Syracuse Univ. Bull.. Volume 22 AUGUST. 1922 Number 7
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
(VOLUME I. NUMBER 2)
OF
The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station
OF
The New York State College of Forestry
AT
Syracuse University
Published Quarterly by the University, Syracuse, New York
Entered at the Post Office at Syracuse as second-class mail matter
/
with the compliments cf
TE3 ROOSEVELT TTILD LI 1:3
FOREST EXPERIMENT STITIOIJ
Syracuse, New York
THE LATE VISCOUNT TAMES BRYCE
1838-1922.
Late Member of Honorary Advisory Council
Syracuse Univ. Bull.. Volume 22 AUGUST. 1922
Number 7
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
(VOLUME I. NUMBER 2)
OF
The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station
OF
The New York State College of Forestry
AT
Syracuse University
Published Quarterly by the University, Syracuse, New York
Entered at the Post Office at Syracuse as second-class mall matter
ANNOUNCEMENT
The Serial Publications of The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest
Experiment Station consist of the following:
1. Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin.
2. Roosevelt Wild Life Annals.
The Bulletin is intended to include papers of general and popular
interest on the various phases of forest wild life, and the Annals
those of a more technical nature or having a less widespread
interest.
These publications are edited in cooperation with the College
Committee on Publications.
Exchanges are invited.
CHARLES C. ADAMS
Director and Editor
[102]
Copyright, 1922
by
Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station
TRUSTEES OF
THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY
Ex Officio
Ur. Charles W. Flint, Chancellor Syracuse University
Dr. Frank P. Graves, Commissioner of Education Albany, N. Y.
Hon. Alexander Macdcnald, Conservation Commis-
sioner Albany, N. Y.
Hon. Jeremiah Wood, Lieutenant-Governor Hempstead, L. I.
Appointed by the Governor
Hon. Alexander T. Brown Syracuse, N. Y.
Hon. John R. Clancy Syracuse, N. Y.
Hon. Harold D. Cornwall Lowville, N. Y.
Hon. George W. Driscoll Syracuse, N. Y.
Hon. C. C. Burns VVatertown, N. Y.
Hon. Louis Marshall New York City
Hon. William H. Kelley Syracuse, N. Y.
Hon. Edward H. O'Hara Syracuse, N. Y.
Hon. T. Henry Walters New York City
Officers of the Board
Hon. Louis Marshall President
Hon. John R. Clancy Vice-President
[103]
HONORARY ADVISORY COUNCIL OF THE ROOSEVELT
WILD LIFE STATION
American Members
Mrs. CoRiNNE Roosevelt Robinson \e\v York City
Hon. Theodore Roosevelt Washington, D. C.
Mr. Kermit Roosevelt New York City
Dr. George Bird Grinnell New York City
Dr. GiFFORD PiNCHOT Harrisburg, Pa.
Mr. Chauncey J. Hamlin Buffalo, N. Y.
Dr. George Shiras, 3rd Washington, D. C.
Dr. Frank M. Chapman Xew York City
Col. Henry S. Graves Xew Haven, Conn.
Ei RoPEA.v Members
V^iscount Gkey Falloden. England
Viscount Bryce* Forest Row, England
Sir Harry H. Johnston Arundel, England
* Deceased, January 22, 1922.
[104]
ROOSEVELT STATION STAFF
Franklin Moon, M. F Dean of the College
Charles C. Adams, Ph. D., ScD Director of the Station
Alvin G. Whitney, A. B Assistant Director
William Converse Kendall, A. M., M. D Ichthyologist
VViLFORD A. Dence, B. S Assistant
Temporary Appointments *
Thomas L. Hankinson, B. S Ichthyologist**
Perley M. Silloway, M. S Roosevelt Field Ornithologist
Henry S. Pratt, Ph. D Roosevelt Field Naturalist
Charles E. Johnson, Ph.D Roosevelt Fur Naturalist
Aretas a. Saunders, Ph.B Roosevelt Field Ornithologist
Collaborators *
Edward R. Warren, B. S Roosevelt Game Naturalist
Richard A. Muttkowski, Ph.D Roosevelt Field Naturalist
Gilbert M. Smith, Ph.D Roosevelt Field Naturalist
Edmund Heller, A. B Roosevelt Game Naturalist
M. F. Skinner Roosevelt Field Ornithologist
* Including only those who have made field investigations and whose reports
are now in preparation.
