrysler's Field. —
British Aggressions on the Niagara. — Hornet and
Peacock. — Chesapeake and Shannon. — Other Naval
Battles. — British Marauding on the Chesapeake. —
Battles of Chippewa and Niagara Falls. — Siege of
Fort Erie. — Other Operations on the Frontier. —
Battle of Plattsburg. — Cochrane in the Chesa-
peake.— The British take Washington. — Affairs at
Alexandria and Baltimore. — Bombardment of
Fort McHenry. — Suffering of New England. — Op-
position to the War. — Hartford Convention. —
Jackson takes Pensacola — Proceeds to New Or-
leans.— Oncoming of the British. — Preliminary
Conflict. — The Battle. — Destruction of the British
Army. — Close of the War. — Treaty of Ghent. —
Absurdity of the Settlement. — Condition of the
Country. — Decatur brings the Dey of Algiers to
his Senses. — The Colonization Society. — Monroe
elected President.— The Coming Epoch, 1128-1144

BOOK ELEVENTH.— THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

CHAPTER L. — THE UNITED STATES.

After Waterloo.— Greatness of the United
States. — Question of Internal Improvements. — Na-
tional Road and Erie Canal. — War with the Semi-
noles. — Admission of Maine. — The Missouri Ques-
tion. —Terms of the Compromise.— Reelection of
Monroe. — Piracy in the West Indies. — The South
American Republics. — The Monroe Doctrine. —
Visit of La Fayette. — Adams elected President. —
Sketch of his Life. — Partisan Violence. — Question
of the Creek Lands.— Death of Adams and Jeffer-
son.— The Tariff Question. — Jackson elected Pres-
ident.— His Character. — Quietus of the Bank. —
Nullification.— Webster and Hayne. — The Presi-
dent overawes South Carolina. — The Black Hawk
War.— Trouble with the Cherokees.— Indian Ter-
ritory organized.— The Seminole Conspiracy.— The
President orders the Distribution of the Funds.—
He exacts Indemnity from France. — Election of
Van Buren.— Suppression of the Seminoles. — Mon-
etary Panic of 1837.— The Specie Circular.— Inde-
pendent Treasury Bill.— The Canadian Insurrec-
tion.—Harrison elected President.— His Death. —
Tyler breaks with the Whigs.— Webster-Ashlmr-
ton Treaty.— Feud in Rhode Island.— Joseph Smith
and the Mormons.— They are expelled from Nau-
voo.— Their Settlement in Utah. —Revolt of Texas
against Mexico. —Alamo and San Jacinto.— The
Annexation Question. — Election of Polk.— Inven-

tion of the Telegraph. — Texas annexed to the
United States. — The Act precipitates War. — Tay-
lor on the Rio Grande. — Battles of Palo Alto and
Resaca. — War Spirit in the United States. — Organ-
ization of the Army. — Capture of Matamoras and
Monterey. — Santa Anna in the Presidency. —
Kearney's March to the West. — Fremont subdues
California. • — Doniphan's Expedition. — Scott takes
Command. — Battle of Buena Vista. — Bombard-
ment of Vera Cruz. — Invasion from the Coast. —
Cerro Gordo.— The Advance on Mexico. — Battles
before the City. — Entrance of the American
Army into the Capital.— End of the War. — Treaty
of Guadalupe Hidalgo. — Terms of Settlement. — Dis-
covery of Gold in California. — Taylor elected
President. — Question of Admitting California. —
The Omnibus Bill.— Death of the President.— The
Newfoundland Fishery Question. — Visit of Kos-
suth. — Arctic Expeditions of De Haven and
Kane. — Political Issues of 1852. — Pierce elected
President. — Pacific Railroad Enterprise. — Gadsden
Purchase. — Treaty with Japan. — World's Fair in
New York. — Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — Election of
Buchanan. — Trouble with the Mormons. — Diffi-
culty with Paraguay. — First Telegraphic Cable. —
The Dred Scott Decision. — John Brown's Raid. —
Political Conventions of 1860. — Lincoln elected
President. — Secession of the Southern States. —
Course of Stephens. — The Confederate Govern-
ment organized. — Inauguration of Lincoln. —

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

IX

Sketch of his Life.— His Cabinet.— Bombardment
of Fort Sumter. — Ten States out of the Union.—
First Bloodshed. — Activity of the Confederates.—
Richmond the Southern Capital. — Causes of the
Conflict. — Different Interpretation of the Consti-
tution.—National and State Sovereignty.— Differ-
ent Labor Systems in the North and South.— The
Cotton Gin.— The Missouri Agitation.— The Nul-
lification Act. — Annexation of Texas. — Kansas-
Nebraska Bill. — Want of Intercourse. — Sectional
Books and Newspapers. — Influence of Dema-
gogues.— Public Opinion against Slavery. — Union
Army across the Potomac. — Morris and McClellan
in West Virginia. — Petty Engagements. — Battle of
Bull Run. — Jefferson Davis President of the Con-
federacy.— Affairs in Missouri. — Battle of Wilson's
Creek.— Springfield.— Polk in Kentucky.— McClel-
lan in Command.— Ball's Bluff.— The Blockade.—
Capture of Mason and Slidell. — They are liber-
ated.—Distribution of the Union Forces. — Grant
captures Henry and Donelson. — Battle of Pitts-
burg Landing. — Capture of No. 10. — Pea Ridge. —
Aferrimac and Monitor. — Burnside's Expedition
along the Coast. — Capture of New Orleans. — Prog-
ress of the Confederate Cause in Kentucky. — Bat-
tle of Perryville.— luka and Corinth.— Attack on
Chickasaw Bayou. — Battle of Stone's River. — Banks
defeated in the Shenandoah. — Advance of McClel-
lan.— Opening of the James. — The Seven Days'
Battles. — End of the Campaign. — Lee would Cap-
ture Washington.— Second Battle of Bull Run. —
Progress of Lee's Invasion. — Battle of Antietam. —
Burnside in Command. — Fredericksburg. — Pro-
portions of the War. — The Emancipation Procla-
mation.— Capture of Arkansas Post. — Grant's
Advance on Vicksburg. — The Siege and Capture. —
Expedition of Banks. — Grierson's Raid. — Battle of
Chickamauga. — Lookout and Missionary Ridge. —
Siege of Knoxville. — Movements in Missouri and
Arkansas.— Morgan's Raid. — Gilmore's Attack on
Charleston. — Hooker supersedes Burnside. — Chan-
cellorsville. — Lee invades Pennsylvania. — Crisis
at Gettysburg.— The Battle.— Defeat of the Con-
federates.— New York Mob. — Strength of the
Armies. — Raid of Forrest. — The Red River Expe-
dition.— Grant Commander-in-Chief. — Advance of
Sherman. — Dallas and Kenesaw. — Siege of At-
lanta.— Hood in Tennessee. — Ruin of his Army. —
The March to the Sea. — Sherman at Savannah. —
He takesChnrleston.— Ends the War in the South.—
Farragut at Mobile. — Capture of Fort Fisher. —
Destruction of the Albemarle. — The Confederate
Cruisers. — The Alabama in Particular. — Grant en-
ters the Wilderness. — The Battles. — Base on James
River. — Affairs in the Shenandoah Valley. — Battle
of Winchester. — Siege of Petersburg. — Battle of
Five Forks. — Taking of Richmond.— A ppomattox.—
Capture of Davis. — Reelection of Lincoln. — Finan-
cial Measures of the Government. — The National
Debt.— Assassination of Lincoln.— Punishment of
the Conspirators.— Lincoln's Character.— Johnson in
the Presidency. — Slavery abolished. — Amnesty
Proclamation.— Question of the Debt.— Territorial

Development of the United States.— Purchase of
Alaska. — Break of the President with Congress. —
The Reconstruction Measures. — The Civil Rights
Bill. — Difficulty in the Cabinet. — Impeachment of
Johnson.— Grant elected President.— Sketch of his
Life.— The Pacific Railroad completed.— Amend-
ments to the Constitution. — The Ninth Census. —
Treaty of Washington. — Settlement of the Ala-
bama Claims. — Burning of Chicago. — Political Is-
sues of 1872.— Reelection of Grant— The Credit
Mobilier Investigation. — Financial Panic of 1873. —
Death-roll of Eminent Men. — The Centennial Ex-
hibition.— War with the Sioux. — Admission of
Colorado.— The Disputed Presidency.— Hayes de-
clared Elected.— Policy of the Administration. —
Railroad Strike of 1877.— Spread of the Disturb-
ance.—Question of Remonetizing Silver.— Its
Bearing on the Resumption Act. — The Yellow
Fever Epidemic. — The Halifax Fishery Award. —
The Life-saving Service. — Resumption of Specie
Payments. — Garfield elected President. — The
Tenth Census. — Division in the Republican
Party. — The Trouble in New York.— Assassination
of the President. — He lingers and dies. — Accession
of Arthur. — The New Cabinet. — Advancement of
Science. — The Telephone.— The Phonograph. —
The Electric Light.— Recent Public Works.— The
East River Bridge in Particular. — An Uneventful
Administration. — Presidential Nominations for
1884. — Election of Cleveland and Hendricks. —
Transfer of the Command of the Army. — Comple-
tion of the Washington Monument— The New
President and his Cabinet. — Summary of Re-
sults, 1146-1201

CHAPTER LI. — GREAT BRITAIN.

Vigor of the English Race.— Conduct of Eng-
land during the Napoleonic Wars. — Death of
George III. — Accession of the Regent — Measures
of his Reign. — England acquires Territory in the
East. — The Catholic Agitation. — Measures of Rus-
sell and Peel. — Career of O'ConnelL— Unpopular-
ity of Wellington and Peel.— Death of George
IV.— William IV. on the Throne.— Question of
Parliamentary Reform. — The Decayed Boroughs. —
Affairs on the Continent. — The Whigs in Power. —
Violence of Party Strife.— Passage of the Reform
Bill. — Salutary Character of the Measure. — Aboli-
tion of Slavery. — Proposed Disestablishment of the
Irish Church. — O'Connell champions the Meas-
ure.—The Melbourne Ministry.— Reform of the
Poor Laws. — Passage of the Municipal Act. — The
Tithe Commutation Act. — 111 feeling between
Great Britain and Holland. — Accession of Victo-
ria.—Reversion of Hanover.— The Canadian Re-
bellion.— Principles of the Chartists. — Extent of
the Agitation. — End of the Movement — O'Connell
advocates Separation.— Party of Young Ireland. —
Emigration to America. — The Fenian Brother-
hood.— Disestablishment of the Church proposed. —
Trouble with Afghanistan. — Dost Mohammed
makes Peace. — Other Eastern Wars. — Character of
the British Government in India.— The Native

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

Army.— Question of Caste. — Mutiny of the Se-
poys.—The Cawnpore Massacre.— Campbell sent
to India.— Siege of Lucknow. — Advance of Have-
lock.— He gains the City.— The Siege raised by
Campbell. — Suppression of the Rebellion. — Reform
of the East Indian Government. — The Crimean
War.— Trouble with Theodore of Abyssinia.— Na-
pier's Expedition.— The Corn Law Agitation.— The
Duty abolished. — A New Group of British States-
men. —Cobden, Disraeli, and Gladstone.— Ministry
of Palmerston.— The Second Reform Bill.— Success
of the Disestablishment Project. — Death of the
Prince Consort.— Education Bill of 1870.— British
Progress in Mechanism and the Arts.— Origin of
the International Exposition, 1202-1217

CHAPTER LIL— FRANCE.

Restoration of the Bourbons. — What it Signi-
fied.—Louis XVIII.— The Swarm of Royalists.—
Succession of Ministries. — Can the Past be re-
stored ?— Center, Left, and Right.— Withdrawal of
the Allies.— The Richelieu Ministry.— France un-
dertakes the Restoration of Order in Spain. — Death
of the King. — Accession of Charles X. — Shall the
Heirs of the Aristocrats be Indemnified ?— Ques-
tion of the Succession. — Measures of the Govern-
ment.— The Polignac Ministry.— The King's
Trouble with the Chamber. — Growth of Liberal-
ism.—The African Expedition. — The King dis-
solves the Chamber.— Other Royal Edicts. — Paris
takes Fire. — Charles undertakes to clear the
City. — The Streets barricaded. — The King makes
Useless Concessions to the Storm. — Deposition of
Charles X. — Election of Louis Philippe. — Over-
throw of the Elder Bourbons. — A King of the
French. — Character of the New Government. —
Overthrow of Abd-el-Kader. — Paris fortified. — The
Spanish Marriage Project. — Insurrection at Lyons.
Attempt to assassinate the King. — Revival of
France. — Limitations on the Suffrage. — What the
King might have done. — The Flaw in his Sys-
tem.—Failure of Crops.— The Reform Banquets. —
The Government interposes. — Louis Philippe
makes Concessions. — Abolition of the Monarchy. —
Escape of the King and his Family. — Proclama-
tion of the Republic.— Apparition of Louis Napo-
leon.— Sketch of his Life. — He is elected to the
Assembly. — And then chosen President. — Is dis-
trusted by the Republicans. — French Army in
Italy. — The President opposed by Both Ex-
tremes.—Will he stand for Reelection ?— Acts of
the Assembly.— The Coup D'lftat of December. —
Proclamation of the President. — Napoleon Presi-
dent for Ten Years. —The New Constitution.— Re-
establishment of the Empire. — Marriage with
Eugenic.- The Crimean War.— Success of the Em-
peror's Reign.— Attempts on his Life.— War with
Austria.— Treaty of Villafranca.— Growing Influ-
ence of the Emperor. — He projects a Mexican
Empire.— The Object in View.— Failure of the
Scheme. — The Suez Canal. — Opposition in the
Chamber.— The Radical Press.— The Senatw-Can-
tultum and Plebiscite.— Necessity of a Foreign

War.— Leopold elected to the Spanish Throne. —
Will the Emperor go to War with Germany? —
The Folly of his Course. — The Franco-Prussian
Conflict. — After Sedan.— Overthrow of the Em-
pire.— Paris taken by the Germans. — Treaty of
Versailles. — Thiers President. — Vive la Commwu1. —
Terrors of the Siege of Paris. — Destruction and
Suffering. — Overthrow of the Commune. — Review
of French Parties. — Death of Napoleon III. and
the Prince Imperial, 1217-1246

CHAPTER LIII. — GERMANY.

Condition of Germany after the Congress of
Vienna. — The Seeds of Freedom in the Universi-
ties.— The Repressive Policy. — Effects of the Rev-
olution of 1830. — The Belgic Insurrection. — Nature
of the Uprising. — The Struggle at Brussels. — Inde-
pendence of Belgium. — Creation of the Zollve-
rein. — Folly of the German Rulers.— Frederick
William IV. — His Policy. — He calls a Legislative
Assembly. — Political Sympathy of Germany and
France.— Effect of the Revolution of 1848.— Upris-
ing in Berlin. — The Liberal Movement. — The Diet
espouses the Cause. — Clamor for a National Par-
liament.— The Assembly at Frankfort. — Mistake
of the Leaders. — Opposition of Austria and Prus-
sia.— Insurrection in Schleswig-Holstein. — Por-
tents of a Universal Revolt. — The Hungarian
Revolution. — Suppression of the Movement.— Kos-
suth and Gorgey. — Overthrow of Charles Albert. —
Italy wears the Austrian Yoke. — Accession of
Francis Joseph. — The Diet ends in Smoke. — The
Dismal Decade. — Accession of William I.— Inde-
pendence of Italy attempted. — Bonaparte espouses
the Cause. — Victor Emanuel on the Scene. — Be-
ginnings of the Prussian Ascendency. — Rise of
Bismarck. — His Character and Policy. — Austria in
Ridicule. — War with Denmark. — Her Duchies
taken away. — Austria and Prussia divide on the
Schleswig-Holstein Question. — William remon-
strates with Joseph. — League against Prussia. —
She opposes the Diet. — Energy of the Govern-
ernment. — The Field is cleared. — War with Aus-
tria.— Successes of the Prussians.— Battle of Sa-
dowa. — Ruin of the Austrian Cause. — Treaty of
Prague. — The Hand of Bismarck. — The Great Rev-
olution.— North-German Union planted. — Prussia
leads the European Powers. — France fails to an-
nex Luxembourg. — Political Reform in Austria. —
Collapse of the Mexican Empire. — Failures of
Napoleon. — He seeks a War with Germany. — Leo-
pold elected to the Spanish Throne. — King Will-
iam held Responsible. — Napoleon presses the
Question. — Benedetti at Ems. • — Declaration of
War. — Confidence of the French. — South Ger-
many goes with Prussia. — Napoleon's Plans. — He
is misled by Le Bceuf. — Uprising of Germany. —
Leaders of William's Army. — The French on the
Rhine. — Affair of Saarbriick. — The Germans win
at Weissenburg. — The French fall back. — Spich-
eren taken. — France on the Defensive. — Battle of
Courcelles. — Mars-la-Tour. — Gravelotte. — Bazaine
driven into Metz. — Reaction in Paris. — MacMahon

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

ordered to raise the Siege.— He is beaten. — Battle of
Sedan.— Ruin of the French Army. —Napoleon
surrenders. — The Collapse. — Overthrow of the Im-
perial Government.— The Infuriated Republic. —
The Crown Prince inarches on Paris. — Concentra-
tion of the Germans around the City.— Capture of
Strasburg and Metz-— Paris besieged. — Tremen-
dous Fighting. — Struggles of the Republic.— Rout
of Bourbaki.— Surrender of Paris. — Terms of
the Settlement. — Proportions of the Conflict.—
Consolidation of Germany. — William proclaimed
Emperor.— The Future of Germany, . . 1246-1276

CHAPTER LIV. — ITALY.

Outline of the Chapter. — Italy dismembered. —
Insurrections of 1820-21. — Congress of Laybach. —
Italy assigned to Austria. — Reduction of Parma
and Modena.— Mazzini and Young Italy. — Acces-
sion of Pius IX. — His Liberal Disposition. —
Charles Albert leads the National Party. —Out-
break of the Hungarian Rebellion.— Garibaldi sup-
ports the Popular Cause. — The Pope supported
by Foreign Bayonets. — Liberalism of Victor
Emanuel. — Sardinia in Alliance with France. — In-
fluence of Cavour. — Battle of Montebello.— Field
of Magenta. — Solferino. — Treaty of Villafranca. —
Disappointment of Italy. —Revolt in Sicily.— Gari-
baldi and Cavour support Emanuel. — The Italian
Parliament. — French Occupation of Rome.— The
King in Venice. — Withdrawal of the French. —
Emanuel enters Rome. — Patrimony of the Pope. —
The Ecumenical Council. — Accession of Hum-
bert.—Franchi becomes Pope 1277-1286

CHAPTER LV. — EASTERN EUROPE.

Room for the Cossack.— Disposition of Alexan-
der I. — The Holy Alliance. — Principles of the
Compact. — Practical Workings of the Scheme. —
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. — England stands
aloof. — Internal Condition of Russia. — Accession
of Nicholas. — His Conquest on the Side of Per-
sia.— He makes War on the Turks.— Insurgent
Spirit in Poland. — Insurrection in Warsaw. — Bat-
tles of 1831. — Warsaw taken by the Russians. —
Terrible Punishment of the Rebels. — Accession of
Alexander II. — Rebellion in the Caucasus. — The
Czar supports the Greek Christians. — Beginning
of the Crimean War. — The Question at Issue. —
The Allies enter the Black Sea.— Battle of the
Alma. — The Siege of Sebastopol begins. — Progress
of the Investment. — Kalaklava. — Episode of the
Light Brigade. — Battle of Inkernian. — Storming of
the MalakhotV and the Redan. — Destruction of
Sebastopol. — Treaty of Paris. — Terms of the Set-
tlement.— Accession of Alexander II. — Emancipa-
tion of the Russian Serfs.— The Czar patronizes
Learning. — His Liberal Spirit. — Xew Demands of
the People.— Attempts at Assassination. — Xew
Military Methods. — Spread of the Nihilists.— Their
Principles and Methods.— Assassination of Alexan-
der.— Accession of his Son. — Punishment of the
Murderers. — Reigns of Mustapha and Mabmoud. —

Overthrow of the Janizaries. — The Greek Rebel-
lion.— Provincial Government established. — Mas-
sacres by the Turks.- Society of I'hilliellenes.—
Greece supported by the Western Powers. — Otho
elected King. — Constitutional Monarchy estab-
lished.—War between Turkey and Egypt — Great
Britain supports the I'orte. The [>ruses and Mar-
onites. — Sultan Abdul- Aziz. — The Sick Man of
the East. — Disposition of the Turkish Provinces. —
The Treaty of Paris modified.— Virtual Independ-
ence of Egypt. — Inability of Turkey to protect her
Subjects. — The Czar finds an Excuse.— Russia de-
mands that the Christians be Protected.— Mani-
festoes of the Two Powers. — Beginning of the
Turko-Russian War. — Advance of the Czar's
Army. — Resistance of the Turks. — From Nikopo-
lis to Plevna. — Check given to the Russians. — The
Turks make an Attack on Shipka Pass and fail. —
Battle of Plevna.— The Siege.— The Place taken
by the Russians.— The Campaign in Asia. — The
Russian Advance on Batoum. — Kars taken. — Siege
of Erzeroum. — The Russians in the Balkans. —
Capture of Shenovo. — Collapse of the Turkish
Power. — The Armistice. — Treaty of San Stefano. —
England interferes. — Congress of Berlin. — Terms
of the Settlement, 1286-1307

CHAPTER LVI. — CANADA AND MEXICO.

Feudalism on the St. Lawrence. — Overthrow of
the System.— Vicissitudes of the Canadian Prov-
inces.—Earthquake of 1663.— Threefold Division of
Canada. — Manner of the Government. — Phipps's
Invasion. — Exploits of La Salle. — Cession of Coun-
tries to Great Britain. — Valleys of the St. Law-
rence and the Mississippi. — New France ceded to
England. —Canada remains Loyal to the British
Crown.— Character of the People.— Parliamentary
Acts of 1774.— Changes of 1791.— Method of Gov-
ernment under the New Constitution. — Insurrec-
tion of 1837. —New Style of Administration. — A
General Amnesty.— Riot in Montreal. — Capital at
Ottawa. — The Dominion of Canada.— Growth of
the Provinces. — Mexico a Province of Spain.— (i uz-
man and Mendoza. — The Succession of Viceroys. —
Improvements in the City of Mexico. — Social Con-
dition of the Country.— Classes of the Popula-
tion.— Effects of the Overthrow of the Bourbons. —
Insurrection of Hidalgo.— Guerrilla Warfare. — The
Old Government reestablished. — The National
Tarty headed by Iturbide. — Achievement of Inde-
pendence.— Folly of the Mexicans.— Kmpire or
Republic?— The Latter Form chosen.— Election of
1828.— Spanish Invasion of the Next Year. — Santa
Anna's Usurpation. — Constitution of 1835. — Rebel-
lion of Texas. — San Jacinto. — Epoch of Confu-
sion.—Elections and Depositions. —War with the
t'nited States.— The New Boundary Line.— Recall
of Santa Anna. — Alvarez and Comonfort. — Relig-
ious Emancipation. — Appearance of Juarez. — Sal-
utary Reforms. — Separation of Church and
Suite.— Spain, France, and England would secure
their Debts. — Triple Invasion of Mexico. — Ad-
justment of the British and Spanish Claims. —

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

France goes to War.— Capture of Pueblo and
Mexico. — Napoleon sets up Maximilian.— Over-
throw of the Alleged Empire. — Reelection of
Juarez.— Future of the Republic 1308-1321

CHAPTER LVII. — THE SOUTH AMERICAN
STATES.

Tardy Growth of Civilization South of the
Isthmus.— Republic of New Granada. — Formally
a Dependence of Spain. — The Province gains its
Independence. — Form of Government. — Revolu-
tion of 1860. — Change of Name. — The Appeal to
the United States. — Venezuela. — Primitive His-
tory.— Declaration of Independence. — Achieve-
ment of Liberty.— Period of Civil War. — Adminis-
tration of Blanco. — Ecuador. — A Province of
Spain. — Declaration of Independence. — Period of
Civil Wars. — Fire and Earthquake. — Civil Revo-
lutions.— Peru. — Her Products. — Diminution of
Territory. — Rebellion of 1718. — Peruvian Inde-
pendence.— War with Chili. — Trouble with the
United States.— Career of Castilla. — Expulsion of
the Spanish Army. — Civil Broils. — Empire of
Brazil. — Her Early History and Products. — A De-
pendency of Portugal.— Early Cities.— Brazil is
transferred to Spain. — Strife of European States
for Possession of the Country.— The Dutch ex-
pelled.—House of Braganza. —Stability of the Bra-
zilian Government. — Modification of the Constitu-
tion.— A Portuguese Prince on the Throne.— Reign
of Dom Pedro I. — He surrenders the Portuguese
Crown.— Abdicates in Favor of his Son. — The Re-
gency.—Epoch of Rosas. — War with Paraguay. —
Complication with the Argentine Republic. — Char-
acter of Dom Pedro II.— The Argentine Repub-
lic.— Early History. — The Viceroyalty of Buenos
Ayres.— It becomes Independent. — The Capital
transferred.— War with Brazil.— Treaty of Peace. —
La Valle's Insurrection. — Purposes of Rosas. — Ad-
ministration of Lopez. — Opposition to the Govern-
ment, 1321-1329

CHAPTER LVIII. — CHINA AND JAPAN.

Meager Knowledge of the Eastern Empires. —
Remote date of Chinese History.— Period of
Myth and Tradition.— Founding of the Dynasty
of Chow.— Confucius.— The Chinese Wall.— Ching-
wang.— The House of Han. — Famous Princes. —
Consolidation of the Empire.— The Tartars cross
the Border.— Troublous Times.— Invasion of the
Mongols.— The Great Famine.— Aggressions of the
Mantchu Tartars.— They Conquer China.— Princi-
pal Sovereigns of this Line.— Outbreak of the
Opium War.— Western Embassies at Peking.—
Difficulties of British Trade.— Attempts to open
the Harbor of Canton.— Lin destroys the Opium.—
Declaration of War.— Negotiations.— Bombard-
ment of Canton by the English.— Treaty of Peace
concluded.— Injustice to China. —Mission of Caleb
Gushing. — Difficulties of Intercourse with the
Chinese. — Hostilities at Hong-Kong.— Renewal of
the War with England.— Attempted Negotia-
tions.—New Treaties framed.— Prevalence of the

Anti-foreign Party. — The Allied Army advances
on Peking. — Battle of Pa-li-kao. — Elgin burns the
Royal Palace. — Burlingame's Mission. — His Ex-
traordinary Career. — The Tientsin Massacre. —
Chinese Embassy established at Washington. —
Reception of the First Minister. — Japanese Tradi-
tion of the Creation. — Character of the Early In-
habitants. — Jimmu Tenno. • — Women admitted to
Power. — Introduction of Confucianism and Bud-
dhism.— Social Customs. — Growth of Princely
Families. — Bad Domestic System.— The Municipal
Guards. — Powerful Vassals of the Mikado. — The
Shogun. — Invasion by Kublai Khan. — Repulse of
the Tartars.— The Epoch of War.— Work of No-
bunaga. — Ambitions of Hideyoshi. — Ascendency of
lyeyasu. — Relations of the Mikado and Shogun. —
First Knowledge of the Japanese. — Massacre of
1622.— The Portuguese expelled. — Butchery of
Shimabara. — Classes of Nobles. — System of the
Government.- — More Recent Classification of the
People. — Rapid Progress of Japan. — Intercourse
•with the West. — Overthrow of Feudalism. — The
Japanese Centennial Display. — Future of the
Country 1329-1344

CHAPTER LIX. — AUSTRALIA.

What the Island Continent exhibited in 1876. —
Physical Characteristics of the Country. — Princi-
pal Mountain Ranges. — The Australian Rivers. —
The Lakes. — The Climate. — Variations of Temper-
ature.— Animal Life. — Marsupials in Particular. —
The Birds.— Richness of Vegetation. — Grains and
Fruits.— Mineral Wealth.— The Gold Fields.—
Yield of the Mines. — The Native Australians. —
Their Form, Features, and Habits. — Social Cus-
toms and Beliefs. — Rapid Growth of Population. —
The Australian Cities.— Public Buildings. — Feat-
ures of Melbourne.— Its Schools in Particular. —
The City of Sydney. — Discovery of Australia by
Europeans. — Hartog, Dampier, and Cook. — Colony
of Botany Bay. — Discovery of Tasmania.— The
Convict Colonies of Great Britain. — Slow Progress
of Exploration.— What shall be done with the
Criminal Colonies? — Abolition of the System. —
Political Divisions of Australia. — Character of the
Government. — Project of Political Reform. — The
Home and the Local Government. — Question of
Australian Unity. — Nationality of the People. —
Sparseness of the Population. — The Australian In-
dustries.—The Discovery of Gold. — Excitement
throughout Europe. — The Rush of Diggers. — The
Herding Interest. — Future of Australia, 1344-1351

CHAPTER LX. — CONCLUSION.

Reflections of the Historian. — Leading Truths
of History. — Men ought to be Free. — The Human
Race opposes its Own Emancipation. — Evils of
Organization. — Pernicious Theory of Paternal-
ism.— Man subordinated to Social Forms. — He is
Great when Free. — Necessity of Toleration. —
Emancipation of Woman. — Universal Citizenship
by Universal Education.— Hope of the Golden
Era, 1352-1354

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. VOLUME III.

I IKMI-TIKI-K FOR ENGLISH REVOLUTION, .... 753

JAMES I., 755

PARLIAMENT HOI-SB, 758

SIB WALTER RALEIGH 760

HENRIETTA MAKIA, 762

CHARLES I. — After the painting by Vandyke, 764
MURDER OF THE DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. —

Drawn by E. Bayard 766

JOHN PYM 769

COAT-OF-ARMS AND SIGNATURE OF PVM, . . . 769

JOHN HAMPDEN 772

COAT-OF-ARMS AND SIGNATURE OF HAMPDEN, 772

SIR THOMAS FAIRFAX, 776

FAIRFAX'S SIGNATURE, 776

PRINCE RUPERT, 777

BATTLE OF MARSTON MOOR.— Drawn by E.

Bayard 778

DEFEAT OF KING CHARLES AT NASEBY. —

Drawn by E. Bayard, 780

EXECUTION OF CHARLES I. — Drawn by A. Mail-
lard 784

GREAT SEAL OF ENGLAND, 1651, 785

OLIVER CROMWELL 789

ADMIRAL ROBERT BLAKE 790

CHAPEL AND MAUSOLEUM OF HENRY VII.,

WESTMINSTER, 792

CHARLES II 795

EARL OF CLARENDON, 796

THE GREAT LONDON FIBE, 798

JAMES-!! 802

WILLIAM III. RECEIVING THE NEWS OF THE

BIRTH OF THE PRETENDER. — Drawn by

P. Philippoteaux 805

SAINT PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, 806

MILTON 807

MILTON DICTATING TO HIS DAUGHTER, .... 808

CARDINAL MAZARIN 810

DEATH OF MAZARIN, 811

COLBERT, 812

WILLIAM III 813

EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND, 814

JAMES II. AT THE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE. —

Drawn by F. Lix 816

THE GREAT CONDE, 817

DEATH OF TURENNE.— Drawn by A. de Neu-

ville 818

MADAM K DK MAINTENON 819

Louis XIV. AT THE AGE OF FORTY-ONE, . . 819

PALACE OF VERSAILLES, M'O

JOHN SOBIESKI, 820

READING THE REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF

NANTES.— Drawn by A. de Neuville, . . 821
TORTURE OF THE HUGUENOTS 822

WORK OF THE DRAGONADB. — Drawn by A.

de Neuville, 823

BATTLE OF LA HOGDE, . 825

BATTLE OF NEERWINDBN, 826

FREDERICK I., KINO OF PRUSSIA, 828

PALACE OF ST. GERMAIN, 830

QUEEN ANNE, . . • • 831

DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH, 832

CAPTURE OF AUSTRIAN BATTERIES AT LANDAU.

Drawn by Vierpp, 833

THE MAN IN THE IRON MASK. — Drawn by

Vierge, 836

Louis XIV. IN HIS OLD AGE 837

JACQUES BENIQNB BOSSUET 837

RACINE, 838

JEAN BAPTISTE MOLIERE 838

NICOLAS BOILEAU-DESPEREAUX, 839

JEAN DE LA FONTAINE, 839

PEOPLE OF KASAN SUBMITTING TO IVAN, . . . 841

IVAN IV., 842

MICHAEL 1 842

ALEXIS 843

POLISH WINGED CAVALRY. — Drawn by W.

Camphausen, 844

PETER THE GREAT, 845

CHARLES XII., 846

CHARLES XII. AT POLTAVA 848

PETER THE GREAT AFTER THE BATTLE OF POL-
TAVA, 849

SWEDES CARRYING THE BODY OF CHARLES XII.
FROM FREDERICKSHAI.L.— After a painting

by G. Cederstroem, 852

CATHARINE I., 853

TREATY OF THE PILGRIMS WITH MASSA-

SOIT, . ... 855

JOHN WINTHROP 856

THE REGICIDE GOFFE AT HADLEY VILLAGE, . 858

DEATH OF KINO PHILIP 860

WITCHCRAFT AT SALEM VILLAGE, 862

PETER STUYVESANT 864

CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH 866

TAIL-PIECE, 868

HEAD-PIECE FOR AGE OF FREDERICK, .... 869
SAINT JOHN VISCOUNT BOI.IXGBROKE, .... 870

JONATHAN SWIFT 873

SIR ISAAC NEWTON 873

ROBERT WALPOLE, 875

THE Yorxfs PRETENDER, 877

RETURN OF CHARLES EDWARD TO SCOTLAND, . 878

Louis XV 881

CHARLES ALEXANDER OF LORRAINE, 883

BATTLE OF FONTENOY.— Drawn l.y A. <]•• NI-II-

ville

xiii

XIV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, VOLUME III.

PAGE. |

THE GREAT ELECTOR. — After a painting by

V.". Camphausen 887 .

THE <)u> DESSAUER.— After a painting by

Pesne 888

THE GREAT ELECTOR IN THE BATTLE OF FEHR-

OOA

BELLIN 889

PRINCE EUGENE BEFORE BELGRADE, 890

SAINT STEPHEN'S CATHEDRAL, 892

IMPERIALISTS IN BATTLE WITH THE TURKS, . 893

PRINCE FREDERICK 894

ELIZABETH CHRISTINA 895

MONTESQUIEU, 896

MARIA THERESA, 897

MARIA THERESA BEFORE THE DIET. — Drawn

by P. Philippoteaux 899

CAPTURE OF THE AUSTRIANS AT HOHENFRIED-

BEKG, 901

FREDERICK THE GREAT AT THE COFFIN OF THE

GREAT ELECTOR. — Painted by A. Mentzel, 903
MARQUISE POMPADOUR. — After a painting by

De la Tour 905

ELIZABETH I., OF RUSSIA 906

COUNT SCHWERIN 907

DEATH OF SCHWERIN, 908

FREDERICK THE GREAT AT THE COFFIN OF

SCHWERIN, 909

FREDERICK ON THE NIGHT AFTER KOLLIN. —

After a painting by J. Shrader 910

SEIDLITZ AT THE BATTLE OF EOSSBACH, . . . 911
GENERAL HANS JOACHIM VON ZIETEN, .... 912
FREDERICK IN THE BATTLE OF LEUTHEN, . . 913

MARSHAL DAUN, 916

FREDERICK THE GREAT. — After a painting by

Pesne, 919

JESUIT MISSIONARIES AMONG THE INDIANS. —

Drawn by Win. L. Shepard 922

MURDER OF LA SALLE, — Drawn by Wm. L.

Shepard, 924

FALL OF BRADDOCK. — Drawn by P. Philippo-
teaux, 928

EXILE OF THE ARCADIANS, 929

JAMES WOLFE, 931

DEATH OP WOLFE. — Drawn by P. Philippo-
teaux, 932

WILLIAM PJTT, 935

AVARREN HASTINGS 937

RICHARD BRINSLEY SHERIDAN, 938

SAMUEL JOHNSON, 939

PRINCE MENSHIKOFF 943

HEAD-PIECE FOR AGE OF REVOLUTION, .... 949

GEORGE III., 952

PATRICK HENRY 954

SAMUEL ADAMS, 956

BATTLE OK BUSKER HILL, 959

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 960

THE COMMITTEE PREPARING THE DECLARATION, 962
SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 963

THOMAS PAINE, 964

RETREAT or THE A MERICANSFROM LONG ISLAND, 965
THE AMERICAN RETREAT INTO NEW JERSEY, 966
WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE.— After
a painting by Creuze !«,7

PAGE.

LAFAYETTE IN HIS YOUTH

GENERAL JOHN BURGOYNE, 969

THADDEUS KOSCIUSKO 970

BARON STEUBEN 971

BEAUMARCHAIS,

972

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 973

ANTHONY WAYNE, 974

FRANCIS MARION, 977

NATHANIEL GREENE, 980

BADGE OF THE ORDER OF CINCINNATI, ... 981

ALEXANDER HAMILTON *

TAIL-PIECE, '

VOLTAIRE, 988

LITERARY CIRCLE, REIGN OF Louis XVI.—

Drawn by P. Philippoteaux, 989

Louis XVI., 991

VOLTAIRE BLESSES THE GRANDSON OF FRANKLIN, 992

FUNERAL OF VOLTAIRE, 5

GENERAL DE KALB, 994

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 995

CHURCH OF NOTRE DAME, 999

DESMOULINS IN THE GARDEN OF THE PALAIS

ROYAL.— Drawn by F. Lix 1000

THE OLD BASTILE 1002

STORMING OF THE BASTILE.— Drawn by F. Lix, 1003

COLUMN OF THE HTH OF JULY, 1004

MIHABEAU, 1°°5

SIGNING THE ACTS OF ABOLITION. — Drawn by

Vierge, 1006

THE WOMEN ON THE ROAD TO VERSAILLES. —

Drawn by Vierge, 1008

MARIE ANTOINETTE, 1009

LOUIS XVI. ESCAPING IN DlSGUISE, 1011

Louis XVI. IN THE CITY HALL OF VAR-

ENNES.— Drawn by F. Lix, 1012

ARREST OF Louis XVI. AT VARENNES, . . . 1013
GIRONDISTS AT MADAME ROLAND'S.— Drawn

by F. Lix 1015

STORMING OF THE TUILERIES.— Drawn by F.

Lix 1016

THE KING WITH THE MOB IN THE TUILERIES. —

Drawn by F. Lix, 1018

THE ROYAL FAMILY IN THE TEMPLE.— Drawn

by E. Bayard, 1019

THE GUILLOTINE, 1020

JEAN PAUL MARAT, . . 1021

MARAT THREATENING TO KILL HIMSELF. —

Drawn by F. Lix, 1022

LOUIS XVI. BEFORE THE BAH OF THE CONVEN-

TION,

1023

LOUIS XVI. TAKING LEAVE OF HIS FAMILY, . 1024

DEATH OF Louis XVI.— Drawn by Vierge, . 1025
Louis XVI. ON THE SCAFFOLD (Nearer View), 1026

WILLIAM PITT 1027

CHARLOTTE CORDAY, 1028

DEATH OF MARAT.— Drawn by F. Lix, . . . 1029
GIRONDISTS ON THE WAY TO EXECUTION. —

Drawn by F. Lix, 1030

MARIE ANTOINETTE LED TO THE TRIBUNAL, . 1031
THE FETE OF REASON.— After a painting by

M. Mueller 1032

DESTRUCTION OF THE VENDEANS, 1033

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, VOLUMi: III.

NAPOLEON BEFORE TOULON. — Drawn by F. Lix, 1035

DANTOMSTS UN TIIK WAY TO THE GUILLO-
TINE.—Drawn by D. iluillard, 1037

DANTOX MOINTIM; TIIK SCAFFOLD. — Drawn by

F. Lix 1038

1-toBKsriKltKE IN THE II ALL OF THE ASSEMBLY. —

Drawn by F. Lix, 1039

THE BREAD RIOTERS is THE HALL OF THE

CONVENTION.— Drawn by F. Luc, .... 1040

CAPTUKE OF THE DUTCH FLEET, 1041

CHARETTE 1042

GENERAL HOCHE, 1043

JEAN LAMBERT TALLIES, 1044

BARRAS, 1044

NAPOLEON PUTTING DOWN THE MOB 1045

THE DIRECTORY, 1046

BONAPARTE ON THE BRIDGE OF ARCOLE.—

Drawn by E. Bayard 1048

GENERAL BERTUIEB, 1049

Pius VI., 1050

BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS. — Drawn by F. Lix, 1052
NAPOLEON IN THE PEST HOUSE OF JAFFA. —

After a painting by J. A. Gros 1053

FERDINAND IV 1054

JEAN VICTOR MOREAU, 1055

MARSHAL SUVAKOFF 1056

THE FIRST CONSUL, 1057

BONAPARTE CROSSING THE ALPS.— Drawn by

F. Lix 1058

CHARGE OF KELLERMANN AT MARENOO, . . . 1059
DEATH OF DESAIX.— Drawn by F. Lix, . . . 1060

BATTLE OF HOHENLINDEN, 1061

MARSHAL KLEBER, 1062

REVOLT OF THE NEGROES IN SAN DOMINGO, . 10(53

TOUSSAINT L'OUVEBTURE, 1064

JEAN JACQUES CAMBAC£HKS, 1065

THE CORONATION IN NOTRE DAME, 1066

JOSEPHINE. — From the painting by Gerard, . 1067
EMPEROR NAPOLEON I. -Drawn by E. Ronjat, 1068

PAUL I., . 1069

CAPITULATION OF MACK. — Drawn by J. Gil-
bert 1070

THE EVENING BEFORE AUSTERLITZ. — Drawn by

C. Delort, 1070

LORD NELSON 1071

DEATH OF NELSON AT TRAFALGAR, 1072

PITT THE YOUNGER 1073

CHARLES JAMES Fox 1074

MAURICE DE TALLEYRAND 1075

MARSHAL DAVOUST, 1076

NAPOLEON AT THE TOMB OF FREDERICK THE

GREAT.— Drawn by G. Weiser 1077

ATTACK OF MURAT'S DRAGOONS AT EYLAU. —

Drawn by C. Delort, 1078

QUEEN LOUISA OF PRUSSIA. — After the paint-
ing by G. Richter 1079

CHAKI.KS IV. OF SPAIN, 1080

JOACHIM MURAT, 1081

i'ii BONAPARTE 1082

TAKING OF SARAGOSSA. — Drawn by C. Delort, 1083
HEROIC DEFENSE OF SARAGOSSA. — Drawn by

F. Lix ". 1084

j FAGB.

SIR CHARLES NAPIER, !(«.">

RETREAT OF THE ENGLISH AFTER COBUNNA, . 1086
NAPOLEON AT THE BATTLE OF WAURAM. —

Drawn by Thos. Weber, 1086

COUNT RADETZKY, 1087

Pius VII., 1087

EMPRESS JOSEPHINE 1088

NAPOLEON ANNOUNCING TUB DIVORCE TO JOSE-
PHINE.— Drawn by E. Bayard, 1089

PRINCESS MARIA LOUISA 1090

EMPRESS MARIA LOUISA, 1091

KINO OF ROME, 1091

INSURRECTION OF THE TYROLESE. — Drawn by

Defregger • 1092

A M UtEAS HOFER LED TO EXECUTION, . . . .1093

MADAME DE STAEL, 1094

THDCE DURING THE BATTLE OF TALAVEHA. —

Drawn by C. Delort, 1096

MARSHAL ANDRE MASSENA 1096

RETREAT OF MASSENA AFTER CIUDAD RODRIOO.

Drawn by C. Delort, 1097

BERNADOTTE, 1098

NAPOLEON IN DRESDEN.— Drawn by E- Bayard, 1099
ADVANCE OF THE GRAND ARMY.— After the

painting by Meissonier, 1101

SAPPERS OF THE GRAND ARMY. — Drawn by A.

Beck 1102

BURNING OF Moscow, 1103

THE GRAND ARMY LEAVING THE KREMLIN. —

Drawn by C. Delort, 1104

CROSSING THE BERESINA. — Drawn by E. Bay-
ard 1105

BREAKING DOWN OF THE BRIDGE AT BERESINA, 1106
REMNANT OF THE GRAND ARMY AT KONIGSBERG, 1107
NAPOLEON'S RETURN FROM RUSSIA. — After the

painting by A. W. Kowalski, 1108

BATTLE OF KATSBACH, 1109

BATTLE OF LEIPSIC, 1111

DEATH OF PONIATOWSKY, 1112

THE ALLIES ON THE ROAD TO PARIS, 1114

BLUCHER'S CAVALRY DEVASTATING THE ENVI-
RONS.— Drawn by C. Delort, 1115

NAPOLEON SIGNING HIS ABDICATION— Drawn

by E. Bayard 1116

THE RETURN FROM ELBA.— Drawn by C. De-
lort, 1118

NAPOLEON. — After the painting by Meissonier, 1119
THE LAST CALL TO ARMS.— After a painting

by F. Defregger, 1120

BLUCHER, H21

BLUCHER ARRIVING ON THE FIELDOP WATERLOO, 1 122

MUTUAL NKY, H23

LAST CHARGE OF THE OLD GUARD.— Drawn

by E. Bayard, 1124

NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA, 11LV>

FUNERAL CORTEGE OF NAPOLEON 112G

"F VIENNA 11-7

WASHINGTON. — After the painting by Stuart, 1129

LADY WASHINGTON-'* Ki:< F.PTION 1130

JOHN ADAMS, 1131

THOMAS JEFFERSON, 1132

JOHN MARSHALL, 1133

XVI

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, VOLUME III.

PAGE.

ROBERT FULTON, 1135

JAMES MADISON, 1136

PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE, 1139

TAIL-PIECE, 1144

HEAD-PIECE FOB NINETEENTH CENTURY, . . . 1145

JAMES MONROE 1146

FRONT VIEW OF THE CAPITOL, 1147

THE WHITE HOUSE 1148

JEAN LAFITTE, 1148

LAFAYETTE, 1149

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, 1150

DANIEL WEBSTER, 1151

ANDREW JACKSON, 1151

MARTIN VAN BUREN, 1152

WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON, 1153

SAM HOUSTON, 1154

SAMUEL F. B. MORSE, 1155

CAPTURE OF MEXICAN BATTERIES BY CAPTAIN

MAY, 1156

FREMONT IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS, .... 1157
BOMBARDMENT OF SAN JUAN D'ULLOA, . . . 1158

WINFIELD SCOTT, 1159

ZACHARY TAYLOR, 3160

JOHN C. CALHOUN, 1161

STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS, 1162

ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1163

ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS, 1164

WILLIAM H. SEWARD, 1165

JEFFERSON DAVIS, 1166

GEORGE B. MCCLELLAN, 1169

SURRENDER OP FORT DONELSON, 1170

ROBERT E. LEE 1173

STRUGGLE AT THE BRIDGE OF ANTIETAM, . . 1174
BATTLE OF LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN AND MISSION-
ARY RIDGE 1176

ATTACK ON FORT SUMTER, 1177

STONEWALL JACKSON, 1178

GEORGE G. MEADE, 1179

BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG, 1180

GEORGE H. THOMAS, 1181

WILLIAM T. SHERMAN, 1182

DAVID G. FARRAGUT, 1183

BATTLE OF SPOTTSYLVANIA COURT HOUSE, . . 1184

PHILIP H. SHERIDAN 1185

SHERIDAN'S ARRIVAL AT CEDAR CREEK, . . . 1186

ASSASSINATION OF LINCOLN, 1187

TOMB OF LINCOLN 1189

SALMON P. CHASE, 1190

ULYSSES S. GRANT, 1190

GENEVA, 1191

HORACE GREELEY, 1191

CHARLES SUMNER, 1192

MAIN EXPOSITION BUILDING, 1193

INDEPENDENCE HALL 1194

MEMORIAL HALL, 1195

JAMES A. GARFIELD, 1198

EAST RIVER BRIDGE, 1200

WINDSOR CASTLE 1202

GEORGE IV., 1203

CATHEDRAL OF YORK, ' 1204

WILLIAM IV 1205

LORD JOHN RUSSELL, 1207

PAGE.

QUEEN VICTORIA, 1210

GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI, 1213

SIR ROBERT PEEL, 1214

LORD PALMERSTON, 1215

RICHARD COBDEN, 1215

WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE, 1216

PRINCE ALBERT, 1217

Louis XVIII 1218

CHATEAUBRIAND, 1218

THE ESCURIAL, 1219

CHARLES X., . . 1220

CORONATION OF CHARLES X., 1220

CHARLES FERDINAND, DUKE OF BERRY, . . . 1221

MARIE CAROLINE, DUCHESS OF BERRY 1222

CASIMIR PERIER, 1223

LAFAYETTE, 1223

Louis PHILIPPE, 1224

ARRIVAL OF Louis PHILIPPE IN PARIS, .... 1225

Louis PHILIPPE TAKING THE OATH, 1226

BATTLE OF ISLY, 1227

CAPTURE OF ABD-EL-KADER, 1228

INSURRECTION AT LYONS, 1229

FIESCIII'S ATTEMPT TO ASSASSINATE Louis

PHILIPPE, 1230

DUKE OF ORLEANS, 1231

GUILLAUME GUIZOT, 1231

LAMARTINE 1232

ADELAIDE, PRINCESS OF ORLEANS, 1232

PROCLAMATION OF THE REPUBLIC, 1848 .... 1233

GENERAL CAVAIGNAC, 1234

LA REPUBLIQUE FRAN9AISE, 1235

ARREST OF THE DEPUTIES, 1236

VICTOR HUGO, 1237

NAPOLEON III., 1238

ATTEMPT OF OHSINI TO ASSASSINATE NAPO-
LEON III. 1239

THE SUEZ CANAL 1240

EUGENIE 1241

Louis ADOLPHE THIERS, 1242

BARRICADE OF THE PORT ST. DENIS, 1243

SUPPLYING THE HUNGRY DURING THE COM-
MUNE, 1244

SCENE DURING THE BOMBARDMENT OF PARIS, 1244

DEATH OF THE ARCHBISHOP OF PARIS 1245

JULES GREVY, 1246

GERMANIA, 1247

BATTLE AT THE BARRICADES IN BRUSSELS. —

After a painting by Wappers, 1248

LEOPOLD 1 1249

FREDERICK WILLIAM III 1249

ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, 1251

THE BERLIN INSURRECTION OF 1848, 1252

HUNGARIAN VOLUNTEERS. — After the painting

by A. von Pettenkofen, 1254

ARTHUR GORGEY, 1255

FRANCIS JOSEPH, 1256

STORMING OF THE DANNEWERK, 1258

1259
BATTLE OF SADOWA. — After the painting by

W. Camphausen, 1261

OTTO VON BISMARCK, 1262

BARON LE BOJUF, 1263

LIST Oh' ILLUSTRATIONS, ro/.r.i//, ///.

XVII

llic

Vox

KIM; \VII.I.IAM AND ins STAFF. — Afti-r

painting l,y \V. < 'aiiiphausen, ......

MU:-IIM. M \C\I.\HIIN, ...........

M \KSIIAI. UA/AIXE, .............

HAITI. K '»!• Muts-LA-TouR. — After a painting

K.

1266

I'.ISMAKCK Ai , oM|'\S YIXU THE CARRIAGE OF
N U'OI.K.OX III., ............

.Ici.Ks KAVIIK ................

TIIK CKOUN I'msc K, ............

CA Tiii:i>K M OK Sn: \KBURG ..........

FRENCH SOLDIERS BCRNINQ THEIR FLAGS, . .
ENTRANCE OF TUB GERMANS INTO ORLEANS, .
BURNING OF ST. CLOUD BY THE PRUSSIANS, .
Li:os <i. \MHETTA, ..............

OVERTHROW OK BOURBAKI ..........

PROCLAMATION OF KINO WILLIAM AS EM-

OK. Afl»Tii]iaintingby A. von Werner,

<ir.M-:i!AL MANTEUFFEL, ...........

IvMi'Kiioit WILLIAM, .............

MA7.7.INI, ..................

Pics IX., .................

Louis KOSSUTH, ..............

GARIBALDI, ................

ENTRANCE OF TUB FRENCH raro TURIN, 1848,
ST. PETER'S, ................

COUNT CAVOUR, ..............

BATTLE OF MONTEBELLO, ..........

CONFLICT AT THE BRIDGE OF BUFFALORA, . .
BATTLE OF SOLFKRI.NO, ...........

LANDING OF GARIBALDI AT MARSALA. — Drawn
by G. Brceling, .............

Ai i>s \MIKO MAN/ONI, ...........

VICTOR E.MANUEL, .............

LEO XIII. .................

THE ECUMENICAL COUNCIL, .........

ALEXANDER I., ..............

PKIXCF. .MLTTKUNICH, ............

NICHOLAS 1 ................

SIIAMYL ...................

'.HUD I;\I;I.\N, ...............

['. vni.E OF Tin: ALMA, ..........

BALAKLAVA, ................

BATTLK OF INKERMAN, ...........

STORMING THE UEDAN, ...........

1268

1269

PJ70
1270
1271

1272
127:!
1274
1274

1275
1276
1276

1277

1278
1279
1279
1280
1280
1281
1282
1282
1283

1284
1284
1285
1285
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294

INI; Tin: MAI.AKOFF. — Drawn l>y R.

Kno-tri, '. .

at PARIS, 1856 P.1! 1C,

AI.I:\ \MIKII II., P.~.i7

A i i \ \-. 1,1 ••!: III.,

THE Ac -ROI-OI is i M.>ili-ni Vi,-w),

TIIK 1

LORD BYRON, 1301

. AMALIA, i:;oj

I'ANTINOIM.E 1303

PRINCK < ionic IIAKOF 1304

DEFENSE OK SIIII-KA PASS

GENERAL TODLEBEN, 1305

OMAR PASHA 1306

CONGRESS OF BERLIN, 1878, 1307

NIAGARA FALLS, 1310

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO, 1311

PARLIAMENT HOUSB, OTTAWA, 1311

FOUNTAIN AND AQUEDUCT, CITY OF MEXICO, . 1,°.12

MESTIZO MAIDEN, 1313

FERDINAND VII., 1".U

CITY OF MEXICO, 1315

ENTRANCE TO CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO, . 1316
STORMING OF PUEBLO BY THK I'IZK.XCH, . . . 1317
ENTRANCE OF TUB FRENCH INTO THE CITY or

MEXICO 1318

EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN, 1319

EXECUTION OF MAXIMILIAN, 1320

CLIFFS OF CAPE HORN 1:1-1

SHELTER FOR TRAVELERS IN TUB ANDES, . . IN-
GATHERING PERUVIAN BARK, 1323

BELLK OF PERU, !:!-'«

DOM PEDRO I., 1327

CHINESE WALL, 1330

VIEW OF PEKING, 1332

PORCELAIN TOWER, NASKINO 1333

BOMBARDMENT OF CANTON BY THE ENGLISH, 1334

A STREET IN CANTON, 1335

BATTLE OF PA-LI-JCAO 1336

ONE OF THE GATES OF PEKrt* GIVEN UP TO

THE ALLIES, 1338

SHINTO SHRINE, NEAR YOKOHAMA, 1339

JIMMC TENNO 1340

BATTLE OF KUBLAI KHAN WITH THE JAPA-
NESE 1341

PUBLIC LIBRARY, NATIONAL GALLERY AND

MUSEUM, MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA, . . . 1348

CYCLOPAEDIA

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

VOLUME II.— Part n.

THE MODERN WORLD.

MAI' XVII.

BRITISH ISLES;

liowlng places of Kn-'ntost Historical Interest.

A.Von Steiuw.-hr.

From Thalheimer's Mediaeval and

Modern History, by permission.

Scale.

0 10 3) tn 40 50 60 70 8" W 100 M.J

look i

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION.

CHAPTER xxxiv.— FIRST Two STUARTS.

j HE caption of the present
Book was selected be-
cause the English Revo-
lution was a part of a
general movement. The
religious Reformation in
the sixteenth century was
followed by tlu> political Reformation in the
seventeenth. The destruction of the absolute
domination of the papal hierarchy was suc-
ceeded after an interval by the destruction
of the equally absolute domination of the sec-
ular rulers.

The true center of the Reformation of
religious society was, as we have seen, in
Germany ; and from that center the move-
ment spread like a wave on the sea until
every nation of Christendom rose and fell with
the pulsations of the tide. The center of the
Reformation of political society was in Eng-
land, and from that center likewise the revo-
lutionary influence was spread abroad until
sooner or later the old theory of government
was destroyed or modified in every civilized
state of the world. It is therefore appropriate,
under the general caption of THE ENGLISH
VOL. ll.— 48

REVOLUTION, to take a survey of the whole
movement, first in the country of its origin
and afterwards in the other kingdoms affected
by its influence. This plan will bring us at
the beginning to consider the reigns of the
first two Stuart kings of England.

Before entering, however, upon the narra-
tive of events consequent upon the accession
of the House of Stuart it will be appropriate
to notice briefly some of the general reasons
why the revolution and reconstruction of polit-
ical society began in England sooner than on the
continent. In many respects England was un-
doubtedly less progressive, even less liberal,
than the states beyond the Channel. France
was greatly her superior in general culture.
Italy, by her art, and Germany, by her
schools, had far surpassed the achievements
of our ancestral Island. London, with her
coarse, strong society, rudely clad, boisterous,
dripping with jvrpetual fops, could illy com-
pare with the delights of Paris, the elegance
ut' Vienna, or the busy marts of Amsterdam.
Why, then, should this insular kingdom be-
come first of all the arena in which was fought
the prime great battle for political liberty '!

(753)

754

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Perhaps the first element in the answer to
this question is found in the fact that in Eng-
land absolute monarchy became systematic at
an earlier date than elsewhere. The de-
struction of the feudal nobility in the Wars
of the Roses left the institution of royal — we
might say personal — government without a
counterpoise. From this circumstance abso-
lutism grew and flourished. The Tudors be-
came the most arbitrary of monarchs. Henry
VIII. and Elizabeth swayed a real scepter,
and the people cowered under their authority.
By the times of James I. and Charles I. the
growing desire for political freedom — a feeling
manifested at that epoch both in England and
on the continent — was more repressed, or at
any rate the repression was more seriously felt
in England than in those countries in which
monarchy had not been so systematically de-
veloped. .

Again : the fact that in England the Ref-
ormation had been accomplished by the kings
and nobles rather than by popular leaders, and
the additional fact that the new system of re-
ligion was more nearly like that of Rome than
in any other kingdom, left the real reforma-
tory impulse but half appeased ; insomuch that
when the desire for political freedom was once
manifested, a strong party of popular relig-
ionists was already prepared to join hands and
fortunes with the political agitators against
the government which stood as the champion
of absolute authority in the state and of con-
servatism in the Church.

But the great fact which tended to bring
about the political reform in England at an
earlier date than on the continent was the
growth and development of the House of
Commons. " In the course of the sixteenth
century," says Guizot, "the commercial pros-
perity of England had increased with amazing
rapidity, while during the same time much
territorial wealth, much baronial property
had changed hands. The numerous divisions
of landed property, which took place during
the sixteenth century, in consequence of the
ruin of the feudal nobility, and from various
other causes which I can not now stop to enu-
merate, form a fact which has not been suffi-
ciently noticed. A variety of documents
prove how greatly the number of landed
properties increased ; the estates going gener-

ally into the hands of the gentry, composed
of the lesser nobility, and persons who had
acquired property by trade. The high nobil-
ity, the House of Lords, did not, at the be-
ginning of the seventeenth century, nearly
equal in riches the House of Commons.
There had taken place, then, at the same time
in England a great increase in wealth among
the industrious classes, and a great change in
landed property. While these two facts were
being accomplished there happened a third —
a new march of mind.

"The reign of Queen Elizabeth must be
regarded as a period of great literary and
philosophical activity in England, a period
remarkable for bold and pregnant thought;
the Puritans followed, without hesitation, all
the consequences of a narrow but powerful
creed; other intellects, with less morality but
more freedom and boldness, alike regardless
of principle or system, seized with avidity
upon every idea which seemed to promise
some gratification to their curiosity, some
food for their mental ardor. And it may be
regarded as a maxim, that wherever the
progress of intelligence is a true pleasure, a
desire for liberty is soon felt ; nor is it long in
passing from the public mind to the state."

When from her dying couch the great
Elizabeth indicated JAMES STUART, son of
Mary Queen of Scots, as her choice for the
succession, there was little doubt that that
choice would be ratified. The family of
Henry VIII. was extinct. While Elizabeth
trifled with her lovers, she also trifled away
her day of grace so far as motherhood was
concerned, and at last she awoke to the fact
that her father's House was doomed to perish
with herself. In the last hour she made some
amends to the shade of Mary Stuart by nam-
ing her son for the throne of England.
Albeit, the act was one of necessity; for
there was none other who could well compete
with James for the dignity of the English
crown.

Thus, in the year 1603, was accomplished
the plan long entertained and often thwarted
of uniting the two crowns of England and
Scotland. That measure had been a favorite
scheme of Edward III. The Lancastrian
kings had cherished it. Henry VIII. had
labored to effect it. Now, by a process almost

Till: I.M! USE REVOLUTION.— FIRST TWO STUARTS.

independent of the will of man, tin- work was
done, ami tin- wholr island was united under
a single sovereignty.

The qualities of tho father and the mother
were never more strangely bleuded than in
James Stuart. His character was a mixture
of contradictory traits
and impulses. The van-
ity, pride, and shrewd-
ness of Mary, thoroughly
French in herdiflpooitions,
were transmitted to her
son, and the dull folly
and commonplace medi-
ocrity of Lord Daruley
were in like manner a
part of James's inheri-
tance. He was more
learned than most of the
kings of his age, and
possessed a certain sagac-
ity uncommon among
monarchs of the time;
but his learning he made
ridiculous by pedantic
displays, and his sagacity
was generally shown in
taking advantage of his
subjects.

Most of these qualities
were exceedingly distaste-
ful to the rough-and-
ready English. To them
the king's awkward per-
son, uncouth demeanor,
and broad Scotch accent
were especially disagree-
able. Nor did the coarse
manners and unprepos-
sessing appearance of
Queen Anne, daughter
of the king of Den-
mark, in any wise improve the reputation of
the new court. Alas, the difference between
this and the majestic splendor of the stately
Elizabeth! She was a queen indeed, and her
court shone like a new morn risen on noonday.

On his accession, James was thirty-seven
years old. By his queen he was the father of
three children: Prince Henry, now nine years
of age; Elizabeth, seven; and Charles, four.
The king brought with him into England his

Scottish favorites — nobles and lords anxious to
seize what honors and emoluments soever
might be gained from the displaced pensioners
of Elizabeth's bounty. In this respect, how-
ever, the conduct of James was fairly pru-
dent; for he took care to retain many, per-

JAMES L

haps a majority, of the ministers of the
Maiden Queen. Among those so kept in
authority was Robert < Veil, who was promoted
to the barony of Kssendine. thru to the
vNcounty of Cranborne, and finally, in 1605,
to the earldom of Salisbury. Such was the
shrewdness of this inini-ter, especially in the
matter of discovering plot.* and intrigues, that
the king was wont to call him "my little
beagle." On the other hand, James at once

756

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

recalled and reinstated the deposed family of
Lord Howard, whose distresses had resulted
from the adherence of that nobleman to the
cause of Mary Stuart.

It was not long after the accession of King
James until a plot was discovered to dethrone
him and confer the crown on Lady Arabella
Stuart. This distinguished personage was the
daughter of a brother of Lord Darnley, and
therefore first cousin to the king. She thus
stood in precisely the same relation of descent
from Henry VII. as did James himself.
Her mother was an English lady of the family
of Cavendish, and might therefore be well

confidently believed that, remembering the
sorrows and death of his mother, he would
espouse the cause for which she died, and da
his best to plant again the ancient faith in the
Island. But in this expectation they were
greatly disappointed. James proved to be
thoroughly Protestant. He stoutly main-
tained the existing religious status and re-
fused to countenance any movement towards
a restoration of the ancient regime. At this-
the Catholics were profoundly exasperated.
In 1604 the feeling among them became so-
intense that the celebrated, though infamous,
scheme known as the GUNPOWDER PLOT was-

J

M
K

EDWARD 111.
1

UNO OF YORK, 1402.
ird, 1415.
ard, 1460.

OHN OF LANCASTER, 1399. EDM
John Beaufort, 1410. Rich
John, 1444. Rich

EDWARD IV., 1483.
1

~!

Clarence, 1477.

Countess of Salisbury, 1541.

irine,1527. „
Cardinal Po'e, 1568.

iry, 1538.
enay, 1556.

1. James IV.,— Margar
1513.
2. James V., 15-

3. Mary Stuart, 158
4. J

EXPI.AI

Sovereigns of Engtanc
Rival claimant!) In C'A
Sovereigns of Scotlftui

r ~i He

;t, 1539— Douglass, 1567. HENRY VIII., 1547. Mary, 1533.
I Cour

12. Margaret.1578. Francis, 1563.
EDWARD VI., MARY, ELIZABETH,

1553. 1558. 1603.
Cflt.hnHnf>.

JANE GREY, 155-1.
CLAIMS

OF

TUART AND LADY JANE GREY

TO THE

3LISH CROWN.

f— Darnley, 1567. Charles, 1576. Seymour.
IMES I., 1625. ARABELLA STUART, 1615— William Seymour.

IAT10N: ARABELLAS

1 in SMALL CAPITALS.
PITALS.
1 numbered. EN(

compared by the anti-Scot party with Mary
Stuart. Lady Arabella, however, was not
particeps in the movement by which she was
to be raised to the throne. Indeed, she was
kept in ignorance of the conspiracy. As soon
as the same was divulged the authorities,
under the lead of Cecil, hunted down the
plotters, and three of them were executed.
Sir Walter Raleigh, a long-time rival of Cecil,
was condemned to die, but the sentence was
commuted by the king into imprisonment
for life.

The Catholic party in England and Scot-
land had looked forward with eager anticipa-
tion to the accession of King James ; for they

concocted with a view to wreaking a signal
vengeance on the king and his Protestant sup-
porters.

It appears that the great plot was first
conceived by Lords Catesby and Percy, two-
Catholic nobles of high rank, who gave way
to vindictive passion and mutually drew from
each other in a heated conversation an ex-
pression of a willingness to resort to assassi-
nation in order to secure what they could not
gain by honorable means. It was agreed to
destroy both the king and parliament ! Never
was there a scheme more cold-blooded in it»
conception. The plot contemplated the laying
of a train of gunpowder under the Parliament

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— FIRST TWO STUAi;T\

757

House, and then, when circumstances should
favor, of blowing the whole establishment,
king, lords, and Commons, into indiscriminate
destruction. Catesby and Percy, having once
formed this purpose, looked around for con-
federates. As the proper person to execute
the prodigious tragedy they selected a certain
Guy Fawkes, at that time serving in the
Spanish army in Flanders. Nor can it be
doubted that their selection was made with
care ; for Fawkes was a man capable both by
nature and daring experience for any enter-
prise. A few other trusted spirits, to the
number of about twenty, were taken into the
conspiracy, and the plot was carefully laid in
all of its particulars.

In the course of the summer the managers
succeeded in hiring a house adjacent to that
of Parliament. From the cellar of this build-
ing it was proposed to dig through into the
basement of the Parliament House, and thus
gain an easy access to the place where the
powder was to be deposited. Much labor was
required to cut through the nine-foot wall on
which the great building was reared ; and be-
fore this work could be effected it was found
that the very basement into which the con-
spirators desired to gain an entrance was for
rent. Lord Percy accordingly hired that
apartment, and thirty-six barrels of powder
were stored therein. Upon this was thrown
a heap of rubbish and billets of wood.

It was the plan of the conspirators to carry
their work into execution in May of 1605.
Fawkes was to fire the train. It was reckoned
that Henry, prince of Wales, would in all
probability be present at the opening of Par-
liament and would perish in the common ruin.
Prince Charles was to be seized and carried
into the country, and the Princess Elizabeth,
then at Combe Abbey, in Warwickshire, was
also to be made a prisoner. A general rising
of the Catholics was to follow, and it was
hoped that English Protestantism might be
thus stamped out in blood.

It happened, however, that Parliament
was several times prorogued, and the nn-i-iini:
of that body was finally set tor tlie ,">th of
November. In the mean time the conspira-
tors were troubled with a question which, it
seems, had not occurred to them at the begin-
ning. Many of the members of Parliament

were Catholics, and these, if the programme
should be carried out, must be destroyed witli
tiic rest. A disagreement thus arose among
the plotters, some of whom were anxious to
save the Catholic lords from the common ruin.
It was agreed that the latter ought to be
warned of the impending catastrophe ; but
how to do so without endangering the whole
scheme was a source of much embarrassment.
Nor could any satisfactory conclusion be
reached by the conspirators. Things were, in
a measure, left to take their own course.

A few days before the opening of Parlia-
ment, Lord Monteagle, a Catholic and friend
of several of the leaders in the plot, received
an anonymous letter, warning him in ambig-
uous terms not to be present at the opening
of the session ; " for," said the missive, " they
shall receyve a terrible blowe this parleament."
The writer of this letter was not known ; but
Francis Tresham, one of the confederates of
Catesby, was suspected of the authorship. Be
that as it may, the tone and character of the
letter were such as to arouse Lord Monteagle's
suspicions, and he carried the communication
to Lord Salisbury, who in his turn laid it be-
fore the king. After a conference of the
three the conviction grew that the letter was
more than a mere menace. It was resolved
to take every precaution against the threat-
ened but still unseen disaster. In these days
Robert Winter, one of the conspirators, received
a warning to save himself, as the plot was dis-
covered. Tresham informed Catesby and the
others that all was known, and advised them
to leave the country. But the conspirators
stood their ground, refusing to believe that
any of their number had proved traitor.
Fawkes especially displayed no sign of trepi-
dation. With a coolness and courage worthy
of the greatest cause, he remained at his post
in the vault, and awaited the hour when he
should light the train.

Thus matters stood on the 4th of Novem-
ber, the day before the opening of Parliament
On that day the Lord Chamberlain, as was
his duty, went through the Parliament House
to see that every thing was in readiness. Going
into the basement , he came upon Fawkes,
whom he describes as a " very tall and des-
perate t'ellow." who>f actions, though fearless,
excited the officer's suspicions. His attention

758

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

was also caught by the great pile of wood,
under which was hidden the barrels of pow-
der. Going to the king, the Chamberlain
told him of what he had seen, and Sir Thomas
Knevet, magistrate of Westminster, was sent

der-box and touch-wood. Entering the cellar
and throwing aside the wood, the magistrate
discovered the powder, and the whole plot
was out. Fawkes, without any show of con-
cealment or sign of terror, at once avowed his

PARLIAMENT HOUSE.

to search the premises. The latter went to
his duty just before midnight, and when
about to enter the basement, met Fawkes
stepping out of the door. The powerful con-
spirator was seized and bound with his own
garters. In his possession were found a tin-

purpose, and told his captors that had he been
within when about to be taken, he would
have buried them and himself in a common

rum.

As soon as the danger was over Fawkes
was taken into the king's presence at White-

'/•///; I-:X<;JJSH DEVOLUTION.— FIRST TWO STUARTS.

759

hall. He answered all questions with a care-
less and sarcastic indifference that astonished
the hearers. Not a word would he say, how-
ever, to implicate any one but himself. But
the nerves of the others were not equal to the
shock of discovery. They fled into tin- coun-
try, where a meeting of the Catholic p-ntry
had been called under pretense of a huntim:
party. Thither they were hotly pursued, and
all were either killed or taken. Those cap-
tured were subjected to several examinations,
but nothing of importance could be elicited.
Fawkes was tortured, but his iron will could
not be broken. All the plotters were con-
demned at a formal trial on the 27th of Jan-
uary, 1606. The sentence was that they be
drawn, handed, and quartered. Three days
afterwards Sir Everard Digby, Robert Win-
ter, Lord Grant, and a certain Bates, servant
of Catesby, were executed in the church-yard
of St. Paul's. On the following day Thomas
Winter, the noblemen Rookwood and Keyes,
and Guy Fawkes himself were put to death
at Westminster. Fawkes was the last to as-
cend the scaffold. Though tottering from the
effects of torture and sickness, he met his doom
without a shudder, and left behind what is,
perhaps, the most noted example on record of
a courageous conspirator facing the final or-
deal.

Great was the excitement throughout the
kingdom. The rage of the people rose to the
highest pitch, and many would fain have fallen
upon and destroyed every papist in England. It
was, however, greatly to James's credit that
he refused to countenance the persecution of
any who were not manifestly engaged in the
plot. The only apology which Catholic
writers have been able to invent is couched in
the theory that the whole Gunpowder Plot
was a fiction and ruse invented by Cecil to
eiv:ite sentiment against the papal party and
sympathy for the House of Stuart.

With the accession of James I. the union
of the crowns of England and Scotland was
effected; but the union of the two kingdoms
was a work of more difficult accomplishment.
For the latter movement implied the l>ri»
into one assembly of the English and Scot-
tish Parliaments; and this measure was of
course resisted by the long-ctaading and invet-
erate prejudices and hatreds of the two peo-

ples. At the first, the whole power of the
crown was exerted unsuccessfully to bring about
the desired result. The policy of tin- kinj.'
was ni'»t .-eriou.-ly resisted by his own sub-
jects of the North ; for a great deal of the
existing legislation of England had been of a
sort to excite the' animosity of the Scots, and
the removal of the court from Kdinburgh to
London added to their jealousy and discontent.

Defeated in his project of consolidating his
kingdoms, James next turned his attention to
such measures as were calculated to fill his
treasury. His scale of expenditure was alto-
gether greater than good economy or proper
political sagacity would indicate. Deficient
in the ways and the means of legitimate
money-making, fie resorted to the sale of ficti-
tious dignities. Titles were distributed to
those who could purchase them. The title of
Baronet was invented with the especial design
of adding to the king's revenues ; and he could
obtain it who could produce the requisite
thousand pounds.

In the early years of James's reign the
court and country were constantly distracted
by the jealousies, quarrels, and intrigues of
the royal favorites. It was in the king's na-
ture and practice to choose from among the
courtiers some one upon whom he might cen-
ter his affections and bestow his extravagant
favors. It was thus that Robert Carr, a Sot-
tish youth of some distinction, became con-
spicuous as the object of the king's idolatry.
One honor followed another until at last Carr
was created Earl of Somerset. He then sought
to marry the Countess of Essex, but was
strongly advised against that step by the wise
Sir Thomas Overbury. At this the favorite
was so much incensed that he procured the
imprisonment of Sir Thomas and soon after-
ward became privy to the taking-off of that
nobleman by poison. Carr and tin- countess
were then married ; but she soon proved to be
Je/.eliel /vi/iVi'rn, and he fell into a miserable
melancholy. It afterwards transpired that the
twain had iieen <_ruilt\ <>f the murder of Over-
bury, ami they were accordingly tried and
driven into banishment.

The year lii!:! was marked by the deaths
of Henry, prince of Wales, and Robert Cecil,
earl of Salisbury, the jrreat ininUter whom
James had inherited from the court of Eliza-

760

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

beth. Neither could well be spared ; for the
English people, by no means attached to the
cold and unambitious James, were enthusias-
tically devoted to his promising and aspiring
son. As for Cecil, he was undoubtedly one
of the ablest ministers of his times, and his
methods were just sufficiently unscrupulous
to make him a power among a people whose
estimate of success and brilliancy has always
made them blind to the faults of a favorite,
except when they were laboring under some
temporary inflammation of conscience.

SIR WALTER RALEIGH.

The death of Salisbury was the signal for
a liberation from a thirteen years' imprison-
ment of his old-time rival, Sir Walter Ral-
eigh. It was in keeping with the meanness
of the age that the mandate for his freedom
was issued by the king in the hope of profit;
for Raleigh was said to have knowledge of a
gold mine in Guiana, and thither the long-
imprisoned nobleman was sent, with the still
uncanceled sentence of death behind him.
Sir Walter was given command of a small
fleet, manned by a company of reckless ad-
venturers who were for gold or nothing.

Sailing into the Orinoco, a landing was made ;
but the expedition in search of a gold mine
proved abortive. An attack was made upon
a Spanish settlement, and Raleigh's son was
killed in the onset. The band then became
mutinous, and Sir Walter was obliged to re-
turn to England. An inquiry into his con-
duct found him guilty, as a matter of course,
for he had been unsuccessful ; and the king
gave his consent that the long-suspended sen-
tence should be carried into execution. This
shocking decision was accordingly fulfilled,
and Raleigh was beheaded on the
20th of October, 1618. Of all the
great lights that had shone in the
sky of the Elizabethan Age only Sir
Francis Bacon now remained.

This man of remarkable genius,
made by nature for the solution of
the highest problems of philosophy,
had long been kept in the back-
ground by the Cecils, his kinsmen ;
for they knew that his extraor-
dinary powers would shine in affairs
of state to the partial or total eclipse
of their own luster. After the death
of the younger Burleigh, however,
Bacon was promoted to the highest
dignity. In June of 1616 he was
made a privy councilor, and on the
5th of March in the following year
was appointed to the chancellorship,
with the title of Lord Keeper of
the Seal. Two months later he
took his seat in the Court of Chan-
cery, and such was the vigor and
energy with which he entered upon
his duties that in less than a month
he was enabled to report to Lord
Buckingham that he had cleared off all the
outstanding causes in his court.

In the year 1618 Bacon was made
Baron Verulam, and in January of 1621 the
title of Viscount St. Alban was added. In
the mean time he published his celebrated
work, the Novum Organum, by which his repu-
tation as one of the most profound thinkers
of the world was established, not only for his
own age, but for all posterity. Doubtless, the
fame which Bacon thus acquired, and the in-
fluence which he wielded in the state, con-
duced more to his downfall than did the

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— FIRST TWO STUARTS.

7.1!

accusations which were trumped up against
him. Charges were brought forward to the
effect that, while occupying the bench in the
Court of Chancery, he had acted corruptly,
had received bribes, and in other ways left an
indelible stain on the judicial ermine. The
facts were, that up to the beginning of the
seventeenth century the court practices of
England had been any thing else than pure ;
that most of the offices of the crown were
venal ; that suits in Chancery had, as a rule,
been as much influenced by corrupt induce-
ments as by legal principles, and that, of all
the chancellors which had held that court
since the times of Henry VIII., Bacon him-
self was the justest judge. Nevertheless, the
temper of the age was changed. England
had one of her periodic inflammations of the
conscience. Dissatisfied with peace and unable
to persuade the plodding king to go to war,
the Parliament appeared to gloat over the pros-
pect of excitement furnished by the overthrow
of Bacon.

On the 14th day of March, 1621, a cer-
tain Aubrey appeared before the bar of the
House and charged Lord Bacon with having
received from him a sum of money, while his
cause was pending in the chancellor's court,
and with afterwards having decided the cause
against him. Then came another by the
name of Egerton, and preferred a similar
accusation. A committee was appointed to
investigate these charges, and the result was
the presentation of articles of impeachment.
In his reply Bacon presented an analysis of
the various circumstances under which a judge
might receive benefits from those who had had
matters in his court; and as this, his answer,
is the real basis of a decision of the accusa-
tions against Bacon and his memory, the same
is here inserted : " The first," says he, " [is]
of bargain and contract for reward to pervert
justice while a cause is ponding. The second
[instance is] where the judge conceives the
cause to be at an end, by the information of
the party or otherwise, and useth not such
diligence as he ought to inquire of it. And
the third, where the cause is really ended and
it ia without fraud, without relation to any
preceding promise. For the first of these. 1
take myself to be as innocent as any born
upon St. Innocent's Day, in my heart. For

the second, I doubt on some particulars I may
be faulty. And for the last, I conceive it to
be no fault, but therein I desire to be better
informed, that I may be twice |>enitent — once
for the tact and again for the error."

All the subsequent facts which have been
developed in the controversy relative to the
guilt or innocence of Bacon may be readily
harmonized with this, his own theory of the
case. Nevertheless, Parliament, in its passing
gust of virtue, well pleased to have found eo
illustrious a victim of its rage, proceeded to
pass sentence upon him. He was condemned
to a fine of forty thousand pounds and to im-
]>ri>onment in the Tower during the plea.-im-
of the king. He was declared forever inca-
pable of holding any office, place, or employ-
ment in the state, and was forbidden to sit in
Parliament or come within the verge of the
court. This severe sentence, however, was
not rigorously enforced. The fine was virtu-
ally remitted by the king. The fallen chan-
cellor's imprisonment lasted for four days, and
a general pardon — not, of course, removing
the censure of Parliament — was presently
granted. But Bacon never recovered lug
standing in the state ; and after a retirement
of five years, passed in the industrious pur-
suits of literature, but not unhanntcd by the
ever-recurring hope of regaining his place
among the great, he died at Lord Arundel's
house, in London, on the 9th of April, 1626.

One of the principal causes of difference
between King James and his Parliament re-
lated to the question of war. He was essen-
tially a man of peace, nor could he be ea.-ilv
provoked from his habitual disposition. In
1619, just after the outbreak of the Thirty
Years' War, he was strongly urged to inter-
fere in that conflict. His daughter Kli/abeth
had been married to the elector of the Pala-
tinate, and the king was solicited to take the
part of his son-in-lnw in his break with Ferdi-
nand II. It will be remembered that this
elector was for a short time king of Bohemia,
and that he lost thiit dubioii- distinction in
the battle of Prague, in which he \va- over-
thrown by the Austrian-. !!.• then took ref-
uge in Holland, and it was this condition of
affairs that led Parliament to press upon lin-
king the importance of restoring his son-in-
law to the lost Palatinate.

762

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

But the unwarlike James was so averse to
acts of hostility that he could not be induced
to undertake the elector's cause. The English
recruits that went into Holland did so of their
own accord, and the king limited his en-
deavors to futile negotiations. In this work
he even undertook to enlist the king of Spain ;

the most powerful ministers of the govern-
ment. He proposed to James that Prince
Charles should go into Spain and see and woo
the princess for himself. And this half-
romantic scheme was carried out. The event,
however, did not answer to the expectation of
the managers. For the prince, while passing

HENRIETTA MARIA.

and in order to induce that monarch to second
his plans, he proposed that Prince Charles
should take in marriage the Spanish Infanta.
To this proceeding the English people were
especially averse. They had had enough of
Spanish marriages in the times of Mary
Tudor. But the king was set in his purpose,
and the project was seconded by George
Villiers, duke of Buckingham, then one of

incognito through Paris, attended a court
ball, at which he saw the beautiful Henrietta
Maria, daughter of the French king; and
she, rather than the princess at the end of his
journey, became the divinity of his dreams.
The Infanta was seen and that was all. The
prince returned to England, and the proposed
treaty with Spain was broken off. James
yielded to the inevitable, and entered into ne-

Tin: ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— FIRBT T\\n 8TUAETS.

7.;:;

gotiations with France. The history of his

own lite, and the more unhappy history of his
mother's, had not been of a sort to encourage
Freiieh alliances. Hut Charles, the heir ap-
parent to the crown, hud fallen deeply in
love with the Princess Henrietta, and the
father was obliged to assent to the marriage.

The king was at length driven against his
wishes to send out an English army in aid of
the elector palatine. The forces thus ordered
into Germany were put under command of
Count Mansfeld; but the latter was little
successful in his struggle with the Imperial
generals, and the expedition soon came to
naught. A short time previously a body of
six thousand Knglish soldiers had been sent
into the Netherlands to serve under Prince
Maurice of Saxony. But that movement was
also without any important results ; nor could
it have been expected that the military repu-
tation of England would be enhanced under
the auspices of a prince to whom war was ut-
terly repugnant.

The reign of King James ended with the
first quarter of the century. Before the ar-
rangcnient-' were completed for the marriage
of his son with the French princess, he fell
under a malarial attack and was brought to
his death. His last days were marked with
more dignity than had characterized the prin-
cipal acts of his life. He took a composed
leave of his t'amilv, gave good counsel to
Prince, Charles, and on the 27th of March,
1 1 ;•_'">, died quietly iii the palace of Theobalds,
being in the fifty-ninth year of his age.

In a religious point of view, the mo.-t im-
portant event in the reign of ,lame> I. was
the translation of the Bible into current En-
glish. The version thus produced in the year
Kill has. notwithstanding many blemishes and
defects, held its own to the present day. The
king appointed a commUsion of about fifty
persons, to whom the work was intrusted.
The men chosen wore as learned as the ago in
which they lived, and the translation which
they produced was as good as could have been
made in their times. Following the Septua-
gint rather than the Hebrew original, they
fell into many errors which a riper scholarship
would have avoided ; and the sterling language
employed in the rendition, rather than accu-
racy of translation, has prevailed for more

than two and a-hulf centuries to give to the
" Bible of King James" a permanent hold on
the affections of the English-speaking race.

Politically the kingdom made some prog-
ress. This was specially noticeable in the af-
fairs of Ireland. Since the time of the Cru-
sades that island had been miserably governed
by the English. The Celts, still in the inci|>-
ient stages of civili/.ation, long subjugated by
a stronger and mwre warlike people, had been
horribly oppressed by their masters. The
Tudors seemed to have looked upon the Iri.-h
as a race to be robbed and plundered at will.
Nor did any English king until the accession
of James attempt to alleviate the condition of
the suffering half-barbarians of the west. His
efforts to ameliorate the condition of Ireland,
and to hasten the emergence of the i.-land into
fairer light and better condition, were in the
highest measure commendable.

CHARLES I. was in the first flush of full
manhood when called by his father's death to
the throne of England. He was in the
twenty-fifth year of his age, handsome in per-
son, dignified in manners. He had in his
constitution and character a certain mixture
of Scotch austerity, with the suavity and gen-
tleness peculiar to his grandmother, the Queen
of Scots. His mind had been carefully culti-
vated, and his morals were better than the
standard of the century. He is represented
as having a melancholy expression of counte-
nance, a kind of sadness of face and manner
but little agreeable to the robust and hilarious
English people. It was his misfortune to
have a hasty temper, and his will was too
ea.-ilv swayed by the inteiv-ted ami scheming
courtiers who flourished in the palace and at
hi.- council board.

It was easy to discover at the beginning of
the new reign at least two conditions unfavor-
able to the peace of the kingdom. The first
was the ascendency of the unprincipled Duke
of Buckingham in the affairs of the state. To
him the king >• -rnied to surrender the entire
management of the government. Nor could
he perceive how great a drawback to his reign
were the caprices, tickleue— . and implacable
hatreds of his favorite miniMer. In the sec-
ond place, the queen greatly displeased the
nation. Henrietta Maria brought with her to
London not only the sunshine and gayety of

764

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Paris, but the religion of the ancient Church.
That she persisted in practicing openly, against
the deep-seated prejudices of her subjects. It

CHARLES I.
After the painting by Vandyke.

were hard to say whether the religious senti-
ment of England, now strongly, inclining to
Puritanism, was more offended at the gay and
joyous court which the queen created around
her, or at her adherence to the hated faith of

the papacy. It was not difficult for the sun-
less Puritan of 1626 to discover more loveli-
ness in the gloomy and vulgar Queen Anne,
who had lately occupied the throne
with James, than in the beautiful
and accomplished Henrietta.

It was the peculiarity of the
first two Stuart kings of England
to speculate, speak, and write about
those abstract questions of religion
and politics which were just then
beginning to stir to its depths the
mind of England. Such a dispo-
sition is highly unfavorable to the
success of kingly administration.
Government is preeminently a
practical affair, and the theorist
who is unwilling to learn the les-
son of wisdom from passing events,
as they rise and vanish in the
commonplace drama ever enacting
under his eyes, is least of all men
fitted to manage successfully the
public business of the state. Such
a ruler is likely to undertake the
impracticable, if not impossible,
task of bending facts into con-
formity with preconceptions and
theories true only in his own im-
agination. Of this kind was Charles
Stuart, and in the end the disposi-
tion cost him most dearly. Par-
ticularly was this so in view of
the fact that the English House
of Commons had in the interval
of peace become a powerful body,
little disposed to be patient when
crossed in its practical — perhaps its
vulgar — adherence to business

D

principles, or to listen with proper
respect to the king's platitudes on
matters concerning which the
members knew little and cared
nothing.

It appears that from the be-
ginning of his reign Charles I.
conceived it to be his business to
reduce the House of Commons to its old-
time subserviency; nor could he understand
the changed condition of affairs which ren-
dered it impossible for him to succeed in the
undertaking. A great transformation had

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— FIRST TWO STUAXTS.

765

taken place. The England of 1560, which
could not think, or if it thought could find
no organ l>y which to express its wishes and
demands, had now found a tongue, and the
king instead of welcoming this voice of the
people and calling it to his aid adopted the
theory of suppression as the best and only
means of maintaining the ancient preroga- '
lives of the English crown. The first year
of his reign was for the most part spent in
the foolish endeavor to reassert his sway over
the Commons. Finding himself unable to
accomplish this result he dissolved the Parlia-
ment, failing to perceive the inevitable assem-
bling of another still more hostile to his
purpose.

The unpopularity of the king and his gov-
ernment was still further heightened by the
ill success which attended the military opera-
tions of the kingdom. Hoping to distract
the attention of the people from their political
griefs, and perhaps to ingratiate himself into
public favor, Buckingham induced his master
to go to war with France. In 1627 a large
force of English troops was sent to the relief
of the French Huguenots, then besieged at
Rochelle. Buckingham took command in
person, but his military abilities were in inverse
ratio to his arrogance, and from the first the
expedition was doomed to failure. Attempt-
ing to land on the Isle of Rhd he was repulsed
with great loss. In the following year another
campaign was planned, and the Duke of Buck-
ingham went to Portsmouth to superintend
the preparations. While engaged in this
work he was hunted by a certain sour Puritan
by the name of Felton, who imagined himself
inspired to take Buckingham's life. After
following the duke for some days he finally
managed to get within striking distance and
inflicted a fatal stab with a knife. "The
villain has killed me," said the great Buck-
ingham as he tottered and fell down dead.
The assassin was soon sei/.ed, tried, and executed.

The death of his favorite minister made it
necessary for the king to find some other pillar
of support. In casting about for one on
whom to bestow his confidence he at length
selected Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards
Lord Strafford, a man of great talents, iron
will, and despotic opinions. At the same time
Charles took into his favor William Laud.

archbishop of Canterbury, who was in religion
a fitting counterpart of Stratford in politics.
It was one of the greatest bailed of Charles
Stuart's career that he chose these two arbi-
trary and arrogant lords as the main props of
his throne at a time when the premonitory
shocks of a political earthquake were already
felt in England.

The conduct of Laud was from the first of
a sort to excite .suspicion, distrust, hostility.
It could but be perceived by any wise states-
man that the edges of the established Church
were everywhere crumbling away ; and yet
in the face of this fact, in the very front of
the rising power of Puritanism, the archbishop
adopted a series of measures well calculated
to offend the religionists and drive them into
open insurrection. He introduced into the
services of the Church a number of ceremo-
nies peculiar to Romanism, and took no pains
to conceal his preference for those forms of
worship which lay nearest to the ancient es-
tablishment.

Another and more serious cause of dis-
agreement between the king and his people
was discovered in the refusal of Parliament
to grant to the monarch such supplies as he
claimed for the support of the government
James I. had been notorious for his want of
skill in managing the revenues of the king-
dom. Charles had inherited a bankrupt
treasury along with the crown of England,
and though frugal himself, and in no wise
disposed to excess in the expenditure of the
public funds, he found himself constantly em-
barrassed for the want of money. Nor could
he without frequent appeals to Parliament
procure the necessary means for defraying the
ordinary expenses of the government. This-
circumstance gave great advantage to the
House of Commons in its contention with
the king relative to his prerogatives. The
sturdy and already half-republican members
of that body refused to vote the needed sup-
plies, or else granted them in so scanty a
measure and so gnid-_'inply as to taunt, men-
ace, and provoke the king on each successive
appeal. In this condition of affairs he chose
to step beyond the well-established bounds of
precedent, and attempted to do as if by his
own right what was clearly within the prov-
ince of Parliament.

766

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

It is appropriate in this connection to no-
tice briefly an institution which for several
centuries played a not unimportant part in the

political history of England — that half-secret
royal tribunal known as the Court of the
Ptar Chamber. This body, from which so

MURDER OF THE DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM.
Drawn by Emile Bayard.

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— FIRST TWO STUARTS.

many abuses proceeded and to which history
and popular tradition alike have given so bad
a fame, dated back as far as the times of Kd-
ward III. It was at the first a kind of king's
council, not identical, however, with the privy
council or ordinary deliberative court upon
which the English kings were wont to depend
for advice. The Star Chamber — so-called from
the gilded stars on the ceiling of the room in
the palace of Westminster where the court
was wont to sit — was a more private or per-
sonal court, to which the reigning sovereign
was wont to look for a decision which was
needed in an emergency to bolster up some
royal act which had no other sanction.

In course of time this court, whose sittings
were secret, became odious, and many statutes
were passed abridging and restraining its ac-
tions. In the reigns of Henry VII. and
Henry VIII., when Parliament was at the
lowest ebb of its influence, the Star Chamber
was revived, and became, under the arbitrary
management of the Tudors, an instrument
most hateful for overthrowing the rising po-
litical liberties of England. Its scope seems
to have been to inquire into every alleged
misdemeanor for which the statute law had
provided no adequate punishment. Such
questions as corruption, breach of trust, mal-
feasance in office, attempts to commit felony,
violations of royal edicts, and the like were
heard and decided in the chamber, and its
prerogative was soon extended to acts of dis-
respect to the state and persons in authority.
Such an instrument was well suited to the dis-
positions of the Stuarts, and Charles I. made
haste to avail himself of his secret court, and
more than ever before to stretch its jurisdic-
tion to new matters which he desired to con-
trol independently of Parliament And such
decisions as were rendered and exactions as
were made were enforced with a rigor never
before known in England.

In order to make up for deficiencies in the
revenue the king also resorted to certain du-
ties called Tonnage and /'<ji/;ii7n;/c. The means
derived from these sources had been hitherto
granted, when granted at all, by special act
of Parliament. Such an act, however, was
now precisely what diaries could not obtain,
and he undertook to collect the duties on his
own authority, In the next place, he im-

posed a new tax known as S/ii/i-money, by
means of which he proposed to maintain the
navy. Nor could it be denied that in the
expenditure of the revenues thus illegally de-
rived the king made some atonement — if such
were possible — for the infraction of the laws.
The English navy became more efficient than
at any time since the high noon of Eli/abeth.
Nevertheless, the fact of the illegality re-
mained, and it was certain that the Commons
would not long endure the arbitrary govern-
ment to which they were subjected.

History presents few examples of a change
more complete from a mother to her son than
that of James I. in his abandonment of the
religious system for which Mary Smart gave
her life. He was, as we have already seen,
a thorough devotee of the Church of Eng-
land. Like him Charles I. remained stead-
fastly attached to the established form. In
his own paternal kingdom of Scotland, how-
ever, Presbyterianism had now swept every
thing before it. To the sturdy zealots of the
North the conservative doctrines and stately
forms of Episcopalian ism became almost aa
hateful as the Romish rite and ritual them-
selves. Notwithstanding this condition of
affairs in the North, Charles resolved to un-
dertake the extension of the English Church
over Scotland and to enforce conformity with
her doctrines and usages. Nothing could have
surpassed in depth and strength the profound
and universal revolt of the Scotch against
this proceeding. The Presbyterians of the
Northern kingdom bound themselves in a sol-
emn LEAGUE AND COVENANT to resist the
proposed encroachment on their religious
faith ; and to this declaration and compact
they required all the people of Scotland to
affix their names. The movement in a short
time assumed the most formidable proportions.

Those who entered into this religio-political
league took the name of Cnviv \MKRS. All
classes joined the compact to defeat the pur-
pose of the king. An army was formed and
ftie command given to the Duke of Argyle.
Several of the king's castles were seized, and
the town of Leith was taken and fortified.
Perceiving the storm which he had r.f
Charle- marched a large force to Berwick;
but he durst not immediately undertake a
1 war upon his subjects, and negotiations were

768

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

opened with the Covenanters. But the
spirit of the Scots had now become so hot
that the concessions offered by the king
had little effect to allay the excitement.
On the contrary, when the men of the
North perceived that the king was un-
able to enforce compliance with his edict
of conformity, they took advantage of his
weakness, yielded nothing, and presently
obliged him to disband his troops, for he had
no means of supporting an army in the field.
At length he succeeded in inducing the stub-
born Scots to accept his overtures and return
to their homes in peace.

It soon appeared, however, that the mal-
contents, having once been aroused, could not
be so easily placated. In a short time they
again rushed to arms, and it became evident
that the king must subdue them by force or
make a complete surrender to their demands.
The latter he could not well do without a vir-
tual abdication of his authority, and to suc-
ceed in the former he must have the support
of Parliament.

That body had not been convened for
nearly eleven years. During all this interval
the king, by his tonnage and poundage and
ship-money, had sought to replenish his reve-
nues and keep the kingdom from bankruptcy.
But to undertake a war involved expenses so
great that he could not hope to meet them by
such arbitrary measures as he might incident-
ally adopt. He accordingly determined to
reconvene the Commons and ask for the
needed supplies and revenues.

Charles accordingly issued his call, and in
1640 Parliament assembled. Perhaps no de-
liberative body ever convened in worse humor.
The members, intent on righting the wrongs
which they themselves had suffered through
more than a decade of contemptuous neglect,
gave no heed to the difficulties into which the
king had been plunged, but began at once to
devise such measures as looked to the restora-
tion of the authority of the House of Com-
mons. Charles, perceiving that his Parliament
was against him rather than for him, and that
the body was eagerly planning to deprive him
of his prerogatives as well as his revenues,
became irritated, and in a moment of ill-
temper dissolved the assembly. The Com-
mons had been in session only for a short

time, and neither had the king procured any
aid, nor had the Parliament succeeded in
contriving further means of crippling the
monarch.

Meanwhile the hostile Scots, after hovering
for a brief season on the northern border,
began an invasion. They advanced with an
army almost to Newcastle, and the king was
obliged to do something to resist their further
progress. In his sore distress he resorted to
personal loans. He borrowed from his minis-
ters and courtiers until they had no more to
lend, and with the money thus obtained raised
and equipped a small army to oppose the
Scots. The royalists advanced to Newburn,
where a battle was fought, resulting in the
rout of Charles's forces. So desperate were
the straits to which he was thus reduced that
he was compelled, however against his will,
again to summon Parliament.

That body was now more irreconcilable
than ever. It assembled in a spirit bordering
on downright disloyalty. The House of Com-
mons was pervaded in every part with Puri-
tanism. It was clear that the king had more
to fear than to hope from the assembly upon
which his predecessors had been wont to lean
for support. Nor were the lords and bishops,
though very willing, able to render him any
effective assistance in the face of so great
popular hostility.

As might have been anticipated, under
such conditions, the Commons again gave
themselves to the redress of their own griev-
ances. The king was left to take care of
himself. The Puritan members of the House
soon found a suitable object of their vengeance
in him who was, as they were pleased to be-
lieve, the bete noire of the times, the Earl of
Strafford. He had himself once been a Puri-
tan, and his abandonment of that party had
been greatly resented by the zealots whose
leader, John Pym, had, on the occasion of
Strafford's defection, said to him : " You have
left us, but we will not leave you while your
head is on your shoulders." The Puritans
were now in a condition to enforce their
threat.

Soon after the assembling of Parliament,
namely, on the llth of November, 1640,
Pym, on behalf of the Commons, appeared at
the bar of the House of Lords and presented

THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— FIRST TWO STUARTS.

769

articles of impeachment against Stratford.
He was charged with an attempt to subvert
the liberties of the English people ; nor can it
be doubted, in the light of subsequent revela-
tions, that he was guilty of the thing charged.
But at the time of his trial the evidence was
insufficient to convict. Besides, the earl con-
ducted his own defense with such ability and
eloquence that the Commons, foreseeing an
acquittal, withdrew the articles of impeach-
ment.

But the attack was immediately renewed
under the form of a Bill of Attainder. This
was passed by a great majority in the House
of Commons, and the Lords, under pressure
of public opinion, yielded their assent. It
only remained for the king to affix his signa-
ture to the condemnation of his favorite min-
ister and most powerful supporter. Never
was monarch placed in a more embarrassing
dilemma. How could he assent to the exe-
cution of his greatest councilor and most de-
voted friend ? On the other hand, how could
he resist the clamors of a Parliament in which
even the conservative power of the House of
Lords had been swept away? In the midst
of his master's distress Strafford wrote him a
letter advising him to sign the bill, and ex-
pressing his willingness to die in order to ap-
pease the anger of the people. Whether the
earl was sincere, or whether he thought, by
this magnanimous proposition, to strengthen
the king's purpose not to let him be put to
death, is not known. At any rate, when the
wavering king did yield and affix his signa-
ture to the bill, Strafford was greatly sur-
prised, and appeared for the moment com-
pletely overcome with the thought that Charles
had abandoned him to his fate. The earl was
condemned, taken from prison to Tower Hill,
and there, on the 12th of May, 1641, was be-
headed. He went to the block with great
composure, and when surrendering himself to
the mercies of the headsman, said calmly: "I
lay down my head as cheerfully as ever I did
when going to repose." — Such was the first
sacrifice on the altar of a public vengeance,
not easy to be appeased.

The next to feel the blow of popular fury

was Archbishop Laud. Before the execution

of Strafford it \v:is resolved in the Commons

to proceed with the impeachment of the |>«u-

VOL. II.- 49

erful prelate. At the first Laud was s.
and imprisoned on a charge of hi-li treason.
Three years elap-cd before he was brought tn
trial ; but Parliament in the mean linn- ]ia~-i-.l
an act confiscating his property. The treat-
ment, moreover, to which the aged archbishop
was subjected was in other respects well suited
to the age of barbarism. He was treated in

JOHN PTM.

prison as a common malefactor, and even the
papers which he prepared for his defense were
taken from him. So vindictively and cruelly

does injured
Freedom de-
mean herself
when after in-
sult and

con-

tumely, she
at length
regains the
power to
trample on
her enemies!
It was in the

interval between the condemnation and ex-
ecution of Strafford, while' the king's mind
was driven and his spirit tossed by ad-
verse winds, that the Commons availed
themselves of their advantage to lay before
the distracted monarch a bill wherein it «;i~
provided that henceforth the Parliament
should not be dissolved, prorogued, or ad-

COAT OF ARMS AND 8IOKATUBX
OF JOHN FYM.

770

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

journed without its own consent. To this he
was induced to affix his signature ; and thus
that very prerogative which he had been wont
to stretch beyond the constitutional limits was
more curtailed than at any previous tune
in the history of England.

If all the measures adopted by the victo-
rious Parliament had been as wise as the first
the English people would have had cause of
thankfulness to Charles Stuart for furnishing
the occasion of so salutary a reform. The
first act adopted after the king had given up
his power of adjourning the Commons at his
will was for the abolition of the Court of the
Star Chamber. With the fall of that unsa-
vory tribunal one powerful support of the
arbitrary system of government was knocked
away.

In the latter part of the year 1641 there
was a lull in the popular excitement, and it
appeared not impossible that the serious dis-
sension between king and Parliament might
be permanently healed. Charles found time
and opportunity again to turn his attention
to the condition of affairs in the North. He
resolved to go into Scotland and endeavor by
personal conferences and a conciliatory tone to
win back the alienated affections of his sub-
jects. While engaged in this work, how-
ever, he received the disheartening intelli-
gence that the Irish had revolted against
his government. A certain Irish gentleman,
named Roger More, actuated by a patriotic
desire to free his country from English domi-
nation, began to agitate the question of inde-
pendence and the possible expulsion of foreign
rulers from the Island. But the movement
which he thus originated soon defied control,
and like a spreading conflagration wrapped the
greater part of Ireland in the flames of revolt.
A terrible massacre of the English followed ;
nor did the infuriated insurgents spare any
age, sex, or condition. A few of the foreign
residents sought refuge in Dublin, but the
rest were almost exterminated. It was greatly
to the credit of More that, when he found
himself unable to stop the carnage or in any
wise direct the revolt of which he had been
the chief promoter, he left the scene of horror
to exhaust itself by its own bloody excesses,
and went into Flanders.

The duty was thus devolved upon Charles

of restoring the supremacy of England in
the rebellious island or else of accepting the
alternative of Irish independence. He at
once called upon Parliament for the means
of putting down the rebellion. That body
showed little patriotism or duty in its response
to the king's appeal. A vote was passed for
raising money and collecting munitions of
war, but at the same time the Commons took
care that the supplies thus obtained for the
Irish service should be kept in reserve with
the manifest intent of using the same, should
occasion offer, in a conflict with the king.

For by this time a large political party
had arisen in England so antagonistic to the
House of Stuart as to be ready for an attack
on the monarchy itself. The intensity of this
opposition to the existing order ranged all the
way from moderation to madness. Some were
in favor of mild reform ; others of radical in-
novation ; others still, of iconoclastic revolu-
tion. A great majority of the people of the
kingdom were opposed to the arbitrary meth-
ods adopted by the reigning House, and were
willing to see the dynasty humbled in some
exemplary fashion. But as to method there
was little agreement. In general the Puritans
led the attack; for they, in addition to the
common political grievances of the times,
were still worse afflicted on the side of their
religion. Since the days of Henry VIII. the
religious hierarchy of England had been
closely intertwined with the monarchy. The
government of religion and that of the state
were so bound together as virtually to consti-
tute but one system. The prelate and the
lord walked hand in hand. The state wore
episcopacy as a garment. The crown of the
king was double : he was the head of both the
Kingdom and the Church. The revolt of
Puritanism against the religious hierarchy
brought on an inevitable conflict with the
state ; for the state had its arms around the
hierarchy. The double currents of religious
insurrection and political revolt became con-
fluent and their united volume rolled on to-
wards the near abyss of revolution.

From day to day, from week to week, the
breach between the king and Parliament
widened. The thoughtful could already dis-
cover on the horizon the clouds of civil war.
On the one hand, republican principles were

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CIVIL WAR AND COMM<>.\ -\\r..\LTH. 771

openly advocated. On the other, the king
mid the large minority that still supported
him stood firm in defense of the ancient mon-
archy and of the time-honored prerogatives of
the monarch. Parliament became a scene.
The king struggled to extricate him>clf from

his embarrassments, but the specters of revo-
lution rose from the earth and drew the com-
plications around him until hi; was completely,
hopelessly entangled in the net. Such wao
the condition of affairs in the early month
of 1642.

CHAPTER xxxv.— CIVIL WAR AND
COMMONWEALTH.

HE Long Parliament was
now in the third year of
its sitting. The body fell
more and more under the
influence of the Puritans.
Though the royalists, or
king's party, were not
without strength, their enemies gained upon
them, and it was evident that all the resources
at Charles's command would be necessary to
uphold the beleaguered throne. Popular
leaders appeared and gained a great ascend-
ency, not only in Parliament, but among the
people.

Never before had so great and profound an
agitation seized the public mind. Foremost
among the revolutionists may be mentioned
John Pym, to whom reference has already
been nxade, and JOHN HAMPDEN, not less
noted for his courage and radicalism. The
latter was the son of an old parliamentarian
of the age of Elizabeth, and entering early
into public life became noted among tln»e
who set themselves in opposition to Strafford
and Laud. Against him the anger of the
king's council became so inflamed that he was
in da niror of losing not only his property but
;iU> his life. At one time, being discouraged
at the condition of affairs in his own country,
he determined to seek refuge in the wilds of
America. It is said that he and his cousin
Oliver Cromwell had already engaged their
passage to the New \Vorld when a royal
edict was issued forbidding shipmasters to
carry English subjects out of the kingdom
without a special permit. Hampilen \vas thus
prevented from sailing, and soon became more
deeply involved than ever in the controversy

with the king. On the assembling of the Long
Parliament, in November of 1640, the Puritan
opposition gathered around his standard, and
he was recognized as the most powerful man
in the kingdom. He was one of the commit-
tee of twelve who conducted the impeachment
of Lord Strafford. Afterwards he was one of
the five republican leaders who were accused
of treason, and whose lives were demanded
by the king. His hostility against the mon-
archy then became more pronounced than
ever, and at the outbreak of actual hostilities
the people of all England looked to him as a
leader.

Now it was that the still more famous OL-
IVER CROMWELL made his appearance on that
stage upon which he was to act so conspicuous
a part. For him, rather than for Hampden
or Pym, destiny had reserved the actual di-
rection of the great conflict which was about
to ensue. At the first his appearance in Par-
liament attracted but little attention, but he
had within him an aggregation of those ele-
ments which are especially demanded in the
stormy times of revolution. Nor was it long
until the public mind perceived that he, more
than any other man of the epoch, possessed
the essential qualities of leadership. Crom-
well was born at Huntingdon on the 25th of
April, 1 .")!(!». Ot' himself he says: " I was by
birth a L'eiitlcinan." But the respectable rank
which fortune gave him in society was of far
less importance than the remarkable bodily
and mental vi'_ror by which he was character-
ized even from boyhood. In his youth he
applied himself to the study of law, but that
vocation soon proved to be unsuited to his
active disposition. In a later year he became

772

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

a farmer at St. Ives. There he adopted the
doctrines of Puritanism, and became a preacher
after the manner of the people with whom he
had joined himself.

JOHN HAMPDEN.

In 1626 he entered Parliament, and soon
afterwards was associated with Sir Arthur
Hazelrig and John Hampden in their project

of establishing a
colony in America.
Prevented by the
king's edict from
carrying out that
purpose, he became
one of the
most resolute
opponents of
the royal
policy, and
when the
Long Parlia-
ment assembled he was already marked as
a leader. He is described at this time as
being a red-faced, coarse, and slovenly man,
ungraceful in his bearing and ungentle

COAT OF ARMS AND SIGNATURE
OF JOHN HAMI'DEN.

in dress. Of him Sir Philip Warwick tlm>
speaks in his memoirs: "The first time that
ever I took notice of him [Cromwell] was in
November, 1640. When I came one morning
to the House, I perceived a gen-
tleman speaking, very ordinarily
appareled ; for it was a plain suit
which seemed to have been made
by an ill country tailor. His
linen was plain and not very clean,
and I remember a speck of blood
upon his hand ; his stature was of
a good size ; his countenance
swollen and reddish ; his voice
harsh and uutunable, and his elo-
quence full of fervor." Such wa?
the personal appearance of him
who was soon to become the most
powerful leader of the century.

Next in influence in the repub-
lican ranks was SIK HENRY VANE,
son of that Sir Henry Vane who
figured in political affairs in the-
times of the first two Stuarts.
Born in 1612, carefully reared by
his father, educated at Westmin-
ster and Magdalen College, he
early gave his attention to those
religious questions with which all
England was at that time agi-
tated. In intellectual brilliancy
he was the equal, if not the su-
perior, of any of the revolutionist leaders ;
but his nature was somewhat too refined
for the fierce and bloody work which was-
now to be begun. He traveled in Hol-
land, France, and Switzerland, true to the-
cause which he had espoused at home, but
leaving the immediate support of that cause
to others. Afterwards he joined the Puri-
tans in Massachusetts, and in 1636 was
elected governor of that colony. After one
year he returned to England, and in 1640
became a member of the Long Parliament,
where he distinguished himself as a conspicu-
ous opponent of the royalist party. Many
other prominent leaders came forth to take
their part in the drama. Among these may
be mentioned Sir Bulstrode Whitelocke, a
man of sterling parts and better judgment
than most of his associates, and also Sir Hugh
Peters, who, from being a dissenting clergy-

EXUUS11 REVOLUTION— CIVIL W.\U AM) COMMONWEALTH.

773

man in exile first at Rotterdam uinl afti-r-
wards in New Kngland, returned to his own
country in 1640 to become an influential
leader of the parliamentary party. — Such was
in brief the personnel of that popular and
fanatical leadership which was now destined
to shake the very foundation of the English
monarchy.

The immediate occasion of the outbreak
of hostilities between the king and the Parlia-
ment— that small fact, which, like the mutch
to the magazine, lighted the disastrous train
of war — was the attempt of the king, in vio-
lation of a fundamental maxim of English
law, to arrest five members of the House of
Commons. Since the days of Magna Churta
an act more flagrant had not been undertaken
by any king of England. The Great Charter
had directly declared that " we, the king, would
not seize, imprison, or distress any freeman,
except in accordance with the law of the
land." None the less Charles, in a fit of mad-
ness, ventured upon the hazard, and soon
found that he had flung himself against an
immovable bulwark, only to be broken. Lon-
-dou became an uproar. Perceiving that he
must now maintain himself by the sword, he
withdrew from the city, and on the 25th of
August, 1642, set up the royal standard at
Nottingham. Thither he was followed by the
•court and most of the peers of England.
Only Lord Essex and a few others of the no-
bility remained behind to share the fortunes
of the people.

Now it was that those fierce hatreds pecu-
liar to party strife, and not yet raised to a
higher level by the more noble struggles of
war, sought to express themselves in oppro-
brious names and epithets. The royalist party
gave to their opponents the nickname of
MmmcUieads ; for the Puritans, after their
Austere formalism, cropped closely their hair,
thus exhibiting in full outline the burly heads
peculiar to the middle and shop-keeping classes
of Englishmen. On the other hand, the
Puritans, despising the refined, half-French
and stilted manners of the royalists, nick-
named them the Cavaliers, or sometimes the
MaKgnanta.

Another fact proper to be con-idered at
the beginning of the story of the war was tin-
character of the make-up and alignment of

the two parties to the contt.-t. Kadi of these
consisted of a political and a religion- element
marching in close alliance. As for the Roy-
ali-ts, they were, of course, the nobility of
England, of ancient, monarchical England,
the conservative upholders of the anci. ut and
the existing order, the lords by birth, the
tones by education. In close union with
these were the Episcopalians, or High Church-
men, believing, like their political confeder-
ates, in the past and in so much of the pres-
ent as the past had bequeathed to the current
time. It was clear that the destinies of the
Episcopal Church and of the English mon-
archy were inseparably interwoven. At the
head of this party stood the king.

Opposed to the Royalists were several ele-
ments, partly political and partly religious in
their character. First of all, there was a class
of politicians who advocated a legal reform of
the monarchy. They believed that the old
constitution and ancient statutes of England
were sufficient for the emergency — that the
only thing necessary to do was to use existing
agencies in the correction of existing abuses.
This party would gladly have put away the
illegal imposts to which the king had resorted,
and the arbitrary imprisonments of which he
had been guilty, together with all other acts
contrary to the ancient laws and usages of the
kingdom. As for the rest, the leaders of this
faction would fain have left the existing order
undisturbed. The principal statesmen who
acted with this Legal-Reform Party, and were
responsible for its conduct, were Lords Clar-
endon, Colepepper, Capel, and Falkland.

Next iu order came what may be called
the Political Revolutionary Party, differing from
the preceding in this — that the members of
the same did not regard the existing constitu-
tion and statutes as sufficient, even when ob-
served, for the present reform and future de-
velopment of England. To use the language
of Guizot, this party did not think the an-
cient legal barriers an adequate safeguard for
the right< and liberties of Englishmen. The
leaders of this faction perceived " that a great
change, a genuine revolution was wanting,
not only in the forms, but in the spirit and
essfiice of the government; that it was neces-
sary to deprive the king and his council of
the unlimited power which they

774

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

and to place the preponderance in the House
of Commons ; so that the government should,
in fact, be in the hands of this assembly and
its leaders. This party made no such open
and systematic profession of its principles and
intentions as I have done: but this was the
real character of its opinions and of its polit-
ical tendencies. Instead of acknowledging
the absolute sovereignty of the king, it con-
tended for the sovereignty of the House of
Commons as the representatives of the people.
Under this principle was hid that of the sov-
ereignty of the people; a notion which the
party was as far from considering in its full
extent as it was from desiring the conse-
quences to which it might ultimately lead, but
which they nevertheless admitted when it pre-
sented itself to them in the form of the sov-
ereignty of the House of Commons.

" The religious party most closely allied to
this political-revolutionary one was that of the
Presbyterians. This sect wished to operate
much the same revolution in the Church as
their allies were endeavoring to effect in the
state. They desired to erect a system of
Church government emanating from the peo-
ple, and composed of a series of assemblies
dovetailed, as it were, into each other; and
thus to give to their national assembly the
same authority in ecclesiastical matters that
their allies wished to give in political to the
House of Commons : only that the revolution
contemplated by the Presbyterians was more
complete and daring than the other, foras-
much as it aimed at changing the form as
well as the principles of the government of
the Church ; while the views of the political
party went no further than to place the influ-
ence, the preponderence, in the body of the
people, without meditating any great altera-
tion in the form of their institutions.

" Hence the leaders of this political party
were not all favorable to the Presbyterian
organization of the Church. Hampden and
Hollis, as well as some others, it appears,
would have given the preference to a moder-
ate episcopacy, confined strictly to ecclesiasti-
cal functions, with a greater extent of liberty
of conscience. They were obliged, however,
to give way, as they could do nothing with-
out the assistance of their fanatical allies.

" The third party, going much beyond these

two, declared that a change was required, not
only in the form, but also in the foundation,
of the government; that its constitution
was radically vicious and bad. This party
paid no respect to the past life of England ;
it renounced her institutions; it swept away
all national remembrances ; it threw down the
whole fabric of English government, that it
might build up another founded on pure
theory, or at least, one that existed only in its
own fancy.

"Like the two preceding, this party was
composed of a religious sect and a political
sect. Its political portion were the genuine
republicans, the theorists, Ludlow, Harring-
ton, Milton, and the rest. To these may be
added the republicans of circumstance, of in-
terest, such as the principal officers of the
army, Ireton, Cromwell, Lambert, and the
rest, who were more or less sincere at the be-
ginning of their career, but were soon con-
trolled or guided by personal motives or force
of circumstances. Under the banners of this
party marched the religious republicans, all
those religious sects which would acknowledge
no power as legitimate but that of Jesus
Christ, and who, awaiting his second coming,
desired only the government of his elect.
Finally, in the train of this party followed a
mixed assemblage of subordinate freethinkers,
fanatics, and levelers, some hoping for license,
some for an equal distribution of property,
and others for universal suffrage." No analy-
sis of the elements which contributed their
heterogeneous currents to the great Civil War
in England more able and comprehensive than
this by M. Guizot has been presented.

No sooner had actual hostilities begun than
the splendid qualities of the Puritan soldiers
began to appear. From the first, they exhib-
ited undaunted courage and inflexible purpose.
Nor were the officers who were chosen to com-
mand less able and valiant than the rank and
file. On the other side, the king's generals, also,
were men of approved valor and experience
in war. First under the king himself was
Prince Rupert, the monarch's nephew, son of
that elector Palatine whom James I. was so
often solicited to support in the early years of
the Thirty Years' War. Next to the prince
in command was the Marquis of Newcastle,
whose high character and public and private

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.- CIVIL WAR AND COMMONWEALTH. ":>

virtues did much to sustain the morale of the
Royalist army. After him came Lord lli-n-
ford, whose influence induced many other
noblemen to take a more active part in up-
holding the royal banner.

It was under inauspicious omens that the
camp of Charles was established at Notting-
ham. On the first night after the king's
standard was set up on Castle Hill, a storm
prevailed and blew down the ensign of the
monarchy. Superstition perceived in this cir-
cumstance the forecast shadow of a fallen
throne. Nevertheless, the king's soldiers pre-
pared to give the Parliamentarians a hot re-
ception in the field. Charles himself was
aroused to the exhibition of an energy of
which his own most ardent admirers had not
supposed him capable. In plan, purpose, and
demeanor he revealed the elements of a new
character, which, had it declared itself in the
first years of his reign, might have steered the
government safely through its perils and
saved himself from ruin.

One of the great disadvantages under
which the royal cause was now placed was the
lack of money. It was a strange spectacle to
see the second in succession from the great
Elizabeth encamped on Nottingham Hill, and
seeking by voluntary contributions to secure the
means wherewith to defend the throne of
England. But for the fact that a large per-
centage of the Royalists were themselves of
ample ' fortune, it is certain that Charles's
army must have been quickly disbanded for
want of support.

Meanwhile, the queen, in order to escape
from the impending perils of the situation,
and at the same time to aid her husband's
cause with such means as might be procured
abroad, made her way to Holland, carrying
with her the crown jewels of England. These
she sold, and with the money thus obtained
procured a supply of arms and ammunition,
which were sent with all haste to the kinir.

By this time the parliamentary army had
taken the field. The forces in the South were
commanded by Lord Essex, and in the North
by Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thoin:i-.
The tramp of armed men was heard in the
streets of the towns. Garrisons were planted
here and there, and before the close of K'.42
England resembled a camp. The first battle

was fought on the 3d of October, on Edge-
hill, in Warwickshire. In the beginning of
the engagement the forces of Prime Rupert
were victorious, but he failed to take advan-
tage of what he had gained, and before night-
fall the parliamentary army had fully recov-
ered its ground. The action, however, was
indecisive, and with the following morning
neither of the combatants seemed willing to
hazard a renewal of the battle. Both h.id
suffered severe losses. On the royalist side
Lord Lindsey, at that time commander-in-
chief of the king's forces, was among the
slain. Both armies drew off from the scene
of conflict, and each awaited reinforcements
and the better development of its strength.

The first months of 1643 were occupied
with the siege of Reading. This place had
been garrisoned by royalists in the preceding
year, and was now invested by Lord Essex
with a large division of the republican army.
The city was not taken, however, until April,
for the royalists defended it with a persistency
greater than the importance of the place
would seem to have demanded. Later in the
season a hard-fought battle took place at
Landsdown, near Bath. Here the royalists
won a decisive victory. In another conflict,
which occurred at Devizes, the king's forces
were again triumphant ; but their victory was
without important results. About the same
time a minor engagement was had at a place
called Chalgravc Field, near Oxford, and here
the republicans had the great misfortune to
lose their leader, John Hampden, who was
mortally wounded in the fight. The loss to
the nation was irreparable ; for Hampden's
virtues and equipoise of temper, as well as
his powerful talents and influence, made him
almost as much a necessity of his times as
was Mirabeau at the outbreak of the French
Revolution.

On the whole, the campaigns of the first
year were favorable to the royal cause. The
king's forces, though not a braver soldiery,
were better disciplined than those of Parlia-
ment, and this fact told in the first battles of
the war. But within a year from the out-
break of hostilities the republican soldiers had
become the equals of their adversaries in dis-
cipline and more than their eijuaU in valor
and enthusiasm.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

The general course of the war was further
affected by the character of the recruits
wherewith the two armies were replenished.
The parliamentarians flocked to the standards
of their generals from principle. Every man
knew the motive of his action. Politically,
he enlisted and drew his sword against the
abuses of arbitrary power, and perhaps the

SIB THOMAS FAIRFAX.

After the miniature by J. Hoskius.

fundamental maxims on which monarchy
was established. Religiously, he fought the
Episcopal organization, almost as hateful in his

u?: rr^yt

LORD FAIRFAX'S SIGNATURE.

eyes as that Romanism which it had sup-
planted. His cause was the cause of the peo-
ple, and the Puritan soldier and the common
Englishman were and remained the best of
friends. On the other side, the royalists were
far removed from popular sympathy. The
king's army was recruited from the two ex-
tremes of society. By a strange conjuncture

the nobleman and the vagabond, the prelate
and the pad, the lord and the thief, were
brought side by side under the banner of the
king.

Nor was there any element present in
this mottled host that was or could be regard-
ful of the rights and interests of the English
people. The result was that wherever the
royal army prevailed, there the country was
trodden under foot; there the peasantry of
England was crushed and mutilated without
mercy. On the contrary, in those towns and
districts where the forces of Parliament were
victorious the rights of all were as well re-
garded as might be in a time of war. Conse-
quent upon this difference, so marked in dif-
ferent parts of the country, the Puritan cause
gained everywhere new accretions of strength,
while the royalists lost every condition of sym-
pathy and encouragement. Nor did the fact
that Charles admitted into his service what
Papists soever could be induced to join his
standard tend to improve his prospects with
the English people, cordial haters, as they
were, of the Romish establishment.

The former difficulties of the king with
his Scottish subjects, his vacillating policy
respecting them and their new religious
departure, now became the antecedents of an
alliance between the Puritan party of Eng-
land and the Presbyterians of Scotland.
Though they had little actual sympathy with
each other, in one thing they were agreed —
hatred of Episcopacy and opposi-
tion to the king as its defender.
A solemn League and Covenant
was accordingly formed between
Parliament and the Scots, the for-
mer hoping by this means to bring
the royal cause to an inglorious
end, and the latter to establish
Presbyterianism on the ruins of
the demolished Church of England.
In the year 1643 several important
battles were fought, and victory rested now on
this banner and now on that. The result was
favorable to the Royalists to this extent, that
Parliament, which had believed itself capable
of crushing the king in a single campaign,
was disappointed, chagrined, angered. But
the resolution of the popular party to tri-
umph in the end was in no wise weakened.

/;A<;/./.S// INVOLUTION.— CIVIL \\.\n AM> «IM.\HL\]\-I-:.ILTJI. 111

The king, moreover, was greatly embarrassed
by the fact that lie h;i<l been, at the oui-et,
obliged to fly from tlio capital and to leave
the government and its resources in the hands
of Parliament. It thus happened that the
Commons, having under their control the
well-regulated machinery of the kingdom,
were able to levy taxes and keep a full treas-
ury, make enlistments for the army, and di-
rect the energies of the state against the king.
The latter, on his part, had little beside vol-
untary contributions wherewith to support his
troops ; and when the fortune of war
brought him defeat, he was ill able
to repair the damage by the prompt
reinforcement of his army.

With the opening of the campaign
of 1644, the forces of Parliament be-
gan to gain upon their adversaries.
In the beginning of summer. Sir
Thomas Fairfax cooped up and be-
sieged the Marquis of Newcastle in
York. The investment was pressed
with great energy, and the defense
conducted with equal courage. At
length Prince Rupert, disengaging
himself from other operations, marched
to York with the purpose of raising
the siege. He was advised by the
.Marquis of Newcastle not to hazard
a battle with the forces of Fairfax ;
but confident of his own abilities and
of the valor of his soldiers, the prince
rejected the advice, and on the 2d of
July offered fight to the republicans
at a place called Marston Moor, about
nine miles from the city. The forces
engaged were about equal on either
M<le. Each commander led about
twenty-five thousand men into battle. Prince
Kupcrt, in command of the right wing, was
opposed by Oliver Cromwell on the republican
left. The most dashing and determined cav-
alryman in all England soon found that he
had rushed upon an antagonist who could
not lie moved.

The charge on the regiments of Cromwell
was like a charge upon the stone bulwarks of a
fortification. Rupert's hoi-semen were hurled
back in confusion, and the royal infantry
which stood in support was likewise borne
down and put to flight. The regiment of the

Marquis of Newcastle fought with great valor,
and for a while the victory hung in equipoise.
At one time the Royalist general, Lucas, by a
sudden and audacious charge, threw the Parlia-
mentary cavalry into di-.inli-r, and the rout of
the whole right wing was imminent until what
time Cromwell, returning from pursuit, fell
with redoubled fury upon the enemy and pres-
ently swept the field. Prince Rupert's train
of artillery was taken, and his whole army
put to flight.

The progress of the war in other quarters

PRINCE KITf.HT.

of England, particularly in the West, where
the king commanded in person, was somewhat
more encouraging to him and his supporters.
The qualities which he himself developed as a
commander were the surprise of his times.
He conducted a successful campaign against
Lord Essex, and drove that able general into
Cornwall. Thi- surer—, IM\M \vr. could not
i'i>mpen>ate for the overwhelming disaster at
Marstmi Moor. From that staggering blow
the royal cause never recovered. Finally, on
the 1 1th of June, I<i4~>, the royal cause was
buried under an overwhelming disaster, and

778

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the king's army dispersed in the decisive
battle of Naseby.

After her successful journey into Holland,

the queen at length returned to England and
joined her husband at Oxford. When the
news came of the overthrow of Prince Ru-

BATTLE OF MARSTON MOOR.
Drawn by Emile Bayard

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CIVIL MM« AXI) ro l/.l/o.YII/M /.;•//. 779

pert's array, it was perceived that the royal
family was in danger, for their unpopularity
was constantly increased, and their gathering
misfortunes seemed to elicit no sympathy.
Finding herself unsafe at Oxford the queen
retired to Exeter, and thence, as soon as she
was able to travel after the birth of the Prin-
cess Henrietta, she continued her flight into
France.

The winter of 1644-45 was passed by the
king at Oxford. At this epoch there was a
lull in hostilities. For the moment a better
spirit seemed to prevail, and negotiations were
opened between the king and Parliament.
The terms of a treaty — at least the outline of
a treaty — were agreed upon at Uxbridge. It
appeared, however, that Parliament would
exact every thing and concede nothing. Nor
is there any room to doubt that Charles was
insincere in his concessions and pledges.

Like all other movements of the kind, the
English Revolution had now advanced to a
new position, had changed its ground, had
increased its demands, had become arrogant,
unreasonable, insatiable, even to the extent
that it could not have been appeased with any
thing however humiliating to English royalty,
now fallen on its knees. The result was that
the king arose from his proposals for peace
determined to reclaim his forfeited preroga-
tives or die in the attempt; while Parliament —
unconscious hypocrite — seemed to find in the
king's insincerity and tergiversation new cause
and ground for the destruction of both him-
self and his kingdom.

It is in the nature of such revolutions as
that now progressing in England that they
are agitated within by clashing opinions and
interests almost as violent as the external foe.
Parliament became a scene of storms and
tempests. The winds of doctrine were loosed
and blown together from every quarter, and
the heart of England was shaken by the con-
fluence of angry tides. Radicalism became
dominant in the House of Commons, and the
outcry of religious fanaticism was hoard above
the uproar of political revolution. A new
faction of religionists known as the IXIIKITV-
DENTS appeared in the arena, and under the
leadership and inspiration of Oliver Crom-
well placed its iron foot on the breast of mod-
eration, rejected with contempt all measure"

looking to the ree-tal>li-!unent of the mon-
archy in nnij form, ami openly declared that a
religious republic <>n the Inundation of the
Gospel should be reared on the ruins of the
demolished edifice.

From this day forth Cromwell was in tin-
ascendant. Having first distinguished himself
as a soldier he now distinguished himself still
more as a political leader. Hi- iron will be-
came the prevailing force in England. Dis-
pleased with those who were still anxious to
preserve even the semblance of the monarchy
he urged on such measures as looked to the
elimination of all such from the councils of
the state. He procured the passage through
Parliament of an act known as the Self-deny-
ing Ordinance, by which it was brought about
that Lord Essex and several others of the
more moderate parliamentary generals were
forced to resign their commissions. He also
induced the Commons to appoint Sir Thomas
Fairfax to the command-in-chief of the army,
while the post of lieutenant-general was re-
served for himself.

At the opening of the campaign of 1645
an army of loyal Scots, led by the young Earl
of Montrose, appeared on the scene and joined
the forces of the king. For a while it seemed
that the youthful general of the North was
about to become an important factor in the
current history, but it was not long until the
now well disciplined forces of Parliament
overthrew him in battle and forced him to
retreat into the mountains of his own country.
Meanwhile the towns which had been gar-
risoned and held by the royalists were taken
one by one until the king could hardly any
longer find a refuge within the borders of
England. As his fortunes tailed he fled into
Wales, but was afterwards enabled to return
and make his winter quarters at Oxford.

With the beginning of Iti4t! the cause had
become so desperate that, dreading capture by
the victorious parliamentarians, he adopted
the resolution of retreating to his paternal
kingdom and throwing himself upon the gen-
erosity of his Scottish snlijeri-. He accord-
ingly retired to the North, and on the 5th of
May made his appearance liefore the camp of
the Scots at Newark. (Irent was the sun
of the generals at the apparition of their
fugitive sovereign. Some -parks of their old

780

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

loyalty were rekindled for the moment, but
were presently quenched in the wet blanket
of a most mercenary expediency. True, they

treated the king with outward marks of re-
spect, but at the same time they failed not to
place about his person such a guard as would

DEFEAT OF KING CHARLES AT NASEBY.
Drawn by Emile Bayard.

REVOLUTION.— CIVIL WAR AND ro.l/.l/o.Vir/..i /,/•//. 7-1

remind him of the fact that In; was now their
prisoner. The lirst exaction which they made.
of the captive monarch was an order dir.
to the royali.M generals at Newark, Oxford,
and other pla<-e> where his banner was still
upheld, requiring them to surrender to the
armies of Parliament. This done, the war
was at an end ; but the victorious republicans,
knowing that to stop with this achievement
would be to invite a certain reaction in favor
of the king and his possible restoration to the
throne, undertook the work of gaining pos-
session of the monarch's person, as the first
step in the programme whereby the revolution
was to be made permanent.

Well knowing the weak spot in the Scot-
tish character, the Puritan authorities sent to
the North a proposal to purchase possession
of the king ; and to this proposition the Scots
assented. It was agreed that for the sum of
four hundred thousand pounds sterling the
fallen Stuart should be given up to his mortal
enemies. On the 30th of January, 1647, he
was delivered over to the commissioners and
taken to Holmby, in Northamptonshire, where
for the time he was permitted to reside. The
public opinion of England was not yet worked
up to the pitch of downright regicide, and the
radical leaders deemed it prudent to temporize
with existing conditions. Negotiations were
opened with the captive king, and the inde-
pendent faction now in control of Parliament
made -such overtures as Charles might well
have accepted. It appears, however, that the
king, stimulated with the sudden hope of re-
covering his forfeited throne, lost all discre-
tion, refused to concede any thing, broke off
the negotiations, and again began a corre-
spondence with the Presbyterians. About
this time, moreover, a fatal letter which he
had written to his wife was discovered, wherein
he declared his purpose to reward the rogues
Ireton and Cromwell, not with a silken garter,
but with a hempen rope. It can scarcely In-
doubted that, under the cloak of an equanim-
ity that could hardly be disturbed, Charles
actually concealed such bloody purposes as
that expressed in his letter.'

1 As indicative of the perfect self-possession
which Charles had acquired by the discipline of
misfortune, it may be narrated that, in the pre-
ceding summer, when the intelligence was corn-

But the kin;: was de-tined m-ver tii<,n- to
present to any of his .-ubjects either the g::
or the rope. After a brief iv.-idcncc at
Holmby, he was startled from his imagined
security by the appearance of five hundred
-'il'liers under command of an officer named
Joyce. The latter came into the king's pres-
ence armed with pistols, and demanded that
Charles should accompany him from the
quarters. The king hesitated and demanded
to know by what warrant the officer was act-
ing. Joyce answered by pointing to his
soldiers drawn up in the court-yard below.
At this the monarch, again exhibiting his
fearless equipoise and moiety of wit, replied:
" Your warrant is indeed written in fair
characters and legible." Hereupon he yielded
himself to the conduct of his captors, and by
them was taken to Triplow Heath, where the
republican army was at that time stationed,
under command of Lieutenant-general Crom-
well.

In the mean time most serious difficulties
had arisen between Parliament and the army.
The latter was thoroughly republican and fa-
natic. Under the leadership of Cromwell
and Fairfax, a discipline hod been established
by which the soldiers had become a unit A
spirit of religious enthusiasm had taken pos-
session of the whole, and it was clear that
either this powerful military organization
must yield to civil authority and be disbanded
or else the throne of England and the residue
of moderation in the House of Commons must
be together beaten into dust in the mortar of
war. At the very time when the king was
seized by Joyce, who had been commanded to
that step by Cromwell himself, the army had
renounced the authority of Parliament, and
acknowledged only the command of the mas-
ter spirit.

It could not be said, however, that for the
time the captive king fared worse in the
hands of the army than in the hands of Par-
liament. Indeed, his confinement was less
ri;_r"i-ous than at ai.y time since his surrender

municated to him that the fs-ots upon whose gen-

v he had thrown himself had sold him to
Parliament, lie Ix'trayed no emotion, showed no
change of countenance, but continued the game
of chos in which he w 1 \\ithoutthe

slightest sign of displeasure or alarm.

782

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

to the Scots. Even in the matter of religious
service his scruples were respected, and he
and his friends were permitted to worship ac-
cording to the forms of the Established Church.
Later in the season, after he had been trans-
ferred to Hampton Court, he was allowed to
move about at will, to have his children with
him, and to converse with his friends without
surveillance or insult. The Prince of Wales,
however, remained abroad in Holland, and
there, in the latter part of 1647, he was
joined by his younger brother James, duke
of York. Both were welcomed at the court
of their sister Mary, who had been married
to the Prince of Orange before the beginning
of the war.

About the close of this year, 1647, hostili-
ties having ceased, and many of the officers
of the Puritan army having gone to preaching
and expounding the Scripture, Charles be-
came alarmed at rumors which were blown to
him of designs upon his life. At least it is
alleged by the royalist historians that the king
was led to believe himself in danger. What-
ever may have been his motive, he formed
the design of escaping from Hampton Court
and flying from the country. With this pur-
pose he made good his exit from the place of
his nominal confinement, and found his way
to the coast of Hampshire. But the expected
ship did not arrive to carry him abroad, and
he was constrained to hide himself at Tich-
field, where he found a protector in the per-
son of Lady Southampton. Presently, how-
ever, he was induced by the three companions
who accompanied his flight to give himself up
to the governor of the Isle of Wight. The
latter, though a humane man, was a thorough
republican, and the king was placed in con-
finement at Carisbrook Castle. Only Herbert
and Harrington were permitted to remain in
attendance upon the fallen Stuart. Charles
was now indeed a prisoner, and was obliged,
after the manner of that unfortunate race, to
devise such poor means as still remained to
secure physical comfort and peace of mind.
A part of the day he spent in religious devo-
tions, another part in melancholy conversation
with his two friends, and still another in writ-
ing alone in his bed-chamber.

For ten months the king remained thus in
confinement. But in September of 1648 a

new correspondence was begun between him
and Parliament. It was agreed that commis-
sioners should be appointed by that body to
confer with the royal prisoner at Newport,
and to that place Charles was accordingly
transferred. It is narrated that when he
came into the presence of the commissioners
the latter were moved almost to the remorse
of love by his changed and haggard counte-
nance. His face was pale, his form emaciated,
and his hair turned white. It is further to be
recorded that when availing himself of the
freedom which was granted to ride abroad in
the island, and to make his escape by flight,
he steadily refused to act on the suggestion,
and returned in good faith to the conference.

Nor did it seem that the meeting of the
humbled king and the commissioners would be
barren of results. In most matters a satisfac-
tory conclusion was reached. On two impor-
tant points the existing differences seemed
irreconcilable. Parliament demanded the abo-
lition of Episcopacy, and to this the king
would not accede. At length, however, he
gave his consent that a modified form of
worship should be instituted, somewhat more
conformable to the notions of the Puritans.
In the second point, requiring that all who
had taken up arms in his cause should be de-
clared traitors, he would yield nothing at all.
His steadfast resistance to this infamous prop-
osition was one of the best traits exhibited by
the king during his captivity.

Before the negotiations at Newport were
completed, an act had been performed on an-
other part of the English stage whereby the
whole course and character of the drama had
been changed. The breach between Parlia-
ment and the army had become irreconcilable,
and one party or the other of the opposition
had to be put down by force. Nor was it
doubtful whether it would be the civil or the
military order which would succumb, when
the latter was under the direction of Crom-
well. That resolute and powerful leader now
showed himself in a new role. Finding him-
self unable to control the opposing party in
the House of Commons, he sent Colonel Pride
with a troop of soldiers to surround the Par-
liament House, and expel all who would not
accede to his terms. The officer accordingly
stationed his forces before the hour of the sit-

ENGLISH DEVOLUTION.— CIVIL WAR AND COM310XWKM.TH. 7> ::

.ting of the House, and when the members ar-
rived only the Independents were permitted to
enter. Of these there were but fifty or sixty ;
and yet with uuuqualed arrogance they de-
clared themselves the governors of the king-
dom, and set about their work with as much
assurance as though all England were a sum-
mer day. As for Cromwell, he justified his
course on the ground that a purging of Par-
liament was necessary, and having made this
declaration he immediately procured the pas-
sage of an act by which the negotiationa with
the king were broken off, and the treaty de-
clared a nullity. From this it was evident
that Cromwell and his adherents had deter-
mined to abolish the monarchy and destroy
the king. This became still more manifest
when it was known that two days before the
" purging of Parliament," the lieutenant-gen-
eral had issued orders that Charles should
again be seized and imprisoned.

The unfortunate monarch was now carried
from the Isle of Wight and deposited by his
masters in Hurst Castle, on the coast of
Hampshire. In a short time, however, he
was aroused in the night by the lowering of
the drawbridge and the clatter of horses' hoofs
in the court-yard. On sending his attendant
to inquire the cause, he was informed that
Major Harrison had come with a troop to
convey him hence. At this the king was
much alarmed, for he had recently heard that
Harrison was one of those who were planning
his assassination. But at length he became
composed, and accompanied the guard to
Windsor, where he arrived after a journey of
four d:iys.

So closed the year 1648. Parliament — if
Parliament that body of radicals might be
called — had already, after its "purging," in-
stituted a sort of high court with the purpose
of passing, in a curtain judicial way, upon the
alleged crimes of the king. On the 6th of
January, 1649, the monarch was formally im-
peached of high treason in this, that he had
made war upon Parliament and the English
people. After twelve days the prisoner was
taken from Windsor to St. James's palace,
and all those marks of respect with which he
had thus far been treated were ordered to be
omitted. He was attended even at the table
by common soldiers, and was designated sim-

ply as Charles Stuart. The preparations for
the trial were pressed forward, and on the
20th of the mouth the judges assembled in
\V'--t minster Hall to hear and decide the
cause. Cromwell, in an op, -ning speech, de-
clared that if any one had before this time
presumed to urge the trial and punishment of
the king, he should have deemed such a one a
traitor, but that now both Providence and
necessity had devolved that duty upon Par-
liament and the court. Three times the king
was brought before the tribunal, but each
time refused to acknowledge its jurisdiction.
On the 27th of the month he was declared
guilty of the charges, and was condemned to
be beheaded. Sentence having been passed,
he was returned to his place in St. James's to
await execution, which was set for the 30th,
only three days after.

A scaffold was built in front of the palace
of Whitehall, and on the coming of the fatal
day the prisoner was led forth to his death.
His last hours were marked with dignity and
composure. He conversed briefly with Dr.
Juxon and Mr. Herbert, and calmed his mind
with religious devotions. On mounting the
scaffold he spoke a few words to those who
were present, and then gave himself to the
executioner, whose face was hidden under a
mask. The work was ended with a blow, and
as the headsman held aloft the bloody trophy
of his axe he exclaimed, "This is the head
of a traitor." Such was the bloody fate of
King Charles I., one of the best of men and
one of the worst of rulers.

The body calling itself Parliament now
began to lay about in a way that has lieen
regarded as heroic by its friends and Quixotic
by its enemies. The time-honored title of the
kingdom was changed to THE COMMONWEALTH
OF ENGLAND. The House of Lords was
abolished as an institution dangerous to pub-
lie liberty — and so it was. A new Great
Seal was made with this inscription: THE
FIRST YEAR OF FREEDOM BY GOD'S BLESSING
RESTORED, 1651. Royal names and titles
were forbidden, and it was declared high trea-
MIII lo call the Prince of Wale- by any other
name than Charles Stuart. All the forms of
official business were changed and made to
conform to the new republican order of things
established in the state.

784

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. -THE MODERN WORLD.

The execution of Charles I. created a pro-
found sensation in all civilized countries.
The act was regarded in different countries

according to their varying prejudices. In.
the Catholic kingdoms it was held to be the
crowning atrocity of history. Nor were such

EXECUTION OF CHARLES L
Drawn by D. Maillard.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CIVIL \V.\I; A\I>

ir/..l/.77/. 7*:,

powers, conscious of their own usurpations,
slow to take the alarm on account of the ex-
ample which had been set in England. In
such countries it appeared wise to rush to the
rescue lest the falling throne of the insular
kingdom should carry down with it the not
more firmly founded thrones of the continent.
Ireland and Scotland, acting under such mo-
tives, made haste to proclaim the Prince of

multifarious hatreds and dislikes of the people
of Ireland rose suddenly to the surface, bring-
ing up from the sea-bottom of Irish life the
oozy and dripping prejudices of a thousand
years. The malcontents took arms. All tin'
races and creeds known in the island rushed
together under the banner of the Marquis of
Ormond to fight the armies of Parliament
and reverse the K.-vnlution.

CJKJSAT BKAL OF J^GLASU, 1651.
Cut by Thorn. Simon.

Wales as Charles II. In this movement the
Irish Catholics and the Scottish Covenanters,
smitten as the latter were with a keen re-
morse for the base part which they had con-
tributed to the king's destruction, joined
hands across the chasm of religious prejudice
for the support of political absolutism in favor
of which they were strangely agreed. A for-
eign fleet gathered around the banner of
Prince Rupert in the Irish Sea. All the
Voi. II.- 50

But the Irish then, as ever, were unable
to face their English antagonists in the field.
Their rash enthusiasm of rebellion could not
!-t:md iitrainst the stoical, fatalistic valor of
Cromwell and his Puritans. The lieutenant-
general was now in his glory. Such stormy
scenes were well calculated to bring out the
strongest, and for that reason the best, ele-
ments of his character. In an Irish campaign
of a few months' duration he completelv over-

786

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

awed the insurgents and brought the conflict
to an end. His power was now such that he
was able to settle the conditions of peace as
he would. He adopted the policy of permit-
ting the disaffected portion of the Irish popu-
lation to leave the country ; and acting under
this license, about forty-five thousand of the
malcontents, and they the most dangerous to
English ascendency and the peace of the
country, withdrew from the island and took
service in the armies of France and Spain.

As soon as he had restored order in Ire-
land, the lieutenant-general left his son-in-law,
General Ireton, as his deputy, and then turned
his attention to the affairs of Scotland. By
this time the Presbyterian party in that coun-
try had become heartily sick of the course
which it had pursued in the revolution pro-
gressing in the South. They had conceived
an intense dislike for the English Common-
wealth with its radical republicanism, and
especially for Cromwell and the Independents,
as its chief promoters. After proclaiming
Prince Charles as the rightful successor of the
late king, the Scots sent to the young Stuart
an invitation to come and possess himself of
his father's throne. Albeit, the invitation,
conceived as it was in all the narrowness of
the Scotch character, was coupled with such
conditions favorable to their own creed in re-
ligion and politics that the councilors of the
prince earnestly advised him not to accept
under such dictation the crown which he was
entitled to wear by right. But the easy-going
moral nature of the king saw no difficulty
in accepting conditions which he had no in-
tention of fulfilling. The Jesuitical education
to which Mary Stuart had been subjected by
the Guises in Paris a hundred years before
now blossomed in the native duplicity of her
great-grandson. He agreed to the terms pro-
posed by the Scots, came over from the
Hague to Scotland, and signed the covenant.
The figure of this Second Charles, thoroughly
double in his nature, hardly restraining a
sneer at the zealous officiousness of the Scot-
tish Covenanters crowding around him at
Edinburgh, all busy explaining to his simple
mind the beauties of Presbyterianism, to
which they hoped to make him an easy con-
vert, is one of the most amusing silhouettes
of history.

So was he at the Scottish capital pro-
claimed king. But his position had little of
kingly state, less of real power, and nothing
at all of those circumstances in which the
beneficiary took delight. He found himself
in the hands of his Calvinistic masters, who
were bent on one thing — the propagation of
their opinions. What to them was the turbu-
lence of kingdoms, the rise and fall of states,
the overthrow or maintenance of the time-
honored institutions of the English-speaking
race, in comparison with the spread and es-
tablishment of the doctrines of John Knox?
Charles had obtained the name of a king in
the paternal dominions of the Stuarts, that
and nothing more. His position became so
uncomfortable that he would fain have risen
and fled from the throne on which he had
been placed and was now held by the Presby-
terian managers with whom he had made
a covenant.

Meanwhile the victorious Cromwell, after
suppressing the Irish rebellion, came on to do
as much for the Scotch. It can scarcely be
doubted that the alleged King Charlas vas
secretly pleased to hear of the approach of
the great Independent, under whose foot
the island trembled as he strode. For
Charles could brook any thing as well as the
ridiculous and unkingly restraint to which he
was subjected by his Scottish keepers. The
latter sent forth an army under General
Leslie to oppose Cromwell's progress, and the
two forces met at Dunbar. The defeat of the
Covenanters was overwhelming, and but for a
sudden illness which compelled his return to
England, it is likely that Cromwell would
have at once put down all resistance and
ended the war. By the beginning of the fol-
lowing year, 1651, he was able to renew the
invasion, nor could any force which the Scots
were able to muster stay or seriously impede
his course. He penetrated the country, put
himself in the rear of the Scotch army, and
made ready to deliver the final blow, when
Charles suddenly changed the whole aspect of
affairs by a reckless counter-invasion of Eng-
land. He perceived that the fearless Crom-
well had left the northern border unprotected ;
and hoping — doubtless, expecting — that the
residue of English loyalty was but awaiting
an opportunity to rise in favor of the over-

'l | i * ^5

ifwy/i

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CIVIL WAR AND COMMONWEALTH.

787

turned monarchy, he put himself at the head
of fourteen thousand royalists and crossed the
boundary into England. It was the sally of
a fox into the territories of a lion temporarily
absent from home.

The fox soon found that the expectation
of an uprising in his favor was a spectral
chimera. Not every one who was opposed to
the scandalous conduct of Parliament and the
arbitrary measures of Cromwell was ready to
take up arms for the House of Stuart. The
two preceding sovereigns of that name had so
little distinguished themselves as the friends
of English liberty that the matter-of-fact
people of the South had no confidence in the
third. Accordingly, when Charles had pene-
trated as far as Worcester, he found himself
with no more than the fourteen thousand
men whom he had brought out of Scotland.

Cromwell, on learning the movement and
purpose of the prince, left the larger part of
his army under command of General Monk,
and with the rest pursued Charles on his
course to the South. The royalist army was
overtaken at Worcester. The town was im-
mediately surrounded, and on the 4th of Sep-
tember, 1651, was taken by storm. Nearly
all of Charles's forces were cut down in the
streets. He himself escaped with great diffi-
culty, accompanied by about sixty grenadiers,
and even these were presently dismissed as
being more dangerous than serviceable to the
fugitive. •

On the bleak borders of Staffordshire
Charles sought refuge with some wood-chop-
pers of the forest of Boscobel. Although a
reward was offered for his capture, and the
penalty of treason denounced against those
who should give him protection, the men of
the wood proved true to their prince and
careless to themselves by concealing him from
his enemies. For a while, however, he was
in imminent danger of capture. At one time
the soldiers who were searching for him came
so near that he hid himself in a hollow tree
and heard them conversing as they passed.
Six weeks elapsed after the battle of Wonv<-
ter before he could extricate himself from the
nets which were set for his capture. At last,
however, he made his way to Shoreham, in
Sussex, and thence embarked for France.

The royalist party was now completely

prostrated. There appeared no longer any
hope of its recuperation. In Scotland Gen-
eral Monk had overawed all opposition. The
Irish insurgents were held down with a mas-
ter's hand by Ireton, and in England the
powerful mind of Cromwell, expressing itself
through the body which persisted in being
called Parliament, directed all things according
to his will. The lieutenant-general found time
to turn his attention to foreign affairs, and hia
strong hand began to be felt in almost every
part of Europe.

First in importance were the relations
of the Commonwealth with the state of Hol-
land. Judged by the standard of more recent
times, there was little cause of complaint on
the part of the English against the Dutch or
of the Dutch against them. But the arrogance
of the Cromwellian party was sufficient to give
offense to the authorities of Holland, and the
supremacy of the Dutch on the sea aroused all
the jealousy of republican England. From
small beginnings the difficulties between the
two states increased until 1652, when war
against the Dutch was formally declared by
Parliament. Both peoples were by national
preference sailors and merchants. A great
rivalry in shipbuilding had sprung up, and the
relative skill of the Dutch and English sea-
men was hotly discussed in the seaport towns
of both countries. As a matter of fact, the
fleets of Holland had gained upon those of
England from the times of the destruction of
the Spanish armada; but in recent years a
disposition had been shown on the part of the
English to reclaim the dominion of the sea.
While Admiral Blake and others of like dar-
ing upheld the banner of St George, the
Dutch commanders, Van Tromp, De Ruyter,
and De Witt maintained the maritime fame
of Holland.

By this time the event had proved that
concord between the army and the turbulent
remnant still known as Parliament was as dif-
ficult to maintain as in the times before that
body was "purged" by Colonel Pride and his
soldiers. About the time of the outbreak of
the war with the Dutch the conviction took
root in Cromwell's mind that a second and
more effective parliamentary purification
would be necessary before the affairs of the
Commonwealth could be prosperously con-

788

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ducted. It was in April of 1653 that this
conviction of the lieutenant-general ripened
into a purpose. With him to resolve was to
do. On the 20th of the month just named
he went to the House of Parliament, where
the body was in session, and placing a file of
soldiers at each of the entrance ways, strode
into the hall. As he entered he said that he
had come with a purpose of doing what it
grieved him to the very soul to do, and what
he had earnestly besought the Lord not to
impose upon him ; but there was a necessity
for it. He then sat down, and for a while
listened to the debates, or wrangles rather,
in which the members were engaged. It was
noticed that his florid face became more livid as
he sat and listened.

At last the irate Cromwell sprang to his
feet, and exclaimed: "This is the time; now
I must do it!" Thereupon he turned fiercely
on the members, poured upon them a torrent
of reproaches, branded them as tyrants and
robbers, and ended by stamping furiously
with his foot on the floor. This was the sig-
nal for the entrance of the soldiers. They
rushed into the hall, and Cromwell ordered
them to drive the members out. Resistance
was useless. The Roundheads arose to go.
Cromwell thundering after them his bitter
anathemas. " You are," cried he, " no longer
a Parliament ! The Lord is done with you !
He has chosen other instruments for carrying
on his work !" As the last of the members es-
caped from the hall, he ordered the door to be
locked, and then putting the keys into his
pocket went away quietly to the palace of
Whitehall, where he had now taken his
residence.

In all England there was no longer any to
dispute his will. But since he could not him-
self without the aid of other agencies govern
the Commonwealth, he concluded to summon
another Parliament. The character of the
body may be deduced from the nature of the
measures which were debated by it. In the
first place, it was proposed that since the cler-
ical offices in the religious administration were
but an abridged remnant of popery, the clergy
should be abolished. In the .next place, the
same reasoning was applied to the Common
Law of England ; for that law was declared to
be nothing but a relic of the political and social

slavery established by the Normans. In the
third place, the body made a declaration that
learning — education — was the agent whereby
•the anti-Christian powers were giving back
the world to heathenism, and that the univer-
sities of England, as the chief seats of this
heathen culture, should be destroyed. Big-
otry could go no further. But it should not
be forgotten that the abuses of the Episcopal
system, the legal outrages perpetrated in the
name of the Common Law, and the owlish
conservatism of Oxford, sitting with big-eyed
self-conceit on a dead limb of the Past, fur-
nished at least a good occasion for the absurd
radicalism of the so-called Parliament.

The character of Cromwell's assembly,
which consisted of a hundred and fifty-four
members, may be further inferred from that of
its principal leader, whose somewhat exclama-
tory name was Praise-God Barebone. This re-
markable statesman had prepared himself for
the management of the state by selling leather
in a shop in London. But this pent-up Utica
seemed to contract his powers, and he would
fain go forth as an orator, reformer, and
statesman. Strange must have been the sen-
timents with which Cromwell looked on the
performances of this ignorant, radical bigot in
the House of Commons ! * History has pre-
served the record of the mountebank's tempo-
rary ascendency by giving to the Parliament
of which he was the chief ornament the name
of Barebone's Parliament.

The master soon wearied of the ridic-
ulous farce. He clearly perceived the im-
practicability of the measures which were
proposed in the House ; and of all of the acts
of that body he gave his approval to but a
single one. This related to the theory and
ceremony of marriage. It was declared that
marriage, instead of being a sacrament of the
Church, was simply a civil compact, and that
its ratification should henceforth be acknowl-
edged before a magistrate in a private room,
and not before a priest in a church.

But the most important thing done at this

1 The absurdity of the Puritanical regime now
dominant in England is well illustrated in the
names which" the elder Barebone had given to his
sons. One of Praise-God's brothers was called
Chriat-Came-Into-the-World-lo-Save, and another,
Jf- Christ -Had-Not-Died- Thou- Hadst- Seen - Damned
Barebone I

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CIVIL WAR AND COMMONWEALTH.

789

time was the conferring on Cromwell of the
title and office of LORD PROTECTOR OF KNO-
lAND. The substitution of the will of one
for the clashing wills of many was
a joyous relief, and the Protectorate
was hailed by the people as a happy
deliverance from the distractions of
parliamentary government. Nor
could it be denied that a great and
salutary change was now visible in
the affairs of the Commonwealth.
Such were the vigor and wisdom
with which the Protector entered
upon his administration that few in
his own country or abroad durst
make a mock at bis republican
scepter. The date of his accession
to unlimited authority was December
16, 1653; and from that time to his
death, nearly five years afterwards,
ha ruled England with a power and
success rarely equaled in her history.
The constitution of the Protec-
torate provided for a Parliament of
four hundred members and a Coun-
cil of State. Cromwell was to be
Protector for life, and at his death
the Council was to name his suc-
cessor. The latter provision, how-
ever, was subsequently changed, and
the choice of a successor given to
Oliver himself. The latter entered
upon his duties by attempting to
conciliate the royalists, but the effort
was in vain. Their inveterate and
well-grounded hatred could not be
appeased. As necessary to the sta-
bility of the Commonwealth many
of the old monarchical forms were
revived, and this gave offense to the
republicans. But all parties were
obliged to recognize the Protector as
a necessity, and all were constrained
to yield to his arbitrary rule. Nor
could any fail to see that the dignity
and glory of England were safe in his
hands. Woe to the foreign power that
attempted to take advantage of the supposed
weakness of the Commonwealth ! The En-
glish army became the best soldiery in Eu-
rope, and the English fleets soon brought
down the pennon of the Dutch. To the lat-

ter a peace was dictated on conditions highly
favorable to the Protector's government and
]>< nple. The Spaniards, also, were made to

OLIVER CROMWELL.

fly before the navy of England, and to sur-
render Jamaica as the price of their folly in
provoking a war.

In the midst of this triumph and renown
the enemies of Oliver were ever busy. In

790

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

1654 they formed a plan to end him and his
reign by assassination. But the conspiracy
was detected, and the two ringleaders caught
and hanged. In the following year a more
general plan was adopted by the royalists for
an insurrection against the government.
Nothing, however, could escape the vigilance
of the Protector. His secretary, Lord John
Thurloe, was equally watchful of the move-
ments of the reactionists. Full information
of the plot was obtained, and before the day
appointed for the uprising the soldiers of the
Protector swooped down on the conspirators,
and they were annihilated. Some were exe-
cuted and others sold as slaves into the Bar-
badoes.

ADMIRAL ROBERT BLAKE.

After an engraving by E. Young.

The government now established over Eng-
land surpassed in merciless rigor any thing
ever before witnessed in the Island. The
whole country, including Wales, was divided
into twelve military districts, and over each
was set a major-general of the army. These
were under the immediate command of Crom-
well himself, and his strong will was thus ena-
bled to let down its grappling-irons to the
very bottom of the social and political sea.
Still, it is the verdict of history that the tre-
mendous tyranny established by Oliver Crom-
well on the ruins of both monarchy and free-
dom was a necessity of the situation, and that
that necessity was precipitated by the actions,
schemes, and purposes of the adherents of the
overthrown House of Stuart. Such were the

swift evolutions of the flaming sword which
the Protector set over the gate of the palace
of Whitehall that Treachery fled in terror and
Kebellion hid in his cave.

Meanwhile the affairs of Ireland had de-
manded constant attention. General Ireton,
the Protector's son-in-law, to whom the gov-
ernment of the western island had been com-
mitted, had held the reins with a master's
hand until his death in the camp before Lim-
erick, in November of 1651. After that
event the widow was presently married to
Charles Fleetwood, and to him the govern-
ment of Ireland was transferred. For a
while he followed the policy of his predecessor
and was then superseded by Henry Cromwell,
second son of the Protector. This young man
is represented as one of the most amiable and
virtuous of his times. Nor could his amia-
bility, as is so often the case, be attributed to
weakness; for his talents were as conspicuous
as his policy was humane. Certain it is that
he did all in his power to alleviate the dis-
tresses of the Irish and to institute good gov-
ernment in their distracted island.

Foreign powers now competed for the
honor of an alliance with England. The
English name took on its pristine brightness.
Admiral Robert Blake, most distinguished
seaman of his times, with his English fleet in
the Mediterranean, humbled the Barbary States
and dictated a peace to Tuscany. The mas-
sacre of the Waldenses ended under the Pro-
tector's frown. The rich spoils of Spanish
treasure-ships were poured into the coffers of
the Commonwealth ; and the poet John Milton,
sitting at Oliver's council-board as Latin Sec-
retary of State, indited the most elegant and
able foreign correspondence of the seventeenth
century.

It was now in the nature of things that
Cromwell should feel the opposition of the
republican leaders. They saw him refusing
any longer — grown wise by political experi-
ence— to promote those chimerical reforms to
which they were so deeply devoted. They
suspected him of monarchical intentions. What
must have been their chagrin, their mortifica-
tion, their rage, to see him, even Oliver, their
old hero and warrior, the victor of Dunbar
and Worcester, sitting like an Egyptian
sphinx on a throne of his own, quite as high

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CIVIL WAR AM) COMMOXtt'KM/ril.

791

and many times more heavy than that of the
Stuarts, heeding not their appeals and putting
aside their favorite measures as so much chaff!
To this, however, they were compelled to sub-
mit. But at each succeeding election of
members of Parliament there was a scene of
almost revolutionary turbulence in which the
voice of the old half-quenched republicanism
of 1647 was heard above the din.

In the course of time, when Cromwell per-
ceived that the majority elected were nearly
always against him — that on the one hand the
remnant of the ancient royalty asserted itself
more and more, and that on the other the
disappointed radicalism of the realm persisted
in sending up to the House the most irrecon-
cilable of the republican leaders, he deemed
it prudent to relax somewhat in order that
his administration might catch the breezes of
popularity. To this end he assented to a
proposition by which civil authority was sub-
stituted for that of his major-generals in the
military districts. Other concessions were
made, and Parliament on its part began to
agitate the question of making the Pro-
tector king.

It can hardly be doubted that Cromwell
himself was consenting to the scheme. No
doubt he had persuaded himself that the
monarchy was a necessity — which may be
questioned — and that he was a necessity to the
monarchy — which was true. So far as the
civil powers of England were concerned, they
could have been managed without much diffi-
culty. The radical republicans and the old
adherents of the Stuart dynasty could have
been suppressed, and all the moderate middle
elements would have aggregated themselves
around the new House of Cromwell. But
the shadow of the army fell ominously across
the table where the schemers were perfecting
their plans. The soldiers were as thoroughly
Puritan as ever, and the generals set them-
selves like iron against the project of confer-
ring the crown on Oliver. Though he him-
self longed to take that symbol of power, he
stood like Csesar, fearing to touch it ; for he
clearly foresaw that another Cromwell like
unto himself might arise — probably would
arise — in the army, and that he in his turn
might be led to the block where Charles I.
had perished. The motive sufficed. He re-

fused the offer of the crown which was pres-
ently made by Parliament, and continued in
his office as Protector of the Commonwealth.
The business, however, proceeded so far that
he was reinaugurated with great pomp and
solemnity.

The rest of his life was gall and wormwood.
Nothing but the most huiniliutiug precautions
saved him from assassination. Time and
again plots were formed against his life, but
his vigilance thwarted every conspiracy.
Nevertheless, the specter stood ever at his
door, and he who held in his right hand the
destinies of England trembled and quaked
with ever-increasing dread. His family gave
him little hope or sympathy. His daughters,
except her who had been the wife of Ireton
and Fleetwood, were royalists. His oldest
son Robert had died in 1639. Oliver was
killed in battle. James died in infancy.
Only Richard and Henry survived their
father, and it was an open secret that the
latter did not hold the Protector's principles.
Thus, out of the necessity of things, the
choice for the succession fell on Richard — a
man of small talents and less ambition.

The drama drew to a close. The Parlia-
ment of 1656 adjourned, in order that the
Protector might revive the House of Lords.
But when that body was restored and the
Commons again convened, the Lower would
not acknowledge the coordinate authority of
the Upper House. Thereupon the old spirit
of Cromwell blazed forth, and going to the
Commons he dismissed them with his usual
ferocity, exclaiming, " Let God judge be-
tween me and you!" It added to the signifi-
cance of the scene that the republican mem-
bers cried out, "Amen!"

It is a strange part of the exciting history
of these years that, hampered and impeded by
these embarrassments at home, the Protector
was able to show to all foreign states a front
of polished metal, without a dint or flaw. He
maintained his alliance with Louis XIV., in
league with whom he made successful war on
Spain ; and such were his abilities and energy in
the management of affairs that both the French
king, then regarded as the irn'atest monarch in
Christendom, and his famous minister, C'jirdi-
nal Mazarin, remained attached to the Protect-
or's interest to the last day of his life.

792

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

In the summer of 1658 Cromwell's daugh-
ter, Elizabeth Claypole, died, and the event so
darkened the already gloomy mind of the
father that he is said never to have smiled
afterwards. In the latter part of August a
tertian fever came on and confined him to his
room. He grew steadily worse until his

CHAPEL AND MAUSOLEUM OF HENRY VII., WESTMINISTER.

" Fortunate Day," which was the 3d of Sep-
tember, being the anniversary of the battles
of Dunbar and Worcester ; and on that day,
at four o'clock in the afternoon, while one of
the most terrific storms of modern times was
making London quiver as a reed, the spirit of
Oliver Cromwell took its flight. A magnifi-
cent funeral followed, and the body of the

Protector was laid to rest in the chapel of
Henry VII.

Hardly had RICHARD CROMWELL been raised
to the seat of the Protectorate until the nation
perceived how great was the change from
father to son. It was evident that, in place
of the strong, and withal just, hand by which
the domestic tranquillity
and foreign equipoise of
England had been main-
tained for so many stormy
years, a feeble hand had
been lifted, from whose
palm flashed forth no ray
of power. From the first
the Commonwealth
showed unmistakable
signs of restiveness under
the new Lord Protector.
Nor could the thought-
ful fail to discover that
the time was at hand
when the counter-revolu-
tion might be expected
to begin. Richard him-
self foresaw the storm.
For a few months he con-
tinued in nominal au-
thority. In 1659 he
summoned a Parliament,
and at the opening made
to that body a sensible
speech. But nothing was
devised of a nature cal-
culated to uphold the tot-
tering Commonwealth.
On the 22d of April the
assembly was dismissed ;
but after a few days, a
ridiculous remnant of the
body came together and
pretended to reorganize.
It was to this absurd fag-
end of parliamentary
greatness that the wit of the age applied the de-
risive epithet of the RUMP PARLIAMENT, by
which name the body has. ever since been desig-
nated. At last, like the prudent, weak man that
Richard was, he resigned the dignity which he
could not sustain. About the same time his
brother Henry gave up the government of
Ireland and retired to privacy.

REVOLUTION.— CIVIL WAR AND COMMONWEALTH.

798

On every hand were now seen the unmis-
takable symptoms of a great collapse. The
country was without a ruler, and the warring
factions in the Parliament beat at each other
like the Blues and the Greens in the old circus
at Constantinople. The republican Gog grap-
pled the monarchic Magog in the arena,
and sought to strangle him amid the uproar;
and the great Milton, now almost blind, went
to his closet and wrote a pamphlet entitled
A Ready and Easy Way to Establish a Free
Commonwealth. And his Utopia had this
merit, that it was to have no sovereign and
no House of Lords.

But neither the tempest of parliamentary
winds nor the Miltonic pamphlet could avail
against the inevitable ; and that inevitable
was the restoration of the House of Stuart.
Prince Charles, now in Holland, scented the
movement from afar, and breaking up an
exile which he had devoted to the pleasures
of wit and a sort of genteel libertinism, he
came as far as Calais, where, for a while, he
stood looking wistfully across the Channel.

For a time, however, the movements in his
favor were feeble and sporadic. But while
he awaited the issue a secret correspondence
was opened between him and General Monk,
who still commanded the army in Scotland.
General Lambert, at this time in command
of the parliamentary forces in England, was
now endeavoring to secure for himself the va-
cant office of Protector, and this fact, added
to other causes of jealousy, had produced an
intense dislike, even hatred, between him
and Monk. It is probable that these motives
rather than any pronounced preference for
the House of Stuart, induced the general to
signify to Charles his intention to aid him in
recovering the throne of his father. At any
rate, Monk undertook that task, and, conceal-
ing his real purpose, set out with his Scottish
regiments for London, declaring his mission
to be the restoration of Parliament. Lam-
bert, on his part, divining that his rival's
march was directed against himself, set out
with the southern army to oppose Monk's
progress; but Lambert had no hold upon the
affections and confidence of his own men.
The force melted out of his hand, and the
greater part flowed into the ramp of Monk.
The deserted general was seized and impris-

oned in the Tower, and the man of the North
marched his army into London.

For a brief period he pretended to be car-
rying out his purpose of supporting Parlia-
ment ; but it was not long until he dismissed
that body, and issued a call for the reareem-
bling of all the surviving members of the
Long Parliament, which had been broken up
by Colonel Pride in 1648. The call was an-
swered, and on the 21st of February, 1660,
the assembly was convened. The nation was
<|iiick to perceive that the men thus evoked
from an obscurity of twelve years' duration
were the real parliamentarians of England.

But the session only lasted for a few days.
The members, perceiving that the authority
by which they were called had no constitu-
tional basis, made haste to dissolve, but took
care before doing so to issue writs for a new
Parliament, to be chosen according to the
time-honored usages of the country. The
election was held at once, and on the 25th of
April the first legal House which had been
chosen since the death of Charles I. convened
and was organized. Within five days of the
opening of the session Monk proposed to the
assembly the restoration of the Stuarts. The
reaction was tremendous. The news of the
proceedings spread into the city, and all Lon-
don took fire. The cry was taken up from
street to street, and was echoed by the coun-
try populations everywhere. The old peers
of the kingdom came forth from their retreats,
and hastened to reinstate themselves in their
ancient seats. On the 8th of May an act was
passed proclaiming Charles H. king of Bug*
land, and a committee was appointed to wait
upon that gentleman and to conduct him to
London.

Then the tide rose higher. The nation
roared as with the voice of waters. Loyal
acclamations were heard on every hand.
Charles landed at Dover, and was met by
General Monk, who led him to the capital.
The journey thither was a continued triumph.
No such scenes of abject loyalty had ever be-
fore been witnessed in England. It was as
though a savior had come. The people put
on their best apparel, and thronged the route
by which the king was to pass, and made the
welkin ring with their shouts. Men doffed
their manhood and women their womanhood

794

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

as the pageant passed into the city. As for
the king, he was in high delight. His well-
practiced wit expressed the situation. " I can
not understand," said he, " why I have stayed
away so long, since every body is so rejoiced
to see me !" On his thirtieth birthday, the
29th of May, he entered London, and was led
to the royal seat amid the acclamations of his
subjects. Thus, after the storms of twenty
years, England returned to a calm under the
scepter of her hereditary sovereign.

If from the turbulence of public affairs we
turn for a moment to the private and social
condition of the people in the times of the
Commonwealth, we shall find many matters
of interest, and some unexpected signs of
progress. During the reign of Charles I. a
postal system was established between London
and Edinburgh. At the first the mails were
carried once a week, but soon the facilities
were improved and the transit made with
greater frequency. The publication of news-
papers, which had been suspended since the
days of Elizabeth, was revived in 1642, from

which time forth periodicals became not only
a chronicle of passing events, but also, in
some degree, an organ of public opinion. It
was at this time, too, that banking, in the
modern sense of that term, was established in
England. Hitherto the Mint in the Tower
had been the principal place of deposit for
the money of the wealthy ; but with the com-
ing of the Revolution, that stronghold was
regarded as no longer a place of security, and
the goldsmiths of the city began to be em-
ployed as the depositaries of the rich. After
the restoration of Charles II. this usage con-
tinued, and banks were founded on the basis
of such deposits. Thus, while civil war was
raging without, while the Stuart dynasty was
breaking into fragments under the sledge of a
tremendous insurrection, while the nasal and
lugubrious oratory of the Puritan preachers
was substituted for the stately but hollow
forms of the Established Church, the slow
and painful progress of human society, grop-
ing to find the light, was still discoverable in
the half-darkness of the age.

CHAPTER xxxvi.— RESTORATION AND SECOND

REVOLUTION .

O great was the enthusi-
asm with which the Sec-
ond Charles was wel"
corned back to the throne
of his ancestors that no
pledges or guarantees

were required at his

hands. He was permitted to go up to the
royal seat with no fetters of restraint besides
those which were imposed by any deference
he still retained for the constitutional forms
of the English monarchy. It can not be de-
nied, however, that a certain element of pru-
dence in the character of Charles, manifested
in the first days of his recall to power, seemed
to promise a fairly liberal policy in the gov-
ernment; and the long abuses, to which the
country had been subject during the Com-
monwealth made the free-handed absolutism
of the new king appear a blessing.

KING CHARLES II. was now in the early
years of his perfected manhood. His bearing
was elegant; his manners, affable. Not hand-
some in feature, having still in his face the
reflected harshness of Lord Darnley's visage,
he made up what he lacked in this regard by
wit, suavity, and a most graceful deportment.
His talents were of a higher order than na-
ture is often pleased to bestow on a king ; but
his really great abilities were obscured and
made useless by a certain stoical indifference,
a kind of cheerful pessimism combined with
an inordinate love of pleasure. With him
indulgence was the principal thing, and gay-
ety a means thereto.

In the construction of his ministry Charles
looked to compromise and conciliation. The
first place was given to Lord Clarendon, who
had accompanied the prince during his sixteen
years of exile, and who was now made chan-

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— RESTORATION AND SECOND REVOLUTION.

cellor of the kingdom. But after thb first
preference to his own adherents, the king ad-
mitted to his council some of the best men of
the opposition — a course the effect of which
was by no means lost on his own popularity.

Following this came the general indemnity
for political offenses. An act was passed
granting a full pardon to all those who had
taken part in the
rebellion against
the House of Stu-
art, except those
who had presided
as judges at the
trial of Charles I.,
or had been in
other ways imme-
diately responsi-
ble for the con-
demnation and
death of that
monarch. Nor
could it well be
expected that the
Second Charles
could so easily for-
get and forgive
the murder of his
father as to in-
clude in the am-
nesty those who
might be properly
held to account
for that deed.
The number of
those whom the
king considered to
be thus person-
ally responsible
for the execution
of Charles I. was
about sixty. Many

of these, however, were already dead, and
others were esteemed less guilty.

Of the twenty so-called regicides now
brought to trial and condemned, only ten
were executed. The rest were saved either
by reprieve or commutation of sentence. Of
those who were put to death, the most noted
were Sir Hugh Peters, who was alleged to
have been one of the masked executioners
•who stood at the block when Charles was be-

headed; Sir Henry Vane, who was executed
for his defiance rather than for his purtiri-
pancy in the regicide; and John Harrison,
who had conducted the captive king from
Hurst Castle to Windsor. General Lambert,
who had commanded the last Parliamentary
army, was condemned to die, but wa» re-
prieved and exiled to the bland Guernsey. Aa

CHARLES IL

to the great Cromwell, he had passed beyond
the reach of any earthly revenge. Neverthe-
less, condemnation was passed upon him. His
body was dragged from its royal resting-place,
hanged on a gibbet at Tyburn, and buried
under the gallows. To complete the mockery,
the head was cut off and set up on the gate-
way of Wr-tmin-ter. Thus was tin1 .-hade of
Cluirles I. appeased by the posthumous insults
done to the body of his greatest enemy.

796

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

One of the first cares of the king was to
destroy the military power, or so much as re-
mained, of the old republican party. The
standing army, which least of all had rejoiced
at the restoration of the Stuart dynasty, was dis-
banded, and most of the forts established under
the Cromwellian regime were dismantled. The
whole military forces of the kingdom were
reduced to a few guards and garrisons.

In the next place the counter revolution
was carried into the realm of religion. The
Episcopal order was restored throughout the
kingdom. The nine surviving bishops of the

EARL OF CLARENDON.

old Church were reinstated in authority, and
as many of the ejected clergy as were still alive
came back and took their livings. This move-
ment was of course resisted to the utmost of
their strength by the Presbyterians, but they
could not avail to check the reaction. The
ministry soon found an excuse for pressing
matters to a finality, which was reached in
the passage of the Act of Uniformity, by which
the assent of all the clergy to certain articles
of faith and practice was demanded. The
Presbyterians refused to sign, and to the num-
ber of two thousand were ejected.

In England the restoration of the old re-

ligion was effected without much difficulty ;
but in Scotland the task was far more seri-
ous. Though the people of the latter country
had hailed the return of Charles to the throne,
they were greatly displeased when they dis-
covered his purpose to establish Episcopacy in
the North. To them it seemed the worst of
all calamities that the half-papal hierarchy of
the Church of Elizabeth should be set again
in authority. So complete had been the
demolition of the Episcopal system in Scot-
land that the king could hardly find a
footing for his project. At length, however,
he succeeded in winning over a dis-
tinguished Presbyterian leader named
James Sharp, upon whom, as a reward
for his defection, he conferred the
archbishopric of St. Andrews. But his
example was not imitated, and when
the prelate began a series of persecu-
tions against the Presbyterians, the
popular rage against him rose to the
pitch 01 assassination. He was way-
laid by a company of men under the
lead of a fanatic named Balfour, and
by them was dragged from his carriage
and murdered. Such was the shock
thus given to the project of the king
that the attempt to replant the Epis-
copal Church in Scotland was aban-
doned.

One of the most important, and
at the same time one of the most
disgraceful, acts of Charles II. was his
sale of the fortress of Dunkirk to the
French. This stronghold of England,
on the continental side of the Strait
of Dover, had been a place of much
importance since the beginning of the sixteenth
century. Charles V. had fortified it with a
castle. Afterwards it was captured by the
English, and was lost by them in 1558.
After having been held by the Spaniards and
French, it was finally secured by Cromwell in
the times of the Commonwealth. It became
a matter of sound policy and national pride
on the part of the English to retain the fort-
ress as their foothold ; but neither motive had
much weight with Charles, who, when he
found himself short of means, and in such ill
repute with Parliament that he could not by
any fair method obtain a revenue, opened

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— RESTORATION AND SECOMt KlAnH T1ON. 797

negotiations with Louis XIV., and, in Sep-
tember of 1662, sold him Dunkirk for four
hundred thousand pounds. No transaction
of his long and inglorious reign created
greater odium in his own kingdom or has
been more harshly judged by posterity.

Within two years after the Restoration a
reign of profligacy was established in the
court the like of which had never before been
known in England. The king himself was
the center and his influence the circumference
of the shocking moral depravity which per-
vaded first the courtly society and then the
whole kingdom. For this it is just that Charles
II. should be held to a rigid account at the
bar of history. The condition suited him pre-
cisely. But it is also true that the temper
of the age was as well pleased with his moral
abandonment as he was pleased with it. The
true cause of the collapse of public and private
virtue in the times of the Restoration is to
be sought and found in the inevitable reaction
which had taken place against the reign of
the Roundheads. That body of religionists
had, during their political supremacy, done as
much as they could to destroy the happiness
of the human race. They had planted them-
selves squarely in the way of every natural
pleasure of which men are capable. To them
the innocent joys of childhood, the ringing
laughter of youth, the inspiring excitements
and recreations of middle life, as well as the
casual emiles still flitting at intervals across
the wrinkled face of age, were all alike
odious, hateful, damnable. They seemed to
take a strange inward satisfaction in clothing
the whole world in the anguish of dreariness
and the dolor of despair. There never .was in
the history of mankind any other epoch in
which the sour-visaged and Scythic giant of
Bigotry so beat down with his bludgeon every
budding hope, tender love, and blossoming
joy of the human heart as when the lugubri-
ous fanatics of 1650 sat on the breast of pros-
trate England.

Against all this the nature of man at last
revolted, and rushed to the opposite extreme.
The age of indulgence followed the age of
suppression, and the hilarious shouts of
drunken rioters were heard instead of the ar-
tificial groans and grunts of the Puritans.
The jaunty plumes and perfumed locks of the

Cavaliers, in whom the last sparks of moral
obligation had gone out, were the fitting
counterparts of the shaven faces and care-
fully cultivated ugliness of the Puritans, in
whom a factitious disripline had begotten
death, and cant had murdered culture.

Charles II. was the fitting exemplar of his
age. The reign of rigor gave place to the
reign of riot. And it were difficult to say which
was the worse ! Certain it is that no more
scandalous court has been seen in modern
Christendom than that of the Second Charles.
He had taken in marriage the Princess Catha-
rine of Braganza, daughter of the king of
Portugal, by nature and education as much a
prude as he was a profligate. Happy pair!
She chose for her maids a bevy of ancient and
stately duennas in whom a Jesuitical training
had frozen over the rippling river of life and
made impossible the heinous sacrilege of
laughter. To him this business was intoler-
able. He flew from it, and gathered around
him a company of men and women who sat
down to his banquets, and turned all the vir-
tues of the world into ridicule and mockery.

In the fifth year of his reign Charles de-
clared war with Holland. The question be-
tween the two powers was the long-standing
rivalry of the Dutch and the English for
the mastery of the sea. In the struggle
which now ensued the land forces of the com-
batants were not engaged, but the sea-fights
were many and severe. The navy of Eng-
land was under command of the king's brother,
James, duke of York, who was one of the ablest
captains of his times ; and the army was com-
manded by Prince Rupert and General Monk,
who had now been made Duke of Albemarle.
The Dutch fleets were under the great admirals
De Ruyter and the younger Van Tromp. The
crisis of the war was reached in the great
naval battle fought in the Downs in June of
1666. For four days the conflict was renewed,
and even at the end of the struggle neither
fleet had conquered the other. At one time
the Dutch squadron sailed up the Thames,
and the roar of Van Trump's cannon was
heard Iiy the king, who was, as usual, at a
banquet with the ladies of his court. It was
the first and last time that the sound of for-
eign guns has been heard in Ixmdon. In a
second engagement, in the summer of 1666,

798

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

fought at the mouth of the Thames, the En-
glish gained a decisive victory, and De Ruy-
ter had good cause to cry out, as he did, for
one of the shower of bullets to end his life
made miserable by defeat.

Their great victory, however, could but
poorly compensate the English for the accumu-
lated sorrows of this year 1666 — a year which
tradition, reinforced by the pen of De Foe and
the muse of Dryden, has made forever famous
in the annals of calamity. For now it was that
the great Plague or Black Death broke out
in London and swept the city with its horrid
train. The tremendous life of the metropolis
•was paralyzed by the presence of the specter.
Whole streets were deserted, and the steps

accumulated horrors that even Charles EL was
affected ! He became serious for several days,
and actually gave some thought to the meas-
ures proposed for the relief of the suffering
people. It is said that he laid in his cham-
ber, wherf, he kept several sluts with their pups, a
flimsy mosaic of good intentions; but the
Ethiopian could not change his skin or the
leopard his spots. The king relapsed in a
week.

The sorrows of the state of England, par-
ticularly the disgrace of having a Dutch fleet
discharging its insolent cannon in the harbor
at Chatham, became the occasion of the over-
throw of the Clarendon ministry. That no-
bleman had thus far been to Charles a kind

THE GREAT LONDON FIRE.

of the few courageous, who still went forth,
sounded like the footfalls of them that walk
in the city of the dead. It is estimated that
at least ninety thousand persons were swept
off before the scourge was stayed.

While this dark pestilence still hovered in
the air, another calamity almost as dire fell
upon the city. On the 3d of September,
1666, a fire broke out near London Bridge,
and soon grew into a roaring conflagration.
Further and further on every hand spread
the flames until it seemed that the whole city
was about to be swallowed in the consuming
maelstrom. Nor was the devastation ended
until thirteen thousand houses had been re-
duced to ashes. Such was the dreadful con-
dition to which London was brought by these

of master, very necessary to the success of the
government, but very disagreeable to the pas-
sions and preferences of the dissolute prince.
More congenial by far to him was the auda-
cious and profoundly immoral Duke of Buck-
ingham. The latter long plotted and planned
how he might compass the downfall of Claren-
don. At length peace was made with the
Dutch on such terms as appeared to the
nation — and were — less favorable than were
demanded by a strict regard to the honor of
England. This circumstance gave Bucking-
ham the desired opportunity to turn the public
dislike and mortification against Clarendon as
the responsible cause. Nor did Charles him-
self, thorough ingrate as he was, do any thing
to shore up the fortunes of his falling minister.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— RESTORATION AXD SECOND REVOLUTION. 799

He willingly let him fall. Clarendon was im-
peached, removed from office, and sentenced
to banishment. Such was — and is — the grati-
tude of princes. It was doubtless some con-
solation to the fallen that his daughter, Anne
Hyde, was married to the Duke of York, and
that the offspring of this union were likely to
succeed the childless Charles on the throne of
England.

After the overthrow of Clarendon the king
did not dare to throw himself at once into the
arms of Buckingham. There followed an in-
termediate stage of semi-respectability in the
ministry. Prince Rupert, the Duke of Or-
iiKinil, and Sir Orlando Bridgman were called
to conduct the government ; and they, with a
few others of good character, upheld for a
season the tottering honor of the state. But
after three years this element of half-virtue in
the administration expired under the displeas-
ure of the king and Buckingham. In 1670 a
new ministry was formed, which, by its lack
of all moral restraint, has obtained an easy
preeminence over all the corrupt councils
known to history. The body was composed
of five men almost equally notorious for their
profligacy and ill-repute. These were Clifford,
Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauder-
dale, whose initials in the order named formed
the appropriate word Cabal, by which title the
ministry was known.

To this infamous clique the entire manage-
ment of the kingdom was given over ; and for
four years the reign of disgrace continued.
Nor did the Cabal — so confident was that
body of its lease of power — take any care to
secure even the semblance of popular ap-
proval. On the contrary, the ministers pro-
jected one measure after another in the very
face of the people's displeasure ; and the king
laughed ! By one decree the Cabal shut up
the exchequer of the kingdom, thus virtually
confiscating all the money which had been de-
posited therein. Another measure was the re-
newal of the war with Holland, a policy which
was doubly distasteful to the English from
the fact that the same had been adopted at
the suggestion of Louis XIV. of France. As
in the former struggle, the war was carried
on by sea, the Duke of York commanding
the English and De Ruyter the Dutch (IreK
In 1671, while the two squadrons were at

anchor in SOLEBAY, an action was brought on
which proved to be one of the most severe
sea-fights of the century. Tin: ship of
the Duke of York was so shattered that
he was obliged to transfer his flag to an-
other. De Ruyter confessed that of the
thirty-two naval bailies in which he had
participated he had never witnessed one so
terrible. Both fleets were torn, rent, scat-
tered, but neither could compel the other to
yield. On the llth of August, 1673, a second
great battle was fought between the Dutch
fleet, under De Ruyter, now lying at the
mouth of the Texel, and the English squadron,
now commanded by Prince Rupert. But
again the result was indecisive, and each of
the crippled armaments withdrew, dragging
its bloody length across the sea.

In 1674 a reaction occurred against the
Cabal by which that corrupt body was broken
up. Clifford died, and Ashley, who had now
been made Lord Shaftesbury, fell into dis-
grace. A new ministry was formed under
the Earl of Dan by, and for a brief period
there was at least a show of reform. But the
government of Charles H. was founded on
principles essentially vicious, and nothing
could make that virtuous and strong which
had neither virtue nor strength in itself. In
the later years of the reign, however, there
was less popular complaint than in the begin-
ning ; for the ministry had learned to tempo-
rize and trifle with the nation, cajoling and
deceiving by turns that English people whom
they despised and derided in secret. When-
ever occasion seemed to require, the ministers
became as servile as they were corrupt, and
utterly contemptuous of the rights and honor
of the kingdom ; they still made a show be-
fore Parliament and the people of upholding
the ancient renown of England. The real
character and dispositions of the several min-
istries of Charles H., and the final reaction
against them, has been expressed by Guizot
with his usual clearness and philosophic1
insight :

" But this corruption," says he, " this ser-
vility, this contempt of public rights and
public honor [on the part of the ministry],
were at hist carried to such a pitch as to be
no longer supportable. A general outcry was
raised against this government of profligates.

800

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

A patriotic party, supported by the nation,
became gradually formed in the House of
Commons, and the king was obliged to take
the leaders of it into his council. Lord
Essex, the son of him who had commanded
the first parliamentary armies in the civil war,
Lord Russell, and Lord Shaftesbury, who,
without any of the virtues of the other two,
was much their superior in political abilities,
were now called to the management of affairs.

The national party, to whom the direction
of the government was now committed, proved
itself unequal to the task : it could not gain
possession of the moral force of the country;
it could neither manage the interests, the
habits, nor the prejudices of the king, of
the court, nor of any with whom it had to
do. It inspired no party, either king or peo-
ple, with any confidence in its energy or
ability; and after holding power for a short
time, this national ministry completely failed.
The virtues of its leaders, their generous
courage, the beauty of their death, have
raised them to a distinguished niche in the
temple of fame, and entitled them to honor-
able mention in the page of history ; but
their political capacities in no way corre-
sponded to their virtues: they could not
wield power, though they could withstand its
corrupting influence, nor could they achieve
a triumph for that glorious cause for which
they could so nobly die."

Before proceeding, however, to narrate the
immediate causes of the Second Revolution
in England, a few remaining details of the
reign of Charles may well be given. The re-
lations between himself and Parliament were
never — after the first inglorious gush of en-
thusiasm— of a sort to inspire confidence or
respect. In vain did the House of Commons
wait for some signs of political virtue on the
part of the king, and in vain did the king
wait for that body — to adjourn! At last, in
1678, after sitting for seventeen years, the
Parliament which had hailed his accession with
such absurd demonstrations of loyalty was dis-
solved, and in the following year a new
assembly was summoned. But the House
now became a scene of turmoil almost as
fierce as that which had preceded the downfall
of the monarchy. Religious animosity came
in to intensify political agitation. Charles

was suspected of being secretly in sympathy
with the papists. Moreover, he had no chil-
dren— at least his queen had none — and it was
clear that the succession would, in the event
of the king's death, fall to his brother, the
Duke of York. But James was an open ad-
herent of the Romish Church ; and the En-
glish people, who, since the early years of the
Tudor dynasty, had been ruled by Protestants,
were brought face to face with the near pros-
pect of another Catholic king. The outlook
was highly displeasing. The Commons pro-
posed and passed an act for the exclusion .of
the Duke of York from the succession, and
for settling the crown on James's eldest
daughter, Mary, who had been married to the
Prince of Orange.

While this measure was still agitated in
Parliament, another was brought forward en-
titled the Habeas Corpus Bill, which, as the
name implies, was intended to throw a still
greater security around the English citizen in
the matter of illegal and arbitrary arrest and
detention without trial in prison. Thus,
while the king and his court were spending
their afternoons in witnessing the obscene
plays which the prostituted muses of Dryden,
Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Far-
quhar were defiling the English stage withal,
and their evenings in revels and debauches,
the Parliament was struggling to preserve the
crown for Protestantism, and to throw addi-
tional safeguards around the rights and liber-
ties of Englishmen.

It was at this juncture that the celebrated
TITUS GATES appeared on the scene, and by his
magnificent scheme of falsehood and perver-
sion turned the sober brain of England into a
whirlpool. Gates, having been dismissed from
a chaplaincy in the navy, went abroad and
became a Jesuit at Valladolid. But he was
soon expelled from the college of that Order,
and came back to England. Hereupon he
drew up an ornate and circumstantial account
of a great conspiracy which he alleged to
have been formed by the Jesuits for the mur-
der of the king of England and the subver-
sion of the Protestant religion. Then he en-
larged the story and made an affidavit of its
truth. An excitement broke out in London,
the like of which had rarely, if ever, been
witnessed in that metropolis. Catholics were

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— RESTORATION AND 6A( <>M> l;l-:\'nU'TI'^. 801

arrested and iliniwn into prison. Gates was
lodged in Whitehall, a guard was appointed
for his protection, and I'urliament, losinir it-
senses, voted him a pension of twelve hundred
jwunds per annum. Alter a scene of inde-
scribable turmoil, the insane excitement at
length subsided, and subsequent judicial in-
vestigations proved conclusively that there had
been no "Popi«h Plat" at all I

Meanwhile the popular discontent with the
king waxed hot. Charles and his brother
James became the objects of intense dislike.
Public meetings were held, and schemes were
debated for the reform of the kingdom.
Among other projects, a plot was formed for
placing on the throne the popular and accom-
lished James Scott, duke of Monmouth, a
natural son of Charles. It was openly alleged
that the king and Lucy Walters, the mother
of Monmouth, had been secretly married, and
that therefore the duke was virtually legiti-
mate. But the king vehemently denied the
story of the marriage, though not the pater-
nity of Monmouth. The latter was ambitious
to gain the throne, and was so far involved in
the plots which were formed in his interest
that he was presently obliged to retire into
Holland.

It was now the turn of the Catholics to
make conspiracies in behalf of their favorite,
the Duke of York. This prince, who had so
long distinguished himself as commander of
the English fleet, returned to court ... ' be-
came dominant in the affairs of the state.
His temper was far more severe than that of
the easy-going king, and perceiving the dis-
like against himself and that the cause thereof
was his religion, he urged on his brother to
adopt measures of great harshness towards
those who were, or were supposed to be, in
conspiracy relative to the succession.

In the Parliament of 1680, Lord William
Russell was one of those who had endeavored
to procure the passage of the act excluding
the Duke of York from the throne. In the
course of time a band of plotters, under the
lead of a certain Rumbold, assembled at a
place called the Rye House, near Newmarket,
and there debated the question how the king
might be overthrown and the duke excluded.
It was charged that Lord Russell was privy
to this business, and on this charge — which

VOL. II.- 51

was false — he was imv-ied, imprisoned, tried,
condemned, and beheaded on the '21st of Julv,
lo'>:;. In like manner, the accomplished
Algernon Sidney ua- seized, sentenced, and
executed, his trial being a miK-kery and the
judgment of tliu court a slander.

The scandalous reign of Charles II. con-
tinned for almost twenty-five years. At the
beginning of February, 16*.r>. still banqueting
and carousing with his boon companions, he
was struck with apoplexy and brought to a
pause. He lingered in a half-conscious state
for a few days, and died on the 6th of the
month, being in the fifty-fifth year of his age.1

Notwithstanding the extreme dislike of the
English people, there was but little open op-
position to the accession of the Duke of York,
who at once assumed the crown with the title
of JAMES II. His character was strongly con-
trasted with that of his brother. He had
neither the vices nor the virtues of the late
king. His naturally serious and cold disposi-
tion had been sunk to a still lower tempera-
ture by the influence of his Catholic mother
and the hard discipline of his early years. In
his religion he was a thorough papist, and to
the faith which he had imbibed he added a
harshness ard bigotry of his own. Neverthe-

1 The following estimate of Charles is from the
quaint Diary of his partial friend nnd admirer,
Sir John Evelyn: "Thus died King Charles II.,
of a vigorous and robust constitution, and in all
appearance promising a long life. He was a
prince of many virtues and many greate imper-
fections; debonnaire, easy of accesse, not bloudy
nor cruel ; his countenance fierce, his voice greate,
proper of person, every motion became him ; a
lover of the sea and skillful in shipping. . . .
He had a peculiar talent in telling a story, and
facetious passages of which lie Imd innumerable;
this made some buffoons and vitious wretches too
presnmtnous nnd familiar. . . . He tooke de-
light in having a number of little spaniels follow
him and lio in Ins bed-chamber, where . . .
which rendered it very offensive, and indeede
made the whole Court nasty and stinking. . . .
He frequently nnd easily chanv'd favorites, to his
greate prejudice. \< '•• other publiq transai '
anil unhappy misi-arriaircs. 't is not here I ii
to number them. . . . His too easy nature
resigned to be mannu'd by crafty men and some
abandoned nnd profane I \vlio corruptfl

his otherwise sufficient parts. . . . He was
ever kind to me. and very gracious upon all occa-
sions, and therefore I can not, without ingrati-
tude, but deplore his loese."

802

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

less, he spread the footstool of the throne
with good intentions, and was no doubt sin-
cere in his purpose to rule according to the
constitution and established laws of the king-
dom. Nor might the people,
from their acquaintance with
his past life, with good reason
suspect him of insincerity.
At the first there was a

with the Holy Church. Nor is it likely that
the king would have forborne to press his
project to immediate fulfillment but for the
counsels of the Pope himself, who deemed the
measure inexpedient. In the
mean time, the Duke of Mon-
mouth, who, as will be remem-
bered, had gone into banish-
ment, returned to the kingdom

JAMES II.

quiet acceptance of the situation. In a short
time, however, it became known that James
had sent a Catholic legate to Rome to open
with Pope Innocent XI. such negotiations as
looked to the religious reunion of England

and laid claim to the crown. On the
llth of June, 1685, he landed with a hun-
dred followers at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, and
relying upon his popularity invited the people
to his standard. In a short time a force of

// l;i:\»U'Tlo.\. i;i:STORATIOy AND SECOMi Hi: SOLUTION. 803

six thousand men had been mustered and
equipped, and many more asked to he given
;;nns but could not be supplied. Monmouth
again gave out the story that his mother had
been married to the late king, and in this, as
well as in the Exclusion Act which had been
passed by the House of Commons against
James, the adherents of the duke found an
excuse and ground of their insurrection.

The movement became formidable, and it is
likely that had Monmouth marched at once on
London he might have succeeded in driving
James from the kingdom. But the rebellious
duke stopped here and there to be proclaimed,
and thus gave the king time to organize for
defense. Continuing his course toward the
capital, Monmouth met the royal army at
Sedgemoor, on the 5th of July, and was there
totally defea'ed. The duke fled from the
field, changed clothes with a peasant, and
hid himself in a ditch, but all to no avail.
He was hunted down, captured, and taken to
London. Great was the grief of the people
to know that their favorite was in the toils.
Vainly did Moumouth seek to gain an inter-
view with the king in the hope of moving
his sympathies or pity. The occupant of the
throne was a very different personage from
Charles II., and no commiseration was to be
expected. Monmouth was hastily tried, con-
demned, and beheaded. His followers were
hunted with merciless severity.

Now it was that Lord George Jeffreys,
through whose agency Lord Russell and
Algernon Sidney had been unjustly put to
death, and who for that nefarious work had
been made chief-justice of England, appeared
on the scene as a judicial exterminator
of the king's enemies. He was placed at the
head of a special commission, empowered to
deal with those who had been concerned
in Monmouth's rebellion. He went into the
infected district and instituted his courts in
the spirit of an executioner. Never before
since the days of Alva in the Netherlands
had there been under the seeming sanction
of law such a judicial destruction of men.
Of those brought before Jeffreys's tribunal
three hundred and twenty were hanged, eight
hundred and forty-one were sold as slaves into
the tropics, and multitudes of others were
scourged and imprisoned. The judicial ghoul

even made a boast that he had hanged more
traitors than all the other judges in England
since tin Norman conquest. Doubtless the
boast \va> true. At any rate, James had
good reason to designate the work of Jeffreys
as " the chief-justice's nnujKiiijn in the West,"
and to reward him with the office of High
Chancellor of England.

On the 30th of June of this first year of
James's reign another atrocity was perpetrated
in the execution of Sir Archibald Campbell,
duke of Argyll. This nobleman had during
the whole time of the Commonwealth re-
mained faithful to the House of Stuart, and
after the return of Charles H. had been re-
stored to his earldom. When, however, at
the accession of James he was required to
take the test oath, he refused to do so, except
witli the added clause, " as far as is consistent
with the Protestant faith." For this he was
charged with high treason and convicted.
Under sentence of death he succeeded in
making his escape to Holland, where he gath-
ered an army, and then came back. Defeat
and capture followed, and then execution.

The king thus swept the field of open op-
position. But there still remained the deep-
seated discontent, distrust, and unrest of the
people. Most of all, the hand of the English
nation was lifted against James because of his
covert purpose everywhere cropping out to
restore Catholicism in England. He had,
after the death of his first wife, the daughter
of Lord Clarendon, married the Princess Ma-
ria Beatrice of Modena, who, twenty-five years
his junior, used all the blandishments and arts
known to the woman of Italy to intensify
James's preference for the ancient Church.

In this business she was aided and abetted by
the king's confessor, Father Peters, who urged
the monarch forward in the work of installing
Catholics in places of trust and honor. The
chaplaincies of the army and navy were
turned over to Catholic priests. The Episco-
pal bishop of London was suspended from his
office, and in order still further to favor the
papal party an EDICT OF TOLERATION was is-
sued to all religionists of every hue and fashion
who dissenti d t'roni the Church of England.
I'lider this sweeping license of worship it was
intended to give a wide champaign in which
Catholicism might expatiate on soaring wing.

804

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Of course the adherents of the Established
Church made a prodigious effort to put a stop
to these reactionary proceedings. The Arch-
bishop of Canterbury and six other great prel-
ates of the kingdom drew up a remonstrance
and presented it to the king; and for this
action so simple, so just, so constitutional the
remonstrants were seized and imprisoned in
the Tower. On being brought to trial, how-
ever, they were triumphantly acquitted — a
result which showed conclusively the temper
of the people and their determination to re-
sent and resist the further encroachments of
the king.

At this juncture both the Papal and the
Protestant party scanned most eagerly the
question of the succession, and from the prob-
abilities in that regard the king and his ene-
mies alike drew hope and comfort. For as
yet the king had no son, and his eldest
daughter Mary was the wife of no less a
personage than William Henry, prince of
Orange, Stadtholder of the Netherlands. That
prince was now at the head of the Protestant
cause in Europe, and his wife was in hearty
accord with her husband. To this fact the
Protestants in England looked with intense
satisfaction, perceiving that in the event of
James's death they should have a queen after
their own heart, with a powerful prince-con-
sort able to defend her. But while the Prot-
estants thus waited and took comfort, the
Italian queen of King James presented him a
son. Great was the joy of the king and the
Catholic party at this event, and equally keen
was the mortification of those who had hoped
that nature had put her everlasting interdict
against a Catholic succession. When the un-
pleasant news was carried to William of Orange
he clenched his fist and scowled at the paper,
as though it were a letter from his evil genius.

The prince thus given to the king of Eng-
land was born on the 10th of June, 1688,
and was destined, under the title of the Pre-
tender, to become an important factor in the
subsequent history of the country. Though
his birth was regarded by his father as the
most auspicious of events, it was in reality to
him the most disastrous. For the Protestants,
disappointed in their hope that the crown
would, after James's death, fall to the wife of
the Prince of Orange, now formed the resolve

of compelling what nature had denied. Many
of the leading men of the kingdom entered
into a correspondence with Prince William,
with the ulterior design of offering him the
crown.

The king in the meantime was so absorbed
with his project of reestablishing popery in
England that he seemed not to perceive
the premonitory shiver of the earthquake
in which he was about to be engulfed.
He went straight ahead with his prescrip-
tive policy ; nor was he aroused to the peril
of the situation until his minister at the Hague
sent him a letter in which he was warned that
he might at any moment expect a Dutch inva-
sion. Things had now gone so far that, when
in his alarm he suddenly reversed his methods
ancl undertook by various concessions to put
back the rising storm, he merely gained for
himself the reputation of being a political
coward as well as a tyrant. His retraction*
and conciliations did no good, but rather en-
couraged the revolutionists to go forward with
their work. Their design at this time was
simply to expel forever the Stuart dynasty
from England.

In the summer of 1688 the Prince of
Orange issued a declaration that he would
presently come into the Island and redress the
grievances of the English people. This an-
nouncement was received with delight by the
Protestant party and with dismay by the king.
To the latter it was the handwriting on the
wall ; nor was the express purpose of Prince
William by any means an idle boast. He meant
what he said, and having made up his mind
to interfere in the affairs of England, he has-
tened to carry out his design. Having already
well in hand the military resources of Holland,
he organized a powerful army and fleet, and
sailing from Helvoetsluys, in the last of Octo-
ber, 1688, landed on the 5th of the following-
month at Torbay.

He came partly in his own right, partly in
the right of his wife, partly by the invitation
of the English people, and partly as the de-
fender of Protestantism. At the first his
reception was less cordial, or at any rate less
enthusiastic, than he had been led to expect.
For the people of the West were still smart-
ing under the punishments which the king
and Jeffreys had inflicted upon them for their

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— RESTORATION AND SECOND DEVOLUTION. 805

pnrticipancy in Monmouth'u rebellion. For
this reason they feared at first to hazard their
livfs ami fortune.^ in a new adventure. But

they soon perceived that William of Orange
and the Duke of Monmouth were two very
'lilioreut personages, and that he who now led

UIJ.i.IAM 111. HI-' ol;_\.v.l

- til' THE BIRTH OF THE PEETE.SDKR.
Uniwnby P. Philippoteanx.

806

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the insurrection against the crown might be
safely followed. In a short time the gentry
of Devon and Somerset began to gather to
his standard, and then the invasion rolled on
with ever increasing volume. It was surpris-
ing to note what a mere moiety of the En-
glish people remained devoted to the king.
The little clique of Jesuits who still sur-
rounded the throne formed but a ridiculous
panoply about the quaking monarch. Per-
ceiving with that sense of shrewdness by
which the Order has ever been characterized,
that their game was up in England, they ad-
vised James to quit the country until what
time, by foreign alliances and a hoped-for re-

houses were torn down and the priests obliged
to fly for their lives. The ministers of the
fugitive king were glad to get out of sight j
and they who had abetted him in his work
escaped as best they could. Lord Jeffreys,
having disguised himself, attempted to get
away, but was caught, recognized, and so ter-
ribly maltreated by the mob that he died from
his injuries.

In the mean time, Lord Feversham, who
commanded the royal army, believing that
resistance was hopeless, disbanded the troops
and set them loose without pay upon the
country. A new element was thus added to
the general confusion and lawlessness.

ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL.— Built by Christopher Wren.

action at home, he might so strengthen him-
self as to reclaim the crown. The queen and
the ministers likewise admonished him to fly
before the storm which he had no means of
resisting. This policy he accordingly adopted.
Sending the queen and her infant son before
him, he himself on the night of the 12th of
December, 1688, slipped out of London, and
hccompanied only by Sir Edward Hale, fled
to Feversham.

As soon as it was known in the capital
that the king had taken flight, all the winds
were loosed. The London mob rose and
howled through the streets. The work of
destruction was begun. Upon the papists the
insurgents let loose all their fury. The mass-

country was in an uproar until those peers
and bishops who could be assembled in Lon-
don sent an invitation to Prince William to
take upon himself the work of restoring order
to the kingdom.

As to the fugitive James, he was presently
found at Feversham, and greatly against the
wish of the Prince of Orange was brought
back to London. It had been the intention
of William to permit, even to encourage, the
escape of his father-in-law from England ; for
he had promised Mary that her father should
suffer no personal harm. Accordingly the
Prince connived at a second escape of the
discrowned king from the city ; and on the-
evening of Christmas, 1688, James, having

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— RESTORATION AND SECOND 11 EVOLUTION. 807

made his way without discovery to the coast
and taken ship, was landed at Amliletus in
Picardy. Thence he continued hi- course
to St. Germains, near Paris, where he was
awaited and cordially received by Louis
XIV., very glad to gain such an accession to
his list of dependents.

Thus, without bloodshed, was the House
of Stuart, which had been dominant in Eng-
land, except during the epoch of the Revo-
lution and the Commonwealth, for a period of
eighty-five years, quietly but forcibly expelled
from the government of a people between
whom and itself there had never been
any thing but misunderstanding, dis-
trust, hostility. The dynasty was sim-
ply cast off as no longer tolerable ; and
while the loyalty of the realm con-
tented itself with the fact that the
daughter of the exiled king was still
to be queen of England, the popular
spirit found comfort and a sense of
relief in hurling contempt after the
fugitive House.

In the midst of the narrative of
these exciting and revolutionary events
it is a pleasure to turn for a moment
to some of the victories of peace.
Among these may be mentioned the
revival of London, rising like a phoenix
from her ashes and from the horrors
of the plague. The city was rapidly
rebuilt, and the new structures gave
unmistakable evidence of the great-
ness of the England of the future.
In the work of reconstruction the
genius of the great architect, Sir
Christopher Wren, shone out with peculiar
brightness. He was as indefatigable in the
task to which he devoted himself as he was
preeminent in architecture. No fewer than
fifty-four of the new churches of the city
sprang into being under his hand. Among
these, first of all, was the great Cathedral of
St. Paul's — a structure which, in its magnifi-
cence and durability, stands second only to
the masterpiece of Michael Angelo, the unri-
valed St. Peter's at Rome. It was the good
fortune of Sir Christopher to live to see the
completion of the sublime edifice to which he
had devoted the thought of thirty-five years.
To him London is indebted for her commo-

dious quays along the Thames, her frequent
squares and piazzas in tin- district ravaged by
the fire of lo'iid, the Uoyul Exchange and
Custom House, the Monument Temple Bar,
and the College of Physicians ; and in many
other parts of England the trophies of his
genius still attest his greatness as a builder.

Nor did literature, at this epoch, fail to
pnxluce some of her greatest achievements.
Milton is generally considered as belonging to
the Commonwealth, and so far as his political
life was concerned, his activities were refer-
able to that stormy period. But his greatest

MILTON.

works were produced after the Restoration.
There, in his humble house at Chalfont,
whither he had retired after the downfall of
the Commonwealth, he sat down — old, blind,

d.-'Tted — and dictated from the double foun-
tains of pagan lore and Puritan melancholy
the dolorous and glorious strophes of Paradite
I. < ft. Old John Hiinvan also came with his
allegorical and realistic genius, and, sitting in
l!ed ford Jail, wrought out that 1'ityrim's
/V(«/,v.<s in whose simple page the conscience
of the Englisli-spoakini: race has found itself
a glass for more than two hundred years.
Nor should failure be made to mention tin-
great satirist of the Cavaliers, that quaint

808

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM III. AM> Lnl'IS XIV.

809

Samuel Butler, whose //m/i'/</v/.<, stinging and
deserved burlesque on the Puritans, has im-

dals and gossip of the age; or to note the
career of the brilliant :ui<l time-serving Dry-

mortalized the cant and fanaticism of its vie- den; or to .-peak of Congreve and Collier and

thus. And time would fail to speak of Evelvn
and Popys, whose two private Diaries were
held up like the sensitive plates of a photog-
rapher to catch and retain forever the scan-

Otway; or to praise the magnificent work of
Robert Boyle, one of the founders of the
Royal Society. — These things belong to the
history of English Letters.

CHAPTER XXXVII.— WILLIAM III. AND LOUIS XIV.

N the beginning of the
present Book it was said
that the English Revolu-
tion was a general move-
ment of political society
to overthrow the absolut-
ism of secular authority,
just as the religious insurrection of the pre-
ceding century had destroyed the absolutism
of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. As the Ref-
ormation spread from country to country
until nearly all Europe was affected by its in-
fluence, so the politico-revolutionary move-
ment begun in England, leaped the Channel,
became confluent with a similar current in the
Netherlands, combined therewith and dashed
high against the imposing monarchy of France.
In that country, since the accession of Henry
of Navarre, the institution of royalty had be-
come more and more consolidated. The
French kings had adopted systematic meth-
ods, ami had reared a monarchical structure
which appeared to them to be imperishable.
The Bourbons became in spirit, if not in fact,
the most absolute princes of Western Europe ;
and when, in 1(>4.'J, Louis XIII. died, leaving
the erown to his son, then but five years of
age, and the regency to the queen and the
great minister, Cardinal Mazarin, there wore
present in France the precise antecedents for
the erection of a colossal civil despotism.

During the childhood of Lons XIV., he
was neglected and purposely kept in ignorance
• it' affairs by Ma/.arin, who, scarcely less am-
bitious than Richelieu himself, desired to rule
France, and, through France, Europe. Not
until the royal lad was thirteen years of ai'e
did he a-crt himself and begin to make his

keepers understand that their master was
coming. By that time the disorders of the
French kingdom, and the still more violent
disorders in England, a knowledge of which
was borne to the prince, had profoundly im-
pressed his mind with the idea that to govern
is to govern ; that so-called popular influence
in the affairs of state is a delusion and a
snare ; and that a really great monarch is the
embodiment of the kingdom over which he is
called to reign. All this chimed in in perfect
harmony with the natural instincts and predis-
positions of Louis, whose religion and maternal
descent from the House of Austria had com-
bined to make him one of the most profound
autocrats of modern times.

From the date of his assumption of the
royal dignity, this young devotee of absolut-
ism manifested such remarkable discernment
as to compensate for that lack of information
for which he was indebted to his mother and
Mazarin. In 1653 he accompanied the army
under Tnrenne in a campaign against the re-
Ix-llinus 1'rince of Conde', who at that time
was engaged in the siege of Arras. By the
defeat of Conde1 and the breaking up of the
siege, an end was put to that great civil dis-
turhanee which, under the name of the War of
tin- l-'r«»tle, had distracted France for fifteen
years.

After having joined with Cromwell in a
war on Spain. Louis, in the year 1659, con-
cluded with that country a peace known as the
Treaty of the Pyrenees, and in the following
year — according to one of the provisions of
the treaty— In- took in marriage the Princess
Maria Theresa, daughter of the Spanish king
Philip IV.

810

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

In 1661 the Cardinal Mazarin died, after
having managed the affairs of the kingdom
•with great success for a period of eighteen
years. Louis thereupon gave notice that
henceforth he would be his own minister. When
the functionaries of the state came in inquir-
ing to know, after the manner of their kind,
to whom they should thereafter address their
communications on public business, he an-

the former minister of finance, was arrested,
tried, and condemned to perpetual imprison-
ment for his peculations while iu office. The
new administration under Colbert quickly re-
stored the public credit, and the French finan-
cial system became a model for surrounding
nations.

The king next asserted his will in foreign
affairs, and in this department of statecraft

CARDINAL MAZARIN.

swered them, "To myself." Here at last was
a king indeed.

Having thus taken upon himself the im-
mediate responsibility for the government,
Louis turned his attention first of all to the
finances of the kingdom. He called to his
aid the hanker-statesman, Jean Baptiste Col-
bert, a man of great financial genius, and
with him instituted a radical reform in the
monetary affairs of the kingdom. Fouquet,

soon proved himself a master. An occasion
was not long wanting for the display of his
power. In the year 1661, just after the
^Restoration of Charles II., a difficulty oc-
curred between the ambassadors of France
and Spain at the English court, which gave
Louis an opportunity to play the king in a
grand style. In that age of formal and ridic-
ulous pomp the question of precedence among
ambassadors was considered of the utmost im-

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM III. AM> /.OT/X Xl\:

Ml

portance. Who should stand first and who
second in a court procession was a matter of
the gravest concern. Until this time, Spain,
owing to her relations with the German Em-
pire, had outranked France; and so, when,
on a given occasion, Vatteville, the Spanish
ambassador in London, attempted to take his
place in a diplomatic procession, he found the
place occupied by the Count D'Estrades, the
ambassador of France. An altercation ensued,
and then a riot. The French representative

that Philip IV. sent a special messenger \»
Paris, Mini there, in the presence of Louis and
the ministers of foreign powers assembled at
Fontaiuebleau, the humble retraction and
apology were made. All claim <>f Spain to
ambassadorial precedence over France was re-
nounced in a manner mitlicicntly humiliating
to satisfy the ollendcd kin;.'. S....n at'i'Twards
a difficulty of like nature occurred in Rome,
in which some of the servants of the Duke of
C'n'-i|ui, the French minister, were injured by

DEATH 01

was beaten from his place. His carriage was
broken to pieces, his horses hamstrung, and
his son and attendants wounded in the vn'l>'e.
On receiving the news of what had been
done to his ambassador Louis at once ordered
the Spanish ambassador at his own court to
quit France. He also recalled the Freneh
representative from Madrid, and notified the
king of Spain that if he did not immediately
disavow the outrage which had been done,
withdraw all claim to precedence, and make
ample apology, he might prepare for war.
Such was the terror inspired by this menace

the papal guards. For this offense Louis
compelled the Pope to disband his guard, to
exile his brother, to semi a cardinal to Paris
with a formal apology, and to build a
monument in Rome, on tin- .-ide of which
was recorded the insult t«> French dignity,
together with the reparation which had
Ix-cn made therefor. Thus did tin- haughty
monarch vindicate his claim to lie a kini: ir
fact. Not without good reason did he adopt
for his motto L'&al c'ed J/oi— " I am the
Btote."

Great was the popularity obtained by

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Louis on account of the reforms which he in-
stituted, the return of prosperity to the king-
dom, and his imperious bearing, so well
suited to the French people in that age.
Thev gloried in their sovereign and accepted
his motto.

It thus happened that Louis XIV. of
France became the recognized head of abso-
lutism in Western Europe at the same time
that William of Orange became the recog-
nized exponent of the opposite theory of gov-
ernment. Catholic France, with her Grand
Monarch, was set over against Protestant

COLBERT.

England and Holland, with their dauntless
defender, the Prince of Nassau. Thus it was
that the larger forces of historical causation,
operating independently of the wills of the
actors, brought about a crisis at the close of
the seventeenth century, and set against each
other, in necessary and inveterate antagonism,
the king of France and William of Orange.

It was considerations such as these that in-
fluenced the most thoughtful men of England
in inviting William to pass over- to the Island
and become their king and leader. They
foresaw the conflict, and anxious to prepare
therefor, the expulsion of the House of Stu-

art became an antecedent necessity of the sit-
uation. The liberty which had been at the
first wrested from Catholic absolutism in the
times of Elizabeth, and again taken by force
from Charles I., was now imperiled to the
extent that united England and Holland must
draw the sword in its defense.

Not without a certain hereditary claim to
the crown of England did William appear on
the stage, where he was now destined to act
so conspicuous a part. He was the grandson
of Charles L, his mother being the Princess
Mary, eldest daughter of that sovereign. He
had, as already stated, taken
in marriage his cousin Mary,
daughter of James II. , and she,
until the birth of the Pretender,
had been regarded as the true
successor to her father's crown.
The claims of the prince and
princess were thus mutually
strengthened. If William's title
was imperfect, being deduced
through the female line, that
of Mary was also uncertain in
that she was a woman, her
half-brother, James Francis
Stuart, having been born in
the very year of the Revolution.
It thus happened that though
James was unequivocally ex-
pelled from the kingdom, Par-
liament had a serious question
to deal with in settling the suc-
cession. After a long and ex-
cited discussion, an act was
finally passed by which the
English crown was conferred on
WILLIAM AND MARY in jointure. It was agreed
that the two royal personages should reign to-
gether as king and queen of England. The im-
mediate administration of affairs, however, was
given to the king alone. It was further provided
that in case William and Mary should die
without children, the crown should descend
to the Princess Anne, remaining daughter of
James II.

The new prince, thus called to the throne
of England, was at the time of his accession
in the thirty-ninth year of his age. He was
in all respects one of the most remarkable
men of the century. Such had been the vicis-

i-:.\<;usn REVOLUTION. -WILLIAM in. AM> LOUIS xn:

813

situdes through which he ha<l passed and the
trials to which He had been subjected that he
was prematurely old. Not that his strength
of will or power of endurance was broken ;
but both his visage, which was pale and thin,
and his person, which was emaciated, gave
token that natural elasticity had been de-
stroyed by care and exuberance of feeling
expelled by anxiety. He had a severe and
solemn aspect, and his temper was not alto-
gether free from peevishness ; but the native
vigor of his understanding, his strong sense
of justice, and the real great-
ness of his character shone out
clear and bright over all his
drawbacks and imperfections,
and gave him an easy preem-
inence among the rulers of hi<
times. Nor was Queen Mary
unworthy of her consort. To
great dignity of bearing she
added a winning face and affa-
bility of manners ; and the gen-
uine virtues of her character
were more consonant with the
reputation of her husband than
with the narrowness and big-
otry of her father.

The transition from the
House of Stuart to the House
of Nassau furnished to the En-
glish Parliament a fine oppor-
tunity to assert its power in
laving certain constitutional
limitations on the prerogatives
of the king. With this pur-
pose in view a measure was
brought forward and passed
under the name of the BILL OF RIOHTS,
by which the king's authority was abridged
in many particulars and defined in others.
Certain safeguards were at the same time
thrown around English citizenship by which
that somewhat vague but yet most real thins;
called the liberty of the people was better
than ever before secured.

The new king of England could not com-
plain of any want of a cordial reception by
his subjects. They, on their part, were suffi-
ciently pleased that they had had their way in
the expulsion of the Stuarts, and did not at
first scan with a critical eye the temper and

purposes of the sovereign whom they hud
chosen in place of .lames. Ill thecoiir--
time, however, many clc-menis of <li-eu!-,l were
discovered between William ami his (tropic.
He was in all things a soldier, Inv.l to the
camp, utterly indifferent to the pleasures and
excitement of the court. The English na-
tion preferred a king capable of magnificence,
such as Henry VIII., who could sit on a real
throne with a real plume in his hat and a real
scepter in his hand. For all this William
had no liking. He was a man of business, a

WILLIAM III.

warrior, not copious in speech or courtly in
manners. Besides his ideas of government
were more monarchic than liberal. Though
he kept all his pledges with scrupulous fidel-
ity, he made no new ones unless compelled by
the exigencies of the situation. For the most
part he confined himself to his military camp
at Hounslow, where he busied himself in
laying plans to thwart the machinations of
his great adversary, the Grand Monarch of
France, little heeding the wishes or answering
to the expectations of the jH'ople of the court.
But this natural and acquired indifference
to the public desire did not blind William to

814

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the danger of giving serious offense to his
subjects. At length he made an honest effort
to appear at court and to shine as an English
king ; but the result showed that he was more
capable of being dazzled than of dazzling.
The ceremonial and pageant of the palace
suited not his severe and penetrating genius.
He escaped as quickly as possible from the
thralldom of royal fashion, preferring the sol-
dier's harness, the sober talk of his Dutch
councilors and the profound problems of state-

act by which the sovereignty of the coun-
try was given to William and Mary. At Ed-
inburgh and generally throughout the Low-
lands the change of dynasty was as cordially
endorsed as it had been in the south. Among
the Highlanders, however, the expulsion of
the House of Stuart produced a sullen
discontent. A large number of clansmen
gathered around the standard of Lord Dun-
dee, who headed a revolt against the king.
A strong force was sent out by William

EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND.

craft, in which he became an adept and a
master.

The action of Parliament by which the
crown was conferred on William and Mary
extended only to the sovereignty of England.
It was doubtful whether the Scots, among whom
a strong sentiment of loyalty to the House of
Stuart still existed, would follow the lead of
the Southern kingdom in bestowing the crown
on the Prince of Orange. The event soon
proved, however, that the apprehension was
not well grounded. A short time after the
revolution at London was accomplished, the
Scottish Parliament convened and passed an

to put down the revolt; but his troopa
were met and defeated by the Highlanders in
the pass of Killicrankie. But Lord Dundee
was slain in the battle, and the rebellion fell
to pieces. Instead of following the example
of his father-in-law in his course with the
Duke of Monmouth, William adopted a lib-
eral policy towards those who had participated
in the revolt. All were pardoned on condi-
tion of becoming loyal subjects of the king.

In the mean time a critical condition of
affairs had come about in Ireland. The Cath-
olic population of that island had strongly
sympathized with James II. in his misfortunes ;

REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM 11'. A.\l> Lnri* A7I.

815

nor was it doubtful that, had opportunity of-
fered, they would have openly c.-pou.-cd his
cause. As for James himself, now re.-ideut at
the court of Louis XIV., he still cherished
the design of recovering the crown of which
the revolution of 1688 had deprived him.
His hopes were fed with assiduity by the politic
king of France, who, being fully conscious
that a great struggle was impending between
himself and King William, was very willing
to render assistance to any who might embar-
rass that monarch or confuse his plans. Louis
accordingly furnished James with arms and
money necessary for the organization of a
great rebellion in Ireland. Early in 1689 the
exiled king landed at Kinsale, and was wel-
comed with great joy by the Catholic popula-
tion. In March he made a triumphant entry
into Dublin, and accepting the popular en-
thusiasm in his favor as an omen of success,
he laid siege to Londonderry.

But the people of this town were loyal
to William of Orange, and the place was
defended with great obstinacy. At length
relief arrived from England, and the siege
was raised. In the latter part of summer the
Duke of Schomberg, the most trusted general
of King William, landed in Ireland with an
army of ten thousand men. The opposition,
however, proved to be much stronger than
was anticipated, and after a ten months' cam-
paign, the veteran duke, now eighty-two years
of age, was obliged to confess himself unable
to put down the rebellion. But this emer-
gency was precisely of the kind to bring out
all the reserved force of which the Prince of
Orange possessed such an abundant store.
He resolved to undertake the Irish war in per-
son, and having organized an army of about
twenty-live thousand men, he went over to
the insurgent island and joined his forces with
those of tho Duke of Schomberg.

On the 1st of July, 1690, the two armies
came face to face on the opposite banks of the
river Boyne. Here a decisive battle WM-
fought, ill which the Jacobite — a name now
given to the adherents of the House of
Stuart' — were completely defeated. James
himself, who watched the action from the
neighboring hill of Dunrnore, regarded the

'The word Jacobites is from Jacobus, the Latin
word for James.

battle as decisive of his fate. Going at once
to Dublin, he announced to the magistrates
his determination to give over the contest and
retire from the kingdom. It was a doleful
day for the papal party in England, and, in-
deed, in all Europe. For they clearly per-
ceived that their hojxjs of recovering the
English crown, and of thus regaining their
lo.-t ascendency in the jwlitical affairs of
Europe, were doomed to disappointment.

The Protestants, on the other hand, were
equally jubilant. True, the old Duke of
Schomberg had been killed in the battle
of the Boyne. William himself had been
wounded, and other serious losses sustained ;
but all these calamities were courageously
borne by the victors; and the Society of
Orangemen, composed of those who made
oath to uphold the Protestant throne of Great
Britain and oppose the policy of the papal
Church, still bears witness to William's honor
and perpetuates the great victories which he
achieved over his enemies.

A few days after the battle, James took
ship and sailed for France. He again put
himself under protection of Louis XIV., at'
whose court he passed the remaining ten
years of his life. Deeming it no longer nec-
essary for him to conduct the Irish war in
person, William now returned to England,
leaving the command of the army to the
Duke of Marlborough, who, together with the
Earl of Athlone, brought hostilities to a suc-
cessful conclusion before the end of the year
1691. When the rebellion was finally at an
end, William followed the example which had
been set by Cromwell of permitting the mal-
contents to leave the country. About twelve
thousand of the leading Catholics — so ardently
were they attached to the cause of James
H. — availed themselves of the license thus
given and followed then- master to France.
In that country they were cordially received
by Louis XIV., always willing to behold the
depopulation of any kingdom but his own,
and were admitted into the military service of
France under the name of the Irish Brigade.

One of the greatest mistakes in the early
years of the reign of William was his attempt
to e-tablish the Episcopal Church in Scotland.
The Presbyterians, who had long and success-
fully resisted the Stuarts in a similar project,

816

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

•were now equally stubborn in their opposition
to William. Insurrections occurred here and
there in Scotland, but did not gather sufficient
head to become formidable. After some des-

ultory movements the various uprisings sub-
sided, and William issued a proclamation of
pardon to all who on a certain day would re-
new their oath of allegiance.

JAMES II. AT THE BATTLE OF THE BOYNfc.
Drawn by F. Llx.

REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM III. .t.V/> J.ni'is A/I.

817

At this juncture one of those historical in-
cidents occurred \iy which, though insignifi-
cant in themselves, the course of history is
frequently modified. The chief Macdonald
of the clan of Glencoe mistook the day on
which the oath of allegiance to the English
king was to be renewed. Between him and
the Earl of Breadalbane :i lii'ter enmity such
as the Highland chieftains often bore to one
another existed, and the earl, in order to be
avenged on his foeman, sent information to
the king that Macdonald had refused to take
the oath. Believing that the chief-
tain was in rebellion, William sent
orders to the North that the Clan
Macdonald should be exterminated,
and the Campbell clan was directed
to carry the order into execution.
The Campbells accordingly repaired
to Glencoe, fell upon the unsuspect-
ing Macdonalds, and butchered them
without mercy. About forty of the
clan were massacred, and the re-
mainder escaped only to perish by
famine and exposure to the cold.
Such was the shock produced by this
horror in Scotland that no explana-
tion could remove the distrust or
check the rising hatred of the people
against William and his government.
Even the king's official statement
that he had signed the warrant for
the execution of the Macdonalds
through mistake and in the hurry of
his business, did not suffice to quiet
the Highlanders, and henceforth they
lost no opportunity to trouble and
resist the king.

At this point let us turn for a brief space
to the affairs of the continent. France and
Holland had long been at war. It will be re-
membered that, while the Stuarts still held the
throne of England, that monarchy was ar-
rayed against the Dutch and kept in alliance
with the French. It was evident that this
position of England was constrained and un-
natural. The false attitude which she was
made to assume in joining Catholic France in
attempting to subvert the Protestant liberties
of Holland was exceedingly distasteful to
England, and became one of the leading
causes of the overthrow of the Stuart dynasty.
VOL. II. -52

Even before the final expulsion of that House,
public sentiment had obliged Charles II. to
renounce the alliance with Louis. Hut that
monarch had now become so powerful and
aggressive that he was not di>mavd l>\ tin-
defection of his ally, and the war upon the
Dutch was continued with as much vigor as
ever. In 1675 Louis, at the head of a large
army, made an invasion of Franche Comtek
and reduced the whole province to submission
in a single campaign. Alsace was in like
manner overrun bv Marshal Turenne. The

THE GREAT CO.NDK.

Prince of Conde1 gained sonic advantages over
Prince William in Flanders, and the borders
of France were everywhere defended ag»in>t
the assaults of her enemies. In the operations
of the next year, Turenne and General Monte-
cuculi confronted each other on the Rhine
until what time Turenne was killed in the

battle of S:i.-liac!i. II. was succeeded in i-oin-

mand by the Prince of Conde, .-in-named tin-
Great. But he, after continuing the war for
a year, retired from the service to pass the
re<t of his life at Chantilly. On the other
side, Montecueuli also left the service, and in
tin- following year. ll!7li, the irreat I)e Knyti r

818

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

was killed in a sea fight in the Mediterranean.

Then the conflict lagged for want of leaders.

But it was the exhaustion of their resources

which led the powers at length to conclude a

peace. In 1677 Charles II. had shown what waa
for him unusual energy in attempting to medi-
ate between France and Holland. He gave his
niece Mary to the Prince of Orange, and

DEATH OF TURKNNE.— Drawn by A. de NeuviUe.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM 111. AND LOfls Ml.

819

thus paved the way for the accession of the
House of Nassau to the throue of England.
His mediations were at length successful,
:uiil in the summer of 1679 a general
treaty was concluded at Nimeguen. The
Prince of Orange had already made a sep-
iiratc pence with Louis in the preceding
year. Either learning the unsatisfactory
conditions which had been agreed upon at
Nimeguen, or else, as he pretended, being
ignorant that any settlement at all had
been reached, he attacked Marshal Luxem-
bourg within four days after the Nimeguen
treaty, and in the great battle of Muss
gained a bloody victory over the French.
Nevertheless, the peace was allowed to
stand, at least for a time, and Louis XIV.
found opportunity to look around him
and enjoy with complacency the great
glory which he had achieved.

It can not be doubted that at this
epoch the French king was by far the
grandest figure on the stage of Europe.
The palace of Versailles outshone any
other court in Christendom. Not that the
king's character possessed so many ele-
ments of real strength and greatness
as did that of William of Orange, but
Louis displayed himself as the Grand Mon-

nf his throne. Among other measures adopted
t<> .-pn-ad the halo of glory around his royal

MADAMK I>K MAINTKNON.

arch, and augmented, by every fictitious
means at his command, the artificial splendor

UOVIS XIV. AT THE AGE OF 41.

seat, the king took care to retain as members
of his court the most brilliant women and
dazzling wits of the kingdom. Among those
who were thus induced to add their brightness
to the social glory of Paris, perhaps the most
noted was Madame de Maiutenon, whom the
king in vain endeavored to bring into the
same relations with himself as were held by
the Duchess de hi Valliere and the Marchion-
ess de Monte>pnii. and whom, after the death
of the queen in 1683, he privately married.

Notwithstanding the treaty of peace, Louis
continued to prepare for war. By every
means at his disposal he augmented the naval
and military power of the kingdom. He ex-
tended his lines of defense in Flanders, in
Italy, and on the Rhine. He seized the free
city of Strasburg, and, converting it into a
fortified town, made it his stronghold on the
frontier looking towards Germany. He en-
tered into numberless intrigues to sap the
foundations of neighboring kingdoms. Set-
ting up a vain pretension to the town of
.Most, in the Spanish Netherlands, and find-
ing that claim resisted by the Spaniards, he

820

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

made such resistance an excuse for laying
siege to Luxembourg. He then instigated

v

the Turks to make an attack on the German
Empire, and in the next place made the Turk-
ish invasion a pretext for suspending the war
with Spain. Then when the Ottomans, by the
arrival of John Sobieski on the scene, were re-
pulsed from Vienna, he renewed hostilities, be-
sieged and took Courtray,
Dixmude, and Luxembourg,
and seized and demolished
the fortifications of Treves.
In all these movements he
pretended to be carrying
into effect the provisions of
the treaty' of Nimeguen!
The Empire and Spain,
however, grew weary at
length of his peaceful meth-
ods, and summoned him to
a negotiation at Ratisbon,
where, in August of 1684,
it was agreed that the peace
of Nimeguen should be con-
strued as a truce and made
effective for a period of
twenty years. By this means
another temporary adjust-
ment was secured, and Louis
again found time to pose
as the grandest monarch-
of Christendom.

The year 1685 is noted in the history of
France for the great folly and crime known as

the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. \Vitb
all his greatness of intellect, Louis XIV.

— k was an intense

bigot. His hatred
of Protestantism
was as profound
as his pride was
unbounded. Dur-
ing the life of
the shrewd and
somewhat gentle
Mazariu the an-
tipathy of the
king was abated
by the influence*
of his minister.
After the death
of the cardinal,
Colbert also had
checked and re-
strained the disposition of Louis whenever
the same was seen to tend to persecution.
But Colbert also passed
away in 1683, and was

JOHN SOBIESKI.

succeeded by Fran9ois Michel Louvois, who
was made chancellor of the kingdom, and

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM III. AM>

.\7 1.

821

gained an ascendency over the king as
•complete as that which had been held by

M:i/:iriii mid Colbert. LmivnK indeed, was

a man after Louis's own heart — a schcm. r
by nature, great in abilities, a bitter enemy
of the Huguenots. Between him and hi«

READING THE KKVO< AT1ON OF THE EDICT OK NANU-X
Drawn by A. de Ncuville

822

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

master it was now agreed that the whole
scheme of toleration, which had been devised
and proclaimed in April of 1598 by Henry of
Navarre as the fundamental condition of the
religious peace of France, should be reversed
and abrogated, to the end that Catholic abso-

TORTURE OF THE HUGUENOTS.

lutism might be reestablished throughout the
kingdom.

After certain preparatory steps, such as
local persecutions of the Huguenots, the shut-
ting up of their churches in various places,
and their expulsion from public offices,
an edict was finally prepared for the purpose
of destroying French Protestantism at a single
stroke. All Protestants were ordered to ab-

jure their religion and return to the commu-
nion of Rome under penalty of having their
property confiscated and themselves put be-
yond the protection of the law. Nor was the
measure coupled with the poor provision for
voluntary exile. Instead of permitting the

Huguenots to go
into self-banishment
in foreign lands the
most stringent orders
were given to pre-
vent their escape
from France. It was
decreed that any who
should be caught in
such an attempt
should be sent to
the galleys. Troops
of dragoons were
then sent into the
districts where the
Huguenots lived and
a persecution was
organized against
them which has been
made perpetually in-
famous in history
under the name of
the Dragonade. The
minister Louvois de-
clared the will of
the king to be that
the greatest rigor
should be visited on
those who would not
adopt his religion,
and that such stupid
vanity on the part
of the Huguenots
should be pursued
to the last extremity.
The king's dra-
goons were accord-
ingly ordered to quarter at will in the houses
of those who refused to give up the religion
in which they had been nurtured. One cru-
elty succeeded another. Menace was followed
by imprisonment, imprisonment by isolated
murders, and these by general and brutal
massacres. The Huguenot peasants were
hunted into the woods like wild beasts and
were shot down or tortured at the caprice of

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM III. AND LOUIS XIV.

their persecutors. Neither the decrepitude of
old age nor the pleading weakness of infancy
stirred any remorse in the breasts of the
bloody butchers who went about cutting <lown

all ages, sexes, and conditions. Many of the
Huguenot women were dragged into convents
and given over to the nuns, by whom they
were not suffered to sleep until they had COD-

WORK OF THK IWAIiONAUK.
Iirawn by A. de Netiville.

824

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

sented to go to mass. The regions where the
Huguenot population predominated were re-
duced to a desolation, and it is estimated that
France by her frightful barbarity to her own
people lost fully half a million of her most
industrious inhabitants before the folly of the
king and the cruelty of his minister worked
their own cure by reducing the revocation to
a dead letter. This in the year 1685 ! This
in the most polite and refined kingdom of
Christendom ! This at the hands of him who
delighted to be styled the Grand Monarch !

Two years before his accession to the En-
glish crown, the Prince of Orange succeeded
in uniting Germany, Holland, and Spain in a
league against France. But the movement
did not escape the vigilance of Louis, who
resolved to anticipate the purposes of his ene-
mies. Accordingly, in 1688, he struck a vig-
orous blow at the Empire, capturing Philips-
burg, Mausheim, and several other towns in a
single campaign. Just at this juncture, how-
ever, his attention was suddenly drawn from
the affairs of the continent to those of Eng-
land, where, by a bloodless revolution, the
House of Stuart had been expelled from the
kingdom and the Prince of Orange summoned
to 'the English throne. Then followed the
project of restoring James to his lost domin-
ion ; the Irish rebellion ; the going over of
the exiled king to that island ; the battle of
the Boyne ; the final collapse of the Stuart
dynasty, and the setting over against each
other for a decisive struggle of the two cham-
pions of their respective causes, William of
Orange and Louis XIV. of France.

Thus, after a long digression, we come
back to the year 1691, at which time, after
his return from Ireland, the English king
went over to Holland to direct in person the
preparations of the Dutch for the impending
war. Flanders became the chief scene of the
conflict. The great generals now opposed to
France were — besides King William himself —
Prince Eugene of Savoy and the dukes of
Marlborough and Rrhomhorg, the latter being
a son of the old duke slain in Ireland. On
the side of the French, Marshals Luxembourg
and Catinat became almost as renowned as
Conde and Turenne had been before them.
One of the principal engagements in the first
year of the war was the great naval battle of

La Hogue, which took place off the cape of
that name on the 29th of May, 1692. The
French armament, commanded by De Tour-
ville, was met in this water and • totally . de-
feated by the combined fleets of England and
Holland. Only a shattered remnant of Tour-
ville's squadron escaped to the French coast
to be overtaken there and destroyed by the
English and Dutch. The exiled James II.
himself beheld from a neighboring hill the
defeat and destruction of the armament on
the success of which his last hopes depended.
And it is said that the darkness which gath-
ered around him was lighted up with a few
gleams of pride when he saw that the victory
was resting on that same pennon of St.
George under which his own renown as a sea-
captain had been achieved in the days of his
youth.

In the following summer, however, Tour-
ville retrieved in some measure the disaster
of La Hogue by inflicting a severe defeat on
the squadron of Sir George Rooke in the
Mediterranean. This success he followed up
by making attempts on Cadiz and Gibraltar.
But from both places he was repelled by the
Spaniards and English. The allied fleets then
retaliated by making descents on St. Malo
and other places on the coast of France. On
the land the war was in general favorable to
France. In the great battle of Neerwin-
den the English were disastrously defeated.
Namur was besieged and taken before King
William could bring an army to its relief.
Then followed the hard fought battle of
Steinkirk, in which each side inflicted a
tremendous loss on the other; but the victory
remained with the French. In the following
year it seemed at one time that the whole
issue would be decided in the field, for the
kings of France and England commanding in
person brought their two armies face to face
near Louvain, and it was thought that the
most decisive struggle of the century was
about to ensue. But though the forces of
Louis were more than double those of his an-
tagonist he forbore to hazard a battle in
which every thing, including his glory as king
and warrior, was involved. At length he dis-
banded a part of his army and thus brought
upon himself the ridicule of his generals and
the satire of the wits. It is said that the

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM TTL AND LOUIS A71.

826

humiliation id which he thus exposed himself
was the first shaft which penetrated the armor
of his vainglorious arrogance. At any rate,
he never more presumed to command the

army in the field, but confined himself to
matters of administration and diplomacy.
Soon after this episode Marshal Catinat gained
a great victory in the battle of Marsaglia, and

>

BATTLE OF LA HOUUE.

826

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

this was followed by the capture of Rosas, in
Catalonia, by the Duke of Noailles.

But notwithstanding these triumphs of the
French arms the condition of the kingdom
was such as to impress upon the royal mind
the necessity of peace. It was said that the
French people were perishing to the sound of
Te Deurm. The farms and vineyards of
France were going to decay through neglect ;
for the peasants had been drafted into the
army or massacred in the Dragonade. Besides
all this the debt of the kingdom had become
enormous, and the ever-increasing taxes were

BATTLE OF NEERWINDEN.

still insufficient to support the provernment
and carry on a never-ending war. Even these
strong motives did not act so powerfully on
Louis's mind as others which existed in the
political situation of surrounding kingdoms.
In Spain the childless Charles II. was on
his death-bed. He was a brother-in-law of Louis
XIV., and also of the Emperor Leopold of
Austria. Each of these sovereigns had mar-
ried a sister of the Spanish king, and each
was a grandson on the mother's side of Philip
III., of Spain. There was, -therefore, some
ground for a plot between Louis and Leopold
looking to a seizure of the dominions of the
Spanish king as soon as the latter should pay

the debt of nature. Such a plot at one time
existed ; but neither of the royal conspirators
could hope to be successful in his designs upon
the kingdom of the peninsular brother-in-law
while one half of Europe was at war with the
other. Louis especially became anxious that
the powers should be pacified to the end that
he might have an open field for his operations
against Spain. He accordingly solicited the
aid of Pope Innocent XII. and urged that
potentate to take upon himself the office of
mediator between the states at war. He also
appealed to the kings of Denmark and Swe-
den to use their
influence in favor
of peace; but at
this juncture the
Emperor perceiv-
ing that the pacific
Louis was actuated
by motives wholly
selfish set himself
resolutely against
the schemes of the
French king, and
united most cor-
dially with Will-
iam III. to pre-
vent the making
of peace. The
king of England
knew full well that
his great adver-
sary had exhausted
his resources and
must soon humble
himself by propos-
ing more favorable terms as the price of a
settlement.

So the war dragged on. A French army
was sent into the valley of the Rhine, and
that region was again wasted as in the Thirty
Years' War. On the sea, also, the privateers
of France did great damage to the commerce
of the Dutch and the English. On the other
side, King William besieged and took Namur,
which had been the first conquest made by
Louis at the beginning of the war. This
circumstance gave great encouragement to the
allies ; but their spirits were presently damp-
ened by the defection of the Duke of Savoy,
who withdrew from the league and went over

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM KI. AND LOUIS XIV.

827

to France. Thus were passed the years
1695-96.

William, as king of England and stadt-
holder of Holland, now conceived that the
time had come for peace. The Emperor still
resisted the project, but was at length over-
borne, and negotiations were opened. Com-
missioners from most of the states of Europe
met at RYSWICK, near the Hague, and in Sep-
tember of 1697 a treaty was concluded. The
French ministers effected a three-fold settle-
ment: one with England, another with Hol-
land, and a third with Spain. In the first
Louis acknowledged William HI. as the right-
ful occupant of the English throne, and bound
himself to give no further aid or encourage-
ment to James II. or to other members of the
Stuart dynasty. The independence of the
Netherlands was again acknowledged, and a

that all the elements of discord and commo-
tion were loosed at once in the peninsula.
Politically, the Spanish treasury was bank-
rupt, the army virtually disorganized, the
officers of the government unpaid. The social
state was also distracted. A terrible famine
supervened. Ther. came physical disturbances.
Earthquakes and floods prevailed, and hurri-
canes of violence completed the devastation.

The Emperor Leopold and Louis XIV.
watched with inner satisfaction this rapid dis-
integration of the Spanish kingdom. But
such was the sentiment of Euro]>e that each
monarch in his turn was obliged to disclaim
his purpose. The Emperor presently assigned
his claims to his second son, the Archduke
Charles of Austria; and Louis in like man-
ner named his grandson, Philip of Anjou, as
his candidate for the Spanish crown. It soon

THE RIVAL CLAIMANTS

FOR THK

SPANISH CROWN.

(War of Spanish Succession.)

CHARLES V., 1558.
PHILIP II., 1588.
PHILIP III., 1621.

Louis XIII., 1643— Anna Maria.

PHILIP IV., 1665.
I

Maria Anna— EXFXBOR FERDINAND III., 1667.

Louis, 1712.

Louis XIV.,— MARIA THERESA. CHARLES II., M A ROARKT THERESA— LEOPOLD I., 1705.

1715. | 1700. 1673. |

Dauphin, 1711.
I Emperor Joseph I., 1711. CHARLE

Emperor Joseph I., 1711. CHARLES VI., 1740. Maria Antonla, 1692.

l'HIUIJ V., 1746.

MARIA THERERA.

restoration promised of the conquests made
from the Dutch during the war. Spain also
was to receive back the towns of which she
had been deprived in Catalonia and the Span-
ish Netherlands. Another month, however,
elapsed before a settlement could be reached
between Louis and the Emperor. At last the
treaties of Westphalia and Nimeguen were
taken as a basis, and to these certain clauses
were added by which it was agreed that Leo-
pold, duke of Lorraine, should be restored to
his electorate ; that Joseph Clement of Bava-
ria should receive Cologne ; that the Duchess
of Orleans should renounce her claim to the
Rhine palatinate, and that Alsace should re-
main to France.

Against all expectation, Charles II. of
Spain still lingereil anum^ the livinir. But
he was evidently in a dying condition. Never
was a kingdom more distressed. It seemed

became evident, however, that Leopold meant
to secure a complete union of Spain and the
Empire. He assumed to direct Spanish affairs
in the manner of a sovereign. His encroach-
ments became so manifest and his methods so
open that, the powers, perceiving his inten-
tions, and bitterly jealous of his growing in-
fluence at the court of Madrid, began to ally
themselves against him. Even William IH.
entered into a league with the Grand Mon-
arch to prevent the accomplishment of Leo-
pold's purpose respecting the Spanish king-
dom. In 1698 Holland, England, and France
made a secret compact, by which it was agreed
that on the death of the kinir of Spain the
crown of that country should be given to the
Duke of Bavaria. But the possessions of
Spain in Italy were to be divided between the
Dauphin of France and the Archduke of
Austria.

828

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

While the invalid Charles II. still hung to
life, a knowledge of these proceedings was
borne to him at the Spanish capital, whereat
he was fired with just anger. Turning upon
his couch, he dictated a will by which his
•whole dominions were bequeathed to the

FREDERICK I., KING OF PRUSSIA.

Prince of Bavaria. Thus would he thwart the
machinations of those who were plotting to
dismember his kingdom. Within a year, how-
ever, the heir whom he had appointed to his
royal estates died, and by this event both the
king's will and the secret treaty made by
William and Louis were rendered of no effect.
But the rulers of France and England

were not to be easily defeated in their designs.
In the year 1700 they entered into a new
agreement for the spoliation of Spain. It
was decided that Lorraine and all the Spanish
possessions in Italy, except Milan, should,
after the death of Charles II., go to the Dau.
phin of France ; and that the
Spanish kingdom, thus strip-
ped of its dependencies, should
be given to the Archduke
Charles ; but it was stipulated
that- Spain and the Empire
should never be united in one
sovereignty. It was also
agreed that in case the Em-
peror would not accede to this
arrangement, then the Spanish
dominions should descend to
some third party, not yet
publicly mentioned in con-
nection with the succession,
perhaps the Duke of Savoy.
It is highly illustrative of
the character of Louis XIV.
that, at the very time when
he was engaged in making
this settlement and compact
with King William, he was
also, by means of his secret
agents in Madrid, some of
whom were the Spanish min-
isters themselves, exerting
himself to the utmost to pro-
cure from Charles a declara-
tion in favor of his own can-
didate and grandson, Philip
of Anjou, second son of the
dauphin. Duplicity could go
no further. And the scheme
succeeded ; for, just before
the death of the Spanish king,
he was induced to make a
new will bequeathing all of
his dominions to the Duke of
Anjou. Then all Europe saw the adroit
game which the Grand Monarch had played,
and most of the rulers knew not whether to
admire or be angry.

Of all the beaten monarchs the Emperor
was most displeased. But just at this moment
a Hungarian insurrection broke out, and the
attention of the indignant Leopold was, by

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— UIIJ.l \ M III. .\M> Loris A7C.

829

necessity, withdrawn to his own affairs. As
for King William, he concealed whatever
chagrin he may have felt, and made the most
of the situation by recognizing Philip of
Anjou as the rightful sovereign of Spain.
Doubtless he had a sense of profound disgust
as he gulped down the enormous bolus of de-
ceit which Louis had so carefully prepared.

Most of the other European rulers acknowl-
edged Philip V. as king of Spain. That
prince repaired to Madrid, and was duly pro-
claimed. For the time it appeared that the
stroke of Louis had been completely success-
ful. Perhaps, if his subsequent course had
been marked with as much prudence as his
previous programme had been carried out by
subtlety, his ultimate purpose of a vast French
empire in the West might have been attained.
But he soon lost his advantage by indiscre-
tion. Instead of cajoling the Spanish author-
ities and bringing them over to the cordial
support of his grandson, he offended the nation
by his arrogance. To England he behaved in
like manner; and to the Dutch he gave a
mortal offense by expelling their garrisons
from the fortified places which they had es-
tablished on the frontiers as a defense against
France.

.Mr;ui\vhile Prince Eugene of Savoy ap-
peared on the scene and urged upon the Em-
peror the necessity of immediate war as the
only means of saving the Imperial dominions.
Just at this juncture, Leopold also discovered
a powerful ally in the person of Frederick III.
of Brandenburg. This prince, who was ambi-
tious to become a king, was very willing to
join in a war with France, that he might
procure from the Emperor a recognition of
sovereignty. In order to forward this project
a diet was convened in November of 1700;
the royalty of Frederick was recognized, and
he, hastening back to Konigsberg, assumed
the title of King of Prussia. Thus, on the
broad military foundation which had been laid
by the genius of the Great Elector — father of
him who now became a sovereign — was reared
the solid superstructure of the Prussian mon-
archy; and so began that great conflict with
which the eighteenth century was ushered in,
and which is known in history as the WAR OF
THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.

The struggle was begun by the Imperialists

under Prince Eugene in Italy. That great
general, in the spring of 1701, gathered hi-
forces at Trent, and thencr made a descent
into Lombardy. Catinat, who commanded
the French army in Northern Italy, was de-
feated, and the Imperialists overran the coun-
try. So serious was the reverse of the French
that Catinat was displaced and the command
given to Marshal Villcroy; but the latter was
no more able than his predecessor to meet
Prince Eugene in the field. In tin- two battles
of Chiari and Cremona the French were disas-
trously defeated, and the Italian campaigD
ended by the restitution of Imperial authority
south of the Alps.

In the mean time a Grand Alliance had
been concluded by the kings of England and
Prussia, the states of Holland, and the elector
of the Palatinate. It was resolved to bring
the greater part of the power of Europe to-
bear in the work of humbling the overween-
ing pride of Louis. At the head of the
league stood King William of England, and
all the energies of that prince were now-
evoked by his powerful will and made sub-
servient to the great work which he had taken
in hand.

But Louis was by no means appalled at the
array against him. He even added insult to in-
jury. For when, in September of 1701, the
exiled James II., who for more than twelve
years had had his residence in the palace of St.
Germain, died, the Grand Monarch made haste
to recognize his sou, the Pretender, as king
of England. The conduct of King William
had of late been very distasteful to the En-
glish nation, but this act of the French king
in recognizing the hated scion of the House
of Stuart roused all the slumbering loyalty
of William's subjects, and he suddenly re-
gained by the reaction more than he had lost
in the public esteem. Parliament fired with
the insult. Supplies for the prosecution of
the war were voted without stint, and the
king was petitioned never to make peace with
Louis of France until the hitter had made
full reparation for the affront which he had
offered to the Knglish people.

While this great drama was enacting on
the continent the home government had been
for the most part intrusted to Queen Marv.
During her husband's long absences in the

830

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Netherlands she managed the affairs of state
with so much prudence and ability as greatly
to endear herself to Parliament and the peo-
ple. It was, therefore, to the profound grief
of the nation, as well as to the king, when,
in 1694, the queen contracted small-pox
and died.

With this event William became more

year of his age and the fourteenth of his
reign. Though he and the queen had lived
happily and loyally together, they were not
blessed with children ; and thus the very
emergency which Parliament had foreseen
and provided for when the crown was first
offered to William, had arrived. By the pro-
visions of that settlement the scepter now

PALACE OF SAINT GERMAIN.
Time of Louis XIV.

than ever a soldier. But after seven years
of service, mostly on the continent, his own
career was now, at the outbreak of the War
of the Spanish Succession, destined to close.
In February of 1702, while riding from Ken-
sington to Hampton Court, the king's horse
stumbled and threw the rider with so much
violence as to break his collar-bone. While
still confined to his couch by this accident he
was attacked with malarial fever and died on
the 8th of March, being then in the fifty-second

passed to the Princess ANNE, sister of the late
queen and daughter of James II.

The new sovereign was in her thirty-ninth
year at the time of her accession to power.
She had been married in 1683 to George of
Denmark, brother of Christian V. By him
she had seventeen children, of whom only a
single one, the feeble George, duke of Glouces-
ter, lived beyond infancy ; and he died at the
age of eleven. It thus appeared even at the
date of her coming to the throne that the

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WIU. I. \M 111. A\I> /,O//s A/l

last member of the House of Stuart, which
the Parliament was willing to recognize as
having royal claims in England, was doomed
to perish childless.

Anne, however, possessed a full measure of
ability ; and as for the succession she left that
matter to be decided by parliamentary discus-
sion. It was at length
enacted that at her death
the crown should descend
to the Protestant offspring
of Sophia, duchess of
Brunswick, niece of
Charles I., granddaughter
of James Stuart This
royal lady was married
to the Duke of Hanover-
Brunswick, and thus was
paved the way for the
accession of the House
of Hanover to the throne
of England.

Great was the discour-
agement of the allies when
it was known that Will-
iam III. was dead. But
there was no receding
from the position which
they had taken with re-
spect to the policy of
France. They m ust either
succeed in humbling the
pride of Louis, or else
consent that their respec-
tive territories should be
subjugated and perhaps
absorbed in the widening
boundaries of France.
But the news also came
that Queen Anne had
adopted the same policy
which had been pursued
by the late king of Eng-
land, and that she was
loyally upheld in this course by the English
Parliament and people. Moreover, the illus-
trious John Churchill, duke of Marlborough,
greatest of English generals since the days of
the Black Prince, still stood at the head of
the Protestant armies in the Netherlands, and
by his military genius added glory to the con-
flict. To him the reputation of England was

intrusted by the queen. She nwde him her
ambassador at the Hague, and to such an ex-
tent did he gain upon the confidence of the
Dutch that he was presently appointed by the
States-general to command the forces of Hol-
land. His chief abettors in the prosecution
of the war were the Grand Pensionary Hein-

~~

QUEEN ANNE.

sius, who was now uppermost in the civil af-
fairs of the Netherlands, and Prince Eugene
of Savoy, who, after Marlborough himself,
was perhaps the greatest general of his time.
These three, known as the Triumvirate, now
assumed the responsibilty of the conduct of
the war with France.

In May of 1702 hostilities were formally

832

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

declared by England, Holland, and the Em-
pire. The first campaign of the allies was
against the territory of Cologne. During this
invasion the towns of Kaiserswerth, Veuloo,
Stephanswerth, Ruremond, and Liege were
wrested from the French. On the Upper
Rhine, Prince Louis of Baden had better for-
tune, and succeeded in the capture of Landau.
In the following year the whole electorate of
Cologne was overrun by Marlborough. On
the other hand, the French, under Marshal
Villars, made a successful invasion of Ger-
many, seized Ratisbon, and defeated the Im-
perial army at Hochstiidt. Breisach on the
Rhine was also taken, and the Emperor's

THE DUKE OF MAKLBOROUGH.

Alter the painting by Kneller.

army suffered a second defeat at Spirebach.
At this juncture the Duke of Savoy aban-
doned the cause of the French and went over
to the Grand Alliance. In like manner Pedro
II. of Portugal cast in his fortunes with the
allies, and entered into a perpetual league
with England and Holland.

By these successes and accessions of strength
the allied powers were so much emboldened
that they openly declared their purpose of un-
seating Philip V. from the throue of Spain,
and of conferring the crown of that country
upon the Archduke Charles of Austria.

In the beginning of the campaigns of 1704
the Duke of Marlborough captured the heights
of Schellenberg, and thus gained contro? of
the river Danube. He and Prince Eugene

then formed a junction of their forces, and on
the 13th of August confronted the combined
army of French and Bavarians, under Mar-
shal Tallard and the elector Marsin, on the ever-
memorable field of BLENHEIM, near Hochstiidt.
The Anglo-Austrian army numbered about
fifty-two thousand men, and that of the French
and Bavarians was fifty-six thousand strong.
The battle which ensued was among the
fiercest and most bloody of the century.
More than ten thousand of the French and
Bavarians were killed or wounded, and others
innumerable were driven into the river and
drowned. The English loss was also enor-
mous, amounting to about five thousand killed
and eight thousand wounded. At the close
of the bloody struggle Marshal Tallard, with
eighteen thousand Frenchmen, was obliged to
surrender to Marlborough, while Prince Eu-
gene drove the Bavarians in utter rout from
the field. So decisive was the victory of the
English and Imperialists that the prestige of
Louis XIV. was destroyed forever. The re-
joicings in England knew no bounds. Queen
Anne bestowed upon Marlborough a tract of
nearly three thousand acres near Woodstock,
and here in the park was erected for the duke
the magnificent palace known as Blenheim
House ; and Parliament voted to the conqueror
a gift of five hundred thousand pounds.

On the side of Germany the power of the
French was now completely broken. But in
Italy the allies were less fortunate. In that
country the French overran the northern part
of Piedmont, and reestablished their commu-
nications with Milan. At this juncture the
Archduke Charles, candidate of the allies for
the Spanish throne, was proclaimed as Charles
III. Supported by a Dutch and English
army, he landed at Lisbon, and undertook to
make his way to Madrid. But he was checked
in his progress by the Duke of Berwick, a
natural son of James II., in command of the
French forces in the peninsula. About the
same time Sir George Rooke, with an English
fleet, bore down upon Gibraltar, and, taking
advantage of a holiday, when the garrison
•was off its guard, scaled the acclivity and took
the place by storm. By the conclusion of
1704 the allies had established themselves al-
most as firmly on the side of Spain as pre-
viously on the side of Germany.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILI JAM III. AM) LOUIS .\1\'.

888

In the year 1706 the Emperor Leopold
was succeeded by his son JOSKPII f. More en-
ergetic measures were now adopted against
the insurgent Hungarians and also against the
electorate of Bavaria, at this time in revolt.
In the preceding year the
French, under the Duke
of Venddme, had gained
a decisive victory over
Prince Eugene in the
battle of Cassano. They
also attempted, but un-
successfully, to retake
Gibraltar. In the same
year the Earl of Peter-
borough captured Barce-
lona, gained over Cata-
lonia and a part of
Va 1 e n c i a , and had
Charles III. proclaimed
as sovereign. This action
on the part of the Cata-
lonians was in the next
year followed by the peo-
ple of Aragon. The al-
lied armies then marched
upon Madrid. Philip V.
and his court took to
flight. The triumphant
Charles took possession
of the capital.

But now it was that
the innate preference of
the Spaniards for the
House of Bourbon, and
their inveterate dislike
of the House of Aus-
tria, were manifested.
Revolts broke out against
the allies, who were re-
garded as invaders, and
the insurrectionary move
ment gained such head-
way that the garrisons
which the supporters of Charles established in
various parts of Aragon were expelled from the
fortresses, and the allied forces were obliged
to fall back into Valencia. Before the close
of the year the English rallied again, and
captured Ala-ant and Carthagena; but later
in the season the latter place was retaken by
the Duke of Berwick. In September of this
VOL. II.- 53

year Prince Eugene won a great victory over
the French at Turin; hut his triumph was
not as brilliant as that already gained in the
preceding May by the Duke of Marlborough
in the bloody battle of K\ MILLIES. By these

f.UIUKI

OF AUSTRIAN BATTERIES AT
Drawn by Vlcrgc.

two great successes all Lombardy and Brabant
and the greater part of Flanders were won by
the allies, and Charles III. was joyfully pro-
claimed at Milan.

So tremendous were the blows which Louis
had received that he now made overtures for
peace. He ottered to give up the Spanish
Netherlands to Holland and to recognize

834

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Charlea III. as king of Spain and the Indies,
if the allies on their part would concede to
Philip of Anjou the French possessions in
Italy. But the allied powers had now become
as arrogant as the Grand Monarch himself.
They would have all or nothing. So the war
was continued with as much vigor as ever.
The French seemed to rouse themselves with
unwonted energy, and the fortune of war be-
gan to incline to their standard. In 1707,
they fought and gained the great battle of
Almanza, in which the English forces were
scattered and their standards and baggage-
trains captured by the victors. All Valencia
and Aragon were recovered by Philip V.
Even Lerida and Ciudad Rodrigo were taken
by the French. The allied campaigns in
Italy were also attended with ill-success.
Prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy, as-
sisted by an English fleet under Sir Cloudes-
ley Shovel, laid siege to Toulon. But the
coming of a French squadron obliged them
to retire. Only in the south of Italy did
Marshal Daun successfully uphold the cause
of Charles in.

Soon after the raising of the siege of Tou-
lon, Sir Cloudesley Shovel was shipwrecked
on the rocks of Sicily. He himself perished,
and of four ship's crews only one captain and
twenty-four seamen were rescued. At this
time an old factor reappeared in the contest
in the person of the Pretender. In 1707,
the union of England and Scotland, deferred
for more than a century, was finally effected,
and this event gave rise to much dissatisfac-
tion among the people of the Northern King-
dom. Louis XIV. attempted to take advan-
tage of this discontent by sending a fleet and
army to conduct the Pretender to the coun-
try, which was supposed to be waiting to re-
ceive him. But the English admiral, Byng,
was on the alert, and the squadron of escort
was met and put to flight before it could reach
the Frith of Forth.

In the vicissitudes of the struggle the
French were, in 1708, enabled to gain some
decided advantage in the Netherlands.
The cities of Ghent and Bruges were
taken and occupied by the ' forces of Louis.
On the other hand, the combined armies of
Marlborough and Eugene won a decisive vic-
tory in the battle of Oudenarde. The fortress

of Lille was taken by the allies, and Brussels
was wrested from the elector of Bavaria. In
the Mediterranean the cause of Charles III.
was well sustained by the English armament
under Admiral Leake, who effected the con-
quest of Sardinia.

To the distresses which a long-continued war
had brought upon the people of France were
now added the disasters of the severest winter
which had ever been known in the country.
Such rigors had hardly been imagined as pos-
sible in that latitude. The swift and arrowy
Rhone was converted into a glacier. For a
month or more the Mediterranean resembled
the Arctic Ocean. It was only by the most
strenuous exertions that the peasants, even of
Southern France, saved themselves from being
frozen to death. The vineyards and orchards
upon which the French people so largely re-
lied for support were totally destroyed, and
even the grain-crop was well-nigh ruined.
During the summer of 1709 France hovered
on the confines of famine, and Louis was
driven again to make proposals for peace.
His overtures were of the same general char-
acter as those which he had previously made ;
but the allies, now more haughty than ever,
demanded that the French armies should be
used in the expulsion of Philip V. from
Spain. This tyrannical exaction a second
time brought on a reaction ; and, notwith-
standing her extreme distress, France returned
to the conflict and fought with the fury of
despair.

In 1709, the English and Imperialists un-
der Marlborough and Eugene, won a victory
in the battle of MALPLAQUET and captured
Tournay. Mons was also obliged to surren-
der to the allies. Hereupon Charles III. was
recognized by the Pope, and the campaign
closed with his success almost assured. Again
in 1710 Louis sought peace, and even offered'
a million livres as the price of a reconcilia-
tion ; but nothing short of the actual turning
of the French arms against Philip would satr
isfy the allied powers ; so the war continued
with more bitterness than ever. "If I must
fight," said the enraged Louis, "I will war
against my enemies, not my children." His
generals returned to the conflict, and in con-
junction with the Spainards gained at Bri-
huega and Villa Viciosa two victories so de-

t:\ULISir REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM III. AND LOUIS XIV.

881

cisive as to establish Philip V. on the throne
of Spain.

In the mean time a political revolution was
effected in England. The Whig ascendency
was broken by the Tories, and a new ministry
was formed in opposition to the Duke of
Marlborough. The latter was, on the 1st of
January, 1712, removed from all his offices
and virtually driven into exile on the conti-
nent, where he remained until the accession
of the House of Hanover to the English
throne.

In April of 1711 Joseph I. died, and this
event suddenly changed the whole character
of the conflict. For the Archduke Charles,
on whose head for so many bloody years the
allies had been trying to place the crown of
Spain, now claimed the Empire, and the spec-
ter of universal monarchy suddenly strode over
from France to Germany. The allied powers
at once perceived that by his accession to the
Imperial dignity Charles would become as
great a terror as Philip of Anjou had been
before him. The same policy which had
leagued all Europe against Louis XIV. and
his seeming purpose to combine the kingdoms
of France and Spain, now demanded a similar
alliance to prevent the union of Spain and
Austria. In England the movement in favor
of peace was accelerated by the Tory ministry,
headed by Harley, earl of Oxford ; and when,
in December of 1711, Charles was crowned at
Frankfort as the Emperor CHARLES VI., the
•continental powers wheeled into line, and the
peace became assured.

Two months before the coronation of the
new Emperor, the preliminary articles of a
treaty had been agreed upon between France
and England. A general congress, composed
of representatives of all the states which had
been at war, was convened at UTRECHT, in
Holland, in January of 1712. The allies
were represented by eighty ambassadors and
France by three! It was arrive!, first of all,
that Philip V. should be recognized as king
of Spain; but this agreement was well-nigh
annulled by a strange fatality which now
overtook the family of Louis XIV. The
Dauphin died in 1711, and his brother, the
Duke of Burgundy, lioeamo heir expectant to
the French crown. As for that alleged twin-
brother, the famous Man in the Iron Mask,

who had been a close prisoner for more than
a quarter of a century, first in the Island of
Ste. Marguerite and afterwards in the Hostile,
he too had died in 1703, and had carried his
mystery to the grave with him. While the ne-
gotiations were going on at Utrecht, the new
Dauphin, who was a great favorite with the
French nation, also died. His wife had
already perished of the same malady a few
days before. His two sons were now attacked,
and the elder, the Duke of Bretagne, died,
while the younger, greatly enfeebled, barely
survived. The life of this young prince be-
came the only barrier between Philip V. and
the French crown. For he was next in order
of succession, according to laws of France.
On this account the ambassadors, especially
the representatives of England, insisted that
Philip of Anjou should, before his recognition
as king of Spain, cede all of his claims to the
French throne to his younger brother, the
Duke of Berri — which he accordingly did.

When the conference at Utrecht was be-
gun, the Emperor refused to participate in
the proceedings; for he still hoped to obtain
the Spanish crown for the House of Austria.
But in attempting to carry on the war alone,
he met with one reverse after another and
soon became willing for peace. He and the
king of France appointed Prince Eugene and
Marshal Villars to negotiate a separate treaty,
which they quickly concluded in 1714, at
Rastadt. By this settlement it was agreed
that all the provinces on the right bank of
the Rhine should be restored to the Empire,
and that Charles VI. should also receive the
entire Spanish possessions in Italy and the
Netherlands. The new electorate of Hanover
was permanently established, and the electors
of Bavaria and Cologne were restored to
authority.

Meanwhile the general questions under
discussion by the ambassadors at Utrecht were
finally decided, and the treaty signed in April
of 1713. As to England, the Hanoverian
succession was recognized, and it was agreed
that, after the death of Queen Anne, the
crown should pass without controversy to the
Klectress Sophia of Hanover-Brunswick. In
the way of a cession England received from
France all of her North American possessions
in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson's

836

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.-THE MODPJRN WORLD.

Bay, together with the island of St. Christo-
pher's. The king of France also engaged to
dismantle Dunkirk and to abandon forever
the cause of the Pretender. By another
clause it was agreed that the royal rank of

THE MAN IN THE IRON MASK.
Drawn by Vierge.

Frederick III. of Prussia should be recog-
nized. The Duke of Savoy became king of
Sicily, and was granted the reversion of the
Spanish crown in case Philip V. should die
without an heir. Spain, on her part, ceded
Gibraltar and Minorca to England, but this
was done on the condition that neither Moors

nor Jews should be tolerated in the places-
ceded. To this England consented ! The fangs
of the Middle Ages were still displayed at the
council-board of Utrecht.

Thus was ended the War of the Spanish
Succession. In the same
year of the treaty the
Electress Sophia, to
whom and her descend-
ants the crown of Eng-
land was soon to pass,
died, and the succession
rested on her son, George
Louis. Soon afterwards
Queen Anne herself fell
sick, and it became evi-
dent that she could not
recover. Messen gers
were accordingly sent to
bring over Duke George
as far as Holland, where-
he was to await the issue.
The queen lingered until
the 1st of August, 1714,
when she expired, being
then in the fifty-first
year of her age. She
was the last of the House
of Stuart to occupy the
throne of England. The
elector of Hanover was
at once proclaimed, and
was given the crown with
the title of GEORGE I.

The life of Louis
XIV. was prolonged for
another year. But he
was now in his decrepi-
tude, and the system of
absolute government to
which he had devoted
the energies of the long-
est reign known to his-
tory was as decrepit and
miserable as himself.

Domestic calamity had come to add to the dolor
of his last days. His son was dead. His grand-
son was dead. His great-grandson stood ready
to succeed him. All his visions of glory sank
into the shadows. For seventy-two years he
had occupied the throne of the most polite
and refined kingdom of Christendom ; and now

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM III. AXI) LOCI* A/1.

887

this] He hud indeed been the Grand Mon-
arch; but his grandeur was artificial, facti-

LOUIS XIV. IN BIS OLD AGE.

tious. In vain in his last days
<lid he call in the Jesuit Le
Tellier, and to him commit the
keeping of his soul. Out of
the hollowness of the past the
knell sounded in his ears, and
on the 1st of September, 1715,
he was called to pay the debt
of nature. To his great-grand-
son, who stood by his bedside,
he said, as if in perfect mockery
of all those schemes to which
he had devoted his own life :
"You will soon be king of a
great kingdom. What I most
strongly recommend to you is,
never to forget the obligations
you are under to God. Re-
member that to him you owe

all that you possess. Endeavor to preserve
peace with your neighbors. I have been too
fund of war. Do not you follow my example
in that, or in my too lavish expenditure.
Take advice in all things, and endeavor to
find out the best, that you may invariably
adhere to it. Ease your people as soon as you
can, and do that which I have had the mis-
fortune of not being able to do.''

It has been — and is — the custom to speak
of the Age of Louis XIV. as an epoch of
great industrial, literary, and artistic progress.
l!y i liis method certain writers have hoped to
establish and perpetuate the belief that litera-
ture, art, and general prosperity — all, indeed,
that constitutes the greatness and glory of a
state — can be, and frequently are, produced
by the patronage of the great. Not knowing, or
unwilling to believe, that freedom is the one
antecedent of the true intellectual greatness
of mankind, such writers would fain attribute
to rulers, kings, princes, patrons, those brill-
iant achievements of which free men are

J A VI I' £3 HKSUiSK IHJSSl'ET.

838

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

capable when left to themselves. We are
thus asked to admit that the paternal system
of government is better than liberty. Never
was there a more false and pernicious theory.
The mind must first be free before it can be
great. No artificial stimulus has ever pro-
duced— can ever produce — a masterpiece. As
a matter of fact, the alleged intellectual great
ness of the Age of Louis XIV. is a fiction.
It has remained for Buckle to puncture
bubble, and to destroy forever the
cant of the historians and encyclo-
paedists who would perpetuate the
idea that intellectual grandeur is
caught by reflection from the smiles
of kings and princes.

It has been claimed that a great
group of illustrious men — poets, or-
ators, scholars, statesmen — flour-
ished in the sunshine of the court
of Louis XIV. His reign has been
styled the Augustan Age of France,
and the encyclopedias give long
lists of illustrious names in art and
letters to substantiate the Grand
Monarch's claim to be the father of

a literary epoch. An examination of the facts,
however, shows that, of the men of genius whose
names are generally paraded as the glory of
Louis's times, the great majority were either
dead or in their dotage long before the system
of literary patronage for which so much is-
claimed was adopted or could have borne the
smallest fruit. The poets, dramatists, paint-
ers, musicians, sculptors, and architects, even
the theologians, of France in the seventeenth
century were nearly all born and educated
.a under the free policy which
prevailed while the great Louis
was still in his swaddling-clothes.
It will be remembered that lie
did not assume the government
of France until 1661. His reign
extended from this time until
his death in 1715, a period of
fifty-four years. But it was not
until as late as 1680 or 1690 that
his policy of patronizing litera-
ture and art was systematically
adopted. Nor could it reason-
ably be supposed that any effect
of that system could be expected
to appear before the close of the century.
As a matter of fact, however, the end of

^fpy^ p^v

JEAN BAPTISTE POQUELIN MOI.IERK.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— WILLIAM HI. AM> Lods M\:

880

the seventeenth and the beginning of the
eighteenth century mark an epoch of intel-
lectual decay and of imitation in the literature
and art of France ; and this decay, and not
any previous splendor, of the French mind
was the real fruit of the system of patronage
established by the king. The citation of a few
names and dates is all that is required to
brush away the pretensions which have been
made by the flatterers of Louis and his gov-
ernment. Nearly all of the
great men of France were in
their graves more than a quar-
ter of a century before the
king was called to his account
Of the great divines, Bossuet
died in 1704; Bourdaloue in the
same year; Mascaron in 1703.
So that neither of these can be
said to have been the fruit of
Louis's system. Of the great
artists, Le Brun died in 1690;
the elder Mignard in 1668 ; the
younger in 1695; Claude Lor-
raine in 1682 ; Lesueur in 1655 ;
Poussin in 1665. Of great arch-
itects, Claude Perrault died in
1688, and Francis Mansart in
1666. Of the great sculptors, Puget died in

also, we should look in vain for a single
prominent example which might truthfully be

T.A FONTAINE.

1694. Lulli, the founder of French music,
died in 1687. So that in the domain of art,

NICOLAS BOILEAU-DKSPREAfX.

cited as belonging exclusively to Louis's much
vaunted reign.

Turning to the dramatists the same thing may
be noticed. All of the great works of Racine
were produced before the year 1691, and those
of Moliere before the year 1668. Likewise
the masterpieces of Boileau were all published
before 1674. The Fables of La Fontaine were
given to the world in 1678 ; the Essays of La
Bruyere in 1687 ; the Letters of Pascal in
1656. So that from beginning to end the
claim that the reign of Louis XIV., and the
system which he adopted of patronizing liter-
ature and art, were productive of great men
and great works, is utterly and forever ex-
ploded.

The system of arbitrary government, of
which he was the <:reat exemplar, grew old
with himself, and both together went down in
a general decay of the French mind as piti-
able as his own claims to glory had been mag-
nificent and unfounded.

840

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.— CZAR PETER AND CHARLES XII.

TOLERABLY full ac-
count has now been given
of that great movement
for political liberty which,
beginning in England and
Holland, spread into
every part of Western
Europe, and which, if not everywhere success-
ful, was at least triumphant in the lands of
its origin. True it is that not all of Europe
•was involved in this contest. Many portions
were not yet sufficiently advanced in civiliza-
tion to sympathize with the movement and

Charles XII. of Sweden, for the mastery of
the North.

In entering upon this subject it will at
once strike the reader that the conflict in
question belongs rather to the Middle Ages
than to modern times. The events to be nar-
rated are set chronologically at the beginning
of the eighteenth century, but logically they
are associated with those movements which
in the more enlightened parts of Europe
had long subsided. By the story to be nar-
rated in the present chapter one must needs
be reminded rather of the Crusades than of

ROMANOFF.

1. IVAN IV., 1584.

I

Nikita.

I

Dimitri.

I van.

I

Ivan.

5. FKODOR, 1682.

2. FEODOR, 1598. Ivanovna=-Feodor. Alexander. Michael.
Maria Dolgoruki— 3. MICHAEL, 1645— Eudocia Streshnef.

Natalia Naruishkiii— 4. ALEXIS, 1676— Maria Miloslavski.

Eudocia— 8. PETEKTHEGREAT, 1725—9. CATHARINE I., 1727.
Alexis. 1

6. IVAN V., 16%.
I

7. SOPHIA,
1704.

10. ANN A I., 1740.

Catherine— Leopold.
Anton— 12. ANNA II., 1764.
13. IVAN VI., 1764.

PETER II.,
1730.

Anna— Holstein.

11. ELIZABETH, 1762.

14. PETERlII., 1762—15. CATHAEINElI.,1796.

16. PAUL I., 1801.

I

17. ALEXANDER I., 1825. Charlotte of Prussia— 18. NICHOLAS, 1855.

Elizabeth of Baden— 19. ALEXANDER II., 1882.

THE ROMANOFFS. Dagmar of Denmark—20. ALEXANDER III.

Czars anil Czarinas printed In SMALL CAPITALS and dated. Nicholas.

share in its destinies. In general the North-
ern and Eastern states took but little part and
felt but little interest in this contest going on
in the West. It will be appropriate, there-
fore, before concluding the present Book, to
turn briefly from the consideration of this
struggle of liberty with political absolutism, to
which the four preceding chapters have been
devoted, and to note the progress of events in
the more remote and less civilized parts of
Europe. In so doing the principal drama to
which our attention will be drawn is the
contest between Czar Peter I. of Russia and

the conflict of the English and Dutch peoples
with political absolutism at home and abroad.
The House of Romanoff was raised to the
throne of Russia in 1533. In that year IVAN
IV., surnamed the Terrible, came to the
throne and held it for fifty-one years. He
was one of those barbaric reformers whose
savage swords cleave a pathway for civiliza-
tion. In 1545 he organized a Russian stand-
ing army, and seven years afterwards recon-
quered Kazan, which had revolted during his
minority. The people of the outlying prov-
inces, often in rebellion, were as often reduced

ENULISII DEVOLUTION.— CZAR PETER AND CHARLES XII.

Ml

to submission. In his war with Livonia, how-
ever, he was unsuccessful, and was obliged, in
1582, to cede that country to Sweden. Two
years afterwards he was succeeded by his
nephew FKODOR, who by some is regarded a*
the founder 'if the Romanoff dynasty. The
third czar of this name was MICHAEL FEODORO-
VITCH, son of the Archbishop of Rostov. The
first years of the seventeenth century had
been marked by civil commotions and foreign
•wars. In the fourth year of his reign, Czar
Michael concluded a treaty with Gustavns

Russia of several important provimvs, ini-liid-
inL' Kirv and the Ukraine. Thru from 11176 to
1682 came the reign of FEODOR III., by whom
several important reforms were introduced
into the polity of the Empire. In his will
he excluded his imbecile brother Ivan, who
was the heir apparent, from the throne, and
bequeathed the crown to his half-brother
Peter, whose conspicuous talents and sterling
character had already attracted the attention
of the people. He it was who, in 1<>,S2, came
to the throne with the title of PETER I., des-

E OF KASAN SCBMFTTI

Adolphus and also with the Poles. Russia
for the first time in several generations be-
came sufficiently pacified to enter upon a
•career of industrial and commercial progress.
Other treaties were made with England,
France, Persia, and China, and the confines
of Russia were stretched eastward even to the
Pacific. In 1(545 Michael was succeeded by
his son ALEXIS, by whom, nine years after his
accesiou, the Cossacks were humbled and made
to acknowledge the sovereignty of the C/.ar.
Then followed a war with Poland, which re-
sulted in the annexation or restoration to

tined erelong to win for himself the surname
of the Great.

Peter was born on the 10th of June, 1672
and was, therefore, but ten years of age when
Feodor died, leaving him the crown of Rus-
sia. His accession was marked by an insur-
rection fomented by his sister Sophia, After
several bloody conflicts between the partisans
the breach was healed by the joint coronation
of Peter and Ivan under the regency of So-
phia. This status was maintained for seven
vears ; but in 1689 Peter suddenly asserted
himself, married Eudoxia Feodorovna, con-

842

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

trary to his sister's wishes, and assumed
the government in his own exclusive right.

IVAN IV. (THE TERRIBLE.)

He banished Sophia's minister Gallitzin
and shut her up in prison, where she
remained until her death in 1704. Ivan
retired from public view, " lagging su-
perfluous on the stage" until his death,
in 1696.

Peter, thus left alone in the sover-
eignty of Russia, at once devoted him-
self to the duties of his station in a
manner as energetic as it was novel. He
reorganized the army, and himself en-
tered the ranks as a soldier. He rose
through each grade of the service, just
as any other might do, by promotion,
and this example of subordination and
discipline he obliged his nobles to follow.
He next laid the foundations of a
navy, employing shipwrights from Holland
and Venice to ply their vocation on the shore
of Lake Peipus. He then entered the naval
service on board the Dutch and English ships
in the harbor of Archangel, and became ex-
pert as a seaman. Many young, adventurous
Russians were sent abroad to Venice, Leg-

horn, and Amsterdam to familiarize them-
selves with the building and management
of ships.

At this time Archangel was the only sea-
port belonging to Russia. But in 1696 Peter
besieged and captured the Turkish town of
Azov on the sea of that name, this being
the first of his aggressive movements in
the direction of the warmer waters of
the South. By this time the young and
ambitious Czar had learned by compar-
ison the half-barbarous character of
his. people. He was seized with a passion
to bring them into the civilized state;
and appreciating his own inferiority in
refinement to the rulers of Western
Europe, he now resolved to take up
his residence abroad, with a view to
acquainting himself with the manners
and customs of other nations, and of
acquiring by foreign residence and
study a culture which he could not hope
to obtain in Russia. Accordingly, in 1697, he
went with a few attendants first to Saardam and

thence to Amsterdam. At the latter place he
disguised himself and became a ship-carpenter.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CZAi; I'M Mi AM> ('II. I /;/./> Ml.

848

Peter also devoted himself with assid-
uity to the study of geography, anatomy,
natural philosophy, and astronomy. In the
beginning of the next year he went to Lon-
don, where he was received with distinguished
consideration, and where his savage manners
and passionate behavior were met with as
much forbearance as the people and Parlia-
ment could summon for the occasion. For
some time he was given a residence with Sir
John Evelyn, at Deptford, whose fine gardens
and home Peter and his barbarians well-
nigh ruined before their departure. In
April, of 1698, the Czar returned to
Holland, and thence made his transit
across the continent to his own dominions.
He had intended to pause at Vienna
and make a brief study of military
science as the same was then illustrated
in the organization and tactics of the
Imperial army; but an insurrection had
already broken out in Russia, and Peter
was obliged to hurry home, where he
arrived after an absence of seventeen
months. He found that the revolt had
already been suppressed by his Scotch
general, Gordon, whom he had left in
command during his journey abroad.

The Czar now broke up the old mil-
itary organization of the Empire and
instituted a new, based on the German
model. He established schools strongly
inclining towards military and naval
studies. He reversed the old-time policy
of Russia, which forbade foreign trade
under penalty of death, and required
his subjects to enter into commerce with
other nations. He reformed the calendar,
making the year begin on the 1st of
January instead of the 1st of September, a
measure which horrified the priests. At the
same time, and in order to encourage a na-
tional spirit, he instituted the order of St.
Andrew, in honor of the patron saint of the
Russians.

Having thus prepared himself for the du-
ties of government, and cleared the field by
instituting salutary reforms in his own coun-
try, Peter next turned his attention to the
foreign relations of the Empire. He adopted
the policy of recovering all the territories
which had at any time belonged to Russia.

To this end he undertook to regain the prov-
inces of Ingria and Karelin, and as prelim-
inary to his purpose he entered into an alliance
with the kinjrs of Poland and Denmark
against Charles XII., the young king of Swe-
den. This movement brought upon the stage
the second actor in the drama with which, in
Northern Europe, the eighteenth century was
to be ushered in.

Let us turn then to Sweden. In that
country the crown had passed, after the death

of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, to his daugh-
ter C'IIKI.-TIXA, who reigned until 1654, when
she abdicated in favor of her cousin, CHARLES
X. The latter held the throne for six years,
and then bequeathed it to his infant son,
( 'a \KLES XI., whose long reign of thirty-seven
years was marked by few important evt
But not so with the reign of his son ami >uc-
cosor. CHAKI.I:-; XII. was born in 1">2, the
same year in which C/.ar Peter, thr-n at the
age of ten, came to the throne of Russia. The
Swedish prince, unlike his rival, was carefully
educiiteil under the care of his father, and at

«44

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

un early age became familiar with several lan-
guages— French, German, Latin, beside his
mother tongue. He was also an adept in such
sciences as geography, history, and mathemat-
ics. His youthful imagination is said to have
been fired with the story of the victories and
conquests of Alexander the Great.

At the time when Peter was setting out on
his journey to learn ship-building in the docks
of Amsterdam, Charles XII., then fifteen
years of age, was declared by the estates of

The particular thing which had weaned
Denmark from her natural affiliation with
Sweden and carried her over to an alliance
with Russia was the annexation of her de-
pendency of Schleswig-Holstein to the Swed-
ish dominions. In the beginning of the war,
the Danes invaded the territories of Freder-
ick, duke of Holstein, who was a brother-in-
law of Charles. Frederick hereupon repaired
to the court of the Swedish monarch and
claimed his aid against the Danish invaders.

POLISH WINGED CAVALRY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
Drawn by W. Camphausen.

Sweden to have attained his majority, and to
be capable of ruling. On his accession to
power he at first displayed little aptitude for
his kingly duties. For about two years his
•chief vocation was bear-hunting, and in this
royal pastime he was engaged when the news
came that Czar Peter had, as already narrated,
formed a treaty with Poland and Denmark,
preparatory to the reconquest of the provinces
of Ingria and Karelia. It was. this news that
roused the Swedish king to a sense of his re-
sponsibility, and suddenly converted him into
a great warrior.

Charles willingly espoused the cause of his
kinsman, and having by the treaty of the
Hague obtained the countenance of England
and Holland, entered upon hostilities with all
the energy of which he was capable.

In May of 1700 Charles embarked from
Carlscroua with thirty ships of the line and
made a descent on the island of Zealand.
From the very first he showed that impetuous
courage for which he was ever afterwards dis-
tinguished. On coming to the place of de-
barkation he leaped into the water and was
the first man to gain the shore. Having sue-

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CZAR

Ii AM) < IIMtl.l.s .'.'//.

ceeded iu his first attack uu Zealand, the
king then prepared to bombard Copenhagen,
and was only prevented from doing so by the
opening of negotiations which, in the follow-
ing August, resulted in the conclusion of a
peace between Denmark and Sweden. Fred-
erick IV., the Danish king, saved himself by
withdrawing from the alliance with Poland
and Russia, and by giving
up Schleswig-Holstein to
the House of Gottorp.

But while these move-
ments were taking place at
the western extremity of
the Baltic, the Polish army
had overrun Swedish Livo-
nia and invested Riga.
Peter himself had taken the
field and laid siege to Narva,
eighty miles south-west of
where St. Petersburg, the
new Russian capital, was
presently to be founded.
By this time Charles had
freed himself from all com-
plications in the West, and
now he drew his sword
against the Czar, in whom
he recognized, with the
quick instincts of a soldier,
a foeman worthy of his
blade.

It appears, moreover,
that the Swedish king fully
appreciated the nature of
the task which he had as-
sumed. He immediately
cast off all superfluity and
took up the discipline of a
veteran. He put on the sol-
dier's cloak, banished wine
from his table, ate coarse
bread, and slept on the ground from preference.
Never was there a more daring campaign than
that which he now undertook in the depth of
winter. With a force of eight thousand five
hundred men he marched across Livonia into
Esthonia, and made his way directly to Narva,
where Peter was conducting his siege with an
army fully fifty thousand strong. On the
30th of November, 1700, he fell upon the
Russians in an assault wherein it were diffi-

cult to say whether the recklessness were
greater or the i'ury. But the Swede's aixhie-
ity was rewarded by an <i\-.-r\\li. lininir vic-
tory. The siege of Narva was broken up,
and the discomfited Peter was left to gather
up, as best he might, the fragments of his
routed army.

Had Charles now followed up his advan-

PETEK THE GREAT.
After the painting of G. Kneller, Hampton Court

tage with as much wisdom as he had shown
of genius in the field, he might, perhaps,
have driven Peter to the wall, and changed
the course of history. But instead of pursu-
ing the Czar he turned aside to make war
on the Polos and Saxons. The latter were
posted iii a -trong position on the river Diina,
and when ('Imrles hurled his forces against
them he \\:\s at first repulsed. But he re-
formed his veterans m the channel of the river,

846

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

renewed the charge, and gained another deci-
sive victory. From this time his name be-
came a terror to his enemies.

The allies now undertook to circumvent
the victor by an intrigue. Augustus II. of
Poland, finding himself overmatched, sent his
mistress, Aurora von Konigsmark, reputed to
be the most beautiful woman in Europe, to
try the effect of her seductive charms upon

CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN.

the heart of the Swedish lion. The lion re-
fused to see her, and the Polish Venus was
dismissed from the camp. Augustus then
sent out a new army under General Riese, hut
the latter was unable to stand against his an-
tagonist. At Kliszow Charles gained, on the
19th of July, 1702, a victory so decisive as
to lay all Poland at his feet; but a broken
limb impeded the movements of the king until
the enemy was able to recover from the blow.

In the mean time Czar Peter, rallying
from the disaster at Narva, again entered the
field and invaded Finland. At this epoch
Charles was absorbed with his project of driv-
ing Augustus II. from Poland and conferring
the crown of that country on the rival candi-
date, Stanislas Leszcynski. At length, how-
ever, the Swede was obliged to give over this
ignoble broil in Poland and turn his attention
to the Czar. For General
Rehnskold with an army of
Poles was now en route to
join Peter, whom Charles,
as soon as he turned against
him, began to force back
through Lithuania. In so
doing he intercepted Rehn-
skold at Fraustadt, and there
in February of 1706, gained
another complete victory.
Augustus took the alarm
and fled to Russia. Soon
afterwards he sent his two
principal ministers to negoti-
ate with Charles, with whom
terms were agreed upon and
a treaty signed ; but just as
a conclusion was reached,
intelligence came that the
Czar had gained a victory
at Kalisz. At this Augustus
was so much elated that he
declared he had made no
peace at all. Charles, how-
ever, held Saxony with a
firm grip, and it was not
long until Augustus renewed
the negotiations, and in Sep-
tember of 1706 gave his
consent to a treaty by which
he resigned the crown of
Poland.

The Swedish king now took up his resi-
dence in Saxony and ruled as sovereign. He
recruited his army with Saxon conscripts, and
in the next place compelled the Emperor Jo-
seph I. to restore to the Protestants a hundred
and twenty-five churches which he had taken
from them and given to the Jesuits. It was
at this juncture that the Emperor, fearing
lest the kingdom of Sweden should be added
to his enemies and foreseeing that in that

ENGLISH DEVOLUTION.— CZAX PETE It AMi UHARLKS ML

847

event the Gerraaii Empire and the House of
Austria with it might be ground between the
upper and the nether mill.-ione, sent the ac-
coinpli*hed Duke of Marlborough to dissuade
Cliarles XII. from his designs on Germany
and to turn his antagonism against the Czar.
The duke was successful in his mission, and
the remainder of the military career of the
Swede was devoted to the struggle with
Russia.

In September of 1707 Charles, with an
army of forty-three thousand men, began an
invasion of Peter's dominions. The Swedes
took almost the identical route chosen by Na-
poleon in the Russian campaign of 1812 ; nor
does the analogy of the two great expeditions
end with the identity of the lines of march.
Almost the same fate awaited the Swede as
destiny had reserved for Bonaparte a hundred
and five years afterwards. Charles crossed
the Beresina, stormed the Russian lines at
Golovtchiu, and followed the flying enemy
with such recklessness that his army became
almost hopelessly involved in the Russian for-
ests and swamps. The Swedish artillery was
abandoned in a morass, and Charles's veter-
ans began to sink down and die of hunger.
Meanwhile General Lowenhaupt, who had
followed with another army of Swedes to re-
inforce the king, was intercepted and defeated
by the Russians, led by the Czar in person.
Neverthelcs Lowenhaupt succeeded in break-
ing through, and reached the king with a
body of six thousand men.

On reaching Smolensk, Charles, whose
march up to this time had been directed
against Moscow, was persuaded by Prince
Mazeppa, chief of the Cossacks, to change his
course and carry the campaign into the
Ukraine. It was represented to the Swede
that the tribes of this region had never been rec-
onciled to the rule of the Czar, and that they
were ready and anxious to follow the standard
of any who would direct them in a struggle
with tile Kmpire. The event proved, how-
ever, that Ma/eppa, like many another ambi-
tious chieftain, had represented things as he
wished them to he rather than as they were.
The people of the Ukraine rose not at h;-
proach. He himself was proscribed by the
Czar ; and it was only after a terrible struggle
that Mazeppa succeeded in ficrhtin.u' 'is way

back through the desolations of the winter of
17U8-9 as far as the Dnieper, where he estab-
lished hid camp. Here he remained till the
opening of spring; but his forces were greatly
reduced and were on the brink of starvation.
Meanwhile, Peter carefully reorganized his
army, which was now augmented to seventy
thousand men, and advancing with the open-
ing of the year he took up his position at
Poltava, a strong town on the river Vorskla.
Here he awaited the movement of his an-
tagonist.

Notwithstanding the fearful odds against
him Charles was by no means appalled. With
the opening of the summer he prepared to at-
tack POLTAVA. On the 8th of July, 1709, the
two armies met before that town, and a battle
ensued which has taken rank among the great
conflicts of history. Before the beginning of
the struggle Charles, while reconnoitering the
position of the Russians, received a dangerous
wound in the thigh, by which he was so far
disabled that he was constrained to dismount.
But he ordered himself to be placed on a litter
and borne about the field, that he might di-
rect the movements of his veterans. If cour-
age and resolution could have prevailed over
almost overwhelming numbers and almost
equal discipline on the part of the Russians,
then perhaps Charles might have saved him-
self and his army from destruction. But the
disparity was too great, and the heroic Swede
had the mortification of seeing his ragged and
half-starved soldiers driven like a whirlwind
by the discharges of the Russian artillery
until only a handful of his followers remained
to bear him from the field. The Czar pur-
sued his fallen antagonist, and overtook him
in the territories of old Mazeppa, who still
remained faithful to the Swede*.

After the victory the Czar pursued the di-
vi>ion of Loweiih:iupt, and overtaking that
general on the Dnicjx'r, compelled him to
surrender. Charles himself made good his
e-cajie to Render, on the river Dniester. This
place, within the Turkish territory, was
strongly fortified, and here for the present
the fugitive kintr was safe, lie was cordially
received by the Turks, and permitted to fit up
a residence -mnewhat hefittinir hi- royal rank.
Havinsr thus established himself, he immedi-
ately turned his whole enenries to the work of

848

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

persuading the Ottoman Porte to undertake a
war with Russia. The year 1710 was spent
by him in these solicitations, and the Sultan
was finally induced to take up arms. In the
following year the grand vizier took the field
with a powerful army of two hundred thou-
sand men. Peter drew back before this for-
midable array, and was shut up in a most
perilous position on the Pruth. For the time
it appeared that his star was about to set for-

would be driven to complete overthrow. The
Swede had heard of the intrigue which the
future Empress was conducting, and rode at
full speed to the vizier's camp iu the hope of
thwarting the scheme. But his coming was
too late ; the woman had prevailed.

Great was the mortification of Charles to
see coming to naught the grand project of
humbling his enemy by means of the Turks.
Vainly he struggled to prevent the mis-car-

CHARLES XII. BORNE 0V A LITTER AT POLTAVA.

ever; but in his extremity lie adopted the
same expedient which Augustus of Poland
had tried without success on Charles. The
Czar sent his wife — her who was afterwards
the Empress Catherine I.— to the vizier's
camp to try the effect of her gems upon the
eyes of the Oriental. The Turk was dazzled,
and Catharine succeeded in bribing him with
her jewels to permit her husband's escape.
The Czar made haste to extricate himself from
his position, and Russia emerged with him.
Prom that day it was certain that Charles

riage of his ambitious scheme. For two years
longer he lingered at Bender, constantly en-
gaged in edging on the Ottoman power
ajrainst Russia. His influence at Constanti-
nople was so great that he effected the over-
throw of four successive grand viziers, because
they were not sufficiently devoted to his in-
terests. His plan was to induce the Sultan
to intrust to him the command of a powerful
Turkish army, with which he would invade
the Czar's dominions and drive him from the
throne. But one delay followed another, and

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CZAR PETER A.\l> r//,l ///,/•> .\7/.

S »!»

iu the mean time Peter exerted himself
to the utmost to establish his power and con-
solidate the Empire. The provinces of Livo-

was first induced to marry the Czar's niece,
the Princess Anna, and then to drink himself
to death. A successful invasion was then

PETER THE GREAT AFTER THE BATTLE OF POLTAVA.

nia and Estlmnia were overrun and merged made into Pomerania, and the Saxons, influ-

in his dominions. Riga also was taken, and enced by the C/ar. sei/.ed all Poland, putting

then Courland was added to the Imperial tcr- Stanislas to flight and compelling him to

ritorv. The duke of the last-named province j seek refuge with Charles in Turkey. The
"VOL. II.- 54

850

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Saxons and Russians, thus brought into alli-
ance, overran Swedish Pomerania, burned the
cities of Stade, Altona, Garz, and Wolgast,
and hung threateningly on the borders of
Prussia. That kingdom was induced, by the
promise of the cession of Stettin, to enter the
league against Sweden.

Meanwhile the ageats of Czar Peter at
Constantinople exerted themselves to the ut-
most to secure the expulsion of Charles from
the Turkish dominions. It was urged upon
the Sultan that the presence of the Swede
•was dangerous to the peace and welfare of
Turkey. These representations at length pre-
vailed to the extent that Charles was notified
to take his departure from Bender. This he
refused to do. Whereupon the governor of
that place was ordered to seize him and bring
him, alive or dead, to Adrianople. Learning
the edict which had been issued against him,
Charles gathered a band of two or three hun-
dred desperate men, barricaded his house, and
defended it with great courage until, the roof
taking fire, he was obliged to fly. Mounting
his horse, he dashed away and was about to
escape when, his spurs becoming entangled,
he was thrown to the ground and captured.
In February of 1713 he was taken to Demo-
tika, where he feigned sickness and for ten
months remained abed, all the while revolving
in his mind the same ambitious and now
visionary schemes which he had so long
cherished for the conquest of Russia and
the destruction of the Czar. At length,
however, he became convinced that the Otto-
man Court could not any more be induced to
espouse his cause. When this conviction set-
tled upon him, his thoughts began to revert
to his own kingdom. He resolved to make
his escape and find his way back to Sweden.
In order to conceal his purpose he sent off a
last embassy to Constantinople, and then, dis-
guising himself and taking horse by night, he
fled into Hungary. Thence he traveled
through Austria, Bavaria, the Palatinate,
Westphalia, and Mecklenburg; for by this
route he must go in order to avoid the Poles
and the Saxons, who were on the alert for his
capture. On the 22d of November of 1714,
he reached Stralsund and was safe from
pursuit.

But the moment it was known that the

Swedish king was again in his own dominions
a combined army of Danes, Saxons, Russians,
and Prussians bore down upon him. For
nearly a year he defended Stralsund with all
the skill and bravery for which he had become
renowned. While Louis XIV. lay dying on
his magnificent couch at Versailles ; while the
House of Hanover was becoming comforta-
bly seated on the throne of England; and
while the new Emperor Charles VI. was pre-
paring the celebrated "Pragmatic Sanction,"
establishing the future order of succession to
the throne of the German Empire, the guns
of the courageous Charles were still thunder-
ing defiance from the walls of Stralsund.

But no kind of heroism could prevail
against the numbers and resources of his foes.
In December of 1715 he was obliged to aban-
don his stronghold and retire to Lund, in
Scania. Here again he made a stand, and for
a while maintained his footing. At this junc-
ture, however, the war was transferred to the
sea. In general the results were unfavorable
to Sweden, though on several occasions
Charles, by his unconquerable will and dar-
ing, became a terror to his foes. Notably in
his efforts against Norway he succeeded for
a time in distracting the attention and excit-
ing the alarm of the allied forces.

In this extremity of his fortunes Charles
found a powerful friend and supporter in
Baron Gortz, minister of Holstein. This able
diplomatist, who, under more favorable cir-
cumstances, would have shone among the il-
lustrious statesmen of his times, exerted all his
influence to break up the anti-Swedish alliance.
His plan embraced the winning over of Czar
Peter at any price which might be necessary
to induce his withdrawal from the league ;
then to gain the French influence by espous-
ing the cause of the Pretender, whom it was
proposed to lead back through the agitations
of a Scotch rebellion to the throne of Eng-
land, thereby unseating George I., who, with
unbecoming haste, had allied himself with the
enemies of Sweden. So successful were the
schemes of Gortz that the terms of a treaty
were actually agreed upon, by which peace
was to be made between Sweden and Russia.
It was stipulated that the Czar should retain
all his conquests on the Gulf of Finland ;
that Stanislas should be restored to the throne

I.MILISH REVOLUTION.— CZAR PETER AND CHARLES XII.

B61

of Poland ; that Anna Petrovna, widow of
tlir Duke of ( 'oiirlanil and niece of the C/:ir,
should he given to Charles XII. in marriage,
and a royal bond be thus established between
the two great powers of the North.

But the far-reaching plans of the Holstein
minister were destined to miscarry by an ac-
cident. A Swedish dispatch, containing an
outline of the proposed treaty, was captured
by the Danes and communicated to the allied
powers. Great was their alarm and great
their wrath. Denmark perceived that she
was about to be crushed between the closing
icebergs of Russia and Sweden. Saxony saw
Poland about to be wrested from her domin-
ion. To Prussia it was clear that her coveted
prize of Stettin would never be delivered.
Hanover perceived that her grip upon Bremen
and Verdun would be broken ; while Freder-
ick of Hesse, at this time the heir expectant
to the Swedish crown, saw that if the treaty
should succeed, his hopes of royalty would be
forever blasted. Among all the allies there
was deep-seated alarm, agitation, resistance to
the programme of Go'rtz.

While affairs stood thus the complication
was suddenly dissolved by the death of Charles.
The king at this time was still prosecuting the
war with Norway. A Swedish force under
Annfeldt had been sent to cross the moun-
tains, and had perished of cold and starva-
tion. Another division, commanded by Charles
in person, had laid siege to the Norwegian
fortress of Frederikshall, and in this enter-
prise the king was engaged at the beginning
of winter, 1718. In the conduct of the siege
he behaved with his wonted audacity and
recklessness. While standing under the en-
emy's fire in the trenches at night he was
struck by a random shot and killed.1

1 A great controversy arose as to the manner
of Charles's death. His frit-mis ni:iint:iiiu-<l that
he had been shot by an emissary of that party,
which, alarmed at the projects nf (iiirtx. had de-
termined that the king must die. Other;- held
that he was killed in the manner statetl in tin-
text. More than two hundred hooks and pam-
phlets were published on the subject. In 1K-V>
the Swedish government ordered a formal in*
to determine the manner of the king's death. The
skull of Charles was carefully examined liy three
eminent physicians, and it was decided that tin-
fatal shot was from a musket, and had been tired
from the besieged fortress.

Thus closed in an obscure and inglorioui
manner the career of one of the most noted
men of the eighteenth century. Considered
merely as a warrior and general, he stands
among the foremost heroes of history. In the
field few have been his equals. It was on the
side of his civil abilities that he was common-
place or even weak. He was in some meas-
ure visionary and always reckle--. Hi- mind
became fired, while he was yet in his youth,
with the passion of conquest, and to this pas-
sion he devoted the whole energies of his life.
Hi- wars were waged without a rational plan.
He fought to conquer. Having conquered,
he knew not what to do with his con-
quest, and being conquered, he knew not
what to do except to conquer again. His
career furnished to history the last exam-
ple of a king leaving his own dominions, lead-
ing his army into foreign and distant parts,
and warring after the mediaeval style, with
no ulterior political object to be attained.
The random shot from the walls of Frederiks-
hall was a fitting conclusion and comment
upon that method of warfare which, regard-
less alike of human joy and sorrow, is waged
merely to gratify the malevolent ambition and
add to the dubious glory of a conqueror ! '

1 Not without excellent discernment did Dr.
Samuel Johnson select the career of Charles XII.
to illustrate the (oily and vainglory of war:

"On what foundations stands the warrior's pride,

Plow just his hopes, let SWEDISH CHARLES decide :

A frame of adamant, a soul of fire,

No dangers fright him and no labors tire;

O'er love, o'er fear, extends bis wide domain,

Unconquered lord of pleasure and of pain.

No joys to him pacific scepters yield,

War sounds the trump, he rushes to the field ;

Behold surrounding kings their power combine

And one capitulate and one resign ;

Peace courts his hand, but spreads her charms in

vain ;

'Think nothing gained,' he cries, 'till naught re-
main,

On Moscow's walls till (iothic standards fly,
And all be mine beneath the polar sky.'

But did not chance at length her error mend?

Did mi subverted empire mark his end '.'

Pid rival monarchs jrivc the fatal wound,

Or hostile millions press him to the ground?

His fall was destined to a barren strand.

A petty fortn-ss, and a dubious hand.

II.- left the name at which the world grew pale,

To point a moral or adorn a tale."

852

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— CZAR PETER AND CHARM-:* XI f. 853

In the genius requisite to a great ruin-
Czar Peter was much superior to his Swedish
rival. Recognizing the tact that his people
were still half-barbarians, and that he himself
was by no means disengaged from savagery, he
set himself assiduously to the work of civiliz-
ing the Slavic race. Of course, his methods
were arbitrary and severe. He was a reformer
of the heroic type. But the exertions which
he put forth in the endeavor to lift the Rus-
sians to the plane of civilization were worthy
of the praise of his own and succeed-
ing ages.

One of his earliest schemes was the
removal of the capital of the Empire
from the ancient inland city of Mos-
cow to some maritime situation, from
which the Czars might give personal
•encouragement to the developing of
Russian commerce. With this end in
view he finally chose the marshes at
the mouth of the river Neva, on the
Oiilf of Finland, and there, in 1703,
he laid the foundation of ST. PETKKS-
BUBG. He gave himself with great
zeal to the work of constructing dock-
yards and wharves and building ships,
by which enterprises employment was
furnished to thousands of laborers and
the foundations laid for the commer-
cial greatness of Russia. Ten years
after the founding of the new cap-
ital the' Senate was removed from
Moscow, and in 1715 the summer and
winter palaces of the Czars were com-
pleted at St. Petersburg. After dis-
carding his first wife Eudoxia, he
married his mistress, Catharine, and
mndc her Empress. In 1716 he
made a second tour of Western Europe, ac-
companied by his queen, with whom he was
•enthusiastically received at I'aris. His son
Alexis, child of Eudoxia, was soon after-
wards detected in a treasonable conspiracy,
was sentenced to death, but died in prison while
awaiting execution.

After the death of Charles Ml., the differ-
ences between Sweden and Russia were finally
adjusted by the treaty of XYSTAD, which was
concluded in 1721. By the terms of this set-
tlement Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, a part of
Karelia, the province of Viborg, the island

of Oesel, and all the other islands in the
Kaltic between Courland and Viborg, were

ceiled by Sweden to Russia. Iii return for

these large concessions the Czar agreed to give
up the greater part of Finland, which he had
conquered, and to pay the Swedes two millions
of dollars. He also granted the free exporta-
tion of corn to the annual value of fifty
thousand rubles from the ports of Riga,
Revel, and Arensburg.

Having concluded this treaty, Peter found

CATHARINE I.

time to take up other enterprises for the im-
provement of the Empire. He encouraged the
construction of canals and factories; intro-
duced a new system of weights and measures ;
ordered the paving of the streets of the prin-
cipal Russian cities; framed new statutes; or-
gani/.eil conns ; built hospitals; sent numbers
of the young nobles with their wives to
acquire culture by travel in Western Europe;
ami founded the academy of sciences in his
capital.

In the midst of all these arduous and en-
lightened labors, the Czar himself remained

854

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

what nature had made him — an inspired sav-
age. He had sufficient power of introspection
to perceive the essential and persistent bar-
barity of his own mind. This fact was to
him, when hot under the influence of passion,
a source of great grief, which found utterance
in his oft-repeated aphorism that he could
civilize others but could not civilize himself.

He lived until the 8th of February, 1725,
and unto his dying day, or at least until he
was prostrated by the fatal malady which
caused his death, devoted all the energies of
his great mind to the improvement of the peo-
ple of Russia and the consolidation of that
powerful Empire with which his name and
fame will be forever associated.

xxxix.— PROQRESS OK THE AMERICAN
COLONIES.

HE present Book will be
concluded with a sketch
of the progress of the
American Colonies from
the time of their planting
to the close of the first
quarter of the eighteenth
century. Beginning at the extreme North,
we find that the colonies of France, established
on the St. Lawrence by James Cartier and his
fellow adventurers, had had a stunted growth,
a precarious existence. Quebec and Montreal
survived and became the centers of French in-
fluence west of Newfoundland. The country
known as NEW FRANCE, or CANADA, spread
around to the west from the Gulf of St. Law-
rence, embraced the larger part of North
America east of the Mississippi, and reaching
the Atlantic coast at Cape Fear, extended
southward to Spanish Florida. The French
settlements within this vast area, however,
were few and feeble, being limited to the banks
of the St. Lawrence and to the shores and
islands about the debouchure of that great
stream.

Coming to the English colonies in what is
now the north-eastern portion of the United
States, we note a more rapid development.
The settlement planted by the Pilgrims in
1620 at Plymouth, on Massachusetts Bay,
struggled for a season for existence. But for
the early opening of the spring of 1621, per-
haps the whole company would have perished.
But with the return of the sun came a renewal
of hope, and never was the song of the spring
birds more welcome to the weary heart of man.

The fatal winter had swept off one-half of
the colonists. The son of the benevolent
Carver was among the first victims of the ter-
rible climate. The governor himself sickened
and died, and the broken-hearted wife found
rest in the same grave with her husband.
But now with the approach of warm weather
the destroying pestilence was stayed, and the
spirits of the survivors revived with the
season.

For a while the colonists were apprehen-
sive of the Indians. In February, Miles-
Standish was sent out with his soldiers to
gather information of the numbers and dispo-
sition of the natives. The army of New
England consisted of six men besides the gen-
eral. Deserted wigwams were found here and
there; the smoke of camp-fires arose in the
distance ; savages were occasionally seen in
the forest. These fled, however, at the ap-
proach of the English, and Standish returned
to Plymouth.

A month later the colonists were aston-
ished by the sudden appearance in their midst
of a Wampanoag Indian named Samoset. He
ran into the village, offered his hand in token
of friendship, and bade the strangers welcome.
He g;ive an account of the numbers and
strength of the neighboring tribes, and recited
the story of a great plague by which, a few
years before, the country had been swept of
its inhabitants. The present feebleness and
desolate condition of the natives had resulted
from the fatal malady. Another Indian, by
the name of Squanto, who had been carried
away by Hunt, in 1614, and had learned to

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— PROGRESS OF AMERICAN COLONIES. 855

speak English, came also to Plymouth, and
confirmed what Samoset had said.

Iii the early spring a treaty was made with
Massasoit, the great Sachem of the tribe of
Wampanoags. The compact which remained
inviolate for fifty years provided that no in-
jury should be done by the White men to the
Indians, or by the Indians to the Whites, and
that all offenders and criminals should be
given up for punishment.

Other chiefs followed the example of Mas-
sasoit, and entered into friendly relations with
the colony. Nine of the leading tribes ac-
knowledged the sovereignty of the English
king. One chieftain threatened hostilities,
but Standish's army
obliged him to beg
for mercy. Canou-
icus, king of the
Narragansetts, sent
to William Bradford,
who had been chosen
governor after the
death of Carver, a
bundle of arrows
wrapped in the skin
of a rattlesnake ;
but the undaunted
governor stuffed the
skin with powder
and balls, and sent
it back to the chief,
who did not dare to
accept the danger-
ous challenge. The
hostile emblem was

borne about from tribe to tribe, until finally
it was returned to Plymouth.

The summer of 1621 was unfruitful, and
the Pilgrims were brought to the point of
starvation. To make their condition still
more grievous, a new company of immigrants,
without provisions or stores, arrived, and were
quartered on the colonists during the fall and
•winter.

The newcomers just mentioned had been
sent to America by Thomas VTe-lon, of Lon-
don, one of the projectors of the colony.
They remained with the people of Plymouth
until the summer of 1622, then removed to
the south side of Boston Harbor, and began a
new settlement called Wevmouth. Instead

of working with their might to provide against
starvation, they wasted the fall in idleness,
and attempted to keep up their stock of pro-
visions by defrauding the Indians.

In the following spring most of the Wey-
moutli settlers abandoned the place and re-
turned to England. The summer of 1623
brought a plentiful harvest to the people of
the older colony, and there was no longer any
danger of starvation. The natives, preferring
the chase, became dependent on the settle-
ment for corn, and furnished in exchange an
abundance of game. The main body of Pil-
grims still tarried at Leyden. John Robin-
son, their leader, made unwearied efforts to

bring his people to America, but the adven-
turers of London who had managed the en-
terprise would provide no further means,
either of money or transportation; and now,
at the end of the fourth year, there were only
a hundred and eighty persons in New Eng-
land.

The year 1624 was marked by the found?
ing of a settlement at Cape Ann. John
White, a Puritan minister of Dorchester,
England, collected a small company of emi-
grants and sent them to America. The colony
was established, but after t\v<> years of discour-
agement the cape was abandoned as a place un-
suitable, and the company moved farther south
to Naumkeag, afterwards called S.U.K.M.

856

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

a settlement was begun, and in 1628 was made
permanent by the arrival of a second colony,
in charge of John Eudicott, who was chosen
governor. In March of the same year the
colonists obtained a patent from the Council
of Plymouth ; and in 1629 Charles I. issued
a charter by which the proprietors were incor-
porated under the name of THE GOVERNOR
AND COMPANY OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY IN
NEW ENGLAND. In July two hundred addi-
tional immigrants arrived, half of whom set-
tled at Plymouth, while the other half re-
moved to a peninsula on the north side of

JOHN WINTHROP.

Boston Harbor and laid the foundation of
Charlestown. In the tenth year from the found-
ing of the colony about three hundred of the
best Puritan families in the kingdom came to
New England. They had the discretion and
good fortune to choose John Winthrop for their
governor. Never was a man more worthy of his
station. Born a royalist, he cherished ' the
principles of republicanism. Himself an Epis-
copalian, he chose affliction with the Puritans.
Surrounded with affluence and comfort, he
left all to share the destiny of the persecuted
Pilgrims. Calm, prudent, and peaceable, he
joined the zeal of an enthusiast with the sub-
lime faith of a martyr.

A part of the new immigrants settled at
Salem ; others at Cambridge and Watertown,
on Charles River ; while others, going farther
south, founded Roxbury and Dorchester.
The governor, with a few of the leading fam-
ilies, resided for a while at Charlestown, but
soon crossed the harbor to the peninsula of
Shawmut, and laid the foundation of BOSTON,
which became henceforth the capital of the
colony and the metropolis of New England.

In 1634 a representative form of govern-
ment was established against the opposition of
the clergy. On election day the voters, now
numbering between three and four
hundred, were called together, and the
learned Cotton preached powerfully
and long against the proposed change.
The assembly listened attentively, and
then went on with the election. To
make the reform complete, a BALLOT-
BOX was substituted for the old method
of public voting. The restriction on
the right of suffrage was the only
remaining bar to a perfect system of
self-government in New England.

During the next year three thou-
sand new immigrants arrived. It was
worth while — so thought the people cf
England — to come to a country where
the principles of freedom were spread-
ing with such rapidity. The new-
comers were under the leadership of
Hugh Peters and Sir Henry Vane,
already mentioned in a former chap-
ter. The settlements around Massa-
chusetts Bay became thickly clustered.
Until new homes should be found there
was no room for the immigrants who were con-
stantly coming. To enlarge the frontier, to
plunge into the wilderness, and find new
places of abode, became a necessity. One
little company of twelve families, led by Simon
Willard and Peter Bulkeley, marched through
the woods until they came to some open
meadows sixteen miles from Boston, and there
laid the foundations of Concord. A little
later in the same year another colony of sixty
persons left the older settlements, pressed
their way westward as far as the Connecticut
River, and in the following spring founded
Windsor, HARTFORD, and AVethersfield, the
oldest towns in the Connecticut valley.

EXULIXll UK VOLUTION.— PROGRESS OF AMERICAN COLO A //-.X 857

The banishment of Roger Williams, instead
of bringing peace, brought strife and dissen-
sion to the people of Massachusetts. Relig-
ious debates became the order of the day.
Every sermon had to pass the ordeal of review
and criticism.

Most prominent among those who were
said to be "as bad as Roger William.-, or
worse," was Mrs. Anne Hutchinsou, a woman
of genius who had come over in the ship with
Sir Henry Vane. She desired the privilege
of speaking at the weekly debates, and was
refused. Women had no business at these as-
semblies, said the elders. Indignant at this,
she became the champion of her sex, and de-
clared that the ministers who were defrauding
women of the Gospel were no better than
Pharisees. At length Mrs. Hutchinson and
her friends were declared unfit for the society
of Christians, and banished from the territory
of Massachusetts. With a large number of
friends the exiles wended their way towards
the home of Roger Williams. Miantonomoh,
a Narragansett chieftain, made them a gift
of the beautiful island of Rhode Islam 1 ;
there, in the month of March, 1641, a little
republic was established, in whose constitution
freedom of conscience was guaranteed and
persecution for opinion's sake forbidden.

In 1636 the general court of the colony
passed an act appropriating between one and
two thousand dollars to found and endow a col-
lege. The measure met with popular favor ;
the Puritans were an educated people, and
were; quick to appreciate the advantages of
learning. Newtown was selected as the site
of the proposed school. Plymouth and Salem
gave Lfil'ts to help the enterprise; and from
villages ;.i the Connecticut valley came con-
tributions of corn and wampum. In 1638
John Harvard, a young minister of Charles-
town, died, bequeathing his library and nearly
five thousand dollars to the school. To per-
petuate the memory of the noble benefactor
the new institution was named HARVARD
COLLEGE; and in honor of the place where
the leading men of Massachusetts had been
educated, the name of Newtown was changed
to Cambridge.

The PRINTING-PRESS came also. In 1638
Stephen Daye, an English printer, arrived at
Boston, bringing a font of types, and in the

following year set up a press at Cambridge.
The first American publication was an alma-
nac calculated for New England, and bearing
date of 1639. During the next year Thomas
Welde and John Eliot, two ministers of Rox-
bury, and Richard Mather, of Dorchester,
translated the Hebrew Psalms into English
verse, and published tln-ir rude work in a
volume of three hundred pages— the first book
printed on this side of the Atlantic.

New England was now fast becoming a na-
tion. Well-nigh fifty towns and villages dotted
the face of the country. Nearly a million of
dollars had been spent in settling and devel-
oping the new State. Enterprises of all kinds
were rife. Manufactures, commerce, and the
arts were rapidly introduced. William Ste-
phens, a shipbuilder, who came with Gov-
ernor Winthrop to Boston, had already built
and launched an American vessel of four
hundred tons burden. Before 1640 two hun-
dred and ninety -eight emigrant ships had an-
chored in Massachusetts Bay. Twenty-one
thousand two hundred people, escaping from
English intolerance of Church or State, had
found home and rest between Plymouth Rock
ami the Connecticut valley.

An effort was now made to form a union
of the New England colonies; but at first the
movement was unsuccessful. In 1639 and
again in 1643 the measure was brought for-
ward and finally adopted. My the terms of
tliis compact Massachusetts, Plymouth, Con-
necticut, and New Haven were joined in a
loose confederacy, called Tin: r\rn:i> COLO-
NIES OF NEW ENGLAND. The chief authority
was conferred upon a general assembly or con-
gress, composed of two representatives from
each colony. These delegates were chosen
annually at an election where all the freemen
voted by ballot. There was no president
other than the speaker of the assembly, and
he had no executive powers. Each commu-
nity retained, as before, its separate local ex-
istence: and all subordinate questions of
legislation were reserved to the respective
colonies.

The people of Massachusett- were little
grieved on account of the Kni:li-h Revolution.
It was for them a vindication and a victory.
The triumph of Parliament over King Charles
was the triumph of Puritanism both in Eng-

858

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

THE REGICIDE GOFFE AT HADLEY VILLAGE.

ENGLISH DEVOLUTION.— PROGRESS OF .\Ml.l;l< I A ro/.o.\7/..s

land and America. Massachusetts had no
cause to fear so long us the House of Com-
mons was crowded with her friends and pa-
trons. But in the hour of victory the
American Puritans showed themselves more
magnanimous tlwn those of the mother coun-
try. When Charles I., the enemy of all
colonial liberties, was brought to the block, the
people of New England, whose fathers had
been exiled by his father, lamented his tragic
fate and preserved the memory of his virtues.

The Protector was the constant friend of
the American colonies. Even Virginia, though
slighting his authority, found him just as well
as severe. The people of New England were
his special favorites. To them he was bound
by every tie of political and religious sym-
pathy. For more than ten years, when he
might have been an oppressor, he continued
the benefactor, of the English in America.

In July of 1656, the QUAKERS began to
arrive at Boston. The first who came were
Ann Austin and Mary Fisher. The introduc-
tion of the plague would have occasioned less
alarm. The two women were caught and
searched for marks of witchcraft, their trunks
were broken open, their books were burnt by
the hangman, and they themselves thrown
into prison. After several week's confine-
ment, they were brought forth and banished
from the colony. Others came, were whipped
and exiled. As the law became more cruel
and prescriptive, fresh victims rushed forward
to brave its terrors. The assembly of the four
colonies again convened, and advised the au-
thorities of Massachusetts to pronounce the
penalty of death against the fanatical dis-
turbers of the public peace. In 1659 four
persons were arrested, brought to trial, con-
demned, and hanged without mercy. Nor did
the fact that one of these was a woman move
the stony hearts of the persecuting judges.

The tidings of the Restoration in England
reached Boston, on the 27th of July, 1660.
In the same vessel that bore the news came
Edward Whalley and William (Jofle, two of
the judges who had passed sentence of death
on Charles I. It was now their turn to save
their lives by flight. Governor Endicott re-
ceived them with courtesy; the agents from
the British government came in hot pursuit
with orders to arrest them. For a while the

fugitives, aided by the people of Boston, baf-
lltil the officers, and then escaped to New
Havei'. Here for many weeks they luv in
concealment; not even the Indians would ac-
cept the reward which \\a> «,t!i re.l lor their
apprehension. At last the exiles readied the
valley of the Connecticut and found refuge at
the village of Hadley, where they passed the
remainder of their lives. When, during King
Philip's war, the village was attacked by the
savages, the venerable Goffe came forth from
his hiding-place, rallied the flying people, and
directed the defense. Then he went back to
his covert and was seen no more.

With the outbreak of the war between
England and Holland, in 1664, it became a
part of the English military plans to reduce
the Dutch settlements on the Hudson; and for
ih is purpose a fleet was sent to America.
But there was another purpose also. Charles
H. was anxious to obtain control of the New
England colonies, that he might govern them
according to the principles of arbitrary power.

With this end in view, four commission-
ers were appointed with instructions to go
to America, to sit in judgment upon all mat-
ters of complaint that might arise in Xew Eng-
land, to settle colonial disputes, and to take
snch other measures as might seem most likely
to establish peace and good order in the coun-
try. The royal commissioners embarked in the
British fleet, and in July arrived at Boston.
Such, however, was the reception given to the
king's grand judges by the people of the New
England colonies, that they were soon glad to
leave the country for some other where their
services would be better appreciated.

In 1675 a war broke out between the peo-
ple of Massachusetts and the Wampanoag In-
dians, under the lead of their great chief,
KIM; PHILIP. The struggle continued for
some time, and was attended with great loss
of life and destruction of |>ro[MTty. But at
last the Indians were subdued, and Philip
himself hunted down and killed near his old
home at Mount Hope, in Rhode Island.

On the accession of James II. the charter
of Massachusetts was formally revoked; all
the colonies between Nova Scotia and Narra-
gansett 15ay wen- consolidated, and Joseph
Dudley appointed President. New England
was not prepared for open re-i-tance; the

S60

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

colonial assembly was dissolved by its own
act, and the members returned sullenly to
their homes. In the winter following, Dudley
was superseded by Sir Edmund Andros, who
had been appointed royal governor of all New
England. Under his administration Massa-

Boston rose in open rebellion. Audros and
his minions, attempting to escape, were seized
and inarched to prison. The insurrection
spread through the country ; and before the
10th of May every colony in New England
had restored its former liberties.

DEATH OF KING PHILIP.

chusetts and her sister colonies lost their lib-
erties. The governor and his rule became
extremely odious, and when the news came of
the expulsion of James from- the throne of
England, Andros met a like fate at the hands
of the American colonists. On the 18th of
April, 1689, the citizens of Charlestown and

The various European wars of England,
France, and Holland spread into the respec-
tive colonies of those states in America. That
conflict which was concluded by the treaty of
Ryswick involved the English possessions in
New England and those of France in Nova
Scotia in a serious war, which lasted for nearly

ENGLISH REVOLUTION-PROGRESS OF AMERICA* COLONIES, s.;r

eight years. The results, however, were in-
decisive, and in 1697 the boundary lines be-
tween the respective colonies of England and
France were established as before.

Meanwhile New England had been afflicted
with the great delusion known as the SALEM
WITCHCRAFT. The excitement broke out in
that part of Salem village afterwards called
Danvers, as was traceable to the animosity of
the minister, Samuel Parris, against George
Burroughs, a former pastor. By Parris the
charge of witchcraft was brought against sev-
eral of the adherents of Burroughs, who were
imprisoned and brought to trial before Stough-
ton, deputy governor of the colony, and the
celebrated Cotton Mather, of Boston, who was
the person chiefly responsible for the condem-
nation of the witches. Twenty innocent per-
sons, including several women, were condemned
and put to death. Fifty-five others were
tortured into the confession of abominable
falsehoods. A hundred and fifty lay in prison
awaiting their fate. Two hundred were ac-
cused or suspected, and ruin seemed to im-
pend over New England. But a reaction at
last set in among the people. Notwithstand-
ing the vociferous clamor and denunciations
of Mather, the witch tribunals were over-
thrown. The representative assembly con-
vened early in October, and the hated court
which Governor Pbipps had appointed to sit
at Salem was at once dismissed. The spell
was dissolved. The thralldom of the popular
mind was broken. Reason shook off the ter-
ror that had oppressed it The prison doors
were opened, and the victims of malice and
superstition went forth free.

With the outbreak of the War of the Span-
ish Succession the American colonies became
again involved in the conflict. The Canadian
Jesuits instigated the Indians to rise against
the English settlements, and during the years
1703—1 great havoc was wrought by the sav-
ages along the desolated frontiers of Connect-
icut and New York.

In 1707 the reduction of Port Royal was
undertaken by Massachusetts A fleet, bear-
ing a thousand soldiers, was equipped and
sent against the town. But Baron Cast in.
who commanded the French garrison, con-
ducted the defense with so much skill that
the English were obliged to abandon the un-

dertaking. From this costly and disastnm*
expedition .Ma.-..-uehii.-cit.s gained nothing |,ut
diKOOagement and di-lit. Ne\erlliele-.-, after
two years of preparation, the enterprise was
renewed; and in 1710 an English and Amer-
ican fleet of thirty-Mx ve.»eU, having on
board lour regiments of troops, anchored be-
fore Port Royal. The garrison was weak;
Subercase, the French comi::ander, had neither
talents nor courage ; famine came ; and after
a feeble defense of eleven days the place sur-
rendered at discretion. By this conquest all
of Nova Scotia passed under the dominion of
the English. The flag of Great Britain was
hoisted over the conquered fortress, and the
name of Port Royal gave place to ANNAPO-
LIS, in honor of Queen Anne.

For more than a quarter of a century after
the treaty of Utrecht, Massachusetts was free
from hostile invasion. This was not, how-
ever, a period of public tranquillity. The
people were dissatisfied with the royal govern-
ment which King William had established,
and were at constant variance with their gov-
ernors. Phipps and his administration had
been heartily disliked. Governor Shute was
equally unpopular. Burnett, who succeeded
him, and Belcher afterward, were only toler-
ated because they could not be shaken off.
The opposition to the royal officers took the
form of a controversy about their salaries.
The general assembly insisted that the gov-
ernor and his councilors should IK- paid in
proportion to the importance of their several
offices, and for actual service only. But the
royal commissions gave to each officer a fixed
salary, which was frequently out of all
proportion to the services required. After
many years of antagonism, the difficulty was
finally adjusted with a compromise in which
the advantage was wholly on the side of the
people.

Passing over the details of the early his-
tory of the minor Ka<tern colonies, we note
the growth of the Dutch >ettlements in New
Netlierland. For ten years after the found-
ing of the colony on Manhattan I>land, New
Amsterdam was governed liv a board of di-
rectors appointed \iy the Dutch Ka<t India.
Company. In 1023 the shii /hrrlmid,

having on l»>:1nl a colony of thirty lam;
arrived at New Air.-tcrdam. The colonists,

862

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— PROGRESS OF AMERICAN rOLONIHS. 868

called WALLOONS, were Dutch Protestant ref-
ugees IVnin Inlanders, in Belgium. They were
of the same religious i'aitli with the Hugue-
nots of France, mill came to America to iiiul
repose from the persecutions of their own
country. Cornelius May wiis the leader of the
company. The greater number of the lieu-
immigrants settled with their friends on Man-
hattan Inland ; l>ut the captain, with a party
of fifty, passing down the coast of New
Jersey, entered and explored the Bay of
Delaware.

In the following year civil government
began in New Netherland. Cornelius May
was first governor of the colony. His official
duties, however, were only such as belonged
to the superintendent of a trading-post. In
the next year. William Verhulst became direc-
tor of the settlement. Herds of cattle, swine,
and sheep were brought over from Holland
and distributed among the settlers. In Janu-
ary of 1626, Peter Minuit, of Wesel, was
regularly appointed by the Dutch West India
Company as governor of New Netherland.

In 1628 the population of Manhattan num-
bered two hundred and seventy. The settlers
devoted their whole energies to the fur-trade.
Every bay, inlet, and river between Rhode
Island and the Delaware was visited by their
vessels. The colony gave promise of rapid
development and of great profit to the propri-
etors. The West India Company now came
forward with a new and peculiar scheme of
colonization. In 1629 the corporation created
a CHARTER OP PRIVILEGES, under which a
class of proprietors called patroons were au-
thorized to possess and colonize the country.
Each patroon might select anywhere in New
Netherland a tract of land not more than
sixteen miles in length, and of a breadth to be
determined by the location.

Under the provisions of this instrument
five estates were immediately established.
Three of them, lying contiguous, embraced a
district of twenty-four miles in the valley of
the Hudson above and below Fort Orange.
The fourth manor was laid out by Michael
Pauw on Staten Island ; and the fifth, and
most important, included the southern half of
the present State of Delaware.

Four of the leading European nations had
now established permanent colonies in America.

The fifth to plant an American state was Swe-
den. As early as 1626 (JtJSTAVfs AlMil.l'lll-H
formed the de>i;_'ii of establishing settlement*
in the Wi -i. For this pur]H>se a company of
merchants was organi/cd, to whose capital the
king himself contributed four hundred thou-
sand dollars. After the death of Ciustavns,
Oxenstiern, the great Swedish mini>ter, took
up the work which his master had left unfin-
ished. The charter of the company was re-
newed, and after four years of preparation the
enterprise was brought to a successful issue.
Late in the year 1637, a company of Swedes
and Finns left the harbor of Stockholm, and
in the following February arrived in Delaware
Bay. Never before had the Northerners be-
held so beautiful a land. They called Cape
Henlopen the Point of Paradise. The whole
country, sweeping around the west side of the
bay and up the river to the falls at Trenton,
was honorably purchased of the Indians. In
memory of native land, the name of NEW
SWEDEN was given to this fine territory.

But difficulties soon arose between the
Dutch and the Swedes, and in 1651 the col-
ony of the latter was extinguished by an ex-
pedition sent out by the governor of New
Netherland.

After several Dutch governors had been
despatched to their colony by the West India
Company, the soldierly PETER STUYVESANT was
commissioned, and in 1647 arrived at New Am-
sterdam. Under his administration the colony
began to improve ; but the progress was slow,
and as late as the middle of the century the
better parts of Manhattan Island were still di-
vided among the farmers. Central Park was
a forest of oaks and chestnuts.

It was during the administration of Stuy-
vesant that the little state of New Sweden
was invaded, conquered, and incorporated
with New Netherland. The nature and ex-
tent of the various American possessions and
territorial claims of France, England, Hol-
land. Sweden, and Spain will be best under-
stood from an examim.tion of the accompany-
ing map. drawn for the year 1 •''">•">.

On the 1'_>th of March, K.lU. the Duke of
York received at the hands of his brother,
Charle- II., two extensive patents for Amer-
ican territory. The first grant included the
district reaching from the Keuuebec to the

864

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

St. Croix River, and the second embraced the
whole country between the Connecticut and
the Delaware. Without regard to the rights
of Holland, in utter contempt of the West
India Company, through whose exertions the
valley of the Hudson had been peopled, with
no respect for the wishes of the Dutch, or
even for the voice of his own Parliament, the
English monarch in one rash hour despoiled
a sister kingdom of a well-earned province.

Governor Stuyvesant resisted as best he
might the arbitrary claims of the English ;
but resistance was in vain. An armament
was sent out under command of RICHARD

PETER STUYVESANT.

NICOLLS, whom the Duke of York had ap-
pointed governor. Arriving at New Amster-
dam, Nicolls demanded a surrender. Stuy-
vesant tried to induce the Dutch to fight, but
they would not. On the 8th of September,
1664, New Netherlands ceased to exist. The
English flag was hoisted over the fort and
town, and the name of NEW YORK was substi-
tuted for New Amsterdam. The surrender of
Fort Orange, now named Albany, followed on
the 24th ; and on the 1st of October the Swed-
ish and Dutch settlements on the Delaware
capitulated. The conquest was complete. The
supremacy of Great Britain in America was
finally established. From the north-east cor-
ner of Maine to the southern limits of Georgia,

every mile of the American coast was under
the flag of England.

From 1C64 to the close of the century the
colony of New Netherlaud was ruled by En-
glish governors. Of these, Nicolls remained
in office for three years, and was then super-
seded by the tyrannical LORD LOVELACE. The
latter held authority until 1673, when a Dutch
squadron, sent out by Holland, bore down on
New York, and the town was taken. The
supremacy of the Dutch was restored for a
brief season in all the territory between Con-
necticut and Maryland. But in the following
year Charles II. was obliged by his Parliament
to conclude a treaty of peace with Holland.
There was the usual clause requiring the
restoration of all conquests made during the
war. New York reverted to the English gov-
ernment, and the rights of the Duke of York
were again recognized in the province. To-
make his authority doubly secure for the
future, he obtained from his brother, the
king, a new patent confirming the provisions
of the former charter.

It was at this juncture that SIR EDMUND
ANDROS was sent out as governor of New
York. The same -troubles which had been
witnessed in Massachusetts were brought upon
the people of the Middle Colonies. The
citizens of New York were constantly em-
broiled with their governor until 1683, when
he was superseded by THOMAS DONGAN, a
Catholic. Under his administration the form
of the government was changed. An assembly
of the people was called to aid in the manage-
ment of affairs. All freeholders were granted
the right of suffrage; trial by jury was estab-
lished ; taxes should no more be levied except
by consent of the assembly ; soldiers should
not be quartered on the people; martial law
should not exist ; no person accepting the gen-
eral doctrines of religion should be in any wise
distressed or persecuted. All the rights and
privileges of Massachusetts and Virginia were
carefully written by the zealous law-makers of
New York in their first charter of liberties.

In July of 1684 an important treaty was-
concluded at Albany. The governors of New
York and Virginia were met in convention by
the sachems of the Iroquois, and the terms of
a lasting peace were settled. In 1685, when
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ENGLISH REVOLUTION.-PROGRESS OF AMEXI<:\.\ < OLONIZ&

it was found that even the monarch of a great
nation co\ild violate his pledges. King James
became the open antagonist of the government
which had been established under his own di-
rections. The popular legislature of New
York was abrogated. An odious tax was
levied by an arbitrary decree. Printing-
presses were forbidden in the province. All
the old abuses were revived and made a pub-
lic boast.

In December of 1686 Edmund Andros
became governor of all New England. It
was a part of his plan to extend his dominion
over New York and New Jersey. To the
former province FRANCIS NICHOLSON, the lieu-
tenant-general of Andros, was sent as deputy.
Dongan was superseded, and until the En-
glish Revolution of 1688, New York was
ruled as a dependency of New England.
When the news of that event and of the ac-
cession of William of Orange reached the
province there was a general tumult of re-
joicing. The people rose in rebellion against
the government of Nicholson, who was glad
enough to escape from New York and return
to England.

The leaders of this insurrection were Jacob
Leisler and his son-in-law, Milborne. Both
were subsequently arrested and hanged by
Colonel SLOUGHTER, who came out as deputy-
governor in 1691. Then came the govern-
ment of BENJAMIN FLETCHER, who remained in
office until the invasion of New York by the
French under Frontenac, governor of Can-
ada, in 1696.

In the year following the treaty of Ryswick
the EARL OF BELLOMONT, an Irish nobleman
of excellent character and popular sympathies,
succeeded Fletcher in the government of New
York. His administration of less than four
years was the happiest era in the history of
the colony. His authority, like that of his
predecessor, extended over a part of New
England. Massachusetts and Now Hampshire
were under his jurisdiction, but Connecticut
and Rhode Island remained independent. To
this period belong the exploits of the famous
pirate, Captain William Kidd.

In striking contrast with the virtues and
wisdom of Bellomont were the vices and folly
of LORD CORNWRY, who succeeded him. He

arrived at New York in the beginning of May,
VOL. II.— 55

17ui>. From that time tor a jicriod of six years
the province was a scene of turmoil HIH! civil
dissension. Each succeeding assembly resisted
more stubbornly the measures of the governor.
Time and again the people petitioned for his
removal. The councilors selected their own
treasurer, refused to vote appropriations, and
curtailed Corubury's revenues until he was
impoverished and ruined. Then came LORD
LOVELACE with a commission from Queen Anne,
and the passionate, wretched governor was un-
ceremoniously turned out of office. Left to
the mercy of his injured subjects, they ar-
rested him for debt and threw him into
prison, where he lay until, by his father's
death, he became a peer of England, and
could be no longer held in confinement.

During the progress of the War of the
Spanish Succession the troops of New York
cooperated with the army and navy of New
England. Eighteen hundred volunteers from
the Hudson and the Delaware composed the
land forces in the unsuccessful expedition
against Montreal in the winter of 1709-10.
The provincial army proceeded as far as South
River, east of Lake George. Here informa-
tion was received that the English fleet which
was expected to cooperate in the reduction
of Quebec had been sent to Portugal ; the
armament of New England was insufficient of
itself to attempt the conquest of the Canadian
stronghold ; and the troops of New York and
New Jersey were obliged to retreat. Again,
in 1711, when the incompetent Sir Hovenden
Walker was pretending to conduct his fleet up
the St. Lawrence, and was in reality only
anxious to get away, the army which was to
invade Canada by land was furnished by New
York. A second time the provincial forces
reached Lake George; but the dispiriting
news of the disaster to Walker's fleet dc-tr
all hope of success, and the discouraged sol-
diers returned to their homes.

Passing again to the south, we come to the
colonies planted on the Chesapeake and the
James. The settlement at Jamestown was for
ii while badly managed : hut the fortunes of
the ri'1'ini-t- «,-re at lenjrth restored by tin-
valor, industry, and enterprise of the great,
adventurer. Captain John Smith. The Other
members of the corporation proved to be
either incompetent or dishonest; but under

866

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Smith the settlement soon began to show
signs of vitality and progress. His first care,
after the settlers were in a measure restored
to health, was to improve the buildings of the
plantation. Then he began a series of ex-
plorations and adventures, now in the Chesa-
peake and now a prisoner among the Indians,
until, escaping from captivity, he came back
to Jamestown to find only thirty-eight of the
settlers alive. But just as despair seemed to
be settling on the colony Captain Newport
arrived from England, bringing supplies and
new immigrants.

CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH.

Captain Smith remained in office for
for nearly two years, and his heroism saved
the colony from destruction. Finally, on his
way down the James, while asleep in a boat,
a bag of gunpowder lying near by exploded,
burning and tearing his flesh so terribly that
in his agony he leaped overboard. Being
rescued from the river, he was carried to the
fort, where he lay for some time racked with
fever and tortured with his wounds. Finally,
despairing of relief under the imperfect med-
ical treatment which the colony afforded, he
decided to return to England. He accord-
ingly delegated his authority to Sir George
Percy, a brother of the Earl of Northumber-

land, and about the middle of September,
1609, left the scene of his heroic toils and suf-
ferings, never to return.

After the departure of Captain Smith the
Jamestown colony suffered great hardships.
The following winter was known as the
" Starving Time." Even the return of spring
did not bring comfort, and in June James-
town was abandoned. The disheartened set-
tlers, now grown resentful, were anxious be-
fore leaving to burn the town; but Gates, the
deputy of Lord Delaware, defeated this de-
sign, and was himself the last man to go on
board. Four pinnaces lay at their
moorings in the river ; embarking in
these, the colonists dropped down with
the tide, and it seemed as though the
enterprise of Raleigh and Gosnold had
ended in failure and humiliation. But
Lord Delaware was himself already
on his way to America. Before the
escaping settlers had passed out of the
mouth of the river, the ships of the
noble governor came in sight. Here
were additional immigrants, plentiful
supplies, and promise of better things
to come. The colonists were persuaded
to return and begin the struggle anew.
After Lord Delaware's return to
England the colony was ruled by Sir
Thomas Dale, and afterwards by Sir
Thomas Gates. The latter remained
in authority until 1614, when he again
transferred the office to Dale, and re-
turned to England. In 1617 Samuel
Argall was elected governor and en-
tered upon an administration chiefly
noted for fraud and oppression.

In the spring of 1619 Argall was at
last displaced through the influence of Sir
Edwyn Sandys, and the excellent Sir George
Yeardley appointed to succeed him. The
latter, in accordance with instructions re-
ceived from the company, divided the planta-
tions along James River into eleven districts,
called boroughs, and issued a proclamation to
the citizens of each borough to elect two of
their own number to take part in the govern-
ment of the colony. The elections were duly
held, and on the 30th of July, 1619, the del-
egates came together at Jamestown. Here was
organized the Virginia HOUSE OF BURGESSES,

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.— PROGRESS Ol- AMi;i;H'.[\ COLD MM. 867

a colonial legislature, the first popular assem-
bly held in the New World.

The year 1619 was also marked by the in-
troduction of negro slavery into Virginia. The
servants of the people of Jamestown had
hitherto been persons of English or German
descent, and their term of service had varied
from a few mouths to many years. No per-
petual servitude had thus far been recognized,
nor is it likely that the English colonists
would of themselves have instituted the sys-
tem of slave labor. In the month of August
a Dutch man-of-war sailed up the river to the
plantations, and offered by auction twenty
Africans. They were purchased by the
wealthier class of planters and made slaves
for life. It was, however, nearly a half cent-
ury from this time before the system of negro
slavery became well established in the En-
glish colonies.

The history of Virginia from this time
until the outbreak of the English Revolution
was marked by few events of importance.
In the times of the Commonwealth Virginia
shared in some degree the distractions of the
mother-country, yet the evil done to the new
State by the conflict in England was less than
might have been expected. In the first year
of the civil war Sir William Berkeley became
governor of the colony, and, with the excep-
tion of a brief visit to England in 1645, re-
mained in office for ten years. His admin-
istration, notwithstanding the commotions
abroad, was noted as a time of rapid growth
and development. The laws were greatly
improved and made conformable to the En-
glish statutes. The old controversies about
the lands were satisfactorily settled. Cruel
punishments were abolished and the taxes
equalised.

The Virginians adhered with great firmness
to the cause of Charles I. , and after the death
of that ruler proclaimed his son, Charles II.,
king of England. Cromwell was offended,
and determined to employ force against the
colonists. A war-vessel called the Guinea was
sent into the Chesapeake to compel submis-
sion, but in the last extreme the Protector
showed himself to be just, as well as wrathful.
There were commissioners on board the frigate
authorized to make an offer of peace, and this
was gladly accepted. It was seen that the

cause of the Stuarts was hopeless. The peo-
ple of Virginia, although refusing to yield to
threats and violence, cheerfully entered into
negotiations with Cromwell's delegates, and
ended by acknowledging the supreme author-
ity of Parliament.

On recovering his father's throne, Charles
H. seemed to regard the British empire as
personal property to be used for the benefit
of himself and his courtiers. In order to re-
ward the worthless profligates who thronged
his court, he began to grant to them large
tracts of knd in Virginia. What did it mat-
ter that these hinds had been redeemed from
the wilderness and were covered with orchards
and gardens? It was no uncommon thing
for an American planter to find that his
farm, which had been cultivated for a quarter
of a century, was given away to some disso-
lute flatterer of the royal household. Great
distress was occasioned by these iniquitous
grants, until finally, in 1673, the king set a
limit to his own recklessness by giving away
the whale State. Lord Culpepper and the
Earl of Arlington, two ignoble noblemen, re-
ceived under the great seal a deed by which
was granted to them for thirty-one years all
the dominion of land and water called
Virginia.

Sir William Berkeley continued in office
as governor, and his administration became so
odious that the people rose in rebellion. A
war with the Susqnehanna Indians furnished
the occasion of an uprising of the militia un-
der a young patriot, named Nathaniel Bacon,
who drove the governor across the Chesa-
peake and for some time kept him at bay.
At length, however, Bacon fell sick and died.
It was an event full of grief and disaster.
The patriot party, discouraged by the loss of
the heroic chieftain, was easily dispersed. A
few feeble efforts were made to revive the
cause of the people, but the animating spirit
which had controlled and directed until now
was gone. The royalists found an able leader"
in Robert Beverly, and the authority of the
governor was rapidly restored throughout the
province. The cause of the people and the
leader of the people had died together.

Berkeley's vindictive passions were now let
loose upon the defeated insurgents. Fines
and confiscations became the order of the day.

868

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The governor seemed determined to drown
the memory of his own wrongs in the woes of
his subjects. Twenty-two of the leading pa-
triots were seized and hanged with scarcely
time to bid their friends farewell.

In 1675 Lord Culpepper, to whom, with
Arlington, the province had been granted two
years previously, obtained the appointment
of governor for life. The new executive ar-
rived in 1680, and assumed the duties of his
office. His whole administration was charac-
terized by avarice and dishonesty. Every
species of extortion was resorted to, until the
mutterings of rebellion were again heard
throughout the impoverished colony. In
1683 Arlington surrendered his claim to Cul-
pepper, who thus became sole proprietor as
well as governor ; but before he could pro-
ceed to further mischief, his official career
was cut short by the act of the king. Charles
II., repenting of his own rashness, found in
Culpepper's vices and frauds a sufficient ex-
cuse to remove him from office and to revoke
his patent. In 1684 Virginia, from being
a Proprietary government, again became a
Royal province, under the government of
Lord Horward, of Effingham, who was suc-
ceeded by Francis Nicholson, formerly gov-
ernor of New York. His administration was
signalized by the founding of WILLIAM AND
MARY COLLEGE, so named in honor of the
new sovereigns of England. This, next to
Harvard, was the first institution of liberal
learning planted in America. Here the boy
Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Inde-

pendence, shall be educated ! From these
halls, in the famous summer of 1776, shall be
sent forth young James Monroe, future Pres-
ident of the United States!

In the mean time the minor Middle Colo-
nies of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Dela-
ware, and the minor Southern Colonies of
Maryland and Carolina, had also made con-
siderable progress. No other had so greatly
flourished as Pennsylvania. Nothing occurred
to disturb the peace of that province until the
secession of Delaware in 1691. The three
lower counties, which, ever since the arrival
of Penn, had been united on terms of equal-
ity with the six counties of Pennsylvania,
became dissatisfied with some acts of the gen-
eral assembly, and insisted on a separation.
The proprietor gave a reluctant consent ; Del-
aware withdrew from the union and received
a separate deputy governor. — Such is in brief
a sketch of the growth and development of
the American colonies, from the date of the
first permanent settlements on the Atlantic
coast to the rise of the Hanoverian dynasty
in England. At the middle of the eighteenth
century these colonies will again claim our
attention, when, united in a common cause,
they become participants with the Mother
country in that struggle with France by which
the territorial possessions of the latter were
torn away and transferred to Great Britain.
Then we shall hear the echo of the rifle of the
youthful Washington at Great Meadows, and
awake to the realization of the birth of a NEW
PEOPLE in the prolific West.

O)O1OIOIQ1O\OI O I O I O I

OlOtO'O'OlOlO'. OIQIO

Jtook Ifintljj.

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.

CHAPTER XL.— FIRST Two HANOVERIANS.

troductory to the more stirring parts of the
drama, the present chapter may well be de-
voted to the reigns of the first two princes of
the House of Hanover in England, and the
following to the corresponding period in the
history of France.

When it became evident that Anne Stuart,
seventeen times a mother, was destined to die
without an heir, the English Parliament made
haste to reestablish the succession. After not
a little discussion the choice of the body rested
on the Electress Sophia, granddaughter of
James I., married to the Duke of Bruns-
wick. This settlement was accepted in
Scotland in 1707, was ratified in the conven-
tions with Holland in 1706 and 1709, and
was finally guaranteed in the treaty of Utrecht
in 1713. On the 28th of May, in the suc-
cv, '.ling year, the Electress Sophia died, and
Queen Anne lived until the 1st of An
following. By these two events the way was
cleared for the unchallenged accession of
Prince Geor^-i' I.iuis, eldest son of Sophia
and Duke Ernest.

He on whom the crown of England was
thus devolved was born at O.-nalirtiek on the

(869)

the eighteenth
witnessed in Europe a
striking social and polit-
ical transformation. A
change like the shadow
of a cloud swept over the
face of society, and the
whole landscape took another outline and
color. It was the age in which the old style
of kingship and statecraft gave place to new
methods of administration. That great fact,
the European King, at length bowed down to
that greater fact, the European People. It is
the province of the present Book to narrate
the last epoch of the Ancient Regime, and to
bring the reader up to the verge of that cata-
clysm which, in the closing years of the cen-
tury, rent the earth and swallowed up the
Past. Since Frederick II. of Prussia was the
last and one of the greatest of the old-style
kings — by far the most conspicuous figure be-
tween the time of the Grand Monarch and
the time of Washington and Bonaparte- it i-
appropriate that this, the ninth general divi-
sion of Volume Second should he doignated
as the Age of Frederick the Great. As in-

870

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

28th of May, 1660. He \vas already, there-
fore, in his fifty-fifth year at the time of his
accession. He had been elector of Hanover
since 1698 ; nor was he obliged, under the
terms by which he accepted the crown, to
give up his electoral office. Indeed, the rela-
tion which England was now destined to sus-
tain to Hanover was almost identical with
that which she had held to Holland during
the reign of William HI. It was agreed, in
the act establishing the succession, that so
long as the crown should be worn by a male
descendant of George I. the kingdom and the
electorate of Hanover should have a common

ST. JOHN VISCOUNT BOLINGBROKE.

head ; but if a woman of this line should be-
come queen of England, then the electorate
should revert to the princes of Hanover.

In September following the death of Queen
Anne the king-elect arrived with his son at
Greenwich, and was soon afterwards publicly
crowned. Thus far there had been no open
opposition to the change of dynasty ; but the
Jacobites were still in the shadows of the hori-
zon, and now came forth in the old-time fash-
ion to undo the settlement of the kingdom.
In Scotland the opposition raised the standard
of rebellion, and a considerable force was
thrown into the field, but was defeated at Pres-
ton a month after the king's coronation. The
Pretender himself came over to Scotland in

the following year, and attempted to organize
a revolution; but the movement failed, and
James was obliged to save himself by flight.

On the accession of GEOKGE I. the Tory
party was overthrown, and a new Whig min-
istry, with Viscount Townshend and Sir Rob-
ert Walpole at the head, was appointed. The
Earl of Oxford and Lord Bolingbroke were
impeached as well as put out of office. One
of the first parliamentary acts of the new ad-
ministration was that of removing the restric-
tion upon the length of time during which
the House of Commons might remain in ses-
sion. After the Restoration the limit had
been fixed at three years; but now the
movements of the Jacobites, in threat-
ening to overthrow the new dynasty,
gave a good excuse for extending the
period to seven years, which limit was
accordingly adopted, subject only to
an earlier dissolution by the crown.

It will be remembered that, just
before the death of Charles I., Baron
Gortz well-nigh succeeded in effecting
a Russo-Swedish alliance, and that one
of the objects of that distinguished
diplomatist was to restore the House
of Stuart in England. This move-
ment led, in January of 1717, to the
formation of a triple alliance of Eng-
land, France, and Holland against
Sweden and Russia. The Swedish am-
bassador in London was arrested, and
among his papers were found indubi-
table proofs of the scheme which had
been hatched in the fertile brain of
Gortz. It had been coolly determined by
the conspirators of the North to use the
Swedish embassy as the head-center of an
English insurrection ; while, at the same
time, Scotland was to be invaded by Charles
XII. in person. Great excitement and an-
imosity were produced by the discovery of
this plot and by the arrest of the Swedish
minister caught in such flagrant violation of
international law. The dissension extended
into the ministry itself, and that body was
disrupted. A portion of the members, in-
cluding Walpole, resigned, and the Earl of
Stanhope became the responsible head of the
government. In the following year the Ger-
man Emperor was admitted to the triple al-

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— FIRST TWO HANOVERIANS.

liance, wliile Spain became a party with
Sweden aud Russia. A short war ensued,
which was brought to a climax by Admiral
Byng, who, in August of 1718, fell upon and
destroyed the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro.
The new royal family of England was at
this time seriously affected with a domestic,
difficulty which threatened to disturb the
peace of the kingdom. An unfriendliness

before the accession of King George, Sophia
had been suspected of an intrigue with fount
KSoignUBfc of Sweden, then resident at the
court of Hanover. Before this time George
had treated the duchess with great severity,
and she now repaid him by flying to France.
She and Konigsmark were placed under sur-
veillance ; their interviews were watched, and,
on leaving her one evening, he was assassin-

QUELPH, noi.

I

Henry the Black, 1127.
1

Henry the Proud, 1139.

1

Henry the Lion, 1196.

William, 1218.

I

Otto the Child, 1252.

Albert I., 1279.

Albert II., 1318.

I

Magnus, 1369.

Magnus Torquatus, 1373.

Bernard, 1434.

Frederick, 1478.
I

Otto, 1471.

I

Henry. 1532.

I

HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK.

Ernst the Confenor, 1546.
1

HOUSE OF HANOVER.

Henry, 1598.

William, 1592.

1

I

August, 1666.

George, 1641.

Ferdinand Albert I., 1687.

Ernst August, 1698.

Ferdinand Albert II., 1735.

1. GEORGE I., 1727.

1

THE GUELPHS.

1

Charles, 1780.
I

EXPLANATION:

2. GEORGE, II., 1760.

Charles William, 1806.
I

Sovereigns of Great Britain and Hanover 1 , 2, 3, 4,
Sovereigns of Great Britain In SHALL CAPITAL*.

8. Frederick, Prince of Wale«, 1761.
I

Frederick William, 1815.
1

3. GEORGE III., 1830.
1

1 111
Charles. William. 4. GEORGE IV., 1830. 5. WILLIAM IV., 1837. Edward, 1820. Emut August, 1851. Adolph Frederick, 1880.

1
VICTORIA.

George V.

arose between the king and his son George,
the Prince of Wales. The latter was already
thirty-one years of age when his father
came to the throne. The wife of George I.,
mother of the Prince of Wales was Sophia
Dorothea, daughter of the Duke of Celle.
For her the king had never entertained Mieb
affectionate regard as the situation demanded.
But Prince George entertained for his mother
the highest esteem and affection. Many years

ated with the evident connivance of her hus-
band. Sophia was divorced and imprisoned
from 1694 until her death, thirty years after-
wards. It was on this account that the quar-
rel Ix'twcen tlie Prince of Wales and his father
grew in bitterness, and in 1717 led to the with-
drawal of the younger Geonre from St. .]:•
pahiee and the establishment of his residence at
Leicester House, where he kept a court in ri-
valrv with that of his father.

872

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

It was in the year 1720 that the attention
of the English nation was turned to the vast
speculative enterprise called the South Sea
Scheme. The measure seems to have been
originally contrived by Sir John Blunt, and
to have contemplated the organization of a
powerful syndicate of merchants to be called
the South Sea Company, whose object should
be to buy up all the forms of the national
debt, and to fund the same in a single stock.
The profits to be realized by the stockholders
were figured up in advance by the adroit
schemers who were managing the enterprise,
and such were the representations made that
many merchants and capitalists, induced by
the prospect of large returns, came forward
and subscribed liberally to the fund. At this
time the floating debt of Great Britain was
about thirty millions of pounds, the interest
upon the same being eighteen hundred thou-
sand pounds per annum. It was proposed
that every purchaser of any part of the debt
should become a shareholder in the company,
which was to have a monopoly of the trade
with Spanish South America. The specula-
tors, following the successful example which
had been set by John Law in France, suc-
ceeded in getting their views incorporated in
an act of Parliament, passed by both Houses
in April of 1720 ; this plan of paying off" the
national debt being adopted against the sound
and business-like proposition presented by the
Bank of England. The parliamentary act not
only conferred on the company the exclusive
right of trading with the South American
states, but, by rendering permanent the duties
on wine, tobacco, and silk, secured to the
monopolists at least a prospect of such profits
as would yield an exorbitant interest on
their stock.

The shares soon became in great demand,
and the company agreed to take the entire
national debt. An unheard-of speculative
mania seized the public mind. The excite-
ment rose to a frenzy. The shares of the
stock, which at the time of the passage of the
act by Parliament were rated at three hundred
pounds, soon obtained a fictitious value, and
the continued competition of the buyers put
the quotations higher and higher. Two-thirds
of the holders of the public funds of England
rushed forward and exchanged their certificates

for those of the new company. Even the
collapse of John Law's scheme in France did
not seriously check the infatuation of the peo-
ple. The stock continued to rise until it was
quoted at a thousand pounds a share. But in
September it was discovered that Sir John
Blunt, president of the company, and several
of the directors, had privately disposed of
their stock! This circumstance pricked the
bubble, and it became a struggle among the
dupes of the scheme to sell out and escape
from the ruins. Both the government and
the Bank of England made strenuous efforts
to prevent the wreck of the company and the
consequent precipitation of a commercial
panic. But the whole scheme ran its natural
course. The company stopped payment, and
thousands were reduced to beggary. Like
every other measure having for its bottom
motive the making of something out of
nothing, the South Sea Scheme exploded and
left an odor of fraud. Parliament came for-
ward and ordered an investigation into the
management of the company. The usual
amount of corruption was uncovered. Nor
did the schemers get away without deserved
punishment. Several of the directors were
imprisoned, and all were fined to an amount
aggregating over two millions of pounds.

The valid assets of the company were
seized, and the proceeds, amounting to about
thirty-three per cent of the sum of which
they had been defrauded, were distributed
among the victims. It is said that the astute
Sir Robert Walpole was about the only emi-
nent man of England who had the discern-
ment and courage to enter his protest against
the proposed scheme of Sir John Blunt and
his confederates. After the bubble burst the
people laid the blame on the ministry, and the
members were driven almost to distraction by
the clamor that was raised against them. Lord
Stanhope, in attempting to reply to an attack
in the House of Lords, fell down in a fit of
apoplexy, and died. Craggs, the secretary
of state, also died, and Lord Sunderland left
the treasury. Jt was even expected that the
king would abdicate, but he held to the
throne. Sir Robert Walpole, however, was
recalled to the ministry, and the Whigs car-
ried the House of Commons by a great
majority.

AGE OF FREDERICK THE QREAT.-FIRST TWO HANOVI-:iil.\SX. >7-t

In the year 1722 the Jacobites were de- the government of George I. was little op-
tected in a plot for another insurrection, and pressive; nor does it appear that his animo-ity
Bishop Atterbury was arrested and banished was ever seriou-Iv aroused against the ix-

for alleged complicity in the movement.

These schemes, however, for the restora-
tion of the ftouse of Stuart had now be-
come visionary and were no longer regarded
with trepidation, except by the most tim-
orous. The Jacobites dwindled to a hand-
ful of schemers in the North, whom few
respected and none feared.

At this time the kingdom was consider-
ably agitated by a second speculative en-
terprise, based upon the mining and coinage
of copper. Through the influence of the
Duchess of Kendal, mistress of the king,
a monopoly of the copper mines in England
was secured by a capitalist named William
Wood, who devoted his energies to the
coinage of farthings and half-pence for
Ireland. The new issue was debased below
the standard weight, and though the meas-
ure had the sanction of both Walpole and
Sir Isaac Newton, who was master of the
mint, a great disturbance was produced.
Dean Swift issued a pamphlet addressed
particularly to the Irish, whose excitable na-
ture was inflamed to the highest pitch by the
appeal of the unscrupulous pamphleteer.

Such was the
fury of the
storm that the
patent granted
to Wood had
to be with-
drawn.

The influ-
ence of the
king was aug-
mented by the
fact that he
never at-
tempted to
abridge the
liberties of hii
subjects. Even

in religious matters he was tolerant One of his
earliest measures was to extend the privileges
of the dissenters. In 1723 another act was
secured, by which the rights of Nonconform-
ists, especially the Presbyterians, were still
further enlarged and guaranteed. In general

SIR ISAAC NIIH HIS.

JONATHAN sun I

After the engraving by Bolt

The year 1724 was noted for the enlarge-
ment of the universities of Oxford and Cam-
bridge, which institutions received a good
share of royal favor. Chairs of Modern His-
tory were now endowed and added to the
other departments of instruction. In the fol-
lowing year Lord Macclesfield, chancellor of
the kingdom, was impeached and removed
from office. Sir Robert Walpole, however,
stood unscathed amid the assaults of the op-
position. Neither private machination nor pub-
lic assault could shake him from his base. His
influence in the affairs of England was especially
salutary. He promoted peace without the exhi-
bition of weakness, and encouraged tin- accumu-
lation of wealth by the old-fashioned methods of
industry and economy. It was not, however,
within the scope of his power to prevent the
outbreak of a war with Spain. In 1725 an
alliance was made between the Spanish king
and the German Emperor, which called forth
a counter-lcnirue on the part of England,
France. Prussia, and Sweden. The whole
movement of Spain looked to tlie recovery of
Gibraltar from the English. In 1 Ti'7 a Squ-
ish squadron was put afloat for the retaking

874

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of that fortress. At the same time an English
fleet was sent into the West Indies ; but the
former armament had no success, and the
latter but little. Before the end of the year
the parties came to an understanding, and a
treaty was concluded at Paris.

Queen Sophia still lingered in imprison-
ment, and the breach between the king and
Prince George was never healed. In 1726
Sophia died, and the king's nature, not above
superstition, was agitated by a prophecy that
he would survive his wife only a year. His
life in England had been any thing but happy.
His preference had always been for Hanover.
He could not acquire the English language
or reconcile himself to English manners. He
was essentially a foreign king, more so than
James I. had been on his coming to the South,
or William of Orange on his arrival from
Holland.

As soon as King George was informed
of the conclusion of the peace with Spain he
hastened his preparations for a visit to Hano-
ver. He departed under the apprehension of
death before his return. Taking with him
his minister Townshend and the Duchess of
Kendal, he set out for Osnabriick, but he was
destined never to reach the place of his birth.
On the 10th of June, 1727, he was attacked
with a fit in his carriage, and died before he
could reach his castle-gate. He had attained
the sixty-eighth year of his age and the thir-
teenth of his reign.

On the next day after the intelligence of
his father's death reached London, George
Augustus, prince of Wales, was proclaimed
as GEORGE II. He was, at the date of his ac-
cession, in the forty-fifth year of his age. In
abilities he was inferior to his father, but in
other respects was like that prince, particu-
larly in the hastiness of his temper and his
preference for every thing Hanoverian over
every thing English. His education had been
neglected and himself abused by his father in
childhood. In 1705 he had taken in marriage
the Princess Caroline, daughter of the Mar-
grave of Brandenburg, whose talents and
character did much to redeem the standing
of the English court. In 'the War of the
Spanish Succession, George had distinguished
himself, especially in the battle of Oudenarde,
where his bravery was conspicuous. Coming

with his father to England, he was proclaimed
Prince of Wales, in September of 1714. Then
followed the scandalous quarrels between him
and the king. A proposition was made by
the Earl of Berkeley to carry off Prince George
to America, and to dispose of him in such a
manner as would make it impossible for him ever
to vex his father further ; and it is said that
the king heard the scheme with favor. But
Walpole interfered, and after a reasonable re-
tirement of the Prince of Wales from St.
James's palace, succeeded in patching up a
sort of reconciliation between vindictive father
and stubborn son. During this epoch, how-
ever, the prince was much used by the oppo-
sition as a factor in the politics of the king-
dom. It had been expected by the enemies
of Sir Robert Walpole that the death of
George I. would be the signal for the hurl-
ing of that great minister from power. The
event, however, did not correspond to the
expectation. The elections, after the acces-
sion of George II., showed that Walpole was
more strongly intrenched than ever before in
public confidence. To this should also be
added the influence of the king, with whom
Sir Robert became a favorite. The queen
took a great pride in the statesman, and her
power was added to his other elements of
strength. The sight of the minister, thus sur-
rounded as with a panoply, seemed to excite
all the animosity of the opposing party, and
the continuance of Walpole in power was
only effected after a succession of the fiercest
political struggles ever known in England.
For more than fourteen years he held his
grip against every storm which party rancor
could evoke. He retained his office until
1742, and then retired after an unparalleled
premiership of twenty-one years' duration.

The English people were greatly chagrined
to find the passion for Hanover, which had so
strongly marked the disposition of George I.,
perpetuated in his son. The king seemed to
take a certain comfort in disgusting his sub-
jects by frequent and prolonged absences in
Germany. He also excited unfavorable criti-
cism by the harsh and unfatherly treatment
which he visited upon his son William Fred-
erick, prince of Wales. It would have been
supposed that the memory of his own youth
would have prevented the repetition of the

or ri;i:i>i':i;i< K TIII: <;REAT.— FIRST TWO HA.\O\'I:I;IA.\*. 875

course which George I. had pursued toward*
his successor. But not so. Even Queen
Caroline, from whom better things might
have been expected, joined her own dislike to
that of her husband, and Prince Frederick —
father of George III. — suffered all the ills
consequent upon the hatred of his father's
house.

The genius of Walpole never shone more
conspicuously than in the treaty to which, in
1729, he induced Spain to assent in a con-
vention of the powers at Seville. The terms
obtained by this settlement were highly favor-
able to England. Even on the great ques- _
tion of the possession of Gibraltar, the
existing status — which was that of Eng-
lish control — was allowed to stand, thus
furnishing a precedent to be pleaded in
subsequent treaties. In the first year
after the peace the ministry was well-nigh
disrupted by a quarrel between Sir Rob-
ert and Townshend, but the latter was
obliged to retire, and the ascendency of
Walpole became more pronounced than
ever. He used his power to undertake
the reform of certain abuses in the state,
but his measures were hampered by the
opposition, who conceded nothing to the
premier's good intentions. In 1730 an
investigation was ordered of the condi-
tion of the English prisons and prison-
system — a movement which led to the
correction of some serious abuses, and to
the colonization of Georgia. In the
following year a reform was carried by
which the court-procedure of the king-
dom, which until now, had been in Latin,
•was ordered to be henceforth in Eng-
lish— a great gain for common sense and
nationality.

In one favorite measure, however, Sir
Robert was forced to recede before the Tory
opposition. Finding that the sinking fund,
which he had helped to provide against the
national debt, was falling low under the
many drains made upon it, he conceived the
project of replenishing the same by means of
an excise laid upon such articles as wine and
tobacco. A storm of opposition was provoked
by the proposed measure, and every argument
which prejudice and partisan ingenuity could
invent was urged against it. The majority

in the House of Commons wavered and fell
from two hundred to sixty and finally to six-
teen before the persistent Walpole could be
induced to withdraw the bill. The king
shared the mortification of his mini-t>r
over the virtual defeat of the excise scheme,
and both sought to comfort themselves by dis-
missing from office all the prominent person-
ages who had presumed to side with the op-
posing party. Chief among those who were
thus deprived of place for violating the prin-
ciples of fealty to ministerial government
was Philip Stanhope, earl of Chesterfield,

ROBERT W AI.I-OLt

After the mezzotint by O, White.

who afterwards played so noted a part in the
world of English politics, society, and letters.
It was in the year 1733 that Europe be-
came disturbed by the dispute respecting the
Polish succession. A faction in the interest
of Russia had arisen among the nobility of
Poland, and when Air.rn-tu-< II. died, his son
was, by the influence of this party. rai>cd to the
throne in place of Leszcynski, who had been
reflected. The daughter of the latter had
been married to LouU XV. of France, and that
monarch now espoused the cause of his father-
in-law against the Russian candidate. The
French king began a war by a campaign be-

876

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

yond the Rhine, but the conflict was pres-
ently ended by the acknowledgment of Au-
gustus and by the cession of Lorraine to
France. The king of England was very anx-
ious to take part in this war, but Walpole
insisted upon neutrality, and George was at
length won over to the views of his minister.
The influence of England was thrown in favor
of peace, and it was by this means that the
treaty of 1735 was brought about.

Each succeeding election resulted in the
return of a ministerial majority to the House
of Commons, and Walpole continued to hold
the reins. In 1735 the opposition made an
effort to repeal the Test Act, but were beaten
by a large majority. In the following year
the Gin Act, by which it was sought to lessen
the evils of drunkenness in the kingdom, was
passed, but the effects were scarcely percepti-
ble. It was in this year that the Prince of
Wales took in marriage the Princess Augusta
of Saxe-Gotha, and the question of fixing his
income again fired the animosity of the op-
posing parties in Parliament. The anger of
the king was rekindled against his son, and
when presently an heir was born to the latter,
the mutual hatreds of the royal house burned
more fiercely than ever. Prince Frederick left
Hampton Court and established himself at
Norfolk House.

A year after the marriage of the prince the
queen died. The king forbade the admission
to court of any who visited at the house
of the Prince of Wales, and every effort was
made to force that personage, with his infant
son, out of sight. But the forces of the oppo-
sition rallied around Frederick, and several
distinguished men, among others William Pitt,
attended upon the prince, to the great disgust
of the king and the ministry.

The next question to disturb the politics
of the kingdom was in relation to the reduc-
tion of the standing army. The measure was
projected by the opponents of Walpole, but
was defeated by the usual ministerial major-
ity. In the next place the government was
assailed on account of its alleged indifference
to certain outrages which had been perpe-
trated by the Spaniards on English traders in
America. The feeling against Spain became
so pronounced that Walpole was constrained
to make a convention with that kingdom ; but

the terms agreed on were as repugnant as the
outrages which they were intended to obviate.
William Pitt made his first great speech
against the proposed treaty, and it is not im-
probable that had the opposition in the House
of Commons stood together in this crisis, the
Walpole ministry might have been overthrown.
But several members of the opposing party
fell out of the ranks, and Walpole again tri-
umphed, though with a greatly reduced
majority.

After the lapse of another year war was
finally declared against Spain in October of
1739. Admiral Auson was sent with one
squadron to cruise in the Pacific and Indian
Oceans. Nor did the pennon of St. George
flying at his mast-head lose any of its original
luster. Admiral Vernon, in command of
another fleet, besieged and took Portobello,
the Spanish seaport of the United States of
Colombia, and dismantled the fortress. But
a similar effort at Carthagena and another at
Santiago de Cuba ended in signal failure.

It was at this juncture that the premoni-
tory agitation which led to the War of the
Austrian Succession was felt in Western Eu-
rope. It will be recalled that the sonless
Charles VI. had issued the celebrated Prag-
matic Sanction, by which it was decreed that
his daughter Maria Theresa should become the
heiress of the Austrian monarchy. For the
time — that is, during the life of Charles VI. —
this settlement of the succession seemed to be
accepted; but when, in 1740, the Emperor
died, several claimants appeared to contest the
right of Maria Theresa. The Elector of
Bavaria assumed the title of archduke and
received the Imperial dignity with the name
of Charles II. Now it was, too, that he whose
fame and distinguished part in the drama of
the century have given a caption to the pres-
ent Book appeared on the scene and seized
the province of Silesia, at that time a part of
the Bohemian dominions of Austria. A fuller
account of these events is reserved for its
proper place in the chapter particularly de-
voted to the career of Frederick the Great.

The next parliamentary election in Eng-
land showed that the policy of Walpole rela-
tive to the part which the kingdom should
bear in the complications of the continental
powers had not been sanctioned by the nation.

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.-FIRST TWO HANOVERIANS. M7

An adverse majority had been returned, and
the opposition at last triumphed. Walpole,
after a hard contest, gave way to his political
enemies; but his own grief at the reverse of
fortune was not as great as that of the king,
who was thus deprived of his services. Cer-
tain attempts were made by the victorious
party to prosecute the overthrown minister,
but the movement ended in failure. The
king conferred on Sir Robert the title of Earl
of Orford, and posterity has conceded to him
the reputation of being the most adroit leader
that ever controlled the House of ^^^^
Commons.

In the formation of a new min-
istry the first place was given to Lord
Wilmington. The Tories came into
power with a flourish of trumpets, but
the event soon showed that their
capacity to govern was in inverse ratio
to their pretensions. One of the chief
outcries which they had raised against
the Whigs was that the latter refused
to repeal the Septennial Act, by the
provisions of which a Parliament
might — unless sooner dissolved by the
crown — continue its sessions for seven
years. It now appeared that the
Tories in office and the Tories out of
office held different views of what con-
stituted statesmanship, for they per-
mitted the Septennial Act to stand, to
the great .disgust of their supporters.
The downfall of Walpole made it
certain that England would become
an active participant in the War of
the Austrian Succession, which was
now fairly on. The king himself was
very desirous of plunging into the con-
test. Though Holmes has described the Sec-
ond George as a

" Snuffy old drone from the German hive,"

He nevertheless had the courage to fight —
and liked it. In entering the Austrian con-
flict he espoused the cause of Maria Theresa,
thus putting himself on the side of the Prag-
matic Sanction and against Charles Albert of
Bavaria, who had obtained the support of
France and Spain. At the first an English
army was sent into Flanders, where little was
effected. On the sea, however, the British

name was honored by the Mediterranean
squadron, which compelled an observance of
neutrality on the part of Naples. George
himself fired somewhat with the noise of dis-
tant battle, and determined to enter the field
in person. He took into his pay a large force
of Germans — an act which again kindled the
jeolousy of the English nation. In June of
1743 the king joined the allied army, and a
few days afterwards gave battle to the French
at Dettingen. The allies were victorious, and
George renewed the reputation for courage

CHARLES EDW1RO, THE YOVNO PRETENDER.

which he had gained in his youth. It is not
intended, however, to give in this chapter
the annals of his reign beyond that point at
which Frederick II., appearing on the scene,

drew the attention of all Europe to himself.
The present chapter will be concluded with
an account of the last effort made liy the
Stuarts to repossess the throne of England.
The event occurred in 174-">. In the previous
year an invasion of England had l.een at-
tempted liy a French army under convoy of
a fleet nt1 twenty sail. But the niovemei.t
which had been undertaken in the int< r-
e-t <.f Charles Edward, grandson of James I '..

878

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

surnamed the Young Pretender, came to
naught. In June of the following year, how-
ever, the Pretender embarked in a small
frigate, intending to land in Scotland and

head an insurrection. In the following month
he landed in Lochaber, and was joined by a
large number of Highlanders.

The time was specially opportune for such

RETURN OF CHAR.LES EDWARD TO SCOTLAND.

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— REIGN OF LOl'l* AT

879

a movement. George II. was in lluuover.
The better part of the English army was in
Flanders. Parliament was rent with factious
disputes. Such was the condition of affairs in
the South that consternation took possession
nl' all minds. Hasty dispatches were sent for
the king to return. Thirty thousand pounds
were offered for the apprehension of the Pre-
tender. That prince, on the 16th of Septem-
ber, took Edinburgh. Four days afterwards
he advanced to Preston Pans, where he in-
flicted a total defeat on the English army
under Sir John Cope. A great part of Scot-

land yielded to his authority. His forces in-
creased, and in November he advanced on
London. Meanwhile the king reached home
and went forth to meet the insurgent*. The
issue was decided in the battle of Cn.i.<>M \.
on the Kith of April, 1746, at which time the
forces of Charles Edward were routed and put
to flight. The Pretender made his escape to
France, but his supporters in Scotland were
punished with merciless severity by the Duke
of Cumberland. Thus were eclipsed forever
the hopes of the princes of the House of
Stuart to regain the English throne.

CHAPTER XLI.— REIQN OK LOUIS xv.

T has not often happened
that a monarch about to
die has given counsel to
a great-grandson about to
succeed him. Such a
thing was witnessed in the
case of Louis XIV. and
the son of the Duke of Bretagne. The latter
was at the time of the death of the Grand
Monarch but five years of age, and it may
well be granted that the advice given him by
the dying king profited but little. It became
at once apparent that a regency was a neces-
sity of the situation, and for this important
office two candidates appeared.

The first was Philip, duke of Orleans,
nephew of the late king. Against him many
things might justly be urged as disqualifying
him for the position. He was reckless and
profligate, indisposed, and perhaps incompe-
tent, to impose on himself those salutary re-
straints which are reckoned essential in a
sovereign. Besides, he was in ill favor with
the French nation. He was suspected of
having poisoned his wife, and the deaths of
the Duke and Duchess of Burgundy were
also — albeit unjustly — charged to liis account.
The other candidate was the Duke of Maine,
a natural son of Louis XIV., who, though
weak in person and character and scarcely
more popular than Philip of Orleans, had
been elevated to a high rank, even superior to

that of most of the peers of France, by the
partiality of the late king. It happened,
however, that the odium excited by the can-
didature of the Duke of Maine at length
brought on a reaction in favor of Philip, and
the latter was successful.

No sooner was he established in the re-
gency than he was obliged to face a serious
complication with Spain. In that kingdom
the management of affairs, after the accession
of Philip V., had been intrusted to the great
minister, Cardinal Alberoni, a man almost as
ambitious in disposition and subtle in method
as Richelieu and Mazarin. By him the Span-
ish king was persuaded that in case of the
death of the boy sovereign of France the
crown of that country should be claimed by
Philip himself as the grandson of Louis XIV.
As to the solemn compact to which all had
agreed at the treaty of Utrecht — namely, that
in case of the recognition of Philip V. as king
of Spain he should renounce forever his claim
to the throne of France — all that was to go for
nothing. The perfidy of the thing was to be
obscured in its brilliancy.

Of course this low, faith-breaking pol-
icy brought Alberoni and the Regent of
France into direct antagonism. A war broke
out. The Spanish minister excited insurrec-
tions in several parts of the French domin-
ions, and sent a fleet to operate on the coast
of Bretagne. In that province the partisans

880

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of Spain took up arms, and the revolt assumed
formidable proportions. It was soon found,
however, that the Regent was master of the
situation. He quickly sent an army into the
revolted district, and the rebellion was sup-
pressed. The Spanish squadron was driven
away, and after a short struggle the French
were completely victorious. Alberoni was
disgraced and obliged to go into retirement.
It was at this juncture that Spain was induced
to accede to that quadruple alliance to which
the parties were England, Holland, France,
and Austria. Philip V. a second time re-
nounced his claims to the French crown — a
renunciation that was final; and the Spanish
Bourbon dynasty became recognized as a dis-
tinct House among the sovereignties of Europe.

To this epoch in French history belongs
the story of that celebrated financial scheme
projected by John Law, and popularly known
as the "Mississippi Bubble." Law was an
adventurer. He was among the financiers of
his times what Reynard the Fox was in the
kingdom of the Beasts. By various specula-
tions and by gambling he accumulated a for-
tune, and after varied experiences in Edin-
burgh, London, and Amsterdam, went to Paris
just after the establiehment of th-. agency.
He made the acquaintance ana gained the
confidence of the Regent, whom he persuaded
to become his patron. He established a bank
under royal favor, and was authorized to dis-
count bills of exchange and issue currency.

At this time the credit of France was at so
low an ebb that the public stocks were rated
at eighty per cent discount. To the aston-
ishment of all, Law began to redeem these
securities at par. The very audacity of the
act removed the necessity of his doing so ; for
the public credit came up, or seemed to come
up, at a bound, and soon a competition arose
among capitalists for the purchase of govern-
ment securities. It was in this feverish con-
dition of affairs that Law proposed the organ-
ization of the Mississippi Company, the general
object being to draw profit from the French
possessions in North America. It was the
theory of the projector that credit is every
thing, and that credit, even future and
merely possible profits, may be safely used as
the basis of a paper currency. This view
found earnest advocates. The new company

grew, expanded, absorbed the French East
India Company, increased its capital stock to
six hundred and twenty-four thousand shares,
of five hundred and fifty livres each, and
agreed to lend the government a billion six
hundred million livres at three per cent.

Paris went wild with excitement under th3
stimulus of this scheme. The shares of stock
in the Mississippi Company rose in value
until they were quoted at forty times their
par. Everybody seemed to grow rich. As
the paper currency became inflated, all prices
rose proportionally. Laud was bought and
sold at fabulous figures. Law was made
comptroller general of the finances of the
kingdom, and became by far the most impor-
tant untitled personage in France. New
issues of government notes were made until
the aggregate reached the enormous sum of a
billion nine hundred and twenty-five million
livres. But all this while the specie of France
was disappearing. At last the enormous fiction
could be extended no further. The bubble
burst, and every man looked at his neighbor
in bewilderment. Perhaps no other such
financial crash has ever been known. The
whole scheme collapsed and tumbled into non-
entity. Law became a fugitive, and the last
estate of French finances was worse than the
first.

Coincident with the reign of Law in Paris
was the great plague at Marseilles. Though
the ravages of this pestilence were not equal
in extent to that of London, in 1666, yet,
considering the relative size of the two cities,
the plague at Marseilles in 1720-21 was fully
as fatal as the one at the English metropolis.
It is narrated that the gloom and horror of
the smitten city were greatly alleviated by the
administrations of Bishop Belzunce, who, like
a true father of a flock, faced the plague from
beginning to end, and left behind a memory
more precious than gold.

After the regency had continued for eight
years, the Duke of Orleans, whose naturally
weak constitution had been prematurely en-
feebled by his excesses, fell sick and died.
Louis XV., then in his fourteenth year, was
now declared of royal age ; but it was deemed
expedient, if not necessary, still further to
strengthen his boyhood by the appointment
of a minister capable of taking the place of

AGE OF 1-'IU:I>EUICK THE GREAT.— HKIHX OF l.nris AT. SM

the Regent. For this office the Duke of sace, he established hims-lf, with his wife and

Bourbon was selected, a man of large talents, daughter. The latter was finally chosen by

a great-grandson of the Prince of Conde. The the Duke of Bourbon as a princess suitable

first matter to which he turned his attention to become queen of France. In September

LOUIS XV.

was the selection of a suitable bride for the
young king. It may be remembered that
when Stanislas Leszcynski, king of Poland,
was driven from the throne, he sought ref-
uge in France. Here at Weissemburg, in Al-
VOL. II.— 56

of 1725 she was married t,, the king, who,
being then at the ripe age of fifteen, seemed
at first to be well pleased with the trophy
which the prime minister had brought him.
Bourbon, however, remained in office only

882

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

three years. In 1726 he was succeeded by
Cardinal Flsury, who remained principal ad-
viser of the crown until 1742. His adminis-
tration was marked throughout for its mod-
eration and pacific spirit. On him was
devolved the duty of extricating France from
the financial ruin into which she had been
plunged by the wild scheme of John Law.
In this work he succeeded by strict economy
and prudent management in measurably re-
storing the shattered credit of the state. In
the realm of foreign relations, however, he
was less successful ; for he had little of that
cunning which a low international morality
has caused to be one of the principal elements
in diplomacy. Nor was he possessed of that
warlike enterprise and audacity which can
be gratified only with aggression and con-
quest. From these antecedents it followed
naturally that France, now for the most part
controlled by the influence of Fleury, was
little glorified in war during his ascendency.
It was in 1733 that an emergency arose which
seemed to require an appeal to arms. In the
beginning of that year Augustus II. of Po-
land died, whereupon the rulers of Austria
and Prussia declared for his son. But the
king of France, influenced perhaps by royal
gallantry, took up the cause of his wife's fa-
ther, and declared for Stanislas. The latter
was better esteemed in Poland than was his
rival. The Polish Diet declared in his favor.
A Russian army, however, appeared on the
scene, and Stanislas was obliged to shut him-
self up in the fortress of Dantzic. Here he
awaited the arrival of the French army; but
when the force came to hand it consisted of
only fifteen hundred men. Stanislas was
driven from Dantzic and compelled to seek
safety in Prussia. His partisans in Poland
gave up the contest, and Augustus III. was
proclaimed king.

The movement in favor of Stanislas brought
France into antagonism with Austria. At
this time the German army on the Rhine was
under command of Prince Eugene. In the
latter part of 1733 the French, commanded
by the Duke of Berwick, made an expedition
into the Rhine provinces, and took the fortress
of Kehl. In the following spring they laid
siege to Philipsburg, and in July of that year
compelled that place also to capitulate. At

the same time an invasion of Italy was under-
taken by Marshal Villars, who, with the
combined force of French and Sardinians,
conducted a successful campaign. But no de-
cisive result was reached by the marshal on ac-
count of the opposition of the king of Sardinia,
whose bad faith as an ally was conspicuous.

On the other side, Don Carlos, son of the
Spanish king, led an army into Naples, and
in a brief campaign reduced that kingdom to
submission. Thus was laid the foundation of
the Bourbon dynasty in Italy ; for Don Carlos,
who presently acceded to the throne of Spain
with the title of Charles III., was the father
of Ferdinand VI. of Naples, who received the
crown in 1759, and reigned for nearly sixty-
five years. The desultory war in which
France was thus involved by the Polish com-
plication continued until October of 1735,
when it was concluded by a treaty. By the
terms of the settlement Jean Gaston, the last
of the Medici princes, was superseded as
grand duke of Tuscany by the Duke of Lor-
raine. The paternal province of the latter,
together with the duchy of Bar, was given to
the expelled Stanislas of Poland ; and it was
agreed that, after the death of this ruler, the
territories which he had received should be-
come the marriage portion of the queen of
France. Naples and Sicily went to Don
Carlos of Spain. Kehl and Philipsburg were
resurrendered by France to Germany, and the
former kingdom acknowledged the validity of
that Pragmatic Sanction which had been issued
by Charles VI. in favor of his daughter, Maria
Theresa. It was to secure this important
acknowledgment that the German Emperor
conceded the valuable and important province
of Lorraine to the French king, thus laying
the foundation for the many claims and coun-
ter claims which, even to the present day,
have disturbed the two great powers east and
west of the Rhine.

Notwithstanding all of the efforts which
Charles VI. put forth to secure to his daugh-
ter, Maria Theresa, an undisturbed succession,
the event showed how poorly the contrivances
and schemes of men accomplish the results
which are intended. As soon as Emperor
Charles was dead rival claimants appeared for
the German crown in the persons of Charles
Albert of Bavaria and Augustus III. of Po-

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— REIGN OF LOUIS XV.

land. Now it was, too, that Frederick II. of
Prussia, in the first flush of his success as a
warrior, dashed into Silesia, and with an au-
dacity that astonished all Europe, laid claim
to that large province for himself. It soon
appeared, moreover, that his claim was no
piece of idle vaunting, and his enemies in a
short time were fain to stand out of reach of
the circle of his sword.

Cardinal Fleury exerted
himself as usual in favor of
peace, and failing in that,
still sought to keep France
aloof from the conflict. But
the effort was in vain. Charles
of Bavaria appealed to the
French for an alliance, and
though to enter into such a
league was in flagrant viola-
tion of the recent treaty with
Austria, the proposal of
Charles Albert was accepted,
and a united army of French
and Bavarians began an in-
vasion of Austria. This force
proceeded as far as the heart
of Bohemia. Prague was
taken and the Bavarian prince
was there proclaimed Empe-
ror, with the title of Charles
VII. Maria Theresa fled from
Vienna into Hungary, where
she was received with open
arms by the powerful and
patriotic nobles of that coun-
try. She convened the Hun-
garian Diet, and putting on
a mourning garb went before
that body with her infant son
Joseph in her arms. She pre-
sented the babe to the chiv-
alrous nobles, whose fiery in-
dignation and loyalty rose with
the occasion, and drawing their swords they
swore with unbounded enthusiasm to defend
the lawful heir of the Empire with their Ia<t
drop of blood. M/n'innnir pro ri'ye nogtro,
they cried, " Let us die for our sovereign !"
and on every side the Hungarians Hew to
arms.

In Austria also the counter revolution
gained great headway. The example of the

Hungarians was contagious, and Maria The-
resa was soon the center of an enthusiastic re-
volt. An army of Croats rushed into Bavaria
and laid waste the country. For a while the
wave of war surged back and forth. In Sile-
sia, Frederick of Prussia held his own, and
was presently enabled to conclude a separate
treaty, by which the possession of the contested

CHARLES ALEXANDER, PRINCE OF LORRAINE.

province was conceded to him. On the side
of Bohemia the French were driven back, and
in the battle of Dettingen were defeated by
the English under George n.

At this juncture the Cardinal Fleury died.
He had vainly striven to prevent or stop the
war, but was doomed to die without the sight
As to France, her attention was now diverted
to the conquest of the Netherlands, and the

884

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

king was induced to take the field iu person.
Meanwhile, however, Prince Charles Alexan-
der of Lorraine, brother of the husband of
Maria Theresa, made an invasion of Al«uv,
and King Louis was recalled from his project
of a campaign in the Low Countries to defend
his own dominions on the side of the Rhine.
Nor is it certain that he would have been
able to save his recently acquired province
but for the reappearance of Frederick II.
The latter soon perceived that the recent
treaty by which he had received Silesia was
a mere bagatelle, to be tossed aside as soon as
such an act might seem to be demanded by
the interests of the House of Austria. He
therefore deemed it prudent to enter into al-
liance with France, to the end that his own
conquest might be made permanent. He ac-
cordingly reentered the field, penetrated Bo-
hemia, and captured Prague. The result of
this startling diversion was that Charles of
Lorraine was obliged to withdraw hastily from
his proposed invasion of Alsace in order to
save what he already possessed.

While Louis XV. was thus engaged in
protecting and strengthening his eastern bor-
ders the renown of the French arms was well
sustained in the Low Countries by Marshal
Saxe. This able and brilliant general was a
natural son of that Augustus II. who had
figured as the successful competitor of Stanis-
las for the crown of Poland. From the first
day of his command he exhibited those re-
markable qualities of bravery and impetuos-
ity, combined with penetration and prudence,
which gained for him a rank with Eugene
and Marlborough, among the greatest military
chieftains of the century. His ascendency
dates from May of 1745, when, on the field
of FONTENOY, he met and defeated with great
slaughter the combined army of England,
Holland, and Spain, commanded by the Duke
of Cumberland.

In the course of two years from this date
France gained by conquest nearly the whole
of the Austrian Netherlands. Meanwhile, on
the 20th of January, 1745, Charles Albert of
Bavaria died. As his ambition went out in
the shadow of death the greatest cause of the
War of the Austrian Succession ceased to op-
erate. His son, less aggressive than himself,
soon concluded a peace with Austria. The

elements which had been arrayed against the-
Pragmatic Sanction, because thereby the Ger-
man crown had been made to rest on the head
of a woman, were quieted by the election of
Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, to
the Imperial dignity. The death of Philip
V. of Spain, in July of the following year,
still further simplified the condition of Eu-
ropean politics. His son, Ferdinand VI.,
quietly succeeded to the Spanish crown, but
did not venture to renew his father's preten-
sions to the crown of France.

So many of the causes of the war had now
been removed that the way to peace was
easily cleared. With the beginning of 1748
negotiations were opened at Aix-la-Chapelle>
By the llth of May the work of pacification
had proceeded so far as to secure a suspension
of hostilities. The conference continued until
the 18th of October, when a general treaty
was concluded. As the first condition it was
agreed by the powers that the Pragmatic
Sanction should stand without further ques-
tion. The settlement of the German succes-
sion was thus secured to Maria Theresa and
her son, afterwards Joseph II. France gave
up all her conquests in the Austrian Nether-
lauds, and the island of Cape Breton, which
England had taken three years before from
the French, was restored. Thus just one
hundred years from the treaty of Westphalia
another peace was concluded by the leading
states of Europe.

In the course of time Louis XV. tired of
his Polish queen, and began to cultivate the-
habits of his great-grandfather. He made
the acquaintance of Madame d'Etioles, and
with her became so enamored that he virtu-
ally gave to her the control of both himself
and the kingdom. He conferred on her the
title of Marchioness de Pompadour, and
loaded her with other honors numberless.
From being a butcher's daughter she rose to
be the most distinguished lady in Europe.
She patronized the arts and sciences ; beauti-
fied Paris; used Voltaire and Bernis in the
establishment of those brilliant fetes for which
the French capital became so celebrated ; and
made herself a necessity of the state. The
ministers did her bidding. Diplomates sought
her favor. Political parties made and un-
made their principles at her dictation. Even

AGE oi- i-iii-:in-:i;i<-K nil: GREAT.— REIGN m- /.or/x AT. **r,

Maria Theresa extended to her tin- l-ivor <>f ti/..-d her ascendency in French politics as La
a correspondence. Only the satirical Fred- Dynastie dea Cotillons I But for this insult she
•crick II. set at naught her glory and stigma- amply avenged hers, 1C l,y l.rin-mi: ;,l.n,,t that

l; U'Tl.K OK KONTKNOY.
Drawn by A. <ie Neuvillc.

886

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

alliance of France and Austria against Prus-
sia which resulted in the Seven Years' War.
Indeed, the next twenty years of the reign
of Louis XV. was the reign of Pompadour.
At this point, however, it is proper to turn

from the affairs of France and England to
those of Germany; to note more particularly
the rise of Prussia, and to trace the career
of Frederick the Great during his long and
eventful reign.

CHAPTER XLII.— RISE OK THE HOUSE OK
HOHENZOLLERN.

ERHAPS the most im-
portant dynasty in Eu-
rope to-day is the House
of Hohenzollern. The
name of this powerful
family is derived from
the castle of Hoheuzol-
lern, in Sigmaringen, on the slope of the Zol-
lerberg, a mountain of the Alps. The House
is said to have been established by a certain
Count Thassilo, about the beginning of the
ninth century. It was not, however, until
the close of the fourteenth that the princely
rank of the family was recognized by the
Emperor Charles IV. In 1415 Frederick VI.
was made elector of Brandenburg by Sigis-
mund, and took upon himself the title of
Frederick I. From this time onward the in-
fluence of the Hohenzollerns began to be dis-
tinctly felt in the affairs of Europe. The
eleventh successor of Frederick I. was that
Frederick III., of whom in a preceding Chap-
ter some account has been given as the
founder of the Prussian Monarchy.

The real beginning of Prussian greatness
is referable, however, to the ascendency of
Frederick William, known as the Great
Elector. He was born in 1620, and died in
Potsdam in 1688. He came to the electoral
office at the age of twenty, and began his
reign by dismissing his father's council, re-
claiming all the territories which had belonged
to the electorate, and concluding important
treaties with the surrounding states. The
peculiarity of his character was its intense
nationality. He hated the French manners
and methods which at that time prevailed in
almost all the courts of Europe. The eti-
quette of Versailles, which had been copied
by nearly all the rulers of the age, was un-

ceremoniously banished from Brandenburg.
While neighboring princes were giving costly
entertainments, and striving to make up with
ostentation and flummery what they lacked in
dignity and virtue, the Great Elector estab-
lished at his court a rule of economy and rigid
honesty that might well be cited as an exam-
ple for any age or country. While the Ger-
man Emperor was supporting a retinue of about
forty thousand officials, Frederick was en-
gaged in giving strict scrutiny to the receipt*
and expenditures, not only of the electoral
treasury, but also of his own household.
Though his manners were intolerably coarse,
and his government arbitrary, yet there was
so much virtue in his methods that his son,
FREDERICK I., was able to take and retain
the title of king.

From this time forth were laid the foun-
dations of the intellectual and war-like great-
ness of Prussia. FREDERICK WILLIAM I.,
grandson of the Great Elector, saved from
the expenses of Ms household a sufficient sum
of money to establish four hundred school*
among the people. It is well worth while
to record that, while the German Empress,
was attended by several hundred maids of
honor, while her parrots required two hogs-
heads of tokay each day, and while twelve
barrels of wine were demanded for her bath,
the wife of Frederick William was allowed a
single waiting-woman by her inexorable lord.
Such was Austria and such Prussia two hun-
dred years ago.

In the midst of all this rigor, Frederick
William I. lost no opportunity to arouse a Ger-
man spirit among his people. He sought by
means of high protective tariffs to build up
the domestic industries of Prussia. He clad
himself in garments of Prussian fabrication,

AOE OF FREDERICK Till': (inr.AT. ///>/. OF Till. //o///-;.Y/O/,/./-.7;.Y.

and made an edict forbidding his people to
wear clothes of foreign make. He sought by
every means in his power to encourage the
agricultural enterprises of the Prussians; and
when seventeen thousand of the Salzburger
Protestants were driven from Upper Austria,
Frederick opened wide his doors to receive
them, gave them lands, and furnished them
support until
they were able
to build new
homes for them-
selves.

Meanwhile the
organization of
the Prussian army
was intrusted to
Prince Leopold
of Dessau, called
the Old Dessauer,
a pupil of Prince
Eugene. The
forces of Bran-
denburg were
gradually aug-
mented to the
number of eighty-
four thousand
men. One of the
caprices of Fred-
erick William I.
was the organiza-
tion of a body-
guard of giants.
The requirement
was that each re-
cruit should be
seven feet in
height; nor did the
miserly Frederick
spare expense
when it came to
procuring his mil-
itary Goliaths. He ordered his agents to ran-
sack Europe in the hunt for giants. In tins
work he forgot his national prejudices. Si/.o
was the desideratum, ami not blood. He
even resorted to kidnaping in order to fill
his regiment of monsters. While Peter the
Great was hungering for mechanics, Frederick
reached out eagerly for new Titans for his
body-guard. He and the Czar accordingly

exchanged products, and both were happy.
On one occa-ii>n the king paid nine fhou-
sainl dollars for a Russian prodigy of unusual
stature. — Such was the origin of the cele-
brated Potsdam (luanl-.

Finding the cares of state more heavy than
might be borne by one man, Frederick Will-
iam organized what he was pleased to call his

THE GREAT ELECTOR.
Alter the painting by W. von Camphausen.

"Tobacco Cabinet." His ministers and gen-
erals, the foreign ambassadors, and a few citi-
zens without rank were invited by the king
to meet him in the evening in a plain room fur-
nished with a three-legged stool for himself and
wooden benches for his counselors. Every per-
son present was furnished with a clay tobacco-
pipe and a mug of beer. Each must .-inokr.
or at least appear to do so, and drink his

888

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

quantum of beer. No formality was allowed.
Frederick would permit no special mark of
respect to himself, not even the rising of his
guests when he entered. Around this beer-
spattered council-table, under the dense cloud
of smoke, hardly penetrated by the flickering
light of lamps, the savage old German and
his councilors discussed with foreign magnates

THE OLD DESSAUEK,
After the painting by Pesne.

the political affairs of Europe, of which they
themselves were an important part.

In accordance with the terms of the treaty
of Westphalia, the Great Elector had received
the province of Pomerania, together with the
island of Riigen and the county of Hohen-
stein. From this time forth he gave his atten-
tion to the work of organizing' the Prussian
army. In 1655 he made an alliance with
Charles X. of Sweden, and engaged in a war

with the Poles. The conflict resulted in the
capture of Warsaw and the abrogation of
those feudal rights which Poland had until
now exercised over Prussia. At this time
Frederick William was undoubtedly the most
far-seeing ruler east of the Rhine. He was
the most dangerous foeman with whom Louis
XIV. had to contend on the Germanic side of
his dominions. But for
the incompetency of
Leopold I. of Austria,
the Great Elector would
doubtless have thwarted
the project of the Grand
Monarch to make the
Rhine the eastern bound-
ary of France. In 1673
Frederick William was
at war with the French,
and lost the provinces
of Wesel and Rees.
Soon afterwards Louis
XIV. procured an in-
vasion of Prussia by the
Swedes, and a large
army of that hardy sol-
diery was led against
Berlin. The Great Elec-
tor was at this juncture
at Magdeburg ; but leav-
ing that city with only
six thousand cavalry, he
hurried across the Elbe,
and without waiting to
be joined by his infantry,
fell upon the Swedish
army on the field of
FEHRBELLIN. Here, on
the 18th of June, 1675,
he fought and won a
great battle, in which
the Swedes were utterly
routed and hurled in disorganized masses
across the borders of Brandenburg. The vic-
tory was so decisive as to end the war and to
make sure the elector's claim to Pomerania.

While this rude but vigorous germ of gov-
ernment was planted in Prussia, the Imperial
power impersonated in the House of Hapsburg
fell into decay. The German Empire was
virtually narrowed to the limits of Austria.
Bohemia and Hungary were almost independ-

m

890

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ent kingdoms. During the reign of Charles
VI. a general paralysis seemed to fall upon
both government and people. Industry lan-
guished ; commerce failed ; Jesuitism had its
fill. It should be observed, however, that
this condition of affairs in Austria was pre-
cisely such a state as was most congenial to
the German nobility. For the nobles were
still, after the lapse of so many centuries, es-
sentially feudal in their manners and tastes.
To them the Middle Age was the ideal state
of man, and Mediaeval Rome the one religious

like relation stood Hanover to England, while
Saxony was virtually dominated by Poland.1
In \Viirtemberg the hard government of Duke
Eberhard Ludwig drove the people to such
desperation that many of them in order to es-
cape from his tyranny fled to the coast, took
ship for the New World, and found refuge in
the virgin wilds of Pennsylvania. In the
Danubian countries there was almost constant
war. Here it was that the aggressive Turks
threw themselves with audacity upon the bor-
ders of the Empire. In 1688 the Bavarians

PRINCE EUGENE BEFORE BELGRADE.

Empire of the world. As a result of this
preference, the nobility of Germany cherished
a profound sympathy with the House of
Austria, and was always found clustered
around the Imperial banner.

Indeed, if at the beginning of the eight-
eenth century we look abroad into the "Em-
pire Outside" — as those parts of Germany
beyond the Austrian boundaries were desig-
nated— we find little but political destruction
and disunion. Bavaria and the Palatinate
were in a state of miserable dependency on
France. So, also, were the three archbishop-
rics of Mayence, Treves, and Cologne. In

carried their arms into Servia, and secured a
footing on the right bank of the Danube by
the capture of Belgrade. Two years later the
Turks returned in overwhelming force and re-
took the city. The Crescent remained in the
ascendant until 1717, when the veteran Prince
Eugene led an Imperial army across the

1 As illustrative of the condition of government
in these countries, the case of Hanover may well
be cited. After George I. became king of England,
the Hanoverian government was left in the hands
of a council of nobles, who, when they assembled,
were wont to set up in the president's chair a por-
trait of Elector George, and proceed with business
as though he were present in person !

A<ll<; OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— RISE OF Till: HOIIi:.\/OI.I.i:i;

Danube and began a siege of Belgrade. The
Sultan, perceiving the peril of the situation,
sent a tremendous army to break the invi-i-
nient. Eugene was pressed against the city
by the foe without, but turned upon his assail-
ants, defeated them with prodigious slaughter,
and compelled Belgrade to capitulate.

The circumstances antecedent to the WAR
OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION have been already
referred to in the two preceding chapters.
Great was the anxiety of Charles VI. that the
Imperial scepter should not depart from his
House. It was this eagerness to secure the
crown to a member of his own family that
lead to the celebrated decree known as the
Pragmatic Sanction. Even after the issuance
of this edict the Emperor continued to show
his apprehension lest the succession should be
taken from his daughter Maria Theresa and
conferred on some collateral representative of
the House of Hapsburg, or perhaps on one
who was not a Hapsburg at all. Charles,
therefore, adopted the policy of hedging against
the possible infraction of his will ; and the
measures, which he adopted acted as a bane to
the project which he sought to strengthen.

Thus when, in order to secure the favor of
Russia, the Emperor espoused the cause of
Augustus III. of Poland against his rival,
Stanislas, the movement led immediately to a
league between the latter and Louis XV. of
France. Charles soon awoke to the realiza-
tion that he had exchanged the friendship of
France for the very dubious and equivocal
sympathy of the Northern Bear. Nor did the
Emperor prove an equal match in the contest
with French diplomacy. The Polish Diet
elected Stanislas, who, reaching Warsaw in
the disguise of a merchant, was duly pro-
claimed as king — this, too, in the face of the
fact that a Russian army was at that very
time entering Poland. Charles VI. was left
•with Augustus III. on his hands and a French
war looming up out of the western horizon.

In the beginning of this preliminary con-
flict France was supported by Spain and Sar-
dinia. The event soon showed that France
was prepared for the war and that Austria
was not. Three French armies at once took
the field. The first occupied the province of
Lorraine; the second crossed the Rhine and
captured the fortress of Kehl ; and the third,

commanded by Marshal Villars, made a suc-
cessful irruption into Lomlianly. Spain also
bore down upon Naples and Sicily, and both
countries yielded to her arms. Meanwhile
the Austrians, rallying from their surprise,
were led to the lihine by the veteran Prince
Eugene, now more than seventy years of age.
Frederick William I., who had now acceded
to the throne of Prussia, sent a contingent of
ten thousand troops to aid Eugene in expell-
ing the French from Lorraine; but the effort
was unsuccessful. In the Polish campaign,
however, the French were completely beaten.
Stanislas disguised himself as a cuttle trader,
and fled from the country. He was followed
by an army of ten thousand llns-ians, who.
advancing as far as the Rhine, were joined
with the forces of Austria.

Notwithstanding the successes of the French
arms in the campaigns of 1733, Louis XV.
found it expedient to enter into negotiations
for peace. This War of the Polish Succession
was concluded in 1735 by the treaty of Vi-
enna. The conditions of the settlement have
already been narrated in the preceding chap-
ter. It is only necessary to add that Freder-
ick William I. of Prussia, who had expected
to receive as his reward the cities of Ziilich
and Berg, was disappointed. So much was
he exasperated by the terms which were agreed
upon at Vienna that he entered into a corre-
spondence with France, with a view to secur-
ing thereby what he had failed to gain in
alliance with the Empire. These circumstances
may be cited as the basis and beginning of
that deep-seated political enmity which unto
the present day has existed between the
Houses of Hapsburg and Hohenzollern.

In the interval between the treaty of Vi-
enna and the outbreak of the War of the
Au-trian Succession several events occurred
worthy of record. In 1736 Prince Eugene of
Savoy, whose name will ever be associated
with that of Marlborough as one of the great-
est generals of the century, died. In the
same year Francis of Lorraine took in mar-
riage Maria Theresa, thus paving the way for
his own ultimate elevation to the Imperial
dignity. In 17-'!7 the Empress Anna of Rus-
sia induced Charles VI. to join her in a war
with the Turks. It had already become the
cardinal principle in Russian polities to obtain

892

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

possession of the sea of Azov, and thus ulti-
mately to gain an entrance into the warm
waters of the Mediterranean.

The Russo-Austrian alliance proved, how-
ever, to be a league most unfortunate to the
Emperor. He was obliged to retire from the
•contest with the loss of all that he had gained
twenty years previously by the treaty of Pas-
sarowitz. The death of Prince Eugene marked
the still more rapid decay of the influence of
Austria. The glory of her arms — if glory she
ever had — departed, and after a brief contin-

ST. STEPHEN'S CATHEDRAL, VIENNA.

uance of irregular and ill-directed warfare,
the Emperor was constrained to purchase
peace by giving up to the Turks the prov-

ince of Belgrade and all the conquests
which he had made in Servia and Wallachia.

In May of 1740
Frederick William
I., second king of
Prussia, died, being
then in his fifty-
third year. The
policy adopted by
the Great Elector,
and followed by his
son and grandson,
had now begun to
tell upon the pros-
perity of the new
kingdom. The ter-
ritory of Prussia
embraced at this
time somewhat
more than fifty
thousand square
miles, and her pop-
ulation numbered
two million five
hundred thousand.
The revenues of
the state had in-
creased to seven
and a half million
thalers annually,
and the surplus in
the treasury
amounted to 'over
nine millions. Sev-
eral great cities
had arisen. Berlin
had nearly a hun-
dred thousand in-
habitants. Stettin,
Magdeburg, and
Memel had become
among the strong-
est fortresses in
Europe. The army
well equipped and
well disciplined,
numbered eighty
thousand men. The
system of public

education was already bearing fruit, and the
institutions of feudalism withered away in the
light and heat of progress. Finally the early

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.-RISE OF THE HOHENZOLLERN.

Prussian kings set themselves against the de-
basing supers! ii ion which the Middle Age and
the Romish Church had spawned all over Eu-
rope. The alleged crime of witchcraft, for
which the benign gospel of the fifteenth, six-
teenth, and seventeenth centuries had caused
the execution of several hundred thousand in-
nocent persons, was
struck from the stat-
ute books of Prussia.
Religious toleration
was the law of the
state.

Five months after
the death of Freder-
ick William, Charles
VI. also died. Quite
different was the con-
dition of ancient Aus-
tria from that of the
kingdom so recently
established by the
Hohenzollerns. The
military organization
of the Empire was
demoralized. On
every side the Im-
perial borders had
been narrowed.
Worse than physical
decay was the spirit-
less condition into
which the Austrian
people had sunk un-
der the despotic sway
of the Hapsburgs.
The outward splen-
dor and inner death
of the court of Vi-
enna at the middle
of the eighteenth
century may well re-
mind the thoughtful

thea, daughter of George I. of England. At
the time of his accession Frederick w:i< in bi»
twenty-ninth year. His early lit'.- l,:i.l been
peculiarly unhappy. His lather had imbibed
the domestic principles of the Great Elector;
that is, he was a tyrant in his family. This
was precisely the kind of discipline most un-

IMPERIALISTS IN BATTLE WITU THE TITKKS.

student of the similar condition which super-
vened in Constantinople in the last days of
the Eastern Empire.

The crown of Prussia descended after the
death of Frederick William I. to his eldest
son, Frederick II., better known as FREDERICK
THE GREAT. On the maternal side his lineage
was from the House of Hanover-Brunswick,
his mother being the Princess Sophia Doro-

suited to the disposition of young Frederick.
It chanced that the boy's education was in-
trusted, for the most part, to certain French
refugees, who, fleeing from their own country,
had carried with them to Berlin the culture
and refinement of Paris. From his childhood
Frederick became infatuated with the litera-
ture, manners, and beliefs of France. As for
classical learning, that was strictly forbidden

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

894

by our father Frederick William. For a
season the brain of the prince ran riot with a
certain class of accomplishments, the contagion

to the delight of connoisseurs; pleased himself
in all particulars and gratified his father in
none. The king would fain make a soldier

PRINCK FREDERICK.

of which he caught from his French teachers.
He exhibited a great passion for music ; became
a skillful player on the flute; gave concerts
at which his own compositions were rendered

of his effeminate son ; but he found that
"idiot and puppy "in no wise disposed to
adopt the profession of arms.

At the age of sixteen the distempered

AGE <>/•• ri;i-:i>MU<-K nn: I;I:EAT.—EISE OF Tin-: //o// /, .v// </././•;/,• .v. *'.<.•,

youth was taken by his severe father to Pn-s-
den and was there thrown tor a season into
the corrupt society wliidi flourished around
the court of Augustus the Strong. At this
time it was the mother's purpose to have her
unpromising son wedded to his cousin, the
Princess Amelia, daughter of George II. of
Kn-land. But the father hated England and
his royal kinsman so heartily that the pro-
posed marriage was
broken off'. Frederick
was accompanied in
these travels by a
young officer named
Von Katte, and with
him he laid a plot to
run away from Ger-
many and leave the
king to his reflections.
Perhaps the prince did
not much consider
that the carrying out
of his purpose would
involve a desertion
from the Prussian
army, of which he
was a member, or that
the penalty for so doing
was death. At any
rate the plan was per-
fected and Frederick
went on board a ves-
sel at Frankfort with
a view to escaping
down the Rhine.

In the meantime,
however, one of the
about -to -be fugitive
prince's letters, written
to Katte, fell into the
hands of cmatiier officer

of the same name, and was by him delivered to
the king. The wrath of Frederick William
surpassed all bounds. He hastened in person
to the vessel on which his son had embarked,
discovered him, beat him with a stick until
his face was covered with blood, and then
hurried him to prison. Katte also was seized,
tried by a court-martial, ami sentenced to im-
prisonment. But the furious king immedi-
ately annulled the sentence, and ordered the
culprit to be forthwith led to execution. The

horror of the tiling was increased by having
the scaffold built directly before the window
of the cell when- Fivderick was imprisoned.
He was thus forced to witness the hanging of
his bosom friend. He fainted at the awful
spectacle, and lay so long unconscious that it
was believed he would never recover.

For some time the Prince was kept in his
dmi'_reon. He was not permitted to see even

ELIZABETH CUKISTIN.V.

his keeper. The king insisted that he should
be condemned by court-martiul ; but the offi-
cers who were summoned for that duty de-
cided that they could not pass sentence on the
Crown Prince of l'ni--ia. Hereupon Fred-
erick William took the can-c into his own
hands, and condemned his son to death. This
action, however, created such a storm among
the officers of the army that the merciless
father was obliged to yield to the general de-
mand and issue a pardon to the Prince. But

896

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the latter was still kept in prison. At last
his spirits were completely broken, and he
accepted the hard condition of absolute obedi-
ence to his father. The king put him into a
clerk's office in the lowest grade of the serv-
ice, and he was obliged to work his way up
as a common apprentice. It was not until
November of 1731 that he was permitted
again to appear at court. When his sister
Wilhelmina was married to the Margrave of
Baireuth, a slender young man, clad in a suit
of gray, was seen standing among the servants.
When the ceremonies were over, the king
approached him, pulled him forth, and said

MONTESQUIEU.

to the queen: "Here, madam, our Fritz is
back again."

In the following year Frederick was forced
against his will to take in marriage the Prin-
cess Elizabeth Christina, of Brunswick-Bevern,
niece of the Empress of Germany, for whom
his repugnance was extreme. His father then
gave him the castle of Rheinsberg, near Pots-
dam, where he lived for a while in a kind of
independence which he had not previously
enjoyed. He again gave himself up to the
study of literature. He renewed his corre-
spondence with Voltaire, became an admirer
and student of Montesquieu, and made the
acquaintance of many other eminent authors
of France. When the War of the Polish
Succession broke out, he was called into the

field and given a subordinate office under
Prince Eugene. But his opportunities were
not such as to evoke his military talents, and
at the end of the campaign lie returned to
his residence at Rheinsberg. His reputation
at this time was that of a poet and philoso-
pher. The dreamers and lovers of peace
looked forward to his accession as an event
which would end the wars and conflicts in
which Prussia had thus far been engaged,
while the military element felt that the glory
of the state would depart with the coming of
such a king. •

At length, in May of 1740, Frederick
William died. The ministers of the kingdom
were somewhat surprised at the speech which
the supposed poet made to them when they
came to take the oath of allegiance. He told
them that henceforth the interests of Prussia
and of the king would be regarded as identi-
cal, and that in case of any possible conflict
the wishes and welfare of the ruler would
have to give way to those of the state. Still
greater was the surprise when from the very
first the new sovereign, in manifest contempt
of all ceremony and formality, began to lay
about him with great vigor in correcting the
abuses which existed in the government. One
of his earliest acts was to abolish torture as a
part of criminal procedure. He then pro-
ceeded to reform the marriage laws of Prussia.
He dismissed his father's body-guard of giant^
and instituted Improved methods in tactics
and discipline. He appointed ministers for
Commerce and Manufactures, and strove in
every way to encourage the industrial energies
of the people. In so far as adopting the
pompous style of the kings of France, it was
noticed that, when the new king went to his
coronation at Konigsberg, his whole court
traveled in three carriages, and that the actual
ceremony of receiving the crown was dis-
pensed with altogether. It was evident that a
new will had appeared as a directing force in
the political affairs of Europe.

It was an important circumstance in the
drama of the age that the deaths of Frederick
William and Emperor Charles VI. were so-
nearly coincident. Only a few months elapsed
from the accession of Frederick II. to the
time when the Pragmatic Sanction was to be
tested by the facts. The daughter of the late

.\CK OF

Till. CHEAT.— RISE OF THE HOIIKXZn L /./,/.' .V. 897

Emperor was now left to claim that Ini]i<Tial
dignity which had never before rested on
woman.

It was fortunate that the princess who thus
became a claimant for the crown of the Ger-
man C:esar was ill every way worthy of so high
a distinction. MARIA THERESA was a woman
born to be great. She had the strength of
Elizabeth Tudor, the beauty of Aurora von
Konigsmark, and the
magnetism and virtue
of Joan of Arc. Her
force of character was
well understood, even
before her father's
death; but none had
supposed that her luster
and power would shine
forth with such bril-
liancy as was displayed
from the time of her
coronation. The old
ministers of Charles
VI. flattered themselves
that they would easily
sway the woman who
swayed the Empire;
and her husband, Fran-
cis of Lorraine, would
fain believe himself the
real ruler of Austria.
But all were as much
mistaken -as they were
surprised. The Em-
press heard all counsels
and received all advice
with serene dignity,
and then decided for
herself.

Now it was that two
noted rival claimants
appeared to the domin-
ions and crown of Maria Theresa. First of
these was the Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria.
The grandmother of this prince was a Haps-
burg, and upon that somewhat slender thread
of distinction his claims to the Empire were
suspended. His candidature, however, was
made quite formidable by the support which
he received from Louis XV. of France, who,
though he had repeatedly pledged himself to

the maintenance of the Pragmatic Sanction,
VOL. n.— 57

now willing to incur the guilt of j>erh'dy
if thereby he might weaken and di-trm-t the
German Empire. The second claimant was
Augustus III., king of Poland and Saxony,
who was supported in his pretensions by the
Czar of Russia. So it was that swords were
drawn on every side, and the WAR OF TIII:
AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION was begun.

The former history of his kingdom now

MARIA THERESA, EMPRESS OF AUSTRIA.

furnished to Frederick II. a ready and plaus-
ible pretext for taking a part in the impend-
ing conflict It had happened in former times
that Brandenburg had been obliged in an
emergency to surrender to the Empire four
principalities which she possessed in Silesia.
Perceiving that the Austrian Empress would
be hard pressed by Charles Albert and Augus-
tus III., hacked as they were on the one side
by France and on the other by Russia, Fred-

898

UXIVK.RSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

erick conceived the design "f laying claim to
the whole of Silesia, and of making the same
an integral part of Prussia. With him to
conceive was to act. His purpose, however,
was for the time concealed in his own breast.
He secretly ami hastily increased his army to
a hundred thousand men ; and before his ene-
mies could conjecture his design, he made a
forced march into Silesia and planted himself
defiantly in the territory which he meant to
conquer.

As soon as the Austriaus perceived the
brilliant stroke of their antagonist, they sent
a powerful army to drive him out. In the
mean time the prudent Frederick had concili-
ated the Silesians, whose rights he carefully
observed, enforcing strict discipline upon his
soldiers, and removing all restrictions in the
matter of religion. Breslau, the Silesian cap-
ital, soon opened her gates, and Frederick
took peaceable possession. Several fortresses
held by Austrian garrisons were captured dur-
ing the winter, and in April of 1741 the
Austrians were defeated in the decisive but
hard-fought battle of Mollwitz. Frederick
was outnumbered by the enemy, and in the
beginning of the engagement the advantage
was on the side of the Austrians. Even the
veteran Marshal Schwerin believed that Fred-
erick was doomed to defeat. He accordingly
persuaded the king to retire from the field,
and then, collecting his shattered forces, made
so desperate a charge on the Austrian lines
that the latter were broken and turned into a
rout. The result of the victory was to place
all of Lower Silesia in the hands of Frederick.

For the moment it appeared that all Eu-
rope was combined against Maria Theresa.
France, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony took the
field. A French arm}' crossed the Rhine,
united with the Bavarians, penetrated as far
as Linz, on the Danube, and there proclaimed
Charles Albert king of Austria. Maria The-
resa and her court escaped from Vienna and
fled to Presburg, whore the nobles of Hun-
gary had already convened to reclaim from
the Empire the rights of which they had been
deprived by Leopold I. The queen was con-
strained, partly by the emergency and partly
by her half-liberal disposition, to concede to
them most of the things demanded. This be-
ing done, she was crowned with the crown of

St. Stephen, after which she mounted a steed
and galloped up the King's Hill, waving her
sword to the four quarters of the earth after
the manner of the Hungarian kings on such
occasions, and manifesting such Imperial
grace and enthusiasm as to fire the spirits of
the nobles with loyalty and delight. She
afterwards clad herself in the national costume
of the Hungarians, took her infant son Jo-
seph in her arms, went before the Diet, and
delivered before them an eloquent and forci-
ble address in Latin. She depicted the dan-
gers with which she was beset, the wrongs
committed by her enemies, the manifest pur-
pose of the powers to deprive her of the
crown, and then appealed to their sympathies
and patriotism for protection. Then it was
that the swords of the enthusiastic nobles
flashed in the air and the resounding cry of
" Moriamur pro rege nostro'" was heard on
every hand. Hungary arose like a giant for
the defense of her who had so inflamed their
national pride. Austria, also, touched with
emulation, rallied around the queen, and the
combined armies of the two kingdoms planted
themselves between Vienna and the advanc-
ing French. The latter were constrained to
turn aside into Bohemia, whose capital they
entered and then proclaimed Charles Albert
king. In February of 1742 he received the
Imperial crown at Frankfort and took the
title of CHARLES VII.

In the mean time Frederick had so firmly
established himself in Silesia that Austria was
constrained to enter into a secret treaty with
him, by the terms of which the greater part
of his demands were granted. In a few
months, however, the king discovered that in
some minor points Austria had failed to keep
her compact. With this pretext he at once
renewed the war, and in the spring of 1742
entered Bohemia, where, on the 17th of May,
he gained a great victory in the battle of
Chotusitz. At this juncture England ap-
peared as a mediator between the combatants,
and Maria Theresa was induced to make peace
with Prussia by ceding to that kingdom the
whole of Upper and Lower Silesia, together
with the principality of Glatz. The immense
territory which was thus yielded up to Fred-
erick contained a hundred and fifty cities, five
1 " Let us die for our sovereign."

AGE OF FREDERICK riu: GREAT. i;isn or TIII: //o///:.v/o/././,7/.v. 899

thousand villages, and a million two hundred
thousand inhiiliitanN.

Notwithstanding this gn-ut lo>s of territory

(In- inicrfereiice of England proved to be of
the highest advantage to Maria Thereaa, whose
fortunes now rapidly revived. George II

MARIA TI1EKKSA WITH THE INFANT JOSEPH IlKFl.KE THE DIET OF PRK8BDKO.
Drawn by P.

900

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

made with her an alliance, agreeing to support
her against Charles Albert of Bavaria. Hol-
land and Hanover also took sides with Austria
against France. The English king entered
the field in person and gained a decisive vic-
tory over the French in the battle of DET-
TINGEN. Saxony entered the alliance. The
Landgrave of Hesse, thinking to profit by the
situation, sold one body of troops to France
and another to England! Of a sudden the
Austrian league became so powerful as to pre-
ponderate over the opposing alliance.

Estimating at its true value the treaty
by which Silesia had been gained, and divin-
ing that Austria would adhere to that com-
pact no longer than was demanded by her
interest, Frederick withdrew from the alliance
and made a treaty with Louis XV. and
Charles VII. In 1744 a Prussian army,
numbering eighty thousand, and commanded
by the king in person, invaded Bohemia and
captured Prague. The Bohemians, however,
did not, like the Silesians, accept the invader
as a rightful ruler. On the contrary, they
rose against him on every side. The Hun-
garians, also, again took up arms in behalf
of Austria. Charles of Lorraine, who had
been facing the French in Alsace, was with-
drawn to confront Frederick in Bohemia. So
powerful was the array suddenly brought
against him that the Prussian was obliged to
retreat in midwinter, losing a large number
of his soldiers and many of his cannon.

In January of 1745 an unexpected turn
was given to affairs by the death of Charles
VII. His unambitious son, Maximilian Jo-
seph, at once gave up his pretensions to the
Imperial crown on the simple condition that
Bavaria, which had been subjugated by the
Austrians, should be restored to him as sover-
eign. France, having no longer any Impe-
rial candidate to support against Maria The-
resa, now stood aloof from the conflict, while
Frederick suddenly found himself left alone
with Austria, Saxony, and Poland in actual,
and England and Russia in probable, hostility
against him. Never was a situation better
calculated to inspire alarm. The forlorn pros-
pects of Maria Theresa at the beginning of
the conflict were not so dark as those of Fred-
erick in the beginning of 1745.

Now it was, however, that the slumbering

genius of Frederick the Great began to shine.
His figure was seen under the somber horizon,
grim as a wrinkled statue of iron. His ene-
mies made haste to crowd him to the preci-
pice, but found that work one of the most
desperate enterprises in the whole annals of
war. In May of 1745 a combined army of
Austrians and Saxons, numbering a hundred
thousand men, poured into Silesia. Freder-
ick, who had openly confessed that his Bohe-
mian campaign of the preceding year had
been nothing but a blunder, now appeared at
his full stature. With a force greatly inferior
to the enemy he marched to HOHENFRIEDBERG,
and there, on the 4th of June, gave battle.
In the early morning, with the Prussian cav-
alry he swept down like a whirlwind on the
Austrians, and by nine o'clock achieved one
of the great victories of the century. Sixty-
six of the Austrian and Saxon standards were
taken. The allied army was turned into an
utter rout. Five thousand dead and wounded
strewed the held, and seven thousand prison-
ers remained in Frederick's hand. All Europe
was agitated with the news of the battle ; for
it was evident that the sentimental .stripling'
of Hohenzollern, who had spent his youth in
playing the flute and reading French novels,
was now come as a conqueror, making the
tragic stage of war tremble as he strode.

In this condition of affairs England again
sought to mediate between the powers of war.
Frederick readily declared that his only pur-
pose was to gain and to keep Silesia. That
he would do at every hazard. Maria Theresa
fairly flamed with indignation. She chafed
like an angry lioness as she strode about the
palace of Vienna, and answered to England's
proposal that sooner would she have her royal
robes torn off, and her Imperial body exposed
to the vulgar winds, than give up one foot of
Silesia to the perfidious, unkingly scoundrel,
Frederick. The case was made up, and fur-
ther debate was useless.

In his next campaign Frederick, with a
division of eighteen thousand of his men,
made a dash into Bohemia, and posted him-
self at the village of Sorr. Here, on the 30th
of September, he was attacked by an army of
forty thousand Austrians. Notwithstanding
the disparity in numbers, he came out of the
battle victorious. Soon afterwards the news

t <*ff*

I* • rt^-*-

a

M

ro

g

m

902

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

was brought to him that the Saxons were
making ready for an invasion of Prussia.
The king at once established garrisons in the
passes between Bohemia and Silesia, turned
about and hastened into Saxony. Leipsic
was taken, and on the 15th of December a
great victory was gained over the Saxons in
the battle of KESSELSDORF, the Prussians being
commanded by Prince Leopold. Frederick
now entered Dresden, and within ten days
Austria consented to make peace by confirm-
ing Silesia and Glatz to Prussia. The king,
on his part, acknowledged as Emperor Fran-
cis of Lorraine, who had already received the
Imperial crown at Frankfort. Prussia thus
emerged from the Second Silesian War with
every circumstance of honor, and Frederick,
on his return to Berlin, was received with all
the enthusiasm of which the German nature
is capable.

In other parts of Europe the war was con-
tinued for three years longer. In Flanders
Marshal Saxe led the French to many victo-
ries. Before the close of 1747 nearly all of
the so-called Austrian Netherlands had been
transferred to France. In Northern Italy,
however, the arms of Austria were generally
successful, and the authority of the Empire
was restored. At this time the Empress Eliz-
abeth of Russia was induced by Maria Theresa
and her husband to enter into an alliance and
to furnish an army of forty thousand men.
On looking about him Louis XV. found an
exhausted treasury and a discouraged people.
Such were the circumstances which led to the
opening of negotiations at Aix-la-Chapelle,
and finally to the conclusion at that place, in
October of 1748, of the treaty of peace by
which the War of the Austrian Succession
was ended on the terms already defined in the
preceding chapter.

Thus closed the first great struggle in
which the strength of Prussia and the valor
of her king were fully displayed. Frederick
now threw his whole energies into the work
of healing the wounds and bruises of his peo-
ple. Never was a more vigorous and salutary
activity displayed by the ruler of a state. He
toiled incessantly at his official duties, giving
himself barely time to sleep and eat until the
work of restoration should be accomplished.
He required that all the affairs of state, pro-

posed modifications in the methods of govern-
ment, and infractions of the laws should be
submitted to himself for approval or rejection.
In all things he was absolute, assuming the re-
sponsibility for the measures which he proposed,
and accepting with equanimity the blame of
miscarriage and failure.

In his personal habits the king was studi-
ous and industrious to the last degree. He
rose before daybreak, and went at once to his
tasks. Every petition and complaint he read
carefully, and sat brooding for hours over the
tedious and troublesome complications which
were referred to him for solution. The papers
which he passed upon are still in existence,
with his own indorsements of approval or dis-
approval ; and nowhere does the character of
Frederick more clearly appear than in these
notes upon the backs of documents which
came before him. A certain merchant named
Simon of Stettin petitioned to be allowed to
invest forty thousand thalers in a piece of real
estate. The king's indorsement ran thus :
" Forty thousand thalers invested in commerce
will yield eight per cent, in landed property
only four per cent; so this man does not un-
derstand his own business !" So, when the
city of Frankfort-on-Oder remonstrated against
the quartering of troops upon her citizens,
Frederick wrote upon the document: "Why,
it can not be otherwise. Do they think I can
put the regiment into my pocket? But the
barracks shall be rebuilt." In like manner,
on the petition of the Chamberlain, Baron
Miiller, who prayed for leave of absence to
visit the baths at Aix-la-Chapelle, this indorse-
ment was entered : " What would he do
there ? He would gamble away the little
money he has left, and come back like a beg-
gar." In this intensely practical and peculiarly
German method of governing one may well
discover the natural result of the style adopted
by old Frederick Barbarossa, who, on his way
to the Crusades, was wont to hang up his
shield by his tent-door with this proclamation:
"Ho, every one who has suffered injustice!
Come hither and you shall find a king who
will avenge you on the wrong-doer."

In matters of religion Frederick adopted
the maxims of freedom and toleration. He
declared his purpose in these words : "I mean
that every man in my kingdom shall have the

FREDERICK THE GREAT AT TUB COFFIN OF THE GREAT ELECTOR,
After the Painting by A. Menirel.

«ri

904

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

right to be saved in his own way." And he
kept his word against every influence which
bigots and simpletons could bring forward
to induce him to change. He aimed at being
in all respects the exemplar of his people.
He reduced the expenses of his court to a
minimum, and saved the rest to pay off the
debt of the state. It is said that during the
seven years of peace which followed the treaty
of 1748 the king's expenditure in the admin-
istration of the state did not exceed a hundred
thousand dollars a year — this, too, when every
petty prince around him, with not a tenth part
of his vast responsibilities, was squandering
many times that sum in the maintenance of a
court after the manner of great kings.

A volume might well be filled with stories
and reminiscences of the manners and meth-
ods of Frederick's government. For an hour
or two each evening, after his day's work was
done, he was accustomed to walk abroad
among the people, conversing with them famil-
iarly and ordering their affairs after the man-
ner of a father. He gave public superinten-
dence to the works of the city, and, indeed,
of the whole kingdom. In one or two matters,
however, his conduct was subject to severe
criticism. In general he was indifferent to the
education of the masses ; nor did he give to
science that encouragement which might have
been expected of one of his temper and attain-
ments. Instead of patronizing the Academy
of Berlin, he neglected that institution, giving
his favor to another, in which the French lan-
guage and philosophy had been substituted for
those of Germany. The king even issued an
interdict forbidding the students of Prussia to
attend foreign universities.

But in the midst of this general disfavor
of learning, Frederick was ever zealous in
promoting the industrial interests of the king-
dom. Agriculture was the favored pursuit.
He bent his whole energies to the reclaiming
of the marsh-lands in which Prussia abounded
and the conversion of the same into farms.
Due regard was had for the internal improve-
ments of the state. Canals and roads were
constructed ; bridges built ; public buildings
erected ; and commercial facilities in every
way improved.

All through life Frederick continued to
cherish the example and fame of his grand-

father, the Great Elector. It is evident that
the work of that distinguished personage
made an early and lasting impression on the
mind of his erratic grandson. Frederick
never tired of praising the deeds and heroism
of Frederick William. He made him in many
things his example in both peace and war,
and omitted no mark of respect and esteem
which he could render to the Great Elector's
memory.1

The people could but see and appreciate
the many advantages diffused by the king in
his personal and administrative capacity. As
a matter of fact, they could very well afford
to bear the heavy taxes which Frederick im-
posed upon them, as the same were a neces-
sary part of his system of government. First
of all, it was a clear necessity that the Prus-
sian army should, in the existing condition
of Europe, be kept at a maximum of strength
and efficiency. Frederick was astute enough
to perceive that the lull which followed the
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle would soon be
broken, and that he must be prepared at a
moment's warning to face the most powerful
combination which the neighboring powers
could bring against him. To meet the ex-
pected emergency he was constantly on the
alert. Nor was it long until the peace of
Europe was broken in a way to test to the
utmost the endurance and heroism of Prussia
and her king. The many enemies whom
Frederick's words and deeds and purposes had
raised in the neighboring kingdoms were still
alive, and but awaited the opportunity and
pretext of again renewing the contest by
which they hoped to humble, if not to ruin,
the House of Hohenzollern.

1 It happened that in January of 1750, when a
new cathedral was finished in Berlin, the ances-
tral bones of the Hohenzollerns had to be moved
from the vaults of the old edifice to the crypt of
the new. Frederick took great interest in the oc-
casion, and gave personal supervision to the trans-
fer. When the workmen came to the sarcophagus
of the Great Elector, the king ordered them to
ci]>cii the casket, that he might gaze on the illus-
trious dead. He looked lonj; and intently upon his
great-grandfather's face. He seized the crumbling
hands in his own, and turning with a look of in-
spiration to his companions, said in French :
Ah, Messieurs, celui-ci a fait de grandes choses—
" Ah, gentlemen, this is the one who did the great
works."

AGE <>/•• i-'i;i:i>i:i;ii'K •/•///•; GREAT.— Tin:

:\ YI-:.\HX

CHAPTER XLIII.— THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR.

[HE great conflict, upon
the history of which we
are now to enter, origi-
nated in disputes and
quarrels between the col-
onies of France and Eng-
land in the New World.
Hostilities began in America and there con-
tinued for two years, attended with much an-
imosity and bloodshed, before war
was declared in Europe. A chron-
ological order would require that an
account be first given of the outbreak
between the French and English col-
onists on this side of the Atlantic ;
but the unity of the narrative will
be best preserved by recounting first
the course oi the war in Europe and
afterwards the American phase of the
conflict.

Deep-seated and lasting was the
hatred of Maria Theresa and her min-
ister, Baron Kaunitz, for Frederick
H. Her anger had in it the indig-
nation of the Empress and the pique
of the woman. Her methods were
drawn from both the fountains of her
hostility. So, when the news was
borne to Europe that the colonies of
France and England had gone to war
in America; when it was known that
George II. would back his American
frontiersmen, and Louis XV. his;
when Hanover, at that time an ap-
panage of the crown of England
and drawn along with that country
into the war with France, appealed to
Austria for an alliance ; and when the
Empress and her minister came to
weigh the advantages and the dis-
advantages of such a league — Maria The-
resa, having ever in her memory the loss of
Silesia, and ever before her mind's eye the
unirtilhmt apparition of him by whom she luid
been despoiled, conceived that her real inter-
est would be better subserved by a French al-

liance than by a union \\ith Hngland. She
accordingly rejected the proposal of Hanover,
wrote a flattering epistle to Madame de Pom-
padour, at that time all-jxnverful at the
court of France, and solicited the influence
of that lady in securing a Franco-Austrian
league against England. All the while her
covert purpose was to gain the aid of France,
when the opportunity should arrive, for re-

MAKyriSF. POMPAM'rR.

Alter the painting by M. q. de la TOOT.

newing the war with Prussia. Another
woman now appeared on the scene — Elizabeth
of Russia. She, too, was mortally offended
at Frederick on account of certain ilisparag-

in.s; nuimieiit.* \\liich lie luul olllTe.l ivspect-
ing her person ami diameter. Here, then.

906

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

was a complication indeed. Frederick had
stigmatized Pompadour's influence at the
French court as la dynastic des cotillons.1 He
had robbed Maria Theresa of a great prov-
ince— a very real and tangible offense. He
had said of Elizabeth, daughter of the Great

ELI3ABETA

d

(&m7iiu/mJ)

ELIZABETH I. OF RUSSIA.

Peter, that " she was too fat and orthodox,"
and that "she did not have an ounce of nun
in her composition." True, these strictures
had been offered twenty years ago, but the
time had arrived when the sarcasm should cost
him dearly — him and his subjects also.
'That is, the ''Petticoat Dynasty."

As to the Czarina, she hesitated not at all
to accept the proposals of Maria Theresa ; but
Pompadour could not at first succeed in bring-
ing Louis to her wishes. At length, however,
the Austrian Empress offered him as the price
of his support that portion of the Netherlands

which had belonged
to the Empire. This
bait was sufficient.
The negotiations
at Vienna, Paris,
and St. Petersburg
were quietly com-
pleted, and every
thing was arranged
to begin the war
on Prussia in the
spring of 1757.

It was one of the
tacit maxims of
Frederick the Great
not to be caught
asleep. He was the
catcher of slumber-
ers rather than the
caught. One of his
rules was to keep
himself informed
of all that hap-
pened in the courts
and councils of
neighboring rulers.
In St. Petersburg
he had at this time
as his agent no less
a personage than
the Crown Prince
Peter himself, who
had conceived for
Frederick an ar-
dent friendship,
and was willing to
serve him against
the machinations
of the Czarina.

Having thus thoroughly acquainted him-
self with the designs of his enemies, and per-
ceiving his inability to break up their coiilition
by any diplomatic measures which he might
propose, he resolved — indeed, could but re-
solve— to take the alternative of war, even if
all Europe should combine against him. For

AGE OF FREDERK K Till. i;i;l-:.\r.-THE SEVEX }•/•;. I A'.v ll.l/..

a moment he scanned the horizon to see if
any friendly power might be discovered, and
in the search his eye naturally rested on Eng-
land. Since she was already at war with
France, and since Frederick was about to
draw the sword against the same power, it was
almost inevitable that an Anglo-Prussian al-
liance should be formed. Frederick's over-
tures were accepted by Parliament, and in
January of 1756 a treaty offensive and de-
fensive was concluded between the two king-
doms. The little principalities of Brunswick,
Hesse-Cassel, and Saxe-Gotha were drawn by
their affiliation with Hanover into the same
compact. But all of the assistance and prom-
ise of assistance which Frederick thus obtained
abroad was as nothing in comparison with
the powerful array which human passion
and the statecraft of Europe had brought
against him.

As soon as the king had thoroughly in-
formed himself of the plans of Austria,
France, and Russia, he adopted his usual
policy of anticipating the movements of his
enemies. Having carefully organized his
forces and set his house in order, he began
THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR by entering Saxony.
In the beginning of September, 1756, he took
Dresden, and soon afterwards laid siege to a
Saxon army of seventeen thousand men in a
fortified camp on the Elbe. One division of
the Prussians was at the same time sent for-
ward to occupy Bohemia.

Maria Theresa now quickly collected her
forces to the number of seventy thousand, and
sent them to confront Frederick in the field.
The latter was in no wise disposed to decline
the challenge to battle. Within less than
a month after his entrance into Dresden
he met the Austrians on the field of LOBO-
SITZ. He was able to bring into the fight
only twenty thousand men, being less than
one-third of the force of the enemy. But
the battle resulted in a complete victory.
Frederick had good reason to boast, in a
letter to General Schwerin, of the splendid
valor and discipline of his Prussians, by u
invincible here 'ism he had triumphed over
such fearful odds.

The effect of the battle of Loho<it/ was to
give Frederick a breathing-time during the
winter of 1756-57. Never did a ruler ami his

people more need a respite. It was evident
that the allie- were merely .-tunned liv the
blow which they had received, and that on
recovering from the initial shuck of the con-
flict they would renew the fight with all their
handed powers. It showed some discern-
ment on their part that they u.^-d the inter-
val to secure additional alliances. Swe-
den was persuaded to become a member of
the league, and the Imperial Diet was
evoked from the shadows to declare war
against Prussia.

By the opening of spring, 1757, it was
estimated that the armies ready to take the
field against Frederick numbered four hun-

rorsT si ii v.

died and thirty thousmd men. To oppose
this tremendous force the king could succeed
in raising an army of not quite two hundred
thousand. The English Parliament sent him
the Duke of Cumberland and voted him
a subsidy; but the latter was small, and
the former would better have been kept
at home.

In beginning the campaign, Frederick at
the head «f one division pressed forward
through Bohemia, and on the lith of May
met the Austrians In-fore the walls of Pra.
Here, after a hard-fought battle he won the
-econd victory of the war; but the triumph
was purchased with the live-; of thousands.
among whom was the veteran (Jem-nil

908

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Schwerin, an irreparable loss to Frederick and
the Prussian people.1

Following up his success, Frederick imme-
diately laid siege to Prague, which in the
course of five weeks he reduced to the point
of capitulation. But before this result could
be reached the king received information that
Marshal Daun was coming with another Aus-
trian army of fifty-four thousand men to res-
cue the city. It was at this point that Fred-

DEATH OF SCHWERIN.

crick's genius for striking a superior enemy in
detail began to be conspicuous. Hastily rais-
ing the siege of Prague, he set out to confront

1 With good reason was the king greatly grieved
on account of Schwerin's death. Frederick withal
was not incapable of sincere and lasting friend-
ships. He was especially attached to his generals,
and among these Schwerin and Father Seidlitz
were his favorites. After the death of the former
the king omitted no mark of respect which might
be rendered to his memory. The body of the
great general was laid in state, and Frederick, in
profound grief, paid in person the last honors

Daun, and on the 18th of June, met him at
KOLLIN, on the Elbe. The Prussians were
about thirty-one thousand strong; the Aus-
triaus nearly twice that number. In conjunc-
tion with General Zieteu who, after Schwerin's
death, became Frederick's chief reliance, the
king formed a careful plan of battle, and
then — lost his wits.1 In beginning the fight
he threw away his plan and adopted another.
Then, when this change, the merit of which
consisted in its caprice,
began to portend de-
feat, Frederick strove
by personal exposure
and unwonted audac-
ity to retrieve his error.
He led his soldiers in
the very face of the
Austrian batteries, and
beat against them until
he had lost fourteen
thousand men. Maria
Theresa might have
looked with compla-
cency on the scene.

But it was also in
the genius of Freder-
ick to recover from
madness. On the even-
ing after the battle he
was found sitting
alone, drawing figures
with his cane in the
sand. It was a new
battle-plan. He wept
bitterly on being told
that his best guards-
men had been slain.
Then he sat a long
time silent, and then
said : " It is a day of sorrow for us, my child-
ren ; but have patience, and all will yet be
well." The flute-player of Potsdam was ready
to renew the strife.

which might be given to him who had been his
right arm in battle.

1 It was one of the peculiarities of Frederick
the Great that occasionally— even in a crisis — he
would lose all sense of the thing to be done, and
beat about him like a madman. In this respect
he was unlike Napoleon, whom no excitement,
disaster, or very excess of ruin could for a moment
disturb or bewilder.

AGE or i'i;i:i>i:i;icR- •/•///•; GREAT.— Tin: N/-.T/-;.Y r/..i/;v ir.i//.

The king clearly perceived that he must
now give up his campaign in Bohemia, and
limit his present exertions to the defense of
Prussia. On falling back into his own king-
dom, he was met with the disheartening intel-
ligence that the other division of his army,
under General Lchwuld, whom on his own de-
parture into Bohemia he had sent forward to
hold in check the Russians and the Swedes,
had also been defeated ; and to this was added
another grief, in this, that the Duke of Cum-
berland, to whom the defense of Hanover had

Germans — the Utter gathered fur the most
part from the provinces along the Rhine — was
now advancing nuder Marshal Soubise, and
was ready to break the Prussian borders on
the west. The force was splendidly equipped,
full of confidence, ably commanded, and num-
bered sixty thousand men. It was the boast
of Soubise that he would soon take up his
winter quarters in Berlin ; nor did it well ap-
pear how any force which Frederick was able
to muster would be able to prevent such a
catastrophe. After the utmost exertion the

nUEDKBICK THE GREAT AT THE COFFIN OF sriI\VKKI\.

been assigned, had utterly failed in his part
of the work, and had given up that electorate
to the French.

A slight compensation for these multiplied
disasters was found in the facts that the Rus-
sians, after their victory over Lehwald, had
retreated instead of pressing forward into
Prussia, and that the Prussians, rallying from
their discomfiture, had inflicted a defeat on
the Swedes.

The exigency which demanded Frederick's
presence in his own kingdom was indeed most
urgent. For a combined army of French and

king was able to rally only twenty-two thou-
sand men ; and when the French learned that
this was the army with which they had to
contend, they laughed the matter to scorn and
made a mock of Frederick's preparations. It
would have been better for them, however, to
restrain their mirth until, according to their
programme, they had comfortably established
themselves in the Prussian capital. It was not
the habit of Frederick to permit a foreign
army to celebrate a fete in his dominions.
For a while he maneuvered in order to gain
some possible advantage of position, and

910

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

finally posted himself at the village of ROSS-
BACH, near Naumburg. Here, on the 5th of
November, 1757, the French army came in
sight.

Scanning the Prussian camp, Marshal Sou-

infantry, striking his tents as if to begin a re-
treat, took position behind a range of low
hills, and awaited the onset of the enemy.
The French, believing that Frederick had not
dared to give battle, pressed forward to the

FREDERICK THE GREAT ON THE NIGHT AFTER KOLLIN.
After the painting by J. Shrader.

bise declared to his officers that the routing
of such a force would be but a breakfast-
spell. The command of the Prussian cavalry,
eight thousand strong, was given to General
Seidlitz, with orders to charge the enemy;
while Frederick, with his fourteen thousand

sound of martial music, imagining themselves
already victorious over a flying foe. Pres-
ently a solid phalanx of eight thousand Prus-
sian horsemen, with Seidlitz at the head of
the column, sprang into the very faces of the
oncoming legions. At the same moment

AQE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. Til i: si:\i:.\ YEARS II. 1A1. '.Ml

F rede i -ick's infantry rose from bchinil the
hill.-, seized the crests, opened (In batteries,
and liegan In pour their horizontal hail of
ilcatli into the astonished ranks i it' the French.
There was a sudden lialt of the advancing
host; then a shudder along the lines; then a
recoil; then rout and ruin. For the army
of Frederick in perfect order sprang forward
upon the heavy masses of the enemy, and

more complete and overwhelming. So shat-
teivd was (he French army that no halt was
made by the disorgani/ed ma--< - until they
reached tlie Rhine. F.vcn then there was DO
thought of attempting to recover by a second
invasion the pre.-iigc \\hieh they had lost on
the field of Kossbach.

Frederick made good use of the op-
portunity thus gained in the West to turn

SEIDLITZ AT

turned defeat into a panic. The French fled
from the field in wild dismay, leaving every
thing behind them. Nine generals, three
hundred and twenty subordinate officers, and
seven thousand of the rank and file were
taken prisoners. All of the artillery and
most of the small arms and army stores were
captured. And this astonishing result was
achieved with a loss to the Prussians of only
ninety-one killed and two hundred and sev-
enty-four wounded. Never was a victory

TLE OF ROSSBACII.

again into Silesia. During his absence from
that country the territory had been, and was
now, held by a large army under command
of Charles of Lorraine. By him the Prus-
sians to whom Frederick had intrusted the
defense of the province had been driven
hack and forced across the border. By rapid
advances the king succeeded in three weeka
in joining his own forces, fresh from victory
at Rossbach, with thost- of his general, fresh
from defeat before Breslau. He was thus en-

912

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

abled to muster a combined army of thirty-
two thousand ineu.

In the mean, however, time, Marshal
Daun had united his division of Austriaus
with that of Charles of Lorraine, by which
the allied forces were augmented to fully
eighty thousand. In the face of such dispar-
ity, it seemed little less than the extreme of
foolhardiuess for Frederick to hazard a battle.
But the general conditions were such that
nothing remained for him but to fight and

Breslau, that the two armies met and de-
ployed for battle. Before beginning the en-
gagement Frederick called his officers around
him and said: "Against all the rules of mil-
itary science I am going to engage an army
nearly three times greater than my own. We
must beat the enemy or all together make for
ourselves graves before his batteries. Thi* I
mean and thus will I act; remember that .MHI
are Prussians. If one among you fears to
share the last danger with me, he may resign

GENERAL HANS JOACHIM VON ZIETEN,

fight, as long as he could muster a regiment.
He fully realized, however, the gravity of the
situation. He perceived that the enemy was
learning wisdom by defeat. Besides, of all
his antagonists in the field, he had most cause
to be apprehensive of Marshal Daun, whose
courage and skill as a commander were of the
highest order. Him, with his disciplined
host of four score thousand men, the king
had now to face and vanquish, or else himself
be trampled down by the Austrian legions.

It was on the 5th of December, 1757, at
the little village of Leuthen, ten miles from

now without hearing a word of reproof from
me." But no one stirred except to hurrah for
the king. All had set their fate on the cast
of the die.

Frederick well knew the peril. Calling
General Zieten aside, he said to him: " I am
going to expose myself more than usual to-
day. Should I fall cover my body with your
cloak, and say nothing to any one. The fight
must go on, and the enemy must be beaten."
As for the soldiers, they caught the fire of
battle. They shouted " Rossbach !" and then,
recalling the date of that victory, they cried,

1600

1700

The Earl of Essex Elizabeth's favor- 41. The Earl of strafford, the chief counselor of the king, im-

ite beheaded. peached by Parliament, and condemned to death. 91. Irela

3. Death of Queen Elizabeth. 42. The king and Parliament resort to arms.

3 •Jamei I. accedes to the En- 43. Kingston. 60. A new Parliament assembles, by which

'felish throne. 11. English transla- Kewbury. Charles II. is proclaimed king.

tlon of the Bible. 44. Charles convenes a new Parliament. 83. Hye-house Plot,
fe. The Gunpowder Plot, formed by 45. Jfascby— Royalists completely defeated.

some desperate Roman Catho- 49. Charles beheaded. 78. Titus Oates pretends to h

I lies detected. 25. Charles I.; he 49. The Commonwealth begins; against the royal famil
possesses many the government having Lord Stratford

virtues, but is been usurped by Oliver 79. Habea* Corpus Aet

despotic. Cromwell, an officer in 85. James II., wen

25. He declares war with the army ; he defeats the Scots, the court and k

Spain who had declared for Charles II. Boyle, ph.

30. His arbitrary attempts and crowned him king of Scotland. 88 xvilliani,
to raise money begin 51. Il'mrester-Cromwell defeats

the quarrels between Charles II. 64. W. Holland. England; la

the king and Parliament. 53. Cromwell dissolves the Long and Parliam
RAXCIS) Parliament and assembles styled the K

ph d 26 a 65 the Little Parliament. Loeke,

2s!liarvey publishes his discovery 55. W. Spain. 56. Blake defeats the Spanish fleet,
of the circulation of the blood. 58. Riehard Cromwell abdicates.

Milton, po., Sec. of State under Cromwell, d. 74, a. 65.

ENGLAND,

Shakespeare

po., d. 16, a. 52.
Bacon '

2. W. France aind Spain.
ndsubjected byAVilluim. 27. Ueoree M.

2. Anne, secolnd daughter of James II.
4. Gibraltar tflaken from Spain by Admiral !
4. Blenheim. 18. Oudenarde. 9. Matpiaquet—
of thes|e nlarlborou^h defeats 45.
•the French. 39. War with S|
ave discoveredla conspiracy of Catholics
y, which eausejs the unjust execution of
and others. • 13. Peaee of Utrecht,

mssed. \ 19. South Sea Scheme.

land bigoted b'rother of Charles ;

ng become extjremely profligate.
Brydeii, d. 17U|1, a. 70. )4. (ivorgre I., great-
Prince of Oranige, who had married Mary,
eldest daughterjof James, invited over to «
nds with an amiiy ; James retires to France,
ent votes the thiroue vacant. This event is
evolution.
ph., d. 4, a. 72. • 15. The Pretender proclaii

HOUSE OF STUART.

Kewton^^'
CONSTITUTIONAL.

" HOUSE O,

29. Rise of the

Henry IV.; aided 27. Siege of Rochelle, where the 67. Louis claims the Low Countries in right of
by Snlly, he reigns Protestants had revolted. hisqueen. 78. Treaty of Peace,

usefully and splendidly. 31. Richelieu unites with the Protestant 72. W. Holland.
10. Assassinated by a pi in ITS < f Germany. /:!. Spain joins Hoi.

bigoted monk. 32. The Duke of Or-
leans revolts.

aged four

43. 1.ouiS XIV., years! So. Revocation of th

43 to -16. The Duke of Enghlen which had been p

24-42. Cardinal Richelieu, defeats the Spaniards France lost from

prime minister. in four battles. other countries.

I>es Cartes, ph.. d.50, a. 54. France the most formidable power

10. Louis XIII., aged nine years. in Europe, but its resource! ex-

„„-,,.—, ~-, „»,..„„«»•«, Jansenlus, div., d. 38, a. 53. hcnuted by continual wars.

BS*. i<«i.ni>m«. dramatic no., rl. S4.R. 78. Bayle.

FRANCE,

-14. War of the Spanish Suce*«»loli; nt

all Europe against France and Spain : the Fr

frequently and severely defeated by the a

powers, led by the Duke of Marlborough

1'rince Eugene. 33. War with the en

e Edict of Nantes, 38. Peace of Vienn

ublished by Henry I V.; in consequence of wh

500,000 to 800,000 or her best citizens, who fled

15. Louis XV., cflds'wsi

Fenclon, father under the regency ol

div.. d. 15. profligate Duke of Orleans.

ph.,etc..d. 6. a. 59. Kollln. hist., d. 41, a. 80

GERMAN
EMPIRE,

tavus Adolphus.
17. Ferdinand II.; he carries on the war against the Protestants; opposed by

Frederic V., electorpalatine, who had been elected by the Bohemians.
Kepler, ast. and 37. Ferdinand III. 5'.i. Leopold f. 87. League of Au

math., d. 30,a.59. 32. Zefpsic— Gustavus Adolphus defeats Holland.Bpa

He issues " Letters the Imperialists,

of Majesty," permitting the free

exercise or the Protestant relig- iTwn*»«*i/&f. — MTYV**™ «ci^t.vtu.
ion ; this delays the storm for
some time. 35. Treaty of Prague ; Protestant religion tolerated.

the imperialists. Savoy agains

Lutzen— He again defeats them, but falls in the conflict.
Nordlingen— Swedes defeated.

8. Electors of Brandenburg administrators of Prussia, from this time the Brandenburg part of

Prussia increases in importance. 88. Frederic ID.

nnnnni i 40. Frederie William, THE GREAT, receives his investiture

PR l\\i A tiom Poland.

I llUUUIfl, At the peace of Westphalia Prussia receives considerable additions.

fi'ussla dreadfully devastated blithe Thirty years' War. 85. 20,000 Protestant refugees

from France introduce manufacturesandcommerce.

41. Charles VII. of
5. Joseph I. 45. Francis

qnent treaties. 48. At t

conscience permitted to all. i'1

11. Charles VI. succeeds his broth
20. He issues the Pragmatic
rla Theresa ; this caus
gsburg concluded by
n, the Empire, and

t France. 14. Peace of Rastadt; the empe
Philip In Spain on the cession
pies, and Sardinia. Mosliei

Leibnitz, ph. and math.

1. Crowned king with the title of Frederic I,
13. Frederic William I. His nar-
row parsimony lays the founda-
tion for Prussian greatness. H(
The country, highly flour- Tin

i, exerts great influ- a first-rate r
,i Europe. on 56. Thegi

c. Christiana. 54. Charles X. (iO. Charles XI.

U. <i>ustavus Adolphus the Great, aged eighteen, encourages trade,

Q\Af CDCII science, and literature. tiwcdcnpredominates in the North.

OlVCUCIli 30. Goes to Germany with 15,000 men to aid the Protestants.

13. Concludes peace with Denmark on advantageous terms ;
defeats the Poles and Russians.

Charles XII., aged fifteen.

18. Ulrica Kleonora succeec

Norva— He defeats the Russians. M«WI4a,

Xext year he defeats the Poles. ***>U»1

20. Frederic. VioUnt a

48. Frederic III. 70. Christian V. 10.

25. Heads the league for the 60. After an invasion of the Swedes, which was r

restoration of the elector zens with bravery ; in reward he destroys t

palatine in Bohemia. hies ; he also changes the monarchy from

hiri-case and northern fisheries protected, hereditary absolute government.

DENMARK,

Vanvfctcture.

140. Portuguese revolt, and gain their independence under
John IV., Duke of Braganza. 68. Peter II., regent .

56. Alphonno IV. 83. Peter II., king.

HOUSE OF BRAGAKZA.

Frederic IV.; he wages an unsuccessful wa
epelledby theciti- 30. Christian VI ft

t he power of the no- Manufactures greatly adv
an elective to an

The country powt

PORTUGAL A DoEFpISCY

6. John V,

28, The diamond-mi

Long peace.

•.11 the Moors bani^i talonia re- 63. Chitrle* II. 78. Peace ot'Nirnegueu

OR A IU 2I- r *»*'!> IV., a weak volts to France. 72. W. France.

Nr Altl prince, has a disgraceful reign. 74. Sicily revolts.

21. W. Holland. 39. In the Downs— The Dutch under Van Tromp destroy
Philip III., a weak sovereign. the Spanish fleet.
Spain rapidly der lines i oirinfj to bad ff over tune nt and unsucf

hilip V., grandson of Louis XIV., call
thetnrone in virtue of the late king's

lledti
g's will

Tliis brings on the War of the ftpanisl:
Succession, 17. Schemes for recov

HOUSE OK HOVKIUHf. "

HOLLAND,

.•-.. Henry Frederie. 17. Wlllia

21. VT. : 52. W Cromwell.

Orotiii

'^. W. France and England ; !•'

rise in fury, slay the broth

m a learned writer, d. 45, a. 02. William 111. iisstadtholder.

61. The stadtholderate abolished. SO. He becomes ki
Armlnina, dtv., d. 9, a. 49. The rejntblic now one of the most /.-

rench invasion ; the j
ers De Witt, and proclaim
Boerhaave. physician, d. 88, a. 70.
ng of England.

RUSSIA,

1H. LadiNlaiiM. :J2. W. Poland renewed ; the Russian army 7fi. Feodor II. S9. I»et er
13. Michael Romanoff. obliged to capitulate 82. Ivan V. and Peter I. 98. He
10. Poles invade Russia Mr>ne»? n*? nnmr • ..-<>..

and garrison Moscow. HOUSE OF ROMANOFF.
10. Anarehy. 45. Alexla.

Their sister, the ambi-
Commerce ami civilisation increase. turns Sophia, regent.

97. Goes

the Great. 25. Catherine I. 41

s several times defeated 27. Peter II. 30. J
by Charles XII. 40. Ivan Cor JOHN) VI.
to Amsterdam to learn

the art ofshipbuilding. 21. Assumes the title
n. J'ullowa— He defeats Charles XII. Ft
Jtussia predominates in the Nor

16UO-HM). War of the succession Del ween Sweden K,. W. Sweden. OS. iMIehtiel Wisiiion iernki. 97.
Dm AUtl and I'oland in Livonia. 32. WladlHlaim VII. 71. John !»obic»kl, eminent for his
rULAPlUi 10. Swedes and Russians defeated. 4S. John Caaimir.

49. He defeats 300.000 Cossacks and Tartars.

Frederie Augustus I., elector of Saxony,
virtues. 1.VI7. Kcvolln; which the king resi
9. Fretlerie AiiBiistUH I. restored. 24.
Near Jlitia— Frederic defeated by C'harlrs X

CHRONOLOGICAL CHART

No. VIII.

FROM

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR

TO

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

Prepared by John Clark Bldpath, LL. D.

COPYRIGHTED 1885.

ITALY,

•28-31. War: Frunce, the Pope, ami '•

against Spain, Tuscany, and Savoy
•' /fy, and
' :il influence.
OalU.-. a. 78.

13. The Duke of Savoy acquires Sicily.
6. Eugene defeats and drives the French out

'' 30. Cnarleo Emaniiel III., kinn

I.e.. XI. V,. Alexander VII. on. rlemeiit X.

o. Paul V. 21. «renrofy XV. 44. Innoeenl X.

W. Urban VIII. S9. Alexaniler VIII

76. Innoeent XI.

Inn... <ul XIII
I IX.

PAPAL CHURCH, f,,CIJ

20. Charles VI.. emperor and kini

7. Naples oi'.'npio.l by the Germans. 34-35

14. Vle«or Aiiiii<l«-iiK crowned . _.

king of Sicily. "• *

Clement XI.

21. Innoeenl XIII. 40. B

24. Benedirt XIII. B8,

31. Clemen) XII.

2:!. Amnralh IV.. a warlike prince. Itl. Aehniet II.

88. Takes Bagdad. lu .tins

40. Ibrahim IV., effeminate, leaves the care

of the government to grand vi/.iers.
IIUl PY 4fl- MohamnxMl IV., aged four years.
I Uni\L I i ra. Turks nonnner Crete.

72. Turks take Kameniec from the Poles.
The Polish king purchases peace, but the

3. Aehmet III. 3(1. Mohammed.

1 al»li.-i II.

9. Aehmet gives an asylum to Chai
34-35. Turks driv
Inoculation discovered.
The power of the Turks u broken.

Diet rejects it. and war is renewed.

180O

rorjrt' III., L'l ;iU'is"H nf i ii-oi yt- 1 I.

Hi.'

i he witr wiih Knun-f. !t{. War w

• • ; i 'unu'lar. dr<! tu < ireat Brittiln.

Invade

</'*'» /'" li-feats the royal forces.

97.

:Mlv o\ i-rthrown.

France. 98.

'unudu, Cape Breton, etc.. ceded to Knvlund.
.. stamp Art e\temli-d I" Norlh America, W.
«.ll.l,,,,, I.

« I»M i»««r. p..., ,i. i.ioo, a. fio.

!v.'l.nr:il wi i<

>o.. critic, le.\n-"i:!a Kuril*..
.f d. 84. a. 7.'>. Iliirk*'. slairMiiuii, d. '.17, a. 117.

bam, !NV-' :'. ' '

land.

' prime minister. Put' WILLIAM, JK..

' and

I.OllU

•m %-K.mmi ••- "'"•

Ith Fr:u •''• "Cioria,

defenr , ******m* w»- 37. Canadian Kebelllon.

eii Meet. "• Oeorife I> .

23. Oinninfj mini- ! • Itiriffton ntlminiAtnllion.

s England.

•"•. premier.
:iulsh fleet defeated by Admiral Jerrls, Feb. 14; and the i :,y Duncan, Oct. 11.

defeats a- William IV., brother of George IV.

the French Iieet, A

Rebellion in Ireland. INXI Ir.'liuid united to «;r.-ut Britain. 1802. insurrection In Dublin.
6. mr JVa/ntonr-The comblm <d Spain con.

i ox dies In Septemi
6. Unix ill' mtiiuti-;. 7
7. Theslave-tradeabolisln.il bv p^rl...

W. Russia. 8. Peace with the Spanish patriots. Peace with the Ottoman Porte.
10. Liverpool ministry.

8tateaman,d.6, a. 47. 13-3U. Dtiaffcctim gr,
11. Prince of Wales laf

12. \\-. I'lHt.-il suites. Pea
H ivace with France. 10

Revolut

Rc>publ

again

tiaei.
leorge I \ -neilt on acccount of his

[father's Indisposition.

tales. SX. The Reform Hills pass.

at assembly and begin the
Ion.

in tain party, and the
jjrn of Terror <i.:ui... \

14. Ix>ul> XVIII. » Ix>uU Pblllppe.

1114.4. Mca.

< li»rl<.» \

i Bonaparte

Alx-la-C'liapelb1 Muria The- '.C Fritni-U II.

1 the succession of her father. Hunt, ph.
Heine* critic, etc.

r •ecnrioi his dominions to his daughter, Ma-
o ^Vnr of I he AiiHtrtnn Kuceeaalon.

'). JotteplB II., co-regent with his VI. Austr
brother. fto. Rash reforms.' 97. p

ledges '' ture rapidly advan-

y, Na- many abound* in r/

!.•••.

irg.

AUSTRIA,

il the empire join the ti

56, a. 60. 80. ]

I.ORRAIXE. Kioi

i-ii- it '^>V9I^B

<•]><. l.l I I

nch victorious.

, pew union of the states. <

1 n-.l.-rii- U ,11, ,,,, ||.
• n'ar :

Frederic Wllltnm III.

i; Prui

Kusnlan campaign, lull after*. -la.

sla acquires a grr.

aid.
M.STKIK. 71 «„.(««. HX.
toander of a new system of botany, d. 78, a. 71.

Joins the Northern Confederacy against G
1. Peace with lireat Britain. 8. W. Russia
'.'. < Imi !<•• XIII.
Lth France: Ma
13. W. France. 13. Norw
18. Charles dies, and

rcat Britain.
; Finland taken.

rshal B( •: own-prince.
BtT •idnm l«CTOWi»d king.

rtnlor
iiainl

< In .».!:, .1 III.

.- \ - .
. i^lerlr VI..

lute.
a fVede'rle^vi.

•r, and tin I - of the line

ered. 77. Hmrjr and Peter III.
'.C. John
aiiui'l.

W>. Mnrv alone.
!«. Joins
» i.. .. . 1 » .

^llTTEe yrencDi afur nmvrn7 DMK I^MHl times defeated by
VI.. prince of the English under Wellington, leave Portugal,
regent. The royal court and family emigrate to Brazil.
7. Invaded by the French,
the first coalition against France.

1 . i <lin:ii!.l \ It icceeds o

..
4'harl<-» III

1 II. lion, I,..,, l.,i,,i

l»..ll < 111 ll>.. I

ICllllltpurK-.

IVIIII

••.

i. a urt'iit and i xtM'llrnt princess.

PM sc\'pral time* drf.-:il [•'n'll.'rii- <(f

new code of laws called Kllza-
, and founds the Universities of St. ivi

"t 'In 1 ami MOSCOW.

:ersburR. li'j. Peter III. >•

alii) 4'itllioriiif II. proclaimed empress.
tr AIIKU»IU» II. ;

ixon troops. r,l. WtnnUlnu* An- m,

rthe gu.lu. l-..ni,,<.,«,kl. w. Insurr

•rotestanta at Thorn. ;^. Tliir,!

:irro\v I'ntt'rs Italy. 1. t.eorKia unit'

•eofTllxlt: U'ussia declares war with Ki
Paul. 1'J. I m-jisttin of Napoleon. Frenchente

T Oct.18.-Th
1. Alexander. 14. Alexander enters France, a
IS. Assumes

riTheklnu
division of Poland. 15. Again divided >
ection. headed by Kosclusko, against the Ronii
.11 between Hussia, Austria, anil

< l,:,i I, -
ron.iners Naples an

1 IIOI Kli<».

IV.
.III.

i XI V

"I

'i.i. VI.

by the Fr.-n.

•I. I.. .II..:, 11. 1 I \ .

in:, n III

l.l ,|.li:i III.

1. Inn. I l».
II >

X.-IMI. III.

ir Persian comr

W. Russia.

98. Ahfntfcir — Napoleon defeat1* the Turks.
Napoleon dt'i

I.. i.i

ow and conn

rli

NETHERLANDS.

Turk.'? -

i al Ian states.

• •in. \ i i

1 1. it
Repnblle.

ill JIurnl. !i of N

1 i l'r*.|l«-i i. I \ .

K. Framel* 1 1. ivi-tllim

ner to France -J3. Leo XII.
M ..... ol i I.. Jr. nil., ol i

n and shot.
and.

NAPLES and SICILY.

. PtaaVHI.

1:1.1. i i.-«. u

«rr«t>r.T XVI.
lif.S|>niii»li I nqul.lllon.

r forntr > ,

--J I...I. |.. ii.l. M. • ,l.-i l:u . .1

3. Turkish Invaslc:'
•-'S. Landing of the Egyptians in -

• •

massacre of SetCk

ywlMre defeated.

.

•jr. .it .Var,, .•!>,<, - i by the combined

BritisK

7 Mnilnplui l\ Uonstantln< war.

- 'lolui 111 111 I'll \ I., or MAHMOUP HAKttENAN. This vnut rmpirr ifitnri xymp/onu of

\<:re. appronfMng dlitolutton.

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. »i:{

again!" and so began the

"It is the 5th
conflict.

The king adopted the same plan as at
Eossbach. Placing his infantry behind some
hills, he lay concealed until the Austrians
were close upon him. Then he rose against
them with such fury that their left wing was
driven back. On his own left Zieten, with
the cavalry, was also successful in throwing

••living that victory had flown to the Prus-
sian standard, broke into confusion, and fled
from the field, leaving twenty thousand of
their number in killed, wounded, and prison-
ers. The Prussian loss was nearly five thou-
sand, showing Frederick that he might not
hope to purchase any more victories on such
terms as he had obtained the almost bloodless
triumph of Rossbach.

FREDERICK IN THE BATTLE OF I.EUTHEX.

the enemy into disorder by the impetuosity
of his charge. Nevertheless, the veteran
Daun held the field with great tenacity, and
several hours of desperate fighting were re-
quired before Frederick could break his :i«l-
versary's lines. But the Austrians could
never recover from the shock of the first
onset, or regain the ground which they had
lost by the initial charge of the Prussians. It
became evident to Daun that the struggle

was hopeless. His officers and men, also, per-
VOL. n. -58

The distress after the battle of Leuthen
was very great. The weather was bitterly
cold, and the wounded and dying lay on the
field moaning in anguish. It is narrated that
the cries of suffering were drowned by a hymn
which the Prussian soldiers took up and sang
during a good part of the night. The over-
throw of the Au>tri;ms. was sufficiently deri-
sive, and they were unable to renew the con-
flict until the opening of sprinsr. The year
1757 thus closed with increased honor and

914

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

renown to the Prussian arms. In a few days
after the battle Frederick entered Breslau in
triumph, making prisoners of the seventeen
thousand men who composed the garrison.
In all Silesia there now remained only the
fortress of Schweidnitz in the hands of the
enemy.

Great was the chagrin of the Austrian
court. Maria Theresa was angered, mortified,
enraged. She at once began to make prep-
arations to renew the conflict on a grander
scale than ever. She also made passionate
appeals to Russia and France to rally with
all their power and crush the audacious par-
venu who was marring the time-honored map
of Europe with his sword. It could but be
evident that the war was only begun, and
Frederick knew well that many another
bloody field lay between him and an honor-
able peace.

By this time the attention of all the pow-
ers of Europe was fixed upon the struggle
which was raging around Prussia. The hero-
ism and ability which Frederick had shown,
and the magnificent fighting of his Prussians,
began to draw to him the interest and sym-
pathy of foreign states. Especially in Eng-
land did he become a popular hero. Parlia-
ment, always in some measure swayed by the
national sentiment, voted him an annual sub-
sidy of four millions of thalers. An act was
also passed empowering him to appoint a com-
mander of his own choice for the continental
forces of England. He accordingly selected
as general of the Hanoverians the skillful and
soldiery Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, who,
during the campaign of 1758, materially aided
the king in expelling the French from North-
ern Germany.

With the first opening of spring Frederick
again took the field. He began the work of
the year by besieging and capturing the for-
tress of Schweiduitz — this, too, before the
Austrians were well aware of his movements.
This success again placed the whole of Silesia
in his power. He next made an unwise ad-
vance into Moravia, where he laid siege to
Olmiitz. By this movement he exposed his
line of communications. Perceiving the error,
the Austrian general, Laudon, threw himself
between Frederick and his base of supplies,
compelling him to fall back into Silesia, and

to take a defensive position in a camp at
Landshut.

In the meantime the Russians at last ap-
peared upon the scene. They invaded Pome-
rania in great force, swept every thing before
them, devastated the country, and came near
the Oder. On learning the movements of his
new enemy, Frederick left a division of his
forces under Marshal Keith in the camp at
Landshut, and with the remainder, mostly
new recruits and numbering thirty-two thou-
sand, set out tt> check the progress of the
Russians. On the 25th of August, 1758, he
met the enemy at the village of ZORNDORF, in
Pomerania. The battle lasted all day and
until far into the night, being one of the fierc-
est in which Frederick had ever yet engaged.
On the Prussian side the honors belonged
rather to General Seidlitz than to the king,
who did not appear to his best advantage.
Several times when the Prussian lines were
wavering or broken Seidlitz succeeded in re-
storing order and renewing the onset. In the
very crisis of the fight, late in the evening,
he found himself in a condition where he
must violate the king's command in order to
succeed. He did so without hesitation. "Say
to Seidlitz that he shall answer for his disobe-
dience with his head," cried the furious Fred-
erick. "Tell the king," said the old general
in reply, "that he can have my head when
the battle is over, but until then I must use
it in his service." The movement of Seidlitz
proved completely successful. The Russians
everywhere broke into disorder and fled from
the field, leaving twenty thousand dead.
When the battle was fairly won, Frederick
hurried to his disobedient general, threw his
arms around him, and exclaimed: "Siedlitz,
I owe the victory to you I"

Thus had the French at Rossbach, the
Austrians at Leuthen, and the Russians at
Zorndorf gone down successively before the
Prussians and the sword of Hohenzollern.
The resources of Austria, however, were am-
ple, and Maria Theresa still believed in her abil-
ity to bring Frederick II. to his knees. She
still, with good reason, confided in Marahal
Daun, and him she now sent into Saxony to
operate against Frederick's brother, Prince
Henry, to whom the maintenance of Prussian
supremacy in that country had been intrusted.

AQE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— THE SEVEX YEARS' WAR. 916

The priuce was i)resently besieged by Dauii
in a fortified camp which the former had es-
tablished, and a hurried appeal was sent to
the king to come to his brother's rescue.
Frederick at once set out on this mission, and
advanced as far as HOCHKJKCH, where, on the
13th of October, lie pitched his camp for the
night. It appears that he had become over-
confident and careless. But for the fact that
General Zieten was on the alert it is probable
that Frederick's army would have been utterly
ruined. As it was, the disaster was enough.