** Resigned as Station Ichthyologist October i, 1921.
[105]
ROOSEVELT ON WILD LIFE INVESTIGATION
" There must be ample research in the laboratory in order even to present
those problems, not to speak of solving them, and there can be no laboratory
study without the accumulation of masses of dry facts and specimens.
" I also mean that from now on it is essential to recognize that the best
scientific men must largely work in the great out-of-doors laboratory of
nature. It is only such outdoors work which will give us the chance to
interpret aright the laboratory observations."
Theodore Roosevelt.
THE RELATION OF FORESTS AND FORESTRY TO HUMAN
WELFARE
" Forests are more than trees. They are rather land areas on which are
associated various forms of plant and animal life. The forester must deal
with all. Wild life is as essentially and legitimately an object of his care as
are water, wood, and forage. Forest administration should be planned with
a view to realizing all possible benefits from the land areas handled. It
should take account of their indirect value for recreation and health as well as
their value for the production of salable material ; and of their value for
the production of meat, hides, and furs of all kinds as well as for the
production of wood and the protection of water supplies.
" Unquestionably the working out of a program of wild life protection
which will give due weight to all the interests affected is a delicate task.
It is impossible to harmonize the differences between the economic, the
esthetic, the sporting, and the commercial viewpoint. Nevertheless, the
practical difficulties are not so great as they appear on the surface."
Henry S. Graves,
Former Chief Forester, U. S. Forest Service.
Recreation, Vol. 52, p. 236, 1915.
[106]
Hamilton Counties of the Adirondacks Dr. Charles Eugene Johnson
CONTENTS
1. An Opportunity for Great Public Service Col. Henrj- S. Graves
2. An Investigation of the Beaver in Herkimer and
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES 1
Plate 23. The Late Viscount Br^-ce, 1838-1922. Courtesy The Macmillan
Plate 24. Colonel Henry S. Graves, Member of Honorary Advisory Council 112
FIGURES
Figure i. Constable Creek, one of the sources of Big Moose Lake.
View above second beaver dam from mouth of creek 119
Figure 2. Constable Creek; about a hundred yards above view in figure i ;
showing beaver lodge and flooded woodland 119
Figure 3. Constable Creek; another view of the beaver flow. Mixed birch
and spruce forest 120
Figure 4. Constable Pond; looking toward the outlet. Fringe of spruce
timber under water 1 20
Figure 5. Constable Pond; flooded bay at inlet. Drowned timber chiefly
of spruce 123
Figure 6. One of the dams in outlet creek of Lower Gull Lake; 146 feet long
and 8 feet, 8 inches high 123
Figure 7. Twdtchell Creek; view a half mile west of highway. Spruce
timber, long since drowned 124
Figure 8. Outlet creek of Russian Pond; showing dam two and a half feet
high, damaging timber along the stream 124
Figure 9. Lower Gull Lake; dam at outlet flooding narrow fringe of forest
around the lake 127
Figure 10. The lower of the Two Sisters Lakes; dam at outlet flooding a
fringe of spruce timber 127
Figure 11. Beaver Pond at junction of Sunshine and Jack Pond Creeks,
Twitchell Lake district 128
Figure 12. Dam at outlet of Oswego Pond, Twitchell Lake district. This
has flooded an area extending half a mile above the pond. ... 128
Figure 13. Witchopple Lake; view of part of northwest shore and dam at
outlet 131
Figure 14. \''iew along inlet creek of Witchopple Lake. Because of the low
banks this beaverflow is submerging considerable spruce timber. 131
Figure 15. New dam on outlet stream of Razorback Pond, on property of
Champlain Realty Company. Stand of large spruce above
dam endangered by flooding 132
Figure 16. Beaver flow on creek entering Round Pond, northern Long Lake
region 132
Figure 17. Beaver Pond on Pine Brook, northern Long Lake region. Chiefly
cut-over and burned land, so that damage from flow is negligible. 135
Figure 18. Aspen, 17.5 inches in diameter, cut by beaver; north shore of Lake
Eaton 135
Figure 19. Salmon Brook, Blue Mountain Lake region; dam 75 feet long
and 3 feet high, causing flow about a mile in length 136
Figure 20. Salmon Brook, Blue Mountain Lake region. Dead spruce timber
in the long flow on this creek 136
Figure 21. McCabes Creek, Indian Lake region; spruce killed in beaver flow. 139
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
PAGE
Figure 22. Creek entering inlet marsh, Big Moose Lake; view just below
junction of the north and south forks. Formerly a good trout
stream 139
Figure 23. View on Pine Brook, between Forked Lake and Long Lake, taken
just above a beaver dam which had been torn out. Formerly
a good trout stream 140
Figure 24. Beaver ponds on small tributary of Boulder Brook. Stream
normally about two feet wide. No timber to damage here. 140
Figure 25. Beaver dam and pond on upper courses of Pine Brook, Cold
River region; limit of a burned area. A good example of a
beaver flow as a natural fire barrier 143
Figure 26. Part of meadow formed on site of old beaver pond; Grampus
Lake stream, Long Lake region 143
Figure 27. Big Chief Pond, Big Moose Lake region. Part of south shore;
beaver-damaged timber removed. An example of injury on
a private estate 144
Figure 28. Beaver dam on Big Brook, Long Lake region; 172 feet long, 3 feet,
9 inches high. No timber to damage here. Beaver flows are
frequently helpful to man for transportation purposes 144
Figure 29. Beavers' " tote road," cut through river bank; near Cold River. . 147
Figure 30. White birch with double cut having spiral turn. Tree on edge
of little knoll; 3 feet, 7 inches in circumference above upper cut.