For the veteran Daun, learning of the ap-
proach of his adversary, adopted Frederick'.*
own policy by quitting the siege in which he
was engaged and going forth to meet the king
before the latter could join his brother. So,
while Frederick and his soldiers — all except
Zieten and his vigilant hussars — went quietly
to sleep in their camp at Hochkirch, Daun
stole upon them with the whole Austrian
army, fired the village, and burst in tre-
mendous force into the Prussian camp. Zie-
ten interposed and fought with desperate
valor while the king and his army sprang to
arms. But no kind of courage and discipline
could withstand such a shock. The Prussian
batteries were taken. Marshal Keith and
Francis of Brunswick were killed. Maurice
of Dessau was borne to the rear severely
wounded. All night long and until nine
o'clock on the following morning the Prus-
sians fought for their camp, and were then
obliged to retreat. It was the first time in
nearly three years of war that the Austrians
had seen their enemies' backs in battle. Fred-
erick was humiliated by the loss of all his
artillery, tents, and equipage. The campaign
of 1758 which had begun so gloriously after
Leuthen closed most gloomily for the Prus-
sian cause after the disaster of Hochkirch.

Such was the condition of affairs with the
opening of the following year that Frederick
might well have despaired and given up the
contest. But the fate of his country was in-
volved in the struggle. He know well that
if he yielded the rising nationality of Prussia
would be extinguished. He understood thor-
oughly the purpose of Austria, Russia, and
France to divide his dominions among them.
There was for him no middle ground. He
must conquer or perish. But how could he

conquer? His army was wasted even by his
victories. The loss of a thousand men had
been to him as fatal as the slaughter of ten
thousand of his foes had been to them. Hia
best regiments were decimated. The French
had rallied, defeated the Duke of Brunswick,
and recoved Hanover. Austria and Russia
were able to make levies of hundreds of thou-
sands, and still not feel the drain. In his dis-
tress Frederick attempted negotiations; but
his overtures were met with scorn. He must
renew the struggle and fight to the last

In beginning the dolorous work of 1759,
the king found it necessary to divide his
reduced army in order to confront both Rus-
sians and Austrians, and, if possible, to pre-
vent their union. For it had been arranged
between Marshal Daun and the Russian gen-
eral, Fermor, to join their forces in Silesia for
the invasion of Prussia. Frederick accord-
ingly gave the command of one division to
General Wedell, with orders to hold the Rus-
sians back, while he himself, with the other
division, marched against Daun. But Wedell
was defeated, and the Russian and Austrian
armies united against Frederick. The com-
bined forces of the enemy, numbering fully
seventy-five thousand, planted themselves at
KUNERSDORF, opposite to the city of Frankfort-
on-Oder. By extraordinary exertions Freder-
ick was able to collect an army of forty-eight
thousand ; but few of these were veterans,
and most had never witnessed even a skirmish.
But this force, such as it was, was all that the
king could plant between the opposing host
and what seemed to be the inevitable ruin of
Prussia.

It was the 12th of August, 1759, when
Frederick staked his fate on the issue of
another struggle. He had just been revived
by the good news that the Duke of Bruns-
wick had won a victory over the French at
M'mden. The battle was begun with a furious
attack made by Frederick on the Russian left,
which, after an engagement of six hours' du-
ration, gave way before tlio Prussian infantry.
The enemy's right wing, however, was held
by Marshal Daun with the Austrians, whose
po-ition had been chosen with great care, and
was believed by Scidlitz, who commanded the
Prussian cavalry on the left, to be impregna-
ble. But the king, with his wonted head-

916

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

strong zeal, was determined that the impossible
should be done. He twice ordered Seidlitz to
make the charge, and that veteran twice re-
fused to obey. At last he went to the onset
and to — destruction. The Austrian position
could not be carried. Seidlitz fell terribly
wounded, and his regiments of cavalry were
torn to pieces. Frederick came to the rescue
and charged the enemy's batteries with the
fury of a madman. Time and again he flung
himself and his heroic Prussians upon the im-
movable lines of Daun, until twenty thousand
of his soldiers were stretched on the field.
The counter-charge of the Austrians swept

MARSHAL DAUN.

away the remnant of resistance, and Freder-
ick's bugles, on the retreat, could scarcely
call together three thousand men of all who
remained alive.

At no time in his career was the courage
of the king more nearly broken than after
Kunersdorf. For a while he was in a condi-
tion bordering on despair. He knew full
well his inability to prevent the victorious
'enemy from pouring into Prussia, capturing
Berlin, dividing the kingdom, and settling
the conditions of peace without reference to
himself. He knew, too, that all appeals
would be in vain. He was at the mercy of
Maria Theresa, Elizabeth, and Pompadour.
At length, however, he was touched with a

new spark of life ; for the news came that
Marshal Dauii and General Soltikoff, who had
succeeded Fermor in command of the Russians,
had quarreled. Blessed quarrel for Prussia!
Daun insisted that the victorious army should
at once press forward to Berlin and end the
business. But SoltikofF would retire into
Silesia, rest and recruit his army, and finish
the work next year. Such has always been
the difference between genius and incompe-
tency! Daun could not constrain his ally;
the latter took his own course, and the
Austrian turned into Saxony.

But this circumstance merely palliated for
a brief season the hard fate of Prussia. Daun
marched straight to Dresden, took the city,
and made prisoners of the twelve thousand
men who constituted the garrison. The nar-
rowing and darkened horizon of December
closed around the landscape, and it was hard
for the most hopeful to discover a single star
in the sullen sky that was stretched over
Frederick and his kingdom.

The winter of 1759-60 was spent by all
parties in preparations for a renewal of the
conflict. In his distress Frederick called aloud
to Spain ; but she heeded not. Then he ap-
pealed to the Turks ; but all in vain. He
learned the hard lesson that a king shaken
over the precipice finds it more difficult to
make alliances than when his foot is planted
on the necks of his enemies. Nothing was
left for him but to drain exhausted Prussia
of her last man and her last dollar, and again
face the foe. This he did, and by incredible
exertions during the winter months succeeded
in raising a new army of ninety thousand men.
The Hanoverians, also, were rallied to the
number of about seventy-five thousand under
the Duke of Brunswick. But though the
forces thus recruited by Frederick and his
ally for the work of 1760 were by no means
to be despised, yet they were but as a hand-
ful in comparison with the tremendous armies
sent forth by the enemies of Prussia. At the
beginning of the year the combined forces of
Austria, the Empire, Russia, Sweden, and
France numbered three hundred and ninety-
five thousand. The Russians, now satisfied
with their winter's rest, agreed to Daun's plan
of the campaign, which was the same as be-
fore, namely a combined advance of the two

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 917

armies on Berlin. Frederick again undertook
to prevent the junction of his enemies. He
sent forward his brother and General Fou-
qu6 into Silesia, intending to follow as soon
as he should have taken Dresden. He began
a bombardment of that city, now held by
Marshal Dauu, and pressed the siege with
great vigor until the news came that Fouqu6
had been defeated and taken with seven thou-
sand men in an engagement near Landshut.

Exasperated at this intelligence, the king at
once raised the siege and marched towards Si-
lesia, closely followed by Daun. By this time the
Austrians under Marshal Laudon had overrun
all Silesia except Breslau, which still held out
for Frederick. Laudon and Daun effected a
junction in spite of the efforts of the king,
and thus swelled their forces to ninety-five
thousand. Frederick's army numbered but
thirty-five thousand ; but he hesitated not to
give battle. The opposing hosts met at LIEG-
NITZ on the 15th of September. Frederick
displayed all of his usual valor, and more
than his usual discretion. After a terrible
conflict, and notwithstanding the fearful odds
against him, he won a complete victory. The
shattered hosts of Austria were driven out of
Silesia and the disputed province again held by
the Prussians. Frederick ' had succeeded to
this extent that he had compelled the Austrians
to fight him before the arrival of the Rus-
sians. The latter, on hearing of Daun's de-
feat, fell back, and for the time acted on the
defensive.

It was the peculiarity of these tremendous
struggles of the Seven Years' War that Fred-
erick's victories never gained him more than
a temporary respite from the conflict. After
each success, aye, and after each defeat as
well, he had to make immediate preparations
to fight again. So it was after the battle' of
Lieirnitz. The Austrians and Russians soon
united their forces, and while Frederick was
engaged in restoring order in Silesia and in
putting the contested country in a condition
of defense against the next invasion, the
combined armies succeeded in passing him
and made all haste for Berlin. The Saxons
came in from Lusatia and joined the ava-
lanche. On the 9th of October the Prussian
capital was taken. The royal palaee at Char-
lottenburg was plundered, and a contribution

of a million seven hundred thousand thalers
levied on the city. For four days the victo-
rious Austrian and Russian walked hand in
i hand about the high places of Berlin.

But their triumph was shortlived. Freder-
ick, leaving Silesia, came with all sped to
expel the enemy from his capital. So whole-
some was the dread of his coming that the
invaders hastily left the city, and the king
found opportunity to complete his Silesian
campaign. Returning to the field which he
had lately left he encounterned the Austrian
army, under Daun, on the 3d of Novem-
ber, at TORGAU. Here was fought one of the
fiercest and bloodiest battles of the century.
The Prussians were led by General Zieten and
by the king in person. The latter charged
the Austrian lines in front and fought with
an audacity rarely equaled, never surpassed.
Before making the onset he ordered Zieten to
charge the enemy's flank. The latter move-
ment was somewhat delayed, and the impa-
tient Frederick, thinking that he saw his gen-
eral's signal to begin, made the charge before
Zieten was in position. For the greater part
of the day and until nightfall he beat against
the Austrian front, tearing at the almost im-
movable lines like mad until ten thousand of
his soldiers were stretched upon the field.
After darkness had settled over the scene he
went into the village cliun-li, where he re-
mained until morning, drawing new battle-
plans and preparing for the final struggle;
but just at daybreak old Zieten dashed up
and announced that he had crushed the Aus-
trian flank and that the enemy was in full
retreat. Then turning to the soldiers the
veteran exclaimed with more devotion than
truth, "Boys, hurrah for our king! He has
won another victory !" The soldiers, knowing
well how it had fared with them, but true to
the occasion, responded: "Hurrah for our
King Fritz! and hurrah for Father Zieten 1*
Frederick indeed had the field, but it had coat
him thirteen thousand men against a loss of
twenty thousand on the side of the enemy.

On the whole, Frederick had more than
held his own during the year 1 700. Prussia,
however, had sustained enormous losses, and
was again panting from exhaustion. Her
armies had been almost dflrtrajvd ; her re-
sources were well-nigh gone ; the Austrians

918

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

held the two important points of Dresden and
Glatz; the king could make no alliances,
even with the Turks or Cossacks. Another
discouragement arose in this: George II. of
England died in October of this year, and the
accession of his grandson, George III., was
attended with a change of ministry unfriendly
to the cause of Prussia. The majority in Par-
liament cut off the annual subsidy which for
three years had been voted to Frederick.
Meanwhile the French army, under Soubise
and Broglie, operating against the Hanoveri-
ans, had penetrated the country as far as Cas-
sel and Gottingen, and there established their
winter quarters. All around the clouds were
dark, and the future seemed to bode no good
for Prussia.

With the opening of spring the Duke of
Brunswick was first in the field. By a rapid
and successful movement he forced the French
from their position at Cassel and Gottingen,
and drove them before him almost to the
Rhine. Soon afterwards Prince Henry, with
one division of the Prussian army, planted
himself in the way of Daun in Saxony, and
succeeded in checking his progress. At the
same time the allied forces were expelled from
Thuringia, while Frederick himself assumed
the offensive in Silesia. Here he had to face
a large army of Austrians, and to these were
presently added another overwhelming force
of Russians, who, coming by way of Poland,
joined themselves with their allies, swelling
their aggregate to a hundred and forty thou-
sand men. To oppose thia tremendous force
the king was able, by the greatest exertions,
to rally a force of fifty-five thousand.

At first he attempted to prevent the union
of his enemies, and it was not until late in
the summer that they were able to unite.
Then he took the defensive, fortified himself
in a camp near Schweidnitz, and bade the foe
defiance. Fortunately for him, the Russian
and Austrian generals again quarreled, and
after a brief period Marshal Buturlin, com-
manding the Russians, drew off into Pomera-
nia. When this occurred Frederick sought to
give battle to the Austrians, but the latter,
under Laudon, carried Schweidnitz by storm,
and planted themselves in so strong a position
that Frederick durst not hazard an assault.
Thus the summer passed without decisive re-

sults in Silesia. But, in the mean tune, a
combined army of Swedes and Russians pene-
trated Pomerauia, and on the 16th of Decem-
ber took the important fortress of Colberg.
In the same autumn the Austrians rallied in
Saxony, and Prince Henry was nearly driven
to the wall. The Duke of Brunswick, also,
to whom the work of holding the French in
check had been intrusted, was worsted in the
conflict. Even in Silesia, Frederick was
obliged, in the latter part of the campaign,
to hold himself 'on the defensive, and more
than half the province was regained by th«»
Austrians. Indeed, it is considered by mill'
tary critics that the close of the year 1761
found Frederick's cause in a more desperate
condition than ever before. He had no longer
either resources in his own kingdom or friends
abroad to whom he could appeal. It seemed
impossible for him to recruit another army, 01
to support one even if it had been furnished
to his hand. At this time about one-half of
his territory was held by the enemy. The
allied armies hovered in heavy masses all
around the horizon, and behind these there
were in the aggregate populations in the hos-
tile states amounting to eighty millions. To
oppose these the Prussian people numbered but
four millions, and these were unable longer to
pay their taxes or bear the necessary burdens
of war. Only the will of Frederick, obdurate
as ever, bound by a stern necessity to conquer
or die, stood out like a hostile specter menac-
ing the armies of Europe.

In the very beginning of 1762 an event
occurred which suddenly made a rift in the
clouds and let in the sunlight. The Czarina
Elizabeth, one of the caitace teterrinwe belli — she
whose personal pique against Frederick for
saying that she was too fat and orthodox, and
had not one ounce of nun in her body- — fell
sick and died. She was succeeded on the
Russian throne by that same Crown Prince
Peter, whose friendship and admiration for
the Prussian king have already been men-
tioned. It thus happened that Russia was all
at once wheeled out of rank with the powers
opposed to Prussia, and put into an attitude
of friendliness. As soon as Peter was seated
on the throne he declared an armistice. He
sent back to Frederick, without ransom, all the
Prussian prisoners who had been taken during

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 919

the war. He then concluded a peace and entered
into an alliance with Prussia, and soon ordered
the Russian troops in Silesia and Pomerania to
be placed at Frederick's disposal. Not only this,
but Sweden followed in the wake of Ru.-i-ia.
She, too. con-
cluded peace, and
it soon appeared
that Maria The-
resa and Madame
Pompadour would
be left to conclude
the war nlone.

So the begin-
nings of the work
of 1762 were es-
pecially auspicious
for Prussia. Fred-
erick reentered
the conflict with
great energy. In
proportion as his
own spirits rose,
those of his ene-
mies subsided.
He turned every
circumstance to
the best account.
The patriotism of
the Prussians was
rekindled in every
hamlet. The first
months of the
year passed with
the continual —
though not very
decided— successes
of the Prussian
arms. Great,
therefore, was the
revulsion when in
midsummer the in-
telligence came
that the friendly
and sentimental

Czar Peter III. had been murdered in a con-
spiracy headed by his loving queen, the cele-
brated Catharine II., who, on her husband's
death, took the throne for herself.

This tragedy produced a counter-revolution
in Russian politics. The alliance with Prussia
was at once broken off. For the moment it

appeared that all the advantages which Fred-
erick had gained by the death of his bitter
enemy, Elizabeth, would now be reversed by
the accession of this new and powerful mem-
ber to the Dyiiattie dea Cotillon*. Could he

FREDERICK THE GREAT.— After the painting by Feme.

manage Catharine? He would try. By
adroit and persistent efforts he succeeded in
inducing her to keep the peace. Though she
would not uphold the alliance which Peter
had made, she would refrain from hostility.
This was sufficient Nor did Frederick fail,
by the aid of the Russian forces whom the

920

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

late Czar had put under his command, to at-
tack and defeat the Austrians under Daun,
at Burkersdorf, before the new Czarina could
forbid such a use of her soldiers. At the
same time Prince Henry was successful over
the enemy at Frieberg. Such was the rapid
transformation of the political and the mil-
itary landscapes that France determined to
withdraw from the conflict and conclude
a peace.

All of these circumstances bore heavily on
Austria. Maria Theresa became discouraged
and gloomy. The Austrian generals, no
longer energized by her zeal and vindictive
warmth, grew cold in the cause, while the
Prussians, animated by the defiant Frederick,
rallied from every quarter. On the 9th of
October the king took the fortress of Schweid-
nitz by storm. On the 1st of November the
Duke of Brunswick expelled the French gar-
rison from Cassel. Frederick, having com-
pleted the conquest of Silesia, turned into
Saxony and marched on Dresden. Other di-
visions of the Prussian army were sent into
Bohemia and Franconia ; nor were the forces
of Maria Theresa able to prevent their depre-
dations.

All things now tended to peace. In the
West, France and England had fought it out,
and were already negotiating a settlement.
On the 3d of November, 1762, preliminary
articles between these two powers were signed
by the English and French ambassadors at
Fontainebleau. The former, under the direc-
tion of the ministry of George ELL, were very
anxious to exclude Prussia from the benefits
of the treaty; but this movement was checked
by the sentiment of the English nation and by
the disposition of France. Consequent upon
this initial settlement, the French army was
withdrawn from Germany. The Imperial

Diet next took the alarm, and assembling at
Katisbon in December, concluded an armistice
with Frederick. At last Maria Theresa stood
alone — exposed to the animosity of him whom
she had so long tried to destroy. She bowed
to the inevitable. With indescribable mortifi-
cation she was obliged to purchase peace of
her inexorable foe by ceding to him the province
of Silesia! To her bitterness of spirit there
was little palliation; to her humiliation, none.
But she was great and queenly even in her
overthrow.

On the 15th of February, 1763, the treaty,
already concluded at Paris between France
and England, supplemented as the same had
been by the Diet of the Empire at Ratisbon,
was completed by Frederick and the Austrian
ambassadors at Hubertsburg, near Leipsic. It
was agreed that the former geographical and
political condition of the states at war should
be restored and maintained, except that Silesia
should be henceforth incorporated with Prus-
sia. By this agreement — enforced, as it was,
by the renown which Prussia had achieved
under the Hohenzollerns, and notably under
Frederick II. in the recent hard-fought war —
the kingdom was promoted from the ambigu-
ous rank which it had hitherto held to that of
one of the Five Great Powers of Europe — a
rank which it has ever since easily maintained.
Thus, in the early part of 1763, the Seven
Years' War in Europe was ended. Austria
found opportunity to brood over her calamities,
and Frederick to begin again the kingly and
fatherly work of binding up the wounds of his
people. — It is now appropriate to take our
stand for a brief space in the New World, and
to note there the beginning and the progress
of that struggle, the European phase of which
has occupied our attention through the present
chapter.

AGE OF I-'HKHERICK THE GREAT.-INTER-COLONJAL CO. \UJCT :«j|

CHAPTER XLIV.— INTER-COLONIAL CONFLICT IN

AMERICA.

|S already stated in the be-
ginning of the preceding
chapter, thatgreatcouflict
known in General History
as the Seven Years' War
originated in local diffi-
culties between the En-
glish and the French colonies in America.
The circumstances attending the outbreak of
hostilities are of peculiar interest — especially
to those who are curious to understand the be-
ginnings of American civilization — and may,
for that reason, be appropriately narrated at
some length.

Let, then, a map of Central North America
be laid before the reader. Let him observe
the position of the Alleghany mountains and
of the rivers St. Lawrence, Ohio, and Missis-
sipi, and of the Great Lakes of the North.
Here are vast unoccupied fields which the
various races, religions, and political systems
of Europe may contend for. It might well be
apprehended, a priori, that France and Eng-
land, occupying the hither verge of Europe,
and inhabited by energetic and aggressive
peoples, would be most interested in the colo-
nization and possession of these vast regions,
stretching from our Northern lakes to our
Southern gulf. And the event corresponded
to the expectation.

It will be remembered that after the vicis-
situdes of two centuries of voyage, discovery,
and precarious settlement the English suc-
ceeded in establishing their colonies and insti-
tutions on the Atlantic slope of the present
United States. In the same interval the
French fixed their settlements in Canada.
Partly by chance and partly by design, differ-
ent policies were adopted by the two peoples
respecting their colonial enterprises. England
chose to colonize the sea-coast ; France, the
interior of the continent. From Maine to Flor-
ida the Atlantic shore was spread with En-
glish colonies; but there were no inland set-
tlements. The great towns were on the
ocean's edge.

But the territorial claims of England
reached far beyond her colonies. Based on
the discoveries of the Cabote, and not limited
by actual occupation, those claims extended
westward to the Pacific. In making grants
of territory the English kings had always pro-
ceeded upon the theory that the voyage of
Sebastian Cabot had given to England
a lawful right to the country from one
ocean to the other. Far different, how-
ever, were the claims of France ; the
French had first colonized the valley of
the St. Lawrence. Montreal, one of the
earliest settlements, is more than five hundred
miles from the sea. If the French colonies
had been limited to the St. Lawrence and its
tributaries, there would have been little dan-
ger of a conflict about territorial dominion.
But in the latter half of the seventeenth cen-
tury the French began to push their way
westward and southward ; first along the
shores of the great lakes, then to the head-
waters of the Wabash, the Illinois, the Wis-
consin, and the St. Croix ; then down these
streams to the Mississippi, and then to the
Gulf of Mexico. The purpose of the French,
as manifested in these movements, was no less
than to divide the American continent and to
take the larger portion ; to possess the land for
France and for Catholicism. For it was the
work of the Jesuit missionaries.

In 1641 Charles Raymbault, the first of
these explorers, passed through the northern
straits of Lake Huron and entered Lake Su-
perior. In the thirty years that followed the
Jesuits continued their explorations with pro-
digious activity. Missions were established at
various points north of the lakes, and in Mich-
igan, Wisconsin, and Illinois. In 1673 Joliet
and Marquette passed from the head-waters
of Fox River over the water-shed to the upper
tributaries of the Wisconsin, and thence down
that river in a seven days' voyage to the Mis-
sissippi. For a full month the canoe of the
daring adventurer? carried them on toward
the sea. They passed the mouth of Arkansas

922

UNIVERSAL HISTOBY.-THE MODERN WORLD.

River, and reached the limit of their voyage
at the thirty-third parallel of latitude. Turn-
ing their boat up stream, they entered the
mouth of the Illinois and returned by the site

first ship above Niagara Falls. He sailed
westward through Lake Erie and Lake Hu-
ron, anchored in Green Bay, crossed Lake
Michigan to the mouth of the St. Joseph, as-

JESUIT MISSIONARIES AMONG THE INDIANS.
Drawn by Wm. L. Shepard.

of Chicago into Lake Michigan, and thence to
Detroit.

It still remained for ROBERT DE LA SALLE,
most illustrious of the French explorers, to
trace the Mississippi to its mouth. This in-
domitable adventurer built and launched the

cended that stream with a few companions,
traversed the country to the upper Kankakee,
and dropped down with the current into the
Illinois. Here disasters overtook the expedi-
tion, and La Salle was obliged to return on
foot to Fort Frontenac, a distance of nearly

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— INTER-COLO MA 1. CONFLICT. 923

a thousand miles. During his absence Father
Hennepin, a member of the company, trav-
ersed Illinois anil explored the Mississippi as
high as the Falls of St. Authunv.

In 1681 La Salle sailed down the Missis-
sippi to the Gulf of Mexico, and afterwards
made his way back to Quebec. He then
went to France, where vast plans were made
for colonizing the valley of the Mississippi.
In July of 1684 four ships, bearing two
hundred and eighty emigrants, left France.
Beaujeu commanded the fleet, and La Salle
was leader of the colony. The plan was to
enter the Gulf, ascend the river, and plant
settlements on its banks and tributaries. But
Beaujeu was a bad and headstrong captain,
and against La Salle's entreaties the squadron
was carried out of its course, beyond the
mouths of the Mississippi, and into the bay of
Matagorda. Here a landing was effected, but
the store-ship, with all its precious freightage,
was dashed to pieces in a storm. Neverthe-
less a colony was established, and Texas be-
came a part of Louisiana.

La Salle made many unsuccessful efforts
to rediscover the Mississippi. One misfortune
after another followed fast, but the leader's
resolute spirit remained tranquil through all
calamities. At last, with sixteen companions,
he set out to cross the continent to Canada.
The march began in January of 1687, and
continued for sixty days. The wanderers
were already in the basin of the Colorado.
Here, on the 20th of March, while La Salle
was at some distance from the camp, two con-
spirators of the company, hiding in the prairie
grass, took a deadly aim at the famous ex-
plorer, and shot him dead in his tracks.
Only seven of the adventurers succeeded in
reaching a French settlement on the Mis-
sissippi.

France was not slow to occupy the vast
country revealed to her by the activity of the
Jesuits. As early as 1688 military posts had
been established at Frontenac, at Niagara, at
the Straits of Mackinaw, an«l on the Illinois
River. Before the middle of the eighteenth
century, permanent settlements had been
made by the French on the Maumee, at De-
troit, at the mouth of the river St. Joseph, at
Green Bay, at Vincennes, on the Lower Wa-
bash, on the Mississippi at the mouth of the

Kaskaskia, at Fort Rosalie, the present site
of Natchez, and on the Gulf of Mexico.

A second cause of war existed in the
long-standing national animosity of France and
Kii'jland. Rivalry prevailed <m land and sea.
When, at the close of the seventeenth cent-
ury, it was seen that the people of the En-
glish colonies outnumbered those of Canada
by nearly twenty to one, France was filled
with envy. When, by the enterprise of the
Jesuit missionaries, the French began to dot
the basin of the Mississippi with fortresses
and to monopolize the fur-trade of the In-
dians, Engknd could not conceal her wrath.
It was only a question of time when this un-
reasonable jealousy would bring on a colo-
nial war.

The third and immediate cause of hostili-
ties was a conflict between the frontiertmeti of the
two nations in attempting to colonize the Ohio
valley. The year 174!) witnc.-s. d the begin-
ning of difficulties. For some time the stroll-
ing traders of Virginia and Pennsylvania had
frequented the Indian towns on the upper
tributaries of the Ohio. Now the traders of
Canada began to visit the same villages, and
to compete with the English in the purchase
of furs. Virginia, under her ancient charters,
claimed the whole country lying between her
western borders and the southern shores of
Lake Erie. The French fur-gatherers in this
district were regarded as intruders -not to be
tolerated. In order to prevent further en-
croachment, a number of prominent Virgin-
ians joined themselves together in a body
called THE OHIO COMPANY, with a view to
the immediate occupation of the disputed ter-
ritory. Robert Dinwiddie, governor of the
State, Lawrence and Augustus Washington,
and Thomas Lee, president of the Virginia
council, were the leading members of th3 cor-
poration. In March of 1749 the company
received from George II. an extensive land-
grant covering a tract of five hundred thou-
sand acres, to be located between the Kana-
wha and the Monongahela, or on the northern
bank of the Ohio. But before the company
could send out a colony, the governor of Can-
ada dispatched three hundred men to occupy
the valley of the Ohio. In the next year,
however, the Ohio Company sent out an ex-
ploring party under Christopher Gist, who

924

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

traversed the country and returned to Vir-
ginia in 1751.

This expedition was followed by vigorous
movements of the French. They built a fort
called Le Bceuf, on French Creek, and another
named Venango, on the Alleghauy. About
the same time the country south of the Ohio
was again explored by Christopher Gist and

Pennsylvania, and made a treaty with the
English.

Before proceeding to actual war, Governor
Dinwiddie determined to try a final remon-
strance with the French. A paper was drawn
up setting forth the nature of the English
claim to the valley of the Ohio, and warning
the authorities of France against further in-

MURDER OF LA SALLE.
Drawn by Wm. L. Shepard.

a party of armed surveyors. In 1753 the
English opened a road from Wills's Creek
through the mountains, and a small colony
was planted on the Youghiogheny.

The Indians were greatly alarmed at the
prospect. They rather favored the English
cause, but their allegiance was uncertain. Iii
the spring of 1753 the Miami tribes, under
the leadership of a chieftain called the Half-
King, met Benjamin Franklin at Carlisle,

trusion. A young surveyor named GEORGE
WASHINGTON was called upon to carry this
paper from Williamsburg to General St.
Pierre, at Presque Isle, on Lake Erie.

On the last day of October, 1753, Wash-
ington set out on his journey. He was at-
tended by four comrades, besides an inter-
preter and Christopher Gist, the guide. The
party reached the Youghiogheny, and passed
down that stream to the site of Pittsburgh.

AOE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— IXTER-COLOMAL OAY/-/./CT. 925

At Logstown Washington held a council with
the Indians, and then pressed on to Venaugo.
From this place he traversed the forest to
Fort le BcBiif. Here the conference was held
with St. Pierre. Washington was received
with courtesy, but the general of the French
re (used to enter into any discussion. He was
acting, he said, under military instructions,
and would eject every Englishman from the
valley of the Ohio.

Washington soon took leave of the French,
and returned to Venango. Then, with Gist
as his sole companion, he left the river and
struck into the woods. Clad in the robe of
an Indian; sleeping with frozen clothes on a
bed of pine-brush ; guided at night by the
North Star; fired at by a prowling savage
from his covert ; lodging on an island in the
Alleghany until the river was frozen over ;
plunging again into the forest; reaching Gist's
settlement, and then the Potomac — the strong-
limbed young ambassador came back without
wound or scar to the capital of Virginia.
The defiant dispatch of St. Pierre was laid
before Governor Dinwiddie, and the first pub-
lic service of Washington was accomplished.

It was in March of 1754 that a party, led
by an explorer named Trent, reached the
confluence of the Alleghany and the Monon-
gahela, and built the first rude stockade on
the site of Pittsburgh. After all the threats
and boasting of the French, the English had
beaten them, and seized the key to the Ohio
valley.

But it was a short-lived triumph. As soon
as the approaching spring broke the ice-gorges
in the Alleghany, the French fleet of boats,
already prepared at Veuaugo, came sweeping
down the river. It was in vain for Trent,
with his handful of men, to ofTer resistance.
Washington had now been commissioned as
lieutenant-colonel, and was stationed at Alex-
andria to enlist recruits for the Ohio. A
regiment of a hundred and fifty men had
been enrolled ; but it was impossible to bring
succor to Trent in time to save the post. On
the 17th of April the little band of English-
men at the head of the Ohio surrendered to
the enemy and withdrew from the country.
The French immediately occupied the place,
felled the forest-trees, built barracks, and laid
the foundations of FORT or (^rr.sxic. To re-

capture this place by force of arms, Colonel
Washington set out from Wills's Creek in the
latter part of April, 1754. .Negotiations had
failed; remonstrance had been tried in vain;
the possession of the disputed territory was
now to be determined by the harsher methods
of war.

It was tli us that fully two years before the
formal outbreak of the Seven Years' War in
Europe the French and English colonies in
America became involved in that conflict
which has generally been called 1111 I 'v.\:\< n
AND INDIAN AVAR. The Work was l>egun by
Colonel George Washington, acting under the
authority of the governor of Virginia. He
was commissioned to proceed with a little
army of frontier soldiers, like himself, to build
a fort at the source of the Ohio, and to repel
all who interrupted the English settlements in
that country. In April the young comman-
der left Wills's Creek, but the march was toil-
some. The men were obliged to drag their
cannons. The roads were miserable ; rivers
were bridgeless; provisions insufficient.

On the 26th of May the English reached
the Great Meadows. Here Washington was
informed that the French were on the march
to attack him. A stockade was immediately
erected and named Fort Necessity. Washing-
ton, after conference with the Mingo chief's,
determined to strike the first blow. Two In-
dians followed the trail of the enemy, and
discovered their hiding-place. The French
were on the alert and flew to arms. " Fire !"
was the command of Washington, and the
first volley of a great war went flying through
the forest. The engagement was brief and
<leei<ive. Jumonville, the leader of the
French, and ten of his party were killed, and
twenty-one were made prisoners.

Washington returned to Fort Necessity and
waited for reinforcements. Only one company
of volunteers arrived. Washington spent the
time in cutting a road for twenty miles in
the direction of Fort du Quesne. The In-
dians who had been expected to join him from
the Muskingum and the Miami did not arrive.
His whole force scarcely numbered four hun-
dred. Learning that the French general De
Villiers was approaching, Washington deemed
it prudent to fall back to Fort Necessity.

Scarcely were Washington's forces safe

926

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

within the stockade, when, on the 3d of July,
the regiment of De Villiers came in sight,
and surrounded the fort. The French sta-
tioned themselves on the eminence, about
sixty yards distant from the stockade. From
this position they could fire down upon the
English with fatal effect. Many of the In-
dians climbed into the tree-tops, where they
were concealed by the thick foliage. For
nine hours, during a rain-storm, the assailants
poured an incessant shower of balls upon the
heroic band in the fort. Thirty of Washing-
ton's men were killed, but his tranquil pres-
ence encouraged the rest, and the fire of
the French was returned with unabated vigor.
At length De Villiers, fearing that his am-
munition would be exhausted, proposed a
parley. Washington, seeing that it would be
impossible to hold out much longer, accepted
the honorable terms of capitulation which
were offered by the French general. On the
4th of July the English garrison, retaining
all its accouterments, inarched out of the little
fort, so bravely defended, and withdrew from
the country.

Meanwhile, a congress of the American
colonies had assembled at Albany. The ob-
jects had in view were two-fold : first, to renew
the treaty with the Iroquois confederacy ; and
secondly, to stir up the colonial authorities
to some sort of concerted action against the
French. The Iroquois had wavered from the
beginning of the war ; the recent reverses of
the English had not strengthened the loyalty of
the Red men. As to the French aggressions,
something must be done speedily, or the flag
of England could never be borne into the
vast country west of the Alleghanies. The
congress was not wanting in abilities of the
highest order. No such venerable and digni-
fied body of men had ever before assembled
on the American continent. There were
Hutchinson of Massachusetts, Hopkins of
Rhode Island, Franklin of Pennsylvania, and
others scarcely less distinguished. After a
few days' consultation, the Iroquois, but half
satisfied, renewed their treaty, and departed.

The convention next took up the impor-
tant question of uniting the. colonies in a
common government. On the 10th of July,
Benjamin Franklin laid before the commis-
sioners the draft of a federal constitution.

His vast and comprehensive rnind had realized
the true condition and wants of the country ;
the critical situation of the colonies demanded
a central government. How else could reve-
nues be raised, an army be organized, and the
common welfare be provided for? According
to the proposed plan of union, Philadelphia,
a central city, was to be the capital. It was
urged in behalf of this clause that the dele-
gates of New Hampshire and Georgia, the
colonies most remote, could reach the seat of
government in fifteen or twenty days! Slow-
going old patriots! The chief executive of
the new confederation was to be a governor-
general appointed and supported by the king.
The legislative authority was vested in a con-
gress composed of delegates to be chosen tri-
ennially by the general assemblies of the re-
spective provinces. Each colony should be
represented in proportion to its contributions
to the general government, but no colony
should have less than two or more than seven
representatives in congress. With the gov-
ernor was lodged the power of appointing all
military officers and of vetoing objectionable
laws. The appointment of civil officers, the
raising of troops, the levying of taxes, the
superintendence of Indian affairs, the regula-
tion of commerce, and all the general duties
of government, belonged to congress. This
body was to convene once a year, to choose
its own officers, and to remain in session not
longer than six weeks.

Copies of the proposed constitution were at
once transmitted to the several colonial capi-
tals, and were everywhere received with dis-
favor ; in Connecticut, rejected ; in Massa-
chusetts, opposed ; in New York, adopted
with indifference. The chief objection urged
against the instrument was the power of veto
given to the governor-general. Nor did the
new constitution fare better in the mother
country. The English board of trade re-
jected it with disdain, saying that the froward
Americans were trying to make a government
of their own.

It was now determined to send a British
army to America, to accept the service of
such provincial troops as the colonies might
furnish, and to protect the frontier against
the aggressions of France. As yet there had
been no declaration of war. The ministers

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— INTER-COLONIAL CONFLICT. 927

of the two nations kept assuring each other
of peaceable intentions ; but Louis XV. took
care to send three thousand soldiers to Can-
ada, and the British government ordered
General Edward Braddock to proceed to
America with two regiments of regulars.
The latter, having arrived in the colonies,
met the governors in a convention at Alex-
andria, and the plans of the campaign were
determined. On the last of May, 1755, Brad-
dock set out from Fort Cumberland to retake
Fort du Quesne from the French.

By the 8th of July the advance had
reached a point within twelve miles of the
position of the enemy. On the following day
the English proceeded along the Mononga-
hela, and at noon crossed to the northern
bank, just beyond the confluence of Turtle
Creek. Still there was no sign of an enemy.
Colonel Thomas Gage was leading forward a
detachment of three hundred and fifty men.
The road was but twelve feet wide ; the coun-
try uneven and woody. There was a dense
undergrowth on either hand ; rocks and ra-
vines ; a hill on the right and a dry hollow
on the left. A few guides were in the ad-
vance, and some feeble flanking parties ; in
the rear came the general with the main di-
vision of the army, the artillery and the bag-
gage. All at once a quick and heavy fire
was heard in the front. For the French and
Indians, believing themselves unable to hold
the fort, had determined to go forth and lay
an ambuscade for the English. This was
done, and the place selected in a woody ra-
vine was well adapted to protect those who
were concealed in ambush, and to entrap the
approaching army. The unsuspecting British
marched directly into the net.

The battle began with a panic. The men
fired constantly, but could see no enemy.
Braddock rushed to the front and rallied his
men ; but it was all in vain. They stood
huddled together like sheep. The forest was
strewn with the dead. Out of eighty-two
officers, twenty-six were killed. Only AVa>h-
ington remained to distribute orders. Of the
privates, seven hundred and fourteen had
fallen. Braddock himself was mortally
wounded. A retreat began at once, and
AVashintrton, with the Virginians, covered the
flight of the army.

On the next day the Indians returned to
Fort du Quesne, clad in the laced coats of
the British officers. The dying Braddock was
borne in the train of the fugitives. On the
evening of the fourth day he died. Whon the
fugitives reached Dunbar's camp, the con fusion
was greater than ever. The artillery, baggage,
and public stores were destroyed. Then fol-
lowed a hasty retreat to Fort Cumberland,
and finally to Philadelphia.

By the treaty of Utrecht, made in 1713,
the province of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, was
ceded by France to England. During the
following fifty years the colony remained
under the dominion of Great Britain, and was
ruled by English officers. But the great ma-
jority of the people were French, and the
English government amounted only to a mili-
tary occupation of the peninsula. The British
colors, floating over Louisburg and Annapo-
lis, and the presence of British garrisons here
and there, were the only tokens that this, the
oldest French colony in America, had passed
under the control of foreigners.

When Braddock and the colonial govern-
ors convened at Alexandria, it was urged that
something must be done to overawe the French
and strengthen the English authority in Aca-
dia. The enterprise of reducing the French
peasants to complete humiliation was intrusted
to Lawrence, the deputy governor, who was
to be assisted by a British fleet under Colonel
Monckton. On the 20th of May, 1755, the
squadron, with three thousand troops, sailed
from Boston for the Bay of Fundy.

The French had but two fortified posts in
the province ; both of these were on the
isthmus which divides Nova Scotia from New
Brunswick. The first and most important
fortress, named Beau-Sejour, was situated
near the mouth of Messagouche Creek, at the
head of Chignecto Bay. The other fort, a
mere stockade called Gaspereau, was on the
north side of the isthmus, at Bay Verte. De
Vergor, the French commandant, had no in-
timation of approaching danger till the En-
irlUli fleet sailed fearlessly into the bay and
anchored before the walls of Beau-Sejour.
There was no preparation for defense. On
the 3d of June the English forces lauded, and
on the next day forced their way across the
Messagouche. A vigorous siege of four days

928

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

followed. Fear and confusion reigned among
the garrison ; no successful resistance could be
offered. On the 16th of the month Beau-Se-
jour capitulated, received an English garri-
son, and took the name of Fort Cumberland.

allegiance and the surrender of all firearms and
boats. The British vessels were then made
ready to carry the people into exile. The
country about the isthmus was now laid waste,
and the peasants driven into the larger towns.

FALL OK BKAIJ1JOCK.
Drawn by P. Philippoteaux.

The other French posts were taken by the
English, and the whole of Nova Scotia
brought under their authority..

The French inhabitants still outnumbered
the English, and Governor Lawrence deter-
mined to drive them into banishment. The
English officers first demanded an oath of

Wherever a sufficient number could be gotten
together, they were compelled to go on ship-
board. At the village of Grand Pre more
than nineteen hundred people were driven
into the boats at the point of the bayonet.
Wives and children, old men and mothers,
the sick and the infirm, all shared the com-

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— INTER-COLONIAL CONFLICT.

mon fate. More than three thousand of the
Acadians were carried away by the Briti.-h
squadron, and scattered, helpless and half-
starved, among the English colonies.

The third campaign planned by Braddock
was to be conducted by Governor Shirley against
Fort Niagara. Early in August, he set out
from Albany with two thousand men. Four
weeks were spent at Oswego in preparing
boats. Then tempests prevailed, and sickness
broke out in the camp. The Indians deserted
the standard of the English, and on the 24th
of October the provincial forces, led by Shir-
ley, marched homeward.

The fourth expedition was intrusted to Gen-
eral William John-
son. The object was
to capture Crown
Point, and to drive
the French from Lake
Charaplain. Early
in August the army
proceeded to the
Hudson above Al-
bany, and built Fort
Edward. Thence
Johnson proceeded to
Lake George and
laid out a camp. A"
week was then spent
in bringing forward
the artillery and the
stores.

In the mean time
Dieskau, the French

commandant at Crown Point, advanced with
fourteen hundred French, Canadians, and In-
dians, to capture Fort Edward. General
Johnson sent Colonel Williams and Hendrick,
the chief of the Mohawks, with twelve hun-
dred men, to relieve the fort. On the
morning of the 8th of September, Colonel
Williams's regiment and the Mohawks were
ambushed by Dieskau's forces and driven back
to Johnson's camp.

The Canadians and French regulars, un-
supported by the Indians, then attacked the
English position. For five hours the b.-utlf
was incessant. Nearly all of Dieskau's men
were killed. At last the English troops charged
across the field, and completed the rout.
Dieskau was mortally wounded. Two hun-
VUL. 11.— 59

dred and sixteen of the English wen- killed.
General Johnson now constructed on the site
of his camp Fort William H.my. Mean-
while, the French hail fortified Ticonderoga.—
Such was the condition of affairs at the close
of 1755.

In the beginning of the next year, the
command of the English forces was given to
Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts. Wash-
ington, at the head of the Virginia provin-
cials, repelled the French and Indians in the
valley of the Shenandoah. The Pennsylvania
volunteers, choosing Franklin for their colonel,
built a fort on the Lehigh, and made a suc-
cessful campaign. The expeditions which

T1IK EXILE OF THE ACADIAN!!.

were planned for the year embraced the con-
quest of Quebec and the capture of Forts
Frontenac, Toronto, Niagara, and Du Quesne.

The Earl of Loudoun now received the
appointment of commander-in-chief of the
British forces in America. General Aber-
crombie was second in rank. In the last of
April the latter, with two battalions of regu-
lars, sailed for New York. On the 17th of
May, Great Britain, after nearly two years of
actual hostilities, made a declaration of war
against France.

In July, Lord Loudoun assumed the com-
mand of the colonial army. The French
meanwhile, led by the Marquis of Montculm,
who had succeeded Dieskau, besieged and
captured Oswego. Six vessels of war, three

930

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

hundred boats, a hundred and twenty cannon,
and three chests of money were the fruits of
the victory. During this summer the Dela-
wares in Western Pennsylvania rose in war,
and killed or captured more than a thousand
people. In August Colonel Armstrong, with
three hundred volunteers, marched against the
Indian town of Kittanning, and on the 8th
of September defeated the savages with great
losses. The village was burned, and the spirit
of the Indians completely broken.

On the 20th of June, 1757, Lord Loudoun
sailed from New York with an army of six
thousand regulars to capture Louisburg. At
Halifax he was joined by Admiral Holbourn,
with a fleet of sixteen men-of-war. There
were on board five thousand troops, fresh
from the armies of England. But Loudoun,
instead of proceeding to Cape Breton, tarried
awhile at Halifax, and then sailed back to
New York without striking a blow.

Meanwhile the daring Moiitcalm, with
more than seven thousand French, Canadians,
and Indians, advanced against Fort William
Henry. The place was defended by five hun-
dred men, under Colonel Monro. For six
days the French pressed the siege with vigor.
The ammunition of the garrison was ex-
hausted, and nothing remained but to surren-
der. Honorable terms were granted by the
French. On the 9th of August they took
possession of the fortress. Unfortunately, the
Indians procured a quantity of spirits from
the English camp. In spite of the utmost
exertions of Montcalm, the savages fell upon
the prisoners and massacred thirty of them in
cold blood.

Such had been the successes of France
during the year that the English had not a
single hamlet left in the whole basin of the
St. Lawrence. Every cabin where English
was spoken had been swept out of the Ohio
valley. At the close of the year 1757 France
possessed twenty times as much American ter-
ritory as England, and five times as much as
England and Spain together.

But a revolution in the condition of affairs
was now at hand. In 1757 a change occurred
in English politics, and William Pitt was
placed at the head of the British ministry.
A new spirit was at once diffused in the man-
agement and conduct of the war. Loudoun

was deposed from the American army. Gen-
eral Abercrombie was appointed to succeed
him ; but the main reliance was placed on an
efficient corps of subordinate officers. Admi-
ral Boscawen was put in command of the
fleet. General Amherst was to lead a divis-
ion. Young Lord Howe was next in rank
to Abercrombie. James Wolfe led a brigade ;
and Colonel Richard Montgomery was at the
head of a regiment.

Three expeditions were planned for 1758 :
one to capture Louisburg, a second to reduce
Crown Point and Ticonderoga, and the third
to retake Fort du Quesne from the French.
On the 28th of May, Amherst, with ten thou-
sand men, reached Halifax. In six days
more the fleet was anchored before Louisburg.
On the 21st of July three French vessels were
burned in the harbor. The town was reduced
to a heap of ruins. On the 28th of the
month Louisburg capitulated. Cape Breton
and Prince Edward's Island were surrendered
to Great Britain. The garrison, numbering
six thousand men, became prisoners of war.

On the 5th of July, General Abercrombie,
with an army of fifteen thousand men, moved
against Ticonderoga. The country about the
French fortress was unfavorable for military
operations. On the morning of the 6th the
English fell in with the picket line of the
French. A severe skirmish ensued ; the
French were overwhelmed, but Lord Howe
was killed in the onset.

On the morning of the 8th the English
divisions were arranged to carry Ticonderoga
by assault. A desperate battle of more than
four hours followed, until at six o'clock in the
evening the English were finally repulsed.
The loss on the side of the assailants amounted
in killed and wounded to nineteen hundred
and sixteen. In no battle of the Revolution
did the British have so large a force engaged
or meet so terrible a loss.

The English now retreated to Fort George.
Soon afterwards three thousand men, under
Colonel Bradstreet, were sent against Fort
Frontenac, on Lake Ontario. The place was
feebly defended, and after a siege of two
days compelled to capitulate. The fortress
was demolished. Bradstreet's success more
than counterbalanced the failure of the En-
glish at Ticonderoga.

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— INTER-COLONIAL CONFLICT.

Late iu the summer General Forbes, with
nine thousand men, advanced against Fort du
Quesue. Washington led the Virginia pro-
vincials. The main body moved slowly, but
Major Grant, with the advance, pressed on to
within a few miles of Du Quesne. Advanc-
ing carelessly, he was ambuscaded, and lost a
third of his forces. On the 24th of Novem-
ber Washington was within ten miles of Du
Quesne. During that night the garrison took
the alarm, burned the fortress, and floated
down the Ohio. On the 25th the victorious
army marched in, raised the English flag, and
named the place PITTSBURGH.

General Amherst was now promoted to the
chief command of the American forces. By
the beginning of summer, 1759, the British
and colonial armies numbered nearly fifty
thousand men. The entire French army
scarcely exceeded seven thousand. Three cam-
paigns were planned for the year. General
Prideaux was to conduct an expedition against
Niagara. Amherst was to lead the main divis-
ion against Ticonderoga and Crown Point.
General Wolfe was to proceed up the St. Law-
rence and capture Quebec.

On the 10th of July, Niagara was invested
by Prideaux. The French general, D"Aubry,
with twelve hundred men, marched to the
relief of the fort. On the 15th General Pri-
deaux was killed by the bursting of a mortar.
Sir William Johnson succeeded to the com-
mand, and disposed his forces so as to inter-
cept the approaching French. On the morn-
ing of the 24th D'Aubry's army came in
sight. A bloody engagement ensued, in which
the French were completely routed. On the
next day Niagara capitulated, and the French
forces, to the number of six hundred, became
prisoners of war.

At the same time Amherst was marching
with an army of eleven thousand men against
Ticonderoga. On the 22d of July the En-
glish forces were disembarked, where Al>er-
crombie had formerly landed. The French
did not dare to stand against them. On the
26th the garrison, bavin*: p;irtly destroyed
the fortifications, abandoned Ticonderoga and
retreated to Crown Point. Five days after-
wards they deserted this place, also, and in-
trenched themselves on IsIe-aux-Noix, in the
river Sorel.

It remained for General Wolfe to achieve
the final victory. Early in the spring he be-
gan the ascent of the St. Lawrence. His
force consisted of nearly eight thousand men,
assisted by a fleet of forty-four vessels. On
the 27th of June the armament arrived at
the Isle of Orleans, four miles below Quebec.
The English camp was pitched at the upper
end of the island. Wolfe's vessels gave him
command of the river, and the southern bank
was undefended. On the night of the 29th
General Monckton was sent to seize Point
Levi. From this position the Lower Town

GENERAL JAMES WOLTB.

was soon reduced to ruins, and the Upper
Town much injured ; but the fortress held out.

On the 9th of July General Wolfe crossed
the north channel and encamped on the east
bank of the Montmorenci. This stream was
fordable at low water. On the 31st of the
month, a severe battle was fought at the fords
df the river, and the English were repulsed
with heavy losses. Wolfe, after losing nearly
five hundred men, withdrew to his camp.

Exposure and fatigue threw the English
general into a fever, and for many days he
was confined to his tent. A council of officers
was called, and the indomitable leader pro-
posed a second assault. But the proposition

932

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

was overruled. It was decided to ascend the
St. Lawrence, and gain the Plains of Abra-
ham, in the rear of the city. The lower
camp was broken up, and on the 6th of Sep-
tember the troops were conveyed to Point
Levi. Wolfe then transferred his army to a
point several miles up the river. He then
busied himself with an examination of the
northern bank, in the hope of finding some

DEATH OF WOLFE.

Drawn by P. Philippoteaux.

pathway up the steep cliffs to the plains in
the rear of Quebec.

On the night of the 12th of September,
the English entered their boats and dropped
down the river to a place called Wolfe's Cove.1
With great difficulty the soldiers clambered

1 It is narrated that, while the English fleet on
this memorable night were silently gliding down
the river, under the dark shadows of the over-
hanging banks, the brave and imaginative Wolfe,
standing in the bow of his boat, ^discovering
with the keen instincts of a prophet the prpbabil
ities of his fate, repeated over and over to his corn-

up the precipice; the Canadian guard on the
summit was dispersed; and in the dawn of
morning Wolfe marshaled his army for battle.
Montcalm was in amazement when he heard
the news. With great haste the French were
brought from the trenches on the Montmor-
enci, and thrown between Quebec and the
English.

The battle began with an hour's cannonade ;
then Montcalm attempted
to turn the English flank,
but was beaten back. The
Canadians and Indians were
routed. The French regu-
lars wavered and were
thrown into confusion.
Wolfe, leading the charge,
was wounded in the wrist.
Again he was struck, but
pressed on. At the moment
of victory a third ball
pierced his breast, and he
sank to the earth. "They
run, they run!" said the
attendant who bent over
him. " Who run?" was the
response. "The French are
flying everywhere," replied
the officer. "Do they run
already ? Then I die happy,"
said the expiring hero.

Montcalm, attempting to
rally his regiments, was
struck with a ball and mor-
tally wounded. "Shall I
survive?" said he to his
surgeon. "But a few hours
at most," answered the at-
tendant. "So much the
better," replied the heroic
Frenchman; "I shall not live to witness the
surrender of Quebec."

Five days after the battle Quebec was sur-
rendered, and an English garrison took pos-
session of the citadel. In the following spring
France made an effort to recover her losses.

rades the stanza from Gray's Elegy, which had
been published only a few years before:

"The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,

And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave,
Await alike the inevitable hour ;
The paths of glory lead but to the grave."

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— LAST YEARS OF FREDERICK. 933

A severe battle was fought a few miles west
of Quebec, and the English were driven in ID
the city. But reinforcements came, and the
French were beaten back. On the 8th of
September Montreal, the last important post
of France in the valley of the St. Lawrence,
was surrendered to General Amherst. Canada
had passed under the dominion of England.

For three years after the fall of Quebec
and Montreal, the war between France and
England lingered on the ocean. The English
fleets were everywhere victorious. On the
10th of February, 1763, a treaty of peace
was, as already narrated, made at PARIS. All
the French possessions in North America
eastward of the Mississippi, from its source to
the river Iberville, and thence through Lakes
Maurepas and Pontchartraiu to the Gulf of

Mexico, were surrendered to Omit Britain.
At the same time Spain, with whom England
had been at war, ceded East and West
Florida to the English Crown. As reciprocal
with this provision, France was obliged to
make a cession to Spain of all that vast terri-
tory west of the Mississippi, known as the
Province of Louisiana. By the sweeping pro-
visions of this treaty, the French king /orf hit
entire posgeteions in the New World. — Thus closed
the French and Indian War, one of the most
important in the history of mankind. By
this conflict, it was decided that the decaying
institutions of the Middle Ages should pot
prevail in the West; and that the powerful
language, laws, and liberties of the English
race should be planted forever in the vast do-
mains of the New World.

CHAPTER XL/V.— LAST YEARS OK FREDERICK.

THE GREAT.

HE brief period between
the Seven Years' War
and the beginning of the
Revolutionary Era — first
in America and then in
Europe — was an import-
ant epoch in most of the
countries whose annals are worthy of a place
in General History. In our own country it
was the time at which the American colonies
became, so to speak, self-conscious. Hitherto
their dependency upon the Mother Country
had been so complete that, like children still
under tutelage, they thought only the thoughts
of the parent. The French and Indian War
was the shock which aroused them from the
unconscious state, and made them capable at
least of thinking independence. But many
things still lay between them and the act.

In England this period was the epoch when
the pendulum of arbitrary — personal — kindly
rule, whic-h, from its height in the age of
Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, swunir down to
the lowest point of the curve in the iconoclas-
tic era of the Commonwealth, now rose again
on the ascending arc of reaction to its highest

reach in the times of George HI. In fact, the
pretentions of the Third George were, as it
related to all questions of government, almost
of- the same manner and tone with those of
the Tudors and the first Stuarts.

In France the last years of Louis XV.
marked the time when the stilted methods
and bombastic style of government, which
had reached the very climax of factitious
grandeur in the age of Louis XIV., sank to
the lowest ebb ; when the government, as such,
became decrepit, senile, contemptible; and
when the young French Nation began to shake
the dew from its locks; to stretch its tremen-
dous limbs ; to survey the landscape ; to dream
of an Age of Gold ; to speak — albeit in whis-
pers at first — of a coming emancipation.

In Germany this was the Age of Resuscita-
tion. Prussia had purchased freedom — great-
ness— with her blood. Now she must rest and
recover her wasted powers. Her condition
was much like that of the American colonies
on their einerireiice, in 17*.'!, from their revo-
lutionary stniirirle with (in at Britain. This
was also the age in which Austria, having
long sown her seed in the marshes and fens

934

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of Jesuitism, reaped ergot and blasted corn.
As Prussia rose, she sank away. There is
scarcely any thing in history more melancholy
than the spectacle of this ancient and power-
ful kingdom, smitten with the rust of priest-
craft, fallen under the despotic sway of the
Hapsburgs, remanded to the category of non-
entities, along with Spain and Italy.

In Russia this was the epoch when the
court, under the auspices of Catharine II.,
was assimilated in fashion and manners to
those of Western Europe. That illustrious
and vicious lady was well pleased with the
work of introducing into her government the
methods and magnificence with which she had
been familiarized in her girlhood, and a liking
for which she had imbibed along with her
Western education. Her baptism in the Rus-
sian snows was never sufficient to cool the
ardor and passion of her nature, which was a
strange mixture of French facility and Ger-
man strength. More than usually in such
cases did the qualities of this sublime and
immoral Czarina diffuse themselves among
the Russian court and people ; and the date
of this new influence in the frozen North is
coincident with that of the times which we
are now to consider.

The reign of George II. of England ended
with his life on the 25th of October, 1760.
His son Frederick, prince of Wales, had
already preceded him, and the crown now
descended to the late king's grandson, the
Prince George, at this time in his twenty-
second year. Up to the time of his accession,
the new ruler of England had resided with his
mother, the Princess dowager of Wales. It
will be remembered that for that lady George
H. had cherished a deep-seated antipathy, and
the feeling had been cordially reciprocated by
her. By this circumstance Prince George had
been excluded from the court of his grand-
father, and a worse calamity than this came
in the neglect of his education. His seclusion
had left him in comparative ignorance of the
political condition of the kingdom ; and in
general he had little familiarity with those
questions in which young princes are supposed
to find most interest. In addition to this
his disposition was arbitrary and crafty, and
the methods which he adopted recall those of
the Stuarts.

At the first the new reign was extremely
popular. The last two kings had been born
in Hanover, and had always shown their for-
eign birth and preferences. George III. was
a native of England and to the manner born.
In this fact he took a patriotic pride, which
was enthusiastically shared by his subjects.
In his first speech to Parliament he referred
to his English birth in such terms as won for
him the plaudits of the nation. His unfa-
miliarity with affairs and awkward manners
were forgotten in the furor which his senti-
ments had excited.

Early in 1761 the new king sought in mar-
riage the Lady Sarah Lennox, mother of Sir
Charles James Napier ; but for some reason
his suit was declined. In September of the
same year he took the Princess Charlotte
Sophia, sister of the Duke of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz, and with her he lived and reigned
for fifty-seven years. She bore him fifteen
children, of whom thirteen lived to maturity.

GEORGE III. became early possessed of the
notion that the kings of England, since the
times of the Revolution, had declined in dig-
nity and lost their prerogatives until the office
was little more than a name. He conceived
it his duty to be a sovereign in fact ; and with
this end in view, he and his Tory supporters
deemed it expedient that the Seven Years'
War should be speedily brought to a close.
This was the true secret of that change of
policy by which Frederick the Great, as al-
ready narrated, lost his annual subsidy of
four millions of thalers. Strenuous efforts to
bring about a peace were put forth by the king
and by the Earl of Bute, whom he introduced
into the ministry. For a while William Pitt,
then minister of war and at the height of his
power, resisted the wishes and plans of the king ;
but the tide gradually turned, and a major-
ity which Pitt had been able to command in
the House of Commons fell away. In Octo-
ber of 1761 he was obliged to resign his office.
Before doing so he had endeavored to induce
the government to anticipate the movements
of Spain by declaring war against that king-
dom. After his resignation it presently trans-
pired that his advice had been most prudent.
For Spain, having entered into what was
called the Family Compact with France, pur-
sued such a course that England was obliged,

Adi-: <>!•• i--ni-:in-;iii<-K THI: <,I;I<:AT.-LAST YEARS OF ri;i:i>i:i;n K. 935

by a proper regard for her own honor, to go
to war. A declaration was accordingly made
on the 4th January, 1762. During the year
the English fleet achieved a series of suc-
cesses which brought additional renown to the
navy. Havana and a large part of Cuba
were wrested from the Spaniards. The Phil-
ippines were taken and a number of treasure-
ships captured with immense quantities of
the precious metals and other booty.

It was a strange spectacle to see both polit-
ical parties in England using these successes
as an argument ; the Whigs, as a plea for the
prosecution of the war, and the Tories,
under Lord Bute, as a reason for con-
cluding peace. The latter being in the
majority and strongly supported by the
king, at length prevailed — such were the
antecedents operating from the side of
England which led to the negotiations
begun in the autumn of 1762, and con- jj
summated by the treaty of Paris in Feb-
ruary of the following year.

After this event a reaction set in in
favor of Pitt and the Whigs. The terms
of the treaty were declared to be less
favorable than England might well have
exacted. The more radical of the oppo-
sition denounced the settlement as dis-
graceful, treacherous, mercenary. The
king suddenly lost his popularity, and
Lord Bute was obliged to resign. He
was succeeded in office by Sir George
Grenville, who, at the very beginning
of his administration, was involved in a
contest with the celebrated John Wilkes,
a prominent politician, member of Par-
liament, and editor of the newspaper known
as the Nortii Briton. It was the last relation
which brought on the conflict with the gov-
ernment. Wilkes in his newspaper devoted
his whole energy to attacks on Lord Bute
and his administration.

After the fall of that ministry the same pol-
icy was pursued with reference to the Gren-
ville ministry. When, at the close of Parlia-
ment in 1763, the king in his speech claimed
for Great Britain the honor of having brought
to a close the Seven Years' War, the next
number of the North Briton declared that the
monarch's statement was a falsehood. For
this, Wilkes was arrested and imprisoned in

the Tower. But a writ of habeas corpus was
issued, and the prisoner was discharged on the
plea of his privilege as a member of Parlia-
ment. When the House again convened,
however, the paper containing the charge
against the king was declared to be a seditious
libel, and orders were issued that it be pub-
licly burned; but when it came to carry out
the sentence, the populace rose in a riot and
the movement became so portentous as to
alarm the ministry. Wilkes next instituted
suit against the under-secretary of state for
the seizure of his papers, and the court

WILLIAM PITT.

After the painting by Win. Hoare.

awarded him a judgment of a thousand
pounds in damages.

In January of 1764 the House of Com-
mons returned to the charge, and Wilkes waa
expelled from that body. The House of Lords
next took up the prosecution, and found
Wilkes guilty of having written an obscene
poem, entitled "An Essay on Woman." The
•culprit, being outlawed, fle'l to France.
After four years, however, he returned, and
was reeleeted to Parliament from the county
nt' Middlesex. He jrave himself up to the
court of king's beach, bat that tribunal ret'ux-d
to take further cognizance of hi- alleged crimes.
He was, however, reiirrestcd, but was rescued

936

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

from the officers by a mob. He then went
into voluntary confinement until the day of
the opening of Parliament, when a great
crowd assembled before his prison door to con-
duct him to the House. The military inter-
fered, and several of the people were shot.
At length the sentence of outlawry against
Wilkes was reversed in the court of Lord
Chief Justice Mansfield ; but at the same time
the prisoner was condemned to pay two fines
each of a thousand pounds, the charges being
libel. He was also to be punished with im-
prisonment for twenty-two months. The
North Briton now denounced the action of the
military in firing upon the people who had
assembled to conduct him to Parliament as a
"horrid massacre." For this he was again ex-
pelled from the House of Commons, and a
new election was ordered for Middlesex.
Wilkes was reelected without opposition ! The
House hereupon declared him incapable of
sitting. Three times writs were issued for a
new election, and three times Wilkes was re-
turned, either unanimously or by overwhelm-
ing majorities. In the last of these elections,
however, the Commons declared that Colonel
Luttrell, the Tory candidate, who had received
a scattering vote, was elected — this on the
ground that the votes cast for Wilkes were
void.

By this time the prisoner had become the
most popular man in England. The people
had come to regard him as their champion, as
the defender of the freedom of the press, as a
sufferer for his defense of the rights of En-
glishmen. In November of 1769 he brought
suit against Lord Halifax for false imprison-
ment, and obtained a judgment for four thou-
sand pounds. In April of the following year
he was liberated, and soon afterwards elected
an alderman of London. He was twice sum-
moned by the House of Commons to appear
before the bar and answer for his conduct,
but on each occasion refused to answer except
as a member of Parliament. The body was
obliged at last to accept his interpretation,
and he was called to appear on the 8th of
April. Then the House avoided facing its
own issue by an adjournment to the 9th. In
1771 Wilkes became sheriff of London, and in
the next year was elected Lord Mayor. A
little later he was again chosen to Parliament,

and this time he took his seat I Such in brief
is the story of one of the most remarkable
episodes in the history of English politics.

The conclusion of peace in 1763 gave to
George HI. the coveted opportunity for the
development of those political plans which he
had cherished since the days of his accession.
These plans involved in a word the subversion
of those very principles upon which the Han-
overian succession in England had been
founded. The political maxims of the king
were identical with those of the Stuarts, and
their adoption as the policy of the kingdom
amounted to an absolute reversal of the ver-
dict rendered by the English nation in the
Revolution of 1688. In his purposes the king
was faithfully seconded by Lord Grenville
and the Tory ministry. The literature of the
times was steeped in absolutism. Many En-
glishmen of letters vied with one another in
upholding the principles of arbitrary rule.
Even Dr. Samuel Johnson with all his sterling
virtues was not above the prevailing vice,
but prostituted his tremendous pen to the ser-
vice of the king by contributing to the cause
of despotism a fallacious pamphlet entitled
Taxation no Tyranny. It was under these
auspices that in the year 1765 the celebrated
Stamp Act, which fired the American colonies
to resistance, was passed by Parliament — first
of that long series of aggressions and follies
which kindled first in the New World and
afterwards in Europe the beacon fires of that
political and social .emancipation which have
become, and perhaps will ever remain, the
cardinal virtues of the New Civilization of
mankind.

The period under consideration is also not-
able for the extension of British authority in
the East. Such was the political constitution
of India that the English authorities in that
country were able to take advantage of the
wars which were constantly breaking out be-
tween the native princes. It was by this
means that the native government of Bengal
was revolutionized in 1760, and Meer Jaffier
raised to the throne of that province. The
new ruler gave to the English a great district
of territory, large sums of money, and free-
dom to expel the French from their trading
posts and factories. These concessions soon
brought on a war with the Emperor of Delhi

AGE OF FREDERICK Till. <:i;t:.\T.—LAST Yl-:.\i:s »i- l-l;i;ni:i;l>K. 937

and the Governor of Oude, a struggle in which
the native sovereigns were soon obliged to
purchase peace by the cession of Bengal, Be-
har, Orissa, and the Northern Circare to
Great Britain.' The sovereign of the Cir-
cars fought bravely, and finally induced the
English to join him in a war with Hyder
Ali, sovereign of Mysore.

Such was the condi-
tion of affairs when, in
1772, Warren Hastings
was appointed to the
presidency of the Su-
preme Council of Bengal.
He had already resided
in India for fourteen
years. He had studied
with great care the
history, language, and
literature of the native
races. He was first
brought into public no-
tice by Lord Clive, who
sent him on a commer-
cial and diplomatic mis-
sion to England. In
1769 Hastings returned
to India, was given a
second place in the coun-
cil, and three years aft-
erwards promoted to the
presidency. In 1774 his
power was enlarged by
act of Parliament, and
he became Governor-
general of the British
Empire in the East.

It soon appeared that
Hastings was a man of
arbitrary disposition.
His rule over the native
princes of India was as
tyrannical — and as successful — as could have
been desired even by the British East India
Company. Such was the measure of his

audacity that at last the cry of the oppressed
reached not only the people of England, but
even the board of directors. Then came the
great impeachment, one of the most remarkable
trials known in history. Rumors of the
princely despotism of Hastings, and of his de-
vastation of India, became at length the sub-
ject of inquiry in Parliament. In 1786 Ed-

WARREN HASTIXUS.

'Tlio thoughtful reader will not fail to discover
in these events, extending from 1760 to 1770,
the remote and yet direct antecedents of tin-
American Revolution. Great Britain must have
a market for the immense merchandise with which
she had laden her ships by conquest in the Ka-t.
She must sell her tea ! she must provide such

mund Burke presented to that body articles
of impeachment, charging Hastings with al-
most every species of corruption and crime.

duties and taxes on her exportations as would fill
her coders to overflowing. " Perhaps," saith she,
"these American colonies of mine will hiiy my
cargoes of Indian merchandise, and pay a liberal
duty for the privilege.1' How the colonies met the
Stamp Act and the tax mi tea will be seen in the
-ee Book Tenth, pp. 955, 956.)

938

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The trial which ensued, and which began in
Westminster Hall on the 13th of February,
1788, continued for a hundred and forty-eight
days, and brought into strong relief the tre-
mendous legal and parliamentary abilities of

choly spectacle. At the same time the French
Nation grew great. In the eleven remaining
years of the reign of Louis XV., only a few
events occurred worthy of record. In 1769
the island of Corsica passed under the con-

ClTE'lNEAu. IMV.

RICHARD BRINSLEY SHKRIDAN.

Burke, Fox, Sheridan, Grey, Francis, and
other statesmen of less reputation. The pros-
ecution failed to convict, but -the abuses of the
East Indian administration were brought to
light, and made impossible for the future.

After the close of the Seven Years' War,
the government of France presented a melan-

trol of France. The Corsicans, who had be-
come dissatisfied with the style of government
to which they had been subjected by Genoa,
threw off her yoke, and attempted to gain
their independence. For a while it appeared
that the revolt would prove successful ; but
the Genoese at length sold their claim to the

AGE OF FREDEIIH'K THE GREAT.— LAST YEARS OF FREDl.l; l< I,.

i.-l:iml to the French king, who sent to Corsica
an army sufficiently powerful to enforce sub-
mission. The patriots, led by Pascal Paoli,
held out for a season, but were at length com-
pelled to yield, and the island became hence-
forth a French dependency. Two months
after the completion of the conquest, the child
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE was born in Ajaccio.
The father had been an adherent of Paoli,
and the mother had accompanied her husband
in the patriot camp until near the time
which witnessed the birth of the Man of
Destiny.

In the French court the ascendency of
Madame de Pompadour continued, with slight
interruptions, until her death in 1764.
She was succeeded in the king's favor
by Marie de Vaubernier, countess of
Barry, who, transferred to the court
from a milliner's shop in Paris, gained
the mastery over the king's alleged
affections, and held the reins until his
death. In 1770 she secured the ban-
ishment of the Duke de Choiseul,
chief of Louis's ministers, a measure
of serious consequences to the kingdom.
For the duke had strenuously insisted
on building up a French navy of such
proportions and equipments as might
secure an equal contest with England
on the sea. He appears to have been
a man of genius, able to forecast the
future. Among other things, he per-
ceived with delight the coming break
between England and her American
colonies ; and it was a part of his pol-
icy to add fuel to the fires which were just
then kindling ion this side of the Atlantic.
It is not impossible that, but for the removal
of De Choiseul from office and the consequent
defeat of his plans and policy, the future
course of French history might have been
materially changed.

In the mean time a difficulty had arisen
with the Jesuits, which led to their suppres-
sion in France. It appears that the two
father confessors of Louis XV. and Madame
de Pompadour refused to grant thorn ulisi, ni-
tron unless the latter should be dismissed from
the court. Hereupon Pompadour and De
Choiseul, who had no liking for the Order,
united their influence to drive the Brother-

hood out of the kingdom. The French Par-
liament was won over to the same policy, and
the people at large, long wearied with the
subtle methods and casuistry of the Brother-
hood, joined their voice in demanding the
suppression of the Order. Another circum-
stance, which added to the mountain of dis-
content which was heaped upon the Society,
was the fact that the Superior Lavalette had
recently engaged in some speculations in Mar-
tinique, by which many had suffered losses.
Some merchants in Marseilles brought suit
against the Order for the action of the Supe-
rior, and judgment was rendered by the courts
against the Brotherhood. They were con-

8AMUEL JOHNSON.

demned to pay a fine of two millions of livres,
together with the costs of the trials. At first
Louis XV. attempted to save the Society
from destruction. Instead of proceeding
against them, he demanded that a reform be
begun in the Order. It is said that to this
demand the General Ricci replied — speaking
of the Jesuits — " Let them be as they are, or
else not be!"

This audacious reply sealed the fate of
the Society in France. In 17f>4 a formal
edict was issued for its suppression. The line
of policy thus adopted by the French govern-
ment was extended into other countries.
Three years afterwards the Spanish minister,
Aranda, scoured the overthrow <>f the Brother-

940

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

hood in Spam. A like course was taken in
Naples, Parma, and Malta. In 1768 all the
branches of the Bourbon dynasty united in
demanding of the Pope that the Society of
Jesus be forever put beyond the pale of
Catholicism. While this appeal was pending,
Clement XIII. died, and Clement XIV. was
elected by the influence of the anti-Jesuit
party. The new pontiff was pledged to sup-
press the odious fraternity ; but for five years
he procrastinated and temporized, dreading to
do, and dreading still more not to do, the
thing which was demanded. Finally the cele-
brated decree, known by its opening line of
Dominus ac Redemptor Nosier, was issued, July
21, 1773. By this the suppression of the
Order throughout Christendom was com-
manded, and the confiscation of their property
permitted; nor was a bull of formal restora-
tion issued until August of 1814.

As it respected the relations of the king to
Parliament, nearly all the reign of Louis XV.
•was spent in a struggle to extend and confirm
the king's prerogatives at the expense of free
institutions. Unfortunately for France, the
effort was too successful. The French Parlia-
ment became more and more a thing of form,
so weak and inefficient as to excite the pity
of patriotism. Though the institution of
monarchy, so much glorified in the age of
Louis XIV., still strutted in its magnificent
robes, and would fain make the world believe
that it was as young and grand and vigor-
ous as ever, it was in truth in its decrepitude,
and only awaited a blow to fall prostrate and
perish.

Meanwhile in France had arisen the great-
est fact in civilization — freedom of thought.
While decaying Bourbonism sat in its chair of
state, clad in the regalia of fictitious grandeur,
the human mind began to display its energies
with an audacity never before witnessed in
the history of the world. It awoke as if from
a slumber, and said "Ha, ha!" as it looked
into the faces of the mediseval institutions
which still cumbered society. It belongs to the
next rather than to the present Book to note
the work of the French philosophers, headed
by Voltaire -and Rousseau, by whom the work
of transforming society was begun in intel-
lectual France, to be completed by the edicts
of the Republic and the sword of Bonaparte.

For the present we pass on to sketch briefly
the condition of affairs in Germany after the
subsidence of the Seven Years' War.

Frederick the Great now showed himself
to be a true father to his people. If any
thing could reconcile mankind to the rule of
absolute kings, it would be the spectacle of
this stern and uncompromising man, strange
mixture of wit and warrior, bending all his
energies to the task of raising his country
from the deplorable condition in which she
had been left by her long, bloody, and ex-
hausting struggle. In this work he again
made himself the exemplar as well as the ruler
of the Prussian people. He took the supplies
of corn which had been hoarded up for the
support of the army, and distributed it among
the farmers, to be used for seed and for food.
The artillery and cavalry horses were used in
the same way. All that the king could save
from the public revenues was* expended in re-
suscitating the regions which had been most
devastated by the war. While this work of
restoration was going steadily forward Freder-
ick by no means overlooked those other meas-
ures which were necessary to the safety of the
state. He not only kept the army on a war
footing, but actually doubled its strength in
numbers and resources. If the people were
disposed to complain of the enormous burden
thus imposed upon them, the king was ever
ready to point to the fact that he himself had
saved five-sixths of his income and devoted
the same to the support of the kingdom and
its defenses.

In all this work Frederick was as arbitrary
as he was great. He made no effort whatever —
even opposed all efforts — to make the Prussian
people a factor in the government of the state.
He required that every thing should be
conceded to his own will and judgment.
As to his justice, none could deny it.
As to his sincere devotion to the inter-
ests of the people, it was known and
read of all men. As to his indefatigable
works of generosity and patriotism, they were
so conspicuous and unselfish as to be cited for
an example to all succeeding times. So he
ruled as he would, and the people bore with
his false theory and arbitrary practices be-
cause of the essential goodness of the man and
the unchallenged greatness of the king. When,

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— LAST YEARS OF FREDERICK. !U1

in the eventide, he walked abroad for a brief
respite among the people of the streets, glanc-
ing with his fierce eyes from under his cocked
hat and stopping occasionally to perform an
actual flagellation of some luckless recreant,
his course could but be approved by tl !•>>,•
who knew that the beating was well deserved
and the beater always just.

In this style of old-fashioned kingship,
many things would necessarily occur at which
history may well find a moment's amusement.
It is narrated that, on one occasion, as he
walked, after his manner, along one of the
streets of Potsdam, he fell in with a company
of schoolboys, whom, "believing to be truant,
he addressed thus : ' ' Boys, what are you
doing here.? Begone to school with you this
instant!" One of the German lads sent back
at his majesty this answer: "Oh, you are the
king, you are, and do n't know that this is a
holiday!" Frederick accepted the situation,
joined heartily in the laugh at his own ex-
pense, and gave to the boys some coins from his
pockets. On another occasion, he concluded
to enlarge his park at Potsdam, and for this
purpose desired to purchase the grounds of a
certain miller. But the miller did not wish to
sell. Frederick would give a liberal price,
but the owner set himself to keep his wind-
mill. The king might take the property, but
that would be unjust and without warrant of
law. So he was obliged to yield ; and more
than a century afterwards the mill remained
to bear witness that the greatest of the Prus-
sian kings knew how to keep the law.

Notwithstanding the drain which war had
made, the population of Prussia rose, before
the death of Frederick, to six millions. The
army was increased to two hundred thousand
men. The debt of the state was paid, and a sur-
plus of more than seventy millions of thalers
left in the treasury. It is doubtful whether
any other ruler of Christendom can show such a
record. The flute-player of Rheinsberg, the
reader of French novels, he who, when he
should become king, was going to sign him-
self, " By the grace of God King of Prussia,
Elector of Brandenburg, possessor of Voltaire,"
had set such an example of honesty, integrity,
disinterested devotion to his people, as well as
warlike heroism, as can hardly be paralleled
in the history of the great.

Frederick II. lived till the 17th of Au-
gust, 1786. He lived to see his country
firmly established in the first rank of Euro-
pean sovereignties. He lived to see the de-
cadence of the Hapsburgs, the decline and
decrepitude of Austria. He lived to send his
sword as a present to ' George Washington,
placing upon the gift this inscription: "From
the oldest general in Europe to the greatest
general in the world." He lived to witness
the Independence of America, a measure with
which he had always sympathized, and to re-
joice at the discomfiture of his kinsman,
George HI. of England. He was, in a word,
the last great typical ruler of the ancient rt-
gime ; and the splendor of the disk of the old
monarchical system of Europe, now hastening
to its setting, looked broad and lustrous as it
sank out of sight because of the splendid
deeds and heroic character of him who gave
to Hohenzollern its high place among the
royal Houses of Europe.

Turning to Austria, we note briefly the
events of the last years of Maria Theresa.
Her greatness of character and ambition
seemed to deserve a better fate than to wit-
ness the humiliation of her country. For the
last two centuries Austria had had no other
ruler as great and liberal as she. It was her
misfortune to have been educated by the
Jesuits and to have imbibed from them all of
the principles of her religion and most of the
maxims of her civil polity. Considering her
intellectual antecedents, her liberality and
wisdom, her justice, candor, and magnanimity
are matters of surprise. Nor can it be said
that in her long struggle with Frederick the
Great, there was more of the irate and in-
sulted woman than of the wronged and indig-
nant queen.

In many things Maria Theresa imitated
the measures and policy of him whom she
fought. She was quick to perceive the
sources of his strength, and was grieved to
the heart when she was unable to produce in
Austria the same vigor and patriotism whic-h
she beheld in the kingdom of her rival. Like
Frederick, she adopted in her administration
the principle of the division of labor, estab-
lishing the special departments of justice, in-
dustry, and commerce in the government
She also made a wholesome revision of the

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Austrian criminal code, abolishing torture
and other mediaeval cruelties, and instituting
courts where the laws were administered ac-
cording to a more humane usage. When, in
1765, her husband, Francis I., died, the Impe-
rial crown passed to her son, JOSEPH II., whom
as a child she had held aloft in her arms before
the Hungarian Diet twenty-three years before.
Though he now received the title of Emperor,
the real power continued to rest in the hands
of the Imperial mother. Four years after his
accession Joseph had an interview with Fred-
erick in Silesia, and the project of the parti-
tion of Poland was discussed by them. In
the following year another meeting was held,
and the terms upon which the Polish domin-
ions were to be parceled out were agreed
upon. It is narrated that when the articles
of the agreement were brought before Maria
Theresa for her signature, her sense of vio-
lated justice cried out against the proposed
iniquity. "Long after I am dead," said she,
"the effects of this violation of all which
has hitherto been considered right and holy
will be made manifest." The queen had be-
come a prophetess.

In the year 1777, the elector, Max Joseph
of Bavaria, last of the House of Wittelsbach
in direct descent, died, and the electorate was
claimed by the next heir, Charles Theodore,
of the Palatinate. This prince, in order
to secure the Bavarian succession, bought
the support of Joseph H. by promising to
cede to him about one-half of the domin-
ion which he had inherited. The Emperor
eagerly embraced the opportunity of widening
the Austrian territories, and sent an army to
occupy the district to be ceded by Elector
Charles. Hereupon the other German states,
and notably Prussia, took the alarm at the
proposed enlargement of Austria. Another
candidate for the Bavarian electorate, namely,
Duke Charles of Zweibriicken, was brought for-
ward and supported by Frederick the Great
and several other princes. Even Maria Theresa
entered her protest against the ambitious proj-
ect of her son ; but Joseph pressed on his
willful purpose, and Frederick sent two Prus-
sian armies to the field. For the moment
war seemed inevitable, but at the very crisis
France and Russia came forward as mediators
and the difficulty was settled without blood-

shed. Charles Theodore received the electoral
crown of Bavaria, and a strip of territory
containing about nine hundred square miles
was annexed to Austria.

In her last years Maria Theresa was af-
flicted with dropsy. She gradually sank un-
der this malady until the 29th of November,
1780, when she died, being then in the sixty-
fourth year of her age. A few days before
her death she was struck with the same whim
which had moved Charles V. to witness his
own obsequies. She had herself let down by
ropes and pulleys into the vault where the
body of her husband, Francis I., had been
placed fifteen years before. Having inspected
her future abode, she ordered herself to be
taken up. One of the ropes broke. " He,"
said she, referring to her husband, "wishes
me to keep him company. I shall come soon."
She wrote in her prayer-book certain interest-
ing memoranda respecting her wishes and
opinions, and also relative to the principles by
which she had been guided during her reign.
She declared, among other things, that she
had always been swayed by a sense of j ustice
and by her judgment of what the interests of
her people demanded; but she also confessed
that in making war she had been stirred by
pride and anger and had failed to cherish for
others that charity with which her own sinful-
ness must be covered. "Maria Theresa is
dead," said Frederick the Great; "now there
will be a new order of things in Europe."
For he believed that the ambitious Joseph II.
would undertake the aggrandizement of Aus-
tria at the expense of neighboring kingdoms.

The part taken by Russia in the Seven
Years' War was a sufficient notification that
the empire of the czars had become one of
the leading powers of Europe. Now it was
that the system of Imperial administration
which had been established by Peter the
Great began to show forth all the virtues and
vices of that type of government. Peter had
been a great reformer. Under his sway the
spirit of nationality had set up a standard in
the vast steppes of the north. After his
death, in 1725, his policy was ably supported
by his great minister, Alexander Menshikoff.
Though temporarily obscured during the last
years of Peter's reign he emerged at full
stature during the reign of Catharine I. It

AGE OF FREDERICK Till-: (IRKAT.— LAST YEARS OF FREDERICK. 943

was, indeed, chiefly l>y his agency that that
princess was made Czarina. On the accession
of young Peter U.,Men.shikoff became still
more powerful, until the latter part of 1727,
when he was, by the influence of Dolgoruki,
overthrown and tMULuhad t<> .Siberia. Then
came the reign of the Empress Anna, who
during the war of the Polish succession had
taken sides with Augustus III., and whose
government at home had
been chiefly conducted
by the Prince Biron,
duke of Courland. In
1740 she was succeeded
by her grand-nephew, the
boy Ivan, who in the fol-
lowing year was dethroned
by Elizabeth I. Of the
reign of this princess;
the accession of Peter
III; the consequent
change in the Russian
policy respecting the
Seven Years' War; the
conspiracy against Peter
and liismurder, and the ac-
cession of CATHARINE II.,
surnamed the Great, men-
tion has already been
made in connection with
the history of the strug-
gle between Prussia and
Austria. A volume might
well be written on the
life, character, criminal
deeds, and splendid reign
of the German princess
who was thus called to be
Czarina of all the Rus-
sias. Catharine was born
in the fortress of Stettin
on the 2d of May, 1729.
Her father was Christian August, formerly a
military officer, now governor of Stettin, and
afterwards Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. Her
mother was a princess of Holstein-Gottorp.
While still in her girlhood, Sophia Augusta —
for by that name was Catharine called at
first — was, at the suggestion of Frederick the
Great, chosen by the Empress Elizabeth to
be the wife of her nephew and smv.
Peter. She was accordingly taken to St.

Petersburg. Her name was changed to Cath-
arine Alexievna; her creed, to that of tin-
Greek Church; ami in 1745 she was married
to the Grand Duke, who in 1762 became
C/.ar, with the title of PETI u 111.

The marriage of Catharine was one of those
unions the only merit of which consists in
their legality. The Czar to-be was ugly, re-
pulsive, ignorant. He had most of the vices

PRINCK MENSIIIKOFr.

After the steel print in the the library of St. Petersburg.

and few of the virtues of his coarse country-
men. The lively temper and half-French en-
thusiasm of Catharine were completely chilled

by her surroundings. Peter was disloyal and
unsympathetic. At this time not a few dis-
tinguished personages from abroad, having
the manners and refinement of the Wr>t, fre-
quented the Uu.-.-iaii roiirt in the character
of ambassadors ; and, be>ides the-*', not a few
of the native noblemen, chiefly those who,

944

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

under the policy of Peter the Great, had in
their youth visited the Western capitals, were
now the leading men of the Empire — generals,
ministers, and statesmen. With such Catha-
rine became acquainted, and forgetting any
duties which she owed to the stupid Peter,
she launched herself without restraint on the
boisterous wave of society. Her wit, intelli-
gence, and learning made her a favorite ; nor
was it long until she foreran the unscrupu-
lous Russians in her violation of social and
domestic laws. She had for her first favorite
General Soltikoff, whom the envy of the
court soon succeeded in burying in a foreign
embassy. Then she solaced herself by taking
in his place the accomplished Poniatowski, the
Polish ambassador. When he was recalled,
Gregory Orloff became the favorite; and it
was with him and his brother Alexius, as-
sisted by Count Panin, the Princess Dash-
koff, and the hetman Razumovski, that the
conspiracy was made to depose Peter and put
him out of the way. On the night of the
8th of July, 1762, Catharine came with all
haste from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, and
presenting herself to the guards, whose officers
had already been won over, was hailed as
Empress. Peter was seized and imprisoned.
At first the conspirators had intended to have
the proclamation made in favor of Catharine's
son Paul ; but in the last hour the programme
was changed, and it was determined to give
the crown to Catharine herself, and to be all
or nothing. This scheme was carried out.
Peter was strangled in prison. The Empress
was crowned at Moscow, and the conspiracy
triumphed and flourished.

The first measures of the Czarina were di-
rected to the work of obliterating the memory
of the methods by which she gained the throne
and of popularizing her government. She
showed a great zeal for the national religion
and showered favors on the priests. This had
the desired effect, and they washed her charac-
ter white as snow. She adopted the policy of
Peter the Great, and bent all her energies to
the physical development of the Empire.
She encouraged commerce ; built a navy ; re-
formed the Imperial code, and made her salu-
tary influence felt in every department of the
government. Even in neighboring states the
fact was soon recognized that a new Semiramis

of the North had come, the shadow of whose
scepter was soon to fall beyond her own do-
minions. In Poland, after the death of Au-
gustus III., in 1763— though that event oc-
curred in the second year of her reign — her
influence was already sufficient to secure the
election of her former favorite, Poniatowski,
to the throne. Albeit her plan, as it re-
spected this personage, whose somewhat effem-
inate character and affection for herself she
properly estimated, was to use him in carry-
ing out her scheme of Polish annexation.

All this manifestation of energy and prom-
ise of greatness, however, could not for the
time remove from the minds of the Russians
the memory of the murder of Peter III. and
the ever-recurring fact that Catharine was a
foreign usurper. Plots not a few were made
at Moscow and elsewhere to undo the status
which had been established by crime. There
still survived one heir of the House of Ro-
manoff who might justly claim the throne of
the Czars. This was the Prince Ivan, son of
Anna Carlovna, and great-grand nephew of
Peter the Great. Ivan, in virtue of his birth
had been for twenty-four years a prisoner of
state, and was at this time confined in the
castle of Schlusselburg. It was contrived that
the unfortunate youth should, for greater se-
curity, be removed to the basement of the
prison. Forsooth those who managed the
business did not know that the Gulf of Finland
with each recurring tide rushed in and filled
the apartment to which Ivan was assigned.
That night he was drowned by — accident I

Thus, in the year 1764, Catharine's way
was cleared of the last competitor. The mal-
contents gave up their schemes, and the
Czarina was left to the enjoyment of her am-
bition and passions. During her reign, which
extended to 1796, Russia rose to a leading
position among the great powers of Europe.
Her voice and influence became decisive in
international affairs. Though Catharine was
by nature a warlike princess, and would fain
have gratified her ambition by battle and con-
quest, her understanding was such that for
the sake of developing and consolidating her
vast dominions she chose the policy of peace.
It was for this reason, rather than for any
liking which she may have had for Prussia or
the House of Hohenzollern, that led her,

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.-LAST } 7. .1/;,S OF FRl.hl i:i< K

shortly after her accession, ti> withdraw the
Kussian armies which had been engaged in
the Seven Years' War. After the manner of
Elizabeth of England, she filled her court

aspire to become her lovers, Catharine chow
for her associates in the government those
who had been, were, or were to be her favor-
ites. The annals of the intrigues, plots, and

CATHARINK II.

with great and brilliant statesmen — Gallitziu,
Rumiantzeff, Paniu, the Orloffs, Soltikotf, Su-
varoff, Tchcrnitchcv, Repnin, and Potemkin ;
but unlike Elizabeth, who was prudent enough
to take her councilors from the great middle
class of Englishmen, who could not well
VOL. II.- oo

scandals which filled and disgraced the Rus-
sian court during the last quarter of the
eighteenth century can not — may not — be
here recounted. Of this extraordinary episode
Catharine was always the central figure. But
in the niiilst of it all her greatness as Czarina

946

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of all the Russias could never be questioned.
She reigned with an imperial sway. During
her occupancy of the throne the Russian ter-
ritories were enlarged by a quarter of a mill-
ion of square miles. The internal progress
of the empire was equally astonishing. Fifty
thousand industrious and skillful artisans were
induced to take up their abode in Southern
Russia. Education received an impulse such
as had never before quickened the barbarous
mind of that far North. Commerce, naviga-
tion, and general industry sprang forward
with accelerated strides, and Russia, under
the auspices of this half glorious and wholly
wicked woman, passed within the pale of
civilization.

The present Book will be concluded with
a sketch of the condition of the American col-
onies in the times immediately preceding the
Revolution. The scene presented is in happy
contrast with the story of European affairs
through which the thread of royal intrigue
and princely perfidy is traced in every part.
It is the true glory of America that even from
the times long anterior to our struggle for in-
dependence the People, and not the Ruler of
the people, were, and have ever been, the fact
of prime importance.

Before the outbreak of the Revolution our
Colonies had increased to the number of thir-
teen. Four of them were in New England —
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut,
New Hampshire ; four Middle Colonies — New
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware ;
five Southern — Maryland, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. All had
grown and prospered. The elements of power
were everywhere present. A willful, patri-
otic, and vigorous race of democrats had taken
possession of the New World. Institutions
unknown in Europe, peculiar to the West,
made necessary by the condition and surround-
ings of the colonies, had sprung up and were
taking deep root in American soil.

According to estimates made for the year
1760, the population of the colonies amounted
to a million six hundred and ninety-five thou-
sand souls. Of these about three hundred and
ten thousand were blacks. Massachusetts was
at this period perhaps the strongest colony,
having more than two hundred thousand peo-
ple of European ancestry within her borders.

True, Virginia was the most populous, having
an aggregate of two hundred and eighty-four
thousand inhabitants, but of these one hun-
dred and sixteen thousand were Africans —
slaves. Next in strength stood Pennsylvania,
with a population of nearly two hundred
thousand ; next Connecticut, with her hun-
dred and thirty thousand people ; next Mary-
land, with a hundred and four thousand ;
then New York, with eighty-five thousand ;
New Jersey not quite as many ; then South
Carolina, and so through the feebler colonies
to Georgia, in whose borders were less than
five thousand inhabitants, including the
negroes.

By the middle of the eighteenth century,
the people of the American colonies had to a
certain extent assumed a national character;
but they were still strongly marked with the
peculiarities which their ancestors had brought
from Europe. In New England, especially
in Massachusetts and Connecticut, the princi-
ples and practices of Puritanism still held
universal sway. On the banks of the Hudson
the language, manners, and customs of Hol-
land were almost as prevalent as they had
been a hundred years before. By the Dela-
ware the Quakers were gathered in such num-
bers as to control all legislation, and to pre-
vent serious innovations upon the simple
methods of civil and social organization intro-
duced by Penn. On the northern bank of
the Potomac, the youthful Frederick, the
sixth Lord Baltimore, a frivolous and dissolute
governor, ruled a people who still conformed
to the order of things established a hundred
and thirty years previously by Sirs George and
Cecil Calvert. In Virginia, mother of states
and statesmen, the people had all their old pe-
culiarities; a somewhat haughty demeanor;
pride of ancestry ; fondness for aristocratic
sports; hospitality; love of freedom. The
North Carolinians were at this epoch the
same rugged and insubordinate race of hun-
ters that they had always been. The legisla-
tive assembly, in its controversies with Gov-
ernor Dobbs, manifested all the intractable
stubbornness which characterized that body in
the days of Seth Sothel. In South Carolina
whose pompous constitution, contributed by
the philosopher, John Locke, as the great
political curiosity of the seventeenth century,

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.— LAST YEARS OF FREDERICK. 947

had long since given place to a simple repub-
lican instrument framed by the people for them-
selves there was much prosperity and happiness.
But there, too, popular liberty had been en-
larged by the constant encroachment of the
legislature upon the royal prerogative. The
people, mostly of French descent, were hot-
blooded and jealous of their rights. Of all the
American colonies, Georgia had at this time
least strength and spirit. The commonwealth
had languished. Not until 1754, when Gov-
ernor Reynolds assumed control of the colony,
did the affairs of the people on the Savannah
begin to flourish. Even afterwards, something
of the indigence and want of thrift which
had marked the followers of Oglethorpe still
prevailed in Georgia.

In matters of education New England took
the lead. Her system of free schools extended
everywhere from the Hudson to the Penob-
scot. Every village furnished facilities for
the acquirement of knowledge. So complete
and universal were the means of instruction
that in the times preceding the Revolution
there was not to be found in all New England an
adidt, born in the country, who could not read
and unite! Splendid achievement of Puritan-
ism. In the Middle Colonies education was
not so general ; but in Pennsylvania there was
much intelligent activity among the people.
Especially in Philadelphia did the illustrious
Franklin scatter the light of learning. South
of the Potomac educational facilities were ir-
regular and generally designed for the benefit
of the wealthier classes. But in some locali-
ties the means of enlightenment were well
provided ; institutions of learning sprang up
scarcely inferior to those of the Eastern prov-
inces, or even of Europe. Nor should the
private schools of the colonial times be for-
gotten. Many Scottish reformers, Irish liberals,
and French Patriots fled for refuge to the New
World, and taught the lore of books and the
lesson of liberty to the rugged boys of the
American wilderness. Among the Southern
colonies Virginia led the van in matters of
education ; while Maryland, the Carolines,
and Georgia lairgcd behind. Previous to the
Revolution, nine colleges worthy of the name
had been established in the colonies. These
were Harvard, William and Mary, Yale,
Princeton, King's (now Columbia), Brown,

Queen's (afterwards Rutgers), Dartmouth, and
Hampden and Sydney. In 1764 the first
medical college was founded at Philadelphia.

Meanwhile, the more progressive and spir-
itual elements of Protestantism had combined
with the intellectual forces of the colonies to
give a distinctive character to the new Amer-
ican people. The evangelists of religion kept
abreast with the teachers and statesmen of the
New World. The colonies proved to be an invit-
ing field for the daring missionaries who sowed
the seeds of the Gospel among the scattered
populations. Most conspicuous of the religious
reformers in the epoch just preceding the
Revolution were the followers of the Wesleys
and Whitefield. The movement which had
been originated by John Wesley in England —
begun with no intention of a separation from
the Established Church — spread into the Amer-
ican colonies before the middle of the century,
and became the primary force of American
Methodism.1 The first purely Methodistic so-
ciety in the colonies was formed in New
York City, in 1766, by Barbara Heck and
Philip Embury. Three years afterwards two
Wesleyan preachers were sent to America, and
the first church was established in New York.
During the next decade, the work of dissemi-
nating the nascent Methodism was carried for-
ward with great zeal. Francis Asbury came
to America in 1771. Two years afterwards
the first formal "Conference" of Wesleyan
ministers was held, and the religious revival
was continued without abatement until the
work was disturbed by the Revolution.

Emerging from that conflict, the American
Methodists, still largely influenced and directed
by Wesley, made haste to become organic.
In the next year after the treaty of peace
with Great Britain, Thomas Coke, who had
been President of the Irish Conference, was
ordained by Wesley as Superintendent and
Bishop of the Methodist Church in America.
Coming to the United States, he convened a
General Conference of the preachers at Balti-
more. In that city, on the eve of Christmas,
I7>4. tlir MKTHODWT EPISCOPAL CHURCH
\vas urbanized. Francis Aslniry was elected
bishop by the Conference, and was ordained
by Coke. The general polity which had been
outlined by Wesley for the direction of his
'See Vol. II., p. 752.

948

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

followers in England was adopted by the
American Methodists ; and, though henceforth
the two divisions of Wesleyaus moved on dif-
ferent lines of action, the plan and spirit of
both — contemplating no less a work than the
evangelization of the world — were one in sym-
pathy, one in motive, and one in hope. Such
were the beginnings of that great and pro-
gressive Church which in numbers has become
the first, and in religious zeal not the second,
among the Protestant peoples of the world.

Of the printing-press, that swift agent
and great forerunner of civilization, the work
was already effective, As early as 1704 the
Boston News-Letter, first of periodicals in the
New World, was published in the city of the
Puritans. In 1721 the New England Courant,
a little sheet devoted to free thought and the
extinction of rascality, was established at Bos-
ton by the two Franklins, James and Ben-
jamin. In 1740 New York had but one
periodical, Virginia one, and South Carolina
one ; and at the close of the French and In-
dian War there were no more than ten news-
papers published in the colonies. The chief
obstacles to such publications were the ab-
sence of great cities and the difficulty of com-
munication between distant sections of the
country. Boston and Philadelphia had each
no more than eighteen thousand inhabitants ;
New York but twelve thousand. In all Vir-
ginia there was not one important town, while
as far south as Georgia there was scarcely a
considerable village. Books were few and of
little value. Some dry volumes of history,
theology, and politics were the only stock and
store. On the latter subject the publications
were sometimes full of pith and spirit. Nev-
ertheless, it was no unusual thing to find at
the foot of the Virginia mountains, by the
banks of the Hudson, or in the valleys of New
England, a man of great and solid learning.
Such a man was Thomas Jefferson ; such were
Franklin and Livingston and the Adamses —
profound, witty, and eloquent.

Nothing impeded the progress of the colo-
nies more than the want of thoroughfares.
No general system of post-offices or post-roads
had as yet been established. No common
sentiments could be expressed — no common
enthusiasm be kindled in the country — by the
slow-going mails and packets. The sea-coast

towns and cities found a readier intercourse.
Until the Revolution the people lived apart —
dependent upon their own resources. When,
in 1766, an express wagon made the trip
from New York to Philadelphia in two days,
it was considered a marvel of rapidity. Six
years later the first stage-coach began to run
between Boston and Providence. *

Before the Revolution the Americans were
for the most part an agricultural people. In
Virginia the planters devoted themselves al-
most exclusively to the cultivation of tobacco.
Further inland the products were more vari-
ous: wheat, maize, potatoes; upland cotton,
hemp, and flax. In the Carolinas and
Georgia the rice crop was most important ;
after that, indigo, cotton, and some silk ; tar
and turpentine. New York, Philadelphia,
and Boston were then, as now, the great cen-
ters of trade. Ship-building was one of the
most important colonial interests. In 1738
forty-one sailing vessels were built at the
ship-yards of Boston. New England was the
seat of the manufacturing interest. But all
enterprise in this direction was checked and
impeded by the British Board of Trade.
No sooner would some enterprising company
of New England men begin the building of
a factory than this board would interfere
in such a way as to make success impossible.
So jealous was the English ministry.

Such were the American colonies — such
the people whose budding nationality was now
to be exposed to the blasts of war. These
people had become the rightful proprietors of
the New World. They had fairly won it from
savage man and savage nature. They owned
it by all the claims of actual possession ; by
toil and trial ; by the ordeal of suffering ; by
peril, privation, and hardship. No wonder
that patriotism was the child of such disci-
pline ! No wonder that the men who, from
mountain and sky and river, had drunk in
the spirit of Liberty, were now ready, when
the iron heel of oppression was set upon their
cherished rights, to draw the sword even
against the venerable monarchy of England !

1 It is remarkable to note how tardily the at-
tention of a people will be turned to the building
of roads. Thus, for instance, in so old a country
as Scotland there were no great thoroughfares con-
structed until after the Scotch Rebellion of 1745.

JBook %ni(j.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.

CHAPTER XLVI.— WAR OK AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.

F the historian be asked
to select from the annals
of the world that period in
which Man has appeared
to the best advantage, he
must, with little hesita-
tion, name the last quar-
ter of the eighteenth century. At no other
epoch in the history of mankind has the hu-
man race emerged so rapidly from its old con-
dition. It was an age in which tradition
suffered, ancient tyrannies were startled from
the throne, and the fallow ground, long soaked
with the cold drippings of the Middle Ages, was
torn up and turned to the sun and air with the
terrible plowshare of radicalism. Long strides
were made in the direction of the emancipa-
tion of mankind from the thralldom of the
past. The time at last came when men per-
ceived that it was better to fight and die than
to endure any longer the domination of other
men no better, no wiser, than themselve-.
That artificial reverence — that, half-worship —
which prostrate man and society had shown
to the powers by which they were governed,
was replaced by a manly courage, a dignity,
a defiance which went far to redeem the race

from bondage, and to make future slavery
impossible.

This was an epoch in which institutions
were transformed. Old things passed away.
A new man and a new society, the one more
free and the other more generous than the
world had yet permitted to exist, were born
out of the fruitful anarchy of the age. Rev-
olution put his bugle to his lips and blew a
blast which echoed to the corners of the earth,
resounding against

"castle walls
And snowy summits old in story."

In general terms, the civil and social revolt
which constituted the bottom fact in the clos-
ing history of the eighteenth century was
directed against the institution of Monarchy
and its various pillars of support. In order to
understand the true nature of the great con-
flict upon the narrative of which we are now to
enter, it will be appropriate, in the first place,
to sketch briefly the phv-io^nomy and general
character of that monarchical system against
which, first in America and then in Europe,
the sword of freedom was unsheathed. If,
then, we scrutinize the system upon which
i man, armed with a sense of his inherent

950

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

rights, was about to make war, we find our
inquiry leading us to the following results :

1. The institution of Monarchy, such as it
was in Europe in the last quarter of the
eighteenth century, was still a colossal edition
of feudal chieftainship. The king was simply
a suzerain on a gigantic scale. Whatever of
arrogance and pride, and self-will the baronial
warrior of the eleventh century felt in his
castle halls, that the typical European king
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
assumed in grander style in his palace and
court. It implied a prince lifted immeasurably
above his subjects. It implied a people with-
out political rights, dependent for life and lib-
erty upon the pleasure of the king — peasants
and serfs whose property might be taken at
will, whose lives might be exposed in lawless
wars, whose bodies might be used or abused,
whose minds might be rightfully kept in the
clouds of perpetual night.

2. Monarchy was the embodiment of eccle-
siastical domination over secular society. The
king was either the head of the Church or its
obedient servant. The bishops, for their own
good, told the monarch that his right to be
king came down out of the skies ; that he was
by the will of heaven born a prince ; that his
authority was by the grace of God, and that
his person was sacred both by the fact of his
royal birth and by the manipulation of the
priest on the day of coronation. Thus was
the arrogance of the feudal baron bound up
with the presumption of the ecclesiastical bigot
in the person of the king.

3. As a necessary prop and stay of the
system stood a graduated order of nobility :
dukes who could touch the hem of the royal
garment; marquises who could touch the hem
of the duke; knights who could touch the
hem of the marquis; lords who could touch
the hem of the knight; esquires who could
touch the hem of his lordship.

4. As a necessary prop and stay of the
graduated nobility stood the principle of pri-
mogeniture. For it was manifest that the
splendors and virtues of royalty and its de-
pendent orders could never be maintained if
the blood in which its glory dwelt was al-
lowed, according to nature's plan, to diffuse
and spread into a multitude of vulgar kinsmen.

5. As a necessary prop and stay of the

law of primogeniture was the doctrine of en-
tails, by which landed estates and all similar
properties should tend to concentrate in cer-
tain lines of descent, and thereby be main-
tained in perpetual solidarity. Not only
should the first-born receive the titles and
nobility of the father, but he should in like
manner inherit the estates to the exclusion of
collateral heirs.

6. As to the methods of government, the
king should not be hampered by constitutional
limitations. Ministers and parliaments were
not needed except to carry out the sovereign's
mandates ; and popular assemblies, in addition
to being the hot-beds of sedition, were an im-
pediment to government and a menace to civil
authority.

7. The people existed for the king's pleas-
ure. Society was the king's institution. The
state was in some sense the king's property.
The world was made for the king to act in,
and history was designed for his eulogium.1

It was, then, against this system of mon-
strous pretensions and despotic rule — against
its principles, its spirit, its tendencies, its
sham methods and bad essence — that GUI'
Revolutionary fathers of 1775 raised the arm
of rebellion. After they had been successful
in their revolt, thrown off the dominion of the
Mother Country, and marked out for them-
selves a new and shining pathway among the
nations of the world, the struggle was trans-
ferred to France, where the battle was fought
on a grander scale. Out of her example of
heroism and victory most of the other Euro-
pean kingdoms caught the inspiration of lib-
erty, and challenged their rulers to combat.
It is now our purpose to give an account of
the varying vicissitudes of this conflict, first
in our own country and then in Europe. The
period to be considered extends from the re-
bellion of our Thirteen Colonies, in 1775, to
the downfall of Napoleon and Treaty of Vi-
enna, in 1815.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION was one of
the most heroic events in the history of man-
kind. It was not lacking in any element of
glory. Whether considered with reference to
the general causes which produced it, or viewed

'The preceding seven paragraphs on the gen-
eral character of European monarchy are tran-
scribed from the Author's Alexander Hamilton.

mi: .i'./; or

. \\.\R OF AMI-:I;I<:\.\ I.\IU-:I>I-:M>I-;.\CE. 951

with respect to the personal agency by which
it, \v;is kOOompliahed, the struggle of our fathers
for liberty suffers not by comparison with the
grandest conflicts of ancient or modern times.
The motives which those great men might
justly plead for breaking their allegiance to
the British crown and organizing a rebellion ;
the patient self-restraint with which they bore
for fifteen years a series of aggressions and
outrages which they knew to be utterly sub-
versive of the liberties of Englishmen ; the
calmness with which they proceeded from step
to step in the attempted maintenance of their
rights by reason ; the readiness with which
they opened their hearts to entertain the new
angels of liberty; the backward look which
they cast through sighs and tears at their aban-
doned loyalty to England ; the fiery zeal and
brave resolve with which at last they drew their
swords, trampled in mire and blood the banner
of St. George, and raised a new flag in the
sight of the nations; the personal character
and genius of the men who did it — their loyal
devotion to principle, their fidelity, their cour-
age, their lofty purpose and unsullied patriot-
ism— all conspire to stamp the struggle with
the impress of imperishable grandeur.

In entering upon the story of our War
for Independence, it is appropriate to exam-
ine briefly the causes of the conflict. The
first and most general of these was the claim
and exercise of the right of arbitrary government
by Great Britain, which right was denied
and resisted by the colonies. So long as this
claim was asserted by England only as a
theory, the conflict was postponed ; when
the English government began to enforce the
principle in practice, the colonies resisted.
The question began to be openly discussed
about the time of the treaty of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle, in 1748; and from that period until
the beginning of hostilities, in 1775, each
year witnessed a renewal of the agitation.
But there were also many subordinate causes
tending to bring on a eouflict.

First of these was the influence of France,
which was constantly exerted so as to incite a
spirit of resistance in the colonies. The
French kin;; would never have agreed to the
treaty of 1 7(v? — by which Canada wa-
to Great Britain — had it not been with the
hope of securing American independence. It

wa- the theory of France that by giving up
Canada on the north the Kngli.-h colonies
would become so strong as to renounce their
allegiance to the crown. England feared such
a result. .More than once it was proposed in
Parliament to re-cede Canada to France in
order to check the growth of the American
States. "There, now!" said the French
statesman, Vergennes, when the treaty of
1763 was signed ; "we have arranged matters
for an American rebellion in which England
will lose her empire in the West."

Another cause leading to the Revolution
was found in the natural disposition and inher-
ited character of the colonists. They were, for
the most part, republicans in politics and dis-
senters in religion. The people of England
were monarchists and High Churchmen. The
colonists had never seen a king. The Atlan-
tic lay between them and the British ministry.
Their dealings with the royal officers had been
such as to engender a dislike for monarchical
institutions. The people of America had not
forgotten — could not well forget — the circum-
stances under which their ancestors had come
to the New World. For six generations the
colonists had managed their own affairs; and
their methods of government were necessarily
republican. The experiences of the French
and Indian War had shown that Americans
were fully able to defend themselves and
their country.

The groivth of public opinion in the colonies
tended to independence. The more advanced
thinkers came to believe that a complete sep-
aration from England was not only possible,
but desirable. As early as 1755, John Adams,
then a young school-teacher in Connecticut,
wrote in his diary: " In another century all
Europe will not be able to subdue us. The
only way to keep us from setting up for our-
selves is to disunite us." Such opinions were
at first expressed only in private, thru l>y hints
in pamphlets and newspapers, and at last pub-
licly and everywhere. The mass of the peo-
ple, however, were slow to awpt an idea
which seemed so radical and dangerous,
until the war had actually begun did the ma-
jority declare tor independence.

Another cause of the conflict with the

mother country was found in the. personal thar-

iif tin king. George III., who ascended

952

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the English throne iu 1760, was one of the
worst monarchs of modern times. His no-
tions of government were altogether despotic.
He was a stubborn, stupid, thick-headed man,
in whose mind the notion of human rights
was entirely wanting. It was impossible for
him to conceive of a magnanimous project or

likely that the descendants of the Pilgrims
would get on smoothly.

The more immediate cause of the Revolu-
tion was the passage by Parliament of a num-
ber of acts destructive of colonial liberty. These
acts were resisted by the colonies, and the at-
tempt was made by Great Britain to enforce

them with the
bayonet. The
subject of this
unjust legislation,
which extended
over a period of
twelve years just
preceding the
war, was the ques-
tion of taxation.
It is a well-
grounded princi-
ple of English
common law that
the people, by
their representa-
tives in the House
of Commons,
have the right of
voting whatever
taxes and customs
are necessary for
the support of the
kingdom. The
American c o 1 o -
nists claimed the
full rights of En-
glishmen. With
good reason it was
urged that the
general assem-
blies of the col-
onies held the

GEORGE III.

to appreciate the value of civil liberty. His
reign of sixty years was as odious as it was
long. In the management of the British Em-
pire he employed only those who were the
narrow-minded partisans of his own policy.
His ministers were, for the most part, men as
incompetent and illiberal as himself. With
such a king and such a ministry it was not

relation to
the American
people as did the
House of Com-

mons to the people of England. The English
ministers replied that Parliament, and not the
colonial assemblies, was the proper body to vote
taxes in any and all parts of the British Empire.
But we are not represented in Parliament, was
the answer of the Americans ; the House of
Commons may therefore justly assess taxes in
England, but not in America. Many of the

'/'///•; AGE OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF I Ml IHCAN L\I>i:ri.M>i:.\> I.

towns, boroughs, and shires in these Hritish
isles liave no representatives in Parliament, ami
yet the Parliament taxes them, replied the min-
isters, now driven to sophistry. If any of your
towns, boroughs, and shires are not repre-
sented in the House of Commons, they <>mjlit
to be, was the American rejoinder ; and there
the argument ended. Such were the essential
points of the controversy. It is now proper
to notice the several parliamentary acts which
the colonies complained of and resisted.

The first of these was THE IMPORTATION
ACT, passed in 1733. This statute was itself
a kind of supplement to the old Navigation
Act of 1651. By the terms of the newer law
exorbitant duties were laid on all the sugar,
molasses, and rum imported into the colonies.
At first the payment of these unreasonable
customs was evaded by the merchants, and
then the statute was openly set at naught.
In 1750 it was further enacted that iron-works
should not be erected in America. The man-
ufacture of steel was specially forbidden ; and
the felling of pines, outside of inclosures, was
interdicted. All of these laws were disre-
garded and denounced by the people of the
colonies as being unjust and tyrannical. In
1761 a strenuous effort was made by the min-
istry to enforce the Importation Act. The
colonial courts were authorized to issue to the
king's officers a kind of search-warrants, called
Writs of Assistance. Armed with this author-
ity, petty .constables might enter any and
every place, searching for and seizing goods
which were suspected of having evaded the
duty. At Salem and Boston the greatest ex-
citement prevailed. The application for the
writs was resisted before the courts. James
Otis, an able and temperate man, pleaded
eloquently for colonial rights, and denounced
the parliamentary acts as unconstitutional.
The address was a masterly defense of the
people, and produced a profound sensation
throughout tin1 colonies. Already there were
hints at resistance by force of arms.

In 17(i'?, and again in the following year,
the English ministers undertook to enforce the
law requiring the payment of duties on sugar
and molasses. The officers of the admiralty
were authorized to seize and confiscate all ves-
sels engaged in the unlawful trade. Before
the passage of this act was known at Boston.

a great town-meeting \\a- held. Samuel
Adam- was the orator. A powerful aiL'uiiicnt
was produced showing conclusively that under
the British constitution taxation and repre-
sentation were inseparable. Nevertheless, ves-
sels from the English navy were sent to hover
around the American harbors. A great num-
ber of merchantmen bearing cargoes of sugar
and wine were seized; and the colonial trade
with the West Indies was almost destroyed.

The year 1764 witnessed the first formal
declaration of the purpose of Parliament to
tax the colonies. Mr. (ircnville was now
prime minister. On the 10th of March a res-
olution was adopted by the House of Com-
mons declaring that it would be proper to
charge certain stamp-duties on the American
colonies. It was announced that a bill era-
bodying this principle would be prepared by
the ministers and presented at the next ses-
sion of Parliament. In the mean time, the
news of the proposed measure was borne to
America. Universal excitement and indigna-
tion prevailed in the colonies. Political meet-
ings became the order of the day. Orators
were in great demand. The newspapers
teemed with arguments against the proposed
enactment. Resolutions were passed by the
people of almost every town. Formal remon-
strances were addressed to the king and the
two houses of Parliament. Agents were ap-
pointed by the colonies and sent to London
in the hope of preventing the passage of
the law.

A new turn was now given to the contro-
versy. The French and Indian War had just
been concluded with a treaty of peace. Great
Britain had incurred a heavy debt. The min-
isters began to urge that the expenses of the
war ought to be borne by the colonies. The
Americans replied that England ought to de-
fend her colonies, from motives of humanity;
that in the prosecution of the war the colo-
nists had aided Great Britain as much as
Great Britain had aided them ; that the ces-
sion of Canada had amply remunerated Eng-
land for her losses; that it was not the pay-
ment of money which the colonies dreaded,
but the surrender of their liberties. It was
al-o added that in ease of another war the
American States would try to fight their own
battles.

954

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

Early iu March of 1765, the English Par-
liament, no longer guided by the counsels of
Pitt, passed the celebrated STAMP ACT. In
the House of Commons the measure received
a majority of five to one. In the House of
Lords the vote was unanimous. At the tune
of the passage of the act the king was in a fit
of insanity and could not sign the bill. On
the 22d ot the month the royal assent was
given by a board of commissioners acting for
the king. ' ' The sun of American liberty has
set," wrote Benjamin Franklin to a friend at
home. "Now we must light the lamps of
industry and economy." "Be assured," said
the friend, in reply, "that we shall light

PATRICK HENRY.

torches of anotlwr sort." And the answer re-
flected the sentiment of the whole country.

The provisions of the Stamp Act were
briefly these : Every note, bond, deed, mort-
gage, lease, license, and legal document of
whatever sort, required in the colonies, should,
after the first day of the following November,
be executed on paper bearing an English
stamp. This stamped paper was to be fur-
nished by the British government ; and for
each sheet the colonists were required to pay
a sum varying, according to the nature of the
document, from three pence to six pounds
sterling. Every colonial pamphlet, almanac,
and newspaper was required to be printed on

paper of the same sort, the value of the stamps
in this case ranging from a half-penny to four
pence; every advertisement was taxed two
shillings. No contract should be of any bind'
ing force unless written on paper bearing the
royal stamp.

The news of the hateful act swept over
America like a thunder-cloud. The people
were at first grief-stricken ; then indignant j
and then wrathful. Crowds of excited men
surged into the towns, and there were some
acts of violence. The muffled bells of Phila-
delphia and Boston rung a funeral peal, and
the people said it was the death-knell of lib-
erty. In New York a copy of the Stamp
Act was carried through the streets with a
death's-head nailed to it, and a placard
bearing this inscription : THE FOLLY OF
ENGLAND AND THE RUIN OF AMERICA.
In the Virginia House of Burgesses there
was a memorable scene.

Patrick Henry, the youngest member of
the House, an uneducated mountaineer re;
cently chosen to represent Louisa County,
waited for some older delegate to lead the
burgesses in opposition to Parliament. But
the older members hesitated or went home.
Offended at this lukewarmness, Henry, in
his passionate way, snatched a blank-leaf
out of an old law-book and hastily drew up
a series of fiery resolutions, declaring that
the Virginians were Englishmen with Eng-
lish rights ; that the people of Great Britain
had the exclusive privilege of voting their
own taxes, and so had the Americans; that
the colonists were not bound to yield obe-
dience to any law imposing taxation on
them, and that whoever said the contrary was
an enemy to the country. The resolutions were
at once laid before the house.

A violent debate ensued, in which the pa-
triots had the best of the argument. It was a
moment of intense interest. Two future Presi-
dents of the United States were in the audi-
ence ; Washington occupied his seat as a dele-
gate, and Thomas Jefferson, a young collegian,
stood just outside of the railing. The eloquent
and audacious Henry bore down all opposition.
"Tarquin and Cresar had each his Brutus,"
said the indignant orator ; " Charles I. had his
Cromwell, and George III.— " "Treason!"
shouted the speaker. "Treason ! treason!" ex-

Till-: AGE OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF AMERICAN !.\1>I-J'1-M>I,.\< /•;

claimed the terrified loyalists, springing to
their feet. " — And (ieoi-^e III. may profit
l)v their example," continued Henry ; and then
added, as he took his sent, "If that be trea-
son, make the most of it!" The resolutions
were put to the house and carried; but the
majorities on some of the votes were small,
and the next day, when Henry was absent,
the most violent paragraph was reconsidered
and expunged : some of the members were
greatly frightened at their own audacity.
But the resolutions in their entire form had
gone before the country as the formal expres-
sion of the oldest American commonwealth,
and the effect on the other colonies was like
the shock of a battery.

Similar resolutions were adopted by the as-
semblies of New York and Massachusetts — in
the latter State before the action of Virginia
was known. At Boston, James Otis success-
fully agitated the question of an American
Congress. It was proposed that each colony,
acting without leave of the king, should ap-
point delegates, who should meet in the fol-
lowing autumn, and discuss the affairs of the
nation. The proposition was favorably re-
ceived ; nine of the colonies appointed dele-
gates ; and, on the 7th of October, THE FIRST
COLONIAL CONGRESS assembled at New York.
There were twenty-eight representatives: Tim-
othy Ruggles of Massachusetts was chosen presi-
dent. After much discussion, A DECLARATION
OP RIGHTS was adopted setting forth in unmis-
takable terms that the American colonists, as
Englishmen, could not and would not consent
to be taxed but by their own representatives.
Memorials were also prepared and addressed
to the two houses of Parliament. A manly
petition, professing loyalty and praying for
a more just and humane policy toward his
American subjects, was directed to the king.

On the 1st of November, the Stamp Act
was to take effect. During the summer, great
quantities of the stamped paper had been sent
to America. But everywhere it wa- rejected
or destroyed, and the 1-t of Nnvcmlier was
kept as a day of mourning. At tir-t, legal
business was suspended. The court-lr
were shut up. Not even a marriage 11
could be legally issued. By and by, the
offices were opened, and luisine-s went on as
before; but was -not, transacted with .-tamped

paper. It was at this time that the patriot i.-
society known as THE SONS OF 1. 1111:1:1 y was
organized. The merchants of New York, Bos-
ton, and Philadelphia entered into a compact
to purchase no more goods of Great Britain
until the Stamp Act should be repealed.

The colonists had their friends in Eng-
land. Eminent statesmen espoused the cause
of America. In the House of Commons, Mr.
Pitt delivered a powerful address on the re-
lations of the Mother Country to the colo-
nies. "You have," said he, "no right to
tax America. I rejoice that America has
resisted." On the 18th of March, 17ii(>, the
Stamp Act was formally repealed. But at
the same time a resolution was added declar-
ing that Parliament had the right to In ml the
colonift in all cages whatsoever.

The repeal of the Stamp Act produced
great joy, both in England and America.
A few months afterward, a new British cabi-
net was formed under the leadership of Pitt.
While he was confined by sickness to his
home in the country, Mr. Townshend, a
member of the ministry, brought forward a
new scheme for taxing America. On the
29th of June, 1767, an act was passed im-
posing a duty on all the glass, paper, paint-
ers' colors, and tea which should thereafter be
imported into the colonies.

Hereupon the resentment of the Americans
burst out anew. Another agreement not to
purchase British goods was entered into by
the American merchants. The newspapers
were filled with denunciations of Parliament
Early in 1768, the assembly of Massachusetts
adopted a circular calling upon the other col-
onies for assistance in the effort to obtain re-
dress of grievances. The ministers were en-
raged and required the assembly to rescind
their action, and to express regret for that
"rash and hasty proceeding."

In the month of June, a sloop charged with
evading the' payment of duty, was wi/.ed liy
tin- custom-house officers of Boston. But the
people attacked the houses of the officers and
obliged the occupants to fly to Cattle William.
<-al (Jaire WM- now ordered to brins: from
Halifax a regiment of regular- and overawe
the insurgent people. On the 1
the troop-, .-even hundred strong, marched
into the capital of Massachusetts.

956

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

In February of 1769, Parliament passed an
act by which the people of Massachusetts were
declared rebels, and the governor was directed
to arrest those deemed guilty and send them
to England for trial. The general assembly
met this outrage with defiant resolutions. Sim-
ilar acts were passed in Virginia and North
Carolina. In the latter State an insurrection
was suppressed by Governor Tryon ; the insur-
gents, escaping across the mountains, became
the founders of Tennessee.

Early in 1770, the soldiers in New York
cut down a liberty pole which stood in the
Park. A conflict ensued in which the people

SAMUEL ADAMS.

•won the day. On the 5th of March a more
serious difficulty occurred in Boston. A crowd
of people surrounded Captain Preston's com-
pany of the city guard, hooted at them, and
dared them to fire. At length the soldiers
discharged a volley, killing three of the citi-
zens and wounding several others. This out-
rage, known as THE BOSTON MASSACRE, cre-
ated a profound sensation. Captain Preston
and his company were arrested and tried for
murder, and two of the offenders were con-
victed of manslaughter.

Parliament now passed an act repealing all
duties on American imports except that on

tea. The people, in answer, pledged them-
selves to use no more tea until the duty should
be unconditionally repealed. In 1772 an act
was passed that the salaries of the officers of
Massachusetts should be paid without consent
of the assembly. About the same time the
Gaspee, a royal schooner anchored at Provi-
dence, was boarded by the patriots and burned.
In 1773, Parliament removed the export
duty, which had hitherto been charged, on
tea shipped from England. The price was by
so much lowered, and the ministers thought
that, when the cheaper tea was offered in
America, the colonists would pay the import
duty without suspicion. Ships were loaded
with tea for the American market. Some
of the vessels reached Charleston ; but the
chests were stored in cellars and the contents
ruined. At New York and Philadelphia the
ships were forbidden to enter. At Boston
the authorities would not permit the tea to
be landed. On the 16th of December there
was a great town meeting at which seven
thousand people were present. Samuel
Adams and Josiah Quincy spoke to the mul-
titude. Evening came on, and the meeting
was about to adjourn, when a war-whoop
was heard, and fifty men disguised as In-
dians marched to the wharf, where the tea-
ships were at anchor. The disguised men
quickly boarded the vessels and emptied
three hundred and forty chests of tea into
the bay. Such was the BOSTON TEA PARTY.
Parliament made haste to find revenge.
On the last day of March, 1774, THE BOS-
TON PORT BILL was passed, by which it was
enacted that no kind of merchandise should
any longer be landed or shipped at the
wharves of Boston. The custom-house was re-
moved to Salem, but the people of that town
refused to accept it. The inhabitants of Marble-
head gave the free use of their warehouses to
the merchants of Boston. When the news of
the passage of the Port Bill reached Virginia,
the burgesses entered a protest on their jour-
nal. Hereupon Governor Dunmore ordered the
members to their homes ; but they continued
then work in another place. On the 20th of
May the charter of Massachusetts was annulled.
The people were declared rebels ; and the gov-
ernor was ordered to send abroad for trial all
persons who should resist the officers.

Till: ACK OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF AMERICAN lM>i:i'i:MH:\L'E. 957

In September THE SECOND COLONIAL CON-
GRESS assembled at Philadelphia. Eleven
colonies were represented. One address was
prepared and sent to the king ; another to the
English nation ; and another to the people of
Canada. A resolution was adopted to sus-
pend all commercial intercourse with Great
Britain. Parliament retaliated by ordering
General Gage to reduce the colonists by force.
A fleet and ten thousand soldiers were sent
to aid him in the work of subjugation. Bos-
ton Neck was seized and fortified by the Brit-
ish. The stores at Cambridge and Charles-
town were conveyed to Boston, and the General
Assembly was ordered to disband, but the mem-
bers voted to equip an army of twelve thousand
men for defense. There was now no longer
any hope of a peaceable adjustment. The col-
onists were few and feeble ; but they were men
of iron wills, who had made up their minds to
fight and, if needs be, die for liberty.

As soon as the intentions of General Gage
were known, the people of Boston, concealing
their ammunition in carts, conveyed it to the
village of Concord. On the night of the 18th
of April, Gage despatched eight hundred men
to destroy the stores. The plan of the British
was made with the greatest secrecy ; but the
patriots discovered the movement ; and when
the regiment, under command of Colonel
Smith and Major Pitcairn, set out for Con-
cord, the people of Boston were roused by the
ringing of bells and the firing of cannon.
William Dawes and Paul Revere rode with
all speed to Lexington and spread the alarm
through the country.

At two o'clock in the morning a company
of a hundred and thirty minute-men assem-
bled on the common at Lexington. No en-
emy appeared until five o'clock, when the
British, under command of Pitcairn, came in
sight. The provincials were led by Captain
Parker. Pitcairn rode up, and exrl:iiinr<l :
"Disperse, ye villains! Throw down your
arms!" The minute-men stood still, and Pit-
cairn cried, "Fire!" The first volley of the
Revolution whistled through the air, and .-i\-
teen of the patriots fell dead or wounded.
The rest fired a few shots, and dispersed.

The British then passed on to Concord;
but the inhabitants had removed the stores
to a place of safety, ami there was hut little

destruction. While the British were ransack-
ing the town, the minute-men eneuunt.-red a
company of soldiers who were guarding tin-
North Bridge. Hen- the Americans first
fired under orders of their officers, and two
British soldiers were killed. The rest began
a retreat through the town towards Lexington.
Hereupon the patriots rallied from every side,
and for six miles the battle was kept up along
the road. Hidden behind trees, fences, and
barns, the assailants poured a constant fire
upon the enemy. At one time it seemed that
the whole British force would surrender. The
American loss was forty-nine killed, thirty-four
wounded, and five missing; that of the enemy
was two hundred and seventy-three.

The battle of Lexington fired the country.
The news of the fight flew on the wings of
the wind, and within a few days an army of
twenty thousand men gathered about Boston.
A line of entrenchments was drawn from Rox-
bury to Chelsea. To drive Gage into the sea
was the common talk of the tumultuous host.
John Stark came down with the New Hamp-
shire militia. Israel Putnam, with a leather
waiscoat on, hurried to the nearest town,
mounted a horse and rode to Cambridge, a
distance of a hundred miles, in eighteen
hours. Rhode Island sent her men under
Nathaniel Greene, and Benedict Arnold came
with the provincials of New Haven.

Ethan Allen, with a company of two hun-
dred and seventy patriots from the Green
Mountains, advanced against Ticonderoga.
Arnold joined the expedition as a private.
On the evening of the 9th of May, the force
reached the shore of Lake George, opposite Ti-
conderoga. On the following morning, eighty-
three men succeeded in »-ro>sin^. With this
mere handful, Allen made a dash and gained
the gateway of the fort. The sentinel was
driven in, closely followed by the patriot
mountaineers. Allen rushed to the quarters
of the commandant, and cried out: "Sur-
render this fort instantly!" "By what au-
thority?" inquired the officer. "In the name
of the great Jehovah and the Continental
Congress," said Allen, flourishing his sword.1

•It happened that Allen in oitintr his authority
]>< -rprtrated a ludicrous anachronism. The capture
of tlie fort was made about five hourt brfort tht Con-
tinrntal Congrest convened!

958

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

There was uo alternative. The garrison were
made prisoners and sent to Connecticut. By
this daring exploit, vast quantities of military
stores fell into the hands of the Americans.
Two days afterward Crown Point was also taken.

On the 25th of May, Generals Howe, Clin-
ton, and Burgoyne arrived at Boston. The
British army was augmented to more than
ten thousand men. It was now rumored that
Gage was about to sally out of Boston to burn
the neighboring towns and devastate the coun-
try. The Americans determined to anticipate
this movement by fortifying Bunker Hill,
which commanded the peninsula of Charles-
town. On the night of the 16th of June,
Colonel Prescott was sent with a thousand
men to entrench the hill. The provincials
reached the eminence ; but Prescott and his
engineer Gridley, not liking the position, pro-
ceeded down the peninsula to Breed's Hill,
within cannon range of Boston. On this sum-
mit a redoubt was thrown up during the night.
The British ships in the harbor were so near
that the Americans could hear the sentinels re-
peating the night-call, "All is well."

As soon as it was light on the following
morning, General Gage ordered the ships in
the harbor to cannonade the American posi-
tion. The British batteries on Copp's Hill
also opened fire. Just after noon, three thou-
sand British veterans, commanded by Generals
Howe and Pigot, landed at Morton's Point.
The Americans numbered about fifteen hun-
dred. Generals Putnam and Warren served
as privates in the trenches. Charlestown was
burned by the British as they advanced.
Thousands of spectators climbed to the house-
tops in Boston to watch the battle. On came
the British in a stately and imposing column.

The Americans reserved their fire until the
advancing line was within a hundred and fifty
feet. Then instantly from the breastworks ev-
ery gun was discharged. The front rank of
the British melted away, and the rest hastily
retreated. Howe rallied his men and led them
to the second charge. Again the American
fire was withheld until the enemy was but a
few rods distant, and then with steady aim
volley after volley was poured upon the col-
umn until it was broken and driven into flight.

The vessels of the British fleet now changed
position until the guns were brought to bear

upon the American works. For the third time,
the British soldiers charged with fixed bayonets
up the hillside. The Americans had but three
or four rounds of ammunition remaining.
These were expended on the advancing en-
emy ; and then there was a lull. The British
clambered over the ramparts. The provincials
clubbed their guns and hurled stones at the
assailants. It was in vain ; the defenders of
liberty were driven out of their trenches at
the point of the bayonet. The brave Warren
gave his life for freedom. The loss of the
British in the engagement was a thousand and
fifty-four in killed and wounded. The Ameri-
cans lost a hundred and fifteen killed, three
hundred and five wounded, and thirty-two
prisoners. Prescott and Putnam conducted
the retreat to Prospect Hill.

The battle of Bunker Hill rather inspired
than discouraged the colonists. The news was
borne to the South, and a spirit of determined
opposition was everywhere aroused. The peo-
ple began to speak of THE UNITED COLONIES
OF AMERICA. At Charlotte, North Carolina,
the citizens ran together in a convention, and
made a declaration of independence.

On the day of the capture of Ticonderoga,
the colonial Congress assembled at Philadel-
phia. Washington was there, and John Adams
and Samuel Adams, Franklin and Patrick
Henry ; Jefferson came soon afterward. It
was an assembly of heroes. A last appeal was
addressed to the king ; and he was told that
the colonists had chosen war in preference to
slavery. Early in the session John Adams
made an address, in the course of which he
noticed the necessity of appointing a com-
mander-in-chief, and the qualities requisite in
that high officer. The speaker concluded by
putting in nomination George Washington, of
Virginia. On the 15th of June, the nomina-
tion was confirmed by Congress ; and the man
who had saved the wreck of Braddock's army
was now called upon to save a nation.

GEORGE WASHINGTON — hero, patriot, states-
man— was born in Westmoreland County, Vir-
ginia, on the llth of February (Old Style),
1732. At the age of eleven he was left to
the sole care of his mother. His education
was limited to the common branches of learn-
ing. Surveying was his favorite study. At
the age of sixteen he was sent by his uncle

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF AMi:i;H .1 .Y L\l>i:i'l..\DENCE. 959

to survey a tract of land on the South Po-
tomac. The important duties which he per-
formed in the service of the Ohio Company
and his campaign with Braddock have already

been narrated. With grent dignity he ac-
cepted the appointment of Commander-in-chief,
and set out to join the army at Cambridge.
Congress had voted to equip twenty them-

BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL.

960

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

sand men, but the means of doing so were not
furnished. Washington found himself at the
head of a force of fourteen thousand five hun-
dred volunteers, but they were undisciplined
and insubordinate. The supplies of war were
almost wholly wanting. But the army was
soon organized and arranged in three divis-

GEORGE WASHINGTON.

ions. The right wing, under General Ward,
held Roxbury ; the left, commanded by Gen-
eral Charles Lee, rested at Prospect Hill ; the
center, under the commander-in-chief, lay at
Cambridge. The siege of Boston was then
pressed with vigor. Meanwhile the king's
authoritv was overthrown in all the colonies.

Lord Duumore, governor of Virginia, who
was driven from office, proclaimed freedom to
the slaves and raised a force of loyalists, but
was defeated by the patriots near Norfolk.

The Americans looked to Canada for aid.
In order to encourage the people of that prov-
ince to take up arms, Generals Schuyler and
Montgomery were ordered
to proceed against St. John
and Montreal. The former
fort was reached on the 10th
of September, but could not
at first be taken. Afterward
General Montgomery suc-
ceeded in capturing the fort-
ress. Montreal was next in-
vested, and on the 13th of
November obliged to capit-
ulate. Montgomery next
proceeded, with three hun-
dred men, against Quebec.
In the mean time, Colonel
Arnold had set out with a
thousand men from Cam-
bridge, and after a march
of untold hardship and suf-
fering, had reached the St.
Lawrence and climbed to
the Plains of Abraham,
above Quebec. At Point
aux Trembles he was joined
by Montgomery, who as-
sumed command. The whole
force did not then exceed
nine hundred men, so
greatly had they suffered.
Quebec was defended by
greatly superior numbers.
For three weeks, with his
handful of troops, Mont-
gomery besieged the town,
and then staked every thing
on an assault.

Before daybreak on the
31st of December, 1775,
the first division, under Montgomery, at-
tacked the Lower Town. The second col-
umn, led by Arnold, attempted to storm the
Prescott Gate. As Montgomery's men were
rushing forward, a battery before them burst
forth with a storm of grape-shot, and at the
first discharge Montgomery fell dead. The

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF AMERICAN INl>i:ri:.\l>i;.\< /..

men, heart-broken at their loss, retreated to
Wolfe's Cove, above the city. Arnold had
meanwhile fought his way into the Lower
Town. While leading the charge he was se-
verely wounded and borne to the rear. Cap-
tain Morgan led his brave band along the
narrow streets until he was overwhelmed and
compelled to surrender. Arnold retired to a
point three miles above the city. The small-
pox broke out in the camp ; Quebec was
strengthened, and in the following June the
Americans evacuated Canada.

At last came the king's answer to the ap-
peal of Congress. The petition of the colo-
nies was rejected with contempt. By this
tyrannical answer the day of independence was
brought nearer. Meanwhile, General Howe
had succeeded Gage in command -of the Brit-
ish troops in Boston. All winter long the city
was besieged by Washington, and by the first
of spring, 1776, he felt himself strong enough
to risk an assault ; the officers of his staff
thought otherwise, and a different plan was
adopted. It was resolved to seize Dorchester
Heights and drive Howe out of Boston.

For two days the attention of the British
was drawn by a fire from the American bat-
teries. On the night of the 4th of March, a
detachment set out under cover of the durk-
ness and reached the Heights unperceived.
The British noticed nothing unusual ; but,
when morning dawned, Howe saw at a glance
that he must carry the American position or
abandon the city. He accordingly ordered
two thousand four hundred men to storm the
Heights before nightfall.

Washington, perceiving the plan and pur-
pose of his adversary, visited the trenches and
exhorted his men. It was the anniversary of
the Boston Massacre. A battle was momen-
tarily expected ; but while the British delayed
a storm arose and rendered the harbor impas-
sable. It continued to blow for a whole day
and the attack could not be made. Before
the following morning the Americans hail n
strengthened their fortifications that all thought*
of an assault were abandoned, and Howe found
himself reduced to the extremity of giving up
the capital of New England.

After some days there was an agreement
between Washington and the British general,
that the latter should retire from Boston un-

VOL. II.— 01

molested on condition that the city should not
be burned. On the 17th of March, the whole
British army went on board the fleet and sailril
away. The American advance at once en-
tered the city, and on the 20th, Wii.-liin^ti.n
made a formal entry at the head of the trium-
phant army. The country was wild with de-
light. Congress ordered a gold medal to be
struck in honor of Washington victorious over
the enemy, "for the first time put to flight."

In a short time the commander-in-chief re-
paired with the army to New York. General
Lee pressed forward with the Connecticut
militia, and reached that city just in time
to baffle an attempt of Sir Henry Clinton,
whose fleet arrived off Sandy Hook. Clinton
next sailed southward, and was joined by
Sir Peter Parker and Lord Cornwallis with
two thousand five hundred men. The force
of the British was deemed sufficient to capture
Charleston. But the Carolinians, led by Gen-
eral Lee, rose in arms and flocked to the city.
Charleston was fortified, and a fort, which
commanded the entrance to the harbor, was
built on Sullivan's Island. On the 4th of
June, the British squadron came in sight. On
the 28th the hostile fleet began a bombard-
ment of the fortress, which was commanded
by Colonel Moultrie. The vessels of the fleet
poured a tempest of balls upon the fort ; but
the walls, built of palmetto, were little injured.
The flag-staff was shot away, but Sergeant Jas-
per leaped down from the wall, recovered the
flag, and set it in its place again. As evening
drew on, the British were obliged to retire
with a loss of two hundred men. The loss of
the garrison amounted to thirty-two. As soon
as the British could repair their fleet they set
sail for New York.

During the summer, Washington's forces
were increased to twenty-seven thousand men ;
but the effective force was little more than
half that number. On the other side, Great
Britain was making the vastest preparations.
By a treaty with some of the German States,
seventeen thousand Hes-ians were hired to
fight siffainst America. (Jcorir'1 III. was going
to quell his revolted provinces by turning
loose upon them a brutal foreign soldiery.
Twenty-five thousand additional English tn>»]><
were levied : an immense squadron was fitted
out to aid in the reduction of the colonies,

962

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

and a million dollars were voted for the ex-
traordinary expenses of the war department.

Thus far the colonists had claimed to be
loyal subjects of Great Britain. Now the case
seemed hopeless. The people urged the gen-
eral assemblies, and the general assemblies
urged Congress to make a declaration of iude-

THE COMMITTEE PREPARING THE DECLARATION.

The final consideration of Lee's resolution
was postponed until the 1st of July ; and on
the llth of June, Thomas Jefferson, John
Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman,
and Robert R. Livingston, were appointed a
committee to prepare a formal declaration.
On the 1st of July, the committee's report
was laid before Con-
gress. On the next
day — the 2d — Lee's
resolution was
adopted. During the
3d, the formal decla-
ration was debated
with great spirit. The
discussion was re-
sumed on the 4th, and
at two o'clock in the
afternoon, the DEC-
LARATION OP AMERI-
CAN INDEPENDENCE
was adopted by a
unanimous vote.
The loyal old bell-
man of the State
House rang out the
note of freedom to
the nation. The mul-
titudes caught the sig-
nal and answered with
shouts. Everywhere
the declaration was
received with enthusi-
astic applause. At
Philadelphia the
king's arms were torn
down and burned in
the street. At Will-
iamsburg, Charles-
ton, and Savannah
there were bonfires.
At Boston the decla-
ration was read in

pendence. Congress responded by recommend-
ing the colonies to adopt such governments as
might best conduce to the safety of the people.
On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry
Lee, of Virginia, offered a resolution in Con-
gress declaring that the United Colonies are,
and of right ought to be, free and independent
States. A long and exciting debate ensued.

Faneuil Hall. At
New York the populace pulled down the statue
of George III. and cast it into bullets. Wash-
ington ordered the declaration to be read at
the head of each brigade of the army.

The leading principles of the Declaration
of Independence are these : That all men are
created equal ; that all have a natural right
to liberty and the pursuit of happiness ; that

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION— WAR OF AMERICAN IXIH.I'I.M.l.M I..

human governments are instituted for the sole
purpose of securing the welfare of the peo-
ple ; that the people have a natural right to
alter their government whenever it becomes
destructive of liberty ; that the government
of George III.
had become de-
structive of lib-
erty ; that the
despotism of the
king and his min-
isters could be
shown by a long
list of indisputa-
ble proofs — and
the proofs are
given ; that time
and again the
colonies had
humbly peti-
tioned for a re-
dress of griev-
ances ; that all
th e i r petitions
had been

spurned with de-
rision and con-
tempt; that the
king's irrational
tyranny over his
American sub-
jects was no
longer endura-
ble; that an ap-
peal to the sword
is preferable to
slavery; and
that, therefore,
the United Col-
onies of America
are, and of right
ought to be, free
and independent
States. To the
support of this
sublime declara-
tion of principles
the members of the Continental Congress mu-
tually pledged their lives, their fortune", and
their sacred honor.

The people of the American e<, Ionics were
Well prepared to receive the declaration. The '

public mind was now fully educated to accept
the doctrine of independence. The writing!
of the Adamses, Otis, and Jefferson had dis-
seminated the doctrines of political freedom ;
and Thomas Paiue's celebrated pamphlet on

Common K/ >i.<r had sapped the foundation of
any ivmainini: loyalty to the British crown.
No ooner was the Declaration of Independ-
ence given to the people than they, like the
signers r,f that great charter of liberty, pledged

964

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

to its support their lives, their fortunes, arid
their sacred honor.

Early in July, General Howe landed a
force of nine thousand men on Staten Island.
Thither Clinton came from the unsuccessful
siege of Charleston, and Admiral Howe from
England. The whole British force in the
vicinity of New York amounted to thirty
thousand men. Nearly half of them were
the imported Hessians, for whose transit
through his dominions Frederick the Great
had charged so much a head, saying in mag-

THOMAS 1'AIXE.

nificent satire that that was the rate which he
charged for driving live stock across his king-
dom ! Washington's army was greatly inferior
to the enemy in numbers, equipment, and
discipline.

Lord Howe had been instructed to try con-
ciliatory measures with the Americans. First,
he sent to the American camp a dispatch di-
rected to George Washington, Esquire. Wash-
ington refused to receive a communication
which did not recognize his official position.
Howe then sent another message, addressed to

George Washington, etc., etc., etc.; and the
bearer insisted that and-so-forth might mean
General of Hie American Army. But Wash-
ington sent the officer away. It was known
that Howe's authority extended only to grant-
ing pardons, and to this Washington replied
that since no offense had been committed no
pardon was required.

Lord Howe and his brother at once began
hostilities. On the 22d of August, the Brit-
ish, to the number of ten thousand, lauded
on LONG ISLAND. The Americans, about eight
thousand strong, were posted in
the vicinity of Brooklyn. On the
morning of the 27th of August,
General Grant's division of the
British army proceeded as far as
Greenwood Cemetery, where he
was met by General Stirling with
fifteen hundred men ; and the bat-
tle at once began. In this part
of the field there was no decisive
result. General Heister, in com-
mand of the British center, ad-
vanced beyond Flatbush, and
engaged the main body of the
Americans, under General Sulli-
van. Here the Hessians gained
little or no ground until Sullivan
was suddenly alarmed by the noise
of battle on his left and rear.

For General Putnam, to whom
that duty had been assigned, had
neglected to guard the passes on
the left of the American army.
During the night General Clinton
had occupied the heights above
the Jamaica road, and now his
division came down by way of
Bedford. Sullivan found himself
surrounded and cut off. The men fought
bravely, and many broke through the lines of
the British ; but the rest were scattered, killed,
or taken prisoners.

Cornwallis, attempting to cut off Stirling's
retreat, was repulsed. Most of Stirling's men
reached the American lines at Brooklyn, but
Generals Stirling, Sullivan, and Woodhull
were taken prisoners. Nearly a thousand pa-
triots were killed or missing. It seemed an
easy thing for Clinton and Howe to capture
all the rest. Washington, perceiving that he

THE AGE OF RE VOL UT10N.— WAR OF AMERICA* INDEPENDENCE. 965

•could not hold his position, resolved to with-
draw to New York. The enterprise was ex-
tremely hazardous. At eight o'clock on the
evening of the 29th, the embarkation of the
army began. All night with muffled oars the
boatmen rowed silently back and forth. At
daylight on the following morning, the move-*
incut was discovered by the British. They
rushed into the American intrenchmeuts, and
found — a few worthless guns.

( The defeat on Long Island was very disas-
trous to the American cause. Many of the
troops returned
to their homes.
Only by con-
stant exertion
did Washing-
ton keep his
army from dis-
banding. The
British fleet
anchored with-
in cannon-shot
of New York.
Washington re-
tired to the
Heights of Har-
lem, and on
the 15th of Sep-
tember the
British landed
three miles
above New
York. Thence
they extended
their Hues across
the island and
took possession

of the city. On the following day there
was a skirmish between the advance parties
of the two armies, in which the British
were driven back with a loss of a hundred
men. On the 16th of October, Howe em-
barked his forces, passed into Long Island
Sound, and landed in the vicinity of W.-t-
chester. The object was to get upon Un-
American flank and cut oil' communications
with the Eastern States. Washington de-
tected the movement, and laced the British
east of Harlem River. On the 28th a battle
was brought on at WHITI: PLAINS. Il<i\ve be-
gan the engagement with a cannonade, whieh

was answered with spirit. The Americans
were driven from one position, but intrenched
themselves in another. Night came on; and
Washington withdrew to the heights of North
Castle. Howe remained for a few days at
White Plains, and then returned to New
York.

The American army now crossed to the
west bank of the Hudson and took poet at
Fort Lee. Four thousand men were left at
North Castle under General Lee. Fort Wash-
ington, on Manhattan Island, was defended

BRTRKAT OF THE AMERICAN* FRO* I/ISO ISLAND.

by three thousand men under Colonel Magaw.
The skillful construction of this fort had at-
tracted the attention of Washington, and led
to an acquaintance with the engineer, ALEX-
DER HAMILTON, then a stripling but twenty
years of age. On the 16th of November Fort
Washington was captund by the British. The
•rarrison were made pri.-nners of war and
crowded into the jails of New York. Two
days after the surrender Fort Lee was taken
by Lord C'ornwallis. Washington, with his
army, now reduced to three thousand men,
retreated across the Hudson to Newark; but
Cornwallis and Knypliaiisen came hard after

966

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

the fugitives. The patriots continued their
flight to Princeton, and finally to Trenton,
on the Delaware. Nothing but the skill of
Washington saved the remnant of his forces
from destruction.

On the 8th of December Washington
crossed the Delaware. Cornwallis, having no
boats, was obliged to wait for the freezing of
the river. The British army was stationed in
the towns and villages east of the Delaware.
Trenton was held by two thousand Hessians
under Colonel Eahl. It was seen that as
soon as the river should be frozen the Brit-

THE AMERICAN RETREAT INTO JERSEY.

ish would march into Philadelphia, and Con-
gress accordingly adjourned to Baltimore.

On the same day that Washington crossed
the Delaware the islands of Rhode Island and
Conanicut were taken by Admiral Parker's
fleet ; and the American squadron under Com-
mander Hopkins was blockaded in Blackstone
River. During his retreat across New Jersey
Washington sent dispatches to General Lee,
at North Castle, to join the main army as
soon as possible. That officer marched with
his command as far as Morristown, and then
took up his quarters at Basking Ridge. On
the 13th of December a squad of British cav-
alry captured Lee and hurried him off to
New York. General Sullivan took command
of Lee's division, and hastened to join Wash-

ington. The entire American force now
amounted to a little more than six thousand.
The tide of misfortune turned at last.
Washington saw in the disposition of the
British forces an opportunity to strike a blow
for his country. The leaders of the enemy
were off their guard. The Hessians on the
east side of the river were spread out from
Trenton to Burlington. Washington con-
ceived the design, of crossing the Delaware
and striking the detachment at Trenton before
a concentration of the enemy's forces could be
effected. The American army was arranged
in three divisions. The
>4 first, under General
Cadwallader, was to
cross the river at Bris-
tol. General Ewing
was to pass over a
little below Trenton.
Washington himself,
with twenty-four hun-
dred men, was to cross
the Delaware nine
miles above Trenton,
march down the river,
and assault the town.
Christmas night
was selected as the
time for the move-
ment. The Delaware
was filled with floating
ice. Generals Ewing
and Cadwallader were
both baffled in their
efforts to cross the river. Washington, having
succeeded in getting over, divided his army into
two columns and pressed forward. At eight
o'clock in the morning the Americans came
rushing into the village from both directions.
The Hessians sprang from their quarters and
attempted to form in line. Colonel Rahl was
mortally wounded. Nearly a thousand of the
Hessians threw down their arms and begged
for quarter. Before nightfall Washington,
with his army and the whole body of captives,
was safe on the other side of the Delaware.

The battle of Trenton roused the nation
from despondency. The militia flocked to the
general's standard ; and fourteen hundred sol-
diers, whose term of enlistment now expired,
reentered the service. Robert Morris, the

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— WAX <>!• AMi:i;H .I.V IM>l-:i'l-:.\l>l;.\< /.. !ir,7

great financier of the Revolution, came for-
ward with his fortune to tin- support of his
country Three days after hU victory Well-
ington again crossed the Delaware ; and here
all the American detachments in the vicinity
were ordered to assemble. To General Heath,
stationed at Peekskill, Washington sent orders
to move into New Jersey. The British fell
back from their outposts and concentrated at
Princeton. Cornwallis resumed command in
person. So closed the year. Ten days pre-
viously Howe only waited for the freezing of

were driven l>a<-k ; and Cornwall!*
deferred the main attack till the morrow.
During the night Washington eallerl a council
of war, and it was determined to leave the
camp, pass the British left (lank, ami >trik.
the enemy at Princeton. The baggage was
removed to Burlington. The camp-fires were
brightly kindled and kept burning through
the night. Then the army was put in motion
towards Princeton. Every thing was done in
silence, and the morning light showed the
British sentries a deserted camp.

WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE.
After the painting by cranie.

the Delaware before taking up his quarters in
Philadelphia. Now it was a question whether
he would be able to hold a single town in New
Jersey.

On the 1st of January, 1777. Washington's
army at Trenton numbered about five thou-
sand men. On the next day Cornwallis ap-
proached with greatly superior forces. During
the afternoon there was severe skirmishing
along the roads east of Trenton. Washington
took up a new position south of Assanpink
Creek. The British, attempting to force a

At sunrise Washington was entering Prince-
ton. At the same time the British were rnarch-
inir out to reinforce Cornwallis. The Amer-
icans met tljem in the i-dgp of the village, and
the battle at once began. The British charged
bayonets, and the militia gave way in confu-
sion, (ieneral Mercer received a mortal
wound. But the Pennsylvania regulars, led

by the comman<ler-in-ehicf. st 1 their ground.

Washington rallied his men with the greatest
bravery: ami the British were routed, with a
loss of four hundred and thirty men in killed,

968

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

lUflingtOB

BATTLES OP TRENTON AND
PRINCETON, 1776-7.

wounded, and missing. Washington, fearing
the approach of Cornwallis, hastily withdrew
to the north, and on the 5th of January took
a position at Morristown. Cornwallis retired
to New Brunswick.
In a short time the
greater part of New
Jersey was recovered
by the patriots. Corn-
wallis gradually con-
tracted his lines until
his whole force was
cooped within the lim-
its of New Brunswick
and Amboy.

In the early spring,
the American stores
at Peekskill were de-
stroyed by the British.
On the 13th of April, Cornwallis surprised
General Lincoln on the Raritan ; but the latter
made good his retreat. On the 25th of the
month General Tryon, with a detachment of
two thousand men, proceeded against Dan-
bury, Connecticut. After burning the town,
the British were attacked by the patriots under
Wooster and Arnold, and lost two hundred
men. The veteran Wooster fell in this en-
gagement.

On the night of the 22d of May, Colonel
Meigs, of Connecticut, embarked two hundred
men in whale-boats, crossed the
sound, and attacked Sag Harbor.
The British were overpowered ; only
four of them escaped; five or six
were killed, and the remaining
ninety were made prisoners. The
stores were destroyed by the pa-
triots, who, without the loss of a
man, returned to Guilford. Col-
onel Meigs was rewarded with an
elegant sword from Congress.

The patriot forces of the North
were now concentrated on the Hud-
son ; and a camp, under Arnold,
was laid out on the Delaware. In
the latter part of May, Washington
broke up his winter-quarters and took an ad-
vantageous position only ten miles from the
British camp. Howe crossed over from New
York, and threatened an attack upon the
American lines. For a month the two armies

countermarched and skirmished. Finally the
British retired to Amboy, and on the 30th of
June crossed over to Staten Island. On the
10th of July, General Prescott, of the British
army, was captured at a farm-house near
Newport by Colonel William Barton and forty
volunteers. This lucky exploit gave the
Americans an officer of equal rank to ex-
change for General Lee. Colonel Barton was
rewarded with an elegant sword by Congress.
That body had, in the mean time, returned to
Philadelphia.

From the beginning of the war the people
of France had been friendly to the American
cause. By and by their sympathy became
more outspoken. The French ministers would
do nothing openly to provoke a war with
Great Britain; but secretly they rejoiced at
every British misfortune. The Americans
came to understand that, if money was re-
quired, France would lend it; if arms were
to be purchased, France had arms to sell.
During the year 1777, the French man-
aged to supply the colonies with twenty

LA FAYETTE IN HIS YOUTH.

thousand muskets and a thousand barrels of
powder.

At last the republicans of France began to
embark for America. Foremost of all came
Gilbert Motier, the young MARQUIS OF LA

THE AGE OF REVOLUTIOX.-WAR OF AM KliU .l.V IXHKI'KSDENCE. 969

FAYETTE. Fitting a vessel at his own expense,
he eluded the officers — for he had been for-
bidden to sail — and with the brave Barou De
Kail) and a small company of followers,
reached South Carolina in April of 1777. He
entered the army as a volunteer, and in the
following July was commissioned a major-
general.

One of the most important events of the
war was the campaign of General Bur-
goyne. Superseding Sir Guy Carleton hi com-
mand of the English forces in Canada, he
spent the spring of 1777 in organizing an
army of ten thousand men for the invasion
of New York. The forces consisted of Brit-
ish, Hessians, Canadians, and Indians. The
plan of the campaign embraced a descent
upon Albany and New York, and the cutting
off of New England from the Middle and
Southern colonies. On the 1st of June, the
invaders reached Lake Champlain, and on
the 16th proceeded to Crown Point. This
place was occupied by the British ; and on
the 5th of July, Ticonderoga, which was de-
fended by three thousand men under General
St. Clair, was captured. The garrison re-
treated to Hubbardton, Vermont. Here an
engagement ensued, in which the Americans
fought so obstinately as to check the pursuit.
On the following day the British reached
Whitehall, and captured a large quantity of
stores.

At this time the American army of the
North was commanded by General Schuyler.
His forces, numbering between four and five
thousand, were at Fort Edward. This place
was captured by Burgoyne on the 30th of
July, the Americans retreating down the
Hudson. The British general now dispatched
Colonels Baum and Breymann, with a strong
detachment, to seize the stores at Bennington,
Vermont. Colonel John Stark rallied the
New Hampshire militia, and on the 15th of
August met the British near the village. On
the following morning there was a furious
battle, in which Baum's force was com-
pletely routed. The British lost in killed,
wounded, and prisoners more than eisrht hun-
dred men. The country was thrilled by the
victory.

A few days after the battle of Beunington,
Burgoyne received intelligence of a still

greater reverse. At the beginning of the in-
vasion a large force of Canadians and Indians,
commanded by General St. Leger, had been
sent against Fort Schuyler, on the Mohawk.
On the 3d of August, St. Leger invested the
fort. General Herkimer rallied the militia
of the country, but was defeated with a lose
of a hundred and sixty men. Meanwhile,
however, General Arnold had led a detach-
ment from the Hudson for the relief of the
fort. At hia approach the savages fled. 8t
Leger, dismayed at their treachery, raised the
siege and retreated. Such was the news that
was borne to Burgoyne at Fort Edward.
The British general now lost a month in

GEXEKAL JOHN BUKGOYNE.

procuring supplies from Canada. He found
himself hemmed in by nine thousand patriot
soldiers. General Lincoln arrived with the
militia of New England. Washington sent
several detachments from the regular army.
Morgan came with his riflemen from the
South. General Gates superseded Schuyler
in command of the northern army. On the
8th of September the American head-quarters
were advanced to Stidwater. At BEMIB'S
1 1 i-:itiHTs, a short distance north of this place,
a camp was laid out and fortified under di-
rection of the noted Polish engineer and pa-
triot. Thaddcu- Kosciusko. On the 14th of
the month Burtroyue crossed the Hudson and
took pu-t at Saratoga. The two armies now
came face to face. On the liUh a general

970

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

battle ensued, continuing until nightfall. The
conflict, though severe, was indecisive ; the
Americans retired within their lines, and the
British slept on the field. To the patriots the
result of the battle was equivalent to a victory.
The condition of Burgoyne grew critical.
His supplies failed ; his Canadian and Indian
allies deserted his standard. Meanwhile, Gen-
eral Clinton, who commanded the British army
in New York, made the most unwearied efforts

THADDEUS KOSCICSKO.

to save Burgoyne. He sailed up the river
and captured Forts Clinton and Montgomery.
But nothing further was accomplished, and
Burgoyne became desperate. On the 7th of
October he hazarded another battle, in which
he lost his bravest officers and nearly seven
hundred privates. The brave General Fraser,
who commanded the British right, was killed.
His disheartened men turned and fled from
the field. On the American side Arnold was
the inspiring genius of the battle. The Amer-
icans were completely victorious.

Burgoyne now began a retreat, and on the
9th of October reached Saratoga. Here he
was intercepted by Gates and Lincoln, and
driven to surrender. On the 17th of October
terms of capitulation were agreed on, and the
whole army, numbering five thousand seven
hundred and ninety-one, became prisoners of
war. Among the captives were six members
of the British Parliament. Forty-two pieces
of brass artillery, five thousand muskets, and
an immense quantity of stores were
the fruits of the victory.

As soon as the invasion was at an
end, a large portion of the American
army was dispatched to aid Washing-
ton. For, in the mean time, a great
campaign had been in progress in
the South; and the patriots were
sorely pressed. On the 23d of July,
Howe had sailed from New York,
with eighteen thousand men, to at-
tack Philadelphia. Learning that the
Americans had obstructed the Dela-
ware, he determined to change his
plan, enter the Chesapeake, and make
the attack by land. Washington ad-
vanced his head-quarters from Phil-
adelphia to Wilmington. The Amer-
ican army, numbering between eleven
and twelve thousand men, was con-
centrated at that place. The forces
of Howe were vastly superior, but
Washington hoped to beat back the
invaders and save the capital.

On the 25th of August the British
landed at Elk Eiver, in Maryland,
and began their march towards Phil-
adelphia. Washington selected the
BRANDYWTXE as his line of defense.
The left wing was stationed at Chad's
Ford, while the right, under General Sullivan,
was extended up the river. On the llth of
September the British reached the opposite bank
and began battle. The Hessians, under Gen-
eral Knyphausen, attacked at the ford ; but
the British, led by Cornwallis and Howe,
marched up the Brandywine and crossed
above the American right. Sullivan allowed
himself to be outflanked. Washington was
misled by false information ; the right wing
was crushed in by Cornwallis, and the day
was lost.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF AMERICAN IM>l-:ri-:.\l>l-:.\< /.. 971

ENCAMPMENT AT VALLEY FORGE, 1777-8.

During the night the patriots retreated to
Westchester. The loss of the Americans
amounted to a thousand men; that of tin-
British to five hundred and eighty-four. La
Fayette was severely wounded. Count Pulaski
so distinguished himself in this engagement

that Congress
honored him
with the rank
of brigadier.
Washington
continued his
retreat as far
as German-
town. On the
15th of the
month he recrossed the Schuylkill and met
Howe at Warren's Tavern. A spirited skir-
mish ensued, and a great battle was im-
minent. But just as the conflict was begin-
ning, a violent tempest swept over the field.
The combatants were deluged, their cartridges
soaked, and fighting made impossible. Wash-
ington still attempted to keep between the
British and the city. But Howe succeeded in
crossing the Schuylkill, and hastened onward
to Philadelphia. On the 26th of September
the city was easily taken, and the main di-
vision of the British army encamped at Ger-
inantowu.

Congress adjourned, first to Lancaster, and
afterwards to York, where they held their ses-
sions until the next summer. Washington
now made his camp on Skippack Creek,
twenty miles from the city. On the night of
the 3d of October he attempted to surprise
the British at GERMANTOWN. But the roads
were rough, and the different columns reached
the British outposts at irregular intervals.
There was much severe fighting, and at one
time it seemed that the British would be over-
whelmed; but they gained possession of a
large stone house, and could not be dislodged.
The tide turned against the patriots, and the
day was lost. Of the Americans, about a
thousand were killed, wounded, and missing.
The total British loss was five hundred and
thirty-five.

On the 22d of October, Fort Mercer, on
the Delaware, was assaulted by twelve hun-
dred Hessians. Count Donop, the commander,
and nearly four hundred of his men, fell be-

fore the American intrenchments. At the
same time, the British fleet attacked I
Milllin, on Mud Island. A siege ensued,
lasting till the 15th of Nuveml.er. Then at
midnight the fortress was set on fire, and the
garrison escaped to Fort Mercer. On the
20th of November this fort was also aban-
doned to the British. General Howe thus
obtained control of the Delaware.

After the battle of Germantown Washing-
ton took up his head-quarters at Whitemareh.
The patriots began to suffer for food and
clothing. On the evening of the 2d of De-
cember Howe held a council of war at the
house of Lydia Dnrnili in Philadelphia. It
was decided to surprise Washington in his
camp. But Lydia, who overheard the plans
of Howe, left the city on pretense of going to
mill, rode to the American lines, and gave the
alarm. When, on the morning of the 4th,
the British approached Whitemarsh, they
found the cannons mounted and the patriots
in order of battle. The British general

BARON FREDERICK WILLIAM OF STKJREN.

maneuvered for four days, and then marched
baek to Philadelphia.

On the llth of December Wn-lii!ii_'t"n
went into winter quarters at Valley Forge,
on the right bank of the Schuylkill. Thou-
sands of the soldiers were without shoes, and

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the frozen ground was marked with bloody
footprints. Log cabins were built, and every
thing was done that could be done to secure
the comfort of the suffering patriots. But it
was a long and dreary winter. These were
the darkest days of Washington's life. Cou-
eress in a measure abandoned him. The sue-

o

cess of the army of the North was unjustly
compared with the reverses of the army of
the South. Many men high in military and
civil station left the great leader unsupported.
But the allegiance of the army remained un-
shaken, and the nation's confidence in the

BEAUMARCHilS.

chieftain became stronger than ever. At the
close of 1777 the patriot cause was obscured
with clouds and misfortune.

Meanwhile, however, negotiations had been
successfully begun looking to an alliance of
the Americans and the French. In Novem-
ber of 1776 Silas Deane, of Connecticut, was
appointed commissioner to the court of Louis
XVI., then in the third year of his reign.
His first service was to make a secret arrange-
ment with the ministry to supply the Ameri-
cans with materials for carrying on the war.
In the autumn of 1777 a ship laden with two
hundred thousand dollars' worth of arms, am-
munition, and specie was sent to America. In

that ship came Baron Steuben, who was com-
missioned by Congress as inspector-general of
the army.

Arthur Lee and Benjamin Franklin were
also appointed by Congress to negotiate a
treaty with the French king. In December
of 1776 they reached Paris and began their
duties. For a long time King Louis and his
minister stood aloof from the proposed alli-
ance. They hated Great Britain, and gave
secret encouragement to the colonies ; but an
open treaty with the Americans was equiva-
lent to a war with England, and that the
French court dreaded.

Now it was that the genius
of Dr. Franklin shone with a
peculiar luster. At the gay-
court of Louis XVI. he stood
as the representative of his
country. His wit and genial
humor made him admired ; his
talents and courtesy commanded
respect ; his patience and perse-
verance gave him final success.
During the whole of 1777 he
remained at Paris and Versailles.
At last came the news of Bur-
goyne's surrender. A powerful
British army had been subdued
by the colonists without aid from
abroad. The success of the
American arms and the influ-
ence of the great financier,
Beaumarchais, who for several
years had been in correspond-
ence with the American agents
abroad, induced the king to ac-
cept the proposed alliance with the colonies.
On the 6th of February, 1778, a treaty was
concluded; France acknowledged the inde-
pendence of the United States, and entered
into relations of friendship with the new
nation.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, the author of the
first treaty between the United States and a
foreign nation, was born in Boston on the 17th
of January, 1706. His father was a manu-
facturer of soap and candles. At the age of
twelve Benjamin was apprenticed to his brother
to learn the art of printing. In 1723 he went
to Philadelphia, entered a printing-office, and
rose to distinction. He visited England; re-

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF A.Ml-lRK ,LV lM>i:ri:.\l>l..\< /.. !<7:;

turned ; founded the first circulating library
in America; edited Poor Richards Ahnanac;
discovered the identity of electricity and light-
ning ; espoused the patriot cause, and devoted
his old age to perfecting the American Union.
The name of Franklin is one of the brightest
in history.

In May of 1778 Congress ratified the treaty
with France. A month previously a French
fleet, under Count d'Estaing, had been sent to
America. Both France and Great Britain
immediately prepared for war. George III.
now became willing to treat with his Ameri-
can subjects. Lord North brought forward
two bills in which every thing that the
colonists had claimed was conceded. The
bills were passed by Parliament, and the
king assented. Commissioners were sent to
America, but Congress informed them that
nothing but an acknowledgment of the in-
dependence of the United States would
now be accepted. So it is that the obsti-
nacy of tyrants conduces to the liberties of
mankind.

The British army remained at Philadel-
phia until June of 1778. The fleet of
Admiral Howe lay in the Delaware. When
the rumor came that the fleet of D'Estaing
was approaching, the English admiral set
sail for New York. On the 18th of June
the British army evacuated Philadelphia
and retreated across New Jersey. Wash-
ington occupied the city, and followed the
retreating foe. At MONMOUTH the British
were overtaken. On the morning of the
28th, General Lee was ordered to attack
the enemy. The American cavalry under
La Fayette was driven back by Corn-
wallis. Lee ordered his line to retire to a
stronger position ; but the troops mistook the
order and began a retreat. Washington met
the fugitives and administered a severe rebuke
to Lee. The fight continued till nightfall,
and Washington anxiously waited for the
morning. During the night, however, Clin-
ton withdrew his forces and escaped.

The loss of the Americans was two hun-
dred and twenty-seven. The British left
nearly three hundred dead on the field. On
the day after the battle Washington received
an insulting letter from Lee demanding an
apology. Washington replied that his lan-

guage had been warranted by the cin 11111-
stances. Lee answered in a still more offen-
sive manner, and was thereupon arrested,
tried by a court-martial, and dismissed from
his command for twelve months. He never
reentered the service, and did not live to see
our country's independence.

The British forces were now concentrated
at New York. Washington took up his head-
quarters at White Plains. On the llth of
July, Count d'Estaing's fleet attempted to
attack the British squadron in the bay ; but
the bar at the entrance prevented the passage
of the French vessels. D'Estaing next sailed

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN.

for Rhode Island, and General Sullivan pro-
ceeded to Providence to cooperate with him
in an attack on Newport. On the 9th of
August, Sullivan secured a favorable position
on the island. A joint attack by land and
sea was planned for the following day. On
that morning the fleet of Lord Howe came in
."L'ht. and D'Estaing sailed out to give battle.
•I u>t as the two squadrons were about to begin
an engagement, a storm arose by which the
fleets were parted and greatly damaged.
D'Estaing repaired to Boston and Howe re-
turned to New York.

Sullivan laid siege to Newport, but soon
found it necessary to retreat. The British

974

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

pursued, and a battle was fought in which the
enemy was repulsed with a loss of two hun-
dred aud sixty men. On the following night
Sullivan succeeded in escaping from the island.
General Clinton returned to New York.

The command of the British naval forces
operating against America was now trans-
ferred to Admiral Byron. Early in October,
a band of incendiaries, led by Colonel Fergu-
son, burned the American ships at Little Egg
Harbor. In the preceding July Major John
Butler, in command of sixteen hundred loy-
alists, Canadians, and Indians, marched into

GENERAL ANTHONY WAYNE.

the valley of Wyoming, Pennsylvania. The
settlement was defenseless. On the approach
of the Tories and savages a few militia, old
men and boys, rallied to protect their homes.
A battle was fought, and the patriots were
routed. The fugitives fled to a fort, which
was crowded with women and children. Hon-
orable terms were promised by Butler, and
the garrison capitulated. On the 5th of July
the gates were opened and the barbarians en-
tered. Immediately they began to plunder
and butcher. Nearly all the ' prisoners fell
under the hatchet and the scalping-knife.

In November there was a similar massacre
at Cherry Valley, New York. The invaders

were led by Joseph Brandt, chief of the Mo-
hawks, and Walter Butler, a son of Major
John Butler. The people of Cherry Valley
were driven from their homes; women and
children were tomahawked and scalped, and
forty prisoners dragged into captivity. To
avenge these outrages, an expedition was sent
against the savages on the Susquehanna ; and
they in turn were made to feel the terrors of
war. In the spring of 1778, Major Clarke
marched against the Indians west of the
Alleghanies. The expedition descended to
the mouth of the Ohio; and, on the 4th of
the following July, captured Kaskaskia.
Other important posts were taken; and, on
the 26th of February, 1779, Vincennes, on
the Wabash, was forced to capitulate.

On the 3d of November, Count d'Estaing's
fleet sailed for the West Indies. In December
Admiral Byron left New York to try the for-
tunes of war on the ocean. Colonel Campbell,
with two thousand men, was sent by General
Clinton for the conquest of Georgia.
On the 29th of December the expe-
dition reached Savannah. The place
was defended by General Robert Howe,
with eight hundred men. A battle
was fought, and the Americans were
driven out of the city. The patriots
crossed into South Carolina, and found
refuge at Charleston. Such was the
only real conquest made by the British
during the year.

The winter of 1778-79 was passed
by the American army at Middlebrook.
There was much discouragement among
the soldiers, for they were neither paid
nor fed. But the influence of Washington
prevented a mutiny. In February, Gov-
ernor Tryon, of New York, marched with
fifteen hundred regulars and Tories to de-
stroy the salt-works at Horse Neck, Con-
necticut. General Putnam rallied the militia
and made a brave defense. The Americans
were finally outflanked by the British and
obliged to fly. It was here that General
Putnam, when about to be overtaken, spurred
his horse down a precipice and escaped.

In the latter part of May, Clinton sailed
with an armament up the Hudson to Stony
Point. The garrison, unable to resist, es-
caped from the fortifications. On the 1st of

'/•///•; AGE Of HKYDU-TUtX.- WAR OF AUI.RK '.I.V INDEPENDENT /.. :'7:>

June, the British bombarded Verplanck's
Point, on the other side of the river, and
compelled a surrender. In July, Tryon, with
twenty-six hundred Hessians and Tories, cap-
tured New Haven. East Haven and Fairfield
were given to the* Hume.-. At Norwalk, while
the village was burning, Tryou, on a neigh-
boring hill, sat in a rocking-chair and laughed
heartily at the scene.

The work of retaking Stony Point was as-
signed by Washington to General Anthony
Wayne. On the 15th of July he marched
against that stronghold, and, in the evening,
halted near the fort and gave his orders. The
British pickets were caught and gagged.
Every thing was done in silence. Muskets
were unloaded and bayonets fixed ; not a gun
was to be fired. The assault was made a
little after midnight. The patriots never
wavered in the charge. The ramparts were
scaled ; and the British, finding themselves
between two lines of bayonets, cried out for
quarter. Sixty-three of the enemy fell ; the
remaining five hundred and forty-three were
made prisoners. Of the Americans, only
fifteen were killed and eighty-three wounded.
General Wayne secured the ordnance and
stores, and then destroyed the fort.

Three days afterwards, Major Lee captured
the British garrison at Jersey City. On the
25th of the month, a fleet was sent against
a British post at the mouth of the Peuobscot.
On the l&th of August, while the American
ships were besieging the post, they were at-
tacked and destroyed by a British squadron.
In the summer of this year, four thousand
:-i x hundred men, led by Generals Sullivan
and James Clinton, were sent against the
Indians on the Susquehauna. At Elmira the
savages and Tories had fortified themselves;
but, on the 29th of August, they were forced
from their stronghold and utterly routed.
The country between the Susquehanna and
the Genesee was wasted \\\ the patriots.
Forty Indian villages were destroyed.

On the 9th of January. 1779, Fort Sun-
bury, on St. Catherine's Sound, was captured
by the British under General IVvo-t. This
officer then assumed command of the Briti.-h
army in the South. A i'oree .if two thousand
regulars and loyalists \vas dispatched ajrainst
Augusta. On the 29th of January, the Brit-

ish reached their destination, and Augusta was
taken. In the mean time, tin- Torii-s, who were
advancing to join the British at Augusta, were
defeated by the patriots under Captain An-
derson. On the 14th of I-Ybruary. t||,.v were
again overtaken and routed by Colonel Tick-
ens. Colonel Boyd, the Tory loader, and sev-
enty of his men were killed. Seventy-five
others were captured, and five of the ring-
leaders hanged. The western half of Georgia
was quickly recovered by the patriots.

General Ashe was sent with two thousand
men to intercept the enemy. On the 25th
of February, the Americans crossed the Sa-
vannah, and pursued Campbell as far as Brier
Creek. Here the patriots came to a halt; and
General Prevost, marching from Savannah, sur-
rounded Ashe's command. A battle was fought
on the 3d of March ; the Americans were totally
routed, and driven into the swamps. Bv this de-
feat, Georgia was again prostrated, and a royal
government was established over the State.

Within a month, General Lincoln was again
in the field with five thousand men. He ad-
vanced up the left bank of the river in the
direction of Augusta; but, at the same time,
General Prevost crossed the Savannah, and
marched against Charleston. General Lincoln
turned back to attack him, and the British
made a hasty retreat. The Americans over-
took the enemy at Stono Ferry, ten miles west
of Charleston, but were repulsed with consid-
erable loss. Prevost then fell back to Savan-
nah, and from June until September military
operations were suspended.

Count d'Estaing now arrived with his fleet
from the West Indies to cooperate with Lin-
coln in the reduction of Savannah. Prevost
concentrated his forces for the defense of the
city. On the 12th of September, the French,
numbering six thousand, effected a landing,
and advanced to the siege. Eleven days
elapsed before General Lincoln arrived with
his forces. On the 16th of the month, D'Es-
tainp demanded a surrender; but Prevost an-
swered with a message of defiance. The siege
was pressed with vigor, and the city constantly
bombarded. But the defenses remained un-
shaken. At last IVKstaini; notified Lincoln
that the city must be stormed. It wa- d< ter-
mincd to make the assault on the morning of
the 9th of October.

976

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Before sunrise the allies advanced against
the redoubts of the British. The attack was
made with great vehemence. At one time it
seemed that the works would be carried. The
flags of Carolina and France were planted on
the parapet, but were soon hurled down. Ser-
geant Jasper, the hero of Fort Moultrie, was
killed. The allied columns were driven back
with fearful losses. Count Pulaski was struck
with a grape-shot, and borne dying from the
field. D'Estaing retired on board the fleet,
and Lincoln retreated to Charleston.

On the 23d of September, Paul Jones, cruis-
ing off the coast of Scotland with a fleet of
French and American vessels, fell in with a
British squadron, and a bloody battle ensued.
The Seraph, a British frigate of forty-four
guns, engaged the Poor Richard within musket-
shot. At last the vessels were lashed together,
and the Serapis struck her colors. Jones trans-
ferred his men to the conquered ship, and the
Poor Richard went down. Of the three hun-
dred and seventy-five men on board the fleet
of Jones, three hundred were either killed or
wounded.

So closed the year 1779. The colonies were
not yet free. The French alliance had brought
but little benefit. The national treasury was
bankrupt. The patriots of the army were poorly
fed, and paid only with unkept promises. The
disposition of Great Britain was still for war.
The levies of sailors and soldiers made by Par-
liament amounted to a hundred and twenty
thousand ; while the expenses of the War De?
partment were set at twenty million pounds
sterling.

During the year 1780, military operations
at the North were, for the most part, sus-
pended. Early in July, Admiral De Ternay
arrived at Newport with a French squadron
and six thousand land-troops under Count
Rochambeau. The Americans were greatly
elated at the coming of their allies. In Sep-
tember the commander-in-chief held a confer-
ence with Rochambeau, and the plans of future
campaigns were determined.

In the South the patriots suffered many re-
verses. South Carolina was completely over-
run by the enemy. On the llth of February,
Admiral Arbuthnot anchored before Charles-
ton. Sir Henry Clinton and five thousand men
were on board the fleet. The city was defended

by fourteen hundred men, under General Liu-
coin. The British effected a landing, and ad-
vanced up the right bank of Ashley River. On
the 7th of April, Lincoln was reinforced by
seven hundred Virginians. Two days afterward
Arbuthnot succeeded in passing Fort Moultrie,
and came within cannon-shot of the city.

A siege was at once begun, and prosecuted
with vigor. Lincoln sent three hundred men
under General Huger to scour the country
north of Cooper River. Apprised of this
movement, Tarleton with the British cavalry
stole upon Huger's forces at Monk's Corner
and dispersed the whole company. The city
was now fairly hemmed in. From the begin-
ning the defense was hopeless. The fortifica-
tions were beaten down, and Lincoln, dread-
ing an assault, agreed to capitulate. On the
12th of May, Charleston was surrendered to
the British, and the garrison became prisoners
of war.

A few days before the surrender, Tarleton
surprised and dispersed a body of militia on
the Santee. Afterward three expeditions were
sent into different sections of the State. The
American post at Ninety-Six was seized. A
second detachment invaded the country on
the Savannah. Cornwallis crossed the San-
tee and captured Georgetown. Tarleton, with
seven hundred cavalry, overtook the Amer-
icans under Colonel Buford, on the Wax-
haw, charged upon and scattered the whole
command. The authority of Great Britain
was reestablished over South Carolina. Clin-
ton and Arbuthnot returned to New York,
and Cornwallis was left to hold the conquered
territory. In this condition of affairs, Thomas
Sumter and Francis Marion appeared as the
protectors of the State. They rallied the mili-
tia, and began an audacious partisan warfare.
Detachments of the British were swept off as
though an enemy had fallen on them from the
skies. At Rocky Mount, Colonel Sumter burst
upon a party of dragoons, who barely saved
themselves. On the 6th of August, he attacked
a detachment at Hanging Rock, defeated them
and retreated. It was in this battle that young
Andrew Jackson, then but thirteen years of age,
began his career as a soldier.

Marion's company consisted of twenty men
and boys, white and black, half clad and poorly
armed. But the number increased, and the

THE AGP: OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF AMERICAN INDEl'I.M'l.M /.. >i"

"Ragged Regiment" soon became a terror to
the enemy. There was no telling when or
where the sword of the fearless leader would
fall. From the swamps at midnight, he and
his men would suddenly dart upon the en-
campments of the enemy. During the sum-
mer and autumn of 1780, he swept around
Cornwallis's positions, cutting his lines of com-
munication, and making incessant onsets.

General Gates now advanced into the Car-
olinas. Lord Rawdon concentrated his forces
at Camden. Hither came Cornwallis with
reinforcements. The Americans took post at
Clermont. Cornwallis and Gates each formed
the design of surprising the other in the night.
On the evening of the 15th of August, they
both moved from their camps and met mid-
way on SANDER'S CREEK. After a severe bat-
tle the Americans were completely defeated,
with a loss of more than a thousand men.
Baron De Kalb was mortally wounded. The
reputation of Gates was blown away like
chaff, and he was superseded by General
Greene.

A few days after the battle, Sumter's corps
was overtaken by Tarleton at Fishing Creek
and completely routed. Only Clarion re-
mained to harass the enemy. On the 8th of
September, the British advanced into North
Carolina, and on the 25th reached Charlotte.
Colonel Ferguson, with eleven hundred reg-
ulars and Tories, was sent into the country
west of the'Catawba to encourage the loyal-
ists. On the 7th of October, while he and his
men were encamped on King's Mountain, they
were attacked by a thousand riflemen led by
Colonel Campbell. A desperate battle en-
sued ; Ferguson was slain, and three hundred
of his men were killed or wounded. The re-
maining eight hundred threw down their arras
and begged for quarter. Ten of the leading
Tory prisoners were condemned by a court-
martial and hanged.

Meanwhile, the credit of the nation was
sinking to the lowest ebb. Congress reported
to paper money. At first the continental bills
were received at par; but the value of the
notes rapidly diminished, until, by the mid-
dle of 1780, they were not worth two cents to
the dollar. Business was paralyzed for the
want of a currency ; but Robert Morris and a
few other wealthy patriots came forward with
VOL. II.-62

their private fortunes and saved the colonies
from ruin. The mothers of America also lent
a helping hand; and the patriot soldiers were
supplied with food and clothing.

In tin- midst of the gloom the country was
shocked by the news that Benedict Arnold
had turned traitor. After the battle of
Semis's Heights, in the fall of 1777, he had
been promoted to the rank of major-general,
and made commandant of Philadelphia. Here
he married the daughter of a loyalist, and
entered upon a career of extravagance which
overwhelmed him with debt. He then began
a system of frauds on the commissary depart-
ment of the army. Charges were preferred
against him by Congress, and he was convicted

FRASCB MARION.

by a court-martial. Seeming to forget his
disgrace, Arnold obtained command of the
fortress of West Point on the Hudson. On
the last day of July, 1780, he assumed con-
trol of the arsenal and de'pot of stores at that
place. He then entered into a secret corre-
spondence with Sir Henry Clinton, and finally
offered to betray his country for gold. It was
agreed that the British fleet should ascend the
Hudson, and that the garrison and the fortress
should be given up without a struggle.

On the 21st of September Clinton sent
Major John Andre: to hold a conference with
Arnold and make arrangements for the sur-
render. Andre, who was adjutant-<:eneral of
the British army, went in full uniform, and

978

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the meeting was held outside of the American
lines. About midnight of the 21st he went
ashore from the Vulture, and met Arnold in a
thicket. Daydawn approached and the con-
spirators entered the American lines. Andre
disguising himself, assumed the character of a

spy-

During the next day, the business was
completed. Arnold agreed to surrender West
Point for ten thousand pounds and a commis-
sion as brigadier in the British army. Andre
received papers containing a description of
West Point, its defenses, and the best method
of attack. During that day an American bat-
tery drove the Vulture down the river, and
Andre was obliged to cross to the other side
and return by land. He passed the American
outposts in safety; but at Tarrytown he was
confronted by three militiamen,1 who stripped
him, found his papers, and delivered him to
Colonel Jameson at North Castle. Arnold, on
hearing the news, escaped on board the Vul-
ture. Andre was tried by a court-martial at
Tappan, and condemned to death. On the
2d of October, he was led to the gallows, and,
under the stern code of war, was hanged.

For several years Holland had favored the
Americans ; now she began negotiations for a
treaty similar to that between France and the
United States. Great Britain discovered the
purposes of the Dutch government, and re-
monstrated. Her remonstrance came to noth-
ing, and on the 20th of December an open
declaration of war was made. Thus the Neth-
erlands were added to the enemies of England.
For the Americans, the year 1781 opened
gloomily. The condition of the army was
desperate — no food, no pay, no clothing. On
the first day of January the whole Pennsylva-
nia line mutinied and marched on Philadel-
phia. At Princeton they were met by emissa-
ries from Sir Henry Clinton and were tempted
with offers of money and clothing if they
would desert the American standard. The
mutinous patriots made answer by seizing the
British agents and delivering them to General
Wayne to be hanged as spies. For this deed
the commissioners of Congress, who now ar-
rived, offered the insurgents a large reward,

'John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van
Wart. Congress afterward rewarded them with
silver medals and pensions for life.

but the reward was indignantly refused. Wash-
ington, knowing how shamefully the army had
been neglected by Congress, was not unwill-
ing that the mutiny should take its own course.
The congressional agents were therefore left to
adjust the difficulty as best they could with
the rebellious troops.

About the middle of the same month the
New Jersey brigade, stationed at Pompton,
revolted. This movement Washington quelled
by force. General Robert Howe marched to
the camp with five hundred regulars and com-
pelled twelve of the principal mutineers to
execute the two leaders of the revolt. From
that day order was completely restored. These
insurrections had a good rather than a bad
effect; Congress was thoroughly alarmed, and
immediate provisions were made for the better
support of the army. An agent was sent to
France to obtain a further loan of money.
Robert Morris was appointed secretary of
finance ; the Bank of North America was or-
ganized ; and although the outstanding debts
of the United States could not be paid, yet
all future obligations were promptly met; for
Morris and his friends pledged their private
fortunes to sustain the credit of the gov-
ernment.

In the North, military movements were be-
gun by Arnold. On arriving at New York
the traitor had received the promised commis-
sion, and was now a brigadier-general in the
British army. In the preceding November,
Washington and Major Henry Lee formed a
plan to capture him. Sergeant John Champe
undertook the daring enterprise, deserted to
the enemy, entered New York, joined Ar-
nold's company, and with two assistants,
concerted measures to abduct him from the
city and convey him to the American camp.
But Arnold suddenly moved his quarters and
the plan was defeated. A month afteward he
was given command of a fleet and a land-force
of sixteen hundred men, and on the 16th of
December left New York to make a descent
on the coasts of Virginia.

Early in January the traitor entered James
River and began war on his countrymen. His
proceedings were marked with much ferocity,
but not with the daring which characterized his
former exploits. In the vicinity of Richmond
a vast quantity of public and private property

THE AGE OF REVOL UTION.— WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 979

was destroyed. The country along the river
was devastated ; and when there was nothing
left to excite his cupidity or gratify his re-
venge, Arnold took up his head-quarters in
Portsmouth, a few miles south of Hampton
Roads.

About the middle of April, General Phil-
lips arrived at Portsmouth with a force of two
thousand British regulars. Joining his troops
with those of Arnold, he assumed command
of the whole, and again the fertile districts of
Lower Virginia were ravaged with fire and
sword. Early in May, Phillips died, and for
seven days Arnold held the supreme command
of the British forces in Virginia. That was
the height of his treasonable glory. On the
20th of the mouth Lord Cornwallis arrived at
Petersburg and ordered him begone. Return-
ing to New York, he received from Clinton a
second detachment, entered the Sound, landed
at New London, in his native State, and cap-
tured the town. Fort Griswold, which was
defended by Colonel Ledyard with a hundred
and fifty militiamen, was carried by storm.
When Ledyard surrendered, seventy-three of
the garrison were murdered in cold blood.

General Greene was now in command of
the American army at Charlotte, North Car-
olina. Early in January, General Morgan
was sent into the Spartanburg district of South
Carolina to repress the Tories, whither he was
followed by Colonel Tarleton with his cavalry.
The Americans took a position at the COWPENS,
where, on the 17th of January, they were at-
tacked by the British. Tarleton made the
onset with impetuosity ; but Morgan's men
bravely held their ground. At last the
American cavalry, under Colonel William
Washington, made a charge and scattered the
British dragoons like chaff. Ten British offi-
cers and ninety privates were killed.

Win 'ii Cornwallis heard of the battle, he
marched up the river to cut off Morgan's re-
treat. But Greene hastened to the camp of
Morgan and took command in person. On
the 28th of January, the Americans reached
the Catawba and crossed to the northern
bank. Within two hours the British arrived
at the ford; but during the night the rain
poured down in torrents ; the river was
swollen to a flood ; and it was many days be-
fore the British could cross. Then began a

race for the Yadkin. The distance was sixty
miles, and in two days the Americans reached
the river. The crossing was nearly effected,
when the British appeared in sight. That
night the Yadkin was made impassable by
rains, and Cornwallis was again delayed. On
the 9th of February, the British succeeded in
crossing. The lines of retreat and pursuit
were now nearly parallel. A third time the
race began, and again the Americans won it.
On the 13th, Greene, with the main division,
crossed the Dan into Virginia.

On the 22d of February, General Greene
returned into North Carolina. Meanwhile,
Cornwallis had sent Tarleton into the region
between the Haw and Deep Rivers to encour-
age the Tories. Three hundred loyalists were
already under arms in that neighborhood.
While marching to join Tarleton, they were
intercepted, and the entire company dispersed
by Colonel Lee. Greene's army now num-
bered more than four thousand men. Deter-
mining to avoid battle no longer, he marched
to GUILFORD COURT-HOUSE. Cornwallis moved
forward to the attack. On the 15th of March,
the two armies met, and a severe but indeci-
sive battle was fought The Americans were
driven back for several miles; but in killed
and wounded the British loss was greater.

Early in April, Coruwallis retreated to
Wilmington, and then proceeded to Virginia.
The British forces in the Carolinas remained
under Lord Rawdon. The American army
soon advanced into South Carolina and cap-
tured Fort Watson, on the Santee. Greene
then took post at HOBKIRK'S HILL, near Cam-
den. On the 25th of April, Rawdon moved
against the American camp, and a severe bat-
tle ensued ; for a while it seemed that the
British would be routed ; but at last the Amer-
ican center was broken, and the day lost.

On the 10th of May, Lord Rawdon retired
to Eutaw Springs. The British poets at
Orangeburg and Augusta fell into the hands
of the patriots. Ninety-Six was besieged by
General Greene. The supply of water was
cut off from the fort, and the garrison reduced
to the point of surrendering, when Rawdon
approached, and the Americans were obliged
to retreat. General Greene passed the sickly
months of summer in the hill-country of the
Santee.

980

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Sumter, Lee, and Marion were constantly
abroad, smiting the Tories right and left.
Lord Rawdon now went to Charleston, and
became a principal actor in one of the most
shameful scenes of the Revolution. Colonel
Isaac Hayue, a patriot \vho had once taken
an oath of allegiance to the king, was caught
in command of a troop of American cavalry.
He was arraigned before Colonel Balfour, the
commandant of Charleston, and condemned to
death. Rawdon gave his sanction, and Colo-
nel Hayne was hanged.

On the 22d of August, General Greene
marched toward Orangeburg. The British

.

NATHANIEL GREENE.

retired to EUTAW SPRINGS. There the Amer-
icans overtook them on the 8th of September.
One of the fiercest battles of the war ensued ;
and General Greene was denied a decisive vic-
tory only by the bad conduct of some of his
troops. After losing five hundred and fifty-
five men, he gave over the struggle. The Brit-
ish lost in killed and wounded nearly seven
hundred. Stuart retreated to Monk's Corner ;
Greene followed ; and, after two months of ma-
neuvering, the British were driven into Charles-
ton. In the whole South, only Charleston and
Savannah were now held by the king's army;
the latter city was evacuated on the llth of

July, and the former on the 14th of Decem-
ber, 1782. Such was the close of the Revo-
lution in the Carolinas and Georgia.

In the beginning of May, 1781, Cornwallis
took command of the British army in Virginia.
The country was ravaged, and property de-
stroyed to the value of fifteen million dollars.
La Fayette, to whom the defense of the State
had been intrusted, was unable to meet Corn-
wallis in the field. While the British were
near Richmond, a detachment under Tarleton
proceeded to Charlottesville, and captured the
town and seven members of the legislature.
Governor Jefferson saved himself by flight, and
escaped into the mountains.

On the 6th of July, General Wayne, who
led La Fayette's advance, suddenly attacked
the whole British army, at Green Springs on
the James. Cornwallis was surprised by the
audacious onset, and Wayne, seeing his mis-
take, made a hasty retreat. The loss of the two
armies was equal, being a hundred and twenty
on each side. The British next marched to
Portsmouth ; but, early in August, the army
was conveyed to Yorktown, on the southern
bank of York River. La Fayette followed,
and took post eight miles from the British.
During the months of July and August, Wash-
ington, from his camp on the Hudson, looked
wistfully to the South. Clinton was kept in
alarm by false dispatches, written for the pur-
pose of falling into his hands. These inter-
cepted messages indicated that the Americans
would immediately besiege New York. When
Clinton was informed that Washington was
inarching toward Virginia, he would not be-
lieve it. Washington pressed rapidly forward,
and joined La Fayette at Williamsburg. On
the 30th of August, a French fleet, with four
thousand troops on board, reached the Chesa-
peake, and anchored in the mouth of York
River. Cornwallis was blockaded by sea and
land.

Count de Barras, who commanded the
French flotilla at Newport, also arrived. On
the 5th of September, Admiral Graves ap-
peared in the bay, and a naval battle ensued,
in which the British ships were roughly
handled. On the 28th, the allied armies en-
camped around Yorktown. On the night of
the 6th of October, the trenches were opened
at the distance of six hundred yards from the

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 981

British works. On the llth, the allies drew
their second parallel within three hundred
yards of Cornwallis's redoubts. On the night
of the 14th, the enemy's outer works were
carried by storm. On the 16th, the British
made a sortie, but were repulsed. On the
next day, Cornwallis proposed a surrender;
on the 18th, terms of capitulation were signed ;
and, on the afternoon of the 19th, the whole
British army, consisting of seven thousand two
hundred and forty-seven English and Hessian
soldiers, laid down their arms and became pris-
oners of war.

On the evening of the 23d of October,
1781, the news was borne to Congress. On
that night the watchmen of Philadelphia,
going their nightly rounds, uttered this wel-
come cry: "Ten o'clock! Starlight night!
Cornwallis is taken ! " It was a fitting thing
that this glorious proclamation of freedom and
victory should be made under the eternal be-
nignity of the silent stars, in the streets of
that old town which first among the cities
of the world had heard tho declaration that
all men are created equal. Though peace
lagged for a season, the war was at an end.
The patriots who, at Concord and Lexington,
had begun a battle for the rights of English-
men had ended by winning their independence.

The note of rejoicing resounded through-
out the land. In England the king and his
ministers heard the tidings with rage; but
the English people were secretly pleased.
On the 20th of March, 1782, Lord North and
his friends resigned their offices. A new min-
istry was formed, favorable to peace. The
command of the British forces in the United
States was transferred to Sir Guy Carleton, a
man friendly to American interests.

In the summer of 1782, Richard Oswald
was sent by Parliament to Paris to confer with
Franklin and Jay in regard to the terms of
peace. John Adams ami Henry Laurens also
entered into the negotiations. On the 30th
of November, preliminary articles of ]>
were signed; and in the following April, tin-
terms were ratified by Congress. On the .'M
of September, 1783, a final treaty was effected
between all the nations that had been at war.

The terms of THE TREATY OK 1783 were
these: A complete reeoirnition of the inde-
pendence of the United States; the recession

by Great Britain of Flo.-ida to Spain; the
surrender of all the remaining territory east
of the Mississippi to the United States; the
free navigation of the Mississippi and the
lakes by American vessels ; and the retention
by Great Britain of Canada and Nova Scotia,
with the exclusive control of the St. Lawrence.

Early in August, Sir Guy Carleton re-
ceived instructions to evacuate New York City.
By the 25th of November, every thing was
in readiness ; the British army was embarked ;
the sails were spread ; the ships stood out to
sea; dwindled to white specks on the hori-
zon ; disappeared. The Briton was gone.
After the struggles of an eight years' war the
patriots had achieved
their independence.

On the 4th of De-
cember, Washington as-
sembled his officers and
bade them a final adieu.
When they were met,
he spoke a few affection-
ate words to his com-
rades, who came for-
ward, and with tears
and sobs bade him fare-
well.1 Washington then
departed to Annapolis,
where Congress was in
session. At Philadel-
phia he made a report
of his expenses during
the war. The account,
in his own handwriting,
embraced an expendi-
ture of seventy-four thousand four hundred
and eighty-five dollars — all correct to a cent

The route of the chief to Annapolis was a
continuous triumph. The people by thousands
flocked to the roadsides to see him pass. On
the 23d of December, Washington was intro-
dnc-fd to Congress, and delivered an address
full of wisdom and modesty. With great dig-
nity he surrendered his roin mission as com-
mander-in-chief of the army. General Mitllin,

BADGE OP THE OltllER Or
CIJSri.SKATCi.

1 III order to preserve the memories of (lie Rev-
olution and to cherish the sentiments of patriot-
ism, the otlieers of tin- army were soon after-
wanls orsanize.1 into a secret military society
known ns the ORDER OK Cix< INXATI--. Washing-
ton lieinu' the first president of the association.

982

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the president of Congress, responded in an
eloquent manner, and then the hero retired to
his home at Mt. Vernon.

During the progress of the Revolution the
civil government of the United States was in
a deplorable condition. Nothing but the im-
minent peril of the country had, in the first
place, led to the calling of a Continental
Congress. And when that body assembled,
it had no method of proceeding, no constitu-
tion, no power of efficient action. The two
great wants of the country were money to carry
on the war and a central authority to direct the
war ; the former of these was never met ; and
Washington was made to supply the latter.
Whenever Congress would move in the direc-
tion of a firmer government, division would
spring up, and action would be checked by
the remonstrance of jealous colonies. Never-
theless, the more far-seeing statesmen of the
times labored constantly to create substantial
political institutions.

Foremost of all those who worked for bet-
ter government was Benjamin Franklin. As
early as the times of the French and Indian
War he began to agitate the question of a
permanent union of the colonies. During the
troubled years just preceding the Revolution
he brooded over his cherished project, and in
1775 laid before Congress the plan of a per-
petual confederation of the States. But the
attention of that body was wholly occupied
with the stirring events of the day, and
Franklin's measure received but little notice.
Congress, without any real authority, began
to conduct the government, and its legislation
was generally accepted by the States. Still,
the central authority was only an authority
by sufferance, and was liable at any time to
be annulled by the caprice of State legis-
latures.

Under such a system thinking men grew
restless. On the llth of June, 1776, a com-
mittee was appointed by Congress to prepare
a plan of confederation. After a month the
work was completed and laid before the house.
The debates on the subject continued at inter-
vals until the 15th of November, 1777, when
a vote was taken in Congress, and the ARTI-
CLES OF CONFEDERATION were adopted. The
next step was to transmit the articles to the
State legislatures for ratification. By them

the new frame of government was returned
to Congress with many amendments. These
having been considered, the articles were
signed by the delegates of eight States, on
the 9th of July, 1778. Before the following
February, the representatives of Georgia,
North Carolina, New Jersey, and Delaware
had signed the compact, but Maryland did
not assent until March of 1781.

The government of the United States un-
der the confederation thus adopted was A
LOOSE UNION OF INDEPENDENT COMMON-
WEALTHS. The executive and legislative
powers were vested in Congress — a body com-
posed of not less than two nor more than
seven representatives from each State. The
sovereignty was reserved to the States. There
was no chief magistrate of the Republic ; and
no general judiciary was provided for. The
consent of nine States was necessary to com-
plete an act of legislation. The union was
declared to be perpetual.

On the very day of the ratification of the
articles by Maryland the old Congress ad-
journed, and on the following morning reas-
sembled under the new form of government.
From the very first the inadequacy of that
government was manifest. To begin with, it
contradicted the doctrines of the Declaration
of Independence. Congress had but a shadow
of authority, and that shadow, instead of pro-
ceeding from the people, emanated from States
which were declared to be sovereign and inde-
pendent. The first great duty of the new gov-
ernment was to provide for the payment of
the war debt, which had now reached the sum
of thirty-eight million dollars. Congress could
only recommend to the several States the
levying of a sufficient tax to meet the indebt-
edness. Some of the States made the required
levy ; others were dilatory ; others refused.
At the very outset the government was balked
and thwarted. The serious troubles that at-
tended the disbanding of the army were trace-
able rather to the inability than to the indis-
position of Congress to pay the soldiers. The
princely fortune of Robert Morris was ex-
hausted and himself brought to poverty in a
vain effort to sustain the credit of the govern-
ment. For three years after the treaty of
peace public affairs were in a condition bor-
dering on chaos. The imperiled state of the

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— WAR OF AMERICA* I\l>i:i'i:\l)ENCE. 983

Republic was viewed with alarm by the saga-
cious patriots who had carried the Revolution
to a successful issue. A ruined credit, a
bankrupt treasury, a disordered finance, a
crazy constitution, a distracted commerce, a
disintegrating people, thirteen States stalking
about, and making grimaces at a government
of shreds and patches — such were the specters
that ruled the hour. It was seen that unless
the articles of confederation could be re-
placed with a better system the nation would
go to ruin.

The project of remodeling the government
originated at Mount Vernon. In 1785, Wash-
ington, in conference with a company of
statesmen at his home, advised the calling of
a convention to meet at Annapolis in the fol-
lowing year. The proposition was received
with favor; and in September of 1786 the
representatives of five States assembled. The
question of a tariff on imports was discussed ;
and then the attention of the delegates was
turned to a revision of the articles of confed-
eration. Since only a minority of the States
were represented in the conference, it was re-
solved to adjourn until May of the following
year, and all the States were urgently requested
to send representatives at that time. Congress
also invited the several legislatures to appoint
delegates to the proposed convention. All of
the States except Rhode Island responded to
the call ; and on the second Monday in May,
1787, the .representatives assembled at Phila-
delphia. Washington, who was a delegate
from Virginia, was chosen president of the
convention. A desultory discussion followed
until the 29th of the month, when Edmund
Randolph introduced a resolution to set aside
the articles of confederation and adopt a new
constitution. There was further debate; and
then a committee was appointed to revise the
articles. Early in September the work was
done ; the report of the committee was adopted ;
and that report was THE CONSTITUTION OF THE
UNITED STATES. At the same time it was re-
solved to send copies of the new instrument
to the several legislatures for ratification or
rejection.

On the question of adopting the Constitu-
tion the people were divided. Those who
favored the new government were called
FEDERALISTS; those who opposed, ANTI-FED-

ERALISTS. The leaders of the former were
Washington, Jay, Madison, and Hamilton,
the latter statesman throwing the whole force
of his genius and learning into the contro-
versy. In those able papers called the Feder-
alist, he and Madison successfully answered
every objection of the anti-Federal party.
Hamilton was the first, and perhaps the
greatest, expounder of constitutional liberty
in America. To him the Republic owes a
debt of perpetual gratitude for having estab-
lished on a firm and enduring basis the true
principles of free government.

Under the Constitution of the United
States, the powers of government are arranged

ALEXANDER HAMILTON.

under three heads — LEGISLATIVE, EXECUTIVE,
and JUDICIAL. The legislative power is vested
in Congress — a body composed of a Senate
and a House of Representatives. The mem-
bers of the Senate are chosen by the legisla-
tures of the several States, and serve for a
period of six years. Each State is represented
by two Senators. The members of the House
of Representatives are elected by the people
of the respective States; and each State is
entitled to a number of representatives pro-
portionate to the population of that State.
The members of this branch of the govern-
ment are chosen for a term of two years.
Congress is the law-making power of the
nation ; and all legislative questions of a gen-

984

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

eral character are the appropriate subjects of
congressional action.

The executive power of the United States
is vested in a President, who is chosen for a
period of four years by a body of men called
the electoral college. The electors composing
the college are chosen by the people of the
several States ; and each State is entitled to a
number of electors equal to the number of its
representatives and senators in Congress. The
duty of the President is to enforce the laws
of Congress in accordance with the Constitu-
tion. He is commander-in-chief of the armies
and navies of the United States. Over the
legislation of Congress he has the power of
veto ; but a two-thirds congressional majority
may pass a law without the President's con-
sent. He has the right of appointing cabinet
officers and foreign ministers, but all of his
appointments must be approved by the Sen-
ate. The treaty-making power is also lodged
with the President, but here again the con-
currence of the Senate is necessary. In case
of the death, resignation, or removal of the
President the Vice-president becomes chief
magistrate ; otherwise his duties are limited to
presiding over the Senate.

The judicial power of the United States is
vested in a supreme court and in inferior courts
established by Congress. The highest judicial
officer is the chief justice. The judges hold
their offices during life or good behavior.
The right of trial by jury is granted in all
cases except the impeachment of public of-
ficers. Treason against the United States
consists in levying war against them, or in
giving aid to their enemies.

The Constitution provides that new terri-
tories may be organized and new States ad-
mitted into the Union ; that to every State
shall be guaranteed a republican government ;
and that the Constitution may be altered or
amended by the consent of two-thirds of both
houses of Congress and three-fourths of the
legislatures of the States. In accordance with
this provision fifteen amendments have since
been made to the Constitution.

While the constitutional convention was in
session at Philadelphia the last Congress of
the Confederation was sitting in New York.
The latter body was in a feeble and distracted
condition. Only eight States were repre-

sented. It was evident that the old Confed-
eration, under which the colonies had won
their freedom, was tottering to its fall. Nev-
ertheless, before the adjournment of Congress,
a measure was successfully carried through
which was only second in importance to the
formation of the Constitution. This was the
organization of THE NORTH-WESTERN TERRI-
TORY. As a preliminary measure this vast
domain was ceded to the United States by
Virginia, New York, Massachusetts, and Con-
necticut. For the government of the territory
an ordinance, drawn up from a scheme pre-
pared in 1784 by Mr. Jefferson, was adopted
on the 13th of July, 1787. General Arthur
St. Clair, then President of Congress, received
the appointment of military governor, and
in the summer of the following year began
his duties, with head-quarters at Marietta. By
the terms of the ordinance it was stipulated
that not less than three nor more than five
States should be formed out of the great ter-
ritory thus brought under the dominion of
civilization ; that the States, when organized,
should be admitted on terms of equality with
the original members of the confederation,
and that slavery should be prohibited. Out
of this noble domain the five great States of
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wis-
consin were destined in after times to be
formed and added to the Union.

Before the end of 1788 eleven States had
adopted the Constitution. The new govern-
ment was to go into operation when nine
States should ratify. For awhile North Caro-
lina and Rhode Island hesitated. In accord-
ance with an act of Congress, the first Wednes-
day of January, 1789, was named as the time
for the election of a chief magistrate. The
people had but one voice as to the man who
should be honored with that high trust.
Early in April the ballots of the electors were
counted, and George Washington was unani-
mously chosen President, and John Adams
Vice-president, of the United States. On the
14th of the month Washington received noti-
fication of his election, and departed for New
York. His route thither was a constant tri-
umph. With this event the ERA OF NATION-
ALITY in the New Republic is ushered in.
Here, then, at the conclusion of the conflict
in which the United States of North America

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

985

emerged from the weakness of a European de-
pendency to take their rank among the great
nations of the world, we pause in the narra-
tive of American events belonging to the

Revolutionary epoch, and turn to the consid-
eration of another and more tremendous strug-
gle for emancipation in beautiful and pro-
gressive France.

\

CHAPTER XLVII.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

HERE were twenty-three
thousand monks in
France; there were sixty
thousand curates and vi-
cars; there woro thirty-
seven thousand nuns ;
there were two thousand
five hundred monasteries, one thousand five
hundred convents, and sixty thousand churches
and chapels. In all there were a hundred
and thirty thousand persons who enjoyed
themselves in the work of saving France from
her sins. But they did not begin with them-
selves.

There were a hundred and forty thousand
nobles in France. They put on regalia and set

feathers in their hats. The noble families mim-
hered thirty thousand. On each square league
of territory and for each one thousand of the in-
habitants there was one castle, one noble fam-
ily. France was not only saved, but she was
ennobled. It required a great deal of land to
support properly the dignity and office of one
of her saviors. The abbey of St. Germain
des Pres owned about nine hundred thousand
acres. One-fifth of all the lands of France
belonged to the clergy, one-fifth to the nobil-
ity, one-fifth t<> the communes and the king.
This made three-fifths.

There was one king in France. It required
something for his support. He was not a day
laborer.

986

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

There were twenty-six millions of People in
France. They were the Third Estate — nu-
merous but unimportant. Their importance
consisted in this : they supported the nobility
and the king, and furnished the clergy with
material. France was a very happy and pa-
ternal state.

Not only were three-fifths of the real estate
of the kingdom in the hands of the privileged
orders, but these three-fifths were far the rich-
est. It was the best land of France. We
will quote from Taine: "It [the laud of the
privileged]," says he, " comprises almost all
the large and handsome buildings, the palaces,
castles, convents, and cathedrals, and almost
all the valuable movable property, such as
furniture, plate, objects of art, the accumu-
lated masterpieces of centuries. We can judge
of it by an estimate of the portion belonging
to the clergy. Its possessions, capitalized,
amount to nearly four billion francs ; the in-
come from this amounts to eighty or a hun-
dred millions, to which must be added the
dime or tithes, a hundred and twenty-three
millions per annum ; in all, two hundred mill-
ions, a sum which must be doubled to show
its equivalent at the present day, and to this
must be added the chance contributions and
the usual church collections. To realize fully
the breadth of this golden stream let us look
at some of its affluents. Three hundred and
ninety-nine monks at Premontre1 estimate their
revenue at more than a million livres, and
their capital at forty-five millions. The Pro-
vincial of the Dominicans of Toulouse admits,
for hia two hundred and thirty-six monks,
' more than two hundred thousand livres net
revenue, not including the convent and its
inclosure ; also, in the colonies, real estate,
negroes, and other effects valued at several
millions.' The Benedictines of Cluny, num-
bering two hundred and thirty-eight, enjoy a
revenue of a million eight hundred thousand
livres. Those of Saint Maur, numbering six-
teen hundred and seventy-two, estimate the
movable property of their churches and houses
at twenty-four millions, and their net revenue
at eight millions, 'without including that
which accrues to Messieurs the abbots and
priors commendatory,' which means as much
and perhaps more. Dom Rocourt, abbot of
Clairvaux, has from three hundred thousand

to four hundred thousand livres income ; the
Cardinal de Rohan, archbishop of Strasburg,
more than a million. In Frauche-Comte, Al-
sace, and Roussillon the clergy own one-half
of the territory ; in Hainaut and Artois,
three-quarters; in Cambresis, fourteen hun-
dred plow-areas out of seventeen hundreds.
Almost the whole of Le Velay belongs to the
Bishop of Puy, the Abbot of La Chaise-Dieu,
the noble chapter of Briond, and to the seign-
iors of Polignac. The canons of St. Claude,
in the Jura, are the proprietors of twelve
thousand serfs or mainmorts." In fact, these
poor people, to whom had been assigned the
duty of saving France from her sins, had so
thriven that they were able to live from year
to year.

It is impossible to describe in adequate
terms the system of government and of social
despotism established over the French nation
in the eighteenth century. The unprece-
dented reign of Louis XIV. — its character,
methods, principles, tendencies — will be read-
ily recalled. It will be remembered that at
this epoch nearly the whole activity of France
was displayed in the government. The govern-
ment was every thing. It was meant to be so.
The doctrines of paternalism in the state were
completely triumphant. The theory reduced
to a formula ran thus: It is the duty — the
business — of the state to teach men what
things to do, and of the Church to teach them
what things to believe. As for man, it is his
business to be governed. That is — and was —
the object of his creation. He must receive
with unquestioning simplicity and obedience
whatever is doled out to him by the noble
and the priest to whom his management, his
interests, his destiny in this world are in-
trusted. All these maxims were adopted by
the House of Bourbon ; and the French peo-
ple, that splendid composite race which com-
bined in its veins the best currents of the
Celtic and Teutonic stocks, were asked to
accept forever the condition of intellectual
and bodily bondage to which the Middle Age
had assigned them.

Though the government of Louis XIV.
made a great show of activity, though it
clad itself in the habiliments of grandeur and
strutted in almost Oriental magnificence, it
nevertheless had in it the condition of certain

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THK FREXdl REVOLUTION.

decay. The vice of arbitrary power gnawed
like a worm in the heart of the system.
When Louis XV. came to the throne he re-
ceived the form and shadow of glory — no
more. He must have been conscious of the
elements to which he was exposed. Suppose
these elements should be lashed into a storm!
Suppose that jEolus should let out his winds !
Suppose that the human mind, long soothed
with opiates and nursed with cordials, should
suddenly awake from its stupor ! What then ?
No, no ; such a thing must not be. The peo-
ple must lie still. We will soothe them with
more syrup, and while they sleep will take
away their substance. It is necessary . that
we take away their substance to support the
state : We the king and Madame de Pompadour
are the state. The Duke de Choiseul, man-
ager-in-chief for Louis XV. , may well remind
one of a showman in gorgeous trappings, at-
tempting to manage a dangerous elephant
whom the proprietors, Ourself and Madame,
persist in starving and tormenting with our
parasol.

On the 10th of May, 1774, this Louis XV.
died. At the story of the two diseases which
caused his death History blushes. For sev-
eral years his chief effort had been to make
the government last as long as his own life.
In that he succeeded. But he transmitted to
his grandson a tottering fabric, rotten in
every part. He had by his vices and extrav-
agance exhausted not only the resources of
the kingdom, but the kingdom itself. His
needless and inglorious wars had plunged the
state into debt and greatly increased the
taxation. The burdens of the state were im-
posed almost wholly on the citizens and peas-
ants— that Third Estate which was now pow-
erless, but soon to become the leading power
in France.

The nobles and clergy were exempt. Not
only were the enormous burdens which ought
to have rested on the privileged classes laid
without mercy on the toilers, the producers,
but these burdens were greatly increased by
the methods of collection. The duplicates
were farmed out to extortioners, through
whose greedy hands only a moiety of the tuxrs
found their way into the coffers of the state.

Under these many abuses the distress of
the French people grew more bitter from year

to year. A condition of affairs supervened
which, as was evident to every thinking man,
could not much longer continue. The heart
of the nation was in anguish under the bur-
den of accumulating wrongs. Either a reac-
tion must ensue or aspiring France sink to
the level of an Eastern monarchy.

While the kingdom of the Bourbons thus
ran down from the slopes of power as if to
sink away into noisome swamps and marshes,
a counter current set in from the world of
mind. The intellect of France exerted itself
as never before. Men began to think with
such freedom and audacity as to astonish the
world. While the State of France sank into
imbecility the mind rose and stood. It began
to question the foundation upon which was
laid the structure of society; and as the in-
quiry proceeded the essential rottenness of the
whole edifice was discovered. S]>eaking of
the boldness and energy which French thought
exhibited in these times, Guizot has well
remarked :

"Prior to this, its greatest activity had
always been restrained by certain barriers;
man had lived in the midst of facts, some of
which inspired him to caution, and repressed,
to a certain degree, his tendency to move-
ment. In the eighteenth century, I should
really be at a loss to say what external facto
were respected by the human mind, or exer-
cised any influence over it; it entertained
nothing but hatred or contempt for the whole
social system ; it considered itself called upon
to reform all things; it looked upon itself as
a sort of creator; institutions, opinions, man-
ners, society, even man hioudf — all seemed
to require to be remodeled, and human reason
undertook the task. When ever before had
the human mind displayed such daring bold-
ness?"

Now it was that a group of philosophers
arose, who, by the originality and sweep of
their investigations, have contributed more
than have any others to the emancipation of
man and the construction of a now society.
They undertook no less a task than the re-
t'onn of the existing institutions of France
and of the whole world. These great thinkers
are known l>y tlu> name of Eneyelopadutt; for
to them mankind are itulelii.-il t'. .r the compo-
sition of the Encydopi't' in which

988

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

their own views as philosophers were given to
the world with a freedom and brilliancy that
astonished and delighted, while it instructed
and elevated, the nations. At the head of
the group stood the great genius, Jean le
Rond d'Alembert, and Denis Diderot, who,
beginning as a student of theology, became
afterwards a lawyer and then a thinker and
man of letters. These two were the editors-
in-chief of the great work by which the gen-

VOLTAIEK

eral intellect of France was to be lifted to a
new level of activity and usefulness. Around
them were ranged a brilliant cluster of authors
and philosophers, of whom the most illustrious
were Voltnirp, Rousseau, Turgot, Helvetius,
Duclos, Condillae, Mably, Buffon, La Harpe,
Marmontel, Raynal, Morellet, Grimm, ^and
Saint-Lambert. Under their auspices, in 1 770,
the great Encydoptdie was issued in thirty-
three volumes.' The style and scope of the
work were set forth in the preface by D'Alem-

bert with such lucidity and power as to mark
him for one of the greatest men of his age.
The Encyclopedic exerted a powerful influ-
ence in bringing on that uncontrollable agi-
tation which produced the French Revolution.
It was the purpose of the work to reveal to
the human mind the nature and extent of its
powers and achievements. It was intended to
display the riches of that knowledge which
had already been attained through the toil
and travail of human thought, and to indi-
cate the directions in which the domain
of knowledge might be most successfully
enlarged. Still further, it was the pur-
pose of the Encyclopaedists to emancipate
thought from the thralldom of custom and
the fetters of superstition; to strike out
into new fields of inquiry ; to explore
every region with freedom and impartiality ;
to brook no trammels of the past; to dare
and defy the maxims and precedents upon
which the existing order was founded;
and to create a new intellectual world,
of which the rights of men should be the
substance, and liberty and light the crown-
ing glory. It may be truthfully said that
the great Encyclopedia Francaise, thus con-
ceived and produced, contained in itself
the essence and real presence of the anti-
dogmatic philosophy and reformatory ten-
dencies of the eighteenth century. These
were poured out freely among a people
already prepared by the discipline of long
abuse for the act of daring changes.

The work of the philosophers was re-
ceived with a shout by all the people of
France, except those privileged classes who,
like rooks, had taken shelter under the
eaves of the Middle Ages. To them, in-
deed, the new philosophy was the hand-
writing on the wall of the palace.
The reactionists at once set to work to
prevent the results which were certain to
follow from the sowing of such seed in such
a soil. Under the leadership of Panckoucke
and Agasse, they began, after the manner of
their kind in all ages, to try to counteract the
the work of the liberators by adopting their
methods. They, too, would publish a Cyclo-
poedia, in which, with mediaeval hands, they
would carefully remold, modify, tone down,
and adapt the new wisdom to the nature and

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FREXUl REVOLUTION.

wants of the people. They would give meu
a little light. They would mix in with the
audacity and freedom of the new philosophy

go much of the leaven of ancient falsehood as
would ultimately leaven the whole lump, and
bring France and the world back again to that

LITERARY CI1U I.K IN THE BKGINSIMi OF TIIK KKI'.N OK I.OCIS XVI
Drawn by P. Philippoleaux.

990

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

patient and humble condition, in which, sad-
dled and bridled, it might safely be ridden by a
noble with a priest behind him. So was pro-
duced the reactionary work called the Ency-
clopedia Methodique, which, though of vast
extent, and representing an infinite amount
of labor, is — as if in satire on its title — -the
most wnmethodical and unmanageable work
of its kind in existence.

But nothing could now trammel up the
results of the labors of D'Alembert, Diderot,
and their associates. The mischief was done.
A swarm of new ideas had rushed in wild de-
light from the dark hive which had confined
them, and now filled all the air with their
triumphant buzzing. Like a contagion, the
new philosophy spared no class or condition.
The courtly society of France was almost as
much infected as the Third Estate. The king
and his court had their literary circle. Even
many of the clergy, be it said to their honor,
caught glimpses of the light, and preferred to
turn their faces to the dawn rather than dwell
in darkness.

It willv not be difficult, in viewing this
general condition of France at the time of
the accession of Louis XVI. to the throne,
for the thoughtful reader to discover the true
antecedents of that great conflict known as
the FRENCH REVOLUTION, upon an account
of which we are now to enter. It was simply
a revolt, an insurrection of the emancipated
mind of France against the tyranny of her
social, civil, and religious institutions — a re-
bellion of Man against his masters — a struggle
of the human spirit to break an intolerable
thralldom which had been imposed upon it by
the past.

At the time of his accession to the throne,
Louis XVI. was in his twentieth year. Four
years previously he had taken in marriage
Marie Antoinette, archduchess of Austria,
daughter of Maria Theresa. Perhaps, if a
mere amiability of character, and a mild dis-
position to think well of his people, could
have availed against the spirit of the times,
the young Louis might have had a long and
pleasant reign. But the day of pleasant
things was passed. No more- could the fiery
spirit of roused-up France be soothed with
royal cordials or put to sleep with lullaby.
The new king's ancestors for two hundred

years had sown to the wind, and now their
princely and good-natured offspring must reap
the whirlwind. Even the wish of Louis to
introduce some feeble reforms in financial and
other affairs of the kingdom was generally
thwarted by certain antecedents which made
improvement painful and progress impossible.

Like his prototype, Charles I. of England,
Louis XVI. was in mind and purpose weak
and irresolute. At the very beginning of his
reign, he reconvened the French Parliament,
which had been suppressed by his grandfather.
By the French Parliament, however, the
reader must understand a body very different
in its constitution from the English assembly
of that name. In England the Parliament
had grown from the days of Alfred the Great,
when it was merely the great council of the
king, until, at the time of which we speak,
it was in the full sense the representative
body of the English nation, having its House
of Commons as well as its House of Lords.
But in France no such parliamentary develop-
ment had taken place. The assembly still
continued the mere advisory council of the
king, such as it had been in the time of the
Valois princes, or even in the days of Charle-
magne. For this reason it was able to give
but little relief for the distresses of the state.
Between itself and the great body known as
the Third Estate there was no organic con-
nection, no bond of common interest. It
must have appeared to Louis that any trust
which, he should repose in his Parliament
would be misplaced and fruitless.

As the difficulties with which the king was
beset were from the first of a financial charac-
ter— as the treasury was exhausted, the state
in debt, the people already burdened with in-
tolerable taxes — Louis sought to extricate
himself from his trouble by appointing as his
minister of finance the statesman Robert
Jacques Turgot, one of the Encyclopaedists,
who had already distinguished himself on
economic subjects. His abilities were so great
that expectation was turned to him as to one
able to relieve France from her embarrass-
ment. Doubtless he understood the true
method of reform. Could he have been free
to act, he would have turned the kingdom
about and begun the slow and toilsome ascent
of the path of economy and retrenchment.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

991

But the difficulties with which he was sur-
rounded were too great to be surmounted.
On the one hand the nobility of France, long
accustomed to exemption from the burdens
of taxation and to reckless expenditure,
could not be reformed. They had deliberately
adopted the motto of "After us the deluge,"
meaning that the rational policy for men to
pursue under the exist-
ing conditions in France
was to eat, drink, laugh,
put on regalia, be lux-
urious, and die; for on
the morrow the flood
will come, and all shall
perish together. On the
other hand, Turgot did
not, perhaps could not,
much consult the wishes
of the country in his
financial measures. As
a result, he pleased no-
body; and after strug-
gling with the hopeless
problem for two years,
he was compelled to
resign.

After this event the
comptroller generalship
of the kingdom was
given to Taboureau and
the directorship of the
treasury to Jacques
Necker, a Genoese
banker, whose wisdom
in finance and econom-
ics was perhaps reputed
at more than its full
value. For a year he
worked at the duties
of his office, and was
then made minister of
finance. In entering

upon his task he increased his popularity by
refusing to accept any emoluments for his
services. His mind was methodical, his
plans of the same general character as those
adopted by Turgot, but less distasteful in
many features. His policy embraced such
features as might well have brought the prom-
ised reform and salvation from debt. He ex-
acted retrenchment in the court. He set a

wholesome example by introducing order and
economy in his own department. He suc-
ceeded in restoring confidence among the cap-
italists by the regular payment of interest on
loans — a matter which had been so much neg-
lected that capital had refused to expose itself
to the bad faith of such a government. He
reclaimed not a few of the public estates

LOUIS XVI.

which had been alienated through bad man-
agement and neglect. He revised the tax
duplicates and corrected many abuses whick
had arisen under the existing system. He
alirioVed the right of mortmain, established a
uniform excise on salt, and tried to suppress
the exaction of tolls. His reforms extended
into the provinces. He created what was
called the Mont df Piiif of Paris and a bank

992

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of discount, out of which subsequently arose
the Bank of France. Under his prudent
measures the deficit of twenty-four million
livres was in the space of five years wiped out
and an annual balance of ten millions left in
the treasury. In 1781 he made and pub-
lished his report on the finances of the state,

VOLTAIRE BLESSES THE GRANDSON OF FRANKLIN.

and this was the beginning of his downfall ;
for the report was a sort of exposure of the
methods by which the privileged classes had
been hitherto sustained in luxury at the ex-
pense of France. The enmity of the court-
iers and nobles was deeply aroused, and they
began to seek Necker's overthrow. The prime
minister Maurepas became his enemy. Necker
appealed to the king, and in order to vindi-

cate himself and the administration of hi3
office, demanded a seat in the council from
which lie had hitherto been excluded, being a
Protestant. But his claim was denied, and
he resigned his trust.

Such was the internal state of the French
government during the American Revolution.
It will be at once re-
called how just after
the Declaration of In-
dependence, Benjamin
Franklin was sent
yith Silas Deane to
jnanage the American
rause at the court of
France. On arriving
at Paris the philoso-
pher established him-
self at Passy, and
began the work of
creating sympathy for
the cause of his coun-
try. He did not,
however, succeed in
gaining official recog-
nition at the hands
of the ministry until
after the surrender of
Burgoyne, when he
soon concluded that
Franco-American alli-
ance which contrib-
uted so essentially to
our independence.
But almost from the
day of his arrival in
Paris, the people of
that excitable metrop-
olis were fired with
enthusiasm for him
and his cause. Espec-
ially did the French
philosophers receive
with open arms the republican ambassador.

The aged Voltaire, who in the last year of
his life came in triumph to Paris, grappled
Franklin to himself as with hooks of steel.
He placed his withered hands in benediction
on the head of Franklin's grandson as if to
confer the philosophy and inspiration of the
epoch on the third generation. The two
great thinkers were taken together to the

THE AGE OF REVOLUT1O.\. Till. I'ltl.M II REVOLUTION.

theater, and at the close of the play were
called upon the stage, while the excited thou-
sands cried out, "Solon and Socrates."1

The course pursued by France in our War
of Independence has already been narrated in
the preceding chapter. In so far as a conflict
resulted between that kingdom and England,
the same being consequent upon the Franco-
American alliance of 1777, the contest was
almost exclusively maritime. It will be remem-
bered that the policy of the Duke de Choiseul

part of the French in the building ami arm-
ing of ships. Within a year after tin- alli-
ance with America, a large and wrll-<-(|uipped
fleet was sent to sea under command of fount
d'Orvilliers. On the 27th of July, 1778.
armament encountered an English squadron
off Ushant, and a hard but indecisive battle
was fought. The two fleets were about of
equal strength, and the French were greatly
elated that they had been able to hold tlnir
own with Great Britain on her chosen ele-

looked to the building up of a French navy
of sufficient strength and equipment to dis-
pute with Great Britain the mastery of the
sea. This same policy was pursued after the
death of Choiseul and the appointment of
De Sartine to be minister of war. Nor was
there any want of energy displayed on the

'This intensely dramatic scene was almost the
last act in the career of Voltaire. For a short
time he lingered in Paris. surrounded with the
great men of the kingdom and honored with
every token of affection which the French na-
ture could invent. When he went abroad his
You II.

meut. The English squadron had been com-
manded by Admirals Keppet and Pallia r,
between whom there was no cordiality or even
harmony of action; and this fact furni
the mortified KiiL'lMi an excuse for the fail-
ure to win a victory.

It will be remembered that in April of the

carriage was drawn through the streets by the
people. At the theaters he was crowned with
laurels and roses. On the 30th of May. 1778, he
died in the great city with which his genius will
be forever associated, and w:is honored with a
magnificent funeral.

994

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

following year Count d'Estaing was sent with
a French fleet to America. After cooperating
for a season with Washington, the admiral
left our coast and sailed to the West Indies,
where Marquis de Bouille, governor of Mar-
tinique, had assailed the English in Santo
Domingo, and taken the island. But the En-
glish had in their turn fallen upon and cap-
tured St. Lucia. It was to recover the latter
that Count d'Estaing now sailed to the rescue
of his countrymen. He made an attack upon
the enemy in St. Lucia, and was repulsed
with heavy losses.

By this time Spain had been added to the
enemies of England. She, too, would com-
pete with her ancient rival for maritime do-

GENERAL DE KALB.

minion. She added her fleet to that of France,
increasing the number of vessels in the allied
squadron to sixty-six ships of the line. At this
time the English squadron was under com-
mand of Sir Charles Hardy. The latter al-
lowed himself to be outmaueuvered by his
adversaries, who succeeded in forming a junc-
tion in the English Channel. An attack on
Plymouth was threatened, and the kingdom
was thrown into great agitation. It appears,
however, that the allies were loth to make an
attack. At length they undertook to inter-
cept Sir Charles, but he, being inferior in
strength, retired before them, and the English
were humiliated with the spectacle of their
fleet sailing before the enemy through the
greater part of the Channel. The scene was
a sort of minuet of the sea. At length, after

pursuing Hardy as far as Plymouth, D'Orvil-
liers drew off from the foe aud sailed for
Brest.

Meanwhile Count d'Estaing, in the West
Indies, having repaired damages after his de-
feat at St. Lucia, returned to the attack and
captured St. Vincent and Grenada. He also
fought an indecisive battle with the English
admirals, Byron and Barrington, and then
made the unsuccessful attack on Savannah,
as narrated in the preceding chapter.

The chief object of the Spaniards in going
to war had been to regain possession of Gib-
raltar. To this end they bent all of their ener-
gies. At the outbreak of hostilities, in 1779,
they laid siege to the fortress, which was de-
fended by a valiant garrison under General
Elliot. The investment was continued for
nearly three years, and the besiegers had good
hopes of accomplishing by starvation what
they could not do by force ; but when Elliot
and his men were beginning to be hard pressed
for supplies, Admiral Rodney succeeded in
bringing to them reinforcements and abun-
dance of provisions. For on his way from
England he fell in with and captured a Span-
ish fleet carrying stores to Cadiz. The riches
of Spain were thus taken to support those
who held — and continued to hold — her ancient
fortress.

The achievement of American Independ-
ence added a new element to the complica-
tions in France. Here was an example of
liberty, of emancipation. Here was a prece-
dent. Here was a proof, a living instance,
of the truth of what the philosophers had
been saying in the Encyclopedic Francaise.
Therefore freedom was not a delusion and a
snare. The American Declaration had said
that all men are created equal ; that they have
an inalienable right to life, liberty, and the
pursuit of happiness ; that governments derive
their just powers from the consent of the gov-
erned ; that the people have a right to alter,
amend, abolish the government which them-
selves have instituted whenever the same be-
comes destructive of those ends for which it
was established. The Americans, in the face
of tremendous opposition, seemed to have
demonstrated the truth of their theory and
principles. How much the more might the
great French nation do the same! Besides,

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— TU I I HI.. \< II HKVnl.l TION.

here came home covered with honor the young
French enthusiasts — La Fayette, De Kall>,
and the rest — who had left home, fortune,
and friends to join with the American colo-
nist.H in the battle for freedom. On their
heads had been laid in benediction the hands
of the victorious Washington and the phil-
<i>n|>hic Franklin; him whom the court ladies
had applauded
at Versailles ;
him to whom
the Academy
had voted a
medal with this
legend : Fui/-
MEN NUBIBUS
ERIPUIT SCEP-

TRUMQUE TY-
RAlWia.1 "With

what grand-
eur," cried out
the Abb6 Ray-
nal in 1781,
"should I not
speak of those
generous men
[the Americans
of '76] who
erected this
grand edifice by
their patience,
their wisdom,
and their cour-
age! Hancock,
Franklin, the
two Adamses,
were the great-
est actors in
this affecting
scene ; but they
were not the
only ones. Pos-
terity shall
know them all. Their honored names
shall be transmitted to it by a happier
pen than mine. Brass and marble shall show
them to the remotest ages. In beholdint:
them shall the friend of freedom feel his
heart palpitate— feel his eyes float in delicious
tears. Under the bust of one of them has

'He wrested the lightning from heaven and
the scepter from tyrants.

been written, ' He wrested thunder from
heaven and the scepter from tyrants.' Of the
last words of this eulogy shall all of them
partake." Mirabeau, >t;m.lmur <>n the tribune
of the National Assembly of France, ex-
claimed: "I ask if the powers who have
formed alliances with the States have dared
to read their Declaration, or to interrogate

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN.

their consciences after the perusal. I ask
whether there be at this day one government
in Europe — the Helvetic and Batavian con-
federations and the British isles excepted —
which, judged after the principles of the Dec-
laration of Congress on the 4th of July, 1776,
is not divested of its riirhts."

Sui'li was the fervor kindled in France by
the success of our Revolution. It is impossi-

996

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ble — will ever remaiii impossible — to determine
with precision how much our rebellion agaiiist
the Mother Country contributed as an exciting
cause of the Revolution in France ; but it was
among the most potent of the many influences
which combined to produce the upheaval of
the French kingdom and the ultimate reor-
ganization of society. The pens of Jefferson
and Paine, the oratory of the Adamses, as
well as the sword of Washington, prevailed
in Europe, as in America. The contagion of
social regeneration and the revival of man
was produced on this side of the Atlantic as
well as in the Encyclopedic FranyaLse.

After the resignation of Necker, the king,
who would fain have retained the services of
that able minister, appointed as his successor
Alexandre de Calonne, whose versatility and
dextrous management, rather than any true
wisdom in finance, had recommended him for
the office. Altogether reckless of conse-
quences, or else not foreseeing the inevitable
results of such a course, he cheerfully adopted
the maxim of "After us the deluge," and
proceeded to produce a factitious prosperity
by running the state still more deeply in debt.
He was one of the most plausible casuists of
his times; and for a season his financial
theories seemed to be verified by the facts.
The French exchequer, so to speak, borrowed
money, bought champagne, drank to intoxica-
tion, and imagined itself rich. When the
time came for payments, still larger loans
were contracted ; and with the coining of the
next settlement, still larger. The country re-
sponded to the stimulus thus afforded, and such
was the temporary prosperity that the privi-
leged classes began to persuade themselves
that the deluge would never come. Calonne
went on from year to year. The mountain of
debt rose higher and higher. But who cared
for debt while the country was prosperous?
Who cared for the judgment day as long as
the government flourished and the privileged
orders were exempt from burdens?

History has presented many such examples
as that afforded by Calonne; but never one
that did not ultimately collapse in its own
magnificence. For about three years the min-
ister succeeded in postponing the deluge. The
debt went on increasing. At last, in 1786,
the facile functionary was obliged to confess

that he could go no further. The deficit had
increased at such a fearful rate that the state
staggered. It was agreed, after a conference
with the king, that the Assembly of NOTA-
BLES— an ancient and effete body of advisers
whom the king might nominate and summon
from all parts of the kingdom, but who were
selected only from the higher orders of soci-
ety— should be convened to consider what
should be done to save France from national
bankruptcy. To refer such a question to such
a body was in the highest degree preposterous ;
and the result corresponded to what might
have been expected. The Notables convened
in February of 1787. It was the first of
many assemblies to which distracted and suf-
fering France was about to make a vain ap-
peal to save her from the sorrows into which
she had been plunged by the folly and wick-
edness of her rulers.

The Notables numbered a hundred and
forty-four. As soon as the body was organized
Calonne presented one of his many brilliant
schemes for making something out of nothing,
but his propositions were rejected by the No-
tables, who either would not or could not ap-
preciate the means which the minister sug-
gested of saving France from bankruptcy.
Finding that every thing was going against
him Calonne anticipated the inevitable by
resigning, on the 9th of April, 1787. The
king appointed Archbishop Brienne, of Tou-
louse, to be minister of finance; but his pro-
posals for the relief of the state were also
rejected by the Notables. Louis now became
disgusted with the assembly, and on the 25th
of May ordered its dissolution.

By this time the attention of the French
people was turned to the project of convening
the STATES-GENERAL. Since the history of the
following five years was to result from the
assembly just named something may be with
propriety said of its constitution and character.
The States-general of France was an assem-
bly of the nation by its representatives. There
were at this time three orders of French so-
ciety; the clergy, the nobility, and the Tierz
Etat, or Third Estate. Of these orders and
of their relative strength something has been
already said in the preceding pages. Before
the times of Philip the Fair, the People or
Commons of France had had no voice in the

Till. AGE til-' i;i:\'<>l.( Tl<>.\. Till. FREN( II REVOLUTION.

997

government of the kingdom. That monarch
licing engaged in a struggle with the Pope
deemed it expedient to interest tin: whole
nation, and not merely the clergy and the
nobility in his cause. He accordingly con-
vened an assembly in which the fiourpKHfie, Hi-
inhabitants of the towns, were repivsenti-.l.
At the first the great mass of the people,
that is the peasants, mechanics, and farmers
of France, had no voice in the assembly. In
1302 the States-general assembled under the
call of the king, and the same again occurred
iu the following year and in 1308. The pol-
icy of Philip was adopted by his successors,
and it became a precedent with the French
kings, when pressed by some emergency, to
convoke this body, which became known as
the States-general, or National Assembly.

After the severe shock which the nobility
received in the battles of Crecy and Poitiers,
the Third Estate became especially influential.
From the middle of the fourteenth to near
the middle of the fifteenth century, the States
were frequently convoked. In 1439, however,
the assembly was induced to vote a fixed sum
for the support of the standing army — an act
which in a great measure took away the occa-
sion of calling upon the Third Estate, and the
kings being now able to carry on wars without
appealing to the people for help, were quick
to perceive the popular mistake and to take
advantage of it. In 1614-15 the States were
convened by Louis XIII., who was then in
the first years of his reign. But the meeting
was inharmonious. The representatives of the
different estates quarreled, and those of the
Third were worsted. A general distaste for
popular liberty had meanwhile supervened,
and it was determined that the assembly should
not again be called. A hundred and seventy-
three years hud elapsed since the last (-'invo-
cation, and France, in her distress, looking
back through the shadows, thought she could
discover the phantom of hope in her ancient
National Legislature.

But the king and the privileged orders
•\\cic not yet willing to appeal to the people.
It was determined to try again the same method
of raising revenue which the Bourbons had em-
ployed since the date of the aeccsMon of their
House ; namely, a royal edict in place of
statutory enactment. The French constitu-

tion, however, required that the king's proc-
lamation of a tax lew .-hoiild be registered by
the Parliament in order that the edict might
be valid'. In this instance it happened that
when Lntii>'.- ministers had prepared the sched-
ule, the Parliament refused to niak.- the reg-
istration, and the edict was about to fail. In
the emergency the king resorted to the rather
unusual expedient of holding what was culled
a Bed of justice— a. measure by which he was
enabled to compel the Parliament to re|j
his decree ; but in doing so that body failed
not to make a strong remonstrance against the
act, and to adopt a resolution petitioning the
government to convoke the States-general of
the kingdom. The royal party was angered
at this boldness on the part of Parliament,
and that body was banished to Troyes, in
Champagne. At this the popular discontent
was so much heightened, that Louis and his
ministers deemed it expedient to tack, and the
Parliament was recalled in the following Sep-
tember.

In all these preliminary agitations, the bot-
tom question was whether, as hitherto, the
taxes made necessary for the support of the
kingdom and for the payment of the enormous
debt which had been heaped up by the ex-
cesses of the court and the delusive financier-
ing of Calonne, should continue to rest on
the producing classes, or whether the lands
and possessions of the privileged orders should
also be subjected to taxation. One of the
measures debated by the Notables in 1787 was
the project for laying a tax on all the binds
in the kingdom. Even the royal estates were
to bear their part of the general assessment;
but after a hot struggle the proposal was voted
down. Very loath were the king and the no-
bility to yield to the demand for a National
Assembly. Rather than surrender his wishes,
Louis convoked the clergy by themselves,
hoping to extort from that order a large loan;
but those devoted and unsellish j>erson8, loving
themselves and their exemption more than
they loved the state, not only refused to aid
the monarch but actually joined the Parliament
in demanding that the National Assembly
should be convoked.

IVroeiving that the French nation would
have its way, and hard pressed by the embar-
ra-.-iin'iits of the situation, the king now took

998

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

counsel with Necker, who had been recalled
to office, and it was agreed that the States-
general should be convened in the following
year. In November of 1788, the Notables
were reconvened to consider the question in
what manner the representatives of the Three
Estates of the French people should be elected,
and to decide other matters preliminary to the
meeting. These things arranged, the Notables
adjourned to await the result of the elections.

Fall and winter were consumed in arrang-
ing the districts and conducting the primaries.
To the astonishment of all, France arose.
Never before within the bounds of that king-
dom had such a scene been witnessed. The
election was the beginning of national life.
Not a town failed to establish its voting place
and open a poll. More than five millions of
people cast their first ballot. In some parts
the elections were delayed and hindered till
the following spring. The meeting of the
States-general had been fixed for the 27th
of April, 1789, but was postponed, first to the
1st of May and afterwards to the 4th. The
elections in Paris were completed only a few
days before the grand convocation. In many
places there were tumults and riots ; for the
French nation was not at once able to arise
and walk.

At last the work of choosing delegates was
completed, and on the 4th of May about twelve
hundred deputies, representatives of the Three
Estates of France, assembled at Versailles.
There were the king, the queen, the whole
French court. It was a grand day in the
history of the central and greatest nation of
Western Europe — a day which Michelet has
properly called "the last of peace, yet the
first of an immense future." In the proces-
sion, which was formed to move from the
Church of Notre Dame to the palace of
Saint Louis, the five hundred and fifty depu-
ties of the Third Estate, including about three
hundred lawyers and magistrates, were placed
at the head. Next came the brilliantly dressed
representatives of the nobility, with their re-
galia and plumed hats. It was noticed that
about forty of the noble representatives, who
were known to sympathize with the people,
were as warmly applauded as were the dele-
gates of the Third Estate. But the rest of
the second division, as well as the third, which

was composed of the clergy, was allowed to
pass through the streets in silence.

When the Assembly was convened, it was
confronted at the very threshold with a ques-
tion of the most vital importance. How should
the matters about to be presented and discussed
be decided? Should each of the orders vote
separately, and the votes of two orders be nec-
essary to decide a question, or should the As-
sembly sit after the manner of a covention, and
determine matters by a majority vote ? If the
latter, then the Commons, or representatives
of the Third Estate, would be able to outvote
the nobility and the clergy, even though the
latter should combine. If the former, then,
in spite of the numerical preponderance of
the Third Estate, the nobles and the clergy
might unite their votes, and thus compel the
acquiescence of the majority. All perceived
the importance of the question. The Com-
mons claimed the right of voting individually ;
while the other two Orders, alarmed lest their
ancient privileges should be abrogated, stoutly
maintained that the voting should be by Es-
tates. In this position they were supported by
the king and the ministry. Even Necker op-
posed the popular method of determining the
will of the States-general.

Both parties appealed to history ; and both
were able to find precedents in support of their
respective views. Instances were found in the
old records where the Estates had voted by
Orders, and other instances were found where
all had sat together and determined questions
by a majority. At the first, though the ex-
citement run high, the passions of the contest-
ants were not violently stirred. After the open-
ing of the Assembly by the king, the three
Orders convened apart; and the representa-
tives of the Third Estate passed a resolution
inviting the other two Orders to join them
in the hall which had been assigned to the
Commons. But the nobles and the clergy re-
fused to accept the invitation. A dead-lock
was thus produced at the opening session. The
winds of passion began to blow, and it was
soon perceived by the privileged Orders that
the Third Estate was determined to have its
will. Already had the statesman Sieye's fired
the French mind with his powerful pamphlet,
What is the Third Estate? Already had he an-
swered his own question by defining the Third

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE /7//:.v //

099

Estate to be "the French nation without the
nobility and clergy." Such startling and rad-
ical propositions were now upon the tongues
of the people. Such revolutionary utterances
were heard in the hall where the Commons
were assembled. For
six days after the 7th
of May the two privi-
leged Orders held aloof
from that stormy arena
to which they were in-
vited, and then a se-
ries of conferences were
held. But so fearful
was the royal party of
an overthrow, that the
king was induced to
issue an order that the
conferences should be
held in the presence of
his own committee and
of the keeper of the
seals. This was the
first act which openly
announced the parti-
sanship of the king for
the privileged Orders.
The Commons, stimu-
lated by the eloquence
and argument of the
great Mirabeau, agreed
to hold the meetings,
but made a protest
against the method.
Meanwhile, however,
the nobles passed a res-
olution that each of the
Orders should have a
veto on the acts of the
other two. A month
of precious time was
thus lost, and this, too,
at the very time when
famine and debt and
poverty were combin-
ing their energies to

plunge France into a still profounder depth
of misery.

On the 10th of June the Abbe Si,
tered the hall of the Third Estate and ex-
claimed: "Let us cut the cable; it is time."
This meant that the representatives of Un-

people should gammon the clergy and nobility
to meet them in a common assembly. A res-
olution was passed to that effect; the priv-
ileged Orders were warned that they would
be called upon in an hour to return an

I III KCH OF NOTRE DAME.

and that their non-appearance under (lie sum-
mons would be regarded as a default in law.
The issue was thus made up with startling
sharpness, and the situation became critical.
A disdainful silence en-unl mi the part of the
court, nobles, and clerirv. Of the latter or-

1000

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

der ten members — true pastors of the people —
heeded the summons and took their places on
the benches of the Third Estate. Five days

afterward Sieves proposed that the represent-
atives of the people, the Commons of France,
should declare themselves to be the NATIONAL

CAM1U.E DESMOULINS IN THE GARDEN OF THE PALAIS KOYAL.
Drawn by F. Lix.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FRESCU REVULI'TIOX. 1001

A~I,MI;I,Y, and this motion prevailed iu the
niiil.-L of great excitetueiit. The propo-ition of
Sieves was carried by a majority of four hun-
dred aud ninety-one votes in the affirmative
against ninety in the negative. So powerful
was the tide already that -Mirabeuu, who had
tried to prevent the passage of the act, durst
not put himself on record with a minority,
And escaped from his dilemma by absenting
himself from the hall.

It now remained for the nobility and the
clergy, the king's party in general, to accept
the situation, to cast in their lots with the
Commons of France, to make the most of
what remained to them of their ancient priv-
ileges, or to abide the consequences of their
•obstinacy. The two privileged Orders were
already broken by the incipient Revolution.
In the end the larger part of the clergy
succumbed, and together with forty-seven of
the nobles, yielded to the inevitable by taking
their places in the assembly hall of the Third
Estate. Such were the events which began to
draw the attention of all Europe to the ele-
gant precincts of Versailles at the time when,
on this side of the Atlantic, the new Republic
of the United States was instituted at New York
by the sedate and incorruptible Washington.

The crisis had now arrived. France began
to quake and quiver with an agitation the like
of which has never been elsewhere witnessed
among mankind. The harvests had failed.
Gaunt famine began to growl in the impover-
ished quarters of cities. The shadow of the
mountain of debt fell black and ominous across
the kingdom. The royal family embittered
itself with dissensions. The dauphin had died.
Crowds of half-starved wretches began to pour
in from the country districts and to prowl
about feverish Paris. Meanwhile the Assem-
bly out at Versailles became more and more
daring in its assumptions. It was as though
the angered nation, vomit: and gigantic, felt
the powerful sinews of its own arms, and
looked with a menace and frown at the battle-
ments and bulwarks of monarchy. Could
those tremendous bastions be pealed? Could
man climb such ramparts? Would it be a
crime to hurl down a king and tear the in-
signia of royalty to shreds and tatters? The
starving crowd formed a cam]) on the heights
of Montmartre overlooking the city, and from

that place scowled upon the Athena of the
modern world.

The revolutionary movement from the first
gained headway. Many of the royal party,
disgusted with the traditions and existing in-
stitutions of France, abandoned the king's
cause and joined the people. Thus did the
Duke of Orleans, whose house, the Palais
Royal, became a seat of sedition. It began
to be openly debated what disposition should
be made of the king and the kingdom. His
good nature was recognized, but he stood for a
system from which France had determined to
deliver herself, peaceably if she might; for-
cibly if she must. Besides, the queen, the
Austrian Marie Antoinette, had given great
offense by her imperious temper, her foreign
manners, and her frivolity. The people called
her with scorn the Austrian, and their hatred
was reciprocated. It was through her influ-
ence that Necker, who, as minister of finance,
still sought to temporize, to pacify, to turn
the excitement into credit, the people's rage
into money, to gather comfort from famine,
and honey-dew from cactus, was dismissed
from office. At the same time she added her
counsels to those of other royal advisers in
successfully urging Louis to concentrate in the
vicinity of Paris an army of forty thousand
men, nearly all of whom were mercenaries
from Germany and Switzerland.

The dismissal of Necker proved to be the
spark which lighted the magazine. The peo-
ple without very good reason regarded the
fallen minister as a martyr to their cause. So
believing, they broke into violence. Camille
Desmoulins, on the day following the dis-
missal of the people's minister, mounted a
table in the garden of the Palais Royal, ha-
rangued the multitudes, called them to rally
for the defense of liberty, plucked off the
green leaves over head and gave them to the
people to be worn as badges, and with a bran-
dished pistol defied the police to interrupt
him. A great mob rose in the streets of Paris,
placed a bu.-t of Nerker at the head of the
column, and went surging alon.ir until they
fired upon by a body of royal cavalry.
Several fell lilei (linir to the pavement. It was
the first blood of the revolution. Paris now
began to roar. Her voice could not be sup-
pressed. She demanded that a civic militia,

1002

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

to be known as the National Guard, should
be organized for her defense. The govern-
ment was obliged to yield, and this first army
of the French nation sprang into being. Nor
was it long until its power was exhibited in a
memorable manner.

One of the things at this time most hateful
to Paris was the ancient state prison known
as La Bastile, a sort of citadel built by Charles
V. in 1369, strengthened in succeeding reigns,

the walls of this ancient stronghold of despotism
had become rank, and the smell of offense had
filled the nostrils of roused-up Paris. On the
ever-memorable 14th of July, 1789, the people
of the city made a rush for the Bastile. They
attacked it with a fury scarcely paralleled since
the days of the Crusades. They stormed the
entrances, and in spite of the efforts of the
commander, Delaunay, and his garrison, took
the prison by assault. The insurgent militia

THE OLD BASTILE.

and for more than four hundred years the
last argument which the French kings had
used to convince their subjects. At the gate
of St. Antoine the old prison reared its eight
round towers of massive masonry. About it
was drawn a ditch twenty-five feet in depth.
The place was kept and guarded by a gov-
ernor, with his subordinate officers and a strong
garrison. Within it were incarcerated the
criminal, the suspected, the dangerous. The
abuses done in the name of authority within

poured into the towers and chambers. They
drew the prisoners, long confined, from sub-
terranean cells and dungeons, ransacked the
whole inclosure, and then razed the edifice
to the ground. In their rage they left not
one stone upon another. The dungeons were
filled up with the copings of the battlements.
The people seemed to regard the prison as a
kind of symbol of monarchy, and to feel a
certain satisfaction in its total obliteration.
Thus was leveled, on the very spot where

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— Till: l-'HKXCH REVOLI'TIO.\.

tyranny had done its worst, the site whereon
should presently be erected the COLUMN OF
JULY, in perpetual commemoration of the
deed done by the men of 1789.

In the mean time the National Assembly
had transferred its sittings to Paris. The as-
tronomer Bailly had been chosen president
of the body, and had also been appointed
Mayor of Paris. The king and the court out
at Versailles looked on with horror, indigna-
tion, and fear, while the drama was enacted
in the city. They suddenly awoke to the real-
ization that they were themselves no more
than specters floating in the stormy horizon

ing representative admitted to a conference
with tin; representatives of that nation whom
it had so mortally offended.

The people were clearly victorious. N
who had left France and gone to Brussels, was
recalled. The Marquis of La Fayette was ap-
pointed commander of the National (Juard,
and the king was obliged to sign his commis-
sion. The government that had been, seemed
to give place to the government about to be.
The ancient nobility began to shiver with well
grounded fear. The privileged Orders, looking
around to see in what quarter they might hide
themselves from the impending storm, could

STORMING OF THE BASTILE.
Drawn by F. Lir.

of France. Louis in his weak and irresolute
manner made a visit to Paris as if to accept
the revolution against which his resistance had
proved impotent. His reception by the Na-
tional Assembly was a striking episode. He
had to be humbly announced at the door of
that haughty body which now spoke in the
name of France. Bailly was ordered by the
house to present, out of courtesy, tin- keys of
the city. In doing so the president said to the
humiliated sovereign: "These. Sin-, are tin-
keys that were offered to Henry IV.. the con-
queror of the people; to-day, it is the people
who have reconquered their king." On such
terms was the House of Bourbon in its liv-

discover no refuge. Many determined to fly
from the kingdom. Gathering together what
property they could convey abroad, the Emi-
grant Nobles departed for foreign countries,
and the unhappy Louis, who could not in like
manner escape, was left to his fate.

In the mean time, the triumphant Assem-
bly began to consider the actual state of
France, and to debate such measures as seemed
necessary for the thorough reform of her in-
stitutions. The name of CnN-nnivr As-
SKMUI.Y was substituted for that which the
body had tirst taken, and the work of pre-
paring a new constitution for France was zeal-
ously undertaken.

1004

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The object of a former visit of the king to
the assembly had been to overawe the mem-
bers. Vain project ! How, overawe a nation ?
The weak Louis, still in the old manner of the
Bourbons, had on that occasion read to the
assembly an address which had been prepared

THE COLUMN OF THE IJTll Ol

for him, filled with such utterances as might
well have been delivered in the seventeenth,
but not in the eighteenth century. He out-
lined his plan for relieving the nation from its
distresses, and then added: "If you abandon
me in so excellent an enterprise, I will alone
effect the welfare of my people ; alone I shall

consider myself as their representative. I
order you, gentlemen, to disperse immediately,
and to repair to-morrow morning to the cham-
bers appropriated to your order, there to re-
sume your sitting." But on his second coming
to Paris his manner was different. The Bas-
tile was now no more,
and the monarch, on
his coming into the
presence of the Assem-
bly simply said : "I
trust myself to you."
So great a change had
the Revolution already
effected.

After the proclama-
tion of Bailly as mayor,
and the appointment
of La Fayette as com-
mandant of the citizen
militia; after the de-
struction of the Bas-
tile, and the cry of
victory on the side
of the people, a sort
of hollow peace was
patched up between
the royal party and
the representatives of
the nation. For the
moment the Third Es-
tate seemed about to
be satisfied with less
than its manifest des-
tiny. For the moment
the king seemed about
to be reconciled to a
show of liberty. For
the moment the Revo-
lution seemed about to
be accomplished with-
out a great destruction
of life- or devastation
of society. But in re-
ality the work of the
14th of July was only the preliminary swirl
of the tempest. Alas, what blinding, bloody
storms of ruin and anguish were yet to beat
upon France before her regeneration !

In its membership the Constituent Assem-
bly of 1789 was a body of the highest order
of ability and courage. It was France. The

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THK ri;l.M n /,-/.. \nl.lTK>.\.

1005

representatives had courage, eloquence, au-
dacity. They laid the axe at the root of the
tree — that ancient tree of despotism, whose
blossoms had been as great a delusion as the
artificial lilies on the bosom of Antoinette, and
whose fruit had been as bitter as the apples
of Sodom. Of this great membership one of
the most distinguished was the count Em-
manuel Joseph Sieyes, already mentioned as a
leader. He was now in his forty-second year,
and was regarded as one of the greatest logi-
cians of France. His pamphlets, especially
that defining the character and rights
of the Third Estate, had stirred the
nation to its depths. He was famoua
as the first oracle of the Revolution.
A greater even than he was the illus-
trious Gabriel Ri<[iK'tti Mirabeau, who
from coming into the world with a
mouthful of molars, a twisted foot, a
tied tongue — from being disfigured
with confluent smallpox, and empha-
sized with an enormous head, mis-
shapen as that of Thersites — from
being so unprepossessing as to be
called from his ugliness " The nephew
of Satan " — from mad exhibitions of
passionate temper and erratic will,
had become the greatest orator of
France. He, too, though generally
inclined to the preservation of the
monarchy, had been an agitator, and
had contributed not a little to the
convocation of the States-general. He
had been elected to that body for both
Marseilles and Aix, but took his seat
for Aix. He entered the assembly
without adherence to any party ; nor
did he ever align himself with any fac-
tion or organization. But such were his elo-
quence, the comprehension of his mind, his
powers of analysis, his logic, his persuasive ad-
vocacy, and terrible invective that the assembly
swayed in the breath of his oratory as the tivrs
of the forest moved by the winds. He became
the real leader of the great assembly. He it
was who, on the 23d of June, at the close of the
first visit of the king to the assembly, said to
Braze1, master of the royal ceremonies : "Go
and tell those who sent you, that wo are here
by the power of the people, and that we are
only to be driven out by .that of the bayo-

net"— an impressive and courageous answer
worthy of the greatest.

As. soon as the work of remodeling the con-
stitution of France was undertaken by the
Assembly, the division of the Ixxly into par-
ties became more manifest. Tin- views of the
deputies ranged all the way from tin- extreme
of radicalism to a grade of ooufiratino which
might have been pleasing even to the king
himself. By degrees the more radical and
aggressive arranged themselves in a group on
one side of the hall, and from their position

became known as the Isff. On the other
M<le were the ron.-erv -ati\ • •-. called the R'ujht;
while those who were of moderate views re-
ceived the appellation of the ('-ntn: For the
time, the measures debated had respect to the
decree and kind of reforms to l» adopted.
and did not contemplate the abolition of the
monarchy itself; but every thing tended to an
upheaval of the whole existing structure.

In the mean time, the course taken by the
people of Paris was known and imitated in
the provinces. The spirit of the Revolution
wiiiLred its flight into every part, and the in-

1000

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

habitants of other cities rose against the au-
thorities. The peasants took up arms against
the landed proprietors, and, finding that there
was no longer any power which they need fear,
began to commit violence on property and life.
Indeed, the whole surface of France became a

SIGNING THE ACTS OF ABOLITION.— NIGHT OK THE 4TH OK AUGUST.
Drawn by Vierge.

revolutionary sea, boiling and foaming. The
summer of 1789 was spent by the Constituent
Assembly in considering the new Constitution
for France. What should be the fundamental
law of the future ? What should be the statu-
tory forms best calculated to protect and secure

the Rights of Man? It was soon found that
the ancient institutions of the kingdom lay
square across the pathway of reform. More
and more did it become evident that the old
system of things must be destroyed before a
new era of constitutional freedom could be
ushered in. The Assem-
bly soon acquired the
courage of conviction,
and began to act with
boldness.

August of the year
1789 may be called the
Month of Abolition. One
after another the ancient
forms of society were
overthrown. In this
work, the nobles who
had cast in their lots
with the French people
bore a generous part. It
was no uncommon thing
to see a duke or titled
gentleman coming into
the Assembly and mak-
ing some radical motion,
leveled at the bottom
facts of the existing or-
der. In general, the pro-
gramme followed by the
Constituents looked to
the destruction of those
exclusive privileges by
which the First and Sec-
ond Estates had hitherto
flourished at the expense
of the Third. It was
conceived — and the con-
ception embodied the
truth — that the ills from
which France had so
greatly suffered, and was
so greatly suffering, arose
almost exclusively from
those constitutional errors
and abuses out of whose
rankness had sprung the noble and clerical or-
ders of the kingdom. These constitutions must,
therefore, be laid low ; and the Assembly hesi-
tated not in the work. On the evening of the
4th of August, a noted meeting of the Assem-
bly was held. An act was signed by which

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1007

the ancient Feudal Constitution of France was
abolished. Serfdom was swept ;i\v:iv. Civil
and military preferments were opened to all
classes of the people without distinction of
rank. Hunting and fishing were made free
to the peasant as well as to the lord. An
act was passed requiring that the clergy should
be henceforth supported by a general tax on
all property — a measure far less wise than
most of those adopted by the Assembly. A
declaration of the Rights of Man was made
on the motion of La Fayette, and among these
rights was specially mentioned that of resisting
an oppressive government. The New Consti-
tution was carried forward under favorable
omens; and a medal was struck representing
Louis XVI. as the Restorer of the Liberty of
France. When every thing was done, the As-
sembly, with the king presiding, celebrated a
Te Deum in token of gratitude for the happy
issue of the work.

Again there was a momentary lull. Per-
haps, if the horn of Plenty could have been
poured upon France, the Revolution might
have paused here, and the greatest of trage-
dies never been enacted. But, instead of
plenty, there was famine. Though the New
Constitution promised relief, it gave none — at
least, none for the present hour. People were
as hungry, as miserable, as before. A Bread
Riot broke out in Paris, and the voice of in-
surrection again roared in the streets. The
French women, long enslaved, ruined by a
false education, but glorious in their despair,
rushed into the mob and became its leaders.
They were the divinities of Fury. Hunmnity,
in its agony, went forth naked to fight those
who had been the cause of its misery.

The riot grew to tremendous proportions.
and raged as it ran. It was a creature of im-
pulse. Out at Versailles were the king and
his court. There, said blind humanity, was
the cause of all this woe. Besides, the natu-
ral man had been quick to perceive that even
the great Constituent Assembly had been duped
in several particulars. The veto of the king
over the acts of the National Legislature had
been allowed to stand. How, said the natural
and now hungry man, could the Nation be
free and happy if the king should retain the
power of annulling the acts of the people's
representatives? Ah, that luxurious palace

out at Versailles! Ah, the riotous plenty
wliieh the king and his lords and ladies do
tin re enjoy while we starve! Let us rush
thither! Let us go by thousands! Let us
surround that palace, and shout our demands
in the startled ears of royalty! There, too, is
that hateful Aiutrian, that wife of Louis Capet
See her with the ostrich-plumes in her hat.
How proud she is ! How she is loved and ca-
ressed! We are women, too. But we are not
loved and caressed. We starve, we starve !
On to Versailles! Bring them to Paris along
with the rest of us! Let them, too, bear the
sorrow, the anguish, of life! Aye, let them
suffer with the rest!— 80 cried the Revolu-
tion ; and the mob surged out of the city
gates on its way to Versailles, twelve miles
distant. When the insurgents return, they
will bring the king and the court with them.
What far, not even the mob could tell.

La Fayette, commandant of the National
Guard, followed in the wake. He would fain
stay the tumult. He would fain save the lives
of the king and queen. He puts himself be-
tween the royal family and danger. On the
evening of the 5th of October the mob reach
Versailles. They kindle great fires in the
streets, and there encamp for the night. In
the morning, they will do violence — how much,
and what, no man can tell. The palace is
guarded, but the Bastile was guarded also.

They who judge men by the exterior would
find much to admire and praise in the well-
dressed and well-decorated persons who on this
October night lay down on splendid couches
in the royal palace of Versailles. And such
judges would find little to admire or praise in
the hungry mobocrats who on the same night
threw themselves down around their camp-fires
in the streets of the town. The contrast was
sufficiently striking. The mob awoke with
the dawn. There was a growl, an outcry, a
rush for the palace. Two of the Swiss guards
were cut down at their posts. A company of
the insurgents broke into the apartments of
the queen, foaming with execration. The sen-
tinel defended the door as best he could. He
rushed into the queen's ch:iml>er. and cried
out: "Save the queen! They will have her
life! I stand alone against two thousand
tigers!" The figure was well chosen. They
were human tigers — and hungry.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The queen had escaped to the apartments
of the king. Behold Marie Antoinette, daugh-
ter of Maria Theresa, wife of the reigning
Bourbon, flying like a specter through the
shadows of the great halls, her hair disheveled,
her person exposed to the night wind. Poor

THE WOMEN ON THE ROAD TO VERSAILLES.
Drawn by Vierge.

ghost of the past ! The king, too, was up and
trying to save his family. His guards took
him to the apartment where the queen was.
There the children were gathered; and the
House of Capet sat trembling while the guards
of the palace were killed by the mob.

In the moment of extreme peril, La Fay-

ette faced the mob, and was heard. "To
Paris with the king!" they shouted. He told
them that the king should indeed go with
them back to Paris. The queen also and
the court should go. Louis was obliged to
submit. The royal carriage was brought forth,
and the mob appointed
a guard of honor to act
as an escort ! The heads
of two of the real guards
were stuck on pikes and
carried in the proces-
sion. For six hours the
brutal triumph of savage
liberty wound its way to-
ward the capital. All
Paris arose at the com-
ing of the royal car.
The city was illuminated
and the night made glo-
rious. The nation had
taken the king. He
was lodged in the Tuil-
eries. What was he?
A prisoner.

The sittings of the
Assembly were now per-
manently fixed in Paris.
In that body there was
no longer any distinc-
tion of rank. Nobles,
priests, and commons sat
side by side. The de-
bates were still directed
to the work of transform-
ing the constitution and
laws of the kingdom.
For about a year after
the king was brought to
Paris, the business of
the Assembly was con-
ducted in a manner as
regular and orderly as
might have been ex-
pected. During this in-
terval one innovation followed another. All
sects and creeds which were not abolished
were declared to be of equal privilege be-
fore the law. The right of suffrage was de-
creed to all citizens of France. All titles
were abolished, and every vestige of primo-
geniture swept away. The ancient boun-

y///; Adi-: <>!•' i;i:\-<)LUTio.\. Tin: I-I;I:M n REVOLUTION.

KK)9

daries of provinces were struck from the
map, and Frauce was redivided into cighty-
three departments. The ancient Parliament
was abrogated. Then began the work of con-
fiscation. The lands of the Church and the
greater part of the royal domain were seized
and appropriated to the uses of the state.
All monastic institutions were broken up.
Only two classes of dig-
nitaries, bishops and
cure's, were allowed to
retain their offices in the
Church. Hereupon the
Pope interfered to pre-
vent the utter wreck of
the ecclesiastical Empire.
Those who held rank in
the Church were forbid-
den to take the oath
which was prescribed by
the Assembly. More
than fifty thousand of
the clergy were deprived
of their properties and
turned adrift for refus-
ing to swear allegiance
under the new consti-
tution.

It was during the lat-
ter part of the year 1789
and in the following year
that the Constituent As-
sembly lost its autonomy
and fell under the do-
minion of the political
clubs which became rife
in Paris. Nearly every
shade of opinion had
found for itself a nucleus
outside of the assembly
halls, and had become
organic. The number
of political associations
in the capital was very great. The deputies
of the assembly were members of these vari-
ous clubs, whose meetings were held in the
evening, and whoso principal busine— \va- to
debate the matters pending before the
bly. It was not long before these club-!
to instruct their members what course they
should pursue in reference to the projects be-
fore the convention. The source of power
VOL. II.- 64

was thus tran-ferrcd from the assembly to the
clubs, which henceforth acted as jmlitical com-
mittees to prepare the business for the assem-
bly. As early as May of 1789, the deputies
from Brittany had organized the Breton Club,
which was perhaps the first of many, and
which became the greatest of all. When the
assembly transferred its sitting from Versailles

MARIE ANTO

MARIE ANTOINETTE.

to Paris, the club just mentioned established
its head-quarters in the old Dominican convent

of St. Jacobus, in the rue St. Honore. from
which circumstance the orirani/.atiou was hence-
forth known as the ,Jnf<J>\nf — though the
members called thcm<el\v the " Friends of
the Constitution." The members of the club
rapidly increased, and membership in the same
became the passport to political influence.

1010

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The most popular orators of the assembly
were Jacobins, and in the course of 1790-91-92,
the club became the controlling power of the
Revolution. It was in the meetings of the Ja-
cobins that radicalism grew and flourished.
The leadership of the club fell more and more
into the hands of extremists, who hesitated at
few things and scrupled at nothing. The so-
ciety became immensely popular. It extended
its influence to every part of France. Before
the close of 1791, twenty-four hundred branch
societies had been established in different parts
of the kingdom, and all were governed from
the head-quarters of the club in Paris. From
these conditions it is easy to understand how
the leaders of the Jacobins brought the As-
sembly under their sway and became the mas-
ters of France. The opinions and principles
of the organization were promulgated by means
of its Journal and Almanacs, which were scat-
tered everywhere.

The time had now come for the beginning
of a reaction against the revolutionary pro-
ceedings of the Convention. It could not be
expected that the feudal nobility and power-
ful clergy of France would melt away like
frost-work on the pane. During the whole of
1790 the ancient nobles continued to emigrate
to foreign lands, but they went expecting to
return. Scattered as they were, and disor-
ganized and weakened as they were by the
shock of revolution, they nevertheless began
to form plans to recover their lost inheritance.
It was determined to rendezvous on the Ger-
man frontier, to place themselves under the
leadership of Louis Joseph, prince of Cond6,
and to make a descent upon the nation that
had expelled them. They put on a black-
and-yellow uniform, took a death's head for
their symbol, and wrote "Conquer or die" on
their cuffs. Their numbers became formidable,
and it was evident to the Assembly and peo-
ple that the Emigrant Army would soon be
upon them with the counter-revolution. It
was also to be easily perceived that the sur-
rounding kingdoms, alarmed at the sudden
revelation of France as a power superior to
the king, would sympathize with the Emi-
grants, and perhaps assist them with arms and
men to make war on their country. It was
these actual and implied menaces that first
roused France to fury. Thus far she had been

clamorous ; now she was furious. She saw
the liberty which she had partly wrested put
in peril by those very classes of French so-
ciety at whose hands she had suffered ages
of abuse.

Meanwhile, however, the previous summer
had witnessed a memorable scene in Paris.
The Constitution had been completed. Its
ratification by the king was set for the
14th of July, the first anniversary of the de-
struction of the Bastile. That memorable day
was set apart for a national fete, during which
the king presented himself, with his family,
to the Assembly, and there, in the presence
of a vast concourse, took a solemn vow to
support the instrument which the deputies
were preparing. The army and the clergy
also swore allegiance ; and Marie Antoinette,
holding aloft her little son, the Dauphin, thus
pledged him and herself to accept and main-
tain the new order which had been estab-
lished in the kingdom. The enthusiasm ran
high, and again it was believed that the work
of regenerating France was about completed.

The moderate party in the Assembly had
for a season a kind of control over the proceed-
ings. Mirabeau was made president of the
body, and it was known that he was pledged
to maintain at least the form of the monarchy.
Though his leadership was stoutly contested,
and though he was charged with treason and
corruption, his influence continued predomi-
nant until his death. That event occurred on
the 2d of April, 1791. His faculties remained
clear and brilliant to his dying hour. At the
dawn of his last day he roused himself from
his sufferings, and said cheerfully to his phys-
ician, Cabanis: "My friend, I shall die to-
day. When one has come to such a juncture
there remains only one thing to be done ; that
is, to be perfumed, crowned with flowers, and
surrounded with music, in order to enter
sweetly into that slumber from which there is
no awaking." His death was as calm and
heroic as his life had been great and stormy.
The event produced a profound sensation
throughout France. There was none to take
his place. Few members of the Assembly
possessed the happy balance which he had
maintained between the royal party, who
worshiped the sixteenth century, and the
radicals, who believed in the twentieth.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

Kill

Up to this time the old army of France
had in some measure preserved its loyalty to
the king. Many of the regiments were in-
fected with the doctrines of the Revolution;
but the greater part, especially the Austrian
and Swiss portion of the army, adhered with
fidelity to the royal cause. The larger di-
vision of these troops
were stationed at
Montme'dy, and to
that place the king
and his family, cooped
up in Paris, cast
many a longing
glance. As for the
National Guard,
which was still under
the command of La
Fayette, it was as
thoroughly iml>u<-d
with the revolution-
ary doctrines as were
the people of the
city. Such was the
condition of affairs at
the time of Mirabeau's
•death, in the spring
of 1791.

By this time the
Emigrant Army on
the German frontier
was ready to ad-
vance, but was re-
strained from doing
so by the well-
grounded apprehen-
sion that an invasion
of France by her own
nobles would perhaps
precipitate the de-
struction of Louis
XVI. and the over-
throw of the mon-
archy. It therefore became all-important to
the royalists that the king should extricate
himself from his dilemma in Paris, and join
his friends who were waiting to deliver him.
He must, like Charles I. of England, escape
from a virtual imprisonment in the capital
in order to return victorious.

At this time the royal family in the city
consisted of the king and queen and their chil-

dren, together with the Princess Elizabeth
Capet, sister of Louis, and Monsieur and
Madame — the former the kind's In-other, the
latter the wife. A plot was laid for all to
make their exit from the city. On the night
of the 20th of June, 1791, Monsieur and
Madame succeeded in getting away, ami

LOUIS xvi. r-<-u>iN<; IN i ••

reached Brussels in safety. At the same
time the king and queen, disguising them-
selves, quitted the Tuileries with the hope of
reaching the army at Montim'dy. The fugi-
tive monarch succeeded in reaching Van-lines,
where he was received by the shattered rem-
nant of loyalty. But the avenging power
came hard at'ter, and the kinjr was sei/ed by
a detachment of the National Guard, arrested,

1012

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

and brought back to the city. This act on
the part of Louis produced the greatest agita-
tion. It had been his manifest purpose to

abandon the nation as represented in the Con-
stituent Assembly, and to cast in his lot.
with those who were openly arrayed against

LOUIS XVI. IN THE CITY HALL OF VAKENNES.
Drawn by F. Lix.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION— THE FREXL'U REVULUTIOS. nn:{

both. All belief iu the king's fidelity to the
•Constitution, which he had .sworn to support,
was swept away. It was seen that he had
but awaited the opportunity, this good-natured
representative of the House of Bourbou, to
ally himself with the mortal foes of the people.
All the suspicious of those who had districted
him and his pledges revived in full force, ami
Louis became an object of odium and con-
tempt Nevertheless, he was received in the
«ity without open marks of disrespect, and for

an act of patriotism, was especially uiifortu
nate for tin- country; for France had sent to
the Constituent Assembly the best men of the
kingdom; and there were good grounds to
apprehend— a thing soon to be realized— that
the new legL-laturc would not be equal in
abilities, pcrhap- not equal in patriotic pur-
pose, to that body which it was intended to
supplant,

By the summer of 1791, the -various states
of Europe had become profoundly agitated

ARRKST OF LOUIS XVI. AT VAKI

a while affairs became almost as tranquil as
before the attempted escape of the king.

The new Constitution of France hnvincr
been completed and signed, the work of the
Constituent Assembly seemed at an end. On
(he ,'{0th of September, 1701, the body pa—'d
an act for its own dissolution. Before doinir
so, a decree was prepared for the creation of
the new legislature, by which France was to
be henceforth governed. The Constituents
a\so resolved that none of themselves should
be clip We to election in the new Assembly.
The last-named resolution, though intended as

by the course of events in France. Suppose
that in all countries the People should arise
against their rulers! Would there not be
an end of that aristocratic and kingly rlyime
by which Europe was held in equipoise and
the world saved from barbarism? So rea-
1 the rulers. The Spanish and Italian
Bourbons were especially concerned for tin-
fate of the parent House. The Hapsburgs
were also much disturl»-d. A daughter of
their House was on the throne of France.
1'.. -i'lt-s, the National Assembly had. by tin-
act of Au.irust 4. 17*H. abolished the feudal

1014

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

claims of several princes to those half-French
and half-German provinces lying along the
Rhine. The princes of Franche-Comte, Al-
sace, and Lorraine had been thus dispossessed.
The archbishops of Meutz and Treves had in
like manner been deprived of their jurisdic-
tion over the cities of Spires, Strasbourg,
Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Even as far east
as Russia the alarm was spread abroad. Cath-
arine II., at that time engaged in a war -with
Turkey, made haste to conclude a peace to
the end that she might be able to take ad-
vantage of the revolutionary movement in
Western Europe. For she hoped thereby to
carry out her purpose of seizing Poland. She
thought to induce a war between Austria and
Prussia on the one side and France on the
other, and while the former countries were
thus engaged to extend her own authority over
at least a part of the Polish dominions. As
the result of this antecedent alarm, ambition
and jealousy among the powers, a conference
was held at Pillnitz, in Saxony, between the
German Emperor and Frederick William II.
of Prussia. It was agreed by the two mon-
archs that an appeal should be made to the
other European sovereigns for the forcible re-
instatement of Louis XVI. on the throne of
France. It was urged that such an interfer-
ence was necessary in order to trammel up
the consequences of the Revolution, and pre-
vent a like disaster in other kingdoms. At
most of the courts the appeal was heard with
favor, and Austria, Prussia, Spain, and Sar-
dinia formed a coalition — the first of many —
against the people of France. Meanwhile,
the Emigrant Nobles gathered in large num-
bers at Coblentz, where they put themselves
under command of the fugitive Count of
Provence, and awaited the movements of the
allied powers. The latter were somewhat de-
layed by the unexpected death of Emperor
Leopold (March, 1792), and the assassination
of Gustavus III. of Sweden.

In the preceding October the new Legisla-
tive Assembly had convened in Paris. The
great men who had led the Constituents were
absent ; but new leaders arose out of the neces-
sities of the situation. The most eminent of
these were from the department of the Gironde,
from which circumstance the party which now
gained the ascendency were known as the

GIRONDISTS. Their principal members were
Condorcet, Brissot, Petion, Verguiaud, Ducos,
and the two Rolands, Jean Marie and Marie
Jeanne, husband and wife, in whose salon the
leaders of the party were wont to assemble in
the evening and discuss the affairs of France.
In politics the Girondists were moderate Re-
publicans, believing in the overthrow of the
monarchy and the establishment of an en-
tirely new scheme of government; but at the
same time they strongly opposed the ultra-rev-
olutionary party, whose leaders were rapidly
tending to communism.

At the first the popularity of the Giron-
dists was favored by the threatened hostility
of Austria ; for this fact enabled them to put
themselves in the attitude of defending the
French nation from an assault by foreigners.
As soon, therefore, as hostile movements be-
gan on the part of the coiilition, the Giron-
dists were enabled to compel the king — if
king he might be any longer called, who was
such only in name — to accept a ministry com-
posed entirely of their own party, and were
thus strong enough to force from him a dec-
laration of war against his nephew, Francis
II. of Austria, successor of the Emperor Leo-
pold. This declaration was made on the
20th of April, 1792. It was precisely what
was needed to bring out the best qualities
of the French people. It was a war for na-
tional independence, for liberty, for the rights-
of man.

The Legislative Assembly and the French
people were ready for the emergency. The
coffers of the state were full ; for the confisca-
tion of ecclesiastical and royal property had
replenished to overflowing the wasted treasury
of France. The reverse of the process by
which the kingdom had suffered bankruptcy
had suddenly enriched the state. When,
therefore, the declaration of war was issued,
the Assembly was able almost immediately to-
throw three strong armies into the field. At
the beginning, however, the French soldiers,
from the very excess of enthusiasm, were
worsted by the enemy in the Austrian Neth-
erlands. It was not long, however, until the
tide began to turn in their favor ; and to their
advantage was added the supreme folly of
their foes. The Duke of Brunswick, having
taken command of the allied forces at Cob-

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE fltWll I! i:\oLUT10N.

1015

leutz, and really supposing that a nation of
freemen, thoroughly aroused from the lethargy
of the Middle Ages, and armed for the con-
quest of liberty, could be put down, trampled,
extinguished by the old-time despotic meth-

r>

the king. " On those who shall deserve it,"
said he, "shall be inflicted the most exem-
plary and ever-memorable avenging punish-
ments, by giving up the city of Paris to mili-
tary execution and exposing it to total

•^••^^r. -^,-

.

.

THE GIRONDISTS AT MADAME ROLANDO
Drawn by F. 1.1 x.

ods, issued a proclamation worthy of himself
and the cause which he represented. His
manifesto set forth that he was authorized by
the sovereigns of the countries that had en-
tered into the Coalition to reestablish the
royal authority in France, and to put down
the wicked insurrection of the people against

destruction; and that the rebels who shall be
guilty of illegal resistance shall sutler the
punishments which they shall have <lescn
This Iximha-tie and threatening Voice out of
the dead Past was precisely the thin:: most
needed by the French. The Assembly might
well have passed a resolution of thanks to the

1016

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Duke of Brunswick for thus uncovering the
purposes of those whom he served. The effect
of the proclamation was to unite the people

as one man against all foreign invaders, be
they few or be they millions.

To Louis XVI. and the monarchy of which

STORMING OF THE TUILEK1ES.
Drawn by F. Lix.

THK AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 1017

he was the representative nothing could have
beeu more fatal than this attempt of neigh-
boring kings to reestablish hid despotism over
tlir French nation. The Assembly and the
people now coupled his recent attempt to es-
cape from Paris with the movements of for-
eign powers and the Emigrant Nobles in his
behalf. Such was the increased odium aroused
against the king that the Girondists easily
procured a decree of the Assembly dismissing
the king's guard and banishing all the priests
who refused to take the oath of allegiance to
the constitution. Another act was passed for
the creation of a new federal army to be en-
camped near Paris. Most of the National
Guard had been sent into the field under com-
mand of La Fayette, and was now stationed
on the frontier of Belgium. That general
had become alarmed at the too radical pro-
ceedings of the Assembly, and written to that
body demanding the suppression of the polit-
ical clubs, notably of the Jacobins. But his
protest was unheeded, except in so far as
it tended to strengthen the purposes of
those who contemplated the abolition of the
monarchy.

Other circumstances also conduced to the
same end. On the 13th of June the king dis-
missed his Girondist ministry and attempted
to reassert his old prerogatives. This action
on his part provoked another mob, as terrible
as any which Paris had yet beheld. The in-
surgents gathered to the number of twenty
thousand. They armed themselves with
scythes, axes, pikes, and clubs. Under the
lead of a brewer named Santerre, they
marched into and through the hall of the
Legislative Assembly, to which body Santerre
delivered a violent harangue. Thence the
mob proceeded to the Tuileries, where the
king and queen were hooted at and limited;
but no further acts of violence were for
the present attempted. Meanwhile, during
the month of July, IT'.il?. the new federal
army was rapidly recruited. This work was
mostly carried out under the management of
the .Jacobins. The French prisons were
emptied, and thousands of criminals, clad in
the tri-color of Republican France, were en-
listed into the ranks. Hatred of the monarchy
increased. The king and his household be-
came objects of loathing. The delirium of

license was added to the exhilaration of lib-
erty. Paris became a sea tossed by the storm.

It was at this juncture that Kouget de 1'Isle,
a young military officer stationed at Strasburg,
composed the celebrate,! M.n-^illaue Hymn,
which became, and has ever since remained,
the national song of Revolutionary France.
At the first it was known as the War-song of
the Army of the Rhine, but was afterwards
called La Marseillaise. The words and mel-
ody alike seemed to strike a chord in the
heart and harp of liberty, which has trembled
with emotions unto the present day. It was
on the 10th of August, 17112, that surging
Paris first heard the music of the Marseillaise.
On that day the still uiKjuieted mob, which
had recently paid its compliment! to the
Assembly and the royal family, again became
rampant. It roared in the streets. The new
War Song was sung, at first by a few, and
then by thousands. The guards of the Tuil-
eries were doubled in anticipation of an at-
tack by the populace. It was evident that at
last the storm of revolutionary fury was
fairly loosed. The mob could not be sup-
pressed. The people were with the mob. The
people' were the mob. A rush was made for
the Tuilerio. Mandat, commandant of the
guard, was summoned before the Commune,
or City Court, and put to death. All that
part of the guard which belonged to the
National went over to the insurgents. Only
a regiment of Swiss was left to protect the
palace and the king. Then came the onset
Louis and his family fled to the halls of the
National Assembly. The Swiss guards were
cut down without mercy. The mob burst
through the gates of the palace ami roared
along the magnificent corridors. The palace
was sacked, and none escaped save a few who
made their way to the Assembly. The latter
bodv itself swayed towards the mob. Had it
not done so, the legislature would perhaps have
shared the same fate with the royal family.

The kin;: wa- now a prisoner in name as
well as in fad. He wa« conveyed with his
household to a gloomy old pri-on called the
Temple, where in a-cs gone the knights of
the Order of that name had held their con-
clave-. The Middle Age which had per—
in ruling the eighteenth century was incarcer-
ated at the last in a prison of its own con-

1018

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

struction. In a short time, and under the
very windows of the royal palace, was set up
a guillotine— the instrument recently invented

by Dr. Joseph Ignace Guillotin, of the As-
sembly, for the more merciful execution of
criminals. Nor was it long until the efficacy

THE KING WITH THE MOB IS THE TUILERIES.
Drawn by F. Lix.

THK AGE OF KI-:Y(tLL'T10N.—

l-'RESCIl REVOLUTION.

101»

of the machine was attested in a horrid

manner.

'lln radical revolutionists were now tri-

umphant in the Assembly and throughout
France. It became their jxilicy t<> <lr>tn.v
whatever opposed them. The accumulated

THK KOYAL FAMILY IX TIIK 1 KMl'I.K.
Drawn by Emilc Bayard.

1020

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

horrors which despotism had for centuries been
storing up against the day of wrath were now
to be revisited upon all who exposed them-
selves to the madness of infuriated Liberty.
The so-called REIGN of TERROR was ushered
in. It was the day of blood and vengeance-
such vengeance as the human race lias never
at any other time taken on itself for its own
crimes. A revolutionary tribunal was created,
and a sort of semi-legal massacre was begun
of those who durst oppose, or were even sus-
pected of opposing, the actions of the faction
which for the time controlled the destinies of
the state. On the 2d of September a party
of revolutionists known as the Federea, claim-
ing to be the most devoted champions of the

THE GUILLOTINE.

cause of the people, made a rush on the
prisons where those priests were confined who
had refused to swear allegiance to the new
constitution. They assaulted the old abbey of
Saint Germain, and then the convent of the
Carmelites. In the former place twenty-three
and in the latter one hundred and fifty-two
priests were butchered. The seminary of
Saint Firmin was next stormed, and there
ninety-two others were slain. The revolution-
ists then made their way to that prison in
•which were confined the Swiss guards who had
escaped the massacre of the 10th of August.
These too were killed. For five days the
work of slaughter continued in and about the
prisons of Paris. No age, sex or condition
•was spared by the desperate and seemingly

insatiable destroyers. Three thousand persons
were seized in their own houses b)r night and
dragged off to imprisonment and death. The
most beautiful city of the modern world be-
came a horror too awful to contemplate. The
rage for blood was caught in other parts, and
the cities of Meaux, Rheims, Lyons, and Or-
leans imitated the work which was done in
the capital. Every prison was emptied of its
living contents, and all day long the guillotine
was heard performing its task, stroke on
stroke. Having destroyed those who had
already been imprisoned under charge or sus-
picion of disloyalty, the directors of the mas-
sacre turned upon those who had as yet gone
free. The Princess Lamballe, the confidential
friend of Marie Antoinette, was seized, taken
before the tribunal, condemned, and beheaded.
The executioners placed her head on a pike,
and exhibited it before the windows of the
Temple, where the queen must see the bloody
trophy. The hospital of Bicetre, where about
four thousand persons were confined, was
taken after an eight days' siege, and not
one of the inmates was spared to tell the
story. — Such were the SEPTEMBER MASSA-
CRES of 1792.

The chief leaders who were responsible
for this well-named Reign of Terror were
three — George Jacques Dantou, Jean Paul
Marat, and Maximilieu Isidore de Robespierre.
The first of these remarkable personages to
whom destiny had assigned the office of
butcher in the kingdom of Freedom, was now
in his thirty-third year. His birthplace was
Arcis-sur-Aube. By profession he was a law-
yer; by nature, a leader of men. He had
been a pupil of Mirabeau in politics, but had
none of that great man's conservatism. He
had taken part in founding the club of Corde-
liers, and had operated, in conjunction with
Desmoulins and Marat, in promoting the most
radical views and violent measures. He early
favored the deposition of the king, and was
one of those who precipitated the attack on the
Tuileries on the 10th of August. For his
audacity on this occasion he was rewarded by
the Assembly with the office of Minister of
Justice, and it was in this capacity that he
figured in the terrible tragedies of the follow-
ing month. Around him as a leader were
now gathered a large following of radicals,

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.- Till I l;l.. \< H REVOU Jln\. 1021

who took his name and are known as the
DANTOMSI>.

Marat was born in 1744. In his youth he
studied medicine, and then traveled in foreign
countries. While in England he wrote a
pamphlet entitled The Chains of Slavery, which
attracted much attention and exhibited the
radicalism of his views. From 1779 to 1788
he lived at Paris, and participated in the po-
litical and scientific controversies which agi-
tated France. With the outbreak of the
revolution he became one of the leading dem-
agogues, and his influence over the lower
classes of the populace was
hardly second to that of any
other man in Paris. He
was, perhaps, the most inflam-
matory journalist of that
stormy period. He was
brought into public life
through the club of the Cor-
deliers, to which he had been
introduced by Dantou. He
soon distinguished himself for
his fury against the Giron-
dists, whom he charged with
being traitors to the cause of
liberty. He delivered daily
harangues to as many radicals
as would listen, and on one
occasion in the Assembly was
going to blow out his own
brains as he stood in the tri-
bune, because his hearers were
apathetic and jeered at his
speech. Several times he was
driven into concealment by
the indiscreet rage with which
he attacked the moderate party that still con-
trolled the actions of the Assembly. After
the attack on the Tuilcries, however, he came
into open daylight, and was soon recogni/ed
as one of the principal supporters of Danton,
and a powerful member of that vigilance
committee into whose hands insane Paris had
committed her destiny. In person he was as j
contemptible as his will and ferocity were con-
spicuous. Less than five feet in height, lean
and scrawny, he exhibited a countenanr, U
ludicrous and fierce as that of Tilly.

The third of the trio wa- liolie-pi-'i-re. He
was at this time thirtr-four years of age. HU

family was of Irish origin and had received a
patent of Nobility. He had acquired his ed-
ucation along with Danton and Desmoulins in
the college of Louis le ( Jrand. 1 1 is first noto-
riety was gained as a lawyer at Arras, in &

cause wherein he ( lueted the defense of

certain parties who were prosecuted for im-
piety in that they had put up Dr. Franklin's
lightning-rods on their houses! Robespierre
was a pupil of Rousseau, whose ultra-liberal
principles he fully imbibed. While still re-
nding at Arras he was obliged, as judge of
the court, to condemn a convicted criminal to

. .- ; -

JEAN PAfl. MARAT.

death. At this he was <•» shocked that he re-
signed his office and became an advocate of
the abolition of capital punishment. So great
was his horror of cruelty and pain that he
shuddered even at the killing of a doni.
fowl ; nor can it be suspected that his .-ei»i-
tiveness to inhumanity and the shedding of
blood was in any measure an afleetation. In
1789 he was elected as a deputy to the States-
gciieral, where his force of mind no less than
his insignificant person soon attracted the ai
tention not only of the Assembly, but of all
France. His figure was so slight as to be al-
most spectral. His limbs were slim and angu-

1022

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

lar; his forehead projected over the temples,
and his deep-set blue eyes darted a fiery de-
termination in debate. His voice was shrill
and monotonous ; his mouth large ; his lips
thin ; his nostrils wide ; his chin small and
pointed ; the muscles of his face always drawn
into knots by the tension of excitement. In
the constituent Assembly his influence was
frequently preponderant. He was poor; his
garments were threadbare. He lived in apart-
ments scarcely better than a hovel, and gave
one-fourth of his daily pay to his sister. He
•was studious and temperate — a member of
the Jacobins.

As late as April of 1792 Robespierre still

hands of the Assembly, and France was in
the hands of Paris. It remained to be seen
whether the world would be in the hands of
France. The allied powers had now massed
an army of a hundred and ten thousand men
under the Duke of Brunswick, and the inva-
sion began from the side of Germany. To
oppose this force the NATIONAL CONVENTION —
for to that name the title of Legislative As-
sembly had now given place — sent forth an
army under General Dumouriez, who con-
fronted the allies in the Forest of Argonne.
The latter, after capturing Longwy and Ver-
dun, were brought to a standstill, and pres-
ently driven back across the Rhine. The

MARAT THREATENING TO KILL HIMSELF IN THE TRIBUNE.
Drawn by F. Lix.

pleaded for the abolition of the death penalty.
He published a journal called The Defender of
tlie Constitution. Though he did not partici-
pate in the attack on the Tuileries, he after-
wards declared that day to be one of the most
glorious in the annals of mankind. He was
influential in organizing the semi-military
tribunal which was instituted for the destruc-
tion of the alleged enemies of the government.
In this way he became associated with Danton
and Marat, and presently took into his own
hands the destiny of Assembly, Paris, and
France.

Such were the three men ' whom to resist
was to die. The revolutionary tribunal was
in their hands; the Assembly was in the
hands of the tribunal. Paris was in the

Duke of Brunswick had been induced by the
Emigrant Nobles to believe that the French
peasants on the border, rising at his approach,
would furnish supplies for the invading army ;
but the event showed that the common peo-
ple were with the Revolution. It was from
this circumstance, rather than from the shock
of defeat in battle, that Brunswick was obliged
to retreat. After losing about thirty thousand
men he found himself back again on the east
bank of the Rhine. Soon afterwards Du-
mouriez confronted the enemy coming out of
the Austrian Netherlands, and gained a deci-
sive victory on the field of JEMAPPES. The
people rose in favor of the French, renounced
their allegiance to the House of Hapsburg,
and proclaimed a Belgian Republic. It was

THE AGE OF JKEVOLUTION.-THE FREXCH REVOLUTION

the first formal exhibition of the revolutionary
spirit beyond the borders of France.

It was on the 22d of September in this year
(1792) that the Assembly was merged into
the Convention. The tide of republicanism
had now risen high and roared along all the
shores. There was no longer any doubt as to
the fate of the old form of government. On
the very first day of the sitting of the Con-
vention a decree was passed by acclamation,
abolishing royalty in France. The very laud-

strujrgle ensued between the two parties for
the mastery of the Convention. The mob
out.-ide was with the Mountain, and the Gi-
rondists were hard pressed to keep their
ascendency. When the news came that Du-
mouriez had driven back the allied army and
gained a victory at Jemappes; when it was
known that the Austrian Netherlands had
been recovered, and the Belgian Republic pro-
claimed, the radicalism of the Convention be-
came more intense than ever. A resolution

LOUIS XVI. BEFOltE THE BAR OF THE CONVENTION.

marks of the ancient regime were obliterated.
Not even the titles of Monsieur and Mailumr
were allowed to stand. Henceforth every
person in the realm should be called Cithm.
The FRENCH REPUBLIC was proclaimed as the
only form of government fit to protect the
liberties of men. To these measures all the
factions in the Convention assented ; but that
body was constantly disturbed by the rancor
of party strife. The Girondists, now known
as the Shore, were still in a numerical major-
ity ; but the Mountain — that is, the Jacobins —
were the most aggressive and violent A

was passed authorizing every French general
to proclaim the abolition of monarchy and the
sovereignty of the people in all the countries
which they should enter. " Lii-.i I:TY, EquAlr
ITY, FRATERNITY " was adopted as the motto
of the French nation : nnd it was ordered that
whatever power should refuse to accept the
principles expressed in these key -words of eman-
cipation should be regarded as an enemy. A
decree was next passed declaring the free nav-
igation-of the Scheldt, and a French fleet as-
cended that river to bombard Antwerp. This
action was in direct violation of the treaties

1024

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of Miinster arid Paris, and implied that the Con-
vention would take upon itself the work of giv-
ing a new construction to the Law of Nations.

The helpless Louis XVI. was still a pris-
oner in the Temple. The Jacobins constantly-
sought his death. During the fall of 1792

LOUIS XVI. TAKING LEAVE OP HIS FAMILY.
Drawn by F. Lix.

mi: Adi-: or IIKVOLUTIOX.—THE FI;I:M n REVOLUTION. \»-ir,

many char-en were preferred against him, and
on the 10th of December lie was brought to
trial before the Convention. The accusations
which were preferred by the Committee of
Public Safety \MT<! that Louis Capet had in-
vited and encouraged foreign enemies in
invade France; that he
had neglect t d the French
army to the end that the
allied powers might be
victorious; that his con-
duct had occasioned the
capture of Longwy and
Verdun by the Duke of
Brunswick in the recent
invasion; that he had
caused the riot of the 10th
of August ; that he had
repeatedly forsworn him-
self as it respected the
new Constitution of
France. The king was
ably defended by Tron-
chet, Deseze, and Males-
herbes, who risked their
lives by acting as his
advocates. The trial
lasted until the 15th of
January, when the pris-
oner was found guilty by
a unanimous vote. When
it came to fixing the pen-
alty, however, there was
violent dissension. The
Girondists favored exile
or banishment, but the
Mountain was for death.
For five days the Con-
vention was the scene of
stormy debates. On the
20th of the month a vote
was taken, and the result
showed that the Jacobins
had triumphed. Of the
seven hundred and
twenty-one votes, three hundred and sixty-
six were recorded for the penalty of death.
The vote was viva voce, each member ris-
ing as his name was called and announc-
ing his decision. Philip of Orleans, who had
joined the radicals and taken his surname of
JZgalite, from the motto of the Revolution,
VOL. II.- 65

voted without hesitation for his cousin's death ;
but Thomas 1'aine recorded liis vote in the
negative. The king on being notified of the
sentence, asked a delay of three days in order
to prepare for death. lie also requested that
a priest should lie sent to him, that his fam-

DEATH OF

LOUIS XVI. IN THE PLACE DE LA CONCORDE.
Drawn by Vierge.

ily might come to his cell, and that the sur-
veillance of the guards might -be withdrawn.
The respite was denied, but the other requests
were granted. The execution was set for the
21st of January. On the morning of that
day Louis was led forth to the guillotine.
He was accompanied to the place of his death.

1026

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

by his confessor, the Abbe Edgeworth. On
the way to the scaffold in the Place de la Rev-
olution there was 110 interruption. The peo-
ple remained silent. Nous voici done arrives,
said the king, as the carriage stopped before
the guillotine. "At last we are arrived."
At last! Louis met his fate with calmness.
Like Charles I. he betrayed no sign of fear.
On the scaffold he attempted to address the
people ; but his voice was drowned with the
beating of drums. When the knife descended

he was put in charge of a Jacobin shoemaker
named Antoine. Simon. By him the prince
was so brutally treated that he presently be-
came deranged in mind and dwarfed and de-
formed in body. He was kept in confinement
until the 8th of June, 1795, when he died of
scrofula superinduced by filth and starvation.
If the previous conduct of Revolutionary
France had alarmed the powers of Europe,
the execution of the king filled them with
madness and resentment. With such an exam-

LOUIS XVI. ON THE SCAFFOLD (NEABEB VIEW).

the executioner lifted the dissevered head by
the hair, and cried, " Long live the Republic !"
At the time of the tragedy Louis XVI.
was in the nineteenth year of his reign. His
claims to the crown of France were left to his
son, the Dauphin, now in his eighth year, and
still a prisoner in the Temple. The Count
of Provence, .brother to the late king, as-
sumed the title of Regent, in the name of his
nephew. The latter, however, was destined
to a hard fate. On the 3d of July, 1793, he
was torn from his mother's arms and con-
veyed to another part of the prison, where

pie before him no monarch of Christendom could
sit safely on his throne. The rulers of Eu-
rope conceived it to be necessary to the main-
tenance of the existing order anywhere that
a coalition of all should be formed for the
suppression of the French nation, or, at least,
of the French Revolution.

A new league was accordingly made to
which the parties were Great Britain, Russia,
Prussia, Austria, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, and
Portugal. Indeed no European state, except
Switzerland, Denmark, and Sweden, remained
friendly to France. The prime mover in this

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

1027

second coiilition against the French Republic
was William Pitt, now at the heitrht of his
power in England. But the formidable array
of her enemies created no alarm in France.
She had long passed the stage of fear, and
was ready to fight the world. In her declara-
tion of war, however, she was careful to des-
ignate the riders of the hostile states, and not
the people, as the objects of her anger. The
Convention ordered a
levy of five hundred
thousand men to repel
the threatened inva-
sions, and the confisca-
ted property of the
Church and the nobil-
ity was appropriated to
the support of the war.
Thus began the fear-
ful contest between Old
and New Europe — a
struggle which was des-
tined to continue al-
most without interrup-
tion for more than
twenty years, to waste
the energies of the
whole continent, to
heap up mountains of
debt on the head of
posterity, to entail a
train of evils from the
shadow of which no
nation has yet emerged.
The French ambassa-
dors were unceremo-
niously dismissed from
almost every court in
Europe, and the war
began in earnest.

At the first there
were several attempts to

start a reaction in France. After his victories
on the German frontier and his conquest in
the Austrian Netherlands, Dumouriez, hear-
ing of the peril of the king, had returned to
Paris in the hope of saving the monarch's life
and putting an end to the Jacobin ascend-
ency. In his political views he favored the
establishment of a limited monarchy ; but the
day for a monarchy of any kind had passed,
and Dumouriez, giving up his hopes, went

back to the command of the army. His con-
duct, however, had excited the suspicions of
the Jacobins, who sent out spies to keep a
watch on the general's proceedings. Nor was
it long before commissioners were ill-patched
by the Convention with orders for his arrest
These agents were, however, themselves ar-
rested by Dumouriez and delivered to the
Austrians. He then attempted to lead his

WILLIAM 1-ITT.

army back to Paris for the overthrow of the
government ; but the army was as thoroughly
republican as the revolutionists in Paris, and
would not obey his command. Hereupon he
abandoned his camp and sought refuge with
the Austrians.

The condemnation of Louis XVI. marked
the ascendency of the Jacobin faction over
the Girondists in the Convention. But the
latter continued to struggle in the hope of

1028

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

regaining their power. Already there were
grounds to apprehend that the extremists, led
on by Dautoii, Marat, and Robespierre, would
turn the enginery of destruction upon their
more moderate associates in the Convention.
The arming of the revolutionary tribunal with
authority to decide without appeal all crimes
alleged to have been done against liberty,
equality, and the indivisibility of the Repub-
lic, tended to confirm the suspicion that the
Girondists were marked for the scaffold. In

CHARLOTTE CORDAY.

the next place, the Committee of Public
Safety was invested with dictatorial powers.
While these steps were taken in the Conven-
tion, the mob outside began to howl for the
destruction of the Gironde. On the 2d of
June, 1793, a vast throng of eighty thousand
men, armed and desperate, surrounded the
hall of the Convention, and demanded the
arrest of the Girondist leaders. The repre-
sentative body durst not resist the clamor of
the rabble. Thirty-two of the Gironde were
accordingly seized and hurried to prison.

Seventy-three others were expelled from mem-
bership. The party of moderation was broken
up, and the party of violence reveled in its
excesses without restraint.

The time had now come when assassination
was to be added to the other crimes of the
epoch. The first notable instance of this sort
of vengeance was furnished by Charlotte de
Corday, who, in the beginning of July, left
Caen and came to Paris as an avenger of the
Girondists. Marat's journal, called Ami du
Peuple, had declared that two-
hundred thousand additional
heads must fall before the
Revolution would be secure.
This ferocious programme fore-
told the destruction not only
of the Girondists, but of all
others who might dare to op-
pose the councils of moderation
to the madness of the revo-
lutionary tribunal. On com-
ing to Paris Charlotte wrote a
letter to Marat and solicited an
audience, but that citizen made
no answer. On the 13th of
July Charlotte purchased a
knife in the Palais Royal,
called upon Marat in the Rue
de Cordelieres, but was refused
admittance to his house. In
the evening she succeeded in
gaining an interview, reported
to Marat, who was in his bath,
the proceedings of the Giron-
dists at Caen, which was her
pretended business, and then
suddenly drawing her knife
plunged it to the hilt into his
heart. He gave one cry
and sank back dead. The murderess was
immediately seized, condemned, and sent to
the guillotine. To Marat the highest honor
was paid in his death. His heart was depos-
ited in a vase of agate, placed on an altar,
and surrounded with flowers and burning in-
cense. To the rabble he had been a god.
Robespierre and Danton were left to strug-
gle for the mastery. In one thing they were
both agreed ; namely, that the Girondist lead-
ers must die. Their arrest and imprisonment
were followed by a trial and condemnation.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION'. — TJIK J-'l;i:.\( 11 Hl.VnLL T/o.Y.

lo-jy

On the 31st of October twenty -two of those
under sentence were led forth from tin; I'oii-
«iergerie, where they had sjwnt tlu-ir laat

in social converse chiefly directed to

their death on tlic morrow, and perished l>y
decapitation under the guillotine. ^Indamn Ro-

DEATH OF MARAT.
Drawn by F. Ux.

1030

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

land, who had been for some time the inspir-
ing genius of the Gironde party, and her hus-
band, scarcely less distinguished than she for
his virtues, soon followed their comrades to
death. Madame Roland herself faced the guil-

By this time the cloud of war had gath-
ered around nearly all the horizon of France.
The Convention became furious, reckless.
Robespierre was placed on the Committee of
Public Safety. A fearful reaction had now

THE GIRONDISTS ON THE ROAD TO EXECUTION.
Drawn by F. Lix.

lotine like a heroine. " 0 liberty !" she ex-
claimed, " what crimes are committed in thy
name !" and then she died as she had lived ;
but her husband chose to perish by his own
hands. Most of the other leaders of the Gi-
rondists escaped from Paris, and sought to or-
ganize a counter-revolution in the provinces.

taken place in his nature, and instead of his
former abhorrence of bloodshed, he had rushed
to the other extreme, and became the most
terrible butcher of all the revolutionists. His
career henceforth was shocking, appalling.
He spared none. A Law of the Suspected was
passed by the Convention, under the opera-

THE AGE OF DEVOLUTION.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

1081

tion of which two hundred thousand persons
were imprisoned on vague charges oi' conspir-
ing against the liberties of France. Mere
mistakes and misfortunes were set down as
crimes, and woe to him against whom the
finger of suspicion was lifted.

Mean while the
sorrows of Marie
Antoinette wen-
ended with her
life under the
guillotine. On
the 14th of Oc-
tober the " Wid-
ow Capet," as
the indictment
called her, was
brought before
the Revolution-
ary Tribunal to
answer to the
charge of having
conspired against
France at home
and abroad. Her
demeanor was
full of dignity.
She made a few
laconic replies to
the questions
which were ad-
dressed to her,
and calmly a-
waited the in-
evitable. Only
once, when she
was accused by
Hubert of hav-
ing been privy
to the debauch-
ing of her own
son, did her in-
dignation flash
like lightning.
It is said that

even the audacious Hebert quailed for a mo-
ment and shrank before her wrath.

On the morning of the 16th she was
condemned to death. At noon of the same
day she was conveyed along the streets,
where thirty thousand soldiers and other in-
numerable throngs were assembled, and pass-

ing, unmoved by their shouts of " Vive la
JRepublique 1 A bos la Tyrnnnii'!" to the place
of death, moimteil tin- M-atloM and died like
a queen. Her frivolity had long since given
place to that heroism which the scourge of
sorrow not unt'rc<iuenlly lashes from the soul

of womanhood, and in the last hour the House
of Austria had no cause to be ashamed of its
daughter.

In less than a month after this tragedy
Philip Egalite1 met his fate at the hands of
those whom he had flattered and supported.
Like most of those who went to their death

1032

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

in this epoch of blood, he died without a sign
of fear. Indeed, death had well-nigh ceased
to be terrible. Men came to believe that the
regeneration of man, the resuscitation of so-
ciety, demanded an unstinted sacrifice of life,
and few hesitated to make it.

In the mean time nearly all the forms to
which the French people had been accus-
tomed were abolished. A new calendar was

tige of the ancient systems of belief. The doc-
trines which men had accepted for centuries
were formally abrogated. Atheism was de-
clared to be the faith of France. Immortal-
ity was denied. On all the public cemeteries
was placed this inscription, DEATH is AN
ETERNAL SLEEP. The age was proclaimed
the Age of Reason. Reason was deified. All
the ceremonies of Catholicism were turned

THE FETE OF REASON.
After the painting by M. Mueller.

made. The Christian Era was wiped out, and
was replaced by the new FRENCH ERA, dating
from September 22, 1792. The mythological
names of the months gave place to others de-
duced from the prevailing phase of nature.
The week was abolished, and a span of ten
days substituted for the seven, the tenth day,
or Decadi, being set apart for rest. A decree
was passed against the Christian Religion,
and it was sought to obliterate the last ves-

into ridicule and mockery. The churches
were rifled and the treasures of silver and gold
were carried with laughter and song to the
bar of the Convention. Some put on sur-
plices and capes after the manner of the
priests, sang hallelujahs, and danced the Car-
magnole. Having set down the host, the
boxes in which it was kept, and the statues
of gold and silver, they addressed the saints
in burlesque speeches. " 0, you," said one

7V//-;

i; i:\niAJTlON.-THE

in apostrophe, " O, you instruments of fanat-
icism, blessed saints of all kinds, lie at length
patriots! Ki.-< M HK/--W, .serve thf country by
going to the Mint to be melted, and give us
in tlii.s wurlil that felicity which you wanted
to obtain for us, in the other!" On the motion

hanging from her shoulders. Her hair was
crowned with the cap of liberty. She was
placed on an antique sent twined with ivy,
and was borne to Notre Dame by four <-iii-
/<•]]-. Addresses were made and hymn- sun-
after the manner of a religious ceremony.

DESTRUCTION OF THE VENDEANS.

of Chaumette, the Church of Notre Dame was
converted into a Temple of Reason, and there,
on the 10th of November, the Festival of Rea-
son was celebrated. Madame Momoro, the
young and beautiful wife of a Jacobin printer,
was chosen to represent Reason. She was
dressed in white, with a mantle of azure blue

The members of the Convention and the mag-
istrates of Paris joyfully participated in the
festival. The greatest men in France joined
with the populace in shouting " The Republic
forever! J-'i'n.i<»i forever! Dmm unth fanaticism T
Of all the provinces of France, the district
most infected with loyalty to the old order

1034

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

was La Vendee. The people of this region
had not caught the fanaticism of the Revolu-
tion. On the contrary, they proclaimed Louis
XVII., and took up arms in support of that
prince and the Count of Provence. A for-
midable army was gathered, and the forces of
the Republic were set at defiance. The Conven-
tion ordered the suppression of the insurrec-
tion, but the Vendeaus held their ground
and inflicted several defeats on those who
were sent against them. At the very time
when the mistaken announcement that La
Vendee was no more was made in the Con-
vention the Republican army had been disas-
trously routed by the insurgents. In a short
time, however, reinforcements were sent
against the revolted province, and the rebel-
lion was put down in blood. For awhile the
Vendeans continued the struggle in a sort of
guerrilla warfare in the swamps and marshes
of the country. The extermination of this
resistance was intrusted to a savage officer
named Carrier, who hunted down the Ven-
dean rebels with extreme ferocity. So many
persons, living and dead, were hurled into
the Loire that the river was poisoned and the
fishes died. In this and other horrid ways as
many as fifteen thousand people were de-
stroyed in the last months of 1793.

In other parts the insurrectionary spirit
displayed itself. Lyons revolted. To that
city, as to Caen, the Girondists flocked in
great numbers after the downfall of their
party in the Convention. They united with
the Royalists, and in their first battle with
the Republican army were victorious. But
the tide soon turned, and Lyons was besieged.
Famine aided the besiegers, and the city was
presently reduced and almost blotted out.
Toulon also revolted, and an army of sixteen
thousand English and Spaniards was admitted
into the town. An English fleet held posses-
sion of the harbor, and the place was com-
manded by what were considered impregnable
fortifications. A siege was undertaken by the
army of the Convention, and was pressed
with great vigor, but without much prospect
of success. After a month, a council of war
was called by the French general ; and while
the best method of capturing Toulon was dis-
cussed, and none seemed able to give any
rational advice, a young captain of artillery

arose, and in a few positive and clear-cut sen-
tences showed the council that a certain fort
was the key to the city and harbor, and that
the same could be taken by cannonade and
assault. It was NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. His
advice was adopted, and he was intrusted
with the duty of carrying the fort. This was
to his liking. The fort was taken. The guns
were turned upon the surprised enemy. The
fleet was obliged to leave the harbor, taking
on board the flying royalists of the town.
Toulon capitulated, and France first heard
the name of him who was soon to rise above
the storm of Revolution.

Napoleon was at this time twenty-four
years of age. His birth and parentage have
already been narrated in a preceding chapter.1
The characteristics of his boyhood had been
sufficiently marked. From a child he was a
being different from others. He was taciturn,
willful, studious, a dreamer. He dreamt the
dream of war. He trained the boys of Ajac-
cio, and taught them how to make battle with
wooden sabers. He was educated under
Pichegru in the military academy at Brienne.
The report of the school for the year 1784
speaks of him as "distinguished in mathe-
matical studies, tolerably versed in history
and geography, much behind in Latin and
belles-lettres and other accomplishments; of
regular habits, studious and well-behaved, and
enjoying excellent health." In this year he
was transferred to the military school in
Paris, where, in 1785, he was given the rank
of lieutenant and assigned to a regiment sta-
tioned at Valence. In politics he was a dem-
ocrat. He corresponded with Paoli, then an
exile in London, and projected a history of
his native island, which he visited every year.
In 1787-89 he became an intense revolution-
ist. He was made a captain of artillery in
1792, and was present in Paris during the in-
surrections of June and August. At one
time he commanded a battalion of the National
Guard, and while holding this trust was sent
to subdue his native island, then in revolt.
In the summer of 1793 the members of his
father's family left Ajaccio and came to Paris,
which became henceforth the home of the
Bonapartes. . In September of this year Na-
poleon was ordered to assist in the siege of
'Seep. 939.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— Till. 11; I.. \cjl lU.VOLL'TlON.

1035

Toulon, where, as above stated, he first brought
himself to the notice of the Convention.
After the overthrow of the Girondists, the

Terrorists were still divided into fact ions.
The most violent party was the H('ln-rti>t8, go
uanied from their leader, Jacqm - If. n,' H6-

N A !•(>[. K< IX BKKOKK 'I'dLl.dN.
Drawn by F. Llx.

1036

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

bert, better known by his pseudonym of Pere
Duchesue. He was one of the many unscru-
pulous, perturbed spirits whom the Revolution
had flung up from the sea-beds of humanity.
His followers were, from their desperate char-
acter, called the Enrages. The conservatives,
now known as the "Party of Clemency," were
led by Dan ton, who, though an atheist and
communist, believed that the Revolution had
reached its climax, and that the time had ar-
rived to moderate its fury. Between these
two extremes were Robespierre and his fol-
lowers, who called themselves the "Party of
Justice." The latter, however, with a view
of compassing the destruction of the Hebertists,
whom they hated, joined themselves with the
Party of Clemency, and by this means suc-
ceeded in bearing down Pere Duchesne and
his band. These, to the number of nine-
teen— including the leader — were seized on
the night of the 13th of March, 1794, and
were hurried to prison. A trial and condem-
nation followed, and on the 26th of the month
the Hebertists were led forth to the guillotine.
Hebert proved an exception to the rule in the
hour of death. He quailed and shuddered at
the sight of the scaffold, shrank from the jeers
of the mob, and died like a dog.

The event soon revealed the plans of
Robespierre. As soon as the Hebertists were
destroyed, he broke with the Party of Clem-
ency and sought to effect its overthrow. In
the struggle that ensued he and Danton were
brought face to face. The dwarfish imp of
Terror was destined to win the battle with
the giant. The majority rallied around Robes-
pierre, and Danton went to the wall. On the
31st of March he was seized at his own house
and imprisoned in the Luxembourg. Three
days afterwards he, together with Desmoulins,
Lacroix, and Eglantine, were brought before
the Revolutionary Tribunal which themselves
had constituted. They treated their judges
with contempt, and were ordered to the guil-
lotine. On the way thither Danton exhibited
all his force of character. His gigantic form
was seen above the rabble. His voice was
without a tremor, and his look defiant to the
last. To the executioner he said : "Show my
head to the mob; it is worth seeing." Robes-
pierre witnessed the death of his great rival,
and went away rubbing his hands with delight!

At last the tribunal, the Committee of Pub-
lic Welfare, the Convention, Paris, France,
had fallen under the dominion of one man —
Robespierre. He was a bloody master. He
began his administration by having a decree
passed by the Convention that God lives and
immortality is. It will be observed that the
fall of the Hebertists, who were the ultra-
radicals of the epoch, and this decree against
atheism, marked the beginning of a reaction
in the very heart of the Revolution. Until
now it was the conservative element that per-
ished at the hands of the extremist. It was
clear that the time had arrived, since audacity
and violence could go no further, when the
extremist himself must fall. For about three
months Robespierre was absolute, and the
Terror was never more bloody than during his
reign. In less than seven weeks the knife of
the guillotine descended fourteen hundred
times on the neck of its victim. But the end
was now at hand. Danton had said at the scaf-
fold : " I die ; but I will drag Robespierre after
me." That terrible tyrant had hardly made
himself master of the Convention until he per-
ceived the ominous mutterings against himself.
Vague intimations of the road which he was
presently to travel were dropped into his ear.
In the course of time a proscription list was
discovered, in which he had written for de-
struction the names of the most eminent men
in the convention. Then the ground began
to heave under his feet. The frowns of his
enemies deepened to a scowl. Then Revolt
sprang up and seized him by the throat. On
the 27th of July, 1794, he was borne away,
amid the shouts of those whom he sought
to exterminate, to the Conciergerie, and there
imprisoned. On every hand was heard the
cry of " Down with the tyrant!" But mobo-
cratic Paris was not going to give up her idol
without a struggle. The Commune armed,
rushed to his prison, broke open the doors,
and carried him away in triumph to the Hotel
de Ville. Hereupon the Convention ordered
out the army, surrounded the building, and
compelled Robespierre and his band to sur-
render. He was taken in mortal terror to the
hall of the Convention, and laid prone in the
shadow of his doom. On the following morn-
ing Robespierre was led to the guillotine,
amid the shouts and jeers of the populace.

y///; .\tii-: of REVOLUTION.— Tin: i-'it/-:.\cn i:i:\o

10.37

Eighty of hi.s associates were also executed.
The factions of the Convention had ended by
destroying one unotlicr. (<\r list, Ili'licrlist,

Dantonist, Jacobin, had pcri-hed in a com-
mon ruin and by the same agency. With the
ovcrtlirovv of tin- Jacoliin club, the power of

THE DANTOMV!'.-

Drawn by D. Maillard.

1038

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the Commune of Paris was broken. The
shout that rose when the head of Robespierre
fell into the basket marked the end of the
Reign of Terror. The awful scenes of June,
of August, of September, could no more be

the inmates went forth free. Decrees were
passed permitting the return of banished no-
bles and priests, and an order was issued for-
bidding the further execution of prisoners of
war. Worship was resumed in the churches,

DANTON MOUNTING THE SCAFFOLD.
Drawn by F. Lix.

reenacted. Insanity had run its course. A
large number of deputies, who had been ex-
pelled from the Convention for the modera-
tion of their principles and conduct, were now
readmitted. The prisons of Paris, in which
were ten thousand persons suspected of anti-
revolutionary sentiments, were opened, and

and Paris began to subside from her wild
delirium.

Great was the suffering of the revolution-
ary city in the winter of 1794-95. The crops
had failed. During the Reign of Terror in-
dustry had almost ceased. Much property
had been destroyed. The Assignats or paper

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE Fi;i;.\CH DEVOLUTION. 1039

scrip winch the Convention had issued in vast
quantities, and which had taken the place of
metallic currency, depreciaied in value till

the bills were scarcely worth receiving. Paris,
with her hands lull of this inonev, could not
purchase fuel for the poor and food for the

ROBESPIERRE IN THE HALL OF THE ASSEMBLY.
Drawn by F. Lix.

1040

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

starving. Nor could the industrious find any
longer that employment which was to save
them from perishing. So great was the dis-

tress that at one time all the inhabitants of

Paris were put on a short allowance of bread.

The distress of the common people became

THE BREAD RIOTERS IN THE HALL OF THE CONVENTION.
Drawn by F. Lix.

TllK AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FJii:.\<'H REVOLUTION.

1041

«> great that almost every day witnessed an
insurrection. Starving crowds of de.-|>eraie
creatures surged through the streets. The cry
of "bread, bread!" was heard on every Imnd.
For the time the Convention was utterly un-
able to control or appease the mobs. By the
beginning of May the situation had become
desperate. A Bread Riot broke out and gath-
ered such head that no power in Paris could
stand against it. On the twentieth the rioters,
consisting of a furious multitude of reckless

and promises of the Jacobins, who were in
full sympathy with the insurgents, induced
them to withdraw from the hall and business
was resumed.

Meanwhile the old royalists and Emigrant
Nobles continued to conspire with foreign
rulers in the hope of undoing the whole work
of the revolution. Insurrections broke out in
the provinces. Exiled Royalist and Girondist
in some places joined hands to stamp the Ja-
cobins into the earth. In many towns a

FLKKT BY THE FRENCH CAVALRY.

men and starving women, rushed into the
hall of the assembly, and for a while it seemed
that chaos had returned to reign. The mob
surged back and forth brandishing knives and
clubs and screaming the cry of bread. One
of those who attempted to protect the presi-
dent of the Convention from insult and vio-
lence was himself struck down and beaten to
death. His head was cut off and hoisted on
a pike over the desks of the tribune, where
the rulers of France were no longer the ruler<,
and where the rage of hunger and madness

had become the onlv law. Finally the appeals
Voi. ii.— oo

counter revolution, known as the WHITE TEB-
ROR, was organized to undo the horrors of the
Red Terror of Paris by other deeds as horri-
ble. Frightful massacres were perpetrated, in
which the breast of Jacobinism was transfixed
with its own iron.

But these audacious atrocities could not
now prevail against the accomplished fact of
the great revolution. Ancient France was
de:id, and new France, though mutilated and
bleeding, could not be murdered. During all
these commotions the Convention had gone on
steadily raising and equipping armies. They

1042

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

were such armies as had never before trodden
the soil of Europe. They were possessed of
the spirit of the revolution, and went into
battle singing the "Marseillaise." Nearly
seven hundred thousand men had been armed
and sent into the field. The generals who
commanded them had the alternative of vic-
tory or death. The Convention would accept
no excuse or explanation of defeat. On the
other side were the allied powers of Europe.

i.

CHARETTE.

At the head stood England, whose commer-
cial interest was about to be destroyed, and
who but for that reason would have, perhaps,
kept aloof from the conflict. Politically, she
had adopted the doctrine of non-interference ;
but when her commercial and maritime su-
premacy was threatened, she entered with
great zeal into the conflict. Most of the con-
tinental armies were subsidized with means
taken from her treasury. The contested line
between France and her foes extended from
Ypres, in Belgium, through Trfives and Hei-

delberg to Basle, and along this whole horizon
the war cloud hung ominous and black.

For awhile the sovereigns beyond the Rhine,
each with his own purposes, were but luke-
warm in the struggle. The king of Prussia
and the Emperor of Austria were both ab-
sorbed with their designs on Poland. Fran-
cis II. even went so far as to give ambiguous
hints to his officers to deal doubly with the
allies, or even permit themselves to be defeated
by the French. He himself
withdrew to Vienna, though
nominally he still remained
a party to the coalition. As
a result of this policy the
Austrians were beaten in the
battle of Fleurus, and the
Belgian cities opened their
gates to the French. In like
manner the people of Hol-
land, already republican for
two hundred years, welcomed
the armies of France. One
division of the French under
Salm entered Utrecht on the
17th of January, 1795, and
on the same day Vandamme
captured Arnheim. Three
days afterwards Pichegru
made an entry into Amster-
dam, the inhabitants going
forth to meet him and shout-
ing, "The French Republic
forever !" Another division,
on its way to the Hague,
where the States were in
session, passed through Rot-
terdam without opposition.
At this time the Dutch fleet
lay ice-bound near the
Texel, in which position it was surrounded
by Pichegru's cavalry and compelled to sur-
render ; nor has history failed to record the
strange spectacle of French hussars galloping
across the ice-fields of the Zuyder Zee, and as-
sailing the tremendous but immovable ships of
the Dutch. The government of the country
collapsed. The Prince of Orange fled to Eng-
land, and the Batavian Republic was pro-
claimed in the Netherlands. The Stadthold-
erate was abolished by the States-general of
Holland, and an alliance declared with France.

THE AGE OF RKVOLVTION.—THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

L048

The king of Prussia waa now inclined to
peace. la the spring of 1795, a conference
was held with the ambassadors of the French
Republic, and a treaty concluded at Basle.
The conduct of Frederick William II. in
abandoning the Coalition subjected him to tliu
contempt of the allies, who perceived that he
was unworthy of confidence. Nor is it doubt-
ful that his conclusion of a peace with France
laid the foundation for the subsequent ruin of
Prussia by Napoleon.

Early in this year the French achieved
some signal successes on the side of Italy.
They seized the pass of Mont Cenis, and thus
secured a passage to the
South. The Grand Duke
of Tuscany, brother to
Francis II., quailed at the
approach of the Republican
army, withdrew from the
Coalition, and agreed to a
treaty of neutrality. Every-
where on the land the
French arms were victo-
rious, and the allies seemed
very far from a successful
invasion of the territories
of the Republic. On sea,
however, Great Britain kept
her ancient renown. Her
fleet, under Admiral Howe,
encountered the French
squadron off Ushant, and
gained a complete victory.
The French possessions in
the West Indies were nearly
all wrested from the Repub-
lic. The islands of Martinique, Guadaloupe, St.
Lucie, and St. Domingo fell successively into the
hands of the English. Corsica again revolted,
and took up arras against the Republic. But
after all, the military operations of 1795, if
measured by the usual standards of bloodshed
and destruction, or by what might have been
expected from sui'li vast armies in the field,
were comparatively barren of results.

In the mean time, a Diet of the German
Empire convened at Ratisbon, and counseled
peace. No general treaty could be effected,
but several of the princes made separate set-
tlements with the Republic. It was on the
8th of June, in this year, that the poor boy,

Louis Capet, the titular king of France, per-
ished among the rats and filth of his cell in
the temple. His death conduced to the peace
of Europe; for the Spanish and Italian Bour-
bons who had proclaimed him as king, had
now no longer good excuse to fight for their
House in France. The king of Spain accord-
ingly concluded a peace with the Republic,
thus recognizing the Revolution in both
France and the Netherlands.

After two years of comparative quiet, La
Vendee became the scene of a second insur-
rection. Two royalist leaders, named Stofflet
and Charette, appeared, and the Vendeans

GENERAL IIOC1IE.

took up arms against the Convention. Three
thousand of the emigrant nobility gathered
around their standards ; and an English fleet
cooperated with the insurgents. The Count
of Provence, brother of Louis XVI., was
proclaimed king, with the title of Louis
XVIII. The revolutionists obtained posses-
sion of the peninsula of Quiberon, and there
defended themselves with great valor until
they were overpowered by a Republican army
under command of General Hoche. The rebels
were punished with the greatest severity, nearly
all who were captured being put to death. The
distinguished royalist prisoners were, by the
orders of Jean Lambert Tallien, at that time

1044

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

commissary of the Convention, shot without
mercy or discrimination. This act provoked a

JEAN LAMBERT TALI.IEN.

terrible retaliation on the part of Charette,
who drew out more than a thousand Republi-
can prisoners then in his hands, and ordered
them to be shot. He continued to lead the
Vendeans during the winter of 1795-96, but
in the following March both he and Stofflet
were taken and executed. The revolt was
ended ; but La Vendee had sacrificed a hun-
dred thousand of her people in her foolish
struggle with the conquering Republic.

On the 27th of October,
1795, the National Convention
closed its career. A new rev-
olution had meanwhile en-
sued, in which the Constitution
of 1793 was overthrown, and
a form of government insti-
tuted less democratic than that
which had preceded it. The
legislative power of the Re-
public was vested in two as-
semblies called Councils, the
former consisting of five hun-
dred members and the latter
of two hundred members.

The smaller body was known as the Council
of the Ancients, no person being eligible to

membership therein until he had passed the
age of forty. The representative body was
known as the Five Hundred,
and with this House was lodged
the sole power of originating
laws. The Ancients might not
propose a law, but possessed
the power of veto over the acts
of the other assembly. The
executive power of the state
was vested in a Directory con-
sisting of five members ap-
pointed by the Ancients from
u list of ten nominated by the
other House. After the Di-
rectory was once appointed the
Constitution required that one
member should retire each
year. The five persons first
chosen to the executive body
were Barras, Carnot, Reubel,
Reveillere-Lepaux, and Le-
tourneur. In general the new Constitution
differed from that which it superseded in.
this — that it raised the middle class of French

people to a large share of influence in the
legislative affairs of the government.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.-THK / /.'/.. VC'/f REVOLUTION.

It was one tiling to make, and auotlier to
establish, the Constitution of 1795. The
•work was especially disappointing to the
Royalists, who, after the fall of Robespierre,

thousand insurgents rose against the Conven-
tion, and made an attack on theTuileries. For
the moment it appeared that the government
would be overthrown in its very incipiency;

believing that the Revolution was at an end,
had flocked home in great numbers to Paris,
and now exerted themselves to defeat the work
of the Convention. A force of about thirty

but General Barras bethought him in the
emergency of the capture of Toulon, and of
him by whom that work had been accom-
plished. He therefore called for Napoleon

1046

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Bonaparte, and intrusted to him the defense
of the Convention. The latter, though he
had but a single night in which to prepare,
so planted his artillery as to command the
approaches to the Tuileries ; and when, on the
morning of the 5th of October, heavy masses
of the insurgent forces, chiefly composed of
the National Guards, rushed to the attack,
firing volleys of musketry into the lines of
defense, they were met with murderous dis-
charges of grape, and in less than an hour the
streets were cleared. The sound of Napo-
leon's cannon was the proclamation of order
in long-distracted Paris. The insurrection of
the 5th of October was the last of many
mobs. The Revolution assumed a new phase,

printing. A large percentage of the people
of Paris had to be kept from starvation with
public supplies. The rations of the hungry
mob were reduced to two ounces of bread and
a handful of rice daily. Even the army was
without proper supplies of food and clothing.
The public works of the city and throughout
France were falling into ruin through neglect.
The social condition was desperate. The le-
gitimate punishment of crime had almost
ceased, and bands of brigands infested all
parts of the country. Now, however, all this
was rapidly changed. A new life was diffused
into every department of the government.
Such was the astonishing energy manifested
by the Directory that confidence revived on

THE DIRECTORY.

and the bloody tragedies of 1792-93 sank
beyond the horizon. Barras resigned his
command, and the same was conferred on
Napoleon, who became general of the Army
of the Interior. So the National Convention,
after a session of three years and two months,
the same being the most stormy and tragical
epoch in history, passed a resolution of ad-
journment, and by its own act ceased to exist.
It would be difficult to find in human an-
nals another instance of a change so beneficial
as that which followed the accession of the
Directory. Deplorable indeed was the condi-
tion of Paris and France on the adjournment
of the Convention. The treasury was bank-
rupt. The depreciation of the Assignats had
gone on until they were no longer worth the

every hand. It was as though civilization
had suddenly returned to rebuild the waste
places of her favorite land. Liberality marked
the administration of the new governing body.
A general amnesty diffused its blessings. The
hurtful restrictions which had been imposed
on commerce were removed. Industry sprang
up anew, and Freedom washed the blood
from her hands and face.

But while prosperity was thus returning to
France at home, she was still obliged to make
war upon most of the states of Europe. Her
armies, three in number, must be maintained.
The first of these, known as the Army of the
Sambre and Meuse, was placed under com-
mand of General Jourdan. The second,
called the Army of the Rhine and Moselle,

THK AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

1047

was intrusted to .M<mau; and the third, the
Army of Italy, was given ID BoDfcpvto, The
latter, from the first day of his taking the
field, began to display that surprising military
genius which was defined in a short time to
make him the most conspicuous figure in
modern history. Moreau and Jourdaii, oper-
ating against the Archduke Charles of Aus-
tria, succeeded, after a hotly contested cam-
paign, in driving back the enemy across the
Neckar and the Danube. All the smaller
states of the Empire were compelled to sue for
peace. But Francis II. obstinately refused to
make a treaty with the Republic. At length
the Archduke Charles began to gain upon the
French, and Moreau was thrust into a posi-
tion where he was threatened with destruc-
tion. He called on Napoleon, then in Italy,
for help; but the latter could give him none,
and he was left to save himself as best he
could. At length, however, he succeeded in
extricating his army in a manner as original
as it was successful. His retreat into France
has been commended as among the brilliant
military movements of the age.

In Italy, Bonaparte began the campaign by
an advance from Nice to Genoa. His army
consisted of thirty-five thousand men, whom
he found ragged, undisciplined, and poorly
equipped. In a short time, however, he ef-
fected a complete change in his forces. The
soldiers caught his own fire and enthusiasm.
He pointed them to Italy, and drew vivid pic-
tures of the spoils with which they would en-
rich and glorify France by the conquest of
the South. In his progress he first encoun-
tered and defeated a strong division of the
Austrian army in the battle of Montenotte.
He next captured the fortress of Cherasco, and
thus planted himself between the Sardinians
and their Austrian allies. Such was his gen-
eralship that in a brief period the infirm king,
Victor Amadeus, was obliged to purchase
peace by ceding Savoy to the French Repub-
lic. He was also compelled to give up the
county of Nice, and to expel the emigrant
nobles from his dominions. As a precaution-
ary measure Napoleon planted garrisons in the
principal fortresses of the country until what
time a general peace should be concluded.

Having thus settled the Sardinian question,
Napoleon next turned his attention to the Aus-

trians. On the 10th of May, IT'.if,, ln> en-
countered that enemy at LODI in Lombard v.
where he gained the tirst of his great victories.
The buttle \va> de.-|>erately contested, and a
bridge over which the French must pass was
defended with such bravery by the Austrians
that for a while the victory inclined to their
standard. But the French, led by Napoleon
in person, who exposed himself with the reck-
lessness of a genuine revolutionist, at length
forced their way across the Adda, and swept
all before them.

The conqueror now established himself at
Milan, and proceeded to dictate a peace to
the minor princes of Italy. From some, he
exacted contributions and supplies ; from oth-
ers, works of art, which he sent home to adorn
the French capital. It still remained for him
to capture Mantua, which, in addition to be-
ing the strongest fortress in the Italian penin-
sula, lay directly in the way of Napoleon's
proposed invasion of Austria. This place was
accordingly besieged for seven months by the
French. The Austrians perceiving in what
manner they were threatened from the side of
Italy, undertook the relief of Mantua, and
sent out two powerful armies for that purpose.
The first, under Marshal Wurmser, numbered
seventy thousand men. The advance was
made from the Tyrol, and the Austrians pro-
ceeded as far as Brescia, where they suffered
a reverse at the hands of the French. An-
other defeat was inflicted on them at Castig-
lione ; a third, at Roveredo, and a fourth at
Bassano. A second army, under Marshal
Alvinzi, also undertook to raise the siege of
Mantua, but had no better success than its
predecessor. Napoleon encountered this en-
emy at the village of ARCOLE, in Venetia, and
after three days of desperate fighting, inflicted
on his adversary a defeat so disastrous as to
end the contest. As a result of these victo-
ries, Mantua was obliged to capitulate. All
of Italy lay at the victor's mercy. The States
of the Chujch were overrun, and the papal
government would have been overthrown but
for the clemency of Napoleon, who, disre-
garding the instructions of the Directory and
acting on his own authority, concluded at
Tolentino a treaty by which a third of the
papal dominions and fifteen millions of francs
were yielded to the French Republic.

1048

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Such had been Napoleon's success beyond
the Alps that before the end of 1796 he could
enumerate as the trophies of his campaign the

destruction of four Austrian armies, the con-
quest of all Piedmont and Lombardy, the sep-
aration of Sardinia, Naples, Parma, Modena,

BONAPARTE ON THE BRIDGE OF ARCOLE.
Drawn by Emile Bayard.

THE Adi: (>!•• ni-:\'OLUTIO\. Till'. I'll i:\CH KEVOLL TI< ).\.

104!)

and Tuscany from the Coalition, the acceptance
of contributions from Venice and Genoa, and
the addition of Nice, Savoy, Bologna, Ferrara,
and Roinagna to the French Republic. Be-
sides all this, the Italian war had filled the
empty cotll-rs of the Directory, made the name
of Napoleon famous, and given a new luster
to the arms of France.

The roticjueror next undertook the invasion
of Austria. The advance was made by wav
of the Tyrolese Alps. Beyond that barrier,
the Archduke Charles, with a powerful army,
awaited at Friuli the coming of his antagonist.
After a series of minor en-
gagements, the Austrians
were driven back beyond the
Save. The French proceeded
without a check until the
Emperor in Vier.na began to
tremble for the safety of his
capital. Perceiving that he
was unable to defend his do-
minions against the victori-
ous enemy, he made over-
tu res for peace. Negotiations
were accordingly opened at
Campo Formio, and there,
on the 17th of October, a
treaty was concluded. It was
one of the striking spectacles
of history to see the Little
Corsican, a new man, a par-
venu, the name of whose fam-
ily until now had never been
heard in the courts of Eu-
rope, dictating to Emperor
Francis of Hapsburg on
what terms he might save
his capital from occupation
by a victorious army of French Republicans.

In the mean time, a serious outbreak had
occurred in Venetia. A rumor had been borne
back from the Tyrolese Alps that Bonaparte
had been defeated by the Austrians. Here-
upon a revolt occurred. The insurgents cap-
tured the hospital at Verona, wherein four
hundred sick soldiers had been left by Napo-
leon. All were butchered. Hearing of this
atrocity, Bonaparte wheeled about and de-
clared war on Venice. The Venetians quickly
saw their mistake, and vainly strove to re-
cover their ground. Napoleon demanded the

overthrow of the aristocracy, the liberation of

political prisoners, and the condemnation of
those who had destroyed his hospital. A revo-
lution broke out in Venice. The Council of
Ten was abolished, and I-'rench garrisons were
introduced into the city. The Venetian fleet
was taken, and the Ionian Isles tran.-fenvd to
the sovereignty of France. The principalities
of Milan, Modena, Ferrara, Bologna, and Ro-
magna, together with their dependencies, were
organized into the Cisalpine Republic, under
the protection of the French. At the same
time the Ligurian Republic was established,

liKXKHAI. ALEXANDER BEKTH1ER.

having Genoa for its capital. Thus, after &
career of thirteen and a half centuries, was
Venice, the oldest government in Europe,
stricken from existence as a separate power
among the nations.

One feature of Napoleon's Italian campaign
had not been satisfactory to the Directory.
He had spared the Pope. This circumstance
made the States of the Church a kind of
nucleus for all the adherents of the old sys-
tem in Italy. It was judged necessary that
this nest of malcontents should be broken up,
and to this end General Berthier was ordered

10f>0

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

to march on Rome. The people of that an-
cieut metropolis, had caught the infection of
liberty, and refused to support the Holy Fa-
ther and his party. Berthier was welcomed
as the deliverer of Italy. The Roman Repub-
lic was proclaimed. The papal power was
overthrown, and Pope Pius VI. retired to
the Convent of Siena. After a year, he was
taken to Briancoii in the Alps, where he was
imprisoned. At last, with the next change
which ensued in the government of Paris, he
was permitted to leave this frozen region and
take up his residence at Valence, where he died
in August of 1799. The republican soldiers
were little disposed, when they captured the
Eternal City, to spare its treasures or revere

its priestly sym-
bols. The per-
sonal property
of the Pope was
sold by auction.
The robes of the
priests and car-
dinals, rich in
gold lace, were
burned that the
gold might be
gathered from
the ashes. The
churches of
Rome were pil-
laged, and a car-
nival of violence ensued which General Ber-
thier was unable to control. The Romans
revolted, and attempted to expel their deliv-
erers; but Geneal Massena, who was sent out
to supersede Berthier, put down the insurrec-
tion in blood.

Next followed the conquest of Switzerland.
In that country the revolutionary doctrines had
already pervaded the people. Especially was
this true in the Pays de Vaud, where the
French language and institutions prevailed.
This canton attempted by a revolt to free
itself from the domination of Berne, but the
movement was unsuccessful. Circumstances,
however, furnished the Directory with a good
excuse for interference. A French army was
sent to Lausanne, and the independence of the
Pays de Vaud was proclaimed. The Forest
Cantons took up arms against the French, and
several severe battles were fought. But the

Swiss were subdued, and their resistance ended
in their own destruction. The Helvetic Repub-
lic was then proclaimed, and Switzerland be-
came an ally and dependency of France.

In the mean time a quixotical attempt had
been made at the beginning of 1797 to con-
quer Ireland. An army of twenty-five thou-
sand men, under General Hoche, was ordered
to make a descent on the Irish coast. An em-
barkation was effected, and the squadron pro-
ceeded to Bantry Bay ; but no attempt was
made to land, and the expedition presently re-
turned to Brest. The failure of the enterprise
was perhaps attributable to the character of the
soldiers who had been recruited by the empty-
ing of French prisons, and the liberation of
galley-slaves. When the squadron came back
to Brest, the Directory knew not what to do
with their army of criminals. At length it
was determined to embark them for an inva-
sion of England. The armament again set
sail, and was anchored at Fisguard, in Wales,
where the whole force was immediately cap-
tured by the English.

The conquest of Switzerland marked the
close of the first epoch of the French Revolu-
tion. The Republic had been successful in
carrying out her programme. She had in-
duced most of the states on the borders of
France to establish a form of government like
her own, and to enter into treaties of alliance.
By this means foreign invasion was rendered
difficult. Spain and Austria had been induced
to renew with the Republic the compacts which
those powers had formerly made with the
French Bourbons. By the subjugation of the
Swiss, the Republic had gained two great mil-
itary roads across the mountains, the one lead-
ing into Germany and the other into Italy. By
winning over the Spanish minister Godoy, the
Directory secured virtual control of Spain.
Portugal withdrew from the coalition and made
peace with the Republic. Only Great Britain
sullenly and singly pursued the contest with
her ancient rival. From this time forth it be-
came a question whether revolutionary France
would continue her victorious career, and end
by the conquest of the British Isles, or whether
she herself would finally succumb to the power
and persistency of England.

The invasion of Great Britain was now
earnestly debated by the Directory. It was

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION,— THE FHEXcil l;i:\<H.lTl<>.\.

1051

believed that General Bonaparte, already the
principal military figure ill the Republic, was
'.";iial to such an enterprise. To humble her
ancient and inveterate enemy France was
willing to employ all her resources, even to
stake her fate on the cast of the die. Prep-
arations were begun on a gigantic scale, and
Napoleon was called to the command. HU
power over the minds of the French was so
great that he was almost an autocrat in di-
recting the proposed movement against Great
Britain. For a while it was believed that he
would undertake a direct invasion of England.
But after a magnificent army had been equipped
for this purpose, it was determined to begin
the war by making a conquest of Egypt. This
done, it was believed that France, from her
base of operations on the Nile, could dissolve
the whole British Empire in the East, substi-
tuting perhaps the tricolor for the pennon of
St. George throughout Turkey and India.
Such was the vision which, in the spring of
1798, rose upon Napoleon when at Toulon —
scene of his first renown in arms — surrounded
by his enthusiastic officers, accompanied by a
large number of savants, artists, and philoso-
phers, who, fired with the prospect of ransack-
ing the historic tombs of the Pharaohs, had
eagerly joined the expedition, he embarked
with an army of forty thousand veterans for
the conquest of Egypt.

The expedition was first directed against
the island of Malta. It will be remembered
that at the close of the crusading epoch this
place had been given to the Knights of St.
John of Jerusalem. By them the island had
been ruled for centuries. But the Order had
now become mercenary, and it is said that the
Grand Master had been for some time in se-
cret correspondence with the French. At any
rate Malta, with her arsenals and treasures,
was given up without any serious effort on the
part of the Knights to defend their ancient
heritage. The fortress was garrisoned, and
the expedition proceeded to Egypt. On the
5th of July Bonaparte landed and took Alex-
andria. He then marched towards Cairo, and
when nearing that city came upon an army of
Mamelukes thirty thousand strong. They were
drawn up in the plain opposite the city and in
sight of the great pyramids. Napoleon ad-
dressed his soldiers, to whom this spectacle of

an African army in the sands of Egypt wa»
novel and alarming. He roused their patriot-
ism ami kindled the fires of kittle l>v an ap-
peal to the Past, which he represented as look-
ing down on the soldiers of France from the
summits of the pyramids. In tin .-I niggle
that eiiMied the field was contested with the
greatest bravery, but the Mamelukes at length
gave way before the invincible courage and dis-
cipline of the French. The rout of the Egypt-
ians was complete, and on the following day
Cairo was taken by Bonaparte.

Meanwhile the English fleet under Admiral
Nelson, who had pursued the French squad-
ron on its way across the Mediterranean, at
length arrived and found the object of its
search in the Bay of Aboukir. Here, on the
1st and 2d of August, was fought the battle
of the NILE, which resulted in a victory for the
English as complete as that of the PYRAMIDS
had been for Napoleon. The French fleet
was mostly destroyed or captured, and the re-
treat of Bonaparte from Egypt was cut off.
That general, however, had no present thought
of retreating. He continued his war with
the Mamelukes and Arabs, whom he every-
where defeated, until Egypt was under his
authority. He then took up his march into
Palestine, and undertook a siege of Acre,
which was defended by an English and Turk-
ish garrison under Sir Sidney Smith. This
business occupied Napoleon for a long time,
and he was ultimately obliged, after making
many assaults and losing large numbers of
his men, to give up the enterprise. He then
fell back into Egypt,1 to which country the

1 It was on his way from Acre back to Egypt
that the famous incident occurred in the hospital
of Jaffa. That town was now suffering from a
terrible visitation of the plague. The infection
had made its way into the hospital, where num-
bers of the sick and wounded of the expedition
had been placed. The wretched creatures lay on
every hand. Napoleon entered the place of death
in penon, and perceiving the utter hopelessness
of the situation— for it was imposible to carry
away the diseased, or in any other way to save
tin-in from the pestilence, the famine, and the
Turk — is said to have suggested to the physician,
Despenettes, that it would be a mercy for him to
relieve the miserable creatures of all their woes
by an overdote of opium ! The reply of Dep-
genettes is worthy of record : " Sire, mv profe*
sion is not to kill, but to cure."

1052

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

sultan had sent a powerful army. On the
25th of July, 1799, Napoleon encountered the
Turks at ABOUKIR, and, after a terrible battle,

•was completely victorious. His success was
so marked that he felt justified in returning to
France. He accordingly left in Egypt an

BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS.
Drawn by F. Lix.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FRENCH

1053

army of eighteen thousand men under com-
mand of General Kleber, and himself re-
turned to Europe.

During these events in the East, great
changes had taken jilaee in the West. When
it was known that Nelson had destroyed the
French fleet in the Bay of Aboukir, the en-
emies of France and the opponents of the
Directory arose on every side. Turkey made

But the latter soon turned upon the Neapol-
itans, drove them out of Home, and com-
pelled Ferdinand to save himself by going on
board of an English fleet. General Cham-
piouuet then advanced on Naples, the defense
of which had been left to an irregular force
of militia and lazzaroni. This horde of crea-
tures was under the direction of the Neapol-
itan bishop, who had as his urirn and tluim-

NAPOLEON IN THE PEST-HOUSE OF JAFFA.
After the painting by J. A. Gros.

peace with Russia in order to make an alli-
ance against the French. Austria and the
Two Sicilies also became hostile and joined
Great Britiau and Russia in a new coalition
against France. Ferdinand IV., king of
Sicily, marched an army of forty thousand
men into the States of the Church and recap-
tured Rome. Only the castle of Saint An-
gelo remained in possession of the French.

mini a vial containing what was alleged to be
the dried blood of St. Januarius. Whenever
any important action should be taken by the
Neapolitans this blood would liquefy! The
bishop made himself necessary to the state by
reporting when the miracle took place. When
Championnet demanded a surrender the blood
of the saint refused to liquefy. But when a
certain prince who favored the French threat-

1054

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ened to kill the bishop if the omens were not
more auspicious, the miracle was quickly
performed. The Neapolitan banditti surren-
dered; the city was occupied by the French,
and a new Republic, called the Parthenopean,
was proclaimed.

Early in the spring of 1799 — Napoleon

FERDINAND IV.

being then occupied with the siege of Acre —
war was declared by France against Austria.
A powerful force was sent into the field by
the Emperor, the command being given to
the Archduke Charles. The Directory or-
dered General Masse'na to throw forward the
Army of the Danube against the belligerents,
and at the first the Austrians were worsted

in the encounter. At length, however, the
tide turned, and the Archduke Charles suc-
ceeded in driving back the French across the
Rhine. At this juncture the French forces in
Italy were ordered to take part in the Aus-
trian campaign ; but they were so much de-
layed by the capture of Martiusbruck and

Miinsterthal that
Jourdan had al-
ready retreated be-
fore they were able
to come to his res-
cue. In April a con-
ference was held at
Rastadt, but the
Emperor, elated by
his successes, sud-
denly broke ofF the
negotiations, re-
called his ambassa-
dors, and permitted
•those of France to
be murdered before
they could make
their way from the
town.

In the mean time
General Gauthier,
to whom the Direc-
tory had intrusted
the reduction of
Tuscany, had suc-
ceeded to the ex-
tent of driving the
grand-duke out of
the country. The
capture of Verona
was undertaken by
the French under
General Sch£rer,
but the latter was
repulsed in several
engagements be-
fore the city, and

then decisively defeated in the battle of Mag-
nano. Such was the ill -success of Scherer
that he was superseded by Moreau, who
strove hard to retrieve the late disasters,
but was himself defeated in a battle at CAS-
SANO by the allied forces of Italy under the
Russian veteran Suvarof. The latter took pos-
session of Milan, and Moreau was about to be

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

1056

destroyed with his whole array when orders
came from Vienna to Suvarof to leave Milan
and lay siege to Mantua. By this fortunate
diversion of the enemy's forces Moreau was
able to extricate himself from his peril and
fall back to Coni. Here he posted himself in
a strong position, and called on Genoa and
Prance for reinforcements. General Macdonald
came up from Naples with one army and ef-
fected a juncture with Gauthier at Florence.
Both might then have joined Moreau ; but
Gauthier, thinking himself strong enough to
meet the enemy single-handed, gave battle to
Suvarof, near the Trebia, and was overwhelm-
ingly defeated. The French
arms had not suffered so great
a reverse since the proclamation
of the Republic. The recovery
of all Italy by the allies imme-
diately followed. Turin was
taken ; then Pignerol ; then
Susa. A division of the Rus-
sian forces even passed the
mountains and committed rav-
ages in Dauphine1. Moreau was
superseded by Joubert, but the
latter was routed and killed in
the battle of Novi. The Cisal-
pine Republic was no more, and
the whole country renewed its
allegiance to the Emperor.

After his success in Italy,
Suvarof marched into Switzer-
land to cooperate with another
Russian army under Korsakoff.
But his coming was too late.
Korsakoff had already suffered
a severe defeat at the hands of
MassSna. Marshal Soult had also distinguished
himself by winning a great victory over the
Austrians under General Hotze. The Russians
fled into Zurich, where they and their Swiss
sympathizers were almost exterminated before
Suvarof, coming up by way of the St. Gothard
pass, arrived on the scene. He found him-
self in the midst of the victorious French,
through whose lines he barely succeeded in
making his way into the territory of the Gri-
sons. There he hastily gathered together the
remnants of his forces and then quit Western
Europe for Russia.

Such was the course of events in the West,

and such was the condition of affaire, when,
after his victory over the Turks at Aboukir,
Napoleon found it desirable to return to
France. It was known to him that there was
urivai dissatisfaction with the government of
the Directory; and he was especially desirous,
in case of another revolution, to be in a posi-
tion where he might take advantage of what-
ever might ensue. On the whole his fame
had not been dimmed by his failure in Syria;
and the destruction of the French fleet in the
bay of Aboukir had not been charged to bia
account. The people had come to believe in
his genius and his invincibility in battle ; and

6? OH/A T.

JEAN VICTOE MOKKAU.

if there were many who feared his ambition
there were more who rejoiced in his victories,
and waited for the rising of his star. So, in
August of 1799, accompanied by five of his
leading generals, he sailed from Alexandria,
and returned — not without great danger of
capture — to France.

At the time of his coming the Directory
was discordant, quarrelsome. The government
tottered ; revolution was rife. In the change
which was now at hand the most influential
personage was the Abbe1 Siey£s, who from be-
ing one of the prime movers in the great agi-
tation of 1789, had survived all the vici— i-

1056

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

tudes of the Revolution, aud was now the
leading member of the Directory, He was a
friend and admirer of Bonaparte, and was
perhaps persuaded in his own mind that the
democratic tendency in France had overleaped
itself and fallen on the other side. Nor is it
certain that the general himself was not privy
to the conspiracy which was formed against
the existing frame of government. At any

MARSHAL Sl'VAROFF.

rate, a movement was started even before Na-
poleon's arrival for the abolition of the Direc-
tory and the substitution therefor of three
Consuls as the executive body of the state.
The scheme involved the fate of the Repub-
lic; for the new plan contemplated the trans-
fer of the right of originating laws from the
Council of Five Hundred to the Consuls, thus
virtually reversing the theory of government

i which had been established by the Revolution.
The popular assembly resisted the project, but
the body was dispersed by a company of soldiers.
That portion of the members that had favored
the change then reassembled and passed a res-
olution for the abolition of the Directory, and
the substitution of the proposed consular form
of government.

Napoleon Bonaparte, the Abb£ Sieyes, and
Roger Ducos were chosen
Consuls, and a Committee
of Fifty was appointed
from the Five Hundred
aud the Ancients to revise
the Constitution. The
plan reported was much
less popular than that
which it supplanted. The
CONSULATE took the place
of the Directory. A Sen-
ate of eighty members,
chosen for life by the Con-
suls, was substituted for
the Ancients. A Tribu-
nate of one hundred and
a Legislature of three hun-
dred members were cre-
ated instead of the Five
Hundred, and were to be
chosen from a body called
the Notables of France,
this body in its turn to be
elected from another of
ten times the number,
called the Notables of the
Departments, and these in
their turn to be from an-
other called the Notables
of the Communes, elected
by the people. It was evi-
dent from the first that the
real power of the govern-
ment was henceforth to be
lodged with the Consuls, and that the First Con-
sul— Napoleon — was to be the head of the state.
But it can not be denied that France was well
pleased to have it so. She believed that under
this "Constitution of the Year VIII.," as the
scheme devised by the Committee of Fifty was
called, her favorite general would beat back all
her enemies and crown her with glory — a thing
for which she and he were equally hungry.

THE AGE OF DEVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AXD EMl'lHE.

1057

CHAPTER XLVIII.— CONSULATE AND EMPIRE.

|£ now enter upon the
epoch of the ascendency
of France. She became
great. Within the circle
of Napoleon's sword her
map was extended almost
to the limits of West-
ern Europe. The enormous force which
she had gathered from her
emancipation was expended
in beating down the hered-
itary monarchies that lay
against her borders. She
came to regard herself as
a sort of avenger, a nation
apart from the rest, hated
because she was better.
Finding at the head of her
armies and councils one
before whose frown the
greatest monarch of Chris-
tendom durst not stand,
she worshiped him as the
impersonation of her spirit
and glory. She disputed
not his will, because it was
her own. She cheered his
tyranny, because the tyrant
was — herself.

It was on the 29th of
December, 1799, that Na-
poleon became First Consul
of France. His sun arose
as that of the century set.
Finding himself impeded
by his colleagues, he man-
aged to have them dis-
missed, and Cambace'res
and Lebrun appointed in
their place. The latter,
though not inferior in abil-
ity, were more conformable to his will. He
began his administration with an activity so
prodigious as to be without a parallel in history.
Every act, moreover, struck homo to th^ heart
of the existing condition. He establishcil hini-
VOL. II.- 67

self in the Tuileries, and surrounded him.-< •!('
with a court which, though very different in
material and character from that of the Bour-
bons and Hapsburgs, was hardly less splendid.
He quickly restored confidence in the govern-
ment, and added to that which the nation al-
ready had in himself. He abolished forced
loans, and introduced business methods in the

THE FIRST CONSUL.

management of the finances. He released the
political prisoners, especially the priests whom
the fury of the Revolution had condemned to
confinement. He showed to the people that a
government could be both tolerant and strong.

1058

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

He aimed to satisfy all classes of Frenchmen,
being himself content with their devotion to
France and loyalty to the Constitution of the

Year VIII. Next turning his attention to
foreign affairs, he zealously sought to establish
peace with all nations. He wrote pacific let-

BONAPARTE CROSSING THE ALPS.
Drawn by F. Llx.

THE AGE 01- REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE A\l> EMPIRE.

1059

tcrsto George III. of Kngland and Francis II.
of Austria, expressing to both sovereigns his
earnest wish ID enter into friendly relations.
1 1 is appeal, however, was made to deaf ears.
The two monarchy addiv.-.-ed made to him the
prepo-terous answer that they would enter into
negotiations on condition of the restoration of
the Bourbons! They might as well have gone
one step further and asked for the restoration
of the Merovingians, or perhaps the Pharaohs !
The answer was just the sort to consolidate
France, and to make sure the ascendency of

his army, which he had sent forward by way
of the St. ( ;mhard and .Mont Cenis. He thus
planted himself in the rear of the Austrian
lines. Pressing forward with all expedition he
reached .Milan, whii-h city immediately sur-
rendered. While this movement was in prog-
ress, a British fleet, which for two months had
been besieging Genoa, compelled that place to
capitulate, thus in some measure counterbal-
ancing the success of Napoleon at Milan. But
the latter was in no wise disposed to leave
events so evenly balanced. He wheeled about

BATTLE OF MAEENGO.

Napoleon. The war was at once renewed;
and the First Consul took the field in person
for the recovery of Italy.

Iu that country the allies had now pos-
sessed themselves of every place formerly held
by the French with the exception of Genoa
and Riviera. Napoleon quickly, and as if in
defiance of nature, forced his way across the
Alps by the pass of the Great St. Bernard,
and before the Austrian.* were well aware of
his movements, debouched into Piedmont.
Here he was joined by the other divisions of

and bore down upon the Austrians, whom, un-
der command of General Melas, he encoun-
tered, on the 14th of June, at the village of
MARENGO, in Piedmont. Here was fought the
first great battle of the nineteenth century.
The attack was made by the Austrians, who
fell with great force upon two divisions
of French occupying the village. Pouring
his whole force of thirty-one thousand men
upon his adversaries, Melas succeeded in driv-
ing them out of Marengo and sending them
in full retreat. At this crisis, however, Bo-

1060

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

naparte came up in person, and the flight of
his soldiers was at once checked. The corps
of General Desaix also arrived on the field
and bore down on the Austrian right. For a
while the battle raged furiously, but at length
the army of Melas began to stagger, and a
charge of Marshal Kellermanu's division com-
pleted the rout. The Austrians lost seven
thousand in killed and wounded, three thou-
sand prisoners, twenty pieces of artillery, and
eight standards. The French loss was also
heavy, the veteran Desaix being among the

This was precisely the sort of campaign in
which France delighted.

In the mean time the valiant Moreau had
added new luster to the French arms in Ger-
many. Beginning with Wiirtemberg and Ba-
varia, he pressed the Austrians back and back
to Munich, which he wrested from the enemy,
and was about to strike a still more decisive
blow, when the news came that the First Con-
sul had concluded a treaty with Melas in Italy.
It was believed that this would lead to a gen-
eral settlement between Austria and France,

DEATH OF DESAIX.
Drawn by F. Lix.

killed. So complete was the triumph of Na-
poleon that he was able, in a conference at
Alessandria, to dictate to Melas, reeling from
the blow which he had received, a peace ac-
cording to his liking. The Austrians were
obliged to give up twelve of their principal
fortresses in Northern Italy, including Genoa,
Turin, and Milan, and to retire beyond the
Mincio. The Cisalpine Republic was at once
reorganized, and the triumphant Napoleon,
after an absence of less than six weeks reen-
tered Paris amid the huzzas of the populace.

and Moreau withheld his hand awaiting such
an event. Late in the year, however, when,
the expectation of peace had proved delusive,
the contest was renewed. The Austrians, in
great force under the Archduke John, pressed
down upon Munich, while at the same time
General Klenau was ordered to take such a
position as should cut off the retreat of the
French. Moreau concentrated his forces at
HOHENI.INDEN in Upper Bavaria, and there,
on the 3d of December, 1800, he was attacked
by the Austrians advancing through the for-

THE AGE OF HJ-:VUH:TIOX.—COXSULATE AND KUl'lHK.

lOfil

est A terrible battle ensued, which resulted
in a complete victory for the French. The
Imperialist army was ruined, losing eight thou-
sand in killed and womuk'd, ten thousand pris-
oners, and a hundred gnu*. So great a shock
was given to the Austrian cause that the Em-
peror gladly consented to negotiations. Apeace
conference was held at Luneville, and on the
9th of February, 1801, a treaty was concluded,
by the terms of which the independence of the
Bataviau, the Swiss, the Cisalpine, and the

undertook to drive the French out of Egypt
In that country Marshal Kleber was assassin-
ate! I on the same day of the battle of Marengo,
nor was the suspicion wanting that ihe Turk
who did the deed was instigated l>v tin- En-
gli.-h authorities. The general's death, how-
. did not induce the withdrawal of the
French army. The command was transferred
to Menon ; and against him General Aber-
crombie was sent out with a powerful force.
Landing from the bay of Aboukir, the En-

BATTLE OF HOHENLINDEN.

Ligurian Republics was recognized by Aus-
tria. It was also stipulated that the duchy of
Modena should be added to the Cisalpine Re-
public-; that Tuscany should be erected into
the kingdom of Etruria, and that France
should receive back from Spain her vast Amer-
ican province called Louisiana. Thus did the
First Consul of the French begin the work of
making a new map for history both in Europe
and America.

In the autumn of 1800, the island of Malta
had been retaken by the English. They then

glish gave battle, and gained, on the 13th and
21st of March, two victories, though in the
latter engagement Abercrombie was killed.
Another army came into Egypt by way of
the Red Sea from India, and Rosetta and
Cairo were soon taken by the English. Alex-
andria was besieged; but Menon held out
against his assailants until they agreed, as the
price of his capitulation, to convey his army
intact to the ports of France.

By this time the conduct of England had
given so much offense to the allies that the

1062

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Coalition began to fall to pieces. The Czar,
Paul I., withdrew from the compact, and as-
serted that Russia would again uphold the
Armed Neutrality of 1780. Having become
Grand Master of the Kuights of St. John, he
found still additional cause of animosity to-
wards England on account of the retention by
the latter of the island of Malta. The Czar
accordingly busied himself in the general af-
fairs of Europe, and succeeded in bringing
about a Quadruple Alliance of Russia, Prus-
sia, Denmark, and Sweden — all agreeing to

MARSHAL KLEBER.

arm themselves for the maintenance of the
rights of neutral States. The Coalition being
thus disrupted, Napoleon was able to conclude
peace with Naples, Portugal, and Turkey.
Only England remained irreconcilable; and
even in her case, after the recovery of Egypt,
there seemed little substantial ground for con-
tinuing the war. She was angered, however,
on account of the Quadruple Alliance, and
could not be appeased until her fleet under
Lord Nelson had fallen upon and almost
destroyed that of Denmark in a naval bat-
tie before Copenhagen. In all her conduct

England was moved solely by the determina-
tion to maintain at all hazards her commercial
and maritime supremacy — for in that lay her
greatness.

At leugth, however, after the punishment
of Denmark by England, after the conclusion
of separate treaties between Russia and Spain
and Russia and France, negotiations were suc-
cessfully opened by the First Consul with the
court of St. James. A change of ministry
occurred, and the new advisers of George III.
were favorable to peace. A conference was
held at AMIESS, and there,
in March of 1802, a gen-
eral treaty was concluded.
In the first place, England
made peace with France,
Spain, and the Batavian
Republic. She agreed to
give up Egypt to the
Turks, and the island of
Malta to the Knights of
St. John. Of all her con-
quests, she was to retain
only Ceylon and Trinidad.
The ports of the Mediter-
ranean were to be surren-
dered to the original own-
ers, and the Ionian Islands
to be erected into a Re-
public, and placed under
the protection of Turkey
and Russia. As to France,
she was curtailed in noth-
ing. The First Consul, in
the negotiations at Ami-
ens, showed himself to be
as great a diplomatist as
he was a warrior. He was
now by far the most conspicuous figure in Eu-
rope. In France, his power and popularity
were unbounded. In August of 1802, the
polls were opened in all the precincts of France,
and over each voting-place \?as placed this
question: Napoleon sera-til Consul a Fie? —
Shall Napoleon be Consul for life? And of
more than seven millions of suffrages only a
few hundred were recorded in the negative.
France was satisfied with her ruler.

The activity of the government in civil
matters now became as great as the energies
of the Republic had been prodigious in war.

////; AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AND EMPIRE.

Km:}

Social order was reestablished. Paris became
glorious. The sunshine flushed the Place de
la Revolution, and the memories of the bloody
tragedy, in which Feudal France hud perished
to make way for the France of the future, be-
gan to sink behind the horizon. A comnii
of the ablest lawyers was appointed to make a
revision of the civil code, and the work which
they produced was the greatest and most en-
lightened of modern times. Instead of the
three hundred local statutes in which the laws
of Old France had been buried, a single corpus

emigrant nobility were permitted to return to
France, and were, a- Car a.> practicable, re-
stored to their conli.-cated estates. Freedom
was declared in matters of religion, and the
Church of liome was allowed to nmver her
station as the leading hierarchy.

The year 1802 was marked by the desper-
ate revolt of the republican Negroes ot' St.
Domingo against the French Republic. The
leader and soul of the movement was the cel-
ebrated black patriot, Francois Dominique
Toussaint, surnamed L'Ouverture, who, from

REVOLT OF THE NEGROES IN SAN DOMINGO.

juris dvilis — the Code Napoleon — was brought
forth, as perfect in execution as the conception
was grand. The industrial development of the
country was undertaken with equal zeal. Pub-
lic works were encouraged as never before. A
great military road through the Simplon Pass
into Italy was constructed under direction of
the government. Institutions of learning were
endowed, and France more than ever asserted
her intellectual supremacy among the nations.
A general amnesty was decreed, by the terms
of which a hundred and fifty thousand of the

being a slave, had become president of the
little independency established by his country-
men. His bearing excited the contempt of
Bonaparte, who sent his brother-in-law, Gen-
eral Leclerc, to reduce St. Domingo to its
former condition. The latter arrived in the
island, and to his astonishment was most
fiercely resisted. Toussaint put his assailants
at defiance, and for several months fought
desperately to repel the invasion. At last, how-
ever, he was beaten down and captured. He
was conveyed to France, shamefully treated,

1064

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

thrown into prison, neglected, and well-nigh
starved to death ; though the official report
declared his death to have resulted from apo-
plexy. His destruction, however, did not end
the resistance of his people to the French.
They continued the unequal contest until the
yellow fever came to their aid, almost destroy-
ing the French army. The patriots held out
until the renewal of hostilities between France
and England, when the latter country sent a

f. (5

TOUSSAIXT L'OCVERTURE.

fleet to their aid and assisted them in recover-
ing their independence.

Meanwhile Bonaparte busied himself with
the execution of the Treaty of LuneVille, by
which he was able greatly to aggrandize
France at the expense of the shattered Ger-
man Empire. The various electorates of that
mythical power were reorganized in a manner
pleasing to the First Consul, who hesitated
not to modify the map of the countries in
question according to his imperious will. In

general, however, he was an observer of treaties.
It might indeed be truthfully asserted that he
never violated a compact without at least a
plausible excuse for doing so. Thus much
might not be affirmed of the conduct of his
enemies, with whom, for the most part — feel-
ing themselves overmatched— the end justified
the means. Especially must this be allowed in
the case of England, who either signed the
Treaty of Amiens intending to break it, or
else perceiving that the First
Consul had beaten her in
diplomacy, resolved to regain
by bad faith what she had
lost by the genius of her ad-
versary. At any rate she
guiltily violated the Peace of
Amiens and renewed the war.
Her violations of the treaty
consisted in this — that she
kept her army in Egypt more
than a year after the French
had evacuated the country,
and refused to give up Malta
to the Knights, as she had
promised. For this conduct
she had nothing better than
specious pretexts to offer, and
for her next step no pretext
at all to offer.

George III. issued orders
for the seizure of all French
ships found in the harbors
of Great Britain, and followed
this with a declaration of war.
The First Consul was not slow
to retaliate. With the return
of the emigrant nobles vast
numbers of foreigners had
come into France, among
whom were thousands of
Englishmen — travelers, adventurers, observers
of men 'and things. Bonaparte ordered the
arrest of all British sojourners in the Repub-
lic, and at the same time threw an army into
Hanover. Foreseeing the magnitude of the
struggle, he made every preparation for the
conflict. Spain and Portugal desiring neutral-
ity, he conceded the same to them on condi-
tion of large subsidies being given to France.
He further strengthened himself by selling to
the United States of America his province of

•mi, .«;/•; <>]• i;EVOLUTION.-c<>.\sri..\ri: AM>

Louisiana, fur which he- received the .sum of
lii'tecn millions of dollars.' As in former
years, he made his preparations as if for an
invasion of the British isles. A great armv
was collected on the coast and a licet of
transports was made ready in the Seine. What-
ever may have been Napoleon's intention, the
invasion was never undertaken.

About the time of the outbreak of hostil-
ities a conspiracy was made in London to de-
stroy the First Consul by assassination. The
principal parties to the plot were French irrec-
oncilables, who, in the character of refugees,
were residing in the British
capital. Grounds exist, more-
over, for the belief that the
English government was not
without a guilty knowledge
of the plot. At any rate, that
opinion prevailed on the con-
tinent, and Napoleon was the
gainer by the base attempt
made on his life. The whole
business was unearthed in
Paris, and eleven of the ring-
leaders were executed. Gen-
eral Moreau was accused of
complicity in the plot, and
though it was proved that he
had refused to become a party
thereto, he was condemned to
imprisonment. Napoleon com-
muted the sentence into exile
in America, but he was less
merciful toward the young
Duke d'Enghien, a descendant
of Cond6, and one of the rep- e. *

resentatives of the House of
Bourbon, who, on a charge of
being in the conspiracy, was seized at the cas-
tle of Ettenkeim, was taken to Strasburg and
thence to Vincennes, where he was hastily
tried, condemned, and shot in the ditch out-
side the fortress.1 The deed was one not very

Eleven and a quarter millions for purchase,
and three and three-quarters millions for French
debts assumed by the United States.

"The fact upon which D'Enghien was con-
demned was that a person believed to be he had
been seen on several occasions entering the apart-
ments of Cadoudal, who attemped the assassina-
tion. It was proved that the duke was frequently
and secretly absent from Ettenheim for as much

with the character of Napoleon, who
was put on the dcfeii.-ivc for having taken
the life of a prince without first e.-tahlishing
his guilt.

But the fact remained that the Past had
tried to murder the Present. The Present
must, therefore, be made more secure. A
project was at once promoted to change the
Consulate into an Empire. Napoleon, already
Consul for life, should be made Emperor. A
decree for this purpose was introduced into
the French Senate, and on the 3d of May,
1804, was passed with great enthusiasm. The

jr**

JEAN JACQUES REGIS OE CAMBACERES.

act was ratified by the Legislative Assembly,
and the consular seat became a throne. Na-
poleon was declared Emperor of the French,
and the crown was made hereditary in his
family. His two colleagues, Cambace'res and
Lebrun, became the one Arch Chancellor and
the other Arch Treasurer of the Empire. Prince

as ten or twelve days at a time, and it was thought
that he visited Paris in disguise. It was after-
wards known, however, that it was Pichegru who
was seen with Cadoudal, and that the duke had
been secretly married, and was perhaps with his
wife on the occasions of his absence.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Joseph Bonaparte was appointed Grand Elec-
tor, and the office of Constable was conferred
Prince Louis. More meritorious by far

on

was the elevation of eighteen of Napoleon's
generals to the rank of Marshal of France.
Pope Pius VII. was sent for to come to Paris
and attend to his part of the mummery on the
day of coronation, wlJch was fixed for the 2d
of December, 1804. The ceremony took
place at the altar of Notre Dame, where the
Soldier of Fortune knelt with Josephine to

tinguished himself in our war of the Revolu-
tion, in which he served under Count Rocham-
beau, from which service he returned to France
to be elected to the States-general in 1789.
lie was twice president of the National As-
sembly, and was acting in that capacity when
the flight of Louis XVI. was announced. Aft-
erwards he served with Custiue on the Ger-
man frontier, and being accused of causing
the surrender of Metz, was condemned by
the Revolutionary Tribunal and sent to the guil-

THE CORONATION IN NOTRE DAME.

receive the crown which he had conquered and
which he persisted in putting on his own head.
Of her who shared his glory on this day,
something may be appropriately added.

Marie Josephe Tascher, wife of Napoleon
I., was born in the island of Martinique, in
June of 1763. Her father was a naval officer
serving under the Marquis de Beauharnais, at
that time governor of the island. After receiving
a good education, she was married in Decem-
ber of 1779 to the Viscount de Beauharnais,
brother of the governor. The husband dis-

lotine on the 23d of July, 1794. Nine years
previously he had been divorced from Jose-
phine, rather for his own gallantries than from
any misdemeanor committed by her. The
latter took up her residence in Paris, and in
1790 was reconciled to Beauhnrnais, whom,
after his arrest she tried to release, and for
whom she came near giving her life. For she
barely escaped the guillotine. She became ac-
quainted with Napoleon in 1795, and was mar-
ried to him in March of the following year.
She acquired over his mind an ascendency

Till-: AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AND /..)// '//.•/•:.

1067

which none other ever possessed . :m<l generally
used her influence to .soften his morose <lis|>o-
sition, calm his asperity, ami moderate the
movements of Ids perturbed spirit. She was
disliked by the Honaparies, > -sp. -dally by Na-
poleon's sisters, who sought to mar the relations
between her and her husband, and particularly
to prevent her joint coronation with him by
the Pope. Her being childless gave to them
and to others of like mind, a political weapon
which they were not slow
to use, and with which
they ultimately effected
her undoing.

Thus on the banks of
the Seine was established
a new Empire. Charle-
magne had come again.
The Emperor of the
French was quick to catch
the analogy. He, too,
would assume the iron
crown of the Lombards.
la the spring of 1805 he
repaired to Northern It-
aly, and on the 26th of
May was crowned at Mi-
lan as king of Italy. The
Cisalpine Republic was
converted into a kingdom,
over which as viceroy the
Emperor appointed his
step-son, Eugene Beauhar-
nais. At the same time
the Republic of Liguria
was added to the domin-
ions of the Empire.

As it related to the war
with England the Emperor
made prodigious exertions,
and these were answered
with like preparations on
the part of the British government. That gov-
ernment was now under the energetic direction
of William Pitt, who was in the heyday of
his renown, the acme of his power. The at-
titude of Russia had recently been changed
from one of friendliness toward France, or at
least of indifference to the conflicts in Western
Europe, by the assassination of Paul I., who
met his fate on the 23d of March, 1801. He
was succeeded on the throne by Alexander I.,

win. had strong proclivities in favor of Eng-
land. This fael enabled 1'itt to carry out his
project of an Aii;rlu-Uii.-sian alliance. A Third
Coalition was formed, the principal parlies to
the same being England, l!n><ia. and AnMria.
Pru>.-ia was solicited to become a member of
the compact, but that power, still dominated
by the uncertain and waveiiiiLT, not to say
treacherous, policy of Frederick William 111..
assumed the ground of neutrality, and would

-From the painting by Gcranl.

fain keep aloof from the conflict. This fact,
together with her geographical position, doomed
Prussia to become the principal theater of the
war. and to suffer its ravages more than did
the belligerents themselves. It thus happened
that while Napoleon was preparing his im-
mense expedition for the ostensible invasion
of England— while he filled the Seine with
transports, and massed large bodies of troops
along the Channel— the horizon of Germany

1068

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

suddenly grew black with the clouds of war,
and the Austrian General Mack, with an army
of eighty thousand men, advanced on Munich.

energies upon the Austrians. He was now in
his element. He had the confidence of France.
He could hurl her intrepid soldiery like a

EMPEROR NAPOLEON I.
Drawn by E. Ronjat.

Whatever may have been Bonaparte's origi-
nal design, he now gave up the project of at-
tacking the British Isles, and turned his whole

thunderbolt against any power that had the
temerity to give him battle on the land. He
took the field in person, and before the Aus-

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— COXSULATI-: A.\l> I. Ml '//;/•:.

106!)

trians were well aware of his movements
planted himself in their rear, cutting off the
communications of .Mack with Vicuna, and
preventing a junction with the Iiiissian army.
So masterly was his geueral.«hip that the Aus-
trian commander, thus hopelessly isolated at
Ulm, was driven to a humiliating surrender.
An army of thirty thousand men, with all its
equipments, baggage, artillery, and colors, be-
came prisoners of war. Another division, num-
bering twenty thousand, which had succeeded
in breaking out of Ulm, was sur-
rounded and taken at Nordlingen.
The Austrian business was com-
pleted at a stroke ; and the House
of Hapsburg had cause to curse
the day when it rashly provoked
the Emperor of the French.

Before the end of October, Na-
poleon was on his way to Vienna.
On the 13th of the following
month, he entered that ancient
capital. Meanwhile the czar had
succeeded in inducing Frederic
William III. to join the coalition.
Alexander went in person to Ber-
lin, and he and the Prussian king,
after the manner of their kind,
went to the tomb of Frederick
the Great, embraced each other in
that solemn presence and swore to
fight Napoleon to the last. But
the Prussian soon had cause to la-
ment his folly. He knew too well
his own impotence in a struggle
with such an adversary as Bona-
parte. That victorious son of for-
tune now crossed the Danube to
oppose the advance of the Arch-
duke Charles, who, hearing of the desperate
straits to which Mack had been reduced, and
hoping to render him assistance before it should
be too late, hurried out of Italy with a power-
ful army, and came into Moravia. H.-re,
on the 2d of December, 1805, just one year
to a day from Napoleon's coronation, the
two armies met at the town of AUSTERLTTZ,
on the river Littance. The Anstrians had
already formed a junction with their Russian
allies ; but this was precisely the thing which
Bonaparte most desired. Scarcely could
he restrain his ardor for the decisive con-

flict. His own forces were compactly ar-
ranged in a semicircle, having it- renter at
Bhiiin, while those of the allies wen- badly
posted in broken masses around the out.-ide of
the arc. The French made the on.-.-t with the
early morning. Just as the battle began, the
sun, as if to harbinger the victory of Napo-
leon, burst in splendor through the mUls that
had hidden the position of the combatants.
The onset of the French was irresistible. In
a short time the allied lines were broken,

crushed, trampled in utter rout and ruin.
Thirty thousand Austrians and Russians were
killed, wounded, or taken. It was as though
the whole fabric of the Third Coalition had
been shattered at a blow.

The battle of Austerlitz ended the war on
the side of Germany. The allies might well
have renewed the contest, for their resources
were abundant, their reserve population inex-
haustible. Indeed, they still had eighty thou-
sand men in the field ; but what were they —
so reasoned the monarch? — if they might be
annihilated in a single battle? As for the

1070

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Czar Alexander, he at once began his march
fur Russia. Francis II. eagerly sought peace ;

tory message to the victorious Bonaparte.
The latter, on receiving the Prussian king's

CAPITULATION OF MACK.— Drawn by J. Gilbert.

and Frederick William III., who less than a
month previously had taken his terrible oath

letter, indulged in some grim humor, saying
that Frederick William had intended his con-

THE EVENING BEFORE AUSTERLITZ.— Drawn by C. Delort.

with the Czar Alexander, tore up his compact
with that sovereign, and sent a congratula-

gratulations for Alexander, but that Fortune
had changed the address to himself!

'/7//; A<;E Of REVOLUTION.— (' i\^l LATE .l.\l> KM I' IRE.

loll

It only remained for the defeated to :i.-k
for peace. A conference wa.- held at J're.~
burg, oil the Danube, an.l there, on the '2(Jlk
,if Deft miter, l^O.i, a tieaty was coucliiiletl
bv France and Au.-iria. Napoleon .-pared
not the vanquished in dictating the terms of
a settlement. Francis 11. wa.- ..lilted t<>
give up Venice, the last possession of tin
man Empire in Italy, to the victor. The
Tyrol and Vorarlberg went to Buvaria, aud the
elector of that principality, as ^_
well as the elector of Wu'r-
temberg, was recognized as a
king. Such was their reward
for their devotion to the
French cause. Thus, in a cam-
paign of only two months' du-
ration, the House of Hapsburg
lost three millions of subjects
and a revenue of fourteen mill-
ions of florins. To Austria the
war had proved the most dis-
astrous in her history.

The year 1805 did not
close without a great disaster
to France on the sea. On that
element England added another
to the list of her splendid vic-
tories. On the 21st of Octo-
ber, the combined squadrons
of France and Spain, number-
ing thirty-three ships of the
line and seven frigates, were
overtaken otl'C'ape TRAFALGAR,
at the north-west entrance to
the strait of Gibraltar, by the
British admiral, Lord Horatio
Nelson, already distinguished
for his great victory over the
French in the bay of Aboukir.
He brought into the engagement a fleet
of twenty-seven ships of the line and four
frigates. The conflict that ensued ranks
among the great naval battles of the world.
Nelson clad himself in the insignia of the
orders to which he belonged, and by his
heroism courted death almost as much as
he strove for victory. Never was the con-
duct of the British seamen more honorable
to their country and themselves than on this
memorable day. In bpirinmntr the engage-
ment, Nelson displayed from his pennon,

where it might lie read by the whole licet,
thi.- motto: " K.V.I. AM. ECPBOXi i.\ i.i:\ MAN
TO UO 111- I.I I I." I Uei-ly fearlc,-.-, I, ill with
a premonition of his lute, he . nh -red the
Struggle to cniHjiier or die. H,,th were in
reservation. An hour after the battle began,
when the Fivneh and Spaniards were already
shattered by his mercile.-s (ire, bin .-till sternly
contesting the victory, |,,. Was .-truck in the
shoulder by a musket-ball, and fell mortally

ADMIRAL LORD NK1JOK.

wounded. "They have done for me at last,
Hardy," said he to the captain of the ship.
He was carried below, whither he was pres-
ently followed by Hardy with the news that
already fifteen of the enemy's ships had sur-
rendered. "That is well," said the dying hero,
" but I had bargained for twenty." Then his
thoughts turned to the woman who had ob-
tained the mastery over his spirit — Lady
Hamilton, wife of Sir William Hamilton, for
whom he had formed a deathless attachment,
and on whose account he had recently been

1072

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

divorced. "Take care of Lady Hamilton,
Hardy; take care of poor Lady Hamilton,"
said he, as the death-dew dampened his brow.
And then: "Doctor, I have not been a great

sinner. Remember that I leave Lady Hamil-
ton and my daughter Horatia as a legacy to
my country." So he died. England buried
him in St. Paul's Cathedral, and the pageant

DEATH OF NELSON AT TKAFALGAR.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AND /•;.»//•//,'/•;.

1078

surpassed any spectacle ever before witnessed
iu the kingdom.'

In January of the following year the great
British minister, William I 'it I,
died. For many years lie h:td
been the leading statesman of
England. At the first he had
sympathized with the French
Revolution, but was afterwards
driven by the overwhelming
Tory sentiment of Great Britain
to promote and support the
various wars which that king-
dom undertook with France. To
his genius must be attributed
the various Coalitions which
were formed against Napoleon,
one of which had been recently
wrecked by the battle of Aus-
terllte. The last illness of Pitt
was the result of his anxiety and
grief on account of the surren-
der of Mack at Ulm and the
destruction of the allied army
by Bonaparte on the Danube.
He was succeeded in the minis-
try by Charles James Fox, his
rival, by whom negotiations for
peace were begun, only to be
broken off by his death a few
months afterwards. As soon as
the Treaty of Presburg was con-
cluded, Napoleon paid his re-
spects to Frederick William of
Prussia, whose tergiversations
well merited the treatment which
he was destined to receive. The
conqueror now compelled him to
close his ports against the ships
of England and to occupy Han-
cver, the German dependency of
the British crown. The king-
dom of Naples, also, was pun-
ished for having recently espoused
the cause of Austria, in viola-
tion of an existing agreement
to remain neutral. An army under Massena
invaded the Neapolitan dominions on the very

1 Some circumstances of Nelson's death furnish

an ample illustration of the greatness and the

meanness of England. Before going into hi« last

battle, Nelson made a brief codicil to his will.

VOL. 11.— titt

heels of the retiring Austrian* and Russians.
Ferdinand VI. lied from his capital; but his
wife, Maria Caroline, daughter of Maria The-

resa, showed herself worthy of her mother's
name by attempting a defense of Naples

He said : " I leave Lady Hamilton as a legacy
to my king and country." And again : " I leave
my adopted daughter, Horatia Nelson Thompson,
to the beneficence of my country." And again:

1074

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

against the French. She raised an army of
brigands and beggars, and opened the prisons
to swell her forces ; but the troops which she
thus raised were of so desperate a character
that the city turned to Massena as to a deliv-
erer. All opposition was put down, and Jo-
seph Bonaparte — brother to Napoleon — who
had accompanied the expedition, was pro-
claimed king of the two Sicilies. At the first
his hold upon his alleged kingdom was preca-

CHARLES JAMES FOX.

rious. General Stuart, commanding an En-
glish force in Italy, defeated the army of
King Joseph in the battle of Ma'ida, and the
peasants who were strongly attached to Queen

" These are the only favors I ask of my king and
country at this moment when I am going to fight
their battle." This will fell into the hands of the
hero's brother, the Rev. William Nelson, D. D.,
and was by him concealed in his own interest ! The
king made him Earl Nelson of Trafalgar and Mer-
ton, and he was given a pension of six thousand

Caroline rose in revolt against the existing
government. It was not long, however, until
these disturbances were ended by Masseua,
who, by his energy, restored order and se-
cured, at least for the tune being, the author-
ity of Bonaparte.

By this time Napoleon had conceived the
design of establishing the members of his
family in most of the high places of Western
Europe. He converted his sisters into prin-
cesses; his brothers, into kings. He
rewarded his generals, as many as
distinguished themselves in his ser-
vice, with dignities and titles. Tal-
leyrand was made Prince of Bene-
vento ; Bernadotte, of Ponte Corvo;
Berthier, of Neuchatel. The con-
queror contemplated a general re-
vision of the map of Europe. He
abolished the so-called Roman Em-
pire of the West, which had had a
nominal existence since the days of
Octavius Caesar. The sixteen Ger-
man principalities, which had consti-
tuted the principal members of the
Imperial power, were induced to form
a sort of loose union, called the Con-
federation of the Rhine ; and between
this new power and France the rela-
tion of a protected and a protecting
state was established. On the 6th
of August, 1806, Francis II. pub-
lished a proclamation in which he
declared that it was impossible for
him any longer to act as Emperor for
the German states. The princes of
those states were accordingly ab-
solved from all allegiance to the
House of Hapsburg, whose represen-
tative, though he still retained the
title of Emperor, would henceforth
confine his authority to his hereditary king-
dom of Austria. Thus, after the lapse of a
thousand and six years from the time when,
on Christmas day, in the Church of St. Peter,

pounds. At length the will of the real Nelson
was known, and to it and the hero's dying request
neither England nor England's king ever paid the
slightest attention! The funeral of Nelson and
Trafalgar Square are everlasting memorials of how
eager the British people are to honor themfelves at
the expense of their great dead.

TUP: AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AND I'

107:,

the shout was raised, of "Long life and vic-
tory to Charles A \iLTu-t us!" who had just then
received from the hands of the Pope the
golden crown with the title of Emperor of
the Romans, that strange political fabric
known as "The K.Mi'fKK," was obliterated.

The next move made by Napoleon was the
proposed restoration of Hanover to England.
The electorate, it will be remembered, had
been recently and forcibly annexed to Prus-
sia— this with a view to precipitating a war
between that country and Great Britain.
Such was the evident contempt which the
French Emperor now
showed for Frederick Will-
iam that the Prussians rose
in wrath at such indignity,
and determined to fight to
the death rather than en-
dure any longer the treat-
ment to which they were
subjected. Doubtless the
war which they undertook
with France — considering
the tremendous power
which that nation had now
acquired — was ill-timed
and foolish. Nothing could
have been more pleasing
to Napoleon than this act
of an enemy whom he de-
spised. With startling
rapidity he bore down upon
the armies of Frederick
William, and while they
were still confused with the
problem of his whereabouts,
planted himself on their left wing, thereby
cutting off communication with the Russians.
The first battle was fought and won by Ber-
nadotte at Schleitz, and the next engagement
at Saalfeld had a like result. These actions
were the first notice which the Duke of Bruns-
wick had of the fact that Napoleon was in his
rear. Endeavoring to extricate himself, he
began a retreat accompanied by Frederick
William and his fugitive brother-in-law, the
Prince of Orange. In order to cover this
movement Brunswick left one division of his
army, under Prince Hohenloho, at JENA, on
the Saale. Here, on the 14th of October, the
prince was attacked by Napoleon in person,

who, after a short and terrible battle, u!
de-troved his antagonist. On the same day
the other division of the Prussian army, under
the Duke of Bnmmridk, was confronted at
A i KIWTADT by Marshal Oavoust, and by him
routed and dispersed. The double defeat
proved to be as ruinous to Prussia as had been
the battle of Austerlitz to Austria. Whatever
was wanting to the completeness of the over-
throw was added by Marshals Murat and
Ney, who captured Erfurt and made prisoners
of fourteen thousand men, who had been left
as its defenders. Universal dismay settled

. (• *

- jl'c

COUNT MAURICE DE TALLKYHANU-PKKlcidlll).

over Prussia. Stettin and Custrin were taken
without a show of defense. Magdeburg, one
of the strongest fortresses in Europe, was as-
sailed by an inferior force and given up with-
out a struggle — this though the garrison were
twenty thousand strong. General Bliirhcr.
reputed to be an able and courageous com-
mander, was cut off at Liibeck, and obliged to
surrender his whole command, numberiii;:
twenty thousand. The House of Hohenzol-
lern staggered and fell to the earth. The
Elector of Saxony, seeking to save himself at
whatever sacrifice of honor, left Frederick
William to his fate, made peace with Napo-
leon, was named by him a king and given a

1076

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

place in the Confederation of the Rhine.
Bonaparte proceeded to the Prussian capital,
entered the city in triumph, and did what
things he would.1

On the 21st of November he issued his cel-
ebrated "Berlin Decree," by which the Brit-
ish Isles were declared to be in a state of
blockade. All intercourse with England was
prohibited, and all British merchandise,
whether found within the limits of hostile
states or in those which were neutral, was
subjected to confiscation. Harsh and high-

„///

MARSHAL DAVOUST.

handed as was this measure, it was fully justi-
fied by the previous conduct of Great Britain,
whose actions, as it related to neutral com-
merce, had been in defiance of both the laws
of nations and the manners of civilized states.
The British ministry continued the retaliation
by issuing an "Order in Council," by which
all the ports of Europe, from which the ships
of England were excluded, were declared to

1 The chief interest of Napoleon during his brief
stay in Berlin centered in the works and haunts
of Frederick the Great. He inspected what me-
mentoes soever that warlike king had left at Pots-
dam, and paid a visit to the modest tomb where

be blockaded, and the British cruisers were-
ordered to board and search all vessels which
were destined, or supposed to be destined, to
those ports which were closed by the paper
blockade.

Before the news of this proceeding reached
Napoleon he had gone into Italy. On the
17th of December, 1807, he issued, as a fur-
ther retaliatory measure, his celebrated "Mi-
lan Decree," by which it was declared that
all vessels submitting to the " Order in Coun-
cil" should henceforth be regarded as lawful
prizes of war. These tremend-
ous fulminations by the twa
great powers of Western Eu-
rope indicated with sufficient
clearness the respective poli-
cies of France and England;
that of the one being to mo-
nopolize the sea and to drive
therefrom the commerce of
all nations, save her own, and
that of the other, to close, as-
if by an omnipotent fiat, all
the ports of the civilized
world against the ships of her
who had claimed the mastery
of the sea. Both were equally
against the laws of nations
and humanity.

At this juncture the Polish
question came into view as an
important factor in the Eu-
ropean complication. Poland,
or at least the patriotic party
in that country, had always
looked upon the French as
their friends. It was clearly
the policy of Napoleon to take advantage
of this sentiment in detaching the Poles
from Russia, and his agents busily sowed
the seeds of insurrection. At this time th&
Polish patriot, Thaddeus Kosciusko, was in
the ascendant, but he refused to be a party to-
a movement by which he believed his country
had nothing to gain. The Russian armies,
however, pressed to the west in the fall of

the body of the philosopher of Sans-Souci had
been laid to rest. But the conqueror forebore not
to send the sword and belt and Black Eagle of
the Order to which Frederick belonged as trophies
to Paris.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AM> KMI'IRE.

1077

1806, and before going into winter-quarters
gained some advantages along the outposts of
the Fi-eneh. For :i short time there was a
cessation of hostilities; but as early as Feb-
ruary both armies were again in the field. On
the 8th of that month, they met at the town
of EYLAU, in East Prussia, and here was
fought one of the most bloody battles of mod-
ern times. Napoleon had eighty-five thousand
men and three hundred and fifty guns; while
the Russian and Prussian allies numbered sev-
enty-five thousand, with four hundred and
sixty guns. The carnage was dreadful on
both sides, the Russians losing about twenty
thousand in killed
and wounded, and
the losses of the
French being
nearly as great.
Both parties — the
French with better
r e a s o n — claimed
the victory ; if, in-
deed, a victory
that might be call-
ed which consisted
in retaining a field
where nearly forty
thousand human
beings had been
stretched on the
earth in their own
blood. So much
was Bonaparte
staggered by this
sanguinary battle
that he fell back to
the Vistula and made overtures for peace. In
the interim, however, Frederick William had
been persuaded to enter into a new compact
with Great Britain and Russia. In his infat-
uation he refused to accept Napoleon's propo-
sion, and continued war. When the cam-
paign of 1807 was fairly opened, the tide
again set strongly in favor of the French.
On the 14th of June was fought the great
battle of FRIEDLAND, in which Bonaparte was
victorious. Ten days afterwards, Dantzic sur-
rendered, and an army of thirty thousand
Frenchmen, for some time occupied in the
siege of that fortress, was liberated for service
in the field. Then followed the capture of

K'.nigsberg, by which event further resistance
on the part of Prussia was rendered useless.1
The Czar, too, grew tired of the conflict,
and offered to treat for peace. Napoleon
readily assented to the proposal, and it was
agreed that the two Emperors should hold a
conference on a raft iiH>ured in the river Nie-
meu, at TILSIT. The meeting was brief and
historic. The Czar frankly assured Napoleon
that his own dislike of England was as great
as his. Whereupon Alexander was informed
that, if that were true, peace were made
already. And such was the event. Bonaparte
was easily satisfied on all collateral points, the

NAPOLEON AT THE TOMB OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.

Drawn by G. Welser.

main thing being granted. To break the
power of England, to humble her pride, to
ruin her commerce, to make her as insular as
she had been in the days of the Plautagenete —
such had become the master passion in the
volcanic breast of Bonaparte. In the treaty
of Tilsit it was agreed that Prussia should be

1 It was at this juncture, when it seemed that
her country was on the verge of utter ruin, that
Queen Louisa, the accomplished and beautiful
wife of Frederick William, went in person to the
head-quarters of Napoleon at Tilsit, and made to
him in behalf of fallen Prussia such an appeal as
woman has rarely made to man ; but the outcry
of her broken spirit was in vain. Nothing could
move the inexorable Bonaparte from his purpose.

1078

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

despoiled. A portion of her territory and
that of Brunswick was erected into the king-
dom of Westphalia, and conferred on Jerome
Bonaparte. Louis, another brother of the
Emperor, was recognized as king of Holland,
while Joseph was acknowledged in his sover-
eignty over the Two Sicilies. That portion
of Poland which by the First Partition had
been assigned to Prussia was. made into the
grand-duchy of Warsaw and given to the
king of Saxony. The territories of Frederick

a Bonaparte as king of Spain, should such an
arrangement be made by the Emperor of the
French.

Thus was concluded the war between
France and Russia. The former power was
thus set free to contend with England and
Sweden, the only two powers with which she
was still belligerent. At this time the English
government was desirous of drawing Denmark
into the alliance against Napoleon ; but that
power persisted in her neutrality, and it was

ATTACK OF MURAT'S DRAGOONS AT THE BATTLE OF EYLAU.
Drawn by 0. Delort.

William III. were thus reduced to little more
than half their limit at the date of his acces-
sion. As for Russia, she was to receive all of
Turkey in Europe except Constantinople and
Roumelia. The Czar was also given carte
blanche to conquer from the Turks in Asia
whatever he would and could. The kingdoms
of Northern Europe were to unite in a new
league with a view to breaking the commercial
dominion of England, and of this league
Russia was to be the head. The Czar was to
become with Napoleon the joint arbiter of the
Mediterranean commerce, and to acknowledge

believed that, as between the two, she would
have preferred France. For this reason — if
for any reason at all other than sheer malig-
nity— a British fleet was sent out, without
any declaration of war, to attack the Danish
capital ! The squadron was under command
of Lord Cathcart, who, on the 2d of Septem-
ber, 1807, fulfilled his orders by beginning a
bombardment of Copenhagen. For three
days he poured upon the city the vomit of his
nefarious mortars, demolishing three hundred
and fifty buildings, injuring two thousand
others to the extent of rendering them unin-

mi: ,!<;/•; OF m.vnu T/O.Y. -ro.v.sr/..r/7; AM> i:\irim:.

1079

habitable, :in<l killing about two tliou-aml
people. No act for which Napoleon has beeu
held to judgment at the bar of history was so
arbitrary, unpro-
voked, and out-
rageous as thi.s
bombardment of
Copenhagen by
the British. Two
monthselapsed In--
fore war was de-
clared against
Denmark.

The conduct of
Great Britain soon
bore its legitimate
fruits. True, she
succeeded almost
immediately in
conquering the
Danish West In-
dies ; but this suc-
cess could illy
compensate her
for the storm of
indignation which
her wanton de-
struction of the
capital of Den-
mark waked on
the continent.
Napoleon turned
this revulsion in
European feeling
to good account.
Even Austria was
induced to join
with Russia and
France in a league
against Great
Britain. All the
states of Europe,
with the excep-
tion of Sweden
and England,
were brought into
the alliance, and

for the time it appeared that England would be
crushed under the weight of a coalition as pon-
derous and surcharged with animosity as any
which had ever been organized against France.
A declaration was issued by the allied powers

I iy which the ports of France, Italy, Den-
mark, Prussia, the Rhine states, Holland,
Austria, and Russia were closed to the ships

QUEEN LOUISA OF PRUSSIA.— Alter the painting of Ci. Richter.

of England and Sweden. For a time the re-
markable spectacle was presented of a trade
established between London and Hamburg
by way of Constantinople I

The war in the North was chiefly contested

1080

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

between Sweden and Russia. The former
country was ruled by the incompetent and
fanatical Gustavus Adolphus IV., whose con-
duct was such as to encourage the design of
Napoleon and Alexander to make a partition
of the Swedish dominions. The French min-
ister at St. Petersburg published a declaration
that Gustavus IV. had ceased to reign ; but
that prince, supported by England, with an
army of ten thousand men, •under Sir John
Moore, and a subsidy of six millions of dol-
lars, undertook to defend his throne. Such,
however, was the strange conduct of the king

CHARLKS IV., KING OP SPAIN.

that in about a year he was declared insane,
was confined, and obliged to abdicate. In
March of 1809 the crown was given to his uncle,
Charles XIII. The latter, wisely determining
to save something out of the wreck of his
country, sought peace, and was able to secure
the forbearance of the allies by ceding to Rus-
sia the Aland Islands, Finland, and a part of
West Bothnia.

While Russia was thus employed in her
•war with Sweden, Napoleon had been busy
•with the affairs of the South. The year 1808
was mostly occupied with the work of con-
verting the Spanish peninsula into a depend-

ency of France. For several years Portugal,
which had been ruled by the House of Bra-
ganea since 1640, had been completely under
the influence of England. Her willingness to
continue in this relation was the antecedent
of a movement by Bonaparte looking to
the expulsion of the Bragaucas from the
kingdom. In November of 1807 a French
army under General Junot was sent into the
peninsula to carry out this design. On his
appearance the effete Portuguese court be-
came alarmed and determined to save itself
by flight. In January, 1808, the half crazy
queen, Maria I., together
with her son, who was
Prince Regent, and the
rest of the alleged royal
family, took ship and sailed
for Rio de Janeiro, in Bra-
zil, where it was proposed
to reestablish the fugitive
House in a position some-
what sheltered from the
winds of Europe. When
Junot arrived before Lisbon
he made, in Napoleon's
name, the now familiar
proclamation that "the
House of Bragan9a had
ceased to reign."

Meanwhile affairs had
been approaching a crisis
in Italy. Pope Pius VII.
had never been able to
get on smoothly with the
illustrious personage whom
he had crowned in Notre
Dame. Napoleon's view
of the Catholic religion was that it should
be good for something, and the criterion was
that it should subserve his purpose. One of
his strong desires was that the Holy Father
should cancel a marriage which Jerome Bona-
parte, brother to the Emperor, had made in
1803 with an American lady, Miss Elizabeth
Paterson, of Baltimore. Napoleon needed
Jerome for one of the thrones which he was
setting up for the Bonapartes in various parts
of Europe, and this American marriage was
in the way.

In proportion as Jerome's fitness for power
was manifested, in that degree did his impe-

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AND EMl'I Hi:.

10H1

rious brother become anxious that the mar-
riage, which had been duly wlemnixed by a
Roman Catholic l>i>hop, should he annulled.
Pius stood fast to the usages of the Church,
and an army of French was sent to occupy
Rome. For this the Pope excommunicated
Napoleon; but the bull was as harmless and
ridiculous as that of one of his predecessors
against the comet. The Emperor retaliated
by at once annexing the better part of the
States of the Church to the kingdom of Italy.

While these events
were taking place in
Portugal and the Italian
peninsula, the Spanish
Bourbons fell into an
imbroglio which gave to
Napoleon the needed
opportunity for interfer-
ence in the affairs of
that moribund kingdom.
At this time Spain was
ruled by Charles IV.;
he by his wife ; she, by
her favorite, the minis-
ter Manuel de Godoy;
he by his own interests
and lusts. After hav-
ing enriched himself by
all kinds of corruption,
generally at the expense
of the king and country,
he was honored by
Charles with the title
of the "Prince of the
Peace," and was given a
virtual control of the
kingdom. It came to
pass that Prince Ferdi-
nand, heir apparent to

the throne, was justly offended at his father,
mother, and Godoy : at the first, because he
was a fool ; at the second, because she was
false ; at the third, because he was treacherous
and depraved. A conspiracy was made in
Ferdinand's favor, and when Godoy learned
that the north of Spain had already been oc-
cupied by an army of a hundred thousand
French, he advised the king to abdicate in
favor of his son and to fly with the remainder
of the court to America. This advice was
taken, and Ferdinand VII. was proclaimed

and accepted at -Madrid. As soon, however,
as thus much was done, Charlc- IV. sickened
at the pro-pcci, aii'l in-trad ot' cinliarking for
America, sought the aid of Napoleon in re-
gaining the crown which he had relinquished.
It was the appeal of a sick sheep to a lion.
The lion repaired to Bayonne, and thither the
whole Spanish court, including Ferdinand
VII., was induced to come. It were long to
relate the methods by which Napoleon at
length induced both father and son to resign

JOACHIM MURAT.

to himself their rights to the Spanish throne ;
but he succeeded in accomplishing his pur-
pose. Ferdinand was to have the kingdom
of Etruria instead of that of Charles V.! The
elder dupe was to receive the castle of Cham-
bord and a pension of seven and a half mill-
ions of francs. Ferdinand, who had at last
sense enough to perceive what part he was
made to play, ventured on a rupture, and for
his pains was imprisoned along with his brother
Carlos in the castle of Valencai. Thus did
the Spanish House of Bourbon "cease to

1082

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WOULD.

reign." It was a business which put Napo-
leon iii the poorest light of any event in his
career, and was redeemed from absolute little-
ness and contempt only by the insipid char-
acter and worthlessuess of those whom he
deposed.

The military subjugation of Spain had
been intrusted to Murat, Napoleon's brother-
in-law. He had himself aspired to the crown
of Spain, and had cause to believe that his
ambition would be gratified ; but the Emperor

--- %%

\J5 ; ••
r<i..j*j

JOSEPH BONAPARTE, KING OP SPAIN.

decided otherwise. Instead of Murat, Joseph
Bonaparte was called from his kingdom of
Naples to occupy the Spanish throne, and his
crown of the Two Sicilies was given to the
disappointed Murat. The acknowledgment
of Joseph was obtained from the Council of
Castile ; but a junta in Seville refusing to ac-
cept the new order of things, made a declara-
tion in favor of Ferdinand VII., and took up
arms in his support. In many other Spanish
cities the national spirit was aroused, and it
became at once evident that Napoleon would
have serious work to confirm the disposition

which he had presumed to make of the king-
dom of Spain. His maneuvers at Bayonne,
by which the last of the Bourbon dynasties
had been supplanted, must be made good by
the sword.

Such were the beginnings of the Peninsu-
lar War. It was an inauspicious day for Na-
poleon when he undertook it — the beginning
of the end. Here it was that his limitless
ambition turned to folly. Had he paused
before entering into the machination at Bay-
onue, it appears that no
power could have shaken
his dominion over the
better part of Western
Europe. He was arbiter
of states and nations.
In his relations with
Spain he stooped to in-
trigue and started a new
and needless complication
which, with all his gen-
ius, he was never able
to solve — a new outgoing
of hostile causes which
he could never trammel
up. For a long time the
peril was not imminent —
perhaps not appreciated
by himself; but in the
course of three or four
years he had good cause
to curse Bayonue and all
its recollections.

The war between the
French and the Spanish
insurgents began with the
capture by the Spaniards
of a small squadron in
the harbor of Cadiz. Then followed the over-
throw of a French army under Marshal Mon-
cey, who was marching on Valencia. Shortly
afterwards was fought the battle of Medina del
Rio Seco, in which the Spaniards were routed
with great losses ; but in the battle of Bay-
len, in Andalusia, General Dupont was de-
feated and captured with a division of the
French army twenty thousand strong. Then,
for the space of two months, from June to
August, 1808, followed the memorable siege
of Saragossa. The garrison and the inhabi-
tants of the town defended themselves with a

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.-CONSULA TI- AMt /;.»//•//;/•:. 1083

heroism hardly equaled in the annals of Span-
ish warfare, and at last the French were re-
pulsed and obliged to abandon the siege. But

in the following December they returned to
the attack, reinvested tin- city, and in Feb-
ruary of 1809, compelled a surrender. The

IKING OF SARAGOtiSA.
Drawn by C. Delort

1084

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

losses of the assailants had been tremendous,
and fifty-four thousand people perished in
the city.1

The attention of Great Britain was at once
turned to the Spanish peninsula, and it was re-
solved by the ministry to make the same the
theater of a great struggle. This purpose was
favored by a revolt in Portugal. Encouraged
by the comparative success of, the Spaniards,
the Portuguese took arms against the French
and inflicted a decisive defeat on General
Junot. The latter was brought into such
straits that, in a convention at Cintra, he was
obliged to obtain as a favor the poor privilege
of retiring from the country with the rem-

poleon deemed it prudent to enter into a still
closer alliance with Russia. He and the Czar
accordingly held a kind of royal congress at
Erfurt, in September and October of 1808, at
which were present the kings of Bavaria,
Saxony, Wiirtemberg, Westphalia, and a
multitude of minor dignitaries, by whom the
political condition of Europe was considered.
The status of Italy and the peninsular king-
doms, as already fixed by Napoleon, was rati-
fied by the Czar, who, on his part, was given
the right of annexing Finland, Wallachia,
and Moldavia. The sovereigns then drew up
a letter addressed to the demented George
III. of England, requesting that monarch, or

HEROIC DEFENSE OF SARAGOSSA.
Drawn by F. Lix.

nant of his army. The Russian allies of the
French did not fare much better at the hands
of the insurgents. The Czar's fleet was block-
aded in the Tagus, and obliged to surrender
to the English fleet, which then took posses-
sion of Lisbon.

Already had the condition of affairs in the
Spanish peninsula become so critical that Na-

4 The defense of Saragossa has furnished the
theme for three celebrated stanzas in Childe Harold.
During one of the assaults, in June, a Spanish
girl, named Augustina, better known as the Maid
of Saragossa, saw a soldier fall at his gun. She
seized the match from his quivering hand, dis-
charged the piece herself, and thenceforth became
the spirit of the defense. Nothing could daunt or
distract her from her purpose :
" Her lover sinks — she sheds no ill-timed tear ;

Her chief is slain — she ftlls his fatal post;

those who acted in his name, to consent to a
general peace. If England had really desired
the pacification of Europe, she might well have
acceded to this proposal; but she chose to re-
fuse on the ground that the House of Bourbon
had not been represented in the Erfurt con-
gress. Thus, for the sake of an antiquated
dynasty, not one of whose living representa-
tives was capable by merit of being mayor of
a town, the war was indefinitely prolonged.

Her fellows flee — she checks their base career ;
The foe retires — she heads the rallying host;
Who can appease like her a lover's ghost ?
Who can avenge so well a leader's fall ?

What maid retrieve when man's flushed hope

is lost?

Who hang so fiercely on the flying Gaul,
Foiled by a woman's hand before a battered
wall ?"

TIII: A<;I: or uKvoLi'Tios.—coxxn.ATK AND UMI-IHI-:. toes

As soon as the refusal of the British, gov-
ernment was known, Napoleon, in hi* usual
electrical manner, took the field in person.
He crossed the Pyrenees at the head of his
array, bore down like an avalanche on the re-
volted Spaniards, swept their juntas as with a
besom, pained victory after victory, and in
less than a month entered Madrid in triumph.
Here he made haste to strike down and oblit-
erate the mediaeval institutions with which
the Spanish kingdom was cumbered. He is-
sued an Imperial decree abolishing the In-
quisition, sweeping out of existence two-thirds
of the convents, and abrogating those feudal
rights and privileges which were still exer-
cised by the Spanish nobility. The English
army in Spain was at this time under com-
mand of Sir John Moore, who undertook to
save himself and his forces by retreating
into Galicia. Thither he was pursued by
Marshal Soult, who overtook the retreating
British, and was by them defeated in the
battle of CORUNNA. The victory of the
English, however, was dearly purchased by
the death of Sir John Moore, who was >
struck down by a cannon-ball, and was
hurriedly buried by his disheartened sol-
diers— an incident which has furnished the
theme of Charles Wolfe's famous poem.1
Sir Charles Napier, who commanded one
of the British divisions, also fell under five
severe wounds, and was left for dead in.
the hands of the enemy. The English re-
treat was continued to the coast, and the
army embarked for other fields. The prov-
ince of Galicia submitted to Soult, but the
latter was so staggered by his recent defeat
that military operations were for a while sus-
pended.

While these events had been taking place
in the peninsula, England had been slowly
but surely at work sapping the foundations of
the Coalition against herself and Sweden.
Her efforts had been especially successful in
Germany. Austria was at heart disloyal to
France — as she had ever been. To her the
Peace of Presburg had been a delusion and a
snare. There was still penetration enough in

the brain of Francis II. to discern the com-
ing bivak with Bonaparte. So the Austrian
silently armed for the event. S,, ^ruat were
the resources of this ancient kingdom that a
tremendous ariuv, well equipped and well dis-
ciplined, was brought into the field. Super-
ficially there was peace. England, employing
her usual argument, gave Francis four millions
of pounds to go to war. The moment seemed
auspicious for the Hapsburg to thrust its head
like that of an ancient turtle from under the
tettudo. Napoleon was busy with his Spanish
campaign. How could he make war in two
places at once? So reasoned the Past in the

1 " Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note,
As his corse to the rampart we hurried ;
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
O'er the grave where our hero we buried."

Sill CHARLES NAPIER.

court of Vienna ; and then the bugle sounded.
The Austrian army, under command of the
Archduke Charles, was thrown into Bavaria.
The event soon showed how completely, even
after years of experience, the Austrian mon-
arch had underestimated the genius of his
adversary.

While yet at Madrid, Napoleon gathered
into his wakeful ear the rumor of what was
doing in Germany. Leaving the Spanish
business to Marshal Soult, he hastened to
Paris, arriving there on the 13th of April.
In three days more he was at Stuttgart and
Carlsruhe. In two days more he had estab-
lished his head-quarters at Ingolstadt. As if

1086

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

by magic he drew to himself an army out of
Wiirtemberg and Baden. With these forces

RETREAT OF THE ENGLISH AFTER CORUNNA.

under the hot inspiration of battle he flung
himself upon the Austrians, and in five days

retreated towards Bohemia, as if to save them-
selves by distance. The way to Vienna again

lay open, and the
conqueror trod that
way with his usual
audacity. On the
12th of May the
Austrian capital
surrendered, and
the French entered
in triumph. On
the 21st and 22d
Napoleon was
worsted in two
battles -at Aspern
and Essliug ; but
on the 5th and 6th
of July he gained
one of his most
glorious victories
on the bloody field
of WAGRAM. In
the first struggle
the Austrians were
routed with great
slaughter, and
driven back to the
heights of Znaym, -where, on the second day,
they were again defeated and ruined. On

NAPOLEON AT THE BATTLE OF WAGRAM.— Drawn by Th. Weber.

gained as many victories 1 Resistance was dis- I both sides the losses had been tremendous,
organized. The broken columns of Austria | Of the Austrians fully twenty-five thousand

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION. -CONSULATE AND EMI' 11; I..

1087

men were killed, wounded, or taken, and the
French loss was, almost us great. Archduke
Charles and Count, Kadetsky, commander of
the Austrian cavalry, saved what they could
from the wreck and fell back with the rem-
nant of their forces into Moravia. Napoleon
was again completely master of the situation.
It now only remained for the humiliated
Francis II. to sue for peace, and to
obtain it on the best terms he could.
A conference was held between the vic-
tor and the vanquished at SCHONBRUNN,
and there the conditions of a new peace
were settled. Austria was obliged to cede
to French Italy the Illyrian provinces
about the head of the Adriatic. In
the next place, that part of Austrian
Poland which had fallen to Austria by
the First Partition was taken away and
divided between the Czar and the king
of Saxony. The king of Bavaria received
Salzburg, with the territories thereunto
belonging. The Austrian Emperor was com-
pelled to renounce his alliance with England,

and to become a partner in that "Continental
System " which Napoleon had projected as a
counterpoise to the maritime dominion of

COUNT JOSEPH WENZEL OF RADETZKY.

Great Britain. Berthier was created Prince
of Wagrara. The recusant Pope Pius VII.
was deposed and imprisoned. Having refused
to accept from Bonaparte's hands the posses-
sion of the Vatican palace and the spiritual
dominion of Christen-
dom— these in lieu of the
temporal authority which
he still claimed over the
States of the Church —
he immured himself in
the Quirinal, set his
Swiss guards around, and
claimed to be a prisoner.
On the latter score Na-
poleon became willing
to satisfy the Holy Father
with a real imprisonment
beyond the Alps. Ac-
cordingly the palace was
surrounded by the French
soldiers in the night, and
Pius was taken forth
with as much gentleness
as violence was capable
of showing. He was
conveyed as a prisoner to
Grenoble and afterwards to Fontainebleau,
where for awhile he was relieved of the cares
of state. As a further punishment the Eter-

,

1088

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.- THE MODERN WORLD.

nal City was reduced to the second rank in
the Empire.

The time had now come for sorrow to settle
on the childless Josephine. That decree of
the French Senate by which Napoleon was
made Emperor of the French had declared
the crown to be hereditary in his family. But
of what use was such a decree to Napoleon,
who had no child? An alleged "state neces-
sity" thus arose that a provision should be
made for the succession. Out of this was

TOE EMPRESS JOSEPHINE.

born the suggestion that Josephine be di-
vorced and another Empress be substituted in
her place. In itself the measure was distaste-
ful to Bonaparte, to whom for many years
Josephine had been an inspiration, and be-
tween whom and himself few clouds had arisen
to mar the confidence of either. But he had
become callous to many sentiments that might
have moved him in former years. For nearly
two decades he had been almost constantly at
war. He had trampled the banded powers of
Europe under his feet. He had become
proud by unparalleled success — haughty, de-

fiant, unscrupulous. It was not likely that
affection would now stand in the wind of his
ambition. So it was decided in the counsels
of his imperious will that the Empress should
be divorced.1 This purpose was at length
broken to her who was to be supplanted, and
she yielded to the inevitable. Why should
she resist ? After thirteen years of intimate
contact with that relentless and unbending
spirit she knew too well the uselessness of re-
sistance. Of course he did whatever might
be done to palliate the
fall of her whom he had
loved with a certain ty-
rannical fondness. It was
ordered that she should
continue to hold her im-
perial rank and titles and
receive a pension of two
millions of francs.

And what next? After
Josephine whom? Would
the Man of Destiny choose
a peasant? Some girl
like her of Domremy ?
Nay. A new sentiment —
to which may the man-
hood on this side of the
sea forever remain a stran-
ger— had taken possession
even of Bonaparte. The
parvenu had become an
aristocrat. The charity
student of Brienne was
fascinated with dynastic
glory. The child of the
Kepublic was dazzled
with the fictitious splen-
dors of a defunct royalty.
The tremendous eagle of France swept
down into the thicket of the Past, start-
ling the solemn owls with the brush of his

1 It is illustrative of the far-reaching vision and
secret purposes of Napoleon that, when, at Milan
in 1805, he was crowned King of Italy, Josephine
wns not permitted to share the ceremony. She
was not crowned Queen of Italy. For she was
childless; and Napoleon's heir must be King of
Home. " If I crown her,"— so was he already
saying to himself — "that may itself be a bar
against the possible ; and nothing must be a bar
against the possible. I must reserve the crown of
Italy for the mother of the King of Rome that is
t6 be."

'/'///•; AGE OF REVOLUTlOX.-i-itXsn.M-H .\M> /:.!// •//;/•;.

mighty wings, and mated with a daugh-
ter of Hapsburg! The Princes* Maria Lou-
isa of Austria, child of Napoleon's well-bdovnl

friend and brother, the good and faith-kff|»-
inj,' Francis II., was chosen to become Em-
press of ih,. IV, .,„.!, Hinl mother of il,,. Kin-

N.VI'OI.KON AXXUfNCING TO JOSEPHINE HIS IIKTKK
VOL. I1.-69 Drawn by Emile Bayard.

1U 1>I\UKCK I1KK.

1090

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of Rome ! We will become the son-in-law of
our true ally, whose subjects we lately met
on the field of Wagram ! Thus will we es-
tablish our Imperial House, and on his moth-
er's side our coming King of Rome shall be
descended from an ancient and royal House !
Even so.

Perhaps the Emperor Francis was secretly
averse to giving his daughter in marriage to
Bonaparte ; but he smoothed his front and

PRINCESS MARIA LOUISA.

smiled complaisance. On the llth of March,
1810, the marriage was celebrated at Vienna,
and on the 2d of the following month at Paris.
Maria Louisa assumed the place to which she
had been assigned by " state necessity," by
the pride of one monarch to establish and the
hope of another to save a dynasty.

Those writers who have not yet learned
that the law of universal causation is the pre-
vailing force in history, and have been anx-
ious to make mankind believe that a system
of petty retributions and human spites is the
governing principle in events, have been
accustomed to find in Napoleon's divorce of

Josephine the cause of his downfall. Such
authors would meet an unexpected difficulty
if asked to show a single fact arising from
this event which contributed to the overthrow
of Bonaparte. Things went on as before. He
was neither stronger nor weaker ; but if either
he was stronger. For on the 20th of March.
1811, the hoped-for King of Rome was born,
and the hundred guns, whose thunders on that
night aroused all Paris to a pitch of unprece-
dented enthusiasm, pro-
claimed that the Imperial
and dynastic programme
had been fulfilled.1

Among those whom
Napoleon had raised to
power along with himself,
a conspicuous place must
be assigned to his brother
Louis, King of Holland.
The crown was conferred
upon him somewhat
against his wishes, by an
Imperial proclamation at
St. Cloud, June 5, 1806.
For three years he had
successfully governed the
country which had been
placed under him ; but
the relations between him
and Napoleon were never
thereafter smooth, rarely
amicable. The Emperor
insisted that his brother
should regard himself as
a Frenchman, and should
rule in the interest of
France ; but Louis, with
devoted himself to what
be the interests of the

equal persistency,
he conceived to

Dutch. The latter, after the English, were

irThe night of the birth of Napoleon II. was
turned into a fete. The Emperor had ordered
that a salute of forty-nine guns should announce
the birth of a daughter; a hundred guns, a son.
All Paris was in the brilliantly lighted streets.
Minute by minute the cannon boomed. The fif-
tieth gun would, of course, be the announcement.
The forty-ninth was fired, and the echoes died.
Paris held her breath with suppressed excitement.
And then the FIFTIETH ! The King of Rome was
born. Perhaps Josephine heard the shout at
Malmaison! Did she wish that the firing had
ceased with the forty-ninth ?

nil': AGE 01'' iii-'A'oLCTWX.- CONSULATE .\.\n i:.ui'ii;i:.

tlif most sira-faring people, in Europe. To
them, as to the British, commerce was the
first consideration. This fact made Holland
very averse to maintaining that Contiiifiital
System by which the dominion of the sea
was to be rendered worthless by the do-
minion of the land. King Louis was thus
placed lictwcen two tires. Vainly lie strove to
perform his unties in a way that should prove
acceptable both to his English-loving subjects
and English-hating brother. \Vith the latter
he had a stormy interview at Paris iu Decem-
ber of 1809. The Emperor was at one time
on the eve of making him a prisoner, but
forbore. He deemed it prudent, however, to
occupy Amsterdam with a division of French
troops, and when this measure was resisted by
Louis, Xapoleon threatened to annex Holland
to France.

For a while the king seemed to yield.
Intercourse with England was cut off, and the
reluctant Dutch were obliged to build a great
navy in the Interest of the French. In the
course of time the pressure of Napoleon's de-
mands became intolerable, and Louis was

KMI'K! " M UI1 I l'iri<\.

TIIK KINO OF ROME.

driven to abdicate the throne, which he did
on the 1st of July, 1810. Before leaving
the country for his retirement in Austria he

named as his successor his son, Napoleon
Louis, and Hortense, the mother, as regent
In a short time, however, the Emperor's
threat was executed, and Holland, to-
gether with the Hause towns, was annexed
to the Empire.

Further changes belonging to this
period in tlu? Napoleonic ascendency were
the absorption of the electorate of Han-
over into the kingdom of Westphalia, of
the Swiss Valois into France, and the
bold struggle of the Tyrolese to gain
their independence. This brave people
had, in the long strifes and animosities of
France and Austria, been made the
plaything of the combatants. It will be
remembered that by the treaty of Pres-
burg the Tyrol was assigned to the king-
dom of Bavaria. This transfer of sov-
ereignty was exceedingly distasteful to
the Tyrolese patriots, who found in their
countryman, Andreas Hofer, a leader
worthy of the greatest cause. In 1809 an
insurrection broke out, and the French
and Bavarians were expelled from the
country. Napoleon found it necessary to
send two armies into the Tyrol to suppress the
revolt. The first under command of Marshal
Lefebvre overthrow the Austrians at Worgl ;

1092

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

and the second defeated the Tyrolese in the
battle of Feuer-Singer. But Hofer, nothing
daunted, rallied his countrymen and gained a
decisive victory at Innspruck. Then followed
the battle of Wagram and the evacuation
of the Tyrol by the Austriaus. Nevertheless
the Tyrolese sustained their cause, and Mar-
shal Lefebvre was defeated. A provisional
government was established with Hofer at its
head ; but after the peace of Vienna the Tyr-
olese were commanded by the Austrians to
submit to their former rulers. Hofer accord-

his eyes and himself gave the order to fire.
He died as he had lived, a stranger to fear
and without a stain of reproach.

In other acts, besides the putting away of
Josephine and the virtual deposition of King-
Louis of Holland, were the weaker elements
in Napoleon's character manifested. His en-
couragement—even his friendliness— to the
intellectual greatness of France was somewhat
restricted. The genius of the French was ex-
pected to bow to himself, his plans, his dy-
nasty. He was willing that the Consulate

INSURRECTION OF THE TYROLESE.
After the painting by Defregger.

ingly surrendered his authority to Eugene
Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy. A month
later, however, being deceived by false infor-
mation as to the intentions of Austria, he
again took up arms, but was defeated and
driven a fugitive into the mountains. In
January of 1810 he was betrayed to General
D'Hilliers and taken a prisoner to Mantua.
Here he was tried, and though a majority of
his judges would have saved his life a con-
demnation was secured under orders from
Napoleon. On being led to his execution
Hofer refused to have a bandage placed over

and Empire should be praised without stintr
but was averse to criticism and angered with
opposition. Himself quick to penetrate the
designs of others and a laconic satirist of
other men's ambitions, he was nevertheless
vulnerable to the same weapons when leveled
at himself and his schemes. This disposition
led him not infrequently to illiberality and
even to the persecution of some of the great-
est men and women of that Republican France
to which he had fallen heir. Among those
who braved his ire and felt the weight of his-
iron hand the most noted was the celebrated

llll. A<iE OF Ki:VnIATl<>*. CONSULATE AM>

ion:;

Madame de Stael-llol.-tcin, who may fairly
In' reckoned tin1 most intellectual woman of
the eighteenth century. She was the daugh-
ter of Nccker, tin- great finance minister of
.Louis XVI. Even from childhood she dis-

ot' France, the union did nut much conduce

to hrr happiness. She became an author. Sin-
sought to stay the ravages of the Kcign of
Terror, and was instrumental in Having several

distinguished persons i'r the guillotine; her-

ANDREAS III II -Y.V. LED FORTH TO EXECUTION".

played a genius of astonishing precocity.
With girlish enthusiasm she hailed the Revo-
lution as the UeL'inning of the age of human-
ity. Just before the outbreak she was mar-
ried to Ha ron de Stae'l-Holsteiii, the ambassador
of Sweden to the court of Versailles. ThouL'h
she was thus thrown into the highest society

self she barely saved. For Napoleon she con-
ceived an early and strong dislike, nor could
any thing avail to soften her prejudice. The
abyss widened, deepened, became an impass-
able gulf. In 1802 Madame de Stael was for-
bidden by the government, to come within
forty leagues of Paris This was wormwood.

1094

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Two years afterwards her father died. Then
she was broken-hearted. Nearly all the re-
mainder of her life was passed under the cloud
of banishment, but out of her sorrows were
born the beauties of Corinne, the delicate crit-
icisms of Germany, the life-like pictures of the
Revolution.

After the capture of Saragossa by the
French, the Peninsular war was continued with
great obstinacy on both sides. The English
and the Portu-
guese rallied to
the support of
the malcontent
Spaniards, in
the hope of ex-
pelling Joseph
Bonaparte from
the throne and
country. On
the 27th and
28th of July,
1809, a terrible
battle was
fought at TAL-
AVERA between
the French un-
der Jourdan
and the Eng-
lish under Ar-
thur Welles-
ley, afterwards
Duke of Wel-
lington. The
French were
finally repuls-
ed, but the
English suffer-
ed so greatly
from sickness
and the bad
conduct of their Portuguese allies that Welles-
ley was obliged to give up what he had gained
and fall back beyond the Tagus. In the suc-
ceeding campaign the French were generally
successful, overrunning Catalonia and captur-
ing Girona after a hard siege of six months.

Wellesley was so hard pressed that, on
learning of Napoleon's purpose to throw a
large army into the peninsula, he fell back to
a range of heights surrounding the town of
Torres Vedras. These he fortified with ex-

traordinary skill, and here planted himself
like a lion at bay. Three lines of defense
were drawn around the town, and forts and
redoubts were constructed at intervals, ren-
dering the situation well-nigh impregnable.
The theory of Wellington was that, by holding
Torres Vedras, Lisbon would be protected,
and a free entrance to the allied armies into
Portugal and Spain would be assured. Na-
poleon, on his part, after concluding the

peace of Schon-
b r u n n , was
able to devote
almost his
whole energies
to the work of
recovering Por-
tugal. He col-
lected a vast
army of three
hundred and
sixty-five thou-
sand men, and
sent forward
the first divis-
ion, under Mar-
shal Massena,
to clear the
way by the cap-
ture of Ciudad
Rodrigo and
Almeida. Both
of these strong-
holds were ta-
ken, and in
the autumn of
1810 Massena
established
himself at San-
tarem, where
he passed the
winter. Wellington refused to go into the
field to oppose these movements of the French,
preferring to act on the defensive behind the
batteries of Torres Vedras.

By the opening of the following spring,
(lie Knirlish were sufficiently reinforced to as-
sume the offensive. An army was put into-
the field, and both Almeida and Badajos were
besieged with great vigor. A battle was
fought at Fuentes de Onor, in which Massena
i was defeated. On the 16th of May, General

MADAME DE STA^L.

•/•///; MII-: <)]•• /.'/•.To/.ry/o.v. < ONBULATE .LV/> /•:.!/ /•//;/•;.

1095

Beresford, with thirty thousand Spanish, Brit-
ish, and Portuguese troop-, attacked an in-
ferior force of French, under Marshal Soult,

at Ai.ni I.IIA, and gained a decisive victory.
The force thus defeat. ,| \\a.s tlie ret*erve of the
French army, at that time engaged in the

TRUCE DDR1NG THE BATTLE OF TALAVERA.
Drawn by C. Delort.

1096

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

siege of Badajos. After the battle, reinforce-
ments were hurried forward to Soult, and
Wellington, acting with his usual caution,
raised the siege of" Badajos and again retired
to his defenses. At this time the fugitive
Spanish government was maintaining a preca-
rious existence at Cadiz ; but even this place
•was besieged by the French, who had already
become masters of Seville, Cordova, Granada,
Malaga, and most of the other principal
places in Spain.

With the beginning of 1812, the war was
renewed with the greatest fury. Wellington

MARSHAL ANDRE MASSENA.

took the field, and again laid siege to Badajos
and Ciudad Bodrigo. The latter place was
defended by Massena, who exerted himself to
the utmost to beat back the inveterate Wel-
lington, but without success. On the 19th
of January the place was carried by storm,
and the French were obliged to save them-
selves by a retreat. Badajos was also wrested
from the French, and a powerful English
army was thrown into the interior of Spain.
On the 22d of July a great battle was fought
four miles from SALAMANCA, in which the
French were defeated with great losses. So
serious was their reverse that they were

obliged to give up Andalusia and New Castile
and to abandon the siege of Cadiz. Even
Madrid was taken by' the English; but the
event proved that the so-called national or
anti-French party among the Spaniards had
almost as much antipathy towards their deliv-
erers as for the enemy. As a result of this
feeling, strengthened, as it was, by some re-
verses to the English arms, the British pres-
ently withdrew from Madrid, and the city
remained in the hands of the French. Thus,
as the year 1812 drew to a close, the Peninsu-
lar War was still undecided, hanging in a
dubious balance, stained
with the blood of coun-
ter victories.

In the mean time, the
East of Europe became
profoundly stirred by the
changed and changing
policy of Eussia. In
that country the anti-
French sentiment at last
prevailed over the pur-
poses and pledges of
Alexander, and brought
the great power of the
North again into antag-
onism with France.
True, the Czar adhered
to his alliance with Na-
poleon until after the
treaty of Schonbrunn, to
which he was a party.
Notwithstanding the fact
that Alexander looked
with ever-increasing jeal-
ousy and alarm on the
growing and never appeased ambition of
Bonaparte, he continued, at least outwardly,
to observe the compact which he had made
with the French Emperor at Tilsit until
the latter part of 1810. By this time the
urgency of his councilors, and the distress of
Russian commerce on account of the continu-
ance of the continental blockade, led him to
violate his treaty stipulations by a renewal of
intercourse with England. Nor were there
wanting to the Czar several causes of com-
plaint which might well be urged in justifica-
tion of his course. On the West the peace of
his dominions was menaced by the growth of

7V//-; Adi-; <>/•' REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AND L

the duchy of Warsaw. A more tangible fact
of offense was the annexation to the French

The plan of

1097

to unite Denmark,

Sweden, and Warsaw in a sort of North, rn

Empire of Oldeabwg, :i iir!'<>i 'tlic li.iiiiaiii.ii:-. n.iit'i'ilc'ratioii, like that of the Rliinr, and his

RETREAT OF MASSf.NA AFTER THE BATTLE OF CICDAD ROURiCiO.
Drawn by C. Delort

1098

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

evident purpose to support this policy with an
army, which he established between the Oder
and the Vistula, gave additional ground for
alarm and discontent in Russia. Fortified
with these excuses, and backed by an over-
whelming national sentiment, Alexander de-
termined to break with France. He planted
an army of ninety thousand men on his bor-

BKRNADOTTE.

ders. He interdicted the importation of
French merchandise at the same time when he
was removing the restrictions on British com-
merce. With the Sultan he concluded a
treaty at Bucharest, by which a cession was
made to Russia of Bessarabia, Ismail, Kilia,
and a part of Moldavia, together with the
fortresses of Bender and Chotzim. Thus did
the Czar clear his mighty deck for action.

In this condition of affairs the crisis was
hastened by the conduct of Sweden. The
childless Charles XIII. , at that time king of
the Swedes, had in 1810 adopted as his son
and heir that Charles John Bernadotte upon
whom, as one of his marshals, Napoleon had
conferred the title of Prince of Poute Corvo.
This act of Charles was doubtless born of a
desire to be on good terms
with the French Emperor,
but that sovereign could
not have been worse
served. As a matter of
fact, Bernadotte had never
been loyal to Napoleon,
except in so far as his
own interest seemed to be
subserved thereby. At
length he became crown
prince and regent of
Sweden, and in that ca-
pacity distinguished him-
self by his lukewarm sup-
port or direct opposition
to the Continental block-
ade— a course for which
he sought to excuse him-
self by the alleged neces-
sity to the Swedes of En-
lish goods. British ships
began to be admitted
into the harbors of Pom-
erania, and for this the
Swedish vessels in the
harbors of Germany were
seized and their crews
imprisoned. As a further
retaliation a French army,
under Marshal Davoust,
was sent to occupy Pom-
erania and enforce the
blockade. This work
he performed with his
usual energy ; the Swedish officers were ex-
pelled from Hamburg, and Bernadotte, finding
himself hard pressed, appealed to the Czar for
aid. Thus, at the very time when Alexander,
from other causes, was about to go to war with
France, the Swedish appeal came to hasten his
decision, and precipitate a crisis in Eastern
Europe.

For the coming struggle the two Emperors.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE A.\l> /•;.!// •/;;/•;.

1099

made gigantic preparations. The earth trem-
bled under the tremendous armies which were
Napoleon determined to invade

trample the Konianotis under his C.-i-t
as he had done the Bourhons, the IIi>lien/...l-
lenis, the Bragancas, the II:q^hur^>. Could

XAPdl.KON IX IM::
Drawn by Emile Bayard.

1100

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

he, from Moscow or St. Petersburg, as he had
done from Berlin, Vienna, and Milan, thunder
forth his imperial decrees ? Such, at any rate,
was his fixed and haughty purpose. The
crisis between the two great powers of conti-
nental Europe was precipitated in the spring
of 1812, and the struggle of the giants at once
began. On the one side was France, backed
by the better part of the Western States. She
had pride, power, ambition, resources, civiliza-
tion, Bonaparte. On the other side was Rus-
sia. She had savage force, vast domains, bar-
barous populations, inaccessible cities, rivers
winding the steppes and forests for thousands
of miles. She had courage, patriotism, phys-
ical hardihood ; she had the Cossacks ; she had
knowledge of herself, which her enemy had
not and could not have. And then she had
snow. She had winter — real winter — that
horrible yellow-black winter, blowing in from
the frigid zone with all his hyperborean terrors,
to which the men of the South were strangers.
Could they endure the rigors of such a cam-
paign? the desolation and awful solitudes of
such a land? the close embrace of deadly
conflict with such a race of shaggy bears, so
hardy as to continue the fight when shot
through the head, and riotous in the open air
at forty degrees below zero ? The sequel would
show.

In the early spring Napoleon made his
head-quarters at Dresden. There for a sea-
son he held his court. Around him were
gathered a majority of the princes of Europe.
His loving father-in-law, Francis II., of Aus-
tria, was of the number. Here the prepara-
tions for the great expedition and the future
settlement of Europe were completed. Na-
poleon gave a series of entertainments in
which the energy and pride of his natural
and the magnificence of his acquired charac-
ter were strangely blended. Having com-
pleted his arrangements he gave the word of
command, and on the 29th of May, 1812, the
Grand Army set out on its long, long march.
It was the most formidable military display
of modern times. Could Bonaparte have
reached his antagonist in his then condition
of strength and struck him on ground of his
own choosing the Emperor of all the Russias
must have staggered and fallen dead from the
shock. Arriving on the Russian frontier Na-

poleon made a declaration of war. The Czar
was charged with having willfully and wan-
tonly violated the solemn compact into which
he had entered at Tilsit, and was held up
before mankind as the guilty cause of the
conflict. On the 22d of June the French
forces gathered on the banks of the Niemen.
The Grand Army numbered more than a half
million of men. On the opposite banks the
Russians had collected a force aggregating
about three hundred thousand. It was evi-
dent to the Czar and his subjects that they
were for the present unable to cope with their
adversary in the field. But they had the
spirit of battle, and when on the 24th of
June the invasion began by the passage of
the Niemen, the French were at once some-
what impeded in their progress. Napoleon's
theory of the invasion was to obtain posession
of the watershed between the Dwina and the
Dnieper, and to traverse this ridge to a point
from which he could at his option turn to
the left against St. Petersburg or to the right
against Moscow.

At the very beginning of the campaign
Bonaparte was confronted by a new and un-
familiar enemy — Nature. Hitherto he had
made war with men and nations. Now he
was obliged for the first time to begin a strug-
gle with the blind forces of the world. It
was a branch of warfare on which education
could throw no light, to which experience
could give no insight, and in which genius
was of no avail. In a war with nature Na-
poleon could no longer claim that Providence
was on the side of the heaviest guns.

Soon after the beginning of the march
into the interior, violent tempests and hurri-
canes beat the French camps as with a scourge.
All Lithuania bellowed, pouring out storms
and floods. The roads became impassable.
The artillery trains (the Grand Army had
twelve hundred guns) sank into the mire.
The services of the sappers and guards were
in constant requisition. Cold blasts, terrible
in their bitterness for summer time, chilled the
French soldiers to the heart. Hundreds of
horses died from exposure to climatic changes
to which they were not hardened. The ad-
vance of the two army corps led by King
Jerome and Prince Eugene was greatly re-
tarded by the unfavorable conditions.

1102

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Meanwhile the Russians, commanded by
the old veteran Kutusoff, adopted the plan of
falling back and wasting the country before the
advancing French. By the middle of July the
invaders were already embarrassed by the want
of food. The first battle occurred on the
evening of the 16th of August, at the town
of SMOLENSKO. The place was strongly de-
fended and was reduced to a heap of ruins
before it was taken. So stubborn had been

hated French. At the village of BORODINO
Kutusoff made his stand, and there on the
morning of the 7th of September was begun
the bloodiest battle of modern times. A thou-
sand cannons poured out their horrible vomit
of death. Under the sulphurous smoke that
hid the heavens from view more than a quar-
ter of a million of men fought like tigers in
the arena. All day long and until darkness
put an end to the work, the bloody struggle

SAPPERS OF THE GRAND ARMY.
Drawn by A. Beck.

the resistance of the Russians that the French
purchased the victory at the price of nearly
twelve thousand men. Kutusoff again re-
tired before the army which he durst not meet
in the field. In the course of his retreat
towards Moscow he destroyed the towns of
Dorogobourg, Viazma, and Gjatsk. After
falling back to within a short distance of the
capital he determined to risk a general battle.
The Russians, indeed, were growing des-
perate, and many preferred to die rather than
give up their ancient and sacred city to the

continued. But the Russians, though still
clinging to the skirts of the field, were de-
feated. They left more than forty thousand
of their dead and wounded to attest the valor
with which they had resisted the avalanche;
and the French losses were almost as great!
No such gory field had been seen since those
ancient days of carnage when the great con-
querors of antiquity mowed down nations in a
day.

Kutusoff with his shattered army fell back
on Moscow. Perceiving that he would be un-

Till. ,1'.7-; 01 REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AM* l.Ml'll;!..

1108

able to hold the great city against tin-
of the foe, he passed through with only a brief
delay, aud drew after him the great body of
the inhabitants. Though he had been defeated,
the ItiisMans still had unhomnled coutidence
in their veteran chief, and they followed him
with what property they could bear away into
the great plains ea-t of .Moscow. On the 1'ith
of September, Napoleon rode into the aucirni
capital. The city was deserted; the streets
were as sileut as the avenues of a cemet>-rv.

tin- Russian grandee- had left behind them.
Hill Napoleon had been lor a fi-\v hours only
in the Kremlin when volumes of smoke were
.-em rolling up from a mass of buildings called
the I'.a/.aar, situated near the Kremlin. It was
the announcement of a conflagration. At this
very moment the equinoctial gale arose and
blew the fire with fearful violence into other
districts. Other quarters of the city were also
seen aflame, and some wretches who were caught
skulking in basements and questioned under

OF MOSCOW.

The conqueror took up his residence in the
Kremlin, the splendid but now abandoned
palace of the czars.

But a drama was soon to be enacted very
different from that which had been exhibited
in the palaces of Frederick William and Fran-
cis II. To the French soldiers — to Bonaparte
himself— the Russian capital promised rest and
comfort after the hardships of the campaign.
Tired with marching and fighting and starving,
they hoped now to spend the winter in tlio
comfortable, even luxurious quarters which

pain of instant death, revealed the fact that
before the flight of the population the gover-
ernor, Count Rostopchin, had given orders and
made every preparation for burning Moscow
to ashes. At once the whole French army
was called into requisition to save the burning
city. But the flames swept east and west,
north and south, and nothing could stay their
ravages. For five days the horrible confla-
gration rolled on, and at the end of that time
but little was left which the flames had power
to destroy. Napoleon returned to the Krem.

1104

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

lin, and from that place undertook to nego-
tiate with Alexander. The Czar heeded not
the appeal. He had wisdom enough to per-
ceive that Napoleon's call, however bravely
expressed, was the cry of weakness. What
shall that conqueror do in the dead of win-
ter in the ashes of a burnt-up Russian city?
The case is clear. If he stays there he and
his grand army shall starve. If he retreats,
we and our Cossacks will be upon him.

The Czar refused to treat while the enemy
remained in Russia. The time, the circum-

more terrible than bayonets, the shuddering-
soldiers of France. By night and by day the
terrible Cossacks swooped down upon the
staggering columns and cut them right and left.
The line of the retreat was heaped with the
carcasses of men and horses. Thousands were
frozen to death in a single night. At the be-
ginning of the retreat Napoleon still had a
hundred and twenty thousand men ; but every
day reduced the roll of his famishing columns-
until hardly a division was left to struggle on
through the snow.

THE GRAND ARMY LEAVING THE KREMLIN.
Drawn by C. Delort.

stance brooked no delay. Winter was at hand.
Snow was already falling, and the roads would
soon be rendered impassable, if not wholly
obliterated by the drifts. So on the 19th of
October, Napoleon, at length overtaken by his
destiny, turned his back on Moscow and began
his retreat to the Niemen. Then the Cossacks
rose by thousands on his flanks and rear.
Then the dispirited French struggled through
the heaps of snow, dropping dead of hunger
and fatigue. Then the winter came howling
out of the North and smote with darts of ice

On arriving at the Beresina the ruined army,
hard-pressed by Kutuzoff and Wittgenstein,
attempted to cross at the bridge of Borisov ;
but this passage had already been seized by
the Russians. The construction of two new
bridges across the stream became a necessity,
and this work was undertaken by the French
with the courage of despair. On the 26th
of November the structure was sufficiently
advanced to permit the beginning of the pass-
age. On the following day the French con-
tinued their march — or escape — to the right

•/•///•; AGE OF Rl-:v»Li-n<>\. CONSULATE AND I-:MI '//;/; 1105

bank of the river, but on the morning of the
28th the Russians fell upon the rear with such
fury as has rarely been witnessed in b:ittl<>.

Finally a battery of twelve guns was to
planted as to command the bridge, and the

rHrvat Ix-came a rout. The Frrncli fi-11 liy

VOL. ll.— 70

Drawn by E. Bayard.

1106

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

thousands. The sick, wounded, and stragglers
were still unsaved — exposed to the murderous
fire of the Russians. On the 29th orders were
given that the bridge should be burned. The
flames were kindled, but still the tide of fugi-
tives rushed upon the burning timbers until
at last the whole went down with a crash into
the merciless waters.1

The defense of the rearguard of the Grand
Army was intrusted to Marshal Ney, whom
Napoleon, with no wasted compliment, was
wont to call "the Bravest of the Brave."

which he was leaving, was tlie last man to cross
the bridge !

With the passage of this river the dying
remnants of the Grand Army were no more
assailed by the enemy ; but the sufferings of
the French were not yet ended. The country
which they now entered was nominally friendly,
but the event showed that the Lithuanians
were as much disposed to look to their own
interests for the future as to try to save the
remnant of the French from perishing. The
latter continued to drag themselves wearily

BREAKING DOWN OF THE BRIDGE AT BERESINA.

Out of the wreck he saved as much as could
be rescued from destruction ; and when at last
a mere handful of despairing, frozen, half-
starved wretches came to the passage of the
Niemen, the intrepid Ney, soiled with dirt,
blackened with smoke and exposure, without
any insignia of his rank, but with drawn sword
and facing backwards towards the hated region

'It is narrated that with the following spring,
•when the ice-gorge broke in the Beresina, the
bodies of twelve thousand French soldiers were
washed up on the banks.

through the desolations of a half hostile re-
gion, until at last they came to Konigsberg,
whore the haggard and starving survivors
were permitted to lie down to rest in the bar-
racks and hospitals of the city.

Meanwhile, as soon as the fate of his great
campaign was decided, Napoleon, leaving Mu-
rat in command of the army, took a sledge,
sped with all haste across the snow-covered
wastes of Poland, and came unannounced to
Paris. In that city a rumor of his death had
been circulated, and a revolt had broken out,

AGE OF REVOLUTION.- CONSULATE AND A.

1107

instigated by the faction of Bourbon. All
this, however, dissolved like mist when it was
known that Bonaparte had come. His pres-
ence roused the capital to action, and then all
France sprang again at his call. In a short
time, he had again raised and equipped a
half a million of Soldiers. But they were raw
recruits. His veterans were under the snows
of Russia. Very fatal, too, had been the
other losses which he had su.-tained in that ill-
starred campaign. His supply of horses was

Germanic powers which had acknowledged
the sway of Napoleon and were now quick to
profit by his misfortunes. Tin- Confederation
of the Rhine showed signs of falling to pieces.
The king of Prussia struck hands with the
Czar, and the latter sent to Berlin a Russian
army to save the city from a possible recapture
by the French. An insurrection broke out in
Hamburg; the French garrison was expelled
and the blockade was raised. These move-
menu* drew the attention of Napoleon first of

THE REMNANT OF THE GRAND ARMY AT K6NIGSBERG.

exhausted, and, as a result, the cavalry divis-
ions of the new armies were weak and inef-
fective. Nevertheless he took the field, with
all his old-time audacity. History must ever
record that he quailed not as fate rose up
against him.

During the year 1813, Europe was in a
state of universal turmoil. As soon as it was
known that the Grand Army had been buried
in Russia, there were signs of a general break
up among the states in alliance with France.
The movement began on the side of those

all to the protection of his eastern frontier.
He threw his armies to the front, planting the
left on Liibeck, and the right on Venice. On
the 2d of May, 1813, a great battle was
fought at LtrrzEN, on the same field where
Gustavus Adolphus was slain in the hour of
victory, in 1632. In the beginning of the
engagement the allied army of Russians and
Prussians gained a decided advantage over
the French ; but the latter rallied, wrested
victory from defeat, and inflicted a terrible
punishment on the enemy. Alexander, Fred-

1108

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.—THE MODERN WORLD.

erick William III., and Napoleon were all
on the field where the giants had wrestled in
the days of the Thirty Years' War. On the
20th and 21st of the same month, Bonaparte
hurled an army of one hundred and twenty-
five thousand men upon the allies at BAUTZEN,
and inflicted on them a decisive, though not
very disastrous, defeat. The Russian and
Prussian mouarchs managed to effect a retreat
so skillfully planned as to save the artillery

eight weeks was agreed upon, and the bellig-
erents met at a Peace Congress in Prague.
The event showed, however, that the allies
merely desired a breathing-time for recupera-
tion and additional preparations and intrigues
against their common enemy. At the very
time when the conference was in session, Eng-
land, Russia, and Prussia were using all of
tlu'ir endeavors to rouse Austria and Saxony
from their neutrality, and bring them into the

NAPOLEON'S RETURN FROM RUSSIA.
After the painting by A. W. Kownlski.

and baggage. Marshal Davoust, with a divis-
ion of French and Danes, attacked and recap-
tured Hamburg, and the city was terribly
punished for her recent defection from the
cause of France. On the whole, the cam-
paign had been highly favorable to the
French, who retained their hold on Dresden
with one hand while they beat back the
allies with the other.

After the battle of Bautzen, a truce of

Fifth Coalition against Bonaparte. As mo-
tives to secure this end, Prussia used hatred ;
Russia, self-interest; and England, money —
her usual argument. At length these powers
were successful. Napoleon's royal father-in-
law went into the alliance, thus setting his
fate on the cast of the die. On the 10th of
August the truce expired. The allies had
gained by the delay; but Napoleon was, as
ever, keenly alive to the situation. On the

I

1110

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

26th of the mouth, a powerful army of Rus-
sians aud Prussians bore down on the French
in DRESDEN, but the Emperor, who had rein-
forced his army in that city, gave battle on
the following day, iu which he was deprived
of a complete aud decisive victory only by the
weakness of his cavalry. It was at this junc-
ture that the personal superiority of Napoleon,
as a general in the field, became more than
ever conspicuous. It rarely happened in a
struggle where he was personally present that
the enemy could gain any advantage.

But equal success did not attend the cam-
paigns of his marshals. At Grossbeeren a bat-
tle was fought between the allies and General
Oudinot, commanding the French, in which the
latter were defeated. On the river KATSBACH,
August 26, 1813, the Prussians under Gen-
eral Gebhard Bliicher, already greatly distin-
guished in the service, won a victory over Mar-
shal Macdonald which, though insignificant in
itself, resulted in the capture of nearly eigh-
teen thousand French prisoners, together with
a hundred pieces of artillery and three hun-
dred wagons of the ammunition and baggage
trains. Marshal Ney, at this time conducting
a campaign against Berlin, was met and almost
ruinously defeated by Bernadotte in a battle
at Dennewitz, on the 6th of September. By
these various successes, the allies were enabled
to concentrate in tremendous force at Leipsic,
where sixty thousand Russians were joined to
the allied army of Prussians and Bavarians.
Notwithstanding the tremendous odds with
which he had to contend, Napoleon determined
to risk a battle. On the 16th of October the
conflict began before LEIPSIC. In the first day's
fight, the advantage was altogether on the side
of the French, and Bonaparte availed himself
of the opportunity to renew his proposals for
peace. But the allies rejected his overtures,
and on the 18th the battle was renewed. After
a terrible conflict, lasting till night- fall, the
allies were victorious. Napoleon's legions were
crowded from the field. On the following morn-
ing they began a retreat. The allies crowded
into the city, blew up a bridge, and captured
nearly twenty-five thousand prisoners. The
duty of covering the retreat of the French army
was intrusted to Prince Poniatowsky, who just
before the battle had been made a marshal of
the Empire. In attempting to perform the

task which was assigned him by Napoleon, he
with a small retinue was so hard pressed by the
foe that in order to avoid capture he plunged
into the Elster and was drowned. The retro-
grade movement continued to the Rhine, which
the Emperor crossed with only eighty thousand
men. The attempt of the Bavarians under
Wrede to intercept the retreat at Hanau was
thwarted by Napoleon, who cut his way tri-
umphantly through the ranks of his late
friends. On the 9th of November, the Emperor
arrived in Paris, where he found the temper of
the people somewhat changed from their former
enthusiasm. The Legislative Assembly made
the impossible demand that he should conclude
a peace. How could he make a peace with a
foe that was inexorable? Instead of that, he
began new preparations which in their success
exibited more than ever before the immense
fertility of his genius. All fall and winter
long, with miraculous activity, he wrought at
the problem which destiny had now forced upon
him. He clearly foresaw that with the open-
ing of the following year, France herself would
be invaded by such hostile armies as had never
crossed her borders. While he was engaged in
this work, the Empire which he had established
was rapidly resolved into its elements. All
along the frontier of the Baltic, the Oder, the
Vistula, the Elbe, the garrisons which he had
planted for the protection of his borders, were
expelled from town and fortress. An English
army wrested Hanover from French dominion.
Holland threw off the yoke, and proclaimed
Prince William I. of Orange as king of the
Netherlands. Jerome Bonaparte was obliged
to abdicate the throne of Westphalia ; and the
princes of Brunswick, Oldenburg, and Hesse
reclaimed their ancient dominions. Even the
Danes fell away, and by agreeing to a cespion
of Norway to Sweden, in lieu of Swedish Pom-
erania and the Isle of Riigen, came to an agree-
ment with Great Britain. Denmark thus be-
came a member of the Coalition against the
French. Illyria, Carinthia, and Dalmatia suc-
cumbed to the Austrians; and Mnrat, king of
Naples, hoping to save himself from impending
ruin, abandoned Napoleon, and, on the llth
of January, 1814, made a treaty with Austria.
He was to retain his crown on condition of
aiding in the overthrow of Bonaparte. The
allies next made overtures to Prince Eugene,

Till. .!<,'/•; OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AM> I.Ml'IRE. 1111

1112

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Viceroy of Italy ; but he stood fast in his integ-
rity, and rejected their proposals with disdain.
By the end of January, 1814, the great
movement, known as the Campaign of France,

was begun. By his marvelous powers of com-
bination and his tireless energy, Bonaparte
was again able to present a bold front to the
enemy. The combined armies of Austria,

DEATH OF PRINCE PONIATOWSKY IN THE ELSTER.

'/•///•; AGE or i;i:roLurioy.—«>\sfi..\Ti: AM> /•;.!// •//;/•:.

111:5

Prussia, and Russia hung in dark clouds along
tin; eastern horizon of France. More immi-
nent still was the danger on ihe side of the
1'vrenees. For ill the mean time the !>uk>-
Of Wellington had, on the 21st of ,J line, L818,
fought and won the great l>attle of Virn>i:i\.
in which the French, under Kin- .lo-eph Bo-
naparte ami Marshal .lourdan, were di-a.-lrously
routed, losing a hundred and fifty guns and
nearly all of the spoils of war and occupation
which they had gathered in a five years' pos-
session of Spain. Joseph retreated into France.
For a while Marshal Soult planted himself
like a lion in the passes of the Pyrenees; but
Wellington was irresistible, and the French
were driven beyond the confines of Spain. Even
San Sebastian and Pampeluna were torn away.
Then came the siege of Bayonne by the En-
glish and Portuguese. The project of making
Spain one of the French kingdoms was given
np, and Ferdinand VII. was formally acknowl-
edged as sovereign. At last one of the Bour-
bons had gotten back into his mediaeval ne-t.

Then followed a reconciliation of Napoleon
and the Pope. Pius was released from his
confinement at Fontainebleau and permitted
to resume his office as temporal sovereign at
Rome. The whales and other monsters of the
Middle Ages came up from the deep sea, and
Bonaparte threw them tubs, which they swal-
lowed— and then wanted more. At the begin-
ning of 1814 the eastern frontier of France
was broken by a three-fold invasion. The
allies laid their plans to concentrate from all
directions on Paris. A powerful army of
Austrians, under Marshal Carl Philip Schwartz-
en burg, began the work by crossing the Rhine
at Basle. Bliicher came out of Cilicia and
made a passage of the river between Coblentz
and Mannheim. The Russians entered France
by way of Holland. Out of the North came
the treacherous Bernadottc with a hundred
thousand men. It appeared that no power on
earth could stay the tremendous avalanche.

It is quite certain that at no epoch in human
history have the prodigious resources and gen-
ius of a man been so wonderfully exhibited
as were those of Napoleon when his implaca-
ble foes came in upon him. 'His vigilance was
sleepless. Nothing daunted or discouraged
him; he took good and evil fortune with the
same unwavering mood. In his first struggle

with Bliicher at Brieime, he was virtually de-
feated ; but he returned to the chariTc and
gained one victory after another until Bliicher
wa< obliged to rcM himself upon the advancing
urniv of Billow. The Kmperor then turned
upon Marshal Schwart/.enliuri:. and in the bat-
tle of Montereaii inflicted on him so terrible a
defeat that Austria made propn.sd- for peace!
Europe was astonished, amazed at the audacity
with which the pent-up EmjH-ror of the French
beat back her banded legions.

Bliicher now returned to the attack and
gained a victory over the French at Laon ;
but Napoleon, planting two divisions before
the Prussians, wheeled to Arcis-sur-Aube,
fell upon 8ch wart/en burg more fiercely than
ever, and fought as though the world were
staked on the issue. It was a drawn battle.
In the next place he formed the design of
putting himself in the rear of the allies and
invading Germany, hoping, perhaps believing,
that as his lines were narrowed around the
French capital his Marshals could hold the
enemies in check until he, by rapid marches
and devastating work beyond the Rhine, could
compel the withdrawal of the German armies
from France. But in this he was unsuccess-
ful. In fact, his long struggle with the com-
bined powers of the continent had developed
the military genius of Europe to such a de-
gree that he had now to contend with an array
of generals among the greatest the world has
ever produced. The grip of these upon Im-
perial France could no longer be broken by a
ruse. So, when it was known that Napoleon
had undertaken an invasion of Germany, the
allies, instead of following him abroad, roused
all their energies to the task of capturing
Paris. Bonaparte was obliged to abandon his
design. He strained every nerve to arrive
at the capital in advance of his enemies, but
was unable to do so. When he arrived by
night at Fontainebleau he found the city al-
ready in the hands of the allied army. For
the enemy had ravaged the environs of the
city, gained possession of the heights of Montr
martre and Belleville, and compelled the au-
thorities to surrender. On the 31st of March,
1SI4. Alexander of Russia, Frederick Will-
iam III., and the generals of the allies, en-
tered with their victorious armies and planted
themselves in the capital of France.

1114

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

It was clear that the Empire had fallen.
The French Senate, overawed by foreign pow-
ers, passed a decree that Napoleon, by arbi-
trary acts and violations of the constitution,
had forfeited the throne, and that all French-
men were absolved from their allegiance. The
leading generals of the French army accepted
what seemed to be the inevitable, and agreed
that the Emperor should abdicate. Napoleon
himself was of a different opinion, but yielded
to necessity, and on the llth of April, having

dication was accordingly enforced. Napoleon
was granted a pension of two millions of
francs and the sovereignty of the island of
Elba, in the Mediterranean. As to a settle-
ment of the sovereignty of France, that mat-
ter was left to the decision of the allies and
their now serviceable instrument, the French
Senate.

Meanwhile Louis of Bourbon, now for
twenty-three years an exile in foreign lands,
loomed up as a possibility in the future of

THE ALLIES ON THE ROAD TO PARIS.

signed an abdication in favor of his son, gave
up the power which had been conferred upon
him by the suffrages of the French people
and for twelve years maintained by the sword.
The terms, however, which Napoleon named,
were rejected by the victorious allies, who de-
clared their purpose never to treat with Na-
poleon Bonaparte or any member of his dy-
nasty. Nothing short of an absolute surren-
der of all the imperial and kingly rights and
titles which Napoleon had held would satisfy
their will and purpose. An unconditional ab-

France. He was proclaimed at Bordeaux
with the title of Louis XVIII., and his brother
the Count of Artois, acting as Lieutenant-
general of the kingdom, signed the agreement
which was drawn up by the allies at Paris.
The House of Bourbon was to be restored to
the sovereignty of France, and the anti-rev-
olutionists flattered themselves that the Past
which they so much worshiped would come
again in a day. As for Napoleon, he bade
farewell to the scenes of his glory, took an
I affectionate leave of his guard at Fontaine-

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— COMiL'LATK AM> l.MI'll;!..

1115

bleau, and set out for his petty place as ruler
of Elba.

In the mean time the British and their
allies in the south had heeu completely vic-
torious. Toulouse had fallen into their hands,
and the Duke- of Wellington was continuing
his triumphant progress northward. Louis
XVIII., alivady infirm and old, and sutler-
ing under a complication of diseases, left
England and returned in the wake of the
allied army. His appearance in France, and

slain. None the leas, there was a pretend* d
'ration. The old throne was set up
amid some shouting of the reactionists, and the
Well-meaning representative of the ancient
Bourbonim undertook the government of
France. With him returned to Paris a great
crowd of the loiig-alisent royalists, who im-
agined that the evening shadows were the
morning twilight They demanded that the
king should restore to them their lost estates
and privileges. They might as well have asked

V

BLtfCHER'S CAVALRY DEVASTATING THE ENVIRONS OF PAKIS.
Drawn by C. Delort.

especially in Paris, revealed a fact. It was
this: Old France, the France of Henry of
Navarre, of Louis le Grand, of Pompadour,
was dead. No trumpet call could ever again
raise her from the dust. Though the Re-
public had perished, though the great Napo-
leon was humbled, though all of the mighty
achievements of the last twenty years seemed
to have melted into nothingness, no wave of
the enchanter's wand, no display of royal en-
signs and banners could awake from her end-
less sleep that despotic and worn-out France
which the glorious Revolution had assaulted and

for a return of the days of Saint Louis and
Barbarossa.

The analogy between the return of Louis
XVIII. and that of Charles Stuart of Eng-
land had a further illustration in this — that
the French king, refusing to recognize the
Revolution, treating the Republic as a nul-
lity, and counting as naught that tremendous
movement which had transformed the society
of France and started all Europe on a new
career, began his administration by dating the
royal acts m the nineteenth year of his reign.
The very charter, which the changed order of

1116

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the realm made it necessary for him to sign,
granting and confirming to the people many
of the rights which the Revolution had wrung

from the hands of the old-time despotism, was
thus dated in defiance of both the logic of
events and the law of common intelligence.

NAPOLEON SIGNING HIS ABDICATION.
Drawn by E. Bayard.

Tin: AUK OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AM) l.Ml'll;!..

1117

So at the very beginning of the restored Bour-
bonism, a certain degree of political freedom,
which the House of Capet would never have
granted of itself, was allowed to stand as an
everlasting memorial of tin- work done by tin-
men of '89. There was no serious attempt to
rob tli^ pre-- of the freedom which had been
so hardly won, or to violate tin- rights of per-
son and property which had been guaranteed
by the Constitution of the Year VI 11.

On the 30th of May, 1814, a treaty of peace
was concluded at Paris. To France, the con-
ditions of the settlement were sufliciently hu-
miliating. Nearly every thing which she had
achieved in her heroic struggle with banded
Europe was ruthlessly torn away. HIT terri-
tory was reduced to the limit- recognized at
the beginning of the Revolution. The whole
theory of the ambassadors who framed the
treaty was to reinstate the past. In carrying
out the programme, Belgium was added to
Holland. The German states were in general
restored to the territorial and political condi-
tion which they had held in 1792. The Prince
of Orange was recognized as king of the Neth-
erlands. Prince Eugene of Italy, on learning
of the overthrow of Napoleon, surrendered his
kingdom to the Austrians. Such was the gen-
eral outline of the Peace of Paris, agreed to by
the allies in the spring of 1H14.

The summer went by with a kind of suffer-
ance. The French people, always easily elated
and easily dispirited, began to recover from the
shock, and to become indignant at the harsh
terms which the allied powers had imposed
upon them, and at the spectacle of a decrepit
Bourbon on the throne. They soon began to
recollect their idol, and to reiissociate his name
with the deeds and glory of Franco. As for
Napoleon, he had quietly repaired to his nomi-
nal sovereignty of Elba. There he remained
for ten months, watching from afar the course
of events on the continent. He knew well
that the whole fabric reared by the allies on the
ruins of the Republican empire was a flimsy
and artificial structure of no more actual solid-
ity than a pagoda built of bamboo. Doubtless
he expected the very thing which came ID paw.
The old Republicans of France laid a plot for
the overthrow of Louis XVIII. , and the recall
of Bonaparte.

The commissioners at Paris, in 1814, had

provided b,. C,,re tln-ir adjournment for a gen-
eral congress to be held at Vienna, in the fol-
lowing October. When the time came, all the
sovereign- of Kurope either came in person to
the conference, or sent ambassadors to repre-
sent them in the deliberations. A di.-cu-i.in
was begun in the ancient and orthodox man-
ner of the condition and prospect* of the
Kuropcaii kingdoms. The winter month- wore
away before the work was completed. At
length, while the titled and untitled represen-
tatives of the past were still debating how the
present might be undone and the future pro-
vented, they were greeted with tin- astounding
news that Napoleon had left Elba and gone to
France. Such was, indeed, the case. On the
26th of February, 1815, he quitted the island
and landed at Cannes. The intelligence cre-
ated such a sensation throughout France as
had never been known in her history. The
old soldiers of the Republic and the Empire
rose up on every hand to meet and follow him
who had been their leader on a hundred fields
of victory. His march towards Paris was an
ever-swelling triumph. On the 5th of March,
near Grenoble, he was joined by a large body
of officers and soldiers who were stationed at
that place. At Lyons, he was confronted by
an army under command of Monsieur and the
Duke of Orleans, who had been ordered to
prevent the Emperor's further progress. The
result was that the soldiers went over to his
standard. Marshal Ney, who, with his usual
impetuo-ity. had accepted the Restoration, who
had been made a peer of France by Louis
XVIII., and who had promised that monarch
to put Napoleon in an iron cage and bring
him up to Paris, went forth on his mission,
and proceeded as far as Auxerre, where he
heard of Bonaparte's reception at Lyons. At
this, the marshal recaught his old enthusiasm,
threw himself into the Emperor's arms, and
followed him on the way to Paris.

On the 19th of the month, Napoleon
reached Fontainebleau, and on the following
day reentered Paris. In the mean time tin-
government of Louis XVIII. melted away
like a shadow. Not a figment of the Resto-
ration remained as a token of last year's rev-
olution. Louis and his court fled to Belgium,
and most of the nobility went back to their
refuge in England. The whole machinery of

1118

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

state was suddenly reversed by the tremendous
hand which for nearly twenty years had been
the stay and glory of France. Nothing could

on their way to the borders of France.
While this work was progressing, the Em-
peror put forth a decree embodying " An Act

THE RETURN FROM ELBA.
Drawn by C. Delort.

exceed the dispatch with which a new army
was organized to beat back the hosts which
already, under the Congress of Vienna, were

additional to the Constitutions of the Em-
pire," in which such liberal concessions were
made that even extreme Republicans were

'////•; AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE A.\I> /..U/'/A'/..

11 lit

satisfied. All the while he sought diligently,
but vainly, to open negotiations with the
allies. They h:ul sworn in their wrath ni-vcr
again to treat with a Bonaparte. The fact
was, that the banded sovereigns of Old Ku-
rope could not coexist with Napoleon. One
or the other must be crushed to the wall.
The ideas
which the two
parties repre-
sented were ir-
reconcilable.
Tlic imperial
Republicanism
personated in
Bonaparte and
flourishing in
the wind of
his sword
must either
triumph to the
borders of con-
tinental Eu-
rope or perish
miserably un-
der the heel of
the ancient
Bourbonism.

The period
from the re-
turn of Napo-
leon to France
and the battle
of Waterloo is
known as the
Hundred Days.
Up to the 1st of
June the Em-
peror labored
with astoiii-Oi-
ing energy to
prepare an ad-
equate resist-
ance against
the coming av-
alanche. The allies had now become desperate,
and were making gigantic preparations to crush
Napoleon and his dynasty into the very earth.
By the first days of summer the north-eastern
horizon of France was black with their coining.
At this time, notwithstanding the long exhaus-
tion which the French people had suffered,

Bonaparte had succeeded in organizing and
equipping an army of three hundred and
sixty-seven thousand men. In this work the
Kmpire was drained to the bottom. It was
the last great call to arms, and age and
youth together answered the summons. It
was Napoleon's own judgment of the situa-

NAPOLEON.
After the painting by E. Meissonier.

tion that if he could have had a few weeks
longer to prepare for the defense, he would
have placed around his beloved France "a
wall of brass which no earthly power would
have been able to break through." As it waa,
he was obliged to enter the arena before his
preparations were complete; but he threw

1120

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

himself into the final struggle with an au-
dacity and courage never surpassed in the
annals of war.

By this time it had become apparent from
the position of the several armies that the de-
cisive conflict would take place in Belgium.
In that country, a junction was about to be
effected between the allies under the Duke of
Wellington and a powerful Prussian army

Ney fell back and took up a position at the
little village of WATERLOO, on the skirts of
the forest of Soigues, eight miles south-east of
Brussels. It had been already arranged by
the allied commanders that in case Bliicher
should be defeated, he also should retreat to
Waterloo to form a junction at that place with
Wellington. Napoleon perceiving the plans
of hia enemies, ordered Marshal Grouchy with

THE LAST CALL TO ARMS.
After the painting by F. Defreggor.

under Marshal Bliicher. Adopting his usual
tactics, Napoleon made all haste to prevent
the union of his enemies. He crossed the
Belgian frontier on the 15th of June, with a
hundred and twenty-four thousand men. On
the following day he attacked and defeated
Bliicher at Ligny. At the same time he or-
dered Marshal Ney to attack the British at
Quatre Bras ; but the latter movement was
unsuccessful, and on the morning of the 17th,

a division of thirty-four thousand men to fol-
low up Bliicher and prevent his junction with
the English. Or should he fail in holding the
Prussians in check, he should at any rate be
near enough to unite his army with that of
Napoleon as soon as Bliicher could join Wel-
lington. Having adopted this plan, Napoleon
marched rapidly to Waterloo, where he hoped
to attack and defeat Wellington before the
arrival of the Prussians. But he failed to

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AM> i:.\ll'll;i:.

11U1

reach the field on the evening of the 17th
of June in time to give battle on that day,
and the conflict was postponed till the mor-
row. During the night both armies lay in
bivouac and awaited the coining of the dawn
to decide the destinies of Europe.

Circumstances rather than design had de-
termined that the battle should be fought at
Waterloo. The morning of the 18th of June
found the allied armies of England and the Neth-
erlands occupying a semicircle of hills in front
of the village. Their lines extended a mile and
a half, and were concave towards
the French. The latter occupied
an opposite ridge at a distance of
from five hundred to eight hundred
yards. About half-way between the
British center and the French posi-
tion stood the stone chateau of Hou-
goumont, held by a strong force of
English. In front of Wellington's
left center were the hamlet of Mont
Saint-Jean and the farm of La Haie
Sainte, also held by the British. The
French were drawn up in three lines
on and parallel with the road lead-
ing from Charleroi to Brussels. On
this road, at the farm of La Belle
Alliance were the head-quarters of
Napoleon, near the center of his po-
sition. The two armies were of about
equal strength, numbering nearly
eighty thousand on each side.

From noon of the 17th of June
until the following morning there
was a heavy rainfall — a circumstance
exceedingly unfortunate to the
French, to whom it was all important
to fight Wellington before the com-
ing of Bliicher. Napoleon, however, had little
anxiety on this score ; for he was confident that
Bliicher would be held in check by Grouchy,
and he therefore waited on the morning of
the 18th until the sun and fresh wind should
dry the ground. His plan of battle was to
double back the allied left upon the center;
but in order to conceal this intention, the first
attack was made on Hougoumont at half-past
eleven, in the forenoon. In this part of the
field the wood was taken, but the stone chateau
was held by the British. Shortly after noon
the Prussian division under Biilow came upon
VOL. 11.— "1

the French right, and Napoleon was obliged to
weaken lil.se. nter in order to repel (his advance.
About the same time he changed his plan
of battle and determined, if possible, to break
Wellington's center. For tliis duty he "i
dered Marshal Ney to move against La Haie
Sainte. That officer charged with his usual
valor, and after a fierce assault, carried the
British position. He was then cheeked in his
further course by the P^nglish divi.-ions under
Pictou and Ponsonby. In this part of the ti«ld
there was terrible fighting, the line of battle

BLCCHER.

surging back and forth until half-past three in
the afternoon, when La Haie Sainte was still
held by the French. Then there was a pause.
Strenuous efforts were presently made to dis-
lodge the British from Hougoumont, but they
held the chateau to the last, in spite of tlio
furious storm which was poured upon it by
the howitzers of the French. Napoleon, in
the mean time, had gone to the right to watch
the movements of Biilow. While he was thus
occupied, Wellington made an attempt to re-
take La Haie Sainte, but was repulsed by Ney.
The latter then sent to Bonaparte for rein-

1122

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

forcements, with a view to carrying a counter
charge into the British center, breaking the
enemy's lines and sweeping the field. Napo-
leon had already so weakened his reserves that
the forces which he ordered to Ney's support
were insufficient, and were indeed only in-
tended by the Emperor to enable the Marshal
to hold his position against the assaults of the
British. A misunderstanding ensued, how-

squares, would have been utterly routed and
swept from the field. As it was, the British
lines wavered, staggered, clung desperately to
the bloody earth, gave a little, then hung fast
and could be moved no further. But Ney's
charge was in a measure successful. Durutte
in another part of the field drove the allies
out of Papelotte, and Loban succeeded in rout-
ing Billow from the village of Planchenois, on

BLTJCHER ARRIVING ON THE FIELD OP WATERLOO.

ever, and Ney apprehending that the time for
the decisive struggle had come, gave orders
for the charge. " It is an hour too soon," said
Napoleon, when he perceived the work which
his impetuous general had begun. Neverthe-
less he sought to support Ney's movements,
and it can hardly be doubted that could the
latter have been immediately reinforced by
heavy masses of infantry, the British center,
formed as it was of Wellington's famous

the right. At half-past four, every thing por-
tended disaster to the allies and victory to the
French.

To Wellington it appeared that the hour
of fate had struck. " O, that night or
Bliicher would come !" said he as he saw his
lines stagger and his squares quiver under the
renewed assaults of the French. The uncer-
tain factor in the conflict was Bliicher and his
forty thousand Prussians. If he should come

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AM) /..W/ A'/.

112:5

•without Grouchy upon his rear then Napoleon
would be defeated; but it' (irouehy should
hold him back or beat him to the field, then
not only was t.h<> allied cause lost in this lilnn.lv
work at Waterloo, but the old Boarbontam of
Europe would be forever exploded and blown
away in smoke. So for nearly two hours the
liaitlc hung in suspense. Not that the fight-
ing ceased or was any less deadly ; but the
British hung to their position with a hope that
was half despair, while the French batteries
vomited upon them their terrible discharges,
and desultory assaults in various parts of the
field added to the horrid carnage. By five
o'clock there were rumors of Bliicher's
coming. Soon afterwards bugles were
heard far to the French right, and the
noise of the approaching army became
ominous in the distance. Was it Bliicher
or Grouchy?

It was Bliicher. The Prussian banners
shot up in the horizon. With Napoleon it
was now or never. The hour of his des-
tiny had come. His sun of Austerlitz
hung low in the western sky. Could he
break that British center ? Should he not,
he was hopelessly, irretrievably ruined.
None knew it better than he. The fate
of Imperial France, which he had builded
with his genius and defended with his sword,
hung trembling in the balance. He called
out four battalions of his veterans, and
then the Old Guard. More than a hun-
dred times in the last fifteen years had that
Guard been thrown upon the enemy and
never yet repulsed. It deemed itself invin-
cible. Would this hour add another to its
long list of victorious charges ? At a little
after seven o'clock in the evening, just as the
June sun was setting in the horizon of fated
France, the bugle sounded, and the finest
body of horsemen that ever careered over the
field of battle started to meet its doom on the
bristling squares of Wellington. Those grim
and fearless horsemen went to their fate like
heroes. The charge rolled on like an ava-
lanche. It broke upon the squares. They
reeled under the shock, then reformed and
stood fast. Round and round those immova-
ble lines the fierce soldiers of the Empire beat
with unavailing courage. Then arose from
the lips of those who witnessed the desperate i

-t ruggle the fatal cry, La Garde reculee, La
(turtle reculee I

It wa-< indeed true. The Old (Juard was
repulsed, broken, ruined. Vainly did Mar-
shal Ney, glorious in his impetuous despair,
attempt to stay the tide of destruction.
Five horses had been shot under him. II.-
was on foot with the ennmiou soldiers. His
hat was gone. He was covered with dust and
blood; but his grim face was set again.-t tin-
enemy, and with sword in hand he attempted
to rally his shattered lines. The English, now
inspirited by the hope of almost certain vie-

MAKSHAL NEY.

tory, threw forward their lines, and the Prus-
sian army rushed in from the right. Napoleon
threw a single regiment of the Guard into a
square, and strove to rally the fugitives around
this nucleus of resistance. He placed himself
in the midst, and declared his purpose to make
there an end by dying with the men who had
so long formed the bulwark of his Empire.
But Marshal Soult succeeded in hurrying him
out of the mMee, and the last square was left
to perish alone. The allies bore down upon
it, and numberless batteries were opened on
this last heroic band of the defenders of the
glory of France. There they stood. "Sur-

1124

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

render, brave Frenchmen ! " cried an English
officer, dashing up with a flag and struck with
admiration at the dauntless lines which had
planted themselves before the victorious allies

for no other purpose than to reach a glorious
death. "The Old Guard dies, but never sur-
renders," was the defiant answer. Then they
raised the cry of Vive I'Empereur, threw them-

LAST CHARGE OF THE OLD GUARD.
Drawn by Emile Bayard.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AND KM I'll; I-:.

1125

selves with wild enthusiasm upon the advanc-
ing lines, and perished almost to a man. There,
to-day, tin- traveler pauses where the Stone Lion
is planted, and reflects with wonder that within
the memory of men still living human nature
could have been raised by the inspiration of
battle to such a tremendous exhibition of he-
roism as that which was in this spot displayed
by the Old Guard of Napoleon in the hour of
its annihilation.

"All is lost," said the sullen Bonaparte, aa
he left the field and started to Paris. His

come a fugitive. I If left Paris, and, on the
3d of July, reached Itochcfort, on the wrxtern
coast of France. Ii was his purpose to make
his escape to the United States, and to this
end he embarked on a small frigate bound for
America. But it wits impossible for him to get
away. An English vessel lay outside ready to
seize him as soon as he should leave the har-
bor. He then changed his plans, and deter-
mined to surrender himself to the British gov-
ernment. This was accordingly signified to the
English officer, and he was taken on board and

NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA.

prescience divined too well the uselessness of
a further struggle. Again he sought to secure
for his son, the King of Rome, a recognition
as sovereign of France. Neither the allies nor
the French legislature would any longer con-
cede any tiling. He sought to open negotia-
tions with the powers that had conquered him ;
but they would hear to nothing until "Gen-
eral Bonaparte" should be delivered into their
hands.

Napoleon was obliged a second time to sign
an act of unconditional abdication, and to be-

conveyed to Torbay, where he arrived on the
25th of July. Then followed long and heated
discussions in the British Parliament and min-
istry as to what should be done with their pris-
oner. At last it was determined to carry him
in banishment to the island of St. Helena,
whither he was accordingly taken, and landed
on the 16th of October, 1815. This for him
was the last scene of that amazing drama of
which he had been the principal actor. His
residence was fixed at a place called Longwood,
where he was allowed a certain degree of free-

1126

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

dom under the general surveillance of his Brit-
ish masters. He devoted himself to the work
of dictating the memoirs of his wonderful
career, sometimes apparently absorbed in his
present task, sometimes living over again the
scenes of the past, and still more frequently
expressing his displeasure and sense of wrong
at the restraints to which he was subjected.
For five and a half years he thus remained at
Longwood. Then his health gave way under
the ravages of an ulcer in the stomach, and,
on the 5th of May, 1821, he died during the

ated with Napoleon met various fates. Murat,
the king of Naples, who had abandoned the
cause of his brother-in-law, distrusted the sin-
cerity of the allies as expressed in the Treaty
of Paris, and in 1815 took up arms against
Austria. He seized Rome, and threw forward
an army as far as the river Po. On the 2d
and 3d of May, he was met by the Austrians,
and utterly routed in the battle of Toleutino.
Giving up all for lost, he fled to Naples, thence
to France, and thence to Corsica. The exiled
Ferdinand returned and took possession of the

FUNERAL CORTEGE OF NAPOLEON.

prevalence of the most terrible storm which
had ever been known in the island. He was
buried under the willows near a fountain in
Slane's valley, where his body remained until
1840, when it was conveyed to France, re-
ceived with the utmost pomp and pageant in
Paris, and, on the 15th of December in that
year, deposited beneath a splendid monument
in the Hotel des Invalides. — Such was the end
of the most remarkable character of modern
history.

The other great men who had been associ-

throne. Murat, as if to play the Napoleon on a
smaller scale, made his way back to Italy, and
in the following October began an invasion of
Calabria. A battle ensued, and the insurgents
were defeated and dispersed. Murat himself
was taken, tried by a court-martial, and exe-
cuted on the 14th of October, 1815.

After the battle of Waterloo, the heroic
Marshal Ney returned to Paris, entered the
chamber of peers, and urged the necessity of
saving the country by immediate negotiations.
His course was conciliatory, and if the gov-

'/•///•. .uvf; ()!•' REVOLUTION.— CONSULATE AM> KMl'

1127

ernment had been magnanimous, the impul-
sive hero would have been spared. But on
the '24th of July a decree of proscription ua>
issued ajrainst him, and In- w:is constrained to
save himself by flight. Attempting to escape
from the country lie was seized at Auvergue,
brought back to Paris, tried, and condemned
to death. On the morning of the 7th of De-
cember he was led out to the end of the gar-
den of the Luxembourg, where, placed before
a file of soldiers, he faced them without a tre-

of Vienna had completed its work on the llth
of June; and sometliin;:, called peace, was now
restored on nearly the .-arm- liasi.s as had been
agreed upon at the Treaty of Paris in tin- pre-
eedin^ year. France was curtailed of most
of her disputed territories on the .-ide of <;<-r-
many ami tin- Netherlands. It was stipulated
that the line of fortresses reaching from Cam-
bray to Alsace should be occupied by allied
garrisons for the space of five years, to the
end that any further disturbance in France

CONGRESS OF VIENNA.

mor. He placed his hand upon his heart,
Vive la France! he cried in a clear, ringing
tone, and then added: "Fellow-soldiers, fire
herel" The volley was discharged, and the
hero lay dead before his comrades.

Immediately after the battle of Waterloo
the allies marched on Paris. On the 6th of
July, 1815, they recnteivd the city, and two
days Afterwards Louis XVIII. was reseated on
the throne. The Past had now come to stay.
The reaction had set in in earnest. The Re-
publican Empire was down. The Congress

might be immediately quelled. The expense
of this occupation was to be taxed to the
French government, which was also obliged
to pay an indemnity of seven hundred millions
of francs to meet the expenses of the allied
powers in the Hundred Days' war. The French
were further compelled to restore to the gal-
leries of Italy and Germany those treasures of
art which Napoleon had brought to Paris. Such
were the general provisions of the settlement
which was concluded and signed at Paris on
the 20th of November, 1815.

1128

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

It might be appropriate in this connection
to pause and consider briefly the general re-
sults of the great revolutionary movement
with which Europe was convulsed at the be-
ginning of the present century. The leading
fact which arose out of the convulsions of this
epoch was the transformation of society, first
in France and afterwards in the greater part
of Europe. This movement went on most
rapidly during the French Revolution from
1789 to 1795. Then came the ascendency of
Napoleon. Civilization was greatly the gainer
by his appearance. True, his ambition made

him a tyrant, but his genius made him a re-
former. The nascent institutions of the fiery
Revolution and the young Republic became
organic under his powerful hand. He was a
representative of the future rather than of the
past; and the future was defeated and the
engines of civilization for the time reversed
on the field of Waterloo. Let us then return
for a brief space to the annals of our own
country and sketch the principal events in the
history of the United States during the period
covered by the French Revolution, the Re-
public, the Consulate, and the Empire.

CHAPTER

.— AMERICAN EVENTS: \VAR OK 1812.

SHE New Government for
the United States of North
America, so painfully elab-
orated in the Constitu-
tional Convention of 1787,
went into operation on the
30th of April, 1789. On
that day the great Washington stood up on
the balcony of the Old City Hall, in New
York, and took the oath of office as first Pres-
ident of the new Republic. By the Federal-
ists the event was hailed with delight, and by
the anti-Federalists was accepted as a neces-
sity. The day was appropriately celebrated
in New York, which had been selected as the
present seat of government. The streets and
house-tops were thronged with people ; flags
fluttered ; cannon boomed from the Battery.
As soon as the public ceremony was ended,
Washington retired to the Senate chamber
and delivered his inaugural address. The or-
ganization of the two houses of Congress had
already been effected.

Many were the embarrassments and diffi-
culties of the new situation. The opponents
of the Constitution were not yet silenced, and
from the beginning they caviled at the meas-
ures of the administration. By the treaty of
1783 the free navigation of the Mississippi had
been guaranteed. Now the jealous Spaniards
of New Orleans hindered the passage of Ameri-
can ships. The people of the West looked to
the great river as the natural outlet of their

commerce ; they must be protected in their
rights. On many parts of the frontier the ma-
lignant Red men were still at war with the
settlers. As to financial credit, the United
States had none. In the very beginning of
his arduous duties Washington was prostrated
with sickness, and the business of government
was for many weeks delayed.

Not until September were the first impor-
tant measures adopted. On the 10th of that
month an act was passed by Congress institut-
ing a department of foreign affairs, a treasury
department, and a department of war. As
members of his cabinet Washington nominated
Jefferson, Knox, and Hamilton ; the first as
secretary of foreign affairs; the second, of
war; and the third, of the treasury. In ac-
cordance with the provisions of the Constitu-
tion, a supreme court was also organized, John
Jay receiving the appointment of first chief-
justice. With him were joined as associate
justices John Rutledge, of South Carolina;
James Wilson, of Pennsylvania ; William
Gushing, of Massachusetts; John Blair, of
Virginia ; and James Iredell, of North Caro-
lina. Edmund Randolph was chosen attorney-
general. Many constitutional amendments were
now brought forward, and ten of them adopted.

The national debt was the greatest and
most threatening question with which the new
government had to deal; but the genius of
Hamilton triumphed over every difficulty.
The indebtedness of the United States, in-

AJ \ , UFA:

®},i, ,W<

M^M/hAV \Jaari

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— AMERICAN EVENTS: WAR OF 1812.

eluding the revolutionary expenses of the sev-
eral Suites, amounted to nearly eighty millions
of dollars. Hamilton adopted a broad and
honest policy. His plan, which was laid be-
fore Congress at the be^innin;; of the second
session, proposed that the debt of the United
States due to American citizens, as well as
the war debt of the individual .States, .should
be assumed by the
general govern-
ment, and, t)iat oW
should be fully paid.
By this measure the
credit of the coun- '
try was vastly im-
proved, even before
actual payment was
begun.

The proposition
to assume the debts
of the States had
been coupled with
another to fix the
seat of government.
After much discus-
sion it was agreed
to establish the cap-
ital for ten years at
Philadelphia, and
afterward at some
suitable locality on
the Potomac. The
next important
measure was the or-
ganization of tin-
territory south-west
of the Ohio. In the
autumn of 1790 a
war broke out with
the Miami Indians.
These tribes went to
war to recover the
lands which they
had ceded to the

United States. In September General Har-
mar, with fourteen hundred men, man-lied
from Fort Washington, on the present site of
Cincinnati, to the River Maumee. On the
2lst of October the army was defeated with
great loss by the Miami* at a ford of this
stream, and General Harmar retreated to
Fort Washington.

In 1791 THE BANK OK mi. TMI in

was established by an act of Congress. On
the 4tli of March Vermont, which had IM-CII
an independent territory since 1777, was ad-
mitted into the Union as the fourteenth State.
The claim of New York to the province had
been purchased in 17*'.) for thirty thousand
dollars. The census of the United States

WASHINGTON.

Reduced facsimile after the copperplate engraving of James Heath. Original painting.
1796, by Gilbert Charles Stuart.

for 1790 showed a population of three million
nine hundred and twenty-nine thousand.

After the defeat of Harmar, General Ar-
thur St. Clair, with two thousand men, set
out from Fort Washington to break the power
of the Miamis. On the 4th of November he
was attacked in the south-west angle of M> r-
cer County, Ohio, by more than two thousand

1130

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

warriors, led by Little Turtle and several
American renegades. After a terrible battle
St. Clair was completely defeated, with a loss
of half his men. The fugitives retreated pre-
cipitately to Fort Washington. The news of
the disaster spread sorrow throughout the
land. St. Clair was superseded by General
Wayne, whom the people had named Mad
Anthony, and who, after a vigorous campaign,
succeeded in crushing the Indian confedera-

teers to prey on the commerce of Great Brit-
ain, and planned an expedition against Lou-
isiana. When Washington refused to enter
into an alliance with France, the minister
threatened to appeal to the people. But Wash-
ington stood unmoved, and demanded the
minister's recall. The authorities of France
heeded the demand, and the rash Genet was
superseded by M. Fouchet.

In 1793 George III. issued instructions to

LADY WASHINGTON'S RECEPTION.

tion and restoring peace throughout the
North-west.

At the presidential election of 1792 Wash-
ington was again unanimously chosen ; as
Vice-president, John Adams was reflected.
The second administration was greatly troubled
in its relations with foreign governments.
Citizen Genet, who was sent by the French
Republic as minister to the United States, ar-
rived at Charleston, and was greeted with
great enthusiasm. Taking advantage of his
popularity, the ambassador fitted out priva-

British privateers to seize all neutral vessels
found trading in the French West Indies.
The United States had no notification of this
measure, and American commerce, to the
value of many millions of dollars, was swept
from the sea. Chief Justice Jay was sent as
envoy to demand redress of the British gov-
ernment. Contrary to expectation, his mis-
sion was successful, and in November of 1794
an honorable treaty was concluded. It was
specified in the treaty that Great Britain
should make reparation for the injuries done.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— AMERICAN EVENTS : WAR OF 1812. 1131

and surrender to the United States certain
Western posts which until now had been held
by England.

In 171)5 the boundary between the United
States and Louisiana wassettled. Spain granted
to the Americans the free navigation of the Mis-
sissippi. About this time a difficulty arose with
the Dey of Algiers. For many years Alger-
ine pirates had been preying upon the com-
merce of civilized nations. The Dey had
agreed with these nations that his pirate
ships should not attack their vessels if they
would pay him an annual tribute. The Al-
gerine sea-robbers were now turned loose on
American commerce, and the government of
the United States was also obliged to purchase
safety by paying tribute.

Washington was solicited to become a can-
didate for a third election ; but he would not.
In September of 1796 he issued to the people
of the United States his Farewell Address — a
document full of wisdom and patriotism. The
political parties at once put forward their can-
didates— John Adams as the choice of the
Federal, and Thomas Jefferson of the anti-
Federal party. The chief question between
the parties was whether it was the true policy
of the United States to enter into intimate
relations with Republican France. The anti-
Federalists said, Yes! The Federalists said
No! On that issue Mr. Adams was elected,
but Mr. Jefferson, having the next highest
number of votes, became Vice-president ; for
according to the old provision of the Consti-
tution of the United States, the person who
stood second on the list became the second
officer in the government.

On the 4th of March, 1797, President
Adams was inaugurated. From the begin-
ning, his administration was embarrassed by
political opposition. Adet, the French min-
ister, urged the government to conclude a
league with France against Great Britain;
and when the President and Congress refused,
the French Directory began to demand an
alliance. On the 10th of March, that body
issued instructions to French men-of-war to
assail the commerce of the United States;
and Mr. Pinckney, the American minister at
Paris, was ordered to leave the country.

These proceedings were equivalent to a
declaration of war. The President convened

Congress in extraordinary session. Klhridge
Gerry and John Marshall were directed to
join Mr. Pinckney abroad in a final effort for
a peaceable adjustment of the difficulties.
But the Directory refused to receive the am-
bassadors except upon condition that they
would pay into the French treasury a quarter
of a million of dollars. Pinckney answered
that the United States had millions for defense,
but not a cent for tribute. The American en-
voys were thereupon ordered to leave the
country.

In the following year an act was passed by
Congress completing the organization of the

JOHN ADAMS.

army. Washington was called from his re-
tirement and appointed commander-iii-chief.
Alexander Hamilton was chosen first major-
general. A navy of six frigates had been
provided for at the session of the previous
year, and a national loan had been author-
ized. The treaties with France were declared
void, and vigorous preparations were made
for war. The American frigates put to sea,
and, in the fall of 1799, did good service for
the country. Commodore Truxtun, in the
Constellation, won distinguished honors. On
the 9th of February, while cruising in the
West Indies, he attacked the Insurgent, a
French man-of-war, carrying forty guns and

1132

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

more than four hundred seamen. A desper-
ate engagement ensued, and Truxtun gained
a complete victory.

Meanwhile Napoleon Bonaparte, as already
narrated, overthrew the Directory of France,
and made himself first consul. He immedi-
ately sought peace with the United States.
Three American ambassadors — Murray, Ells-
worth, and Davie — were sent to Paris in
March of 1800. Negotiations were at once
opened, and, in the following September,
were successfully terminated with a treaty of
peace.

Before the war-cloud was scattered, Amer-

THOMAS JEFFERSON.

ica was called to mourn the loss of Washing-
ton. On the 14th of December, 1799, after
an illness of only a day, the chieftain passed
from among the living. All hearts were
touched with sorrow. Congress went in fu-
neral procession to the German Lutheran
church, where General Henry Lee delivered
a touching and eloquent oration. Throughout
the world the memory of the great dead
was honored with appropriate ceremonies.
To the legions of France, Napoleon announced
the event in a beautiful tribute of praise.
The voice of partisan malignity, that had not
hesitated to assail even the name of Washing-
ton, was hushed into silence; and all mankind
agreed with Lord Byron in declaring the

illustrious dead to have been among warriors,
statesmen, and patriots

" The first, the last, the best,

THE CINCINNATI'S OF THE WEST."

The administration of Adams and the eight-
eenth century drew to a close together. The
new Republic was growing strong and influen-
tial. The census of 1800 showed that the popu-
lation of the country had increased to over five
millions. The seventy-five post-offices reported
by the census of 1790 had been multiplied to
nine hundred and three ; the exports of the
United States had grown from twenty millions
to nearly seventy-one millions of dollars. In
December of 1800 Congress assembled in the
new capital, Washington City. Virginia and
Maryland had ceded to the United States the
District of Columbia, a tract ten miles square
lying on both sides of the Potomac. The city
was laid out in 1792 ; and in 1800 the pop-
ulation numbered between eight and nine
thousand.

With prudent management the Federal
party might have retained control of the gov-
ernment. But much of the legislation of
Congress had been unwise and unpopular.
The "Alien Law," by which the President
was authorized to send foreigners out of the
country, was specially odious. The "Sedition
Law," which punished with fine and imprison-
ment the freedom of speech and of the press,
was denounced as an act of tyranny. Parti-
san excitement ran high. President Adams
and Mr. Charles C. Pinckney were put for-
ward as the candidates of the Federalists, and
Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr of the
Democrats. The election was thrown into the
House of Representatives, and the choice of
that body fell on Jefferson and Burr.

At the beginning of his administration the
new President transferred the chief offices of
the government to members of the Demo-
cratic party. Such action was justified by the
adherents of the Democracy on the ground
that the affairs of a republic will be best ad-
ministered when the officers hold the same
political sentiments. One of the first acts of
Congress was to abolish the system of internal
revenues. The unpopular laws against for-
eigners and the freedom of the press were
also repealed.

In the year 1800 a line was drawn through

THK AGK OF REVOLUTION.— AMERICAN EVENTS: WAR OF 1812. 1 1:::;

the North-west Territory from the mouth of
the Great Miami River through Fort Recov-
ery to Canada. Two years afterwards the
country east of this liue was erected iuto the
State of Ohio, and in 1803 was admitted into
the Union. The portion west of the line
was organized under the name of INDIANA
TERRITORY. Vincennes was the capital ; and
General William Henry Harrison was ap-
pointed governor. About the same time MIS-
SISSIPPI TERRITORY was organized.

More important still was the purchase of
Louisiana. In 1800 Napoleon had compelled
Spain to make a cession of this territory to
France. He then prepared to send an army
to New Orleans to establish his authority.
But the United States remonstrated against
such a proceeding; and Bonaparte author-
ized his minister to dispose of Louisiana
by sale. The President appointed Mr. Liv-
ingston and James Monroe to negotiate the
purchase. On the 30th of April, 1803, terms
were agreed on ; and for the sum of eleven
million two hundred and fifty thousand dol-
lars Louisiana was ceded to the United States.
It was also agreed that the United States
should pay certain debts due from France to
American citizens — the sum not to exceed
three million seven hundred and fifty thou-
sand dollars. Thus did the vast domain west
of the Mississippi pass under the dominion of
the United States.1

Out of the southern portion of the great
province the TERRITORY OP ORLEANS was
organized, with the same limits as the pres-
ent State of Louisiana; the rest continued
to be called THE TERRITORY OF LOUISIANA.
Very justly did Mr. Livingston say to the
French minister as they arose from signing
the treaty : ' ' This is the noblest work of our
lives."

In 1801 John Marshall became chief-justice
of the United States. In the colonial times
the English constitution and common law had
prevailed in America. When the new Re-
public was organized, it became necessary to
modify the principles of law and to adapt

them to the altered form of government.
This great work was accomplished by Clii.i
justice Mar.-hall, whose penetrating mind and
thorough republicanism well-fitted him for
the task.

The Mediterranean pirates still annoyed
American merchantmen. The emperors of
Morocco, Algiers, and Tripoli became espe-
cially troublesome. In 1803 Commodore
Preble was sent to the Mediterranean to pro-
tect American commerce and punish the pi-
rates. The frigate Philadelphia, under Cap-
tain Bainbridge, sailed directly to Tripoli.
When nearing his destination, Bainbridge

1 Bonaparte accepted in payment six per cent
bonds of the United States, payable fifteen years
after date. He also agreed not to sell the bonds
at such a price as would degrade the credit of the
American government.

JOHN MAURA LL.

gave chase to a buccaneer, which fled for
safety to the harbor. The Philadelphia, in
close pursuit, ran upon a reef of rocks near
the shore, and was captured by the Tripoli-
tans. The officers were treated with some
respect, but the crew were enslaved. In the
following February, Captain Decatur sailed
to Tripoli in a Moorish ship, called the In-
trepid. At nightfall Decatur steered into the
harbor, slipped alongside of the Philadelphia,
sprang on deck with his daring band, and
killed or drove overboard every Moor on the
vessel. In a moment the frigate was fired ;
Decatur and his crew escaped to the Intrepid
without the loss of a man.

1134

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

In July of 1804, Commodore Preble ar-
rived at Tripoli and began a siege. The town
was bombarded, and several Moorish vessels
were destroyed. In the mean time William
Eaton, the American consul at Tunis, had
organized a force, and was marching overland
to Tripoli. Hamet, who was the rightful sov-
ereign of Tripoli, was cooperating with Eaton
in an effort to recover his kingdom. Yusef,
the Tripolitan Emperor, alarmed at the dan-
gers around him, made overtures for peace.
His offers were accepted by Mr. Lear, the
American consul for the Barbary States;
and a treaty was concluded on the 4th of
June, 1805.

In the preceding year the country was
shocked by the intelligence that Vice-presi-
dent Burr had killed Alexander Hamilton in
a duel. As his term of office drew to a close
the ambitious and unscrupulous Burr foresaw
that he would not be renominated. In 1803
he became a candidate for governor of New
York ; but Hamilton's influence in that State
prevented his election. Burr thereupon sought
a quarrel with Hamilton ; challenged him ;
met him at Weehawken on the morning of
the llth of July, and deliberately murdered
him. Thus the brightest intellect in America
was put out in darkness.

In the autumn of 1804 Jefferson was
reflected. For Vice-president George Clin-
ton, of New York, was chosen in place
of Burr, whose reputation was ruined. In
the next year a part of the North-western
Territory was organized under the name of
MICHIGAN. In the same spring Captains
Lewis and Clarke set out from the falls of
the Missouri River, with thirty-five soldiers
and hunters, to explore Oregon. For two
years, through forests of gigantic pines and
along the banks of unknown rivers, did they
continue their explorations. After wandering
among unheard-of tribes of savages, and trav-
ersing a route of six thousand miles, the ad-
venturers, with the loss of but one man, re-
turned to civilization, bringing with them the
first authentic information which the people
had obtained of the vast regions between the
Mississippi and the Pacific.

After the death of Hamilton, Burr fled to
the South. At the opening of the next ses-
sion of Congress he returned to preside over

the Senate. Then he took up his residence
with an Irish exile named Blannerhassett,
who had built a mansion on an island in the
Ohio, near the mouth of the River Mus-
kingum. Here Burr made a treasonable
scheme to raise a military force, invade Mex-
ico, detach the South-western States from the
Union, and overthrow the government of the
United States. But his purposes were sus-
pected. The military preparations at Blan-
nerhassett's Island were broken up. Burr
was arrested in Alabama and taken to Rich-
mond to be tried for treason. Chief-justice
Marshall presided at the trial, and Burr con-
ducted his own defense. The verdict was,
"Not guilty— -for ward of sufficient proof."
Burr afterwards practiced law in New York,
lived to old age, and died in poverty and
disgrace.

During Jefferson's second term the country
was much agitated by the aggressions of the
British navy. England and France were now
engaged in deadly war. The British authori-
ties struck blow after blow against the trade
between France and foreign nations ; and Na-
poleon retaliated. The plan adopted by the
two powers was, as already narrated, to block-
ade each other's ports, either with paper
proclamations or with men-of-war. By such
means the commerce of the United States was
greatly injured. Great Britain next set up
her peculiar claim of citizenship, that whoever
is born in England remains through life a
subject of England. English cruisers were
authorized to search American vessels for
persons suspected of being British subjects,
and those who were taken were impressed as
seamen in the English navy.

On the 22d of June, 1807, the frigate
Chesapeake was hailed near Fortress Monroe
by a British man-of-war called the Leopard.
British officers came on board and demanded
to search the vessel for deserters. The demand
was refused and the ship cleared for action.
But before the guns could be charged the
Leopard poured in a destructive fire, and com-
pelled a surrender. Four men were taken
from the captured ship, three of whom proved
to be American citizens. Great Britain dis-
avowed this outrage and promised reparation ;
but the promise was never fulfilled.

The President soon afterwards issued a

THE AGE OF RE VOL UTION. —AMERICA N E VENTS: WA R OF 1812. 1 1 :Jf>

proclamation forbidding Hritish ships of war
to cuter Aincrican harbors. On the 21s! of
December Congress passed the EMP.AKI.O A< r.
by which all American vessels were detained
in the ports of the United States. The ol>-
ject was to cut off commercial intercourse
with France and Great Britain. But the
measure was of little avail, and after fourteen
months the Embargo Act was repealed.
Meanwhile, in November of 1808, the British
government, as previously narrated, published
an "Order in Council," prohibiting all trade
with France and her allies. Thereupon Napo-
leon issued the "Milan Decree," forbidding all
trade with England and her colonies. By
these outrages the commerce of the United
States was well-nigh destroyed.

While the country was thus distracted
Robert Fulton was building THE FIRST STEAM-
BOAT. This event exercised a vast influence
on the future development of the nation. It
was of great importance to the people of the •
inland States that their rivers should be en-
livened with rapid navigation. This, without
the application of steam, was impossible. Ful-
ton was an Irishman by descent and a Penn-
sylvanian by birth. His education in boyhood
was imperfect, but was afterwards improved
by study at London and Paris. Returning to
New York, he began the construction of a
steamboat. When the ungainly craft was
completed, Fulton invited his friends to go on
board and enjoy a trip to Albany. On the
2d of September, 1807, the crowds gathered
on the shore. The word was given, and the
boat did not move. Fulton went below.
Again the word was given, and the boat moved.
On the next day the company reached Al-
bany, and for many years this first rude
steamer, called the Clermont, continued to ply
the Hudson.

Jefferson's administration drew to a close.
The territorial area of the United States had
been vastly extended. Burr's wicked con-
spiracy had come to naught. Pioneers were
pouring into the valley of the Mississippi.
The woods by the river-shores resounded with
the cry of steam. But the foreign relations
of the United States were troubled. Jefferson
declined a third election, and was succeeded
by James Madison, of Virginia. For Vice-
president, George Clinton was reelected.

The new I'lv-ident Imil been a member of
the Continental ( 'oni.rn>s, a delegate to the
Constitutional Convention of 17K7, and secre-
tary of state under Jefferson. He owed his
election to the Democratic party, whose sym-
pathy with France and hostility to Great
Britain were well known. On the 1st of
March, the Embargo Act was repealed by
Congress, and another measure adopted by
which American ships were allowed to go
abroad, but were forbidden to trade with
Great Britain.1 Mr. Erskine, the British
minister, now gave notice that, by the 10th
of June, the "Orders in Council," so far as

,

ROBERT Fl'LTOM.

they affected the United States, should be
repealed.

In the following spring Bonaparte issued
his decree for the seizure of all American
vessels that might approach the ports of
France. But in November the decree was
reversed, and all restrictions on the commerce
of the United States were removed. But the
government of Great Britain adhered to its
former measures, and sent ships of war to en-
force the "Orders in Council."

The affairs of the two nations were fast ap-

1 The Embargo Act had been the subject of
much ridicule. The opponents of the measure,
sj>e lling the word backward, called it the 0 Orab
me act.

1136

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

preaching a crisis. The government of the
United States had fallen completely under
control of the party which sympathized with
France. The American people, smarting
under the insults of Great Britain, had
adopted the motto of FREE TRADE AND
SAILORS' RIGHTS, and had made up their
minds to fight. The elections held between
1808 and 1811 showed the drift of public
opinion ; the sentiment of the country was
that war was preferable to national disgrace.
In the spring of 1810 the third census of
the United States was completed. The popu-
lation had increased to seven million two hun-

JAMES MADISON.

dred and forty thousand souls. The States
now numbered seventeen; and several new
Territories were preparing for admission into
the Union.1 The rapid march of civilization
westward had aroused the jealousy of the Red
men, and Indiana Territory was afflicted with
an Indian war. The hostile tribes were led
by the great Shawnee chief, Tecumtha, and
his brother, called the Prophet, who gathered
their forces on the Tippecanoe, where General
Harrison, in command of the Whites, had
encamped. On the morning of the 7th of
November, 1811, the savages, seven hundred
strong, crept through the marshes, surrounded

1 Kentucky had been admitted in 1792, and
Tennessee in 1796.

Harrison's position, and burst upon the camp.
But the American militia fought in the dark-
ness, held the Indians in check until daylight,
and then routed them in several vigorous
charges. On the next day the Americans
burned the Prophet's town, and soon after-
wards returned to Vincennes.

Meanwhile, Great Britain and the United
States had come into conflict on the ocean.
On the 16th of May, Commodore Rodgers,
commanding the frigate President, hailed a
vessel off the coast of Virginia. Instead of a
polite answer, he received a cannon-ball in the
mainmast. Rodgers responded with a broad-
side, silencing the enemy's guns. In the
morning — for it was already dark — the hostile
ship was found to be the British sloop-of-war
Little Belt. This event produced great excite-
ment throughout the country.

On the 4th of November, 1811, the twelfth
Congress of the United States assembled.
Many of the members still hoped for peace;
and the winter passed without decisive meas-
ures. On the 4th of April, 1812, an act was
passed laying an embargo for ninety days on
all British vessels within the harbors of the
United States. But Great Britain would not
recede from her hostile attitude. Before the
actual outbreak of hostilities, Louisiana, the
eighteenth State, was, on the 8th of April,
admitted into the Union. Her population
had already reached seventy-seven thousand.

On the 19th of June, a declaration of war
was issued against Great Britain. Vigorous
preparations for the conflict were made by
Congress. It was ordered to raise twenty-five
thousand regular troops and fifty thousand
volunteers. The several States were requested
to call out a hundred thousand militia. A
national loan of eleven million dollars was
authorized. Henry Dearborn, of Massachu-
setts, was chosen commander-in-chief of the
army.

The war was begun by General William
Hull, governor of Michigan Territory. On
the 1st of June, he marched from Dayton
with fifteen hundred men. For a full month
the army toiled through the forests to the
western extremity of Lake Erie. Arriving
at the Maumee, Hull sent his baggage to De-
troit. But the British at Maiden were on the
alert, and captured Hull's boat with every

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— AMERICAN EVENTS: WAR OF 1812.

thing ou board. Nevertheless, the Americans
pressed on to Detroit, and on the 12th of July
crossed the rivi-r to Sandwich.

Hull, hearing that Mackinaw had been
taken by the British, soon returned to Detroit.
From this place he sent Major Van Home to
meet Major Brush, who had reached the river
Raisin with reinforcements. But Tecumtlm
laid an ambush for Van Home's forces, and
defeated them near Brownstown. Colonel
Miller, with another detachment, attacked
and routed the savages with great loss, and
then returned to Detroit.

General Brock, governor of Canada, now
took command of the British at Maiden. On
the 16th of August he advanced to the siege
of Detroit. The Americans in their trenches
were eager for battle. When the British
were within five hundred yards, Hull twisted a
white flag over the fort. Then followed a surren-
der, the most shameful in the history of the
United States. All the forces under Hull's
command became prisoners of war. The
whole of Michigan Territory was surrendered
to the British. Hull was afterwards court-
martialed and sentenced to be shot; but the
President pardoned him.

On the 19th of August, the frigate Consti-
tution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull,
overtook the British Guerriere off the coast of
Massachusetts. The vessels maneuvered for
awhile, the Constitidion closing with her an-
tagonist, until at half-pistol shot she poured in
a broadside, sweeping the decks of the O/uer-
riere and deciding the contest. On the fol-
lowing morning, the 0/uerriere, being unman-
ageable, was blown up ; and Hull returned to
port with his prisoners and spoils.

On the 18th of October, the American
Wasp, under Captain Jones, fell in with a
fleet of British merchantmen off the coast of
Virginia. The squadron was under protection
of the Frolic, commanded by Captain Whin-
yates. A terrible engagement ensued, lasting
for three-quarters of an hour. Finally the
American crew boarded the Frolic and struck
the British flag. Soon afterwards the Poic-
tiers, a British seventy-four gun ship, bore
down upon the scene, captured the Wasp, and
retook the wreck of the Frolic.

On the 25th of the month Commodore De-

catur, commanding the frigate United States,
VOL. II.- 7 J

captured the British Macedonian, a short dis-
tance west of the Canary Islands. The loos
of the enemy in killed and wounded amounted
to more than a hundred men. On the iL'th
of December the Essex, commanded by Caj>-
taiu Porter, captured the \m-tim, a British
packet, having on board fifty-five thousand
dollars in specie. On the 29th of December
the Constitution, under command of Commo-
dore Bainbridge, met the Jam on the coast of
Brazil. A furious battle ensued, continuing
for two hours. The Java was reduced to a
wreck before the flag was struck. The crew
and passengers, numbering upward of four
hundred, were transferred to the Constitution,
and the hull was burned at sea. The news
of these victories roused the enthusiasm of the
people to the highest pitch.

On the 13th of October a thousand men,
commanded by General Stephen Van Rens-
selaer, crossed the Niagara River to capture
Queenstown. They were resisted at the
water's edge ; but the British batteries on the
heights were finally carried. The enemy's
forces, returning to the charge, were a second
time repulsed. General Brock fell mortally
wounded. The Americans intrenched them-
selves, and waited for reinforcements. None
came, and after losing a hundred and sixty
men, they were then obliged to surrender.
General Van Rensselaer resigned his com-
mand, and was succeeded by General Alexan-
der Smyth.

The Americans now rallied at Black Rock,
a few miles north of Buffalo. From this
point, on the 28th of November, a company
was sent across to the Canada shore ; but
General Smyth ordered the advance party to
return. A few days afterwards another crow-
ing was planned, but the Americans were
again commanded to return to winter quar-
ters. The militia became mutinous. Smyth
was charged with cowardice and deposed from
his command. In the autumn of 1812, Mad-
ison was reflected President ; the choice for
Vice-president fell on Elbridge Gerry, of
Massachusetts.

In the beginning of 1813, the American
army was organized in three divisions : THE
ARMY OF THE NORTH, under General Wade
Hampton ; THE ARMY OF THE CENTER, under
the commander-in-chief ; THE ARMY OF THE

1138

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

WEST, under General Winchester, who was
soon superseded by General Harrison. Early
in January the latter division moved towards
Lake Erie to regain the ground lost by Hull.
On the 10th of the mouth, the American ad-
vance reached the rapids of the Maumee,
thirty miles from Winchester's camp. A de-
tachment then pressed forward to French-
town, on the river Raisin, captured the town,
and on the 20th of the month were joined by
Winchester with the main division. Two
days afterwards the Americans were assaulted
by a thousand five hundred British and In-
dians under General Proctor. A severe battle
was fought. General Winchester, having
been taken by the enemy, advised his forces
to capitulate. The American wounded were
left to the mercy of the savages, who at once
began and completed their work of butchery.
The rest of the prisoners were dragged away,
through untold sufferings, to Detroit, where
they were afterwards ransomed.

General Harrison now built Fort Meigs,
on the Maumee. Here he was besieged by
two thousand British and savages, led by
Proctor and Tecumtha. Meanwhile General
Clay, with twelve hundred Kentuckians, ad-
vanced to the relief of the fort. In a few
days the Indians deserted in large numbers,
and Proctor, becoming alarmed, abandoned
the siege and retreated to Maiden. Late in
July, Proctor and Tecumtha, with nearly
four thousand men, again besieged Fort
Meigs. Failing to draw out the garrison, the
British general filed off with half his forces
and attacked Fort Stephenson, at Lower San-
dusky. This place was defended by a hun-
dred and sixty men, under Colonel Croghan,
a stripling but twenty-one years of age. On
the 2d of August, the British advanced to
storm the fort. Having crowded into the
trench, they were swept away almost to a
man. The repulse was complete. Proctor
now raised the siege at Fort Meigs and re-
turned to Maiden. ,

At this time LAKE ERIE was commanded
by a British squadron of six vessels. The work
of recovering these waters was intrusted to
Commodore Oliver H. Perry. His antag-
onist, Commodore Barclay, was a veteran
from Europe. With great energy Perry di-
rected the construction of nine ships, and was

soon afloat. On the 10th of September the
two fleets met near Put-in Bay. The battle
was begun by the American squadron, Perry's
flag-ship, the Lawrence, leading the attack.
His principal antagonist was the Detroit,
under command of Barclay. The British
guns had the wider range and were better
served. In a short time the Lawrence was
ruined, and Barclay's flag-ship was almost
a wreck.

Perceiving how the battle stood, Perry
seized his banner, got overboard into an open
boat, and transferred his flag to the Niagara.
With this powerful vessel he bore down upon
the enemy's line, drove right through the
midst, discharging terrible broadsides right
and left. In fifteen minutes the British fleet
was helpless. Perry returned to the hull of
the Lawrence, and there received the surren-
der. And then he sent to General Harrison
this dispatch : " WE HAVE MET THE ENEMY,

AND THEY ARE OUK8."

For the Americans the way was now
opened to Canada. On the 27th of Septem-
ber Harrison's army was landed near Maiden.
The British retreated to the RIVER THAMES,
and there faced about to fight. A battle-field
was chosen extending from the river to a
swamp. Here, on the 5th of October, the
British were attacked by Generals Harrison
and Shelby. In the beginning of the battle
Proctor fled. The British regulars were broken
by the Kentuckians under Colonel Richard
M. Johnson. The Americans wheeled against
the fifteen hundred Indians, who lay hidden
in the swamp. Tecumtha had staked all on
the issue. For awhile the war-whoop sounded
above the din of the conflict. Presently his
voice was heard no longer, for the great chief-
tain had fallen. The savages, appalled by the
death of their leader, fled in despair. So
ended the campaign in the West. All that
Hull had lost was regained.

Meanwhile, the Creeks of Alabama had
taken up arms. In the latter part of Au-
gust Fort Mims, forty miles north of Mobile,
was surprised by the savages, who mur-
dered nearly four hundred people. The gov-
ernors of Tennessee, Georgia, and Mississippi
made immediate preparation for invading the
country of the Creeks. The Tennesseeans,
under General Jackson, were first to the res-

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION.— AMERICAN EVENTS: WAR OF 1812. 1139

cue. Nine hundred men, led by General
Coffee, reached the Indian town of Tallus-
hatchee, burned it, and left not an Indian
alive. On the 8th of November a battle was
fought at Talladega, and the savages were
defeated with severe losses. Another fight
occurred at Autosse, on the Tallapoosa, and
again the Indians were disastrously routed.

During the
winter Jackson's
troops became
mutinous, and
were going home.
But the general
set them the ex-
ample of living
on acorns, and
threatened with
death the first
man who stirred
from the ranks.
And no man
stirred. On the
22d of January,
1814, the battle
of Emucfau was
fought. TheTen-
nesseeans again
gained the vic-
tory. At Horse-
shoe Bend the
Creeks made
their final stand.
On the 27th of
March the whites,
under General
Jackson, stormed
the breastworks
and drove the
Indians into the
bend of the river.
There, huddled

together, a thousand Creek warriors, with
the women and children of the tribe, met
their doom. The nation was completely con-
quered.

On the 25th of April, 1813, General Dear-
born, commanding the Army of the Center,
embarked his forces at Sackett's Harbor, and
proceeded against Toronto. Here was the
most important depot of supplies in British
America. The American fleet, under Com-

modore Chauncey, had already obtained the
mastery of Lake Ontario. On the 27th of
the month seventeen hundred men, under
General Pike, were landed near Toronto.
The Americans drove (lie enemy from the
water's edge, stormed a battery, and rushed
forward to carry the main defenses. At that
moment the British magazine blew up with

PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE.

terrific violence. Two hundred men were
killed or wounded. General Pike was fatally
injured; but ^he Americans continued the
charge and drove the British out of the town.
Property to the value of a half million dollars
was secured to the victors.

While this movement was taking place,
the enemy made a descent on Sackett's Har-
bor. But General Brown rallied the militia
and drove back the assailants. The victorious

1140

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

troops at Toronto reembarked and crossed the
lake to the mouth of the Niagara. Ou the
27th of May the Americans, led by Generals
Chandler and Winder, stormed Fort George.
The British retreated to Burlington Bay at
the western extremity of the lake.

After the battle of the Thames, General
Harrison had transferred his forces to Buffalo,
and then resigned his commission. General
Dearborn also withdrew from the service, and
was succeeded by General Wilkinson. The
next campaign, planned by General Arm-
strong, embraced the conquest of Montreal.
The Army of the Center was ordered to join
the Army of the North on the St. Lawrence.
On the 5th of November, seven thousand
men, embarking twenty miles north of Sack-
ett's Harbor, sailed against Montreal. Par-
ties of British, Canadians, and Indians, gath-
ering on the bank of the river, impeded the
expedition. General Brown was landed with
a considerable force to drive the enemy into
the interior. On the llth of the month a
severe but indecisive battle was fought at a
place called Chrysler's Field. The Americans
passed down the river to St. Begis, where the
forces of General Hampton were expected to
form a junction with Wilkinson's command.
But Hampton did not arrive ; and the Amer-
icans went into winter quarters at Fort Cov-
ington. In the mean time, the British on
the Niagara rallied and recaptured Fort
George. Before retreating, General McClure,
the commandant, burned the town of Newark.
The British and Indians crossed the river,
took Fort Niagara, and fired the villages of
Youngstown, Lewiston, and Manchester. On
the 30th of December, Black Rock and Buf-
falo were burned.

Off the coast of Demerara, on the 24th of
February, 1813, the sloop-of-war Hornet, com-
manded by Captain James Lawrence, fell in
with the British brig Peacock. A terrible bat-
tle of fifteen minutes ensued, and the Peacock
struck her colors. While the Americans were
transferring the conquered crew, the ocean
yawned and the brig sank. Nine British
sailors and three of Lawrence's men were
sucked down in the whirlpool.

On returning to Boston, the command of
the Chesapeake was given to Lawrence, and
again he put to sea. He was soon challenged

by Captain Broke, of the British Shannon, to
fight him. Eastward from Cape Ann, the
two vessels met on the 1st day of June. The
battle was obstinate, brief, dreadful. In a
short time every officer of the Chesapeake was
either killed or wounded. Lawrence was
struck with a musket-ball, and 'fell dying on
the deck. As they bore him down the hatch-
way, he gave his last order — ever afterwards the
motto of the American sailor — "DON'T GIVE
UP THE SHIP !" The Shannon towed her prize
into the harbor of Halifax. There the bodies
of Lawrence and Ludlow, second in command,
were buried by the British.

On the 14th of August, the American
brig Argus was overtaken by the Pelican and
obliged to surrender. On the 5th of Septem-
ber, the British brig Boxer was captured by
the American Enterprise off the coast of Maine.
Captain Blyth, the British commander, and
Burrows, the American captain, both of whom
were killed in the battle, were buried side by
side at Portland. On the 28th of the follow-
ing March, while the Essex, commanded by
Captain Porter, was lying in the harbor of
Valparaiso, she was attacked by two British
vessels, the Phcebe and the Cherub. Captain
Porter fought his antagonists until nearly all
of his men were killed or wounded ; then
struck his colors and surrendered.

From honorable warfare the naval officers
of England stooped to marauding. Early in
the year, Lewiston was bombarded by a
British squadron. Other British men-of-war
entered the Chesapeake and burned several
villages on the shores of the bay. At the
town of Hampton the soldiers and marines
perpetrated great outrages. Commodore
Hardy, to whom the blockade of New Eng-
land had been assigned, behaved with more
humanity. Even the Americans praised him
for his honorable conduct. So the year 1813
closed without decisive results.

In the spring of 1814, another invasion of
Canada was planned; but there was much
delay. Not until the 3d of July did Generals
Scott and Ripley, with three thousand men,
cross the Niagara and capture Fort Erie.
On the following day, the Americans ad-
vanced in the direction of CHIPPEWA VILLAGE.
Before reaching that place, however, they
were met by the British, led by General Riall.

THE Adi: <>!'• REVOLUTION.— AMERICAN /;i'/..vy.s. n:\it OF 1812. 1 1 n

Oil the evening of the fnh, a severe battle
was fought on the plain south of ('hi]>[ie\\a
Ilivcr. Tlie Americans, led on by (leneral-
Scott and Kipley, won the day.

General Riall retreated to Burlington
Heights. On the evening of the 2">th of
July, General Scott, commanding the Amer-
ican right, found himself confronted by Kiall's
army on the high grounds in sight of NIAGARA
FALLS. Here was fought the hardest battle of
the war. Scott held his own until reinforced
by other divisions of the army. The British
reserves were brought into action. Twilight
faded into darkness. A detachment of Amer-
icans, getting upon the British rear, captured
General Riall and his staff. The key to the
enemy's position was a high ground crowned
with a battery. Calling Colonel James Miller
to his side, General Brown said, " Colonel,
take your regiment and storm that battery."
"I'LL TRY, SIR," was Miller's answer; and he
did take it, and held it against three assaults
of the British. General Drummond was
wounded, and the royal army, numbering five
thousand, was driven from the field with a
loss of more than eight hundred. The Amer-
icans lost an equal number.

After this battle of Niagara, or Lundy's
Lane, the American forces fell back to Fort
Erie. General Gaines crossed over from Buf-
falo and assumed command of the army.
General Drummond received reinforcements,
and on the 4th of August invested Fort Erie.
The siege continued until the 17th of Septem-
ber, when a sortie was made and the works of
the British were carried. General Drummond
then raised the siege and retreated to Fort
George. On the 5th of November Fort Erie
was destroyed by the Americans, who recrossed
the Niagara and went into winter quarters at
Black Rock and Buffalo.

The winter of 1813-14 was passed by the
army of the North at Fort Covington. In
the latter part of February General Wilkin-
son began an invasion of Canada. At La
Colle, on the Sorel, he attacked the enemy
and was defeated. Falling back to Platts-
burg, he was superseded by General Izard.
At this time tho American fleet on Lake Cham-
plain was commanded by Commodore Mac-
Donough. The British General Prevost now
advanced into New York at the head of four-

teen thousand men, and ordered
Dounie to ascend the Sorel with his diet.

The, invading army reached l'i MI-M i:u.
Commodore MacDonoii^h's .-<|iuidron lay in
the bay. On the o'th of September, Macomb
retired with his force- t<( the south hank of
the Saranac. For four days the British re-
newed their efforts to cross the river. Dow-
fleet was now ready for action, ami a
general battle was planned for the llth. Pre-
vost's army was to carry Macomh's position,
while the British flotilla was to bear down on
MacDonough. The naval battle began first,
ami was obstinately fought for two hours and
a half. Downie and many of his officers were
killed; the heavier British vessels were dis-
abled and obliged to strike their colors. The
smaller ships escaped. After a severe action,
the British army on the shore was also de-
feated. Prevost retired precipitately to Canada
and the English ministry began to devise
measures of peace.

Late in the summer, Admiral Cochrane ar-
rived off the coast of Virginia with an arma-
ment of twenty-one vessels. General Ross,
with an army of four thousand veterans, came
•with the fleet. The American squadron,
commanded by Commodore Barney, was un-
able to oppose so powerful a force. The enemy
entered the Chesapeake with the purpose of
attacking Washington and Baltimore. The
larger division sailed into the Patuxent and on
the 19th of August the forces of General Ross
were landed at Benedict. Commodore Barney
was obliged to blow up his vessels and take
to the shore. From Benedict the British ad-
vanced against Washington. At Bladensburg
six miles from the capital, they were met on
the 24th of the month by the forces of Bar-
ney. Here a battle was fought. The militia
behaved badly ; Barney was defeated and taken
prisoner. The President, the cabinet, and the
people betook themselves to flight, and Ross
marched unopposed into Washington. All
the public buildings, except the Patent Office,
were burned. The unfinished Capitol and the
President's house were left a mass of ruins.

Five days afterward, a portion of the Brit-
ish fleet reached Alexandria. The inhabitants
purchased the forbearance of the enemy by the
surrender of twenty-one ships, sixteen thousand
barrels of flour, and a thousand hogsheads of

1142

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

tobacco. After the capture of Washington,
General Ross proceeded with his army and
fleet to Baltimore. The militia, to the num-
ber of ten thousand, gathered under command
of General Samuel Smith. On the 12th of
September, the British were landed at the
mouth of the Patapsco; and the fleet began
the ascent of the river. The land-forces were
met by the Americans under General Strieker.
A skirmish ensued, in which General Ross was
killed ; but Colonel Brooks assumed command,
and the march was continued. Near the city,
the British came upon the American lines and
were brought to a halt.

Meanwhile, the British squadron had as-
cended the Patapsco, and begun the bombard-
ment of Fort McHenry. From sunrise of the
13th until after midnight, the guns of the fleet
poured a tempest of shells upon the fortress.1
At the end of that time, the works were as
strong as at the beginning. The British had
undertaken more than they could accomplish.
Disheartened and baffled, they ceased to fire.
The land-forces retired from before the in-
trenchments, and the siege of Baltimore was
at an end.

On the 9th and 10th of August, the vil-
lage of Stonington, Connecticut, was bom-
barded by Commodore Hardy; but the Brit-
ish, attempting to land, were driven back.
The fisheries of New England were broken
up. The salt-works at Cape Cod escaped by
the payment of heavy ransoms. All the har-
bors from Maine to Delaware were blockaded.
The foreign commerce of the Eastern States
was totally destroyed.

From the beginning, many of the people
of New England had opposed the war. The
members of the Federal party cried out against
it. The legislature of Massachusetts advised
the calling of a convention. The other Eastern
States responded to the call; and on the 14th
of December the delegates assembled at Hart-
ford. The leaders of the Democratic party did
not hesitate to say that the purposes of the as-
sembly were disloyal and treasonable. After
remaining in session, with closed doors, for
nearly three weeks, the delegates published an
address, and then adjourned. The political

1 During the night of this bombardment, Fran-
cis S. Key, who was detained on board a British ship
,r the bay, composed The Star Spangled Banner.

prospects of those who participated in the con-
vention were ruined.

During the progress of the war the Spanish
.authorities of Florida sympathized with the
British. In August of 1814, a British fleet
was allowed by the commandant of Pensacola
to use that post for the purpose of fitting out
an expedition against Fort Bowyer, on the bay
of Mobile. General Jackson, who commanded
in the South, remonstrated with the Spaniards,
but received no satisfaction. He thereupon
marched a force against Pensacola, stormed the
town, and drove the British out of Florida.

General Jackson next learned that the Brit-
ish were making preparations for the conquest
of Louisiana. Repairing to NEW ORLEANS, he
declared martial law, mustered the militia, and
adopted measures for repelling the invasion.
From La Fitte, a smuggler, he learned the
enemy's plans. The British army, numbering
twelve thousand, came from Jamaica, under
Sir Edward Pakenham. On the 10th of De-
cember, the squadron entered Lake Borgne,
sixty miles north-east of New Orleans.

On the 22d of the month, Pakenham's ad-
vance reached the Mississippi, nine miles below
the city. On the night of the 23d, Generals
Jackson and Coffee advanced with two thou-
sand Tennessee riflemen to attack the British
camp. After a bloody assault, Jackson was
obliged to fall back to a strong position on the
canal, four miles below the city. Pakeuham
advanced, and on the 28th cannonaded the
American position. On New Year's Day the
attack was renewed, and the enemy was driven
back. Pakenham now made arrangements
for a general battle.

Jackson was ready. Earthworks had been
constructed, and a long line of cotton-bales
and sand-bags thrown up for protection. On
the 8th of January, the British moved for-
ward. The battle began with the light of
morning, and was ended before nine o'clock.
Column after column of the British was smit
ten with irretrievable ruin. Jackson's men
were almost entirely secure from the enemy's
fire, while every discharge of the Tennessee
and Kentucky rifles told with awful effect on
the exposed veterans of England. Paken-
ham was killed ; General Gibbs was mortally
wounded. Only General Lambert was left to
call the fragments of the army from the field.

THE AGE OF RE VOL UTIOX. —AMERICAN E VENTS : WA R OF 1812. II)::

Of the British, seven hundred were killed,
fourteen hundred wounded, and five hundred
taken prisoners. The American loss amounted
to eight killed and thirteen wounded.

General Lambert retired with his ruined
army into Lake Borgne. Jackson marched
into New Orleans and was received with great
enthusiasm. Such was the close of the war
on land. On the 20th of February the Amer-
ican Constitution, off Cape St. Vincent, cap-
tured two British vessels, the Cyane and the
Levant. On the 23d of March, the American
Hornet ended the conflict by capturing the
British Penguin off the coast of Brazil.

Already a treaty of peace had been made.
In the summer of 1814, American commis-
sioners were sent to Ghent, in Belgium,
and were there met by the ambassadors of
Great Britain. The agents of the United
States were John Quincy Adams, James A.
Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell, and
Albert Gallatin. On the 24th of December,
a treaty was agreed to and signed. In both
countries the news was received with deep
satisfaction. On the 18th of February, the
treaty was ratified by the Senate, and peace
was publicly proclaimed.

Never was there a more absurd treaty than
that of Ghent. Its only significance was that
Great Britain and the United States, having
been at war, agreed to be at peace. Not one
of the distinctive issues to decide which the
war had been undertaken was settled or even
mentioned. Of the impressment of American
seamen not a word was said. The wrongs
done to the commerce of the United States
were not referred to. The rights of neutral
nations were left as undetermined as before.
Of ' ' free trade and sailors' rights," which had
been the battle-cry of the American navy, no
mention was made. The principal articles of
the compact were devoted to the settlement
of unimportant boundaries and the possession
of some petty islands in the Bay of Passama-
quoddy. There is little doubt, however, that
at the time of the treaty Great Britain gave
the United States a private assurance that im-
pressment and the other wrongs complained
of by the Americans should be practiced no
more. For the space of sixty years vessels
bearing the flag of the United States have
been secure from such insults as caused the

war of 1*1± Another Advantage gained by
America was the recognition of her naval
:. It was no longer doubtful that Amer-
ican sailors were the peers in valor and patriot-
ism of any seamen in the world. It was no
small triumph for the Republic that her flag
should henceforth be honored on every ocean.

The country was now burdened with a war-
debt of a hundred million dollars. The mon-
etary affairs of the nation were in a deplorable
condition. The charter of the Bank of the
United States expired in 1811, and the other
banks had been obliged to suspend specie pay-
ment. Trade was paralyzed for the want of
money. In 1816 a bill was passed by Con-
gress to re-charter the Bank of the United
States. The President interposed his veto ;
but in the following session the bill was again
passed in an amended form. On the 4th of
March, 1817, the bank went into operation ;
and the business and credit of the country be-
gan to revive.

During the war with Great Britain the Al-
gerine pirates renewed their depredations on
American commerce. The government of the
United States now ordered Commodore Deca-
tur to proceed to the Mediterranean and chas-
tise the sea-robbers into submission. On the
17th of June, Decatur fell in with the princi-
pal frigate of the Algerine squadron, and after
a severe fight, compelled the Moorish ship to
surrender. On the 19th, the commodore cap-
tured another frigate. A few days afterward
he sailed into the Bay of Algiers, and obliged
the frightened Dey to make a treaty. The
Moorish Emperor released his American pris-
oners, relinquished all claims to tribute, and
gave a pledge that his ships should trouble
American merchantmen no more. Decatur
next sailed against Tunis and Tripoli, com-
pelled these States to give pledges of good con-
duct, and to pay large sums for former depre-
dations.

The close of Madison's administration was
signalized by the admission of Indiana into
the Union. The new commonwealth was ad-
mitted in December, 1816. About the same
time was founded the Colonization Society of
the United States. Many distinguished Ameri-
cans became members of the association, the
object of which was to provide a refuge for
free persons of color. Liberia, in Western

1144

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Africa, was selected as the seat of the proposed
colony. Immigrants arrived in sufficient num-
bers to found a flourishing negro State. The
capital was named Monrovia, in honor of
James Monroe, who, in the fall of 1816, was
elected as Madison's successor. Daniel D.
Tompkins, of New York, was chosen Vice-
president.

On the whole the War of 1812 conduced
largely to the independence of the United States.
The American nation became more conscious
of its existence, more self-sufficient, than ever
before. The reader will have readily per-
ceived that the conflict was in the nature of
a side issue, or corollary, of the greater strug-

gle going on in Europe. On the side of Great
Britain the war was waged but feebly, as
though she knew herself to be in the wrong.
As soon as a fair opportunity was presented
she receded from a contest in which she had
engaged in only a half-hearted way, and of
which she had good cause to be ashamed. At
the close of the conflict the historian comes to
what may be called the Middle Ages of the
United States — an epoch during which the
tides of population rolled into the Mississippi
Valley, a powerful physical civilization was
developed, and the institution of African
slavery began to throw its black and porten-
tous shadow over all the landscape.

took

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

CHAPTER L.— THE UNITED STATES.

| RE AT -waa the change in
the condition of Europe
and America after the
treaties of Vienna and
Ghent The battle of
Waterloo seemed to be
the last burst of a long
continued tempest. Then a calm ensued as
if the political world would seek rest from the
storms to which it had been exposed for nearly
forty years. In the present Book it will be
the purpose to resume the narrative of events,
first in our own country and then in Europe,
from the overthrow of Napoleon to the cur-
rent annals of the day. Though the story
may in many parts appear less tragic than in
the whirling drama of the Age of Revolution,
it will nevertheless be found so full of varied
interest — so pervaded with the noble spirit to
which the Nineteenth Century has yielded itself
as to a guiding genius — that he who reads may
still discover therein a source of inspiration
and a fountain of prophecy.

It is perhaps not invidious to say that the
success of the United States of North America
in building up a great nationality in the
West, in the physical grandeur of the civil-

ization planted on this side of the sea, in the
vindication of free political institutions as
the best form of human government, has in
the present century far outstripped any pre-
vious achievement of the human race. It is
the purpose of the present chapter to give a
sketch in outline of this prodigious growth
and promise of our country. It will be re-
membered that in the preceding Book the
History of the United States was extended to
the close of the war of 1812 and the estab
lishment of peace by the Treaty of Ghent.
We will now resume the narrative with the
administration of JAMES MONKOE, fifth Pres-
ident of the Republic.

The new executive was a man of peace,
and his administration of eight years partook
of his own character. In 1817 the question
of internal improvements began to be much
agitated. The territorial vastness of the
country made it necessary to devise suitable
means of communication between the distant
parts. Without railroads and canals it was
evident that the products of the great interior
could never reach a market. Had Congress
a right to vote money to make the needed
improvements? Jeflerson and Madison had

(1145)

1146

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

both answered the question in the negative.
Monroe held similar views; and a majority
of Congress voted against the proposed ap-
propriations. In one instance, however, a
bill was passed appropriating the means neces-
sary for the construction of a National Road
across the Alleghanies, from Cumberland to
Wheeling. The question of internal improve-
ments was then referred to the several States ;
and New York took the lead by constructing
a splendid canal from Buffalo to Albany, a

JAMES MONROE.

distance of three hundred and sixty-three
miles. The cost of this important work was
more than seven and a half million dollars,
and the eight years of Monroe's administra-
tion were occupied in completing it.

In the same year with the beginning of
this agitation a war broke out Avith the Sem-
inole Indians of Georgia and Alabama. Cam-
paigns into the country of the hostile tribe
were made by Generals Gaines and Jackson,
and in the spring of 1818 they submitted and
renewed their treaty with the government.

About this time the Union was greatly ex-
tended by the admission of new States. In
came Indiana in 1816, and two years after-
wards Illinois with her fifty-five thousand
square miles of territory. Early in 1820 the
province of Maine, which had been under the
jurisdiction of Massachusetts since 1652, was
separated from that government and admitted
into the Union. At the time of admission
the population of the new State had reached
two hundred and ninety-eight thousand ; and
its territory embraced nearly
thirty-two thousand square miles.
In August of 1821 the great
State of Missouri, with an area
of sixty-seven thousand square
miles and a population of sev-
enty-four thousand, was admit-
ted as the twenty-fourth member
of the Union ; but the admission
was attended with a political agi-
tation so violent as to threaten
the peace of the country.

When the bill to admit Mis-
souri was brought before Con-
gress, a proposition was made in
that body to prohibit slavery in
the new State. This measure was
strongly supported by the free
States of the North, and as
strongly opposed by the slave-
holding States of the South. The
country was sectionally divided.
Congress was distracted with long
and angry debates, in which the
whole question of slavery was dis-
cussed. At last Henry Clay
brought forward a plan of set-
tlement which, after further dis-
cussion, was adopted. This
measure, known as THE MISSOURI COMPRO-
MISE, was one of the most important acts of
American legislation. The principal condi-
tions of the plan were these : first, the admis-
sion of Missouri as a slaveholding State ;
secondly, the division of the rest of the Lou-
isiana purchase by the parallel of thirty-six
degrees and thirty minutes; thirdly, the ad-
mission of new States, to be formed out of
the territory south of that line, with or with-
out slavery, as the people might determine ;
fourthly, the prohibition of slavery in all the

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— Til Y. r\ITI-:i> > 7. 1/7 X

1147

new States to be organized out of territory
north of the dividing-line. Thus the slavery
agitation was allayed until 1849.

Meanwhile, the country had measurably
recovered from the effects of the late war.
With peace and plenty, the resources of the
nation were rapidly augmented. Toward the
close of his term, the President's administra-
tion grew into high favor with the people;
and in the fall of 1820 he was reelected with
great unanimity. As Vice-president, Mr.
Tompkins was also chosen for a second term.

Scarcely had the excitement over the admis-

Jean Lafittc, were completely broken up ; not
a pirate was left afloat.

At this time the countries of South Amer-
ica were disturbed with many revolutions.
From the days of Pizarro, these states had
been dependencies of European monarchies.
Now they declared their independence, and
struggled to maintain it by force of arms.
The people of the United States, having
achieved their own liberty, naturally sympa-
thized with the patriots of the South. Mr.
Clay urged upon the government the duty
of giving official recognition to the South

FRONT VIEW OF THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON.

sion of Missouri subsided, when the attention
of the government was called to an alarm-
ing system of piracy which had sprung up in
the West Indies. Early in 1822, the Afaer-
ican frigate Congress, accompanied with eight
smaller vessels, was sent thither; and in the
course of the year more than twenty piratical
ships were captured. In the following sum-
mer, Commodore Porter was dispatched with
a larger fleet to cruise about Cuba and the
neighboring islands. Such was his vigilance
that the retreats of the sea-robbers, who had
been established in those waters and about
the Gulf of Mexico by the great buccaneer,

American republics. At last his views pre-
vailed; and in March of 1822 a bill was
passed by Congress recognizing the new states
as sovereign nations. In the following year,
this action was followed up by the President
with a vigorous message, in which he declared
that, for the future, the American continents
were not to be considered as subjects for coloniza-
tion by any European power. This famous dec-
laration constitutes what has ever since been
known in the politics and diplomacy of the
United States as THE MONROE DOCTRINE — a
doctrine by which the entire Western hemis-
phere is consecrated to free institutions.

1148

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

In the year 1824, the venerable French
patriot, the Marquis de La Fayette, paid a

-
I

THE WHITE HOUSE, WASHINGTON CITY.

visit to the country for whose emancipation he
had given the zeal and energy of his youth.
Everywhere he was received with the highest
marks of respect by the
sons of the men of seventy-
six, and was at length dis-
patched to France with the
benedictions of the Ameri-
can people.

Before the departure
of the illustrious French-
man another presidential
election had been held. It
was a time of great excite-
ment, and much division
of sentiment. Four can-
didates were presented for
the suffrages of the peo-
ple. There was an appear-
ance of sectionalism in the
canvass. John Quincy
Adams was put forward
as the candidate of the
East; William H. Craw-
ford, of Georgia, as the
choice of the South ;
Henry Clay and Andrew
Jackson as the favorites
of the West. Neither can-
didate received a majority of the electoral votes,
and for the second time in the history of the

government the choice of President was referred
to the House of Representatives. By that body
Mr. ADAMS was duly
elected. For Vice-pres-
ident, John C. Calhoun,
of South Carolina, had
been chosen by the elec-
toral college.

The new President
was a man of the highest
attainments in literary
accomplishments and
statesmanship. At the
age of eleven years he
had accompanied his
father, John Adams, to
Europe. At Paris and
Amsterdam and St. Pe-
tersburg the son had con-
tinued his studies, and
become acquainted with

the politics of the Old World. In his riper
years, he had served as ambassador to the
Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, and

---s-^ssjs^sssm

.

JEAN LAFITTE.

England. He had also held the offices of
United States Senator and Secretary of State.

mi: .v/.v/.7/./..\y// ci:.\n HY.—TiiE UNITED STATIC.

The new administration was a time of ex-
ternal peace; but the spirit of party mani-
fested it.-elf with much violence. The adher-
ents of General Jackson ami Mr. Crawford
united in opposition to the President. In the
Senate, the political friends of .Mr. Adams were
in a minority, and their majority in the lower
House lasted for only one session. In his in-
augural address, the President strongly advo-
cated the doctrine of internal improvements.

When, in the year 1802, Georgia relin-
quished her claim to Mississippi Territory,
the general government
agreed to purchase for the
State all the Creek lands
lying within her borders.
This pledge the United
States had never fulfilled,
and Georgia complained of
bad faith. Finally, in March
of 1826, a treaty was con-
cluded between the Creek
chiefs and the President, by
which a cession of all their
lands in Georgia was ob-
tained. At the same time,
the Creeks agreed to remove
beyond the Mississippi.

On the 4th of July,
1826— just fifty years after
the Declaration of Inde-
pendence — John Adams,
second President, and his
successor, Thomas Jefferson,
both died. Both had lifted
their voices for freedom in
the days of the Revolution.
One had written and both
had signed the great Decla-
ration. Both had lived to
see their country's independence. Both had
reached extreme old age: Adams was ninety;
Jefferson, eighty-two. Now, while cannon were
booming for the fiftieth birthday of the nation,
the honored patriots passed away.

The congressional debates of 1828 were di-
rected to the great questions of tariff, revenue,
and the protection of American industry. It
was found that the people of the United States,
with the payment of high wages consequent
upon free labor, and especially with the small
accumulations of capital at their disposal, could

hardly compete with foreign manufacturer- and
trader The theory i.f tariff duties f,,r the en-
couragement df home production was, there-
lore, advanced by those who were anxious
to create and foster what was known as the
"American system"— by which was meant the
development of varied industries even at the
expense of higher prices in the products. The
President and his chief supporters favored the
tariff; and in 1828 protective duties were
kid on fabrics made of wool, cotton, linen,
and silk; and those on articles mauufac-

\ ,

"

fr

LA FAYErnc.

hired of iron, lead, etc., were much in-
creased. With the fall of 1828, Mr. Adams,
supported by Mr. Clay, was put forward for
reelection. General Jackson appeared as the
candidate of the opposition. In the previous
election Jackson had received more electoral
votes than Adams; but the House of Repre-
sentatives had chosen the latter. Now the
people were determined to have their way;
and JACKSON was triumphantly elected, receiv-
ing a hundred and seventy-eight electoral votes
against eighty-three for his opponent

1150

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The new President was a military hero — a
man of great talents, coarse, stubborn, and
inflexibly honest. His integrity was unassail-
able ; his will, like iron. He was one of those
men for whom no toils are too arduous. His
accession to the presidency marked the over-
throw of the so-called "Virginia Dynasty,"
consisting of Washington, Jefferson, Madison,
and Monroe, and the substitution for the gen-
tlemanly methods of those great personages of
the rough and boisterous manners which have
ever since been too prevalent in the high
places of American politics. Jackson's per-

JOHN QOINCY ADAMS.

sonal character was impressed upon his admin-
istration. At the beginning he removed nearly
seven hundred office-holders, and appointed
in their stead his own political friends.

In his first message the President took
ground against rechartering the Bank of the
United States. He recommended that the
old charter should be allowed to expire by its
own limitation in 1836. But the influence of
the bank was very great ; and in 1832 a bill
to recharter was passed by Congress. The
President opposed his veto; a two-thirds ma-
jority in favor of the bill could not be secured
and so the new charter failed.

In the congressional session of 1831-32 ad-
ditional tariffs were levied upon goods imported
from abroad. By this act the manufacturing
districts were favored at the expense of the
agricultural States. South Carolina was spe-
cially offended. A convention of her people
was held, and it was resolved that the tariff-
law of Congress was null and void. Open re-
sistance was threatened in case the officers
should attempt to collect the revenues at
Charleston. In the United States Senate the
right of a State to nullify an act of Congress
had already been boldly proclaimed. On that
question occurred the great debate between
Colonel Isaac Hayne, senator from South
Carolina, and Daniel Webster, of Massachu-
setts, the greatest master of American elo-
quence. The former appeared as the
champion of State rights, and the latter of
constitutional supremacy.

The President now took the matter in
hand and issued a proclamation denying
the right of a State to nullify the laws of
Congress. But Mr. Calhoun, the Vice-
president, resigned his office to accept a seat
in the Senate, where he might defend the
doctrines of his State. The President, hav-
ing warned the South Carolinians, ordered
a body of troops under General Scott to
proceed to Charleston. Hereupon the lead-
ers of the nullifying party receded from
their position, and bloodshed was avoided.
Soon afterward Henry Clay secured the
passage of a bill providing, for a gradual
reduction of the duties on imports until
they should reach the standard demanded
by the South.

In the spring of 1832, the Sac, Fox, and
Winnebago Indians of Wisconsin began a war.
They were led by the famous chief, Black
Hawk. The lands of the Sacs and Foxes had
been purchased by the government twenty-five
years previously, but the Indians had mained
in the ceded territory. When at last they
were required to give possession- they refused
to comply. The government insisted that they
fulfill their contract, and hostilities began. The
governor of Illinois called out the militia, and
General Scott was sent with troops to Chicago
to cooperate with General Atkinson. The
latter waged a vigorous campaign, defeated
the Indians, and made Black Hawk a prisoner.

•/•///•; .\L\KTKI-:.\T][ CEXTUKY. TIII: CMTI i> sv r/v.x

1 151

Difficulties also arose with the Cherokees
of Georgia — the most civilized of all the In-
<li:iii nations. The government of the United
States had promised to purchase the Cherokee
lauds for the benefit of ( Jnu-jria. The pledge
was not fulfilled ; and the legislature passed a
statute extending the laws of the State over
the Indians. At the same time the Chero-
kees and Creeks were denied the use of the
State courts. The Indians appealed to the
President for help, but he refused to interfere
and recommended the removal of the Chero-
kees to lands beyond the Mississippi. THE
INDIAN TERRITORY was accordingly organized
in 1834. The Indians yielded with great re-
luctance. More than five million dollars were
paid them for their lands. At last General
Scott was ordered to remove them, and during
the years 1837-38, the Cherokees were trans-
ferred to their new homes in the West.

More serious still was the conflict with the
Seminoles. The trouble arose from an attempt
to remove the tribe beyond the Mississippi.
Hostilities began in 1835, and continued for
four years. Osceola and Micanopy, chiefs of
the nation, denied the validity of a former
cession of the Seminole lands. General Thomp-

AXPREW JACKSON.

son was obliged to arrest Osceola and put him
The chief then gave his assent to

•in irons.

the old treaty, and was liberated, but imme-
diately entered into a conspiracy to slaughter

DANIEL WEBSTER.

the Whites. The war broke out anew and
continued for some time, until the hostile tribe
was defeated and driven into the Everglades
of Florida.

In the mean time, the President had put
an end to the Bank of the United States.
After vetoing the bill to recharter that insti-
tion, he conceived that the surplus funds which
had accumulated in its vaults would better be
distributed among the several States. Ac-
cordingly, in October of 1833, he ordered the
funds of the bank, amounting to ten million
dollars, to be distributed among certain State
banks designated for that purpose. The finan-
cial panic of 1836-37, following soon after-
ward, was attributed by the Whigs to the de-
struction of the National Bank and the removal
of the funds. But the adherents of the Pres-
ident replied that the panic was attributable
to the bank itself.

In 1834 the strong will of the chief magis-
trate was brought into conflict with France.
Three years previously the French king had
agreed to pay five million dollars for injuries
formerly done to American commerce. But
the government of France neglected the pay-
ment until the President recommended to
Congress to make reprisals on French mer-

1152

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

chantmen. This measure had the desired
effect, and the indemnity was paid. Portugal
was brought to terms in a similar manner.

In June of 1836, Arkansas, with a popu-
lation of seventy thousand, was admitted into
the Union. In the following January, Mich-
igan Territory was organized as a State and
added to the Republic. The new common-
wealth brought a population of a hundred and
fifty-seven thousand. In the autumn of 1836,

MAKTIN VAN BUREN.

MARTIN VAN BUREN was elected President.
As to the Vice-presidency, no one secured a ma-
jority, and the choice devolved on the Senate.
By that body Colonel Richard M. Johnson,
of Kentucky, was chosen.

One of the first duties of Van Buren's ad-
ministration was to finish the Seminole War.
In 1837 the command of the army in Florida
was transferred to General Jessup. In the
fall, Osceola came to the American camp with
a flag of truce ; but he was suspected of treach-
ery, seized, and sent a prisoner to Fort Moul-

trie, where he died. The Seminoles, however,
continued the war. In December, Colonel
Zachary Taylor, with a thousand men, marched
into the Everglades of Florida, and overtook
the savages near Lake Okeechobee. A hard
battle was fought, and the Indians were de-
feated. For more than a year, Taylor con-
tinued to hunt them through the swamps.
Then, in 1839, the .chiefs signed a treaty; but
their removal to the West was made with
much delay.

In 1837 the country was
afflicted with a serious mon-
etary panic. The preceding
years had been a time of
great prosperity. A surplus
of nearly forty million dol-
lars, in the national treasury,
had been distributed among
the States. Owing to the
abundance of money, the
credit system was greatly ex-
tended. The banks of the
country were multiplied to
seven hundred. Vast issues
of irredeemable paper money
increased the opportunities
for fraud. The bills of these
unsound banks were receiv-
able for the public lands.
Seeing that the government
was likely to be defrauded
out of millions, President
Jackson issued an order,
called THE SPECIE CIRCULAR,
by which the land - agents
were directed to receive noth-
ing bid coin in payment for
the lands. The effects of this
circular followed in the first
year of Van Buren's administration. The
banks suspended specie payment ; and in the
spring of 1837, the failures in New York and
New Orleans amounted to a hundred and fifty
million dollars.

When Congress convened in the following
September, a bill authorizing the issue of ten
millions of dollars in treasury notes was passed
as a temporary expedient. More important by
far was the measure proposed by the President
under the name of the INDEPENDENT TREAS-
URY BILL, by which the public funds were tp

CHRONOLOGICAL CHART No. IX.

THE IlfffiTEENTH CENTURY.

From the Accession of Victoria to the Franco-Prussian War.

PREPARED BY JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D.

COPYRIGHTED 1885.

UNITED STATES,

24-29. John Q. Adams's Administration.
John C. Calhoun Vice-president.

25. Controversy concerning the lands of the Creek Indians.
26. Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson.
'28. Great political excitcim-nt

Beginning of tin- Tariff agitation.
29-37. Andrew Jackson's Administration.
The President vetoes tlie Hank Bill.

r<nincal division into AVln^s and Democrats.
81. The great Tariff agitation,
3-J. The Black Hawk War.

31. The Indian Territory organized.
35. The Texan Rebellion.
35. The Seminole War.

Removal of tlie Cherokees.
;>;. Arkansas admitted.
37. Michigan admitted into the Union.
Failure of the Sub-treasury Bill.
Great financial crisis.
37-41. Van Bureu's Administration.

Richard M. Johnson, Vice-president,
\Viir with Osceola.
Issuance of the Specie Circular.
Insurrection in Canada.
40. sixth Census of the United states.
41 i.ri. Administrations of Harrison and Tvler.
Veto of the United States Hank Charier.
42. The Webster-Ashburton Ti-»>atv.

43. The ''*1 Toiniifi u.-iimi i ;..•>

,. *^e Rhode Island

Social Disturbances in New York.
39-46. The Mormons in Illinois.

44. Invention of the Telegraph
45. Admission of Texas into t

itratloi

John TyU-r \
40-4*. Tlie >l, xi« ;... M j.

48. Treaty <>f < i iiadalupi
•v cry of Gukl u
Admi

49 53. Administrations
50. P;i

52. Visit of

53-57. !

M, Sn:

[ntei
Wor

54. TI.
54. l'-.i

57-61. Bacl
The

Mo
58, Layii

59- The
M

the Union.

ENGLAND,

Sir Waltsr Scott, novelist

and poet, dies, a. 61.
35. Coleridge, poet, dies, a. 61.

37. Crops fail.

37. Rise of Chartists and Trades'-unions.
37-38. Canada rebellion.

38. Abolition of slavery In British colonies, Aug. 1.
39. Melbourne retires, but is recalled. Afghan war.
39. Bread riots in Birmingham. [Feb. 10.

40. Queen marries Albert, prince of'Saxe-Coburg-Uutha,
40. Intervention in Syria against Mehemet AIL
41. Melbourne retires. Sir Hubert Peel, premier.
42. Chartist troubles. John Francis fires at queen.
4:1. Scinde annexed, June.
43. Troubles in Ireland under O'Cormell.

Sou they, poet, dies, a. 68.
44. Campbell, poet, dies, a. 67.

45. Danish possessions in India purchased.
45. Earl Grey dies, a. 81.

45. Sikh war. Battle at Moodke, Ferozeshah, December.
46. (Battle) Sobraon— aikhs routed, Feb. 10.
4<i. Treaty of Lahore.
46. L'eel retires (Tory). Russell, premier.
4B-52, Caffre war.
47. Chalmers, divine, dies, a. 69.

47. Monetary crisis. Chartist riots. Famine in Ireland.
nd

Irelan

crisis.
rebels.

35. Rise of At»<l-<>l-lia<ler iti Algeria.
PDAMPC 38. DeSacy, orientalist, dies, a. 80.

rnHllULi 38. Talleyrand, statesman, dies, a. H4.

42. Sismondi, historian, dies, a. 69.
42. Abd-el-Kader is beaten and flees.

44. War with Morocco, which banishes Abd-el-Kader.
45. Expulsion of Jesuits. [May 25.

46. Louis Napoleon escapes from fortress of Ham,
47. Rise of radicalism. Two attempts to kill king.
47. Abd-el-Kader taken. Algeria made a French

province. [and flees Feb. 23.
48. Revolution. Louis Philippe, king, abdicates,
Provisional guvt-'nmit'iit ; Ijitiiiai'tiii*'. president.

.

. Great emigration to America.

48. Sikh war renewed. Sikhs utterly defeated, Feb. 21,
49. Sikhs surrender. Punjaub annexed. [Goojer

, 49. Lord Jeffrey, critic, dies, a. 77.
49. Gold found in Australia.
50. Sir Robert Peel dies, a. 62. Wordsworth, poet.

dies, a, 62.
51. War with Burmah.

52. Russell (,W ni no retires.

Derby soon retires- S
52. Dukeof Wellington dies
Thomas Moore, poet, di
52. Pegu annexed, Decemb<
52. Nagpoor annexed. Sir i
53 Aberdeen ministry.
54. War with Russia as t
55. Aberdeen ministry i
56. War with Persia.
at 56. Sir William Ham

•at. 57. Mutiny in Indii

Cawnpore. i
58. Palmerston (I
58. East India Co;
58. Mutiny in Inc

48. Great riots in Paris— 16,000 killed and wounded.
48. *ieii. favaigriiac, dictator.

52. Abd-el-Kader released.

53. Arago, astronomer, di

54. War with Russia, as

56. Thierry, historia:

57. Kugene Cavaigi

August Comte,

58. Orsiniaud Pit

59. War with A

Peace at Vil

.1. GO. Savoy and

61. Jerome!
61. Monaco i
61. Eugene fc

4s. l.oui* \u|M»U*ou. president of Republic.

•jy. insurrection quelled by Chaugarmer.
49. Army occupies Rome.
50. Louis Philippe dies, a. 77.
51. Marshal Soult dies, a. 82.

51. President Louis Napoleon dissolves National Assem-
bly, Dec. 2, and becomes dictator.
52. Enters Tulleries as president lor ten (10) years, Jan

New constitution.
52. President elected

i'mp^ror. as

III., Nov. 21.

20. Prussia and Austria obtain great power
at Vienna in Germanic Confederation.
31. Hegel, philosopher, dies. a. 61.

• ii I'M »T nine her, di vino, dies, a. 66.
S5. Wm. Von Humboldt, philosopher and statesman, dies, ;
pnte with Pope.

ichbiahopof Cologne, forbidding attendance at Bonn, 4«. Insurrection in i ,

is confined in fortress of Miudeu. 46. War with Denmark, as 1

40. King dies, a. 66. 50. Neander, his;

53' B*

Frederick William IV. succeeds.

45. Schlegel, philosopher and critic, dies, a. 78.
47. King establishes representative government.

Alexandi
60. Bunsen

35. Death of emperor.
AUSTRI Ai Ferdinand succeeds, Mar. 2.

46. Cracow annexed.

48. Duke of Tuscany proclaims free constitution.
48. Revolt in Parma quelled.
48. Venice and Milan revolt. Metternich flees.

Insurrection at Prague.
48. Count Lemberg killed at Pesth.

48. KoMiith and K:i< Hi viiu.v at head of provisional gov-
ernment in Hungary.

15. Confederacy of Austria. Prussia, Ger-
ftEDMAMV many, Denmark for Holstein, and

UtnlllHIl I i Netherlands for Luxembourg.

Germany a

15. Great intellectual activity. Free-schools established.
T/ii> ' war. followed by forty years' peace.

19. Jacobl, philosopher, dies, a. 76. Kotzebue, dramat-
1st. ; .a. 58.

48. Insurrection in Vienna. Latour killed. King flees.
48. R. Blum shot. Emperor abdicates; his nephew,

Francis Joseph, succeeds Dec. 2.
48. Hungarian war. Austrians defeat Hungarians at

Szaikszo and at Mohr.
49. Buda-Pesth taken by Windischgratz, Jan. 5.

Bern defeats Austrians at Hermannstadt.
49. Hungary declares herself free, April 14. HoHHiith, gov
49. Russia joins Austria, May 1. Haynau, commander-in-
_gbief, defeats Hungarians at Kaab Temeswar.

49. Gorgey surrenders, Aug

Bern flee to Turkey, v

given up. War ends S

49. Strauss, composer, dies,

50. Bern dies at Aleppo, a.

58. Marshal

59. Metter

59. War wi

r. Lomt

60. Emp<

61. Lit

20. Austria and Prussia acquire preponderance in h'nalactof
confederation, May 17.

25. Jean Paul Richter, novelist and philosopher,
dies. a. 62.

32. Goethe, novelist, philosopher, and poet, dies
33. Riot, at Frankfort.

39. Zollverein established among North
German States.

41. General Estates :
42. n<
43. Tu mil I.'

Hesse-Cass'
a. 83. 48. Frankfort Asse

Denmark.
49. King m

30. War with Poland.

37. Cbemiotle, oriental scholar, dies, a. 3'.
40. Khiva expedition fails from rigor of cli-
46. War with Hungary, [mate, Jan,

31. Qrochow. Feb. 25. Russians 1

7,000; Poles, 2,000.

SkrwsnecJcij Mar. 31. Defeats Rus-
sians, who lose 12,000 men.
31. Warsaw falls, 46. Poland divided. Cracow to Aus-

Sept. 8. 47. Poland absorbed by Russia [iria

POLAND,

53. War with Turkey about Holy Places. Oltenitza battle.
54. War with England and France.
54. Alma, Sept. '20-

Balaklava, Oft. 25.

/nAermonn-Nov. 5. Allies victorious in all.
Sfbaxtnpo' \ besieged Oct. 17.
55. Emperor dies, a. 59.

Alexander II., March 2.

5">. War with Sardinia.
.v.. Battle ofthe Tchrrimya,
55. Sebastopol falls, Sept. ]
56. Peace, April.

58. Partial emancipati

61. Universal em

two years— I

61. Death of 1'rim

of Poland.

ITALY,

5. Eugene Ileauharnais, ^'cen™ 's
14. Kingdom ceases on Napoleon's fall.'
14-15. Congress at Vienna partitions Italy.
Lombard; and Venetia to Austria.

!Sc'SEe1' »<&a. Genoa added
His brother, diaries Felix, king.
28. Monti, poet, dies, a. 74.

•Y2. Gioix'rii, philosopher an
55. Savdiniajoins alii
59, War with At

aids S:\rdi r

Moat

Allies victor
Peace at Vil
60. Su
49. Radetzky defeats king at Milan. Peace. Aug. 6.

31. Charles Albert.

37. Leopardi. poet, dies, a. 39.

47. Kins adopts liberal reforms.
48. constitution proclaimed.
48. Invasion of Lombardy. War with Austria.
49. King; defeated at Novara.

SfJf^SS? Victor Kmaiiuel II.

CD AIM 33. Isabella II. (infant.)

01 AIH i 35. British auxiliaries assist Christina.

queen mother.
35. Espartero crushes revolt.

41. Kwpartero, regent. Insurrection In favor of queen
mother, under O'Donnell. quelled.

14. Norway joins Sweden. Ponierania
REMMAD^ aml ^u?en given to Denmark.

ULlllTlHnlVi 39 ciirisHftti VI¥» Ron of

•>». «. iiri^iii.iii ^ xii,, j.'rpderick

brother of Christian VIL
46, Seizure of Holstein and Sleswick.

48 Frederic VII 4>*~ Holstein and Sleswick de-
clare independence.

4u. Queen Regent abdicates.

42. Insurrection in Barcelona.
43. Successful. Espartero flees.
Isabella II. declared of age.
44. Christina, queen-mother, returns.
46. Queen marries Duke of Cadiz.
Cabrera revolts in '48.

51. Cuba invaded by Lopez.

53 Privileges of clergy i

54. O'Donnell and Com

Espartero rebels; s

55. Don Carlos, brott

56. O*I>onnell. di

.")!*. War with I

4x. Prussia and Frankfort Assembly support them.
48. Prussians and Hanoverians take Holsteiu, April 23.
4^, Sweden and Russia support Denmark.

Gravenstein battle, May 28.

Duppel battle, June 5.
49. Danes defeated at Eckenfiord, April 5.

50. Peace with Prussia.

50. Danes defeated at Idstadt. Holstein continues ho

50. Final treaty of <

55. Sound duties resisted 1

r>7. Sound duties abolish)

57-62. Troubles in SleswJi

63. Frederick VII.

I

63. Great trouble at
utilities. stein with Aui

)O

61

(,1

irnia.

tore.

iMf.

AMI

'.ro\s M 1 •

of Sou' i

liana, anil Texas sei-eilo

HlUff.

rough.

\ i.ii'.tam

of the a

•.II War.

i states undertaken.

nlon.
i-itic Railway.

SIMM.

' railroad system.

.-lary.

•. iToryj, premier.
led.

raska.

Passage of R<

..•1 Fur.

I'alnii-rstoii i LihiTiil , pi • M,<| 'St, (lies, a. 76.

irian mid e*> , sed.

I'mii-eof « ., . .iraKainit Abyssinia

Kent i moth

..-i], i:nrri-it Hi-owning, poetess, dies, a. 52, June.'
til. I'rin.

11 Lancashire on account of failure of
Berlons troubles In India. -ply. 69.1

:
K). William Mak-i :. Dec. 24.

65. I .msm. Habeas 7

( 'ortms suspended In Ireland.

66. Lord Palim-rston. premier, dies, a. 80, Oct. 10.

Passage of the Ballot Act.

i Napier, general, dli

.a. >2.

rurkey. MontK"m>-i
ton, premier.
A-ith China. * mill' ;i
uetapln

y. Rena Sahib captuna
Ted.

1 NTby ( To;

il ' I.urd Clyde). 66. Atlantic Telegraph Calile successfully laid from
Valentin Bay (Ireland) to Heart's Content '

n Ireland.
Ill of Ixjr
of the Abyssinian war.

of i hi- opposition.

i^. -!al •.:-!• Iiii-n: of 111*. Irish Ihlilrh.
I:..! PHMd (• r pioinolinM ..: ...liiriitlon.
1. Sales or .sin the army forbidden.

Alabama Claims Commission meet at Cleneva.

prime minister.
72. Census of the tnited Kingdom. Population.

Tnrki-y. IVar* iii '66.

a. 61.

u-ral and statesman, dies.

plii-r, dirs, a. 69. [a. 55.

•nipt lili- ol'eniperor.

as ally of Sardinia.

•d. Mar. 24.
rtedles.a. 78.

4ramatlst, dies, a. 70.

: ion In Mexico, Oct. 31.
ts. \Var with Mexico.

i;-J. War In Cochin China adds to French Provinces.
62. Blot, Savant, dies, a. 68.
63. DespreU, savant, dies, a. 74, Mar. 15.

66. Intervenes and causes cessation of war between

Prussia, Italy, and Austria.
67. French withdraw from Mexico, March.
67. Intervenes In behalf of Papal States, and causes
cessation of Invasion by defeat of Invaders at
Monte Botundo, near Rome.
International Exposition opens at Paris.

uhlican disturbances at Hordeaux.
\Vur di-clared against Prussia.
60. Liberal gains In the elections.
70. Great battles of the Franco-Prussian war.
70. Kmile Olllvler. prime minister.
71. Provisional Republican government formed.
Concessions made by Napoleon toward constitu-
tional government.
71. siege of Paris by the Germans.
71. Treaty of Peace with Prussia.

The Pleblscltum.
71. Thlers elected president.

.is»!n.

. a. t&
61. William I

city of Frankfort,

on of tl

kv dies, a. 91

• a, 86.

in-nee of Vtllu Knuira. July 1

' I'l'Slll, ( ><".

: loll.

Hungarian dit-t opcnni by i-mpt'i-or.
66. War with Prussia and Iialy.

Atthr Mincio, with Italians, June 24.
66. Kachoii, with Prussians, June 27.
66. Trantenau and Jfunctittigrdtz, June 28.
fri. .Srti/oira, with Prussians, July 3.

Prussians in all victorious.

68. Treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia. Aus-
2. trla waives all claim to 81e." n, with
draws from German/, and yields Norih sie»wk-k
to Denmark. Aug. »0.

rur elected king of Hungary and crowned king at

Kossiith enters Hungarian diet.
Archduke Maximilian shot In Mexico.

i k-y declared amenable to the civil law.
•.Millies of the Jews removed.
68. Outbreak in Dalmalla.
TO. Title of the empire changed to " The Austro-Hunga-

rian Monarchy."

71. I ri.-ndly relations with Germany established.
72. Measures adopted for national representation.

king of HavHria, •

l.udwiK II*

lion i

ales with
King '.'

•tortous.
i, Nov. 2:i.

rfs. .Inly 2.

joo.uoo serfs within

ael GortschakofT, governor

f>l. Prince Aditm George Czartoryski dies, a. 91, July 15,
».•:. Jews admitted to priYilCfM in Russia, Jan. 2fi.
6SS. c'ount Nesselrorle, statf-sman, dies, a. 92, Mar. 23.
63. Insurrection In Russian Poland.
64. Emancipation of all serfs in Poland who had not

taken part In rebellion.
65. Russia advances into Central Asia.

^Attempt to aMassinale the emperor.

: illy relations u Ith Austria and furke;
i, Hi-nil, of i'riiu-t- Menchlkoff.

tnnierclal treaty with China.

Russia demands a modification of the treaty of Paris.
71. Polish and German languages prohibited.

Riots In Odessa.

72. Celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of
Peter the Great.

ling Sardinia. Fra

i 11. :inil king.

l i. kind,

4 mutt 4'uvour

n

t>7. O»'

•i invasion ceases.

69. 1

'iily.
apltalof the kingdom.

'i VlUS.

1 \ oils.

61. St. Domingo annexed.

'"'<!. P2. tto^a. stiitesninn, dies, a. 73, Feb. 1.

. Qneen-motber il. •> 62. San Miguel, statesman, flics, a. «, May 29.

•rilimiml VII., dies. [France. ; :m rises in insurrection.

67. Marshal opi>..

•.-. It.-vnitu inii, 1< .1 h\ 1'rini and Serrano.
6b. Isabella lakes reluge in Paris.

; abella abdicates.
70. Prince Amadeo chosen king.
70. Prim assassinated.

72. Tax riots In Barcelona.

:1 Mutes.

wick occujM'

ans.

Mini i inn* «IMI I mn-innn.

Danes defeated ai Viele iiy Austrinns, March.
'ein. 64. Duppel taken by Prussians, April 10.

,_. Naval battle oft Heligoland. May 9.
I nrlHllail IX.r,l. War ended— Denmark n diiiK to Prussia and Austria the

of 81eswlck-Hol- duchies of Sleswick and Hoi stein, August.

I Prussia.

• to sell the fslttniUof M. Tbuiuaaand
St. John tn fnltpd Sta:

. The clergy ilitaryduty.

70. Denmark remains neutral in Franco-Prumlan war.
~2- ' ir.'iit exposition of Scandinavian Industries at
t'nhagen.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE UNITED STATIC.

L168

be kept in a treasury established for th:it ~\»-
cial purpose. It was the President':- plan thus
to separate the business of the United States
from the general business of the country.

The Independent Treasury Bill was at first
defeated in the House of Representat i \ < -.
But iu the following regular session of Con-
gress the bill was again brought forward and
adopted. During the year 1838 the banks
resumed specie payments. But trade was less
vigorous than before. Discontent prevailed;
and the administration was blamed with every
thing. In the latter part of 1837, a portion of
the people of Canada broke out in revolt and
attempted to establish their independence.
The insurgents found sympathy in the
United States, and seven hundred men
from New York, taking arms, seized and
fortified Navy Island, in the Niagara River.
The loyalists of Canada, however, succeeded
in firing the Caroline, the supply-ship of the
adventurers, cut her moorings, and sent the
burning vessel over Niagara Falls. For a
while the peaceful relations of the United
States and Great Britain were endangered.
But the President issued a proclamation of
neutrality, forbidding further interference
with the affairs of Canada, and the excite-
ment subsided.

Mr. Van Buren became a candidate for
reelection, and received the support of the
Democratic party. The Whigs put forward
General William Henry Harrison. The
canvass was one of the most exciting in
the history of the country. HARRISON was
triumphantly elected. After controlling the
government for forty years, the Democratic
party was temporarily overthrown. For
Vice-president, John Tyler, of Virginia, was
chosen.

Under the new President an able Cabinet
was organized, with Daniel Webster at the
head, and every thing promised well for the
Whig administration. But, before Congress
could convene, the President, now sixty-eight
years of age, fell sick, and died just one month
after his inauguration. On the 6th of April,
Mr. Tyler took the oath of office and became
President of the United States. He was a
statesman of considerable distinction ; a na-
tive of Virginia; a graduate of William

and Mary College. In 1825 he was elected
VOL. II. -73

Governor of Virginia, and from that position
he was sent to the Senate of the Unit.-. I
States. He had been put upon the tirk.-t
with General Harrison through motives of
expediency; for although a Whig in political
principles, he was known to be hostile to tfw
United States Bank, the favorite scheme of
the Whigs.

One of the first measures of the new Con-
gress was the repeal of the Independent
Treasury Bill. A bankrupt law was then
passed for the relief of insolvent business
men. The next measure was the recharter-

WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON.

ing of the Bank of the United States. A
bill for that purpose was brought forward
and passed ; but the President interposed his
veto. Again the bill received the assent of
both houses, only to be rejected by the exec-
utive. By this action a rupture was pro-
duced between the President and the party
which had elected him. All the members of
the cabinet except Mr. Webster resigned their
offices, and a storm of political excitement
swept over the country.

A difficulty now arose with Great Britain
about the north-eastern boundary of the United
States. Since the treaty of 1783 that bound-

1154

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ary had been in question. Lord Ashburton
oil the part of Great Britain, and Mr. Web-
ster 011 the part of the United States, were
called upon to settle the dispute. They per-
formed their work in a manner honorable
to both nations; the Webster- Ashburton
Treaty was concluded in 1842, and the pres-
ent boundary was established.

During the years 1842-45 the country was
agitated with a domestic trouble in Ehode
Island. An attempt was made to annul the
ancient charter of that State, and rival gov-
ernors were elected. For a while civil war

V

If /

SAM HOUSTON.

was threatened in the commonwealth, but at
length the vexed question was amicably set-
tled without a serious resort to force.

Of a different sort was the difficulty with
the Mormons. Under the leadership of their
prophet, Joseph Smith, they made their first
settlement in Jackson County, Missouri. Here
their numbers increased to fully fifteen hun-
dred. A difficulty arose between them and
the people of Missouri. The militia was
called out, and the Mormons were obliged to
leave the State. In 1839 they crossed the
Mississippi into Illinois, and laid out a city
which they called Nauvoo, meaning Die Beau-

tifid. Here they built a splendid temple.
Other Mormons came to join the community,
until the number reached ten thousand. For
awhile Smith administered the government
according to Mormon usage; then serious
troubles arose between the Mormons and the
people of Illinois, and civil war ensued.
Finally, Smith and his brother were arrested,
taken to Carthage and lodged in jail. On the
27th of June, 1844, a mob broke open the
jail doors and killed the prisoners. In the
following year, Nauvoo was besieged by the
populace. At last the Mormons gave up in de-
spair, and resolved to exile themselves be-
yond the limits of civilization. In 1846
they began a toilsome march to the far
West ; crossed the Eocky Mountains ;
reached the Great Salt Lake, and founded
Utah Territory.

Meanwhile, a great agitation had arisen
in regard to Texas. From 1821 to 1836
this vast territory had been a province of
Mexico. It had been the policy of that
country to keep Texas uninhabited, in
order that the Americans might not en-
croach on the Mexican borders. At last,
however, a large land-grant was made to
Moses Austin, of Connecticut, on condition
that he would settle three hundred fam-
ilies within the limits of his domain. After-
ward the grant was confirmed to his son
Stephen, with the privilege of establishing
five hundred additional families of im-
migrants.

In the year 1835, the Texans raised the
standard of rebellion against Mexico. In
a battle, fought at Gonzales, a thousand
Mexicans were defeated by a Texan force
of five hundred. On the 6th of March, 1836,
a Texan fort, called the Alamo, was sur-
rounded by eight thousand Mexicans, led by
Santa Anna. The garrison was overpowered
and massacred. The daring David Crockett
was one of the "nctims of the butchery. In the
next month, General Sam Houston, at the
head of the Texan army, fought the decisive
battle of SAN JACINTO, which gave to Texas
her independence.

The people of Texas now asked to be ad-
mitted into the Union. At first, the propo-
sition was declined by President Van Buren.
In 1844, the question of annexation was again

THE NINETKI'.M'll CENTURY.— THE UNITED STATES.

II.,.,

agitated; and on that question the people
divided in the presidential i-lertion. The an-
nexation was favored by the Democrats, and
opposed by the NVlii.^s. JAMES K. POLK, of
Tennessee, was put forward a.- the Democratic
candidate, while the Whigs chose their favor-
ite leader, Henry Clay. The former was
elected; for Vice-president, George M. Dal-
las, of Pennsylvania, was chosen.

On the 29th of May, 1844, the news of the
nomination of Mr. Polk was sent from Balti-
more to Washington by THE MAGNETIC TELE-
GRAPH. It was the first dispatch ever so trans-
mitted; and the event marks an era in the
history of civilization. The inventor of the
telegraph, which has proved so great a bless-
ing to mankind, was Professor Samuel F. B.
Morse, of Massachusetts. Perhaps no other
invention has exercised so beneficent an in-
fluence on the welfare of the human race.

When Congress convened, in December of

1844, a bill to annex Texas to the United
States was brought forward, and on the 1st
of the following March was passed. The
President immediately gave his assent; and
on the 29th of December Texas took her
place in the Republic. On the 3d of March
in this year bills for the admission of Florida
and Iowa were also signed; but the latter
State was not formally admitted until Decem-
ber 28, 1846.

By the admission of Texas into the Union
a war with Mexico was precipitated. On the
4th of July, 1845, the Texan legislature rati-
fied the act of annexation. Almonte, the
Mexican minister at Washington, immedi-
ately left the country. The authorities of
Texas sent an urgent request to the Presi-
dent to dispatch an army for their protection.
Accordingly, General Zachary Taylor was or-
dered to march thither from Louisiana. The
question at issue between Texas and Mexico
was concerning boundaries. Texas claimed
the Rio Grande as her western limit, while
Mexico was determined to have the Nueces
as the separating line. The government of
the United States resolved to support the
claim of Texas. General Taylor at once
moved forward to Corpus Christi, at the
mouth of the Nueces, and, by November of

1845, concentrated at that place a strong
force of nearly five thousand men.

In the following January, General Taylor
was ordered to advance to the Itio (Jnmdr.
It was known that an army of Mi-\ii-aiis was
iratln rinir for the invasion of Texas. In March
the American army advanced to Point Isabel,
on the gulf. There General Taylor established
his depot of supplies, and then pressed on to
the Rio Grande. He took his station opposite
Matamoras, and erected a fortress, named Fort
Brown. On the 26th of April, a company of
American dragoons, under Captain Thornton,
was attacked by the Mexicans, east of the Rio
Grande, and, after losing sixteen men, was
obliged to surrender. This was the first blood-
shed of the war. General Taylor, leaving the

PROFESSOR S. F. B. HOMO.

fort under command of Major Brown, hastened
to Point Isabel, and strengthened the defenses.
This done, he set out with a provision-train
and an army of two thousand men to return
to Fort Brown. Meanwhile, the Mexicans had
crossed the Rio Grande, and taken a position
at PALO ALTO. On the 8th of May, the Amer-
icans came in sight, and immediately joined
battle. After a severe engagement, the Mex-
icans were driven from the field, with the low
of a hundred men. Only four Americans were
killed, and forty wounded ; among the former
was the gallant Major Ringgold.

On the following day General Taylor re-
sumed his march, and within three miles of

1156

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Fort Brown again came upon the Mexicans.
They had selected for their battle-field a place
called RESACA DE LA PALMA. The enemy
fought better than on the previous day. The
American lines were severely galled until
Captain May's dragoons charged through a
storm of grape-shot, rode over the Mexican
batteries, and captured La Vega, the com-
manding general. The Mexicans, abandoning
their guns, fled in a general rout. On reach-
ing Fort Brown, General Taylor found that
the place had been constantly bombarded by
the guns of Matamoras.

When the news from the Rio Grande was
borne through the Union, the war spirit was
everywhere aroused. On the llth of May,

CAPTURE OF THE MEXICAN BATTERIES BY CAPTAIN MAY.

1846, Congress made a declaration of war.
The President was authorized to accept fifty
thousand volunteers, and ten million dollars
were placed at his disposal. Nearly three
hundred thousand men rushed forward to
enter the ranks. The American forces were
organized in three divisions: THE ARMY OF
THE WEST, under General Kearney, to cross
the Rocky Mountains against the northern
Mexican provinces; THE ARMY OF THE CEN-
'TER, under General Scott as commander-in-
chief, to march from the gulf coast into the
heart of the enemy's country ; THE ARMY OF
OCCUPATION, under General Taylor, to hold
the districts on the Rio Grande.

By the middle of summer General Wool
dispatched a force of nine thousand men to

the Rio Grande. Ten days after the battle
of Resaca de la Palma, General Taylor cap-
tured Matamoras. The Mexicans fell back
and took post at Monterey. Taylor was
obliged to tarry near the Rio Grande until
the latter part of August. By that time his
numbers were increased to six thousand six
hundred. The march against Monterey was
begun, and on the 19th of September the
town, defended by ten thousand troops under
Ampudia, was reached and invested.

On the 21st of the month the Americans,
led by General Worth, carried the heights in
the rear of the town. The Bishop's Palace
was taken by storm on the following day. On
the 23d the city was successfully assaulted in

front by Generals
Quitman and But-
ler. The American
storming parties
charged into the
town. They reach-
ed the Grand Plaza,
or public square.
They hoisted the
victorious flag of
the Union ; turned
upon the buildings
where the Mexicans
were concealed ;
charged up dark
stairways to the flat
roofs of the houses,
and drove the en-
emy to a surrender.
After the capitulation General Taylor
agreed to an armistice of eight weeks. But
the Mexicans employed the interval in war-
like preparations. General Santa Anna was
called home from Havana to take the presi-
dency of the country. A Mexican army of
twenty thousand men was sent into the field.
General Taylor again moved forward, and on
the 15th of November captured the town of
Saltillo. Victoria, a city in the province of
Tamaulipas, was taken by General Patterson.
To that place General Butler advanced from
Monterey. General Wool, with strong rein-
forcements from San Antonio, entered Mex-
ico, and took a position within supporting
distance of Monterey.

In June of 1846 the Army of the West,

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— Till. UNITED STATES.

II. .7

led by General Kearney, set out from Fort
Leavenworth for the conquest of New Mexico
and California. After a wi'uri.-onn' nmroli he
reached Santa F6, and on the 18th of August
captured the city. With four hundred dra-
goons Kearney continued his march towards
the Pacific Coast. At the distance of three
hundred miles from Santa Fe he was met by
Kit Carson, who brought intelligence that
California had already been subdued. But

hers. Meanwhile Commodore Sloat had cap-
tured the town of Monterey. A few daya
afterward Commodore Stockton took San Di-
ego. Fremont now joined the naval com-
manders in a movement against Los Angeloa,
which was taken without opposition. Before
the end of summer the whole of California
was subdued. On the 8th of January, 1847,
the Mexicans were decisively defeated in the
battle of San Gabriel, by which the authority

FREMONT IX THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN'S.

Kearney, with only a hundred men, continued
his march to the Pacific.

For four years Colonel John C. Fremont
had been exploring the country west of the
Rocky Mountains. In California he received
dispatches informing him of the war with
Mexico, and began to urge the people of Cal-
ifornia to declare their independence. The
frontiersmen flocked to his standard , and a
campaign was begun to overthrow the Mexi-
can authority. In several engagements the
Americans were victorious over superior mim-

of the United States was completely estab-
lished in California.

In the mean time Colonel Doniphan, with
seven hundred men, began a march through
the enemy's country from Santa F6 to Saltillo.
On Christmas day he gained the battle of
Bracito, on the Rio Grande. On Sacramento
Creek he met the Mexicans in overwhelming
numbers, and on the 28th of February com-
pletely routed them. He then marched un-
opposed into Chihuahua, and finally joined
General Wool in safety.

1158

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

General Scott now arrived in Mexico as
commander-iu-chief, and ordered the Army of
Occupation to join him on the gulf for the
conquest of the capital. By the withdrawal
of their troops Taylor and Wool were left in
a critical condition ; for Santa Anna was ad-
vancing against them with twenty thousand
men. General Taylor was able to concentrate
at Saltillo a force of only six thousand. His
effective forces amounted to but four thou-
sand eight hundred. At the head of this

breach, and again the enemy was hurled back.
In the crisis of the battle the Mexicans made
a furious charge upon Bragg's battery ; but
the columns of lancers were scattered with
volleys of grape-shot. Against tremendous
odds the field was fairly won. The Mexicans,
having lost nearly two thousand men, made a
precipitate retreat.

On the 9th of March, 1847, General Scott,
with twelve thousand men, landed to the
south of Vera Cruz, and invested the city.

BOMBARDMENT OF FORT SAN JUAN D'ETLLOA.

small but intrepid army he chose a battle-
field at BUENA VISTA.

On the 22d of February the Mexicans
came pouring over the hills from the direction
of San Luis Potosi. Santa Anna demanded
a surrender, and was met with defiance. On
the 23d the battle began. A heavy column
was thrown against the American center, but
was driven back by Captain Washington's
artillery. The Mexicans next fell upon the
American flank, where the Second Regiment
of Indianians gave way. But the troops of
Mississippi and Kentucky were rallied to the

On the morning of the 22d the cannonade
was begun. On the water side Vera Cruz
was defended by the castle of San Juan
d'Ulloa. For four days the bombardment
continued without cessation. An assault was
already planned, when the authorities of the
city proposed capitulation. On the 27th
terms of surrender were signed, and the
American flag was raised over Vera Cruz.

The route to the City of Mexico was now
open. On the 8th of April General Twiggs
set out on the road to Jalapa. General Scott
followed with the main division. On the 12th

THE A7A7;77'.7-;.Y77/ r/,.V/7 'RY.— Till. I'MI'I l> STATES.

1169

of the montli Twiggs came upon Santa Anna,
with fifteen thousand men, on the heights of
(.'1:1:1:0 (i.. 1:1.0. < >n the l*th the American
army advanced to the assault, and before
noonday every position of the Mexicans had
been successfully stormed. Nearly three thou-
sand prisoners were taken, together with forty-
three pieces of bronze artillery. Santa Anna
escaped with his life, but left behind his
wooden kg. On the next day the victorious
army entered Jalapa. The strong castle of
Perote was taken without resistance. Turn-
ing southward, General Scott next led his
army against the ancient city of Puebla.
Though inhabited by eighty thousand peo-
ple, no defense was made or attempted.
Scott here waited for reinforcements from
Vera Cruz.

By the 7th of August the American army
was increased to eleven thousand men, and
General Scott again began his inarch upon the
capital. The army swept through the passes
of the Cordilleras to look down on THE VAL-
LEY OF MEXICO. Never before had the Amer-
ican soldiery beheld such a scene — a living
landscape of green fields, villages, and lakes.
At Ayotla, fifteen miles from the capital,
General Scott wheeled to the south, around
Lake Chalco, and thence westward to San
Augustin. The City of Mexico could be ap-
proached only by causeways leading across
marshes and the beds of bygone lakes. At
the ends of these causeways were massive
gates, strongly defended. To the left were
Contreras, San Antonio, and Molino del Hey.
Directly in front were the powerful defenses
of CHURUBUSCO and CHAPULTEPEC. These
various positions were held by Santa Anna
with more than thirty thousand Mexicans.

On the 20th of August Generals Pillow
and Twiggs stormed the Mexican position at
Contreras. In seventeen minutes six thousand
Mexicans, under General Valencia, were
driven in utter rout from their fortifications.
A few hours afterwards General AVorth car-
ried San Antonio. This was the second vic-
tory. General Pillow led a column against
one of the heights of Churubusco, and after a
terrible assault the position was carried. This
was the third triumph. General Twiggs added
a, fourth victory by storming another height of
Churubusco, while the fifth was achieved by

(Jcncrals Shi.-l.ls and Pierce, who defeated
Santa Anna's reserves.

On the morning after the battles the M

ican authorities came out t'> ne^irtiate. Gen-
eral Scott rejected their proposals, rested his
men until the 7th of September, ami then re-
newed hostilities. On the next morning
General Worth stormed Moliuo del Key and
Casa de Mata, the western defenses of Cha-
pultepec. The guns were next brought to
bear on Chapultepec itself, and on the 13th
that citadel was carried by storm ; and through
the San Cosme and Belen gates the conquer-
ing army swept into the suburbs of Mexico.

WINFIELD SCOTT.

During the night Santa Anna and the officers
of the government fled from the capital. On
the following morning forth came a deputa-
tion from the city to beg for mercy ; but Gen-
eral Scott, tired of trifling, turned them away
with contempt. "Forward!" was the order
that rang along the lines at sunrise. The war-
worn regiments swept into the famous city,
and at seven o'clock the flag of the Union
floated over the halls of the Montezumas.

On leaving his capital Santa Anna turned
about to attack the hospitals at Puebla. Here
eighteen hundred sick men had been left in
charge of Colonel Childs. For several days a
gallant resistance was made by the garrison

1160

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

until General Lane, on his march to the
capital, fell upon the besiegers and scattered
them.

It was the closing stroke of the war. The
military power of Mexico was completely
broken. It only remained to determine the
conditions of peace. In the winter of 1847-48
American ambassadors met the Mexican Con-
gress at Guadalupe Hidalgo, and on the 2d
of February a treaty was concluded. By the
terms of settlement the boundary line between
Mexico and the United States was established
on the Rio Grande, from its mouth to the

ZACHAKY TAYLOE.

southern limit of New Mexico ; thence west-
ward along the southern, and northward along
the western, boundary of that territory to the
Gila ; thence down that river to the Colorado ;
thence westward to the Pacific. New Mexico
and Upper California were relinquished to
the United States. Mexico guaranteed the
free navigation of the Gulf of California and
the River Colorado. The United States agreed
to surrender all places in Mexico, to pay that
country fifteen million dollars, and to assume
all debts due from the Mexican government
to American citizens.

A few days after the signing of the treaty
a laborer, employed by Captain Sutter to cut

a mill-race on the American fork of Sacra-
mento River, discovered some pieces of gold in
the scmd. The news spread as if borne on the
wind. From all quarters adventurers came
flocking. For a while there seemed no end to
the discoveries. Straggling gold-hunters some-
times picked up in a few hours the value of
five hundred dollars. The intelligence went
flying to the ends of the world. Men thou-
sands of miles away were crazed with excite-
ment. Thousands of adventurers started over-
land to California. Before the end of 1850
San Francisco had grown to be a city of fif-
teen thousand inhabitants. In Septem-
ber of that year, California was admitted
into the Union; and by the close of 1852,
the State had a population of more than
a quarter of a million.

In 1848 Wisconsin, last of the great
States formed from the North-western
Territory, was admitted into the Union.
The new commonwealth came with a pop-
ulation of two hundred and fifty thou-
sand. Another presidential election was
already at hand. General Lewis Cass,
of Michigan, was nominated by the Dem-
ocrats and General Zachary Taylor by
the Whigs. As the candidate of the
new Free-Soil party, ex-President Martin
Van Buren was put forward. The real
contest, however, lay between Generals
Cass and Taylor. The memory of his
recent victories in Mexico made General
TAYLOK the favorite with the people,
and he was elected by a large majority.
As Vice-president, Millard Fillmore, of
New York, was chosen.
The new administration began with a vio-
lent agitation on the question of slavery in
the territories.

In his first message the President advised
the people of California to prepare for admis-
sion into the Union. The advice was promptly
accepted. A convention was held at Monterey
in September of 1849. A constitution prohib-
iting slavery was framed, submitted to the peo-
ple, and adopted. When the question of ad-
mitting California came before Congress the
members were sectionally divided. The ad-
mission of the new State was favored by the
representatives of the North and opposed by
those of the South. The latter claimed that

THE MM:TI:I:.\TH CENTURY.— THE UNITED STATES.

1161

with the extension of the Missouri Compro-
mise to the Pacific the right to introduce slav-
ery into California was guaranteed by the gen-
eral government, and that theivfore the pro-
posed constitution of the State ought to be
rejected. The reply of the North was that
the Missouri Compromise had respect only to
the Louisiana purchase, and that the Califor-
niaus had framed their constitution in their
own way.

Other questions added fuel to the contro-
versy. Texas claimed New Mexico as a part
of her territory, and the claim was resisted
by the people of Santa F6. The people of
the South complained that fugitive slaves
were aided and encouraged in the North.
The opponents of slavery demanded the
abolition of the slave-trade in the District
of Columbia. Henry Clay appeared as a
peacemaker. On the 9th of May, 1850, he
brought forward, as a compromise, THE
OMNIBUS BILL, of which the provisions
were as follows: First, the admission of
California as a free State ; second, the for-
mation of new States, not exceeding four
in number, out of Texas, said States to
permit or exclude slavery as the people
should determine; third, the organization
of territorial governments for New Mex-
ico and Utah, without conditions as to
slavery; fourth, the establishment of the
present boundary between Texas and New
Mexico ; fifth, the enactment of a strin-
gent law for the recovery of fugitive slaves ;
sixth, the abolition of the slave-trade in
the District of Columbia.

When the Omnibus Bill was laid before
Congreas the debates broke out anew. While
the discussion was at its height President
Taylor fell sick, and died on the 9th of July,
1850. Mr. Fillmore at once took the oath of
office and entered upon the duties of the pres-
idency. A new cabinet was formed, with
Daniel Webster at the head as secretary of
state.

In the year 1852 a serious trouble arose
with England. By the terms of former
treaties, the coast-fisheries of Newfoundland
belonged to Great Britain. But outside of a
line drawn three miles from the shore, Amer-
ican fisherman enjoyed equal rights. A quar-
rel now arose as to how the line should be

drawn across the bays and inlets, and both
nations sent men-of-war to the contested
waters. But reason triumphed over passion,
and in 1854 the difficulty was settled happily
by negotiation ; and the right to take fish in
the bays of the British possessions was con-
ceded to American fishermen.

During the summer of 1852, the Hunga-
rian patriot, Louis Kossuth, made the tour
of the United States. He came to plead the
cause of Hungary before the American people,
and was everywhere received with expressions
of sympathy and good-will. But the policy

JOBN C. CALHOUN.

of the United States forbade the government
to interfere pn behalf of the Hungarian
patriots.

The attention of the American people was
next directed to explorations in the Arctic
Ocean. In 1845 Sir John Franklin, a brave
English seamen, went on a voyage of discovery
to the North. Years went by, and no tidings'
came from the daring sailor. Other expedi-
tions were sent in search, but returned with-
out success. Henry Grinnell, of New York,
dispatched a fleet to the North, under com-
mand of Lieutenant De Haven. In 1853 an
Arctic squadron was equipped, the command
of which was given to Dr. Elisha Kent Kane ;

1162

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

but the expedition returned without the dis-
covery of Franklin.

The political parties again marshaled their
forces. Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire,
appeared as the candidate of the Democratic
party, and General Winfield Scott as the
choice of the Whigs. The question at issue
before the country was the Compromise Act
of 1850. Both the Whig and Democratic
platforms stoutly reaffirmed the doctrines of the
Omnibus Bill. A third party arose, however,
whose members declared that all the Territories
of the United States ought to be free. John
P. Hale, of New Hampshire, was put forward
as the candidate of this Free Soil party. Mr.

STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS.

PIERCE was elected by a large majority, and
William R. King of Alabama was chosen
Vice-president.

The first year of the new administration
was marked by the beginning of one of the
greatest enterprises to which the attention of
the American people had ever been directed.
A corps of engineers was sent out to explore
the route for A PACIFIC RAILROAD. The en-
terprise was at first regarded as visionary and
impossible. In the same year, the boundary
between New Mexico and Chihuahua was sat-
isfactorily settled. The difficulty was adjusted
by the purchase of the claim of Mexico. The
territory thus acquired is known as the
GADSDEN PURCHASE.

In the same year, intercourse was opened
between the United States and Japan. Hith-
erto the Japanese ports had been closed against
the vessels of Christian nations. In order to
remove this restriction, Commodore Perry
sailed into the Bay of Yeddo. He explained
to the Japanese officers the desire of the
United States to enter into a treaty. On the
14th of July the commodore chained an au-
dience with the Emperor, and presented a
letter from the President. In the next spring
a treaty was concluded, and the privileges
of commerce were granted to American mer-
chantmen.

On the very day of Perry's introduction to
the Emperor, the Crystal Palace was opened
in New York for the WORLD'S FAIR. The
palace was built of iron and glass, after the
style of the great exposition edifice in Hyde
Park, England. Specimens of the arts and
manufactures of all nations were put on exhi-
bition within the building. The enterprise
and genius of the whole country were quick-
ened into new life by the beautiful and
instructive display.

In January of 1854, Senator Douglas, of
Illinois, brought forward a proposition to or-
ganize Kansas and Nebraska. In the bill
reported for this purpose a clause was inserted
providing that the people of the territories
should decide for themselves whether the new
State should be free or slave-holding. This
was a repeal of the Missouri Compromise of
1821. From January until May, Mr. Doug-
las's report, known as THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA
BILL, was debated in Congress, and finally
passed.

Whether the new State should admit slav-
ery now depended upon the vote of the peo-
ple. The territory was soon filled with an
agitated mass of people, thousands of whom
had been sent thither to vote. In the elections
of 1854-55, the pro-slavery party was tri-
umphant. The State Legislature at Lecomp-
ton framed a constitution permitting slavery.
The Free Soil party, declaring the elections to
have been illegal, assembled at Topeka, and
framed a constitution excluding slavery. Civil
war broke out between the factions. In Sep-
tember of 1855 the President appointed John
W. Geary, of Pennsylvania, military governor
of Kansas, with power to restore order. The

rni: .\7.\T/-;/;.\T// < I:\TURY.— THE UMTI:I> STATES.

lit;:;

hostile parties were soon quieted ; but the ag-
itation liinl already extended to all parts of
the Union. The Kansas question became the
issue in the presidential election of 1856.

James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was
nominated as the Democratic candidate. ll<
planted himself on the Kansas-Nebraska Bill,
and secured a heavy vote both North and
South. As the candidate of the Free Soil or
People's party, John C. Fremont, of Califor-
nia, was brought forward. The exclusion of
slavery from all the territories was the prin-
ciple of the Free Soil platform. The Ameri-
can or Know-Nothing party nominated Millard
Fillmore. Mr. BUCHANAN was elected by a
large majority, while the choice for the Vice-
presidency fell on John C. Breckinridge, of
Kentucky.

In the first year of Buchanan's administra-
tion a serious trouble occurred with the Mor-
mons. The difficulty arose from an attempt
to enforce the authority of the United States
over Utah. An army of two thousand five
hundred men was sent to the territory in 1857
to establish courts and compel obedience. For
a while the Mormons resisted ; but when, in
the following summer, the President pro-
claimed a pardon to all who would submit,
they yielded ; and order was restored. But
the troops were not withdrawn from Utah
until 1860.

Early in 1858 an American vessel, while
exploring the Paraguay River, in South
America, was fired on by a garrison. Repa-
ration for the insult was demanded; but the
government was obliged to send out a fleet to
obtain satisfaction. The authorities of Para-
guay finally quailed before the American flag,
and apologies were made for the wrong which
had been committed.

The 5th of August, 1858, was noted for the
completion of THE FIRST TELEGRAPHIC CABLE
across the Atlantic. The success of this great
work was due to the genius of Cyrus W.
Field, of New York. The cable was stretched
from Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, to Valencia
Bay, Ireland ; and telegraphic communication
was established between the Old World and
the New.

In 1858 Minnesota was added to the Union.
The population of the new State was a hun-
dred and fifty thousand. In the next year

Oregon, the thirty-third State, was admitted,
with a population of forty-fight thousand.
Meanwhile, the slavery question continued to
vex the nation. In 1*.">7 the Supreme Court
of the United States, after hearing the cause
of Dred Scott, formerly a slave, decided that
negroes are not, and can not become, citizens.
Thereupon, in several of the free States, PEB-
SONAX, LIBERTY BILLS were passed, to defeat
the Fugitive Slave Law. In the fall of 1859
John Brown, of Kansas, with a party of
twenty-one daring men, captured the arsenal
at Harper's Ferry, and held his ground for
two days. The national troops were called out

to suppress the revolt. Thirteen of Brown's
men were killed, two made their escape,
and the rest were captured. The leader and
his six companions were tried by the author-
ities of Virginia, condemned, and hanged.
In Kansas the Free Soil party gained ground
so rapidly as to make it certain that slavery-
would be interdicted from the State.

In the presidential canvass of 1860 the
candidate of the Republican party was Abra-
ham Lincoln, of Illinois. The distinct prin-
ciple of this party was opposition to the ex-
tension of slavery. In April the Democratic
convention assembled at Charleston ; but the
Southern delegates withdrew from the assem-
bly. The rest adjourned to Baltimore and

1164

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

chose Douglas as their standard-bearer. There
also the delegates from the South reassembled
in June, and nominated John C. Breckiu-
ridge, of Kentucky. The American party
chose John Bell, of Tennessee, as their can-
didate. The contest resulted in the election
of Mr. LINCOLN.

The leaders of the South had declared that
the choice of Lincoln for the presidency would
be a just cause for the dissolution of the Union.
A majority of the cabinet and a large num-
ber of senators and representatives in Congress
were advocates of disunion. It was seen that
all the departments of the government would

ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS.

shortly pass under the control of the Repub-
lican party. The President was not himself
a disunionist; but he declared himself not
armed with the constitutional power to pre-
vent secession by force. The interval, there-
fore, between the election and the inaugura-
tion of Mr. Lincoln was seized by the leaders
of the South as the fitting time for dissolving
the Union.

The work of secession began in South
Carolina. On the 17th of December, 1860,
a convention met at Charleston, and after
three days passed a resolution thai the union
hitherto existing between South Carolina and the
oilier States was dissolved. The sentiment of

disunion spread with great rapidity. By the
1st of February, 1861, six other States — Mis-
sissippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louis-
iana, and Texas — had all passed ordinances
of secession. Nearly all the senators and rep-
resentatives of those States resigned their
seats in Congress and gave themselves to the
disunion cause.

In the secession conventions a few of the
speakers denounced disunion as bad and ruin-
ous. In the convention of Georgia, Alexan-
der H. Stephens, afterwards Vice-president
of the Confederate States, undertook to pre-
vent the secession of his State. He delivered
a powerful oration in which he defended
the theory of secession, but spoke against
it on the ground that the measure was
impolitic, unwise, disastrous.

On the 4th of February, 1861, dele-
gates from six of the seceded States as-
sembled at Montgomery, Alabama, and
formed a new government, called THE
CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA. On
the 8th the government was organized
by the election of Jefferson Davis, of
Mississippi, as provisional President, and
Alexander H. Stephens as Vice-pres-
ident. A few days previously a Peace
Conference met at Washington and pro-
posed certain amendments to the Con-
stitution. But Congress gave little heed,
and the conference adjourned. The
country seemed on the verge of ruin.
The army was on remote frontiers — the
fleet in distant seas. The President was
distracted. With the exception of Forts
Sumter, Moultrie, Pickens, and Monroe,
all the important posts in the seceded States
had been seized by the Confederate authorities.
Early in January the President sent the Star
of the West to reinforce Fort Sumter. But
the ship was fired on by a rebel battery and
driven away from Charleston. Thus in gloom
and grief the administration of Buchanan
drew to a close. Such was the alarming con-
dition of affairs that it was deemed prudent
for the new President to enter the capital
by night.

Abraham Lincoln, sixteenth President of
the United States, was a native of Kentucky,
born on the 12th of February, 1809. At the
age of seven he was taken with his father's

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Till: I'MTI.h STATES.

family to Southern Indiana, where his boy-
hood was passed in poverty, hardship, and toil.
On reaching his majority he left the farm and
river life, removed to Illinois, and became a
student of law. He soon distinguished him-
self in his profession, was elected to the leiri-
lature of his adopted State, and afterward to
Congress. He gained his first national repu-
tation in 1858, when, as the competitor of
Stephen A. Douglas, he canvassed the State
of Illinois for the United States Senate. His
contest with Mr. Douglas proved him to be
one of the foremost debaters of the country.
The position to which he was now called was
one of fearful responsibility and trial.

The new cabinet was organized with Will-
iam H. Seward, of New York, as secretary of
state. Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio, was chosen
secretary of the treasury, and Simon Cameron
secretary of war, but he, in the following Jan-
uary, was succeeded in office by Edwin M.
Stanton. The secretaryship of the navy was
conferred on Gideon Welles. In his inaugu-
ral address and first official papers the Presi-
dent indicated the policy of the new adminis-
tration by declaring his purpose to repossess
the forts, arsenals, and public property which
had been seized by the Confederate authorities.
It was with this purpose that the first military
preparations were made. In the mean time,
on the 12th of March, an effort was made by
commissioners of the seceded States to obtain
from the national government a recognition
of their independence, but the negotiations
were unsuccessful. Then followed a second
attempt on the part of the government to re-
inforce the garrison of Fort Sumter, and with
that came the beginning of actual hostilities.

The defenses of Charleston Harbor were
held by Major Robert Anderson. His entire
force amounted to seventy-nine men. Owing
to the weakness of his garrison he deemed it
prudent to evacuate Fort Moultrie and retire
to Sumter. Meanwhile Confederate volun-
teers had flocked to the city, and powerful
batteries had been built about the harbor.
When it became known that the Federal gov-
ernment would reinforce the forts the author-
ities of the Confederate States determined to
anticipate the movement by compelling An-
derson to surrender. Accordingly, on the
llth of April, General P. T. Beauregard,

commandant of Charleston, sent a flag to
Fort Sumter demanding an evacuation. M:i-
jor Anderson replied that he should hold the
fortress and defend his flag. On the follow-
ing morning, at half-past four o'clock, the
first gun was fired from a Confederate battery.
A terrific bombardment of thirty-four hours'
duration followed; the fort was reduced to
ruins, set on fire, and obliged to capitulate.

Three days after the fall of Sumter the
President issued a call for seventy-five thou-
sand volunteers to serve three months in the
overthrow of the secession movement. Two
days later Virginia seceded from the Union.

WILLIAM H. SEWARD.

On the 6th of May Arkansas followed, and
then North Carolina; on the 20th of the
month. In Tennessee there was a powerful
opposition to disunion, and it was not until
the 8th of June that a secession ordinance
could be passed. In Missouri the movement
resulted in civil war, while in Kentucky the
authorities issued a proclamation of neutrality.
The people of Maryland were divided into
hostile parties.

On the 19th of April, when the Massachu-
setts volunteers for the defense of the Union
were passing through Baltimore, they were
fired upon by the citizens, and three men
killed. This was the first bloodshed of the

1166

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

war. On the day previous a body of Confed-
erate soldiers captured the armory of the
United States at Harper's Ferry. On the
20th of the month another company obtained
possession of the great navy-yard at Norfolk.
The property thus captured amounted to fully
ten millions of dollars. For awhile Washing-
ton City was in danger of being taken. On
the 3d of May the President issued a call for
eighty-three thousand soldiers to serve for
three years, or during the war. General
Winfield Scott was made commander-in-chief.
War ships were sent to blockade the Southern
ports. In the seceded States there was bound-

JKFFERSON DAVIS.

less activity. The Southern Congress ad-
journed from Montgomery, to meet on the
20th of July at Richmond. There Jefferson
Davis and the officers of his cabinet had as-
sembled to direct the affairs of the govern-
ernment. So stood the antagonistic powers in
the beginning of June, 1861. It is now ap-
propriate to look briefly into THE CAUSES of
the conflict.

The first and most general cause of the
civil war in the United States was the different
construction put upon the National Constihdion
by the people of the North and the South. A
difference of opinion had always existed as to
how that instrument was to be understood.
The question at issue was as to the relation

between the States and the general govern-
ment. One party held that under the Con-
stitution the Union of the States is indisso-
luble ; that the sovereignty of the nation is
lodged in the central government ; that the
States are subordinate ; that the acts of Con-
gress, until they are repealed or pronounced
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, are
binding on the States; that the highest alle-
giance of the citizen is due to the general
government, and not to his own State; and
that all attempts at nullification and disunion
are in their nature disloyal and treasonable.
The other party held that the National Con-
stitution is a compact between sovereign
States; that for certain reasons the Union
may be dissolved ; that the sovereignty of the
nation is lodged in the individual States, and
not in the central government ; that Congress
can exercise no other than delegated powers ;
that a State, feeling aggrieved, may annul an
act of Congress; that the highest allegiance
of the citizen is due to his own State, and aft-
erwards to the general government ; and that
acts of nullification and disunion are justifiable,
revolutionary, and honorable.

Here was an issue in its consequences the
most fearful that ever disturbed a nation. It
struck right into the vitals of the government.
It threatened, with each renewal of the agita-
tion, to undo the whole civil structure of the
United States. For a long time the parties
who disputed about the meaning of the Con-
stitution were scattered in various sections.
In the earlier history of the country the doc-
trine of State sovereignty was most advocated
in New England. With the rise of the tariff
question the position of parties changed.
Since the tariff- — a Congressional measure —
favored the Eastern States at the expense of
the South, it came to pass naturally that the
people of New England passed over to the
advocacy of national sovereignty, while the
people of the South took up the doctrine of
State rights. Thus it happened that as early
as 1831 the right of nullifying an act of Con-
gress was openly advocated in South Carolina,
and thus also it happened that the belief in
State sovereignty became more prevalent in
the South than in the North. These facts
tended powerfully to produce sectional parties
and to bring them into conflict.

THK NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE UX1TED STA'l .

lic.7

A second general cause of the civil war
was the different syttein of labor in the North and
in the South. In the former section the labor-
ers were freemen, citizens, voters; in the hit-
ter, bondmen, property, slaves. In the South
the theory was that the capital of a country
should own the labor ; in the North, that both
labor and capital are free. In the beginning
all the colonies had been slave-holding. In
the Eastern and Middle States the system of
slave labor was gradually abolished, being un-
profitable. In the five great States formed
out of the North-western Territory slavery
was excluded by the original compact under
which that Territory was organized. Thus
there came to be a dividing line drawn
through the Union east and west. It was ev-
ident, therefore, that whenever the question
of slavery was agitated, a sectional division
would arise between the parties, and that dis-
union and war would be threatened. The
danger arising from this source was increased,
and the discord between the sections aggra-
vated, by several subordinate causes.

The first of these was the invention of THE
COTTON GIN. In 1793 Eli Whitney, a young
collegian of Massachusetts, went to Georgia,
and resided with the family of Mrs. Greene,
widow of General Greene, of the Revolution.
While there his attention was directed to the
tedious and difficult process of picking cotton
by hand — that is, separating the seed from
the fiber. So slow was the process that the
production of upland cotton was nearly prof-
itless. The industry of the cotton-growing
States was paralyzed by the tediousness of
preparing the product for the market. Mr.
Whitney undertook to remove the difficulty,
and succeeded in inventing a gin which aston-
ished the beholder by the rapidity and excel-
lence of its work. From being profitless,
cotton became the most profitable of all the
staples. The industry of the South was revo-
lutionized. Before the civil war it was esti-
mated that Whitney's gin had added a thousand
millions of dollars to the revenues of the
South:rn States. The American crop had
grown to be seven-eighths of all the cotton
produced in the world. Just in proportion to
the increased profitableness of cotton slave
labor became important, slaves valuable, and
slavery a fixed and deep-rooted institution.

From this time onward there was con-taut
danger that the slavery i|iie-tioii would no
embitter the polities ami l.-^Matinn of the
country as to bring about -li-union. The
danger of such a result was fully manifested
in the MISSOURI AGITATION of 1820-21.
Threats of dissolving the Union were freely
made in both the North and the South — in
the North, because of the proposed enlarge-
ment of the domain of slavery; in the South,
because of the proposed rejection of Missouri
as a slave-holding State. When the Missouri
Compromise was enacted, it was the hope of
Mr. Clay and his fellow-statesmen to save
the Union by removing forever the slavery
question from the politics of the country. In
that they succeeded — for a while.

Next came the NULLIFICATION Acre of
South Carolina. And these, too, turned upon
institution of slavery and the profitableness
of cotton. The Southern States had become
cotton-producing; the Eastern States had
given themselves to manufacturing. The
tariff measures favored manufactures at the
expense of producers. Mr. Calhoun and his
friends proposed to remedy the evil com-
plained of by annulling the laws of Congress.
His measures failed ; but another compromise
was found necessary in order to allay the ani-
mosities which had been awakened.

THE ANNEXATION OF TEXAS, with the
consequent enlargement of the domain of
slavery, led to a renewal of the agitation.
Those who opposed the Mexican War did so,
not so much because of the injustice of the
conflict as because of the fact that thereby
slavery would be extended. Then, at the
close of the war, came another enormous
acquisition of territory. Whether the same
should be made into free or slave-holding
States was the question next agitated. This
controversy led to the passage of THE OMNIBUS
BILL, by which again for a brief period the
excitement was allayed.

In 1854 THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA bill was
passed. Thereby the Missouri Compromise
was repealed, and the whole question opened
anew. Meanwhile, the character and the civ-
ilization of the Northern and the Southern
people had become quite different. In popu-
lation and wealth the North had far outgrown
' the South. In the struggle for territorial do-

1168

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

minion the North had gained a considerable
advantage. In 1860, the division of the
Democratic party made certain the election
of Mr. Lincoln by the votes of the Northern
States. The people of the South were exas-
perated at the choice of a chief-magistrate
whom they chose to regard as indifferent to
their welfare and hostile to their interests.

The third general cause of the civil war
was the want of intercourse betioeen t)ie people of
the North and the South. The great railroads
and thoroughfares ran east and west. Emi-
gration flowed from the East to the West.
Between the North and the South there was
little travel or interchange of opinion. From
want of acquaintance, the people, without
intending it, became estranged, jealous, sus-
picious. They misjudged each other's motives.
They misrepresented each other's beliefs and
purposes. They suspected each other of dis-
honesty and ill-will. Before the outbreak of
the war, the people of the two sections looked
upon each other almost in the light of differ-
ent nationalities.

A fourth cause was found in tJie publication
of sectional books and neivspapers. During the
twenty years preceding the war, many works
were published, both in the North and the
South, whose popularity depended wholly on
the animosity existing between the two sec-
tions. Such publications were generally filled
with ridicule and falsehood. The manners
and customs, language and beliefs, of one
section were held up to the contempt and
scorn of the people of the other section. The
minds of all classes, especially of the young,
were thus prejudiced and poisoned. In the
North, the belief was fostered that the South
was given up to inhumanity, ignorance, and
barbarism; while in the South, the opinion
prevailed that the Northern people were a
selfish race of mean, cold-blooded, cowardly
Yankees.

The evil influence of demagogues may be cited
as the fifth general cause of the war. It is
the misfortune of republican governments
that they many times fall under the leader-
ship of bad men. In the United States the
demagogue has enjoyed special opportunities
for mischief, and the people have suffered in
proportion. From 1850 to 1860 American
statesmanship and patriotism were at a low

ebb. Many ambitious and scheming men had
come to the front, taken control of the politi-
cal parties, and proclaimed themselves the
leaders of public opinion. Their purposes
were wholly selfish. The welfare and peace
of the country were put aside as of no value.
In order to gain power and keep it, many
unprincipled men in the South were anxious
to destroy the Union, while the demagogues
of the North were willing to abuse the Union
in order to accomplish their own bad purposes.

Added to all these causes was a growing
public opinion in the North against the institution
of slavery itself. The conscience of the nation
was roused, and the belief began to prevail
that slavery was wrong and ought to be de-
stroyed. This opinion, comparatively feeble
at the beginning of the war, was rapidly de-
veloped, and had much to do in determining
the final character of the conflict. Such, in
brief, were the causes which led to the civil
war, one of the most terrible and bloody
strifes of modern times.

Thus, in the beginning of the year 1861,
the government of the United States was in-
volved in a death-struggle for its own exist-
ence. An army of volunteers was brought
into camp at Washington City, and on the
24th of May was advanced across the Potomac
to Alexandria. It was the first general
movement of the war. At this time Fortress
Monroe was held by twelve thousand men,
under General B. F. Butler. At Bethel
Church, in that vicinity, was stationed a de-
tachment of Confederates, commanded by
General Magruder. On the 10th of June, a
body of Union troops was sent to dislodge
them, but was repulsed with considerable loss.

In the latter part of May General T. A.
Morris moved forward from Parkersburg to
Grafton, West Virginia. On the 3d of June
he defeated a force of Confederates at Phil-
ippi. General George B. McClellan now took
the command, and on the llth of July gained
a victory at Rich Mountain. General Gar-
nett, the Confederate commander, fell back to
Carrick's Ford, on Cheat River, where he was
again defeated and himself killed. On the
10th of August General Floyd, with a detach-
ment of Confederates at Carnifex Ferry, on
Gauley River, was attacked by General Will-
iam S. Rosecrans and obliged to retreat, and

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE UNITED STATES.

11 tilt

on the 14th of September the Confederates
under General Robert E. Lee were beaten in
an engagement at Cheat Mountain.

In the beginning of June General Robert
Patterson marched against Harper's Ferry.
On the llth of the month a division com-
manded by Colonel Lewis Wallace made a
successful onset upon the Confederates at
Romney. Patterson then crossed the Potomac
and pressed back the Confederate forces to
Winchester. Thus far there
had been only petty engag-
ements and skirmishes. The
time had now come for the
first great battle of the war.

The main body of the
Confederates under General
Beauregard was concentrated
at Manassas Junction,
twenty-seven miles west of
Alexandria. Another large
force commanded by Gen-
eral Joseph E. Johnston,
was in the Shenandoah Val-
ley. The Union army at
Alexandria was commanded
by General Irwin McDowell,
while General Patterson
was stationed in front of
Johnston. On the 16th of
July the national army
moved forward, and on the
morning of the 21st came
upon the Confederates be-
tween BULL RUN and Man-
assas Junction. A general
battle ensued, continuing
with great severity until
noonday. In the crisis of
the conflict General Johnston arrived with
nearly six thousand fresh troops from the
Shenandoah Valley, and in a short time Mc-
Dowell's army was hurled back in rout and
confusion into the defenses of Washington.
The Union loss in killed, wounded, and pris-
oners amounted to two thousand nine hundred
and fifty-two ; that of the Confederates to two
thousand and fifty.

Meanwhile, on the 20th of July, the new
Confederate government was organized at
Richmond. Jefferson Davis, the President,

was a man of wide experience in the affairs

VOL. 11.- 74

of state, and oon.-idfrable reputation as a sol-
dier. He had served in both houses of the
national Congress, and as a memlx r of I'icrce's
cabinet. His iln'i-i »f character and advo-
cacy of State rights had made him a natural
leader of the South.

The next military movements were made in
Missouri. A convention, called by Governor
Jackson in the previous March, had refused
to pass an ordinance of secession. But the

GEOROI B. M'CLKLLAN.

disunionists were numerous and powerful and
the State became a battle-field. Both Federal
and Confederate camps were organized. By
capturing the United States arsenal at Lib-
erty the Confederates obtained a supply of
arms and ammunition. By the formation of
Camp Jackson, near St. Louis, the arsenal in
that city was endangered, but by the vigilance
of Captain Nathaniel Lyon the arms and
stores were sent to Springfield.

The Confederates now hurried up troops
from Arkansas and Texas in order to secure
the lead mines in the southwest part of the

1170

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

State. On the 17th of June Lyon defeated
Governor Jackson at Booneville, and on the
5th of July the Unionists, led by Colonel
Franz Sigel, were again successful in a fight
at Carthage. On the 10th of August a hard
battle was fought at Wilson's Creek, near
SPRINGFIELD. General Lyon made a daring
attack on the Confederates under Generals
McCulloch and Price, and the Federals at

SURRENDER OF FORT DONELSON.

first gained the field, but General Lyon was
killed, and his men retreated.

General Price now pressed northward to
Lexington, which was defended by two thou-
sand six hundred Federals, commanded by
Colonel Mulligan. A stubborn defense was
made, but Mulligan was obliged to capitulate.
On the 16th of October, Lexington was re-
taken by the Federals, and General John C.
Fremont followed the retreating Confederates
as far as Springfield, when he was superseded
by General Hunter. The latter retreated

to St. Louis, and Price fell back towards
Arkansas.

Notwithstanding the neutrality of Ken-
tucky, the Confederate General Polk entered
the State and captured the town of Columbus.
The Confederates also gathered in force at
Belmont, on the opposite bank of the Missis-
sippi. Colonel Ulysses S. Grant, with three
thousand Illinois troops, was now sent into
Missouri. On the 7th of November, he made
a successful attack on the Confederate camp
at Belmont, but was afterwards obliged to
retreat.

After the rout at Bull Run, troops were
rapidly hurried to Washington. The aged
General Scott retired from active duty, and
General George B. McClellan took command
of the Army of the Potomac. By October
his forces had increased to a hundred and fifty

thousand men.
On the 21st of
that month, two
thousand troops
were thrown
across the Poto-
mac at BALL'S
BLUFF. Without
proper support,
the Federals were
attacked by a
force of Confed-
erates under
General Evans,
driven to the
river, their lead-
er, Colonel Ba-
ker, killed, and
the force routed
with a loss of eight
hundred men.

In the summer of 1861, a naval expedi-
tion, commanded by Commodore Stringham
and General Butler, proceeded to the North
Carolina coast, and, on the 29th of August,
captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet. On the
7th of November an armament, under Com-
modore Dupont and General Thomas W.
Sherman, reached Port Royal, and captured
Forts Walker and Beauregard. The blockade
became so rigorous that communication be-
tween the Confederate States and foreign
nations was cut off. In this juncture of

TOE NINETEENTH < I.STURY.— THE UNlTl.l> .ST. 1 77-:.S.

1171

affairs, a serious difficulty arose with the gov-
ernment of Great Britain.

The Confederate government had appointed
James M. Mason and John Slidell as ambas-
sadors to France and England. The envoys,
escaping from Charleston, reached Havana in
safety. At that port they took passage on
the British steamer Trent for Europe. On
the 8th of November, the vessel was over-
taken by the United States frigate San Jadnto,
commanded by Captain Wilkes. The Trent
was hailed and boarded ; the two ambassadors
were seized, transferred to the San Jadnto,
and carried to Boston. When the Trent
reached England, the whole kingdom burst
out in a blaze of wrath.

At first the government of the United
States was disposed to defend Captain Wilkes's
action. Had such a course been taken, war
would have been inevitable. The country
was saved from the peril by the diplomacy of
William H. Seward, the secretary of state.-
When Great Britain demanded reparation for
the insult and the liberation of the prisoners,
he replied in a mild, cautious, and very able
paper. It was conceded that the seizure of
Mason and Slidell was not justifiable accoiding
to the law of nations. An apology was made
for the wrong done ; the Confederate ambas-
sadors were liberated, put on board a vessel,
and sent to their destination. So ended the
first year of the civil war.

The Federal forces now numbered about
four hundred and fifty thousand men. Of
these nearly two hundred thousand, under
General McClellan, were encamped near
Washington. Another army, commanded by
General Don Carlos Buell, was stationed at
Louisville, Kentucky. On the 9th of Janu-
ary, Colonel Humphrey Marshall, command-
ing a force of Confederates on Big Sandy
River, was defeated by a body of Unionists
led by Colonel Jamea A. Garfield. Ten days
later an important battle was fought at MILL
SPRING, Kentucky. The Confederates, under
Generals Crittenden and Zollicoffer, were se-
verely defeated by the forces of General
George H. Thomas. Zollicoffer was killed in
the battle.

At the beginning of the year the capture of
Forts Henry and Donelson, on the Tennessee
and the Cumberland, was planned by General

Halleck. Commodore Foote was sent up the
Tennessee with a fleet of gunboats, and < •< n-
eral Grant was ordered to move forward
against Fort Henry. Before the land-forces
reached that place, the flotilla compelled the
evacuation of the fort, the Confederates es-
caping to Donelson. The Federal gunboats
now dropped down the Tennessee and then
ascended the Cumberland. Grant pressed on
from Fort Henry, and began the siege of Fort
Donelson. The defenses were manned by
ten thousand Confederates, under General
Buckner. Grant's force numbered nearly
thirty thousand. On the 16th of February
Buckner was obliged to surrender. His army
became prisoners of war, and all the maga-
zines, stores, and guns of the fort fell into
the hands of the Federals.

General Grant now ascended the Tennessee
to PITTSBUKO LANDING. A camp was estab-
lished at Shiloh Church, near the river ; and
here, on the 6th of April, the Union army
was attacked by the Confederates, led by Gen-
erals Albert S. Johnston and Beauregard.
All day long the battle raged with great
slaughter on both sides. Night fell on the
scene with the conflict undecided ; but in the
crisis General Buell arrived with strong rein-
forcements. In the morning General Grant
assumed the offensive. General Johnston had
been killed, and Beauregard was obliged to
retreat to Corinth. The losses in killed,
wounded, and missing were more than ten
thousand on each side.

After the Confederates evacuated Colum-
bus, Kentucky, they fortified Island Number
Ten, in the Mississippi, opposite New Madrid.
Against this place General Pope advanced
with a body of Western troops, while Com-
modore Foote descended the Mississippi with
his gunboats. Pope captured New Madrid ;
and for twenty-three days Island Number Ten
was besieged. On the 7th of April the Con-
federates attempted to escape ; but Pope had
cut off the retreat, and the garrison, number^
ing five thousand, was captured. On the 6th
of June the city of Memphis was taken by
the fleet of Commodore Davis.

Early in the year General Curtis pushed
forward into Arkansas and took position at
PEA RIDGE, among the mountains. Here he
was attacked on the 6th of March by twenty

1172

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

thousand Confederates and Indians, under
Generals McCulloch, Mclntosh, and Pike. A
hard-fought battle ensued, lasting for two
days. The Federals were victorious; McCul-
loch and Mclntosh were killed, and their men
obliged to retreat toward Texas.

After the destruction of the navy yard at
Norfolk, the Confederates had raised the
frigate Merrimac, one of the sunken ships, and
plated the sides with iron. The vessel was
then sent to attack the Union fleet at Fortress
Monroe. Reaching that place on the 8th of
March, the Merrimac began the work of de-
struction ; and two valuable vessels, the Cum-
berland and the Congress, were sent to the bot-
tom. During the night, however, a strange
ship, called the Monitor, invented by Captain
John Ericsson, arrived from New York ; and
on the following morning, the two iron-clad
monsters turned their enginery upon each
other. After fighting for five hours, the Mer-
rimac was obliged to retire badly damaged to
Norfolk.

On the 8th of February, a Federal squad-
ron, commanded by General Ambrose E.
Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough, at-
tacked the Confederate fortifications on Ro-
anoke Island. The garrison, nearly 1'iree
thousand strong, were taken prisoners. Burn-
side next proceeded against Newbern, and on
the 14th of March captured the city. Pro-
ceeding southward, he reached the harbor of
Beaufort, and on the 25th of April took pos-
session of the town. On the llth of the same
month Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Sa-
vannah, surrendered to General Gillmore.
Early in April a powerful squadron, under
General Butler and Admiral Farragut, as-
cended the Mississippi and attacked Forts
Jackson and St. Philip, thirty miles above the
gulf. From the 18th to the 24th the fight
continued without cessation. At the end of
that time Admiral Farragut succeeded in run-
ning past the batteries. On the next day he
reached New Orleans and captured the city.
General Butler became commandant, and the
fortifications were manned with fifteen thou-
sand Federal soldiers. Three days afterwards
Forts Jackson and St. Philip surrendered to
Admiral Porter.

The Confederates now invaded Kentucky
in two strong divisions, the one led by Gen-

eral Kirby Smith and the other by General
Bragg. On the 30th of August, Smith's army
reached Richmond and routed the Federal*
stationed there with heavy losses. Lexington
was taken, and then Frankfort ; and Cincin-
nati was saved from capture only by the ex-
ertions of General Lewis Wallace. Mean-
while, the army of General Bragg advanced
from Chattanooga and, on the 17th of Sep-
tember, captured a Federal division of four
thousand five hundred men at Mumfordsville.
The Confederate general pressed on toward
Louisville, and would have taken the city
but for the arrival of General Buell. Buell's
army was increased to a hundred thousand
men. In October he again took the field, and
on the 8th of the month overtook General
Bragg at PERRYVILLE. Here a severe but in-
decisive battle was fought; and the Confeder-
ates, laden with spoils, continued their retreat
into East Tennessee.

On the 19th of September a hard battle
was fought at IUKA between a Federal army
under Generals Rosecrans and Grant and a
Confederate force under General Price. The
latter was defeated, losing, in addition to his
killed and wounded, nearly a thousand pris-
oners. Rosecraus now took post at Corinth
with twenty thousand men ; while Grant, with
the remainder of the Federal forces, proceeded
to Jackson, Tennessee. Generals Van Dorn
and Price turned about to recapture CORINTH.
There, on the 3d of October, another severe
battle ensued, which ended, after two day's
fighting, in the repulse of the Confederates.

General Grant next moved forward to co-
operate with General Sherman in an effort to
capture Vicksburg. On the 20th of Decem-
ber General Van Dorn cut Grant's line of
supplies at Holly Springs, and obliged him to
retreat. On the same day General Sherman
dropped down the river from Memphis to the
Yazoo. On the 29th of the month he made
an unsuccessful attack on the Confederates at
Chickasaw Bayou. The assault was exceed-
ingly disastrous to the Federals, who lost in
killed, wounded, and prisoners more thau
three thousand men.

General Rosecrans was now transferred to
the command of the Army of the Cumber-
land, with head-quarters at Nashville. Gen-
eral Bragg, on his retirement from Kentucky,.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE I'MTI.h STATIC.

1173

had thrown his forces into Mnrfree.sboro.
Rosccrans moved forward, and on the 30th
•of December came upon the Confederates on
Stone's River, a short distance north-west of
MUHFUKKSHOUO. On the following morning
a furious battle ensued, continuing until
nightfall. The Union army was brought to
the verge of ruin. But during the night
Rosecrans rallied his forces, and at daybreak
was ready to renew the conflict. On that day
there was a lull. On the morning of the 2d
of January Bragg's army again rushed to the
onset, gained some successes at first, was then
•checked, and finally driven back with heavy
losses. Bragg withdrew his shattered col-
umns and filed off towards Chattanooga.

In Virginia the first scenes of the year
were enacted in the Shenandoah Valley.
•General Banks was sent forward with a
strong division, and, in the last of March,
occupied the town of Harrisonburg. To
counteract this movement, Stonewall Jack-
son was sent with twenty thousand men to ^
pass the Blue Ridge and cut off Banks's re-
treat. At Front Royal, the Confederates
fell upon the Federals, routed them, and
captured their guns and stores. Banks
succeeded, however, in passing with his
main division to Strasburg and escaping
out of the valley. Jackson now found
himself in great peril. For General Fre-
mont had been sent into the valley to in-
tercept the Confederate retreat. But Jack-
son succeeded in reaching Cross Keys
before Fremont could attack him. The
battle was so little decisive that Jackson
pressed on to Port Republic, where he attacked
and defeated the division of General Shields.

On the 10th of March the Army of the
Potomac set out from the camps about Wash-
ington to capture the Confederate capital.
The advance proceeded as far as Manassas
Junction, where McClellan, changing his
plan, embarked a hundred and twenty thou-
sand of his men for Fortress Monroe. From
that place, on the 4th of April, the Union
army advanced to Yorktown. This place was
defended by ten thousand Confederates, under
General Magruder ; and here McClellan's ad-
vance was delayed for a month. On the 4th
of May, Yorktown was taken, and the Federal
army pressed on to West Point, at the junc-

tion of the Mattapony uinl I'anninkey. .Mc-
Clellan reached the Chickahominy wit hunt
serious resistance, and crossed at Bottom's
Bridge.

On the 10th of May, General Wool, the
commandant of Fortress Monroe, led an ex-
pedition against Norfolk, and captured the
town. On the next day the iron-clad Viryinia
was blown up to save her from capture. The
James River was thus opened for the supply
transports of the Army of the Potomac. On
the 31st of May that army was attacked by
the Confederates at a place called FAIR OAKS,
or Seven Pines. Here, for a part of two

ROBERT EDMUND

days, the battle raged with great fury. At
last the Confederates were driven back ; but
McClellan's victory was by no means decisive.
General Joseph £. Johnston, the commander-
in-chief of the Confederates, was severely
wounded, and the command devolved on
General Robert E. Lee.

McClellan now formed the design of retir-
ing to a point on the James below Richmond,
Before the movement fairly began General
Lee, on the 25th of June, struck the right
wing of the Union army at OAK GROVE, and
a hard-fought battle ensued. On the next
day, another engagement occurred at MECHAN-
ICSVILLE, and the Federals won the field. On
the following morning, Lee renewed the strug-
gle at GAINES'S MILL and came out victori-

1174

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ous. On the 29th, McClellan's army was at-
tacked at SAVAGE'S STATION, and again in the
WHITE OAK SWAMP — but the Confederates
were kept at bay. On the 30th was fought
the desperate battle of Glendale, or FRAZLER'S
FARM. On that night the Federal army
reached MALVERN HILL, twelve miles below
Richmond. General Lee determined to carry
the place by storm. On the morning of the
1st of July, the whole Confederate army
rushed forward to the assault. All day long
the struggle for the possession of the high

STRUGGLE AT THE BRIDGE OF ANTIETAM.

grounds continued. Not until nine o'clock
at night did Lee's columns fall back exhausted.
For seven days the roar of battle had been
heard almost without cessation. On the 2d
of July, McClellan retired with his army to
Harrison's Landing, a few miles down the
(river; and the great campaign was at an end.
The Federal army had lost more than fifteen
thousand men, and the losses of the Confed-
erates had been still greater.

General Lee now formed the design of
capturing the Federal capital. The Union
troops between Richmond and Washington
were under command of General John Pope.

Lee moved northward, and, on the 20th of
August, Pope retreated beyond the Rappa-
hanuock. Meanwhile, General Banks was
attacked by Stonewall Jackson at Cedar
Mountain, where nothing but hard fighting
saved the Federals from a rout. Jackson
next shot by with his division on a flank
movement to Mauassas Junction, where he
made large captures. Pope then threw his
army between the two divisions of the Con-
federates. On August 28th and 29th, there
was terrible fighting on the old BULL RUN

battle-ground. At
one time it seemed
that Lee's army
would be defeated ;
but Pope's rein-
forcements were
withheld by Gen-
eral Porter, and, on
the 31st, the Con-
federates struck
the Union army at
CHANTILLY, win-
ning a complete vic-
tory. Generals Ste-
vens and Kearney
were among the
brave men who fell
in this battle. Pope
withdrew his bro-
ken columns as rapidly as possible, and found
safety within the defenses of Washington.

General Lee now crossed the Potomac at
Point of Rocks, and on the 6th of September
captured Frederick. On the 10th, Hagers-
town was taken, and, on the 15th, Stonewall
Jackson seized Harper's Ferry, with nearly
twelve thousand prisoners. On the previous
day there was a hard-fought engagement at
SOUTH MOUNTAIN, in which the Federals were
victorious. McClellau's army was now in the
rear of Lee, who fell back to ANTIETAM CREEK,
and took a strong position near Sharpsburg.
Then followed two days of skirmishing, which
terminated on the 17th in one of the great
battles of the war. From morning till night
the struggle continued with unabated vio-
lence, and ended, after a loss of more than
ten thousand men on each side, in a drawn
battle. Lee withdrew his forces from the
field and recrossed the Potomac.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE UNITED STATES.

1175

General McClellau next moved forward to
Rectortown, Virginia. Here he was super-
seded by General Buruside, who changed the
plan of the campaign, and advanced against
Ki:i:i)i:i:iOK8BURO. At this place the two armirx
were again brought lace to lace. Burii.-iili-'.>
movement was delayed, and it was not until
the 12th of December that a passage could be
effected. Meanwhile the heights south of the
river had been fortified, and the Union col-
umns were hurled back in several desperate
assaults which cost the assailants more than
twelve thousand men. Thus, in disaster to
the Federal cause, ended the campaigns
of 1862.

The war had now grown to enormous pro-
portions. The Confederate States were drain-
ing every resource of men and means, and the
superior energies of the North were greatly
taxed. On the day after the battle of Mal-
vern Hill, President Lincoln issued a. call for
three hundred thousand troops. During Pope's
retreat from the Rapahannock, ho sent forth
another call for three hundred thousand, and
to that was added a draft of three hundred
hundred thousand more. Most of these de-
mands were promptly met, and it became
evident that in resources the Federal govern-
ment was vastly superior to the Confederacy.

On the 1st of January, 1863, the President
issued THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION, of
which he had given notice in the previous
September. The war had been begun with
no well-defined intention to free the slaves of
the South. But during the progress of the
struggle the sentiment of abolition had grown
with great rapidity ; and when at last it be-
came a military necessity to strike a blow at
the labor system of the South, the step was
taken with but little opposition. Thus, after
an existence of two hundred and forty-four
years, African slavery in the United States
was swept away.

Early in January, General Sherman dis-
patched an expedition to capture Arkansas
Post, on the Arkansas River. The Union
forces reached their destination on the 10th
of the month, fought a battle with the Con-
federates, and gained a victory. On the next
day the post was surrendered, with nearly five
thousand prisoners. Soon afterwards the
Union forces were concentrated for the cap-

ture of Vicksburg. Three months wen- -pent
by General Grant in beating about the bayous
around Vicksburg, in the hope of getting a
position in the rear of the town. A canal
was cut across a bend in the river with a view
to opening a passage for the gunboats. But
a flood washed the works away. Then another
canal was begun, only to be abandoned.
Finally it was determined to run the fleet
past the Vicksburg batteries. On the night
of the 16th of April the boats dropped down
the river. All of a sudden the guns burst
forth with shot and shell, pelting the passing
steamers; but they went by with little damage.

General Grant now marched his land
forces down the Mississippi, and formed a
junction with the squadron. On the 1st day
of May he defeated the Confederates at Port
Gibson. The evacuation of Grand Gulf fol-
lowed immediately. The Union army now
swept around to the rear of Vicksburg. On
the 12th of May a Confederate force was de-
feated at Raymond. On the 14th of the
month a decisive battle was fought near JACK-
SON; the Confederates were beaten, and the
city captured. General Pemberton, sallying
forth with his forces from Vicksburg, was de-
feated by Grant on the sixteenth at CHAMPION
HILLS, and again on the 17th at Black River
Bridge. Pemberton then retired within tho
defenses of Vicksburg.

The city was now besieged. On the 19th
of May, Grant made an assault, but was re-
pulsed with terrible losses. Three days after-
wards the attempt was renewed with a still
greater destruction of life. But the siege was
pressed with ever-increasing severity. Admi-
ral Porter bombarded the town incessantly.
Reinforcements swelled the Union ranks.
Pemberton held out until the 4th of July,
and was then driven to surrender. The de-
fenders of Vicksburg, numbering thirty thou-
sand, became prisoners of war. Thousands of
small arms, hundreds of cannon, and vast
quantities of ammunition and stores were the
fruits of the great victory.

Meanwhile General Banks had been con-
ducting a campaign on the Lower Mississippi.
From Baton Rouge he advanced into Louisi-
ana, reached Brashear City, and gained a vic-
tory over the Confederates at Bayou Teche.
He then moved northward and besieged Port

1176

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Hudson, the last fort held by the Confederates
on the Mississippi. The garrison made a brave
defense, and it was not until the 8th of July
that the commandant, with his force of six
thousand men, was obliged to capitulate.

Just before the investment of Vicksburg
occurred the great raid of Colonel Benjamin
Grierson. With the Sixth Illinois Cavalry
he struck out from La Grange, Tennessee,
traversed Mississippi to the east of Jackson,

Lougstreet. On the 19th of September he
turned upon the Federals at CHICKAMAUGA
Creek, in the, north-west angle of Georgia.
A hard battle was fought, but night came
with the victory undecided. On the follow-
ing morning the fight was renewed. After
the conflict had continued for some hours the
national battle-line was opened by a mistake
of General Wood. Bragg thrust forward a
heavy column into the gap, cut the Union

BATTLE OF LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN AND MISSIONARY RIDGE.

cut the railroads, destroyed property, and
after a rapid course of more than eight hun-
dred miles, gained the river at Baton Rouge.
Late in the same spring Colonel Streight's
command went on a raid into Georgia, but
was surrounded and captured by General For-
rest. In the latter part of June, Rosecrans
succeeded in crowding General Bragg out of
Tennessee. The Union general followed and
took post at Chattanooga, on the left bank of
the Tennessee. During the summer Bragg
was reinforced by the corps of Johnston and

army in two, and drove the right wing into a
rout. General Thomas, with desperate firm-
ness, held the left until nightfall, and then
withdrew into Chattanooga. The Union
loss amounted to nearly nineteen thousand,
and that of the Confederates was even greater.
General Bragg pressed forward to besiege
Chattanooga. But General Hooker arrived
with two corps from the Army of the Poto-
mac, opened the Tennessee River, and brought
relief. At the same time General Grant as-
sumed the direction of affairs at Chattanooga,

TIII-: .\iM-:ri-:i-:.\Tif CENTURY.— Tin: r.\rn:i> STATES.

1177

General Sherman arrived with his division,
and offensive operations were at once renewed.
On the 24th of November, LOOKOUT MOUN-
TAIN, overlooking the town and river, was
stormed by the division of General Hooker.
On the following day MISSIOXAKY Km<;i-: was
also carried, and Bragg's army fell back in full
retreat toward Kinggold. On the 1st of Sep-
tember, General Burnside arrived with his com-
mand at Knoxville. After the battle of Chick-
amauga, General Longstreet was sent into East

eral Mannadiike attacked the poet at Cape
Girardeuu, but the garrison drove the ('mill-d-
erates away. On the 4th of July, General
Holmes made an attack on the Federal- ;it
Helena, Arkansas, but was repulsed. On the
l-'!tli of August, Lawrence, Kansa-, was -acked
and a hundred and forty persons killed by :i
band of desperate fellows led by a guerrilla
ehieftain called Quantrell. On the H>tli of
September the Federal General Steele cap-
tured Little Rock. Arkansas.

ATTACK ON FORT SUMTER.

Tennessee, where he arrived and began the
siege of KNOXVILLE. On the 29th of Novem-
ber the Confederates attempted to carry the
town by storm, but were repulsed with heavy
losses. General Sherman soon marched to
the relief of Burnside, and Longstreet re-
treated into Virginia.

Early in 1863 the Confederates resumed
activity in Arkansas and Southern Missouri.
On the 8th of January they attacked Spring-
field, but were repulsed. Three days after-
ward, at Hartsville, a battle was fought with
a similar result. On the 26th of April, Gen-

In the summer of this year General John
Morgan made a great raid through Kentucky,
Indiana, and Ohio. He crossed the Ohio at
Brandenburg and began his march to the north.
At Corydon and other points he was resisted
by the home-guards and pursued by General
Hobson. Morgan crossed into Ohio, made a
circuit north of Cincinnati, and attempted to
re-cross the river. But the raiders were
driven back. The Confederate leader pressed
on until he came near New Lisbon, where he
was captured by the brigade of General
Shackelford. After a four months' imprison-

1178

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ment Morgan escaped and made his way to
Richmond.

On the 1st of January, General Magruder
captured Galveston, Texas. By this means
the Confederates secured a port of entry in
the Southwest. On the 7th of April, Admiral
Dupont with a fleet of iron-clads attempted
to capture Charleston, but was driven back.
In June the city was beseiged by a strong
land-force under General Q. A. Gillmore
assisted by Admiral Dahlgren's fleet. After
the bombardment had continued for some
time General Gillmore, on the 18th of July,
attempted to carry Fort Wagner by assault,

STONEWALL JACKSON.

but was repulsed with severe loss. The siege
progressed until the 6th of September, when
the Confederates evacuated the fort and re-
tired to Charleston. Gillmore now brought
his guns to bear on the wharves and buildings
in the lower part of the city. But Charles-
ton still held out, and the only gain of the
Federals was the establishment of a complete
blockade.

After his repulse at Fredericksburg, Gen-
eral Burnside was superseded by General Jo-
seph Hooker, who, in the latter part of April,
crossed the Rappahannock and reached CHAN-
CELLORSVILLE. Here, on the morning of the
2d of May, he was attacked by the army of

Northern Virginia, led by Lee and Jackson.
The latter general, at the head of twenty-five
thousand men, outflanked the Union army,
burst upon the right wing, and swept every
thing to destruction. But it was the last of
Stonewall's battles. As night came on the
Confederate leader received a volley from his
own lines, and fell to rise no more.

On the 3d the battle was renewed. Gen-
eral Sedgwick was defeated and driven across
the Rappahaunock. The main army was
crowded between Chancellorsville and the
river, where it remained until the 5th, when
General Hooker succeeded in withdrawing his
forces to the northern bank. The Union
losses amounted in killed, wounded, and
prisoners to about seventeen thousand ;
that of the Confederates was less by five
thousand. Next followed the cavalry
raid of General Stoneman. On the 29th
of April he crossed the Rappahannock
with ten thousand men, tore up the Vir-
ginia Central Railroad, cut General Lee's
communications, swept around within a
few miles of Richmond, and then re-
crossed the Rappahannock in safety.

General Lee now determined to carry
the war into the North. In the first
week of June he crossed the Potomac,
and captured Hagerstown. On the 22d
he entered Chambersburg, and then pressed
on through Carlisle to within a few miles
of Harrisburg. The militia of Penn-
sylvania was called out, and volunteers
came pouring in from other States. Gen-
eral Hooker pushed forward to strike his
antagonist. General Lee rapidly concen-
trated his forces near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
On the eve of battle the command of the Union
army was transferred to General George G.
Meade, who took up a position on the hilla
around GETTYSBURG. Here the two armies,
each numbering about eighty thousand men,
were brought face to face.

After more than two years of indecisive
warfare it seemed that the fate of the Ameri-
can Republic was to be staked on the issue of
a single battle. On the morning of the 1st
of July the Union advance, led by Generals
Reynolds and Buford, while moving westward
from Gettysburg, encountered the Confeder-
ate division of General Hill coming up on the

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. — THE UNITED STA 1 7 >.

1179

road from Hagcrstowri, and tlic struggle be-
gan. In the afternoon strong reinforcements
were received, and a severe battle was fought
for tin- possession ni' Si-iuiiiary Ridge. In
this initial conflict the Confederates were vic-
torious, driving the Union line from its posi-
tion, through the village, and back to the
high grounds southward. Here at nightfall a
stand was made, and a new battle-line was
formed, reaching from an eminence called
Round Top, where the left wing rested,
around the crest of the ridges to
Cemetery Hill, where the center
was posted, and thence to Wolf
Hill on Rock Creek. To this
position, well-chosen and strong,
the whole Union army, except
Sedgwick's corps, was hurried for-
ward during the night. The Con-
federate forces were all brought
into position on Seminary Ridge
and the high grounds to the left
of Rock Creek, forming a semi-
circle about five miles long. The
cavalry of both armies hung upon
the flanks, doing effective service
but hardly participating in the
main conflict of the center.

On the morning of July 2d,
the corps of General Longstreet
on the Confederate right moved
forward impetuously and attacked
the Union left under Sickles. The
struggle in this part of the field
was for the possession of Great and
Little Round Top, and after terri-
ble fighting, which lasted until six
o'clock in the evening, these strong
positions remained in the hands
of the Federals. In the center
a similar conflict, lasting for the greater part
of the day, ensued for the possession of Cem-
etery Hill. Here, too, notwithstanding the
desperate assaults of the Confederates, the in-
tegrity of the National line was preserved till
nightfall. On the right the Confederate onset
was more successful, and the Union right un-
der General Slocum was somewhat shattered.
But at ten o'clock at night, when the fighting
ceased, it was found that the position of the
two armies had not been materially changed
by a conflict which had left forty thousand

il' :nl ami \\nundi-d in. n mi tin- tii-M of battle.
I'ndiT cover nf tin- darkness both generals
made arrangements to renew the struggle on
tin- morrow, but when morning rami- both
were loath to begin. For cadi li-lt that this
day's action must be decisive. General Meade
had some advantage in the fact that Lee, in
order to continue his invasion, must carry the
Union position or retreat. The whole fore-
noon of the 3d was spent in preparations. At
midday there was a lull. Then burst forth

OBOBOE O. XKADE.

the fiercest cannonade ever known on the
American continent. Until after two o'clock
the hills were shaken with the thunders of
more than two hundred heavy guns. The
Confederate artillerymen concentrated their
fire on the Union center at Cemetery Hill
which became a scene of indescribable uproar
and death. Then came the crisis. The can-
nonade ceased. A Confederate column, nearly
three miles long, headed by the Virginians
under General Pickett, made a final and des-
perate charge on the Union center. But the

1180

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

onset was in vain, and the brave men who
made it were mowed down with terrible slaugh-
ter. The victory remained with the national
army, and Lee was obliged to turn back with
his shattered legions to the Potomac. The en-
tire Confederate loss in this the greatest battle
of the war was nearly thirty thousand ; that
of the Federals in killed, wounded, and miss-
ing, twenty-three thousand a hundred and
eighty-six. General Lee withdrew his forces
into Virginia, and the Union army resumed

posed, and in many places the draft-officers
were resisted. On the 13th of July, in the
city of New York, a mob rose in arms, de-
molished buildings, burned the colored orphan
asylum, and killed about a hundred people.
For three days the authorities were set at de-
fiance ; but a force of regulars and volunteers
gathered at the scene, and the riot was sup-
pressed.

Only about fifty thousand men were ob-
tained by the draft. But volunteering was

BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

its old position on the Potomac and the Kap-
pahannock. Such were the more important
military movements of 1863.

The administration of President Lincoln
was beset with many difficulties. The last
calls for volunteers had not been fully met.
The anti-war party of the North denounced
the measures of the government as unconsti-
tutional. On the 3d of March the CONSCRIP-
TION ACT was passed by Congress, and the
President ordered a draft of three hundred
thousand men. The measure was bitterly op-

quickened by the measure, and the employ-
ment of substitutes soon filled the ranks. In
October the President issued another call for
three hundred thousand men. By these meas-
ures the columns of the Union army were
made more powerful than ever. In the ar-
mies of the South, on the other hand, there
were already symptoms of exhaustion. On
the 20th of June in this year, West Virginia
was separated from the Old Dominion and ad-
mitted as the thirty-fifth State of the Union.
Early in February, 1864, General Sherman

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE UNITED STATES.

11*1

moved from Vicksburg to Meridian. In this
vicinity the railroad tracks were torn up for
a hundred and fifty miles. At Meridian, (ien-
eral Sherman expected a force of Federal cav-
alry whirh luul been sent out from Memphis,
under General Smith. The latter advanced
into Mississippi, but was met by the cavalry
of Forrest, and driven back to Memphis.
General Sherman thereupon retraced his
course to Vicksburg. Forrest continued his
raid northward to Paducah, Kentucky, and
made an assault on Fort Anderson, but was
repulsed with a severe loss. Turning back
into Tennessee, he came uport Fort Pillow,
on the Mississippi, and carried the place by
storm.

In the spring of 1864, THE RED RIVER
EXPEDITION was undertaken by General
Banks. The object was to capture Shreve-
port, the seat of the Confederate government
of Louisiana. On the 14th of March, the
Federal advance captured Fort de Russy, on
Red River. The Confederates retreated to
Alexandria, and on the 16th that city was
taken by the Federals. Three days after-
ward, Natchitoches was captured. The fleet
now proceeded up stream toward Shreveport,
and the land-forces whirled off to the left.

At Mansfield, on the 8th of April, the ad-
vancing Federals were attacked by the Con-
federates, and completely routed. At Pleas-
ant Hill, on the next day, the main body of
the Union army was badly defeated. The
flotilla now descended the river from the
direction of Shreveport. The whole expedi-
tion returned as rapidly as possible to the
Mississippi. General Steele had, in the mean-
time, advanced from Little Rock to aid in the
reduction of Shreveport ; but learning of the
Federal defeats, he withdrew after several
severe engagements.

On the 2d of March, 1864, General Grant
was appointed commander-in-chief of all the
armies of the United States. Seven hundred
thousand soldiers were now to move at his
command. Two great campaigns were planned
for the year. The Army of the Potomac,
under Meade and the general-in-chief, was to
advance upon Richmond. General Sherman,
with a hundred thousand men, was to march
from Chattanooga against Atlanta.

On the 7th of May, General Sherman

moved forward. At Daltmi he succeeded in
turning General Johnston's flank, and obliged
him to fall back to KI>M \. Alter two hard
battles, on the 14th and loth of May, this
place was carried, and the Confederates re-
treated to Dallas. Here, on the 28th, John-
ston made a second stand, but was again out-
flanked, and compelled to fall back to Lost
Mountain. From this position he was forced
on the 17th of June. The next stand was
made on GREAT and LITTLE KF.NESAW MOUNT-
AINS. From this line, on the 22d of June,
the division of General Hood made a fierce
attack, but was repulsed with heavy losses.

GTORGE H. THOMAS.

Five days afterward, General Sherman at-
tempted to carry Great Kenesaw by storm ;
but the assault ended in a dreadful repulse.
Sherman resumed his former tactics, and on
the 3d of July, compelled his antagonist to
retreat across the Chattahoochee. By the
10th of the month, the whole Confederate
army had retired to ATLANTA.

This stronghold was at once besieged. Here
were the machine-shops, foundries, and car-
works of the Confederacy. At the beginning
of the siege, the cautious and prudent John-
ston was superseded by the rash General J. B.
Hood. On the 20th, 22d, and 28th of July.

1182

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the latter made three assaults on the Union
lines, but was repulsed with dreadful losses.
It was in the second of these battles that the
brave General James B. McPherson was killed.
For more than a month the siege of Atlanta
was pressed with great vigor. At last Hood
was obliged to evacuate the city , and on the
2d of September, the Union army marched
into the stronghold of Georgia.

General Hood now turned northward to-
ward Tennessee, swept up through Northern

WILLIAM T. SHERMAN.

Alabama, crossed the river at Florence, and
advanced on Nashville. Meanwhile, General
Thomas, with the Army of the Cumberland,
had been detached from Sherman's army and
sent northward to confront Hood. General
Schofield, who commanded the Federal forces
in Tennessee, fell back before the Confed-
erates and took post at FRANKLIN. Here,
on the 30th of November, he was attacked by
Hood's legions, and held them in check till
nightfall, when he retreated within the de-

fenses of NASHVILLE. At this place all of
General Thomas's forces were concentrated.
Hood came on, confident of victory, and pre-
pared to begin the siege ; but, before the work
was fairly begun, General Thomas, on the
15th of December, fell upon the Confederate
army, and routed it with a loss of more than
twenty-five thousand men. For many days of
freezing weather Hood's columns were pursued,
until at last they found refuge in Alabama.
On the 14th of November, General Sher-
man burned Atlanta, and be-
gan his MARCH TO THE SEA.
His army numbered sixty
thousand men. He cut his
communications with the
North, abandoned his base of
supplies, and struck out for
the sea-coast, two hundred
and fifty miles away. The
Union army passed through
Macon and Milledgeville,
crossed the Ogeechee, cap-
tured Gibson and Waynes-
borough, and on the 10th of
December arrived in the vi-
cinity of Savannah. On the
13th, Fort McAllister was
carried by storm. On the
night of the 20th, General
Hardee, the Confederate com-
mandant, escaped from Sa-
vannah and retreated to
Charleston. On the 22d,
General Sherman made his
head-quarters in the city.

January, 1865, was spent
by the Union army at Savan-
nah. On the 1st of February,
General Sherman began his
inarch against Columbia,
South Carolina. The Confederates had not
sufficient force to stay his progress. On the
17th of the month, Columbia was surren-
dered. On the same night, Hardee, having
destroyed the public property of Charleston
and kindled fires which laid four squares in
ashes, evacuated the city; and on the follow-
ing morning the national forces entered. From
Columbia, General Sherman marched into
North Carolina, and on the llth of March
captured the town of Fayetteville.

Tin: MM:TI-:I-:.\TH < I.XTURY.— THE r.v //•/•:/> STATES.

1183

General Johnston was now recalled to the
command of the Confederate forces, and the
advance of tin' 1'nicm army began to be seri-
ously opposed. At AvERASBOROtiGH, on Cape
Fear River, General Hardee made a stand,
but was repulsed. When, on the 19th of
March, General Sherman was approaching
BENTONSVILLE, he was attacked by Johnston,
and for a while the Union army was in dan-
ger of defeat. But the day was saved by
hard fighting, and on the 21st Sherman en-
tered Goldsborough. Here he was reinforced
by Generals Schofield and Terry. The Fed-
eral army turned to the north-west, and on
the 13th of April entered Raleigh. This was
the end of the great march; and here, on the
26th of the month, General Sherman received
the surrender of Johnston's army.

Meanwhile, important events had occurred
on the Gulf. Early in August, 1864, Admi-
ral Farragut bore down on the defenses of
MOBILE. The harbor was defended by a
Confederate fleet and the monster iron-clad
Tennessee. On the 5th of August, Farragut
ran past Forts Morgan and Gaines into the
harbor. In order to direct the movements
of his vessels, the old admiral mounted to
the maintop of the Hartford, lashed himself
to the rigging, and from that high perch gave
his commands during the battle. One of
the Union ships struck a torpedo and sank.
The rest attacked and dispersed the Confed-
erate squadron ; but just as the bay seemed
won, the Tennessee came down at full speed
to strike the Hartford. Then followed one
of the fiercest conflicts of the war. The
Union iron-clads closed around their antag-
onist, and battered her with fifteen-inch bolts
of iron until she surrendered.

Next came the capture of Fort Fisher, at
the entrance to Cape Fear River. In Decem-
ber, Admiral Porter was sent with a powerful
American squadron to besiege and take the
fort. General Butler, with six thousand five
hundred men, accompanied the expedition.
On the 24th of the month, the troops were
sent ashore with orders to storm the works.
When General Weitzel, who led, came near
enough to reconnoiter, he decided that an
assault could only end in disaster. General
Butler held the same opinion, and the enter-
prise was abandoned. Admiral Porter re-

mained before Fort Fisher with his fleet, and
General Butler returned to Fortress Monroe.
Early in January, the siege was renewed, and
on the loth <>f the mouth Fort Fisher was taken
by storm.

In the previous October, Lieut. naut Gush-
ing, with a number of volunteer-, em larked
in a small steamer, and entered the Roanoke.
A tremendous iron ram, called the Albcmarle,
was discovered lying at the harbor of Ply-
mouth. Cautiously approaching, the lieuten-
ant sank a torpedo under the Confederate ship,
exploded it, and left the ram a ruin. The
adventure cost the lives or capture of all of

DAVID C. KAKKAGUT.

Cushing's party except himself and one other,
who made good their escape.

During the 'progress of the war, the com-
merce of the United States was greatly in-
jured by the Confederate cruisers. The first
ship sent out was the Savannah, which was
captured on the same day that she escaped
from Charleston. In June of 1861, the Sum-
ter, commanded by Captain Semmes, ran the
blockade at New Orleans, and did fearful
work with the Union merchantmen. But in
February of 1862, Semmes was chased into
the harbor of Gibraltar, where he was ob-
liged to sell his vessel. The Nashville ran
out from Charleston, and returned with a
cargo worth three millions of dollars. In

1184

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

March of 1863, she was sunk by a Union
iron-clad in the Savannah River.

The ports of the Southern States were now
closely blockaded. In this emergency the Con-
federates turned to the ship-yards of Great
Britain, and began to build cruisers. In the
harbor of Liverpool the Florida was fitted out ;
and going to sea in the summer of 1862,
she succeeded in running into Mobile Bay.
She afterward destroyed fifteen merchantmen,
and was then captured and sunk in Hampton
Roads. The Georgia, the Olustee, the Slienan-

bourg, France, by Captain Winslow, com-
mander of the steamer Keanarge. On the
19th of June, Semmes went out to give his
antagonist battle. After a desperate fight of
an hour's duration, the Alabama was sunk.
Semmes was picked up by the English Deer-
hound and carried to Southampton.

On the night of the 3d of May, 1864, the
national camp at Culpepper was broken up
and the march on Richmond was begun. On
the first day of the advance, Grant crossed
the Rapidan and entered the WILDERNESS, a

BATTLE OF SPOTTSYLVANIA COURT-HOUSE.

doah, and the Chickamauga, all built at the
ship-yards of Glasgow, Scotland, escaped to
sea and made great havoc with the merchant-
ships of the United States.

Most destructive of all was the Alabama,
built at Liverpool. Her commander was Cap-
tain Raphael Semmes. A majority of the crew
were British subjects; and her armament was
entirely British. In her whole career, involv-
ing the destruction of sixty-six vessels and a
loss of ten million dollars, she never entered
a Confederate port. In the summer of 1864,
Bemmes was overtaken in the harbor of Cher-

country of oak woods and thickets. He was
immediately attacked by the Confederate army.
During the 5th, 6th, and 7th of the month,
the fighting continued incessantly with terrible
losses ; but the results were indecisive. Grant
next made a flank movement in the direction
of SPOTTSYLVANIA COURT-HOUSE. Here fol-
lowed from the 9th till the 12th, one of the
bloodiest struggles of the war. The Federals
gained some ground and captured the division
of General Stewart; but the losses of Lee
were less than those of his antagonist.

Grant again moved to the left, crossed the

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. — THE UNITED STATIC

1185

Pamunkey, and came to COLD HARBOR, twelve
miles north-oust of Richmond. Here, on the
1st of June, he attacked the Confederates, but
was repulsed with heavy losses. On the morn-
ing of the :{d, the assault was renewed, and
in half an hour nearly ten thousand Union
soldiers fell dead or wounded before the Con-
federate entrenchments. The repulse of the
Federals was complete, but they held their
lines as firmly as ever.

General Grant now changed
his base to James River. Gen-
eral Butler had already taken
City Point and Bermuda Hun-
dred. Here, on the 15th of
June, he was joined by General
Grant's whole army, and the
combined forces moved forward
and began the siege of Pe-
tersburg.

Meanwhile, important move-
ments were taking place on the
Shenandoah. When Grant
moved from the Rapidan, Gen-
eral Sigel marched up the val-
ley to New Market, where he
was met and defeated by the
Confederate cavalry under Gen-
eral Breckinridge. The latter
then, returned to Richmond,
whereupon the Federals faced
about, overtook the Confed-
erates at Piedmont, and gained
a signal victory. From this
place Generals Hunter and
Averill advanced against Lynch-
burg. By this movement the
valley of the Shenandoah was
again exposed to invasion.

Lee immediately dispatched
General Early to cross the Blue
Ridge, invade Maryland and threaten Wash-
ington City. With twenty thousand men
Early began his march, and on the 5th of
July crossed the Potomac. On the 9th, he
defeated the division of General Wallace on
the Monocacy. But the battle saved Wash-
ington and Baltimore from capture.

General Wright followed Early as far as
Winchester. But the latter wheeled upon
him, and the Union troops were driven across

the Potomac. Early next invaded Pennsyl-
VOL. II.— 75

vaiiia and burned Chambereburg. Gem -ml
Grant now appointed General Philip H. Sher-
idan to command tin: army on the, L'ppei
Potomac. The troops placed at his disposal
numbered nearly forty thousand. On the l!lih
of September, Sheridan marched upon Early at
WINCHESTER, and routed him in a hard-fought
battle. On the 22d of August, he gained
another complete victory at Fisher's Hill.
Sheridan next turned about to ravage the

PHIUT H. SHERIDAN.

valley. The ruinous work was fearfully well
done. Nothing worth fighting for was left
between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies.
Maddened by his defeats, Early rallied his
forces, and again entered the valley. Sheridan
had posted his army on CEDAR CREEK, and
feeling secure, had gone to Washington. On
the 19th of October, Early surprised the Union
camp, captured the artillery, and sent the
routed troops flying in confusion toward Win-
chester. The Confederates pursued as far a?

1186

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Middletown, and there paused to eat and rest.
On the previous night, Sheridan had returned
to WINCHESTER, and was now coming to rejoin
his army. He rode twelve miles at full speed,
rallied the fugitives, and gained one of the
most signal victories of the war. Early's
army was completely ruined.

All fall and winter, General Grant pressed
the siege of Petersburg. On the 30th of
July, a mine was exploded under one of the
forts ; but the assaulting column was repulsed
with heavy losses. On the 18th of August, a
division of the Union army seized the Weldou
Railroad and held it against several assaults.
On the 28th of September, Battery Harrison
was stormed by the Federals, and on the next

SHERIDAN'S ARRIVAL AT CEDAR CREEK.

day, General Paine's brigade carried the re-
doubt on Spring Hill. On the 27th of Octo-
ber, there was a battle on the Boydton road ;
and then the army went into winter-quarters.
On the 27th of February, Sheridan gained
a victory over Early at Waynesborough, and
then joined the commander-in-chief. On the
1st of April, a severe battle was fought at
FIVE FORKS, in which the Confederates were
defeated with a loss of six thousand prisoners.
On the next day, Grant ordered a general as-
sault on the lines of Petersburg, and the works
were carried. On that night, Lee's army and
the Confederate government fled from Rich-
mond ; and on the following morning the city
was entered by the Federal troops. The ware-
houses were fired by the retreating Confeder-
ates, and the better part of the city was re-
duced to ruins.

General Lee retreated as rapidly as possi-
ble to the south-west. Once, at Deatonsville,
the Confederates turned and fought, but were
defeated with great losses. For five days the
pursuit was kept up ; and then Lee was brought
to bay at APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE. There,
on the 9th of April, 1865, the work was done.
Seeing that further resistance was useless, Gen-
eral Lee surrendered the Army of Northern
Virginia, and the Confederacy was hopelessly
overthrown. General Grant signalized the end
of the strife by granting to his antagonist the
most liberal terms. How the army of Gen-
eral Johnston was surrendered a few days later
has already been narrated. After four dread-
ful years of bloodshed and sorrow, THE CIVIL

WAR WAS AT AN END.

The Federal au-
thority was rapidly
extended over the
South. Mr. Davis
and his cabinet es-
caped to Danville,
and there for a few
days kept up the
forms of government.
From that place they
fled into North Caro-
lina. The ex-Presi-
dent continued his
flight into Georgia,
and encamped near
Irwinsville, where,

on the 10th of May, he was captured by
General Wilson's cavalry. He was conveyed
to Fortress Monroe, and kept in confinement
until May of 1867, when he was taken to
Richmond to be tried for treason. He was
admitted to bail ; and his cause was finally
dismissed.

At the presidential election of 1864, Mr.
Lincoln was chosen for a second term. As
Vice-president, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee,
was elected. In the preceding summer, the
people of Nevada framed a constitution, and
on the 31st of October the new common-
wealth was proclaimed as the thirty-sixth
State. The gold and silver mines of Nevada
soon surpassed those of California in their
yield of precious metals.

At the outbreak of the Civil War the finan-
cial credit of the United States sank to a very

THE NINETi:i:\Tll CENTURY.— THE UNITKD STATKS.

11X7

low ebb. Mr. Chase, the secretary of the
treasury, first fought relief l>y issuing TREAS-
URY NOTES, receivable as money. By the
beginning of 1802, the expenses of the gov-
ernment had risen to more than a million of
dollars daily. To meet these tremendous de-
mands on the government, Congress next pro-
vided AN INTERNAL REVENUE. This was
made up from two general sources : first, a tax
on manufactures, incomes, and salaries; second,
a stamp-duty on all legal documents. The next
measure was the issuance of LEGAL, TENDEB
NOTES of the United States, to be used as
money. These are the notes called Greenbacks.
The third great measure adopted by the gov-
ernment was the sale of UNITED STATES
BONDS. The inter-
est upon them was
fixed at six per
cent, payable serai-
annually in gold.
In the next place,
Congress passed an
act providing for
the establishment
of NATIONAL
BANKS. National
bonds, instead of
gold and silver,
were used as a
basis of the circu-
lation of these
banks ; and the re-
demption of their
bills was guaran-
teed by, the treasury of the United States. At
the end of the conflict, the national debt had
readied nearly three thousand millions of dollars.
On the 4th of March, 1865, President Lin-
coln was inaugurated for his second term.
Three days after the evacuation of Richmond
by Lee's army, the President made a visit to
that city. On the evening of the 14th of
April, he, with his wife and a party of friends,
attended Ford's Theater in Washington. As
the play drew near its close, a disreputable
actor, named John Wilkes Booth, stole into
the President's box, and shot him through the
brain. Mr. Lincoln lingered in an uncon-
scious state until morning, and died. It was
the greatest tragedy of modern times. The
assassin escaped into the darkness and fled.

At the same hour, another murderer, named
Lewis Payne Powell, burst into the bed-cham-
ber of Seontej Seward, sprang upon the
couch of the sick man, and stabbed him nigh
nnto death. The city was wild with alarm.
Troops of cavalry departed in all directions to
hunt down the «M»«pBina, On the 26th of
April, Booth was found concealed in a barn
south of Fredericksburg. Refusing to sur-
render, he was shot by Sergeant Boston Cor-
belt. Powell was caught and hanged. David
E. Herrold and George A. Atzerott, together
with Mrs. Mary E. Surratt, at whose house
the plot was formed, were also condemned
and executed. Michael O'Laughlin, Dr. Sam-
uel A. Mudd, and Samuel Arnold, were sen-

SSINATION Or PRESIDENT LINCOLN.

tenced to imprisonment for life, and Edward
Spangler for six years.

So ended in darkness, but not in shame,
the career of Abraham Lincoln — one of the
most remarkable men of any age— a man in
whom great genius and common sense were
strangely mingled. He was prudent, far-
sighted, and resolute; thoughtful, calm, and
just; patient, tender-hearted, and great

He had heen born a destined work to do,
And lived to do it ; four long-suffering years —

Ill-fate, ill-feeling, ill-report lived through —
And then he heard the hisses change to cheers,

The taunts to tribute, the abuse to praise,

And took them both with his unwavering mood;

But as he came on light from darkest days.

And seemed to touch the goal from where he
stood.

1188

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

A felon hand between that goal and him,
Reached from behind his head, a trigger prest,

And those perplexed and patient eyes were dim,
Those gaunt, long-laboring limbs were laid to
rest!

The words of mercy were upon his lips,
Forgiveness in his heart and on his pen,

When this vile murderer brought swift eclipse
To thoughts of peace on earth, good-will to men.

The manner of Lincoln 'a death consecrated
his memory. From city to city, in one vast
funeral procession, the mourning people fol-
lowed his remains to their last resting-place
at Springfield. From all nations rose the
voice of sympathy and shame — sympathy for
his death, shame for the dark crime that
caused it.

On the day after the assassination of Mr.
Lincoln, ANDREW JOHNSON became President
of the United States. He was a native of
Raleigh, North Carolina— born in 1808. With
no advantages of education, he passed his
boyhood in poverty. In 1828 he removed to
Greenville, Tennessee, where he soon rose to
distinction and was elected to Congress. As
a member of the United States Senate in
1860-61, he opposed secession with all his
powers. In 1862 he was appointed military
governor of Tennessee. This office he held
until he was nominated for the vice-presidency.

On the 1st of February, 1865, Congress
adopted an amendment to the Constitution by
which slavery was abolished throughout the
Union. By the 18th of the following Decem-
ber, the amendment had been ratified by the
Legislatures of twenty-seven States, and was
duly proclaimed as a part of the Constitution.
The emancipation proclamation had been issued
as a military necessity; and the results of the
instrument were now incorporated in the fun-
damental law of the land.

On the 29th of May, the AMNESTY PROC-
LAMATION was issued by the President. By
its provisions a pardon was extended to all
persons — except those specified in certain
classes — who had taken part in upholding the
Confederacy. During the summer of 1865,
the great armies were disbanded, and the vic-
tors and vanquished returned to their homes
to resume the work of peace.

The finances of the nation were in an alarm-
ing condition. The war-debt went on increas-
ing until the beginning of 1866. The yearly

interest grew to a hundred and thirty-three
million dollars in gold. The expenses of the
government had reached two hundred millions
of dollars annually. But the revenues of the
nation proved sufficient to meet these enor-
mous outlays, and at last the debt began to
be diminished.

The administration of President Johnson is
noted as the time when the Territories of the
United States assumed their present form. A
part of the work was accomplished during the
civil war. In March of 1861, the Territory
of Dakota was detached from Nebraska and
given a distinct organization. The State of
Kansas had at last, on the 29th of January,
1861, been admitted into the Union, under a
constitution framed at Wyandotte. In Feb-
ruary, 1863, Arizona was separated from New
Mexico, and on the 3d of March in that year,
Idaho was organized out of portions of Dakota,
Nebraska, and Washington Territories. On
the 26th of May, 1864, Montana was cut off
from Idaho. On the 1st of March, 1867, Ne-
braska was admitted into the Union as the
thirty-seventh State. Finally, on the 25th of
July, 1868, the Territory of Wyoming was
organized out of portions of Dakota, Idaho,
and Utah.

The year 1867 was signalized by THE PUR-
CHASE OF ALASKA. Negotiations for the pur-
chase were opened on the 30th of March, and
a treaty was concluded by which, for the sum
of seven million two hundred thousand dollars,
Russia ceded Alaska to the United States. The
territory embraced an area of five hundred and
eighty thousand square miles, and a population
of twenty-nine thousand souls.

Very soon after his accession, a serious dis-
agreement arose between the President and
Congress. The difficulty grew out of the ques-
tion of reorganizing the Southern States. The
point in dispute was as to the relation which
those States had sustained to the Federal Union
during the civil war. The President held that
the ordinances of secession were null and void,
and that the seceded States had never been out
of the Unitm. The majority in Congress held
that the acts of secession were illegal and un-
constitutional, but that the seceded States had
been actually detached from the Union, and
that special legislation was necessary in order
to restore them to their former relations.

MAP XXII.

SHOWING THE

ACQUISITION 0r TERRITORY

AND ITS DISTRIBUTION AMONG

POLITICAL DIVISIONS
1776—1884.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE UNITED STATIC.

In 1865, measures of reconstruction were
begun by the President. On the 9th of May,
a proclamation was issued for the restoration
of Virginia to the Union. Twenty days
later a provi.-ionul government was es-
tablished over South Carolina; and sim-
ilar measures were adopted in respect
to the other States of the Confederacy.
On the 24th of June, all restrictions on
trade and intercourse with the South-
ern States were removed. On the 7th
of September, a second amnesty procla-
mation 'was issued, by which all per-
sons who had upheld the Confederate
cause — excepting the leaders — were un-
conditionally pardoned. Meanwhile, Ten-
nessee had been reorganized, and in 1866
was restored to its place in the Union.
When Congress convened, a committee of
fifteen members was appointed, to which
were referred all questions concerning the
reorganization of the Southern States. In
accordance with measures reported by
this committee, Arkansas, Alabama,
Georgia, Florida,
Louisiana, North.
Carolina, and
South Carolina
were re-construct-
ed, and in June

aetmenta were effected over the veto of the
President, who had stubbornly resisted them.
Meanwhile, a difficulty had arisen in the
President's cabinet which led to his
impeachment. On the 21st of Feb-
ruary, 1868, he notified Fxlwin M.
Stan ton, secretary of war, of his
dismissal from office. The act was
regarded by Congress as a usurpation
of authority and a violation of law.
On the 3d of March, articles of im-
peachment were agreed to by the
House of Representatives, and the
President was summoned before the
Senate for trial. Proceedings began
on the 23d of March and continued
until the 26th of May, when the Pres-
ident was acquitted by a single vote.
Chief-justice Salmon P. Chase, one
of the most eminent of American
statesmen and jurists, presided dur-
ing the impeachment

The time for another presiden-
tial election was already at hand.
^^^^^^^ai General Ulysses 8.
p| Grant was nomi-
nated by the Re-
publicans, and Ho-
ratio Seymour, of
New York, by the

•.

TOMB OF LINCOLN.

and July of 1868 readmitted into the Union.
Congress had, in the mean time, passed THE
CIVIL EIGHTS BILL, by which tin- privileges
of citizenship were conferred on the freedmen
of the South. All of these congressional en-

Democrats. The canvass was one of great
excitement. The questions most discussed by
the political speakers were those arising out
of the civil war. The principles advocated
by the majority in C'onirre.-s furnished the

1190

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Republican platform of 1868, and on that
platform General Grant was elected by a large

SALMON P. CHASE.

majority. As Vice-president, Schuyler Col-
fax, of Indiana, was chosen.

ULYSSES S. GRANT, eighteenth President of
the United States, was born at Point Pleas-
ant, Ohio, April 27th, 1822. At the age of
seventeen he entered the Military Academy at
West Point, and was graduated in 1843. He
served with distinction in the Mexican war;
but his first national reputation was won by
the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson.
From that time he rapidly rose in rank, and
in March, 1864, was appointed lieutenant-
general and commander-in-chief of the Union
army.

The first great event of the new adminis-
tration was the completion of THE PACIFIC
RAILROAD. The first division of the road
extended from Omaha, Nebraska, to Ogden,
Utah, a distance of a thousand and thirty-two
miles. The western division reached from
Ogden to San Francisco, a distance of eight
hundred and eighty-two miles. On the 10th
of May, 1869, the work was completed with
appropriate ceremonies.

Before the inauguration of President Grant
two additional amendments to the Constitution
had been adopted. The first of these, known

as the Fourteenth Amendment, extended the
right of citizenship to all persons born or natu-
ralized in the United States, and declared
the validity of the public debt. Early in
1869, the Fifteenth Amendment was adopted
by Congress, providing that the right of
citizens to vote shall not be denied or
abridged on account of race, color, or pre-
vious condition of servitude. This clause
was proclaimed by the President as a part
of the Constitution on the 30th of March,
1870.

In the first three months of the same year,
the reorganization of the Southern States was
completed. On the 24th of January, the
senators and representatives of Virginia were
readmitted to their seats in Congress. On
the 23d of February, a like action was taken
in regard to Mississippi ; and on the 30th of
March the work was finished by the readmis-
sion of Texas.

In 1870 was completed the ninth census
of the United States. Notwithstanding the
ravages of war, the last ten years had been a
period of growth and progress.
During that time the population had increased

I'LYSSES S. GRANT.

to thirty-eight million five hundred and eighty-
seven thousand souls. The national debt was

Till: NINETEENTH CENTURY. Till: CMTi:i> STATES.

r;i|)idly falling oil'. The products of the I'nited

States had grown to a vast aggregate. Amer-
can manufiicturers were competing; whli those
of England in the markets of the world.
Tim I'liion now embraced tliirty-seven States
and eleven Territories. The national domain
had spread to the vast area of three million
six hundred and four thousand square miles.
Few things have been more wonderful than
the territorial growth of the United States.

At't'T much di-eu~ion, tin- commissioners
framed a treaty, known a- tin- Treaty of
Washington. It was agreed that all claims
of either nation again.-! the other ,-hould be
Milunitted to a board of arliitralioti, to be
appointed liy I'rii-ndly nations. Such a court
was formed, and in the summer of 1872
convened at Geneva, Switzerland. The cause
of the two nations was heard, and, on the
14th of September, decided in favor of the

GENEVA, SWITZERLAND.

The claim of the United States against the
British government for damages done by
Confederate cruisers during the civil war still
remained unsettled. After the war Great
Britain grew anxious for an adjustment of the
difficulty. On the 27th of February, 1871,
a joint high commission, composed of five
British and five American statesmen, assem-
bled at Washington City. From the fact that
the cruiser Alabama had done most of the in-
jury complained of, the claims of the United
States were called THE ALABAMA CLAIMS.

United States. By this decision Great Britain
was required to pay into the Federal treasury
the sum of fifteen million five hundred thou-
sand dollars.

The year 1871 is noted in American his-
tory for the burning of Chicago. On the
evening of the 8th of October, a fire broke
out in De Koven Street, and was driven by a
high wind into the lumber-yards and wooden
houses of the neighborhood. All day long
the flames rolled on, sweeping into a black-
ened ruin the most valuable portion of the

1192

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

city. The area burned over was two thousand
oiie hundred acres, or three and a third square

HORACE GREELEY.

miles. Nearly two hundred lives were lost,
one hundred thousand persons rendered home-
less, and the property destroyed amounted to
about two hundred millions of dollars.

As the first term of President Grant drew
to a close, the political parties made ready for
the twenty-second presidential election. Many
parts of the chief magistrate's policy had been
made the subjects of controversy. The con-
gressional plan of reconstruction had been
unfavorably received in the South. The ele-
vation of the negro race to the rights of citi-
zenship was regarded with apprehension. The
military spirit was still rife in the country,
and the issues of the civil war were rediscussed
with much bitterness. On these issues the
people divided in the election of 1872. The
Republicans renominated General Grant for
the presidency. For the vice-presidency, Mr.
Colfax was succeeded by Henry Wilson, of
Massachusetts. As the standard-bearer of the
Liberal Republican and Democratic parties,
Horace Greeley, editor of the New York
Tribune, "was nominated. This was the last
act in that remarkable man's career. For
more than thirty years he had been a leader
of public opinion in America. After a life-

time of untiring industry, he was now called
to the forefront of political strife. The can-
vass was one of wild excitement. Mr. Greeley
was overwhelmingly defeated, and died in less
than a mouth after the election.

About the beginning of President Grant's
second term, the country was agitated by THE
CREDIT MOBILIER INVESTIGATION in Congress.
The Credit Mobilier was a joint stock com-
pany organized in 1863 for the purpose of
constructing public works. In 1867, another
company, which had undertaken to build the
Pacific Railroad, purchased the charter of the
Credit Mobilier, and the capital was increased
to three million seven hundred and fifty thou-
sand dollars. Owing to the profitableness of
the work, the stock rose in value, and large
dividends were paid to the shareholders. In
1872 it became known that much of this stock
was mimed by members of Congress. A suspicion
that those members had voted corruptly in
matters affecting the Pacific Railroad seized
the public mind and led to a congressional
investigation, in the course of which many
scandalous transactions were brought to light.

In the autumn of 1873 occurred one of
the most disastrous financial panics ever

CHARLES SUMNER,

known in the United States. The alarm was
given by the failure of Jay Cooke & Com-

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE UNITED STATES.

1193

pany, of Philadelphia. Other failures fol-
lowed in rapid succession. Depositors hurried
to the banks and withdrew their money.
Business was paralyzed, and many mouths
elapsed before confidence was sufficiently re-
stored to enable merchants and bankers to
engage in the usual transactions of trade.

In this decade many public men fell by the
hand of death. In December of 1869 Edwin
M. Stanton died. In 1870 General Robert
E. Lee, president of Washington and Lee
University, General George H. Thomas, and

United States senator from Tennessee, passed
from among the living. On the 22d of the
following November Vice-presidrni Henry
Wilson, whose health had been gradually fail-
ing .since his inauguration, sank into rest.

\Vith the coming of 1M7»>, the people made
ready to celebrate TNI: < i M I.NMAI. 0V AMER-
ICAN INDEPENDENCE. The city of Philadel-
phia and old Independence Hall were the
central points of interest. There on the 10th
of May the great International Exposition
was opened with imposing cerrtii"iiii--. In

MAIN EXPOSITION BUILDING.

Admiral Farragut passed away. In 1872
William H. Seward, Professor Morse, Horace
Greeley, and General Meade were all called
from the scene of their earthly labors. On
the 7th of May, 1873, Chief-justice Chase fell
under a stroke of paralysis; and on the llth
of March, in the following year, Senator
Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, the friend
of the colored race and one of the foremost
champions of human rights in any age or
country, died in Washington City. On the
31st of July, 1875, ex-President Andrew
Johnson, who had been recently chosen

Fairmount Park, on the Schuylkill, were
erected beautiful buildings to receive the prod-
ucts of art and industry from all nations.
The Main Exposition Building, Machinery
Hall, the Memorial Hall, the Horticultural
and Agricultural buildings, the United States
Government Building, and the Woman's Pa-
vilion were the principal structures which
adorned the grounds. By the beginning of
summer these stately edifices were filled to
overflowing with the richest products, gathered
from every clime and country. On the 4th
of July the centennial of the great Declara-

1194

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

tion was commemorated in Philadelphia with
an impressive oration by William M. Evarts,
of New York, and a National Ode by the
poet Bayard Taylor. The average daily at-
tendance of visitors at the Exposition was over
sixty-one thousand. The grounds were open
for one hundred and fifty-eight days, and the
receipts for admission amounted to more than
three million seven hundred thousand dollars.

INDEPENDENCE HALL.

On the 10th of November the International
Exhibition, the most successful of its kind
ever held, was formally closed by the Presi-
dent of the United States.

The last year of President Grant's admin-
istration was noted for THE WAR WITH THE
Sioux. These fierce savages had, in 1867, made
a treaty with the United States, agreeing to
relinquish all of the territory south of the Ni-
obrara, west of the one hundred and fourth
meridian, and north of the forty-sixth parallel.

By this treaty the Sioux were confined to a
large reservation in south-western Dakota, and
upon this reservation they agreed to retire
by the 1st of January, 1876. But many of
the tribes continued to roam at large through
Wyoming and Montana, burning houses, steal-
ing horses, and murdering whoever opposed
them.

The government now sent out a large force
of regulars under Generals Terry and Crook,
and a vigorous campaign was begun in the
Indian country. On the 25th of June Gen-
eral Custer and his whole force of nearly
three hundred men were destroyed in a des-
perate fight on the Little Big Horn River.
Afterwards the Indians were defeated in sev-
eral battles, and were finally driven across
the border into Canada.

On the first of July, 1876, the constitution
of Colorado was ratified by the people of
the territory. A month later the President
issued his proclamation and the new common
wealth took her place
as the thirty-eighth
member of the Union.
The population of the
State already num-
bered forty-five thou-
sand. Until 1859
Colorado constituted a
part of Kansas. In
that year a conven-
tion was held at
Denver, and a distinct
territorial government
organized. At the
close of 1875 the
yield of gold in "the
Centennial State" had
reached, in the aggre-
gate, the large sum
of seventy millions of dollars.

The twenty-third presidential election was
one of the most exciting and critical in the
history of the nation. General Rutherford
B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler,
of New York, were chosen as candidates by
the Republicans ; Samuel J. Tilden, of New
York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana,
by the Democrats. The Independent Green-
back party presented as candidates Petei
Cooper, of New York, and Samuel F. Gary,

Tin: .\I.\I:TI:I:.\TII < I:\TI 7.T. TIII-: CMTI:I> STATES.

int.-.

of Ohio. The canvass began early and with
grent spirit. Tin1 real content lay between
tin: Republicans ami the DemOCEftta. The
election was held. The general re.-nlt was
ascertained, and hill i /Hirtii.- rt-iiim-il lh,: i-iHori/ !
The election was so evenly balanced between
the candidates, there had been so much irreg-
ularity in the elections in South Carolina,
Florida, Louisiana, and Oregon ; and the
power of Congress over the electoral proceed-
ings was so poorly defined, that no certain
result could be announced. For the first time
in the history of the country there was a dis-
puted presidency.

When Congress convened in December the
whole question
came before
that body for
adjustment.
After much
debating it was
agreed that the
disputed elec-
tion returns
should be re-
ferred for a de-
cision to A
JOINT HIGH
COMMISSION,
consisting of
five members
chosen from the
United States
Senate, five

from the House of Representatives, and five
from the Supreme Court. The Commission
was accordingly constituted. The returns of
the disputed States were referred to the tri-
bunal, and on the 2d of March a result was
reached. The Republican candidates were
declared elected. One hundred and eighty-
five electoral votes were cast for Hayes and
Wheeler, and one hundred and eighty-four
for Tilden and Hendrick<.

In his inaugural address, delivered on the
5th of March,1 President Hayes indicated the

1 The 4th of March fell on Sunday. The same
thing has happened in the following years: 1753,
1781,1821 (Monroe's inauguration, second term),
1849 (Taylor's inauguration I, 1 *~~ Hayes's inaugu-
ration1), and the same will hereafter oecur as fol-
lows: 1917, 1945, 1973, 2001, 2029, 2057, 2085,
2125, 2153.

policy of his administration. The patriotic
and conciliatory utteram-i- of |hc addn-.s did
much to i|iiit>t the hitter -pint of partisanship
which tor many month- had disturbed the
country. The di-tniete,| South was assured
of right purposes and honest plans on the
part of the new ehia£flM|i*tnte ; a radical
reform in the. civil service was avowed as a
part of his policy; and a speedy return to
specie payments was recommended as the
final cure for the deranged finances of the
nation.

In the summer of 1877 occurred what ia
known as THE GREAT RAILROAD STKIKK.
The managers of the leading railways from

MEMORIAL HALL.

the seaboard to the West had dedared a reduc-
tion in wage*, and the measure was violently
resisted by the employes of the companies.
On the 16th of July the workmen of the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad left their posts
and gathered such strength in Baltimore and
at Martinsburg, West Virginia, as to prevent
the running of trains and set the authorities
at defiance. The militia was called out by
Governor Matthews and sent to Martinsburg,
but was soon dispersed by the strikers. The
President then ordered General French to
the scene with a body of regulars, and the
blockade of the road was raised. On the
20th of the month a terrible tumult occurred
in Baltimore, but the troops succeeded in
scattering the rioters, of whom nine were
killed and many wounded.

1196

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Meanwhile the strike spread everywhere.
In less than a week the trains had been stopped
on all the important roads between the Hud-
son and the Mississippi. Travel ceased, freights
perished en route, business was paralyzed. In
Pittsburgh the strikers, rioters, and danger-
ous classes, gathering in a mob to the num-
ber of twenty thousand, obtained complete
control of the city and for two days held a
reign of terror unparalleled in the history of
the country. The Union Depot and all the
machine shops and other railroad buildings of
the city were burned. A hundred and twenty-
five locomotives and two thousand five hun-
dred cars laden with valuable cargoes were
destroyed. The insurrection was finally sup-
pressed by the regular troops and the Penn-
sylvania militia, but not until nearly a hun-
dred lives had been lost and property destroyed
to the value of more than three millions of
dollars.

A similar but less terrible riot occurred at
Chicago on the 25th of the month. In this
tumult fifteen of the insurgents were killed.
On the next day St. Louis was for some hours
in peril of the mob. San Francisco was at
the same time the scene of a dangerous out-
break which was here directed against the
Chinese immigrants and the managers of the
lumber yards. Cincinnati, Columbus, Louis-
ville, Indianapolis, and Fort Wayne were for
a while in danger, but escaped without serious
loss of life or property. By the close of the
month the alarming insurrection was at an
end. Business and travel flowed back into
their usual channels, but the sudden outbreak
had given a great shock to the public mind
and revealed a hidden peril to American in-
stitutions.

During the year 1877, the public mind
was greatly agitated concerning THE REMONE-
TIZATION OF SILVER. By the first coinage
regulations of the United States, the standard
unit of value was the American Silver Dollar.
From 1792 until 1873, the quantity of pure
metal in this unit had never been changed,
though the amount of alloy contained in the
dollar was several times altered. In 1849 a
gold dollar was added to the coinage, and
from that time forth the standard unit of
value existed in both metals. In 1873-74, a
series of acts were adopted by Congress bear-

ing upon the standard unit of value, whereby
the legal-tender quality of silver was abol-
ished, and the silver dollar omitted from the
list of coins to be struck at the national mints.

In January, 1875, THE RESUMPTION ACT
was passed by Congress. It was declared
that, on the 1st of January, 1879, the Gov-
ernment should begin to redeem its outstand-
ing legal-tender notes in coin. The question
was now raised as to the meaning of the word
"coin" in the act; and, for the first time, the
attention of the people was aroused to the
fact that the privilege of paying debts in sil-
ver had been taken away. A great agitation
followed. The cry for the remonetizatinn of sil-
ver reached the Government, and in 1878 a
measure was passed by Congress for the res-
toration of the legal-tender quality of the old
silver dollar, and for the compulsory coinage
of that unit at a rate of not less than two
millions of dollars a month. The President
returned the bill with his objections, but the
veto was crushed under a tremendous majority,
and the old double standard of values waa
restored.

In the summer of 1878, several of the
Gulf States were scourged with a YELLOW
FEVER EPIDEMIC. The disease made its ap-
pearance in New Orleans, and from thence
was scattered among the towns along the Mis-
sissippi. Soon the people began to fly from
the pestilence. The cities of Memphis and
Grenada became a scene of desolation. At
Vicksburg the ravages of the plague were
almost equally terrible; and even in the
parish-towns remote from the river the horrors
of the scourge were felt. All summer long
the disease held on unabated. A regular
system of contributions was established in the
Northern States, and men and treasure were
poured out without stint to relieve the suffer-
ing South. After more than twenty thousand
people had fallen victims to the plague, the
frosts of October came at last and ended the
pestilence.

By the Treaty of Washington,1 it was
agreed that the right of the United States in
certain sea-fisheries, which had hitherto be-
longed to Great Britain, should be acknowl-
edged and maintained. It was conceded that
the privilege of taking fish on the sea-coasts

1 Of 1871.

'/'///•; \ I. \KTEENTH CKXTURY.—TUE I'MTI.h

11 '.'7

and in the harbors, and creeks of the prov-
inces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Bruns-
wick, Prince Kd ward's Inland, and the islands
adjacent, should be guaranteed to American
fishermen. The government of tin- I uited
States agreed to relinquish the duties which
had hitherto been charged on certain kinds
of fish imported by British subjects into
American harbors; and in order to balance
any discrepancy, and to make the settlement
of the question full, fair, and final, it was
further agreed that any total advantage to the
United States might be compensated by a
sum in gross to be paid by the American
government. To determine what such sum
should be, a Commission was provided for,
and in the summer of 1877 the sittings began
at Halifax. In November the country was
startled by the announcement that an aivard
of five millions of dollars had been made against
the American government! The decision was
received with general surprise, and for a while
it seemed probable that the arbitration might
be renounced. It was decided, however, that
the award would better stand ; and in Novem-
ber, 1878, the amount was paid to the British
government.

In June, 1878, THE LIFE-SAVING SERVICE
OP THE UNITED STATES was established by
act of Congress. The plan proposed the es-
tablishment of regular stations and light-
houses on all the exposed parts of the Atlan-
tic coast and along the great lakes. Each
station was to be manned by a band of surf-
men experienced in the dangers peculiar to
the shore in times of storms, and drilled in
the best methods of rescue and resuscitation.
Boats of the most approved pattern were pro-
vided and equipped. A hundred appliances
and inventions suggested by the wants of the
service were supplied, and their use skillfully
taught to the brave men who were employed
at the stations. The success of the enterprise
has been so great as to reflect the highest
credit on its promoters. The number of lives
saved through the agency of the service
reaches to thousands annually, and the amount
of human suffering and distress alleviated
by this beneficent movement is beyond com-
putation.

On the 1st of January, 1879, THE RESVMC
TION OF SPECIE PAYMENTS was accomplished

by the tren>urv of the t'nitrd States. For
more than seventeen years gold and silver
coin had been at a premium over the 1.
tender notes of the Government. At i
the purchasing power of a dollar could hardly
be predicted fruiu one week to another. A
spirit of rampant speculation had taken pos-
session of the market values of the country.
After the passage of the Resumption Act, in
1875, the debtor classes of the country en-
tered a period of great hardship ; for their
indebtedness constantly augmented in a ratio
beyond the probability, if not the possibility,
of payment. It was an epoch of financial
ruin and bankruptcy. With the near ap-
proach of Resumption, a certain degree of con-
fidence was restored, and the actual accom-
plishment of the fact was hailed by many as
the omen of better times.

The presidential election of 1880 resulted
in the choice of General JAMES A. GARFIELD,
of Ohio, over General Winfield S. Hancock,
of New York. The former was the Repub-
lican and the latter the Democratic candidate.
The new President acceded to office on the
4th of March, 1881. In the mean time the
census of the United States for 1880 had been
undertaken by a commission, under the su-
periutendency of Professor Francis A. Walker.
During the decade the same rapid progress
which had marked the previous history of
the United States was more than ever illus-
trated. In every source of national power
the development of the country had continued
without abatement. The total population of
the States and Territories of the Union now
amounted to 50,182,525 — an increase since
1870 of more than a million inhabitants a year I
New York was still the leading State, having
a population of 5,083,173. Nevada was least
populous, showing an enumeration of but
62,265. Of the 11,584,188 added to the pop-
ulation since the census of 1870, 2.246,551
had been contributed by immigration, of
whom about 85,000 annually came from Ger-
many alone. The number of cities having a
population of over 100,000 inhabitants had
increased during the decade from fourteen to
twenty. The center of population had moved
westward about fifty miles, and now rested
near the city of Cincinnati.

The statistics of trade and industry were

1198

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

likewise of a sort to gratify patriotism, if not
to excite national pride. The current of the
precious metals, which for many years had
flowed constantly from the United States to
foreign countries, turned strongly, in 1880,
towards America. The importation of specie
during the year just mentioned amounted to
$93,034,310, while the exportation of the same
during the year reached only $17,142,199.
During the greater part of the period covered
by the census, abundant crops had followed in
almost unbroken succession, and the overplus

JAMES A. QARFIELD.

in the great staples peculiar to our soil and
climate had gone to enrich the country, and
to stimulate to an unusual degree those great
industries upon which national perpetuity
and individual happiness are founded.

The prospects of the new administration
were soon darkened with political difficulties.
A division arose in the ranks of the Republi-
can party. The two wings of the Republicans
were nicknamed the "Stalwarts" and the
" Half-breeds;" the former headed by Senator
Conkling, of New York, the latter led by
Mr. Elaine, the secretary of state, and in-
dorsed by the President himself. The Stal-

warts claimed the right of dispensing the
appointive offices of the Government, after
the manner which prevailed for several pre-
ceding administrations; the President, sup-
ported by his division of the party, insisted on
naming the officers in the various States ac-
cording to his own wishes.

The chief clash between the two influences
in the party occurred in New York. The
collectorship of customs for the port of New
York is the best appointive office in the Gov-
ernment. To fill this position the President
nominated Judge William Robert-
son, and the appointment was an-
tagonized by the New York Sen-
ators, Conkling and Platt, who,
failing to prevent the confirma-
tion of Robertson, resigned their
seats, returned to their State, and
failed of a reelection.

A few days after the adjourn-
ment of the Senate in June, the
President made arrangements to
visit Williams College, where hisi
two sons were to be placed a*
school, and to pass a short vaca-
tion with his sick wife at the sea-
side. On the morning of July
2d, in company with Secretary
Blaine and a few friends, he en-
tered the Baltimore dep6t at
Washington to take the train for
Long Branch, New Jersey. A
moment afterwards he was ap-
proached by a miserable miscre-
ant named Charles Jules Guiteau,
who, unperceived, came within a
few feet of the company, drew
a pistol, and fired upon the Chief Magis-
trate. The aim of the assassin was too
well taken, and the first shot struck the
President in the back, inflicting a dreadful
wound. The bleeding chieftain was borne
away to the executive mansion, and the
wretch who had committed the crime was
hurried to prison.

For a week or two the hearts of the Amer-
ican people vibrated between hope and fear.
The best surgical aid was procured, and bul-
letins were daily issued containing a brief
outline of the President's condition. The
conviction grew day by day that he would

< i:.\n-ity.— Tin:

ultimately recover. Two surgical operations
were performed with a view of improving his
chances, for life; but a series of relapses oc-
curred, and on the 19th of September the
President died. The body of the great dead
was taken back to Ohio and interred at Lake-
view Cemetery, near Cleveland.

On the day following the President's death
Vice-president CHESTER A. ARTHUR took the
oath of office and became chief executive
of the Nation. In accordance with custom,
the members of the cabinet immediately ten-
dered their resignations. These were not at
once accepted, the President, instead, inviting
all the members to retain their places. For
the time all did so, except Mr. Windom, sec-
retary of the treasury, who was succeeded by
Judge Charles J. Folger, of New York. Mr.
McVeagh, the attorney-general, also resigned
a short time afterwards, and the President
appointed as his successor Hon. Benjamin H.
Brewster, of Philadelphia. The next to retire
from the Garfield cabinet were Mr. Blaine,
secretary of state, and Mr. James, postmaster-
general, who were succeeded in their respect-
ive offices by Honorable F. T. Frelinghuysen,
of New Jersey, and Honorable Timothy O.
Howe, of Wisconsin.

It is fortunate that the pen of History is
sometimes occupied with events of a nature
and tendency widely different from the public
affairs of the state. Perhaps the moat strik-
ing feature of the civilization of recent times
is exhibited in the advancement of science as
illustrated in the applications of discovery
and invention. At no other age in the his-
tory of the world has the practical knowledge
of nature's laws been so rapidly and widely
diffused ; and at no other epoch has the sub-
jection of natural relations to the will of man
been so wonderfully displayed. The old life
of the human race is making way for the new
life based on science, and energized by the
knowledge that the conditions of man's envi-
ronment are as benevolent as they are im-
mutable.

It has remained for the present to solve
the problem of oral communication between
persons at a distance. A knowledge of the
laws of sound and electricity has enabled the
scientists of our day to transmit, or at least
reproduce, the human voice at the distance of

hundreds or even thousands of miles. 'Hi.
hi.-tory of tin- Ti.i.i.rimvj.; will ever stand as a
reminder to after ages of the inventive .-kill
of the last quarter of the nineteenth centnrv.
The invention of this wonderful in-truim-nt
may be properly aenvdited to Professor A.
Graham Bell, of the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology and Elisha P. Gray, of Chi-
cago. It should be mentioned, moreover,
that Professor A. C. Dolbear, of Tufta Col-
lege, Massachusetts, and Thomas A. Edison,
of Menlo Park, have also succeeded in solv-
ing the difficulties in the way of telephonic
communication.

From the telephone to the PHONOGRAPH
was but a step. Both instruments are based
on the same principle of science. The dis-
covery that every sound has its physical
equivalent led almost of necessity to the other
discovery of catching and retaining the sound
wave on the surface of some body and of re-
producing the original sound therefrom. The
invention of the phonograph was made in
1877 by Thomas A. Edison. The machine
consists of a mouth-piece standing against a
revolving cylinder, on the surface of which is
spread a layer of tin foil to be indented and
marked by the movements of a steel point put
into vibration by the sound-waves entering
the mouth-piece. Thus far the instrument,
wonderful as it is, has been comparatively
barren of practical results. Nor is it certain
that it will ever accomplish the great works
which fancy has been pleased to predict

Perhaps the most marked and valuable inven-
tion of the age is that of the ELECTRIC LIGHT.
The project of using this agent for illumina-
tion began to be agitated about 1870. The
first to demonstrate the feasibility of electric
lighting was the philosopher Gramme, of
Paris. About the same time the Russian sci-
entist JablokofF also succeeded in converting
the electric current into light, and in applying
his invention to practical purposes. It re-
mained, however, for the American inventor,
Thomas A. Edison, to remove the difficulties
with which the problem had been embarrassed
and to produce an actual system of electric
lighting. The method produced by him has
been tested sufficiently to demonstrate that
the former methods of illumination will soon
be displaced by the light of the future.

1200

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The last decade in the history of the
United States has been notable for the num-
ber and character of the public works which
have been projected or brought to completion
within the period. Chief among these may
be mentioned the great East River bridge
joining New York with Brooklyn. This
structure is the largest of the kind in the
world, being a suspension bridge with a total
length of 5,989 feet. The span from pier to
pier is 1,595 feet in length ; and the estimated
capacity of resistance is 49,200 tons. The
engineer under whose auspices the great
bridge was constructed was the distinguished

parties. Partisan rancor in some measure
abated, and it was with some difficulty that
the leaders and managers were able to call
forth the people for the contest of 1884. In
beating about for an issue the politicians were
unable to find any thing more definite than
the question of tariff and free trade, and even
this could not be distinctly avowed without
danger of disrupting both the political organ-
izations. Nevertheless, the stated agitation of
the American people relative to the presidency
began at an early date of Arthur's administra-
tion. Hardly had the crime of Garfield's
murder been perpetrated until the question

EAST RIVER BRIDGE, CONNECTING NEW YORK AND BROOKLYN.

John A. Roebling, who may properly be ac-
credited as the originator of wire suspension
bridges. Though he himself did not live to
witness the completion of the great work
which he had planned, the same was taken
up and finished by his son, Washington A.
Roebling, scarcely less noted than his father.
On the whole the administration of Presi-
dent Arthur proved to be uneventful. The
government pursued the even tenor of its
way and the progress of the country was un-
checked by serious calamity. In the domain
of politics there was a gradual obliteration of
those sharply defined issues which for a quar-
ter of a century had divided the two great

of Arthur's successor was raised by the ever
busy swarm of politicians. During the year
1883 many eminent men were named for the
presidential office. The first national conven-
tion was that of the Greenback Labor Party,
held at Indianapolis in April of 1884. By
this party General Benjamin F. Butler and
A. M. West were put in nomination. The
Republican convention met on the 3d of June
in the city of Chicago, and after a session of
three days closed its labors by the nomination
of James G. Blaine and General John A.
Logan. The Democratic convention met in the
same city on the 9th of July, and cho'se for
its standard bearers Grover Cleveland and

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE UNITED STATES.

1201

Thomas A. Hen<lrick>. The nominations of nil
the parties were received with favor by their
adherents, but strong factions, among Ixitli
tin- Republicans and Democrats, resented the
choice made by their respective conventions.
The result showed that the Democratic party
had succeeded. Cleveland and Hendricks were
elected, receiving two hundred and nineteen
ballots against one hundred and eighty-two
votes for Elaine and Logan.

In 1884 the command of the army of the
United States was transferred from General
William T. Sherman to General Philip H.
Sheridan. The former eminent soldier having
reached the age at which, according to an act
of Congress, he might retire from active serv-
ice, availed himself of the provision and laid
down his command. Nor could it be said that
the new chieftain to whom the command of
the army was now given was less a patriot and
soldier than his illustrious predecessor.

The recurrence of the birthday of Wash-
ington, 1885, was noted for the completion of
the great monument which had been in pro-
cess of erection for so many years at the Cap-
ital. The cost of the completed structure was
about $1,500,000. The shaft of tho monu-
ment is five hundred and fifty-five feet in
height, being seventy-five feet higher than the
pyramid of Cheops. The structure is com-
posed of more than eighteen thousand blocks
of stone. The dedication occurred on the 21st
of February, 1885. The ceremonies were of
the most imposing character. A great pro-
cession passed from the site of the monument
along Pennsylvania Avenue to the Capitol,
where the exercises were concluded in the hall
of the House of Representatives.

President Grover Cleveland was inaugu-
rated on the 4th of March, 1885. On the
following day he sent to the Senate the names
of those whom he had chosen as members of
his cabinet. The nominations were as follows :
For Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard,
of Delaware; for Secretary of the Treasury,
Daniel Manning, of New York ; for Secretary
of the Interior, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, of Mis-
sissippi; for Secretary of War, William C.
Endicott, of Massachusetts; for Secretary of
the Navy, William C. Whitney, of New York ;
for Postmaster-general, William F. Vilas, of

Wisconsin; for Attorn, y-^eneral, Augustus
H. Garland, of Arkansas. The peculiarity of
the appointments was that two of them were
from the State of New York ; but the prejudice
which might arise on this account was fully
counterbalanced by the high character of the
new cabinet.

In the summer of 1885, the American people
were greatly afflicted by the death of General
Ulysses S. Grant. The hero of Vicksburg
and Appomattox sank under the ravages of a
malignant cancer, and, on the 23d(of July,
died at a summer cottage on Mt. McGregor,
New York. His last days were hallowed by
the sympathies of the nation which he had so
gloriously defended. The news of his death
passed over the land like the shadow of a great
cloud. Almost every city and hamlet showed
in some appropriate way its emblems of grief.
The funeral ceremonies equaled, if they did
not surpass, any which have ever been wit-
nessed. The procession in New York City
was, perhaps, the most solemn and imposing
pageant ever exhibited in honor of the dead.
On the 8th of August the body of General
Grant was laid to rest in Riverside Park, over
looking the Hudson. There on a summit,
from which may be seen the great river and
the metropolis of the Nation, is the tomb of
him whose courage and magnaminity in wai
will forever give him rank with the few master
spirits who, by their heroic deeds, have honored
the human race and changed the course of
history.

In the current chapter the history of the
United States has been traced from near the
beginning of the century to the dawn of yes-
terday. The Republic has passed through
stormy times, but has at last entered her Second
Century in safety and peace. The clouds that
were recently so black above her have sunk
behind the horizon. The equality of all men
before the law has been written with the iron
pen of war in the constitution of the Nation.
The Union of States has been consecrated
anew by the blood of patriots and the tears
of the lowly. The temple of freedom reared
by the fathers still stands in undiminished
glory. The Past has taught its Lesson; the
Present has its Duty; and the Future its
Hope.

1202

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

LI.— GREAT BRITAIN.

T was to the indomitable
courage of the English
soldiers, as much as to
the half-accidental com-
ing of Bliicher, that Na-
poleon owed his defeat
at Waterloo. All through
those twenty years of tremendous warfare the
Corsican found no other foe which he so
much dreaded as England. He well knew
that the free institutions of that country, as

of the foe with which they had to deal, found
little difficulty in framing a justification for
the course pursued by their rulers. In other
respects the policy of Great Britain was more
honorable — more commendable. As a rule,
she stood stoutly to the doctrine of non-inter-
ference in the affairs of other states. After
the overthrow of Napoleon she declined,
though pressingly urged, to become a party
to the Holy Alliance; and George Canning,
at that time British Minister of Foreign Af-

WINDSOR CASTLE.

well as the native vigor of the race, had con-
duced to the development of a power in the
British Isles of which even Imperial France
might well stand in awe. During the whole pe-
riod of the Consulate and the Empire the gov-
ernment of Great Britain maintained an attitude
of sullen and unyielding hostility to Napoleon.
On many occasions the conduct of that coun-
try towards France was of a sort not to be
justified in honorable diplomacy. Sometimes
the English ministry crossed the border-line
of perfidy in its dealings with Bonaparte ; but
the English people, considering the character

fairs, sought with all his might to counteract
the effects of that hypocritical compact.

On the 29th of January, 1820, George
III. , after a reign of sixty years, came to his
end, and was laid beside his queen in the
royal vault of Windsor Castle. During the
last decade he had been hopelessly insane ;
and in recent times it has been doubted
whether ever in his life he was strictly compos
mentis. Be that as it may, it was found nec-
essary, as early as 1811, to appoint a Regent,
and for this office was chosen the king's son,
Augustus Frederick George, Prince of Wales,

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1 '.I 3

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— GREAT BR1TMS

afterwards GEORGE IV. The latter came to
the throne in 1820, and had an eventful reign
often years. One of the first matters to at

of the Kingdom for Home Affairs, procured
the passage through I'arliameut of a number
of iinaMi miiij; the criminal code of

fnaau (2$uiSfy£

( -5sSsf^,

tract the attention of the new government
was the interference of France with the affairs
of Spain in 1823. Then came the Greek rev-
olution, in which England was deeply inter-
ested. In 1822 Sir Robert Peel, Secretary

Great Britain. In 1827 a great revulsion in
politics occurred, by which the Whig ministry
of Lord Liverpool was overthrown, and that
of the Tories, under the leadership of the
Duke of Wellington, established.

1204

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

This epoch in English history was noted
for the acquisition of territory by the British
government on the eastern coast of the Bay
of Bengal. The years 1824-26 were occupied
with a war between England and Burmah, in
which the latter country was conquered. In

1827 the Duke of York, heir presumptive to
the English crown, died, and his title was
transferred to the Duke of Clarence.

Meanwhile an agitation arose relative to the
penal disabilities under which the Koman
Catholics of the United Kingdom were placed.
The great agitator and reformer, Daniel

O'Connell, appeared on the scene, and began
to demand the removal of the penalties
against the Catholics. He organized the
Catholic Association as a means of continuing
and spreading the agitation. A measure em-
bodying his principles of reform was intro-
duced and carried
through the House of
Commons, but failed in
the House of Lords.
The excitement rose to
such a pitch as to en-
danger the peace of
society, and in Ireland
civil war seemed immi-
nent. In 1828 Lord
John Russell brought
into Parliament a reso-
lution for the repeal of
the Test and Corpora-
tion acts, which had
been in force since the
time of Charles II.
It was believed that so
much of a concession
as was implied in this
measure would satisfy
the Catholics and bring
quiet to the kingdom.
But the event proved
otherwise. The Cath-
olic agitation broke out
anew. It was claimed
that Peel's measures
were intended to favor
only the Protestant
Dissenters of Great
Britain. In defiance of
the statute forbidding
the admission of Ro-
manists to Parliament,
O'Connell was elected
to that body from the
county of Clare. The
ministry, backed by the
Protestant clubs formed in most parts of the
kingdom, determined to prevent the entrance
of the agitator into the House of Commons.
Party animosity rose higher than ever. The
public mind became so heated that an appeal
to arms seemed inevitable unless the govern-
ment should yield. At the opening of Parlia-

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— GREAT JUHTAIX

1 -jo:.

ment in 1829 the ministers announced the pur-
pose of the government to bring forward a hill
to relieve the Catholiesi if their disabilities. The
measure aroused all the deep-seated prejudices
of the kingdom. The Tory ministers were
denounced as traitors. Many of the partisans
refused to follow their leaders further in the
direction of reform. The
Duke of Wellington and Sir
Robert Peel became the ob-
jects of extreme dislike to the
ultra Tories, and the latter was
actually defeated for reelec-
tion by the University of
Oxford. Nevertheless, on the
13th of April, 1829, the Re-
lief Bill was passed, and for
the first time in a hundred
.and fifty years the Roman
Catholic subjects of Great
Britain were made equal be-
fore the law with the other
people of the kingdom. Hence-
forth the discriminations
against them extended no fur-
ther than to the offices of
Regent, Viceroy of Ireland,
and Lord Chancellor.1

George IV., who had per-
sonally resisted to the last the
recent measures of reform, was
greatly humiliated at his de-
feat. His health was already
much enfeebled. He presently
retired from the public gaze
and sought seclusion in the
shades of Windsor. Here on
the 26th of June, 1830, he
died, being then in the sixty-
eighth year of his age. What-
ever may have been his rank
as a sovereign, he had, by his
affable manners and courtly
bearing, acquired the reputa-
tion as the "first gentleman in Europe." In
summarizing his character Wellington said :
" He was the most extraordinary compound

of talent, wit, buffoonery, obstinacy, and good
feeling — in short, a medley of the most oppo-
site qualities, with a great preponderance of
1:00,1 -that I ever saw in any character in my
life." Whatever may Imve been the merit*
of the king personally, it can not be doubted
that in the progress of reformatory and liberal

WILLIAM IV.

1 By a strange coincidence the venerable Cathe-
dral of York, the pride of the Church of Knjrland.
was almost destroyed by fire at the very time
when the triumphant Catholics were hailing the
passage of the Relief Bill through Parliament. It

sentiments no period equally brief in the his-
tory of England has been more marked than
the decade covered by the reign of George 1 V .
On the king's death — he being childless —

<-<l that the violence done to Mother Church
by Henry VIII. was about to be avenged by the
concurrence of party strife and the devouring
element.

1206

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the English crown was conferred on his
brother, the Duke of Clarence, who came to
the throne with the title of WILLIAM IV. He
had been a sailor in his boyhood, serving
under Admirals Rodney and Nelson, but dur-
ing the reign of his brother had lived the life
of a private gentleman at Bushey Park. He
came to the throne at a time when agitation
and reform were the order of the day. No
sooner had the Catholic question been settled
than another of still more vital importance
was presented to the English people. This
was the question of a reform of Parliament,
or rather of the basis of representation in
that body. In times past this basis had been
determined rather by lauded estates than by
population. The various boroughs of the
kingdom had been mapped out long ago, and
generation after generation had gone by with
few or no changes at all in the boundaries of
the representative districts. Meanwhile, how-
ever, great fluctuations had taken place in the
population of the kingdom. Large cities had
sprung up where hitherto there was no
dweller. Such were Liverpool, Manchester,
and Leeds, which, though inhabited by teem-
ing thousands, were absolutely unrepresented
in Parliament. For the ancient boroughs
knew no such cities, and conservative Eng-
land must respect her ancient boroughs. On
the other hand, many districts had become
well-nigh depopulated. Such, for instance,
was the borough of Old Sarum, which no
longer contained a single house ! And yet it
continued to be represented by two members
in the House of Commons. At length the
sturdy artisans of the great manufacturing
towns determined no longer to endure the
abominable mockery of representative govern-
ment in which they had no part or lot. The
success of the political revolt in behalf of the
Roman Catholics gave encouragement to pop-
ular leaders, and led to a general belief in
the success of a measure for Parliamentary
reform.

It happened at this juncture that the af-
fairs of continental Europe tended much to
strengthen and intensify political partisanship
in England. In the very year of the ac-
cession of William IV. to the English throne,
the people of France disposed of their king in
a popular revolution. At the same time a re-

bellion occurred in Belgium, which led to the
severance of that important state from the
dominion of Holland, and the establishment
of an independent power under the rule
of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who received the
crown, in July of 1831, with the title of
Leopold I. In these movements of the liber-
als of the continent the people's party of
England was quick to discover the omens of
success ; while, on the other hand, the English
Tories found in the destruction of the conti-
nental systems with which they sympathized
every reason for distrusting popular govern-
ment and adhering to the past. To the Lib-
erals of Great Britain, Louis Philippe of
France was a pleasing character to contem-
plate; to the Tories he was a menace, a
specter.

The new measure for the reform of Parlia-
ment met with great opposition in the body to
which it was directed. So violent was the
clamor which was raised that the Duke of
Wellington was obliged to give place to Earl
Grey and a new Whig ministry. On the 1st
of March, 1831, the Reform Bill was laid be-
fore the House of Commons by Lord John
Russell. For the time the House was so
evenly divided that none could foretell the
fate of the proposed measure. An appeal was
made to the country, and a new House re-
turned with a majority favorable to Russell's
bill. But a memorable contest ensued before
the measure could be carried even in the
Commons. The House of Lords rejected the
proposition by a large majority. Hereupon
the kingdom was rent with party strife.
Many of the towns became the scenes of
bloody riots. The London mobocrats assailed
the houses of the nobility, and the palace of
the Duke of Wellington was at one time in
danger of destruction. Nottingham Castle was
burned to the ground and a large part of the
city of Bristol destroyed by the insurgents.

When the Parliament of 1832 assembled,
a demand was made of the king that he
should create a sufficient number of new
Whig peers to overcome the Tory majority in
the House of Lords. This he refused to do,
and Earl Grey, though still able to command
a handsome majority in the House of Com-
mons, resigned his place as Premier. It thus
devolved upon the Tories to organize a new

Till: MM.TI.LSTll i !EA 11 I; }. <.i;i:.\T l:i;lTAL\.

1-J07

ministry. But this — though the great name
dl' the Duke of Wellington was at their dis-
posal— they could not do, and the Whigs re-
turned to power with a larger majority thau
before. The Lords were tlm- driven t» sub-
mit to the inevitable. Many of the Tory
peers absented themselves from the House,
and on the 7th of June, 1832, the Reform
Bill was carried.

The measure was most salutary. A long
stride was made in the direction of a true
government by the people. The so-called
pocket boroughs (forsooth, one might carry
the political franchise of such in his pocket)
were disfranchised, or at least reduced in their
representative capacity. In general the scats
in Parliament were more justly distributed;
that is, in accordance with population rather
than territory. The memberships which had
belonged to the decayed boroughs were dis-
tributed to the more populous counties and
manufacturing towns. The property qualifi-
cation on the suffrage was allowed to stand,
those only who were tenants of houses worth
as much as ten pounds a year being permitted
to vote. In the country the limit was laid at
a freehold of forty shillings, the tenancy of
land worth ten pounds, or the payment of an
annual rental of fifty pounds.

The liberalizing tendency of the Reform
Bill was at once perceptible. No sooner had
the new Parliament of 1833 assembled than a
bill was brought forward for the abolition of
slavery in all the colonies and possessions of
Great Britain. In this case the agitator was
William Wilberforce, of Hull, one of the en-
thusiasts of humanity, at that time a member
of the House for the county of York. He
was supported in his efforts by the statesmen
Brougham, Buxton, Clarkson, and many
other philanthropists, who had heard the cry
of the oppressed. The slaveowners of the
kingdom rallied all their powers to defeat the
measure. But the gale of public opinion
blew hard against them, and they and their
cause went down together. It could not be
said, however, that they suffered greatly from
the loss of their " property;" for they were
allowed a compensation of twenty millions of
pounds. The emancipation, moreover, was
made gradual: children under six years of
age were to become free in the summer of

1>.'M. -lav- .it' (lie Held in Bt'vcii years, uinl
domestic servants in five years, from tins
passage of tin :i. i.

Not satisfied with the progress which lie.
had made in securing tlie removal of penal
disabilities from his Catholic countrymen,
Daniel O'Connell now began to advocate the
dise-talilishraent of the Iri.-h Chureh — by
which was meant the withdrawal of public
support from the Episcopal organization of
Ireland. In that country a state of affairs
hail supervened on the religious side of society
very similar to that which had held in Eng-
land before the passage of the Reform Bill.

LORD JOHN Kl'SSKLL.

The Irish people were Catholics, but the
Episcopal was the established Church. In
many parts of the country this Church was
represented merely by the buildings, the
clergymen, and the parish. Parishioners
there were none. To support such an estab-
lishment by taxes and rentals laid upon the
Irish Catholic peasantry was an iniquity so
palpable as to be monstrous in any other age
and country. Nevertheless, the proposition
of O'Connell to put the Irish Church on the
basis of its own merits was bitterly opposed.
The British ministry was rent asunder on the
<liiestion of passing a Coercion Bill directed
u<_r:tinst O'Connell and his measures. Parlia-
ment attempted to throw a tub to the Irish

1208

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

I. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 1087.

2. WILLIAM KUFUS, 1100.

3. HENRY I., 1135.

GEOFFREY PLANTAGENET— Matilda.

5. HENRY II., 1189.

Adda.

I
4. STEPHEN, 1154.

6. RICHARD LION HEART, 1199.

\
1. JOHN LACKLAND, 1216.

8. HENRY III., 1272.
9. EDWARD I., 1307.

10. EDWARD II., 1327.

11. EDWARD III., 1377.
I

Edward, Lionel, Edmund, John,

the Black Prince. Duke of Clarence. Dukeof York. Duke of LANCASTER.

Thomas, Duke of Gloucester.

12. RICHARD II., 1400.

Phili

Anm
RICHARD

ppa.
Roger Mortimer.

13. HKNRY IV., 1413. John Beaufort,
ohn.

14. HENRY V., 1422. Job

OWEN TUDOR.

;Earl of Cambridge.

15. HENKY VI., 1471. Margaret— Duke of Richmond.

, LlUKCi \Jr i CJ K K .

WALTER STUART.

16. EDWARD IV., 1483.

I
18. RICHARD III. ,1485.

17. EDWARD V., 1483.

Elizabeth^

20. HENRY VIII., 1547. Margaret=

Robert II.
Robert III.

=19. HENRY VII., 1509. james I.

James II.

James III.
, James IV.

22. MARY, 1558. 23. ELIZABETH, 1603. 21. EDWARD VI., 1553.

James V.

Mary, Queen of Scots.
24. JAMES I. (VI.), 1625.

25. CHARLES I., 1649.
I

26. CHARLES II., 1685. 27. JAMES II., 1701.

I

Elizabeth.
PHI

Mary.

SOPHIA-DUKE OF HANOVER-
BRUNSWICK

30. GEORGE I., 1727.

29. ANNE, 1714. JamesEdward 28. MAP,Y,=28. WILLIAM III. OF ORANGE, 1702.
(Pretender). 1694.

Charles Edward.

Cardinal of York.

31. GEORGE II., 1760.
Frederick, Prince of Wales.

32. GEORGE III.. 1820.

THE MONARCHS

OF

ENGLAND.

33. GEORGE, IV., 1830. 34. WILLIAM IV., 1837. Duke of Kent
Prince Albert— 35. VICTORIA.

Prince of Wales.

EXPLANATION:

Those who reigned are printed in SMALL CAPITALS and numbered.
Connecting links are printed in Roman type.
Names of Houses in dark-faced type.

Albert Victor.

George

whale by passing an act to abolish ten bishop-
rics and to rearrange the revenues of the
Church. The political winds became so
boisterous that Earl Grey was driven to resign

the premiership, and the same was transferred
to Lord Melbourne.

It was an age of reform. The next ques-
tion with which Parliament was called to

THE MM:Ti:i-:STll WNTURY.— GREAT BKITMX.

1209

•wrestle was that of pauperism. The existing
I 'nor Laws of Great Britain were such that
the number of those claiming the public
charity of the kingdom increased from year to
year. The amount annually appropriated for
the support of paupers had run up to the
enormous sum of seven millions of pounds.
During the Melbourne administration an act
reformatory of the Poor Laws was parsed by
Parliament, and the evils of pauperism were
considerably abated. The new statute forbade
the further payment of benefits to able-bodied
paupers in their own homes, and required all
those who demanded an entire or partial sup-
port at the hands of the public to enter the
work-houses and earn by labor what they
sought as a gratuity.

In 1835 the car of reform received another
impulse in the passage of the Municipal Act.
This measure was especially designed to ame-
liorate the condition of the towns and cities.
It was provided that the tax-payers of such
corporations and boroughs might elect a body
of town councilors, and that the latter might
choose one of their own number as chief mag-
istrate of the corporation. The principle of
local self-government was thus with great ad-
vantage introduced among the municipal pop-
ulations of Great Britain. Next came the
passage, in 1836, of what was known as the
Tithe Commutation Act, by which it was
provided that a fixed rent, to be determined
by the average price of corn for the seven
preceding years, should be substituted for the
tithes hitherto paid in the parishes. Some of
the English dioceses were at the same time
reformed, and in other bills it was enacted
that marriages might thereafter be solemnized
in the churches of Dissenters.

In the early part of the reign of William
IV., much ill-feeling was created between
Great Britain and Holland, the same being
occasioned by the course of the former in re-
lation to the Belgic revolution of 1830-32.
The king of Holland naturally looked to
England for sympathy in his contest with the
revolted Belgians. What, therefore, were
his chagrin and resentment to find the whole
influence of the British government thrown
on the side of the insurrection, and to see the
crown of the kingdom of Belgium conferred
on Leopold, husband of the Princess Charlotte

< t Kngland? In 1835 the sympathies of the
British government were openly given to
Queen Isabella of Spain, at that time engaged
in a civil war with her uncle, Don Carlos. A
division of the English army, under command
of General Evans, was sent into the 8pani-h
peninsula, and took active part in upholding
the cause of the queen.

The reign of William IV. ended with hw
life on the 20th of June, 18".
without legitimate children, and a large fam-
ily of alleged illegitimate heirs were of course
excluded from the throne. The crown passed
without dispute to the head of the Princess
Alexandrina VICTORIA, daughter of Kdwanl,
duke of Kent, the deceased brother of the last
two sovereigns. The maiden ruler, who was
thus called to the seat of power, was the
thirty-fifth in order of succession from Will-
iam the Conqueror, and the fifth queen reg-
nant of Great Britain. The contingency
which had been provided for on the accession
of George I. had thus at last arrived ; for, ac-
cording to the Salic laws of Germany, a
woman could not inherit the crown of Hano-
ver. The latter country was accordingly sev-
ered from its political relations with Great
Britain, and on the accession of Victoria to
the English throne became an independent
power, with Ernest, duke of Cumberland, as
king.

The first years of the new reign were occu-
pied in Parliament with a continuation of the
reformatory movements, and with measures
pertaining to a 'rebellion which had broken
out in Canada. As soon as this insurrection
had been quelled the agitators of English pol-
itics projected a new and still more radical
measure of reform. The extreme liberals,
who were by no means satisfied with the mod-
erate measures adopted by Parliament in the
two preceding reigns, now drew up and pro-
mulgated what was called the People's Char-
ter, in which were outlined the principles and
policy of the party. From the title of this
document its supporters were given the name
of CHARTISTS. Their six leading political
maxims were these: 1. Universal suffrage.
2. Vote by ballot. 3. Annual Parliaments.
4. Electoral districts. 5. The abolition of the
property qualification for members (of Parlia-
ment). 6. The payment of parliamentary

1210

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

representatives. Plain and common-sense and
patriotic as were these principles of political
action, they were met with furious opposition
by the British conservatives. The Chartists
became numerous and powerful,
especially in the manufacturing dis-
tricts of England. Torch-light
processions, popular dinners, and
multitudinous gatherings became
the order of the day, and the

Many of the leaders were arrested ; some were
condemned to death and others transported for
life. Year after year, however, there were
signs of a renewal of the agitation. Espe-
cially did the movement revive in
1848, when English republicanism
received a tremendous impulse
from the successful French revo-
lution of that year. On one oc-
casion twenty thousand Chartists

QUEEN VICTORIA

that the

movement gathered such head
government began to apprehend a politi-
cal upheaval of the kingdom. Strenuous
measures were accordingly adopted to sup-
press the Chartist meetings, and to prevent
a further spread of the heretical doctrines.

gathered on Kensington Common, prepared a
monster petition, and were about to march in
a body to Westminster to lay their grievances
before the queen. The minister became
alarmed, and a militia force of about two
hundred thousand men was organized to face

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— GREAT /:/;//'. I /.v.

1211

the petitioners. The latter, overawed by this
great display of force, dispersed to their
homes, mid the movement was at an end.

Ill the mean time the Irish agitation had
broken out anew. Daniel O'Counell was still
the lender. He now openly advocated the
political severance of Ireland from the United
Kingdom. In this agitation he was supported
by the Roman Catholics en masse. The means
for the support of the movement were col-
lected by voluntary subscriptions taken at the
church doors, the sum thus gathered in the
year 1843 amounting to forty-eight thousand
pounds. Great meetings were held at the
places famous in ancient Irish history, until
at last the Lord Lieutenant was obliged to
put down the tumultuous gatherings. O"Con-
nell himself, with several other leaders, was
fined and condemned to imprisonment; but
the proceedings proved to be irregular, and
the sentence was reversed by the House of
Lords. The great Irish agitator thereafter
stood aloof from politics, and died in seclusion
at Genoa on the 15th of May, 1847.

The seed which O'Connell had sown in
Ireland, however, soon brought forth an
abundant harvest. The project of severing
Ireland from England was by no means aban-
doned. It was even proposed that this work
should be accomplished by revolution and
force of arms. The Party of Young Ireland
was organized as a means to the end of dis-
union. Meanwhile, in 1845, the potato crop,
upon which the Irish people so largely de-
pended for sustenance, proved a failure. Fam-
ine came, and the people began to emigrate by
hundreds of thousands to America. In the
course of two or three years the population
•was reduced by as many millions. The bitter
distress of the race was attributed to the mis-
management and tyranny of the British gov-
ernment. The Irish press became audacious,
not to say treasonable, in its utterances.
Smith O'Brien, of Tipperary,' headed a revolt,
but the insurrection was easily suppressed by
the government. With the discharge of her
superfluous population, the return of fruitful
seasons, and the stern attitude assumed by the
British government, the prosperity of the
island was at length restored, and for more
than ten years public order was maintained,
with few violations of the peace.

In 1 *<i">, however, a new agitation broke
out, having its origin in a secret political or-
der called the Fenian Brotherhood. The move-
ment appears to have originated among the
Irish in America, and tin- ;_'• n'Tal theory ap-
pears to have been to conquer tin- indrpcnd-
of Ireland by assailing the British dominions
in Canada. But the Brotherhood was preva-
lent hi Ireland as well as in America, and the
Irish Channel was threatened from the west
as well as the Canadian border from the south.
Even in English towns, especially in Manches-
ter, the Fenians gathered a strong foothold,
and the attention of the British Parliament
was earnestly directed to the situation. The
agitation was again renewed for the disestab-
lishment of the Irish Church; and at last, in
1869, an act to that effect was passed by the
liberal majority in the House of Commons.
In the following year the Irish Land Bill was
enacted, by which the relations of Irish ten-
ants and English landlords were settled on a
more tolerable basis than hitherto. None the
less the discontent of the island has continued
to the present day, and the Home Rule Party
is still clamorous for a complete separation of
Ireland from Great Britain.

Returning to the affairs of England proper
we find the attention of the government
directed, even in the first years of Victoria's
reign, to the British dominions and outposts
in the East. As early as 1839, a complica-
tion arose respecting the country of Afghan-
istan— a difficulty which was not to be ad-
justed without a great expenditure of blood
and treasure. The geographical position of
Afghanistan was such as to make it desirable
that British influence should prevail therein,
lest Russia should overwhelm the Afghans and
make that country an avenue of approach to
the dominions of Great Britain in India. This
was the heart of the question. At this time
the Afghan throne was occupied by the usurper
Dost Mohammed. The latter was hostile to
the English influence, and the government
deemed it prudent to send out an expedition
to dethrone him. The campaign was success-
ful, and the larger part of the British forces
were withdrawn. In 1848 the remainder,
numbering about sixteen thousand, were at-
tacked and utterly destroyed by the Afghans.
In the following year General Nott was sent

1212

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

out with another army ; Cabul was taken by
the British, and the revolt thoroughly sup-
pressed. At length, however, Dost Moham-
med again recovered the throne by the assas-
sination of his rival, and then concluded a
treaty of peace and alliance with Great Britain.

In 1843 the government became involved
in a war with the Ameer of Sinde, on the river
Indus ; and in 1845 was obliged to make a
campaign against the Sikhs, a warlike tribe
in the Punjab. Then followed the war with
Buraah, to which reference will be made in
a succeeding chapter, and which was not con-
cluded until 1853. The Burmese were com-
pelled to purchase peace by the cession of
forty thousand square miles of territory and a
population of three millions to the British
East Indian Empire.

Next came the great SEPOY REBELLION of
1857. In the military government of her
Empire in the East, Great Britain had adopted
the policy of organizing a native army for the
maintenance of her power. Most of the men
who composed this force were by nativity Se-
poys of Bengal, and by religion high caste
Brahmins. The native army was for the most
part under command of British officers and
certain contingents were always kept in the
country. In the course of time the Sepoys
began to realize the fact that they constituted
the right arm of British strength in the East,
and that the government was, in a large meas-
ure, dependent on them for its maintenance. As
this knowledge and belief increased, the native
army became arrogant, and in several instan-
ces displayed a mutinous spirit. But good
management of the government for a long
time prevented an outbreak. The officers
•were greatly aided in preserving the subordi-
nation of the native troops by the fact that
many of the divisions were mostly composed
of Mohammedans, between whom and the Se-
poys a bitter prejudice and hatred existed.
One party thus served to counterbalance the
danger which was threatened by the other.

In this condition of affairs a fortuitous cir-
cumstance occurred which applied the match
to the magazine of race antipathy in the camps
of both Sepoys and Mohammedans. It hap-
pened that in the manufacture of the car-
tridges which were used by the soldiers, hog's
fat was employed. The paper inclosing the

charge was greased with this substance. The
manual at arms required that the soldier in
loading his piece should bite off the paper
with his teeth. Now, to the Brahmin, and
to the Mohammedan as well, the swine in
all of its products is a horrid abomination.
To touch, and especially to taste, the flesh or
oil of this animal, or with the Brahmins, of
any animal, is to be defiled, almost beyond the
hope of purification. "Give me a drink,"
said a Hindoo, one day, to a Sepoy of a higher
caste. The latter looked upon the other with
a glance of loathing, and was about to pass on.
" You are very particular about your caste,
to-day," said the first. "Perhaps you do not
know that every time you bite off your car-
tridge you take the fat of a hog into your
mouth."

The Sepoy, horror-struck at what was said,
told his companions. The papers of the
cartridges were examined and found to be
greased. A storm of mutiny broke out in a
moment. At Meerut, in the spring of 1857,
the Sepoys rose upon the British officers, mur-
dered them and their wives and children, fired
the barracks, and set out in wild insurrection
to Delhi. On their way thither their num-
bers increased, and they were hailed with
shouts of joy by the natives of every village.
The king of Delhi was proclaimed Mogul of
India. The Europeans who sought refuge in
the royal palace were brutally massacred.
Nearly all the towns of Bengal joined the re-
bellion, and the scenes of butchery which were
begun at Meerut and Delhi, were repeated in
other places with every circumstance of atroc-
ity. At Cawnpore a horrible massacre was
perpetrated. Nana Sahib, a Mahratta Rajah,
who had recently made a visit to England and
had been received in London with every
mark of respect, induced several hundred
men, women, and children to put themselves
into his power, and then loosed upon them his
brutal soldiery. All the victims of his perfidy
were massacred in cold blood. Their man-
gled and mutilated bodies were thrown into
wells and pits. The great interest of the war
which ensued centered in the siege of Luck-
now, where General Inglis, with the remnant
of the British forces, took refuge and defended
himself with desperate valor against the hosts
of Nana Sahib gathered around the city. In

TIII-: MM:TI-:I:.\TII < i:\rrRY.— GREAT ni;n.\i.\.

August, Sir Colin Campbell arrived in India
and began the work of restoring order, reliev-
ing the besieged, and puiii.-hiug the insurgents.

In the meantime Sir Henry Havelock inarched
from Allahabad with an army of two thou-
sand men to suppress the mutiny at Cawnpore.
On the 16th of July he defeated Nana Sahib
and captured the city. But his coming was
too late to save the remnant of Europeans
from butchery. Havelock then made all speed
to the relief of Lucknow.

The siege of that city by the Sepoys had
been pressed to the last stage of desperation.

the 25th of August. On his arrival Have-
lock fought his way through the Sepoy army
and entered Lurkii<>w, where Iiiglw and the
suffering garrison were cooped ii|>. The siege
now continued until tin- coining of Sir Colin
Campbell, who had in the mean time set nut
with a British army f'min Calcutta. All
through the months of September and Octo-
ber the despairing garrison held out, and it
was the 16th of November before a Scottish
girl on the rampart of Luckuow caught the
sound of the Highlanders' pibroch in the
distances. Sir Coliu's army burst the envL

GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI.

The English garrison well knew that the sur-
render to the barbarians was to be mas-
sacred to the last man. On the 29th of July,
Havelock gained a brilliant victory over the
Indians at Onao. But a few days afterward
he was obliged to fall back before superior
numbers. He receded as far as Cawnpore,
where he was joined by General Outram,
with one thousand seven hundred men. The
combined army again set out for Lucknow.
On the way thither several desperate en-
counters with the Sepoys occurred, and the
English did not reach the besieged city until

ronment of the city and rescued the garrison-
from destruction ; but finding it impossible
with the forces at his disposal to hold out
against the Sepoys, he withdrew to Cawnpore
and thence to Allahabad.

The British army was now rapidly rein-
forced, and the mutineers began to feel the
terrors of the war which they had provoked.
They were gradually driven back before the
superior discipline of the European soldiers.
Delhi was invested, and was retaken by the
English after a hard siege of three months'
duration. Before the close of 1858 the whole

1214

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of British India was reduced to submission.
A terrible vengeance was taken upon the
leaders of the revolt, many of whom were
blown from the mouths of cannon.1 Nana
Sahib, who had been the soul of the rebellion,
made good his escape. The few native chiefs
who had kept their faith with the English
were amply rewarded for their loyalty.

The shock of this Sepoy war was so great

SIR ROBERT PEEL.

as to lead at once to a revolution in the Brit-
ish government in the East. Until now, the
administration of affairs in Bengal had been
exclusively under the control of the East
India Company. This management was now
taken away from the corporation and the
government transferred to the queen, who

1 The excuse given by the British for this bar-
barity was that the Sepoys cared little for death,
but were horrified at the thought of mutilation.

appointed a Secretary of State for India, and
a Council of fifteen members to assist him in
directing the administration in the East.
Thus was laid, by mutiny, war, and reform,
the foundation of the far-reaching supremacy
of Great Britain in the country of the Indus
and the Ganges.

The next foreign complication of England
was that which involved her, along with
France and Turkey, in
the Crimean War. A
full account of that strug-
gle, and of its conclusion
by the Treaty of Paris, of
1856, will be given here-
after, in the chapter on
the history of Russia.
About a decade after-
wards the British govern-
ment became involved
with the half- civilized
Theodore, king of Abys-
sinia. This dark - hued
dignitary of Africa took
mortal offense at Queen
Victoria because that lady
had refused or neglected
to answer a letter of his,
and sought to be revenged
by seizing and imprison-
ing the British consul and
other Europeans within
his dominions. At first
the government remon-
strated and demanded the
release of the prisoners.
But Theodore was not to
be moved by any such
mild-mannered diplo-
macy. In 1868 it be-
came necessary to send
out a British army of
ten thousand men under Sir Robert Napier
to present to his Abyssinian majesty an ap-
peal of another sort. Sir Robert made his
way inland from the eastern coast to Theo-
dore's capital of Magdala, attacked the town
and carried all before him. Theodore killed
himself. His city was taken, the captives
liberated, and the king's son taken to Eng-
land to be educated in a new code of morals.
If from these foreign affairs of the king-

nil: .\7.v/-;y7;/;.v77/ < I:\TURY.— GREAT BHITMS.

1215

dom we return to the home administration,
we find, in 1841, the overthrow of the Mel-
bourne ministry and the accession to power
of Sir Robert Peel. To this epoch belonged
the great < 'oru-Law agitation. The question
involved was whether the duty which had
been laid on the importation of corn in favor
of home production should be maintained
or abolished. The opponents of the protect-
ive statute, organized as they were into an
Anti-Corn Law League, became so powerful
that the government was obliged, as early as
the first year of the Peel ministry, to make
some concessions in the way of reducing rates
on imported corn. But the agitation contin-
ued, from year to year, until 1845, when the
potato blight in Ireland added its distress to
that occasioned by the high price of grain in
England. On the 26th of June, 1846, a
bill was passed by Parliament, virtually abol-
ishing the odious duty; and in order to make
up the deficit in the revenues, a tax was levied
on the incomes of the upper and middle

that Sir Robert Peel was obliged to yield the
premiership to his rival, Lord John Russell,

RICHARD COBDEN.

classes of society. The political shock occa-
sioned by this measure, however, was so great

LOBD FALMEBBTON.

whose administration in 1849 was signalized
by the repeal of the old Navigation Laws of
England.

At this epoch, a new group of statesmen,
many of whom still survive, appeared in the
arena of British politics. Among these may
be mentioned the popular leaders John Bright
and Richard Cobden, whose first prominence
was gained by their support of the League
against the Corn Laws. In 1852, when Lord
Russell's government gave place to that of the
Earl of Derby, the place of Chancellor of the
Exchequer was given to Benjamin Disraeli,
an Israelite, whose inauspicious beginning in
public life gave little promise of the greatness
that was in him. In less than a year the
Derby ministry was overthrown, and the Earl
of Aberdeen came into power, with Will-
iam E. Gladstone as Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer. But this ministry also was of brief
duration, and presently forced from place to
make room for that of Lord Palmerston. He
it was who brought England safely through the
Crimean War, thus laying the foundation of his
future popularity. After a brief revolution,
during which the Earl of Derby returned to
power, Palmerston again became premier, and

1216

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

continued in office until his death in 1865.
He was succeeded by Earl Russell, while the
leadership of the House of Commons went to
Gladstone. The year 1867 was noted for the
passage of the Second Reform Bill, by which
the remaining abuses of the old borough sys-
tem of representation were largely abated. In
the following year Disraeli, who had been
slowly but surely winning his way to public
notice, both as a brilliant author and astute
politician, became premier of England. It
was at this juncture that the proposal to dis-

WILLIAM K. GLADSTONE.

establish the Irish Church came back with re-
doubled force. The measure was fiercely an-
tagonized by the ministry ; but the election
of that year showed that the country was with
the opposition. Disraeli was forced to give
place to his life-long rival, Gladstone, who
came to the premiership in the latter part of
1868. Then followed an epoch of strong and
stormy debate in Parliament. But the friends
of disestablishment at last carried the day. The
bill, supported by Gladstone, became a law,
and on the 1st of January, 1871, the Irish
Protestant Church ceased to exist. A revised

Land Bill had already been passed in the
previous year, and to these two measures the
present comparatively quiet condition of Ire-
land must be attributed.

The heart of the British nation was greatly
saddened at the close of 1861 by the death of
that royal gentleman, Prince Albert, consort
of the queen. For twenty-one years he had
identified himself with the powerful kingdom
over which his wife was the sovereign. The
delicate relations in which he was placed, be-
ing the prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and also
husband of the British queen, were maintained
by him with so nice a sense of honor as to
give him a place among the most admirable
characters of modern times. The prince was
at first introduced into the royal society of
Great Britain in 1838, by Leopold, king of
the Belgians. Two years afterwards he took
the queen in marriage ; and so admirable was
his character, and so great his talents and ac-
complishments, that he lacked but little of
becoming the idol of the English people. In
1851 the prince distinguished himself by his
zeal in promoting the first World's Fair at
London and in the erection of the Crystal
Palace, of which he was the chief designer.
His life with the queen was one of the hap-
piest in the annals of modern royal families.
Nine children were born of the union, of
whom the second, Albert Edward, Prince of
Wales, is the present heir apparent to the
crown of Great Britain. The death of Prince
Albert occurred on the 14th of December,
1861, and the event cast a deep gloom not
only over the royal household, but over every
hamlet and borough of the United Kingdom.

The last decade iu English history has been
noted for the salutary agitation which has been
going on in England in favor of national ed-
ucation. This movement has been greatly pro-
moted by the efforts of William Edward For-
ster, vice-president of the committee of the
educational council of England. Under his
management and persistent advocacy an Edu-
cation Bill was passed in 1870 by which the
means and methods of raising the English
masses to a higher plane were vastly improved.
Already the fruits are apparent, and the fu-
ture gives promise of as general a culture among
the people of the British Isles as has already
been attained in Germany.

121*

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lead

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pass

the

tern

the

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was

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es
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it
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MAP XXIV.

FRANCE

Longitude West 2 from Greenwich

Ix>ng1tude

MM,H:I-:MJI CENTOBY. H;A\

1217

It only remains to glance briefly at the
jirogress made by Great Britain during the
present century in another sphere of her ac-
tivities. In 1802 a trial was made of a Brit-
ish steamboat in the river ( 'lydc. Two years
afterwards a locomotive , n^iiu was set in mo-
tion on the railroad at Merthyr Tydvil. In
1807 the streets of London were first lighted
with coal gas; and five years afterwards the
steamboat experiment in the Clyde was suc-
cessful. The Atlantic Ocean was first tra-
versed by a steamer in 1*1 f>. In 1822 the
Mechanics' Institute was founded by Dr. Birk-
beck. Two years afterward- tin- National
Gallery was established, and in 1825 the Tun-
nel under the Thames was begun. London
University was opened in 1828, and in 1830
the means of civic transfer were improved by
the introduction of omnibuses. In the latter
year the railway was opened from Liverpool to
Manchester. The years 1831-32 were marked
by the appearance of Asiatic cholera, which
swept away sixty thousand victims before its
ravages were stayed. To this date belongs the
establishment of -the British Association for
the Advancement of Science, which held its
first session at York in 1831.

To England belongs the honor of having
introduced the International Exposition as a
feature of modern civilization. It is believed
that the idea originated with the Prince Con-
sort Albert. The first exhibition of this kind
was held in Hyde Park in 1851. The build-
ing for the display of the industries of the
nations was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton,
and was constructed of iron and glass. Great
was the success of the enterprise. It was es-

timated that >eveii milliMii- ,,f i pie visited

the exiMi.~ili.in. A r.-jn -lition "!' the- ^n-at dis-
play was made- in l-C.-j. :,-,,| :,fi.., lM:,i the
materials employed in (he rmi.-tnu-tioii of tin-
fir.-t building were u.-i-d in tin- ererti.ni of the
Crystal I'alai-r :it Svdeliham. Oil the whole,

the present century has contributed more than
many of the preceding together to the prog-
ress and development of that marvelous power
which the English race established long ago
in its foggy islands, and which has become
the marvel and in many respects the glory of
mqdern times.

CHAPTER LII.— KRANCE.

|T is the purpose in this
chapter to trace the course
of events in France from
the collapse of the First
Empire after Waterloo to
the establishment of the
present French Republic.
This plan will lead us, first of all, to consider
the restoration of the House of Bourbon and
VOL. II.- 77

the reign of Louis XVIII. Great were the
difficulties with which that king found him-
self surrounded when reseated by the allies
on the throne of France. This forcible and
galvanic restoration of the ancient Bourbon-
ism was hardly a respectable pageant.

To the French people Louis appeared, not
only as the impersonation of the past, but as
a reminder of the humiliation of the French

1218

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

arms, and the eclipse of French renown.
When he went abroad among the populace it

LOUIS XVIII.

was as though a herald should forerun the
royal equipage crying out, " Here comes
Waterloo ! " Personally, more-
over, the well-meaning old king
was the embodiment of infirm-
ity. Unwieldy, shaking with
fat under his insignia, too weak
to stand upright, his figure and
manner were as shocking to the
Parisian sense as the system
which he represented was disa-
greeable. His almost necessary
expressions of gratitude to Eng-
land for the long courtesy of a
residence in that safe country
and for the assistance which the
Prince Regent had lent him in
the restoration of his House ex-
asperated his subjects, who were smarting from
recent defeat. The reappearance of the spot-

ted-and-white banner of Bourbon in place of
the tri-color under which the French armies,
singing La Marseillaise, had snatched glory
from the mouths of five hundred batteries,
still further heightened the dislike in which
the antiquated Louis was held.

On the other side, the king was pressed
by the hungry swarm of returning royalists,
who looked to him for the restoration of es-
tates and rights which had long since been
stuffed into cannon and discharged by the Rev-
olution at the enemies of France. In the
Chamber of Deputies this royalist party, under
the lead of the Duke of Angouleme, was in
the ascendency ; and such was the ferocity of
the reaction that in the very first year of his
reign the king was obliged to dismiss the
Chamber and order a new election. This re-
sulted in the return to power of the Liberals,
under the leadership of the Duke of Riche-
lieu. But this leader found it impossible to
restrain his party from measures more radical
than the times would bear, and in 1818 re-
tired from office. Then came the Marquis
Dessoles as the leader of the ministry, but he

I 1IATKAUBRIAND.

was presently succeeded by the Duke Decazes,
who remained in authority until 1820. His

Till-: MM-: 77.7.. \TH CENTURY.— Flt.l.\> /

1 _'!'.»

ascendency was signalized by the passage of
an act c.-talilishing tin- freedom of tin- press.
Ill the next reaction, however, tliis measure
was reversed, and the old censorship, espe-
cially so much as related to politieal writings,
was reestablished. Another act was passed
by which the law of arrest was enlarged, and
extended to new kinds of offense. At the
same time an alteration was made in the law
governing elections, whereby the power of the
government was increased at the expense of
popular influence.

While measures
such as these were
carried during the
ascendency of one
party in the Cham-
ber and annulled
by the other as soon
as it came into pow-
er, the king sought
to steer between the
extremes. The min-
istry supported the
Center, while the
Liberals and Dem-
ocrats swayed the
Left, and the old
Royalist party the
Right. Such was
the political phrase-
ology of the times.

Meanwhile, in
the fourth year of
Louis's reign was
held the Congress
of Aix-la-Chapelle.
By that body it was
determined that the

period of three years having elapsed since the
foreign occupancy of the French forts — the
same being the minimum determined by the
allies after the overthrow of Napoleon — the
soldiery of other powers should be withdrawn
from the territory of France. This was ac-
cordingly done, and the French dominions
were once more free from foreign control.

Step by step the Royalists trained authority
in the government. The Duke of Richelieu,
leader of the Center and of the king's party,
undertook in 1820 to hold his ascendency by
admitting certain Royalist leaders into the

ministry. The leader of those thus taken into
the cabinet wa> the Count Villel.-, who, since
he could not control the body to which he was
admitted, soon withdrew. A <-ri.-is now en-
sued, and Richelieu himself was constrained
to resign. This threw the power into the
hands of the aristocrat-, ami Vilh-le was, in
December of 1821, put at the head of a new
ministry.

In the following year was held the Con-
gress of Verona. France was represented by

THE ESCURIAL.

the Viscounts Montmorency and Chateaubri-
and, who urged the powers to undertake the
restoration of order in Spain. In that country
the people, who, under the Napoleonic regime
had caught something of the infection of free-
dom, had become dangerously turbulent, and
France now appeared as the enemy of popular
liberty.

Strangely enough, however, England had
now gone over to the cause of mankind, and
so she interposed her veto to the project of
Spanish interference. But she did so in such
a mild-mannered way as seemed to give per-

1220

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

CHARLES X.

mission while she forbade. France accordingly
determined to do alone what the Congress of
Verona declined to undertake ; and the be-

ginning of the year 1823 witnessed the mon-
strous spectacle of an army of Frenchmen
marching into the Spanish peninsula to put
down the liberties of the people. On the 10th
of May, the Duke of Augouleme, who com-
manded the expedition, entered Madrid, and
suppressed the popular movement. He also
took Cadiz, and restored Bourbon authority.
Returning to Paris, the duke left behind him
a French army of occupation, which was not
wholly withdrawn until 1828. Loud were
the congratulations to which the Royalists of
France gave utterance over this ridiculous and
disgraceful piece of tyranny. France was
again a conqueror. She had dictated a peace
to Spain! The eagle had swooped down be-
side the rook, and forbidden that bird to caw.
The Duke of Angouleme became the lion of
the aristocrats, and the bones of the Spanish
Bourbons, in the solemn vaults of the Escurial
mausoleum, were glorified as of old.

Xor were the leaders of the Right slow
to profit by the popularity which they had
so easily won. Measures were immediately
brought forward to change the Constitution
in some important particulars. It was pro-
posed to extend to seven years the term of
office of members in the Chamber of Depu-
ties, and in other ways to shore up the mon-

CORONATION- OF CHARLES X.

nil': XI\I-:TI: I:\TII < -KXTI 'i; Y. i-i;. \ ^< /

nrrhy. It was evident to nil observers that by
degrees, :in<l :u-i rapidly us prudence would per-
mit, the French crown was reclaiming its
long-lost prerogatives. The conviction pre-
vailed more and more that the oath.- of con-
stitutional observance rested but lightly on
Louis XVIII. and hi.* ministers. But the re-
action, whatever it was, or intended to he,
was at length cut short by the king's death,
which occurred on the 16th of September,
1824.

The French crown was
at once transferred to the
head of Cii u:i.i:- X., the
late king's brother. More
popular than his prede-
cessor, he came to the
throne under auspices
favorable to a complete
restoration of the Bour-
bon dynasty. Notwith-
standing his ultra-royal-
ist principles in politics,
he began his reign by
giving encouragement to
such measures as seemed
to favor the cause of the
people. But this policy,
which was only for effect,
was soon abandoned, and
the force of the govern-
ment devoted solely to
the extension and con-
solidation of the royal
power. As early as 1825
a measure was carried to
indemnify the heirs of
the aristocracy for the
estates which their fath-
ers had lost in the Revolution. It was pro-
posed to make good all such losses by granting
annuities to the descendants of the losers.
Those who had purchased the lands of the de-
funct nobility were allowed to retain them,
but the scions of the former owners were to
be compensated with pensions. The measure
was so devised as to receive the favor of both
classes of claimants ; for the present occupants
were willing that the heirs of the Past might
be pensioned if they themselves. might remain
in undisturbed possession.

In one respect, at least, the Bourbon dy-

na-ty wa- so, iieu hat n-paired by tin- transfer
of the crown from Loiii- XVIII. to ( 'hail.
For some time it had appeared that the line
of Henry IV. \\as likely to become extinct.
The fatality which prevailed ainoni: the mem-
bers of the royal family in the last years
of Louis XIV. ha- already been mentioned.
Louis XVIII. died without an heir. At the
time of the Restoration the succession appeared
to point first to the Count of Artois (after-

CHARLES FERDINAND, DUKE OF BERRY.

wards Charles X.), and after him to his son
Charles Ferdinand, duke of Berry. Great was
the shock given to this expectation when, in
1820, the Duke of Berry was stabbed and
killed by a political fanatic named Louvel,
who had formed the purpose of destroying all
the representatives of the House of Bourbon.
A few months after the assassination, however,
the Duchess of Berry, Marie Caroline of Pa-
lermo, whom Louis XVIII. had secured as a
wife for his nephew, gave birth to a son, upon
whom, as the prospective heir to the French
crown, was conferred the title of Duke of Bor-

1222

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

deaux. On the accession of his grandfather,
Charles X., to the throne, the young prince,
then but four years of age, became an object
of great interest to the reigning dynasty, more
particularly since the claims of the king's other
son, the Duke of Angouleme, were waived in
favor of the royal grandson.

As soon as the land question was settled, or
at least quieted, the king and the ministers

MARIE CAROLINE, DUCHESS OF BERRY.

turned their attention to the press, that perni-
cious instrument of enlightenment and eman-
cipation. To reimpose the fetters upon this
agent of the popular party appeared to Charles
and the obsequious Chamber a matter of the
utmost moment. Then came the measure for
making men great by patent. In 1827 seventy-
six new peers of France were created. The pre-
dominance of the king's party in the Upper
House was thus effectually secured. For who
could vote against his maker? In the Cham-

ber of Representatives, however, the opposi-
tion still held its own, and in order to free
himself from this pestiferous annoyance, the
king dismissed the House and ordered a new
election. The event showed, however, that
he had made a fallacious calculation; for the
liberal forces in the new body were increased
instead of diminished.

The Royalist ministry hereupon resigned
their offices, and Charles
was constrained to ap-
point another more in
accord with the popular
will. This experiment
also proved abortive, and
in August of 1828 the
ultra Royalist, Prince
Jules de Polignac, was
ordered to form a new
cabinet after the king's
own heart. The prince
at the time of his ap-
pointment as prime min-
ister was embassador at
the court of St. James,
whence the news of his
intimacy with the Duke
of Wellington foreran his
return to France and
spread an intense popular
odium in his pathway.
The disgust of the French,
people at his appointment
•was equal to their suspi-
cions of what was to come.
The spirit of resistance
sprang up full armed.
On the 2d of March, 1830,
Casimir Perier, president
of the Chamber of Dep-
uties, replied to the king's
speech from the throne in a most defiant temper.
The monarch at once dissolved the assembly and
sought to allay the excitement by making cer-
tain changes in the ministry. This conduct,
however, was construed by the popular party
as a confession of weakness. The election which
followed for new members of the chamber re-
sulted in a still further accession to the strength
of the Liberals. It was evident that as soon
as the body should reassemble, the Polignac
ministry would be compelled to resign.

•/'///•: .V/.V/ 77.7. V/7/ i i:.\'TURY.~ FRAX< I

1223

Iii the interim, however, a new element
was added to the complication by the progress
of the French arms in
Africa. Iii 1827 a diffi-
culty had arisen between
the French authorities
and the half- barbarian
dey of Algiers, whose
conduct towards the sub-
jects of Christian states
had become intolerable.
Charles X. had been
guilty of the commenda-
ble action of sending out
a squadron to demand
of his Algerine Majesty
reparation for the wrongs
done to the sailors and
merchants of France. In
1830 an army of nearly
forty thousand men was
sent to the African coast
to compel the dey to yield.
Landing near the city of
Algiers, the Count de
Bourmont, who com-
manded the expedition, marched against the
capital, and was about to carry the place by

the city to the French. The African monarch
was expelled from the country, and afterwards

CA8IMIR PERIER.

LA FAYETTE.

storm, when the dey, taking counsel of discre-
tion, sent out a flag of truce and surrendered

took up his residence in Naples. Algiers was
at once colonized by the conquerors and per-
manently held as an outpost of the kingdom.
These events took place in the beginning
of July, 1830, and on the 9th of the month the
news reached Paris. It was foolishly believed
by the king and the ministry that the success
of the French arms might be turned to the
glorification of the government Emboldened
by this notion Charles proceeded on the 26th
of July to issue six royal ordinances, every
one of which was leveled against the liberties
of his subjects. One decree abolished what-
ever remained of the freedom of the press.
Another dissolved the new Chamber of Depu-
ties which had not yet convened! A third pre-
scribed a new method of conducting the elec-
tions; and so on to the end. The first
knowledge which the people had of these pro-
ceedings was through the official newspaper.
Marshal Marmont, who commanded the troops
in the capital knew nothing of what was done
until thus apprised of the king's intentions.
Having sent forth his edicts, Charles went
hunting, and the ministers shook hands glee-
fully over the solution of their troubles.

1224

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Paris took fire in an hour. She became
suddenly glorious with indignation. On the
day following the issuance of the king's edicts
the people poured by thousands into the
streets, and the city as of old put on her rev-
olutionary garments. Volleys of musketry
were heard where the multitudes were assem-
bled; the people fell back before some un-
steady charges of the guards, and by night-

LOUIS PHILIPPE.

fall a silence which was ominous, rather than
reassuring, rested over Paris. With the
coming of the morning light, however, the
agitation broke out afresh, and at nine o'clock
the tri-color of the republic was flung out
from the spire of Notre Dame. Shortly after-
ward the same inspiring banner was run up
on the Hotel de Ville. Many citizens arrayed
themselves in the uniform of the old National
Guard.

The king and the ministry were now thor-
oughly alarmed, and Marshal Marmont was
ordered to clear the city. At first he hesi-
tated, and advised pacific measures with the
populace. But the government well knew
that it must conquer or perish. So the con-
test began, and in many parts of the city the
firing of musketry and the rattling of the
iron hail along the streets announced the out-
break of another revolution in Paris. The
people became furious under the assaults of
the soldiers, and hesitated at nothing which
promised the overthrow of the government.
They fought from the windows and house-
tops. Every kind of weapon was
brought into requisition. Stones,
tiles, billets of wood, and every
species of missile were hurled down
upon the troops crowded into the
narrow streets. Hot water and
boiling oil was poured out on the
heads of the soldiers. Chairs,
tables, and piano-fortes were
thrown out of the windows by
frenzied women, more furious even
than the men, and more irrational
in their rage. The guards were
driven back to the Hotel de Ville,
and thence to the Tuileries; nor
can it be doubted that most of
the soldiers were at heart with the
insurgents.

In the mean time the mem-
bers of the new Chamber of Dep-
uties assembled, and on the 28th
entered into a conference with
Marmont, who endeavored to per-
suade them to pacify the people.
But the Deputies neither could
nor would do so until certain re-
forms, almost revolutionary, were
made in the government.
On the night of the 29th, the people tore
up the boulevards and made barricades across
the principal streets. The lukewarm soldiers
forbore to attack these defenses. During the
day several regiments of the line deserted
and went over to the insurgents. About the
same time the populace gained possession of
the Louvre. Soon afterward Marshal Mar-
mont withdrew from the city on the road to
St. Cloud, and Paris was left in the hands of

THE M\f-:ri-:h:\Tii CENTURY.— FKA.\< •/•;.

the revolutionists. Vainly did tin- tlyinu'
Charles attempt to stem the torrent. lie
abolished liis six ordinances which luul pre-
oipitated the crisis. He dismissed tin- royalist
ministry ami named another composed of lib-
erals. But ho might as well have made enn-
eus-ions to a hurricane. The Chamber of
Deputies organized in the city and resolved
that Charles X. should no longer reign. Gen-
eral La Fayette was appointed to the military
command of Paris, and with the reappearance

vaili-d, and the public voice declared in favor
of l,nn- I'mi.irri:. duke of Orleans, sou of
that Philippe K^alite who made him.-i-lf con-
spicuous for his liberali.sm in the days of the
First Revolution. At the first, the Chamber
voted to place him at the head ol' the king-
dom with the title of Lieutenant-general.
The prince accepted his election, met the
Chamber of Deputies and the members of the
provisional government at the Hotel de Ville,
where he solemnly pledged himself to the

ARRIVAL OF LOUIS PHILIPPE IN PARI3.

of the veteran patriot the agitated sea at once
fell to a calm. The revolution was accom-
plished with but little bloodshed and small
loss of property. Only three days were occu-
pied in the transformation, and it is said that
many foreigners in the city were not aware
of the nature of the tumult until the work
was ended.

The Chamber of Deputies at once devoted
itself to the work of selecting a new ruler for
France. The Democrats were, of course, in
favor of proclaiming the republic ; but the
conservative sentiment of the country pre-

most liberal principles of administration. His
accession to power was hailed with great de-
light by the Parisians, who waved the tri-
color and shouted to their hearts' content
Meanwhile, the fugitive Charles X. dragged
after him to St. Cloud the shattered fabric of
the House of Bourbon, and from that place
proceeded, on the 31st of July, first to Tri-
anon and thence to Rambouillet On the 2d
of August the king and the dauphin signed
an act of abdication, reserving, however, for
Charles's grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux,
whatever claims the elder branch of the House

1226

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of Bourbon still held to the crown of France.
This remnant of the old royalty then sought
to obtain from Louis Philippe a recognition
of the Duke of Bordeaux as Henry V. ; but
the Duke of Orleans was too wily a politician
to be caught in such a snare. He suppressed
that part of the letter of abdication which
referred to the succession of the Duke of
Bordeaux ; but a knowledge of that clause
•was presently disseminated in the city, and
the tumult broke out anew. A great mob

eign was shown in the fact that he received two
hundred and nineteen out of the two hundred
and fifty-two votes in the Chamber. Thus,
from being a village school-master in Switzer-
land, where he was known as M. Corby, the
representative of the House of Orleans was
raised by popular acclaim to the throne of
France.

The new court and government proved to
be the most virtuous and able that the French
nation had known since the days of the

LOUIS PHILIPPE TAKES THE OATH.

was about to march against the Hotel Ram-
bouillet, when Charles, perceiving the hope-
lessness of his cause, fled to Cherbourg, and
thence to Holyrood Palace, at Edinburgh,
where he again took up his residence in exile.
Thus did the Younger Branch of Bourbon
supplant the Elder. The Chamber of Depu-
ties proceeded at once to undo the despotic
acts of Charles X., and then to elect Louis
Philippe king, not of France, but of the
French.* The popularity of the new sover-

1 Napoleon the Great had drawn this distinc-
tion. He was Emperor of the French, not of

Consulate and the Empire. In his personal
character, disciplined as he had been by ad-
versity, the king was unexceptionable. Dur-
ing his reign of eighteen years the inner rep-
utation of the Tuileries was as fair as that
famous abode of power had ever known. In-
deed, the monarchy now established in France
was of a new type — a peculiar blending of
Imperial force with Republican simplicity.
The popular voice well expressed the spirit
of the new regime in the sobriquet which it

France. The feudal principle was made to give
way to popular sovereignty.

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conferred on Louis of the ('itiziii King — a
compliment not undeserved.

One of the first measures promoted 1>\ tin-
Orleans dynasty was to prosecute ami com-
plete the conquest of Algiers. Alter the cap-
ture of the city of that name by the Duke of
Angouleme and the return of the latter to
France, a new figure had appeared in the

gerines was disastrously routed in the great
battle of Isi.v. Aliil-el-Kader ,-iill kept in the
fit-Id, hut his force.- dwindled to a handful,
and at la-t lie was captured and sent to Paris.
Altrier- wa> made into a province of Fn<

The next act of the new administration
looked to the protection of Paris from the re-
currence of the calamities of 1814-15. Now

African horizon, in the person of the famous
Arab general, Abd-el-Kader. For quite a
time after the accession of Louis Philippe
this untutored ehieftain, with his barbarian
host, held the French in check ; and not
until the latter had sacrificed a vast amount
of life and treasure did they succeed in re-
ducing him to submission. The work, how-
ever, was at last accomplished. In August
of 1844 a combined army of Moors and Al-

)F ISLY.

were built around the city those tremendous
and well-planned fortifications against which
the victorious Germans were to throw them-
selves in the Franco-Prussian war.1 Bene-
ficial as such a line of defenses would un-
doubtedly prove against the assaults of for-
eign foes, the work was regarded with great
distrust by the people of France, who, long
diadplined in the school of treachery, BU»-

• >i i- the slid i-i ilin^ i-h:i|-ti-r. | . 1171.

1228

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WOULD.

pected that the real purpose of the fortifica-
tions was to protect the government against
its own subjects.

Louis Philippe was by no means devoid
of kingly ambition. One of his favorite
measures for making his dynasty secure was
the intermarriage of members of his family
with the principal houses of Europe. In one
case he encountered the serious opposition of
England. The French king decided that
his youngest son, the Duke de Montpensier,

which he might do, and Maria Louisa receive
the Spanish crown, which might occur, and a
son be born of their marriage, which might
happen, then, the prince so born might inherit
the kingdoms of both France and Spain.
Amazing possibility ! For in that event, the
balance of power might be disturbed and the
political fabric of Europe go to ruin ! The
inner counsels of Great Britain were so shaken
by these multiplied potential moods that em-
phatic protests were made against the French

CAPTURE OF AB-DEL-KADER.

should take in marriage the Princess Maria
Louisa, sister of Queen Isabella of Spain. It
is hardly conceivable that so simple a matter
should, in the nineteenth century, have so
seriously excited the political apprehensions
of Great Britain. The objection was that the
queen of Spain might never marry. In that
event the Spanish crown might be given to
Maria Louisa. Or if Isabella should marry,
the union might bring no heir to Spain.
Should that occur, the crown, as before, might
go to the queen's sister. And should the
Duke de Montpensier become king of France,

king's plans, and that monarch was con-
strained to secure the marriage of Queen Isa-
bella to her cousin, a Spanish grandee, in
order to remove or at least abate the objec-
tion to his own programme.

The revolution of 1830 was followed by
a financial crisis which occasioned serious
troubles in different parts of France. The
manufacturing city of Lyons was especially
disturbed. In November of 1831 the working-
men struck for higher wages, and a terrible
insurrection ensued, in the course of which
the rioters seized the Hotel de Ville, and for

THI-: A7.v/.v/-,7-;.\T// < I-:.\TUKY.—FJ;A.\' /:.

a season made themselves n iln- city.

Not until the government had MM! to the
scene a French army under Mar.-lml Soult
and the Duke of Orleans ua- tin- revolt sup-
pressed. Even thru tin- .</»'/•<'( of the in-ur-
rection was not extinguished, lu April of
1834 the ivlicllion
broke out anew, and
for several day- the
insurgents and the
Hirers of the govern-
ment fought in the
streets. The city
could only he quieted
by force of arms.

Other parts of the
kingdom also were
the seats of republi-
can conspiracies. In
the western part of
the kingdom an in-
surrection was fo-
mented by the Duch-
ess of Berry until
what time that prin-
cess was taken and
imprisoned in the
fortress of Blaye.
Then followed sev-
eral attempts upon
the king's life, the
most notable of which
was that of the
Corsican conspirator,
Joseph Marie Fieschi,
who, with the pur-
pose of destroying
Louis Philippe, in-
vented a sort of in-
fernal machine ca-
pable of vomiting
forth death from
twenty-five barrels at

once. Fieschi and his accomplices hired
an apartment in the Boulevard of the
Temple, and awaited their opportunity. On
the 28th of July, 1835, while the celebration
of the fifth anniversary of the revolution of
1830 was in progress, the king and his stall'
rode by. At the opportune moment Fieschi
discharged his terrible volley from the window.
Eleven persons of the cavalcade were killed

on the spot. Seven others were fatally injured,
and twenty-two others wounded. Marshal
Mortier, chief of the royal ctall', was killed
outright. Strangely enough, the kin:.' ami
hi> three BOH* all >-e:i|i.d without -erioiis
h:irin. Fic.-clii and his ft •llou-con.-pirutore

INSURRECTION AT LYONS.

were at once seized and convicted. The chief
criminal and two others were sent to the scaf-
fold, where Fieschi died after the manner of a
revolutionary bandit performing an act in a
theater.

The greater part of the reign of Louis
Philippe was a time of comparative prosperity
throughout the kingdom. France was reha-
bilitated. The fortifications around the city

1230

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of Paris were completed. The affairs of gov-
ernment were for the most part conducted in
an orderly and manly manner. And it ap-

peared, even to the candid observer, that the
waves of revolution had sunk to a final calm.
In one respect, however, there was a profound

FIESCHI'8 ATTEMPT TO ASSASSINATE LOUIS PHILIPPE.

Till. XIXKTKKXT1I < l^TURY.— FRANCE.

people. But from the day of his acces-
sion he adopted and pursued the opposite
policy. He sought to make all things secure
merely by strengthening and fortifying the
i'xi.-ting order. In tins policy he was upheld
and supported by the ministry, (-serially by
the st:itr-]n:m and historian, Guillaume (Jtii-
zot, Minister of Foreign Aflairs, who, during .
the last seven years of the Orleans ascen-
dency, was the mainstay of the throne.

There was thus a fatal flaw in the system
of Louis Philippe. The people discovered at
length that, though their influence in the
government was considerable, their power
was as nothing. They caught at the salient
point of disagreement between themselves
and the administration. They began to de-
mand the removal of the restrictions on the
elective franchise. The word Rtfarm was
heard in the land. Then came agitation.
Public meetings, called reform banquets, were

DUKE Of ORLEANS.

vice in the principle of the administration.
There were at this time only about seventy
thousand voters in France —
these out of fully thirty-five
millions of people. The
Chamber of Deputies was
founded upon this restricted
suffrage. It lay within the
power of the king to have
put himself without reserve
upon the confidence of the
nation. Such a course would
have involved the extension
of the elective franchise to
the people at large. If
Louis Philippe had been a
greater man than he was —
at any rate, if he had been
a man of the intellectual
grandeur and self-confidence
of the First Napoleon — he
would doubtlessly have
thrown himself without re-
serve into the arms of the

>;rm »fxr.

1232

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

held in many of the cities, and these were
straightway forbidden by the government.
Such was the state of affairs at the beginning
of 1848.

The rest may soon be told. In the pre-
ceding year the crops had failed, and high
prices came on with scantiness of provision.
Bread riots broke out in various districts.
The popular newspapers became audacious.
New histories of the great Kevolution, by
Lamartine and Louis Blanc, were published,
and the people re-read the story of the thrill-
ing events of that tremendous epoch. Finally
a great reform banquet was called, to be held
in the Champs Elysees on the 22d of Febru-
ary. The government forbade the gathering.
But the temper of the Parisians would not
longer brook such dictation. The people
went on with their preparations for the ban-
quet. Then the king ordered out his troops ;
but his call to the soldiers was answered by
them with shouts of Vive la Rtforme! The
paving stones were again torn up and heaped
into barricades. The National Guard was
ordered to clear the streets, but most of the

LAMAKTINE.

AIDE. PRINCESS OF ORLEANS.

regiments went over to the people. Two or
three days sufficed to complete the revolution.
Louis sought, as Charles
X. had done, to stay the
storm by an abdication
in favor of his grandson,
but this measure was
only a sop to Cerberus.
The king's throne was
taken into the Place de
la Revolution, and pub-
licly burned. The Cham-
ber of Deputies passed a
resolution abolishing the
monarchy. On the 24th
of February Louis Phil-
ippe and the remnants
of his government fled
from the city, and on
the following morning
he heard of the procla-
mation of the Republic.
The House of Orleans
followed the Elder Bour-
bons into banishment.

•/•///•; MXI-:TI:I-:.\TH CENTURY.— FRANi /:.

The fugitive king and queen managed to
cross the Seine and to reach Havre, whence,
under the assumed name "t Xmith, they
escaped across the Channel, took up their
residence in the palace of the king of the
Belgians, near London, and there passed
the rest of their lives.
As for the king's
sister, the popular
Princess Adelaide,
who, for the greater
part of his reign,
had exercised a be-
nign influence on
the tendencies and
reputation of the
court, she had died
in the year preced-
ing the revolution.
Louis died in Au-
gust of 1850, and
thirty-two years af-
terwards his remains
were taken to France
and rehuried at
Dreux. So, in a
bloodless collapse,
ended the Orleans
dynasty.

In Paris, after the
king's flight, a pro-
visional government
was established, pend-
ing the call for a
national convention
to prepare a repub-
lican constitution.
A half-century had
now elapsed since
the great Revolution,
and France had at
length come around
to her place of

starting. The new frame of government
was very similar in most respects to that
which had been established by the French
patriots of 1792; but political wisdom had
now been gained by experience, and greater
care was taken to give stability to the new
constitution. In addition to the legislative
department, the instrument provided for a
President to be chosen by popular vote. On
VOL. II.— 78

the whole the ww ninMitiitiniuil forms
well adapted to tin- m-i-ils <>t' n-|iuliliciiii
Fniiicc, ditlrrint; ii"t much in tlu-ir c.-sciiti:il
character from the government of the Uuitrd
States of Amrrii-u.

At the very beginning of tin- new n'giine a

PROCLAMATION OF THE REPUBLIC, 1848.

shadow, sphinx-like and historic, stole out of
the horizon and stood up in the midst It
was Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, son of King
Louis of Holland and Hortense de Beauhar-
nais. The apparition came out of England,
on the very heels of the revolution of Febru-
ary of 1848. This strange personage, destim-il
to play so important a part in the subsequent
history of France and Europe, had had the

1234

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

career of an adventurer. He was born in
the Tuileries on the 20th of April, 1808.
Napoleon I. stood as his godfather. He was
thoroughly educated in the Imperial govern-

recoguized head of the Bonaparte dynasty.
Four years later, viz., in October of 1836, he
made an abortive attempt to start a revolution
at Strasburg; but the poor drabbled eagle of

CHARLES BONAPARTE.

1

XAPOLEON I., 1821.
Xapoleon II., 1832.

THE BONAPARTES.

Louis, 1846. Jerome, 1860.
NAPOLEON III., 1873. Prince Napoleon. 1879.

Prince Imperial, 1877.
Victor. Louis.

ment of that era. After the collapse of the
Empire, he lived with his mother at Arenen-
berg. Subsequently he joined the patriots in
Italy. In 1831 he came back to Paris, but
was at once ordered to leave by the govern-
ment of Louis Philippe. At this juncture he

n

GENERAL CAVAIGNAC.

was elected to command the Polish army in
the revolution of that year; but the fall of
Warsaw made it useless for him to accept.
In the next year the Duke of Reichstadt,
son of Napoleon I. and Maria Louisa, died in
Schonbrunn, and Louis Napoleon became the

France refused to perch on his shoulder. The
ridiculous fiasco ended in his arrest, a brief
imprisonment in the citadel of Lorient, his
conveyance to Brazil, and thence to New
York. Here for a while he lived in obscurity.
His means were exhausted, his associates were
the young men of the Bowery, and he
is said to have run foot-races for a
wager. After a season he took up his
residence in London, served as a police-
man, won the attention of some distin-
guished personages, associated with the
Countess of Blessington and Count d'Or-
say, lived with Madame Howard, by
whom he had several children, published,
in 1839, his Idees Napoleoniennes, and
a remarkable pamphlet on the "Extinc-
tion of Pauperism." An edition of the
latter was circulated in France and pro-
duced a profound impression.

In 1840 he returned to the continent,
and undertook the seemingly quixotical
project of recovering the French throne ;
but the business ended in another col-
lapse as absurd as that of Strasburg.
Again he was seized, and this time con-
demned to perpetual imprisonment. He
was confined in the fortress of Ham,
where he remained until the 25th of
May, 1846, when he succeeded in mak-
ing his escape and returning to England.
As soon as he heard of the dethrone-
ment of Louis Philippe, he hastily went
back to Paris, and was at once elected by
large majorities from four departments as a
representative in the constituent assembly.
He accepted his election for the Department
of the Seine, and on the 12th of June was
admitted to the Assembly.

Tin: .\i.\KT]-:i-:\Tii CA'AT/ 'u y. i- i;.\ M /;.

Trouble ensued, and he resigned his seat
iind returned to London. But later in the same
year he was reflected from five departments,
and the decree of banishment a^uin-t him was
revoked. The enemies of the Bonaparti-t
paru .-oiijjht witliout avail to exclude him from
candidacy in the en-
suing presidential
election. They well
knew the magic of
his name, and feared
the result should he
appear as a candi-
date. The result
showed how well
founded were their
apprehensions, for,
on the 10th of De-
cember, 1848, he was
triumphantly elected
President of the Re-
public, receiving for
that office nearly five
and a-half millions
of votes, against less
than a million and
a-half for General
Cavaignac, his prin-
cipal competitor. He
was duly inaugurated
for the period of
four years, and the
Republic seemed to
have begun under
favorable omens.

From the very
first, however, the
President, notwith-
standing the tremen-
dous popular major-
ity behind him, was
an object of distrust
to the Republicans.
He was a man of
silence, and this fact

gained for him the reputation of being
a schemer. It must be confessed, however,
that, as far as schemes were concerned, his
enemies were more prolific than he. Dur-
ing the first years of his administration, it
would be difficult to point out any specific act
of his — except the suppnvsion of the political

clubs in Paris — which seemed to savor of anti-
repiililieanisiii. l)iirin^ the .-uniiner of 1849,
a French army, under General Oiidinot, was
sent into Italy to suppress the Roman Repub-
lic and restore the temporal authority of the
Pope. The expedition was :itteinli-.| with en-

LA KEPUBLIQUE FRAN^AISE.
From the celebrated bust by Gauthesin.

tire success. The Italians made a brave stand
in defense of their ancient capital, but all re-
sistance was overborne, and on the 1st of July
the French army made a triumphal entry into
the Eternal City. Pius IX. was brought
back frpm exile and restored to authority.
This measure of the President led to an at-

1236

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

tempt on the part of the Republicans, under
the leadership of Ledru-Rollin, to impeach
Napoleon ; but the latter was sustained by a
great majority. On the other hand, the ultra-
conservatives were offended by many liberal
acts on the part of the President, and in May
of 1850 they sought to break his power by
passing a restriction on universal suffrage, to
which Napoleon owed his elevation. The
royalist element in the Assembly also ap-
pointed a committee to stand guard over the
public interests during the recess of the legis-

office drew to a close, petitions began to pour
in requesting him, even against the constitu-
tion, to be a candidate for reelection. The
President's speeches at this time, namely, in
the latter part of 1851, showed that he was
not indisposed to regard himself as a necessity
to France. At this juncture the opposition
found in its suspicions, some of which were
perhaps well grounded, ample reason for as-
sailing the President with every species of
political missile. It was declared in advance
that he intended to subvert the liberties of

ARREST OF THE DEPUTIES.

lature. With the army the President had
great popularity. Many demonstrations were
made in his favor. At this General Changar-
nier, who commanded the troops in Paris,
was offended, and gave orders that no such
demonstrations should be made. For this the
(President removed him from office— an act
which led to a vote of censure in the Assem-
bly against the administration.

By these counter-forces in the politics of
France, it came to pass that Napoleon was
placed midway between the socialist and mon-
archical parties. As his four-year term of

the Republic. Whatever he proposed his ad-
versaries bitterly antagonized. Even the
plainest republican measures, such as the re-
moval of the restriction on the right of suf-
frage, were voted down by the irate Assembly.
That body next proceeded to pass a law by
which the command of the troops in Paris was
virtually taken from the President and given
to the presiding officer of the legislature.

This act brought on a crisis. The Presi-
dent appointed a new prefect of police and a
new commander of the guards. The principal
offices of the government were transferred to

THK MM.TI:I:.\TH < i-:.\Ti i;Y.

1287

men upon whom the lV-i<lfiit mi^ht implic-
itly rely. Tin- leiii.-lative us.-emhly found
that, tlnj sphinx had become a ma.-trr. His
will, now thoroughly ar"i:>',| and artiiiLT
through such agents as. ('mint <!<• Morny,
General St. Arnaud, M. l)e Maupas, < 'om-
inaiiilaiil Maj_'iiuu of tin- police, ami the two
adventurers Fleury and Persigny, reached
out in every direction and could not be coun-
teracted by the turbulent factions in the
Assembly.

The President had now determined to
conquer by force, and to this end he planned
a coup (f etat for the night of
December 2, 1851. On that even-
ing he held a gay reception in
the palace of the Elysec ; and,
after his guests had retired, his
scheme was perfected. During
the night seventy-eight of the lead-
ing members of the opposition
were seized at their own houses
and taken to prison. A strong
force of soldiers was stationed near
the Tuileries. The offices of the
liberal newspapers were seized,
and the government printing-
presses were employed all night in
printing the proclamations with
which the walls of the city were
covered before morning. With the
coming of daylight, Paris awoke
and read : " The National Assem-
bly is dissolved ; universal suffrage
is reestablished ; the elective col-
leges are summoned to meet on
December 21st; Paris is in a
state of siege." By the side of this procla-
mation was posted the President's address
to the people. He proposed the election of
a President for ten years. He referred the
army to the neglect which it had received
under former governments, and promised that
the soldiery of France should re-win its an-
cient renown.

As soon as those members of the Assembly
who had not been arrested could realize the
tiling which was done, they ran together and
attempted to stay the tide of revolution. But
the effort was futile. A republican insurrec-
tion, under the leadership of Victor Hiiiro
and n few oilier di.-tin^tiished liberals, broke

out in the city, but < Jeneral Canrobert, who

commanded the guards, soon put down the
revolt in blood. Order wa- i-peedilv restored,
and the victory of the Pie-ident ua- complete.
On the -M>th and '_'l>t of December u |>opu-
lar election was held, and Louis Napoleon was
triumphantly elected President fora period of
ten years. Out of eL'ht millions of votes,
t'.'V,'-r than one million were cast again-! him.
lie immediately assumed the office of dictator,
and in January of 1*.V_' promulgated a new
constitution. The iii-iiiini.nl was based upon
that of 1789, and possessed but few clauses to

VICTOR HUGO.

which a right-minded lover of free institutions
could object. On the 28th of March, Napo-
leon resigned the dictatorship and resumed
the office of President of the Republic. Dur-
ing the summer and autumn it became evident
that the Empire was to be reestablished. A
vote to that effect was passed on the 7th of
November, and the measure was at once sub-
mitted to a popular vote. The event showed
conclusively that the French nation, as then
constituted, was Bonapartist to the core.
Napoleon was almost unanimously elected to
the Imperial diirnity. Of the eight million
suffrages of France, only a few scattering
thousands were re -dcd in the negative.

1238

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Thus, in a blaze of glory that might well
have satisfied the ambition of the First Bona-
parte, did he who at Boulogne had tried to
incite a ridiculous rebellion by the display of
a tame eagle to his followers, mount the Im-
perial throne with the title of NAPOLEON III.
In one respect the new Emperor was wiser
than his great prototype. He sought not to ally
himself by marriage with the old royal fami-
lies of Europe. He even gave formal notifi-
cation to the legislature of his purpose to
pursue a different policy. On the 29th of Jan-
uary, 1853, Eugenie Marie, daughter of Count
Montijo of Spain, a princess to whom he had

NAPOLEON III.

been introduced in London, became his wife.
As the motto of his government he adopted
the famous aphorism, L' Empire c'Est la Paix —
"The Empire is Peace."

But the course of events soon satirized the
motto and mocked the maker. Within two
years France became a leading party to the
Crimean War, of which an account will be
given in a succeeding chapter.1 It can not be
denied, however, that she emerged from that
conflict with a marked revival of her military
reputation. The important Treaty of Paris
of 1856 was virtually dictated by Napoleon
., whose prestige seemed now to increase
•See Book Eleventh, pp. 1290-1296.

with every turn of Fortune's wheel. On the
16th of March, 1856, the Prince Imperial was
born, an event which gave great joy to the
upholders of the dynasty. Meanwhile the
Emperor sought to glorify Paris. She became
a new city under Napoleon's hand. The im-
provements and public works which he pro-
jected subserved the double purpose of beau-
tifying the capital and of furnishing profitable
employment to that element of Parisian soci-
ety which is always mobocratic when hungry.
The Emperor sought to establish himself in
the esteem of fellow-sovereigns. He paid a
visit to Victoria, and in 1857 had an inter-
view with the Czar. All the while he devoted
his energies to improving the army and navy,
especially the latter, on account of the weak-
ness of which the French had long been sensi-
tive. In 1858 he united with England in her
war with China. He sent out expeditions to
Japan and Cochin China, and succeeded in
making French influence predominant in the
latter country. It only remained that a few
attempts should be made to destroy his life in
order to add a climax to his popularity.

As early as 1855 two would-be assassins,
named Pianori and Bellamare, had made un-
successful efforts to murder the Emperor.
Three years afterwards the Italian revolution-
ist, Orsini, went from England to Paris to
accomplish what the others had failed to do.
With three confederates he stationed himself
near the entrance to the Grand Opera House,
and on the evening of the 14th of January,
1858, awaited the arrival of the Imperial cortege.
When the latter arrived the assassins threw
three bombs under the Emperor's carriage.
A terrific explosion followed, and several per-
sons were killed or wounded. But Napoleon
and the Empress Eugenie escaped unhurt.
Orsini and two of his confederates were con-
demned and executed.

On the 1st of January, 1859, a great sen-
sation was produced in diplomatic Europe by
the Italian minister Cavour, who, at the Em-
peror's f&te, expressed to Baron Hiibner, the
ambassador of Francis Joseph, his regrets at
the ' ' altered relations between France and
Austria." Nor was it long until the difficul-
ties between these two powers, relative to the
affairs of Italy, broke into open war. Hostil-
ities were declared by Napoleon on the 30th

'/'///•; NINETEENTH CENTURY.— Fh'A.M /,.

of January, and his army was at once thrown
into the field, with the avowed purpn.se of
making Italy " free from the Alps to the
Adriatic."

The energy with which the conflict was
begun by France gave token of her purpose
to make good the Emperor's declaration. On
the 4th and the 24th
of June were fought
the great battles of
Magenta and Solfer-
ino, by which the
military power of
Austria was com-
pletely broken, and
the Emperor Francis
Joseph driven to give
a hasty assent to the
Treaty of Villafranca,
which was concluded
on the llth of July.
Italy had not been
freed from the Alps
to the Adriatic, and
for the time it could
not well be under-
stood why Napoleon
had stopped short in
the midst of his con-
quest It soon trans-
pired, however, that
the ominous rumor
had reached his ears
of a purpose on the
part of Prussia to
enter into an alliance
with Austria. It was
therefore prudent for
the French Emperor
to pause with the
glory of Solferino on
his crest.

Nevertheless, the
cause of Italy was, as
we shall see, carried forward to success by Vic-
tor Emanuel. France assumed a sort of neu-
tral attitude towards the contest in the penin-
sula, and received, in 1860, Nice and Savoy
as her reward. In spite of much suspicion
as to his purposes, and a general coldness
towards him on the part of the continental
powers, the Emperor rose in influence until

at the outbreak of the Civil War in the
United States he was unquestionably tin- Irad-
ing sovereign of Europe. At this epoch,
however, he reached his /.cniih, and the re-
maining years of'his reign wn- marked by
many blunders and symptoms of decline.
His recognition of the belligerent rights of

ATTEMIT

10 ASSASSINATE NAPOLEON III.

the Confederate States of America cost him
dearly in the end. Following up this line of
policy, which was intended to weaken the
United States and tend to their dismember-
ment, he proceeded, in conjunction with Eng-
land and Spain, and with the ostensible mo-
tive of securing material guarantees from
Mexico, to throw an armed expedition into

1240

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

that country. In the beginning of the fol-
lowing year England and Spain withdrew,
and Napoleon was left with the Mexican
problem on his hands. Encouraged, however,
by Francis Joseph of Austria, he made war
on the republic of Mexico, conquered that
government, and in April of 1864 established
Prince Maximilian of Hapsburg, brother of
Francis Joseph, on the throne of Mexico.
The government was styled an Empire, and
Maximilian was the Emperor. The purpose
of Napoleon in this business was, as indi-
cated in his own language, to restore the in-
fluence of the Latin race in America. By
this time, however, the rebellion against the
American Union was tottering to its fall ; and

Meanwhile, however, a political reaction,
not indeed violent, but no less certain in its
ultimate results, set in in France. The Corps
Ler/islatif began to open its doors to great and
pronounced champions of the old republican-
ism. Thus came the distinguished Thiers and
Berlayer into the legislative body, and the influ-
ence of the opposition was so much increased
thereby that the Emperor and his ministry
were troubled. So much was Napoleon
checked by political antagonism in the Cham-
ber that he was obliged to remain in a help-
less neutrality while the Prussians wrought
havoc with Austria in the Schleswig-Holstein
war. Then came the complete collapse of his
Mexican Empire. Maximilian was driven

THE SUEZ CANAL.

the French Emperor, in view of the probable
triumph of the United States, was constrained
to disclaim all intention of acquiring territory
abroad. He devoted himself again with in-
creasing energy to the work of making Paris
the first city of the world. In this he suc-
ceeded, and the splendor of the modern
French capital must ever bear witness to the
greatness of Napoleon III. as a builder and
beautifier of what had been built by others.
In other and distant quarters of the world,
also, the evidences of his enterprise were seen.
The long-lagging project of the Suez Canal,
revived by his energy, was finally brought to
a successful conclusion, and the Universal
Exposition of 18C7 bore witness to the grand-
eur and preeminence of France under the
Napoleonic regime.

from power, captured by the Mexicans, and
executed at Quere'taro, on the 19th of June,
1867. All the while the tides of public opin-
ion in France were setting against the gov-
ernment.

The election of 1868 showed that two hun-
dred thousand voters had gone over to the
opposition. The radical press became auda-
cious. The socialist Henri Rochefort estab-
lished La Lanterne, in which he sent, week
after week, his satirical invectives against the
government to nearly a million and a-quarter
of subscribers. The storm became furious,
and Nappleon was constrained to send sixty-
four editors and journalists to prison. He
also increased the army to a million three
hundred and fifty thousand men. The elec-
tions of May, 1869, showed that the opposition

THE NINETEENTH r/;.v/77«r.—

1241

vote of the Kmpire had risen to more than
three millions. Occasionally a .-pa.-niodic , TV
of Y'ii'i' In. /{i/in/ilii/iii' was heard. ( >n several
occasions, order in Paris had to be restored by
military interference. The sime thing oc-
currecl at Nantes and Bordeaux. It was evi-
dent that another crisis was approaching.

Louis Napoleon was by no means wanting
in political sagacity. He had a profound in-
sight into the course and nature of events.
At this juncture he adopted the policy of re-
forming the government in almost every par-
ticular at which popular complaint had
been made. He brought forward a meas-
ure known as the Senakut-ConsuUwn, em-
bodying the new reforms, and the same
•was adopted in September of 1869. But
the great leaders, Thiers, Favre, Simon,
Oambetta, Bancel, Raspail, Cr£mieux,
and Arago, still continued their fiery as-
saults, which were directed to the fact
rather than to the methods of the Empire.
Again, in 1870, Napoleon sought to re-
gain his prestige by proposing another
reformatory measure known as the Ple-
biscite, which was carried at a popular
«lection by a vote of over seven millions.
But it was noticed that in Paria and sev-
eral other principal cities the majority
was against the government Napoleon,
saw that even an overwhelming support
of the rural populations would not suffice
to uphold him much longer. In the
emergency he seems to have made up his
mind that the thing needful to regain his
supremacy was to electrify all France
with the shocks and victories of a great
foreign war.

Such, then, was the condition of affairs
when the Spanish Cortes, as already nar-
rated, chanced to name for the vacant throne
of Spain the Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern.
This act was seized upon by the war party at
Paris and made the pretext of hostility against
Prussia. That country — especially King Will-
iam— was held responsible for the candidature
of Leopold, and all the inflammable elements
in France went off' in spontaneous combustion.
In an evil hour Louis Napoleon came to be-
lieve that it was better to go to war with
Germany than to struggle forever with the
radical gladiators in the arena of French pol-

ities. He was growing old, and was anxious
that his reign should expire glorioii.-lv with
hi.- life. Could he but see the Prince Im-
perial about to receive a peaceful empire, he
might lie ready for hi- departure. Then there
was his per-onal antipathy to the ( M rmans,
notably the Prn-ian-. \Va- it not they who,
on the fatal day of Waterloo, had given the
victory to Wellington ? Albeit the Kmprew
Eugenie hated the race beyond the Rhine
more intensely than did her husband. All
these forces conspired to urge Napoleon to a

course which his natural and acquired acute-
ness of perception might otherwise have led
him to avoid.

The course taken by the Emperor relative
to the choice of Prince Leopold for the Span-
ish crown will be recited in the succeeding
pages. The frightful story of the sanguinary
Franco-Prussian War, from its incipiency at
Saarbriick to its tremendous catastrophes at
Sedan and before the walls of Par!-, will also

lie narrated at l.-iiL'lh in the t'"l!< •« iiiL' chapter,'
'See pp.

1242

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

to which the reader is referred. Suffice to
say that after a brief and continuous tragedy,
the parallel of which can not be furnished
from the ample repertoire of Modern History,
France was completely humiliated. The vic-
torious Germans walked in her high places,
and the Emperor William was proclaimed
in the most famous of her ancient palaces.

LOUIS ADOLPHE THIERS.
After the painting by N. Jaquemart.

It will be understood that as soon as the
issue of the great tragedy at Sedan was known,
a revolution gathered head in Paris. Eugenie
and the members of the imperial government
took to flight. The republic was proclaimed
under the presidency of General Trochu and the
vice-presidency of Jules Favre. The govern-
ment included all the distinguished radicals —

Arago, Cremieux, Ferry, Gambetta, Gamier-
Pages, Glais-Bizvin, Pelletan, Picary, Roche-
fort, and Simon. Then followed the heroic
defense and obstinate siege of Paris. In Oc-
tober of 1870, after a close investment, Metz
was taken and Marshal Bazaine and all his
army became prisoners of war. The Germans
were then enabled to concentrate all their
forces around Paris.
Great battles were
fought, ending with a
disastrous defeat of the
French at Orleans, on
the 4th of December.
Then another series of
engagements occurred,
extending into January,
when General Chanzy
was overwhelmingly de-
feated at Corneille Ste.
Croix and Le Maur.
The story of the taking
of the capital will be
given hereafter, and
need not be repeated.
The negotiations with
the Germans were con-
ducted on the side of
France in the name of
the republic. Jules
Favre spoke for one
power and Bismarck for
the other in the conven-
tion of Versailles. An
armistice was declared
and extended to the
13th of March, 1871.
The forts around Paris
were occupied by the
Germans. Emperor
William was proclaimed
in the palace of Ver-
sailles. The provincial
government which had

been organized for the defense of the city gave
place, on the 12th of February, to the new civil
republic of France. On the 17th of that month
the distinguished historian and republican
statesman, Adolphe Thiers, was chosen presi-
dent, and the government was organized by the
appointment of Jules Favre to the office of
Foreign Affairs; Dufaure, to the Ministry of

Tin: M.\ /•;•/•/•; KXTH CENTURY.— y-'/.-.i \< /•:.

L243

Justice; Pieary, to the Deputmanl of tin-
Interior; Simon, to Public Iii.-tnu-tion ; De-
Larcy, to Public Works; Lainlirecht, to ('.rni-
merce ; Leflo, to War ; Pothuau, to the Navy.
On the first of March u vote was pa.ssed by an
overwhelming majority for the deposition of
Napoleon and his dy-
nasty. On the follow-
ing day the Germans
made a triumphant
entry into the city,
but immediately with-
drew in accordance
with a pledge to that
effect. On the 12th
of the month they
also evacuated Ver-
sailles, and it ap-
peared that France
might now revive
from her ruin and
disgrace.

At this juncture,
however, another ca-
lamity fell upon the
capital, even more
terrible than the siege
by the Germans. The
cry of Vive la Com-
mune ! was heard.
The city rose against
the moderate repub-
lican government.
The streets were bar-
ricaded in the old-
time fashion, and
Paris gave herself al-
most without reserve
to those audacious so-
cialists who were the
legitimate descend-
ants of the men of
1789. The Republic
was obliged to make
war on the Commune,
and for two months Paris was subjected to
one of the most terrible sieges of modern
times. From the middle of March to the
middle of May, 1871, the desperate com-
munists held out against all the forces of the
government. Starvation came, nor was the
municipal depot of provisions sufficient to sup-

ply the famishing thmnir th:it daily en.
to tin- door>. Hut .Mill they t'oiixht. Hmiirry
men and fren/ii-il women t'uccil death with all
the defiance and despair which hud marked
the conduct ..f the old IJi-voliiiioni.-ts. \Vln-n
they could hold the citv no longer, they

BARRICADE OF THI

THE COM1IUNK.

sought to destroy what they could not defend.
Explosives were heaped around. Coal oil wa»
poured into basements. Mad women carried
•u balls soaked in alcohol under their
clothing, fired them, and threw them right and
left as they ran. Great injury was done to
Paris before these desperate creatures could

1244

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

SUPPLYING THE HUNGRY DURING THE COMMUNE.

SCENE DURING THE BOMBARDMENT OF PARIS.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— /'AM. Yf /..

1245

be suppressed. Many public buildings were
destroyed, and a portion of the art-tn-a-mv.-
of the Louvre perished in the cnimMon ruin.

As the tragedy drew to a close, the
munists fought with the fury of madmen.
They seemed determined that all Paris should
perish with themselves. They pulled down the
Venddme column.
They fired the Tuil-
eries, the Palais Roy-
al, and the Hotel de
Ville. They slaugh-
tered the suspected
with a ferocity which
had not been equaled
since the Reign of
Terror. They cut
down the innocent
and the guilty in a
common butchery.
Finally, from the
prison of La Roquette
they dragged forth
their most distin-
guished prisoners,
among whom was
Monseigneur Darboy,
archbishop of Paris,
and shot them down
like dogs, among the
debris of the barri-
cades. Not until the
end of May was order
restored in the city,
and a constitutional
government enabled
to take up the work
of rehabilitating and
restoring to her right
mind distracted and
passionate France.

Here, then, we
pause on the thresh-
old of the present.
The limits of this

work will not permit us to trace further the
development and promise of the New French
Republic. Whether the same will follow the
course of its predecessors and presently be ex-
tinguished in a counter revolution, or whether
it has taken its place among the fixed and per-
manent political organizations of modern times,

is a theme for conjecture. The Legitimists
or adherents of the ancient. l><.urlx>ni>iii .-till
claim the throne «f Fnmee ; hut the IV
seems to smile at their prrt- n-i-.n-. In like
manner the ( )rli uui.Ms, or .-U|i|.nrt.-r3 of the
Younger House of Bourlxm, i>eeu.-ionully lift
their voice and give some nianit'.'-tatiims of

1

DEATH OF THE ARCHBISHOP OF PARIS.

vitality. More formidable still is the party of
the Bonapartes. It can not be doubted that
rural France is still favorable to the great dy-
nasty founded by the First Napoleon. Since
the establishment of the republic, in 1871,
many circumstances have occurred to mar the
prospects and paralyze the plans of the Bona-

124G

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

partist party. Napoleon III., after his sur-
render to the Prussians, received at the hands

:

PRESIDENT JULES GREW.

of his
where

captor, the castle of Wilhelmshohe,
he took up his residence. On the 19th

of March, 1871, he was released from his

nominal confinement and permitted to join
the Empress Eugfinie at Chiselhurst, in
England. Here he soon afterwards died
and was buried. The hopes of his
House now centered in the Prince Im-
perial, at this time in his seventeenth
year. His career, however, was destined
to a tragical end. In 1878 Great Britain
became involved in a war with the Zu-
lus of Africa, and the French Prince,
who had graduated with high honors from
;. the military school at Woolwich Arsenal,
anxious perhaps as his mother was that
his countrymen across the Channel should
remember the star of Bonaparte, enlisted
in the British army, and joined the ex-
pedition into Zululand. There, in Sep-
tember of 1879, his detachment was sud-
denly attacked by an army of Zulus ; a
panic ensued, and the Prince, while at-
tempting to mount and fly, was over-
powered and stabbed to death by the
savages. The news came like a clap of
thunder to the Bonapartists of France,
and to this day they have not recovered
from the shock. Meanwhile the Repub-
lic holds on its course with a steadiness
which augurs well for the future, and

gives encouragement to the friends of liberal

institutions throughout the world.

CHAPTER LIU.— GERMANY.

ISTORY does not present
many spectacles more hu-
miliating than the out-
creeping and reinstate-
ment of the brood of
small kings after the Con-
gress of Vienna. Each
royal tinker set to work to repair his petty,
antiquated throne, to seat himself thereon,
and to begin his reign in accordance with the
beneficent principles promulgated by the Holy
Alliance! Nowhere were the bitter fruits of
the great reaction in favor of the Middle Ages
more fearfully developed than in the new Ger-
man Confederation. In some parts the max-

ims of feudalism were actually readopted ;
and as the shadow of the spectral Past once
more fell across the landscape, the ridiculous
German princes flung themselves upon their
faces and cried out, ' ' These be thy gods, O
Israel ! "

The poor peasants of Mecklenburg were
reduced to serfdom ! In Hesse-Cassel a mili-
tary order was issued by the Elector that the
soldiers should wear powdered queues a la the
age of Louis XV. In general, the work of
establishing constitutional limitations was re-
tarded or prevented, and the German people,
beginning thoughtfully to consider the situa-
tion, readily perceived that they had been resold

'l.ln^FflhA * C^VJSS >

flO V^/"""^\t

lJl.,,,1? ?»«\ JllM,Jff> '?

MAP XXVI.

GERMAN EMPIRE

Y7//-; A7.Y/.y/.7:\T// CENTURY. GERMANY.

1247

into the ancient political bondage by i
hcniirii ruler.-: who were going to govern tin-
world in accordance with thu doctrines of
Christianity. It was clear that in the lan-
guage of Lord Byron "reviving thralldom "
had become " the patched-up idol of enlight-
ened days."

Another fact was equally patent, and that
was that the deathless principles enunciated
by the leaders of the I-Vnrh Revolution had
gone abroad to make the tour of Europe
and the world. In Germany, the students
of the universities were the first to take fire
under the inspiration of freedom. On the
18th of October, 1817, a great convention, or
" bund," of the German students was held at
the old castle of Wartburg, where Luther had
been concealed after his escape from the Diet.
There were sown the seeds which in the har-
vest-time to come should bring forth the liber-
ation and unity of Germany. The reactionists
were greatly alarmed at these proceedings, and
a congress was held at Carlsbad with a view
to counteracting the revolutionary tendencies
of the times. Acts were passed prohibiting
the formation of societies among the students
of the universities. A severe censorship was
established over the German press, and com-
mittees were appointed to attend the lectures
of the professors in the universities, and to
take notes of what they said. The most brill-
iant young men of Germany were put under
the ban, and many, in order to save them-
selves from imprisonment, left the Fatherland
forever. So cruel a system of espionage and
police was established that the people suffered
more from the present tyranny than they had
done a century before.

In the course of time, even under the ab-
surd and despotic governments which were es-
tablished in the country, the bloody traces of
the Napoleonic wars were obliterated. The
German industries revived, and a measure of
peace afforded opportunity to restore the
wasted energies of the nation.

In 1830 the news of the popular revolution
in France, by which Charles X. was over-
thrown, kindled a great excitement in the
German states. An insurrection broke out in
Brunswick, and Duke Charles of that province
was driven from the electoral throne. A sim-
ilar drama was enacted in Saxony and Hesse-

Ca— ••! ; and in Hanover, the office of viecrny
was given tu the popular duke, Ernest August.
In all four of these provinces a constitution

was adopted in acconlai with tin- principles

and wishes of the German people. In the
more powerful kingdom* of Prussia and Aus-
tria, the same sentiments were entertained as
in the minor states. But the reigning repre-
sentatives of Hohenzollern and Hapsburg were

GXUfAHli.

enabled, with the aid of the German Diet, to
suppress the movement for liberty.

Meanwhile, one of the most noted political
revolts of this epoch had broken out in Bel-
gium. That country renounced her allegiance
to the kingdom of the Netherlands. The in-
surrection was caught from France, in which
country the throne of Charles X. had just
been overturned by revolution. It had hap-
pened in the Netherlands that the public debt

1248

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

entailed by the Napoleonic wars had been laid
very unequally on Holland and Belgium. As
a consequence Belgian industry was severely
taxed, and the people grew restless under the
imposition. In May of 1830 a new law for
the press was passed, and the free expression
of opinion was prohibited. On the 25th of
August an insurrection broke out in Brussels,
and an address was sent to the king asking for

The streets of the city were barricaded by the
patriots who, on the 23d of September were
attacked by an army of fourteen thousand
men. But the city was held against all
assaults, and the Crown Prince's forces were
repulsed. A provisional government was es-
tablished in Brussels. On the 10th of No-
vember a national congress was convened and
the independence of Belgium formally pro-

BATTLE AT THE BARRICADES IN BRUSSELS.
After the painting by Wappers.

a correction of abuses. While negotiations
were pending between the Crown Prince of
Holland and the deputies of Belgium, the rev-
olutionary sentiment gathered head, and the
cry of independence was raised in the streets
of Brussels. King Frederick William now
convened the States-general, and at the same
time sent an armed force to the Belgian cap-
ital to suppress the revolt.

But Brussels had no thought of submitting.

claimed. The revolutionary party, however,
adhered to the forms of the monarchy. The
House of Orange was forever excluded from
the throne. King William of Holland under-
took to regain his ascendency by a conference
of the powers at London ; but that body
first declared an armistice, and then acknowl-
edged the independence of Belgium. After
some delay the crown of the new kingdom
was conferred on Prince Leopold of Saxe-

Till-: THNETEEXTR < ESTURY. GERMANY.

Coburg who, in July of ].v;i, ua- acknowl-
edged as kin-, with the title of Leopold I.

In proportion as prosperity IH-^III t«i reign
in the several parts of (iermany, the evils of
locali.-m and disunion lieeaine more and more
apparent. Every district was ohliged to dc-
vi.-r and niainUiiii its own system of taxation,
its custom-houses, its local laws. The ditli-
culties of such a state became intolenil.lc, and
in 1828 a movement was orirani/.ed in Wiir-
temburg and Bavaria for the creation of a
ZOLLVICUKIN, or Tariff Union, which it was
hoped would tend to the production of politi-
cal as well as commercial unity. All of the
German states, with the exception of Austria,

LEOPOLD I.. KINO OP THE BELGIANS.

A ft.-r the painting by Wlnnc.

entered into the compact, and a beneficial in-
fluence was shed abroad by the material unity
which was thus attained. From the kings and
VOL. II. -79

ruler-, however, nothing was to be Op
favorable to the development of trulv national
institutions. Kven Knie-i AU-UM ,,,' Hanover

-

FKEDEB1CK WILLIAM III.

annulled the constitution which he had ac-
cepted at the hands of the people. Louis of
Bavaria renounced the party by whose .-u|>-
port he had risen to power, and converted
his country into a stronghold of Bourboni.-ni.
In Prussia, Frederick William III., who along
with Czur Alexander and Francis II., was
going to institute a government of religion
among mankind, devoted himself to persecu-
ting and insulting by neglect the great men
of his kingdom — such as Wilhelm von Hum
boldt, Gneisenau, and Stein — in order that a
brood of parvenus and hypocrites might take
-sion of the governmental offices and
dignities.

The decline in the House of Hapsburg had
a further illustration in the transfer of the
. \u-trian crown, in 1835, to the head of Ferdi-
nand I., the half-witted son of Francis II.
It was fitting, however, that the old princi-
ple of hereditary descent which had been fol-

1250

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

lowed since the days of Rudolph and Wen-
ceslaus of Bohemia should be thus exemplified.
Prussia had a better fortune, when in June
of 1840, Frederick William IV. succeeded by
his father's death to the throne of the king-
dom. As Crown Prince he had already won
the popular favor, and his accession was wel-
comed throughout Prussia as an auspicious
event. The new sovereign, by one of his first
acts seemed to justify the highest expectations.

the adoption of a Prussian constitution, and it
became evident that his liberalism would ex-
tend no further than such politic measures as
were likely to strengthen his hold on the throne.
Four years after his accession, the country was
greatly agitated by a sort of religious mani-
festo, published by Father Ronge, who pro-
posed that a national church, to be known as
the German Catholic, somewhat rationalistic
in its constitution, should take the place of

WENCESLAUS OF BOHEMIA.
HENRY OF LUXEMBURG. 2. OTTOCAR, 1278.

I. RUDOLPH OF HAPSBURG.

3. ALBERT I. ,1308.

4. HENRY VII., 1313. Wenceslaus IV.
1 I th 5. FREDERICK, 13

30. Albert II.

wld.
ist.
ERICK III., 1493.

II I.I AN I., 1519.

lip.

NAND I., 1564.

rles of Styria.

NAND II., 1637.
NAND III., 1657.
FOLD I., 1705.

u.EsVI.,1740. CHARLES OF
| LORRAINE.
Theresa— 24. FRANCIS I., 1765.

III. Leo
IV. Eri
XI. FREE
II., 1439. 12. MAXII
Phj

6. CHARLES IV., 1378. John Henry.

i ». JOBST OF MORAVIA, 1411.
7. WENCESLAUS, 1419. IX. SIGISMUND, 1437.

Xm. CHARLES V., IK

& 14. FERD

15. MAXIMILIAN II., 1576.
1

Cha
18. FERD
19. FERD
20. LEC

r n

16. RUDOLPH II., 1612. 17. MATTHIAS, 161

Theresa Sobieskt=EMANUEL OF BAVARIA-Maria. 21. JOSEPJ

1 1., 1711. 22. CHA
malia. Marii

THE GERMAN KINGS AND EMPERORS.

From Rudolph of Hapsburg to Francis Joseph.

Kings are numbered with Arabic figures.
Emperors are numbered with Roman figures.

25. JOSEPH II., 1790. 26. LEOPOLD, II., 1792.
27. FRANCIS, II., 1832.

28. FERDINAND IV., 1848. Francis Charles.

1
29. FRANCIS JOSEPH.

1
Rudolph.

He published a general amnesty for political
offenses, and refused to discriminate against
the German liberals. He took into his friend-
ship and counsel the celebrated Alexander von
Humboldt, a genius as great as the nineteenth
century has produced, thus doing honor to his
reign by showing honor to the most distin-
guished scientist of the age. Unfortunately,
however, the good dispositions of William IV.
gave no further sign. He refused to favor

both the Romish and Protestant establishments.
The movement was regarded by the govern-
ment in the light of a political agitation, and
was checked with a strong hand, but not until
Father Ronge had acquired great influence
with the people.

In the course of events the idea gained
ground of obtaining by force those rights
which were denied to petition. Early in the
year 1847 Frederick William undertook to

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— GERMANY.

stay the tide by ordering the formation of the
very thing which hud been denied for thirty
years; namely a legislative assembly. He
took care, however, that the feudal principle
of choosing the representatives by provinces,
that is, territorially, instead of the democratic
method of a popular election, should be
adopted. This course on the king's part led
to violent opposition, and the movement for a
legislative body proved abortive.

It was the peculiarity of the first half of
the nineteenth century in the history of
France and Germany that the politi-
cal agitations in the former found a
quick and sympathetic echo in the
latter. The mind of Germany was
attuned to liberty, and the chords of
the German harp vibrated by induc-
tion when that of France was struck
by the hand of the revolutionist. So
it was in 1830. So it was again in
1848. In that year the republicans
of Paris had risen against the Citizen
King, Louis Philippe, and driven him
and his court from the kingdom. The
Republic was once more proclaimed,
and the mercurial nature of the
French trembled with enthusiasm.
In Germany this event was hailed
with delight by the people, and heard
with dismay by the rulers. A pop-
ular clamor arose for political eman-
cipation. In Vienna an insurrection
broke out, and Prince Metternich, who
had been virtually the Austrian gov-
ernment ever since the overthrow of
Napoleon, was driven from power.

In Prussia the agitation was still
more far-reaching and profound. The
people rose as one man and demanded their
rights. Frederick William, whose mind was as
penetrating as witty, perceived the peril of the
situation and gave way gracefully to the popu-
lar demand. On the 18th of March he issued
a proclamation announcing his purpose to favor
the creation of a constitutional form of govern-
ment and a general reform of existing institu-
tions. Just at this crisis, however, the excited
people in a half-rebellious mood rushed through
the streets of Berlin and came into conflict
with the soldiers, who fired upon the crowd,
killing several citizens. The excitement be-

came intense, and the people gathering up
thi-ir ilrud carried the lifeless bodies before
the king's pahiee ami eoopdlfld him to look
upon the spectacle. The revolution triumph'-.!
without further bloodshed, and Frederick
William, wiser than most mouarchs under the
circumstances, took the black -and-red Imperial
banner, rode through the crowded streets and
took an oath to grant the demands of his sub-
jects. He also espoused the doctrines of the
German Liberals, who were aiming to unify
the Fatherland, and published a proclamation

ALEXANDER VON HfMBOLDT.

to the effect that henceforth Prussia was
merged into Germany. These well-timed con-
cessions on the part of the king produced the
desired effect, and in a few weeks the tumult
of the people fell to a calm.

It was an interesting — almost an amusing —
spectacle to see the antiquated Imperial Diet
at Frankfort falling in with the overwhelming
current of German sentiment, and trying to
attune its mediaeval jargon to the language of
liberty. On the 1st of March, 1848, a reso-
lution was passed by the body inviting the
various states to send representatives to Frank-

1252

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

fort to discuss the best meaus of attaining Ger-
man unity. About the same time a sponta-
neous gathering of leading men was held at
Heidelberg, and this body fell in with the
general movement for a Provincial Assembly
of the Empire. Accordingly, on the 31st of
March, delegates from all the German princi-
palities convened at Frankfort. The demo-

ruittee of Fifty was appointed to assist the Old
Diet at its own funeral !

Great was the political enlivenment pro-
duced in the German states by these proceed-
ings. The mass of the people heartily approved
of what was done, and the elections were held
with much enthusiasm. Six hundred of the
most reputable and intelligent men of the.

THE BERLIN INSURRECTION OF 1848.

cratic party, under the lead of Hecker, de-
manded the proclamation of a Republic ; but
their proposition was voted down. Another
resolution, however, which declared the sov-
ereignty of the People, was triumphantly car-
ried. Schleswig and Holstein were admitted
as a part of Germany. A proposition was
approved for the calling of a NATIONAL, PAR-
LIAMENT, and to carry out this purpose a Corn-

German race were chosen as representatives
to the National Parliament, which assembled
at St. Paul's Church in Frankfort on the 18th
of May, 1848. Every thing now betokened
a speedy regeneration of German institutions.
The whole body-politic moved forward stead-
ily to the accomplishment of this result. It
was the misfortune of Hecker, Struve, and a
few other political optimists of the day, that

y///. MM, /•/./.. Y77/ i I.MTRY.—GEI;M.\\Y.

their patience was not equal to tlicir patriot-
ism. In the hope ol' hurrying tin' la
of history they began to organ i/c political
dubs, and presently took up arm.- against the
government, which .-ccmed to be .-ineerely en-
deavoring to reform it.- methods ami it-clf.
The insurgents gathered head at Freilun _
in the Black Forest ; l>ut they were soon over-
thrown and driven into Swit/.erland.

The first National Parliament of Germany
•was in many respects the counterpart of the
French States-general of 1789. Many of the
•distinguished and learned men who composed
the body were political theorists, patriotic and
•wise, but unskillful in practical politics.
Parties appeared in the assembly, and the
debates became factious and ill-advised. On
the 28th of June, a resolution was adopted
abolishing the old Imperial Diet. Shortly
afterwards an act was passed instituting a
Provisional Central Government, and over
this the Archduke John of Austria was chosen
as Vicar-general of the Empire. This scheme
•of government, however, was antagonized by
Austria and Prussia, the two strongest of the
representative states. Each, no doubt, was
anxious to secure the unity of Germany, pro-
vided that unity could be reached under
Prussian or Austrian leadership; but each
was equally unwilling to be merged in some
general power of a larger growth.

Meanwhile a popular revolution broke out
in Schleswig-Holstein. The object was to
throw off the Danish yoke and gain independ-
ence. German volunteers flocked to the stand-
ard of the insurgents, and the Danish army
was driven into Jutland. At this juncture,
however, England and Russia appeared on
the scene, and Frederick William was obliged
by the interference of those powers to aban-
don the cause of Schleswig-Holstein and to
make peace with Denmark. This action was
seriously resented by the German people. A
great riot broke out at Frankfort, and St.
Paul's Church, where the Parliament was
in session, was stormed by the insurgents.
Nothing could have been more unfortunate
for the cause of the German people. Austria
and Prussia found reason in the violence done
to assume an attitude of half-hostility to the
movement for political reform. The Revolu-
tion from victory descended to supplication.

Tlii- «a- the epoch at which the mighty
cllort. ori^inat.-d in France and .-Mended into
other coimtrio for the ivgen,. ration of Hx-i.-tv,
began to agitate almost all the countri.
Europe. The shed-lightnings of revolution
tla-hed up all around the lioii/,.n. K, hellions
broke out in Lomhardy, Hungary, and Bo-
hemia. Vienna herself was -haken a- by an
earthquake. One riot followed another.
Count Latour, a former minuter of war, wag
-.-i/.-d and hanged to a lamp-post. The- revo-
lutionary party gained possession of the city.
The Hungarian patriot, Louis Kossuth, who,
at the head of his people, was leading them
on the high-road to independence, began a
march to the Austrian capital, but was met
and defeated by the Croats, under their Ban,
Jellachich. Meanwhile General Windisch-
grate, commander of the Austrian army, un-
dertook to retake Vienna from the revolution-
ists. He and Jellachich formed a junction,
and then bombarded and took the city. Mil-
itary rule was established, and several of the
leaders of the revolt were tried by court-
martial and shot.

In the mean time the uprising in Hungary
had been completely successful. Kossuth was
placed at the head of the provisional govern-
ment as dictator of Hungary. The Hungari-
ans were almost unanimous for the revolution.
An army of a hundred thousand patriots was
raised, armed, and disciplined. Several able
generals, notably Arthur Gorgey and the
Poles Bern and Demhinski, appeared, and the
year 1848 closed auspiciously for the cause of
Hungarian liberty.

As soon, however, as the Austrians under
Windischgratz had restored order at Vienna,
they began a formidable invasion of Hungary.
In the first months of 1849 a powerful army
was thrown forward to subvert by force the
new order of things which Kossuth and his
associates had instituted. The Hungarians
boldly confronted this force, and during the
spring won several brilliant victories. The
An-trians were beaten back, and Ferdinand
was obliged to appeal to the Czar for aid.
The autocrat of all the Russians very gladly
entered the contest, and sent forward to the
help of Austria an army of a hundred and
fortv thousand men. Hungary, in her dire
extremity, called on England and France

1254

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

for assistance, but called in vain. With a
heroism worthy of endless eulogium she
struggled with the mighty forces which were
closing around her. By the beginning of
summer all hope of success had departed.
The provisional government and the larger
part of the army retreated to Arad, and
there, on the llth of August, Kossuth re-
signed the dictatorship in favor of Gorgey,

to be pursued under the necessity of the situ-
ation. The latter leader, together with Bern
and Dembinski, escaped from the country
and made his way into Turkey. For a
brief season the Hungarians, hoping against
hope, held out in the fortress of Comorn,
their stronghold on the Danube. But this
place was besieged and taken by Haynau,
who had succeeded Windischgratz in command

HUNGARIAN VOLUNTEERS.
After the painting of A. von Pettenkofen.

in whom, up to that time, the Hungarians
had the greatest confidence. Within two
days, however, either through treachery or
from hopelessness, he surrendered his entire
army to the Russians! By his countrymen
Gorgey's conduct was regarded as base treason,
and his name became as infamous as that of
Arnold in America. It subsequently ap-
peared, however, that Kossuth himself had
agreed to the surrender as the proper course

of the Austrian army, and who, by his mas-
sacres and other barbarities, easily vindicated
his reputation as one of the military monsters
of modern times. Thus was the Austrian
domination reestablished over mutilated and
bleeding Hungary.

It remained for the House of Hapsburg to
reassert its sway over rebellious Italy. In
that country the Lombard insurrection made
great headway. The Austrian governor of

THE NINETEENTH

Milan, Marshal Radetzky, was expelled from
his principality. The Sardinians, under their
king, Charles Albert, made common cause
with the Lombards, and during the summer
of 1848 the authority of Austria was virtually
destroyed in the greater part of Italy. In
the course of time Kadetzky made an armis-
tice with Sardinia, and by this means recov-
ered sufficient ground to undertake the sub-
jugation of Venice. Having succeeded in this
enterprise, ho sought to reconquer all that he
had lost. In the following spring Charles
Albert again took the field, and met the Aus-
trians at NOVARA. Here, on the 23d of March,
1849, was fought a bloody and decisive battle,
in which the Sardinian cause — and, indeed,
that of all Italy — was ruined. The king was
constrained to abbicate on the very field of
his defeat. He resigned the crown to his son,
Prince Victor Emanuel, destined in after
years to become forever associated with the
resurrection and the rehabilitation of Modern
Italy. For the time, however, he was obliged
to yield to the dictation of the conqueror, and
to accept at the hands of Francis Joseph such
terms and conditions as that monarch was
pleased to prescribe. In the summer of 1849
Venice was obliged to capitulate, and the
Austrian yoke was reimposed on Italy.

Meanwhile, in the National Parliament at
Frankfort, the reaction against republican-
ism had set in with fearful force. Never-
theless, the project of unifying Germany
was still debated with -commendable zeal.
The great obstacle to this measure was the
rivalry between Austria and Prussia, in each
of which states the heartburn of jealousy
wrought its worst results. On the 2d of De-
cember, 1848, the half-witted Ferdinand was
induced to abdicate, and his cousin, the
youthful FRANCIS JOSEPH, was raised to the
throne. Nor could it be denied that the
change of rulers was salutary as it respected
the reputation of Austria. On the 28th of
the following March an act was passed by the
Parliament conferring on Frederick William
IV. of Prussia the title and dignity of Hered-
itary Emperor of Germany. All of the
smaller German states accepted the choice of
the assembly; but Austria stood aloof, and
Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Saxony, and Hanover
refused their assent to the project. King

I'Vederick William himself declined the honor
which had been lentil-red ; ami tlm>, after
nine months of' debating, the great m- hen.
< Mi-man unity ended in .-moke. Hitter was
the di.-appointment of the people. Mobs ap-
peared iu many localities, and popular fury,
striking out blindly at whatever opposed, at-
tested the chagrin of the nation. Revolutions
were again started in Dresden, Wiirtemberg,
and Baden. The grand-duke of the latter state
was driven from power, and the rebellion
made such headway that a Prussian army was
sent to quell the revolt. In the course of the
summer the insurrection was put down, and

ARTHUR GilRGCY.

with its extinction the rebellion of the Ger-
man people against the system which had been
imposed upon them by the Congress of Vi-
enna came to an end. The representatives in
the National Parliament who still toiled,' in a
hopeless sort of way, at the problem before
them, were gradually recalled by their re-
spective states, and Germany resumed her
former political status.

The period from 1850 to 1860 was a dismal
epoch in the history of the German people.
With every year the chasm between the grow-
ing and aspiring mind of the nation and the
effete political institutions of the country be-
c.ime wider and deeper. Nor could the wisest
well foresee what might be the end of this

1256

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

discord between the real aud the artificial life
of Germany. Such was the condition of af-
fairs when, in the fall of 1857, Frederick
William IV. fell under an attack of apoplexy.
Though he lingered for a season, his ability
to rule was gone forever. Hereupon his
brother, Prince William, already sixty years
of age, was called upon to assume and exer-
cise authority in the king's name. For a
while this status was maintained, but William
soon informed the ministry and Diet that he
would no longer be a quasi king of Prussia.

FRANCIS JOSEPH.

He was then chosen Prince Regent, and soon
afterwards became king, with the title of
WILLIAM I.

To the great gratification of the people
the new government began under auspicious
omens. The old absolutists, who had com-
posed the ministry of Frederick William IV.,
were dismissed from office, and while the gov-
ernment did not openly declare its adherence
to the policy of the National Parliament, its
sympathy in that direction could not be mis-
taken. Already during the regency of Will-
iam the struggle had been renewed for the

independence of Italy. Napoleon III., now
Emperor of the French, had taken up the
Italian cause as against the House of Haps-
burg. As a consequence of this policy a brief
but bloody war — a fuller account of which is
reserved for a succeeding chapter — broke out
between France and Austria. On the 4th of
June, Bonaparte, having announced his inten-
tion to make Italy free from the Alps to Sic-
ily, encountered the Austrians on the field of
Magenta, where he won a brilliant victory.
Again, on the 24th of the same month, he
inflicted a still more decisive over-
throw on the enemy in the great bat-
tle of Solferino. It appeared for the
time that a genuine Bonaparte had
again drawn his sword in Europe.
Germany — more particularly Prussia —
flushed with excitement. A clamor was
raised for an alliance with Austria
against the reviving ambition of France.
Perhaps the government would have
yielded to the demand had not the
shrewd Napoleon stopped short in the
midst of his war and concluded a peace
with Francis Joseph.

It was soon apparent, however, that
the movement in Italy which had re-
ceived so strong an impulse from the
recent war, could not be stayed. The
year 1860 witnessed a great uprising of
the Italians and a general collapse of
the absurd principalities among which
the peninsula had been divided. The
masses rallied around the standard of
King Victor Emanuel, who became
henceforth the representative and im-
personation of new and united Italy.

In the mean time the attention of Aus-
tria was in a measure limited to her affairs at
home. For ever and anon the voice of polit-
ical agitation was heard in the land, until at
length even Francis Joseph was constrained
to make some salutary concessions to his sub-
jects. In Prussia not even the liberals found
much cause to complain of the policy and
methods of William I. who, on the second
day of January, 1861, received the crown of
the kingdom.

The accession of the new sovereign marked
the beginning of Prussian ascendency in the
affairs of Continental Europe. From the

Till: MXKTKKXTH CENTURY.— GERMANY.

L257

first it was the pronounced and settled policy
of King William to re,.i-;_<ani/e, develop, and
bring into the highest elliciency the Prussian
army; aii'l to this purpose every energy of the
state was directed. True, the appropriation
for military purposes were refused by the
Legislative Assembly of the kingdom. Hut
William, true representative as he was of the
great Hohen/.ollerns, could not be turned from
his purpose. At one time he dismissed his
liberal ministry for refusing to sanction his
measures. In the second year of his reign
the king was fortunate in placing at the head

in politics is sometime- a- nccr-siry a- a Napo-
leon on the lield of l.attle.

In strength of will ami per.-i-teiicv of pur-
po-e Hisinarck showed himself eijnal to tin-
occasion. In spite c,f popular clamor In-
adopted and pursued the king's policy of
making Prussia the great military jiowcr of
the Continent. When the As.-cmlily refused
to make appropriations for the support and
further development of the army he went
straight ahead with the work as though he
had the concurrence of the people. The
Prussians were astonished at these proce.-d-

Frederick I., 1440.
Albert Achilles. I486.

Will lam the Silent

Frederick Henry.
I

John Cicero, 1499.
Joachim I., 153}.
Joachim II., 1571.
John George, 1598.
Joachim Frederick, 1608.

1. JOHN SIGISMVXD, 1619.
2. GEORGE WILLIAM, 1640.

Frederick.
ALBERT.

ALBIKT FREDERICK.

George I., of England. Louisa of Orange—3. FREDERICK' WILLIAM. THE GREAT ELECTOR, 1(88.

Sophia Charlotte— IV. FREDERICK I.. 1713.
Sophia Dorothea— V. FREDERICK WILLIAM I.. 1740.

VI. FREDERICK THE GREAT, 1786. August William, 1758.

VII. FREDERICK WILLIAM II., 1797.

VIII. FREDERICK WILLIAM III., 1840.
I

THE HOHENZOLLERNS.

BXPLANATION:

Dukes of Brandenburg without nurn-

tea

Rulers of Prussia In SMALL CAPITAI*.
Rulers of Brandenburg and Prussia

numbered.

Elector Dukes with Arabic dm res.
King* of I'rusiilawilh Roman figures.
German Emperor with CAPITALS.

IX. FRF.nF.RirK 'WILLIAM IV., 1861.

X. EMPEROR WILLIAM.

; Frederick William.

(-,,,»;; I'rlM. I I

of the government the celebrated Baron Otto
von Bismarck of Schonhausen, who became
henceforth the soul and might of the Prussian
administration If the history of the suc-
ceeding twenty years has shown any thing, it
is that the genius of Bismarck has been the
dominant force in the affairs of Europe. In
his previous political career he had been re-
garded as a conservative of the conservatives.
He had been the Mctternich of Prussian pol-
itics, and his accession to power was looked
upon by the German liberals as the worst of
misfortunes to them and their cause. It re-
mained for them to discover that a Napoleon

ings, and could not for the time understand
that another great reformer of the despotic
order had appeared on the stage. A brief
period of confusion and turmoil ensued, dur-
ing which Austria sought to regain her prestige
by calling a congress of the German princes
to meet in Frankfort, to the end that the old
Imperial Diet might be abolished, and a re-
formed body, called the Assembly of Dele-
gates, substituted in its stead. The reorgani-
zation was to be effected under the lead of
Austria, and the presidency of the Assembly
was to be given to that power. But the
whole movement was quickly brought to

1258

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

naught by the act of Prussia, who refused to
attend the Congress, and left Austria to the
ridicule of the small.

The year 1863 witnessed the outbreak of a
war between Germany and Denmark. The
Danish throne passed in that year from Fred-
erick VII. to Christian IX., who began his
administration with an attempt to detach
Schleswig from Holstein and to incorporate

ninsula. In April of 1864 these works were
carried by storm by the Prussians, and about
the same time the Austrians gained a decisive
victory over the Danish army in the battle of
Oversee.

It now appeared that Denmark was
about to be driven to the wall. In her dis-
tress she called upon the neutral powers for
assistance. Hereupon England, France, and

STORMING OF THE DANNEWERK.

the former province with his own kingdom.
This course was in contravention of the Treaty
of London of 1852, and produced great ex-
citement in Germany. A Diet was convened,
and it was determined to prevent by force
the consummation of Christian's plans. A
German army was accordingly thrown into
Schleswig, and the Danes were driven back
to a line of fortifications called the " Danne-
werk," which they had drawn across the pe-

Russia came forward as mediators, and an
armistice was declared, pending a conference
in London. But the ambassadors there assem-
bled could not reach a settlement, and the war
was resumed. Every thing went against the
Danes, and Christian, in the course of two
months, was obliged to accept peace on such
terms as the German allies were pleased to
grant. The disputed duchies were wrested
from Denmark and given in jointure to Aus-

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.-GERMANY.

tria and Prussia. At this juncture the Prince
of Augustcnburg came forward, and in virtue
of his descent from the ducal fainilv of Ilol-
stein, laid claim to the disputed territory in
his own right. He set up his government at
Kiel, and whether he should or should not be
recognized became a question of dispute be-
tween Austria and Prussia, the former attinn-
ing and the latter denying the rightfulness of
the prince's claim. The quarrel deepened and
was about to come to a hostile issue between.

methods in other respects were subtle. By his
agents and correspondent.- he sought to poison
the minds of the- .-mailer ( ierman states against
Prussia and her policy. In this Inisincsa he
was in a great measure successful. U'lieu, in
the beginning of iNtit;, King William began
to remonstrate against the conduct of Austria,
he found himself virtually without support.
Even his own subjects, who for the most part
hated Bismark as cordially as ever a inin-
i>ter was hated, refused to uphold the pol-

AN AUSTRO-PRCSSIAN CAVALRY CHARGE, 1966.
Drawn by W. Camphauscn.

the late allies, but was at length adjusted by
King William and Francis Joseph in a con-
ference held at Gastein on the 1st of Au-
gust, 1865.

It was here agreed by the monarchs that
Schleswig should be given to Prussia and
Holstein to Austria. It soon appeared, how-
ever, that the quarrel was only filmed over
and not healed. Austria at once began to
renew her support of the Duke of Augusten-
burg in his claims to the government of Hol-
stein. The course of Francis Joseph in this
respect was as perfidious as his political

icy of the government. In the Prussian
assembly Bismarck was outvoted by five to
one. Finding that nearly all the German
principalities were on her side, Austria pressed
her advantage and demanded of the Diet that
the armies of the states should act in conjunc-
tion with her own in repelling Prussia, who,
in accordance with the Gastein agreement,
had thrown her troops into Holstein. To this
proposition all the German powers, with the
ption of Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, the
Saxon states, and three Free Cities, assented ;
and it appeared that Prussia was left naked

1260

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

to all the winds of hostility. The event
showed, however, that that great power was
now in her element. She chose to consider
the action of the Diet not only as a menace
but as overt hostility. She accordingly made
a declaration of war, secured an alliance with
Italy, and boldly entered the field. Though
numerically her foes were nearly three to one
against her, she quailed not in the face of the
array. Rarely was seen such a display of
energy and activity as that now exhibited by
the Prussian government. On the 15th of
June, 1866, King William called upon Sax-
ony, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and Nassau to
remain neutral in the impending conflict, and
gave them twelve hmirs in which to decide!
Receiving no answer, he ordered the Prussians
out of Holstein to seize Hanover. This work
was accomplished in two days. In two days
more Hesse-Cassel was occupied by an army
from the Rhine, while at the same time a
third division of the Prussian forces was
thrown into Dresden and Leipsic. On the
27th of the month a battle was fought with
the Hanoverians, in which the latter were at
first successful, but were soon overpowered
and compelled to surrender. George V.,
king of Hanover, fled for refuge to Vienna.

Having thus cleared the field in the south,
the Prussians at once turned upon Austria.
The three divisions composing the army of
King William numbered two hundred and
sixty thousand men, and were commanded by
Prince Frederick Charles, Crown Prince Fred-
erick William, and General Bittenfeld. The
Austrian forces were equally formidable, and
were brought into the field under General
Benedek, a man of great military reputation.
On the 27th and the 29th of June Frederick
Charles met and defeated the Austrian ad-
vance in four engagements ; but the battles
were indecisive except that Count Clam-Gal-
las, the Austrian general, was obliged to fall
back upon the main body for support. Mean-
while the Crown Prince had engaged the Aus-
trians under Benedek, and had gained several
victories from the 27th to the 30th of June.

As soon as the Prussian forces could be
concentrated it was resolved to fight a general
battle, and, if possible, end the war at a blow.
King William, Bismarck, and Generals Von
Moltke and Roon were all present with the

army. The Austrians lay in force on the
river Bistritz, in Bohemia, about sixty miles
from Prague. Here, on the third of July,
was fought one of the great battles of mod-
ern times. The conflict is known in history
by the names of SADOWA and KOMGGRATZ,
from the two towns near which the struggle
occurred. The battle proved to be the Wat-
erloo of Austria. The Prussian attack was
led by Frederick Charles and Bittenfeld,
The battle began at eight o'clock in the morn-
ing, and raged with the utmost fury until
two in the afternoon. Thus far the Prussians
had gained but little advantage ; but at that
hour the powerful division of the Crown
Prince, which, like that of Bliicher at Wat-
erloo, had been delayed by recent rains, ap-
peared on the Austrian right. That wing of
Benedek's army was soon turned. Bitteufeld
broke the left, and under a general advance
of the Prussian lines the Austrian center gave
way in confusion. The field was quickly won.
The overthrow of Benedek's army became a
ruinous rout, and the outflashing sun of even-
ing looked out of the west upon the demoral-
ized and flying hosts of Austria, scattering in
all directions before the victorious charges of
the Prussian cavalry.

The battle of Sadowa was to Francis Jo-
seph the handwriting on the wall. But he
made the greatest exertions to save his totter-
ing fabric. On the 4th of July he ceded Ve-
netia to France — an act which all the world
could but perceive to be an open bid for the
help of Napoleon III. The Prussians, how-
ever, had no thought of losing their advan-
tage. They pressed forward with great rapid-
ity to the Danube. They put Vienna at
their mercy. In another part of the field
they drove the Bavarians beyond the Main.
Frankfort was taken, and the Austrian allies
gave way on every side. Francis Joseph was
obliged to succumb, and to do so with all
haste. He cried out for an armistice, which
was granted, and then for a conference, which
was held at Nikolsburg on the 27th of July.
The preliminaries were agreed upon without
much formality, and on the 23d of August a
treaty of peace was concluded at Prague. No
such summary proceedings had been witnessed
since the days of Napoleon the Great. Only
seven weeks had elapsed from the outbreak of

1262

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the war; but that short period had sufficed
to inflict on Austria the most deadly hurt
which she had received since the Corsicau
thrust her through.

The shadow of a great hand was now seen
behind the conflict. It was the hand of Bis-
marck. As the smoke of battle cleared away
his plans began to be developed. Schleswig-
Holstein were almost forgotten in the grander
scheme of the unification of Germany under
the leadership of Prussia. The obstacles to
this scheme had been, for the most part, re-

OTTO VON BISMARCK.

moved by the war. Poor old Austria lay
prostrate. Feudal Germany was kicked out
of sight. The effete constitutions of the prin-
cipalities were relegated to the confused heap
of mediseval rubbish. Never in history did
the maxim that nothing succeeds like suc-
cess receive a more brilliant exemplification
than in the political revolution which now
swept over Prussia. The Nationals and Lib-
erals went over in a body to King William
and Bismarck. The one became the most
popular ruler and the other the most power-
ful minister in Christendom. A new confed-

eration, called the NORTH-GERMAN UNION,
was at once formed on the basis of Protest-
antism and national unity. Hanover, Hesse-
Cassel, Nassau, Schleswig-Holstein, and Frank-
fort were incorporated in the New Germany.
The population of Prussia was suddenly aug-
mented by five millions of people. The first
months of 1867 were occupied with the work
of transformation, and on the 16th of April
the National Parliament, consisting of repre-
sentatives chosen by the people, was inaugu-
rated at Berlin. Thus were the German
states to the number of twenty-two merged
into a nation having a common system of
administration. Bismarck became Chan-
cellor of the Union, and Prussia rose
suddenly to the rank of the first power of
Continental Europe. Even the states of
Wurtemberg, Baden, and Bavaria, which
had refused to become parts of the in-
teger, entered into a secret alliance with
the Prussian government, as if half-
regretful of their own persistency in favor
of the old order of things in Germany.

It was not long until the Union thus
established had an opportunity to display
its influence in the general affairs of
Europe. About the time that the new
frame of government was ratified, Louis
Napoleon undertook to purchase Luxem-
burg of Holland. It had happened that,
by the dissolution of the old German
Diet, this state had been in a measure
separated from the destinies of the other
principalities. Nevertheless, Luxemburg
was German rather than French; and
when Napoleon was on the eve of suc-
cess, Bismarck suddenly put forth his
hand and forbade the bans. He issued a
protest in the name of the North-German
Union, and the French Emperor was obliged
to give over his purpose. Such was the first
pass made between the two powers which were
soon destined to close in mortal combat.

Before entering upon the story of the
great conflict which was now to ensue, it is
only necessary to note the effect of the battle
of Sadowa on the course of events in Austria.
That power found herself stripped of her
Imperial pretensions. The Hungarian patriots
openly rejoiced at the result. At last the
logic of events came in to accomplish what

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— GERMANY.

reason had not sufficed to do. The old min-
istry, planted in days agone by Metternicli,
was torn out by the roots, and a new council
established under the lead of Count von Bcust,

-•t\oii Protestant. Even in Vienna the
Past got down on its knees to the Present.
An epoch of reform was ushered in. and the
institutions of Austria were almost as much
liberalized by her overthrow as those of Prus-
sia had been by her victory at Koni^ratz.

While the great year 1867 thus brought
renown and power to the German Union, the
same year brought repeated disasters and
humiliations to France. The alleged "Em-
pire" which Napoleon III. had set up in
Mexico with a view to "restoring the
supremacy of the Latin race in the New
World" suddenly collapsed, bringing con-
fusion to its inventors. The French Em-
peror, to whom, as a bid for his assistance,
Francis Joseph had thrown the province
of Venetia, was obliged by the victorious
emergence of Prussia from the Seven
Weeks' War to make over the territory
to Italy! The Luxemburg project next
came to naught, and it appeared that all
the prestige gained by Louis Napoleon in
the Crimea, in the Treaty of Paris, and
on the fields of Magenta and Solferino,
was about to be lost in a season. The
situation was such as to irritate even the
stoical Bonaparte, and as to the French
people, their distemper was so great that
they were ready and anxious to rush to
war on the slightest provocation. Their
jealousy of Prussia became extreme, nor
can it be doubted that the suddenly
awakened pride of the latter was more
than willing to be gratified by the fur-
ther humiliation of her traditional enemy.

It was not long until a complication arose
of precisely the kind to be made the occasion
of war. The event itself will appear suffi-
ciently ridiculous to the judgment of posterity;
and the historian of the future may well won-
der how, in the latter half of the eighteenth
century, a thing so essentially absurd should
be made the pretext for spilling an ocean of
human blood. In 1868 the moribund mon-
archy of Spain was shaken with a political
revolution, by which Queen Isabella, so ortho-
dox and Bourbon, was driven from the throne.

The Spanish authorities must needs find a new
sovereign, and, after much debating, their
votes were iriven to Prince Leopold of Hohen-
zollern, a relative of Kiie_r William of Prussia.
The fact that his name was Holieii/.ollern, and
the possibility that hi* family relationship
might tend to a union of interests l-.t«.. n
Germany and Spain, were used by French min-
i-let- and state.-nien as a pretext for declaring
that the prince's candidature was injurious to
the honor and the influence of France. On
the 6th of July, 1870, the Dukede Grammont

declared in the French Assembly that the
election of Leopold would not and should not
be tolerated by the Imperial government. A
great furor ensued, and Benedetti, the French
ambassador at Berlin, was ordered by Napo-
leon to demand of King William that the
latter, as the head of the House of Hohenzol-
lern, should not allow Prince Leopold to ac-
cept the Spanish crown. To this demand the
Prussian king returned for answer that he
was not at liberty to prevent an act which he
had never advised. While this reply was in
transit and under consideration. Prince Leopold

1264

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

cut short the whole matter by declining the
honor which had been conferred by the Span-
ish Cortes. It soon transpired, however, that
the somewhat equivocal but conciliatory answer
of King William was not acceptable to the
war party at Paris.

Perhaps, Napoleon III., who was not want-
ing in political sagacity, would have been will-
ing to let the matter end; but the French
nation was angry out of season, and the min-
isters, especially the Duke de Gramont, urged
on the Emperor to press the Prussian king still

VON MOLTKE.

further. A second demand was accordingly sent
to Berlin, requiring William to give a pledge
that no prince of the House of Hohenzollern
should be or ever become a candidate for the
Spanish throne. When this message was re-
ceived at the Prussian capital, the king was
absent at the baths of Ems, and tliither he
was followed by Benedetti. The ambassador,
in discourteous haste, confronted William on
the public promenade, and in that place de-
livered his master's dispatch. His manner as
well as his matter was alleged to be insulting.
The king heard the demand, and turning

about, left the ambassador with no answer.
Two days afterwards, viz., on the 5th of July,
William returned to Berlin, and on the 19th
France declared war against Prussia ! The
event soon showed that it was one thing to
rush to arms and quite another to rush to
victory.

In both countries there was the greatest
enthusiasm. Efforts were made by England
and the Pope of Rome to prevent the war.
But their mild breath was wasted on the hur-
ricane. Napoleon and the whole French na-
tion were confident of success. It was
the common saying in Paris that the
French army should celebrate the birth-
day of the First Bonaparte in Berlin.
The braggarts thus allowed themselves
less than a month in which to conquer
Prussia. Baron Le Bceuf, the French
minister of war, assured the Emperor
that his army was more than ready for
the great campaign. It was believed in
France, and apprehended in some parts
of Germany, that the South German
states, still adhering to the past, would
not make common cause with Prussia ;
but could, perhaps, be wholly detached
from her interest. But this belief was
\ without foundation in fact. The South
Germans arose with their countrymen
of the North, and Napoleon soon found
that he must contend with a united
Germany.

The plan of the French Emperor was
to invade Prussia, beat her armies into
the earth, avenge the insult done to his
ambassador at Ems, and then, after
the manner of his illustrious uncle,
dictate a peace from his enemy's cap-
ital. Little had he apprehended the char-
acter of the task, which he had imposed on
himself and his subjects. His army num-
bered three hundred and ten thousand men,
but the event proved that Le Bosuf had mis-
led Napoleon with respect to the discipline,
equipment, and readiness of his forces. True,
the march to the Rhine was at once begun,
but the movements of the French were not
comparable with those of the Prussians in
vigor and celerity. Beyond the Rhine the
very nation seemed converted into an army.
Within the space of eleven days four hundred

'

VOL. II. -80

1266

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

and fifty thousand soldiers were organized and
put in motion to meet the French on the

MARSHAL MACMAHON.

frontier! Three tremendous divisions under
General Steinmetz, the Crown Prince, and
Prince Frederick Charles, moved forward to
the scene of conflict. The command-in-chief
had been given to Von Moltke, whose genius
in war now appeared as conspicuous as that
of Bismarck in statesmanship. King William
went to the front in person and continued with
the army ; Germany was in the field.

Such was the rapidity with which the
Prussians pressed on to the frontier that the
movement of the French was anticipated, and
when Napoleon reached the borders he found
the line of the Rhine already preoccupied by
heavy masses of soldiers stretching from Treves
to Landau. It became extremely doubtful
whether the Bonaparte who was going to cele-
brate his uncle's birthday in Berlin would be
able even to set his foot on Prussian soil.

The actual conflict began on the 2d of Au-
gust, 1870. On that day a French division,
thirty thousand strong, under General Fros-
sard, crossed the frontier and attacked the
town of Saarbriick. The place was defended
by a small force of Uhlans, who were soon
compelled to withdraw to the right bank of
the saar. Napoleon himself and the Prince

Imperial, his boy, were on the field, and when
the slight engagement was over the Emperor
sent to Eugenie a magnificent dispatch, re-
counting the victory and her son's "baptism
of fire." It was the first and last of such
messages; but the Parisian government and
populace went wild with delight over the
news.

Two days after the affair at Saarbriick, the
Crown Prince crossed the frontier, fell upon
the right wing of the French army under Mar-
shal MacMahon, at WEISSENBURG, and gained
a victory — the first of many. On the 6th of
August he renewed the attack at the village
of Worth, where for thirteen hours the field
was hotly contested; but at nightfall the
French began a retreat, which became a panic.
One division of McMahon's forces fell back
towards the Vosges and another towards Stras-
burg. The Germans were thus enabled to
penetrate Alsatia without further resistance.
At the very time when the Crown Prince was
winning these successes on the French right,

MARSHAL BAZAINE.

General Steinmetz assaulted the French posi-
tion at SPICHEREN, carried the place by storm,

Till'. NINETEENTH CENTURY.— GERMANY.

ILV.7

aud gained a decisive victory. Then the
whole Prussian line was thrown forward.
The French frontier at Korlmch was broken,
and a vast amount of supplies there accumu-
lated fell into the hands of the victors.
Already every energy of France was strained
to uphold her honor in a defensive rather
than an offensive contest with her enemy.
The movements of the German army were

an army at Chalons. Von Moltke, perceiving
the intentions of his adversary, hurried for-
ward tin- divi.-ion of 1'rinee Frederick Charles
to intercept the retreat and to prevent the
union of ill,- French forces. Tin- <ierinans
crossed to Moselle, and reached the village of
M Aiw-LA-Tot'R, where they encountered Ba-
zaiue with a hundred thousand men. ^lere was
fought the most bloody battle which had yet

BAT ' ARS-I.A-TOI-R.

After the painting by Emlle Huenten.

now directed, as from the first, with great
ability and success. Strasburg was besieged
by the troops of Baden. The Crown Prince

throw forward his army to Naney, in Lorraine.
Stoiumetz and Frederick Charles moved upon
Marshal Bazaiue at COURCEU.F.S, and there, on
the 14th of August, iraine.l another victory.
Bazaine retreated to Met/., ^sirrisoned the forts
at that place, and then sought to form a junc-
tion with General Trochu, who was preparing

occurred during the war. The losses on each
side amounted to about seventeen thousand.
The victory was claimed by the French,
though Frederick Charles succeeded in hold-
ing his position, and Bazaine was obliged to
make his way by a longer route towards Ver-
dun. On the 18th of August was fought the
murderous battle of GRAVELOTTE, in which.
from morning till night, two hundred thou-
sand Germans struggled for the mastery with

1268

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

a hundred and eighty thousand French.
Again the result was indecisive, though the
Germans, by the sacrifice of twenty thousand
men, succeeded in stopping the retreat of Ba-
zaiue and forcing him into the fortifications
of Metz, where he was at once besieged by
the entire division of Frederick Charles.
Thus was the main army upon which France
depended for success cooped up, while the two

German residents of Paris and France were
mercilessly driven from the country. The
national spirit was roused to a pitch of frenzy,
and the determination shown to drive back
the invaders was worthy of a better cause.
Meanwhile the shattered forces of MacMahon,
numbering a hundred and twenty-five thou-
sand men, were reorganized at Chalons, and
the government determined that with this

METZ.

great German divisions under the Crown
Prince and Steinmetz were still free to press
forward against MacMahon and Trochu at
Chalons.

The excitement produced in Paris by these
events was intense. At the first the French
nattered themselves that their marshals were
winning victories; but when it was known
that Bazaine was actually besieged in Metz, a
great reaction ensued, and rage took the place
of exultation. About a hundred thousand

force he should make an effort to break the
investment of Metz and liberate Bazaine.
His own plan of the war was to plant himself
between the Germans and Paris, and, if possi-
ble, prevent their advance on the capital.
In this purpose, however, he was overruled
by Marshal Palikao, the French Minister of
War, who insisted that the army under Ba-
zaine should be set free at all hazards. Mac-
Mahon accordingly marched northward up the
Meuse, and as soon as this movement was de-

Till-: NINETEENTH CENTURY.— QERMA .\T.

tected the course of the German army was

chan-cd in the same direction. It now l»~
came a race between the contcndini: armies,
and the ( iermans won. For, although Mac-
Malion moved forward with great rapidity, he
had the longer line; so that, when, on the
28th of August, he reached Stenay on the
Mcii.se, he was confronted by the right wing
of the German army. Several indecisive en-
gagements followed, which culminated on the
31st in the battle of BEAUMONT, in which the
French were defeated. MaeMahon was com-

There were gathered more than t\\o hundred
thousand ( ici mans with their cuormon-
terie.-, -till hot from a dny.cn victorious kit-
tle-. With the morning light of the \-( of
Sc]iteml)er the hills In-gaii t md roar.

The liasin of Sedan l>ccaiiie u horrid
death. For France hail come another day of
fate. MueMahon n-ly \Noiinded. and

(lie French coniinand was twice transferred,
lirst to Ducrot ami afterwards to Wimptlcii.
Around the villages of Bazeilles and Illy and
on the heights of Daigny the battle raged

BISMARCK ACCOMPANYING THE CARRIAGE OF NAPOLEON III. TO THE CASTLE OF WILIIKI.MSIIOHE.

pelled by the overwhelming masses which
were thrown between him and his object to
leave Bazaiue to his fate and to fall back to
the fortified town of Sedan, where, with the
Emperor, he resolved to defend himself to the
last. He was still in command of a hundred
and twelve thousand men, to whose warlike
spirit had now been added the premonition
of despair.

SEDAN lay in a basin. The hills round
about constituted the rim. No sooner had
MacMahon taken possession of the town than
«very height round about became a volcano.

furiously. But nothing could long withstand
the terrible discharges of the German artil-
lery. The French army withered under the
fiery blast By three o'clock in the afternoon
the work was done. Only a disorganized mass
crowded into the center of the basin remained,
and for this nothing was left but to surrender.
At length a white flag was raised over Sedan,
and the firing ceased. Then came a note
from Napoleon to Kin- William as follows:
"Sire and my good Brother: Not having been
able to die at the head of my troops, I lay
my sword at your Majesty's feet" He then

1270

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

JULES FAVRE.

withdrew from Sedan, and passed the night at

the castle of Bellevue, outside the city. At

this place on the morrow he

made a formal surrender to the

king in person. The whole

army became prisoners of war

and the enormous equipment

fell into the hands of the victors.

The captive Emperor was taken

in charge by Prince Bismarck,

and was presently conveyed to

the castle of Wilhelmshohe,

which was assigned to him as a

residence.

Such was the great collapse
in the field. It was now the
turn of the French government
to suffer as great a wreck. No
sooner was the story of Sedan
told in Paris than a popular
revolution broke forth against
the Empire. The blame for ev-
ery thing was laid by the popu-
lar leaders on the tottering Na-
poleonic dynasty. The Empress
Eugenie and the members of the
Imperial government took to
flight before the storm. The
French Republic was pro-
claimed, and it was resolved that the tri-color
should yet accomplish what the eagle of Bona-

parte had failed to do, namely, expel the Ger-
mans from France. In the Chamber of Dep-
uties, Jules Favre but reechoed the public
voice when he declared that not one foot of
soil, not one stone of a fortress should be sur-
rendered to Germany. If Prussia had been
left after Sedan to make terms with Napoleon,
the work would have no doubt been easily ac-
complished without the shedding of more blood.
But this infuriated Republic, which arose above
the wreck of Bonapartism, was quite a different
creature. She was France herself stripped of
all disguises — beautiful, angry, sublime. Gen-
eral Trochu was appointed military governor
of Paris. A new civic army of seventy thou-
sand men was put into the defenses of the
city. But the greatest activity was required
to put the capital into a state of defense be-
fore the coming of the Germans.

For after the day of Sedan there was no
further obstacle between the Crown-Prince

THE CROWN PRINCE.

and Paris. Thither he marched with all
speed, and soon appeared before the line of

THI: .\i.\i:n:i:.\rn r/,;

. <,i /.M/.i.vr.

IL'71

fortresses which had been constructed in tin-
times of Louis Philippe. Within tin: city
there was every determination in iv.-i.-t to the
last, and it is probable that I-'redcrick Will-
iam would not have hern alile to -ucceed at
all had not the sieves
which detained the other
divisions of the German
array terminated success-
fully, thus enabling Von
Moltke to concentrate his
forces for the reduction
of Paris.

The month of Sep-
tember, 1870, was — and
will ever remain — famous
for the capture of the
strongholds of |
France by the Prus-
sians. On the 23d
of the month the
fortress of Toul ca-
pitulated. On the
28th Strasburg was
taken after a siege
of six weeks' dura-
tion, during which
the city was greatly
injured, the cele-
brated cathedral be-
ing shattered with
the cannonade. On
the same day Mar-
shal Bazaine sur-
rendered Metz to
Prince Frederick
Charles. No such
a sweeping capitu-
lation had been
known in modern
history. A hundred
and forty-five thou-
sand soldiers, in-
cluding six thou-
sand subordinate F^^l
officers and three
Marshals of France,
became prisoners of war. All the accouter-
ments and supplies of a vast army were taken
by the triumphant Germans, who were now
eight hundred thousand strong within the bor-
ders of France. Paris was already invested.

CATIIKDKAL OF STI:

All around the horizon were havoc and dis-
may. In OctolM-rthe royal palace "I >t. ( 'loud
was burned by the Prussians. Every wood
.-ecnied 1,1 !>,- an army ami every hill a I ml'
Aliout the d. -voted fortresses of Paris the in-
numerable hosts of Germany were gathered to
consummate their work.

Against such odds the fiery valor ,,(' the
Parisians could not prevail, Leon Gaml,.
the great BepnUktt leader, escaped from tin-
city in a balloon, and made his way into South-
ern France, where he sought by his eloquence
to rouse the nation a- one man for the expul-
sion of the invaders. His appeals were by no
means in vain. An army of a hundred and
fifty thousand volunteers, under command of
General Paladine. came up from Orleans, while

the forces of Gen-
eral Trochu were
increased to four
hundred thousand.
Kvery energy was
bent to the task of
breaking the < '•> r-
man coil around
Paris ; but the ana-
conda would not re-
lax. On the 5th of
December, Prince
Frederick Charles
took Orleans, and
in the beginning
of the following
month the army of
Trochu was at-
tacked by the Ger-
mans at Li M \s-
For tie day* the
battle continued al-
most without abate-
ment, and in the
end the French
were cut to pieces,
with the loss of
about sixty thou-
sand men ! A few
days later, General
Faidharbe, who commanded the French Army
of the North, was ruinously routed. In tin-
mean time the Italian patriot Garibaldi
had come over into Burgundy, given his
services to the French Republic, and gained

1272

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

FRENCH SOLDIERS BURNING THEIR FLAGS AFTER THE SURRENDER OF METZ.

ENTRANCE OF TIIK GERMANS INTO ORLEANS.

Till. .\7.\7.77. 7..Y77/ CENTURY. GERMANY.

I -'7.;

unimportant successes over the < Jermans.
Tin- command in this quarter, however, was
transferred to < Jem-nil ISoiirhaki, who, with
nearly a limi'livi! thon.-aiid incii, undertook to
raise ilic ,-ieuv of lielt'ort. Hut 1»- was driven
back !>y General Maiitcull'el, forced \vitli
than eighty thousand soldiers into the
mountain-, :nid A
led in perish in mid-
winter. Only the
magnanimity of the
•Swiss saved thi- des-
perate inas-ol'hnmaii-
ity from destruction.

All hope of saving
Paris vanished. See-
ing that 1'iirther re-
sistance would only
entail additional dis-
aster, Jules Favre and
the other Republican
leaders opened nego-
tiations with Bis-
marck, who through
all these events had
continued to he the
mouth -piece of the
Prussian government,
and on the 28th of
January, 1871, the
fortresses around
Paris were surren-
dered. At first it
was agreed that the
armistice should con-
tinue for three weeks;
afterwards, to the 1st
of March. On that
date preliminary con-
ditions of peace were
i upon ; but the
formal treaty was not
finally concluded un-
til the 10th of May, at
the city of Frankfort

As a natural result of her overthrow, France
•was made to suffer severely for her folly in
beginning the war. It was stipulated first of
all that, the province of Al-ace should be given
up to Germany. A like disposition was mad.'
of the German part of Lorraine, including
the cities of Met/, ami Thionville. More than

a million and a half of French subject* were
thus tran.-fenvd to Prus-ia. It wa- further
;ed of van«|iii.-he.l France that she should
pay to her con.nn mr a war indemnity of five
billions of franc-, and that ag a Becnrity for
the payment -\n- -lmn|.| put certain of her
fortress into the hand- of the (Annans.

lifRSIXi, OK ST C|.un> 1!Y TIIK

Such was the end of one of the most terri-
ble conflicts of modern times. Within the
short .-pace of M-VCII months seventeen great
battles had been fought Ix-tween the armies of
the two leailiiiLr powers of Continental Europe.
Mure than a hundred aixl fifty minor engage-
ments had occurred, and twentv-two fortified

1274

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

LEON GAMBETTA.

places had been either carried by storm or
taken by regular siege. Nearly four hundred

thousand soldiers of France had been made
prisoners of war, while more than seven thou-
sand of her cannon and six hundred thousand
of her small anus remained in the hands of
her foe.

It only remains in the present chapter to note
the political results of the great conflict. The
most conspicuous effect in Germany was the im-
mediate and complete consolidation of the
Union and the rapid transformation of that
Union into the Empire. The tremendous pres-
tige gained by Prussia in the field made it easy
for her to assume and for all the other states
to accept her unequivocal leadership of United
Germany. Even the South German states
now readily accepted the new fact of nation-
ality. Such was the unbounded enthusiasm
for King William and his government, that
the Imperial crown seemed to be held over his
'head by the hands of the German millions.
The logic of events brought about the inevi-
table even before the downfall of Paris. Ba-
varia had been the last of the German powers
to yield to the supremacy of Prussia. It was
therefore a mixture of compliment and neces-
sity when the young Bavarian, King Louis II.
was selected to invite King William, still with
his army before the forts of Paris, to accept
the crown of Empire. Accordingly, on the

OVERTIIROW OK BOURBAKI.

1-J7H

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.-THE MODERN WORLD.

GENERAL EDWIN VON MAXTEUFFEL.

18th of January, 1871, a great throng of Ger-
man princes and generals was assembled in
the grand hall of the palace
of Versailles. Here had Louis
XIV. and Madame de Main-
tenon conversed in gorgeous
state and arrogated to them-
selves the first place in Chris-
tendom. Here, for many gen-
erations, had the great House
of Bourbon glorified itself in
the sunshine of power. Here
had the Little Corsican trode
up and down with his victori-
ous sword by his side. It
looked like fate — like the very
work of Nemesis — that in ilut
place the crown of the new
created German Empire should
be placed with loud acclaim
on the head of the grim old
soldier, WILLIAM I., of Hohen-
zollern.

It could hardly be said,
however, that the formality of
recognizing King William as
Emperor contributed much to
the power and glory of Prussia.
Her real renown had been won
before the 18th of January. Her splendid
system of education, projected by Wilhelm

von Humboldt, after the humiliation of his
country by the French at the beginning of
the century, and the light of free thought
flashing in effulgent streams from its great
source in the German universities, together
with the policy of William and Bismarck of
making every Prussian into a soldier, had al-
ready borne their necessary fruits before the
day of Sedan, before the fall of Metz, before
the taking of Paris, before the proclamation
of the Empire.

It. is the misfortune of the Germany of
to-day that her greatness is laid upon the
foundation of military force. To the extent
that this is so her strength is weakness, the
Imperial system endangered. It remains for
the present and the future to demonstrate
whether Germany will be able with her pow-
erful intellect to eliminate from her system
the elements of force, of personal will, of re-
maining absolutism, and to leave behind in

F.MPEROR WILLIAM.

her tremendous crucible only the beauty of
her genius and the liquid gold of liberty.

Tin-. A7.Y/.77 I:\TII < ENTU&Y.— ITALY.

1277

CHAPTER Liv.— ITALY.

JT was the destiny of An-
cient Italy to be the seat
of the greatest and most
centralised political i>ower
of aiitii|iiity. It was re-
served for Mediieval Italy
to be the scene of the
most distracted condition into which civiliza-
tion has perhaps ever fallen. It has been the
part of Modern Italy to present one of the
finest examples of revival, of political reor-
ganization, and of the re'institution of order
to civil society, which has been furnished by
any age or country. In the present brief
chapter it will be the aim to narrate in a few
comprehensive paragraphs those great and pa-
triotic movements by which the Italian patri-
ots have rehabilitated their long distracted
country, and drawn to themselves the sympa-
thies and favor of all lovers of freedom and
unity in every part of the world.

A short time after the battle of Waterloo,
Murat, king of Naples, attempting to regain
the throne from which he had been driven, was
taken, condemned by court-martial and exe-
cuted. Hereupon the Congress of Vienna
proceeded to the dismemberment of Italy, as-
signing Sardinia to her former king ; Lorn-
bardy and Venice to Austria ; Modena, Reg-
gio, and several other principalities to one
branch of the Hapsburgs ; Tuscany to another ;
I 'anna, Piacenza, and Guastalla to the ex-
Empress Maria Louisa ; the Papal states to the
Pope, and the Two Sicilies to their former
ruler. This division of political power was
exceedingly distasteful to the members of the
national party in Italy, and they awaited the
opportunity to promote their favorite project
of Italian unity. Not five years elapsed after
the treaty of Vienna until the Republican el-
ements in the peninsula were ripe for insur-
rection.

The first popular outbreaks against the ex-
isting order occurred in 1820 and 1821. In
those years Naples and Sardinia were the
scene of revolutionary movements which jriith-

such head as to compel the rulers to
promise the measures of reform demanded 1,\-
the people. Now it was that the congress of
Lay bach, composed of representatives from
the leading stat.- .,!' Kun.p.-, ,,]„ iil\ declared
it to be the duty of the sovereign.- of Chris-
tendom to join hands in the work of extermi-
nating the patriotic revolts which Lad appeared
in many states as the natural sequence of the

French Revolution. The work of carrying
out the edict of the congress, as it related to
Italy, was assigned to Austria. That power at
once sent her armies into the peninsula, and
the Sardinian mid NeajMilitan insurgents were
soon trampled under foot. The suppression
wa- so i tlective that for a jH-riod of ten years
the spirit of Italian nationality lay still in
despair.

1278

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

In the spring of 1831, however, Parma,
Modena, and the Papal States were roused
from their stupor by the voice of rebellion
crying in divers places. But the armies of
Austria were a second time called to the aid
•of absolutism, and the revolts were suppressed.
[n the next year Romagna renounced the au-
thority of the Pope and attempted to gain in-
dependence. But the Holy Father again
called the Austrian arms to his aid, and the re-

PIUS IX.

bellion was unsuccessful. It was at this junc-
ture that a French army also was sent into
the peninsula and stationed at Ancona, where
it remained until 1838.

In the meantime the Italian leaders sought
to establish their cause by the organization of
secret political societies. Of these clubs the
most formidable was known as YOUNG ITALY,
and was directed for the most part by the great
leader Giuseppe Mazzini, who for the next

forty years was destined to exercise a vast in-
fluence over the destinies of his country. For
more than a decade public opinion was moulded
by the publications which were issued from
the Italian societies, so that by the time of
the death of Gregory XVI., in June of 1846,
the revolutionary impulses of the people were
ready to break forth in still more formidable
revolts.

But at this time a change was given to the
tendency of affairs by
the new Pope Pius
IX., who assumed the
tiara with the avowed
purpose of liberaliz-
ing the States of the
Church, and thus con-
ducing to the political
freedom of all Italy.
Great were the hopes
which were entertained
of the Pope by the pa-
triots. Pius was hailed
as the apostle of Ital-
ian unity. Sardinia
and Tuscany made
haste to follow the lead
of the Holy Father,
and the three states
soon formed a cus-
toms-union on the basis
of free trade, a liber-
ated press, and popular
representation. Still,
however, the popular
cause outran the rulers.
In the beginning of
1848 the island of Sic-
ily declared its inde-
pendence of the king
of Naples. The latter
as a measure of concil-
iation granted a new constitution to his sub-
jects. A month later a revolt broke out in
Lombardy, and Count Radetzky, the Austrian
commander in Northern Italy, was obliged to
fall back to Verona. Charles Albert of Sar-
dinia now appeared as the champion of the
national cause against the Austrians ; but Ra-
detsky led his armies against the insurgent
Italians, gained two decisive victories, and re-
established the Imperial authority. Neverthe-

'/•///•; .Y/.Y/. 77.7,-.Y77/ < -A.-.yyy /; y. ITM. Y

r.'7-.i

less Venice, Rome, and several of the Italian
duchies, remained under the authority of the
Republicans.

At this juncture the attention of the Aus-
trians was drawn to the Hungarian rebellion.
So formidable had that movement become
under the leadership of Louis Kossnih, M.'.r
Jokai, and other liberal leaders, that it be-
came a question whether the Austrian rule in
Hungary could ever be restored. In the cam-
paign of l.sl'.l, however, Itailc uky brought the
Sardinian kingdom to the brink of ruin. The
Italian duehies were restored to the aristocrats.
Pius IX., who, in the previous November had
fled from Rome and had been completely
cured of his liberalism, resumed the govern-
ment of the papal states. The patriot gen-
eral, Guiseppe Garibaldi, made unwearied
efforts to uphold the national cause, but a
French army of occupation came into Italy,
entered first the city of Turin, and then
marched on Rome. The Holy Father, thus
supported by the bayonets of France, found
little difficulty in restoring his authority in
the Eternal City. Venice also surrendered to
the Austrians, and in most of the states the
reactionary party gained a complete ascend-

KO--I in.

eney. For the time it appeared that the
Pope, backed by the united power of France
and Austria, was about to become once more

an important figure in hi.-tory. The Vati,-:m
ami St. Peter's were to be hene,. forth
rounded with the panoply of foreign absolu-

/

GARIBALDI.

tism, and the mediaeval dream of the Congress
of Vienna was to be fulfilled by re-crowning
the Past in the city of the Cassars.

To all this a serious obstacle was opposed
by King Victor Emauuel, the new sovereign
of Sardinia, who, by persistently fostering
liberal institutions in his own dominions, set
a dangerous example to the other states of
Italy. The Austrian authorities were soon
obliged to attempt the pacification of the peo-
ple by the material improvement of the coun-
try. Railroads were constructed ; the harbors
of Venice were improved ; the postal system
was revised, and a tariff reform instituted.
All this was well, but could not compensate
for the denial of political rights. In 1853 the
patriots of Milan rose in revolt, but were soon
repressed by an Austrian army. In 1857 in-
surrections occurred in the cities of Naples
and Genoa ; but both movements were unsuc-
eamtaL

1280

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ENTRANCE OF THE FRENCH TROOPS INTO TURIN, 1848.

ST. PETER'S, ROME.

THE NINETEENTH CEX 77 rli ) '. IT A I.} '.

1281

It was at this epoch that the tie* between the
kingdom of Sardinia and the empire .,!' France,
now ruled liy Napoleon III., l>e^an to lie drawn
more closely. In order to avoid the effect » of
such an alliance Austria sought to strengthen
herselt' in the |ien in.-ulii by conceding to the
Italians many of the rights which .-he had
previously denied them. Her fears were well
founded; for now it was that the great Sardin-
ian diplomatist, Camillo Benso Cavour, began,
as chief minister of Victor Emauuel, to draw
to the interest of the kingdom which he repre-
sented the sympathies of both France and
Russia, the ostensible aim being to form a
triple alliance against Austria. It soon ap-
peared that his efforts were successful. On
New Year's day, 1859, Napoleon indicated to
the Austrian ambassador that the existing re-
. lations between the two empires were at an
end. Both powers immediately prepared for
war. Italy became a ferment of agitation.
The French Emperor declared his purpose to
make Italy free. The petty rulers of the
Italian duchies sought for a while to stay the
storm, but were soon obliged to fly before the
winds. The French and Sardinians were
joined by the patriots, and the struggle began
for the possession of Italy. On the 20th of
May, 1859, the first decisive battle was fought
at MONTEBELLO, in which the Austrians were
routed. A few days afterwards a conflict at
Palestro had a similar result The Austrian
army then retreated across the Ticino and
made a final stand on the field of MAHEXTA.
Here on the 4th of June was fought one of
the great battles of the war. The French
and Sardinians under Marshal MacMahon and
Napoleon in person made the attack upon the
Austrian position with great spirit. One of
the chief centers of the struggle was at the
bridge of Buffalora, which was seven times
taken and lost during the battle. The con-
flict continued until after sunset, when the
Austrians were finally driven out of Magenta
with a loss of seven thousand. In the mean
time Garibaldi had invaded Western Lom-
bardy and achieved some signal successes.
After the battle of Magenta the Austrians gave
up Milan, retreated to the line of the Mincio,
and there, on the 24th of June, staked all in
the decisive battle of SOLFERINO. For six-
teen hours the allied army of French and Sar-
VOL. U.-81

dinians, led |,y Napoleon in person, contended
with the immense army of Austria, under,
maud of Francis Joseph. Again the French
were completely victorious, indicting II|M.H
the Austrians a loss of twenty- i.\ thousand
men in killed, wounded, and prisoners.

Having thus made himself master of Italy,
the Empaor Napoleon now siiddenlv changed
his plan, and instead of freeing tin- country
from the Alps to the Adriatic, concluded at
Villafrauca with Francis Joseph a treaty of
peace. Doubtless his altered purposes were

comrr CAVOI-B.

attributable to a well grounded belief that
Prussia was about to interfere in the contest.
But though Italy was not freed from foreign
domination, the cause of nationality had re-
ceived a great impetus from the war. Lom-
bardy was by the terms of the treaty as-
signed to Sardinia. Venice remained to Aus-
tria. The grand duke of Tuscany was restored.
As for the rest, it was proposed that the Ital-
ian principalities should be formed into a con-
federation under the presidency of the Pope.
Great was the discontent of the Italian
patriots. Little were they disposed to acqui-

1282

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

BATTLE OF MONTEBELLO.

CONFLICT AT THE BRIDGE OF BUFFALORA.

THE MX !•:•]'! : I :.\TH CKXTURY.— ITALY.

r.«cc in such a settlement. Tliev entered a
protest against the restoration of their old
rulers. A project was agitated for the tran-
fer of the duchies to the kingdom of Sar-
(liniu; but, Victor Kmaimcl deemed it impru-
dent to attempt the government of united
Italy. He accordm-ly declined to accept the
crown, and the treaty of Villafranca was nom-
inally ratified.

In the IK ginning of the following year an
insurrection broke out in Sicily, which was
destined to bring about what the Franco-

hy the surrender of the form-* ,,f .

Opposition to the national .-an-,- tlc.l like a
sha.low. <)„ ih,. l.s||, ,,)' I-Yl.niary ,)„. ,ir>l
Italian parliament was convened at Turin.
Here, on the L'Uth, a vote was passed t- ooth
fer the crown of united Italy on Victor Kman-
uel. The Italian senate was filled with the
patriots, chief among whom was the aged
Alessandro Manzoni, whose writings had con-
tributed so much to the emancipation of his
country.

The events here narrated were the real

ATTI.E OF 8OLFERISO.

Austrian War had failed to accomplish —
namely, the unification of Italy. The Sicil-
ian patriots took up arms. Garibaldi, who
was now at Genoa, went on board a Sardinian
steamer, and on the llth of May landed with
a force of volunteers at the town of Marsala.
He assumed the office of dictator, but acted
in the name of Victor Emanuel. The patri-
ots flocked to his standard. He crossed over
into Italy. The national sentiment was with
him, and Cavour was his supporter. A tri-
umphant march to the north was crowned by
victories at Cajazzo and on the Volturno, and

birth of Modern Italy. The country entered
upon what promised — and still promises — to
be a career of honor among the nations. A
serious drawback to the forward movement
of the country was the continued occupation
of Rome by an army of French. It had be-
come the policy of Napoleon III. to support
the Pope in his sovereignty over the so-called
States of the Church. This prevented the
establishment of the capital of Italy at Rome,
the natural and historical seat of government
For a while Victor Emanuel fixed his court
at Turin; afterwards, at Florence. But the

1284

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

purpose was ever kept in view of planting
the local habitation of the new kingdom in

ALESSANDKO MANZONI.

the Eternal City. The king opened negotia-
tions with the Pope, but the Holy Father

Drawn by G. liroling.

would not consent that the secular govern-
ment should be established in Rome.

The year 1866 was noted for the outbreak
of the war between Prussia and Austria — a
conflict which, after a continuance of but
seven weeks, was brought to a close by the
great battle of Sadowa. Austria was com-
pletely beaten, and Francis Joseph was obliged
not only to renounce his claims to the Italian
duchies, but also to cede Venetia to
the kingdom of Italy. On the 7th of
November, Victor Emanuel made a
public entry into Venice, in token of
his sovereignty over that ancient city.
The city of Rome continued to be
occupied by a French army until the
outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war.
This great emergency compelled the
Emperor Napoleon to call home his
soldiers from every quarter. On the
21st of August, 1870, the last of the
French troops were withdrawn from
Italy. The army of Victor Emanuel
at once entered and took possession
of the city. The Italian parliament
immediately passed an act defining the future
status of the Pope. He was to continue to

Tin: M.\I:TI-:I:.\TH CENTURY. ITM.Y.

L886

hold the scepter of Catholic Christendom.
He was to retain the Vatican I'alarr
with the sovereignty of what is known
a- the "Leoniue City," together with the
Latcran and Castel Gandolfo. On the
2d of July the king of Italy took iqi
his residence at the Quiriual, and the
vision of the patriots seemed to be real-
ized in the unity of Italy.

As for Pius IX., the occupation of
Rome by the king came in the nature
of a mockery. For in the preceding
year the Pope had summoned the bish-
ops of the Catholic world to convene in
Rome in an Ecumenical Council. The
meeting was one of the most celebrated
in the history of the Church. The sit-
tings continued from December of 1869
to July of 1870. The great question
which the cardinals had been called to-
gether to consider was the Infallibility
of the Pope. Was he, or was he not,
without error when speaking for the
great body of which he was the head?
A decision was secured in the affirma-
tive, and it was formally declared that
the Pope, when on a subject of faith or
morals he issues a decree as the organ of
the Church, is infallible. Scarcely had the
great convention adjourned when the Italian

VICTOR EMANCKL.

army, sweeping through the gates of Rome,
revealed the fact that the decrees of ecclesi-
astical councils are no longer the governing
force in history.

On the whole, the reign of Victor
Emanuel was one of great success.
The years 1871-72 witnessed a politi-
cal tranquillity in Italy, the like of
which had not been known for a cen-
tury. In the latter year a terrible
eruption of Vesuvius occurred, and in
the autumn the valley of the Po was
visited with a flood by which eighty
thousand people were reduced to want.
Later in the same year the first scien-
tific congress ever held in Rome met in
the capitol, and was presided over by
Count Mamiani. Victor Emanuel held
the throne until January 9, 1878, when
he died and was succeeded by his son,
who received the crown of Italy with
the title of HUMBERT I. The death
of Pius IX. occurred in the same year.
He died without reconciliation to the
new order of things in Italy, declaring
to the last that he was a prisoner in the

1286

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

nniR^r/y/^SMiaB^Mv >

,•' $ lil'l

THE ECUMENICAL COUNCIL.

Vatican. Soon after his death the college of
cardinals was convened at Rome, and the pa-
pal crown was conferred on Cardinal Pecci,
who took the chair of St. Peter with the title
of Leo XIII. The theories of his predecessor

were adopted by the new pontiff, thus furnish-
ing another example of that law which has
made it impossible for the Church of Rome
to harmonize with the existing civilization of
mankind.

CHAPTER l/v.— EASTERN EUROPE.

JORE than ever before was
the prowess of Eastern
Europe made manifest in
the later years of the Na-
poleonic Wars. Nor was
it merely a barbaric force
which the nations of that
region revealed to the refined peoples of the
West. It was clearly perceived that the plant-
ing made by Czar Peter had come to fruitage,
and that the European scheme of the future
must be widened to make room for the Cossack.
Passing, then, from the Western States the

annals of which have been narrated in the
four preceding chapters, let us take our stand
on the Eastern confines of Europe and note
the progress of events in that far region from
the Treaty of Vienna to the present day.
The selection of such a point of view will draw
our attention to the history of Russia, whose
career in the present century can hardly fail
to incite a deep and lasting interest.

ALEXANDER I. lived to witness the humilia-
tion of the great adversary who had recently
invaded his dominions. Along with the other
sovereigns who had contributed to the over-

Fiik t See.S.T.

Xongitude Eiust 10 of Greenwich.

THI-: \I\I:TI:I:\TII CENTURY. EASTERN EUROPE.

1287

throw uC \:i|iulf(in In- entered Paris on the

llth of Jul}', I*l."i. II unbilled mneli liv

his inflilenee lo the settlement wllieli was
agreed Upon over the . . l''r:inee. IIi<

religious ardor was jpratly ineiva-eil liv the
condition of alliiirs which supervened after tin-
Congress of Vienna. And this disposition
was fanned into a flame of enthusiasm by
the celebrated Madame Krudener, who be-
came the dominant force in determining his
conduct. She was, in reality, the inspiring
cause of the HOLY ALLIANCE, which was pres-
ently formed by Alexander, Francis
of Austria, and Frederic William III.
of Prussia.

This famous compact was concluded
on the 26th of September, 1815, and
was submitted to the other powers of
Europe for approval. Most of the
states — all, indeed, except Rome, Eng-
land, and France — acceded to the
league and became parties to the new
system by which the states of Christen-
dom were to be hereafter governed.
The leading principle of the alliance
was that henceforth the political order
of the world should be directed by the
doctrines and practices of Christianity ;
and these doctrines and practices were
of course to be decided by the creeds
and methods of the parties to the com-
pact. This meant that the world was to
be subjected to an approved orthodox
despotism. The real aim of the alliance
was to confirm and perpetuate the exist-
ing dynasties of Europe ; and in order
to accomplish this result an appeal was
made to religion, the last resort of tyr-
anny. Alexander himself drew up the
agreement, which his fellow - monarchs
signed and which was published to the world
in the following February. One article of the
compact was to the effect that no member of
the family of Bonaparte should ever occupy a
European throne. Another clause bound the
parties to maintain and defend the various dy-
nastic houses and to combine for the suppres-
sion of rebellions and revolutions. The signifi-
cance of the whole scheme was that political
liberty, which had received so tremendous an
impetus in America and France, should be
crushed out, and the good old fatherly plan

of mediieval L'oviTiinient tie reinstate'! in nil
tin' kitiL'iloin- of the earth.

Nor was it Ion;: until the praetieal workings
of the new system u. r. rv mplilied. In 1 >•_'!.
revolutions broke out in Naples and Piedmont,
whereupon the allied H proceeded to

restore in those states the style of government
whieh they had agreed to foster. No i:
ference of Bonaparte in the affairs of neigh-
boring kingdoms had been half so flagrant as
that of the holy monarchs who in the name
of Christianity had taken upon themselves the

ALUANDU I.

government of the world. Two years after-
ward France herself, acting under the dicta-
tion of the alliance, suppressed an insurrection
and restored absolutism in Spain.

In the mean time, viz., in 1818, a second
congress of the powers was held at Aix-la-Cha-
pelle. Alexander virtually presided over the
deliberations. The assembly was a great con-
spiracy against the liberties of mankind. The
reliction had now fully set in. The meas-
ures debated were nearly all directed to the
suppression of liberal movements in Italy,

1288

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Spain, Portugal, and Germany. In 1820
another convention was held at Troppau ;
another at Laybach in the following year;
and still another at Verona, in 1822. In
all of these conferences the influence of the
Czar was predominant. It was one of the
surprising aspects of human affairs that Great
Britain, whose Iron Duke and invincible
squares had destroyed France at Waterloo and
made it possible for the continental sovereigns
to frame the Holy Alliance, now held aloof
and would have no part or lot in their pro-

•••"•*. *r.

PRINCE METTERNICH.

feeedings. This circumstance tended materially
to the decline of the league, which was already
very apparent before the Czar's death, in 1825.
The compact continued in nominal existence
until 1830, when the French revolution of that
year put an end to the most pernicious agree-
ment of modern times.

Meanwhile, the internal condition of Rus-
sia was greatly improved. To Alexander be-
longs the credit of having, at least, attempted
the emancipation of the serfs. During the
last years of his reign the Russian govern-
ment was greatly influenced by Prince Met-
ternich of Austria, who played upon the

Czar's hopes and fears and gained a com-
plete ascendency in the internal administra-
tion of the Empire. It was another surprising
circumstance of these times that, though in
the earlier years oflusjreign the Czar enter-
tained liberal principles, admired France,
sought the friendship of Napoleon, and was
driven against his will into war with that
great ruler, the case was now completely re-
versed ; Alexander had become a despot, and
the Russian people struggled for emancipa-
tion. Already before the Czar's death there
were rnutterings of an
outbreak against his gov-
ernment. A conspiracy,
with wide ramifications,
was formed in various
parts of Russia, and a
large part of the army was
implicated in the sedition.
It thus happened that,
when Czar Alexander I.
died, and was succeeded
by his brother NICHOLAS,
the latter inherited not
only the Russian crown
but also an incipient rev-
olution. But the new
Emperor proved equal to
the occasion. With greater
force of character than
his predecessor he quickly
brought the conspiracy to
naught, and firmly estab-
lished himself upon the
throne, which he was des-
tined to occupy for
thirty years. In like
manner the war which had been begun
by the Persians was brought to a victorious
conclusion by Marshal Paskevitch, whose suc-
cesses enabled the Czar, in 1828, to wrench
from Persia her two provinces of Erivan and
Nakhitchevan, and to exact an indemnity of
eighty millions of rubles, together with the
exclusive control of the Caspian. It was this
circumstance which tended, more than any
other, to draw the attention of the Russians
to the warmer waters of the south and to the
prodigious mistake which Peter the Great
had made in fixing his capital on the frozen
gulf of Finland.

THE NINETEENTH CXNTUSY.— EASTERN /-.T/; «>/•/•;.

1289

In the same year with the conclusion of
peace with IYr.-i;i, ;i war w:i- IM-LMHI l>y .Nicho-
las with the Turks. The Ottoman power li:ul
already entered upon that astonishing decline
which has been one of the most striking lads
in the hi-tory of modern Europe. It was
clear, from the first impact of the Russian
forces, that the Sultan would not be able to
make a successful resistance. After a war of
only a year's duration he was glad to purchase
peace by ceding to the Czar several fortresses
on the frontier and along the mouth of the
Danube, and by the payment of a
large indemnity.

The years 1830-31 bring again into
prominent notice the affairs of unfortu-
nate Poland. It will be remembered
how that kingdom, from the middle of
the eighteenth century, had been the
object of an almost constant conspir-
acy on the part of Russia, Austria,
and Prussia, each willing, nay anxious,
to obtain by means ranging from ques-
tionable to perfidious, a share of the
Polish territory. True, a mere shadow
of Polish independence had been pre-
served by the Congress of Vienna.
The little republic of Cracow was per-
mitted to survive. But the lion's share
of Poland was given to Alexander. A
so-called kingdom of Poland, formed
out of the countries extending from
the Niemen and Bug to the Prosua,
was created by the Czar, to which he
gave a constitution, and over which
he maintained his authority by an
army of fifty thousand men. General
Zajonczek was appointed viceroy. But
the actual administration was intrusted
to the Czar's brother, the Grand Duke Con-
stantine. Such were the exactions of the
latter and the severity of his rule that the
Poles became insubordinate, and by the time
of the accession of Nicholas were ready for
any event.

The conspiracy did not break into open
violence until November of 1830. At that
time a band of youthful democratic insur-
gents, under the lead of Peter Wysocki, rose
suddenly in Warsaw, took possession of the
city, and organized a revolution. Almost the
whole Polish people threw themselves into the

movement. Even the aristocrats, who had

lii-en Mljiposed In In- entirely devuti-il lo the

Russian cause, joined with their eoiintrvineii

in the movement for indepaadnn. A •!•

ration was made that tin- House of Romano!!'
was no lon-i-r entitled to the throm- of Poland.
A national army was put into the field, and
tin- forces of the (V.ar ero.-^d the Bug with a
view to suppressing the rebellion. In Febru-
ary and March of 1831 several bloody battles
were fought in the neighborhood of Warsaw.
The Poles upheld their cause with much valor

NICHOLAS I.

and enthusiasm ; but the generalship of their
leaders was not equal to the emergencies.
Their armies were driven back from the fron-
tiers, whither they were sent to revolutionize
the provinces. The main body of the patriots
remained inactive around Warsaw until the
RusMans, under Paskevitch, crossed the Vta-
tula and marched against the capital. With
the approach of the catastrophe the people
became suspicious, and all prospects of success
were destroyed by the spirit of faction. On
the night of the 15th of August a terrible
massacre ensued, in which those who were

1290

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

thought to be lukewarm or treacherous were
butchered without mercy. On the 8th of

September the capital was taken by the Rus-
sians. The other Polish cities soon succumbed,
and the war was at an end. The ills which
the country had suffered were indescribable.
Whole districts were well-nigh depopulated.
Bleeding Poland again lay at the feet of a
power that knew neither pity nor remorse.
The patriot leaders were seized and either exe-
cuted or banished into the snows of Siberia.
The estates of those who had participated in
the rebellion were confiscated. The common
soldiers were transferred to the Russian army.
The Polish Constitution and statutes were
abrogated. The University of Warsaw and
the other principal seats of learning were
abolished, and a censorship established over
the press and speech of the people. To all
this was added a cruel police system and the
fixing of Russian garrisons in Warsaw and the
other principal towns of the country. These
intolerable rigors were continued with little
abatement until the death of Czar Nicholas
and the accession of ALEXANDER II. in 1855.
The same plan and method of government
were pursued by Russia with regard to the
other tribes and nationalities composing the

Empire. In 1834 the independent nations of
the Caucasus arose under their leader, Shaniyl,
and began a war of nearly twenty years' dura-
tion. When, in 1848, the Hungarian revolu-
tion gathered head against Austria, the Czar
sent an army to the aid of the latter power
and cooperated in the suppression of the re-
bellion. Four years afterwards, namely, in
1853, the Russian government demanded of
the Ottoman Porte certain guaranties of the
rights of the Greek Christians of Turkey in
Europe. The interference was of a sort to
arouse all the fears and suspicions of the Sul-
tan, and to excite the hostility of those Euro-
pean powers with which the preservation of
the integrity of Turkey had become a cardinal
political principle. The Sultan regarded the
demand of the Czar as virtually requiring
him to abdicate his sovereignty, and he there-
fore refused to make the guaranties. In this
action he was upheld by England, France,
and Sardinia, who became his allies in the
struggle which ensued, known as the CRI-
MEAN WAR.

This conflict began on the Danube in
1853, and received its name from the penin-
sula of the Crimea, which was the principal

LORD RAGLAN.

theater of the action. The real question at
issue was whether Russia might now move to
the south, gain control of the Black Sea,

y///; M\I:TI:I;\TH <K. \TURY.— EASTER*

l-'Itl

overawe the Portt', force her way through the
Sea of Miirmora into the Archipelago, and
thus rectify tin- mi-take of Peter the Great,
or whether she should be held back from her
manifest destiny and compelled to limit her
commerce to the fro/en Bull's of the Eastern
Baltic. Such, in a word, was — and is — that
great "Eastern Question," the shadow of
which has fallen across all the council-tables
of Europe for the last thirty years.

After a desultory conflict along the River

southwestern .•xtr.-mity •.(' tin- |>eiiin-iila. To
the defense of tlii- .-tron^hnl.l all of the en. r-
gies of the Russians were now directed, and
to its capture the allies devot.-d themselves
with vigorous activity. Mcnsliikoff succeeded,
on the 24th of September, in uniting his aruiv
at Bakhtchiserai with the reinforcement*
which had been sent forward by the govern-
ment. He then retired within the fortifica-
tions of Scbastopol, where he prepared to de-
fend himself to the last. On the

BATTLE OF THE ALMA.

Danube, covering the latter part of 1853, the
allied powers sent into the Black Sea an army
of sixty-five thousand men, with five thousand
horses and eighty pieces of artillery. The ex-
pedition landed in the Bay of Eupatoria on
the 14th of September, 1854. The opposing
Russian army was commanded by Prince
Menshikoff, who awaited the advance of the
invaders on the southern bank of the RIVER
ALMA. Here, on the 'JOth of September, a
bloody battle was fought, in which the Rus-
sians were defeated and compelled to fall back
on their strong fortress of Sebastopol, at the

day Balaklava, lying south of the fortress,
was seized by the British division of the allied
army, under command of Lord Raglan ; and
on the 9th of the following month the cele-
brated siege of Sebastopol was begun from the
southern side. Several days were occupied
with the introductory work of gaining favor-
able positions, and on the 17th of October the
allied batteries were opened on the town. The
Russians had in the mean time blocked up the
entrance to the harbor on the west with
sunken vessels, by which the city had been
rendered unassailable to the allied fleet

1292

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The siege which ensued proved to be one
of the most memorable in modern times. On
two occasions the Russians sallied forth and
gave battle. The first conflict of this kind
occurred on the night of the 25th of October
at BALAKLAVA, which was defended by a com-
bined force of Turks and English. At first
the Russian attack was successful, and four
redoubts held by the Turkish troops were cap-
tured in the Russian assault. At this crisis
of the battle, however, the British Highland-
ers came into action, and the Russians were
repulsed. The latter did not attempt to re-
new the attack, but confined themselves to

Gibraltar. But obedience was obedience, and
the order, signed by Lord Lucau, might not
be questioned. So the brave young fellows
of the Light Brigade tightened their girths,
mounted, and drew their sabers. "Boys,
here goes the last of the Cardigans !" said the
young earl, as with compressed lips and blood-
less face he rode along the line and took his
place at the head. Then they drew down
their cap rims and charged ! They went to
their death like heroes. At every flash of the
Russian guns men and horses flew into the air
like chaff"; but the rest rode on, and rode
over the very guns before they turned.

BALAKLAVA.

the defense of their batteries against the pos-
sible counter charge of the allies. It was at
this juncture that the famous incident occurred
of the Charge of the Light Brigade. In the
trenches at Balaklava was a body of light-
horse, numbering six hundred, under com-
mand of the young Earl of Cardigan. It
happened that this officer had become an ob-
ject of jealousy to Lord Lucan, who com-
manded the division. While some certain
Russian batteries on the heights at a distance
were pounding away at the English position,
an order, borne by Captain Nolan, came to
Cardigan to charge the Russian guns I It was
like ordering out a regiment of boys to carry

Fewer than a hundred and fifty of them sur-
vived the charge, and even so few would
hardly have come forth from the valley of
death alive had not the Russians been struck
with magnanimity, and ceased firing. Strangely
enough, the Earl of Cardigan was not killed.1

1 Some years ago the Author had the good for-
tune to hear from an eye-witness an account of
the famous charge which has furnished Tennyson
with the theme of his great war lyric :
" When can their glory fade?
O, the wild charge they made !

All the world wondered.
Honor the charge they made!
Honor the Light Brigade !
Noble six hundred !"

THE N1NETE1-.STH ri-:\rn; Y EASTERN EUROPE.

1298

Captain Nolan fell in the beginning of the
charge, ami MI the authenticity of Lord Lu-
can's onlor could never he ascertained. It
can not be doubted, however, that the pur-
pose was simply to destroy Cardigan.

A few days after the battle of Bala-
klava occurred a hard conflict at INKI.I:-
MAN. This engagement was so named
from the village of Inkerman, at the head of
the harbor of Sebastopol. On the 5th of No-
vember a strong force of Russians descended

of the bastion culled the Malakln.tr, assaulted
that MroiiL'holil with great valor, but
miMicec.ssful. On tin- l*tli of tin- tollouin^
June an attempt was made to carry tli<
ilan by storm, but the assailants were repulsed.
Then, on the 16th of August followed the
blood} battle of Tci 1 1 i:\\\A,in which the Ru»-
>ians made a final ellort to rai.sc the -
With a force of fifty thousand infantry and six
thousand cavalry they threw themselves on
the allies, but were beaten back with -r. .it

BATTLE OF IXKERMAN.

from the heights, and were met by the allies
on the slope opposite the ancient ruins of
Inkerman. A severe battle ensued, in which
the English and French were victorious.
Many other sorties were made from the fort-
ress, but were designed rather to delay the
siege than to break the investment. Some-
times the conflicts were severe, taking the pro-
portions of a regular battle. During the
winter the allied lines around Sebastopol were
considerably contracted, and several serious
assaults were made on the Russian works.
On the 23d of February the French, in front

slaughter. In the mean time the trenches of
the allies had been drawn so near the Russian
works that there was a fair prospect of carry-
ing the bastions by another assault. A terri-
ble bombardment was begun on the 5th, and
continued to the 8th of September, when both
the Redan and the Malakhoff were taken by
storm. But the struggle was desperate, and
the losses on both sides immense. The Rus-
sians blew up their fortifications on the south
side of the harbor, and retreated to the other
side of the bay. Nor did they afterwards
make any serious attempt to regain the strong-

1294

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

hold which the allies had wrested from them.
The victors proceeded to destroy the docks,
arsenals, and ship-yards of Sebastopol, and as
far as possible to prevent the future occu-
pancy of the place by the Russians as a seat
of commerce and war.

A serious check was thus given by the al-
lied powers to the ambitious projects of
Czar Nicholas in the south. His own
death, on the 2d of March, 1855, tended
to encourage the movement for peace. After

main neutral ; that it should be open to the
commerce of all nations, but interdicted to
ships of war, except that a certain force might
be maintained for revenue purposes by Tur-
key and Russia. Neither state might hence-
forth build any arsenal or fortress on the
shores of the disputed water. No war ships
should be admitted into the Dardanelles and
the Bosphorus; but certain vessels might be
stationed at the mouths of the Danube. That
river was opened to all friendly commerce.

STORMING OF THE REDAN.

the capture and sack of Kertch, at the
entrance to the sea of Azov, on the 25th of
May, active hostilities ceased, and negotia-
tions were opened for a general settlement.
Commissioners met at Paris, and on the 30th
of March, 1856, a treaty was concluded, to
which Russia was obliged to give a reluctant
consent.

The terms which were here agreed upon
became a sort of landmark in all subsequent
diplomacy relative to the affairs of Eastern
Europe. The treaty stipulated, in the first
place, that the Black Sea should be and re-

The limits of Bessarabia were changed with a
view to depriving Russia of the control of
the mouths of the Danube. All the places
taken from the Czar by war were restored
without indemnity. Moldavia and Wallachia
were placed under the general dominion of
Turkey, but were given their independent
rights as principalities. The Sultan was in-
vited to participate in the advantages of the
public laws and international system of Eu-
rope. The integrity of the Ottoman Empire
was guaranteed by Great Britain, France, and
Austria.

•/•///•: MM /7 I:\TH CENTURY. /,.iv/7/;.\

L9M

STORMING OF THE MALAKOKF ON THE Sra OF SEPTEMBER, 185&.
Drawn by Richard KnocteL

1296

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The commissioners next proceeded to
the consideration of general questions, and
adopted several principles of great advantage.
Among these the most salutary was the aboli-
tion of privateering ; and though this clause has
not yet become a part of the law of nations,
it has nevertheless done much to put under
the ban of international displeasure the nefa-
rious business of private warfare on the sea.
The treaty of 1856 further provided that in
times of war the flag of a neutral nation

for reasons peculiar to themselves, the United
States and Spain refused their assent to the
compact — the former state because the treaty
did not go far enough in the acknowledgment
of neutral rights, and the latter because the
new rules were too liberal to accord with her
relentless Bourbouism.

Russia emerged from the Crimean War
with little credit or honor. ALEXANDER II.
came to the throne about a year before the
conclusion of the conflict. On the 7th of

THE CONGRESS OF PARIS, 1856.

should protect the goods even of an enemy on
the high sea unless those goods should have di-
rect respect to the purposes of war. It was
still further stipulated that the goods of a
neutral state, except contraband of war, should
not be liable to capture, even under the flag
of a belligerent power ; and that blockades, in
order to be binding, must be actually enforced
with such a fleet as would make access to the
coast of an enemy either impossible or ex-
tremely dangerous. To these rules of civil-
ized warfare the other states of Christendom
were asked to accede, and many did so. But

September, 1856, he was crowned with great
pomp at Moscow. From the first it was clear
that he was destined to be the most liberal
Czar that had ever occupied the Russian
throne. Scarcely had the echo of the war
died away when the lines of despotism, so
tightly drawn by Nicholas, were allowed to
relax. Alexander undertook the work of
emancipating the Russians from the terrible
system of military discipline to which they
had been subjected since the days of Peter
the Great. A true civil administration was
introduced throughout the Empire. The mil-

'/•///•: NINETEENTH CENTURY. /-..!> 7 '/•;/,• .V

1297

itary colonies were dissolved, and a system ><f
public instruction instituted under iiii[»-ri:d
patronage. Especial pains were taken by the
Czar to secure proper officers and professors
for the new seat* of learning. The censorship
of the press was, in part, removed, and a
spirit of toleration exhibited which had hith-
erto been unknown in Russia. The miserable
system of espionage which had formerly pre-
vailed wits forbidden, and vigorous measures
instituted to exterminate official corruption
from the government. Talented young men
of actual merit and real virtue were sought
out and preferred for office. The internal in-
dustries of the Empire received a new
impulse under the fostering care of
Alexander, and foreign commerce was
greatly quickened by the salutary reg-
ulations and liberal conduct of the gov-
ernment toward the merchant marine.
Better still was the general amnesty
which was issued for political offenses.
The exiles and fugitives, both Poles and
Russians, were allowed to return from
Siberia, and those who had been expa- •
triated were permitted to resume their *j
former rights without prejudice to them-
selves or family.

But the most conspicuous of all the
humane works of Alexander II. was the
emancipation of the Russian serfs. From
his youth the Czar had cherished a sen-
timent of hostility to the institution of
serfdom. On coming to the throne he
was encouraged in his wish and pur-
pose by Nicholas Milutin and General
Bostoftzoff, two of his principal advisers. At
the first the proposed measure was violently
antagonized by the serf-owners, who spared no
effort to thwart the plans of the Czar. But
the latter summoned the leaders of the aris-
tocracy, who were chiefly interested in the
preservation of serfdom, and quietly told them
that their prejudices and supposed interests
must yield ; that if Russian society must suf-
fer an upheaval, the revolution would better
begin at the top than at the bottom ; and that
-rrfdom must he abolished. Accordingly, on
the 3d of March, 1861, he issued his famous
decree of emancipation ; and during the fol-
lowing two years the edict was successfully ex-
ecuted. Before the work was accomplished,

You 11.- 82

r. M/.. in January of 1863, a Poli.-h
insurrection broke out. which, fur the tin» ,
required all n- - ..! the COM rnnicnt in

its suppression. For alxiin a \ear tin- in-nr-
genUi remained in arms, but were finally put
down and punished with the severity peculiar
to the lln—iaii administration.

It was tin- mi-fortune of Czar Alexander
to n L'n in an ajrr- when the intellect ..f Rus-
sia was passing through the rapid stages of
development. His many liberal concessions
were met by tin people less in a spirit of
-latitude than with a sentiment <>f having re-
covered that of which they had long been

il i \ UfDI I

robbed by the imperial government As fast
as new rights were granted new demands v
made; insomuch, that when the Czar would
fain put a stop to the movement which he
himself had begun, he found himself unable
to do so. In the midst of what was really a
beneficent administration he became an object
of distrust and aversion. As early as April
of 1866, an attempt was made upon his life by a
certain Dimitri KarakozofT, whose purpose was
frustrated by the heroism of a loyal peasant.
At the Paris exposition of 1867 a second un-
successful attempt to assassinate the Czar was
made by the Pole, Berezowski.

In 1870 the Emperor resumed the work of
reform. The hereditary priesthood was abol-

1298

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ished. The military methods of the Germans,
now victorious iu their great war with France,
were introduced into the Russian army ; and
a series of liberal measures were adopted for
the promotion of public education throughout
the Empire. In 1871-72 the Czar's second
sou, the Grand Duke Alexis, made a tour of
the United States, and was everywhere re-
ceived with marks of consideration and respect.
The people of our country, though they had

ALEXANDER III.

no sympathy with imperial institutions, could
not well forget that in the recent fiery furnac'e
of the great Civil War, Alexander II. was the
only European sovereign whose moral influ-
ence and support were unequivocally given
to the Union cause.

The decade from 1870 to 1880 was marked
in the history of Russia for the growth and
spread of Nihilism. A great politico-social or-
ganization, known as the NIHILISTS, not dis-
similar in its doctrines and methods to the
International Society of Western Europe, but

more pronounced in its radicalism, became
prevalent in all the centers of Russian civil-
ization. The political principles of the body
were — and are — not dissimilar to those of our
forefathers in the times of our Revolution, or
to those of the French Democracy of 1789;
but the methods of the Nihilists, one of whose
principles appears to be to adopt assassination
as a means of political reform, are unworthy
to be classed with those adopted by our revo-
lutionists and by the Democrats
of France. As the organization
became more powerful, it grew
more bold. As early as April of
1879, General Gurko, commandant
of St. Petersburg, was constrained
to issue an order that every house-
holder in the city should keep a
watchman at his door, day and
night, to prevent the posting of
seditious placards and the circula-
tion of revolutionary pamphlets.
In the following winter an attempt
was made to destroy the Czar by
blowing up a railway train, and
a little later it was ascertained that
the Winter Palace had been un-
dermined. Threats of assassina-
tion were heard on every hand,
and at last the Nihilistic conspir-
ators were successful. On the 13th
of March, 1881, as the Czar, re-
turning from a military review,
was driving along the Ilkaterino-
viski Canal, an Orsini bomb,
thrown by an invisible hand, ex-
ploded under his carriage, tearing
away the after part of the ve-
hicle. Two marines and the Em-
peror, who alighted unhurt, ap-
proached the assassin and were about to
seize him when a second bomb, thrown by an
accomplice, exploded close by the Czar's side,
and blew both of his legs into a mass of
mangled flesh and bone. "Help me," cried
the dying Alexander, as he sank into the
dust, from which he was lifted only to expire
in the middle of the afternoon. The terrible
dynamite had done its work. A veritable
reign of terror supervened. For a few days
it was doubtful whether the government could
survive ; but the police authorities of the Em-

rin: MM:TI:M:TII < •KXTURY.—KASTERB AT//O/-/-:.

1299

pire proved strong enough to uphold the au-
thority of the reigning House, and AI.KX ANM.I:
III. was crowned as his father's successor.

The assassins of tin- lute Czar, live in num-
ber, were discovered, tried, condemned and exe-
cuted. One of them was a woman of rank,
named Sophia Perovska, daughter of tin-
Minister of Domains and granddaughter of
a minister of the interior under Nicholas I.
She it was who had given the signal for
the exploding of the mine under the rail-
way train in November of 1880. She it was
who waved her handkerchief to Ruisakoff,
who threw the bomb under the Emperor's
carriage. She it was who, on being tried,
asked the court to condemn her to the same
punishment with the others. It thus happened
that the reign of
Alexander III.
began with the
first public execu-
tion of a woman
which had taken
place in Russia
for half a cen-
tury.

This sketch of
the course of
events in Eastern
Europe may well
be concluded with
an outline of
events in Turkey
from the down-
fall of Napoleon to the present day. It
would be remembered that Sultan Selim, the
friend of Bonaparte, was deposed in 1807,
and was succeeded by Mustapha IV., whose
strength was derived from the Janizaries. His
reign continued but a single year, when he
was put to death by his brother, Mahmoud
H., who began his reign with an attempt to
overthrow the Janizaries and destroy their in-
fluence. In this work he was at last success-
ful, and that celebrated body of soldiers, who
had long been to Constantinople what the
Praetorian Guard was to Rome, was dispersed
and broken. The final break-up of the organ-
ization was effected in 1826, when the Janiza-
ries were massacred by thousands.

Before this time, namely in 1822, a great
insurrection headed by AH Pasha, of Janina,

had broken out in Albania; but the revolt
was put down by tin- Sultan with a strong
hand. Attempts Were also made in < 'andia
and the Island of Scio to throw oil' the Turk-
iah yoke. But in both places the rel.< lliona
were extinguished in the blood of the partici-
pants. In 1>1'1 a still more formidable
uprising took phiee in I'elopounesus — a move-
ment which was the beginning of the inde-
pendence of modern Greece. The insurrection
spread from city to city. Athens awoke from
her slumber of centuries; the sons of modern
Greeks looked once more to the Acropolis for
inspiration, and ships of war were manned in
the Piraeus. The islands of the Archipelago
joined their fortunes with those of their f.-l-
low Greeks on the continent. Popular leaders

THE Al'lldl'iius. ARCH OF HADRIAN IN THE FOREGROUND (Mlxl'TIl V

appeared, whose fiery valor aroused the native
tribes to the highest pitch of enthusiasm.
Chief of these were Marco Bozzaris and Alex-
ander Mavrocordatos, the latter of whom
presently became president of the Hellenic
confederation. In 1822 a provincial govern-
ment was established by a national assembly
at Epidaurus. A proclamation of independ-
ence was issued, and armies of allied Greeks
rushed to the field to win their freedom by
the sword.

The measures adopted by the Turks for
the suppression of the rebellion were the i
bloody and cruel of modern times. Cold-
blooded massacres were perpetrated at various
places, that of Scio being of unparalleled atroc-
ity. Such were the heroism of the Greeks
and the cruelty of the Turks that the sym-

1300

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

pathies of all Christendom were aroused for
the former and the aversion of mankind ex-
cited against the latter. Societies known as
the Philhellenes were organized in many parts
of Europe and America. Lord Byron left
Italy, where he had resided several years, to
devote his fortune and life to the cause of the
Greeks. In the United States, Henry Clay
and other patriots sought by their eloquence

the confederation, and in the following year
hostilities ceased. The powers of Western
Europe then devoted themselves to the work
of settling the conditions of peace. Prince
Leopold, afterwards king of Belgium, was
elected sovereign of emancipated Greece.
But when a difficulty arose respecting bound-
aries he declined the crown. In 1831 Capo
d'Istria was assassinated at Nauplia, and an

THE PIRAEUS— (Modern).

to enlist the friends of freedom against the
perfidious Turk. For five years the Greeks
continued the struggle. At length Great
Britain, France, and Russia came to the res-
cue, and their combined fleets in the great
battle of NAVARINO, fought on the 20th of
October, 1827, annihilated the Turko-Egyptian
squadron and virtually put an end to the war.
In the beginning of 1828 the Greek states-
man Count Capo d'Istria became president of

epoch of anarchy followed, which was termi-
nated by the choice of Otho of Bavaria as
king of Greece. In 1835 this prince took in
marriage the Princess Amalia of the House
of Oldenburg, and established his court at
Athens. For a period of ten years Greece
was governed in a mild sort of way by Otho,
who though bound by no constitution was
sincerely anxious to govern well. The want
of a constitutional form, however, was keenly

THK MM-:TKI-:\TH CENTURY. EASTERN 1.1 i;m-i-:.

1801

felt by the Greeks, and in IM-'J the people
rose, surrounded the palace, and enforced
their will by a peaceable revolution of the
government. A constitution was adopted
and accepted by the king on the 16th of
March, I.SH— an act which became the foun-
dation of the limited monarchy of modern
Greece.

The year 1832
was marked by
the beginning of
-a contest between
the Sublime Porte
and Mehemet AH,
viceroy of Egypt.
War broke out
and the Turks
were repeatedly
defeated. The con-
test continued un-
til 1839, when
Mahmoud II. died
and was succeeded
by his son Abdul-
Medjid. It was
at this time that
on the petition of
Great Britain,
Turkey was ad-
mitted into the
states -system of
Europe. Hence-
forth it became
a cardinal princi-
ple with the West-
•ern Powers to
maintain the in-
tegrity of the
Ottoman Empire.
It was this maxim
-of European poli-
tics which led to

the Crimean War of 1854-56, the story of
•which has already been narrated.1

In 1860 the Turkish government was rent
with a terrible conflict which broke out be-
tween the Druses and Maronites, the two
religio-political parties of Syria. Several
frightful massacres were perpetrated, and a
combined squadron of French and English
•was sent to the East in order to put an end

1 See ante pp.

to the conflict. Ill the following v,.ar Alxlul-
Medji.l .lied and wa>.-ucceeded |,v'|,i, hmth.T,

Ai,.iul-A/.i/.. In the follow lllber toe

Daimbian principalitie.-i were united under
the MOMOf K.uunania, and fharle, I., ;, ,,rjnce
of tlie Hoii-e of lloheiuollern, was a.-wi.
to t! nnient of the new province.

The same year witnessed a great in-urn

ORD T

in Crete — an event which led to another war
between the Turks and the Greeks. In 186ft
a conference of tbe western powers was held
at Paris, and the difficulties in the eastern
Mediterranean were again adjusted by a IP

By this time Turkey bad Ixvome the
Man of the East." The protectorate which
had been established over the Ottoman Empire
had tended to weaken rather than confirm the
grip of the opium-smoking Turk on Europe.

1302

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

A tendency was manifested in all of the
Turkish provinces to renounce the authority
of the Porte and gain their independence.
So was it in the Servian insurrection in 1867.
So was it with Egypt, which power, after as-
sisting the Turks to put down the Cretan re-
bellion, sought to throw off the Ottoman rule.
A war between Turkey and Egypt was pre-
vented only by the interference of the foreign
powers. With the coming of the Franco-
Prussian war of 1870-71, the influence of

QUEEN AMALIA.

France as one of the protecting states of Tur-
key was so greatly weakened that Russia, no
longer kept in check, was enabled to renew
her policy of aggression, and to enforce her
will by demanding and obtaining a modifica-
tion of the Treaty of Paris of 1856. A con-
ference was held in London in January of
1871, and Great Britain consented that the
provisions of that treaty relative to the neu-
tralization of the Black Sea should be ab-
rogated.

Two years afterwards, the Sultan found

himself so weakened that he was constrained
to concede such prerogatives to Ismail
Pasha, khedive of Egypt, as to make him
virtually an independent ruler. From this
time forth a certain indifference supervened
in Western Europe relative to the fate of the
Ottoman power. Whether the "Sick Man"
should live or die ceased to be a matter of
great concern. Many modifications were
thrust by the logic of events into the balance-
of-power system by which the equipoise of
Europe was supposedly
maintained. Such was the
contempt of Turkey that the
Egyptian khedive, without
asking the consent of the
Porte, proceeded to sell to
England all his shares in
the Suez Canal, by which
transaction the influence of
Great Britain was still fur-
ther strengthened in the
East.

During the decade from
1870 to 1880, the fact be-
came more and more ap-
parent that the Sublime
Porte either could not or
: would not protect the
' Christians of the Turkish
provinces against the blood-
thirstiness and oppressions
of the Moslems. Outrages
and massacres became the
order of the day. Now in
Bosnia, now in Bulgaria,
now in Montenegro, and
now in Herzegovina, these
scenes of violence and
butchery were witnessed un-
til the sentiment of Christendom was shocked
with the repetition. This condition of affairs
furnished to Russia her long-coveted excuse for
the further prosecution of her designs against
Turkey. The Czar finally made a demand of
the six powers which were still pledged to up-
hold the Ottoman Empire that the outrages
done by the Turks should cease forever, and
that the Porte should give a solemn guarantee
that they should be no more repeated.

A crisis came on in the latter part of
1876, and early in the following year a con-

.\7.v/.77.7:.v/7/ < i:\rri;Y KASTKKX

ference was held in London rrlativo to die
threatening condition of affairs in the East
A protocol was issued on the last day of
.March, 1877, in which a formal demand was
made by the protecting states that the rights
of the Christians in the Turkish provinces
should be respected, and that certain general
reforms should be introduced in the inanni-r,
methods, and spirit of the Turkish govern-
ment. This action was resented by the Porte,

able development wa.* impeded by the constant
trouhles in tl.. : ;. ,. |,j,, ,| |,v

•nti-r manit'e.i.i .•liar^in^ thai tin- ( 'hrii-tinn
popaktikn <>t' !!• iv -..vina. lio-iiia, Si
anrl .Mi . niriit u'l-u had Keen incited t<> iiiMi-
ii'"i liy ' and appealing to the

powers to uphold tin- treaty of \x:,(\.
appeal, however, was in vain. And so began
the TuBco-RusKi \ N \V \\: .,t 1*77.
The plans of the Czar in entering

CONSTANTINOPLE.

and on the 10th of April a circular was
issued from Constantinople declaring the Lon-
don Protocol to be destitute of all equity and
of all obligatory character. This action was
precisely such as Russia had anticipated and
desired. The Russian army was at once put
upon a war footing, and on the 20th of A] nil
Prince Gortehakof sent a circular to the
Western powers announcing the purpose of
the Czar to "fulfill the duty imposed upon
him by the interests of Russia, whose peace-

this contest were to cross the Danube, traverse
the Balkans, beat the Turks in battle, and
perhaps capture Constantinople. For thia
pnqiose a large Russian army was collected in
the South. A month was occupied in cross-
ini: Roumania, and then a wooden pontoon
was built over the Danube. The crowing of
the Lower River was accomplished on the 22d
of June; but the passage of the Middle Dan-
ube was not effected until the beginning of
July. The Czar transferred his headquarters

1304

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

to the southern bank of the river and issued
a proclamation to the Bulgarians, reannoun-
cing his purpose to vindicate the rights of the
persecuted Christians in the Turkish provinces.
Fighting now began between the invaders
and the forces of the Sultan. The outposts
of the latter were driven in, and the Russians
gained possession of the two roads leading to
the Balkans. The head-quarters of the Grand
Duke Nicholas were moved forward to Tir-

PRINCE GORTCHAKOF.

nova. The object of General Gurko was to
press on to the mountains and gain possession
of the celebrated Shipka Pass, which was held
by the Turks. The advance towards the moun-
tains was resisted by the Moslems, and several
engagements occurred, in which the Russians
were generally victorious. On the 16th of
July a battle was fought at TUNDJA BROOK,
which, as usual, went against the Turks.
Gradually all the Turkish forces fell back and
concentrated at Shipka Pass.

Meanwhile the division of the Russian

army under the Grand Duke Nicholas pressed
forward to the city of Nikopolis, which w;is
held by a garrison of twelve thousand Turks.
On the 15th and 16th of July, this important
place was captured by the Russians, who now
directed their march to the town of Plevna,
about thirty miles distant from Nikopolis.
Before this place a Russian force arrived on
the 19th of July, and an assault was ordered
on the following ninrning. The event showed
that the Turks had been strongly rein-
forced by Osman Pasha, greatest of the
Ottoman generals of the age. After the
Russians had gained possession of a part
of the fortifications and town, they were
assailed with a murderous fire from hun-
dreds of windows and balconies, and were
driven back with great slaughter to the
trenches. It was soon ascertained that
Osman Pasha had gathered an army of
fifty thousand men for the defense of
Plevna. In the meantime, Suleiman
Pasha, with a force of forty thousand
had checked the progress of General
Gurko ; and Mehemet Ali, to whom the
chief command of the Ottomans was now
given, collected a third army numbering
sixty-five thousand, at Rasgrad. It be-
came necessary for the Czar to suspend
the forward movement in order to mob-
ilize the Russian militia and bring rein-
forcements to the front. The invasion
was thus checked, and the month of
August was spent in inaction.

The Turks were greatly elated at
having brought the enemy to a dead
pause. It was resolved to take advan-
tage of the lull to make an attack in
force upon Shipka Pass, which had in
the mean time fallen into possession of
the Russians. Accordingly, on the 19th of
August, Suleiman Pasha advanced against the
Gap, which was defended by an inferior force
under General Daro/hinski. The latter, with
a force of less than eight thousand Russians and
Bulgarians defended the Pass for five days
against Suleiman who, with an army of twenty-
five thousand Turks, made one murderous as-
sault after another upon the position held by
his foe. But he could not succeed in dislodg-
ing Darozhinski from the Pass.

Soon after these severe battles at Shipka,

Tin: .\7.v/.77,7;.v/v/ CENTURY.- MASTERS EUROPE.

Osman Pasha with
fifty -six 1 1 10 1 1 -and
men \va< for the
thinl tiiin- a-.-ail<-d
by the Iiii—ians at
l'i.i\\\. On the
titli of September,
and for three days
following, the two
hundred and fifty
guns of tile Ivil-ian

batteries poured a
tremendous fire
upon the redoubts
commanding the
town. Then fol-
lowed an assault,
which proved to
be one of the most
bloody struggles of
the century. Of the
sixty thousand Rus-
sians who charged
the redoubts, eigh-
teen thousand were either killed or wounded.
Nor did the Turks forbear to sally forth, mangle

GENF.BAL TODI.KBEN.

E DEFEXSE OF SIIII'KA PASS.

and mutilate both the dying and the dead.

Another check was thus given to the Russian
invasion. At Plevna a regular siege of
five months' duration was substituted for
the more expensive plan of storming an
impregnable position. The work of in-
vestment was entrusted to General Tod-
leben, who for this duty was summoned
from St. Peter-burg. By the beginning
of December, Plevna was shut in liv tin-
Russian lines. Soon afterwards Osman
Pasha attempted to cut his way through
the investing lines, but was driven back
into the town. In the course of the au-
tumn Suleiman Pasha made another effort
to dislodge the llu — ian~ from ShipkaPaaa.
By degrees Osman Pasha and his fine army
in Plevna were reduced rather by starva-
tion than by force, and were obliged to
capitulate. The country was thus cleared
between the Danube and the Balkans f"C
the distance of about two hundred and
fifty miles, and there was no longer any
real obstacle in the way of a Russian ad-
vance on Constantinople.

While these movements were taking
place in Kmi>|x>, a srreat Asiatic campaign
had been conduct -d in the countrv of the

1306

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

Caucasus by the Emperor's eldest brother, the
Grand Duke Michael. The two objects of the
expedition were to gain control of the coast of
the Black Sea and to capture the fortress of
Batoum. The opposing army of Turks, about
fifty thousand strong, was under command of
M.ukhtar Pasha, and was distributed at Bntoum,
Ardahan, Kars, and Erzeroum. In the latter
part of April, the Russian advance against
Batoum was begun. The first division, how-
ever, was met by the Turks under Dervish
Pasha, and was driven back across the border.

OMAR PASHA.

The other three columns of Russians poured
into Armenia, and concentrated against the
strong fortress of Kars. After a good deal
of desultory fighting during the summer, the
Grand Duke Michael, with sixty-three thou-
sand men, reached the objective point of the
campaign, and on the 2d of October, the
Turkish left at Kars was turned by an as-
sault. But the success of the Russians was so
slight as to be little better than a failure.

A few days after the first battle, Mukhtar
Pasha contracted his lines, and the heights

were occupied by the Russians. On the 15tb
of October the latter attacked the Turks in
full force at Aladja-Dagh, carried the position
which was defended by Omar Pasha, captured
one half of his army and destroyed the other
half. The Russian victory was so decisive
that Mukhtar, giving up all except the fort-
ress of Kars, retired with eighteen thousand
men to Erzeroum, and there entrenched him-
self and awaited reinforcements. The Rus-
sians at once began a siege of Kars. The in-
vestment continued until the night of the
17th of November, when a terrible assault
resulted in the capture of the fortress. So
bravely did the Turks defend their posi-
tion that when the place was carried only
three hundred of them were left alive.
Next followed the siege of Erzeroura,
which continued during the winter and
was concluded by an armistice on the 31st
of January. The Turkish garrison was
permitted to march out of the fortress and
embark for Constantinople. Such was the
victorious conclusion of the Russian cam-
paign in Armenia.

Meanwhile, in European Turkey, the
Grand Duke Nicholas, acting against the
advice of his generals, had continued act-
ive hostilities during the winter. Great
:'., were the hardships endured by the Rus-
sian soldiers in forcing their way over the
mountains. Thousands were frozen and
starved in the sleet and snow. On the first
day of the new year, the Turkish position
at Araba-Konak was taken, and two days
afterwards the well-provisioned town of
Sofia fell into the hands of the Russians.
From this point General Gurko advanced
to Philippopolis, attacking and destroying
the army of Suleiman Pasha. General
Kartsof's division poured over the Balkans by
way of the Trojan Pass ; and General Radetski,
with his army of fifty-six thousand, succeeded
in issuing from Shipka Pass into the valley.
On the 9th of January, General Skobelef,
who had been obliged to abandon most of his
artillery in the mountains, fell with great au-
dacity on the Turkish army at SHENOVO, car-
ried the place by storm, captured one divis-
ion of twelve thousand and compelled another
of twice that number to capitulate. It was
the most brilliant exploit of the war.

THE NINETEENTH fl-:.\Tnn'.—EASTl-:i;.\

L807

The military power of the Turks now rap-
idly melted away. The Ku.--i;m march was
at once dim-ted against Adriauople. The de-
fender.-- nl1 that city blew up the powder maga-
zines anil (led. On the L'Uth i if. I a unary the I!u>-
sians entered, and nine days afterwards the last
shot of the war was fired at Tehorlu. The con-
lliet had resulted in the complete prostration
of the Turkish power. On the 31st of Jan-
uary the commissioners of the Sultan signed
an armistice preliminary to peace.

The conditions of the settlement were
briefly these : That Bulgaria should be erected

At this juncture, Imwi-vtT, the Great Pow-
ers of Kurnpf .Middrnly appeared mi the scene.
Kn^'laud took the lead in declaring that tin-
treaty of San Stefauo touched UJMHI <|iii -•
which were, nut only Tureu-l;ii->ian, but Eu-
ropean in their nature. 1( wa- d. ti rinined tliat
the settlement iinjKwed by the C/ur on the
Sultan should be n\ieu>d by a congress of
the Powers to be held in the city nf lirrlin,
on the 13th of July, 1878. This assembly
proved to be one of the most conspicuous of
modern times. England was represented by
the Earl of Beacousfield ; Austria, by (.'mint

CONGRESS OF BERLIN, 1878.

into an independent principality ; that Monte-
negro, Roumania, and Servia should become
independent ; that the Turkish government
in Bosnia and Herzegovina should be re-
formed; that Viddin, Rustehuk, and Silistria
should be surrendered ; that many Turkish
fortresses should be evacuated, and that a war
indemnity should be paid to Russia. In Feb-
ruary the Turkish and Russian ambassadors
assembled at San Stefano; and there, on the
3d of March, a treaty was signed on the basis
outlined above. It appeared for the time that
the Ottoman power was about to be crushed.

Andrassy; the German Empire, by Prince
Bismarck; Russia, by Gortchakof and Hiu-
valof. Twenty sessions of the congress were
held, and the provisions of the Treaty of San
Stefano were thoroughly reviewed. Many
amendments were adopted, some subtracting
from and others adding to the terms of the
recent settlement. The results of the confer-
ence were of a sort to give a temporary, if not
a permanent, check to the aggressive policy of
•ia, and to stay up for the brief period of
the present the fulling fortunes and ebbing vi-
tality of the Sick Man of the East.

1308

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

CHAPTER LVI.— CANADA AND MEXICO.

HE story of the early ex-
plorations and settlements
made by the French Jes-
uits in CANADA has al-
ready been given in a
former Book. The ear-
liest type of society es-
tablished beyond the St. Lawrence was after
the model of the Feudal System. Before the
middle of the seventeenth century an order
of nobility, so called, was planted on the great
river of the North; but the grand seigneurs
who flourished in that region had nothing but
their swords and uninhabited tracts of land to
indicate their social elevation above the rest
of mankind.

The early nobles of Canada, however,
were not so absolute in their rights and pre-
rogatives as were those of Europe. As time
went by the unsuitableness of the system
to the social conditions of the New World
became more and more apparent, and the
northern feudalism, like the similar absurd so-
cieties attempted in Virginia and Carolina,
fell into desuetude. The shadow of the Ca-
nadian feudal system remained until the mid-
dle of the present century when, in 1854,
it was formally abolished by the legislature.
The seigneurs, however, received an equitable
compensation for the alleged rights which they
had inherited from their fathers.

The civil and military history of New
France down to the year 1867 is contained in
the annals of the two provinces of Ontario
and Quebec. It will be recalled that in 1629
these countries of the St. Lawrence, which
until then had been the possessions of France,
were for a brief period secured by England.
The French had never regarded their colonies
as of much importance, and at the time of
the first English conquest, it was seriously de-
bated in the council of Louis XIII. whether
Canada should be again accepted or be left
as a burden in the hands of its conquerors.
It was decided, to retain the province, and by
the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye in 1632,
the country was re-ceded to France.

The next important event in the history
of the country of the St. Lawrence was the
great and disastrous earthquake of 1663. The
shocks began on the 5th of February, in that
year, and continued until the close of sum-
mer. They are represented as having been
the most severe ever experienced in the New
World, at least within the historic period. The
whole face of the country — such is the record
of tradition — was changed by the cataclysm.
Mountains sank down to the plain. Rivers
disappeared and other streams were altered in
appearance. The waters took new colors, and
lakes were formed in various districts. Even
the course of the St. Lawrence was changed
by the precipitation of two mountains, near
Three Rivers. Doubtless the traditional ac-
counts of the disaster have been exaggerated ;
for the loss of life is represented as having
been but trifling.

In the civil administration of these early
days the French governors were the military
commanders as well as the chief executives of
the province. The division of Canada in the
latter half of the seventeenth and beginning
of the eighteenth century was three-fold. The
principal province was Quebec, having for its
capital the city of the same name. The sec-
ond was called Three Rivers, and the third
Montreal. Each had its own provincial gov-
ernor and local administration. The religion
of the country wras Catholic, and the Jesuits
continued to exercise a dominant iufluence
in the direction of affairs. In the course of
time Quebec gained a kind of supremacy over
the other two colonies, and the French king es-
tablished the Supreme Council of Quebec as a
kind of court of final appeal for all the dis-
tricts of Canada. By this council all the
royal edicts, ordinances, declarations, and let-
ters patent issued by the king and the Parlia-
ment of France were registered and enforced.
The council was composed of the governor,
the bishop of Quebec, five associate judges,
and the king's attorney. Though the seat of
the court was generally at Quebec, its sittings
were sometimes held at Three Rivers, Mon-

MAP XXVIII.

CANADA

Reference to Cmaller Conntlea
la Quebec or Lower Canada.

Beforem-e to Smaller Countlei

in Ontario or Uj'|>cr Canada.
1 Eaarl 15 DlltOQ

8 Roue* ill.

7 1 ben ill*

8 St. John

9 Miasisquol

20 BNM

21 ShcfTord
CSBagot
88

THE NINETEENTH CKMTltY. r.i.v.l/M A\l> Ml MI n.

1809

trcal, and even less iin|Hirtaiit towns. It was
not long under this sy-tem of admini-tration
Until a conflict occurred between the eccle-i-

a-tical and tlic secular liranch of the govern-
ment, and in some instances the bishop proved
to be sufficiently powerful to effect the depo-
sition of the governor.

The story of the Anglo- American inva-ion
of Canada by Sir William I'hipps, in Ui'.iu.
has already been given in the colonial history
of New Knglaiid. Suffice it to say that the
expedition, which was specially directed against
Quebec, ended in failure and disgrace. Mass-
achusetts was obliged to meet the expenses of
the ill-omened business by an issuance of pa-
per scrip to be used as money. To this epoch
belongs the career of the great La Salle. How
that adventurous explorer with a few daunt-
less comrades traversed the wooded and watery
solitudes of the Northwest, solved the prob-
lem of the Mississippi, made vast plans for
colonization, drew the attention of France to
the possibility of an empire in Texas, and
was killed while following out his purposes
with tireless energy, — has already been told
in a former Book.' It was really the day of
promise for the French in the New World;
but the paralysis of Bourbonism was already
upon the nation, and the English were left
to gain an easy mastery in America.

In April of 1713, Louis XIV. agreed by
the treaty of Utrecht to relinquish to England
Hudson Bay, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia,
together with any claims which the French
might hold on the country of the Five Na-
tions south of the St. Lawrence. By this
compact the American possessions of France
were restricted to the valleys of the St. Law-
rence and Mississippi. It was the peculiarity
of this settlement that the real points of dan-
ger of future conflicts between the rival na-
tions in the New World were left unguarded.
There was little or no attempt to define the
respective American possessions of England
and France. What was the valley of the St.
Lawrence ? What was the valley of the Mis-
sissippi ? These were the questions which were
left to be determined by the French and In-
dian War. The causes and the course of that
conflict and the final issue of the struggle
have been fully narrated in the preceding

1 See Book Ninth, pp. SB

pages.1 It is not needed iii thi- connection to

M the hi-tory nf that conflict which,
17."ili to ITl'i.'l. made havoc HIIIOIIL' the oii
of civilization in America, and was onlv
brought to a tardy conelii-inn by the T:
of Paris. In accordance with thi- .-i-nli-nn-nt,
which proved the ruin of the French in
America, the Ki-dUh gained an undisputed
territorial supremacy on the Western Conti-
nent. All the French possessions in North
America eastward of the Mississippi from it»
source to the river Iberville, and thence thnmL'h
Lakes Maiirepu.s and Pontchartrain to the (iulf
of Mexico, were surrendered to Great Britain.
At the same time. Spain, with whom England
had been at war, ceded East and West Flor-
ida to the Engl-sh Crown.

From this time forth until the outbreak of
the American War of Independence, Canada
had a history in common with the other En-
glish Colonies in the New World. With tin-
coming of the Revolution, however, the des-
tiny of the country of the St. Lawrence be-
gan to diverge widely from that of the col-
onies lying to the south. The latter, owing
to their antecedents, became more and more
hostile to the assumptions of the British crown ;
but the former, untouched with the spirit of
Puritanism, remained loyal to England. All
of the seductive and patriotic appeals, made
by the incipient revolutionist.* of rebellious
Massachusetts, availed not with the people
of Canada to induce them to join in the
revolt against the mother country. Nor
did the efforts of the American patriots — a
stormy work in which Arnold displayed his
heroism and Montgomery lost his life — avail
to move the Canadians from their steady alle-
giance to the English crown. As a result the
Thirteen Colonies became American, and Can-
ada remained English as before.

The transfer of the Northern provinces, in
1763, had not essentially changed the character
of the population. Most of the people were
still French. They spoke the French lan-
guage and adhered to the Catholic religion.
From these conditions it would have been an-
ticipated that in case of a war with England
Canada would readily join in the rebellion.
But the memory of the French and Indian
War in which the American provincials had

'See Book Ninth, pp. 921-933.

1310

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

joined with Wolfe's regulars in the invasion
of Canada and the capture of her capital, was
still fresh in the minds of the Northerners,
and they would not affiliate with the rebel
patriots of 1776.

Just before the outbreak of the Revolution,
namely, in 1774, the English Parliament
passed an act for the better government of
Canada. It was provided that the Province
of Q,uebec should hereafter be under the leg-
islative direction of a royal council of not
fewer than seventeen or more than twenty-
three members, to be appointed by the king.
At the same time it was provided that the
benefits of English law more perfectly than

NIAGARA FALLS.

hitherto should be extended to the Canadians.
It appears that these salutary provisions for
a better government than the people had pre-
viously enjoyed added to the spirit of loyalty
which they soon afterwards displayed. In
the progress of the American war, Canada
not only remained true to her allegiance, but
furnished an excellent basis of operations for
British movements against America. It was
on the St. Lawrence that the formidable ex-
pedition of Burgoyne was organized, in 1777 ;
and from that position he bore down on the
patriots until he was swallowed up by their
ire at Saratoga.

The constitutional provisions made by Par-
liament for the government of Canada con-

tinued in force for seventeen years. In 1791,
however, a change of policy was adopted, and
another parliamentary act was passed by which
the so-called province of Quebec was divided
into Upper and Lower Canada. A great con-
cession was at the same time made to free
government by the formation of a popular as-
sembly for each of the provinces. The upper
branch of the legislature was to consist of a
council to be appointed by the crown. The
governor also received his appointment in like
manner. The latter officer had the power of
veto over legislative acts, or might at any rate
suspend such acts until what time the pleasure
of the king should be known. With the prog-
ress of events the
Church of England had
gained a firmer foot-
hold, and the new con-
stitution of 1791 pro-
vided that one-seventh
of the public lands
should be put aside for
the support of the Epis-
copal clergy. Almost
three and a half million
acres were thus set apart
for the endowment of
the Church. But this
theory of ecclesiastical
support was never fully
carried out. Only a
small per cent, of the
lands were devoted to
the intended purpose.
A few rectories were

built and parishes laid out after the manner of
England, but the Church would not flourish ;
and in 18§4 an act was passed by the Canadian
assembly whereby all the remaining church
lands were reclaimed by the government, and
devoted to secular purposes.

A sufficient account has already been given
of the serious domestic disturbance which oc-
curred in 1837, and which for a while threat-
ened a general rebellion in Canada against the
British government. The insurgents fortified
themselves on Navy Island in Niagara River,
and for a while could not be dislodged by the
loyalists ; but the latter obtained possession
of the Caroline, the supply-ship of the rebels,
fired the ship, and sent her aflame over Niag-

Tin-: .v/.\7.T/.7-;.\T// < i:\niRY.— <\\\M>.\ .\.\n MI.XICO.

1:511

ara Falls. The event soon proved that the
expectancy lit' tin- insurgent.* to ;:ain a power-
ful support from the people of the I'liiicd
States was fallacious. The movement collapsed
within the year,
and the loyalty
of the province
remained un-
shaken.

The British
government has
generally been
wise enough to
learn a lesson from
such disturbances.
The slow - going
and conservative
mind of England
profits much by
the fierce politi-
cal agitations to
which it is sub-
jected, and arises after each shock to a clearer
apprehension of the rights of man. The
Canadian revolt led, in 1841, to a peaceful
revolution in the administration of the prov-
ince by which the council or upper House of
the legislature was virtually subordinated to

of Canada became directly re.poii-ilvle to the
people.

For a while a disposition was shown to pun-
i.-li tlio-e who had engaged in tin- recent in-ur-

PARUAMEN'T HOCSE, OTTAWA.

LXIVHR8ITY OF TORONTO.

rertion; but this rigor was gradually relaxed,
and in 1849 an act of general amnesty was
passed by the assembly. The same year wit-
nessed a serious riot in Montreal, which, by
the act of union of 1*11. had become the cap-
ital of Upper and Lower Canada. It had
been proposed — in-
deed a measure was
now pending to this
effect— that th. losses
which certain parties
had suffered in the
revolt of 1837-38,
should be compen-
sated out of the pub-
lic treasury. Angered
at this proceeding, a
great mob rose in
anus, attacked and
de-t roved the parlia-
ment houses in Mont-
real. The legislature
retired from the city.
and for a while the
sessions of the body

were held for alter-

the popular assembly. The movement was
so important as to have boon with good rea-
son likened to the English revolution of

nate qtiadrennitims at Toronto and Quebec.
In 1857 the seat of government was perma-
nently fixed at Ottawa. Fine public build

1688. From this time forth the government i equal in expensiveness and architectural taste

1312

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

to most of those in Europe, were here erected,
and have since continued to be used for the
purposes of general administration in the new
confederation.

From 1841 to 1867 the countries of Upper
and Lower Canada remained united as one
state under the title of the Province of Can-
ada. In the latter year another reorganization
was effected, and the name of the country was
changed to the Dominion of Canada. But the
two provinces became respectively Upper Can-
ada, and the Province of Ontario. Since that
epoch the Dominion has had a steady and
prosperous growth, not only in population but

former chapter.1 Nor is it appropriate in this
connection to enter into a dissertation on the
manner*, customs, and institutions of the an-
cient Mexicans. The first regular govern-
ment in New Spain was established in 1522,
under Cortez himself. Six years later a new
administration was instituted under Nuuo de
Guzman. The arbitrary exactions of this
governor, whose practices were tyrannical in
a hist degree, produced so great discontent
among the Spanish colonies that the mutter-
ings reached the ears of Charles V., and Guz-
man was displaced to make room for a vice-
regal government, which the Emperor now

FOUNTAIN AND AQUEDUCT, CITY

in all the elements of progress. Though by
no means comparable with the United States
in rapid and astonishing developments, Canada
has, nevertheless, revealed many of the ele-
ments of strength and greatness ; and under
recent administrations, especially that of the
Marquis of Lome, the country has been not
only highly reputable as a political power, but
largely influential in the affairs of North
America.

A civilization very different is that of
MEXICO. Of the condition of that country in
the time of Cortez, and of the wars in which
the native subjects of Montezuma engaged, in
the fierce struggle which ensued for the mastery
of the country, a sketch has been given in a

appointed. The first viceroy was Antonio de
Mendoza, whose term of office extended from
1535 to 1550. Great progress was made dur-
ing this administration. Mexico became the
most enlightened of the Spanish colonies. The
country was explored from north to south.
The first money was coined in the New World.
The first printing-press ever used west of the
Atlantic was set up in Mexico. There, also,
a university of learning was established as
early as the middle of the sixteenth century.

Between this epoch and the beginning of
the struggle for Mexican independence, in
1821, the country was ruled by a succession
of sixty-four viceroys, of whom only one was

1 See Book Seventh, pp. 561-563.

' ' *TCato -ceb ' *

OutleTO'i ,3ritrfii°all» "Dr.Arroyn

igituilo West 101 from Greenwich

7V//; .Y/.Y/.77.7-..Y77/ r/.V/77.T. i .I.Y.I/'.! .l.\7< .W.A7CO.

born in America. The greatest of all these
reigns was that of Juan Vicente Pacheco,
\\hose rule extended from 1789 to 1794. It
was at this time that most of the important
improvements of Mexico were made. The
streets of the principal city were paved and
lighted. Tho.se great drains and sewers, which
still attract the attention of the traveler, were
constructed. A system of municipal govern-
ment was instituted, more perfect in its de-
tails than could have been expected of the
age and country. Regular taxes were imposed
and collected, and elections held, at which
only persons of reputable character were al-
lowed to present themselves for office.

If we glance at the social condition of
Mexico at the beginning of the present cent-
ury, we find four distinct classes of people.
These were, first, the native Indians ; second,
the Creoles, or people of Spanish descent but
Mexican birth ; third, Spaniards born in Eu-
rope ; fourth, the Mestizos — half-breeds, or
crosses between the Mexicans and the Indians.

The first class, with the exception of the
chiefs or caciques, was held in a subjection
amounting almost to servitude by the domi-
nant race. The Creoles, though strong in
numbers, were weak in influence ; for they
were, as a rule, excluded from office, and
even from any but common service in the
army. It was the policy of Spain to govern
Mexico by those who were certainly in her
home interest, and under this theory she lim-
ited the administration of provincial affairs to
Spaniards proper, that is, to those who were
born in Spain. This method bore hard on the
natives ; but the latter, being oppressors them-
selves, could not well resist the foreign gov-
ernment which was imposed upon them.
Should the Creoles have made a rebellion
they would have been attacked from the
other side by the Mestizos and Indians.

Such was the condition of affairs when, in
1808, Napoleon I. overthrew the Spanish
Bourbons. The shock of the revolution was
at once felt in Mexico. The provincial gov-
ernment became almost as much convulsed as
that of Spain. The alleged usurpation of
Bonaparte was denounced by both the Span-
ish and Creole factious; and for the time it
appeared that the two would make common
cause. But when it came to the organiza-
voi.. 1 1.- 83

lion of a provi-innal <_'overnincnt, n step made
necessary by the alulicaiion of l-Yrdimind VII.
of Spain, violent di-pules l>n>ke nut, and the
viceroy, Iturripiray, \va> wi/rd and thrown
into pri.-on.

It appears that the Mexicans now came t-.
understand that they could survive and flour-
ish without a foreign governor. There were
signs of a spirit of nationality and independ-
ence. The influence of the Spanish govern-
ment rapidly declined. In 1810 a conspiracy
was organized by the priest, Miguel Hidalgo,
a man whose influence over the lower classes
was very powerful. A formidable insurrec-
tion broke out in the province of Guanajuato,

MESTIZO M1IDIN.

and the rebellious army grew to a host of a
hundred thousand men. But Hidalgo's insur-
gents were poorly armed, and were presently
defeated in several battles. Hidalgo himself
was taken and shot, and the rebels were, for
the time, dispersed. Soon afterwards, how-
ever, another priest, named Morelos, rekindled
the fire of insurrection, and in 1813 a na-
tional congress was convened at Chilpanchi-
ugo. An act was passed declaring the inde-
pendence of Mexico, and in the following
year the first Mexican constitution was pro-
nuilinUed.

But the better equipment and disci-
pline of the viceregal army soon gave the ad-
vantage to the old government, and the Na-

1314

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

tionals, under Morelos and other popular
leaders, were several times defeated. In De-
cember of 1815 the leader was taken, carried
to Mexico, condemned, and shot. For the
next two years the war was carried on in the
manner of guerrillas. The patriots broke into
bands, and when unable to meet the forces
of the government in the field, took to the
mountains. It seemed impossible, on the one
hand, for order ever to be restored by the
Spanish government; and on the other, for

FERDINAND TO.

the Nationals to gain their independence. By
degrees, however, the partisan troops were
beaten down, and by the time of the restora-
tion of peace in Europe by the congresses of
Vienna and Aix-la-Chapelle, the Spanish pro-
vincial authority in Mexico was, in a measure,
re-established. But when, in 1820, the news
came of the revolution which had broken out
in Spain, and of the proclamation of the lib-
eral constitution which Ferdinand VII. had
been compelled to grant to his subjects, the
agitation was at once renewed in Mexico.
Thus far the patriot party had had no com-

petent leadership. At this juncture, howerer,
a native Mexican soldier, Colonel Don Au-
gustine Iturbide, who had served on the roy-
alist side in the recent Civil War, appeared
at the head of the National party, and in
February, 1821, proclaimed the independence
of Mexico. The movement now drew to its
support the better classes of Mexicans, and
the revolt, headed by Iturbide, was soon suc-
cessful. The government in the provinces
was quickly overthrown, and the Spanish vice-
roy, Don Juan O'Donoju, was cooped up
in the capital. But this city soon fell into
the hands of the Nationals, and on the
24th of August, 1821, O'Donoju signed a
treaty at Cordova, by which the independ-
ence of Mexico was recognized. A re-
gency was formed with Iturbide at the
head, and O'Donoju as one of the mem-
bers of the government.

Ambition now came in to mar the
work of popular revolution. The army
and the Mexican mob of patriots pro-
claimed Iturbide Emperor with the title
of Augustin I. This happened in May of
1822. The style of government thus
about to be established was exceedingly
distasteful to the genuine republicans,
and in the course of a few months a
counter insurrection broke out at Vera
Cruz, under the leadership of Antonio
Lopez de Santa Anna. The latter was
supported by several other popular lead-
ers, and the Mexican Republic was pro-
claimed at Vera Cruz. Two armies were
organized, and the country was about to
be involved in a bloody civil war when,
on the 19th of March, 1823, Iturbide ab-
dicated the throne and was sent into exile.
Before this act, however, the alleged Em-
peror had convoked a Mexican Congress. That
body immediately undertook the woik of re-
organization. A new constitution was pre-
pared on the basis of that of the United
States. The Mexican Republic was organized,
with nineteen states and five territories. The
new government was proclaimed on the 4th
of October, 1824, and General Don Felix
Fernando Victoria was elected President.
Soon afterwards the banished Iturbide came
back from London, was arrested as a conspir-
ator, condemned, and executed.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— CANADA AM) MEXICO.

1315

The first administration of the new repub-
lic went by with comparative success. Hut
when, in 182X, tin- time ;irrived lor a ]m -i
dential election and General Gomez Pedraza
was elected chief magistrate, the defeated
party took up arms under the opposing candi-
date, General Guerrero, and Pedraza was
driven from power. Guerrero took the presi-
dency on the 1st of April, 1829, and soon
afterwards secured from the government of
the United States a formal recognition of the

tinned until 1831, when <iu.-rnn. was seized
and 1-xeeuteil.

In i In- next fliM-tinn <M-n.-ral IVdruza wai
again chosen President. But, about three
months after entering on his official duties, in
1833, he was a second time- de[M»sed and
driven from power. This time the h-adi-r -.1'
the opposition was Santa Anna, who took the
presidency for himself. The late executive
BusUimante was, with several of his adherent*,
sent into exile. Nor could it be denied that

CITY OF MEXICO.

Republic of Mexico. The same year was
marked by an attempt on the part of Spain to
recover her supremacy. A Spanish army
under General Barradas was sent to Mexico in
July of 1829, and landing near Tampico, be-
gan an invasion of the country. But General
Bustamante, Vice-president of the Republic,
led forth the national troops and soon com-
pelled Barradas to surrender. The Vice-pres-
ident then made a proclamation against the
usurping Guerrero and drove him from the
presidency. A civil war broke out, and con-

the violent proceedings of Santa Anna were
accompanied with beneficial reforms. A law
was passed for the abolition of the Mexican
convicts, and another interdicting the com-
pulsory payment of tithes. The President
also proposed that the property of the Church
should be confiscated for the payment of the
national debt This project, however, was not
carried into effect, and the agitation resulted
in several serious revolts.

In 1835 the constitution of 1824 was abol-
ished, and a new frame of government, leas

1316

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ENTRANCE TO CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO.

democratic but more sub-
stantial, was produced. The
office of President was .«till
retained, but the executive
powers were so much en-
larged as to constitute a
virtual dictatorship. Santa
Anna was continued at the
head of the new govern-
ment. The revolution was
quietly accepted in the
Mexican states proper, but
was resisted in Texas, in
which country the Ameri-
can colonists had already
scattered the seeds of the
Texan revolution, which
was about to ensue. The
people of Texas chose to
regard the presidency of
Santa Anna as a usurpation,
and the government which
had been established under
his auspices as a centralized
despotism. The hostile at-
titude of the Texans in-
duced Santa Anna, in the
beginning of 1836, to un-
dertake a campaign against
the rebellious province —
an expedition which re-
sulted, on the 21st of April,
in the ruinous defeat of
the Mexican army at the
battle of San Jacinto, and
the capture of the President.
Then followed the declara-
tion of Texan independence,
the visit of Santa Anna to
Washington City, the usur-
pation of the Mexican gov-
ernment by Bustamante,
and the return, in 1837,
of Santa Anna to Mexico.
A period of great civil
discord ensued, in which
the dictatorship was for the
most part held by the late
President and by Generals
Bravo and Canalizo. For
three years, from 1841 to
1844, this confusion and

THE MM;TI:I;\TH CSNTUBY. < .I.Y.I /M .\.\i> MI.MCO.

turmoil continued. At the latter date the
constitution (>i' !*:;.> again went into operation,
ami Santa Anna was again elccte.l I're.-iilent.
But his accession to power, or rather lii.s con-
tinuance, led immediately to another ruvolu-
lution, in which he was deposed and super-
seded by General Canalize. But he, in his
turn, was obliged to give up his office to
General Herrera, who held the presidency
until December of 1845, and was then de-
by violence. During his brief admin-

1317

spection .,f the new boundary line of Mexico,
along tin- Kio (Jramle, tile south, rn l,.,r.|,.r of
Mexico, the Uivers (iila an. I Oofa

\\e-nvanl to tile 1'aeilie, ,yil| ,(„,„ a, ., „;

how greatly tin- Mrxi.-an d,.,,,!,,;,,,,,, were re-
duced by the war. Nor could it be said that
the small sum of fifteen millions of dollars,
which the United States agreed to pay for her
immense acquisitions, was at all fairly com-
pensatory to t|,,. Mexican government for its
tremendous losses.

Mtf

STORMING OF PUEBLA B

istration, the republic of Texas was annexed
to the United States — an act which led imme-
diately to the conflict between the latter
country and Mexico.

The story of the Mexican War, from the
beginning of hostilities on the Rio Grande to
its conclusion by the treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo, in February of 1848, has already
been fully narrated in a former chapter.1
It is sufficient, in this connection, to note the
ruinous terms which the victorious power was
pleased to exact of the vanquished. An in-

'See ante, pp. 1155-1160.

For a while after the Mexican War, Hanta
Anna, blamed with the disastrous results, was
under the disfavor of his countrymen. For
four years he lived abroad, but after the pres-
idencies of Herrera and Arista he was, in
1853, recalled, and for the fjlh time made
President of Mexico. He was soon suspected
of concocting a scheme for making the office
which he held hereditary, or at least of secur-
ing to himself the right of appointing his own
successor. On this account another revolution
broke out, and in 1855 Santa Anna was de-
posed by General Alvarez, who succeeded to

1318

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the place of chief magistrate. The latter,
however, was more patriotic than ambitious,
and soon resigned his trust to General Comon-
fort, who became President in December
of 1855.

A violent agitation now ensued between
the administration and the party of the
church. Early in 1856 the President recom-
mended to Congress a measure looking to the
confiscation and sale of the church lands. The
recommendation was accepted, and an act was
passed for this purpose, and for the establish-

Conspiracies were made in many parts of the
country, and Comonfort with difficulty re-
tained the presidency till January of 1858,
when he was superseded by Zuloaga, and
obliged to fly from the country. The acces-
sion of Zuloaga, however, was contrary to the
constitution ; for that instrument provided
that in case of an abdication the presidency
should pass to the chief-justice of Mexico.
In accordance with this provision Benito Jua-
rez, the supreme judge, came forward, and
claimed the executive office. Zuloaga at

ENTRY OF THE FRENCH INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO.

nipnt of the freedom of religious belief in
Mexico. About the same time an agitation
began for the formation of a more democratic
constitution. Such an instrument was framed
and accepted by the government in 1857, and
with a greater enlightenment of the Mexican
people it would have appeared that the coun-
try might now have peace. But at this junc-
ture it was foolishly resolved by the govern-
ment to repudiate a portion of the national
debt due to Spain. The unwisdom and dis-
honesty of this course portended war, and
Mexico appealed to the United States for aid.

length gave way, but turned over the presi-
dency to one of his own supporters, General
Miguel Miramon. Juarez retired to Vera
Cruz, and there established himself according
to the constitution. The latter was recognized
as President by the government of the United
States, and was at length successful in enter-
ing the City of Mexico and completely estab-
lishing his authority.

This change was followed by the most sal-
utary reforms. Juarez showed himself capable
of heroic measures. Thoroughly acquainted
with the political vices of his country, he laid

T1IK NINETEENTH CENTURY.— CANADA AND MEXICO.

1319

the axe at the root of the tree. Even while
still at Vera Cruz he proclaimed the refornia-
tory policy as the true work of liis adminis-
tration. Once firmly seated in the presidency,
lie carried forward his measures with a strong
and steady hand. Marriage was declared to
be a civil contract. Perpetual monastic vows
were abolished. The ecclesiastical trilinnaN,
which had always arrogated to themselves the
right of meddling with the administration of
justice in Mexico, were suppressed. The
monasteries were put down. The enor-
mous landed property of the church,
valued at more than three hundred mil-
lions of dollars, or about one-half of all
the real estate in Mexico, was confiscated
and given over to the uses of the state.
Church and state were legally separated,
and the mediaeval regime, by which Mex-
ico had been enthralled in fetters and
darkness, was thoroughly broken up.

The effect of these reformatory meas-
ures was greatly to enrage the partisans
of the ancient order. Juarez was assailed
by every missile known to the experienced
hands of religious bigotry. It chanced
that among those who had suffered from
the confiscation of the church estates, by
actual possession or by holding mort-
gages on the same, were many citizens of
European states. Spain, France, and
England were all thus represented in
the losses which the clerical party had
sustained by the secularization of the ec-
lesiastical properties. This fact furnished
a good excuse to foreign powers to in-
terfere in the internal affairs of Mexico.
Remonstrances and demands for satis-
faction were sent to the government,
but such demands were either ignored
or disallowed. In October of 1861 a con-
ference of the three kingdoms just men-
tioned was held in London, and President
Jaurez was notified that if the demands of
the powers were not at once complied with
he might expect an invasion of his do-
minions.

But even this had no effect, and in De-
cember of 1861 a Spanish army, commanded
by General Juan Prim, count of Reus, was
landed at Vera Cruz. In the following month
the forces of France and England arrived.

and the city was taken. It Boon appeared,
however, that tin- Haiiii- of (Jr.. -it Hritain, as
well as those of Spain, against Mi-\i'-o, i->,uld
be easily adjusted. It was agreed by the
Mexican government that such claims should
be discharged, and for thin purpose a portion
of the customs duties of tho republic was set
aside. A settlement was immediately effected
as to Spain and England, and in the follow-
ing May the armies of those two powers were
withdrawn from the country. Not so, how-
ever, with the French. The forces of Napo-

MAXIMILIAN.

leon III. remained in Mexico, and it became
evident that the covert purpose of the French
Emperor was to subvert the existing form of
government It was soon discovered, more-
over, that the scheme of France was pro-
moted, if not originally suggested, by the
Mexican diplomatist, General Almonte, who
had been minister of war during the presi-
dency of Bustamante, and afterwards ambas-
sador at Paris. The plot became more evi-
dent when, in 1862, Almonte was made
dictator by the authorities of Vera Cruz, sup-
ported by the French. But his usurpation

1320

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

was of brief extent, for iii the following Octo-
ber he was deposed by the same power which
had lifted him to office. The last mouths of
1862 and the beginning of 1863 were occu-
pied with a war between the French and the
native army. The old city of Puebla was at-
tacked by the invading army, and after sev-
eral assaults was carried by storm. On the
10th of June, 1863, the City of Mexico was
taken by the French, and Juarez and his
ministry obliged to retire to San Luis Potosi.

chief supporters of Maximilian, were shot at
the same time with himself.1 President Juarez
soon returned in triumph to the City of Mex-
ico, and in October of 1867 was reflected to
the chief magistracy of the republic. While
he was engaged in the work of reconstructing
the government, that ancient specter of the
past, Santa Anna, appeared on the horizon,
and undertook to raise an insurrection against
the constituted authorities. He even suc-
ceeded in gaining possession of some of the

EXECUTION OF THE EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN AND GENERALS MEJIA AND MIRAMON.

As soon as the French were in possession of
the capital an assembly of the Mexican nota-
bles was convened and an act passed estab-
lishing a hereditary monarchy, under a Cath-
olic Emperor.

The story of the election of Maximilian of
Austria, of his acceptance of the Mexican
crown, of his attempt to establish his govern-
ment on the ruins of Mexican republicanism,
of the disastrous collapse, and of the capture
and execution of the ill-fated Emperor at
Quere'taro, has already been narrated. Gen-
erals Miramon and Mejia, who had been the

ports on the gulf, but was presently captured
and condemned to an eight years' banishment.
His rebellion was of little consequence in
itself, but was the precursor of several other
revolts which took place in 1868-69. In 1871
President Juarez was reelected. The opposing
candidates being General Diez and Don Sebas-
tian Lerdo. He was the first chief magistrate
of the republic of Mexico who was permitted to
serve through a full term of office. His
death, in July of 1872, was a calamity to the
country, to whose reformation, peace, and

'See ante, p. 1240.

AMI:I:I

prosperity he had contributed more than any
other ruliT that country iia<l ever known.
His acces.-ion to power in Mexico marked the
turning-point at which the military methods,
which hail hithcrlo prevailed, gave place to a
true civil administration. The great reforms
which he projected came like a shock from a
battery to the lethargic body politic of the

priest-ridden and oppressed country which he
was called to jnivern; anil inii'-li i.t' the repu-
tation which Mexico ha.- jjaineil in tin- laM
decade as a n -p, , ial,!,- ami rising state nm-t
ever be attributed to the wisdom, patrioti.-m,
prudence, ami courage of Benito I'uhln Juarez,
greatest of the statesmen whom that
has yet produced.

CHAPTER LVII.— THE SOUTH AMERICAN STATI

IEYOND the Isthmus of
Darien, stretching from
the upper arm of the
United States of Colom-
bia, in latitude 13° N. to
the ocean-beaten cliffs of
Cape Horn, lies the great
continent of SOUTH AMERICA. In this vast
region civilization has had a tardy growth.
Though discovered at as early a date as North
America, it chanced in
the vicissitude of things
that the South Ameri-
can coast did not, in the
age of voyage and dis-
covery, feel the impact
of any vigorous race.
What with the greater
expanse of water lying
between that coast and
the shores of Europe,
and what with the more
powerful exhibition of
those forces of nature
with which men must
contend in the creation
of civilized states, the
development of the
various kingdoms and

republics of South America was late in be-
ginning and slow in progress.

If we begin a cursory survey of the
various political powers now spread before
us in this great peninsula, we shall find, first
of all, running up and including the Isthmus
of Panama, bounded on the north by the
Caribbean Sea and on the west by the
Pacific, the UNITKD ST v n> OF COLOMBIA.

formerly known as NEW GRANADA. At the
present time this state is a republic in govern-
ment, consisting of nine divisions, somewhat
like the states of the American Union. The
coast of this country was first traced by Ojeda,
in 1499. The Vice-royalty of Granada was
created in 1718, and the first struggle for
national independence occurred near the close
of the eighteenth century. For a while, how-
ever, Spain held her grip, and it was not

ri.IFFS OF CAPE HORN.

until 1811 that actual independence was pro-
claimed. Eight years afterwards, the people,
under the lead of Bolivar, succeeded in their
efforts, and a union was formed with Quito
and Venezuela, the new state being known as
the Republic of Colombia. After an exist-
ence of ten years this union was dissolved,
and Venezuela and Quito resumed their
former political conditi'-u. New Granada be-

1322

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

came an independent republic in 1831, and a
constitution was promulgated in the follow-
ing year.

The model of the new government was that
of the United States. For twenty-eight years
the course of events was comparatively unruf-
fled ; but in 1860 a popular revolution broke
out against the conservative administration of
President Ospina. In July of 1861 Bogota,
the capital, was captured by the insurgents
and the government assumed by General Mos-
quera, leader of the rebellion. In the follow-

as an ambassador, and in the following year a
treaty was concluded between our country and
the lesser republic, by which the former ac-
quired the right to construct a canal across the
Isthmus of Panama. In 1870 the compact
was amended and amplified, and the influence
of the United States confirmed in that region.
Since this epoch, the affairs of Colombia have
greatly improved, and the lover of free insti-
tutions in South America finds many causes
of gratification and promise as respects the
future of the state.

SHELTER FOR TRAVELERS IN THE ANDES.

ing. October the Congress of the Republic
assembled, and the name of the country was
changed to the United States of Colombia.
But the civil conflict did not end until De-
cember, 1862. The constitution was modified.
The President's term was reduced to two years
instead of four. From 1863 to 1867 Mosquera
continued in authority. But the majority in
Congress became opposed to his policy, and he
was driven into exile. Columbia, in this stage
of her affairs, sought to steady her fragile in-
stitutions by an appeal to the United States
Of America. In 1868 Caleb Gushing was sent

The history of VENEZUELA is very similar
to that of Colombia. This coast was visited
by Columbus in 1498. The name of the re-
public signifies Little Venice. For the shore
lines from the mouth of the Orinoco west-
ward is so much indented and the lake regions
so pronounced as to justify the analogy ex-
pressed in the name. Venezuela was the seat
of some of the oldest settlements in the New
World. Many of these antedated the middle
of the sixteenth century. About the year
1700 a Spanish company was formed for the
cultivation of indigo and cacao. Under the

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE SOUTH AMMiH .I.V STATES

auspices of this corporation the principal set-
tlements in Venezuela were made and gov-
erned until 1778. When tfapoleoa I. •
threw the Bourbon dynasty of Spain tin- -amr
effects were first produced in the South Amer-
ican colonies as in Mexico. A spirit of loy-
alty was awakened for the overthrown house.
But in the course of time a revolutionary re-
action took place, and in 1811 Venezuela de-
clared her independence. Freedom was won

Blanco ho.-tiliti'-< broke out afresh, and t'"r
several years the civil government was at th<-
ini-rcy of hostile faction*. In 1-7:; Bin
authority was renewed lor tour \.;lr- and the
government became a virtual dictatorship.
Hut the methods of the pr. -id.-nt, though ar-
bitrary, were generally just, ami tli.< . -n forced
quiet was preferable to the previous anarchy.
Of the same general character with the
two preceding states is the republic of Eco-

GATHERINO PERUVIAN BARK.

under General Bolivar, and the three states
next to the isthmus formed a republican union.
For several years Spanish authorities sought
to recover their supremacy, but the revolution
had gone too far to be counteracted. In
1829-30 Venezuela became independent, and
a republican constitution was adopted. For
a decade and a half the government was ad-
ministered by Presidents Paez, Vargas, and
Soublette. With the accession of General
Monagas, in 1846, until the election of Gen-
eral Falcon, in 1863, the country was involved
in civil war. For two years tranquillity was
restored, but under the presidency of Guzman

ADOR, the ancient kingdom of Quito. This
country, one of the most varied in the world,
composed of snow-capped mountain peaks,
dense forests and vast savannas, was at the
first a dependency of Peru under the general
dominion of Spain. This relation was main-
tained from the middle of the sixteenth to the
beginning of the nineteenth century. It is
probable that Quito was the most prodii'
of all the Spanish colonies. In the year 1809
the yoke of Spain was thrown off by the
Ecuadorians, who sought to gain their freedom
by war with the mother country. In May of
1822 a decisive battle was fought at Pichincha,

1324

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

and independence was achieved. In common
with the United States of Colombia and Ven-
ezuela, Quito proclaimed a republic, and en-
tered into union with her sister states of the
North. The true independence of the country,
however, dates from 1831, when the present
name of Ecuador was adopted. For a long
time the state was embroiled with civil wars,
and this condition of affairs was not ended

BELLE OF PEEU.

until the beginning of hostilities with Peru in
1852. This struggle continued six years, and
even after the establishment of peace with the
foreign power domestic insurrections were of
such frequent occurrence as to prevent the
development of the state. In 1869 the city
of Guayaquil was destroyed by fire, and Quito
laid in ruins by an earthquake. A little later
an unsuccessful effort was made by President
Mosquera, of New Granada, to reconstruct the

old Colombian republic, and his ambitious
scheme led to a war, in which the Ecuadorians
were defeated. For several years civil discord
reigned until the accession to the presidency
of Garcia Moreno in 1869. Even he was
obliged to resign before the end of his official
term and was succeeded by Rafael Carvajal,
whose administration extended over a period
of six years.

Of the history of ancient PERU,
something has been already pre-
sented in a former Book. The
country, perhaps the most famous
of the early States of South Amer-
ica, still holds an important rank.
Here products, especially the Pe-
ruvian bark and the guano, are in
demand in every part of the world.
The story of Pizarro need not be
repeated. About the middle of
the sixteenth century a civil gov-
ernment was firmly established by
the Spanish viceroy, Pedro de la
Gasca. The ancient empire of the
Incas became one of the four prin-
cipal Spanish dependencies in the
New World. Until near the close
of the eighteenth century Peru was
of vast territorial extent, but in
1776 the provinces of La Plata,
Potosi, Charcas, Chiquitos, and
Paraguay were torn away in order
to form the new government of
Buenos Ayres. In 1780 a formid-
able Peruvian rebellion broke out,
but was presently suppressed. Peru
was one of the most loyal of the
Spanish American states. She was
the last to become independent of
the mother country. Her inde-
pendence was declared in July of
1821. Three years afterwards, the
war with Spain still continuing, General
Bolivar became dictator, and a few months
later the Spanish army was decisively defeated.
It was at this epoch that the state
of Bolivia was wrested from the parent re-
public to become an independent confedera-
tion. The Peruvian annals subsequent to this
event are so similar in character to those of
the states already named in this chapter that
their recital in detail would prove uninterest-

Till. MM.TI.I-.M'll (7-;.V 77 •/.•)•. Till, >'>r/// I Ml i;l< .l.Y STA II S

ing and monotonous. In the year 1837 war
broke out between Peru and Chili, but peace
was concluded after a few months of conflict.
After this General Gainarra was choseu 1'r. -
ident, but was killed in 1841, in a battle in
ll'ilivia. The next chief magistrate was Men-
endez, who was deposed from office iu IMi'.
The two following years were occupied with
another civil w:ir, of which General Castilla
was the hero. Being himself elected to the
presidency, he restored order in the country,
and the following five years were a period of
prosperity unparalleled in the history of the
country. Afterwards, during the presidency
of General Eehinique, whose administration
was too corrupt to be tolerated, another revo-
lution was headed by Castilla. Against him
another leader arose, named Vivanco, who for
a while besieged his rival in a town of Callao,
which was defended by a body of European
and American soldiers. By these Vivanco
was repulsed, but his fleet still held sway over
the neighboring waters. It was at this junc-
ture that the two American ships, Georgiana
and Lizzie Thompson, gathering guano on the
coast, were captured by one of Castilla's
steamers. This act of violence was followed
up by others of like sort, until what time the
attention of the American government was
drawn to the outrages, and Peru obliged to
make ample reparation for the damage which
she had inflicted.

In 1858, Castilla succeeded in capturing
the city of Arequipa, and presently reestab-
lished his authority throughout the country.
Meanwhile he had published a proclamation
freeing the slaves, and at one time extended
his authority over Ecuador. Several attempts
were made to assassinate the President, but
these proved abortive, and he continued in
power until the expiration of his term. The
next chief magistrate was General San Ra-
mon, elected in 1862. In the following year
he died in office, and was succeeded by Gen-
eral Pezet, during whose administration a war
broke out, occasioned by the seizure of the
Cliiucha Islands. The conflict resulted favor-
ably to the Peruvians, but the seizure cost
them a war indemnity of three million dollars.
The agreement to pay this large sum was re-
garded by one of the political parties as trea-
sonable. President Pezet was deposed, and

the war with Spain liroke out anew. Chili
and Peru entereil into an ullian< ,-. ainl in
l*r,ii the Spani.-h army was driven I'rnin the
country.

In the following year the prc^-nt Peruvian
constitution was adoptc.l. j{,,t |,,.|,,r,. tln-
Miiiient was one year old the ruling Pre*-
ident, General 1'rado, was driven from office,
and obliged to leave the country. Baltn, tin-
next chief magistrate, was aasaninated in
1872. This event, however, seemed to put an
end to the fierce broils which had continued
for more than a quarter of a century, and
with the accession of Don Manuel 1'rado to
the presidency, an interval of peace ensued,
during which national industry was promoted,
railways built, commerce encouraged, and an
interest excited in the education of the people.

We have now reached by far the most
important of the South American states —
BRAZIL. It was on the coast of this country
that Amerigo Vespucci made his most impor-
tant discoveries. Even before his day, a
greater than he, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, sailing
under the flag of Emanuel, king of Portugal,
and attempting to follow the course of De
Gama, was driven to these shores on the 22d
of April, 1500. It was on his return to Por-
tugal that Vespucci published what purported
to be a map of the New World, from which
circumstance he gained for the Western conti-
nent the name of America. The dye-woods,
of which Brazil is so wonderfully productive,
gave a lucrative trade to the early Portuguese
merchants, who, in the times of King John
III., had already claimed a monopoly of this
branch of commerce. It was to maintain
these advantages of trade that the first Portu-
guese colonies were established in Brazil.
For a while the settlements thus planted
flourished greatly. But in the course of time
the savages, as in North America, became
hostile, and the nobles who had thus far con-
ducted the enterprise were obliged to turn
over the colonies to the government of Por-
tugal.

In 1549 the first Portuguese governor
of Brazil was appointed. His name was
Thoum^ de Souza. He established his gov-
ernment at Sao Salvador da Bahia, which
was at that time the capital of Brazil. Six
years after his arrival, a French colony

1326

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

planted on an island in the bay of Rio de
Janeiro. The founder of the settlement was
Admiral Villegagnon, whose bad faith and
worse management led to the extinction of
the colony after an existence of ten years. It
was in 1567 that the city of Sao Sebantiiio,
afterwards called Rio de Janeiro, was founded
by the Portuguese. Thirteen years afterwards
Portugal was annexed to Spain by Philip II.,
and the colonies of the former state passed
under the dominion of the latter. So far as
Brazil was concerned, the change was not
salutary. By this time the rapacity of the
Spaniards had wakened the hostility of half
the world. Savage tribes, as well as civilized
nations, had come to dread her cruel and
domineering spirit. It were hard to say
whether, at this epoch, Spain was more cor-
dially hated by England, by France, or by
Dutchland. As a result of these conditions,
the coast towns of Brazil suffered greatly at
the hands of the enemies of the parent state.

In 1612 the province of Maranhao was
seized by the French, and the city of Sao Louiz
founded, only to be captured by the Portu-
guese in the following year. In 1623 a Dutch
fleet took Bahia and held it for two years, at
the expiration of which time they were ex-
pelled. In 1629 Pernambuco fell into the
hands of the Dutch, who were indefatigable
in their efforts to gain possession of the whole
country. In this ambition they were success-
ful, in so far as to obtain possession of all Bra-
zil north of Pernambuco, except Pard.

Such was the condition of affairs at the
middle of the seventeenth century. But the
Portuguese were in no wise tolerant of foreign
domination. They rose vindictively upon
the invaders, and, in a war of five years' dura-
tion, succeeded in driving them out of the
country. In 1660 a treaty was concluded, by
the terms of which the whole Brazilian terri-
tory was freed from the presence of the Dutch.

Meanwhile Portugal, always restive under
Spanish domination, revolted against the king
of Spain, and, led by John IV. of Braganza,
recovered her independence. The House of
Braganza was permanently restored to the
Portuguese throne, and the heir apparent of
that kingdom was given the title of Prince of
Brazil. These events happened about twenty
years before the expulsion of the Dutch, and

it can not be doubted that the revulsion in the
parent state contributed much to make and
keep the Portuguese dominant in Brazil.

Of all the South American countries, the
colonies of Portugal had greatest peace and
prosperity. From the earliest time the prin-
cipality of Brazil appeared to possess stability
and permanency. In the course of time the
great mineral wealth of the country, especially
in gold and diamonds, was discovered, and a
wonderful impetus was given to wealth and
population. At length the seat of govern-
ment was transferred from Bahia to Rio de
Janeiro, which has ever since remained the
metropolis of South America. When, in
1807, the House of Braganza was overthrown
by Napoleon, John VI., the reigning sover-
eign of Portugal, fled with his court to Brazil,
and took up his residence at the capital.
The movement was so important as to
almost reverse the relations between the
principality and the parent state. The Bra-
zilian constitution was modified and adapted
to the altered condition. The restrictions
which had been laid by Portugal upon her
colony were removed, and the Brazilian ports
opened to the commerce of all nations. For
eight years the Portuguese world was ruled
from Rio de Janeiro instead of Lisbon ; and,
on the whole, the shock which the Braganzas
had received was favorable to the growth of
their power. After Waterloo the title of
principality gave place to kingdom of Brazil,
and John VI. styled himself henceforth king
of Portugal, Brazil, and Algarve.

In the interval of this foreign residence of
the Braganza princes a revolt occurred in Por-
tugal, and in 1820 the liberal constitution of
Spain was proclaimed as the law of the land.
The revolution extended to Parii and Pernam-
buco, and John VI., perceiving that the same
wave would soon extend to Rio de Janeiro,
anticipated the movements of his subjects, ac-
cepted the new constitution, and made a
proclamation of that fact in February of 1821.

As soon as this political transformation was
effected the king appointed his son, Prince
Pedro, to rule over Brazil, and himself re-
turned to Portugal. By this time the former
country, becoming conscious of its own vast
territories and capacities, and swelling tides
of population began to feel the premonitory

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.— THE SOUTH A V/.7;/< : /7 X ] ;_•;

thrills of independence. In the very year of
the king'* departure the revolutionary spirit
became perceptible among the Brazilians.
In October of 1822 the movement was so
overwhelming that a declaration was made of
the independence of the country, under the
name of an empire. On the 1st of the follow-
ing December the Prince Regent was formally
crowned as Emperor of Brazil, with the title
of DOM PEDRO I. Within the next two years
an imperial constitution was framed and
adopted, and on the 7th of September,
1825, the independence of the new power
was acknowledged by the government at
Lisbon. A year later King John died, and
Dom Pedro became, by that event, ruler
of Portugal. But he was well satisfied
with the independence and sovereignty of
his new American state, and resigned the
Portuguese crown to his daughter, Donna
Maria. The relations between Portugal
and Brazil were thus amicably adjusted on
the basis of mutual independence.

In the year 1826 war was declared by
the Empire against the Argentine Repub-
lic. An effort had been made by the lat-
ter power to convert Uruguay into a de-
pendency. When, however, the conflict
between the two states was about to begin,
Great Britain offered her mediation, and
peace was happily restored. It was agreed
that Montevideo should become indepen-
dent, under her own constitution.

It was the misfortune of Dom Pedro I.
not to get along smoothly with the legisla-
tive branch of the Brazilian government.
Angry quarrels broke out between him and
the Chamber of Deputies, and the troubles
increased until 1831, when the Emperor, find-
ing himself hopelessly unpopular with his
subjects, was constrained to abdicate his throne
in favor of DOM PEDRO II. The latter prince,
however, was at this time but six years of
age, and regency had to be established until
he should reach his majority. Not until 1841
was Pedro proclaimed as sovereign in his own
right. In the very year of the revolution
which had dethroned his father, a kw was
passed by the Brazilian government for the
abolition of the slave trade ; but that nefa-
rious business was still carried on in a covert
way until 1850, when it was finally suppressed.

The lir.-t eight years of the reign of Dom
Pedro II. were mark.-.! by a iiiiinl«-r nf insur-
nrtionary movem< -nt« in the Brazilirt: [prov-
inces, notably in Minas Geraes and Pernarn-
buco. But none of tin revolts became so
formidable as seriously to threaten the empire.
The years 1849-52 were marke,] j,, Smth
American history for the rise of Row, the
dictator of the Argentine Confederation, who
was finally overthrown at Monte Caaeros by
the combined armies of Brazil, Uruguay, and

Entre Rios. The dictator fled to England,
and hostilities ceased in 1852. The next
thirteen years were a period of peace in Bra-
zil. It was in this interval that the state of
Paraguay, small in territory but intense in
spirit, awaked the deadly hostility of the
neighboring powers. In 1865, an alliance
was made by Brazil, Uruguay, and the Ar-
gentine Republic, and war was declared against
Paraguay under the express agreement that
the parties to the compact would not lay down
their arms until the existing government of
that offending state should be destroyed. The
war which ensued continued for six years, and

1328

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

was concluded in 1871 by the defeat and
death of the dictator Lopez, who had been
the main-stay of the cause of Paraguay.
When, however, it came to settle the condi-
tions of peace, a dangerous dispute arose be-
tween Brazil and the Argentine Republic.
The late allies became jealous, and war was
seriously threatened. At last, in 1872, it was
agreed that the Argentine Republic should be
permitted to make a separate treaty with Par-
aguay, as Brazil had done before ; and by
this means the war was averted.

On the whole, Dom Pedro has been one
of the most successful rulers of his times.
His liberal policy and enlightened views have
done much to make the Empire of Brazil repu-
table among the great powers of the earth.
He it was who, in 1875, was elected a corre-
sponding member of the French Academy of
Sciences, an honor not often done to kings.
He it was who, in 1876, came with his Em-
press to the Centennial Exposition at Phila-
delphia, and was received by the American
people and their great representatives as a
distinguished guest and friend. Under his
auspices the domestic tranquillity and pros-
perity of Brazil have been greatly promoted,
and his own example in literature and scien-
tific acquirements has done much to quicken
the intellect and kindle the moral enthusiasm
of the Brazilian people.

Next in greatness among the states of
South America may be ranked the ARGENTINE
REPUBLIC. In territorial extent this power is
second only to Brazil, and in the vigor of her
people and institutions she may claim the
same relative position. The country at the
mouth of the Rio de la Plata was first known
to white men in 1512. Buenos Ayres was
founded by Mendoza in 1535. Under his or-
ders the country was explored as far north as
Asuncion, present capital of Paraguay. Before
the close of the sixteenth century, many col-
onies were established in the valley of La
Plata. At this period the country was re-
garded as forming a part of the viceroyalty
of Peru. This relation was also held by the
state of Paraguay. Until 1620 Buenos Ayres
was dependent upon the government of Par-
aguay, but in that year became independent.

This condition was maintained until 1776,
when an entirely new distribution was made

of the powers south of the equator. The
states of Bolivia, Uraguay, Paraguay, and the
Argentine Republic were united in one gov-
ernment under the title of the Viceroyalty of
Buenos Ayres. In 1806 a British fleet ap-
peared on this coast and captured the capital
and Montevideo. The inhabitants, however,
rose on the invaders and recovered the cities.
In the following year the British, more than
ten thousand strong, returned to the attack,
but were defeated and driven away. Three
years afterwards a popular revolution broke
out, and the people renounced their alle-
giance to Spain. War ensued, and in 1812 the
independence of the viceroyalty was achieved
by the capture of Montevideo, the last city
under the Spaniards. A republican form of
government was instituted, and the chief power
of the commonwealth was lodged in a cham-
ber of deputies known as the Sovereign As-
sembly. The city of Tucuman was chosen as
the seat of government.

It was at this period that General San
Martin, governor of the province of Mendoza,
raised an army of patriots, crossed the Ancles,
and aided the Chilians in gaining their inde-
pendence. Shortly after, the combined armies
of Chili and Buenos Ayres penetrated Peru
and captured Lima. While these movements
of the Argentines northward were taking
place, the Portuguese gained possession of
Montevideo. About the same time the seat
of government was moved from Tucuman to
Buenos Ayres, and the constitution was mod-
ified in favor of democracy. The transfer of
the capital induced the provinces contiguous
to the Rio de la Plata to join their fortunes
with Buenos Ayres in the work of construct-
ing a true republic. This was accomplished
in the year 1824, and the first presidency of
the United Provinces was conferred on Las
Heras. Then came a declaration of war on
the part of Brazil, the general result of which
was a serious check to the growth of repub-
licanism in the South. Neither Las Heras
nor his successor, Rivadavia, was able to up-
hold the cause against the superior power of
the Brazilians. Nor is it likely that the re-
public would have been able to maintain its
existence at all but for the mediation of Eng-
land. Under her auspices, in 1828, a treaty
was concluded, by which the state of Uruguay

v •

'•i NO 110 120 130 110 100

TV-"1

bK.

: M.\I-:TI-:I-:.\TH CENTURY. < iu\.\ A\I> ./.I/M.V.

was made independflDt under a triple guaran-
tee of (ircat Mritain, I'.ra/il, ami tin- Argen-
tine Republic. The latter power wa>, Imw-
ever, for the time greatly weakened, l>ut in
1831 the former i-uur-i- nf alliiirs was resumed
by t\w union of the provinces of ('nrrii-n-
tes, Entre Rios, and >Sauta F6 with Buenos
A \ res.

This work was seriously opposed by tin-
army under General Lnvallt-, who defeated tin-
constituted authorities and shot the president.
For awhile there were two governments, but
at last Buenos Ayres was triumphant, and the
distinguished General Juan Manuel de Itosas
obtained control of the country. Once he
was elected president, and twice dictator. The
latter office he held until 1852 ; and though
for a period of more than ten years there
.was no meeting of the Congress, the gov-
ernment was administered with such justice
and patriotic rigor as to secure the public
welfare in a higher degree than ever before.

It was the theory of Rosas that all the states
formerly belonging to the viceroyalty of
Buenos Ayres should become integral parts
of the Argentine Republic. The two most
important countries to which this policy re-
lated were Uruguay and Paraguay, and the
question whether these states should or should
not be reincorporated with the republic of
La Plata became the source of those bloody
struggles which have made up the annals of
the countries concerned for the last thirty
years. At last, in 1852, Rosas was defeated
and compelled to fly from the country. The
government was hereupon conferred upon
Vicente Lopez; but he was suddenly over-

thrown l.y General l'roui/.a, \\lii.imiiie him-
self dictator instead of Roma. The indejH m|.
em-e of Paraguay wu.- acknowledged ; and in
the follow-in;.: year a new con-mulion, mod-
eled at'ler thai of the I'nited States <,f North
America, w a.- adopt ••'.. I 'rquiza w«B eld

lent for six yi ar.-. Majada del I 'a rani
was chosen as the seat mnent.

awhile l>n. no- A\re- iv-i-led (lie new order
of things, but gave in her adh. r.-n,-.- in the
yeH lx">.~>. For four \ear-, however, the
union between the latter citv ami l'.iran& was
merely nuininal, and tin- country was con-
stantly threatened with civil war.

In l«ii") the lonir-suppreswd hostility be-
tween Paraguay and the Argentine Kepublic
broke into an oj>en declaration of war. It
was at this juncture that the league above
mentioned, between Brazil and Uruguay and
the Argentine Republic, was made against
Paraguay, under the solemn pledge that the
existing government of the last named state
should be destroyed. The result of this strug-
gle, and its termination by the defeat and
death of the dictator Lopez, have already
been narrated. During the progress of the
struggle a strong anti-war party had sprung
up in the states that were parties to the alli-
ance. Especially was this true in Buenos
Ayres and Kntre Hios, in both of which prov-
inces formidable insurrections were made
against the government. During the last
decade the domestic tranquillity of the Argen-
tine Republic has been little disturbed, and it
is to be hoped that the dominion of the civil-
izing forces will continue unbroken for u-any
years to come.

CHAPTER LVIII.— CHINA AND JAPAN.

T is a strange reflection
on the imperfect knowl-
edge and broken records
of mankind that of the
most ancient and popu-
lous nation in the world
the least is known, and
it is a biting satire on the moral condition of
the human race that this want of knowledge
is based upon the fact tiat the nation in ques-
VOL. ii.- s s

tion has from time immemorial devoted its
energies to peace, and has not been sufficiently
bloody-minded to attract the interested atten-
tion of other peoples. He- who takes the
sword is famous Alexander ; he who handles
the hoe is an obscure boor. Of the one the
blatant histories which men have written are
full of praises; of the other and his humble
home by the garden wall they say no word at
all. Such i> the moral standard which has

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

made butchery glorious, and perfidious politics
the principal business of mankind.

It is the purpose in the present chapter to
give a mere outline of Chinese history, es-
pecially in the last century. The meager-
ness of such a sketch will be compensated by
the fact that the present forces of civilization
are drawing all nations into affiliation, and
that the pen of the near future will amplify
and perhaps glorify the poor, brief pages de-
voted to the annals of China.

in ornaments, medals, and coins; the philan-
thropist establishes schools. It was, however,
by Yu the Great that in 2207 the founda-
tions of temporal authority were securely laid
in China. In the reign of his grandson a
popular revolution occurred, by which Chung-
kang was raised to the throne. The reign of
this prince and that of Shan-kang and Ti-chu,
who came after him, are represented as having
been well-timed and vigorous. Afterwards
we come to the dynasty of Shang, with its

CHINESE WALL.

The history — seemingly authentic — of this
wonderful country goes back to the year 2207
B. C. Even before this period the myths of
the far ages have preserved the shadows of
celestial and terrestrial rulers back to the time
of Fuh-hi, to whom is attributed the founda-
tion of the Chinese Empire, nearly three
thousand years before the Christian era. In
that remote twilight we discover people work-
ing in the fields, writing on tablets, marrying
and giving in marriage. The doctor visits his
patients ; the artisan constructs wagons, ships,
and clocks ; the goldsmith does cunning work

twenty-eight rulers, who occupied the throne
from 1766 to 1112 B. C. These princes are
said to have been wicked and cruel oppressors
of the people.

The last member of this great House of
Shang perished in a rebellion of the army
against his miserable rule. General Wu-
wang, who headed the insurrection, became
the prominent founder of the dynasty of
Chow. For nearly nine centuries he and his
descendants held dominion over China. The
annals of this period are filled with the story
of bloody struggles,, internal and foreign.

THE MM-:TI:I:.\TH CENTURY r///.v.i AM, ./.i/'.i.v.

Sometimes the provincial governors rose in
n-vult. Sometime* tin; hostile Tartar- tlm :il-
ened the destruction of the Kmpin-. It was
in the latter ]>art of this period -vi/.., in mi
551 to 479 B. C. — that Confucius flourished,
and soon afterwards Meiicius, the principal
expounder of his doctrines. The next dynasty
was that of Tsin, under whose princes the
unity of the Empire was restored. By Ching-
wang, one of the later rulers of this House,
the great Chinese Wall was built for the pro-
tection of the country against the incursions
of the Tartars. Ching-wang resumed the title
of Emperor, which had long been in abeyance,
and became the national hero of China. In
order to destroy the memory of turmoil end
disgrace he caused all the books to be gath-
ered up and burned. It is to this circumstance
that the' fragmentary character of the works
of Confucius and Mencius is to be attributed.
The next dynasty was that of Han, whose
princes reigned from 206 B. C. to A. D. 220.
Of this line of sovereigns several left behind
them a great reputation : Wen-ti, for restoring
the ancient literature ; Wu-ti, for patronizing
the arts and sciences; Siuen-ti, for the con-
quest of Tartary; Ming-ti, for the introduc-
tion of Buddhism ; Ho-ti, for his favor to
agriculture and the cultivation of the vine.

It was about the close of the Han dynasty
that the nations of the West began to hear of
China and the Chinese. There is a tradition
that, about the year A. D. 200, a Roman
embassy came to Peking. Soon after this, the
dynasty of Tsin was restored, and the three
kingdoms into which China had been divided
were again consolidated by the Emperor Wu-ti
in the year 260.

In the following century — the fourth — the
Tartars, who for many generations had beaten
against the northern frontier, succeeded in
breaking over the boundary and gaining a
permanent foothold within the limits of the
Kmpire. From this time, namely, t386, to the
close of the sixth century, the four feeble
dynasties of Sung, Tse, Liang, and Chin
ruled the country. These times were full of
trouble. Civil commotions prevailed, and
warring factions in religion and politics gave
the Imperial dominions no peace. In the
early part of the seventh century, Christianity
is said to have been first proclaimed in China

by Olopen, a NY«toriun monk. A little later
tin' L'n-at Kmpcror. Tai-tMin:.', who WU
in hi.- own country a- famous a compi
and op_'iini/.er as was Charlemagne with tin-

[| 0> Ilarniin-al-Iia-ehid amon^r tin
liph-. Uy tin- Kmperor the border* of ( 'hina
were widened out on the west to the confine*
of Persia. Under his successors, how<
the Chinese power declined, and the Tartars
again became troublesome on the north.

In the early part of the thirteenth century,
Genghis Khan made an invasion of China,
and reached Peking with an army of Mongo-
lians. Under Kuhlai Khan, the tir- Mongol
dynasty was established over the Chinese.
The Sung dynasty was overthrown, and the
royal family drowned themselves in the river
at Canton. It was in the reign of tin- con-
quering Kublai that the traveler Marco
Polo sojourned for a while at Peking, and
carried thence to Europe his wonder-inspiring
story of things he had seen in the East
About the middle of the fourteenth century,
('liina was visited with a great famine, and
thirteen millions of her people are said to
have perished of starvation. So great was
the distress, and so ill the repute of the reign-
ing house, that a revolution broke out A
popular leader named Chu-Yneu-chang ap-
peared on the scene, overthrew the Mongolian
dynasty, and founded under his own sway
the new House of Ming. Sixteen princes of
this line held the throne for a period of two
hundred and seventy-six years.

Meanwhile the Mantchu Tartars had be-
come aggressive on the north. At length, in
1615, their Emperor was assassinated by the
orders of the Chinese sovereign. From
that time forth their vengeance slept no more
until, in H'>44, under the leadership of L.
eh ing, they entered Peking, destroyed the
reigning dynasty, and proclaimed their own
prince, Snn-chi, as Emperor of China. From
that time until the present, the Mantchu
Tartar dynasty has held dominion over the
country. The boundaries of the Empire have
been greatly widened by war and conquest
The most conspicuous of the Mantchu princes
have been Kang-hi, who came to the tl
in loiil ; YniiL'H-hiug, who reigned from IT'-''-'
to 1736; Kien-lung, who held the throne
from the latter date to 1796, and by whom

1332

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the greater part of Central Asia was reduced
to Chinese authority; and Kia-king, whose
reign, extending to 1820, was as cruel and
tyrannical as it was vigorous and bloody. It
was in the reign of the first of these sover-
eigns that the city of Peking was overthrown
by an earthquake, burying four hundred
thousand of her people among her ruins.

From the beginning of the present century,
other nations took a deeper interest in the
affairs of China. In 1807 an Anglo-Chinese

ceived by the Imperial government. In 1816,
however, a second embassy, headed by Lord
Amherst, was less fortunate in its reception.
The delegation was refused admission to the
Emperor's presence ; but, notwithstanding this
backset, the slight trade which Great Britain
had established with the Chinese was allowed
to continue. This intercourse was carried on
under the auspices of the British East India
Company; but in 1834 the charter of that
corporation expired, and Lord Napier was

VIEW OF PEKING.

college was founded at Malacca. In 1820
the Emperor Tan-kuang came to the throne,
and soon afterwards that conflict began with
Great Britain known as the Opium War. If
we glance backward we shall find that, not-
withstanding the commercial enterprise of
England, she did not succeed in gaining a
foothold in China until near the close of the
seventeenth century. Even then the relations
which they established with the Celestial Em-
pire were few and precarious. In the year
1793 a formal embassy, under Lord Macart-
ney, was sent to Peking, and was well re-

sent out by the government to superintend
the Chinese trade. This distinguished officer
undertook to open communication with the
authorities of Canton, but his efforts were un-
successful, and two frigates which he brought
to the coast were fired on by the Chinese fort
at the Bogue. Napier fell back to Macao,
where he presently died. For a \vhile the
British trade was carried on without the
superintendence of any.

In 1837 Captain Elliott, of His Majesty's
navy, renewed the attempt to open communi-
cations with Canton. The point at issue, con-

'/'///•; NINETEENTH CENTURY.— CHINA A.\U ./.I /MA.

corning which the profound antagonism of
the Chinese was aroused, was the proposed le-
gali/ing of the opium trade. Hitherto that
trade, being illicit, had l>cen carried ..n cov-
ertly, but a sufficient quantity of the deleteri-
ous drug had been introduced to arouse the
Tears of the Chinese govern incut as to the results.
In the fall of 1837, Captain
Elliott was notified by the \
roy of Canton that the opium
vessels must be driven away and
not permitted to return. Had
the British government obeyed
this mandate all would have
been well; but England, with
her habitual policy of making
money at whatever disregard
of international polity, did not
• exert herself to protect the
Chinese from the continuance
of the pernicious trade. The
same went on for two years
with little restriction.

In 1839 the Imperial govern-
ment, now thoroughly angered,
sent to Canton a commissioner
named Lin, who issued strenu-
ous orders for the complete sup-
piv-siou of the opium business.
He compelled the local author-
ities and merchants whose palms
were itching for gain to sur-
render to him all the opium in
the port. More than twenty
thousand chests, valued at ten
millions of dollars, were given
up, thrown into a trench, and
covered with a compost of lime
and sea water. But, notwith-
standing this wholesale destruc-
tion, the illicit traffic was con-
tinued. The Chinese government
became so much irritated that
the British residents of Can-
ton were constrained to withdraw from the
city. Even the Portuguese colony at Macao
was no longer 'a safe place for Englishmen.
On the 6th of December, 1839, an edict was
promulgated forbidding all trade of any kind
with British ships and merchants. This led to
a declaration of war, and in June of 1840 a
British squadron appeared off Macao.

The lii -i actual hostility was at the m-.mli
of the Yangste, where the i-land of < husan
wa- taken .,M the 4th of .July. In Augtut
negotiations wen- ojM-ne-1 l>et\\een P.riti-h and
Chinese ambassador-, ami tin- I-TIII- - •

v.. n .._!• . <i upon . hui tin Bap m raAMd

to ratify the compact, ami in tin- bi

PORCELAIN TOWER, NANKIN'.

of 1841 hostilities were resumed. Canton was
brought under the guns of the British fleet,
furiously bombarded, and was obliged to ran-
som herself by the payment of six million
dollars. An avenue of trade was thus opened
into the heart of the Empire, and even dur-
ing the continuance of the war British opium
ships continued to eject their contents on the

1334

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

wharves of Canton. On the 27th of August,
1841, Amoy was captured by the English
fleet, and on the 18th of the following Octo-
ber the city of Niugpo was taken. During
the winter nothing of importance occurred ;
but in May of 1842 Chapoo fell into the
hands of the British, and in the next month
Woosung and Shanghai were both captured.
The British forces then moved against Chin-
kiang and Nanking, the latter being the an-
cient capital of the country. By this time
the Imperial government was ready to sue for
peace, even at the expense of the ruin of the

course between China and Great Britain
should be on terms of equality; that Chusan
and Amoy should be occupied until the in-
demnity was paid. Thus, by the right of the
strongest and the law of the cannon was
China compelled to expose her teeming mill-
ions to the ravages of the life-destroying drug
of Turkey presented by the hands of Christian
England. It was a work preparatory to the
successful planting of Christian missions ! The
mockery needs no comment.

In February of 1844, Caleb Gushing came
to China as ambassador from the United

BOMBARDMENT OF CANTON BY THE ENGLISH.

national character by the incoming tides of
opium. In the summer of 1842 a treaty was
concluded, the terms of which were sufficiently
gratifying to English mercenary pride and suf-
ficiently humiliating to China. It was agreed
that there should be a lasting peace between
the two powers ; that China should pay a war
indemnity of twenty-one millions of dollars ;
that the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochow,
Ningpo, and Shanghai should be opened to
foreign commerce; that Hong Kong should
be ceded to Great Britain ; that all British
prisoners should be released ; that the Chinese
who had taken service under the British flag
should not be punished; that future inter-

States. His mission was to negotiate a treaty
with the government, and to secure by friendly
conference the same commercial advantages
which Great Britain had obtained by force.
In this work he was successful, and on the 3d
of July, 1844, a favorable treaty was con-
cluded at Wanghia, near Canton. Later in
the same year France also entered into treaty
relations with the Chinese, and from this time
forth the Imperial government has been con-
stantly, though with many checks and draw-
backs, extending the field of its intercourse
with foreign nations.

It was in the nature of things, however,
that the first decades of this new era should

Tin: \IM:TI:I-:.\TII CENTURY.— CHINA AM> ./.I/M.Y.

1 :;:;.,

be greatly troubled l>y perplexing
and reviving animosities. For a number of
years after the conclusion of thf treaties
1842-44 foreign powers were obliged to earn-
on their intercourse with China not directly with
tin- Imperial government, but through the pro-
vincial viceroys of the various states. This indi-
rect method produced many
luiMinderstaudings and acts
of violence. On the 8th of
October, 1856, the Chinese
constabulary of Hong Kong
boarded a vessel called the
Arrow, carrying the English
flag, but manned by Chi-
nese marines. The flag was
torn down and the crew car-
ried away by the authorities.
•Hereupon the British counsel
demanded of the viceroy the
return of the seamen and a
disavowal of the act. With
the former request the Chi-
nese official complied, but
the latter he refused. With-
out waiting for instructions
from the home government,
the British officer immedi-
ately undertook to obtain by
force the apology which the
Chinese authorities had de-
clined to make. But the
viceroy would not yield. On
the contrary he offered a re-
ward for the heads of the
British, and undertook to
repel force with force. For
several months a local war
was conducted in the neigh-
borhood of Hong Kong, and
both the British and the
Chinese governments were
obliged to take serious cog-
nizance of what was going on.

The Western powers deemed it advisable
to act in concert, and France and England
united in the determination to secure, even at
the hazard of another war, a direct recognition
of equality from the Emperor of China. The
United States and Russia took a different
view of the question, and gave to the ambas-
sadors whom they sent to China instruction*

of a conciliatory diameter. A.« hud been
foreseen, (treat Britain was now cmnjH lied to
support her policy In \ large army

u:is M ni out in the ..pring of l.v'i? t,i renew
the- war with China. Bui before reaching its
destinalinii the squadron wit- direct. •<! to ( I,
its course and proceed to India to aid in the

A STREET IN rvNT"N.

the

suppression of the Sepoy rebellion. In
latter part of the year a portion of the arma-
ment reached China, and Lord Elgin laid the
ultimatum of England before the Ini|K-rial
government. To this an unsatisfactory an.-"- r
was returned, and on the 28th of December
the British fleet opened fire on Canton. Alter
a bombardment of one day the city wa-< taken.

1336

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

It was a strange spectacle to see the ancient
capital, with its more than a million of inhab-
itants, surrendering to a force of less than six
thousand foreigners. As soon as Canton was
taken trade was reopened, and the provincial
government reorganized under the auspices of
France and England. At this juncture nego-
tiations were reopened with the Emperor at
Peking, hut that sublime dignitary replied
that the ambassadors of the foreign powers
should confer with the viceroy of Canton, and
not with himself. An advance of the allies

another set of ambassadors, this time fully
empowered to negotiate. Here treaties were
made with the United States, Russia, Great
Britain, and France. It was agreed that ad-
ditional ports should be opened to foreign
commerce; that the Yangtse River should be
neutralized ; that most of the restrictions on
trade and travel should be removed ; that res-
idences of foreign ministers should be per-
mitted at Pekin, and that war indemnities
should be paid to Great Britain and France.
These several treaties were at once ratified by

BATTLE OF PA-LI-KAO.

was accordingly begun towards the Chinese
capital. When the combined fleet appeared
off Pei-ho, the Emperor, in answer to a sec-
ond demand, replied that certain agents had
been appointed to confer on the questions at
issue ; but it was soon known that the officers
so appointed had only limited powers, and for
this reason the negotiations were broken off.
In May of 1858 the allied fleet bombarded
and stormed the forts at the mouth of the
Pei-ho. The expedition then proceeded up
the river to Tientsin, where they were met by

the Imperial government; but the exchange
of ratifications was attended with much diffi-
culty and several acts of hostility. For three
years matters remained in so unsatisfactory a
condition that the English and French squad-
rons were not withdrawn from the Chinese
waters.

At length it became evident that the anti-
foreign party was in the ascendant in the Im-
perial council, and that no solid peace could
be had without a further manifestation of
force. In April of 1860, Lord Elgin and

7V//-; .v/.v/;y7-;/;.vyv/ < -i-:.\n i; r. ( iti.\.\ AND .i.\ r \ .v

M.iron <Jro-, ambassadors of England and
France, arrived at Shanghai and laid the ulti-
mata of their respective governments hefure
the Emperor. An evu>ive, or at least unsat-
isfactory-, answer was returned, 1'rcparations
were iminediatcl)' made to renew the omtlict,
and in August a force of five thousand men
was sent to retake the forts at IVi-ho and tin-
city of Tientsin. Both places were captured
without serious losses. At this time ambas-
sadors were again sent out by the Emperor,
and the terms of a treaty were agreed upon ;
but the allies came to believe that the Chinese
were merely trifling, and renewed the cam-
paign against the capital. Other legates, came
from the Emperor, but still no sati-t'actory ad-
justment was reached. Some of the Engli-h
agents were seized and treated with cruelty.
At length, in September, was fought the bat-
tle of PA-LI-KAO, and the Chinese were routed
with heavy losses. On the 6th of October the
allied army reached Pekin. A week later one
of the gates of the city was taken by the En-
glish; nor, is it doubtful that the high places
of the ancient Chinese capital would have
been presently desecrated by a foreign sol-
diery, had not the authorities agreed to accept
the treaty which had already been proposed
at Tientsin. It was in the course of this brief
occupancy of Pekin by the British that the
summer palace of the Emperor was burned by
the orders of Lord Elgin. This act, on the
part of the British, was much criticised in
other lands as a piece of wanton vindictive-
ness; but Lord Elgin justified himself on the
ground that of the twenty-six subjects who,
in the course of the war had gone to the Chi-
nese under a flag of truce, only' thirteen had
returned alive, and that some retaliation \va<
due for such a barbarous infraction of the
rules of war.

Soon after the conclusion of these hostil-
ities, the Chinese Emperor died and the crown
was transmitted to his son, who had not yet
reached the kingly age. A regency was ac-
cordingly established, in 1801, and continued
for twelve years. It was during this period
that the Honorable An son Burlingame was
sent as an American ambassador to China.
His advent at IVkin in W-' marks the be-
ginning of the establishment of real amity be-
tween China and the Western powers. By

some means liurlingame managed to gain the
confidence of the Kmpcinr and hi- court ; and
tlii- advantage lie used to promote in the
high' the interest* of hi- own and

the country to which In- had I.. In

iMl.'i he returned to (I,,. I'nited State, with
the purpose of re-iirniii;.' hi- office ; but the
importance of the work in which lie wji-
gagedjjvas reco-ni/.ed l.\ the -overnment, and
he was urged to resume his tank. Iteturniiij;
to I'ekin he remained tun year- longer, and
then to the astoni.-hment of the whole world.
Prince Kuug, regent of the Empire, ap|>ointed
him hi* ambassador, not only to tie
States, but to the great powers of En-

This most important nii.-sion Hiirlingame
accepted, in 1867, and immediately departed to
assume his duties as a trfaty maker with the
principal states of Christendom. With our
own government he was eminently succe.s.-1'ul,
and in 1868 secure. I the amplifications and
acceptance of the treaty concluded ten years
previously. China was thus induced to in
the Law of Nations as the rule of her inter-
course with foreign states. Burlingamc next
set out for England on a similar mis.-ion, and
thence to France, Denmark, Sweden, Holland,
and Prussia. In all of these countries, with
the exception of France, he was at once
ccssful. In 1878 he repaired to St. Peters-
burg, where, just as he was beginning his im-
portant work, he fell sick of pneumonia and
died after an illness of only a few days. His
success on his great mission had shown him to
be one of the (MKMfaPWWn of civilization.

From the date of the Burlingame treaty to
the present time, China has rapidly advanced to
a more reputable rank among the great powers
of the world. One serious blot has recently
been fixed on her escutcheon — the Tientsin
massacre of June, 1870. For some reason,
never fully known, the French officials, resi-
dent in this city, In'came the objects of an in-
tense hatred to the people. A murderous mob
broke out, and the French consul, vice-consul,
interpreter and his wife, a Catholic priest,
nine ,-isters of charity, a French merchant and
hi- wife, and three Russians were brutally
murdered. All the buildings belonging to the
emlia-y were destroyed, and the atrocity was
not ended as long as a trace of the foreigners
remained. It appear-, however, that the Chi-

1338

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

nese authorities were not responsible for the
horrible outbreak. The Imperial government
at once took measures to punish the local offi-
cials who were implicated in the massacre,
and a special embassy was sent to France to
express the regrets of the Emperor for the
crime committed by his subjects.

The year 1878 witnessed the establishment

Of A RESIDENT CHINESE EMBASSY at Wash-
ington. For twenty years the great and lib-
eral treaty negotiated by Anson Burliugame
had been in force between the United States

idea of sending resident ambassadors to the
American government had been entertained
for several years. The Emperor had been as-
sured that the people of China— more par-
ticularly her ministers — would be received
with all the courtesy shown to the most fa-
vored nation. The officers chosen by the Im-
perial government as its representatives in the
United States were Chen Lau Pin, minister
plenipotentiary; Yung Wing, assistant en-
voy, and Yung Tsaug Siang, secretary of le-
gation. On the 28th of September the em-

ONE OF THE GATES OF PEKIN GIVEN UP TO THE ALLIKS.

and China. Under the protection of this com-
pact, the commercial relations of the two
countries had been vastly extended, and a
knowledge of the institutions, manners, and
customs prevalent in the Celestial Empire so
widely diffused as to break down in some
measure the race-prejudice existing against
the Mongolians. The enlightened policy of
the reigning Emperor had also contributed to
establish more friendly intercourse with the
United States, and to promote such measures
as should make that intercourse lasting. The

bassy was received by the President. The
ceremonies of the occasion were among the
most novel and interesting ever witnessed in
Washington. The speech of Chen Lan Pin
was equal in dignity and appropriateness to
the best efforts of a European diplomatist.
Addressing the President, the Chinese min-
ister said :

"MR. PRESIDENT: His Majesty, the Em-
peror of China, in appointing us to reside at
Washington as ministers, instructed us to pre-
sent your Excellency his salutations, and to

Till-: NINETEENTH CENTURY.— CHINA AM> .Lll'.lX.

express his assurances of friendship lor you
ami the people of the United States. II -
Majesty hopes tli:ii vour admini-tration may
be one of signal siieiv-.-, and tliat it may
bring lusting peace ami prosperity to the
whole country. On a former occasion the
Chinese government had the honor to send
an embassy to Washington on a special mis-
sion, and the results were most beneficent
His Majesty cherishes the hope that this em-
bassy will not only be the means of establish-
ing on a firm basis the amicable relations of
the two countries, but may also be the start-

narrate the cosmogony of his people — :
ill' <i\ motifs of the gods, then the d\ mistie*
of men. It is the same old story with its
Infinite inflectioni ami laondibli mar

Two god- I I'rom tin- -ki. -. t H iln-in

a daughter was born, who-.- lm.lv was so
bright that she a--o nd.-d to heaven ami be-
came the sun. Then another daughtei
Tsuki Surua, came, and she was the moon.
Oilier children, in whom the upward tend
was not so strong, remained in the Island »f
Japan, and became the ancestors of the race.
Anon the myth melts into the tradition ; the

SI I INK

ing-point of a new diplomatic era which will
eventually unite the East and West under an
enlightened and progressive civilization."

These are golden words, containing the
germ and promise of a better and more phil-
anthropic age in which men shall prefer the
battles and victories of peace to the cruelties
and fierce animosities of war.

"In the beginning the world had no form,
but was like an egg. The clear portion — the
white — became heaven; and the heavy por-
tion— the yolk — became the earth." Such are
the words of the holy Book of Shinto, the
Moses of the Japanese. Then proceeds he to

NEAR YOKOHAMA.

tradition, into the poem; the poem, into the
history. Thus about the year B. C. 600, we
come to the dawn. The Japanese Herodotus
is not complimentary in his description of his
early countrymen. They were hairy. They
ate meat raw. They abode in rude villages
and obeyed the head man of the settlement.
But when the great Jimmu Tenno came, all
tliis was ended, for he was a great civiliwr
and tamer of savage men. He subdued the
barbarous tribes and brought order out of
chaos. He compelled the hirsute natives to
yield to civil institutions. The Japanese
affirm, at least those of the higher classes.

1340

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

that they are the offspring of Jimmu Tenno
and his people, and not of the hairy savages
whom he conquered. There are, indeed, very
manifest traces in the present physiognomy of
the people of some such amalgamation of two
races as is here indicated. The broad flat
face of the one and the high nose and oval
face of the other seem to point unmistakably
to two sources of ancestral descent.

Jimmu Tenno established the capital of
the country at Kioto. He was a law-maker

JIMMU TENNO.

as well as a conquerer. From him the title of
Mikada is derived, a word signifying the divine
right to rule. The primitive Japanese consti-
tution did not preclude women from the
throne, and the names of several famous em-
presses are found in the line of Jimmu. One
of these, Jingo Kogo1, conquered Corea, and
gave to the Empire a son who, after his death,
was deified as a god of war. At the middle of
the sixth century, a prince of Corea brought
over to Japan the idols and books of the Budd-
hists, and presented them to the Emperor.

Previously to this time the works of Con-
fucius and other writings of the kind had
familiarized the Japanese with the literature
and religious belief's of the Chinese. Against
these the doctrines and practice of Buddha
made rapid headway. During the reign of
the Empress Suiko, m 593, full toleration
was granted to the new faith. To this epoch
belonged the resurvey of Japan, by which
the provincial boundaries were properly estab-
lished, and the invention of a script in which
to write the language. The latter was the
work of the famous priest Kobo, who flour-
ished in the first quarter of the ninth century.
Meanwhile some important political and social
customs had sprung up. Among these may
be mentioned the common abdication of the
Emperors who were wont, after a brief reign,
to retire from power and become priests. The
art of brewing sake was invented about the
close of the seventh century. The discovery
of gold, in the year 749, led to the coinage of
money as the agent of exchange. A little
later, namely, in 788, Japan was invaded
from the west by an army of Mongols, but
the latter were defeated and driven away in
confusion by the warlike natives.

The following three or four centuries in the
history of Japan are occupied with the growth
of the great princely families and the conse-
quent decline of the Imperial authority. The
names of the principal noble houses are
Fujinara, Taira, Minamoto, and Tachibana;
and with the stories of these, of their intrigues
and wars, the Japanese annals of the times
are filled. Another circumstance also con-
duced to undermine the Imperial authority.
This was the looseness of the social system.
Custom had given to the Mikado twelve con-
cubines as well as his lawful wife. But any
of these might become the mother of the fu-
ture sovereign. The choice of the same de-
pended wholly upon the will of the Mikado.
The consequence was that the Japanese princes
struggled and conspired and fought to gain
the throne of their father. Sometimes there
were two reigning Emperors. This condition
of affairs tended to make the army rather than
the civil authority the power to which the
claimants turned for the decision of their
rights. The municipal guards became almost
as important a factor in the history of the

THE NINETEENTH OBWTURT. CHINA ASD JAP i v

1841

times as were the pnctorians in tin- lati-r an-
nals of Imperial Rome. It was l.y in. :i
this central cont'ii>ion ami weakn.-< ihai the
local prince.- of tin- empire were enabled to
build up their provincial thrones at tin- e\
peiiM' of the general gov-
• •nmient. Many of the
va-i^ils almost rivaled the
Mikado in power and in-
fluence, la order to
counterbalance this growth
of local independence, the
Mikado, near the close of
the twelfth century, in-
troduced an important
change into the civil ad-
ministration. He ap-
pointed a governor gen-
eralisimo called the Shogun,
whose duty it was to exer-
cise a military, and in
most matters a civil, juris-
diction over the whole
Empire. The first to hold
the office of shogun was the
famous hero, Yoritomo,
who was appointed in
1195, and who soon made
himself the real ruler of
the country. The Mikado
became a kind of a shadow ;
the shogun was the sub-
stance.

In the year 1260 the
great Tartar Emperor Ku-
blai Khan made a success-
ful invasion of China.
From that country am-
bassadors were sent by the
conqueror on three several
occasions to Japan. Some
of these were insulted, and
others put to death. At
this Kublai Khan was
greatly angered ; and in
1274 he sent out a power-
ful expedition to conquer the offending coun-
try. But the Japanese drove back the Tartars
with great slaughter. An interval of seven
years elapsed before Kublai Khan renewed
the conflict. Then, in 1281, he made a sec-
ond descent on Japan with an immense fleet

an. I army. |',llt j,, ,|,j, jn-tance the elen
joined their wrath with .Japane-,. V:ilor to acmt-
ter an. I ,1,-tioy ||,,. Tartar arii:am.-nt.
complete victory of the .-h.i-m,1, army p.
en. I to inv:i-i,,M. an. I centime- e|ap*e,| without

TLE OF KflU.AI KHAN WITH THE JAPANESE.
Prawn by F. Llx.

the reappearance of hostile fleets on the Jap-
anese coasts.

The fourteenth century was mostly occu-
pied with oivil wars. There was one Empomr
in the north and another in the south, both
claiming to be the true Mikado. Down to

1342

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

the year 1573 these factious disturbances con-
tinued in so much that this period in Japanese
history is known as the Epoch of War. It is
to this time that three of the greatest names
in the annals of Japan are brought to notice.
These are Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and lyeyasu.
The first of these heroes undertook to consoli-
date the Empire by reducing the weaker clans
and overawing the stronger. In this work he
was succeeding to admiration when he was
struck down by a traitor. Hideyoshi then
followed in his footsteps, took up the cause,
and completed Nobuuaga's unfinished work.

Both of these great leaders were sworn ene-
mies to Buddhism, and both sought as a coun-
terpoise to this religious power to encourage
and strengthen the Jesuit missionaries. Among
other great projects, Hideyoshi aspired to be
the conqueror of China. He raised an army
of a hundred and sixty thousand men, and in
1592 proceeded by way of Corea to invade the
Celestial Empire. At this juncture, however,
he died, and his great expedition came to
naught. His office was claimed by his son
and also by the warrior lyeyasu, who over-
powered the House of Hideyoshi and estab-
lished his own. Thus was founded the sho-
gunate of Tokugawa, whose princes held power
in Japan from 1603 until 1867. These two
and a half centuries were as conspicuous for
the peace and quietude of the Empire as the
former times had been for wars and turmoils.

lyeyasu made Yedo the capital of Japan,
and may be properly regarded as the most illus-
trious personage in Japanese history. It was
in the long interval of the supremacy of his
House that the Empire became not only or-
ganic, but venerable in its institutions. So-
cially considered, the country was feudal. A
condition of affairs supervened almost identi-
cal with that of Europe in the tenth century.
The customs, manners, and sentiments of the
Japanese were essentially those of feudalism.
As to the government, the same was dual in
character. There were two capitals and two
heads to the state. The first was the Mikado,
the divine Emperor, the source of all rank
and honor, fit to be worshiped. The second
was the shogun, the military and civil Em-
peror, wielding the sword, maintaining peace
by authority. The residence of the first was
a temple; of the other, a castle. The one had

for his companions priests and nobles; the
other, warriors and vassals. One was the sov-
ereign of Japan de jure; the other, de facto.
In theory, however, the Emperor was always
the high and mighty source and origin of Im-
perial authority.

The knowledge which the western nations
first obtained of Japan and the Japanese came
from Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler. Aft-
erwards this knowledge was enlarged and rec-
tified through the medium of Dutch and Por-
tuguese adventurers and traders. In the course
of time missionaries found their way into the
island and many Japanese converts were made
in divers places. But the proselyting disposi-
tion of these ambassadors of Christianity
tended constantly to produce unfriendly rela-
tions between them and the Buddhists. In
1622 a terrible massacre of the Christians oc-
curred at Nagasaki, and many were sacrificed
with horrible tortures. After this it presently
transpired that the Christians in various parts
of the island were engaged in a conspiracy to
overthrow the Imperial government. When
this fact was discovered, the persecutions were
renewed and edicts of expulsion were issued
against all the Portuguese in Japan. The trade
which they had enjoyed was taken away and
given to the Dutch, whose enmity to the Cath-
olics brought them into sympathy with the
Japanese. These events happened in 1637-39.

In the following year the Christians in the
island of Amakusa revolted, and crossing over
to the mainland captured the castle of Shima-
bara. This they held for a considerable time
against the army of the shogun, but the latter
was at length successful and the siege was
ended by a massacre of more than thirty thou-
sand people. The reduction of the castle was
effected by means of cannon which the Japa-
nese borrowed from the Dutch. The latter
for more than two centuries after these events
held a monopoly of the foreign trade of Japan.
Not even the vigorous merchants of England
were able to gain a footing in the island.

During the continuance of the lyeyasu
dynasty the Mikado, surrounded by his no-
bles, held his court at Kioto. The shogun
fixed the seat of his government at Yedo, and
there reigned as lieutenant of the Emperor.
Here also resided the four classes of territorial
nobles. These were, first, the princes or lords

Tin: .\IM-:TI-:I-:.\TH i i-:.\rn;y. < ///.v.i

./.!/• i\

of provinces ; second, the relatives of the
shoirun's family; third, the landed noblemen;
fourth, the va-sils of tho-e who hud been re-
tainers of lyeyasu. There were two coum-iK
<>f State, namely, the senior and the junior
senators ; and of these councils one of the
chief duties was to keep watch and wan! over
the nobles and princes. A system of espion-
age prevailed, so far-reaching and inquisitorial
as to make the lives of the officials of the
shogun's government almost intolerable. Be-
sides this, the law made every head of a Jap-
anese family responsible for the conduct of
its members. Every five families were grouped
together, and among these there was mutual
responsibility for one another's actions. There
was much social tyranny. A man of common
rank could not change his residence without
a certificate of previous good conduct. Every
man of the lower classes must be elaborately
registered on a tablet in a neighboring tem-
ple. The good results of the system were that
crimes were infrequent and that the conceal-
ment of the criminal was almost impossible.

Previous to the year 1871 there were nine
classes of Japanese. The first of these were
the nobles of Kioto ; the second, the nobles
of Yedo ; the third, the lower nobles or Dai-
mios; the fourth, the priests and professional
men ; the fifth, the farmers ; the sixth, the ar-
tisans; the seventh, the merchants; the eighth,
the actors and beggars ; and the last, the tan-
ners, skinners, and workers in leather. In
1871 the Emperor issued a decree removing
the social disabilities of his subjects and ad-
mitting all to citizenship.

Perhaps no other nation in the whole circle
of civilized and semi-civilized states has, in
the last quarter of a century, made such won-
derful progress as Japan. The opening up
of intercourse between that country and the
United States by Commodore Perry, in 1854,
was the beginning of the establishment of cor-
dial relations between the Japanese and the
peoples of the West. The harbors of the
island were rapidly opened to foreign com-
merce. England and Russia followed the
example of the United States and concluded
advantageous treaties. Our own compact was
greatly improved in 1857, and again in the
following year. Between this time and 1874
full treaties of amity were concluded by

Japan with our own country, Great Britain.
Russia, Holland, Prussia, Portugal. I-Y.,
Spain, Switzerland, Italv. Au-tria, <irecee.
Denmark, Sweden, N.-rway. Hawaii, I'
and China. All of these compacts arc chnrac-
teri/.ed liy the >pirit of true enlightenment

Japan has .-liov.n and la showing heraelf ca-
pable of a grand display of statesmanship. A
volume could not contain the record of the
great social and political regeneration which
has taken place in the Imperial dominions.
In 1863-68 a civil war occurred in Japan, the
general result of which was the overthrow
of the shogunate; the destruction of feudal-
i~m ; the transfer of the Imperial residence
to Yedo, of which the name was changed to
Tokio; the emancipation of the jx-ople from
social thralldom, and the emergence into broad
daylight of the Mikado and his government.
It was the triumph of nationality over local-
ism, of civilization over mediaeval barbarity.
of the present over the past. A marvelous
change spread over the face of the inland. It
was discovered that the great peoples of the
West were not barbarians; that their institu-
tions and laws were worthy of imitation ; that
their learning and history were sufficient to
merit the praise even of Orientals. To all of
these considerations the Japanese have re-
sponded with a glad alacrity ; and the thought-
ful observer, sunning himself amid the splen-
dors of Fairmount Park in our centennial
summer, could but be astonished at the ele-
gance of the court in which were di.-played
the products of the genius and industry of
Japan. The contents surpassed description.
The display of Japanese bronzes attracted
universal attention and universal praise. The
porcelains were, beyond comparison, the finest
of the whole Exposition — finest in quality and
in the immense variety of the exhibit Rich-
ness of coloring — vivid hues of scarlet, green,
and gold — prevailed everywhere. Lacquered
ware of every variety, superb cabinet*, and
silken screens embroidered with figures infi-
nite, curious faces, and Japanese costumes,
made up a display which astonished the West-
ern mind with the profusion of Eastern art

The Japan of to-day is any other than the
Japan of the past. The nation is awake.
Activity and progress are displayed on <
hand. The frugality and industry of the

1344

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

people have astonished Western economists;
and the moralists of Europe and America
have been constrained to acknowledge the
social virtues — the courtesy, the respectful
manners, the dignified demeanor, the sincer-
ity, the modest ambition to know and to be —
of the Japanese race. The educational prog-
ress of the people has been a matter of won-
der ; and the readiness with which they ac-
cept the new because it is better, and discard
the old because it is inferior, has excited the
emulation and pricked the conscience of the
Western peoples to the extent of revealing
to them a moral defect, of the existence of
which in themselves they had not been pre-

viously aware. The outgoing to distant lands
of scores of the best young men of the coun-
try, the privation and social embarrassments
which all such cheerfully undergo to the end
that they may gather the treasures of foreign
learning — the fruits of foreign discipline — the
cheerfulness with which the aged parents of
such give up their sons to reside for years
among strangers, and the pride with which
they welcome them home when their educa-
tion is completed, — all show conclusively
that a better epoch has dawned, and that
NEW JAPAN has opened wide all her gates
to the fructifying sunbeams of a higher civ-
ilization.

CHAPTER Li:x.— AUSTRALIA.

jjjHE visitor at the Centen-
nial Exposition of 1876
had not strolled far
adown the magnificent
avenues of display until
he discovered that even far
AUSTRALIA had remem-
bered the jubilee of American independence.
The flocks on her hill-sides had contributed
their magnificent fleeces to surprise the West-
ern nations. The Argonauts of the South
Pacific were home again with the richest of
treasures ! Here stood an obelisk of phantom
gold, showing in cubic inches the quantity of
real gold taken from the mines of New South
Wales since 1851. Here were bars of New
Zealand tin and blocks of coal ; sections of
beautiful timber and cocoons of silk ; ores of
antimony and copper ; native wines and heaps
of precious stones. Excellent photographs of
the principal Australian cities and scenery
added much to the interest of the exhibit, and
the observer passed on, realizing the fact that
the island Empire of the South Pacific had
become one among the powers of the earth. •
Is it an island ? or is it a continent? Here
is a coast-line embracing a circuit of eight
thousand miles. Here is an area scarcely less
than three million square miles in extent.
Here is a territorial capacity — a variety and
compass of territorial condition — sufficient for

the development of one of the most powerful
nationalities on the globe. All the civilizing
forces in Europe might here find room for ex-
ercise, and a population equal to one-fifth of
all the inhabitants of the earth would hardly
be uncomfortably compressed within these
ample borders.

It belongs to geography, rather than to an
outline of general history, to present the phys-
ical character and potencies of Australia. Suf-
fice it to say that only the Australian coasts
and coast-lands have been thoroughly ex-
plored. In the interior vast districts are as
yet but partly known. In general the central
districts consist of a table-land of moderate
elevation, with small mountain ranges rising
here and there. In many parts the plain
sinks into valleys and swamps, sometimes fer-
tile but more frequently of a sandy and
rather unproductive soil. In some regions
desert tracts are found, where only the poor-
est species of vegetation can exist. Passing
towards the coasts, however, the traveler en-
ters more fertile districts, and his eye is
greeted with some of the most beautiful scen-
ery in the world.

Those parts of Australia which have been
most fully made known to Europe are the
eastern and south-eastern portions. This re-
gion has been thoroughly explored and sur-
veyed. The eastern coast has mountain ranges

MAP XXXII.

AUSTRALIA

125 Lon-itmic Ka-t 130 frum O

THE NINETI':i:.\Tll ( i:\Tl 'I; Y. .1 / V/V.M /./.I.

; ;i.,

of considerable magnitude. The ]>rinri|>al
mountains of these ranges are known as tin-
Australian Pyrenees and the Grampian Hills,
which extend eastward and westward from Mel-
bourne. The highest mountains of the whole
continent are along the eastern ena-t, and are
known as the Australian Alps, the loftiest
peak of which rises to a height of more than
seven thousand feet. North of the range just
mentioned, and to the west of Sydney,
stretches the range willed the Blue Moun-
tains, some of the summits of which are over
four thousand feet in height. The Liverpool
range is still further to the north ; and in this
group Mt. Sea View rises six thousand feet
above the level of the sea.

Of the rivers of Australia, only a few are
navigable. The streams of the country differ
much in character from those of Europe.
The Australian rivers, even when bank full
of water, suddenly sink away and disappear
in some quicksand or marsh. Their volume
is thus wasted for purposes of navigation ; nor
is the country much irrigated by their waters.
In some cases, however, the opposite is true.
The Murray is six hundred miles in length,
and is a lasting stream, from' its source, in
the Australian Alps, to its mouth, in Lake
Alexandrina. A few other rivers have the
same character, but by far the greater number
run dry in summer, and contribute little to
the agricultural and commercial benefit of the
country.

As it respects the Australian lakes, they
are far less extensive and beautiful than those
of Europe and North America. The former
partake rather of the character of swamps
than of true lakes. The most extensive of
such bodies of water lie in a group northward
from Spencer Gulf. The largest of these is
Lake Eyre, and the second in size is Lake
Torrens, which extends from north to south
about one hundred and forty miles. In a
south-easterly direction are several smaller
bodies of fresh water known as Gregory Lakes.
Lake Gairdner, lying to the west of Lake
Torrens, is of about the same extent as Lake
Eyre, but its waters are so brackish as to
make it a sea lagoon rather than a lake.

The climate of Australia may be defined in
general terms as hot and dry. These quali-
ties, however, are less marked in Victoria,
VOL. H.- 85

N. u South \Vali s, mid the other [.arts ..:
continent lyin.u' south of the thirtieth parallel,
than in the district- udjuci-nl to an. I north-
ward of the Tropie of Capricorn. In thete
parts the heat U very o|,|, revive, and it U
doiilitt'id whether, in the larger porti"M- of
QoMudaad, Alexandra, and Western Aus-
tralia, European civilization will ever flourish.
But in Victoria and New South Wales and tin-
mountainous parts of Queensland, as well
as to the west about the Gulf of Spencer,
country is healthful and the European consti-
tution as vigorous as in France and Southern
( o Tinany. The variations of temperature and
the irregularities in rainfall are very great
In some places the mercury has been known
to fall as much as 30° F. in half an hour ;
and it is said that from noon until midnight a
range as great as 99° has been recorded. The
rains along the south coast are frequently of
the tropical character, so violent as to be de-
scribed as deluges and waterspouts.

If we turn to the animal life of Australia,
we do not find a great extent or variety. The
carnivorous beasts are not so great or numer-
ous as might be expected from the character
of the continent The most formidable beast
of prey is an animal of the dog kind called
the dingo. Like wolves, the dingoes roam
about in packs, and attack flocks of sheep and
goats. Ruminants and pachyderms are not
found native in the country. In one branch
of animal life, however, Australia is remark-
able. Marsupials abound. Of these the most
conspicuous example is the kangaroo. A
small variety of the same species is called the
wallaby. The opossum also abounds, and a
variety of this species, called the flying opos-
sum, or petaurus, is frequently met with.
Still another variety of pouched animals, called
the dasyurus, is common in certain districts.
Another group of animals peculiar to Australia
are the monotremata, of which the two leading
examples are the porcupine ant-eater and the
ornithorhyncus. The Australian birds are for
the most part identical with those of Europe
and Africa. Eagles, falcons, and owls are corn-
Parrots of brilliant feather and birds

mon.

of Paradise are met with in almost every for-
est. The Australian reptiles are neither nu-
merous nor formidable. The serpents are by
no means comparable in size and venom with

1346

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

those of Asia, Africa, and South America.
Of the insects, several species have a poison-
ous bite, and the scorpion, centipede, and
even the spider, are to be dreaded by the
traveler.

It is, however, in the world of vegetation
that Australia most displays her varied fe-
cundity. The continent is said to possess
more than eight thousand species of plants ;
and the strange thing is, that of these varieties
of vegetable life about nine-tenths are not na-
tive to any other part of the world. There
are said to be more than a hundred varieties
of the myrtle peculiar to Australia, and of
this genus the trees not infrequently rise to
the height of two hundred feet. The species
of the acacias are equally numerous and im-
portant. Of the cone-bearing family, the
leading varieties are the cedar and the casu-
arina. The palm is infrequent, but the arbor-
escent fern, with its splendid branches ten or
twelve feet in length, attracts the delighted
attention of the traveler. Nor should failure
be made to mention the beautiful giant lily,
the remarkable tea tree, the stench plant, and
the kangaroo grass, so high as to conceal a
horse and rider.

In grains and fruits Australia is moder-
ately— in some parts abundantly — productive.
Perhaps Victoria, New South Wales, and
South Australia yield as fine crops of wheat
as any other countries in the world. The
gardens are especially fine, and almonds, figs,
apricots, melons, grapes, apples, pears, plums,
and quinces are produced in immense quan-
tities, sufficient not only for home consump-
tion, but for foreign markets.

In her mineral wealth Australia may be
ranked among the richest countries of the
world. Gold is, or has been, found in such
quantities as to be equaled only in the mines
of California. The Australian gold is gener-
ally found mixed with quartz and pipe-clay,
sometimes with sandstone and white and blue
earths. It is not yet known how great in ex-
tent the Australian gold fields are. Until
recently the richest of the mines have been in
the Bathurst district, in the northern part of
New South Wales, and in the north-western
regions of Victoria. Of late, however, the
mining interests have turned to the Gympie
diggings, in Queensland. No mines have

surpassed in occasional discoveries those of
Ballarat, where lumps of gold have been
found weighing from twenty-eight to a hun-
dred and thirty-six pounds. In general the
Australian mines differ greatly from those of
California in this, that in the latter the pre-
cious metal is generally distributed in veins
and strata that may sometimes be traced for a
great distance, while in the Australian deposits
the gold is scattered in separate particles on
the surface and through the soil and sand.
The aggregate quantity of the precious metal
taken from the mines of Australia and added
to the wealth of Great Britain has been enor-
mous, nor are there good grounds for appre-
hending that the supply is yet in any danger
of exhaustion. After the gold mines, may be
mentioned those of copper at Burra-Burra and
in other places, as well as the rich deposits of
tin, lead, silver, and precious stones.

The primitive, perhaps indigenous, people
of Australia appear to be a race distinct from
those inhabiting any other quarter of the
globe. At least this type of mankind has
been found only in the Australian islands, in
New Guinea, New Hebrides, New Caledonia,
and the Solomon Islands. The color of this
strange species of barbarians is black, ranging
in hue from what may be called a brown
black to ebony. The hair of the Australian
natives is as crisp as that of the negro, but is
true hair, not wool. The general physiognomy
is more pleasing and human than that of most
of the African tribes. The Australian face is
fairly well developed. The nose moderately
high, and the lips by no means so gross and
protuberant as those of the negro. In intellec-
tual capacity, moreover, the natives are fully
equal or superior to those of the other aborig-
ines. They readily adapt themselves to the
manners and usages of civilized life. Their
native customs, however, are rude and bar-
barous. It appears that they knew not the
use of fire until made acquainted with the
same by foreigners. They built no huts in
their original state, but were satisfied with a
rude barricade of bark, set up at an angle and
rudely propped, between themselves and the
wind and rain. Their food was eaten raw, and
since the introduction of cooking the method
is to dig a hole in the ground, kindle therein
a fire, throw in the slain animal whole, and

THE NIXKTKKXTH CENTURY.— A I ^Tl: ALIA.

1847

cover it over with earth until the work is
In the remote districts the natives go entirely
nuked, but in proximity t<> tin- European col-
onies the sense of shame has suggested a rude
covering of sheep skins and blankets. The
native weapons are the spear, the club, and
the boomerang. The first of these the natives
hurl with great precision to a distance of sev-
enty or eighty yards, and the last becomes a
dangerous missile in the savage but experi-
enced hands of them that throw it.

As a rule, the disposition of the native
Australians is more pacific and less vindic-
tive than that of most other savages. The
various tribes have their feuds and wars, and
this circumstance, as in the case of the North
American Indians, has tended to reduce their
numbers. At the present day it is esti-
mated that there are not more than fifty
thousand of the aborigines in the whole con-
tinent. Like most other barbarians, they are
greatly addicted to drink, and the drunken
habit has struck a fatal blow at the vitality of
the race. Socially, the native Australians are
polygamists. Their marriage ceremony consists
merely in the carrying ofF of the bride by the
bridegroom. Perhaps she consents; perhaps
she does not, but her resistance is of no avail.
A belief in immortality prevails, and this fur-
nishes a basis for the theory that the Euro-
peans who have taken possession of Australia
are the reanimated souls of the native blacks.
The natives have the common vice of sav-
agery— indolence; and the foreign colonists
have great difficulty in inducing them to work.
There can be little doubt that the aboriginal
Australians are in a process of extinction, and
that in the presence of English civilization
they will soon fade into nonentity.

At the close of the last century the whole
European population of Australia scarcely
amounted to a half million. At the present
time (1880) that population has risen to two
million seven hundred thousand. Great cities
have sprung up, of which the principal are
Melbourne, Sydney, Ballarat, Sandhurst, Ad-
elaide, and Geelong, the smallest of which
has more than twenty-five thousand inhal>-
itants. Melbourne, the capital of Victoria,
situated whore the river Yarra-Yarra opens
into the estuary of Tort Philip, has a pop-
ulation of two hundred and eighty -two

thousand (1881), and is one of the most flour-
i.-liin;; ciii, - ot the outlying British Kmpirr.
Lying on Ixith *i<le.< of the riv.-r the -ttimtic.n
is admiralil.-. Wide street*, laid out at right
angles and well paved, attest the public spirit
of the municipal government, and fine public
buildings, such as those of the University of
Melbourne, the theaters, the Wesleyan Church,
the Club-houses, the houses of Parliament, the
Custom-house, the Treasury, the Post-office,
the Museum, the Public Library, etc., are
worthy to be compared with any similar struc-
tures in Europe. The city of Sydney, cap-
ital of New South Wales, is second only to
Melbourne in its growth, population, and pros-
pects. The census of 1881 shows a registry
of two hundred and twenty thousand inhab-
itants. The city is situated on the high
shore of Port Jackson, about four miles from
the entrance, four hundred and fifty miles
distant from Melbourne. It is laid out with
less regularity than the latter city, and has
somewhat the appearance of an old English
town. But the public edifices may well be
mentioned with praise. The Exchange, the
Government-house, the University, the Post-
office, and the Town Hall are all imposing and
elegant structures. Such also are the Parlia-
ment buildings, and the Treasury, the Kail-
way Station, and the theaters, the Anglican,
and the Roman Catholic Cathedral. The city
can also boast of Hyde Park, of an extent of
forty acres; the Domain, of a hundred and
thirty-eight acres, and the Botanical Garden,
of thirty-eight acres. More recently the great
parks named Prince Alfred, Belmore, and
Moore have been laid out, with an area of five
hundred acres. Besides the University, which
is modeled after those of England, Sydney
has St. Paul's American College and 8t John's
College under the patronage of the Roman
Catholics, as well as institutions directed by
the Presbyterians and the Wesleyans. A
Normal School, a Nautical School, a Free
Museum, a Public Library, and an Astronom-
ical Observatory bear witness to the intellect-
ual progress of the people. Sydney was
founded in 1788, and was named for Viscount
Sydney, the first colonial secretary. It was
incorporated in 1842, and was selected in 1875
as the seat of the Australian Industrial Expo-
sition.

1348

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

It is not the purpose in this connection to
give more than a cursory sketch of the civil
and political history of Australia. The coun-
try first became known to Europe in the early
part of the seventeenth century. Before this
time vague and indefinite traditions had ex-
isted of lands seen and heard of by naviga-
tors in the South Pacific. A Portuguese map
bearing the date of 1542 has an outline of a
land in this region that may have been seen
by him who drew the chart. It is commonly
agreed, however, that the actual discovery
was made by the Dutch ship Duyfhen in 1606.

had visited Australia. It was not, however,
until 1770 that the famous Captain Cook
landed in the southern part of the island and
gave names to some of the headlands. Soon
afterwards Captain Howe hoisted the British
flag at Port Jackson and took formal posses-
sion in the name of George III.

The first settlement in Australia was made
at Botany Bay, in New South Wales, in the
year 1788. The n*ime of this famous colony
was given by Sir Joseph Banks, the botanist
of the expedition, who was delighted with
the splendid vegetation }f the surrounding

PUBLIC LIBRARY, NATIONAL GALLERY, AND MUSEUM, MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA.

This vessel, on its way from Java, sailed into
the Gulf of Carpentaria, where a portion of
the crew went ashore, and some were killed
by the natives. Ten years later, Captain Dirk
Hartog, in the ship Concord, traced a portion
of the north-western coast of the continent.
Then followed an epoch of discovery and ex-
ploration under the auspices of the Dutch.
In the year 1664 the continent received the
name of New Holland. Thirty years later
the Swan River was ascended and its banks
explored. In 1699 Captain Dampier, in the
ship Roebuck, traced the north-west coast of
the continent, being the first Englishman who

region. The colony was a penal establish-
ment, the purpose of the British government
being to send thither her criminals for the full
enjoyment of their own refined society. It
was soon discovered, however, that the site of
Sydney was better adapted for a settlement than
that of Botany Bay ; and Captain Phillip was
presently sent out with a squadron carrying
eight hundred and fifty convicts as the avant-
couriers of the new civilization. Perhaps a
more unamiable list of citizens was never pre-
sented as the advanced cohort of a new state.
Meanwhile, the work of discovery and ex-
ploration was carried forward. In 1791,

THE NINETl-:i-:.\TH CENTURY. .!/>//.•. i/./.i.

Captain Vancouver made important contribu-
tions to the geographical knowledge respect-
ing the southern coast of the continent. In
1803, Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Laud, was
selected as the site of another penal colony.
The spot chosen for the settlement of the
first company of convicts was the site of the
present city of Hobart. In 1825, Queens-
land was first colonized, but was not separated
from New South Wales until 1859. The
Swan River settlement, the first of Western
Australia, was founded in 1829, and was con-
verted into a penal colony twelve years after-
wards. The country of Victoria, hitherto
known as Port Phillip, was first permanently
colonized in 1835, but was not divided from
New South Wales until July of 1851. South
Australia was settled by emigrants from Great
Britain in 1836. Four years afterwards
New Zealand was also separated from New
South Wales, and was organized as a dis-
tinct colony.

Thus was the major part of the coast line
of the Australian continent made known, and
in part devoted to civilization. Since the
early part of the present century, almost every
year has witnessed some effort on the part of
the colonial or home government to explore
the interior of the country. By such means
vast regions hitherto unknown have been trav-
ersed and their physical features noted for
the advantage of the coming empire. The
great question, however, which has occupied
the attention of the local authorities of Aus-
tralia has been that of the transportation of
criminals and their colonization in the coun-
try. From the first the system tended to de-
stroy itself. As Australia became civilized,
the punitive character of transportation was
abated. The place to which the criminal was
sent was frequently better than that from
which he was taken. Besides, many settle-
ments were established by free colonies of
reputable people, and these increased more
rapidly than did the penal settlements them-
selves. In the course of time an inevitable
conflict arose between the depraved and vicious
elements which had aggregated in the penal
colonies, and the better classes of society. It
was as much as the latter, even when backed
by the government, could do to keep the
former in subjection, and the difficulty was

con-tantly inert -:i>< -d by the arrival nf new
criminal cargoes from 'ireat Britain.

At lenirtli tli. •ni.-t.* .-et tli. niMclvet

to prevent the further tnin-|«>rtati"ii of con-
victs. An Anti-transportation League wa*
organized, and the attention of the home gov-
ernment was suddenly itrre-t'.-tl liy the outcry
of those who were suffering from the abtun
of the penal system of the Kmpire. It was
soon discovered that either the system of con-
vict colonization must be abandoned, or the
free colonies already planted in Australia be
hopelessly given up to the viee and demorali-
zation which grew rank in the |>enal settle-
ments. The sentiment against the system be-
came overwhelming, and in 1837 an edict was
passed forbidding further transportation into
New South Wales. The measure was found
to be in the highest degree favorable to the
interest of the colony, and an agitation was
at once begun for carrying out the same pol-
icy in Van Diemen's Land. It was not, how-
ever, until 1853 that the abolition of penal
colonies was effected in the latter country.
From this time forth the stream of emigration
set in rapidly, and the social and political con-
dition of the colony was soon transformed by
the impact of a healthier population.

For purposes of civil government the Aus-
tralian government is divided into six great
provinces. These are Victoria, New South
Wales, and Queensland on the east; South
and North Australia in the center; Western
Australia on the west To these should be
added the outlying island of Tasmania, or Van
Diemen's Land. Each of these provinces has
• its own constitution and local laws. All the
political institutions of the continent, however,
are modeled after those of the home govern-
ment of England. But the difference in situ-
ation has introduced many modifications in
the statutes and governmental system of the
country. In general all the colonies, with the
exception of Western Australia, enjoy a re-
sponsible government ; that is, one answerable
to the people. Nor is it to be supposed that
Western Australia will long be excluded from
the benefits of this administration. The differ-
ent parts — executive, legislative, judicial — of
the Australian governments are the types, so
to speak, of the corresponding form under the
British constitution. The queen is represented

13f>0

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

by the governor-general of the province ; the
House of Lords, by the Legislative Council ;
the House of Commons, by the Legislative
Assembly. The members of the Council are
either nominated or elected ; but the members
of the Assembly are all elected by the people.
It has happened many times in the history
of the colonial governments that serious dead-
locks have occurred in legislation, owing to
disagreements between the Upper and the
Lower Houses of the assemblies. This has
led to an agitation with a view to modifying
the constitution of the Council ; and it is not
unlikely that the near future will witness such
a change as will make the members of the
Upper House more directly responsive to the
popular will. The general statutes of the
British Empire are in force in Australia, un-
less the same have been superseded by positive
local enactments. On the other hand, all the
local laws have to be submitted to the queen
for her sanction before they can come into
force. Mutual dependence is thus established
between the home and the local government.
Most of the salutary reforms which were agi-
tated in Great Britain during the decade,
1830-40, have become fundamental in the
constitutions of Australia. As might have
been anticipated, the newer country adopted
without fear those liberal principles which
found but a timid voice in the older. In
general, the theory of manhood suffrage has
been adopted throughout Australia. The peo-
ple vote by ballot. The members of the As-
sembly are paid for their services. The ses-
sions of Parliament are triennial. In short,
in all of its features the Australian system of
government is as popular in its methods and
democratic in its principles as may be, con-
sistently with the great constitution of the
monarchy from which the local governments
derive their existence. A still larger question
of Australian politics has of late years arisen
respecting the union of all the provinces in
one Federation. Nor is it improbable that at
no distant day such a general union of the
Australian states may be effected. It is easy
to see that many civil and political advantages
would accrue from the establishment of a cen-
tral government for the whole continent; nor
is such an agitation an occasion for alarm
either to the home government of the Em-

pire, or to the local governments of the sev-
eral colonies.

As it respects the nationality of the people
of Australia, the great majority are from the
British Islands. Every year, however, raises
the percentage of those who are native born.
Contrary to what might have been expected in
the premises, the next in number among the for-
eign populations are the Chinese, of whom
there are no fewer than seventy thousand in
Queensland. These Orientals have for the
most part been drawn to the country by the
magnetism of the Australian gold mines. So
numerous have the Chinese become in certain
districts that the Assembly of Queensland has
in the last few years adopted some stringent
laws for the restriction of this kind of immi-
gration. Next in strength among the foreign
elements of Australia are the Germans. The
principal settlements of people of this blood
are in Queensland and South Australia. After
these three principal foreign populations, the
Australian census shows a mixture of nearly
all the nationalities of the world, European,
American, Asiatic. Notwithstanding the draft
which Australia has thus made, and is making
upon other states and kingdoms — notwithstand-
ing the fecundity of her soil, the richness of
her mines, the salubrity of her climate — the
fact still remains that the country is the most
thinly populated of all the outlying posses-
sions of Great Britain. The continent has not
as yet one person to every square mile of ter-
ritory. The paucity of the Australian popu-
lation may well appear when it is remembered
that the average in the United Kingdom is
two hundred and eighty to the square mile,
and a little over thirty in the whole of the
British dominions. Of all the provinces of
Australia, Victoria is most populous, having
an average of nearly ten to the square mile.
The most thinly settled region is Western Aus-
tralia, where there is as yet only one inhabitant
for every thirty-three square miles of territory.
The birth-rate in the colonies, however, is
high, and the immigration in 1881 aggregated
over twenty-four thousand.

In industrial energies and internal improve-
ments the Australians are displaying a commen-
dable zeal. Three great lines of steamships,
namely, the Peninsular and Oriental Company,
the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, and the

THE XL\I:TI.I:.\TII < -I.M-URY.—A / B TI;.\I.I.\.

British India Steam Navigation Company carry
the mails between Australia and (Jreat Britain.
During the year 1880 more than eight thou-
sand vessels arrived in the Australian ports.
The following table exhibits the net tonnage
of the steamers and sailing vessels owned by
the various Australian colonies in 1880-81 :

NAME OF COLONY.

H«llln( VMM!*.

BUUKTI.

T«UL

No.

TOUOM.

\M

HM

TO.OM*.

•h

MM
T..BM*.

New South Wales...
New /A-aluiiil

m
H.

•

207
181
251
109

54,565
54,266
3,161
M.M1
14,263
B,M
MM

->7T
129

at
m

M

a

32,768
16,788

tin

•3m

3,280
15,161
569

770
574
94

M

201
M
121

sijm

70,05]

you

:•]......
17,543
58,830
7,212

South Australia

Victoria

Western Australia..
Total

I, MB

9)0,984

00

i

-I'.- •-

•.•:;::.

277,191

Fiji

9

906

19

10

925

The discovery of gold in Australia in the
latter part of 1851 produced almost as great
a furor throughout the civilized world as did
the similar fact in California three years pre-
viously. The discovery was made by a miner
named Hargreaves, who had lately been in
the mines of California. The first "find"
was made in the Hat hurst district of New
South Wales. Before this time Count Stizel-
ecki had announced the existence of gold in
Australia; and Sir Roderick Murchison had
declared from an examination of Australian
quartz that the same was probably associated
with gold deposits. Very soon after the dis-
covery of the precious metal on the Turon
River in New South Wales, a similar but still
more important discovery was made in Vic-
toria. No sooner was the intelligence carried
to Europe than hundreds and thousands of
adventurers and diggers set out to gather
wealth in the South Pacific. Neither distance
nor expense could deter the eager host from
starting for the far-off El Dorado. Within a
year after the discovery two hundred and fifty
thousand people poured into Australia. The
sudden abandonment of agriculture for the
richer promise of the mines had well-nigh
produced a famine. But for the arrival of

from Kun.|>.- multiplied thousand))
must have perished from starvation,
length, hi.w.-v.-r, tin- iiulii-trial equipoise was
restored ; and in the course of time it dawned
upon the excited imaginations of the ptM.pl,.
that tin- raUing of sheep was a mon- certain
and more healthful method <.f gaining riches
than even the golden but ofttimes delusive
promise of the diggings.

Of later years— though the yield of gold
is still immense and the mines unexhausted —
the attention of the Australians has been in
a great measure diverted to the prixlm -lion
and care of flocks. The annual yield of wool
has become enormous. Immense tracts of
knd, especially in Queensland, have been
turned into ranches for sheep, and in these
ranges are to be found the finest flocks in the
world. Merino and other fine breeds were
imported into the continent at an early date,
and have been multiplied with great rapidity.
Recent statistics show that the annual product
of wool — nearly all of which is exported — is
constantly increasing. The flocks of Queens-
land alone are estimated to contain fully ten
million head of sheep. In other respects the
industrial progress of Australia has been
equally marked and rapid. The potencies of
the continent are not yet revealed to the
world, and the development of its amazing
resources has only begun. What may be the
political and social future of this great ocean-
bound land, to what rank Australia shall pres-
ently rise among the great powers of the
world, it were useless to predict. But if the
energy of the race, the natural gifts of the
country, the freedom and progress of Aus-
tralian institutions may be taken as a criterion
the day is not far distant when the land which
only a half century ago was stigmatized as
the home of criminals — the debouchure of
all the streams of vice and filth — purified at
length by her own internal energies and raised
by the native vigor of her people, shall as-
sume no second rank among the enlightened
nations of the world.

1352

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

by his pen.
imagine, to

JHE concluding paragraphs
of a historical work may
well be brief and simple.
It is not permitted to the
writer of history to mor-
alize at length upon the
events which are sketched
He is forbidden to conjecture, to
dream. He has learned, albeit
against his will, to moderate his enthusiasm, to
curb his fancy, to be humble in the presence
of facts. To him the scenery on the shore of
the stream that bears him onward — tall trees
and giant rocks — must pass but half observed,
and for him the sun and the south wind strive
in vain to make enticing pictures on the play-
ful eddies of human thought. None the less,
he may occasionally pause to reflect; he may
ever and anon throw out an honest deduction
drawn from the events upon which his atten-
tion has been fixed. Particularly is this true
when he has come to the end. All of a sud-
den he anchors in the bay of the present, and
realizes that his voyage is done. In such a
moment there is a natural reversion of the
thought from its long and devious track across
the fields, valleys, and wastes of the past, and
a strong disposition to educe smne lesson from
the events which he has recorded.

The first and most general truth in history is
that men ought to be free. If happiness is the end
of the human race, then freedom is its condi-
tion. And this freedom is not to be a kind
of half-escape from thralldom and tyranny, but
ample and absolute. The emancipation in or-
der to be emancipation at all, must be com-
plete. To the historian it must ever appear
strange that men have been so distrustful
of this central principle in the philosophy of
human history. It is an astounding fact that
the major part of the energies of mankind
have been expended in precisely the opposite
way — in the enslavement rather than the lib-
eration of the race. Every generation has
sat like a stupid image of Buddha on the
breast of its own aspirations, and they who
have struggled to break their own and the

.—CONCLUSION.

fetters of their fellow-men have been regarded
and treated as the common enemies of human
peace and happiness. On the contrary, they
have been saviors and benefactors of whom
the world has not been worthy. The greatest
fallacy with which the human intellect has
ever been beguiled, is that the present — what-
ever age may be called the present— has con-
ceded to men all the freedom which they are
fit to enjoy. On the contrary, no age has
done so. Every age has been a Czar, and
every reformer is threatened with Siberia.

Nevertheless, in the face of all this bale-
ful opposition and fierce hostility to the for-
ward and freedom-seeking movement of the
race, the fact remains that to be free is the
prime condition of all the greatness, wisdom,
and happiness in the world. Whatever force
therefore, contributes to widen the limits which
timid fear or selfish despotism has set as the
thus-far of freedom is a civilizing force and de-
serves to be augmented by the individual will
and personal endeavor of every lover of man-
kind; and on the other hand, every force
which tends to fix around the teeming brains
and restless activities of men one of those so-
called necessary barriers to their progress and
ambition, is a force of barbarism and cruelty,
meriting the relentless antagonism of every
well-wisher of his kind. Let it be remembered,
then, that the battle is not yet ended, the vic-
tory not yet won. The present is relatively —
not absolutely, thanks to the great warriors
of humanity — as much the victim of the en-
slaving forces as was the past ; and it is the
duty of the philanthropist, the sage, the states-
man, to give the best of his life and genius
to the work of breaking down, and not impos-
ing, those bulwarks and barriers which super-
stition and conservatism have reared as the
ramparts of civilization, and for which an en-
lightened people have no more need than for
a Chinese wall.

The enemy of freedom, and therefore of
the progress and happiness of our race, is or-
ganization. Mankind have been organized to
death. The social, political, and ecclesiastical

Till: MM'TEENTH CENTURY. -C<>.\< 1. 1 ^fON.

forms which have been institut.Ml have
so hard aud cold and obdurate that the life,
the emotion, the soul within, has been well-
nigh extinguished. Among all the civil, ]><.lii-
ieal, and churchly institutions of the world it
would be difficult to-day to select that one
which is not in a large measure conducted in
the interest of the beneficiaries. The organ-
i/.ation has become the principal thing, and
the man only a secondary consideration. It
must be served and obeyed. He may be de-
spised and neglected. It must be consulted,
honored, feared ; crowned with flowers, starred
aud studded with gold. He may be left a
starving pauper, homeless, friendless, child-
less, shivering in mildewed tatters, a scav-
enger, and beggar at the doorway of the
court. All this must presently be reversed.
Organization is not the principal thing; man
himself is better. The institution, the party,
the creed, the government, that does not serve
him — does not conduce to his interests, prog-
ress, and enlightenment — is not only a piece
of superfluous rubbish on the stage of modern
civilization, but is a real stumbling-block, a
positive clog and detriment to the welfare and
best hopes of mankind.

Closely allied with this overwrought organ-
ization of society is the pernicious theory of
paternalism — that delusive, mediaeval doctrine
which proposes to effect the social and indi-
vidual elevation of man by "protecting," and
therefore subduing, him. The theory is that
man is a sort of half-infant, half-imbecile,
who must be led along and guarded as one
would lead and guard a foolish and imperti-
nent child. It is believed and taught that
men seek not their own best interests ; that
they are the natural enemies and destroyers
of their own peace ; that human energy, when
liberated and no longer guided by the facti-
tious machinery of society and the state,
either slides rapidly backwards into barbarism
or rushes forward only to stumble and fall
headlong by its own audacity. Therefore so-
ciety must be a good master, a garrulous old
nurse to her children ; she must take care of
them ; teach them what to do ; lead them by
the swaddling bands; coax them into some fee-
ble anil well-regulated activity ; feed them on
her insipid porridge with the antiquated spoons
of her superstition. The state must govern

aud repress. The state must strengthen
her apparatus, improve her machine.
mii.-i. put her Milijccts down ; .-he mu>t keep
them down. Sin- mii-t t- -aeh them to be
tame and traetable; to go at her will; to
rise, to halt, to sit, to sleep, to wake at her
bidding; to be humble and meek. And
all this with the belief tliat men to sub-
nrdinated and put down can !»•, r-hrmld be,
ought to be great and happy ! They are so
well cared for, so happily governed 1 On the
contrary, if history has proved — does prove —
any one thing, it is this: Man when least
governed is greatest. When his heart, his
brain, his limbs are unbound, he straightway
begins to flourish, to triumph, to be glorious.
Then, indeed, he sends up the green and blos-
soming trees of his ambition. Then, indeed,
he flings out both hands to grasp the skyland
and the stars. Then, indeed, he feels no
longer a need for the mastery of society ; no
longer a want of some guardian an intermed-
dling state to inspire and direct his energies.
He grows in freedom. His philanthrophy ex-
pands ; his nature rises to a noble stature ; he
springs forward to grasp the grand substance,
the shadow of which he has seen in bin dreams.
He is happy. He feels himself released from
the domination of an artificial scheme which
has been used for long ages for the subjection
of his fathers and himself. What men want,
what they need, what they hunger for, what
they will one day have the courage to demand
and take, is less organic government — not
more; a freer manhood and fewer shackles; a
more cordial liberty ; a lighter fetter of form,
and a more spontaneous virtue.

Of all things that are incidentally needed
to usher in the promised democracy and broth-
erhood of man — the coming new era of en-
lightenment and peace — one of the most essen-
tial is toleration. It is a thing which the world
has never yet enjoyed — is just now beginning to
enjoy. Almost every page of the ancient and
inediieval history of mankind has been made
bloody with some form of intolerance. Until the
present day the baleful shadow of this sin against
humanity has been upon the world. The pre-
scriptive vices of the Middle Age have flowed
down with the blood of the race and tainted
the life that now is with a suspicion and
distrust of freedom. Liberty in the minds

1354

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of men has meant the privilege of agreeing
with the majority. Men have desired free
thought, but fear has stood at the door. It
remains for the present to build a highway,
broad and free, into every field of liberal in-
quiry, and to make the poorest of men who
walks therein more secure in life and reputa-
tion than the soldier who sleeps behind the
rampart. Proscription has no part nor lot in
the modern government of the world. The
stake, the gibbet, and the rack, thumb-
screws, swords, and pillory have no place
among the machinery of civilization. Nature
is diversified; so are human faculties, beliefs,
and practices. Essential freedom is the right
to differ, and that right must be sacredly re-
spected. Nor must the privilege of dissent
be conceded with coldness and disdain, but
openly, cordially, and with good will. No
loss of rank, abatement of character, or ostra-
cism from society must darken the pathway
of the humblest of the seekers after truth.
The right of free thought, free inquiry, and
free speech to all men everywhere is as clear
as the noonday and bounteous as the air and
the sea.

A second auxiliary in the forward move-
ment of our age will be found in the emanci-
pation of woman. There are two stations to
which woman may be logically assigned. One
is the harem of the Turk ; the other is the
high dais of perfect equality with man. The
Middle Ages gave her the former place. The
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries sought to
fix her in a station between the two extremes.
The present, having discovered that human
rights are not deducible from physiological dis-
tinctions, seeks to make her as free as man.
The tyranny and selfishness of political parties
will for a while retard what they can not pre-
vent, and then, by an attempted falsification of
history, will seek to make it appear that they
have been the champion of the cause by which
one-half of the human race are to be enfran-

chised— removed from the state of political
serfdom to become a great and salutary agency
in the social and political reforms of the age.
It follows naturally to add that the creation
of a universal citizenship by means of universal
education is a third force, which is to bring in
and glorify the future of all lands. Just in
proportion as the republican principle en-
croaches upon absolutism in the domain of
government, will the necessity for enlighten-
ing the masses become more and more impera-
tive. The development of a high degree of
intelligence is, in all free governments, a sine
qua, non of their strength and perpetuity.
Without it such governments fall easy victims
to ignorant military captains and civil dema-
gogues of low repute. Whether, indeed, the
republican form of government be better than
monarchy turns wholly upon the intelligence
of the governed. Where this is wanting the
king appears, and the people find in him a
refuge from the ills of anarchy; but where
the antecedent condition of public intelligence
exists — where every man, by the discipline of
virtuous schools, has been in his youth rooted
and grounded in the fruitful soil of knowledge,
the salutary principles and practices of self-
restraint, and the generous ways of freedom —
there indeed has neither the military leader
with his sword, the political demagogue with
his fallacy, nor the king with his crown and
Dei gratia, any longer a place or vocation
among the people. May the day soon dawn
when every land, from Orient to Occident,
from pole to pole, from mountain to shore,
and from shore to the farthest island of the
sounding sea, shall feel the glad sunshine of
freedom in its breast ; and when the people of
all climes, arising at last from the heavy
slumbers and barbarous dreams which have so
long haunted the benighted minds of men,
shall join in glad acclaim to usher in the
Golden Era of Humanity and the universal
Monarchy of Man!

END OK VOLUME III.

INDEX

AAHME8, Kciu'ii of, i. 56.

A IIHASSIDK DYNASTY, Ascendency of, ii. 281-285 ;

table of, ii. 283.
A HDAI.LAH, General of Islam, ii. 130 ; caliph of the

West, ii. 140-144.
ABDALMALEC, Caliph of Islam, ii. 142 ; reign of,

ii. 142-146.

ABDALRAHMAN, General of Islam, ii. 118-119.
ABDALRAHMAN, Governor of Spain, ii. 150; in-
vades France, ii. 151 ; overthrown at Poitiers,
ii. 151.

ABD-EL-KADKR, Overthrow and capture of, iii. 1227.
AiiDKHKAii.MAN, Caliph of Cordova, ii. 285-286.
ABDUL-AZIZ, SULTAN, Reign of, iii. 1301.
ABDUL-MKDJID, SULTAN, Reign of, iii. 1301.
ABELARD AND HELO'ISE, Story of, ii. 259.
ABIHI, SON OF NOBODY, Career of, ii. 133-134.
ABOUKIR, Battle of, iii. 1052.
ABRAHAM, Ancestor of Israel, i. 62; leaves TJr,

i. 113.

ABU BEKER, First caliph of Islam, ii. 100; gath-
ers the Koran, ii. 101 ; foreign conquests of,
ii. 101-105.

ABU K MI INS, Chieftain of the Moors, ii. 137;
defeats Acbah, ii. 137; takes Cwrwan, ii.
141-142.

ABUL ABBAS, Establishes Abbasside Dynasty, ii. 281.
ABU WAKKAS, General of Islam, ii. 114-117.
ABYSSINIA, War of with England, iii. 1214.
ACADIA, Conquest of by the English, iii. 927-929.
ACARNANIA, Description of, i. 375-376.
ACBAH, General of Islam, ii. 135; conquests of in

Northern Africa, ii. 137.

ACHJKAN LEAGUE, Formation of, i. 589 ; policy of,
i. 738; influence of, i. 741; dissolution of, i.
742-744.

ACH.EANS, Account of, i. 380-381.
ACHJEMENES, Founder of Persia, i. 337.
ACHAIA, Description of, i. 376.
ACHAIA, Province of Rome, i. 744.
ACRE, Besieged by the Christians, ii. 357 ; last
hold of the Crusaders, ii. 398; taken by the
Moslems, ii. 399; besieged by Napoleon, iii.
1051.

ACROPOLIS, Notice of, i. 399, 481.
ACTIUM, Battle of, i. 818.
ADAMITES, Sect of Hussites, ii. 495.
ADAMS, JOHN, Mentioned, iii. 951 ; in Colonial
Congress, iii. 958 ; on committee to draft Dec-
laration, iii. 962 ; American ambassador at

Paris, iii. 981; elected Vice-president, Hi. 084;
reflected, iii. 1130; chosen President, iii. 1131 ;
administration of, iii. 1131-113'.'; death <.f,
iii. 1149.

ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, American ambassador at

Ghent, iii. 1143; elected President, iii. 1148;

sketch of, iii. 1148; administration of, iii.

1148-1149.

ADAMS, SAMCEL, Defender of colonial liberty, iii.

953; in Colonial Congress, iii. 958.
ADAH, Worship of, i. 133-134.
ADHEMAR, Bishop of Pay, Leader of First Crusade,

ii. 305, 322.

ADIABENE, Province of, i. 142.
ADOLPHUB, King of the Visigoths, ii. 64-65.
ADRIANOPLB, Battle of, i. 884; taken by Russians,

iii. 1307.

ADRIATIC, Marriage of by the Doge, ii. 430.
ADRONICUS, Emperor of the East, i. 930-931.

-, Institution of, i. 682.
, Troubles of with Athens, i. 462-463.

, Battle of, 1. 498.
WAY, Description of, i. 707.
.K.MII.H-.S PAULLUS, Consul of Rome, i. 719.
.K.VKAS, Tradition of, i. 612.
AEOLIAN CONFEDERATION, Founding of, i. 435-436.

Account of, i. 380.
GREEK, Character of, i. 387.

Leader of Macedonian party, i. 523.
AESCHYLUS, Works of, i. 393.
.ETOMA, Description of, i. 375.
J£TOLIAN LEAGUE, History of, i. 738-741.
AFDHAL, Emir of the Turks, ii. 327-328.
AFGHANISTAN, Troubles of England with, iii.

1211-1212.

AFRICA, Character of, i. 33.
AFRICANUS. (See Scipio.)
AOER PUBLICTJS. (See Land Question.)
AGESILAUH, King of Sparta, i. 505; career of, i.

506-518.

AOIXCOURT, Battle of, ii. 461, S'.".'.
Aois, King of Sparta, i. 505.
AONADELLO, Battle of, ii. 543.
AGRARIAN LAW, Passage of, i. 683.
AORICOLA, C.NEir- -I' ; i: I, Conqueror of Britain, i.

855; death of, i. 856.

AGRICULTURE, A primitive pursuit, i, 1~.
AGRIOENTIUM, Taken by the Carthaginians, i. 728.
AGRIPPINA, Empress of Rome, i. 839.
AGRIPPINA, The elder, mentioned, i. 833.
AHRIMAN, The Satan of the Medes, i. 216.
AHURA-MAZDAO, Worship of, i. 214-215.

(1355)

1356

INDEX.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Capital of Charlemagne, ii. 169 ;
treaty of, iii. 884, 902 ; congress of, iii. 1219,
1287.

AJACCIO, Birthplace of Napoleon, iii. 939.

ALABAMA, Confederate cruiser, Account of, iii.
1184; claims arising from ravages of, iii. 1191.

AL-AMIX, Caliph of Baghdad, ii. 284.

ALAXI, Tribal History of, ii. 47.

ALARIC, Invades Greece, i. 891 ; enters Lombardy,
i. 892 ; descends on Italy, i. 894 ; takes Koine,
i. 894 ; death of, i. 895.

ALASKA, Purchased by United States, iii. 1188.

ALBA LONGA, Primitive capital of Latium, i. 663;
war of Rome with, i. 667-668.

ALBEROXI, CARDINAL, Minister of Philip V., iii. 879.

ALBERT II., Emperor of Germany, ii. 498.

ALBERT ACHILLES, War of with Suabian cities,
ii. 499.

ALBERT EDWARD, Heir apparent to English crown,
iii. 1216.

ALBERT OP HAPSBURG, Becomes emperor, ii. 478 ;
reign of, ii. 478-479.

ALBERT, THE PRINCE CONSORT, Death and sketch
of, iii. 1216 ; originator of international expo-
. sitions, iii. 1217.

ALBIGENSES, Persecuted by Philip II., ii. 419.

ALBINUS, Keign of, i. 875.

ALBOIN, King of the Lombards, ii. 61 ; conquers
Italy, ii. 61-62.

ALBUERA, Battle of, iii. 1095.

ALCAZAR, Description of, ii. 289.

ALCIBIADES, Appearance of, i. 489; alleged sacri-
lege of, i. 491 ; leader of Sicilian expedition,
i. 491 ; defection of, i. 492 ; recall of, i. 497 ;
death of, i. 502.

ALCM.EONID.S:, Sacrilege of, i. 449-450.

ALCUIN, Scholar at Charlemagne's Court, ii. 172-
174.

ALEMANNI, Aggressions of, i. 874; invasion of Italy
by, ii. 35.

ALEMBERT, ROND D', Leader of Encyclopaedists,
iii. 988.

ALEPPO, Taken by the Moslems, ii. 110.

ALEXANDER I., King of Macedon, i. 529.

ALEXANDER I. OP RUSSIA, Accession of, iii. 1067 ;
makes peace with Napoleon, iii. 1077 ; jealousy
of, iii. 1096-1098; breaks with France, iii.
1098 ; refuses to negotiate, iii. 1104 ; enters
Paris, iii. 1113, 1287 ; enters into Holy Alli-
ance, iii. 1287 ; attempts emancipation of serfs,
iii. 1288.

ALEXANDER II., Accession of, iii. 1296 ; reign of,
iii. 1296-1299; reforms administration, iii.
1296-1297; emancipates serfs, iii. 1297; con-
spiracies against, iii. 1297-1298 ; assassinated,
iii. 1298.

ALEXANDER III., Accession of, iii. 1299.

ALEXANDER VI., Divides the New World, ii. 567.

ALEXANDER jEous, Birth of, i. 579; career of, i.
584-585.

ALEXANDER NEVSKI, Prince of Novgorod, ii.
548.

ALEXANDER OF PHER^K, Career of, i. 516-517.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Birth of, i. 521, 532 ; pupil
of Aristotle, i. 538 ; heroism of, i. 541 ; comes
to the throne, i. 543; settles the affairs of
Greece, i. 543-547 ; makes war in the North,
i. 545 ; humbles Athens, i. 548 ; invades Persia,
i. 365-370, 549; overruns Asia Minor, i. 550-
552 ; at Gordium, i. 554-555 ; at Issus, i. 557 ;
conquers Syria and Phoenicia, i. 559; takes
Tyre, i. 560-561 ; overruns Egypt, i.562 ; founds
Alexandria, i. 563; at Amun, i. 563; at Ar-
bela, i. 564-565; at Babylon, i. 565-566; at
Susa, i. 566 ; at Persepolis, i. 567 ; invades the
North, i. 568 ; conquers India, i. 570-573 ; re-
turns to Babylon, i. 574 ; civil administration
of, i. 575-576 ; death of, i. 576 ; character and
work of, i. 577 ; funeral of, i. 579.

ALEXANDRIA, Founding of, i. 563.

ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, Founding of, i. 588; burnt
by Omar, ii, 113.

ALEXIS, Emperor of Russia, iii. 841.

ALEXIS, GRAND DUKE, Makes tour of the United
States, iii. 1298.

ALEXIUS, Becomes emperor, i. 924; plagued with
the Crusaders, i. 924-925 ; ii. 303, 309-313.

ALEXIUS II., Reign of, i. 926.

ALEXIUS ANGELUS, Reign of, i. 926-927 ; overthrown
by the Crusaders, ii. 377-378.

ALFRED THE GREAT, Accession of, ii. 90, 198; con-
fronts the Danes, ii. 198-199 ; overthrown at
Chippenham, ii. 199; under covert, ii. 200;
beats down the Danes, ii. 201 ; becomes a
civilizer, ii. 201-202; conflicts of with Dane-
lagh, ii. 202-204; a scholar and philosopher,
ii. 205-207.

ALGIERS, Troubles of the United States with, iii.
1131, 1143; conquest of by France, iii. 1223,
1227.

ALHAMBRA, Description of, ii. 288.

ALI, Caliph of Islam, ii. 127 ; opposed by Moaw-
yah, ii. 127-128; troubled with insurrections,
ii. 128-129 ; murder of, ii. 132.

ALIEN LAW, Passed by Congress, iii. 1132.

AL KORAN, General doctrines of, ii. 92-99 ; teaches
monotheism, ii. 98 ; predicts the judgment, ii.
98-99; formulated by Abu Beker, ii. 101;
purified by Othman, ii. 124.

ALLEN, ETHAN, Takes Ticonderoga, iii. 957-958.

ALLIA, Battle of, i. 691.

ALMA, Battle of, iii. 1291.

AL-MAMOUN, Caliph of Bagdad, ii. 284.

AL-MANSOUR, Caliph of Damascus, ii. 281-282.

ALMERIC, King of Jerusalem, ii. 351-353.

ALMOS, Chief of the Hungarians, ii. 49.

AL-MOTASSEM, Caliph of Baghdad, ii. 285.

ALPAIDA, Mistress of Pepin, ii. 154.

ALP ARSLAN, Leader of the Turcomans, i. 924;
ii. 298.

ALPS, Relations of to Italy, i. 595-606.

AL-RASHID, HAROUN, Caliph of Baghdad, ii. 282 ;
reign of, ii. 282-284.

ALSACE, Surrendered to Germany, iii. 1273.

ALVA, DUKE OF, Sketch of, ii. 612-613; sent to the
Netherlands, ii. 681-682 ; persecutes the Prot-

INDEX

estants, ii. 683 ; destroys K^nnnit ami Horn,
ii. list; atrocities nf. ii. 084-686; retires from
the Netherlands, ii. 687.

AI.VAUADO, Spanish general in Mexico, ii. 562-563.

AI.M President of Mexico, iii. 1;;I7.

AI.YATTKS, Kint; cf Lydia, i. 2L'7.

AM M.AHIC, King of the Ostrogoths, ii. .V,.

AMAI.ASONTHA, Queen mother of the Ostrogoths,
ii. 56-57.

A MALI A OF OLDENBURG, Queen of Greece, iii. 1300.

AMAZONS, Mentioned, i. 575.

AHENEMHA I., Reign of, i. 52.

AMENOPHIS I., Reign of, i. 56.

AMI \«.].||]-, |i., Reign of, i. 57.

AMKNOI-HIS IV., Reign of, i. 57-58.

AMERICAN COLONIES, Planting of, ii. 729-752; prog-
ress of in XVIIth century, iii. 854-868; inter-
colonial wars of, iii. 921-933; condition of
before the Revolution, iii. 946-948 ; war of for
independence, iii. 949-981; form the Union,
iii. 982-985.

AMEKICAX REVOLUTION, General history of, iii.
949-985 ; causes of, iii. 950-955 ; military prog-
ress of, iii. 955-981 ; close of, iii. 981-982 ; in-
fluence of in France, iii. 993-996.

AMHERST, General in French and Indian War,
iii. 931.

AMIENS, Peace of, concluded, iii. 1062; violated by
England, iii. 1064.

AMNESTY PROCLAMATION, Issued by Johnson, iii.
1188.

AMPHIPOLIS, Capture of by Philip, i. 533.

AMPHYCTIONIC COUNCIL, Account of, i. 439-440.

AMRU, General of Islam, ii. Ill; conquers Egypt,
ii. 112-113; governor of that country, ii.
122, 134.

AMUN, Worship and emblems of, i. 83 ; shrine of,
i. 563 ; Alexander a son of, i. 563-564.

AMURATH I., Sultan of the Turks, i. 931.

AMURATH II., Sultan of the Turks, i. 933-934.

AMUSEMENTS, Of the Egyptians, i. 77.

AMYNTAS I., King of Macedonia, i. 528-529.

AMYNTAS II., King of Macedonia, i. 529.

ANAFESTO, Doge of Venice, ii. 429.

ANASTASIUS, Emperor of the East, i. 906-907.

ANASTASIUS II., Reign of, i. 914.

ANATA, Worship of, i. 136.

A \< 1:1 , MARSHAL D', Assassination of, ii. 711.

ANCIENTS, COUNCIL OF, established, iii. 1044.

ANCUS MARTIUS, King of primitive Rome, i. 668.

ANDERSON, MAJOR ROBERT, Defends Sumter, iii.
1165.

ANDRASSY, COUNT, At Congress of Berlin, iii. 1307.

ANDREA MAJOR JOHN, Conspires with Arnold, iii.
977-978 ; executed, iii. 978.

ANDREW OF HUNGARY, Leader of the Fifth Cru-
sade, ii. 381.

ANDIIONITIS, Of the Greek house, i. 410.

AXDROS, SIR EDMUND, Governor of New England,
iii. 860; of New York, iii. 864.

ANGLES, Tribal History of, ii. 39.

ANGLO-SAXONS, Tribal history of, ii. 39; char-
acter of, ii. 81-83; kingdoms established by in

in, ii. 39, 83-90; conque-

218; I iy th<- X(.rm:i:

MB, DUKB or, Leadn Krend, Chamber,

iii. 11'IS; [.lit* down S|,:uii-h I

Of Assyria, i l:li j.

205-206; of Babylonia, i. -»H-J.V,; ,,f ivrsia, i.

306-308.

AXJOU, DUKB OP, Regent for Charles VI., ii. 457.
ANJOU, FRANCIS, DUKE or, Rn therland.

ii. 692-693.

. , Empress of Russia, iii. 943.
Ass LOVB . Double betrothal of, ii. 501.

\POLIS, Conquest of by English, iii. 861.
ANNE op CLEVES, Wife of Henry VIII., ii. 607.
ANSE OP LANCASTER, Won l.y <i lorn-ester, ii. ;,:!!.
ANNE STUART, Becomes Queen of England, iii. 830;

IHjlicy of, iii. 831 ; reign of, iii. 831-836.
ANSI -ANK-Vi-i., Worship of, i. 188.
ANNEXATION or TEXAS, Account of, iii. 1166; a

cause of civil war, iii. 1167.
ANTALCIDAS, Career of, i. 508-509; peace of, i.

363,509.

ANTIETAM, Battle of, iii. 1174.
ANTI-FEDERALIST PARTY, Origin of, iii. 983; ascend-
ency of (see Democratic Party).
ANTIGONUS, Ruler of Phrygia, i. 579-586.
ANTIOONUS II., Reign of, i. 589.
ANTINOUS, Favorite of Hadrian, i. 862.
ANTIOCH, Capital of Greek kingdom of Syria, i. 586 ;

besieged and taken by crusaders, ii. 317-321 ;

battle of, ii. 322; taken by the German

knights, ii. 359.

ANTIOCBDS HIERAX, Career of, i. 591-692.
ANTIOCIU-S SOTER, Reign of, i. 590.
ANTIOCHUS TUB GREAT, Reign of, i. 592-593.
AXTIOCHUS THEOS, Reign of, i. 591.
ANTIPATER, Ruler of Macedonia, i. 579-583.
ANTONINUS, MARCUS AURXUDS, Becomes emperor,

i. 865; persecutes the Christians, i. 865-866;

makes war on the barbarians, i. 866 ; death of,

i. 867; character of, i. 867.
ANTONINUS, TITUS AURKLIUH, Becomes emperor,

i. 864 ; character of, i. 864-866; reign of, i. 866.
ANTONIUS, MARCUS, Supports Ciesar, i. 798; offers

to crown him, i. 806; delivers funeral oration

over Julius, i. 810; family of, i. 810; member

of Second Triumvirate, i. 811; captivated by

Cleopatra, i. 813; career of in Egypt, i. 815-820;

at Actium, i. 818.

ANTRUSTIONS, Social class in feudalism, ii. 168.
ANTWERP, Siege of, ii. 694-695.
ANU, Worship and titles of, i. 131.
APELLES, Life and Work of, i. 401.
APENNINKS, Relations of to Italy, i. 596-608.
APHRODITE, Myth of, i. 4L'4.
APIS, Worship of, i. 87-88.
APOLLO, Oracle of at Delphi, i. 414-415 ; myth of,

i. 425.

APPIAN WAY, Description of, i. 707.
APPIUS CLAUDIUS, Career of, i. 686-687; family of,

i. 697.
Ames CLAUDIUS C^cus, Censor of Rome, i. 703.

1358

INDEX.

APPOMATTOX, Scene of Lee's surrender, iii. 1186.

APULIA, Description of, i. 603.

AQU^E SEXTIA, Battle of, i. 763.

ARABIA, Description of, i. 245.

AHAGON, Early history of, ii. 536.

ARATUS, Leader of the League, i. 741.

AHAXKS, THE, Notice of, i. 300.

ARBELA, Battle of, i. 368-370, 564-565.

ARBITRARY RULE, Bight of claimed by Great

Britain, iii. 951.

ARCADIA, Description of, i. 376.
ARCADIUS, Emperor of the East, i. 891.
ARCHELAUS, King of Macedonia, i. 529.
ARCHIMEDES, Aids in the defense of Syracuse, i.

728 ; death of, i. 730.

ARCHITECTURE, Of the Egyptians, i. 92-96 ; of the
Assyrians, i. 153-157 ; of the Medes, i. 199-201 ;
of the Babylonians, i. 263-265 ; of the Persians,
i. 313-319 ; of the Greeks, i. 398-400 ; of the
Romans, i. 624-626.
AHCHONSHIP, Institution of, i. 449.
ARCOLE, Battle of, iii. 1047.
ARES, Myth of, i. 424 ; festival of, i. 657.
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, Summary of history of, iii.

1328-1329.
ARGOLIS, Description of, i. 377-378; early history

of, i. 441.

ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, Story of, i. 431-432.
ARID-SIN, Reign of, i. 118.
ARIOBARZANES, Confronts Alexander, i. 566.
ARIOVISTUS, In conflict with Csesar, i. 790.
ARISTIDES, Rise of, i. 463 ; greatness of, i. 477.
ARISTODEMUS, King of Sparta, i. 445.
AHISTOMENES, King of Sparta, i. 445-446.
ARISTOPHANES, Life and work of, i. 395.
ARISTOTLE, Teacher of Alexander, i. 538.
ARITHMETIC, Known to the Chaldaeans, i. 127-128.
ARIUS, Heresy of, i. 886-887.
ARKANSAS, Admission of, iii. 1152.
ARMAGNACS, Faction of France, ii. 460; struggle

of with the Burgundians, ii. 460-468.
ARMATI, Worship of, i. 215.
ARMENIA, Conquest of by Trajan, i. 859-860.
ARNO, THE, Mentioned, i. 600.
ARNOLD, BENEDICT, Provincial patriot of Connecti-
cut, iii. 957; heroism of at Quebec, iii. 960-
961 ; at Danbury, iii. 968 ; at Saratoga, iii. 970 ;
treason of, iii. 977-978 ; in command of Brit-
ish, iii. 978-979.
ARNOLD DE ROHES, Patriarch of Jerusalem, ii. 327 ;

claims crown of Jerusalem, ii. 329.
ARNULF, King of Germany, ii. 192.
ARROW-HEAD WRITING, Description of, i. 193-195,

213.
ARTAXERXES, King of Persia, i. 359 ; reign of, i.

359-360.

ARTAXERXES II., reign of, i. 361-363.
ARTEMESIA, Queen of Caria, i. 469.
ARTEMESIUM, Battle of, i. 466.
ARTEMIS, Myth of, i. 425.
ARTHUR, Prince of the Britons, ii. 86.
ARTHUR, CHESTER A., Becomes President, iii. 1199;
administration of, iii. 1199-1200.

ARTHUR OP BRITTANY, Notices of, ii. 407, 408, 409
418.

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION, Adopted, iii. 982;
nature of, iii. 982.

ART, Of the Egyptians, i. 91-100 ; of the Chakte-
ans, i. 121-129 ; of the Assyrians, i. 193-196 ;
of the Babylonians, i. 263-270 ; of the Persians,
i. 313-320 ; of the Greeks, i. 398-404 ; of the
Romans, i. 619-627.

ARTOIS, COUNT OF, At battle of Mansoura, ii. 392.

ARYAN RACE, Defined, i. 106-107.

ASBUHY, FRANCIS, Methodist bishop, iii. 947.

ASCALON, Battle of, ii. 327-328.

ASCLEPIOS, Tradition of, i. 431.

ASCULUM, Battle of, i. 705.

ASHDOD, Description of, i. 263.

ASIA MINOR, General character of, i. 303-304; a
province of Rome, i. 752.

ASP, Description of, i. 308.

ASP ASIA, Referred to, i. 409; defended by Pericles,
i. 483.

ASSA, Reign of, i. 51.

ASSASSINS, Sect of murderers, ii. 371 ; attempt of
against Edward Plantageuet, ii. 397.

ASSHUR, Ruins of, i. 157.

ASSHUR (the god), Worship and emblems of, i.
187-188.

ASSHUR-BANI-PAL, King of Assyria, i. 180-184;
makes war in Egypt, i. 181 ; invades Asia
Minor, i. 181 ; conquers Susiana, i. 181-182 ;
overruns Arabia, i. 182.

ASSHUR-BIL-KALA, Reign of, i, 163.

ASSHUR-DAYAN, King of Assyria, i. 161.

ASSHUR-IZIR-PAL, Reign of, i. 163-165.

ASSHUR-RIS-ILIM, Reign of, i. 161.

AssHUR-UpALLiT, King of Assyria, i. 160.

ASSIGNATS OF FRANCE, Depreciation of, iii. 1038-
1040, 1046.

ASSIZES OP JERUSALEM, Preparation of. ii. 329.

ASSYRIA, General history of, i. 139-196 ; country
and products of, i. 139-149 ; people and cities
of, i. 149-157 ; chronology and annals of, i.
158-186 ; religion and art of, i. 187-196.

ASSYRIA (the country), Position and boundaries
of, i. 139-140 ; dimensions of, i. 140 ; geographi-
cal divisions of, i. 140-142; mountains of, i.
142-143 ; climate of, i. 143-145 ; products of, i.
145-146; animals of, i. 146-148.

ASSYRIANS, Ethnology of, i. 149-150; characteris-
tics of, i. 150-153 ; art and learning of, i. 152-
153, 193-196 ; idolatry of, i. 191-192.

ASTRONOMY, Beginning of, i. 73, 127, 136 ; devel-
oped by the Babylonians, i. 268-270.

ASTYAGES, King of Media, i. 228-234 ; establishes
Magism,' i. 229 ; is overthrown by Cyrus, i.
230-232.

ATAHUALLPA, Last of the Incas, ii. 734-735.

ATETA, Reign of, i. 46.

ATHALARIC, King of the Ostrogoths, ii. 56.

ATHELSTANE, Succeeds Edward the Elder, ii. 208 ;
reign of. ii. 208.

ATHEMIUS, Caesar of the West, i. 903.

ATHENE, Myth of, i. 423.

INDEX.

ATHENS, Founding of, i. 430-431 ; life in, i. 405-J06;
early history of, i. 448-457; burned by the
Persians, i. 4tW; revival of, i. 47.~> ; usccmlc-ncy
of, i. 480-482 ; sends out colonies, i. 481-lsj ;
revolution in, i. 4',Ki 4;)7 ; humiliation of, i. 500.

ATLANTA, Battles of, iii. 1181-1182.

ATLANTIC CABLE, Laying of, iii. 1163.

ATMU, Worship of, i. 83.

ATTIC GREEK, Character of, i. 387.

ATTICA, Description of, L 375; wasted by the
Spartans, i. 486.

ATTILA, King of the Huns, i. 897 ; attacks the em-
pire, i. 899 ; defeated at Chalons, L 899 ; death
of, i. 901.

ATTIUS, Sketch of, i. 629.

ATTUS NAVIUS, Tradition of, i. 609-670.

ATURIA, Province of, i. ML'.

AUKBSTADT, Battle of, iii. 1075.

AUGUSTUS II. OP POLAND, Mentioned, iii. 875-876.

AUGUSTUS III. or POLAND, Claims imperial crown,
iii. 882, 897; left on hands of Charles VI.,
iii. 891.

AUGSBURG, Diet of, ii. 595-596.

AUGSBUBG CONFESSION, History and doctrines of,
ii. 595-596.

AUQSBUBG INTERIM, Issued by Charles V., ii. 613.

AUGURS, Of Rome, i. 653-655.

AUGURY, Belief in by the Romans, i. 653-655.

AUGUSTINE, ST., Converts the Anglo-Saxons, ii.
63-64.

AUGUSTUS. (See Ctnar Octavianut.)

AURELIANUS, Lucius DoiiiTius, Becomes emperor,
i. 877 ; persecutes the Christians, i. 877.

AUUELIUS PROBUS, Becomes emperor, i. 877.

AUSTERLITZ, Battle of, iii. 1069.

AUSTIN, MOSES, Colonizes Texas, iii. 1164.

AUSTRALIA, Summary of history of, iii. 1344-1351 ;
display of at Centennial Exposition, iii. 1344 ;
geographical character of, iii. 1344-1345; mount-
ains of, iii. 1344-1345 ; rivers of, iii. 1345 ; lakes
of, iii. 1345; climate of, iii. 1345; animal life
of, iii. 1345-1346; vegetable life of, iii. 1346;
fruits and grains of, iii. 1346; minerals of, iii.
1346; native inhabitants of, iii. 1346-1347;
manners and customs of, iii. 1347 ; cities and
public works of, iii. 1347; discovered by Eu-
ropeans, iii. 1348; penal colonies established
in, iii. 1348-1349; political divisions of, iii.
1349-1350 ; civil and social institutions of, iii.
1350; industries and progress of, iii. 1350-
1351 ; discovery of gold in, iii. 1351.

AUSTRALIANS (Native), Character and manner of
life of, iii. 1346.

AUSTRIA (See Germany), Decline of in XVIIIth
century, iii. 888-890, 892, 933-934 ; in age of
revolution (see French Revolution, and Con-
vulaie and Empire); in XlXth century (see
Germany in XTXth Century); oppresses Italy,
iii. 1277.

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF, Causes of (see
Charlei VI., and Pragmatic .SVindJon) ; begin-
ning of, iii. 897 ; history of, iii. 897-902.
AUTIIARIS, King of the Lombards, ii. 62.

Prince of Anti<*:li, ii. 317;
ii. 319.

AVARS, Tribal 1, 48.

AvERASBon

• us, Lake of, dew-nlxM. i. 599.
AVITCS, Ctt-Mur of the West, i. 901.
AVKMIIA, Rebellion of, ii. i^.S; captured by Ali,

ii. 129.
Azores, Battle of, ii. 365.

B.

BABYLON, A seatof ancient learning, i. 121 ; de-
scription of, i. 255-258; glory of, L 291-292;
taken by Cyrus, i. 298 ; captured by Alexan-
der, i. 565.

BABYLONIA, General history of, i. 236-298 ; country
of, i. 235-245 ; climate and products of, i. 246-
260; people and cities of, i. 260-263; arts and
sciences of, i. 263-270 ; manners and customs
of, L 270-276 ; civil and military annals of, L
277-298 ; overrun by the Moslems, ii. 103.

BABYLONIA (the country), Geographical divisions
of, i. 236-241 ; fertility and climate of, i. 236-
241 ; rivers of, i. 241-243; lakes of, i. 243-246.

BABYLONIANS, Ethnic character of, i. 261 ; personal
appearance of, i. 251 ; different types of, i.
251-252; hair-dress of, i.262; beards of, 1. 262;
intellectual qualities of, i. 262; avarice and
gluttony of, i. 253 ; cruelty of, i. 263-254 ; eth-
ics of, i. 254; dress of, i. 270-271 ; armor of, L
271 ; military system of, i. 271-272 ; learning
of, i. 272-273 ; food of, i. 273 ; commerce of, i.
273 ; degrading custom of, i. 274 ; religion of,
i. 274-276.

BACON, FRANCIS, Genius of, ii. 675-676 ; career of,
iii. 760-761; downfall of, iii. 761.

BACON, NATHANIEL, Rebellion of, iii. 867-888.

BADAJOS, Siege of, iii. 1094-1098.

BAHIA, Primitive capital of Brazil, iii. 1326.

BAHR-BL-HULEH, Description of, i. 246.

BAHR-EL-KADES, Description of, i. 245.

BAHR-EL-MELAK, Description of, i. 244, 245.

BAINNTTER, Reign of, i. 46.

BAJAZET, Sultan of the Turks, i. 931-932.

BAI.AKI.AVA, Battle of, iii. 12!)-'.

BALBOA, Ncx«z DE, Discovers the Pacific, ii. 558.

BALDWIN II., Emperor of the East, i. 929.

BALDWIN III., King of Jerusalem, ii, 350, 351.

Bu.mviN IV., King of Jerusalem, ii. 363.

H \LIIWIN V., King of Jerusalem, ii. 353.

BALDWIN DO BOCBO, Leader of first crusade, iL
305-321; becomes king of Edessa, ii. 329; re-
ceives crown of Jerusalem, ii. 331.

BALDWIN OF BOUILLON, Leader of first crusade, ii,
305; founds prinrii>ulity of Edewa, ii. 317;
becomes king of Jerusalem, ii. 329 ; reign of,
ii. 329-331.

BALDWIN OF FLANDBRS, Becomes emperor, 1.

reign of, i. 928 ; leader of First Crusade, ii. 305.

BALIOL, JOHN, Kim: of Scotland, ii. 416.

KU.I.OT Box, Introduced into New England, iii.
856.

1360

INDEX.

BALL'S BLUFF, Battle of, iii. 1170.

BALTIMORE (City), Attacked by British, iii. 1141;

attack on Union soldiers in, iii. 1165-1166.
BALTIMORE, LORD, Colonizes Maryland, ii. 745-747.

BANK OF UNITED STATES, Organized, iii. 1129; ex-
piration of charter of, iii. 1143; opposition of
Jackson to, iii. 1150; funds of distributed, iii.
1151 ; project to recharter, iii. 1153.

BANKS, GENERAL N. P., On Lower Mississippi, iii.
1175; Red River expedition of, iii. 1181.

BANNER, General of Gustavus, ii. 709 ; defeats the
Saxons, ii. 718.

BANNOCKBCRN, Battle of, ii. 506.

BANQUETS. (See Feasts.)

BARBARIANS, General divisions of, ii. 33 ; races of,
ii. 33-50 ; Ostrogothic kingdom established by,
ii. 35, 51-61 ; Visigothic kingdom established
by, ii. 35, 64-65 ; kingdom of the Suevi estab-
lished by, ii. 35; kingdom of the Heruli es-
tablished by, ii. 36, 50-51; kingdom of the
Vandals established by, ii. 38, 67-70; king-
dom of the Lombards established by, ii. 39,
61-64 ; kingdom of the Franks established by,
ii. 39, 70-74; Heptarchy established by, ii. 39,
83-90 ; Christianity introduced among, ii. 41-
42; language of (Gothic), ii. 42; manners and
customs of, ii. 42-44, 75-76; religion of, ii. 43;
ideas introduced into civilization by, ii. 44-45,
224; Slavic groups of, ii. 45-47; Scythic divis-
ion of, ii. 47-50; laws of, ii. 74-75; social
classes of, ii. 168.

BABBERINI, CARDINAL, Favors Galileo, ii. 727-729.

BARCHOCHEBAS, The Son of the Star, Career of,
i. 862.

BABEBONES PARLIAMENT, Notice of, iii. 788.

BARMECIDES, Ascendency of, ii. 283-284.

BARNEVELDT, OLDEN, Patriot of Holland, ii. 697.

BARONS' WARS, History of, ii. 413-415.

BARTHOLOMEW, ST. (See St. Bartholomew.)

BASEL, Council of, ii. 497-498.

BASIL I., Becomes emperor, i. 919; reign of, i. 919.

BASIL II., Emperor of Russia, ii. 548.

BASIL II., Reign of, i. 922.

BASTILE, Storming of, iii. 1002.

BATAVIAN REPUBLIC, Proclaimed, iii. 1042.

BATHS, Of Rome, described, i. 638.

BATTLE, Of Megiddo, i. 57, 228, 281 ; of Raphia, i.
67,172; of Carchemish, i. 68,228; ofPelusium,
i. 69, 346 ; of Siddim, i. 116 ; of Eltekeh, i. 176 ;
of Chaluli, i. 178; of the Eclipse, i. 225; of
Pteria, i. 295 ; of Marathon, i. 356, 460-462 ;
of Thermopylae, i. 358, 465; of Salamis, i. 359,
468-469 ; ot Plataea, i. 359, 471 ; of Mycale, i.
359, 473 ; of Cunaxa, i. 362 ; of the Granicus, i.
365-366, 549-550; of Issue, i. 367,557; of Ar-
bela.i. 368-369,564-565; of Arteinesium, i.466;
of CEnophyta, i. 479; of ^Egospotami, i. 498; of
Coronea, i. 507; of Leuctra, i. 513; of Cynos-
ephalse, i. 517, 739; of Mantinea, i. 518; of
Chseronea, i. 541; of Ipsus, i. 586; of Cor-
upedion, i. 587; of Lake Regillus, i. 678; of
Allia, i. 691; of Caudine Forks, i. 700; of
Heraclea, i. 705 ; of Asculum, i. 705 ; of Ben-

eventum, i. 706 ; of Ecnomus, i. 712 ; of Pela-
mon, i. 718 ; of Trebia, i. 722 ; of Trasimenus,
i. 722 ; of Cannse, i. 726 ; of the Metaurus, i.
733 ; of Zama, i. 736 ; of Magnesia, i. 740 ; of
Pydna, i. 741 ; of Aquse Sextiso, i. 763 ; of Bi-
brax, i. 790 ; of Pharsalia, i. 800 ; of Munda,
i. 806; of Philippi, i. 812; of Actiutn, i. 818;
of Teutoburger Forest, i. 830 ; of Adrianople,
i. 884 ; of Chalons, i. 899 ; of Nineveh, i. 912 ;
of Poitiers, (732), ii. 79-80, 151; of Yer-
mouk, ii. 108 ; of Kadesia, ii. 115 ; of Neha-
vend, ii. 117 ; of the Masts, ii. 123-124 ; of Ron-
cesvalles, ii. 165 ; of Fontenailles, ii. 179-180 ;
of Hastings, ii. 262-263; of Dogorgan, ii. 315;
of Antioch, ii. 322; of Ascalon, ii. 327-328; of
the Menander, ii. 347 ; of Iconium, ii. 347 ; of
Tiberias, ii. 355; of Azotus, ii. 365; of Man-
soura, ii. 392; of Bouvines (1214), ii. 410; of
Bouvines (1340), ii. 448; of Kenilworth, ii.
413; of Evesham, ii. 414; of Vendome, ii.
417 ; of Courtray, ii. 440 ; of Crecy, ii. 448, 510 ;
of Poitiers (1356), ii. 451 ; of Agincourt, ii.
461, 522; of Montlheri, ii. 470; of Nancy, ii.
473; of Sempach, ii. 486; of Tannenberg, ii.
489 ; of St. James, ii. 499 ; of Bannockburn, ii.
506 ; of Shrewsbury, ii. 519 ; of Tewksbury, ii.
531 ; of Mortimer's Cross, ii. 527 ; of Bosworth
Field, ii. 534; of Agnadello, ii. 543 ; of Pavia,
ii. 590-592; of Sol way Moss, ii. 609; of Ivry,
ii. 647 ; of Nimeguen, ii. 687 ; of Stadtloon, ii.
703; of Leipsic (1631), ii. 709; of Lech, ii.
713; of Liitzen, ii. 714; of Edgehill, iii. 775;
of Marston Moor, iii. 777 ; of Naseby, iii. 778 ;
of Worcester, iii. 787 ; of Dunbar, iii. 786 ; of
the Downs, iii. 797 ; of Solebay, iii. 799 ; of
the Boyne, iii. 815 ; of Mons, iii. 819 ; of La
Hogue, iii. 824; of Blenheim, iii. 832; of
Ramillies, iii. 833; of Malplaquet, iii. 834;
of Poltava, iii. 847 ; of Culloden, iii. 879 ; of
Fontenoy, iii. 884; of Fehrbellin, iii. 888; of
Hohenfriedberg, iii. 900; of Dettingen, iii.
900; of Kesselsdorf, iii. 902; of Lobositz, iii.
907 ; of Kollin, iii. 908 ; of Rossbach, iii. 910 ;
of Leuthen, iii. 912-913 ; of Zorndorf, iii. 914;
of Hochkirch, iii. 915 ; of Kunersdorf, iii. 915 ;
of Torgau, iii. 917 ; of Liegnitz, iii. 917 ; of
Lexington, iii. 957 ; of Bunker Hill, iii. 958 ;
of Long Island, iii. 964-965 ; of White Plains,
iii. 965; of Trenton, iii. 966; of Princeton, iii.
967-968; of Bemis's Heights, iii. 969-970; of
Brandywine, iii. 970; of German town, iii. 971 ;
of Monmouth, iii. 973 ; of Sanders' Creek, iii.
977; of Cowpens, iii. 979; of Guilford, iii.
979; of Hobkirk's Hill, iii. 979; of Eutaw
Springs, iii. 980; of Jemappes, iii. 1022; of
Lodi, iii. 1047 ; of Arcole, iii. 1047 ; of Pyra-
mids, iii. 1051 ; of the Nile, iii. 1051 ; of Ab-
oukir, iii. 1052 ; of Cassano, iii. 1054 ; of Ma-
rengo, iii. 1059; of Hohenlinden, iii. 1060-
1061 ; of Austerlitz, iii. 1069 ; of Trafalgar, iii.
1071; of Jena, iii. 1075; of Auerstadt, iii.
1075 ; of Eylau, iii. 1077 ; of Friedland, iii.
1077 ; of Corunna, iii. 1085 ; of Wagram, iii.

INDEX.

1861

1086 ; of Talavera, iii. 1094 ; of Albuera, iii.
1095 ; of Salamanca, iii. 1096 ; of Smolensko,
iii. 1102; of Borodino, iii. 1102; of LUUen,
iii. 1107; of Bautzen, iii. 1108; of Dresden,
di. 1110; of Katsbach, iii. 1110; of Leipsic
(1813), iii, 1110; of Vittoria, iii. 1113; of
Waterloo, iii. 1120-1125; of Lake Krit-, iii.
1138 ; of the Thames, iii. 1138 ; of Niagara,
iii. 1141; of Chippewa, iii. 1140-1141; of
Plattsburg, iii. 1141; of New Orleans, iii.
1142-1143; of San Jacinto, iii. 1154 ; of Palo
Alto, iii. 1155; of Resaca de la Palma, iii.
1156; of Buena Vista, iii. 1158; of Cerro
Gordo, iii. 1159; of Churubusco, iii. 1159; of
Chapultepec, iii. 1159; of Bull Run, iii. 1169;
of Springfield, iii. 1170; of Ball's Bluff, iii.
1170 ; of Mill Spring, iii. 1171 ; of Pittsburg
Lauding, iii. 1171; of Pea Ridge, iii. 1171; of
Perry ville, iii. 1172; of luka, iii. 1172; of
Corinth, iii. 1172; of Murfreesboro, iii. 1173:
of Fair Oaks, iii. 1173; the Seven Daya', iii.
1173-1174; of Malvern Hill, iii. 1174; of Bull
Run, iii. 1174 ; of Chantilly, iii. 1174 ; of South
Mountain, iii. 1174; of An tit-tain, iii. 1174; of
Frederickaburg, iii. 1175; of Jackson, iii.
1175; of Champion Hills, iii. 1175 ; of Chick-
amauga, iii. 1176; of Lookout Mountain, iii.
1177 ; of Missionary Ridge, iii. 1177 ; of Knox-
ville, iii. 1177; of Chancellorsville, iii. 1178;
of Gettysburg, iii. 1178-1180; of Resaca, iii.
1181; of Kenesaw, iii. 1181; of Atlanta, iii.
1181-1182; of Franklin, iii. 1182; of Nash-
ville, iii. 1182 ; of Averaaborough, iii, 1183 ; of
Bentonsville, iii. 1183; of Mobile Bay, iii.
1183; of Wilderness, iii. 1184; of Spottsyl-
vania Court-house, iii. 1184 ; of Cold Harbor,
iii. 1185; of Winchester, iii. 1185; of Cedar
Creek, iii. 1185 ; of Five Forks, iii. 1186 ; of
Isly, iii. 1227 ; of Magenta, iii. 1239, 1281 ; of
Solferino, iii. 1239, 1281 ; of Novara, iii. 1255; of
Sadowa, iii. 1260; of Spicheren, iii. 1266; of
Weiaaenberg, iii. 1266 ; of Courcelles, iii. 1267 ;
of Mars-la-Tour, iii. 1267; of Gravelotte, iii.
1267 ; of Beaumont, iii. 1269; of Sedan, iii. 1269 ;
of Le Mans, iii. 1271 ; of Montebello, iii. 1281 ; of
Alma, iii. 1291 ; of Balaklava, iii. 1292 ; of Ink-
erman, iii. 1293; of Tchernaya, iii. 1293; of
Navarino, iii. 1300 ; of Tundja Brook, iii. 1304;
of Plevna, iii. 1305 ; of Shenovo, iii. 1306 ; of
Pa-li-kao, iii. 1337.

BAUTZEN, Battle of, iii. 1108.

BAVARIANS, Tribal history of, ii. 41.

BAYARD, CHEVALIER, Death of, ii. 589.

BAYARD, THOMAS F., Secretary of State, iii. 1201.

BAYONNE, Napoleon's Conference at, iii. 1081-1082.

BAZAINE, MARSHAL, Commander of French in
Franco-Prussian war, iii. 1266; cooped up in
Metz, iii. 1268; surrender of, iii. 1271.

BBADHARNAIS, EUGENE, Viceroy of Italy, iii. 1067;
loyalty of, iii. 1110-1112 ; surrenders kingdom
of Italy, iii. 1117.

BEAUMARCHAIS, Minister of Louis XVI., iii. 972.

BEAUMONT, Battle of, iii. 1269.
86

BEAUREOARD, P. T., Takes Sumter, iii. 1166.
BECKKT, THOMAS 1, Hr.-;ik of, with Henry II., ii.

405-406 ; murder of, ii. 407.
BEDFORD, DUKB or, Aids the Burgnndians, ii.

463-464; regent of Fran.
BBOOARS, Plead for I jU-rty, ii. 681.
BEL, Worship and attributes of, i. l:il.
BELGIUM, Annexed to Holland, iii. 1117; revolu-

tion in, iii. 1J47-124.S; iii.l,-|H'ii,l,-n,v of, iii.

BELGRADE, Captured by Turks, iii. 800 ; retaken

by Eugene, iii. 891.
BELISARIUS, General of Justinian, L 906 ; fortune*

and wrongs of, i. 908-909; sent against the

Vandals, ii. 57 ; subdues Italy, ii. 68.
BEL-KUDUK, King of Assyria, i. 160.
BELL, PHOF. A. G., Invents telephone, iii. 1199.
HKI.-.NIMROD, Worship and titles of, i. 131.
BELUB (see Bel), Worship of, i. 131 ; temple of, i.

256-267.

BELZUNCE, BISHOP, Benefactor of Marseilles, iii. 880.
BEMIS'S HEIGHTS, Battle of, iii. 969-970.
BENEDEK, MARSHAL, Commands Austrians in

Franco-Austrian war, iii. 1260.
BENEDBTTI, Ambassador of Napoleon III. at Ber-

lin, iii. 1263; insults King William, iii. 1264.
BENEVENTUM, Battle of, i. 706.
BEN-HADAD, Defeated by Sbalmeneser II., L 166.
BEXI-H ASSAN, Inscriptions of, i. 54-66.
BENKU, Myth of, i. 88.
BENTONSVILLE, Battle of, iii. 1183.
BEOTRIC, King of Wessex, ii. 88.
BERENOAR, King of Italy, ii. 196-196.
BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM, Governor of Virginia,

iii. 867-868.
BERLIN, Insurrection in, iii. 1261 ; congress of, iii.

1307.

BERLIN DECREE, Issued by Napoleon, iii. 1076.
BERNADOTTE, Prince of Ponte Corvo, iii. 1074 ; de-

feats Prussians, iii. 1075; adopted by Charles

XIII., iii. 1098; appeals to Alexander, iii.

1098; enters France, iii 1113.
BERNARD, King of Italy, ii. 177-178.
BERNARD, SAINT, Master of the Templars, ii. 336 ;

preaches Second Crusade, ii. 340, 343, 346.
BERNHARD or SAXE- WEIMAR, Leader in the Thirty

Years' War, ii. 714, 716, 717, 718, 719.
BEROSUS, Notice of, i. 109.
BERTHIER, GENERAL, Commands French army in

Italy, iii. 1049-1050 ; made prince of Wagram,

iii. 1087.
BETHLEN GABOR, Protestant leader of Hungary,

ii. 700; makes peace, ii. 70S.
BBUBT, COUNT VON, Austrian prime minister, iii.

1263.
BIBARS, Founder of Mameluke Dynasty, ii. 392 ;

conquest of, in Syria, ii. 394-396.
BIBLE, Translated into Greek, i. 847 ; into Gothic,

ii. 42 ; into German, ii. 682, 699 ; into English,

iii, 763.

BIHRAX. Battle of, i. 790.
BiBri.ua MARCUS, Consul with Ctesar, i. 787.
BILIT, Worship of, i. 134-135.

1362

INDEX.

BIN, Worship of, i. 133.

BIKS NIMRUD, Description of, i. 259-261.

BISALTIA, Macedonian province, i. 528.

BISHOPS OF ROME, Growth of power of, i. 886.

BISMARCK, OTTO vox, Accession of to power, iii.
1257 ; greatness of manifested, iii. 1262 ; baf-
fles Napoleon, iii. 1262; has him in charge
after Sedan, iii. 1270 ; ascendency of in Prus-
sia, iii. 1276 ; at Congress of Berlin, iii. 1307.

BITUMEN, Used for mortar, i. 123.

BLACK DKATH, Scourges Northern Europe, ii. 483,
511-512, 545-546 ; in London, iii. 798.

BLACK HAWK WAR, Account of, iii. 1150.

BLACK PRINCE, Duke of Guienne, ii. 451 ; career
of on the Continent, ii. 451, 455-456, 512-513.

BLAINE, JAMES G., Secretary of State, iii. 1198 ;
candidate for Presidency, iii. 1200.

BLAKE, ROBERT, Admiral of England, iii. 787, 790.

BLANC, Louis, French historian, iii, 1232.

BLANCO, GUZMAN, President of Venezuela, iii. 1323.

BLENHEIM, Battle of, iii. 832.

BLUCHER, GENERAL GEBHARD, At Katsbach, iii.
1110; enters France, iii. 1113; beaten by Na-
poleon at Brieiine, iii. 1113 ; wins at Laon, iii.
1113; in Belgium, iii. 1120; at Waterloo, iii.
1123.

BLUE NILE, Character of, i. 34.

BLUNT, SIR JOHN, Contriver of South Sea Scheme,
iii. 872.

BOADICEA, Queen of the Britons, i. 843.

BOCCACCIO, Mentioned, ii. 540.

BOETHIUS, Life and Work of, ii. 55-56.

BCEMUND OF TARENTO, Leader of the First Crusade,
ii. 312, 313, 315, 319, 321, 322, 323, 326 ; cap-
tured by the Turks, ii. 329.

BCEOTIA, Description of, i. 375; independence of,
i. 480.

BOJOTIAN MIGRATION, Account of, i. 434.

BOIUF, BARON LE, French minister of war, iii. 1264.

BOHEMIANS, Tribal history of, ii. 46.

BOILEAD, Notice of, iii. 839.

BOKENRAN, Reign of, i. 66.

BOLESLAS, King of Poland, ii. 295.

BOLEYN, ANNE, Captivates Henry VIII., ii. 601 ;
married by him, :i. 603 ; put away and exe-
cuted, ii. 605-606.

BOLIVAR, SIMON, Liberator of Colombia, iii. 1321,
1323, 1324.

BONAPARTE, JEROME, Marriage trouble of, iii. 1080-
1081 ; leads corps of Grand Army, iii. 1100 ;
abdicates throne of Westphalia, iii. 1110.

BONAPARTE, JOSEPH, Grand elector of Empire, iii.
1066 ; king of two Sicilies, iii. 1074 ; king of
Spain, iii. 1082 ; abandons Spain, iii. 1113.

BONAPARTE, Louis, Constable of empire, iii. 1066 ;
king of Holland, iii. 1090; troubles of with
Napoleon, iii. 1090-1091.

BONAPARTE, Louis NAPOLEON, A spectre of the
French Republic, iii. 1233 ; sketch of, iii. 1234;
member of constituent assembly, iii. 1234;
president of the Republic, iii. 1235 ; adminis-
tration of, iii. 1235-1237 ; coup d' etat of, iii.
1237; chosen emperor, iii. 1237; attempts to

assassinate, iii. 1238 ; invades Italy; iii. 1238-
1239; interferes in Mexico, iii. 1239-1240;
political troubles of, iii. 1240-1241 ; goes to
war with Prussia, iii. 1241, 1263; course of
during Franco-Prussian war, iii. 1241-1242,
1263-1270; death of, iii. 1246.

BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON, Birth of, iii. 939 ; at Tou-
lon, iii. 1034; sketch of, iii. 1034-1035; puts
down mob in Paris, iii. 1046; first Italian
campaign of, iii. 1047-1049; concludes treaty
of Campo Formio, iii. 1049; Egyptian cam-
paign of, iii, 1051-1053; chosen first consul,
iii. 1056; policy of, iii. 1057-1059; second
Italian campaign of, iii. 1059-1060; elected
consul for life, iii. 1062; attempt to assassi-
nate, iii. 1065; elected emperor, iii. 1065; Aus-
trian campaign of, iii. 1067-1071 ; punishes
Frederick William III., iii. 1070, 1073, sets up
the Bonapartes, iii. 1074; overthrows German
Empire, iii. 1074-1075 ; issues decrees against
Great Britain, iii. 1076; overwhelms Prussia,
iii. 1077 ; makes peace with Russia, iii. 1077-
1078; deposes Bragancas, iii. 1080; Spanish
complication of, iii. 1081-1082 ; invades Spain,
iii. 1085 ; crushes Austria, iii, 1085-1087 ; di-
vorces Josephine, iii. 1088; marries Maria
Louisa, iii. 1089-1090; deposes king Louis,
iii. 1090-1091 ; persecutes De Stael, iii. 1092-
1094 ; invades Russia, iii. 1100 ; Russian cam-
paign of, iii. 1100-1106 ; campaigns of in 1813,
iii. 1107-1112 ; pressed by the allies, iii. 1113 ;
abdicates, iii. 1114; returns from Elba, iii.
1117; struggle of during the Hundred Days,
iii. 1119-1120; at Waterloo, iii. 1120-1125;
second abdication of, iii. 1125 ; banishment and
death of, iii. 1125-1126; funeral of, iii. 1126;
influence of on civilization, iii. 1128.

BONAPARTES, Table of, iii. 1234.

BONDS OF THE UNITED STATES, Issuance of, iii. 1187.

BONIFACE, Defends Africa against the Vandals, i.
897; ii. 67-69.

BONIFACE VIII., Quarrel of, with Philip the Fair,
ii. 441 ; struck by Colonna, ii. 442.

BOOTH, JOHN WILKES, Assassinates Lincoln, iii.
1187.

BORGIA, CESARE, Career of, ii. 541.

BORODINO, Battle of, iii. 1102.

BORSIPPA, Description of, i. 261.

BOSNIA, Atrocities in, iii. 1302-1303.

BOSNIANS, Tribal history of, ii. 46.

BOSRA, Captured by the Moslems, ii. 103-104.

BOSSUET, Notice of, iii. 839.

BOSTON, Founding of, iii. 856 ; siege of, iii. 958-961.

BOSTON MASSACRE, Account of, iii. 956.

BOSTON PORT BILL, Passage of, iii. 956.

BOSTON TEA PARTY, Account of, iii. 956.

BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle of, ii. 534.

BOTANY BAY, Penal Colony of New South Wales,
iii. 1348.

BOTH WELL, EARL OF, Third husband of Mary Stu-
art, ii. 665 ; end of, ii. 665-666.

BOTTI^A, Macedonian province, i. 527.

BOUHBAKI, Defeated by Manteuffel, iii. 1273.

1888

BOURBON, Constable of Francis I., ii. 589-590; for-
tunes <>(, ii. r>'.r_'; death of, ii. 594.

BOURBON, DUKK op, Regent for Louis XV., iii. 881.

BOUKBON DYNASTY, Displayed, ii. 628 ; looks to
Henry of Navarre, ii. 642; ascendency of, ii.
645-030, 703-719 ; iii. 809-839, 879-886 ; over-
throw of, iii. 1017-1026; restoration of, iii.
1114-1117, 1127; second reign of, iii. 1217-1225.

Bou VINES, Battle of (1214), ii. 410; battle of (1340),
ii. 448.

BOYLE, ROBERT, Mentioned, iii. 809.

BOYNE, Battle of, iii. 815.

Bozo.v, King of Provence, ii. 185.

BOZZAB.IS, MARCO, Leader of Greek patriots, iii.
1299.

BHADDOCK, Campaign of in Pennsylvania, iii. 927.

BRADFORD, WILLIAM, Governor of Plymouth, iii.
855.

BRAOAN9A, House of, deposed by Napoleon, iii.
1080 ; instituted in Brazil, iii. 1326.

BRAGG, GENERAL BRAXTON, At Buena Vista, iii.
1158; at Perryville, iii. 1172; at Murfrees-
boro, iii. 1172-1173; at Chickamauga, iii. 1176.

BRAHE, TYCHO, Discoveries of, ii. 653.

BRAHMINS, Influence of on Sepoys, iii. 1212.

BRANDENBURG, Province of, ii. 194.

BRANDYWINE, Battle of, iii. 970.

BRAZIL, Summary of history of, iii. 1325-1328.

BREAD RIOT, In Paris, iii. 1041.

BRECKENRIDGE, JOHN C., Vice-president of United
States, iii. 1163 ; candidate for President, iii.
1164.

BRENNUS, Chieftain of the Gauls, i. 691.

BRICKS, Used in Chaldaean structures, i. 122-123 ;
employed by the Babylonians, i. 263-264.

BRITAIN, Invaded by Caesar, i. 791 ; conquered by
Claudius, i. 836-838 ; revolt in, i. 843 ; conquest
of by Agricola, i. 855 ; invaded by Severus, i.
870.

BRITWALDA, Of the Anglo-Saxons, ii. 86.

BROWN, JOHN, Insurrection of, iii. 1163.

BRUCE, ROBERT THE ELDER, Mentioned, ii. 416.

BRUCE, ROBERT THE YOUNGER, Leader of the Scots,
ii. 504 ; career of, ii. 504-506 ; becomes king,
ii. 506; defeated by Edward IIL, ii. 607.

BRUNEHAUT, Princess of Austrasia, ii. 77.

BRUNO, ST., Founds order of La Chartreuse, ii. 238.

BRUNSWICK, CHARLES WILLIAM, DUKE OF, Issues
proclamation against France, iii. 1015-1016;
defeated at Jemappes, iii. 1022.

BRUSSELS, Insurrection in, iii. 1248.

BRUTTIUM, Description of, i. 603-604.

BRUTUS, JUNIUS, Tradition of, i. 673; expels the
Tarquins, i. 674 ; consul, i. 675.

BRUTUS, MARCUS, Conspires against Caesar, i. 806 ;
participates in the assassination, i. 808 ; routed
at Philippi, i. 813 ; kills himself, i. 813.

BUCEPHALIA, Founding of, i. 573.

BUCHANAN, JAMES, Elected President, iii. 1163 ; ad-
ministration of, iii. 1162-1164.

BUCKINGHAM, DOKE OF, Supports Richard of
Gloucester, ii. 532 ; rebels, ii. 533 ; is executed,
ii. 534.

BUCKINGHAM, DCKBOF, Minister of Charles I., iii.

MI wo,

BUCK.NKK, liEXERALS. B.; Surrenders Donelson iii
1171.

BUDDHISM, Introduced into Japan, iii. I

BIELL, DON CARLOS, Union general in Kentucky
and Tennessee, iii. 1171.

BUENA VISTA, Battle of, iii. 1168.

BL-EXOS AYKES, Sketch of, iii. 1328.

BUFFALO, THE, Native to Babylonia, i. 260.

BULGARIANS, Tribal history of, ii. 48-49 ; resist the
Crusaders, ii. 302-303.

BULL Run, Battles of, iii. 1169, 1174.

BUNKER HILL, Battle of, iii. 968.

BUSYAN, JOHN, Author of Pilyrim'i Progrm,
iii. 807.

BtTBGESsES, HOUSE OF, In Virginia, iii. 866-S07.

BURGESSES OF THE MIDDLE AGES, General charac-
ter of, ii. 426-428.

BURGOYNE, GENERAL JOHN, Arrives at Boston, iii.
958 ; invades New York, iii. 969 ; campaign
of, iii. 969-970 ; surrender of, iii. 970.

BUROUNDIANS, Tribal history of, ii. 39-41 ; faction
of France, ii. 460 ; struggle of, with the Armag-
nacs, ii. 460-468.

BURIAL, Method of among the Chaldieans, i. 124.

BURKE, EDMUND, Impeaches Warren Hastings, iii.
937-938.

BDRLEIOH, Minister of Elizabeth, ii. 663.

BURLINQAME, A.ssoN, American ambassador to
China, iii. 1337 ; ambassador of China to the
Western Powers, iii. 1337.

BuRNsiiiE, GENERAL AMBROSE E., Commands Fed-
eral squadron, iii. 1172; supersedes McClel-
lan, iii. 1175 ; superseded by Hooker, iii. 1178.

BURR, AARON, Elected Vice-president, iii. 1132;
kills Hamilton, iii. 1134; conspiracy of, iii.
1134.

BURRUS, Master of the praetorians, i. 839 ; mur-
dered, i. 840.

BUSTAMENTE, GENERAL, President of Mexico, iii.
1316.

BUTAN, Reign of, i. 46.

BUTE, LORD, Minister of George III., iii. 935.

BUTLER, GENERAL B. F., In Mexican War, iii. 1166;
at Fortress Monroe, iii. 1168; commandant
at New Orleans, iii. 1172; on the James, iii.
1185 ; candidate for President, iii. 1200.

BUTLER, SAMUEL, Poet of the Cavaliers, iii. 809.

BYNO, ADMIRAL, Commands English navy, iii. 871.

BYRON, ADMIRAL, Commands British fleet against
Americans, iii. 974.

BYRON, LORD, Quoted, i. 138, 378, 462, 469, 697,
622, 643, 781, 782; ii. 432; iii. 1084; espouse*
cause of Greece, iii. 1300.

C.

CABAL. Ascendency of, iiL 799.

CABOT, JOHN, Discovers North America, iiL 665-

566.
CABOT, SEBASTIAN, Traces the coast line of North

America, ii. 566; future career of, ii. 566-687.

1364

INDEX.

CABBAL, PEDRO ALVAREZ, explores Brazilian coast,
iii. 1325.

CADMUS, Introduces Greek Alphabet, i. 388.

CADWALLADER, Overthrown by the Saxons, ii. 86.

CAEN, Treaty of, ii. 278.

CJESAR, CAIUS. (See Caligula.)

C.SSAR, JULIUS, His Commentaries, i. 631, 790; sup-
ports Pornpeius, i. 778-779; sketch of, i. 786-
787 ; sent to Spain, i. 787 ; elected consul, i.
787; assigned to Gaul, i. 789; begins war
with the Gauls, i. 790; invades Germany, i.
790-791 ; lands in Britain, i. 791 ; conquers
Gaul, i. 791-792; opposed by Pompeius, i.
795; attempts reconciliation with the Opti-
mates, i. 795-796 ; breaks with the Pompeians,
i. 796-797 ; crosses the Rubicon, i. 797 ; over-
throws the Pompeians, i. 798-800; reduces
Egypt and the East, i. 800-801; quells the
mutineers,!. 801-802; in the ascendant, i. 804;
triumphs, i. 805 ; reforms of, i. 805-806 ; con-
spiracy against, i. 806 ; assassination of, i. 808 ;
funeral of, i. 810 ; family of, i. 825.

CESAR, OCTAVIANUS, Patronizes literature, i. 632;
heir of Julius, i. 810-811 ; claims the succes-
sion, i. 811 ; member of Second Triumvirate,
i. 811; defeats Brutus and Cassius, i. 813;
overthrows Lepidus, i. 815 ; pacifies Rome, i.
818; in the ascendant, i. 818-822; emperor,
i. 823-831 ; administrative methods of, i. 823-
824 ; policy of, i. 826 ; reforms of, i. 826-827 ;
death and heirs of, i. 829.

CALABRIA, Description of, i. 603.

CALAH, Ruins of, i. 156 ; capital of Assyria, i. 165.

CALAIS, Taken by Edward III., ii. 510.

CALENDAR, Reform of by Gregory XIII., ii. 645-646.

CALHOUN, JOHN C., Vice-president of United
States, iii. 1148.

CALIFORNIA, Subjugated by Fremont, iii. 1157 ;
discovery of gold in, iii. 1160; admission of,
iii. 1161.

CALIPHATE, Of Cordova, Established, ii. 150.

CALIPHATE, Of Damascus, History of, ii. 133-148.

CALIPHATE, Of Medina, History of, ii. 100-148.

CALIGULA, Becomes emperor, i. 834 ; cruelties of,
i. 834-835 ; blasphemy of, i. 835 ; murder of,
i. 835.

CALIXTINES, Faction of Hussites, ii. 494.

CALLIAS, Peace of, i. 360, 480.

CALLINUS, Account of, i. 391.

CALONNE, ALEXANDRE DE, Finance minister of
Louis XVI., iii. 996.

CALVIN, JOHN, Genevese reformer, ii. 619; formu-
lates his theology, ii. 620; doctrines of, ii.
620-621.

CALVINISM, Doctrines of, ii. 620-621 ; basis of fac-
tion in Netherland, ii. 696.

CAMBACEHES, JEAN JACQUES, Consul of France,
iii. 1057; Arch Chancellor of Empire, iii. 1065.

CAMBYSES, THE ELDER, reign of, i. 338.

CAMBYSES, THE YOUNGER, King of Persia, i. 345;
invades Egypt, i. 346 ; overwhelmed in the
desert, i. 347 ; kills Apis, i. 347 ; death of, i.
349; character of, i. 349.

CAMEL, Sultan of the Turks, ii. 385, 386.

CAMEL, The, Native to Babylonia, i. 250.

CAMILLUS, Expels the Gauls from Italy, i. 691 ; ca-
reer of, i. 693, 695.

CAMPANIA, Description of, i. 605; subdued by the-
Romans, i. 699.

CAMPBELL, SIR ARCHIBALD, Downfall of, iii. 803.

CAMPBELL, SIR COLIN, British general in Sepoy
war, iii. 1213.

CAMPUS MARTIUS, Notice of, i. 675.

CANADA. (See New France: also American Revo-
lution, iii. 1309-1310, and War o/ 1812.) Insur-
rection in, iii. 1153, 1310; threatened by
Fenians, iii. 1211 ; early history of, iii. 1308-
1310; popular reform in, iii. 1311; recent
growth of, iii. 1312.

CANNAE, Battle of, i. 726.

CANTON, Bombarded by British, iii. 1333, 1335;
surrender of, iii. 1336.

CANULEIUS, Tribune of Rome, i. 688.

CANUTE, Proclaimed king of England, ii. 215 ; tra-
dition of, ii. 216.

CAPET, HUGH. (See Hugh Capet.)

CAPETIAN DYNASTY, Establishment of in France,
ii. 234; ascendency of, ii. 234-244, 416-424,
439-446.

CAPITOLINE HILL, Peopled, i. 666; buildings on,
i. 670.

CAPITULARIES, Of Charlemagne, ii. 171-172.

CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT, President of Greece, iii.
1300.

CAPPADOCIANS, Notice of, >. 310.

CAPUA, Taken by Hannibal, i. 724; occupied by
Carthaginians, i. 727 ; retaken by the Romans,
i. 731.

CARACALLA, Becomes emperor, i. 870-871 ; vices
of, i. 871 ; murder of, i. 871.

CARACTACUS, Conquered by the Romans, i. 836-838.

CARCHEMISJI, Battle of, i. 68.

CARDIGAN, EARL OF, Captain of Light Brigade, iii.
1292.

CARICATURE, Practiced by the Assyrians, i. 194-
195; by the Babylonians, i. 266.

CARLOMAN, King of Austrasia, ii. 80, 155.

CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY, Establishment of, ii. 80 ;
ascendency of, ii. 153-196; table of, ii. 177 ;
character of later kings of, ii. 225.

CAROLINA, Colonization of, ii. 747-748.

CAROLINE OF BRANDENBURG, Wife of George II.,
iii. 874.

CARTARET, SIR GEORGE, Colonizes New Jersey,
ii. 748.

CARTHAGE, Founding of, i. 708 ; early history of,
i. 708-709; constitution of, i. 709; religion of,
i. 709-710; wars of with Rome, i. 710-750;
destruction of, i. 748.

CARTHAGINIANS, First notices of, i. 708; institu-
tions of, i. 709; character of, i. 710; war of
in Sicily, i. 710-711; first conflict of with
Rome, i. 711-716; dominate the Mediterra-
nean, i. 717 ; renew the war with Rome, i.
719 ; invade Italy, i. 722 ; conquered by the
Romans, i. 736-750.

INDEX

I860

CARTHUSIAN MONKS, Order of established, ii. 238.
CAKTIEK, JAMES, Voyiigo of to the New World,

ii. 568.

CARUS, Rt-ign of, i. 878.
CASCA, Assassin of Cresar, i. 808.
CASSANO, Battle of, iii. 1054.
CASSIAN WAY, Description of, i. 707.
CASSIODORUS, Minister of Amalasontha, ii. A7.
CABSIUS, Assassin of Caesar, i. 806-808; commits

suicide, i. 813.

CASSIUS, SPURIUS, Proposes agrarian law, i. 684.
CABTKS, Of the Egyptians, i. 72-75.
CASTILE, Early history of, ii. 536-537.
CATACOMBS, Christian art in, i. 624.
CATESBY, LORD, Gunpowder conspirator, iii. 756-

750.

CATIIEIUNK I., Empress of Russia, iii. 848.
CATHERINE II., Empress of Russia, Sketch of, iii.

943; marries Peter III., iii. 943; has him

strangled, iii. 944 ; becomes Czarina, iii. 944 ;

ivign of, iii. 944-946.
CATHERINE OP ABAGON, Wife of Henry VIII., ii.

586, 601 ; divorced ii., 603.
CATILINE, Sketch of, i. 780-781 ; conspiracy of, i.

781; confronted by Cicero, i. 781-783; over-
throw of, i. 783-785.
CATINAT, MARSHAL, General of Louis XIV., iiL

824, 825, 829.
CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS, Senator of Rome, i. 740;

advocates destruction of Carthage, i. 746; fam-
ily of, i. 802; opposes Ctesar, i. 802; holds

Utica, i. 804; death'of, i. 804.
CATO THE ELDER, Sketch of, i. 630; as a reformer,

i. 755.

CATULLUS, Sketch of, i. 633.
CAUDINK FORKS, Battle of, i. 700.
CAVAIGNAC, GENERAL, Candidate for presidency

of French republic, iii. 1235.
CAVALIERS, Name of royalist party in England,

iii. 773.
CAVOUR, CAMILLO BEUSO, Italian minister at Paris,

iii. 1238 ; policy and influence of, iii. 1281-

1283.

CAWNPORE, Massacre of, iii. 1212.
CECIL, ROBERT, Minister of James I., iii. 755,

759-760.

CECIL, WILLIAM. (See Lord Burleigh.)
CKCBOPS, Tradition of, i. 430.
CUDAR CREEK, Battle of, iii. 1185.
CELIBACY, Question of in Papal Church, ii, 238.
CEMETERIES, Of the Chaldieans, i. 124.
CENSORSHIP, Institution of, i. 688.
CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, The third, iii.

1136 ; the ninth, iii. 1190; the tenth, iii. 1197.
CENTENNIAL CELEBRATION, Account of, iii. 1193-

1194; display of Japan at, iii. 1343; display

of Australia at, iii. 1344.
CENTRAL GREECE, Description of, i. 596-597.
CEREMONIAL, Of the Egyptian court, i. 71-72; of

the Persian court, i. 329-330.
CERRO GOKDO, Battle of, iii. 1159.
CESAREA, Fief of kingdom of Jerusalem, ii. 331.
CETHEQUS, Conspirator with Catiline, i. 781.

CH.CRONEA, Battle of, 1. 541.

CIIAI.( iniiK, Macedonian province, i

CHAI :,,Tal history <,f. country

of, i. 101-106 ; people and language of, L 10ft-
109; chronology and annals of, i. 100 ll'l ;
science and art of, i. lL'1-i:' . „( i

130-138.

CHAI.H.F.A (the country), Watered by Euphrates
and Tigris, i. 101-103 ; shape of, i. 103 ; aspect
of, i. 103-104; extent of, i. 104; f.-rtility of, i.
104-105 ; maritime advantages of, i. 106.

CHAI.D.KANH, Ethnology of, i. 106-107 ; character-
istics of, i. 108-109; genius of, i. 126.

CHALDKB TONGUE, Considered, L 109.

CUALONITIS, I'rovinn- of, i. 142.

CHALONS, Battle of, i. 899.

Cm i.i 1.1, IJattle of, i. 178.

CUAMPK, SERGEANT JOHN, Attempts to capture
Arnold, iii. 978.

CHAMPION HILLS, Battle of, iii. 1175.

CHAMPOLLION, Account of, i. 97-98.

CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battle of, iii. 1178.

CHAKOARNIER, GENERAL, Removed from command,
iii. 1230.

CHANTILLY, Battle of, iii. 1174.

CUAPULTKPEC, Battle of, iii. 1150.

CHARAX, Notice of, i. 200.

CIIARETTE, Retaliates on Revolutionists, iii. 1044.

CHARIOT RACING, Of the Greeks, i, 437; of Uio
Romans, i. 640-641.

CHARLEMAGNE, Accession of, ii. 81, 155 ; war of
with the Lombards, ii. 156-158 ; visits Rome,
ii. 156-158; makes war on the Saxons, ii.
158-162; introduces Christianity, ii. 160-103;
invades Spain, ii. 164; is repelled, ii. 165;
campaigns of, ii. 166; visits Rome, ii. 167;
crowned Emperor, ii. 167 ; administrative sys-
tem of, ii. 168-172; patronizes learning, ii.
172-174; death of, ii. 174; character of,
ii. 175.

CHARLES I. or ENGLAND, Marries Henrietta Maria,
iii. 763; becomes king, iii. 763; character of,
iii. 763; a theorist, iii. 764; unpopularity
of, iii. 765; financial measures of, iii. 765-767;
breaks with Parliament, iii. 767-768; aban-
dons Stafford and Laud, iii. 769; retires to
Nottingham, iii. 773; at war with Parliament,
iii. 775-779; sold by the Scots, iii. 780-781;
in power of Parliament, iii. 781-782; con-
demned and executed, iii. 783.

CHARLES II. or ENGLAND, Proclaimed by the Irish,
iii. 785; signs the Scotch covenant, iii. 786;
nominal king of Scotland, iii. 786-787; goes
into exile, iii. 787 ; restoration of, iii. 793-794 ;
sketch of, iii. 794; destroys the Regicides, iiL
795 ; restores episcopacy, iiL 796 ; sells Dun-
kirk, iii. 796-797 ; profligacy of, iii. 797 ; insti-
tutes the Cabal, iii. 799; death of, iii. 801;
character of, iii. 801.

CHARLES II. or SPAIN, An invalid, iii. 826 ; who
shall succeed him 7 iii. 828-828.

CHARLES IV. or FBASCE, Becomes king, ii. 445;
reign of, ii. 446.

1366

INDEX.

CHARLES IV. OP SPAIN, Deposed by Napoleon, iii.
1081.

CHARLES V. OF FRANCE, Becomes king: ii. 445;
aids Henry of Tr<ostamare, ii. 455 ; opposed by
Charles of Navarre, ii. 457.

CHAKLES V. OP GERMANY, Accession of, ii. 580;
calls Diet of Worms, ii. 581 ; retires to Spain,
ii. 586 ; relations of to Henry VIII. and Fran-
cis I., ii. 586-601 ; calls Diet of Augsburg, ii.
595 ; at war with France, ii. 611 ; reduces Ger-
many, ii. 612-615; abdicates, ii. 618; in San
Yuste, ii. 619; death, ii. 619.

CHARLES VI. OP FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 457 ;
under the regency, ii. 457-458; war of with
the English, ii. 459 ; becomes insane, ii. 459 ;
a victim of faction, ii. 460; death of, ii. 463.

CHARLES VI. OP GERMANY, Becomes emperor, iii.
835 ; issues Pragmatic Sanction, iii. 850, 876,
882, 891 ; troubles of concerning Poland, iii,
891 ; death of, iii. 893.

CHARLES VII. OP FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 463;
besieged in Orleans, ii. 464; crowned at
Rheims, ii. 465-466 ; reign of, ii. 466-468.

CHARLES VIII. op FRANCE, Marries Anna of Brit-
tany, ii. 501 ; crosses the Alps, ii. 543 ; Italian
campaign of, ii. 543.

CHARLES IX. OP FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 630;
ruled by his mother, ii. 630-637 ; prepares for
St. Bartholomew, ii. 635 ; in the massacre, ii.
637 ; terrors and death of, ii. 639-641.

CHARLES X. OP FRANCE, Accession of, iii. 1221 ;
policy of, iii. 1221 ; family of, iii. 1221-1222 ;
reign of, iii. 1221-1225; abdication of, iii.
1225-1226.

CHARLES X., King of Sweden, iii. 843.

CHARLES XI., King of Sweden, iii. 843.

CHARLES XII. OP SWEDEN, Youth and education
of, iii. 843-844 ; attacks Zealand, iii. 844 ; dis-
cipline of, iii. 845; raises siege of Narva, iii.
845 ; overruns Poland, iii. 846 ; defeats Peter
the Great, iii. 847 ; routed at Poltava, iii. 847 ;
a fugitive in Turkey, iii. 847-848; returns to
Sweden, iii. 850 ; killed at Frederickshall, iii.
851 ; genius of, iii. 851.

CHARLES XIII., King of Sweden, iii. 1080 ; adopts
Bernadotte, iii. 1098.

CHARLES ALBERT II. OF BAVARIA, Claims Imperial
crown, iii. 876, 882, 897; crowned, iii. 898;
death of, iii. 900.

CHARLES ALBERT OP SARDINIA, Resigns crown to
Victor Emanuel, iii. 1255; champion of Ital-
ian cause, iii. 1278.

CHARLES ALEXANDER OP LORRAINE, Invades Al-
sace, iii. 884 ; defeated at Leuthen, iii. 912-913.

CHARLES, ARCHDUKE OF AUSTRIA, Claimant of the
Spanish crown, iii. 827-835 ; becomes Em-
peror Charles VI., iii. 835.

CHARLES, AKCHDUKE OP AUSTRIA, Opposes Napo-
leon, iii. 1049, 1054 ; ruin of, iii. 1069.

CHARLES EDWARD, THE YOUNG PRETENDER, At-
tempt of to regain English throne, iii. 877-879.

CHARLES FERDINAND OP BERRY, Death of, iii.
1221.

CHARLES MARTEL, Mayor of the Franks, ii. 79,
154-155; energy of, ii. 79; overthrows the
Moslems, ii. 79-80, 151; dishonored, ii. 151-
152.

CHARLES OP ANJOU, King of the two Sicilies, ii.
420-421.

CHARLES OF LUXEMBOURG, Elected emperor, ii.
484; reign of, 484-485.

CHARLES OF NAVARRE, Relations of with King
John, ii. 449^53.

CHARLES THE BALD, Receives Aquitaine, ii. 179;
conflict of with Lothaire, ii. 179-180; reign of,
ii. 180-183.

CHARLES THE BOLD, Opposes Louis XI., ii. 469;
fights for the old feudal liberties, ii. 470 ; im-
prisons Louis, ii. 471 ; leads the civil war, ii.
471-473; is killed, ii. 474.

CHARLES THE FAT, King of France, ii. 183; reign
of, ii. 183-187.

CHARLES THE SIMPLE, King of France, ii. 187;
reign of, ii. 187-188, 191.

CHARLESTON, Founding of, ii. 748; defended by
Moultrie, iii. 961 ; taken by British, iii. 976 ;
captured by Sherman, iii. 1182.

CHARTISTS, Their principles, iii. 1209-1210.

CHASE, SALMON P., Secretary of treasury, iii. 1165;
presides at impeachment of Johnson, iii.
1189 ; death of, iii. 1193.

CHATEAU CAMBRESIS, Treaty of, ii. 626.

CHAUCER, Sings at Woodstock, ii. 518.

CHEN LAN PIN, Chinese ambassador at Washing-
ton, iii. 1338.

CHERRY VALLEY, Massacre of, iii. 974.

CHICAGO, Burning of, iii. 1191-1192.

CHICKAMAUGA, Battle of, iii. 1176.

CHICKASAW BAYOU, Attack on by Sherman, iii.
1172.

CHILDEBERT, King of the Franks, ii. 76.

CHILDERIC, King of the Franks, ii. 71.

CHILDREN'S CRUSADE, History of, ii. 379.

CHILI, Independence of achieved, iii. 1328.

CHILPERIC, King of the Franks, ii. 77.

CHINA, Summary of history of, iii. 1329-1339;
great antiquity of, iii. 1330 ; early annals of,
iii. 1330-1331 ; under the Mongols, iii. 1331 ;
under Mantchu Tartars, iii. 1331-1339; at-
tempts to open communication with, iii. 1332-
1334; opium war with, iii. 1332-1334; treaties
of with United States and France, iii. 1334 ;
war with France and England, iii. 1335-1337 ;
Burlingame treaty with, iii. 1337; establishes
embassy at Washington, iii. 1338-1339.

CHINESE EMBASSY, Establishment of at Washing-
ton, iii. 1338.

CHING-WANG, Emperor of China, Builds great
wall, iii. 1331.

CHIPPEWA, Battle of, iii. 1140-1141.

CHIVALRY, Beginnings of, ii. 230-231 ; sketch of
history of, ii. 239-242.

CHOISEUL, Minister of Louis XV., iii. 939.

CHRIST, The, Coming of, i. 829; life of, i. 829-830;
crucifixion of, i. 830.

CHRISTIAN II., King of Denmark, ii. 548.

INDEX.

CHRISTIAN IV. OF DENMARK, Leader in Thirty
Years' War, ii. 703, 704, 705.

CHRISTIAN IX. OP DENMARK, Beaten by Prussia,
iii. 1258-1259.

CHRISTIAN OF BRUNSWICK, Leader in Thirty Years'
\V:ir, ii. 701 ; death of, ii. 705.

CHRISTIANITY, Leaves a record in the Catacombs,
i. 624 ; protests against the gladiatorial shows,
i. 643; tolerates slavery, i. 645; opposes in-
cineration, i. 659; introduction of, i. 830;
growth of at Rome, i. 867 ; struggles for rec-
ognition, i. 880-881 ; proclaimed by Constan-
tino, i. 882 ; renounced by Julian, i. 887 ; in-
troduced among the Goths, ii. 41-42; into
Britain, ii. 63-64 ; into France, ii. 72-73 ; com-
pared with Islam and Judaism, ii. 97.

CHRISTIANS, Organized by Paul, i. 830 ; persecuted
by Nero, i. 841 ; by Marcus Aurelius, i. 885-
886; by Deciua, i. 875-876; by Aurelian, i.
877 ; by Diocletian, i. 881 ; favored by Con-
stantino, i. 881-882 ; strife of for the papacy,
L 887-889 ; sophistries of, i. 896.

CHURCH OP ENGLAND, Beginnings of, ii. 599-611 ;
654-657.

CHURCH OF ROME, Attempts a reform of abuses,
ii. 238, 570-571 ; establishes monasticism, ii.
238 ; schism in, ii. 243 ; disrupted by Luther,
ii. 577-584. (See Lent Half of Century XVI.,
Thirty Yean' War, the various Popw,and Italy.)

CHURUBUSCO, Battle of, iii. 1159.

CICEBO, MARCUS Tumus, Founder of Roman ora-
tory, i. 631; impeaches Verres, i. 777; sup-
ports Manilian Law, i. 779; sketch of, i. 782;
family of, i. 782 ; puts down the conspiracy of
Catiline, i. 782-785 ; reaction against, i. 785-
786 ; returns from exile, i. 791 ; attempts to
reconcile Caesar and Pompey, i. 797 ; at one
with Caesar, i. 802 ; death of, i. 811-812.

Cm, The story of, ii. 289.

CIMBRI, Subjugation of by Marius, i. 763.

CIMON, Ascendency of, i. 477-478.

CINCINNATUS, Story of, i. 685.

CINCINNATUS, Order of, established, iii. 981.

CINEAS, Ambassador of Pyrrhus, i. 705.

CINQ-MARS, Execution of, ii. 721.

CIRCUS, Of the Greeks, i. 392-393 ; of the Romans,
i. 639-643.

CIRCUS MAXIMUS, Capacity of, i. 640; built by
Tarquin, i. 669.

CISALPINE GAUL, Description of, i. 601 ; reduction
of, i. 750.

CISALPINE REPUBLIC, Overthrow of, iii. 1055; re-
organized, iii. 1060.

CITIZENSHIP, Roman theory of, i. 653.

CIUDAD, RODRIQO, Taken by the British, iii. 1096.

CIVIL WAR IN UNITED STATES, Beginning of, iii.
1165-1166 ; causes of, iii. 1166-1168 ; first year
of, iii. 1168-1171 ; campaigns of in 1862, iii.
1171-1175 ; progress of in 1863 and 1864, iii.
1175-1182, 1184-1186 ; end of, iii. 1182-1183,
1186 ; results of, iii. 1186-1191.

CLARENCE, GEOROK, DUKK OF, Goes over to Lan-
caster, ii. 530 ; death of, ii. 532.

CLARENDON, LORD, Chancellor of Knglanil, iii. 794-
795; fall of, iii. 798-799.

CI.ARKK, GKOKOK ROGEM, Takes Kaxkaakia and
Vinwnnes, iii. 974.

CLAUDIUS, Becomes emperor, i. 836; conquers
Britain, i. 836-838; checks the German*, i.
838; foreign policy of, i. 838; public works
of, i. 838; marries Measalina, i. 838;
wards Agrippina, i. 839 ; death of, i. 839.

CLAY, HENRY, American amliamador at Glu-nt, iii.
1143; author of Missouri Compromise, iii.
1146; favors South American republics, iii.
1147 ; candidate for President, iii. 1148. 1155 ;
peacemaker of 1850, iii. 1161 ; friend of the
Greeks, iii. 1300.

CLAYBORNE, WILLIAM, Explores country of the
Chesapeake, ii. 745.

CLEMENT III., Pontificate of, ii. 257-256.

CLEOMBROTUS, Of Sparta, i. 511 ; career of, i. 512-613.

CLEOMENES, Interferes at Athens, L 456.

CLKOMENES, THE YOUNGER, King of Sparta, i. 590.

CLEON, Career of, i. 486-189.

CLEOPATRA, Supported by Julius Cesar, i. 800;
captivates Antony, i. 813 ; makes Egypt a car-
nival, L 815-816; becomes Antony's heir, i.
818; at Actium, i. 818; death of, i. 820.

CLEPHO, King of the Lombards, ii. 62.

CLEHMOST, Council of, ii. 243-244, 299-300.

CLEVELAND, GROVBR, Elected President, iii. 1201 ;
administration of, iii. 1201.

CLIENTAGE, Of the Romans, i. 645-646.

CLIMATE, Of Egypt, i. 34; of Chaldwa, i. 104; of
Assyria, i. 143-145 ; of Media, i. 202-204 ; of
Babylonia, i. 246-247 ; of Persia, i. 300, 305-
306; of Greece, i. 373; of Italy, i. 696-899.

CLINTON, SIB HENRY, Arrives at Boston, iii. 958 ;
tries to save Burgoyne, iii. 970.

CLISTHKNES, Ascendency of in Athens, i. 454—156.

CLITL-S, General of Alexander, i. 570.

CLOACA MAXIMA, Referred to, i. 619, 625, 669.

CLODION, King of the Franks, ii. 70.

CLODIUS, Caesarian leader in Rome, i. 789-795.

CLODOMIR, King of the Franks, ii. 76.

CLOTAIRE, King of the Franks, ii. 76.

CLOTAIRE II., King of the Franks, ii. 77.

CLOTILDA, Wife of Clovis, ii. 72.

CLOVIS, King of the Franks, ii. 72 ; converted to
Christianity, ii. 72; cruelty of, ii. 73; con-
quests of, ii. 73-74 ; as a legislator, ii. 74-75.

CLUNY, Monks of, Attempted reforms of, ii. 252.

COBDEN, RICHARD, English reformer, iii. 1215.

COBHAM, Persecuted by Henry V., ii. 521-622.

COCHRANE, ADMIRAL, British commander in the
Chesapeake, iii. 1141.

CODE NAPOLEON, Adopted in France, iii. 1063.

CODRUS, King of Athens, i. 448.

COFFINS, Of the Chaldseans described, i. 125.

COKE, THOMAS, First Methodist bishop, HI. 947.

COLBERT, Finance Minister of Louis XIV., iii. 810.

COLD HARBOR, Battle of, iii. 1185.

COLFAX, SCHUYLEB, Vice-president of U. S., iii. 1190.

COLIGNY, Admiral of France, ii. 625 ; leader of the
Huguenots, ii. 633-636.

1308

INDEX.

COLISEUM, Built by Vcspasianus, i. 852.

COLLATINUS, Story of, i. 674 ; consul, i. 675.

COLOMBIA, UNITED STATES OF, Summary of history
of, iii. 1321-1322.

COLONI, New class of Roman society, i. 880; in-
surrection of, i. 880 ; Christianized, i. 880.

COLONIAL CONGRESS, The First, Session of, iii. 955.

COLONIAL CONGRESS, The Second, Meeting of, iii.
957.

COLONNA, Quarrel of, with Boniface, ii. 441-442.

COLORADO, Admission of, iii. 1194.

COLOSSUS OF KHODES, Notices of, i. 621, ii. 124.

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER, Views of, respecting
figure of the earth, ii. 555-556 ; sketch of, ii.
556 ; seeks the aid of princes, ii. 556 ; discov-
ers the West Indies, ii. 557-558 ; subsequent
voyages of, ii. 558.

COLUMNS, Styles of in Egypt, i. 95-96.

COMBATS, Of the Romans, i. 639-643.

COMEDY, Of the Greeks, i. 394-395; of the Ro-
mans, i. 629-630.

COMITIA CENTURIATA, Establishment of, i. 679.

COMMODUS, Becomes emperor, i. 867 ; vices of, i.
867-868 ; a gladiator, i. 868 ; end of, i. 868.

COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND, Instituted, iii. 783;
history of, iii. 783-794.

COMMUNE or PARIS, Seizes the city, iii. 1243;
ascendency of, iii. 1243-1245.

COMNKNIAN DYNASTY, Ascendency of, i. 923-928.

COMNENUS, ISAAC, Becomes emperor, i. 923.

COMONFORT, GENERAL, President of Mexico, iii.
1318.

CONCOBAR, Notice of, i. 201.

CONDE, HENRI I., PRINCE OF, Leader of Huguenots,
ii. 631, 633.

CONDE, Louis II., PRINCE OF. General of Louis
XIV., iii. 817.

CONFEDERATE CRUISERS, Account of, iii. 1183-1184.

CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA, Organization of,
iii. 1164; general history of (see Civil War
in United States).

CONNECTICUT, Colonization of, ii. 742 ; iii. 856.

CONON, Leader of the Athenians, i. 498.

CONRAD OF FRANCONIA, Elected king of Germany,
ii. 192 ; reign of, ii. 193.

CONRAD OP HOHENSTAUFEN, Emperor of Ger-
many, ii. 344-345.

CONRAD OF MONTFERRAT, Father of Baldwin V.,
ii. 353; recognized as king of Jerusalem, ii.
370-371.

CONRAD OF SUABIA, Elected emperor of Germany,
ii. 248 ; invades Italy, ii. 249 ; reign of, ii. 248-
251.

CONRADIN OF HOHENSTAUFEN, Execution of , ii. 420,
476.

CONSCRIPTION ACT, Passed by Congress, iii. 1180.

CONSTANCE, Council of, ii. 491 ; condemns and de-
stroys Huss and Jerome, ii. 492-493.

CONSTANCE, Wife of Robert the Pious, ii. 236.

CONSTANS, Colleague of Constantine II., i. 885-886.

CONSTANTINE, Becomes emperor, i. 881 ; favors the
Christians, i. 882; puts down opposition, i.
882; proclaims Christianity, i. 882; activities

of, i. 883 ; legislation of, i. 883 ; puts down Li-
cinius, i. 884 ; cruelties of, i. 884 ; makes
Troves his capital, i. 885; founds Constanti-
nople, i. 885 ; death of, i. 885.

CONSTANTINE II., Reign of, i. 885-886.

CONSTANTINE III., Reign of, i. 913.

CONSTANTIXE IV., Reign of, i. 913.

CONSTANTINE V., Reign of, i. 916.

CONSTANTINE VI., Reign of, i. 916-917.

CONSTANTINE VII., Reign of, i. 920.

CONSTANTINE VIII., Reign of, i. 920.

CONSTANTINE IX., Reign of, i. 922.

CONSTANTINE XIII., Last emperor of the East, i.
934; overthrown and slain by the Turks, i.
934-936.

CONSTANTINE, Grand duke of Russia, iii. 1289.

CONSTANTINOPLE, Founding of, i. 885 ; besieged by
Thomas, i. 918; taken by the Turks, i. 934-
935; entered by the Crusaders, ii. 309-313;
taken by the Latins, i. 927 ; ii. 377-378.

CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, Prepares a new constitu-
tion for France, iii. 1003, 1004-1005, 1006,
1008-1009, 1010, 1013.

CONSTITUTION, Of the Egyptians, i. 70-75; of the
Greeks, i. 442-444, 449-456; of Rome, i. 666,
670-672, 674, 679-698.

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, Formation
of, iii. 983; analysis of, iii. 983-984; amend-
ments to, iii. 984, 1188, 1190.

CONSULATE AND EMPIRE OF FRANCE, Establish-
ment of, iii. 1056 ; ascendency of, iii. 1057-
1128.

CONSULSHIP, Institution of, i. 674.

COOK, CAPTAIN, Explorer of Australia, iii. 1348.

COPENHAGEN, Bombarded by British, iii. 1078-1079.

CORASMINS. (See Turks.)

CORCYRA, Quarrel of with Corinth, i. 482-483.

CORDAY, CHARLOTTE, Assassinates Marat, iii. 1028.

CORDELIERS, Club of, iii. 1020.

CORDOVA, Capital of Western Islam, ii. 150; great-
ness of, ii. 286-288.

CORDOVA, FERNANDEZ DE, Discovers Yucatan,
ii. 561.

CORINTH, Description of, i. 376 ; early history of,
i. 447-448 ; siege of, i. 507.

CORINTH, Battle of, iii. 1172.

CORIOLANUS, Story of, i. 682-683.

CORN LAW AGITATION, In Great Britain, iii. 1215.

CORNBURY, LORD, Governor of New York, iii. 865.

CORNELIA, Mother of the Gracchi, i. 756.

CORNWALLIS, LORD, Commands British at Long
Island, iii. 964 ; takes Fort Lee, iii. 965 ; at
Princeton, iii. 967 ; at Brandy wine, iii. 970 ;
in the South, iii. 979, 980 ; at Yorktown, iii.
980-981.

COHONEA, Battle of, i. 507.

CORSICA, Subjugated by France, iii. 938-939.

CORTERKAL, CASPAR, Voyage of to the New World,
ii. 568-569.

CORTEZ, FERNANDO, Invades Mexico, ii. 561 ; over-
throws Montezuma, ii. 561-562; routs Nar-
vaez, ii. 562 ; destroys Mexican empire, ii. 563.

CORUNNA, Battle of, iii. 1085.

LMO

CORUPEDION, Battle of, i. 587.

CORVINUS, MATTHEW, King of Hungary, ii. 501.

COSSACKS, Devour the Grand Army, iii. 1104.

COSTER, L.VWUKXCK, Prints from wooden blocks,
ii. 503.

COTTON (Jix, Invention of, iii. 1167; a factor of
civil war, iii. 1167.

COURCELLES, Battle of, iii. lL't',7.

COURTRAY, Battle of, ii. 440.

COURTS, Of Athens, i. 405-406.

COVENANTERS, Of Scotland, iii. 767.

COWPBNS, Battle of, iii. 969.

CRANMER, THOMAS, Rise of, ii. 602; promotes the
Reformation, ii. 611 ; favors persecutions, ii.
621 ; prepares Book of Prayer, ii. 654 ; a per-
secutor, ii. 657 ; courage of, ii. 659 ; burned at
the stake, ii. 660.

CRASSUS, MARCUS, Overthrows the gladiators, i.
775-776; rival of Pompeius, i. 776, 786-787;
Parthian expedition of, i. 794 ; death of, i. 795.

CREATION, Chaldsean Story of, i. 110-130.

CRECY, Battle of, ii. 448, 510.

CREDIT MOBILIER INVESTIGATION, Account of, iii.
1192.

CREEK INDIANS, War with, iii. 1138-1139; trouble
with, iii. 1149.

CREOLES, Class of Mexican population, iii. 1313.

CRETE, Insurrection in, iii. 1301.

CRIMEAN WAR, Causes of, iii. 1290-1291 ; outbreak
of, iii, 1291 ; course of, iii. 1291-1294.

CRITIAS, Career of, i. 502.

CROATIANS, Tribal history of, ii. 46.

CROSSUS, Mentioned, i. 69 ; story of, i. 295-296, 452.

CROMWELL, OLIVER, Puritan leader in Parliament,
iii. 771 ; sketch of, iii. 771-772 ; republican
general, iii. 777; in the ascendant, iii. 779;
purges Parliament, iii. 782-783 ; subdues Ire-
land and Scotland, iii. 785-787; overthrows
Parliament, iii. 787-788; Lord Protector of
England, iii. 789 ; conspiracy against, iii. 790 ;
powerful government of, iii. 790 ; shall he be
king? iii. 791 ; death of, iii. 792.

CROMWELL, RICHARD, Second Protector of Eng-
land, iii. 792.

CROMWELL, THOMAS, Friend of Wolsey, ii. 602;
becomes lord chancellor, ii. 607 ; downfall of,
ii. 607.

CRONOS, Myth of, i. 420 ; festival of, i. 657.

CROTONA, Early history of, i. 604.

CRUSADES, Premonitory symptoms of, ii. 236,243;
general history of, ii. 297-405; causes of, ii.
297-300; first movements of, ii. 300-305; first
armies of, ii. 305-309 ; first expedition of, ii.
309-327; kingdom of Jerusalem established
by, ii. 327-340; second general expedition of,
ii. 340-356 ; third expedition of, ii. 356-372 ;
fourth expedition of, ii. 372-381; children's
expedition of, ii. 379 ; fifth expedition of, ii.
381-386; sixth expedition of, ii. 386-389; sev-
enth expedition of, ii. 389-395; eighth expedi-
tion of, ii. 395-400; results of, ii. 400-405.

CRYSTAL PALACE, Built for International Exposi-
tion, iii. 1217.

CUKA, Becomes a capital of the Va^fmt, ii. :
CULLODEN, Battle of, iii. 879.
CULPEPPER, I/, i ,i,,r of Virginia, iii. 867-

Bat

CUM*, SkeU-h of, i. 604.
VA, Battle of, i. 362.

CuNEiVoKM WRITING, Account of, L 128, 183-185
213,333-334.

CURIATII, Tradition of, i. 667-668.

CURIO, Supporter of Ctesar, i. 796.

CUBTIUS, Tradition of, i. 679.

CUSHINO, CALEB, American ambassador to Colom-
bia, iii. 1322.

CDSHITKS, Ethnic position of, i. 39.

CYAXARES, King of Media, i. 221-228; Invades As-
syria, i. 222; resists the Scythians, L 222-223;
overthrows the Assyrian empire, L 223-224 ;
makes war on surrounding nations, i. 225-228;
death of, i. 228.

CYBELE, Worship of in Rome, i. 661.

CYCLIC POETS, Account of, L 391.

CYCLONES, of Media, i. 203.

CYNOCEPHAUB, Battle of, i. 517, 739.

CYPRUS, Taken by the Moslems, ii. 123.

CYRENAtcA, Description of, L 304 ; conquered by
Islam, ii. 137.

CYRESE, Taken by Acbah, ii. 137.

CYRUS THE GREAT, At the court of Astyages, L
229-230 ; makes war on the Medes, L 231-232;
overthrows the Median empire, i. 232-234;
conquers Babylonia, i. 295-298 ; sketch of, i.
338; reign of, i. 338-345; conquers Lydia, L
339-340 ; reduces Asia Minor, i. 341 ; subdue*
the Bactrians, i. 342 ; captures Babylon, L 343 ;
restores the Jews, i. 344 ; character of, i. 345.

CYRUS THE YOUNGER, Revolt of, i. 361 ; expedi-
tion of, i. 362; death of, i. 363.

D.

DAGOBERT, King of the Franks, ii. 77-78.

DALLAS, GEORGE M., Vice-president, iii. 1155.

DAMASCUS, Description of, i. 239; captured by the
Moslems, ii. 104-105; seat of the Caliphate,
ii. 133-148 ; glory of, ii. 147.

DAMIETTA, Captured by Crusaders, ii. 381-382.

DAMOCLES, Story of, i. 515-516.

DAMPIER, CAPTAIN, Explorer of Australia, iii. 1348.

DANBY, EARL OF, Minister of Charles II., iii. 779.

DANCING, Of the Egyptians, i. 78.

DANDOLO, Doge of Venice, ii. 372 ; agrees to trans-
port crusaders to the East, ii. 373 ; aided by
them in siege of Zara, ii. 373-375; goes against
Constantinople, ii. 375-376; hero of the siege,
ii. 377, 432.

DANEGELD, Levied on the Saxons, ii. 213-215.

DANES (see Northmen), Invade England, ii. 198-
199; overthrow Alfred, ii. 199; defeated by
the Saxons, ii. 201 ; divide England with Al-
fred, ii. 201-204 ; struggle of for the ascendency,
ii. 212-215, 292.

DANIEL, The Hebrew, i. 292.

DANNEWKRK, Stormed by the Prussians, iii. 1258.

1370

INDEX.

DANTE, Referred to, ii. 437.

DANTON, GEORGE JAQUES, Sketch of, iii. 1020-1021 ;
ascendency of, iii. 1020-1036; executed, iii.
1036.

CARBOY, ARCHBISHOP OP PAWS, Killed by the
Commune, iii. 1245.

DARIUS, CODOMANUS, King of Persia, i. 365; con-
fronts Alexander, i. 365, 555 ; at Issus, i. 367,
557-558 ; attempts negotiations, i. 560-562 ; at
Arbela, i. 368, 564-565 ; a fugitive, i. 567-568 ;
death of, i. 370, 568.

DARIUS HYSTASPIS, King of Persia, i. 350 ; restores
the national religion, i. 351 ; suppresses insur-
rections, i. 351-352 ; reorganizes the empire, i.
352-353 ; administrative system of, i. 353-354 ;
looks to the West, i. 354; Scythian campaign
of, i. 354 ; breaks with the Greeks, i. 355 ; pre-
pares to invade Europe, i. 356, 459-460.

DARIUS NOTHUS, Reign of, i. 360-361.

DARNLEY, LORD, Second husband of Mary Stuart,
ii. 664 ; murdered, ii. 665.

DAROGHINSKI, GENERAL, Russian Commander in
Turko-Russian war, iii. 1304.

DATIS, Commander of the Persians, i. 460.

DAUN, MARSHAL, Commander of Austrians in
Seven Years' war, iii. 912, 913, 915, 916, 917, 918.

DAVID, King of Israel, i. 284; conquers Jerusa-
lem, i. 286 ; encourages literature, i. 286.

DAVID, King of Scotland, Deposed, ii. 509.

DAVIS, JEFFERSON, President of Confederate States,
iii. 1164; at Montgomery and Richmond, iii.
1166; sketch of, iii. 1169; escape and capture
of, iii. 1186.

DAV-KINA, Consort of Hea, i. 136.

DAVOUST, MARSHAL, Victor of Auerstadt, iii. 1075.

DAY OF JUDGMENT, Believed in by Islam, ii. 98-99 ;
expected in Dark Ages, ii. 224-225.

DEAD SEA, Description of, i. 244.

DBA DIA, Festival of, i. 657.

DEANE, SILAS, Sent to France, iii. 972.

DEARBORN, GENERAL HENRY, Commander-in-chief
of American army, iii. 1136 ; captures To-
ronto, iii. 1139.

DEBT, Laws of Solon concerning, i. 450-451 ; of the
Romans concerning, i. 680-681.

DECATUH, COMMODORE, In the Mediterranean, iii.
1133; takes the -Macedonian, iii. 1137; subdues
the Algerine pirates, iii. 1143.

DECAZES, DUKE, Leader of French chamber, iii.
1218-1219.

DECEMVIRI, Appointment of, i. 685.

DECIUS, Reign of, i. 875-876.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, Made by Con-
gress, iii. 962 ; provisions of, iii. 962-963.

DECLARATION OF RIGHTS, Passed by American
Congress, iii. 955.

DEIOCES, Fabulous king of Media, i. 221.

DE KALB, Comes to America, iii. 969 ; death of, iii.
977.

DELHI, Insurrection at in 1857, iii. 1212.

DELOS, Confederacy of, i. 475.

DELPHI, Holy City of Greece, i. 414-415 ; defense
of, i. 467 ; treasures of devoted to war, i. 536.

DELPHIC ORACLE, Description of, i. 414-415.

DELTA OP EGYPT, Described, i. 34.

DELUGE, The Chaktean account of, i. 110-111 ; As-
syrian account of, i. 111-112.

DEMAGOGUES, Evil influence of, iii. 1168.

DEMETER, Feast of, i. 417 ; myth of, i. 423.

DEMETRIUS DONSKI, Emperor of Russia, ii. 548.

DEMETRIUS POLIORCETES, Career of, i. 585-587.

DEMOCRACY, Born in Greece, i. 385 ; struggles of in
Rome, i. 668, 680-689, 694-698, 703; nurtured
in the free cities, ii. 427-429.

DEMOSTHENES, Rise of, i. 522; his orations, i. 522;
sent to Macedon, i. 523; corresponds with
Persia, i, 540 ; zeal of, i. 541.

DEMOTIC CHARACTER, Used by the Egyptians, i.
98-99.

DENMARK, Early history of, ii. 290-292; in four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries, ii. 547-548; in
sixteenth century (see Reformation and Last
Half of Century XVI.) ; in seventeenth cent-
ury (see Thirty Yean' War) ; in age of Revo-
lution (see French Revolution and Consulate
and Empire) ; war of with Prussia, iii. 1258-
1259.

DE RUYTER, Admiral of Holland, iii. 797, 799;
killed, iii. 817-818.

DESAIX, GENERAL, Death of, iii, 1060.

DE SOTO, FERDINAND, Career of in the New World,
ii. 730-732.

D'ESTAING, COUNT, French admiral in War of In-
dependence, iii. 973, 994 ; attempts to capture
Savannah, iii. 975-976.

DETTINGEN, Battle of, iii. 900.

DEUCALION, Tradition of, i. 431.

D'Eu, COUNT, Constable of France, ii. 449.

DEVAS, Believed in by the Medes, i. 216.

DEVEREUX, ROBERT. (See Essex.)

DIANA, Temple of described, i. 311-312.

DIANA OP POITIERS, At court of Henry II., ii. 624.

DIAZ, RODRIGO. (See the Cid.)

DICTATORSHIP, Establishment of, i. 678.

DIDEROT, DENIS, Leader of Encyclopaedists, iii. 988.

DIES IRJS, Belief in in Dark Ages, ii. 224-225.

DIESKAU, Defeat of at Fort Edward, iii. 929.

DIEU LE VEUT, Cry of the Crusaders, ii. 259, 300,
325, 345.

DINWIDDIE, Governor of Virginia, iii. 923, 924, 925.

DIOCLETIAN, Becomes emperor, i. 878 ; epoch of, i.
878-881; system of, i. 879; resigns, i. 879;
persecutes the Christians, i. 880-881.

DIODORUS, His dates, i. 44.

DIONYSIUS, Tyrant of Sicily, i. 515 ; career of, i.
518-519.

DIONYSUS, Feast of, i. 417 ; myth of, i. 426.

DIRECTORY, Executive Council of France, iii. 1044;
ascendency of, iii. 1044-1056; gives place to
Consulate, iii. 1056.

DISESTABLISHMENT OF IRISH CHURCH, Favored by
O'Connell, iii. 1207; bill for passed by Parlia-
ment, iii. 1216.

DISRAELI, BENJAMIN, In Derby cabinet, iii. 1215;
ministry of, iii. 1216 ; at Berlin congress, iii.
1307.

INDEX.

DIZFUL, THK, Description of, i. 242.
DOOOBOAN, Battle of, ii. 315.
DOMESDAY BOOK, Prepared by William of Nor-
mandy, ii. 274-275.

DOMITIANUS, Becomes emperor, i. 855; character
of, i. 855; policy of, i. 856; measures of, i.

857 ; murder of, i. 857.
DOM PEDRO I., Regent of Brazil, iii. 1326; becomes

emperor, iii. 1327.
DOM PEDRO II., Becomes emperor, iii. 1327 ; reign

of, iii. 1327-1328; sketch of, iii. 1328.
DOMREMY, Home of Joan of Arc, ii. 464, 467.
DONALD BANE, Usurps the throne of Scotland, ii

307.

DONATISTS, History of, ii. 69.
DON CARLOS OF SPAIN, Campaign of in Italy, iii.

882.
DON CARLOS OF SPAIN, At war with Isabella, iii.

1209.

DONELSON, FORT, Captured by Grant, iii. 1171.
DONOAN, THOMAS, Governor of New York. iii. 864-

865.

DONIPHAN, COLONEL, Expedition of, iii. 1157.
DORIAN MIGRATION, Account of, i. 434-435.
DORIC HEZAPOLIS, Founding of, i. 436.
DORIC STYLE, Of Architecture, i. 399, 625.
DORIS, Description of, i. 374.
DOST MOHAMMED, Prince of Afghans, revolt of, iiL

1211-1212.
DOUGLAS, EARL, Rebels against Henry IV., ii. 518-

519.
DOUGLAS, STEPHEN A., Favors Kansas-Nebraska

Bill, iii. 1162; candidate for Presidency, iii.

1164.

DOWNS, Battle of, iii. 797.
DRACO, Legislation of, i. 449.
DRAGONADE, History of, iii. 822-824.
DRAMATIC POETRY, Of the Greeks, i. 392.
DRED SCOTT DECISION, Notice of, iii. 1163.
DRESDEN, Battle of, iii. 1110.
DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS, Legislation of, i. 766-767;

war of with the Germans, i. 828-829.
DRYDEN, JOHN, Poet of the Restoration, iii. 798,

800, 809.
DUALISM, Of the Medes, i. 216 ; of the Persians, i.

335.
DUCAS, ALEXANDER (Mourzoufle), Emperor of the

East, i. 927-928.
DrcHESNE, PERE. (See Hebert.)
Ducos, ROGER, Chosen consul of France, iii. 1056.
DUDLEY, ROBERT. (See Leicester.)
Du GUESCLIN, General of Charles V., ii. 455-456.
DUNBAR, Battle of, iii. 786.
DUNDEE, LORD, Revolt of against William III., iii.

814.
DUNMORE, Governor of Virginia, dismisses the

Burgesses, iii. 956.
DUMOURIEZ, GENERAL, Defeats emigrant nobles, iii.

1022; abandons the Republic, iii. 1027.
DUNSTAN, Monk of Glastonbury, ii. 209 ; career of,

ii. 209-211.
DUODECIMAL SYSTEM, Used by the Chaldreans, i.

127.

DUPLESSIS, ARM AND JEAX. (See Richelieu.)

DUPONT, Ai ,.-«f.n, iii.

Du QUESNE, Four, liuilt l.y th- Kr.-n.-l,. ii:
taken by tin- Km-linn, ii:

DPRAZZO, CHARLES, Prince of Naples, ii. 457 ; ca-
reer of, ii. 457.

DURHAM, Rebellion of, ii. 274.

E.

EADBUKGHA, Wife of Beotric, ii. 88.

EARLY, GENERAL JIIIAI., Invades Maryland and

Pennsylvania, iii. 1185; routed at Cedar Creek

and Winchester, iii. 1185-1186.
EARTH BURIAL, Rejected by the Egyptians, i. 78-

79; also by the Medes, i. 219; practiced by

the Greeks, L 419; by the Romans, i. 659; by

the Christians, i. 659-660.
EASTERN ASSYRIA, Character and limits of, i. 140-

141.
EASTERN EMPIRE, Separated from the West, i. 885 ;

general history of, i. 885-936; overthrow of,

i. 934-936.

EASTERN QUESTION, Nature of, iii. 1290-1291, 1301.
EAST RIVER BRIDGE, Construction of, iii. 1200.
ECBATANA, Description of, i. 199-200; taken by

Alexander, i. 567.

EfiiiNiQUE, GENERAL, President of Pern, iii. 1325.
ECLIPSE, Battle of, i. 225.
ECLIPSES, Early records of, i. 127, 269.
ECNOMUS, Battle of, i. 712.
ECUADOR, Summary of history of, iii. 1323-1324.
ECUMENICAL COUNCIL OF 1889-1870, Account of,

iii. 1285.

EOESSA, Principality of founded, ii. 317; trans-
ferred to Baldwin, ii. 329 ; to Joscelyn, ii. 331,

339; decline of, ii. 339; fall of, ii. 340.
EDGAR, King of England, ii. 210; reign of, ii. 210-

211.
EDGAR ATRELINO, Proclaimed king of England, ii.

264; favored by William, ii. 266; leader of the

First Crusade, ii. 305, 307, 323.
EDGERILL, Battle of, iii. 775.
EDICT or NANTES, Issued by Henry IV., ii. 648;

revoked by Louis XIV., iii. 820.
EDICT OF RESTITUTION, Issued by Ferdinand II.,

ii. 706.
EDICT OF TOLERATION, Issuance of by James II..

iii. 803.
EDISON, THOMAS A., Inventor of phonograph and

electric light apparatus, iii. 1199.
EDITH, Wife of Harold, ii. 263.
EDMUND ATHELING, King of England, ii. 208 ; reign

of, ii. 208-209.
EDMUND IRONSIDE, Divides England with Canute,

ii. 215.

EDRIC THE FORESTER, Revolt of, ii. 268.
EDUCATION, Necessary to the existence of free in-
stitutions, iii. 1354.

EDWARD I. or ENGLAND, Reign of, ii. 504-508.
EDWARD II. OF ENGLAND, Reign of, ii. 606-607.
EDWARD III. OF ENGLAND, Becomes king, ii. 448,

507; marries Philippa, ii. 608; interferes in

1372

INDEX.

Scotland, ii. 509 ; wars of with France, ii. 448-
453, 510-513.

EDWARD IV. OF ENGLAND, Reign of, ii. 531-532.

EDWARD V. OP ENGLAND, Becomes king, ii. 532;
murdered by Richard, ii. 533.

EDWARD VI. OP ENGLAND, Becomes king, ii. 611,
654 ; reign of, ii. 654-657.

EDWARD OF YORK, Becomes leader of Yorkist
party, ii. 527 ; takes the throne, ii. 529 ; reign
of, ii. 529-532. (See Edward IV.)

EDWARD PLANTAGENET, Leader of the Eighth
Crusade, ii. 395 ; attempted assassination of,
ii. 397 ; returns to England, ii. 415 ; conquers
Wales, ii. 415 ; settles affairs of Scotland, ii.
415, 416 ; loses Guienne, ii. 416 ; reign of, ii.
504-507. (See Edward II.)

EDWARD, PRINCE OP LANCASTER, Entrusted to a
robber, ii. 529 ; at Tewksbury, ii. 531 ; killed
by Gloucester and Clarence, ii. 531.

EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, Becomes king of England,
ii. 218 ; favors the Normans, ii. 218-219 ; puts
down Godwin, ii. 219; counter-revolution
against, ii. 219-220; death of, ii. 221-222.

EDWARD THE ELDER, Succeeds Alfred, ii. 207 ;
reign of, ii. 207-208.

EDWARD THE MARTYR, King of England, ii. 211.

EDWIN, King of North umbria, ii. 86.

EDWY, King of England, ii. 209 ; reign of, ii. 209-
210.

EGBERT, King of Wessex, ii. 88 ; founder of
England, ii. 88-89, 197; descendants of, ii.
198.

EGEHIA, Myth of, i. 666.

EGFHID, King of Northumbria, ii. 87.

EGMONT, COUNT, Ambassador of the Netherlands,
ii. 679; imprisoned, ii. 683; condemned and
executed, ii. 683-684.

EGYPT, General history of, i. 33-100; country of, i.
33-38 ; people of, i. 88-43 ; civil and military
annals of, i. 43-69 ; manners and customs of, i.
69-81 ; religion and art of, i. 81-100 ; Spartan
expedition into, i. 318; a Roman province, i.
738; conquered by the Moslems, ii. 112-113.

EGYPT (the country), Formed by the Nile, i. 33-34 ;
climate of, i. 34 ; divisions of, i. 34-36 ; noines
of, i. 36 ; dependent on the Nile, i. 36-37 ; fer-
tility of, i. 38.

EGYPTIAN LITERATURE, Character of, i. 69.

EGYPTIANS, Origin of, i. 38 ; ethnic position of, i.
39 ; their invasion of the Nile Valley, i. 39 ;
influences of nature upon, i. 39-40 ; formation
of character of, i. 40^11 ; form and features of,
i. 41-42 ; character of, i. 42-43 ; their social
system, i. 75 ; their home-life, i. 77 ; their
amusements, i. 78 ; their funerals, i. 78-81.

EL, The Chaldsean deity, i. 131, 188.

EISENACH, Student-home of Luther, ii. 576.

EISLEBEN, Birthplace of Luther, ii, 575.

ELAGABALUS, Becomes emperor, i. 871 ; Oriental
superstitions of, i. 872 ; reign of, i. 872.

ELBA, Assigned to Napoleon, iii. 1117.

ELDRED, King of England, ii. 209 ; career of, ii.
211-212.

ELEANOR,- Queen of France, ii. 347 ; goes on Sec-
ond Crusade, ii. 347 ; with her Troubadours at
Antioch, ii. 348 ; divorced, ii. 350 ; her lovers,
ii. 350 ; ransoms the Lion Heart, ii. 370.

ELECTRIC LIGHT, Invention of, iii. 1199.

ELEPHANTIS, Mentioned, i. 51.

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERY, Of the Greeks, i. 417.

ELFHIDA, Wife of Edgar, ii. 211.

ELGIN, LORD, English ambassador to China, iii.
1337.

ELGIVA, Wife of Edwy, ii. 209 ; sorrows of, ii. 210.

EL HADAC, Caliph of Cairo, ii. 351 ; crafty policy
of, ii. 352.

ELIMEA, Macedonian province, i. 526.

ELIS, Description of, i. 376; subjugation of by
Sparta, i. 505 ; war of with Arcadia, i. 517-518.

ELIZABETH I. OF RUSSIA, Enemy of Frederick II.,
iii. 905-906; mentioned, iii. 943.

ELIZABETH OF YORK, Contended for by Gloucester
and Richmond, ii. 534 ; married by Richmond,
ii. 535.

ELIZABETH TUDOR, Birth of, ii. 603 ; Protestant by
necessity, ii. 603-605 ; sought by Lord Sey-
mour, ii. 655 ; relations of with Mary Tudor,
ii. 658 ; proclaimed queen, ii. 660 ; sketch of,
ii. 661-662; refuses marriage, ii. 662, 663-664;
relations of to Mary Stuart, ii. 662, 664 ; minis-
ters of, ii. 663 ; receives Mary Stuart, ii. 666 ;
plots against, ii. 667 ; conduct of after St. Bar-
tholomew, ii. 638 ; signs death-warrant of
Mary, ii. 668 ; resists Spanish invasion, ii. 668-
670 ; relations of to Essex, ii. 670-672 ; death
of, ii. 673 ; epoch of, ii. 673-674 ; literary glory
of reign of, ii. 674-677.

EL KASR, Description of, i. 259.

ELLA, Leader of the Anglo-Saxons, ii. 83-84.

ELTEKEH, Battle of, i. 176.

EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION, Issued by Lincoln,
iii. 1175.

EMATH^EA, Macedonian province, i. 527.

EMBALMING, Among the Egyptians, i. 79.

EMBARGO ACT, Passage of, iii. 1135 ; repealed, iii.
1135.

EMESSA, Taken by the Moslems, ii. 106-107.

EMIGRANT NOBLES, Organize army, iii. 1010; on
German frontier, iii. 1011, 1014; defeated at
Jemappes, iii. 1022 ; conspiracies of, iii. 1041 ;
instigate insurrection in Paris, iii. 1045; re-
called by Napoleon, iii. 1063.

EMIPHER, Betrays Antioch to the Crusaders, ii. 319.

EMMA op NORMANDY, Becomes queen of England,
ii. 213; wrongs of, ii. 214; married to Canute,
ii. 215.

ENCYCLOPAEDISTS OF FRANCE, Forerunners of the
New Era, iii. 987-990.

ENCYCLOPEDIE, FRAN9AISE, Account of, iii. 987-
988.

ENCYCLOPEDIE, METHODIQUE, Reactionary charac-
ter of, iii. 988-990.

ENGHIEN, DUKE D', Execution of, iii. 1065.

ENGLAND, Primitive history of. (See Britain.)
Conquered by the Anglo-Saxons, ii. 83-85;
under the Heptarchy, ii. 85-90; under the

INDEX.

Saxon kings, ii. 197-216; under the Pane*, 11.
216-218; conquered by the Normans, ii. 260-
264; under the feudal kin^s, ii. L'">»-281 ; dur-
ing thirteenth century, ii. 405 -4 If, ; during
fourteenth and liftfrntli centuries, ii. 60
during Reformation. (See Reformation.) In
last half of century XVI., ii. 654-677; under
first two Stuarts, iii. 753-771 ; during civil
war and commonwealth, iii. 771-794 ; from
Restoration to Second Revolution, iii. 794-809;
from William III. to George I., iii. 809-839;
under George II., iii. 874-877; under George
III., iii. 934-938. (See also American and
French Revolution*.) In nineteenth century,
iii. 1203-1217.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE, Developed under Edward
III., ii. 513.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION, Causes of, iii. 753-771 ; mil-
itary history of, iii. 771-783 ; Cromwellian era
of, iii. 783-794; reaction against, iii. 794-804;
second outbreak of, iii. 804-809 ; last period of,
iii. 809-836 ; how regarded in New England,
iii. 857-859.

ENGRAVING, of the Chaldeans, i. 129 ; of the As-
syrians i. 196; of the Babylonians, i. 266-267.

ENNIUS, Sketch of, i. 629.

ENNUS, Leader of the slaves, i. 753.

EORP.EA, Macedonian province, i. 526.

EPAMINONDAS, Bceotrarch of Thebes, i. 510; mili-
tary genius of, i. 511-512; overthrows the
Spartans, i. 513 ; death of, i. 518.

EPHESUS, Description of, i. 311 ; taken by Alexan-
der, i. 551.

EPHORS, Of Sparta, i. 443.

EPIC POETRY, Of the Greeks, i. 390-391.

EPICURUS, System of, i. 661.

EPIMETHEUS, Tradition of, i. 431.

EPIRUS, Description of, i. 374.

EPISCOPALIANISM. (See Church of England.)
Abolished by parliament, iii. 782-783 ; restora-
tion of, iii. 796 ; attempted reestablishment of
in Scotland, iii. 815-816.

EPITAPHS, Of the Greeks, i. 419 ; of the Romans,
i. 659.

EPOCH OF WAR, In Japan, iii. 1342.

EQUITES, ORDER OF, i. 672.

ERASMUS, Attempts to reform society, ii. 571-572.

ERECHTHEUM, Notice of, i. 400.

ERFURT, Congress of, iii. 1084.

ERIC OF POMERANIA, King of Sweden, it. 545.

ERICSSON, JOHN, Inventor of Monitor, iii. 1172.

ERNEST AUGUST, Viceroy of Hanover, iii. 1247.

ERZEROUM, Siege and capture of, iii. 1306.

ESAR-HADDON, King of Assyria, i. 179-180 ; makes
war in Syria, i. 179 ; invades Babylonia, i. 180 ;
subdues Egypt, i. 180.

ESSENES, Sect of Jews, i. 847.

ESSEX, EARL OF, Favorite of Elizabeth, ii. 670;
sent to Ireland, ii. 670-671 ; quarrels with the
queen, ii. 671 ; treason of, ii. 671 ; condemned
and executed, ii. 671-672 ; story of his ring,
ii. 672.

ETIIKLBALD, King of Mercia, ii. 87.

u.mi.n, King of Wpssex, il. 89-90, 197-198.

. King of Weasex. it. 90, .
n.Kn. I'rmceas of Mercia, ii. 207-20a

•u-iutD TUB UNRBADY, King of England, ii.

I'lL'; n-ijtn of, ii. l'I-
KTIIKI.WI IK, King of Weasex, it 89.
Kriii..! MSS, Ascendency of in Egypt, t. 66-67.
K i HNOLOOY, Subject of considered, L 38-90 : i. 106-

107.

ETIOLJM, MADAM* D'. (See fbmpadour.)
ETKURIA, Description of, i. 606.
EUDKS, Defends Park against the Northmen, ii.

185.

ECDOXIA, Career of, i. 901-903.
ECOKN«, PBINC* OF SAVOY, Imperial general, iii.

829, 831, 833; takes' Belgrade, iii. 891; death

of, iii. 891.
EUOWUE, MARIE or MONTIJO, Empress of the

French, iii. 1238; hatred of to Germans, iii.

1241 ; flies from Paris, iii. 1242, 1270; at Chis-

elhuret, iii. 1246.

EUMXNES, Successor of Alexander, i. 582-584.
EUNUCHS, At the Persian court, L 329.
Ei- p.-! RATE*, Character of, i. 101-103 ; relations of

to Babylon, i. 256.

EUPHRATES VALLKY, Character of, i. 236.
EURIC, King of the Visigoths, ii. 65.
EURIPIDES, Life and Work of, L 394.
EUROPA, Tradition of, i. 430.
EURYBIADBS, Commands the Greek fleet, L 465-466.
EUTAW SPRINGS, Battle of, iii. 980.
EVARTS, WILLIAM M., Centennial oration of, iii.

1194.
EVELYN, SIR JOHN, Quoted, iii. 801; mentioned,

iii. 809, 843.

KVKSH AM, Battle of, ii. 414.
EVIL GENIUS, THB, Account of, L 191.
EVIL-MERODACII, King of Babylonia, L 293; reign

of, i. 294.
EYLAU, Battle of, iii. 1077.

F.

FABIAK OEMS, Exile of, i. 684.

FABIUS MAXIMUS, QUINTI'S, Consul of Rome, L 702.

FABIUS MAXIMUS, QUIKTUS, Dictator of Rome, L
724; policy of, i. 7'.').

FAIRFAX, THOMAS, General of the Parliamenta-
rians, iiL 775, 777, 779.

FAIRMOUNT PARK, Scene of Centennial Exposi-
tion, iiL 1193.

FAIR OAKS, Battle of, iiL 1173.

FALIERO, MARINO, Dpge of Venice, ii. 432.

FAMILIA, Of the Romans, L 645.

FANATICISM, Growth of in papal Church, ii. 224-
225,239.

FAHNESB, ALEXANDER, Spanish general in Nether-
lands, ii. 689-691.

FARRAGUT, ADMIRAL DAVID G., Opens the Missis-
sippi, iii. 1172; victorious in Mobile Bay, iii.
1183; death of, iii. 1193.

FARRF.L, WILLIAM, French reformer, ii. 619; ban-
ished, ii. 620.

1374

INDEX.

FATIMA, Daughter of the Prophet, ii. 95 ; mother
of the Fatimites, ii. 132.

FATIMITKS, Dynasty of Islam, ii. 132; ascendency
of, ii. 133-152 ; African branch of, ii. 287.

FAUST, JOHN, Inventor of printing, ii. 503.

FAUSTA, Wife of Constantine, i. 884.

FAUSTINA, Wife of Aurelius, i. 866.

FAVRE, JULES, French ambassador and minister of
foreign affairs, iii. 1242 ; speaks for France, iii.
1270; negotiates with Bismarck, iii. 1273.

FAWKES, GUY, The Gunpowder conspirator, iii.
757-759; put to death, iii. 759.

FEASTS, Of the Babylonians, i. 273-274; of the
Persians, i. 328 ; of the Greeks, i. 407 ; of the
Eomans, i. 647-651.

FEDERALIST PARTY, Origin of, iii. 983 ; ascendency
of, iii. 1128-1132.

FEHRBELLIN, Battle of, iii. 888.

FENIAN BROTHERHOOD, Threatens peace of Can-
ada, iii. 1211.

FEODOR, Emperor of Russia, iii. 841.

FEODOR III., Emperor of Russia, iii. 841.

FEODOROVITCH, MICHAEL, Emperor of Russia, iii.
841.

FERDINAND I. OP AUSTRIA, Accession of, iii. 1249.

FERDINAND I. OF GERMANY, Elected king, ii. 614;
becomes emperor, ii. 649 ; reign of, ii. 649-652.

FERDINAND II. OP GERMANY, becomes emperor,
ii. 700 ; reign of, ii. 700-719.

FERDINAND III. OF GERMANY, Becomes emperor,
ii. 719; reign of, ii. 719-726.

FERDINAND IV. OP SICILY, Invades Italy, iii. 1053.

FERDINAND VI. OP NAPLES, Overthrow of, iii.
1073-1074.

FERDINAND VII. OF SPAIN, Deposed by Napoleon,
iii. 1081 ; acknowledged king, iii. 1113 ; grants
Mexican Constitution, iii. 1314.

FKRDINAND OF BRUNSWICK, Hanoverian general in
Seven Years' War, iii. 914, 915, 916, 918.

FEKDINAND THE CATHOLIC, King of Castile, ii.
537 ; inherits Aragon, ii. 537 ; persecutes her-
etics and Jews, ii. 537-538 ; expels the Moors,
ii. 538.

FESTIVAL, Of the Greeks, i. 417-418 ; of the Ro-
mans, i. 657-658.

FETIALES, College of, i. 700.

FEUDAL ENGLAND, History of, ii. 259-281.

FEUDAL FRANCE, History of, ii. 234-244.

FEUDAL GERMANY, History of, ii. 244-259.

FEUDALISM, General consideration of, ii. 223-233 ;
causes of, ii. 224-227; induced by spirit of
national independence, ii. 224; by religious
and philosophical beliefs, ii. 224 ; by personal
character of the Carlovingians, ii. 225-226 ;
land tenure under, ii. 226-227; vassalage a
part of, ii. 226-227 ; military service under, ii.
227 ; universal necessity of, ii. 227-228 ; social
and family system of, ii. 228-230; sentiments
engendered by, ii. 230-231 ; advantages and
disadvantages of, ii. 232-233 ; dominant in
France, ii. 234-244 ; in Germany, ii. 244-259 ;
in England, ii. 259-281 ; growth of, ii. 238 ;
overthrown b3r the Free Cities, ii. 428-429,

439 ; put down by Louis XI., ii. 461-475 ; fall

of in England, ii. 535 ; non-success of in

Italy, ii. 538.

FIDELES, Social class in Feudalism, ii. 168.
FIELD, CYRUS W., Lays Atlantic cable, iii. 1163.
FIELD OP THE CLOTH OF GOLD, Royal meeting at,

ii. 587.
FIESCHI, JOSEPH MABIB, Attempts to assassinate

Louis Philippe, iii. 1229.
FILLMOIIE, MILLARD, Vice-president of United

States, iii. 1160; accedes to Presidency, iii.

1161 ; administration of, iii. 1161-1162.
FINANCIAL PANIC, Of 1837, iii. 1152 ; of 1873, iii. 1192.
FIRE WORSHIP, Of the Medes, i. 218-220.
FIRST MESSENIAN WAR, History of, i. 444-446.
FIRST SACRED WAR, History of, i. 440.
FISH EATERS, Country of, i. 303.
FISHER, FORT, Capture of, iii. 1183.
FiTZ-OsaoRN, Rebellion of, ii. 272.
FIVE FORKS, Battle of, iii. 1186.
FIVE HUNDRED, Council of established, iii. 1044.
FLAMEN, Office of in Rome, i. 653.
FLAMINIAN WAY, Description of, i. 707, 718.
FLAMINIUS, CAIUS, Tribune of Rome, i. 718.
FLAMINIUS TITUS QUINCTIUS, Defeats Philip V., i.

739 ; proclaims liberty to the Greeks, i. 740.
FLAVIAN DYNASTY, Ascendency of in Rome, i.

850-858.
FLETCHER, BENJAMIN, Governor of New York, iii.

865.
FLEURY, CARDINAL, Minister of Louis XV., iii.

882, 883.

FLOOD. (See Deluge.}
FLORA, Festival of, i. 657.
FLORENCE, Founding of, ii. 436; early history of,

ii. 436-437 ; under the Medici, ii. 437-438.
FONTAINE, Notice of, iii. 839.
FONTENAILLES, Battle of, ii. 179-180.
FONTENOY, Battle of, iii. 884.
FORBES, GENERAL, Captures Fort Du Quesne, iii.

931.
FORREST, GENERAL, In Tennessee and Kentucky,

iii. 1181.
FORSTEH, WILLIAM E., Promotes education in

England, iii. 1216.
FOTHERINGAY CASTLE, Prison of Mary Stuart, ii.

667-668.

FOULKE OF ANJOU, Rebellion of, ii. 271-272 ; mar-
ries daughter of Baldwin II., ii. 331.
FOULKE OF NEUILLY, Preaches the Fourth Crusade,

ii. 372.
Fox, CHARLES JAMES, Succeeds Pitt in British

Ministry, iii. 1073.

FRANCIS I. OF FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 586 ; re-
lations of with Charles V. and Henry VIII.,

ii. 586-599 ; at Field of Cloth of Gold, ii. 587 ;

at war with the emperor, ii. 589-592 ; captured

at Pavia, ii. 592 ; imprisonment of, ii. 592-593;

concludes treaty of Cambray, ii. 594 ; makes a

league with Solyman, ii. 598 ; death of, ii. 611.
FRANCIS II. OF FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 627;

marries Mary Stuart, ii. 627; reign of, ii.

627-630.

INDEX.

FRANCIS II., Becomes emperor, iii. 1014; refuses
peace with France, iii. 1()47 ; seeks and obtains
a treaty, iii. 1070 107! ; breaks it, iii. 1085;
and repents, iii. 1086-1087 ; enters into Holy
Alliance, iii. 1287.

FRANCIS JOSEPH, Emperor of Austria, Beaten by
Napoleon III., iii. 1238-1239, 1281-12H:!; ini-
pedes German unity, iii. 1255; du|>licity of,
iii. 1259.

FRANCE, Early liistory of (see FranJn) ; a division
of Charlemagne's empire, ii. 1 77 ; under the
feudal kings, ii. •-':'.! L'44 ; in Xlllth century,
ii. 416-424; in XlVth and XVth centuries,
ii. 439-476; during Reformation (see Reforma-
tion); in last half of century XVI., ii. 623-
649; under Louis XIV., iii. 809-839; under
Louis XV., iii. 879-886, 938-940; in time of
Revolution, iii. 986; under consulate and
empire, iii. 1057-1128 ; in XlXth century, iii.
1281-1283.

FRANCO- AUSTRIAN WAR, Account of, iii. 1269-1262.

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, Causes of, iii. 1241, 1263-
li'iil; course of, iii. 1264-1273; results of, iii.
U74-137&

FRANKLIN, Battle of, iii. 1182.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, Plans union for America,
iii. 926; printer of New England, iii. 947;
mentioned, iii. 954; on Committee to Draft
Declaration, iii. 962; American ambassador
to France, iii. 972, 995; sketch of, iii. 972-
973; advocate of the Constitution and the
Union, iii. 982.

FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN, Arctic explorer, iii. 1161.

FRANKS, Tribal history of, ii. 39; kingdom of, ii.
39, 70-81, 153-175.

FHEDEOONDA, Queen-mother of the Franks, ii. 77.

FREDERIC I., King of Prussia, iii. 886.

FREDERICK II., Emperor of Germany, ii. 381;
leader of the Fifth Crusade, ii. 381-386.

FREDERICK II., THE GREAT, Age of, iii. 869-948;
relations of to Polish complication, iii. 876,
884-886 ; accession of, iii. 893 ; sketch of, iii.
893-896 ; marries Elizabeth Christina, iii. 896 ;
methods of, iii. 896; begins war of Austrian
Succession, iii. 897 ; takes Silesia, iii. 898; mil-
itary genius of, iii. 900 ; first struggle of with
Austria, iii. 900-904 ; personal habits of, iii.
902 ; economy of, iii. 904 ; vigilance of, iii.
906 ; makes alliance with England, iii. 907 ; in
Bohemia, iii. 908 ; hard pressed by his ene-
mies, iii. 908-909 ; desperate struggles of, iii.
910-917; reaction in favor of, iii. 918-919;
victorious in Seven Years' War, iii. 920 ; re-
habilitates Prussia, iii. 940-941 ; death of , iii. 941.

FREDERICK V., Of the Palatinate, ii. 700.

FREDERICK BARBAROSSA, Leader of Third Crusade,
ii. 356 ; career of, ii. 357-359.

FREDERICK OF HDHKV/KLLRRN, Becomes Prince of
Brandenburg, ii. 494 ; defeated by Taborites,
ii. 497 ; war of with Suabia, ii. 499.

FREDERICK OF STYRIA, Becomes emperor, ii. 498;
reign of, ii. 498-501 ; opposes Charles tin-
Bold, ii. 600 ; death of, ii. 501.

FKKDKRICK THE HANDHOMK, Career of, ii

KKKDKKICK TUB WIHE, Friend ..f tin; Reformers,
ii. 681.

FREDERICKHBUKO, Battle -if, in. 117.V

FREDERIC CHARLES, Pw.v 'rimn

war, iii. I'.'iiO; . .iiniii.in'U divi-Mon in I ranco-
I'russian war, iii. I:

FREDERIC WILLIAM, Cr..«n piim-e of IV:--:M. In
Krunco-Aiirttriau war, iii. ISM); command- >!i-
vision in K run co-Prussian war, iii. 12*M-1278.

FREDERIC WILLIAM, The great elector, Founder ..f
Prussian greatness, iii. 886-888.

FREDERIC WILLIAM I., Kim: of I'mwiia, iii. 886;
policy of, iii. 886-887; his Potadam Guard*,
iii. 887; his Tobacco Cabinet, iii. 887-888;
death of, iii. 892.

FREDERIC WILLIAM II., Would reinstate Louis
XVI., iii. 1014; abandons coiilitioii, iii. 1048.

FREDERIC WILLIAM III., Neutral towards France,
iii. 1067; enters coilition, iii. 1069; dupli. -ity
of, iii. 1070; punished by Napoleon, iii. 1073;
ruin of, iii. 1075; strikes hands with the Crar,
iii. 1107; enters Paris, iii. 1113; principles of,
iii. 1249; enters into Holy Alliance, iii. 1287.

FKEDKRIC WILLIAM IV., Becomes king of Prussia,
iii. 1250; policy of, iii. 1250; reign of, iii.
1250-1256; impedes German unity, iii. 1266.

FREE CITIES or THE MIDDLE AGES, General char-
acter and history of, ii. 426-439; bow built,
ii. 426 ; how governed, ii. 426 ; by whom peo-
pled, ii. 427 ; revolt of against feudalism, ii.
428 ; originate the Italian republics, ii. 429.

FREEDOM, Essential condition of human happi-
ness, iii. 1362; growth of human faculti. < in
state of, iii. 837-839, 1363.

FREE SOIL PARTY, Rise of, iii. 1160; growth of, iii.
1162-1163 ; triumph of, iii. 1164.

FREMONT, Jons C., Career of in California, iii.
1157; candidate for Presidency, iii. 1163; I'nion
commander in Missouri, iii. 1170.

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR, Causes of, iii. 921-926;
history of, iii. 925-933.

FRENCH ERA, Establishment of, iii. 1032.

FRENCH REVOLUTION, Causes of, iii. 985-998 ; course
of, iii. 998-1056.

FRIEDLAND, Battle of, iii. 1077.

FCOGER, ASTON, Banker of Charles V., ii. 696.

FULTON, ROBERT, Invents steamboat, iii. 1135.

FDNERAL CEREMONY, Of the Egyptians, i. 80-81;
of the Chaldwans, i. 124-126 ; of the Medes,
i. 1> 18-219; of the Greeks, i. 419; of the Ro-
mans, i. 658-659.

GADBDEVC IM'KCMABE, Account of, iii. 1162

GAGE, GENIRAL, Takes possession of Boston, iii.

966 ; ordered to subdue colonists, iii. 957.
GALBA. SKHVITS Sri.ririrs. Becomes emperor, L

843; his character, i. 844 : death of, i. 845.
GALILEE, Fief of kingdom of Jerusalem, ii. 331.

K... Life and work of, ii. 726-7
GALUA. (See GauL)

1376

INDEX.

GALLIENUS, Reign of, i. 876.

GAMAKBA, GENKKAL, President of Peru, iii. 1325.

GAMBETTA, LEON, Radical leader in France, iii.
1242 ; raises army in the South, iii. 1271.

GAMES, Of the Egyptians, i. 78 ; of the Greeks, i.
437-439 ; of the Romans, i. 639-643.

GANDAKIANS, Notice of, i. 309.

GAKFIELD, JAMES A., Union colonel in Kentucky,
iii. 1171 ; elected President, iii. 1197 ; admin-
istration of, iii. 1197-1198 ; assassinated, iii.
1198.

GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE, Leader of Italian Liberals,
iii. 1279 ; raises army in Sicily, iii. 1283 ; over-
runs Italy, iii. 1283.

GATES, GENERAL HORATIO, Commands the North-
ern army iii. 969 ; in the South, iii. 977.

GAUL, Conquest of by Caesar, i. 789-794.

GAULS, Original seats of, i. 689-690 ; siege of Rome
by, i. 691 ; driven from Italy, i. 691 ; incur-
sions of, i. 696, 717-718 ; conquered by Csesar,
i. 790-794.

GAVESTON, PIERS, Favorite of Edward II., ii. 506.

GAZA, Taken by Alexander, i. 562.

GELIMER, King of the Vandals, ii. 70.

GENET, CITIZEN, Career of in United States, iii.
1130.

GENEVA, Seat of Swiss Protestantism, ii. 619.

GENOA, Early history of, ii. 433-434 ; wars of with
Pisa and Venice, ii. 434-435.

GENSERIC, Captures Rome, i. 901 ; reign of, ii.
67-70.

GEORGE I., or HANOVER, Becomes king of Eng-
land, iii. 836, 869 ; sketch of, iii. 869-870 ; reign
of, iii. 869-874 ; dislike of for Prince of Wales,
iii. 871 ; death of, iii. 874.

GEORGE II., OP HANOVER, Becomes king of Eng-
land, iii. 874 ; reign of, iii. 874-877 ; death of,
iii. 934.

GEORGB III. OP ENGLAND, Becomes king, iii. 934 ;
sketch of, iii. 934 ; theories and principles of,
iii. 934-935; attacked by Wilkes, iii. 935;
would restore absolutism, iii. 936 ; enemy of
America, iii. 951-952 ; denounced by Henry,
iii. 954-955 ; appeal to by colonists, iii. 955 ;
hires mercenaries, iii. 961 ; gives up America,
iii. 981 ; death of, iii. 1202.

GEORGE IV. OP ENGLAND, Accession of, iii. 1203 ;
reign of, iii. 1203-1205 ; character of, iii.
1205.

GEORGIA, Colonization of, ii. 751-752.

GEPID.S, Tribal history of, ii. 37-38; overthrown
by the Lombards, ii. 61-62.

GERARD, PIERRE, Master of the Hospitallers, ii.
332-333.

GERMANICUS, Wars of with the Germans, i. 832 ;
death of, i. 833.

GERMANS, First conflict of with Rome, i. 762-764 ;
subdued by Ceesar, i. 790-791 ; at war with
Rome, i. 830, 832, 866, 874, 891, 897, 903-904;
tribal divisions of, ii. 33-45; manners and
customs of, ii. 42-45 ; prevailing ideas of, ii.
44-45 (see also Barbarians),

GERMANTOWN, Battle of, iii. 971.

GERMANY, Early history of (see Germans and Bar-
bariang) ; a, division of Charlemagne's empire,
ii. 177; early history of, ii. 191-196; under
feudalism, ii. 244-259 ; during Crusades (see
Cru&odes) ; in XlVth and XVth centuries, iii.
476-504; during Reformation (see Reforma-
tion) ; in last half of century XVI., ii. 649-
654 ; during reign of Louis XIV. (see Louu
XIV.), iii. 809-839 ; during Seven Years' War
(see Seven Years' War), iii. 905-920; during
French ascendency (see French Retwlution and
Consulate and -Empire), iii. 985-1128; in XlXth
century, iii. 1246-1276 ; movement toward
unification of, iii. 1252-1253 ; imperial ascend-
ency of, iii. 1273-1276.

GERRY, ELBRIDGE, American ambassador to France,
iii. 1131 ; elected Vice-president, iii. 1137.

GETTYSBURG, Battle of, iii. 1178-1180.

GHENGHIS KHAN, Founder of Mongol Dynasty, L
930-931 ; invades China, iii. 1331.

GHENT, Treaty of, iii. 1143.

GHIBELLINE, Party of, ii. 345.

GHIZEH, Pyramids of, i. 48-49.

GIBBON, Cited, i. 909, 935.

GIBRALTAR, Name of, ii. 149; captured by the
English, iii. 832.

GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY, Career of in the New
World, ii. 735.

GILMORE, GENERAL Q. A., Attacks Charleston, iii.
1178.

GIRALDA, Description of, ii. 288-289.

GIRONDISTS, Organization of, iii. 1014 ; ascendency
of, iii. 1014-1017; destruction of, iii. 1028-
1030.

GIST, CHRISTOPHER, Explorer of Ohio Company,
iii. 923, 924, 925.

GLADIATORIAL SHOWS, Of the Romans, i. 640-643 •,
revived by Caligula, i. 834.

GLADIATORS, Their character, i. 642-643 ; insurrec-
tion of, i. 775.

GLADSTONE, WILLIAM E., Chancellor of Exchequer,
iii. 1215 ; ministry of, iii. 1216.

GLASS BLOWING, Known to the Egyptians, i. 54 ;
to the Assyrians, i. 196; of the Babylonians,
i. 268.

GLENCOE, Massacre of, iii. 817.

GLENDOWER, OWEN, Heads AVelsh insurrection, ii.
518-519.

GLOUCESTER, THOMAS DUKE OF, Rebels against
Richard II., ii. 516.

GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DUKE OP, Murders Edward
Lancaster, ii. 531 ; wooes Anne, ii. 531 ; pro-
tects Edward V., ii. 532 ; declares the king
and duke of York illegitimate, ii. 533 ; takes
the throne, ii. 533 ; clears his way by murder,
ii. 533 ; loses his lieir, ii. 534 ; confronted by
Richmond, ii. 534; defeated and slain at Bos-
worth Field, ii. 534.

GODFREY OP BOUILLON, Sketch of, ii. 305 ; becomes
a crusader, ii. 305 ; leads the first army into
Asia, ii. 310-313; besieges Nice, ii. 314; wins
the battle of Dogorgan, ii. 315; takes Antioch,
ii. 317-321; captures Jerusalem, ii. 323-325;

INDEX.

L877

elected king, ii. 326-327 ; death of, ii. 329 ;
family of, ii. 330.

GODOY, MANUEL DK, Minister of Charles IV., iii.
1081.

GODS, Of the Egyptians, i. 81-87 ; of the Chal-
dseans, i. 130-130 ; of the Assyrians, i. 187-191 ;
of the Medes, i. 214-217; of the Babylonians,
i. 274-276; of the Persians, i. 235-236; <if tint
Greeks, i. 420-426; of the Romans, i. 651-658.

GODWIN, Earl of Wessex, ii. 217; career of, ii.
217-220.

GOFFK, WILLIAM, In New England, iii. 859.

GOLD, Used by the Chaldteans, i. 126; discovery
of in California, iii. 1160; in Australia, iii.
1351.

GOLDBK BULL, Issuance of, ii. 485.

GOLDEN HOUSE, Of Nero, i. 843.

GOMATES, THE MAGUS, i. 348; becomes king, i.
349; restores Magism, i. 349; is overthrown, i.
350.

GONSALVO DE CORDOVA, Spanish commander in
Naples, ii. 541.

GOOD GENIUS, THE, Account of, i. 191, 336.

GOKDIAN, Reign of, i. 875.

GORDIUM, Taken by Alexander, i. 555.

GORGEY, ARTHUR, Leader in Hungarian revolution,
iii. 1253-1254.

GOBTCHAKOFF, PRINCE, Prime minister of Alexan-
der II., iii. 1303 ; at Congress of Berlin, iii.
1307.

GO"RTZ, BARON, Diplomatic scheme of, iii. 850.

GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW, Career of in the New
World, ii. 736.

GOTHS, Defeated by Claudiua, i. 876-877 ; division
of mentioned, i. 891 ; devastate Greece, i.
891-892; early history of, ii. 33-34; estab-
lish kingdoms in Italy and Spain, ii. 35;
Christianized by Ulfilas, ii. 41-42.

GRACCHUS, CAIUS, Secures passage of Sempronian
Laws, i. 759 ; death of, i. 760.

GRACCHUS, TIBERIUS, Attempts reform in Rome, i.
756-758.

GRAMMAR, Of the Greek, i. 388-389.

GRAND ARMY OP NAPOLEON, Campaign of into
Russia, iii. 1100-1106.

GRANICUS, Battle of, i. 365-366, 549-550.

GRANT, ULYSSES S., Captures Belmont, iii. 1170 ;
takes Fort Donelson, iii. 1171 ; at Pittsburg
Landing, iii. 1171 ; at luka and Corinth, iii.
1172 ; besieges and captures Vicksburg, iii.
1175; in command at Chattanooga, iii. 1176-
1177 ; appointed commander-in-chief, iii. 1181 ;
in the Wilderness, iii. 1184 ; before Peters-
burg, iii. 1185; ends the war at Appomattox,
iii. 1186; elected President, iii. 1189-1190;
sketch of, iii. 1190; administration of, iii.
1190-1194 ; reflected President, iii. 1192 ; death
of, iii. 1201.

GRATIAN, Reign of, i. 889.

GRAVELOTTE, Battle of, iii. 1267.

GRAY, KLISHA P., Invents telephone, iii. 1199.

GREAT BRITAIN. (See England.)

GREAT MEDIA, Notice of, i. 199.
87

GRIECE, General history of, :,,try

"f. ' i"-pl" "f, i. 379-386; language,

lit.-ratur.-, and art of, i. 386-104; »;,•
and custom* of, i. 404-412.

il'.t; myth, and tradition ..(, ,. ^-0-433;
dawn of history of, i. 434-441 ; ?<
law of, i Persian wan of. ;

474; Athenian ascendency <>,
ivioponneaian wars of, i. 482-504; Spartan
and Tin-ban ascendencies in, i. 50.V.V
Roman province, i. 744; revolt of against
Turkey, iii. H.W; revolution in, iii. 1299-1301.
GREECE (the country), Extent of, i. 371 ; mount-
ains of, i. 371-371' ; rivers of, i. 372 ; lake* of,
i. 372; coast-line of, i. 372-373; geographiral
divisions of, i. 373-374 ; political divisions of,
i. 373-378; beauty of scenery of, i. 378.
GREEK FIRE, Used in siege of Constantinople, i.

935 ; at capture of Jerusalem, ii. 324.
GREEK LANGUAGE, Discussion of, i. 386-390;
spread by Alexander through the East, i.
577; taught in Rome, i. 644.
GREEK REVOLUTION, Account of, iii. 1299-1301.
GREEKS, THE, Origin of, i. 379 ; ethnic place of, i.
379-380; early tradition of, i. 380; personal
appearance of, i. 381; beauty of, i. 381, 382;
courage of, i. 382; reasoning powers of, i.
382-383; craft of, i. 383; ideality of, i. 383;
adventurous spirit of, i. 384; moral qualities
of, i. 384-385 ; patriotism of, i. 385 ; individu-
ality of, i. 385-386; language of, i. 386-390;
literature of, i. 390-398; art of, i. 398-404;
manners and customs of, i. 404-412 ; religion
of, i. 413-419 ; myths and traditions of, i. 420-
433 ; secular history of, i. 434-524 ; influence
of on Roman culture, i. 620-628.

GREELEY, HORACE, Candidate for Presidency, iii.
1192 ; death of, iii. 1193.

GREENBACK LABOR PARTY, Notices of iii. 1194,
1200.

GREENBACKS. (See Legal Tender Note*.)

GREENE, NATHANIEL, Provincial leader, iii. 967;
supersedes Gates, iii. 977 ; campaign of in the
South, iii. 979-980.

GREGORY VII., Monk of Cluny, ii. 254-255; be-
comes pope, ii. 255 ; pontificate of, ii. 255-257.

GREGORY IX., Troubles of with Frederick II., ii.
384-385.

GREGORY XIII., Reforms the calendar, ii. 645-646.

GREGORY THE GREAT, Missionary policy of, ii.
62-64.

GREY, EARL, Ministry of, iii. 1206; resigns, iii. 1208.

GRIERSON, COLONEL BENJAMIN, Raid of, iii. 1176.

GROTIUS, HUGO, Patriot and publicist, ii. 697.

GRUMHACH, WILIIELM VON, Story of, ii. 652.

GROUCHY, MARSHAL, Doubtful conduct of at Wat-
erloo, iii. 1120, 1123.

GUADALUPE HIDALGO, Treaty of concluded, iii.
1160; terms of, iii. 1317.

GUELPH, HOUSE or, Displayed, iii. 871.

GUBLPH, Party of, ii. 345, 480.

GUIENNE, Lost to England, ii. 416, 507.

GUILFORD, Battle of, iii. 979.

1378

INDEX.

GUILLOTINE, Set up in Paris, iii. 1018-1019.

GUISE, CLAUDE, DUKE OF, Ascendency of under
Henry II., ii. 623-627.

GUISE, FRANCIS, DUKE OP, Murder of, ii. 631.

GUISE, HENRY, DUKE OF, Career of, ii. 631-638 ; at St.
Bartholomew, ii. 635; assassination of, ii. 643.

GUITEAU, CHARLES JULES, Assassinates Garfleld,
iii. 1198.

GUIZOT, Quoted, ii. 475^176, 550, 617-618, 622 ; iii.
773-774, 799-800; minister of foreign affairs
under Louis Philippe, iii. 1231.

GUNDAMUND, King of the Vandals, ii. 70.

GUNPOWDER PLOT, History of, iii. 756-759.

GURKO, GENERAL, Russian commander in Turco-
Russian war, iii. 1304.

GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, Youth of, ii. 707 ; enters the
Thirty Years' War, ii. 708 ; personal appear-
ance of, ii. 708 ; coldly received in Germany,
ii. 708; wins battle of Leipsic, ii. 709; on the
Rhine, ii. 709-711 ; defeats Tilly on the Lech,
ii. 713 ; confronted by Wallenstein, ii. 713-
714; slain at Lutzen, ii. 714 ; founder of New
Sweden, iii, 863.

GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS IV., King of Sweden, iii. 1080.

GUSTAVUS VASA, King of Sweden, ii. 545.

GUTENBERG, JOHN, Inventor of movable types,
ii. 503.

GUY DAMPIERRE, Ruler of Flanders, ii. 440-441.

GUY OP LUSIGNAN, King of Jerusalem, ii. 353.

GYGES, King of Lydia, i. 226-227.

GYLIPPUS, Spartan general in Sicily, i. 492-494.

GYN.KCEUM, Of the Persians, i. 329.

GYNJECONITIS, Of the Greek house, i. 410-411.

H.

IIAARI.KM, Siege of, ii. 687.

HABEAS CORPUS, Recognized by Magna Charta. ii.
411 ; bill of passed by Parliament, iii. 800.

HABET, The cry of, i. 642.

HACO V., King of Norway, ii. 545.

HACO VIII., King of Norway, ii. 547.

HADES, Myth of, i. 423.

HADI, Caliph of Baghdad, ii. 282.

HADRIANUS, PUBLIUS yELius, Becomes emperor, i.
861 ; character of, i. 861 ; quiets Britain and
Gaul, i. 861 ; travels of, i. 861 ; quells Jewish
revolt, i. 862 ; improves Rome, i. 863 ; death
of, i. 864.

HALICARNASSUS, Taken by Alexander, i. 552.

HALIFAX FISHERY AWARD, Account of, iii. 1196-
1197.

HALLECK, GENERAL HENRY W., Plans campaign
against Ft. Henry, iii. 1171.

HAMILCAR BARCAS, Invades Sicily, i. 714 ; suffete
of Carthage, i. 715 ; defeated, i. 716 ; invades
Spain, i. 719.

HAMILTON, ALEXANDER, Introduced to Washing-
ton, iii. 965 ; expounder of the Constitution,
iii. 983; in Washington's cabinet, iii. 1128-
1129; killed by Burr, iii. 1134.

HAMILTON, LADY EMMA HARTE, Beloved of Lord
Nelson, iii. 1071-1074.

HAMITIC RACE, Defined, i. 107.

HAMPDEN, JOHN, Puritan leader of Parliament, iii.
771 ; death of, iii. 775.

HAMPTON, WADE, General of American army in
war of 1812, iii. 1137-1140.

HAN DYNASTY, Ascendency of in China, iii. 1331.

HANGING GARDENS, Of Babylon, Described, i.
257, 291.

HANNIBAL, Boyhood of, i. 719 ; takes command in
Spain, i. 720 ; successes of, i. 721 ; invades
Italy, i. 722 ; defeats the Romans, i. 722-724 ;
confronted by Fabius, i. 724-725; victorious
at Cannae, i. 726 ; loses his opportunity, i.
727; decline of, i. 728-733; expulsion and
death of, i. 736-737.

HANOVER, United with England, iii. 870-877.

HANOVERIAN DYNASTY, Provided for, iii. 831 ; rec-
ognized, iii. 835 ; accession of, iii. 836 ; ascend-
ency of, iii. 869-879 ; table of, iii. 1208.

HANSEATIC LEAGUE, Account of, ii. 485; broken
up, ii. 703.

HAPSBUHG DYNASTY, Ascendency of, ii. 477-504;
table of, ii. 478.

HARDEE, GENERAL, Surrenders Charleston, iii.
1182.

HARDICANUTE, King of England, ii. 217.

HARDY, SIR CHARLES, commander of British squad-
ron, iii. 994.

HARDY, SIR THOMAS, British commander on Amer-
ican coast, iii. 1140, 1142.

HAREM, Adopted by the Persians, i. 328.

HARMAR, GENERAL, Defeat of, iii. 1129.

HAROLD HARPAGER, King of Norway, ii. 292.

HAROLD THE DANE, King of England, ii. 217.

HAROLD THE SAXON, Claims the English throne,
ii, 220-221 ; makes an oath to Duke William,
ii. 221 ; returns to England, ii. 221-222 ; pro-
claimed king, ii. 259 ; defies Duke William,
ii. 260; defeats the Northmen, ii. 261-262;
overthrown and slain at Hastings, ii. 262-263.

HARPAGUS, Governor of Lydia, i. 341.

HARPER'S FERRY, Attacked by John Brown, iii.
1163 ; captured by Confederates, iii. 1166.

HARRISON, WILLIAM HENRY, Governor of Indiana
Territory, iii. 1133; at Tippecanoe, iii. 1136;
at River Thames, iii. 1138 ; resigns, iii. 1140 ;
elected President, iii. 1153 ; sketch and death
of, iii. 1153.

HARUSPEX, Office of among the Romans, i. 655-657.

HARTFORD CONVENTION, Account of, iii. 1142.

HARTOG, CAPTAIN DIRK, Explorer of Australia, iii.
1348.

HARVARD COLLEGE, Founding of, iii. 857.

HASDRUBAL, Commands Carthaginians in Spain, i.
721 ; invades Italy, i. 732 ; defeated and slain,
i. 733.

HASSAN, Caliph of Islam, ii. 133.

HASTINGS, Battle of, ii. 262-263.

HASTINGS, WARREN, President of Bengal, iii. 937 ;
administration of, iii. 937 ; impeachment of,
iii. 937-938.

HATASU, Reign of, i. 56-57.

HAVELOCK, SIR HENRY, Hero of Lucknow, iii. 1213.

INDEX.

HAYES, RUTHERFORD B., Elected President, iii.
1 liCi ; iiiliniiii.striiticin of, iii. HOj-1 1H7.

HAYNK, COLONEL ISAAC, Debate of with Webster,
iii. 1150.

HKA, Worship and titles of, i. 132, 188-189.

HKIIKKT, Insults Marie Antoinette, iii. 1031; sketch
of, iii. 1036; execution of, iii. 1036.

HEBEKTISTS, Overthrow of, iii. 1036.

lh.< KKK, (ierman liberal leader, iii. 1252.

HBQIKA, Of Islam, ii. 94.

HEIDELBEKO, Destruction of, ii. 702.

HELVETIC REPUBLIC, Proclaimed, iii. 1060.

HELLAS. (See Oreece.)

H ELLEN, Myth of, i. 380.

HELLENES. (See Greekt.)

HELLENISTIC GREEK, Character of, i. 387.

HELOTS, Condition of, i. 412, 442-443 ; revolt of, i.
478.

HKNDRICKS, THOMAS A., Vice-president of United
States, iii. 1201.

HENOIST, Leader of the Anglo-Saxons, ii. 83.

HENRIETTA MARIA, Wife of Charles L, iii. 762-763.

HENRY I., KINO OF ENGLAND, Accession of, ii.
280; reign of, ii. 340-341.

HENRY I. KINO OF FRANCE, ii. 237; aided by
Robert of Normandy, ii. 237 ; reign of, ii.
237-238.

HENRY II. OF ENGLAND, Promotes Third Crusade,
ii. 356 ; reign of, ii. 405-407.

HENRY II. OF FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 623 ; reign
of, ii. 623-627.

HENRY II., King of Germany, ii. 247-248.

HENRY III. OF ENGLAND, Becomes king, ii. 412 ;
marries Eleanor of Provence, ii. 412 ; relations
of with papacy, ii. 413 ; rebellion against, ii.
413-415 ; death of, ii. 415.

HENRY III. OF FRANCE, Elected king of Poland, ii.
639 ; recalled to France, ii. 641 ; reign of, ii.
641-645; assassination of, ii. 645.

HENRY III., King of Germany, ii. 251 ; reign of,
ii. 251-254.

HENRY IV. OF ENGLAND, Accession of, ii. 518;
reign of, ii. 518-521.

HENRY IV. OF FRANCE, Accession of, ii. 645 ; reign
of, ii. 645-649.

HENRY IV., Emperor of Germany ii., 254; op-
posed by Hildebrand, ii. 255-257 ; does pen-
ance, ii. 257 ; reign of, ii. 254-259.

HENRY V. OF ENGLAND, Character of in youth, ii.
520 ; becomes king, ii. 521 ; reign of, ii. 521-
524 ; a persecutor, ii. 521-522 ; claims French
crown, ii. 522; wars of with France, ii. 522-
524 ; regent of that kingdom, ii. 523.

HENRY V., Emperor of Germany, ii. 341 ; reign of,
ii. 343-344.

HENRY VI. OF ENGLAND, Becomes king, ii. 525;
ruled by Beaufort and Gloucester, ii. 525 ; op-
posed by duke of York, ii. 526-527; over-
thrown, ii. 527 ; imprisoned, ii. 529; murdered,
ii. 531.

HENRY VI., Emperor of Germany, ii. 369 ; impris-
ons the Lion Heart, ii. 369 ; favors the Fourth
Crusade, ii. 371.

v VII. '•>• Ks<;i.AND, Accession of, ii. 535;
rei^-ii n!

HIM., \ 111. UK Kviii \ND, Become* king, ii, 686;
early character "f, ii. 686; nia
of Aragon, ii. 586; relations of with Charles
V. and Francis I., ii. 586-601 ; at ti-LI ..f < |..ti,
of Gold, ii. 687; deiVn.U ti.e faith, ii. 689;
conspires with the Countable li.,url...n. ii. 689-
690; intercedes for Francis, : ;<[>OMS

Km[>eror Charles, ii. 5!t4 ; under the inli
of Woolsey, ii. 602; divorces Catharii
602-603; takes Anne Boltyn, ii. 603; marries
Jane Seymour, ii. 607; supported by Crom-
well, ii. 607 ; has Anne of Cleves for fourth
wife, ii. 607; Catharine Howard for tin-
fifth, ii. 607; Catharine Parr for the sixth, ii.
608; puts down revolts, ii. 608; defeat* the
Scots, ii. 609; old age of, ii. 609; death of,
ii. 610.

HENRY BOLINGBROKE, Overthrows Richard II., it.
517; becomes Henry IV., ii. 5K ; head of
house of Lancaster, ii. 518; reign of, ii. 518-
621 ; sorrows of, ii. 520. (See Henry IV.)

HENRY OF FLANDERS, Emperor of the East, L
928-929.

HENRY or LUXEMBOURG, Chosen emperor, ii. 479 ;
reign of, ii. 479-481.

HENRY OF NAVARRE, Escapes from Paris, ii. 641 ;
becomes king of France, ii. 645; abandons
the Protestants, ii. 647 ; issues Edict of Nantes,
ii. 648; patronizes art and industry, ii. 648;
marries Maria «!•• M> -lici, ii. 649; assassinated,
ii. 649. (See Henry IV.)

HENRY OF TRABTAMARC, Prince of Castile, ii. 466,
613.

HENRY, PATRICK, Denounces George III., iii. 954-
965 ; in Colonial Congress, iii. 968.

HENRY, PRINCE OF GERMANY, Disloyalty of, ii. 196.

HENRY THB FOWLER, Elected king of Germany,
ii. 193 ; reign of, ii. 193-194.

HENRY TUDOR, a possibility in England, ii. 532 ;
confronts Richard HI., ii. 534 ; becomes Henry
VII., ii. 635. (See Henry VII.)

HEPHXHTIOS, General of Alexander, i. 668, 571,
574, 575.

HEPHJOTCS, Myth of, i. 424-425.

HEPTARCHY, Of the Anglo-Saxons established, ii.
83-86 ; consolidation of, ii. 88.

HERA, Myth of, i. 41!!

HERACLEA, Battle of, i. 706.

HBRACLKS, Myth of, i. 426.

HERACUDJC, Return of. (See Dorian Migration,)

HEBACI.IUS, Emperor of the East, L 912; conquers
Persia, i. 912-013 ; in conflict with the Mos-
lems, ii. 108.

HKKCULANEUM, Buried by Vesuvius, I. 854.

HERCULES. (See Heracla.)

HEREDITY, Influence of, L 75.

HERIBERT OF MILAN, Attempts to free Italy, iL SSL

HEKIDLFSON, Discovers Newfoundland, iL 663.

HERMAN, Overthrows Varus, i. 830.

HKRMANARIC, King of the Goths, L 891.

HERMES, Myth of, L 425-426.

1380

INDEX.

HEROIC AGE, Of the Greeks, i. 430-433.

HEROD ANTIPAS, Ruler of the Jews, i. 848.

HEKODOTUS, Life and work of, i. 396.

HEROD THE GREAT, Reign of, i. 848.

HERRERA, President of Mexico, iii. 1317.

HEHULI, Tribal history of, ii. 36; kingdom of in
Italy, i. 903-904; ii. 50-51.

HERZEGOVINA, Atrocities in, iii. 1302-1303.

HESIOD, Life and work of, i. 391.

HESSIANS, Employed by George III. against Amer-
ica, iii. 961, 964.

HESTIA, Myth of, i. 423-424.

HIDALGO, MIGUEL, Mexican insurgent, iii. 1313.

HIDEVOSHI, Hero of Japan, iii. 1342.

HIERO, King of Syracuse, i. 710-711.

HIEROGLYPHICS, Profusion of in Egypt, i. 93-95 ;
how executed, i. 94.

HIERONYMUS, King of Syracuse, i. 728.

HILDKBRAND op CujNY. (See Gregory VII.)

HILDEGABDE, Wife of Charlemagne, ii. 163-166.

HILDERIC, King of the Vandals, ii. 70.

HILL, GENERAL A. P., At Gettysburg, iii. 1178.

HINCMAR, Quoted, ii. 169-170.

HIPPARCHUS, Rule of, i. 454 ; at Sparta, i. 457.

HIPPIAS, Rule of, i. 454.

HISTI.EUS, Governor of Miletus, i. 355, 457.

HOBKIRK'S HILL, Battle of, iii. 979.

HOCHE, GENERAL, Suppresses Vendean insurrec-
tion, iii. 1043-1044.

HOCHKIRCH, Battle of, iii. 915.

HOFER, ANDREW, Tyrolese patriot, iii. 1091-1092;
execution of, iii. 1092.

HOHENFRIEDBERG, Battle of, iii. 900.

HOHENLINDEN, Battle of, iii. 1060-1061.

HOHENZOLLERN DYNASTY, Founding of, ii. 494;
rise of, iii. 886-904 ; humiliated by Napoleon,
iii. 1069-1075 ; ascendency of, iii. 1256-1276 ;
table of, iii. 1257.

HOLINSHED, Comments of on William of Nor-
mandy, ii. 269.

HOLLAND, Described by Taine, ii. 678 ; condition
of in XVIth century, ii. 678-679; under
Duchess of Parma, ii. 679 ; breaks with Spain,
ii. 679-681 ; revolution in, ii. 681-697 ; at war
with England, iii. 797-798; at war with
France, iii. 824-827 ; treaty of with America,
iii. 978; revolution in, iii. 1042; annexed to
France, iii. 1091; independence of, iii. 1110;
loses Belgium, iii. 1248.

HOLY ALLIANCE, Rejected by England, iii. 1202 ;
formation and provisions of, iii. 1287.

HOMER, Account of, i. 390.

HONG KONG, Trouble of with British merchants,
iii. 1335.

HONORIUS, Emperor of the West, i. 891 ; bad faith
of, i. 894.

HOOD, GENERAL J. B., Before Atlanta, iii.
1181-1182 ; campaign of in Tennessee, iii.
1182.

HOOKER, GENERAL JOSEPH, Opens the Tennessee,
iii. 1176 ; carries Lookout, iii. 1177 ; supersedes
Burnside, iii. 1178; superseded by Meade, iii.
1178.

HORACE, Sketch of, i. 634 ; composes secular hymn,
i. 828.

HORATII, Tradition of, i. 667-668.

HOHATIUS COCLES, Story of, i. 677.

HOR.V, COUNT, Patriot of Holland, ii. 683 ; con-
demned and executed, ii. 683-684.

HORN, MARSHALL, General of the Swedes, ii,
709, 716.

HORUS, Worship and emblems of, i. 84-85.

HORSA, Leader of the Anglo-Saxons, ii. 83.

HOSEIN, General of Islam, ii. 133, 134 ; death of,
ii. 139.

HOSPITALITY, Of the Greeks, i. 406.

HOSPITALLERS. (See Knights of St. John.)

HOTSPUR, HARRY, Killed at Shrewsbury, ii. 519.

HOUSTON, GENERAL SAM., Hero of San Jacinto, iii..
1154.

HOWARD, CATHARINE, Wife of Henry VIII., ii.
607.

HOWARD, LORD, Defeats the Armada, ii. 668-670.

HOWE, GENERAL, Arrives at Boston, iii. 958; sur-
renders the city, iii. 961 ; at New York, iii.
964.

HOWE, LORD, Correspondence of with Wilkinson,
iii. 964.

HUDSON, SIR HENRY, Career of in the New World,
ii. 739-741.

HUDSON, PORT, Capture of, iii. 1175-1176.

HUGH CAPET, Duke of Paris, ii. 190-191 ; elected
king, ii. 234; reign of, ii. 234-235.

HUGH OP VERMANDOIS, Leader of the First Cru-
sade, ii. 305, 310, 311, 315, 323; returns to
Palestine, ii. 330.

HUGH THE GREAT, Career of, ii. 188-190.

HUGO, VICTOR, Leader of insurrection, iii. 1237.

HUGUENOTS, Origin of, ii. 627 ; persecuted, ii. 629 ;
obtain a peace, ii. 631 ; lose their leader, ii.
633; butchered on St. Bartholomew's day, ii.
635-637 ; led by Henry of Navarre, ii. 641-
647 ; persecuted by Louis XIV., iii. 820-
824.

HULL, GENERAL WILLIAM, Surrender of, iii. 1136-
1137.

HULL, CAPTAIN ISAAC, Takes the Ouerriere, iii.
1137.

HUMBERT I., Becomes king of Italy, iii. 1285.

HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER VON, Favored by Freder-
ick William IV., iii. 1250.

HUMBOLDT, WILHELM VON, Mentioned, iii. 1249;
author of German educational system, iii.
1276.

HUNDRED DAYS, THE, History of, iii. 1119-1125.

HUNGARIANS, Tribal history of, ii. 49-50 ; defeated
by the Germans, ii. 194, 196.

HUNGARY, Kingdom of established, ii. 47; at-
tempts independence, iii. 1253-1254, 1279.

HUXNERIC, King of the Vandals, ii. 70.

HUNNIADES, JOHN, Prince of Hungary, ii. 500.

HUNS, Attack the Goths, i. 891 ; fall upon the em-
pire, i. 897; defeated at Chalons, i. 899; retire
from Italy, i. 901 ; tribal history of, ii. 47.

HURKI, Worship and titles of, i. 132.

Huss, JOHN, Sketch of, i . 489; teachings of, ii-

IXDEX.

490 ; excommunicated, ii. 491 ; tried at Con-
stance, ii. 492-193; burned, ii

HUSSITES, Wnr of in Bohemia, ii. 494-497.

HUTCHINHON, AN.NK, Career of in New England,
iii. 857.

HYKSOS, THE, Ascendency of in Egypt, i. 56.

I.

IAMBIC POETRY, Of the Greeks, i. 391.

IBN-AL-ARABI, Treason of, ii. 164.

ICONIUM, Battle of, ii. 347.

ICONOCLASTS, History, i. 915-917.

IDOLATRY, Of the Assyrians, i. 191-192; of the
Babylonians, i. 275.

IDUM/EA, Description of, i. 241.

IGOR, King of Russia, ii. 294.

IGUANA, Description of, i. 307.

ILOI, King of the Chaldees, i. 116.

ILLY ui A, Subdued by Alexander, i. 545; by the

Romans, i. 717.
• IMMORTALITY, Believed in by the Egyptians, i. 88.

IMMORTALS, THE, Description of, i. 325.

IMPEACHMENT TRIAL, Of Warren Hastings, iii. 937-
938; of Andrew Johnson, iii. 1189.

IMPORTATION ACT, Provisions of, iii. 953.

INCINERATION, Practiced by the Greeks, i. 419; by
the Romans, i. 659.

INDEPENDENTS, Party of Parliamentarians, iii.
779.

INDEPENDENT TREASURY BILL, Passed by Congress,
iii. 1152-1153.

INDIA, Description of, i. 302-303, 305-306; con-
quered by Alexander, i. 571 ; overwhelmed
by the Moslems, ii. 148 ; passes under domin-
ion of Great Britain iii. 936-938 ; Sepoy re-
bellion in, iii. 1212-1214 ; change of govern-
ment in, iii. 1214.

INDIANA, Organization of, iii. 1133; admission of,
iii. 1143.

INDULGENCES, Sale of by the Church, ii. 573-574.

INDUS VALLEY, Description of, i. 302-303, 305-306.

INFALLIBILITY, Of the pope declared by Rome,
iii. 1285.

IXKERMAN. Battle of, iii. 1293.

INNOCENT III., Pontificate of, ii. 372 ; quarrels with
King John, ii. 409.

INQUISITION, Organized in France, ii. 419; in
Spain, ii. 537 ; in Flanders, ii. 679 ; imprisons
Galileo, ii. 729; abolished by Napoleon, iii.
1088.

INSCRIPTIONS, Of the Egyptians, i. 69-70.

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, Question of in United
States, iii. 1145-1146.

INTERNAL REVENUE, Provided by Congress, iii.
1187.

INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, In Hyde Park, iii.
11-17; in New York, iii. 1162, 1216, 1217; in
Paris (of 1867), iii. 1240; in United States (of
1876), iii. 1193-1194.

INTOLERANCE, The shadow of the Middle Ages, iiL
1353-1354.

INUNDATION OP NILE, Described, i. 36-37.

!.;-..i i.i.i ARMADA, Sent against England, ii.
608-660; wr.-.-k .-i

IONIAN CONFEDERATION, Founding of, i. 436; re-
volt of again- 458-469.

IONIANS, Account of, i. ::-

IONIC GREEK, Notice of, i. 387.

IONIC STYLE, Description of, i. 399,625.

IPIIK Kvtf>, Invents new tactics, L 60S.

IPSUS, Battle of, i. 586.

IRAN, Province of, i. 301.

IKELAMI, In the Middle Ages, iii. 763; attempt*
independence, iii. 770; proclaims Charles IL,
iii. 785; subdued by Cromwell, iii. 785-786;
rebels against William III., iii. 814-816.

IRENE, Empress of the East, i. 916-917.

IRETON, Cromwellian governor of Ireland, iii. 788-
787 ; death of, iii. 790.

IBON MASK, Notice of, iii. 836.

IRRIGATION, Practiced in Egypt, i. 36 ; in Assyria,
i. 145.

ISAAC ANOBLUS, Reign of, i. 928.

ISABELLA or SPAIN, Sends forth Columbus, ii.
656-657.

ISABELLA II. or SPAIN, At war with Don Carlos,
iii. 1209 ; married, iii. 1228.

ISABELLA, WIFE or EDWARD II., Conspiracy of, ii.
446, 507 ; conduct of with Mortimer, ii. 509.

ISAUKIAN DYNASTY, Ascendency of, i. 914-917.

IBIS, Worship and emblems of, i. 83-84.

ISLAM, Rise of, ii. 91-96 ; compared with Judaism
and Christianity, ii. 97; fundamental dor:
of, ii. 98-99; early conquests of, ii. 100-120;
propagated by Othman and AH, ii. 11*0-132;
progress of under Oramiades and Fat;
ii. 133-152; at war with Christianity. (Sea
Onuadtt.)

ISLAND NUMBER TEN, Capture of, iiL 1171.

ISLY, Battle of, iii. 1227.

ISMI-DAOOX, King of Chaldtea, i. 118.

ISOCRATES, Argues in favor of Philip, L 637.

ISRAEL, People of, in Egypt, i. 62-63 ; exodus of, L
63-64 ; in the desert, i. 283 ; established in
Canaan, i. 283-284; under the Judges, i. 284;
becomes a monarchy, i. 284 ; is divided, i. 287 ;
succeeding kings of, i. 287-288.

ISRAELITES, In Egypt, i. 62 ; exodus of, i. 63-44 ;
history of, i. 283-289 ; in captivity, L 292.

Issus, Battle of, i. 367.

ISTAR, Worship of, i. 136.

ISTHMIAN GAMES, Account of, L 439.

ISTRIA, Description of, i. 602.

ITALIAN REPUBLICS, General history of, ii. 429-439.

ITALY, General description of, i. 595-608; name of,
i. 595; mountains of, L 696-596; divisions of,
i. 596 ; provinces of, L 698-608; climate of, L
696-599; fertility of, i. 697-598; productions
of, i. 599-600 ; rivers of, i. 600-601 ; lakes of,
i. 601 ; seat of Roman power, i. 662-904 ; bar-
barian kingdoms in, ii. 60-64 ; a division of
Charlemagne's empire, ii. 177 ; invaded by the
Normans, ii. 249; attempts at independence
in, ii. 251 ; during crusades (see Cnaada) ; in
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, ii. 638-644 ;

1382

INDEX.

revolutionized by Napoleon, iii. 1049 ; invaded
by Napoleon III., iii. 1239; during XlXth
century, iii. 1277-1286.

ITURBIDK, Proclaimed emperor of Mexico, iii. 1314.

IUKA, Battle of, iii. 1172.

IVAN I., Prince of Moscow, ii. 548.

IVAN III., Emperor of Russia, ii. 548.

IVAN THE TERRIBLE, Emperor of Russia, iii. 840.

IVRY, Battle of, ii. 647.

IYEYASU, Hero of Japan, iii. 1342.

J.

JACK CADE, Insurrection of, ii. 526.

JACKSON, Battle of, iii. 1175.

JACKSON, ANDREW, At Hanging Rock, iii. 976 ;
subdues Creek Indians, iii. 1138-1139; wins
battle of New Orleans, iii. 1142-1143; candi-
date for President, iii. 1148; elected, iii. 1149 ;
sketch of, iii. 1150; administration of, iii.
1150-1152 ; Specie Circular of, iii. 1152.

JACKSON AND ST. PHILIP, Captured by Porter, iii.
1172.

JACKSON, THOMAS J. (STONEWALL), In Shenandoah
Valley, iii. 1173; defeats Banks, iii. 1174; at
Bull Run and Chantilly, iii. 1174 ; killed at
Chancellorsville, iii. 1178.

JACK STRAW, Rebels against Richard II., ii. 514.

JACOB, Family of, i. 62.

JACOBINS, Organization of, iii. 1009-1010.

JACOBITES. (See Stuart Dynasty.)

JAFFA, Fief of kingdom of Jerusalem, ii. 331.

JAMES I. OF ENGLAND, Accession of, iii. 754 ; char-
acter of, iii. 755 ; reign of, iii. 755-763.

JAMES II. OF ENGLAND, Accession of, iii. 801 ; char-
acter of, iii. 801-802 ; a Catholic, iii. 802 ; puts
down Monmouth, iii. 802-803; would deliver
England to Rome, iii. 803-804 ; abdication of,
iii. 806-807 ; incites Irish rebellion, iii. 815.

JAMES V. OF SCOTLAND, Ruined at Solway Moss, ii.
609.

JAMES VI. OF SCOTLAND, Son of Mary Stuart, ii.
665 ; tries to save his mother, ii. 668 ; a claim-
ant to the English crown, ii. 673; becomes
James I. of England, iii. 754.

JAMES FRANCIS STUART, The Pretender, Birth of,
iii. 804.

JAMES STUART, Prince of Scotland, ii. 520 ; a pris-
oner in London Tower, ii. 520 ; becomes James
I., ii. 520.

JAMESTOWN, Founding of, ii. 737.

JANE GREY, Conspiracy in favor of, ii. 656-657;
overthrow and death of, ii. 659 ; claims of to
English crown, H.-756.

JANIZARIES, Organization of, i. 931 ; destruction
of, iii. 1299.

JANUS, Festival of, i. 657 ; temple of closed, i. 828.

JAPAN, Summary of history of, iii. 1339-1344; cos-
mogany of, iii. 1339; primitive condition of,
iii. 1339-1340; in times of Mongol invasions,
iii. 1341 ; first contact of with European na-
tions, iii. 1342; social classes of, iii. 1343;
startling progress of, iii. 1343-1344.

JASON, Leads the Argonauts, i. 432.

JASON OF PHERAE, Career of, i. 514.

JAY, JOHN, Chief-justice of United States, iii.
1128, 1130.

JAY COOKE & Co., Failure of, iii. 1192.

JEFFERSON, THOMAS, In Colonial Congress, iii. 958 ;
on Committee to Draft Declaration, iii. 962 ;
drafts ordinance of 1787, iii. 984; in Wash-
ington's cabinet, iii. 1128; chosen Vice-presi-
dent, iii. 1131; elected President, iii. 1132; ad-
ministration of, iii. 1132-1135; death of, iii.
1149.

JEFFREYS, LORD GEORGE, Career of, iii. 803.

JELLACHICH, Ban of the Croats in Hungarian rev-
olution, iii. 1253.

JEMAPPES, Battle of, iii. 1022.

JENA, Battle of, iii. 1075.

JEROME OF PRAGUE, Bohemian reformer, ii. 489 ;
excommunicated, ii. 491 ; condemned and
burned by Council of Constance, ii. 493.

JERAHI, THE, Description of, i. 241.

JEROBOAM, King of Israel, i. 287.

JERUSALEM, Description of, i. 263; capital of Ju-
dah, i. 287 ; rebuilt by order of Cyrus, i. 344 ;
destruction of by the Romans, i. 850; taken
by Omar, ii. 108; captured by the crusaders,
ii. 323-326; kingdom of, ii. 326-354; retaken
by the Moslems, ii. 355.

JESUITS. (See Society of Jesus.)

JEWS (see Israelites), Factions of in time of Calig-
ula, i. 838 ; persecuted by Nero, i. 840 ; sketch
of history of from Persian conquest, i. 847-
849 ; sects among, i. 847 ; subdued by Anti-
ochus, i. 847-848 ; massacred in England, ii.
407; ruled by the Maccabees, i. 848; dissen-
sions among, i. 848 ; governed by Herod, i.
848; revolt against Rome, i. 849; overthrown
by Vespanianus and Titus, i. 849-850 ; perse-
cuted in Spain, ii. 66-67, 537-538.

JIMMU TENNO, Myth and tradition of, iii. 1339-1340.

JOAN OF ARC, Early history of, ii. 464-465; goes
to Orleans, ii. 465 ; has the king crowned at
Rheims, ii. 465-466, 524; condemned and ex-
ecuted, ii. 467-468.

JOHN, Emperor of the East. i. 925.

JOHN IV. of PORTUGAL, Gains Brizilian inde-
pendence, iii. 1326.

JOHN VI. OF PORTUGAL, Finds refuge in Brazil,
iii. 1326.

JOHN (DON) OF AUSTRIA, Governor of Netherland,
ii. 689.

JOHN GEORGE OF SAXONY, Aids Matthias, ii. 700;
bribed, ii. 703; humiliation of, ii. 706; mean-
ness of, ii. 708 ; helplessness of, ii. 709 ; ap-
peals to Gustevus, ii. 714; despised, ii. 718;
driven out of Saxony, ii. 721 ; makes peace
with Sweden, ii. 723.

JOHN LACKLAND, Conspires against the Lion
Heart, ii. 369; duplicity of, ii. 370; becomes
king, ii. 407 ; opposed by the barons, ii. 409 ;
quarrels with Innocent III., ii. 409 ; goes to
war with Philip, ii. 409 ; signs Magna Charta,
ii. 411 ; death of, ii. 411.

INDEX.

ian

JOHN OF BRIENNE, Kmperor of the East, i. 929.

JOHN or FRANCE, Become* kiiitf, ii. 4-l!»; n-i^n of,
ii. 449-454; at war with the Black 1'ritir.-, ii.
451; captured at Poitiers, ii. 4'>1, .">1L'; u state
prisoner in England, ii. 461-454; death of, ii.
454.

JOHN OF GAUNT, Claims throne of Castile, ii. 516.

JOHN THE PARRICIDE, Notice of, ii. 479.

JOHNSON, Andrew, Vice-president of United
States, iii. 1186; becomes President, iii. 1188;
administration of, iii. 1188-1189; sketch of,
iii. 1188; impeachment of, iii. 1189.

JOHNSON, RICHARD M., At battle of Thames, iii.
1138; -Vice-president of United States, iii.
1152.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL, Quoted, iii. 851; defends En-
glish absolutism, iii. 936.

JOHNSON, WILLIAM, Defeats the French at Fort
Edward, iii. 929.

JOHNSTON, GENERAL ALBERT S., Killed at Pitte-
burg Landing, iii. 1171.

JOHNSTON, GENERAL JOSEPH E., Commands Con-
federates at Bull Run, iii. 1169; wounded at
Fair Oaks, iii. 1173; at Chickamanga, iii. 1176;
falls back before Sherman, iii. 1181, 1182 ; sur-
renders, iii. 1183.

JOINT HIGH COMMISSION, Decides disputed Presi-
dency, iii. 1 195.

JOLIBT, Explorer in New France, iii. 921-922.

JONAH, Tradition of, i. 170.

JONATHAN, Leader of the Maccabees, i. 848.

JONES, PAUL, Takes the Serapit, iii. 976.

JONSON, BEN., The Dramatist, ii. 675.

JORDAN, THE, Description of, i. 239-240, 243.

JOSCELYN DE CouRTBNAY, Leader of First Crusade,
ii. 307 ; king of Edessa, ii. 331, 339.

JOSEPH, In Egypt, i. 62.

JOSEPH I. OF AUSTRIA, Becomes Emperor, iii. 833;
reign of, iii. 833-835.

JOSEPH II. OF AUSTRIA, Acknowledged by the
Hungarians, iii. 898; becomes emperor, iii.
942.

JOSEPHINE, Empress of the French, Sketch of, iii.
1066-1067 ; divorce of, iii. 1088.

JOSEPHUS, At siege of Jenwalem, i. 849.

JOSHUA, Leader of Israel, i. 283-284.

JOURDAN, GENERAL, Commands army of Meuse,
iii. 1046-1047.

JOVIAN, Reign of, i. 887.

JUAREZ, BENITO, Career of in Mexico, iii. 1318-
1320.

JUD.GA, Province of the Empire, i. 838 ; sketch of
history of, i. 848-849 ; revolt of against Rome,
i. 849 ; conquest of by Vespasianus and Titus,
i. 849-850.

JUDAH, Kingdom of established, i. 287; history
of, i. 288-289.

JUDAISM, Compared with Islam and Christianity,

ii. 97.

JUDGES, Of Israel, i. 284.
JUDGMENT, Of the dead, i. 89.
JUDITH OF GUKLPH, Queen of Louis the Debonair,
ii. 17&

Ji ';rRTHA, King of Xuniidia, i. 760; war of with

Jri.iAN, <'<>i NT, Treason of, ii. 148-149.

JULIAN TUB AFOOTATK, Reign of, i. 887.

JULIANCS, Becomes emperor, i. 860; reign of, i. 869.

JULIUS C.esAB. (See Coar.)

.Ii xo. (See Hera.)

JUNOT, MARXHAI.. Campaign of in the Peninsula,

iii. 1080, 1084.

JURY TRIAL, Recognized by Magna Charta, Ii. 411.
JUSTIN II., Kmperor of the East, i. 910; reign ••!'.

i. 910-911.

JUSTIN THE ELDER, Emperor of the East, i. 907.
JUSTINIAN, Becomes Emperor, i. 907; age of, i.

907-914; wan of, i. 908-909, legislation of, i.

909-910; attempts to establish orthodoxy in

the West, ii. 56 ; would recover Italy, ii. 57-68.
JUSTINIAN II., Reign of, i. 91S-914.
JUSTINIAKI, JOHN, Defender of Constantinople, i.

936.

JUTES, Tribal history of, ii. 81-S3.
JUVENAL, Sketch of, i. 636.

K.

K A ABA, Temple of Mecca, ii. 92 ; enlargement
of, ii. 147.

KADESIA, Battle of, ii. 115.

KADIJAH, Wife of the Prophet, ii. 92.

KAKAN, Reign of, i. 46.

KANE, ELISHA KENT, Arctic expedition of, iii.
1161-1162.

KASSAS, Civil difficulties in, iii. 1162-1163; ad-
mission of, iii. 1188.

KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL, Passage of, iii. 1162 ; ft
cause of civil war, iii. 1167-1168.

KARA-IN-DAS, Reign of, L 120.

KARA-KHAR-DAS, Reign of, L 120.

KAKAKOZOFF, DIMITRI, Would assassinate Alexan-
der, iii. 1297.

KARIQITES, Sect of, ii. 131.

KABS, Siege and capture of, iii. 1306.

KATSBACR, Battle of, iii. 1110.

KAUMITZ, BARON, Minister of Maria Theresa, iii.
906.

KEARNEY, GENERAL PHILIP, March of to Pacific
Coast, iii. 1166-1157; killed at Chantilly, iii.
1174.

KEARSARGE, Destroys the Alabama, iii. 1184.

KELLERMANN, MARSHAL, Hero of Marengo, iii.
1060.

KKNDAL, DUCHESS OF, Mistress of George L, iii.
873, 874.

KENESAW, Battle of, iii. 1081.

KENILWORTH, BATTLE or, ii. 413.

KKNEBNES, Reign of, i. 46.

KEPLER, Discoveries of, ii. 653.

KEREMLES, Ruins of, i. 157.

KERKAII, Description of, i. 242.

KESSCLSDORF, Battle of, iii. 902.

KHAFRA, Reign of, i. 49-50; pyramid of, i. 49.

KHALED, General of Islam, ii. 95; victorious ca-
reer of , ii. 100-111; chara.-t.-r "f. ii. H-'.

1384

INDEX.

KHAMMU-RABI, Reign of, i. 119-120.

KHORSABAD, Ruins of, i. 156-157.

KHUFU, Reign of, i. 47-49.

Kn.EH-SnERGAT, Ruins of, i. 157.

KILIDGE ARSLAN, Sultan of Mossoul, ii. 321-322.

KING OP ROME, Birth of, iii. 1090; death of, iii.
1234.

KING, THE, His place among the Egyptians, i. 70;
his manner of life, i. 70-72.

KING, WILLIAM R., Vice-president of United
States, iii. 1162.

KING'S EAR, Name of emissary of Persian mon-
arch, i. 353-354.

KING'S EYE, Name of emissary of Persian mon-
arch, i. 353-354.

KIOTO, Primitive capital of Japan, iii. 1340, 1342.

KLEBER, MARSHAL, In command in Egypt, iii.
1053 ; assassinated, iii. 1061.

KNIGHTHOOD, Sketch of history of, ii. 239-242 ; or-
ders of founded, ii. 332 ; history of orders of,
ii. 332-339.

KNIGHTS OP SAINT JOHN, Origin of, ii. 332 ; history
of, ii. 332-335 ; support Baldwin III., ii. 351 ;
butchered by Saladin, ii. 355 ; tolerated in
Jerusalem, ii. 356; oppose peace with Islam,
ii. 382; refuse support to Frederick II., ii.
385, 387; routed by the Turks, ii. 388-389;
heroism of at Acre, ii. 399.

KNIGHTS OP THE GARTER, Founded by Edward III.,
ii. 513.

KNIGHTS TEMPLARS, Origin of, ii. 335 ; history of, ii.
335-337 ; persecuted in France, ii. 337 ; sup-
port Baldwin III., ii. 351; butchered by Sa-
ladin, ii. 355; at Azotus, ii. 365; oppose peace
with Islam, ii. 382 ; refuse support to Freder-
ick II., ii. 385, 387 ; defeated before Aleppo,
ii. 386 ; routed by the Turks, ii. 388-389 ; he-
roism of at Acre, ii. 399 ; suppressed by Philip
the Fair, ii. 443-444.

KNOX, JOHN, Plants Presbyterianism in Scotland,
ii. 662.

KNOXVILLE, Battle of, iii. 1177.

KOLLIN, Battle of, iii. 908.

KONIGGRATZ. (See Sadmua.)

K5NIGSMARK, AURORA VON, Tempts Charles XII.,
iii. 846 ; dazzles the vizier, iii. 848.

KSNIGSMARK, COUNT, Intrigue of with Queen So-
phia, iii. 871.

KORAN. (See Alkoran.)

KOSCIUSKO, THADDEUS, Engineer of American
army, iii. 969 ; refuses French alliance, iii. 1076.

KOSSUTH, Louis, Visit of to United States, iii.
1161 ; heads provisional government in Hun-
gary, iii. 1253-1254.

KOYUNJIK, Mound of, i. 153-154.

KREMLIN, Occupied by Napoleon, iii. 1103.

KRUDENER, MADAME, Instigates Holy Alliance, iii.
1287.

KUBLAI KHAN, Emperor of the Corasmins, i. 931 ;
establishes dynasty in China, iii. 1331 ; in-
vades Japan, iii. 1341.

KUDUR-LAGAMER, King of the Chaldees, i. 116-
117 ; makes war in Canaan, i. 117.

KUDUR-MABUK, Reign of, i. 117.
KUDUR-NAKHUNTA, Reign of, i. 116.
KUNERSDORF, Battle of, iii. 915.
KUTUSOFF, MARSHAL, Opposes Napoleon, iii. 1102;
abandons Moscow, iii. 1103.

L.

LA BELLE: ALLIANCE, Position at Water-

loo, iii. 1121.

LABYRINTH, THE, Description of, i. 54.
LACED^EMON. (See Sparta.)
LACEDAEMONIANS. (See Spartans.)
LA CHARTREUSE, Order of. (See Carthusian Morikt.)
LACONIA, Description of, i. 377.
LA FAYETTE, MARQUIS DE, Coines to America, iii.

968-969 ; wounded, iii. 971 ; at Monmouth, iii.

973 ; campaign of in Virginia, iii. 980 ; com-

mands French National Guards, iii. 1003, 1004,

1011 ; saves the king and queen, iii. 1007-1008 ;

attempts to moderate the Revolution, iii. 1007 ;

visits United States, iii. 1148.
LAPITTE, JEAN, Notice of, iii. 1142, 1147.
LA HAIE SAINTE, Position at Waterloo, iii. 1121.
LA HOGUE, Battle of, iii. 824.
LAKE ERIE, Battle of, iii. 1138.
LAKE REGILLUS, Battle of, i. 678.
LAKE TRASIMENUS, Battle of, i. 722.
LAMACHUS, Commander of the Sicilian expedi-

tion, i. 490-492.

LAMARTINE, French historian, mentioned, iii. 1232.
LAMBERT, GENERAL, Last commander of Parlia-

mentary army, iii. 793.
LANCASTRIAN DYNASTY, Ascendency of, ii. 517-

531 ; table of, iii. 1208.
LAND BILL, Passed by Parliament, iii. 1216.
LAND QUESTION, In Rome, i. 683-685, 695, 757-760.
LAND SYSTEM, of Feudalism, ii. 226-227.
LANGTON, Leads insurrection against John Lack-

land, ii. 410-411.
LANGUAGE, Of the Egyptians, i. 98-99; of the

Chaldreans, i. 108-109; of the Assyrians, i.

193-194; of the Medes, i. 212-214; of the Per-

sians, i. 332-334; of the Greeks, i. 386-390; oi

the Romans, i. 628 ; of the Goths, ii. 42 ; oi

Feudal France, ii. 174.
LARES, Of the Romans, i. 652.
LA SALLE, ROBERT DE, Career of in the New

World, iii. 922-923.
LAS HERAS, GENERAL, President of United Prov-

inces, iii. 1328.

LATIMER, HUGH, Martyrdom of, ii. 659-660.
LATIN DYNASTY, Ascendency of, i. 928-929; ii.

378-379.

LATIN LANGUAGE, Development of, i. 628.
LATIN LEAGUE, Broken up by Rome, i. 699.
LATINS, Early history of, i. 611-612.
LATIUM, Description of, i. 606.
LAUD, WILLIAM, Supporter of Charles I., iii. 765 ;

downfall of, iii. 769.
LAUTREC, General of Francis I., ii. 589.
LAW, JOHN, Author of the Mississippi Scheme,

iii. 880.

an

isao

LAWRENCE, JAMES, Captain of the P«acoci and
the Chetapeake, iii. 1140.

LAYBACK, Congress of, iii. 1277, 1288.

LEAGUE, Of the Catholics, ii. 698.

LEAGUE AND COVENANT, Of Scotland, iii. 767.

LKBBUN, CHARLES FRANCIS, Consul of France, iii.
1057.

l.i:< H, Battle of, ii. 713.

LEGAL TENDER NOTES, Authorized by Congress,
iii. 1187.

LEE, ARTHUR, Agent of Congress at Paris, iii. 972.

LEE, GENERAL CHARLES, Commands American left
wing, iii. 900 ; capture of, iii. 966 ; exchanged,
iii. 968 ; dismissed for disobedience, iii. 973.

LEE, GENERAL HENRY, Delivers funeral oration of
Washington, iii. 1132.

LEE, GENERAL ROBERT E., Defeated at Cheat
Mountain, iii. 1169; succeeds Johnston as
commander-in-chief, iii. 1173; in Seven Days'
Battles, iii. 1173-1174; invades Maryland, iii.
1174 ; at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, iii.
1178-1180; in the Wilderness, iii. 1184-1185;
defends Petersburg and Richmond, iii. 1185-
1186; surrenders to Grant, iii. 1186; death of,
iii. 1193.

LEE, RICHARD HENRY, Offers Declaration of Inde-
pendence, iii. 962.

LEGENDS, Of Greece, i. 430-433 ; of Rome, i. 662-
669; 678-679.

LEICESTER, EARL OF, Minister of Elizabeth, ii. 663.

LEIF ERICKSON, Discovers North America, ii. 553.

LEIPSIC, Battle of (1631), ii. 709 ; battle of (1813),
iii. 1110.

LE MANS, Battle of, iii. 1271.

LENTCLUS, Conspirator with Catiline, i. 781.

LEO III., Becomes emperor, i. 915 ; an iconoclast,
i. 915 ; death of, i. 916.

LEO IV., Reign of, i. 916.

LEO V., Reign of, i. 917.

LEO VI., Reign of, i. 920.

LEO IX., Pontificate of, ii. 253-254.

LEO X. (see Medici, Qiovani de), Accession of, ii.
572 ; favors indulgences, ii. 573 ; completes St.
Peter's, ii. 673; approves Luther, ii. 578;
breaks with the Reformer, ii. 580 ; death of,
ii. 583.

LEO XIII., Accession of, iii. 1286.

LEO THE THRACIAN, Reign of, i. 905-906.

LEONIDAS, At Thermopylae, i. 358, 465.

LEOPOLD I., Plot of with Louis XIV., iii. 826 ; sup-
ports Archduke Charles for Spanish crown,
iii. 828-832.

LEOPOLD I. OF SAXE-COBURO, Becomes king of
Belgium, iii. 1206, 1248-1249; favored by Eng-
land, iii. 1209.

LEOPOLD II., Would reinstate Louis XVI., iii. 1014.

LEOPOLD OF AUSTRIA, Insulted by the Lion Heart,
ii. 363 ; seeks revenge, ii. 369.

LEOPOLD OF HAPSBCRG, Revolt of against Wences-
laiis, ii. 486.

LEOPOLD OF HOHENZOLLERN, Nominated for Span-
ish throne, iii. 1241, 1263; declines, iii. 1263-
1264.

LEPIDUH, Roman general, i. 808; member >,;
umvirate, i. 811 ; overthrown by OctavUnu*,
i. 815.

LEPSIUS, His Egyptian chronology, i. 46.

LESOCHRIS, Reign <>f, i. 47.

LESZ< ixisLAs, Claimant of Polish crown,

iii. 875; 881-882.

LECCTRA, Battle of, i. 513.

IBS, Battle of, iii. 912-913.

LEXINGTON, Battle of, iii

LEYDEN, Refuge of Puritans, ii. 674 ; siege of, ii.
687-688.

LIBERIA, Organisation of, iii. 1143-1144.

LIBONITZ, Battle of, iii. 917.

LIFE-SAVING SERVICE, Organization of, iii. 1197.

LIGHT BRIGADE, Charge of at Balaklava, iii.
1292.

LIGURIAN REPUBLIC, Proclaimed, iii. 1049.

LINCOLN, ABRAHAM, Elected President, iii. 1164;
sketch of, iii. 1164-1165; administration of,
iii. 1165-1188; policy of, iii. 1165; imuea
Emancipation Proclamation, iii. 1175; re-
Sleeted, iii. 1186; assassinated, iii. 1187;
genius of, iii. 1187-1188.

LINCOLN, GENERAL BENJAMIN, Surprised on the
Raritan, iii. 968 ; in the South, iii. 975.

LIBERIUS, Bishop of Rome, i. 886.

LICINIO-SSXTIAN ROGATIONS, Provisions of, L 604-
'.''.'..

LUINIUS, Colleague of Constantino, i. 882; com-
mands the army in the East, i. 883; over-
thrown, i. 884.

LICINIUS, Roman tribune, L 686.

LIGURIA, Description of, i. 601.

LITANY, THE, Description of, i. 242-243.

LITERATURE, Of the Egyptians, i. 69 ; of the Chal-
d«mns, i. 128-129; of the Assyrians, i. 194 ; of
the Medes, i. 211 ; of the Greeks, i. 390-396;
of the Romans, i. 628-636.

LIVIUS, MARCUS, Defeats Hasdrubal, i. 733.

LIVONIANS, Tribal history of, ii. 46-47.

LIVY, Sketch of, i. 635.

LLEWELLYN or WALES, Conquered by Edward L,
ii. 415.

LOBOSITZ, Battle of, iii. 907.

LOCBI, Early history of, i. 604-605.

LOCRIS, Description of, i. 374.

LODI, Battle of, iii. 1047.

LOLLARD, Name of Wickliffe's followers, ii. 618;
persecuted under Henry V., ii. 621.

LOMBARDS, Invade Italy, i. 910; tribal history of,
ii. 38-39; kingdom of in Italy, ii. 39, 61-62;
defeated by the Franks, ii. 64.

LOMBAKDY, Kingdom of established, ii. 61 ; over-
thrown, ii. 64; insurrection of 1848 in, iii.
1254-1255, 1278.

LONDON, Visited with plague and fire, iii. 798.

LONDON COMPANY, Attempts of to colonise Amer-
ica, ii. 736-737.

LONG ISLAND, Battle of, iii. 964-S65.

LONG PARLIAMENT, History of, iii. 768-788.

LONGSTRBET, GEHKRAL JAMES, At Chickamaugm,
iii. 1176; besieges Knoxvill.-, iii. 1177.

1386

INDEX.

LONG WALLS, Building of, i. 480; destruction of,
i. 500.

LONGWOOD, Residence of Napoleon in St. Helena,
iii. 1125-1126.

LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN, Battle of, iii. 1177.

LOPEZ, VICENTE, South American Revolutionist,
iii. 1329.

LORENZO THE MAGNIFICENT, Ascendency of in
Florence, ii. 437-438.

LORNE, MARQUIS OP, Governor of Canada, iii. 1312.

LORRAINE, CARDINAL OP, Ascendency of in France,
ii, 625, 629.

LOT, Defeated, i. 117.

LOTHAIRE, King of France, ii. 190; reign of, ii.
190.

LOTHAIRB, Son of the Debonair, ii. 178 ; becomes
emperor, ii. 179.

LOTHAIRE OP SAXONY, Emperor of Germany, ii.
344.

LOUDOUN, EARL OF, British commander in French
and Indian war, iii. 925-930.

Louis V. OP FRANCE, ii. 190.

Louis VII. OP FRANCE, ii. 341 ; leader of Second
Crusade, ii. 347-350.

Louis VIII. OP FRANCE, Reign of, ii. 419.

Louis IX., Leader of the Seventh Crusade, ii. 389 ;
lands in Egypt, ii. 390 ; besieged in Damietta,
ii. 391 ; at Mansoura, ii. 391-392 ; in Palestine,
ii. 392-394; returns to Europe, ii. 394, 419;
campaign of into Africa, ii. 395, 420 ; death of,
ii. 395 ; character of, ii. 420.

Louis X. OF FRANCE, Reign of, ii. 444.

Louis XI. OF FRANCE, Reign of, ii. 469-476 ; op-
poses Charles the Bold, ii. 469-470 ; is impris-
oned at Peronne, ii. 471 ; overthrows the
Burgundians, ii. 472-474; last years of, ii.
474-475 ; character and policy of, ii. 475-476.

Louis XII. OF FRANCE, ii. 543 ; Italian expedition
of, ii. 543-544.

Louis XIII. OF FRANCE, Accession of, ii. 649;
reign of (See Last Half of Century XVI.),
ii. 703, 711, 717, 718, 719 ; death of, iii. 809.

Louis XIV., KING OP FRANCE, Accession of, iii.
809 ; marries Maria Theresa, iii. 809 ; takes on
himself the government, iii. 810 ; policy of,
iii. 810-811 ; becomes the Grand Monarch, iii.
819; revokes Edict of Nantes, iii. 820; at-
tempts to put down Protestantism, iii. 820-
827 ; intrigue of in Spain, iii. 828-829 ; recog-
nizes the Pretender, iii. 829 ; loses prestige,
iii. 832 ; seeks peace, iii. 833-834 ; old age and
sorrows of, iii. 836-837 ; claims of his epoch
considered, iii. 837-839.

Louis XV., KING OF FRANCE, Becomes king, iii.
879; reign of, iii. 879-886, 939-940; what he
transmitted, iii. 987.

Louis XVI., KING OF FRANCE, Accession of, iii.
990 ; situation of, iii. 990 ; financial embar-
rassments of, iii. 990-992, 996-998; calls the
States-general, iii. 998; relations of with that
body, iii. 999-1007 ; taken from Versailles to
Paris, iii. 1008 ; ratifies the Constitution, iii.
1010 ; escapes to Varennes, iii. 1011 ; arrested,

iii. 1011-1012 ; dismisses Girondist ministry,
iii. 1017; imprisoned, iii. 1017-1018; tried and
condemned, iii. 1025 ; executed, iii. 1026.

Louis XVII. (THE DAUPHIN), Fate of, iii. 1026.

Louis XVIII., Proclaimed king in La Vendee, iii.
1043 ; first restoration of, iii. 1114-1117 ; sec-
ond restoration of, iii. 1127 ; reign of, iii. 1217-
1221 ; characteristics of, iii. 1218 ; policy of,
iii. 1219.

Louis D'OuTREMER, King of France, ii. 188; reign
of, ii. 188-189.

Louis OP BAVARIA, Becomes king of Germany, ii.
481-484.

Louis OF NASSAU, Leader of the Netherlands, ii.
686 ; death of, ii. 687.

Louis PHILIPPE OP ORLEANS, Elected king, iii.
1226; reign of, iii. 1226-1232; death of, iii.
1233.

Louis THE CHILD, King of Germany, ii. 192.

Louis THE DEBONAIR, Character of, ii. 176; di-
vides Western Europe among his sons, ii.
176-177; reign of, ii. 176-179.

Louis THE FAT, Reign of, ii. 340.

Louis THE GERMAN, Receives Bavaria, ii. 179;
conflict of with Lothaire, ii. 179-180 ; reign
of, ii. 191.

Louis THE STAMMERER, Reign of, ii. 183.

LOUISA OP PRUSSIA, Appeals to Napoleon, iii. 1077.

LOUISIANA, Taken from Spain by France, iii. 1061 ;
sold to United States, iii. 1064-1065, 1133 ; ad-
mission of, iii. 1136.

LOVELACE, LORD, Governor of New York, iii. 864,
865.

LOWER EGYPT, Character of, i. 34-35.

LOYOLA, IGNATIUS DE, Founds Society of Jesus,
ii. 622-623.

LUCAN, Notice of, i. 635.

LUCAN, LORD, British Commander at Balaklava,
iii. 1292, 1293.

LUCANIA, Description of, i. 603 ; conquest of by
Rome, i. 702.

LUCKNOW, Siege of, iii. 1212-1213.

LUCIAN, Notice of, i. 636.

LUCILIUS, Sketch of, i. 630.

LUCRETIA, Story of, i. 674.

LUCRETIUS, Sketch of, i. 630.

LUNEVILLE, Treaty of, iii. 1064.

LUSITANIA, Conquest of, i. 751-752.

LUTHER, MARTIN, Birth and youth of, ii. 574-575;
designed for the law, ii. 575 ; a student at
Eisenach, ii. 576; becomes a monk, ii. 576; at
Rome, ii. 576; professor at Wittenberg, ii.
576-577 ; opposes sale of indulgences, ii. 577-
578 ; posts his theses, ii. 577 ; at Augsburg,
ii. 578; opposed by Eck, ii. 579; breaks with
Rome, ii. 579-580; excommunicated, ii. 580;
burns the pope's bull, ii. 580; at Diet of
Worms, ii. 581 ; translates the New Testa-
ment, ii. 582 ; troubled .with fanatics, ii. 582-
583; formulates Protestantism, ii. 583-584;
relations of with Zwingli, ii. 585 ; last days of,
ii. 599.

LUTZEN, Battle of, ii., 714 ; second battle of, iii. 1107.

INDEX.

1887

LYCUROUS, Legislation of, i. 442-4 14.

LYDIA, Invaded by Cyuxur.-s, i. L"J.-> ; history of,

i. 226-227; conquered by Cyrus, i. 295.
LYON, NATHANIEL, At Sjiriii);»ii-ld, iii. i li.'.»-1170.
LYONS, Insurrections ;it, iii. W,\\ l-j-.'S-li'^J.
LYRIC POETRY, Of tin- (ir.'rks, i. :;ui.
LYSANDER, Commander of Spartan fleet, i. 498;

destroys the Long Walls, i. 500.
LYSIMACHUS, Ruler of Thrace and Asia Minor, i.

579-587.
LYSIPPUS, Work of, i. 403.

M.

MACCABEES, Killers of Judtea, i. 848.

McCi.ELj.AN, GEORUB B., West Virginia campaign
of, iii. 1168-1169; commands Army of Poto-
mac, iii. 1170; before Washington, iii. 1171;
Peninsular campaign of, iii. 1173-1174; at An-
tietam, iii. 1174; superseded, iii. 1175.

MACDONALD CLAN, Massacred by the Campbells,
iii. 817.

MACDONALD, MARSHAL, Defeated at Katsbach, iii.
1110.

MAcDoNOUQH, COMMODORE, American commander
at Platteburg, iii. 1141.

McDowEM,, GEN. IUWIN, At Bull Run, iii. 1169.

MACEDONIA, Referred to, i. 365; country, cities,
and tribes of, i. 525-530 ; ruled by Philip, i.
530-543 ; under Alexander, i. 543-577 ; under
successors of Alexander, i. 578-594 ; a Roman
province, i. 738.

MACEDONIA (the country), General character of,
i. 525; boundaries of, i. 525-526; rivers of, i.
526; political divisions of,i. 52G-51'S; thorough-
fares of, i. 528.

MACEDONIAN DYNASTY, Ascendency of, i. 919-922.

Mi HENRY, FORT, Bombarded by British, iii. 1142.

MACHIAVELLI, Publicist of Florence, ii. 641-542.

MACK, GENERAL, Overthrow of at Austerlitz and
Ulm, iii. 1069, 1073.

MCMAHON, MARSHAL, Commander of French army
in Franco-Prussian war, iii. 1266-1270.

McPiiKKSON, GEN. J. B., Killed at Atlanta, iii. 1182.

MACRINUS, Becomes emperor, i. 871 ; reign of, i. 871.

MADAIN, Taken by the Moslems, ii. 115.

MADISON, JAMES, Expounder of Constitution, iii.
983; elected President, iii. 1135 ; sketch of, iiL
1135; administration of, iii. 1135-1144.

MADOC, Tradition of, ii. 555.

M.BCENAS, Sketch of, i. 633.

M.BMUS, Destruction of, i. 689.

MAESTRICHT, Siege of, ii. 691.

MAGDEBURG, Besieged by Maurice, ii. 614 ; de-
stroyed by Tilly, ii. 708-709.

MAGELLAN, FERDINAND, Circumnavigates theGlobe,
ii. 563-565.

MAGENTA, Battle of, iii. 1239, 1281.

MAGI, THE, Account of, i. 218-220.

MAOISM, System of, i. 218-220 ; prevails in Persia,
i. 336; overthrown by Islam, ii. 118.

MAGNA CHARTA, Signed by John Lackland, ii.
411, provisions of, ii. 411.

K.«CIA, Description and early history of,
i. 604-605; BubjugaU.nl by K.,M..-. i. 704.

MAGNESIA, Battle of, i. 740.

MAGNUS LAIM ., i|. 545.

M M.SUS SMKK, Kinu <.f Sni-.lrn, ii. 546.

MAOO, Brother of lluniiibul, i

MA-; YAM. (See //lo.ynr, .<

MAIIIU, Caliph i,f BiiKh<lii.|, ii. 282.

MAIIMOI n II., SITTAN, Kri^'ii .,(, iii. 1299.

M.MMK^.X, MADAME DK, Wit- ,.f I., u:- XIV..
iii. 819.

MAJORIAN, Wars of with Genseric, i. 901-903.

M Ai.AKiiorr, Taken by storm, iii. 1293.

M M.KK SHAH, Sultan of the Seljuks, ii. 298.

MALIS, Description of, i. 374-375.

MALLI, THB, Subjugation of, i. 673-674.

MALPLAQCBT, Battle of, iii. 834.

MALTA, Island of, Given to the Knights Hospital-
lers, ii. 335; captim-.l l.y the Krmrh, iii. 1061;
retaken by the English, iii. 1061.

MALVCRN HILL, Battle of, iii. 1174,

MAMELUKES, Conflicts of with Crusaders, ii. 392-
395 ; defeated by Bonaparte, iiL 1051.

MAMERTINES, Cause of the Punic Wars, i. 710-711.

MANASSAS JUNCTION. (See Bull Run.)

MANDEVILLK, Extract from, relative to the Mos-
lems, ii. 401 ; writes his Trartlt, ii. 513 ; views
of respecting the figure of the earth, ii. 551-662.

MANBTHO, His history of Egypt, i. 44.

MANILIAN LAW, Passage of, i. 779.

MANLIUS, MARCUS, Heroism of, i. 091 ; career of,
i. 693.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, Of the Egyptians, i. 69-
81 ; of the Assyrians, i. 150-153 ; of the Medea,
i. 207-211 ; of the Babylonians, i. 270-274; of
the Persians, i. 321-331; of the Greeks, i.
404-412 ; of the Romans, i. 637-651 ; of the
Barbarians, ii. 42-43.

MANSFELD, COUNT, General in Thirty Years War,
ii. 700, 701, 702, 703, 704; death of, ii. 706.

MANSOURA, Battle of, ii. 391-392.

MANTES, Taken by William of Normandy, ii. 276.

MANTBUFFKL, GENERAL, Defeats Bourlmki, iii. 1273.

MANTINBA, Destroyed, i. 509; battle of, i. 618.

MANUEL L, Reign of, i. 928-926; acts treacher-
ously with Crusaders, ii. 346.

MANZONI, ALEJANDRO, Italian patriot, iii. 1283.

MARAT, JEAN PAUL, Sketch of, iii. 1021 ; ascend-
ency of, iii. 1021-1028 ; murder of, iii. 1028.

MARATHON, Battle of, i. 356, 461-462.

MARCBLLINUS, Caesar of the West, i. 903.

MARCH PAHADB, Of the Franks, ii. 169.

M M:.-H TO THE SEA, History of, iii. 1182.

MARCIAN, Reign of, i. 906.

MARCK, DE LA, Admiral of Sea Beggars, ii. 686.

MMU-OMASSI, Attacked by Tiberius, i. 830; re-
pelled by Anrelius, i. 866; aggressions of, i.

tribal history of, ii. 36-36.
> POLO, Mediaeval Traveler, ii. 404.

MARCUS AuRBi.n-8 CLAUDIUS, Reiini of, i. 876.

MARIMINIUS, Commander of the Persians, i. 369,
470-473, 469.

MARKSGO, Battle of, iii. 1059.

INDEX.

MARGARET, Wife of Henry VI., ii. 525 ; leads the
Lancastrians, ii. 529-531.

MARGARET OF BURGUNDY, Inherits dukedom, ii.474.

MARGARET OF DENMARK, Ascendency of in Scandi-
navia, ii. 545, 547.

MARGARET OF NAVARRE, Betrayal and death of,
ii. 634.

MAIUA BEATRICE OF MODENA, Wife of James II.,
iii. 803.

MARIA LOUISA, Chosen by Bonaparte, iii. 1088-
1090 ; mother of King of Eome, iii. 1090 ; re-
ceives Parma, iii. 1277.

MARIA LOUISA OF SPAIN, Marriage project for,
iii. 1228.

MARIA THERESA, Claims imperial crown, iii. 870,
882-883 ; before Hungarian Diet, iii. 883, 898 ;
becomes empress, iii. 897 ; sketch of, iii. 897 ;
contends with Frederick in war of Austrian
Succession, iii. 897-902 ; anger of at Prussia,
iii. 900, 905 ; reign of during Seven Years'
War, iii. 905-920; last days of, iii. 941-942;
death of, iii. 942.

MARIE ANTOINETTE, Wife of Louis XVI., iii. 990;
opposes Necker, iii. 1001 ; taken at Versailles,
iii. 1008; swears allegiance to the Constitu-
tion, iii. 1010 ; brought to trial, iii. 1031 ; exe-
cuted, iii. 1031.

MARIE CAROLINE OF PALERMO, Mentioned, iii. 1221.

MARION, FRANCIS, Patriot leader in Georgia and
the Carolinas, iii. 976-977.

MARIUS, CAIUS, Early life of, i. 762; subdues Ju-
gurtlia, i. 762 ; defeats the Cimbri, i. 763 ; tri-
umph of, i. 764 ; political career of, i. 765-772 ;
exile of, i. 770 ; proscriptions of, i. 770 ; death
of, i. 772.

MARK, ST., Patron of Venice, ii. 429-430.

MARLBOROUGH, DUKE OF, General of William, iii.
815; under Queen Anne, iii. 831, 832; fall of,
iii. 835.

MARMADUKE, GENERAL, Attacks Cape Girardeau,
iii. 1177.

MARMONT, MARSHAL, Attempts to defend Charles
X., iii. 1223-1224.

MARQUET, Explorer in New France, iii. 921-922.

MARS. (See Ares.)

MAHSELLAISE HYMN, Composed and sung, iii. 1017.

MARSHALL, JOHN, American Ambassador to France,
iii. 1131; Chief-justice of United States, iii.
1133.

MARS LA TOUR, Battle of, iii. 1267.

MARSTON MOOR, Battle of, iii. 777.

MARSUPIALS, Of Australia, iii. 1345.

MARTIAL, Notice of, i. 635 ; quoted, i. 647.

MARY, DAUGHTER OF JAMES II.,- Married to William
of Orange, iii. 800 ; looked to by English Prot-
estants, iii. 804 ; becomes queen of England,
iii. 812 ; reign of (with William), iii. 812-880.

MARY OF BURGUNDY, Inherits dukedom from
Charles the Bold, ii. 474; betrothed to Maxi-
imilian, ii. 500; death of, ii. 501.

MARY, Queen of Jerusalem, ii. 381.

MARY STUART, Birth of, ii. 609 ; put in charge of
the Guises, ii. 634 ; married to Francis II., ii.

627 ; claims English crown, ii. 662 ; chilled in
Scotland, ii. 662; marries Darnley, ii. 664;
affair of with Rizzio, ii. 664 ; conspires with
Hepburn, ii. 665; marries Bothwell, ii. 665;
is driven from the kingdom, ii. 665-666 ; sur-
renders to Elizabeth, ii. 666 ; imprisonment of,
ii. 666-667; condemned and executed, ii. 667-
668.

MARY TUDOR, Birth of, ii. 603 ; Catholic by neces-
sity, ii, 603-605 ; claims the crown, ii. 657 ;
supported by papal party, ii. 609 ; reign of,
ii. 658-660 j marriage of with Philip II., ii. 65!) ;
favors the Inquisition, ii. 660 ; dies childless,
ii. 660.

MARYLAND, Colonization of, ii. 745-747.

MASINISSA, League of with Rome, i. 730-731 ; ca-
reer of, i. 746-748.

MASON, JAMES M., Confederate ambassador cap-
tured, iii. 1171.

MASSASOIT, Sachem of the Wampanoags, iii. 855.

MASSENA, MARSHAL, Restores order in Rome, iii.
1050 ; in Peninsular War, iii. 1094, 1096.

MASSILIA, Founding of, i. 789-790.

MATHER, COTTON, Responsible for witchcraft atroc-
ities, iii. 861.

MATILDA OF ENGLAND, Married to German em-
peror, ii. 341 ; to Geoffrey Plantagenet, ii. 342 ;
contends for English crown, ii. 342-343.

MATTHIAS OF GERMANY, Becomes king of Hun-
gary, ii. 654; elected emperor, ii. 699; reign
of, ii. 699-700.

MAURICE, Emperor of the East, 5. 911.

MAURICE OF NASSAU, Successor of William the Si-
lent, ii. 694 ; career of in Netherlands, ii. 695-
697.

MAURICE OF SAXONY, Renounces Protestantism, ii.
612 ; sent against Magdeburg, ii. 613 ; returns
to Protestantism, ii. 614.

MAVROCORDATOS, ALEXANDER, President of Greece,
iii. 1399.

MAXIMINUS, Becomes emperor, i. 873 ; reign of, i.
873-875 ; war of with the barbarians, i. 874.

MAXIMUS, Reign of, i. 889.

MAXIMILIAN I., Becomes emperor, ii. 501.

MAXIMILIAN II., Becomes German emperor, ii.
652 ; reign of, ii. 652-653 ; mediates between
Spain and Netherland, ii. 684, 688.

MAXIMILIAN OF HAPSBURG, Becomes emperor of
Mexico, iii. 1240, 1320; overthrow and death
of, iii. 1240, 1320.

MAYENCE, Printing-presses in destroyed, ii. 504.

MAY PARADE, Of the Franks, ii. 169.

MAZARIN, CARDINAL, Minister of Louis XIII., iii.
809 ; regent for Louis XIV., iii. 809 ; death of,
iii. 810.

MAZZINI, GIUSEPPE, Italian patriot, iii. 1278.

MEADE, GENERAL GEORGE G., Commands army of
Potomac, iii. 1178; at Gettysburg, iii. 1178-
1180 ; death of, iii. 1193.

MECCA, Holy City of Islam, ii. 91-94 ; attacked by
the Ommiades, ii. 140.

MBDES, Ethnic place of, i. 207; personal ap-
pearance of, i. 207 ; manner of life of, i. 207-

INDEX.

1880

208; warlike character of, i. 208-205); .Iress of,
i. 209-210; social system of, i. 210-211 ; p-nius
of, i. 211 ; language of, i. 212-21:;.

MEDIA, General history of, 5. 197-234; country
and products of, i. 197-206; people ..f, i. 2n7
211 ; language and religion of, i. 212 J'J1
and military annals of, i. 22(»

MEDIA (the country), Boundaries of, i,

mountains of, i. 198; rivers of, i. 198-199;
lakes of i. 199; cities of, i. 199-201; climate
of, i. 202-203 ; productions of, i. 204-205 ; ani-
mals of, i. 206-208.

MEDICI, House of, Ascendency of in FloreiK
437-438, 540.

MEDICI, CATHARINE DE, Wife of Henry II., ii. 623;
heartlessness of, ii. 629; ascendency of in
France, ii. 630-639; plots for St. Bartholomew,
ii. 633-634.

MEDICI, GIOVANNI, Becomes Leo X., ii. 438.

MKDICI, MARIA DK, Wife of Henry IV., ii. 649; in-
fluence of in time of Louis XIII., ii. 711 ; en-
emy to Richelieu, ii. 711.

MEDINA, City of the Prophet, ii. 94; taken by the
Ornmiades, ii. 140.

MEOABAZUS, On the Hellespont, i. 457-458.

MEGACLES, Sacrilege of, i. 449-450.

MEOARA, Early history of, i. 448.

MEOARIS, Description of, i. 375.

MEOIDDO, Battle of, i. 57, 228.

MEHEMET ALI, Viceroy of Egypt, iii. 1301.

MEIQS, COLONEL, Takes Sag Harbor, iii. 968.

MEJIA, GENERAL, Execution of, iii. 1320.

MBLANCHTHON, Co-worker with Luther, ii. 580;
draws up Augsburg Confession, ii. 595.

MELBOURNE, Capital of Victoria, iii. 1347.

MELBOURNE, LORD, Ministry of, iii. 1208-1209.

MELENDEZ, PEDRO, Career of in New World, ii.
733-734; founds St. Augustine, ii. 734.

MEMPHIS, Founding of, i. 46.

MENANDER, Account of, i. 395.

MENANDER, Battle of, ii. 347.

MENEPTA, Reign of, i. 62-64.

MENES, Founder of Egypt, i. 46.

MENKERA, Reign of, i. 49-50; pyramid of, i. 49.

MENSCHIKOFF, PRINCE, Commands Russian army
in Crimean war, iii. 1291.

MENSHIKOPP, ALEXANDER, Prince of Russia, iii.
942-943.

MKNTU, Emblems of, i. 83.

MERCER, GENERAL, Death of, iii. 967.

MERENRA, Reign of, i. 52.

MKKODACH, Babylonian viceroy, i. 277.

MERODACH, Worship and titles of, i. 134. 190.

MEHODACH-BALADAN, King of Babylonia, i. 279-
280.

MEROVEUS, Founder of Merovingian dynasty, ii. 70.

MEROVINGIAN DYNASTY, Ascendency of, ii. 70-81 ;
table of, ii. 78.

MERWAN, Caliph of Islam, ii. 140; reign of, ii. 140-
1 II'.

Mi -m-oTAMiA, Character of, i. 101-105.

MKSI.M.INA, Empress of Rome, i. 839.

MKSSKNIA, Description of, i. 377.

MESTIZOS. Clam of Mexican population, iii. 1313.
MBTAI.I.I HC.Y, of th.' Hal.ylonians, i
MBTAURUS, Battl.- of, i. ;

MrrELLrn.r. in-ill of Ifcrnir, i. 711; i ,785.

MBTELLI .M CELEB, Defeat* Catil. 785.

MmionisM. naming ,,( m Ain.-rirn, >.

Vl-lopincllt of, iii VI

MITIIOM:, ( -iipture of by Philip, i. 534-635.

METTKHNK ii, I'ICIMK, A .,( in AtiMria.

iii. 1251 ; and in Europe, iii. 1288.

METZ, .Surrendered by Bazaine, iii. 1271.

MEXICAN WAR, Causes of, iii. 1154-1156; outbreak
"f, iii. 1155; course of, iii. 1155-1160.

MEXICO (city), Taken by the Spaniards, ii. Ml ;
captured by American army, iii. 1159.

MEXICO, Conquered by Spain, ii. 561 ; loses Texas.
iii. 1154; war of with United States, iii. 1154-
1160; French empire in, iii. 1240, 1320; sum-
mary of history of, iii. KU2 -1:121 ; indepen-
dence of achieved, iii. 1312; people of, iii.
1313 ; revolutions in, iii. 1314-1316.

MIAMI INDIANS, War with, iii. 1129.

MII IIAEL I., Reign of, i. 917.

MM ii \ EL I. OP RUSSIA. (See Feodnrotitch.)

MICHAEL III., Reign of, i. 918-919.

MICHAEL IV., Reign of, i. 923.

MICHAEL V., Reign of, i. 923.

MICHAEL VI., Reign of, i. 923.

MICHAEL VII., Reign of, i. 924.

MICHAEL ANOBLO, Builder of 8t Peter's, ii. 573.

MICHAEL, GRAND DUKE, In Turco- Russian war,
iii. 1306.

MICHAEL PALJEOLOOUS, Becomes emperor, i. 929;
reign of, i.

MICHAEL THE PHRYGIAN, Reign of, i. 917-918.

MICHIGAN, Organization of, iii. 1134.

MICHMASH, Battle of, i. 284.

MIKFI.IN, GEN., President of Congress, iii. 981-982.

MIKADO, Derivation of term, iii. 1340; place of in
Japanese social sod political system, iii. 1340-
1341.

MILAN, Early history of, ii. 432-433.

MILAN DECREE, Issued by Napoleon, iii. 1076, 1135.

MiLETt-s, Description of, i. 311 ; revolt of, i. 355;
siege of, i. 459 ; taken by Alexander, i. 551-
552.

MILITARY ROADS, Of the Romans, i. 707.

MILITARY SYSTEM, Of the Egyptians, i. 72; of the
Babylonians, i. 271-272; of the Persists, L
323-324 ; of the Spartans, i. 443 ; of the Athen-
ians, i. 508; of the Thebans, i. 513; of the
Macedonians, i. 631 ; of the Romans, i. 827-
828.

MILITARY TRIBCSBSHIP, Established, i. 688
-rRiNO, Battle of, iii. 1171.

MILTIADES, Commander of the Greeks, i. 460-462.

MII.TON, JOHN, Latin secretary of the Common-
wealth, iii. 790; issues republican pamphlet.
iii. 793; composes Paradite Lo*, iii. 807.

Mil. i ris, NICHOLAS, Russian Emancipator, iii 1297.

MINERALS, Of Assyria, i. 146; of Media, i. 205; of
Babylonia, i. 248; of Persia, i. 307; of Italy, i.
600.

1390

INDEX.

MINU DYNASTY, Ascendency of in China, iii. 1331.
MINNESOTA, Admission of, iii. 1163.
MINOS, Tradition of, i. 436-437.
MINT, Of England mentioned, iii. 794.
MIRABEAU, GABRIEL RIQUETTI, Eulogizes Franklin,

iii. 995 ; sketch of, iii. 1005 ; death of, iii. 1010.
MIRAGE, Common in Media, i. 203.
MIRAMON, MIGUEL, President of Mexico, iii. 1318 ;

executed, iii. 1320.

MISSIONARY RIDGE, Battle of, iii. 1177.
MISSISSIPPI, THE, Discovered by De Soto, ii. 731.
MISSISSIPPI BUBBLE, History of, iii. 880.
MISSOURI COMPROMISE, Account of, iii. 1146-1147.
MITHRA, Worship of, i. 215.
MITHBIDATES, KINO OF PONTUS, Mentioned, i. 766 ;

war of with Rome, i. 779 ; overthrow of, i. 780.
MOAWYAH, Leader in Islam, ii. 127; disloyalty of,

ii. 127-128; conflict of with the caliph, ii. 129-

132 ; becomes caliph, ii. 133 ; reign of, ii. 133-

138.

MOAWYAH II., Caliph of Islam, ii. 140.
MOBILE BAY, Battle of, iii. 1183.
MOERIS, Lake of, Described, i. 54.
MOHAMMED THE PROPHET, Early life of, ii. 91-92;

becomes a teacher, ii. 92 ; has revelations, ii.

92-93 ; flies from Mecca, ii. 94 ; takes up arms,

ii. 94-95 ; death of, ii. 95 ; personal appearance

of, ii. 95 ; mental characteristics of, ii. 95-96 ;

system of faith established by, ii. 96-99.
MOHAMMED II., Sultan of the Turks, i. 934; pur-
poses the capture of Constantinople, i. 934 ;

besieges that city, i. 934-935 ; overthrows the

Eastern empire, i. 935-936.
MOHAMMEDANISM, Rise of, ii. 91-99; compared

with Christianity and Judaism, ii. 97. (See

Islam.)
MOLAY, Grand Master of Templars, ii. 337 ; burned

at Paris, ii. 337, 443-444.
MOLEIRE, Notice of, iii. 839.
MOLTKE, COUNT VON, At Sadowa, iii. 1260; com-

mander-in-chief of German armies, iii. 1266 ;

commander in Franco-Prussian war. (See

Franco- Prussian War.)
MONARCHY, Natural to certain situations, i. 41 ;

issues from the Middle Ages, ii. 550; nature

of considered, iii. 950.
MONASTERIES, Suppression of in England, ii. 608,

655.

MONITOR, Defeats Merrimac, iii. 1172.
MONK, GENERAL, Manages the Restoration, iii.

793-794; made duke of Albemarle, iii. 797.
MONMOUTH, JAMES DUKE OF, Rebellion of, iii. 801,

803.

MONMOUTH, Battle of, iii. 973. •

MONROE, JAMES, Negotiates purchase of Louisiana,

iii. 1133; elected President, iii. 1144; adminis-
tration of, iii. 1145-1148.
MONROE DOCTRINE, Account of, iii. 1147.
MONS, Battle of, iii. 819.
MONS SACER, Place of secessions, i. 681.
MONTCALM, MARQUIS OF, French commander in

Canada, iii. 929, 932 ; death of, iii. 932.
MONTEBELLO, Battle of, iii. 1281.

MONTENEGRO, Atrocities in, iii. 1302-1303.
MONTEREY, Storming of, iii. 1156.
MONTEZUMA, Emperor of Mexico, ii. 561 ; over-
thrown by the Spaniards, ii. 562-563.
MONTFORT, SIMON DE, Rebellion of against Henry

III., ii. 413-415.
MONTFORT, SIMON DE, THE YOUNGER, Rebellion

and death of, ii. 413-415.
MONTGOMERY, RICHARD, Colonel in the French

and Indian war, iii. 930 ; expedition of against

Canada, iii. 960-961.
MONTLHEHI, Battle of, ii. 470.
MONTMORENCI, General of Henry II., ii. 625 ; op-
poses the Guises, ii. 627 ; death of, ii. 633.
MONTPENSIER, DUKE DE, Marriage scheme of, iii.

1228.

MONTREAL, Riot in, iii. 1311.

MONT SAINT-JEAN, Position at Waterloo, iii. 1121.
MOORE, SIR JOHN, Upholds Gustavus IV., iii.

1080 ; defeat and death of, iii. 1085.
MOORS, Attacked by the Moslems, ii. 137.
MORAVIANS, Tribal history of, ii. 46.
MORE, SIR THOMAS, Succeeds Wolsey, ii. 602;

downfall and execution of, ii. 605; literary

works of, ii. 675.
MOREAD, GENERAL, Commands army of Rhine, iii.

1047 ; supersedes Sherer, iii. 1054 ; at Hohen-

linden. iii. 1060.

MORENO, GARCIA, President of Ecuador, iii. 1324.
MORGAN, GENERAL DANIEL, With Montgomery at

Quebec, iii. 961 ; at Bemis's Heights, iii. 961 ;

at Cowpens, iii. 979.

MORGAN, GENERAL JOHN, Raid of, iii. 1177-1178.
MORMONS, In Missouri and Illinois, iii. 1154;

troubles with, iii. 1163.
MORRIS, ROBERT, secretary of finance, iii. 978 ;

bankruptcy of, iii. 982.

MORSE, PROFESSOR, Invents telegraph, iii. 1155.
MORTIMER, EDMUND, Mentioned, ii. 518, 521.
MORTIMER, ROGER, Favorite of Queen Isabella, ii.

446 ; treason of, ii. 446, 507 ; conduct of with

Isabella, ii. 509.

MORTIMER'S CROSS, Battle of, ii. 527.
Moscow, Taken by Napoleon, iii. 1103; burning

of, iii. 1103-1104.
MOSES, Leader of Israel, i. 63-64.
MOSLEMA, General of Islam, ii. 148.
MOSQUERA, GENERAL, President of Colombia, iii.

1322.

MOULTRIE, COLONEL, Defends Charleston, iii. 961.
MUGHEIR, Ruins of mentioned, i. 114.
MUKHTAR, PASHA, At Kars and Erzeroum, iii.

1306.

MUNDA, Battle of, i. 806.

MUNICIPAL ACT, Passed by parliament, iii. 1209.
MUNSTER. (See Westphalia. )
MUNZER, THOMAS, Fanatic reformer, ii. 582.
MURAT, MARSHAL JOACHIM, Made king of Two

Sicilies, iii. 1082 ; intrusted with Grand Army,

iii. 1106; abandons Napoleon, fii. 1110; execu-
tion of, iii. 1126, 1277.
MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK, Declares existence of

gold in Australia, iii. 1351.

1891

MCKFREESBORO, Battle of, iii. 117,'t.

MURRAY, LOUD, Re^nit ..i .-.-otliind, ii. 665-666.

MIKKAV KI\I:U, Oi Au-tralia, iii. l:;|.V

Mi.-\, I'., .its Lark the Berliers, ii. Hi!; builds a

fleet, ii. 146; orgunixrs l-lam in Northern

Africa, ii. 1 IS; eon.|iii-rrt Spain, ii. 149-150.
Music, Of the l-^'y])ii;iiis, i. 78; of the Greeks, i.

407, 417-418; of tin- Unman-, i. UW-651.
MUSTAPHA IV., Sri.TAX, Ifcign of, iii. 12V9.
MUTAGGIL-NEBO, Reign of, i. 101.
MYCALE, Battle of, i. 359, 17:;.
MYCENAE, Ruins of, i. 398.
MYODONIA (Macedonia), Province of, i. 527.
MYGDONIA, Province of, i. 14..
MYRON, Work of, i. 402.
MYSTERIES, Of the Greeks, i. 416-418.
MYSTICISM, Of the Babylonians, i. 276.
MYTHOLOGY, Of the Medes, i. 214-220; of the

Greeks, i. 420-430; interpretation of, i. 4i'7-

430.

N.

KABONADIIT8, King of Babylonia, i. 294;
makes alliance with Lydia, i. 295; is over-
thrown by Cyrus, i. 296-298.

NABONASSAR, King of Babylonia, i. 278.

NABOPOLASSAR, King of Babylonia, i. 280; con-
spiracy of with Cyaxares, i. 280 ; in alliance
with the Medes, i. 281 ; invades Egypt, i. 281 ;
death of, i. 282 ; family of, i. 294.

N.EVIUS, Sketch of, i. 629.

NAGASAKI, Massacre of Christians at, iii. 1342.

NANA SAHIB, Leader of Sepoy revolt, iii. 1212,
1213, 1214.

NANCY, Battle of, ii. 473.

NANKING, Captured by British, iii. 1334.

NAPIER, SIR CHARLES, Wounded at Corunna, iii.
1085.

NAPIER, SIR ROBERT, Subdues Theodore of Abys-
sinia, iii. 1214 ; commander of British in
Opium War, iii. 1332.

NAPLES, KINGDOM OF, Insurrection in, iii. 1277-
1287.

NAPOLEON I. (See Bonaparte.)

NAPOLEON III. (See Bonaparte.)

NARAM-SIN, Reign of, i. 119.

NARSES, General of Justinian, i. 908,909; career
of in Italy, ii. 60-61.

NARVABZ, PAMPHILO DE, Routed by Cortez, ii. 562 ;
governor of Florida, ii. 729-730.

NASEBY, Battle of, iii. 778.

NASHVILLE, Battle of, iii. 1182.

NASHVILLE, CONFEDERATE CRUISER, Account of, iii.
1183-1184.

N \SSAU, HODSE OF, Dominant in England, iii.
812-830.

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY OF FRANCE (see Statet-general),
work of, iii. 1000-1003 (see Qmitituent Aaembly).

NATIONAL HANKS, Institution of, iii. 1187.

NATIONAL CONVENTION OF FRANCE, Succeeds Legis-
lative Assembly, iii. 1022; ascendency of, iii.
1022-1056 ; end of, iii. 1044.

NATURE, Influence of on man, i. 40-41, 381; ui-

teni|.t« to int. < 430.

N\v uiis.., Haul.- .,f, iii. 1300.

.IKK, Kurly history of, ii. 538.

• if, i. 45S,

NEAHCIIUH, General of Al.-xan.l.-r, i
NEBBI-YCXUH, Moutul of, i. 15:1-154.
NEBK< I;. Igo of, .
NEBO, \V,,r,hi|, of, i. 135-136, 190, 275.

\SKA, AdmUsion of, iii. 1
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, Kin« of Babylonia, i. 282;

makes war in Syria, L 283, 280; invade.

Egypt, i. 290; as a builder, i. 290-llc.' ; old age

of, i
NECKER, JAQUES, Finance minister of Louis XVI.

iii. 991; measures of, iii. 991-992; resign- iii.

992; again in office, iii. 998; dismissal, ni.

1001.

NEJIAVKXD, Battle of, ii. 117.
NEK u, Reign of, i. 67.
NBKU II., Reign of, i. 68.
NELSON, ADMIRAL HORATIO, Destroys French fleet

at Aboukir, iii. 1053 ; victory and death of at

Trafalgar, iii. 1071-1074.
NEMEAN FESTIVAL, Account of, i. 439.
NEPUERCHEBES, Reign of, i. 46.
NEPTUNE. (See Poteidon.)
NEROAL, Worship of, i. 134, 190.
NERIGLISSAR, Reign of, i. 294.
NERO (GENERAL). Defeats Hasdrubal, i. 733.
NERO, CLAUDIUS GCSAR, Becomes emperor, i. 838;

atrocities of, i. 839-840; bums Rome, i. 840;

persecutes the Christians, i. 840-841 ; a trav-
eling mountebank, i. 841 ; death of, i. 843.
NERVA, COCCEIUS, Becomes emperor, i. 858 ; reign

of, i. 858.
NETHERLANDS, Character of, ii. 678; people of, ii.

678; condition of at accession of Philip II.,

ii. 679-681 ; devastated by Alva, ii. 681-687 ;

organized into a republic, ii. 688 ; struggle of

with Spain, ii. 686-697; in recent times (see

Holland and Belgium).

NEUSTRIA, Ceded to the Northmen, ii. 187; be-
comes Normandy, ii. 188.
NEVADA, Admission of, iii. 1186.
NEVILLE, SIR RALPH, Treacherous conduct of, ii.

519.

NEW AMSTERDAM, Founding of, ii. 74*?.
NEWCASTLE, MARQUIS or, Royalist general iii. 774.
NEW ENGLAND, Founding of, ii. 737, 739; early

history of, iii. 854-861 ; education in before

Revolution, iii. 947.
NEW FRANCE, Limits of, iii. 854 ; conquest of by

England, iii. 931-932.
NEW FOREST, Laid out by William of Normandy,

ii. 1'7.V

NEW GRANADA. (See Colombia.)
NEW HAMPSHIRE, Colonization of, ii. 744.
NEW JERSEY, Colonisation of, ii. 748.
NEW NETHERLANDS, Early history of, ii. 742. iii.

861-864.

Itattle of, iii. 1142-1143.
NEWPORT, Siege of by .Sullivan, iii. 973.

1392

INDEX.

NEW SOUTH WALES, Political division of Australia,

iii. 1349 ; gold mines of, iii. 1351.
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC, Master of the mint, iii. 873.
NEW YORK, Colonization of, iii. 861-864; early

history of, iii. 863, 865.
NEY, MARSHAL, Defends rear guard of Grand

Army, iii. 1106; defeated by Bernadotte. iii.

1110 ; folly of, iii, 1117; at Waterloo, iii. 1120-

1123; execution of, iii. 1126-1127.
NIAGARA, Battle of, iii. 1141.
NICE, Besieged by the Crusaders, ii. 313-314.
NICEPHORUS, Emperor of the East, i. 917.
NICEPHORUS PHOCAS, Reign of, i. 921.
NICHOLAS I. OP RUSSIA, Accession of, iii. 1288;

conquers Persia, iii. 1288; reign of, iii. 1288-

1294.
NICHOLAS, GRAND DUKE, In Turco-Russian war,

iii, 1304, 1306.
NICHOLSON, FRANCIS, Governor of New York, iii.

865.
NICIAS, Commander of Sicilian expedition, i. 490-

494 ; peace of, i. 489.
NICOLLS, RICHARD, Governor of New York, iii.

864.

NIHILISTS, Society of in Russia, iii. 1298.
NIKOPOLIS, Captured by Russians, iii. 1304.
NILE, Battle of, iii. 1051.
NILE, THE, Character of, i. 34-37; worship of, i.

85-86.

NILOMETER, Described, i. 37.
NIMEGUEN, Battle of, ii. 687.
NIMROD, Exploits of, i. 112-113; deification of, i.

113.
NINEVEH, Ruins of, i. 153-156 ; captured by Cyax-

ares, i. 186 ; battle at, i. 912.
NINUS, Worship of, i. 189.
NOBILITY OF FRANCE, Power of, iii. 985; opposes

calling of States-general, iii. 997 ; at States-
general, iii. 998-1001 ; emigration of, iii. 1003 ;

attempt to regain control, iii. 1010.
NOBUNAGA, Hero of Japan, iii. 1342.
NOMES OP EGYPT, Mentioned, i. 36.
NORFOLK, DUKE OP, Conspires with Mary Stuart,

ii. 667.
NORMANDY, Founding of, ii. 188 ; early history of,

ii. 188-189; relations established with Eng-
land, ii. 213-215.
NORMAN DYNASTY, Ascendency of- in England, ii.

264-281.

NORSEMEN, Discover North America, ii. 553 ; char-
acter of, ii. 554.

NORTH BBITON, Attack of on George III., iii. 935.
NORTHERN AFRICA, Character of, i. 33.
NORTHERN ECBATANA, Notice of, i. 200.
NORTHERN GREECE, Description of, i. 373.
NORTHERN ITALY, Description of, i. 596.
NORTH-GERMAN UNION, Formation of, iii. 1262.
NORTHMEN, General character of (see Barbarians) ;

first incursions of, ii. 176 ; invade France, ii.

180.
NORTHUMBRIA, Rebellion in, ii. 270; overrun by

William, ii. 270-271.
NORTHWESTERN TERRITORY, Organization of, iii. 984.

NORWAY, Early history of, ii. 292-293; in XlVtb

and XVth centuries, ii. 545-547.
NOUREDDIN, Sultan of Damascus, ii. 351-352.
NOVAKA, Battle of, iii. 1255.
NULLIFICATION, Attempted in South Carolina, iii.

1150 ; a cause of civil war, iii. 1167.
NUMA POMPILIUS, King of Primitive Rome, i. 666--

667.

NUMERIAN, Reign of, i. 878.
NUMITOR, Legend of, i. 663.
NYSTAD, Treaty of, iii. 853.

o.

OAK, Myth of, i. 130.

GATES, TITUS, Reveals the Popish Plot, iii. 800-801.

OBEIDAH, General of Islam, ii. 103; conquers

Syria, ii. 106-111.
OBELISKS, Of Egypt, i. 96.
OBIDALLAH, General of Islam, ii. 138-139.
O'BRIEN, SMITH, Irish revolt of, iii. 1211.
OCHUS, Reign of, i. 363.
O'CoNNELL, DANIEL, Champion of Catholic cause

in parliament, iii. 1204-1205 ; favors Episcopal

disestablishment, iii. 1207; advocates Irish

independence, iii. 1211.
OCTAVIUS C.ESAR. (See Csesar Octavlanus.)
ODAKON, Myth of, i. 130.
ODO, Archbishop of Canterbury, ii. 210; career

of, ii. 210-211.
ODO, Rebellion of, ii. 277.
ODOACER, King of the Heruli, i. 903; overthrows

the Western Empire, i. 903-904; reign of, ii.

50-51.

(Eoipus, Tradition of, i. 430.
(ENOPHYTA, Battle of, i. 479.
OFFA THE TERRIBLE, King of Mercia, ii. 88.
OGLETHORPE, JAMES, Colonizes Georgia, ii. 751-

752; sketch of, ii. 752.

OHIO, Organization and admission of, iii. 1133.
OHIO COMPANY, History of, iii. 923-925.
OLAF, King of Norway, ii. 547.
OLD DESSAUER, Organizes Prussian army, iii. 887.
OLD GUARD OF NAPOLEON, Destroyed at Waterloo,

iii. 1123-1125.

OLEG, King of Russia, ii. 294.
OLYMPIAD, Of the Greeks, i. 437.
OLYMPIAN GAMES, Description of, i. 437-439.
OLYMPIAN MOUNTAINS, Description of, i. 371.
OLYMPIAS, Mother of Alexander, i. 532.
OLYNTHUS, Confederacy of, i. 510.
OMAR PASHA, Ottoman general in Turco-Russian

War, iii. 1306.

OMAR THE GREAT, Caliph of Islam, ii. 105 ; char-
acter of, ii. 105-106, 119-120 ; conquests of, ii.

106-119; death of, ii. 119.
OMMIADES, Dynasty of Islam, ii. 133 ; ascendency

of, ii. 133-152.

OMNIBUS BILL, Passage of, iii. 1161.
OXOMARCHUS, General of Thebes, i. 535-536.
OPIUM WAR, With China, Account of, iii. 1332-

1334.
OPTIMATES, Political party in Rome, i. 757.

IXUKX.

ORACLES, Of the Greeks, i. 414-416.

ORATORY, Of the Greeks, i. 396-398.

OKCIIAN, Sultan of the Turks, i. 1)31.

ORDER IN COUNCIL, Issued by British ministry, iii.

1070,

OBKSTES, Creature of Ricimer, i. 903.
ORKSTIS, Province of, i. 626.
ORGANIZATION, Enemy of freedom and happiness,

iii. 1352-1353.

ORIKLAMME OF FRANCE, Mentioned, ii. 347.
ORLEANS (city), Besieged by English, ii. 463-164 ;

relieved by Joan of Arc, ii. 465; taken l.y

Frederick Charles, iii. 1271.
ORLEANS DYNASTY, Accession of, iii. 1225; ascend-

ency of, iii. 1225-1232.
OKOATIS, THE, Description of, i. L'41.
ORONTKS, Description of, i. 242.
ORPHANS, Sect of Hussites, ii. 496-497.
OSCANS, Early history of, i. 611.
OSCEOLA, Chief of Seminoles, iii. ll.'.l.
ORSINI, Attempts to assassinate Napoleon III., iii.

OSIRIS, Worship and emblems of, i. 83-84.
OSMAN PASHA, Turkish general in Turco-Russian

Wur, iii. 1304, 1305.
OSNABRUCK. (See Westphalia.)
OSORKON, Reign of, i. 66.
OSTRACISM, As used by the Greeks, i. 455-456.
OSTROQOTHIC KINGDOM, Establishment of, ii. 35.
OSTROGOTHS, Mentioned, i. 891 ; early history of,

ii. 34-35.

OSWALD, Britwalda of the Anglo-Saxons, ii. 86-87.
OSWY, Britwalda of the Anglo-Saxons, ii. 87.
OTHO, Becomes emperor, i. 844-845 ; reign of, i. 845.
OTHO II., King of Germany, ii. 244; reign of, ii.

244-245.
OTHO III., King of Germany, ii. 245 ; reign of, ii.

245-247.

OTHO OF BAVARIA, King of Greece, iii. 1300.
OTHO THB GREAT, King of Germany, ii. 194 ; reign

of, ii. 194-196.
OTHMAN, Caliph of Islam, ii. 120 ; character of, ii.

121, 124; reign of, ii. 121-127; murder of, ii.

126-127.

OTHMAN, Founder of Ottoman Empire, i. 931.
OTIS, JAMES, Pleads for liberty, iii. 953; advocates

American congress, iii. 955.
OTTAWA, Capital of Canada, iii. 1311.
OTTOCAR II. OF BOHEMIA, Revolt of against Ru-

dolph, ii. 477.
OTTOMANS. (See Turfa.)
OVID, Sketch of, i. 633.
OXBNSTIERN, Chancellor of Sweden, ii. 716; makes

alliance with France, ii. 717.

P.

PACIFIC RAILROAD, Route for expl

iii. 1102; completed, UK 1190.
PACKENHAM, SIR EDWAKH. British Commander

at New Orleans, iii. 1142-1143.
PACUVICS, Sketch of, i. 629.
P.BONIA, Macedonian province, i. 528.
88

PAIHK, THOMAS, Aids American independence.

iii. •

i, (if ih,. Knypiun*. i. 99-100; employed
l.y tli.- l!:il.y|..r |. -Ml; ..f tt,e<;r*«kA

i. -JIN » -jo | ; ,,( ii,.. K.. nmns, i. 628- •

PA LA in NE, GENERAL, Commands French «rm\
11:71.

I'M T..I..H.I, Iiynu.Hty ,,f, j. 930-995; table of, i. 932.

PALAOLOOUB, Jons, Kn,|--r ,.r of the EMI, i. 931-
932.

PALJBOUXH-B, JOHN II., Emperor of the Kurt, 1. 938.

PALJCOLOOUS, M*M KI. Kmp.-ror .,f the Km-t, i. 932.

PALAMBUES. Adds to Uie Greek alphabet, i. 388.

PALATIXK llin, Settlement ..n, i. 665.

PALIS, Festival of, i.667.

PALESTINE, Description of, i. 239-240.

I'MIKAO, MARSHAL, French Minister of War, iii.
1268.

PA-LI-KAO, Battle of, iii. 1337.

PALMERS-TON, LORD, Ministry of, iii. 1215-1216.

PALMYRA, Description of, i. 241 ; conquest of by
Rome, i. 877.

PALO ALTO, Battle of. iii. 1155.

PAMPELUNA, Taken by Charlemagne, II. 164,

PANATHENXA, Festival of, i. 417-418.

PANDULP, Legate of the pope, ii. 409.

PANTHEON, Sketch of, i. 625-626.

PAPIRICS, Story of, i. 691.

PAPPENHEIM, GOTTFRIED HEINRICH, Leader in
Thirty Years' War, ii. 708, 709, 714.

PARAQUAT. (See Argentine Republic.)

PARIS, Capital of Clovis, ii. 74; besieged by the
Northmen, ii. 186; condition of in time of
Crusades, ii. 341 ; character of in century
XVI., ii. 649 ; principal scene of the Revolu-
tion, iii. 985-1055 ; fortified by Louis Philippe,
iii. 1227-1228; beautified by Napoleon III..
iii. 1238-1240 ; taken by the Germans, iii. 1242-
1243, 1273.

PARIS, Treaty of (1763) concluded, iii. 933; of
1856, iii. 1294.

PARLIAMENT OF ENGLAND (we Witenayemot), devel-
oped in time of War of the Roses, ii. 327 ;
growth of under James and Charles Stuart,
iii. 761-771; at war with monarchy, iii. 771-
794; reaction against, iii. 794-804.

PARMA, DUCHESS OF, Regent of the Netherlands,
II. 679 ; deposed by Alva, II. 683.

PARMA, DUKE OP, Commander of Spanish army,
ii. 670.

PARMENIO, General of Alexander, i. 544, 549, 556,
557.

PARNASSUS, Haunt of Apollo, i. 414.

PARR, CATHARINE, Wife of Henry VIII., ii. 606.

PARRHASICS, Notice of, i. 401.

PARTHENOPEAN REPUBLIC, Proclaimed, iii. 1064.

PARTHENO .f, i. 400, 481.

PARTIIIA, Expedition of Crassns against, i. 794 ; in-
vaded by Antonius, i. 815; conquest of l.y
Trajan, i. 860.

PARTIIIANS, Sketch of, i. 309.

I'MIY-M-IS, Referred to, i. 361, 506.

PASAROADX. Ruins of, i. 317.

13!)4

INDEX.

PASCAL, Notice of, iii. 839.

PASHA, ALI, Leader of Albanian revolt, iii. 1299.

PASKEVITCH, GENERAL, Suppresses Polish insur-

surrectiou, iii. 1292.
PASSAU, Treaty of concluded, ii. 615.
PATERNALISM, THEORY OP, Opposed to Progress

and happiness, iii. 1353.
PATKES CONSCRIPTI, Origin of, i. 680.
PATRICIANS, Class of Roman society, i. 668; de-
velopment of, i. 668-680; struggle of with

plebeians, i. 680-689, 694-698, 703.
PATRIOTISM, Of the Greeks, i. 385; of the Ro-
mans, i. 822.
PATTERSON, GENERAL ROBERT, In Mexican war,

iii. 1156 ; at Harper's Ferry and Bull Run,

iii. 1169.

PAUL, Organizes Christianity, i. 830.
PAUL I. OP RUSSIA, Withdraws from coalition, iii.

1062; assassinated, iii. 1067.
PAULLUS, Lucius ^EMILIUS, Conquers Philip V., i.

741-742 ; triumph of, i. 742.
PAUSANIAS, Commander of the Greeks, i. 471-474 ;

perfidy of, i. 474, 477.
PA VIA, Battle of, ii. 590-592.
PEA RIDGE, Battle of, iii. 1171.
PEDRAZA, GENERAL, President of Mexico, iii. 1315.
PEDRO OF ARAGON, At war with France, ii. 421,

422, 423.

PEDRO THE CRUEL, King of Castile, ii. 455 ; de-
feated and killed, ii, 456.
PEEL, SIR ROBERT, Secures passage of Criminal

Reform, iii. 1203 ; defeated by Oxford, iii.

1205 ; ministry of, iii. 1215.
PEI-HO, Bombarded by English, iii. 1336-1337.
PELAGIUS, Prevents peace with the Turks, ii. 383.
PELASGIANS, Notice of, i. 381 ; early history of, i.

607-609.

PELLA, Capital of Macedonia, i. 526.
PELOPIDAS, Career of, i. 510-517.
PELOPONNESSIAN WARS, History of, i. 482-504.
PELOPONNESUS, Description of, i. 373, 376 ; overrun

by the Dorians, i. 435.
PELUSIUM, Battle of, i. 69, 346.
PEJIBERTON, GENERAL JOHN C., Surrenders Vicks-

burg, iii. 1175.

PEMBROKE, EARL OF, Protector of England, ii. 412.
PENATES, Of the Romans, i. 652.
PENINSULAR WAR, Beginning of, iii. 1082 ; history

of, iii. 1082-1085, 1094-1096.
PENN, WILLIAM, Career of in America, ii. 749-751 ;

sketch of, ii. 750.

PENNSYLVANIA, Colonization of, ii. 749-751.
PEPI, Reign of, i. 51-52.
PEPIN OF HERISTAL, Mayor of the Franks, ii. 78-

79 ; ruler of the Austrasians, ii. 153 ; wars of,

ii. 153-154.

PEPIN THE SHORT, King of the Franks, ii. 80-81, 155.
PERCY, Earl of Northumberland, ii. 518; struggle

of with Henry IV., ii. 518-519 ; death of, ii. 520.
PERCY, LORD, Gunpowder conspirator, iii. 756-759.
PERDICCAS, King of Macedonia, i. 529.
PERDICCAS, Regent of Macedonian empire, i. 578-

582.

PERGAMON, Art school of, i. 403-104, 621-622.

PERICLES, Rise of, i. 478 ; ascendency of, i. 479-485.

PERIER, CASIMIR, President of French Chamber,
iii. 1222.

PERONNE, Meeting-place of Charles and Louis, ii.
471.

PEROVSKA, SOPHIA, Associate assassin of Alexan-
der II., iii. 1299.

PERRY, COMMODORE MATTHEW, Opens intercourse
with Japan, iii. 1162, 1343.

PERRY, OLIVER H., Victory of on Lake Erie, ii;.
1138.

PERRYVILLE, Battle of, iii. 1172.

PERSEPHONE, Myth of, i. 417, 423.

PEHSEPOLIS, Description of, i. 310; palaces of, L
313-315 ; taken by Alexander, i. 567.

PERSEUS, King of Macedonia, i. 741.

PERSEUS, Tradition of, i. 430.

PERSIA, General history of, i. 299-370; country
of, i. 299-308; people and cities of, i. 308-312;
arts and sciences of, i. 313-320 ; manners and
customs of, i. 321-331 ; language and religion
of i. 332-336 ; civil and military annals of, i.
337-370 ; at war with Rome, i. 908, 910 ; un-
der Sassanian dynasty, i. 873 ; conquest of by
Heraclius, i. 912-913; by the Moslems, ii.
114-121; in Middle Ages (see Islam and Cru-
sades).

PERSIA (the country), Political divisions of, i. 299;
climate of, i. 300-304 ; rivers of, i. 300 ; mount-
ains of, i. 301-302; general characteristics of,
i. 302-304.

PERSIAN GULF, Recession of, i. 107.

PERSIANS, Ethnic place of, i. 308 ; relationships of,
i. 309 ; arts and sciences of, i. 320 ; stature of,
i. 321 ; genius of, i. 321 ; valor of, i. 321 ; moral
character of, i. 322 ; military system of, i. 323 ;
weapons of, i. 323; tactics of, i. 324; armies
of, i. 325 ; cruelty of, i. 326 ; maritime abilities
of, i. 326-327 ; royal dress of, i. 327-328 ; edu-
cation of, i. 330-331 ; penal code of, i. 331 ;
language of, i. 332-334.

PERTINAX, Becomes emperor, i. 868 ; character of,
i. 869 ; murder of, i. 869.

PERU, Conquered by Pizarro, ii. 732-735 ; sum-
mary of history of, iii. 1324-1325.

PETER BARTHELEMY, Discovers the sacred lance, ii.
321, 323.

PETER THE GREAT, Sketch of, iii. 841-842; be-
comes emperor, iii. 842 ; travels abroad, iii.
842 ; a ship carpenter and student, iii. 842-
843 ; begins reforms, iii. 843 ; besieges Narva,
iii. 845 ; confronted by Charles XII., iii. 845-
846 ; suffers defeat, iii. 846-847 ; wins victory
at Poltava, iii. 847 ; expels the Swedes, iii.
847-851 ; founds St. Petersburg, iii. 853 ; gen-
ius of, iii. 853-854 ; death of, iii. 854.

PETER THE HERMIT, Maltreated in Jerusalem, ii.
243 ; calls the West to avenge him, ii. 243,
258-259, 299 ; leads the Crusade, ii. 313 ; es-
capes from the camp, ii. 318; ambassador to
the Turks, ii. 321 ; enters Jerusalem, ii. 326 ;
end of, ii. 328.

PETERS, SIR Hrfiii, Puritan leader in Parliament,
iii. 77li 77.'! ; in New KiiKlimd, iii. 866; exe-
cuted, in

PETERSBURG, .Siege and capture of, iii. 1185-1186.
1'i.miinT DYNASTY. (See Pompadour.)
I'l 7,1-A . < iisKi: u., President of IVru, iii. !

PHALANX, Of the Spartans, i. 472; of Macedonia,

i. 531.

I'H A RISERS, Sect of Jews, i. 847.
I'IIAKMACKS, Conquered by Caesar, i. 800.
PHAROS OF ALEXANDRIA, Notice of, i. 588.

PHAKSALIA, Battle of, i. 800.

I'mi. \IIKI. I-HIA, Founding of, ii. 751 ; population
of before the Revolution, iii. 947; meeting
place of Second Colonial Congress, iii. 067 ;
taken by British, iii. 971.

PHIDIAS, Life and work of, i. 402-403.

I'mi. HELLENES, Society of orgaiii/.i-il, iii. 1300.

I'm i. u> I., King of France, ii. 242; troubles of
witli the pope, ii. 242; reign, ii. _4L' .11.

PHILIP II. OF SPAIN, Husband of Mary Tudor, ii.
659; called to Spanish throne, ii. 660; lover
of Elizabeth, ii. 662; prepares the Armada,
ii. 665; sketch of, ii. 677; character of, ii.
677-678; reign of, ii. 677-696; death of,
ii. 696.

PHILIP III. or FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 421 ;
reign of, ii. 421-423.

PHILIP III. OF SPAIN, Accession of, ii. 696.

PHILIP IV. OF FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 423;
reign of, ii. 423, 439-444 ; war of with Flan-
ders, ii. 440; quarrels with Boniface, ii. 441.

PHILIP V. OF FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 445;
reign of, ii. 445.

PHILIP V. OF MACEDON, Accession of, i. 590;
makes war on the league ; i. 590 ; ambitious
projects of, i. 693-694 ; solicited by Hannibal,
i. 727 ; reign of, i. 738-739.

PHILIP V. OF SPAIN, Claimant of the crown, iii.
827; supported by Louis XIV., iii. 828; pro-
claimed at Madrid, iii. 829; takes flight, iii.
833; recognized as sovereign, iii. 835.

PHILIP VI. OF FRANCE, Becomes king, ii. 446;
reign of, ii. 446-449; war of with England, ii.
447-448.

PHILIP AKHHID.EUS, Nominal successor of Alexan-
der, i. 578.

PHILIP AUGUSTUS, Becomes a Crusader, ii. 356; re-
lations of with the Lion Heart, ii. 360-366,
416-417; before Acre, ii. 361-363; returns to
France, ii. 365; goes to war with England, ii.
409; quarrels with the pope, ii. 417-418;
takes Normandy from England, ii. 418; per-
secutes the Albigenses, ii. 419.

PHILIP OF HESSE, Friend of Luther, ii. 681 ; im-
prisoned by Charles V., ii. 613.

PHILIP OF MACKDI-X, A hostage in Thebes, i. 520,
630 ; accedes to the throne, i. 521, 531 ; as-
cendency of in the North, i. 521-622, 531-535 ;
encroaches on Greece, i. 622-523, 536-541 ;
gains a sent in the Amphictyony, i. 523; sub-
ordinates Greece, i. .V.M, 541.'; death of, i. ~>l-;
character of, i. 542-543.

I'im.ii- OK ORLEANS, Regent for I,,ui.-

PHII.II- OK OKLKANH ( KOAUTEI, Votes for death of
l-.tiin XVI., iii. 1025; execution of. iii. 1031-

Pim.ir HIE ARABIAN, Kei^n of, i. s

Piiiui', THE WAMI * MET, War with

m.

PIIILIPUCMEN, Leader of the League, i. 741.

Piiii.ii'i'i, Battle <>!, I 812.

I'nii.i.sTiA, Dew-notion of, i. 240.

Pmi.i.ii'i'A, Wife of Edward III., ii. 608; plead*

for the burgesses, ii. 610.
PHOCAS, Emperor of the East, i. 911-912.
PHOCIS, Description of, i. 874.
PHOEBIOAS, General of SparU, i. 610.
PHOENICIA, Character of, i. 238 ; early history of,

i. 238.

PHOCNIX, TUB, Tradition of, i. 88.
PHONOGRAPH, Invention of, iii. 1199.
PHRYGIANS, Notice of, i. 310.
PIACENZA, Council of, ii. 243, 299.
PiccoLOMiNi, Betrays Wallenstein, ii. 716-717.
PICKNUM, Description of, i. 602.
PICKBTT, GENERAL, Charge of at Gettysburg, iii.

1179-1180.

PIEDMONT, Insurrection in, iii. 1287.
PIERCE, FRANKLIN, Elected President, iii. 1162;

administration of, iii. 1162-1163.
PIERIA, Macedonian province, i. 626.
PILGRIMAGES, A cause of the Crusades, ii. 299.
PILGRIM FATHERS, In Holland, ii. 674 ; emigrate to

America, ii. 738; found Plymouth, ii. 739;

build New England, iii. 864-861.
PINCKNEY, CHARLES C., American minister at

Paris, iii. 1131.
PINDAR, Account of, i. 392.
PINDUS MOUNTAINS, Description of, L 371-372.
PISA, Founding of, ii. 435; early history of, ii.

435-436; condition of in XlVth century, ii.

539.

PISISTRATUS, Usurpation of, i. 452-453.
Piso, ( ' u IM iixii-s. Plots against Nero, i. 841.
Piso, Lucius CALPURNIUS, Consul, i. 789.
PrrcAiRN, Commander of British at Lexington,

iii. 957.
PITT, WILLIAM, Supports Prince of Wales, iii.

876 ; policy of in America, iii. 930 ; minister

of George III., iii. 934-936; defends the

Americans, iii. 966.
PITT, WILLIAM (the younger), beads coalition

against France, iii. 1027; directs England, iiL

1067; death of, iii. 1073.
PiTTSBi'RG LANDING, Battle of, iii. 1171.
PITS VI., Imprisoned, iii. 1050.
Pius VII., Crowns Napoleon, iii. 1066; breaks

with the Emperor, iii. 10.HO-1081 ; imprisoned,

iii. 1887; released, iii. 1113.
Pius IX., Mentioned, iii., 1235; first years of in

papacy, iii. r.'78; supported by France in

Home, iii. l-'7<); death of, iii. 1286.
Pi •/. M . isco, Career of in the New World.

ii. 734-735.

1396

INDEX.

PLAGUE (see Black Death), In Italy, ii. 540.

PLANT AGENET, Dynasty of established, ii. 342;
ascendency of in England, ii. 342-343, 405-
416, 504-535 ; table of, iii. 1208.

PLANT AGENET, GEOFFREY, Founder of English dy-
nasty, ii. 342.

PLAT.EA, Battle of, i. 359, 471.

PLATO, Referred to, i. 407 ; in Syracuse, i. 519.

PLATTSBURG, Battle of, iii. 1141.

PLAUTUS, Sketch of, i. 630.

PLEBEIANS, The Roman Commons, i.668; develop-
ment of, i. 868-680 ; struggle of with Patricians,
i. 680-689, 694-698, 703.

PLEBISCITE, Measure of Napoleon III., iii. 1241.

PLEVNA, Investment of, iii. 1304 ; siege and battle
of, iii. 1305.

PLINY THE ELDER, Notice of, i. 635-636.

PLINY THE YOUNGER, Sketch of, i. 635.

PLUTARCH, Notice of, i. 636.

PLUTO. (See Hades.)

PLYMOUTH, Founding of, ii. 739.

PLYMOUTH COMPANY, Attempts of to colonize Amer-
ica, ii. 736-738.

Po, THE, Mentioned, i. 600.

PODESTAS, Ascendency of in Italy, ii. 539-543.

POETRY, Of the Greeks, i. 390-395; of the Ro-
mans, i. 632-635.

POITIERS, Battle of (732), ii. 79-80, 151 ; battle of
(1356), ii. 451.

POLAND, Early history of, ii. 295-296 ; dismember-
ment of, iii. 942 (see Augustus III. and Catha-
rine II.) ; passes under Russian dominion, iii.
1289 ; attempted revolution in, iii, 1289-1290.

POLE, CARDINAL DE LA, Sent to England, ii. 658 ;
becomes archbishop of Canterbury, ii. 660.

POLES, Tribal history of, ii. 46.

POLIGNAC, PRINCE, Leader of French. Cabinet, iii.
1222.

POLISH SUCCESSION, War of, iii. 875, 881-882 ; causes
and course of, iii. 891.

POLK, JAMES K., Elected President, iii. 1155 ; ad-
ministration of, iii. 1155-1160.

POLTAVA, Battle of, iii. 847.

POLYBIUS, Sketch of, i. 631.

POLYSPERCHON, Ruler of Macedonia, i. 583.

POMPADOUR, MARCHIONESS DE, Ascendency of in
France, iii. 884-886, 939 ; enmity of to Fred-
erick II., iii. 905-906.

POMPEII, Burial and exhumation of, i. 854.

POMPEIUS, CNEIUS, Rebellion of in Spain, i. 806.

POMPEIUS MAGNUS, CNEIUS, General in Spain, i.
775; rival of Crassus, i. 776; anecdote of, i.
777 ; clears the Mediterranean of pirates, i.
778-779 ; family of, i. 779 ; appointed to com-
mand in the East, i. 779; career of in Asia, i.
780 ; rival of Caesar, i. 794-797 ; takes the
field, i. 798 ; defeated and slain, i. 800.

POMPEIUS, SEXTUS, Rebellion of in Spain, i. 806 ;
leagues with Antonius, i. 814 ; overthrow and
death of, i. 814-815.

PONCE DE LEON, Discovers Florida, ii. 559-560 ;
appointed governor, ii. 561.

PONTIFEX MAXIMUS, Of Rome, i. 653.

PONTIUS GAVIUS, General of the Samnites, i. 700-
702.

PONTUS, Conquest of by Rome, i. 779-780; sub-
dued by Caesar, i. 800.

POPE, GENERAL JOHN, Captures New Madrid, iii.
1171 ; commands at Bull Run and Chantilly,
iii. 1174.

POPISH PLOT, History of, iii. 800-801.

POPLICOLA. (See Valerius.)

POPULARES, Political party in Rome, i. 757.

PORSENNA, King of Clusium, i. 677.

PORTER, ADMIRAL DAVID, Opens Mississippi, iii.
1172 ; takes Fort Fisher, iii. 1173 ; bombards
Vicksburg, iii. 1175.

PORTER, CAPTAIN, Surrenders the Essex, iii. 1140.

PORTUGAL (see Spain), Subordinated by France,
iii. 1080, 1326.

PORUS, Conquered by Alexander, i. 571.

POSEIDON, Myth of, i. 422-423.

POSSIDIPPUS, Account of, i. 395.

POTATO FAMINE, In Ireland, iii. 1211.

POTSDAM GUARDS, Organization of, iii. 887.

POTTERY, Of the Chaldseans, i. 125 ; of the Baby-
lonians, i. 267-268.

POULAINS OF SYRIA, Account of, ii. 332.

POWELL, LEWIS PAYNE, Attempts to assassinate
Seward, iii. 1187.

PRADO, DON MANUEL, President of Peru, iii. 1325.

PR.ETORIAN GUARDS, Duty of, i. 827.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION, Issued by Charles VI., iii.
850, 876, 882, 891.

PRAXITELES, Work of, i. 403.

PRAYER, As used by the Assyrians, i. 192 ; by the
Medes, i. 217-219 ; by the Babylonians, i. 275-
276 ; by the Persians, i. 335 ; by the Greeks,
i. 413 ; by the Romans, i. 651-652, 655, 662.

PRBBLE, COMMODORE, Subdues Tripoli, iii. 1134.

PRESBURG, Treaty of, iii. 1071.

PRESBYTERIANISM, Founding of, ii. 620-621 ; tri-
umphant in Scotland, iii. 767.

PRESBYTERIANS, In league with the Puritans, ii. 776.

PRESCOTT, GENERAL, Hero of Bunker Hill, iii. 958.

PRIESTHOOD, Natural growth of, i. 40-41.

PRIESTS, Their place among the Egyptians, i. 72-73.

PRIM, GENERAL JUAN, Invades Mexico, iii. 1319.

PRIMOGENITURE, Adopted by Feudalism, ii. 231.

PRINCE IMPERIAL OF FRANCE, Birth of, iii. 1238; on
field of Saarbruck, iii 1266 ; death of, iii. 1246.

PRINTING, Art of invented, ii. 501-503 ; early his-
tory of, ii. 504.

PRINTING-PRESS, Introduced into New England,
iii. 857.

PROBUS, Reign of, i. 877-878.

PROCOPIA, Empress of the East, i. 917.

PROCTOR, GENERAL, British commander in Canada,
iii. 1138.

PROTOCOL OF LONDON, Nature of, iii. 1302-1303.

PRODUCTS, Of Chaldsea, i. 104-105; of Mesopo-
tamia, i. 142-149; of Media, i. 204-206; of
Babylonia, i. 247-250; of Persia, i. 306-307.

PROMETHEUS, Myth of, i. 431.

PROPERTIUS, Sketch of, i. 633.

PROSERPINE. (See Persephone.)

LMiEX.

PROTESTANTISM, Always existent in tho Church, ii.
5<id-o?0; early growth of, ii. 57R -585 ; formu-
lute.1 at Augsburg, ii. 595-69*> ; doctrii
ii. ftsHi ; li-gully recognized, ii. 597, 015; bad
logic of, ii. 597-598, 615-618.

PROVIDENCE, Founding of, ii. 744.

PkoviMiAi. SYSTKM, Of Rune, i. 716-717,737, 744-
7l.\ 7.-.0-751, 753-754.

PRUSSIA, Foundation of (see Hohenzoliern) ; during
Seven Years' War, iii. 905-920; revival of, iii.
940-941 ; during epoch of Napoleon (see Bon-
aparte and Frederick William III.) ; ascendency
of, iii. 1250-1276.

PRYTANEIUM, Account of, i. 424.

I'SAMKIIK, Reign of, i. 68.

PSAMETIK II., Reign of, i. 68.

PSKCDO-SMKKDIS, Reign of, i. 349.

PTAH, Worship and emblems of, i. 81-82.

PTEBIA, Battle of, i. 295.

PTOLEMY AULKTBS, Deposed by Caesar, i. 800.

PTOLEMY CERA UN us, Ruler of Macedonia, i. 589.

PTOLEMY KIMPHANES, Reign of, i. 593, 738.

PTOLEMY EUBRGBTBS, Reign of, i. 591-592.

PTOLEMY PHILADELPHIA, Reign of, i. 587-588.

PTOLEMY PHILOPATER, Reign of, i. 592-593.

PTOLEMY SOTER, Receives Egypt, i. 579 ; career of,
i. 579-587.

PUBLIC OPINION, Influence of in American Colo-
nies, iii. 951.

PUBLILIUS, QUINTIUS, Roman dictator, i. 696.

PUBLILIUS, VOLERO, Roman tribune, i. 684.

PUEBLA, Stormed by the French, iii. 1320.

Pin,, Doubtful king of Assyria, i. 169.

PULASKI, COUNT, Honored by Congress, iii. 971;
killed at Savannah, iii. 976.

PULCHERIA, Empress of the East, i. 905.

PUNJAUB, Overrun by Alexander, i. 573; war of
England with, iii. 1212.

PURITANS, Rise of, ii. 674; in Holland, ii. 674 ; em-
igrate to America, ii. 738; found Plymouth,
ii. 739; control parliament, iii. 768-794; as
soldiers, iii. 774, 781 ; at enmity with human
nature, iii. 797.

PUTNAM, ISRAEL, Patriot of New England, iii. 957 ;
at Bunker Hill, iii. 958; at Long Island, iii.
964 ; at Horse Neck, iii. 974.

PYDNA, Battle of, i. 741.

PYM, JOHN, In parliament, iii. 768; impeaches
Strafford, iii. 769; Puritan leader, iii. 771.

PYRAMIDS, Building and character of, i. 48-60;
use of, i. 50.

PYRAMIDS, Battle of, iii. 1051.

PYKKIIUS, KINO OF EPIRUS, Career of in Italy, i.
705-706.

I'YTIIIA, Priestess of Delhi, i. 415.

PYTHIAS GAMES, Notice of, i. 439.

Q.

QITADI,, Repelled by Aurelius, i. 866; aggressions
of, i. 874 ; tribal history of, ii. 36.

QujESTORSinp, Establishment of, i. 680; extension
of, i. 689.

Found IVmmylrania, ii. 748-761

New England, iii. -
QUKBH-, Capum-d l,\
QUEENSLAND, Political ,!. AuirtralU, iii.

1349; flocks and !,. r-!- of. ,ii

•i-V "'. ii. '<-> •
QLIRINUS. (See Romulut.)
0,1-iRrrrs, Origin of, i. 686.

•«. (See Ecuador.)
QUITO (the city), Destroyed by earthquake, iii.

im

Worship and emblems of, i. 82.

RACKS or MANKIND, Considered, i. 106-107.
>:, Notice of, iii. 839.

RADETZKY, MARSHAL, Expelled from Milan, iii.
1256, 1278.

RADAO.B8U8, King of the Germans, i. 892.

RAGLAN, LORD, Commander of British in Crimean
War, iii. 1291.

RAILROAD STRIKE, Account of, iii. 1196-1196.

RAILWAY, The first in England, iii. I:1 17.

RALEIGH, SIR WALTER, Career of in the New
World, ii. 736-736; imprisoned for life, iii.
766; executed, iii. 760.

RAMILLIES, Battle of, iii. 833.

RAMNES, Tribe of primitive Romans, i. 666.

RAMSES, House of, i. 68-66.

RAMSES THE GREAT, Reign of, i. 69-62 ; bis wars, L
69-60; his monument*, i. 61-62; bis fame,
i. 62.

RAMSES III., Reign of, i. 66.

RAMSES XII., Reign of, i. 66.

RAPHIA, Battle of, i. 67, 172.

RAVENNA, Capital of Theodoric, ii. 54.

RAWDON, LORD, British commander in Carolina,
iii. 979.

RAYMBACLT, CHARLES, Jesuit explorer in New
France, iii. 921.

RAYMOND or TOULOUSE, Leader of the First Cru-
sade, ii. 306; career of, ii. 306-330.

REASON, Apotheosis of, iii. 1032-1033.

RECARED, King of the Visigoths, ii. 66.

REDAN, THE, Taken by storm, iii. 1293.

RED RIVER EXPEDITION, Account of, iii. 1181.

RED TERROR. (See Terror, Beiyn of.)

REFLECTIONS, Arising from consideration of his-
tory, iii. 1361-1354.

REFORMATION, Antecedents of in France, ii. 419;
in Germany, ii. 489-497; in England, ii. 518,
621 ; causes of, ii. 669-677 ; general history of,
ii, 669-686; progress of during reign of
Charles V., ii. 686-699 ; coarse of in England,
ii. 599-615; philosophy of, ii. 616-623; desti-
nies of in last half of century XVIth, ii. «SS-
697 ; during Thirty Years' War, ii. 897-729.

REFORM BILL. Passed by Parliament, iii. 1206-1207 ;
the second, iii. 1216.

REGICIDES, Fate of, iii. 796.

REOCLUS, General of Rome, i. 712 ; capture of, L
713; heroism of, i. 714.

1398

INDEX.

EEICHSTADT, DUKE OF. (See King of Rome.)

RELIGIOUS SYSTEM, Of the Egyptians, i. 81-91 ; of
the Chaldseans, i. 130-138 ; of the Assyrians,
i. 187-196; of the Mede's, i. 214-220; of the
Babylonians, i. 274-276; of the Persians, i.
334-336 ; of the Greeks, i. 413-419 ; of the Ro-
mans, i. 651-662 ; of the Barbarians, ii. 43.

REMONETIZATION OF SILVER, Account of, iii. 1196.

REMUS, Tradition of, i. 663.

REMUSAT, Quotation from relative to effect of Cru-
sades, ii. 403.

RENSSELAER, STEPHEN VAN, Niagara campaign of,
iii. 1137.

REQUESBNS, DON Luis DE, Successor of Alva, ii.
687 ; career of in Netherland, ii. 687-689.

RESACA, Battle of, iii. 1181.

RESACA DE LA PALMA, Battle of, iii. 1156.

RESTORATION, Of the Bourbons, iii. 1114-1117;
second, iii. 1127.

RESTORATION, Of the Stuarts, iii. 793-794.

RESURRECTION, Believed in by the Medes, i.
217.

RESUMPTION, Of specie payments accomplished,
iii. 1197.

RESUMPTION ACT, Passed by Congress, iii. 1196.

REVOLUTION, Age of, considered, iii. 949-950.

RKZIN, Defeated by the Assyrians, i. 170.

RIIEA, Myth of, i. 420.

RIIEA SILVIA, Legend of, i. 663.

RHODE ISLAND, Colonization of, ii. 742-744 ; do-
mestic troubles in, iii. 1154.

RHODES, Art school of, i. 403-404, 621-622 ; Colos-
sus of, i. 622 ; ii. 124.

RIALL, British General at Niagara, iii. 1141.

RIALTO, Capital island of Venice, ii. 429.

RICHARD THE LION HEART, Becomes a Crusader,
ii. 359; relations of with Philip Augustus, ii.
360-361; before Acre, ii. 363; takes the fort-
ress, ii. 363 ; at Azotus, ii. 365 ; before Jeru-
salem, ii. 365-367 ; at Jaffa, ii. 367 ; returns to
Europe, ii. 369; captivity of, ii. 369; reign of,
ii. 407 ; death of, ii. 370.

RICHARD II. OF ENGLAND, Becomes king, ii. 513 ;
reign of, ii. 514-517.

RICHARD OF CORNWALL, Leader of 'the Sixth Cru-
sade, ii. 387; successes of in Palestine, ii.
387.

RICHARD OF YORK, Regent of France, ii. 524-525 ;
heads the Yorkists, ii. 526 ; killed, ii. 527.

RICHELIEU, CARDINAL, Sketch of, ii. 711 ; rise of,
ii. 711 ; in correspondence with Wallenstein,
ii. 716 ; leagues with Oxenstiern, ii. 717 ; power
of in France, ii. 719 ; last days of, ii. 721.

RICHELIEU, DUKE OF, Leads French Chamber, iii.
1218-1219.

RICIMER, KINO OF THE SuEvi, Makes and unmakes
kings, i. 901-903, ii. 70.

RIDLEY, NICHOLAS, Martyrdom of, ii. 659-660.

RIENZI, COLA DI, Mentioned, ii. 540.

Rio DE JANEIRO, Capital of Brazil, iii. 1326.

RIPLEY, GENERAL, American commander on Niag-
ara frontier, iii. 1140-1141.

RIZZIO, DAVID, Favorite of Mary Stuart, ii. 664.

ROBERT THE Pious, King of France, ii. 235; com-
pelled to divorce Bertha, ii. 235 ; reign of, ii.
235-237.

ROBERT III., King of Scotland, ii. 520.

ROBERT OF NORMANDY, Takes the dukedom from
Richard, ii. 237 ; rebellion of against William,
ii. 272-274; claims the Norman throne, ii. 276;
becomes a Crusader, ii. 279, 305 ; career of, ii.
305-328.

ROBERT OF PARIS, Anecdote of, ii. 312; killed, ii.
315.

ROBESPIERRE, MAXIMILIEN ISIDORE DE, Sketch of,
iii. 1021 ; ascendency of, iii. 1022-1036 ; execu-
tion of, iii. 1036.

ROBIN HOOD, Career of, ii. 411-412.

ROBINSON, JOHN, Leader of Pilgrims, ii. 674, iii. 855.

ROCHAMBEAU, COUNT, French commander in Amer-
ica, iii. 976.

RODERIC, Last king of the Visigoths, ii. 149.

RODGERS, COMMODORE, Takes the Little Belt, iii. 1 136.

ROEBLING, JOHN A., Architect of East River bridge,
iii. 1200.

Rois FAINEANTS, History of, ii. 77-79.

ROLAND, Death of, ii. 165'

ROLAND, JEAN MARIE, Girondist leader, iii. 1014;
kills himself, iii. 1030.

ROLAND, MADAME MARIE JEANNE, Girondist
leader, iii. 1014; executed, iii. 1030.

ROLF THE DANE. (See Rollo.)

ROLLO, Leader of the Northmen, ii. 183 ; ascends
the Seine, ii. 184 ; besieges Paris, ii. 185 ; con-
quers Western France, ii. 185-186 ; conference
of with Charles, ii. 187.

ROMAN EMPIRE, Establishment of, i. 823-824 ; un-
der first Csesars, i. 823-858 ; progress of from
Nerva to Antoninus, i. 858-864; age of the
Antonines, i. 864-878; epoch of Diocletian, i.
879-881; Constantino and his successors, i.
881-907 ; age of Justinian, i. 907-914 ; the
Iconoclasts, i. 915-919 ; Macedonian dynasty,
i. 919-922; age of the Conmeni, i. 923-928;
Latin dynasty, i. 928-929; the Palseologi, i.
930-936.

ROMAN KINGDOM, Founding of, i. 663; legends
and traditions of, i. 663-674.

ROMANOFF DYNASTY, Table of, iii. 840; accession
of, iii. 840 ; ascendency of, iii. 840-854.

ROMAN REPUBLIC, General history of, i. 675-822;
early annals of, i. 675-693 ; conquest of Italy
by, i. 694-707 ; Punic wars of, i. 708-750 ; as-
cendency of, i. 750-818 ; causes of overthrow
of, i. 820-822.

ROMANS, Ethnic place of, i. 607; tribal divisions
of, i. 607-612; practical disposition of, i. 613;
resoluteness of, i. 613-614; ambition of, i. 614;
vanity of, i. 614-615; warlike disposition of,
i. 615; love of order of, i. 616; moral quali-
ties of, 5. 616-617 ; home virtues of, i. 617-618;
personal appearance of, i. 618; arts and learn-
ing of, i. 619-636 ; manners and customs of, i.
637-651; religion of, i. 651-662; legends and
traditions of, i. 662-674 ; greed of for honors,
i. 754.

IM>EX.

tan

ROMANUS I., roij?n of, i. 920.

KO.M \\i-s II., ll-\xn »f, i. !»1M.

U..MAMS III., Reign of, i. 923.

KOMANIIH DIOGENES, Reign of, i. 9-4.

ROME, General history of, i. 595-936; country of,
i. 595-600; people of, i. 607-619; arts and
li'iirning of, i. 019-636; manners and customs,
i. 637-651 ; religion of, i. 651-662 ; legends and
traditions of, i. 662-674; republic of, i. 675-
822; empire of, i. 823-<j:;<>.

ROUE (the city), Founding of, i. 063; life in, i.
637-651 ; greatness of under Augustus, i. 826-
827 ; burned by Nero, i. 840 ; taken by the
Goths, i. 894; ii. 58, 60; captured by the Sar-
acens, ii. 257.

ROMULUS, Tradition of, i. 663-666.

ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, The puppet Caesar, i. 903 ;
forced to abdicate, i. 904.

RONCKSVALLEH, Battle of, ii. 165.

RONQB, FATHER, Would reform German Church,
iii. 1250.

ROSAS, JUAN MANUEL DE, President and dictator
of United Provinces, iii. 1326.

ROSBCRANS, WILLIAM 8., Wins victory at Gauley
River, iii. 1168; at luka, iii. 1172; at Mur-
freesboro, iii. 1172-1173; at Chickamauga, iii.
1176.

ROSKS, War of, ii. 527-535 ; effects of, ii. 535.

ROSETTA STONE, Account of, i. 97-98.

Ross, GENERAL, Takes Washington City, iii. 1141-
1142.

ROSSBACU, Battle of, iii. 910.

ROUOBT DE L'ISLE, Author of La Ifarteillaisf, iii.
1017.

ROUNDHEADS, Nickname of Puritan parliamenta-
rians, iii. 773.

ROUSSEAU, Encyclopaedist of France, iii. 988.

Rox ASA, Wife of Alexander, i. 568, 578, 579.

RUBICON, Crossed by Caesar, i. 797.

RUDOLPH OF HAFSBURO, Elected king of Germany,
ii. 477 ; reign of, ii. 477-478 ; dynasty of, ii. 478.

RUDOLPH II., Becomes German emperor, ii. 653 ;
policy of, ii. 653 ; deposition of, ii. 699.

RUISAKOFF, Assassin of Alexander II., iii. 1299.

RUMP PARLIAMENT, Mentioned, iii. 792.

RUNNVMEDE, Place of Magna Charta, ii. 411.

RUPERT OP BAVARIA, Elected emperor, ii. 488;
reign of, ii. 488-489.

RUPERT, PRINCE, General of Charles I., iii. 774, 777 ;
of Charles II., iii. 797, 799.

RURIC, Founder of Russia, ii. 293.

RUSSELL, LORD JOHN, Reform measures of, iii.
1204; ministry of, iii. 1215.

RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM, Minister of Charles II.,
iii. 800, 801.

RUSSIA, Early history of, ii. 293-295; in XlVth
and XVth centuries, ii. 548 ; in epoch of Czar
Peter, iii. 840-854 ; during Seven Years' War,
iii. 905-920; during reign of Catharine II.
(see Catharine II.) ; in time of Napoleon (see
Bonaparte and Alexander I.); in Crimean
War (see Crimean War) ; in Turcc-Russian
War (see Turco-Rtusian War).

. r of by riiOV.r.
i. Karly hi*t<iry of, i
RYE H<n>! :ice of, iii. 801.

• II-K, Treaty of, iii. si'7.

s.

MAAD, Governor of r^yi't, ii

VUIINKS, Karly history of, i. 611 ; women of seized
by Romans, i. 663-604 ; united with the Ro-
mans, i. 665.

SACKED AsiMAiJt, Of th.- Egyptian*, i. 87-91.

SACKED WAK, History of, i 538.

SACRIFICES, Of the Egyptian*, i. 85-87; of the As-
syrians, i. 192; of the Medea, i. 217-219; of
the Babylonians, i. 275-276; of the Persians,
i. 335 ; of the Greeks, i. 413 ; of the Romans,
i. 655-657.

SAUDUCEED, Sect of Jews, i. 847.

SADOWA, Battle of, iii. 1260.

SAOUNTUM, Captured by Hannibal, i. 720.

ST. AUGUSTINE, Founding of, ii. 734.

ST. BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre of, ii. 634-638.

ST. CLAIR, GENERAL ARTHUR, Defends Ticonder-
oga, iii. 969 ; governor of North-western Ter-
ritory, iii. 984; defeated by Miami*, iii. 1130.

ST. CLOUD, Burned by Prussians, iii. 1271.

ST. DOMINGO, Negro insurrection in, iii. 1063-1064.

ST. HELENA, Place of Napoleon's banishment, iii.
1125.

ST. JAMES, Battle of, ii. 499.

VRE, Patron saint of Venice, ii. 429-430.

ST. PAUL. (See Paul)

ST. PETERSBURG, Founding of, iii. 853.

SALADIN, Sultan of the Turks, ii. 353 ; overthrows
Christians at Tiberias, ii. 354-355 ; takes Jeru-
salem, ii. 355 ; character of, ii. 356-356 ; sur-
renders Acre, ii. 363.

SALAMANCA, Battle of, iii. 1096.

SALAMIS, Battle of, i. 359, 468-469.

SALATIS, Reign of, i. 56.

SALEM, Founding of, iii. 855 ; witchcraft at, iii. 861.

SALIAN DYNASTY, Establishment of, ii. 192.

SALLDST, Sketch of, i. 631.

SAMAS, Worship and titles of, i. 133.

SAMNITES, Early history of, i. 611; relations of
with the Romans, i. 098-699 ; war with, i. 699-
700; subjugation of, i. 701-702.

SAMNIUM, Description of, i. 606; subjugation of by
Rome, i. 700-702.

SAKSC-ILUNA, Reign of, i. 120.

SANDERS' CREEK, Battle of, iii. 977.

SANOUIN, Sultan of Mosaoul, ii. 339; overthrows
principality of Edessa, ii. 340.

SAN JACISTO, Battle of, iii. 1154.

SAN STIFANO, Treaty of, iii. 1307.

SANTA ANNA, President of Mexico, Hi. 1316-1317;
at San Jacinto, iii. 1154; recalled from Ha-
vana, iii. 1156; at Bnena Vista, iii. 1168; at
Cerro Gordo and Mexico, iii. 1169; overthrow
of, iii. 1159.

SAN YI-STB, Retreat of Charles V., ii. 619.

SAPHADIN, Sultan of the Turks, ii. 371.

1400

INDEX.

SAPPHO, Account of, i. 392.

SARACENS, First contact of with Rome, i. 874; in
Africa and Spain (see Mam, Cordova, and
Charks Martel) ; in time of Crusades. (See
Crusades.)

SARACUS, King of Assyria, i. 184 ; is defeated by
Cyaxares, i. 186, 224 ; death of, i. 186, 224.

SARAQOSSA, Contended for by Charlemagne, ii. 164 ;
siege of, iii. 1082-1084.

SARDIS, Description of, i. 311 ; taken by the Per-
sians, i. 340 ; by Alexander, i. 550.

SARGON, King of Assyria, i. 172 ; conquers Ha-
math, i. 172 ; defeats the Egyptians, i. 172 ;
subdues Babylon, i. 173; adopts policy of
deportation, i. 173-174; builds city of Sargon,
i. 174.

SASSANID.E, Dynasty of established, i. 873 ; table
of, 874 ; overthrown by the Moslems, ii. 121.

SATURN, (See Cronos.)

SATURNALIA, Of the Romans, i. 657-658.

SAUL, King of Israel, i. 284.

SAVANNAH, Confederate cruiser, account of, iii.
1183.

SAVANNAH, Founding of, ii. 752; taken by British,
iii. 974 ; taken by Sherman, iii. 1182.

SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO, Italian reformer, ii. 542-
543.

SAXE, MARSHAL, General of Louis XV., iii. 902.

SAXONS, Tribal history of, ii. 39; character of, ii.
82-83 ; conquered by Charlemagne, ii. 160-162.

SC^EVOLA, Mucius, Measures of, i. 766.

ScHLESWiQ-HoLSTEiN, Revolution in, iii. 1253 ; po-
litical complication of, iii. 1259-1260.

SCHLIEMANN, Discoveries of, i. 398.

SCHOEPPER, PETER, Inventor of metallic types, ii.
503.

SCHOFIELD, GENERAL, at Franklin, iii. 1182.

SCHONBRUNN, Treaty of, iii. 1087.

SCHOOL OP THE PALACE, Established by Charle-
magne, ii. 172.

SCHUYLER, GENERAL, commands Northern army,
iii. 969.

SCHWARTZENBURG, MARSHAL CARL PHILIP, Enters

France, iii. 1113.

SCHWERIN, COUNT, General of Frederick the
Great, iii. 907 ; death of, iii. 907-908.

SCIENCE, Origin of, i. 40-41, 121-137 ; of the Chal-
dseans, i. 121-129 ; of the Babylonians, i. 263-
270.

Scio, Insurrection and massacre in, iii. 1299.

SCIPIO, CNEIUS CORNELIUS (APRICANUS), Com-
mands Roman army in Spain, i. 730 ; invades
Africa, i. 733-734 ; subdues Carthage, i. 735-
736; family of, i. 735; triumph of, i. 736.

SCIPIO, NASCIA, Senator of Rome, i. 758-759.

SCIPIO, PUBLIUS, JUN., Conquers Numantia, i. 752.

SCOTLAND, History of in Middle Ages (see Robert
Bruce and William Wallace, also David, Edward
III., and James IV.) ; united with England,
iii. 834.

SCOTT, WINFIELD, Campaign of on Niagara fron-
tier, iii. 1140-1141 ; commander-in-chief in
Mexican war, iii. 1156 ; at Vera Cruz, iii. 1158 ;

captures Mexico, iii. 1159-1160; candidate for
President, iii. 1162; retires from service, iii.
1170.

SCULPTURE, Practiced by the Egyptians, i. 93-95 ;
by the Assyrians, i. 192-195 ; by the Babylo-
nians, i. 265-266 ; of the Persians, i. 319 ; of
the Greeks, i. 401-404 ; of the Romans, i. 621-
623.

SCYTHIA, Invaded by Darius, i. 354; by Philip,
i. 539.

SCYTHIANS, THE, Invade Media, i. 183, 222 ; over-
run Assyria, i. 184; become masters of
Western Asia, i. 184 ; massacred by Cyaxa-
res, i. 223 ; character of, i. 309 ; subdued by
Alexander, i. 568.

SCYTHIC NATIONS, Tribal history of, ii. 47-50.

SEA BEGGARS, Patriots of Holland, ii. 684.

SEE, Worship of, i. 83.

SEBASTOPOL, Siege and capture of, iii. 1291-1294.

SEBEKNEFRURA, Reign of, i. 55.

SECESSION OF SOUTHERN STATES, Account of, iii.
1164, 1165.

SECOND EMPIRE OF FKANCE, History of, iii. 1237-
1241, 1263-1274.

SECOND MESSENIAN WAR, History of, i. 445^46.

SECTIONAL LITERATURE, A cause of civil war, iii.
1168.

SECULAR GAMES, Account of, i. 828.

SEDAN, Battle of, iii. 1269.

SEDGWICK, GENERAL, At Chancellorsville, iii. 1178 ;
at Gettysburg, iii. 1179.

SEDITION LAW, Passed by Congress, iii. 1132.

SEIDLITZ, General of Frederick the Great, iii. 908,
910, 914, 915, 916.

SEJANUS, Career of, i. 833.

SELEUCUS, Governor of Babylonia, i. 584; founds
the Selucidse, i. 585 ; rule of, i. 585.

SELIM, SULTAN, Mentioned, iii. 1299.

SELJUKIAN TURKS. (See Turks.)

SELUCID^:, Dynasty of, i. 585-594.

SEMEMPSES, Reign of, i. 46.

SEMINOLE INDIANS, War with, iii. 1146, 1151, 1152.

SEMIRAMIS, Tradition of, i. 168-169, 278-279.

SEMIRAMIS OF THE NORTH. (See Margaret of Den-
mark.)

SEMITIC RACE, Denned, i. 107 ; branches of, i. 149 ;
religions of, ii. 96-97.

SEMMES, RAPHAEL, Captain of Confederate cruisers,
iii. 1183-1184.

SEMPACH, Battle of, ii. 486.

SEMPRONIAN LAWS, Provisions of, i. 759-760.

SENATE, Of Rome, Constitution of, i. 680, 697-698 ;
retained in form by Augustus, i. 824.

SENATUS CONSULTUM, Measure of Napoleon III.,
iii. 1241.

SENECA, Notice of, i. 629, 635; teacher of Nero, i.
839.

SENNACHERIB, King of Assyria, i. 176 ; conquers
Babylon, i. 175; makes war in Syria, i. 175;
marches against Egypt, i. 176 ; overthrown by
a simoom, i. 176-177 ; invades Susiana, i. 177 ;
makes war with Silicia, i. 178 ; as a builder, i.
178-179.

IShl .\

140J

SEPOY RERBLLION, causes of, iii. 1L'1L>; progress of,

iii. l.'ll !•_•!:;; suppression of, iii. 1'JI I.

ACKI..S, III I';uls, iii. lOL'il.

SEPTUAGINT, Refrm-d to, i. 847.

Si HVKH s, MM-IIAKI., Burned at th« stake, ii. 621.

SKKVU.I: WAK, History of, i. 7.Y5, 765.

us Ti-i.i.u--., Kini; <>f early Rome, i. 671-672.
SETI I., Reign of, i. 58.
SETI II., Reign of, i. 64.

SEVEN DAYS' BATTLES, Account of, iii. 1173-1174.
SBVBN WBBKS' WAK, History of, iii. 1259-1282.
SEVEN WONDERS OF THB WORLD, Notice of, i. 268.
SEVEN YEARS' WAK, Causes of, iii. 905-907 ; history

of, iii. 907-920; American phase of, iii. 921-923.
SKVERUS, Ctesar of the West, i. 903.
SBVBRUS, ALEXANDER, Becomes emperor, i. 872 ;

character of, i. 872-873 ; war of in the East,

i. 873 ; death of, i. 873.
SEVERUS, SEMPTIMIUS, Becomes emperor, i. 869;

reign of, i. 869-870.
SEWARD, WILLIAM H., Secretary of State, iii. 1165 ;

diplomacy of respecting Mason and Slidell, iii.

1171; attacked by murderers, iii. 1187.
SEXTUS, Tradition of, i. 673-674.
SEYMOUR, JANE, Wife of Henry VIII., ii. 607.
SEYMOUR, LORD, Admiral of England, ii. 655.
SHABAK, Reign of, i. 66-67.
SHAFTSBURY, Member of Cabal, iii. 799.
SHAKESPEARE, Quoted, ii. 531, 534, 602; his place

in literature, ii. 675.

SHALMANESER I., King of Assyria, i. 160.
SHALMANBSER II., Reign of, i. 165.
SHALMANBSER IV., Reign of, i. 171.
SHAMAS, The sun-god, i. 189.
SHAMAS-VUL OF CHALD.EA, Reign of, i. 118.
SHAMAS-VUL OF ASSYRIA, Reign of, i. 163.
SHAMAS-VUL II., Reign of, i. 167-168.
SHAMYL, Leader of Caucasian nations against

Russia, iii. 1290.

SHANO DYNASTY, Ascendency of, iii. 1330.
SHANGHAI, Captured by British, iii. 1334.
SHENOVO, Battle of, iii. 1306.
SUM-HERD KINGS, Dynasty of in Egypt, i. 55.
SHERIDAN, GENERAL PHILIP H., Commands army

of Upper Potomac, iii. 1185 ; at Cedar Creek

and Winchester, iii. 1185-1186 ; at Five Forks,

iii. 1186; made commandrr-iii-t-liiff, iii. 1201.
SHERIDAN, R. H., Impeaches Hastings, iii. 938.
SHKRMAN, GENERAL WILLIAM T., Attacks Chlcka-

saw Bayou, iik 1172; at Missionary Ridge, iii.

1177; campaign of against Atlanta, iii. 1181-

1182 ; march of to the sea, iii. 1182 ; ends the

war in the South, iii. 1183; retires from the

army, iii. 1201.

SHERMAN, ROGER, On committee to draft Decla-
ration, iii. 962.

SHILOH. (See Pitteburg Landing.)
SHINTO, Book of quoted, iii. 1339.
SHIPKA PASS, Struggle for possession of, iii. 1304-

1305.
SHOGUN, Place of in Chinese social and political

system, iii. 1341-1343.
SHREWSBURY, Battle of, ii. 519.

Wor-hip of, i
SIBYL, TIIK, Stor> ..f. ,

SM 11. i \N Bznon m • >!, i. 490- ;

MI n i us VK-I-I .;, ii. 411 .

!iti-inli-.l f .r I.;. irttmifiiii-

ans, i. 470 ; inviiil-<l |,v ( '.irtliaginians, i. 706;
ruiiti-ii.|."l for liv tin- KOIIIHIIN, i. 711 ; wrvili-
insiirr.-.-tiiiim in, i. 7-Y1., '<'>:>• Kn-m-h .lynarty
established in, ii. 420.

SICKLES, UENKKAL, at (n-ttysliiiiv, iii. H7W.

SICK MAN or TUB EAST. (See Turkey.)
-., Karly history of, i. 447.

SIDDIM, Battle of, i. 116.

SIDON, Description of, i. 262.

SIEGFRIED, Leader of the Northmen, ii. 184; be-
sieges Paris, ii. 185.

.SIEVES, ABBE JOSEPH, French patriot, iii. 998;
leader of National AssemMy, iii. :tM; in Con-
stituent Assembly, iii. 1005 ; member of Di-
rectory, iii. 1056-1066 ; chosen consul, iii. 1066.

SIOEL, GENERAL FRANZ, In Missouri, iii. 1170; at
New Market, iii. 1185.

SIOUMUND OF BOHEMIA, Becomes emperor, ii. 488;
reign of, ii. 489-498.

SioNBi<-cYUNDER8, Described, i. 126-126, 129.

SILESIA, Contended for by Frederick the Great
and Maria Theresa, iii. 897-920.

SILK WORM, Brought into Europe, i. 910.

SIN DYNASTY, Of Chaldjea, i. 119.

SINJAR MOUNTAINS, Character of, i. 141-142.

SIN-SHAD A, Reign of, i. 119.

SIN, THB MOOS-HOD, Worship of, i. 189.

Sioux INDIANS, War with, iii. 1194.

SIROCCO, Description of, i. 246.

SISBBUT, King of the Visigoths, ii. 66.

SUIT, The Assyrian Noah, i. 111-112.

SITALCES, King of Thrace, i. 533-534.

SKELTON, ISAAC, Court poet of Kenry VIIL, ii.
675.

SKEPTICISM, Growth of in Rome, i. 660-661.

SKOBELEF, GENERAL, At Shenovo, iii. 1306.

SLAVERY, Among the Greeks,!. 412; among the
Romans, i. 644-645, 763 ; among the Franks,
ii. 76; under Charlemagne, ii. 168; abolished
by Louis X., ii. 444; introduced into Vir-
ginia, iii. 867 ; a cause of civil war in United
States, iii. 1167; abolished by Lincoln, iii.
1175; by Constitutional amendment, iii. 1188;
by Parliament, iii. 1207.

SLAVIC NATIONS, Early history of, ii. 46-47.

SLIDBLL, JOHN, Confederate ambassador captured,
iii. 1171.

SLOCUM, GBKBRAL, At Gettysburg, iii. 1179.

SMALCALDIC LBAOUB, Formation of, ii. 696;
gathers strength, ii. 696-697; distracted by
cross-purposes, ii. 612.

SMITH, GENERAL KIRBY, Confederate commander
in K.Mitiirky, iii. 117l>.

SMITH, JOHN, Member of London Company, ii.
737; explores New England, ii. 37-738;
saves the Jamestown colony, iii. 866-866.

SMITH, JOSEPH, Prophet of Monnonism, iii. 1154.

SMOLENKSKO, Battle of, iii. 1102.

1402

INDEX.

SMYTH, ALEXANDER, Niagara campaign of, iii.
1137.

SOBIESKI, JOHN, Repels the Turks, iii. 820.

SOCIAL WAR (GREECE), Mentioned, i. 521.

SOCIAL WAR (ROME), History of, i. 766.

SOCIETY OF JESUS, Founding of, ii. 622; policy of,
ii. 623 ; suppression of in France, iii. 939 ; in
Spain and Italy, iii. 939-940.

SOCRATES, Referred to, i. 407 ; life and work of,
i. 603-604.

SOLEBAY, Battle of, iii. 799.

SOLFERINO, Battle of, iii. 1239, 1281.

SOLIMAN, Sultan of the Turks, i. 931.

SOLOMON, King of Israel, i. 287.

SOLON, His description of the Greeks, i. 382 ; sketch
of, i. 460 ; legislation of, i. 450-452.

SOLTIKOFP, Russian general in Seven Years' War,
iii. 916.

SOLWAY Moss, Battle of, ii. 609.

SOLYMAN II., Invades the German Empire, ii. 596-
597 ; besieges Vienna, ii. 597 ; bribed to retire,
ii. 651.

SOMA, Worship of, i. 215-216.

SOMERSET, DUKE OF, Protector of England, ii. 654-
655.

SONS OF LIBERTY, Organized, iii. 955.

SOPHIA, Empress of the East, i. 910 ; intrigues of,
i. 910-911.

SOPHIA DOROTHEA, WIFE OF GEORGE I., Divorced
and imprisoned iii. 871 ; death of, iii. 874.

SOPHOCLES, Work of, i. 393-394.

SOUBISE, MARSHAL, General in Seven Years' War,
iii. 909.

SOULT, MARSHAL, Defeats Austrians, iii. 1055 ; in
Peninsular War, iii. 1085.

SOUTH AMERICA, Summary of history of, iii. 1321-
1329.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA, Political division of Australia,
iii. 1349.

SOUTHERN ITALY, Description of, i. 597.

SOUTH MOUNTAIN, Battle of, iii. 1174.

SOUTH SEA SCHEME, History of, iii. 872.

SOUZA, THOUME DE, Governor of Brazil, iii. 1325.

SPAIN, Invaded by the Carthaginians, i. 719;
Roman conquest of, i. 730; civil war in, i. 775;
insurrection in, i. 806 ; conquered by the Mos-
lems, ii. 149-150 ; invaded by Charlemagne, ii.
164-165 ; Moorish kingdoms in, ii. 285-289 ;
contentions of France and England in, ii.
455-456, 513 ; history of in fourteenth and fif-
teenth centuries, ii. 536-538; under Charles
V. and Philip II. (see Charles V. and Philip
II.); in eighteenth century (see Spanish Suc-
cession and Austrian Succession) ; at war with
England, iii. 994; revolutionized by France,
iii. 1050 ; in nineteenth century (see Isabella II.,
Don Carlos, and Leopold of Hohenzollern).

SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF, Causes of, iii. 826-
829; history of, iii. 829-835, 865.

SPARTA, Position of, i. 377; early history of, i.
442-448 ; institutions of, i. 443-444 ; wars of
with Persia, i. 464-474 ; espouses the cause of
Corinth, i. 483 ; wars with Athens, i. 483-503;

ascendency of, i. 505-511 ; attacked by Epam-
inondas, i. 514.

SPARTACUS, Leader of the Gladiators, i. 775.

SPARTANS, Early character of, i. 442 ; military sys-
tem of, i. 443 ; culture of, i. 444 ; early history
of, i. 445-447 ; wars of with Persia, i. 457-474 ;
with the Athenians, i. 482-501; with the
Thebans, i. 507-514 ; oppose Alexander, i. 553-
554, 559.

SPECIE CIRCULAR, Issued by Jackson, iii. 1152.

SPENSKK, EDMUND, Author of Faery Queen, ii.
675.

SPENSER, HUGH, OF WALES, Execution of, ii. 506.

SPEYER, Diet at, ii. 584.

SPHACTERIA, Siege of, i. 487-488.

SPHINX, Description of, i. 50.

SPICHEREN, Battle of, iii. 1266.

SPOTTSYLVANIA COURT-HOUSE, Battle of, iii. 1184.

SPRINGFIELD, Battle of, iii. 1170.

SRAOSHA, Myth of, i. 215, 336.

STADTLOON, Battle of, ii. 703.

STABL-HOLSTEIN, MADAME DE, Persecuted by Na-
poleon, iii. 1093-1094.

STAMP ACT, Antecedents of, iii. 937 ; passage of,
iii. 954 ; provisions of, iii. 954 ; effect of in the
Colonies, iii. 954-955 ; repeal of, iii. 955.

STANHOPE, EARL OF, Minister of George I., iii. 870;
death of, iii. 872.

STANTON, EDWIN M., Secretary of War, iii. 1165.

STAR CHAMBER, Court of used by Charles I., iii.
767 ; abolished, iii. 770.

STARK, JOHN, New Hampshire patriot, iii. 957 ; at
Bennington, iii. 959.

STATE RIGHTS, Advocated by Calhoun and Hayne,
iii. 1150 ; a cause of civil war, iii. 1166.

STATES-GENERAL, Meetings of in Medizeval France,
ii. 444 ; project of convening, iii. 996-997 ; as-
sembling of, iii. 998-999 ; work of, iii. 999-1013.
(See National Assembly.)

STATUARY, Abundance of in Rome, i. 627.

STEAMBOAT, Invented by Fulton, iii. 1135 ; early
trial of in England, iii. 1217.

STEINMETZ, GENERAL, Commands division in the
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, iii. 1266.

STEPHEN, King of England, ii. 342 ; reign of, ii.
342-343.

STEPHEN OF BLOIS, Leader of the First Crusade?
ii. 305, 312, 323 ; returns to Palestine, ii. 330.

STEPHEN OF HUNGARY, Baptized by Sylvester II.,
ii. 249.

STEPHENS, ALEXANDER H., Opposes secession, iii.
1164; vice-president of Confederacy, iii. 1164.

STEWART, GENERAL, At Spottsylvania Court-house,
iii. 1184.

STILICHO, General of Theodosius, i. 891 ; confronts
and defeats Alaric, i. 891-892 ; defends Rome,
i. 892 ; deposed, i. 893.

STIRLING, LORD, Commands Americans at Long
Island, iii. 964.

STOICS, Sect of in Rome, i. 661-662.

STONE, Abundance of in Egypt, i. 93 ; wanting in
Chaldtea, i. 122.

STONEMAN, GENERAL, Raid of. iii. 1178.

INDEX.

STONY POINT, Taken by British, iii. H74-975 ; re-
taken by Wayne, iii. 975.

Sii:.\mmii, I,oiu>, Minister of Charles I., iii. 765;
condemned anil cxrmtfi!, iii. "ii'.i.

STRAHBURO, Besieged by Germans, iii. 1267 ; cap-
turr.l, iii. 1271.

STUART, ARABELLA, claims of to English crown,
iii. 756.

STUART DYNASTY, Established in Scotland, ii. 520;
ascendency of, iii. 753-771 ; overthrow of, iii.
771-793 ; restoration of, iii. 793-806, 830-836 ; at-
tempts at restoration of, iii. 834, 850, 870, 873,
877-879 ; table of, iii. 1208.

KTUYVBSANT, PETER, Governor of New Amster-
dam, iii. 863-864.

STYMPHALIA, Macedonian province, i. 526.

SUBVI, Tribal history of, ii. 35 ; kingdom estab-
lished by, ii. 35.

SUEZ CANAL, Completed by Napoleon, iii. 1240.

SUFFOLK, DUKE or, Minister of Margaret and
Henry VI., ii. 525.

SOIKO, Empress of Japan, iii. 1340.

SULEIMAN PASHA, Ottoman general in Turco-Kus-
sian War, iii. 1304, 1315.

SULLA, Lucius, Mentioned, i. 767 ; sketch of, i. 769 ;
opposed by Marias, i. 769; puts down the
Populares, i. 770; career of, i. 772-774; con-
quests of in the East, i. 772-773 ; proscriptions
of, i. 773 ; death of, i. 774.

SULLIVAN, GENERAL, Commander of Americana on
Long Island, iii. 964.

SULLY, Minister of Henry IV., ii. 648.

SUMNER, CHARLES, Notice of, iii. 1193.

SUMTER, CONFEDERATE CRUISER, Account of, iii.
1183.

SUMTER, FORT, Taken by Confederates, iii. 1165;
bombarded by Dahlgren, iii. 1178.

SUMTER, THOMAS, Patriot leader in Georgia and
the Carolinas, iii. 976-977.

SUSA, Description of, i. 261, 310; palace of, i. 317-
318; taken by Alexander, i. 566.

SUSIANA, Description of, i. 236.

SUSSEX, EARL OF, Minister of Elizabeth, ii. 663.

SUVAROP, MARSHAL, Campaign of in Italy and
Switzerland, iii. 1054-1055.

SWEDEN, Early history of, ii. 293; in fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries, ii. 545; in seventeenth
century (see Thirty Yean' War and Otutavut
Adolphtu) ; in age of Charles XII. (see Charlet
XII.) ; in age of Revolution (see Owtavtu IV.,
Charlet XIII., and Btrnadotte),

SWEYN THE DANE, Aggressions of in England, ii.
212-214 ; acknowledged as king, ii. 215.

SWIFT, JONATHAN, Political pamphlet issued by,
iii. 873.

SWITZERLAND, Freed from Austrian domination,
ii. 488; conquered by French Republic, iii.
1050.

SYBARIS, Early history of, i. 604.

SYDNEY, Capital of New South Wales, iii. 1347.

SYLVESTER II., Pontificate of, ii. 246-247; baptizes
King Stephen, ii. 249.

SYRACON, General of Noureddin, ii. 351-352.

SYRACUSE, Besieged by the Greeks, i.

greatness of, i. 519 ; <-«i .
STRIA, Character ••(.

586-690; a Roiium |T.,S

by the Modems, ii. 103.

T.

TABLET**, Of the Chaldieans, i. 129.

TABORITES, Sect of Hussite*, ii. 494.

TACITUH (Historian), Sketch of, i. 636; quoted, i.
856.

T.M ITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS, Reign of, i. 877.

TACTIC*. (See Military Sptrm.)

TAFNKKHT, Reign of, i. 66.

TAINE, Quoted, it 82-83, 678.

TALAVERA, Battle of, iii. 1094.

TALLEYRAND, Prince of Benevento, iii. 1074.

TALI.IEN, JEAN LAMBERT, Decimate* the Vendeans,
iii. 1043, 1044.

TAMERLANE, Conquest* of, i. 933.

TANAQUIL, Tradition of, i. 670.

TANCRED, Leader of the First Crusade, ii. 313, 315,
317, 318, 323; captures Tiberias, ii. 329; death
of, ii. 330.

TANOIERS, Captured by the Modems, ii. 148.

TANNENBERU, Battle of, ii. 489.

TARKNTUM, Taken by Rome, i. 704-706, 732.

TARIC, IBM SAA'D, General of Islam, ii. 148 ; expe-
dition of into Spain, ii. 148-149; overthrows
Roderic, ii. 149.

TARIFF QUESTION, Agitated in United States, iii.
1149; referred to, iii. 1166.

TARPEIA, Legend of, i. 664-665.'

TARQUINIUS PRISCIS, King of Primitive Rome, i.
668-671 ; patronizes building, i. 669-670 ; fam-
ily of, i. 670.

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, King of primitive Rome, L
672-674.

TARSUS, Taken by Alexander, i. 656.

TARTARS, Invasion of in the West, i. 933; tribal
history of, ii. 60.

TASMANIA. (See Van Ditmen'i Land.)

TAURUS, THE, Description of, i. 303.

TAYLOR, BAYARD, Centennial Poem of, iii. 1194,

TAYLOR, GENERAL ZACHARY, Subdues Creek In-
dians, iii. 1162; goes to Mexico, iii. 1166;
commands army of occupation, iii. 1156; at
Monterey, iii. 1156; at Buena Vista, iii. 1168;
elected President, iii. 11<50; administration
and death of, iii. 1160-1161.

TCHERSAY, Battle of, iii. 1293.

TEA TAX, Passed by Parliament, iii. 966.

TECUMTHA, Shawnee chieftain, iii. 1136; with
Proctor in Canada, iii. 1138.

TEIAS, King of the Ostrogoths, ii. 61.

TELAMON, Battle of, i. 718.

TELEGRAPH, Invention of, iii. 1165.

TELEPHONE, Invention of, iii. 1199.

TEMPLES, Of the Egyptians, i. 91-98; of the Chal-
dieans, i. I--.

TEN TABLES, Preparation of, i. 685-«B.

TEX THOUSAND, TH*, Retreat of, i. 363.

1404

INDEX.

TENTH LEGION (OP C.ESAR), Mutiny of, i. 800-802.

TERENCE, Sketch of, i. 630.

TERROR, Reign of in Paris, iii. 1020-1038.

TETZEL, Vender of indulgences, ii. 574.

TEUTA, Queen of Illyria, i. 717.

TEUTOBACH, Capture of, i. 763.

TEUTOBURGEB FOREST, Battle of, i. 830.

TEUTONES. (See Teutonic Race.)

TEUTONIC KNIGHTS, Origin of, ii. 337-338 ; history
of, ii. 338-339; with Frederick Barbarossa, ii.
357 ; incorporated, ii. 359 ; favor peace with
Islam, ii. 382; routed by the Turks, ii. 388-
389; heroism of at Acre, ii. 399; broken at
Wilna and Tannenberg, ii. 489 ; overthrown
by the Polish League, ii. 500 ; alliance of with
Swedes and Danes, ii. 652.

TEUTONIC RACK, First contact of with Rome, i.
762-764; want of political unity of, ii. 194.

TEWKSBURY, Battle of, ii. 531.

TEXAS, War of independence of, iii. 1154 ; annexed
to United States, iii. 1155 ; cause of Mexican
War, iii. 1155.

THAI'S, Tradition of, i. 567.

THAMES, Battle of, iii. 1138.

THEBES (Egypt), Greatness of, i. 62.

THEBES (Greece), Punished for defections, i. 473;
ascendency of, i. 513-524 ; taken by Alexan-
der, i. 545-547.

THEMISTOCLES, At Salamis, i. 359; ascendency of,
i. 463-477 ; fall of, i. 477.

THBODATUS, Prince of the Ostrogoths, ii. 57-58.

THEODOLINDA, Queen of the Lombards, ii. 62.

THEODORA, Empress of the East, i. 918.

THEODORA, Wife of Justinian, i. 908.

THEODORE OF ABBYSINIA, War of with Great Brit-
ain, iii. 1214.

THEODORIC THE GREAT, King of the Ostrogoths,
ii. 51 ; invades Italy, ii. 52 ; reign of, ii.
52-56.

THEODOSIUS THE GREAT, Becomes emperor, i. 889 ;
of the orthodox faith, i. 890 ; defeats Eugenius
and Abrogastes. i. 890.

THEODOSIUS II., Becomes emperor, i. 897; in league
with Theodosius, i. 899 ; reign of, i. 905.

THEODOSIUS III., Reign of, i. 914.

THKOPHILUS, Emperor of the East, i. 918.

THERAMENES, Career of, i. 501.

THERMS. (See Baths.)

THERMOPYLAE, Battle of, i. 358, 465.

THESEUS, Tradition of, i. 430.

THESPIS, Account of, i. 392.

THESSALY, Description of, i. 373-374.

THEUDES, Prince of the Visigoths, ii. 65.

THIERRY (Historian), cited, ii. 45.

THIERS, ADOLPH, Republican leader in France, iii.
1241 ; president of French republic, iii. 1242 ;
administration of, iii. 1242-1245.

THIRD ESTATE, Recognized in France, ii. 444 ; who
composed it, iii. 986 ; at meeting of States-
general, iii. 998 ; ascendency of, iii. 999-1056.

THIRTY TYRANTS, Rule of, i. 501.

THIRTY YEARS' WAR, General history of, ii. 697-
729 ; causes of, ii. 697-699.

THOMAS, GENERAL GEORGE H., Victor at Mill
Springs, iii. 1171; at Chickamauga, iii. 1176;
defeats Hood at Nashville, iii. 1182 ; death of,
iii. 1193.

THORFINN KARLSEFNE, Traces the American coast,
ii. 553-554.

THOTH, Worship of, i. 85.

THOU, HENRY DE, Execution of, ii. 271.

THRACE, Invaded by Darius, i. 354 ; subdued by
Philip, i. 539; by Alexander, i. 545; a Roman
province, i. 738.

THR^ETONA, Myth of, i. 218.

THRASIMUND, King of the Vandals, ii. 70.

THBASYBULUS, Career of, i. 502-503.

THUCYDIDES, Life and work of, i. 396 ; ostracism
of, i. 481.

THURKILL, Ravages England, ii. 214 ; levies Dane-
geld, ii. 215.

TIBER, THE, Mentioned, i. 600.

TIBERIAS, SEA OF, Described, i. 244-245.

TIBERIUS, Emperor of the East, i. 911.

TIBERIUS, CLAUDIUS NERO, General of Augustus, i.
828; subdues the Marcomanni, i. 830; be-
comes emperor, i. 831 ; jealousies of, i. 832-
833; falls under control of Sejanus, i. 833;
death of, i. 834.

TIBERIUS, Battle of, ii. 355.

TICONDEROGA, Attacked by Abercrombie, iii. 930;
taken by Amherst, iii. 931; by Ethan Allen,
iii. 957-958.

TIENTSIN MASSACRE, Account of, iii. 1337.

TIBULLUS, Sketch of, i. 633.

TIGLATHI-ADAR, Founder of Assyrian empire,
i. 160.

TIGLATHI-NIN II., Reign of, i. 163.

TIGLATH-PILESER I., Reign of, i. 161-163.

TiGLATH-PiLESER II., Reign of, i. 170.

TIGRIS, Character of, i. 101-103.

TILLY, JOHANN TSERCLAES, Personal appearance
of, ii. 701 ; strikes the Protestants, ii. 701 ; de-
stroys Heidelberg, ii. 702 ; opposed by Chris-
tian IV., ii. 704; succeeds Wallenstein, ii.
707 ; takes Magdeburg, ii. 708-709 ; wounded,
ii. 709; fights Gustavus, ii. 712-713; is killed,
ii. 713.

TILSIT, Treaty of framed, iii. 1077; violated by
Alexander, iii. 1096.

TIMOLEON, Story of, i. 519-520.

TIMOUR. (See Tamerlane.)

TIRHAKAH, Overthrow of, i. 180-181.

TITHE COMMUTATION ACT, Passed by Parliament,
iii. 1209.

TITMANES, Notice of, i. 401.

TITUS, Besieges and destroys Jerusalem, i. 845-
850; loyalty of, i. 852; becomes emperor, i.
853 ; policy of, i. 853-854.

TITUS TATIUS, Mythical king of Rome, i. 665.

TOBACCO CABINET, Of Frederick William I., iii.
887-888.

TODLEBEN, GENERAL, Invests Plevna, iii. 1305.

TOGRUL BEG, Conquests of, ii. 298.

TOKIO. (See Yedo.)

TOLEDO, Council of, ii. 66.

INDEX.

1405

TOLERATION, Necessary to human progress and
li:i|.|>itn-HH, iii. 1353-1354.

TOM us, Of the Egyptian kinpt, i. 48-51; of tin-
Persian kind's, i. :;IS; of tin- Homan.s. i. 659.

TUMI-KINS, DANIEL D., Vice-president of Unitrd
Stiitcs, iii. IH-4, !M7.

Toi:.;u , I'.attlf (if, iii. 917,

TOKONTO, Capital of Upper Cunada, iii. 1311.

TORKKS VKURAS, Defended by Wellington, iii. 1094.

TORSTENSON, LBNNART, General of Sweden, ii. 7-1 ;
supports the 1'rotestunt cause, ii. 721-7L'-.
'KTiiKos, Reign of, i. 47.

TOTILA, Overthrown by Nurses, i. 908; reign of,
ii. 58-60.

TOUL, Capture of, iii. 1271.

TOULON, Siege of, iii. 1034.

TOURS. (See Poitiers.)

TOUSSAINT L'OUVBRTURE, Leads insurrection in
St. Domingo, iii. 1003 ; destroyed, iii. 1064.

TOWER OF BABEL. (See Bin Nimrud.)

T<m NSIIEND, LORD, Proposes to tax America, iii.
955.

TOWNSHEND, VISCOUNT, Minister of George I., iii.
870.

TRAFALGAR, Battle of, iii. 1071.

TRAJANUS, Becomes emperor, i. 858 ; character of,
i. 859 ; reign of, i. 859-861.

TREASURY NOTES, Issued as money, iii. 1187.

TREATY, Of the Eclipse, i. 226 ; of Callias, i. 360,
480 ; of Antalcidas, i. 363, 509 ; of Nicias, i.
489; of Philip with tint Greeks, i. 537; of
Rome with Carthage, i. 716, 736 ; the first tri-
umvirate, i. 787 ; the second triumvirate, i.
811 ; of Charlemagne with the Arabs, ii. 164-
165; of Verdun, ii. 180; of Charles the Simple
with the Northmen, ii. 187; of Alfred with
the Danes, ii. 201 ; of the Lion Heart with
Saladin, ii. 369; of Frederick II. with the
Turks, ii. 385 ; of Edward III. and Philip VI.,
ii. 449; of Edward III. with the Dauphin, ii.
454 ; of Cambray, ii. 583 ; of Madrid, ii. 592 ;
of I'as-au, ii. 615 ; of Chateau Cambresis, ii.
626 ; of Vervins, ii. 647 ; of Philip III. with
the Netherlands, ii. 696; of Westphalia, ii.
7'Jl 726; of Ryswick, iii. 827; of Utrecht, iii.
835; of Ais-la-Chapelle, iii. 884,902; of Paris,
(1763), iii. 920, 933; of Paris (1783), iii. 981;
of Campo Formio, iii. 1049 ; of Luneville, iii.
1061; of Amiens, iii. 1062; of Tilsit, iii. 1077;
of Schonbrunn, iii. 1087; of Paris (1814), iii.
1117; of Vienna, iii. 1127; of Ghent, iii. 1143;
of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, iii. 1160; of Paris
(1856) iii. 1294-1296 ; of Paris (1871), iii. 1273;
of San Stefano, iii. 1307 ; of Berlin, iii. 1307.

TREIHA, Battle of, i. 7±>.

THKNT, COUNCIL OF, Called by Paul III., ii. 599;
ruled by Ultramontanes, ii. 612; removod to
Bologna, ii. 613 ; adjournment of, ii. 650 ; work
of, ii. 650.

TRENTON, Battle of, iii. 966.

TiUHUNESiiir, Estahlishnx-nt of, i. 681-682.

TmroLi, Fief of kingdom of Jerusalem, ii. 331.

TRIPOLI, Taken by the Moslems, ii. r.'J-l-1:;.

TKIRFME, Description of, i. 326.

TKH-JIVIRATE, Of diwar, Cnuwiu, and Pompey, i.
787; of Aiitniiiiix, I^pulu-, m,,| (Muvianaa,
i. 811.

TBOCIIU, GENERAL, Comman<li-r

Kriiiii-o-l'ruMtiiait war, iii |-Jii7, 1268; com-
mandant of Paris, iii. l-'TO; defeat**! .
mans, iii. 1-71.

TROJAN WAR, Story of, i. 432-433.

TROY, Siege of, i

TRUCE or Con, Inxtiiutiou of, ii

TRUXTUN, COMMODORE, Takes the Inturyent, iii.

ira-im.

TSIN DYNASTY, Ascendency of in China, iii. 1331.

TUDOR DYNASTY, Accession of, ii. 635; ag-
ency of, ii. 586-612, 654-676; Uble cf, iii.
I XML

TUILKRIES, Stormed by the mob, iii. 1017; resi-
dence of Napoleon, iii. 1067 ; fired by Com-
munists, iii. 1246.

TULLIA, Tradition of, i. 672.

TULLUS HOSTILIUS, King of primitive Rome, L
667-668.

TUNDJA BROOK, Battle of, iii. 1304.

TURCOMANS. (See Turk*.)

TURCO- RUSSIAN WAR, Causes of, iii. 1302-1303;
outbreak of, iii. 1303; course of, iii. 1303-1307.

TURKNNE, General in Thirty Years' War, ii. 723-
724; under Louis XIV., iii. 817.

TUROOT, Finance Minister of Louis XVI., iii. 990.

TURKEY, Ancient history of (see EaUern Empire
and Turk*) ; medueval history of (see Mam,
Mohatmnedant, and Cnuadet) ; modern history
of (see Turk*) ; during Crimean War (see
Crimean War); sketch of in XlXth cen-
tury, iii. 1299; during Greek Revolution, iii.
1299-1301 ; daring Turco-Russun War, iii.
1302-1307.

TURKS, In contact with Eastern Empire, i. 924 ;
aggressions of, i. 930-931 ; conquered by Tam-
erlane, i. 933; tribal history of, ii. 50; the
bftes noire* of Christian Europe, ii. 298; overrun
Syria, ii. 387-389 ; in sixteenth century (see
Reformation and La* Half of Century .\
in seventeenth century (see Thirty Yean' Mar
and Englith Revolution) ; in eighteenth century
(see French Revolution) ; in nineteenth century
(see Qmtulate and Empire, Crimean War, and
Tvrco-Ruuian War).

TUR-SIN, Reign of, i. 119.

TUSCULAN DYNASTY or POPES, history of, ii. 247-
252.

TUTIIMOSIS, Overthrows the Hyksos, L 66.

TUTHMOSIS II., Reign of, i. 66.

TWELVE TABLES, Preparation of, i. 686.

TYLER, JOHN, Accede* to Presidency, iii. 1153;
opposition of to United States Bank, iii. 1163;
administration of, iii. 1153-1165.

TYRANT, Of the Greeks, i. 447.

TYRE, Description of, i. 261-262; siege of by Nebu-
chadnezzar, i. 282-283, 289; taken by Alex-
ander, i. 559-560; captured by the Crusaders,
ii. 331.

14UO

INDEX.

TYROLESB, Subjugated by the French, iii. 1091-1092.
TYHREL, SIK WALTER, Kills William Rufus, ii. 279.
TYRT.EUS, Account of, i. 391 ; sent by Athens to
Sparta, i. 445.

u.

UEKJEPHE8, Reign of, i. 46.

ULFILAS, Introduces Christianity among the Goths,
ii. 41-42.

U.MBBIA, Description of, i. 602.

UMBBIANS, Early history of, i. 609-611.

UNA, Reign of, i. 51.

UNIFORMITY, ACT OF, Passed by parliament, iii. 796.

UNION, Of the Protestants, ii. 698.

UNION OF BBUSSELS, Formation of, ii. 689.

UNION OF CALMAR, Effected by Margaret of Den-
mark, ii. 545, 547.

UNION OP UTRECHT, Formation of, ii. 690.

UNITED STATES, Independence of declared, iii. 962;
war of for freedom, iii. 957-981 ; constitution
of, iii. 983-984; during first administrations
and War of 1812, iii. 1128-1144 ; progress of
from Monroe's administration to Mexican
War, iii. 1145-1155; during war with Mexico,
iii. 1155-1160; during Civil War, iii. 1164-
1186; under recent administrations, iii. 1186-
1201.

"UNIVERSITY OF PRAGUE, Founding of, ii. 489.

UPPER EGYPT, Character of, i. 35-36.

UPPER MESOPOTAMIA, Limits and character of, i.
139-142 ; climate of, i. 143-145 ; products of, i.
145-146 ; animals of, i. 146-149.

UK, Notices of, i. 113, 116.

UBAGCAY. (See Argentine Republic.)

UBANUS, Myth of, i. 420.

URBAN II., In the papacy, ii. 243 ; calls Council of
Clermont, ii. 243-244; preaches the Crusade,
ii. 300.

URQUIZA, GENERAL, President of Paraguay, iii. 1329.

UBUKH, King of Chaldeea, i. 113-114; inscriptions
of, i. 114.

USEBTESEN I., Reign of, i. 53-54.

USERTESID.S:, The dynasty of, i. 54.

UTICA, Taken by Scipio, i. 734.

UTRECHT, Treaty of, iii. 835.

V.

v ALICES, Reign of, i. 887.

VALENTINIAN, Reign of, i. 887.

VALENTINIAN II., Reign of, i. 889.

VALENTINIAN III., Reign of, i. 879-901.

VALERIAN, Reign of, i. 876.

VALERIAN LAWS, Provisions of, i. 680-681.

VALERIUS, PUBHUS, Consul of Rome, i. 676; dic-
tator, i. 678.

VALLEY FORGE, American encampment at, iii. 971-
972.

VALLEY OF THE NILE, Character of, i. 33-34! ex-
uberance of, i. 38.

VALOIS DYNASTY, Ascendency of in France, ii.
446-476.

VAN BUREN, MARTIN, Elected President, iii. 1152 ;
administration of, iii. 1152-1153.

VANCOUVER, CAPTAIN, Explorer of Australia, iii.
1349.

VANDALS, Invade Italy, i. 901 ; capture Rome, i.
901 ; tribal history of, ii. 38 ; kingdom of in
Spain and Africa, ii. 38, 67-70.

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND, Notices of, iii. 1349.

VANE, SIR HENRY, Puritan leader in Parliament,
iii. 772; sketch of, iii. 772; in New England,
iii. 856 ; executed, iii. 795.

VAN TBOMP, Admiral of Holland, iii. 797.

VABIATHUS, Career of, i. 751-752.

VAHBO, Sketch of, i. 631-632.

VARUS, Defeated by the Germans, i. 830.

VASCO DE GAMA, Circumnavigates Africa, ii.
567.

VASSALAGE, Of Feudalism considered, ii. 226-227.

VEII, Captured by the Romans, i. 689.

VENDEE, LA, Insurrection of, iii. 1034; second
revolt in, iii. 1043.

VENDOME, Battle of, ii. 417.

VENETIA, Description of, i. 601-602.

VENEZUELA, Summary of history of, iii. 1322-1323.

VENICE, Founding of, ii. 429; early history of, ii.
429-432 ; relations of with the Crusaders, ii.
432; wars of, ii. 432; revolutionized by Na-
poleon, iii. 1049.

VENUS. (See Aphrodite.)

VEBA CRUZ, Stormed by Americans, iii. 1158.

VERCINGETORIX, Conquered by Csesar, i. 792.

VERDUN, Treaty of, ii. 180.

VERGENNES, MINISTER OF Louis XV., Referred to,
iii. 951.

VERGIL, Sketch of, i. 634-635.

VERMONT, Admitted into the Union, iii. 1129.

VERONA, Congress of, iii. 1220, 1288.

VERRAZZANI, JOHN, Traces coast-line of United
States, ii. 567-568.

VERBES, Impeachment of, i. 777.

VERSAILLES, Scene of great mob (1789), iii. 1007-
1008 ; scene of proclamation of Emperor Will-
iam, iii. 1276.

VESPASIANUS, General in Jewish war, i. 845-846 ;
becomes emperor, i. 847 ; character of, i. 850-
852 ; beautifies Rome, i. 852 ; patronizes learn-
ing, i. 853 ; death of, i. 853.

VESPUCCI, AMEBIGO, Discovers South America, ii.
559.

VESTA. (See Hestia.) .

VESTAL VIEGINS, Of Rome, i. 653.

VESUVIUS, Notice of, i. 605; great eruption of, i.
854 ; recent eruption of, iii. 1285.

VIA EGNATIA, Description of, i. 528.

VICKSBURG, Union expedition against, iii. 1172 ;
captured by Grant, iii. 1175.

VICTOR EMANUEL, Representative of United Italy,
iii. 1256; king of Sardinia, iii. 1279-1281; in
league with Napoleon, iii. 1283; chosen king
of Italy, iii. 1283 ; makes Rome his capital,
iii. 1284; death of, iii. 1285.

VICTORIA, FELIX FERNANDO, President of Mexico,
iii. 1314.

INDEX

VICTORIA, Political division of Australia, iii.

Vic pwiA "K KM. i. KM., HI-CMIIII-S ijuren, 111. 1209;

reit;ii of, iii. IJU'.t 1JI7.
VIK.NSA, Congress of, iii. Ill", 11^7; insurrection

in, iii. 1-")1.

VIU.AKRANCA, Treaty ..f, iii. 1239, I
VII.I.KI.K, COUNT, Leader of French Chamber, iii.

1219.

VII.LIKK.S, Frencli general in America, iii. 926.
VINLAND, Norse name of New Kngland, ii.

554.

VII:.,INIA, Story of, i. 686.

VIRGINIA, Colonization of, ii. 730-737; early his-
tory of, iii. 865-868.
VISICJOTHIC Kiv.iMiM, Establishment of, ii. 35;

overthrown by Islam, ii. H'.i.
VISIGOTHS, Mentioned, i. 891 ; settle in Spain, i.

897 ; early history of, ii. 34-35 ; heresy of, ii.

65-66.
VITELLIUS, Becomes emperor, i. 845; opposed by

Eastern army, i. 845-846 ; character of, i. 846 ;

overthrown and slain, i. 846.
VITIOES, King of the Ostrogoths, ii. 58.
VrrroRiA, Battle of, iii. 1113.
VLADIMIR, King of Russia, ii. 294.
VOCAL MEMNON, Account of, i. 57.
VOLCANOES, Of Italy, i. 699-601.
VOLTAIRE, Leader of Encyclopedists, iii. 988 ; last

days of, iii. 992-993.
VOKTIUERN, King of the Britons, ii. 83.
VOL, Worship of, i. 189.
VUL-LUSH III., Reign of, i. 168.
VDLCAN. (See Bephattut.)

w.

WAGRAM, Battle of, iii. 1086.

WALED, Caliph of Islam, ii. 146; reign of, ii.

146-148.

WALKS, Conquest of, ii. 415.

WALKER, FRANCIS A., Superintendent of census,
iii. 1197.

WALLACE, GENERAL LEWIS, At Romney, iii. 1169;
defends Cincinnati, iii. 1172; defeated at Mo-
nocacy, iii. 1185.

WALLACE, WILLIAM, Hero of Scotland, ii. 504.

WALLKNSTEIN, ALBRBCHT VON, Sketch of, ii. 704 ;
commands imperialists, ii. 705; invades Sax-
ony, ii. 706 ; overruns Southern Germany, ii.
706-707 ; deposed, ii. 707 ; at Zuaim, ii. 713 ;
reinstated, ii. 713; at Zirndorf, ii. 713-714;
treason of, ii. 716; murder of, ii. 717.

WALLOONS, Colonize New Amsterdam, iii. 863.

WALPOLK, SIR ROBERT, Minister of George I., iii.
870 ; opposes South Sea Scheme, iii. 872 ; re-
tu'me.l in power, iii. 873, 874, 875, 876; be-
comes Earl of Orford, iii. 877.

W.U.MV.II KM, SIR FRANCIS, Minister of Elixabeth,
ii. 663.

WALLS OF BABYLON (see Seven Wonden), Descrip-
tion of, i. 258, 291.

W ALTER THE PENNILESS, Leader in the First Cru-
sade, ii. 303-304.

Treaty of, iii.

WAI:. Of lUmse.s 11. with -uip.u:,.ling IHUkMH, L

•iuopia, i. Gfr-t..

with

..i Kii.liir-ljiiMii,. r w r.
Cauaaniu >. i. i

the barbarian^- Mii.lmiin.-h.-r II.

with Damucus, i. 166; of Tiglath }•,..-., II
with Syria, i. 170-171 ; of Cyaxaivs with As-
syria, i. JL':; J_i . ..i C.MIIS will, the Medea, L
231- i: .-syria with Babylonia, i

278; of the Babylonians with foreign nation*,
i. -J7.s IN:;; ,,f li:il,y|,,uia with Persia, L 296-
298, 393; of Cyrus with Lydia, L 839-341 ; ol
Cambyses, with Egypt, i. ."kl-348; of Persia
with Greece, L 366-359, 457-474; the first
Sacred, i. 440; first Uewnian, i. 446; second
Mesenian, i. 445-446; the Peluponm-sian, L
482-504 ; the Social, i. .r>21 ; the Sacred, i. 621-
522, 534 ; of Philip with the nations, i. 531-
542; of Alexander with Asia, i. 649-677; of
successors of Alexander, L 578-594 ; of prim-
itive Rome, i. 595-603 ; of Rome with Sam-
nium, i. 700-702; the first Punic, i. 711-716;
the second 1'uni.-. i. 720-736; the third 1'iinic,
i. 745-750; servile, i. 753; the Mithridntir, i.
772, 779-780; of Cwsar with the barbarian
nations, i. 790-796 ; of Ctesar with Pompey,
i. 798-800; of the triumvirs with the conspir-
ators, i. 811-813; of Octavianus and Antony,
i. 818 ; of Augustus with the Germans, i. 828-
830; of Nero with the Britons, i. 843; of Rome
with the Jews, i. 847-850; of Rome with
Persia, i. 873; of Rome with Palmyra, i. 877 ;
of Constantino with the nations, i. 881-886;
of Rome with the Barbarians, L 891-904; of
Eastern Empire with the Turks, i. 930-036;
of Theodoric the Great, ii. 5'.'-55; of Belisa-
rius in the West, ii. 67-60 ; of Clovis, ii. 72-
74 ; of Islam with the nations, ii. 100-132 ; of
Mohammedans in Spain, ii. 148-152 ; of Cliar-
lemagne with surrounding nations, ii. 156-166;
of Alfred with the Danes, ii. 199-204 ; of the
Feudal Ages (see Feudal France, Feudal Ger-
many, and Feudal England); of twelfth and
thirteenth centuries (see Cnuada and Eng-
land, France, and Germany in Thirteenth Oat-
tury); of England and France in fourteenth
and fifteenth <• Hturiea (see England and
France in Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuriet) ; of
Charles V. and Francis I., ii. 686-699; of last
half of Century XVIth, ii. 623-697 ; the Thirty
Years', ii. 697-729; the Civil in England, iii.
771-794; of William III. and Louis XIV., iii.
809-827; of Spanish Succession, iii. 828-836;
of Cxar Peter and Charles XII , iii. 846-854; of
the Great KUi-t..r, iii. 886-888; of the Polish
Succession, iii. 891 ; of the Austrian Succes-
sion, iii. 891-902; the Seven Years', iii. 906-
920; Intercolonial in America, iii. 921-833;
of Catharine II. (see Catharine II.) ; of Amer-
ican independence, iii. 949-981; of French
Revolution (see French Revolution and Bono-

1408

INDEX.

parte) ; of Consulate and Empire (see Consu-
late and Empire and Bonaparte) ; of 1812, iii.
1136-1143; of Texan independence (see Texas) ;
the Mexican, iii. 1155-1160 ; the Civil in Amer-
ica, iii. 1165-1186; of England with Sepoys,
iii. 1212-1214 ; of France with Algiers, iii.
1223, 1227 ; of French Republic with Com-
mune, iii. 1243-1245; the Austro-Hungarian,
iii. 1253-1254 ; of Germany with Denmark,
iii. 1258-1259; the Austro-Prussian, iii. 1259-
1262; the Franco-Prussian, iii. 1264-1276 ; the
Franco-Austrian in Italy, iii. 1281-1283 ; the
Crimean, iii. 1290-1296; the Turco-Kussian,
iii. 1303-1307 ; the Franco-Mexican, iii. 1319-
1330 ; the Opium, iii. 1332-1334 ; the Franco-
Chinese, iii. 1336-1337.

WAR CHARIOTS, Used by the Persians, i. 323-324.

WARKA, Ruins of mentioned, i. 114.

WARREN, GENERAL JOSEPH, Hero of Bunker Hill,
iii. 958.

WARRENNE, Defends the title to his estates, ii. 415.

WARSAW, Revolution in, iii. 1289-1290.

WARTBUHO, Stronghold of Luther, ii. 582 ; meeting-
place of German students, iii. 1247.

WARWICK, DUDLEY, Overthrows Somerset, ii. 655-
656; supports Jane Grey, ii. 656-657; over-
throw of, ii. 657-658.

WARWICK, EARL OP, Leader of the Yorkists, ii.
529-530; vacillation of, ii. 530.

WASHINGTON CITY, New capital of the United
States, iii. 1132; taken by the British, iii. 1141.

WASHINGTON, GEORGE, Ambassador of Virginia to
St. Pierre, iii. 924-925 ; sent to repel the
French, iii. 925 ; capitulates to De Villiers, iii.
926 ; with Braddock, iii. 927 ; with Forbes, iii.
931 ; chosen commander-in-chief of American
army, iii. 958 ; sketch of, iii. 958-959 ; at siege
of Boston, iii. 961 ; at Long Island, iii. 964-
965 ; in the Jerseys, iii. 965-966 ; at Trenton
and Princeton, iii. 966-967; at Brandywine
and Germantown, iii. 970-971 ; at Valley Forge,
iii. 971-972; at Monmouth, iii. 973; enters
Virginia, iii. 980; at Yorktown, iii. 980-981 ;
resigns commission, iii. 981-982; at Mt. Ver-
non, iii. 982 ; elected President, iii. 984 ; in-
auguration of, iii. 1128; administration of, iii.
1128-1131; chosen commander-in-chief, iii.
1131 ; death of, iii. 1132.

WASHINGTON, LAWRENCE AND AUGUSTUS, Members
of Ohio Company, iii. 923.

WASHINGTON MONUMENT, Completion of, iii. 1201.

WATERING PLACES, Of the Romans, i. 639.

WATERLOO, Battle of, iii. 1120-1125.

WAT TYLER, Insurrection of, ii. 514.

WAYNE, ANTHONY, Takes Stony Point, iii. 975 ;
breaks Indian confederacy, iii. 1130.

WEBSTER, DANIEL, Debate of with Hayne, iii.
1150; frames Ashburton Treaty, iii. 1154; sec-
retary of state, iii. 1153, 1161.

WEBSTER- ASHBURTON TREATY, iii. 1153-1154.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, Of the Chaldseans, i.
127-128.

WEISSENBURG, Battle of, iii. 1266.

WELLESLEY, ARTHUR. (See Wellington.)

WELLINGTON, ARTHUR, DUKE OP, At Talavera, iii.
1094; in Torres Vedras, iii. 1094; besieges
Badajos, iii. 1094-1096; at Vittoria, iii. 1113;
enters France, iii. 1115 ; in Belgium, iii. 1120;
at Waterloo, iii. 1120-1123; leader of Tories,
iii. 1203-1205; displacement of, iii. 1206.

WENCESLAUS, Becomes German emperor, ii. 485;
reign of, ii. 485-488 ; character of ii. 488.

WENDS, Tribal history of, ii. 46.

WKSLBY, JOHN, Founder of Methodism, ii. 752;
iii. 947.

WESLEY, CHARLES, In Georgia, ii. 752.

WESTERN ASSYRIA, Character and limits of, i. 141.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA, Political division of Aus-
tralia, iii. 1349.

WESTERN EMPIRE, Separated from the East, i. 885 ;
general history of, i. 885-904; overthrow of,
i. 903-904.

WESPHALIA, Peace of concluded, ii. 723-725;
terms of, ii. 725-726.

WESTPHALIA, Kingdom of created, iii. 1091.

WEST VIRGINIA, Admission of, iii. 1180.

WHITE NILE, Character of, i. 34.

WHITE PLAINS, Battle of, iii. 965.

WHITE TERROR, Account of, iii. 1041.

WICKLIPPE, JOHN DE, Begins English Reforma-
tion, ii. 517-518.

WILBERFORCE, WILLIAM, Secures abolition of slav-
ery, iii. 1207.

WILDERNESS, Battles of, iii. 1184.

WILKES, JOHN, Expelled from Parliament, iii. 935;
reelected and reseated, iii. 936.

WILKINSON, GENERAL, Commands army, iii. 1140.

WILLIAM I. OF ENGLAND. (See William of Nor-
mandy.)

WILLIAM I. OP ORANGE. Proclaimed king of Neth-
erland, iii. 1110.

WILLIAM I. OP PRUSSIA, Accession of, iii. 1256;
policy of, iii. 1256-1257 ; goes to war with
Denmark, iii. 1258 ; breaks with Austria, iii.
1260 ; at Sadowa, iii. 1260 ; insults Benedetti,
iii. 1264 ; breaks with Napoleon, iii. 1264-1266 ;
career of in Franco-Prussian War, iii. 1266-
1274; proclaimed emperor, iii. 1276.

WILLIAM II. OP ENGLAND. (See William Rufus.)

WILLIAM III. OP ENGLAND. (See William Henry
of Orange.)

WILLIAM IV. OF ENGLAND, Accession of, iii. 1206;
reign of, iii. 1206-1209.

WILLIAM AND MARY. Reign of, iii. 812-830.

WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE, Founding of, iii. 868.

WILLIAM HENRY OP ORANGE, Stadtholder of Neth-
erland, iii. 804; espouses cause of English
Protestants, iii. 804-806 ; overthrows House of
Stuart, iii. 807 ; becomes king of England, iii.
812; character of, iii. 812-813; subdues Ire-
laud, iii. 814-815 ; quiets Scotland, iii. 816-817 ;
plants himself against Louis XIV., iii. 824;
war of with France, iii. 824-827 ; renews the
conflict, iii. 829 ; death of, iii. 830.

WILLIAM LONG SWOKD, Leader of the Seventh
Crusade, ii. 389 ; at Mansoura, ii. 392.

WILLIAM op NORMANDY, Promised tin-

crown, ii. 210; exacts mi oath nl' Harold, ii.
221; right* of continued hy Kdwaid I
8Or, ii. 222 ; family history <>i. ii
of in Normaii'iy, ii. 2157; i-l;nni.s Kniiland, ii.
-HO; lands in Sussex, ii. 2i>2; overthrows the
Saxons at Ha.-t m_'s, ii. 2ii2 Uti:! ; takes the
crown, ii. -1)4 ; struggle of witli tin- Saxon-*,
ii. 2ti»i 271 ; retuiiis I" N"iniundy, ii. -71;
prepares l>oim --lay lixik, ii. -71 1'7">; lays
out NYw Forest, ii. 27."i; death of, ii. _'7ii.

WII.LIXM Of < lit \\-I.K. (See Williiiin il» Silrnt.)

WII.I.HM KUPUS, Becomes king <>( Kngland, ii.
276 ; conspiracy against, ii. 277 ; reign of, ii.
27i i l.'7!»; dMtbof, ii. 279.

WILLIAM THE SILENT, Leader ot the Netherlands,
ii. 679; opposes the Inquisition, ii. 081 ; at-
tempts i-cconcilialioii, ii. (!H1 ; suiiiinotn-.l by
Philip, ii. 683; the good genius of his |>eople,
ii. 684 <><):! ; publishes the Juttification, ii. 684 ;
founds the Dutch Republic, ii. 686; fights for
liberty, ii. <>S7-«!»3; under the ban, ii. 691;
c'liidemns Philip, ii, 692; murder of, ii. 693;
character of, ii. 693-694.

WILLIAMS, ROOEK, Career of in America, ii. 742-
744.

WILSON, HKXKV, Vice-president of United States,
iii. 1192; death of, iii. 1193.

Wi.\( IIK.STKII. (H:\KIHI., Campaign of, iii. 1138.
Battle of, iii 1185.
/, OKNERAL, Puts down Hungarian
insurrection, iii. 1253-lL'.it.

WINK, Used by the Romans, i. 649.

WINKELUIKD, ARNOLD VON, Heroism of at Sempach,
ii. -is.,.

WINTIIROP, JOHN, Governor of Massachusetts Bay,
iii. 856.

WISCONSIN. Admission of, iii. 1160.

WITCHCRAFT, At Salrni village; iii. 861; denied
by statute in Prussia, iii. 893.

WITENAGKMOTE, Developed by Alfred, ii. 207.

WITTENBERG, Scat ol Lutber's University, ii. 676-
577.

WirriKiND, King of the Saxons, ii. 160; confront*
Charlemagne, ii. 160-162.

Woi.h-K, JAMES, Officer under Amherst, iii. 930;
captures Quebec, iii. 931-932; death of, iii. !):',L'.

WOLSEY, CARDINAL, Master of the Field of the
Cloth of Gold, ii. 587 ; ascendency of, ii. ."^7
588; relations of to Henry's divorce, ii. 601 ;
downfall of, ii. 602.

WOMAN, Her place among the Egyptians, i. 56, 72;

among the Chulil MS. i. l.;i 135; among the

Medes, i. 210; among the Babylonians, i. 274;

ai ig the Persians, i. :>28-330; among the

Greeks, i. 408-410; among the Romans, i.
617-618, 643; under Feudalism, ii. 231 ; eman-
cipation of necessary to progress and happi-
ness, iii. 1354.

WOOL, (iKNKKAi.. American commander in Mexi-
can War, iii 1156, 1157; commandant at For-
tress Monroe, iii. 1173.

WOKCESTKR, Battle of, iii. 787.
89

WOHII.'S KAIK, In Hyde Park

WIUM.I.L, RAUL GIISTAK, General 0| sw,.,l, .

..'I

UHTOPHBU. -I. Pkul'c,

iii. -

, in ihe KiTvptiiin*. i. W-jr.
dje»ns, i. 128-12*.). «l the AK-^
of tli JU; of Ib : 411

V^I^IAVI-K. (>p|HiN<-<l in MaMUIchu-

iii '•
UVMI, Downfall ..f, ii. tW9.

Mawacreof, iii
WVSOCKI, PBT«R, Leader »i polish rvvolutioi.

X.

XAMTHIPPl'S, Aids Carthage, i. 713.

I'lios, Quote<l, i. If.1; life and work of, i. 396.
. KS. King of Persia, i. 356; prepares to in-
vade Greece, i. 357; advance* to the Helles-
pont, i. 357; his army, i. 367-35"
Thcrmopylte. i. 368, 464 ; is routed at Salami*
and PlaUea, i. 368-359, 468-470; u MWUMM-
nated, i. 359.
XISUTIIRUS, The Cualdtean Xoah, i. 110-111.

Y.

VAROSI.AV. King of Ruwia, ii. 294-295.
YRDO, Becomes capital of Japan, iii. 1342 ; nnme

of changed to Tokio, iii. l.:i.:
YELLOW FEVKK EPIDEMIC, Account of, iii. 1196.
YKKMOUK, Battle of, ii. 108.
YBZDCOIRD, Last of the Sassanians, ii. 115; a fugi-

tive, ii. 117-118; death of, ii. 1U1.
YKZRD, General of Islam, ii. 102-103.
YKZCD, Son of Moawyah, ii. 135; becomes caliph,

ii. 138; reign of, ii. 138-140.
YIMA, Myth of, i. 1M7.
VOI.ANDR, Empress of the East, i. 929.
YORK, Rebels against the Normans, ii. 270.
YORK AND LANCASTER, Nature of quarrel of, ii. 518.
VOUK DYNASTY, Ascendency of, ii. 531-W"> ; table

of, iii. 1208.
YORK, JAMBS, Dm» or, Commands English

navy, iii. 797, 799; Romanism of, iii. 800; ex-

cluded from succession, iii. 800; become*

James II.. iii. 801; patron of New York, iii.

863-864.

YORK-TOWN, Siege snd capture of, iii. 980-981.
YOI-KKVSA, Governor of Aleppo, ii. 110-111.
') ITALY, Party of considered, iii. 1278.
Yu THB GR*AT, Founder of China, iii. 1330.

ZAI» MI VKRS. Noticed, i. 140-141.

/oi\. llattle ..f. i. 738.
ZKDEKIAM. Kiiu' of Israel, i. 289.
/KSP ..lint of, i. '-'14. :<35.

1410

INDEX.

ZENO, Reign of, i. 906.

ZENOBIA, Story of, i. 877.

ZEOS, Oracle of at Dodona, i. 414 ; myth of, i. 420-

421 ; meaning of, i. 4?9.
ZKUXIS, Notice of. i. 401.
ZIETEN, General of Frederick II., iii. 908, 912,

915, 917.

ZIMISCES, JOHN, Reign of, i. 921-922.
ZIRNDORF, Battle of, ii. 714.
ZISKA, JOHN, Leader of Hussites, ii. 494; war of

with Imperialists, ii. 495-496.

ZODIAC, Known to the Chaldseans, i. 127 ; to the

Babylonians, i. 269.
ZOLIKOFFER, GENERAL, Killed at Mill Spring, iii.

1171.

ZOLLVEREIN, Organization of, iii. 1249.
ZORNDORF, Battle of, iii. 914.
ZOROASTER, Referred to, i. 216-217 ; life and work

of, i. 334.

ZULOAGA, President of Mexico, iii. 1318.
ZWINGLI, ULRIC, Leader of the Swiss Protestants,

ii. 585 ; death of, ii. 619.

INDEX TO MAPS, CHARTS, AND DIAGRAMS.

HISTORICAL MAPS (COLORED).

ANCIENT F.i.YPT VOLUME I

mi: WORLD Al KNOWN TO ME80POTA.MIAN NATION!

1'ERSIAN EMPIRE

VNCII-NT 01

• LOXIKS

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE

ANCIENT ITALY

ROMAN EMPIRE

BAKHARIAN El RoPE \.,l, til

CARI.OVINU1AN EMPIRE

CHRISTIAN KINGDOMS IX THE E\-I

VOYVliK AND DISCOVERY

PROGRESS OF UEOORAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE

THE WORLD

EUROPE DURING THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.

HRITISH ISLES VOLUME in

^11 ill, AND - . - ',

I KM. \ NH

I I Koi'E DUKIXc; TIME OF NAPOLEON I.- •• I-,,. IT*

NORTH AMI Kl. \ " .....' . .,

ACIJUIS1 TION OF TERRITORY

ENi.l.VND AND U M

FRANi I

A KRICA

GERMAN EMPIRE. ..

EUROPE ; JL__~I

CANADA

MEXICO „

SOUTH AMERICA- "

ASIA

AUSTRALIA

CHRONOLOGICAL CHARTS (COLORED).

ANCIENT AFRICAN AND ASIATIC KINGDOMS- VOLUME I. 4g- «

GR.Kco- ROMAN ASCENDENCY •• 440-441

DECLINE AND FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE. •• .., „..

BARBARIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ASCENDENCIES _.. VOLUME II 44- «

EUROPE DURING THE CRUSADES ••

VOYAGES AND Disco VEKIl-..- IN : AMERICA " .F*Hii( MO

COLONIAL SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA VOLUME in " ~.|

FROM THIRTY YEARS' WAR TO THE XIXTH CENTURY.. " ..911-911

XIXTH CENTURY, FROM ACCESSION OF VICTORIA TO FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, VOLUME III. IIU-IIM

GENEALOGICAL DIAGRAMS.

FAMILY OF NABOPOLASSAR VOLUME I M

FAMILY OF TARQUIN • fTO

FAMILY OF CLAUDIUS •• .. e»7

THE SCIPIOS AND THE GRACCHI •• ... 7»

FAMILY OF .EMII.IU.S PAULLUS " 742

FAMILY OF MASINlss.x •• 74*

FAMILY OF I'OMl'ElfS " 77»

FAMILY OF CICERO " ... >j

FAMILY OF METEI.LUS

FAMILY OF CATO

FAMILY OF ANTONIU8

THE C .'KHARS

FAMILY OF ANTONINUS PIUS

THE SASSAXID.K ... 874

1 III FAMILY OF PALiEOLOOUS

TIIF MEROVINGIANS VOL ME II 71

HERMAN HOUSES OF MIDDLE AC.ES

THE ANGLO-SAXON KIN'iS

THE AHHASID CALIPHS

THE KINUS OF JERUSALEM

THE MOXARCIIS OF FRAXCK-

THE HAPSHUKiiS 4TS

Mil: \loN\RCIIsoF FRANCE iP.OUKItoXl

ARABELLA STUART AND LADY JANE <;RFY Vnl.rMElII

RIVAL c|, \IM.\N is TO THE SPANISH CROWN

THE ROM \ N *i

THE ',111 I'lH " (71

THEM.'NM •• 1308

THE HONAI'ARTFs 1ZM

I;ERM\N KINUS \M> EMPERORS ;_•

THE HOHEN7.O1.1.FRNS : ."

1411)

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