Big Brook, Long Lake district 147
Figure 31. Hemlock one foot in diameter, partly severed by beaver; Loon
Lake, Beaver River district 148
Figure 32. Small dam containing many stones; outlet of Trout Pond,
Beaver River district 148
Figure 33. The large dam on McCanns Brook, Blue Mountain Lake district;
II feet, I inch high at the creek's channel 151
Figure 34. Part of one of the wings of the high dam shown in figure 33 151
Figure 35. Huge beaver lodge on Cold River; longest diameter, 35 feet;
shortest, 28 feet; height, 7 feet 152
Figure 36. Inhabited lodge, Sargents Pond (easternmost'* 152
Figure 37. The series of ponds beside Cooke City road near Camp Roosevelt,
Yellowstone National Park. Taken from slope of Junction
Butte above Yellowstone River bridge, showing location of
ponds, large aspen grove on hillside, and the grove destroyed
along the stream 189
Figure 38. Pond No. 2 beside Cooke City road, showing log-piles protecting
the entrances to burrows. These log-piles may in time
become lodges 189
Figure 39. The lower beaver trail leading across Cooke City road from the
pond to the aspen grove above. Taken from north hillside
above the pond 190
Figure 40. North Fork of Elk Creek, near Yanceys. The long dam photo-
graphed from hillside above the easterly end 190
Figure 41. Freshly cut aspen logs, near pond on bench above Yanceys,
August 10, 1 92 1. These trees are about 6 to 10 inches in
diameter 193
Figure 42. The large pond at Crescent Hill; view from the upper end,
showing beaver lodge and fringe of dead aspen 193
Figure 43. The long dam adjacent to Tower Creek; 275 feet long. In dense
Engelmann spruce timber, now killed by flooding 194
Figure 44. Beaver trail on hillside above large pond. From the end of the
long dam adjacent to Tower Creek (figure 43) 194
Figure 45. Pond on Lost Creek with three lodges; also showing steep hillside
with aspen stumps; denuded to the edge of the lodgepole pine
forest, 175 feet from the pond 197
Figure 46. Pond No. 14 on Lost Creek, showing gravel washed in. Illus-
trating how an abandoned pond may become filled with silt
and debris 197
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin 109
PAGE
Figure 47. Lost Lake, near Camp Roosevelt. A party of naturalists and
boys from the Forest and Trail Camp on a beaver study excur-
sion. Photo Alvin G. Whitney 198
Figure 48. Upper beaver meadows on Lost Creek above Yanceys, showing
old dam. These were large ponds when Ernest Thompson
Seton studied them in 1897 198
Figure 49. Side view of skull of a beaver, showing the chisel-like character
of the front teeth 201
Figure 50. Cottonwood tree partly cut by a beav-er. The rule in the cut is
2 feet long. Trinchera Estate, Costilla County, Colorado,
May II, 1913 201
Figure 51. Large aspen partly cut by beaver. The tree measured 4.6 f^et
in circumference above the notch. Photographed July 22, 192 1 . 202
Figure 52. The large aspen after it had been felled. Photographed Sep-
tember 4, 192 1. It was still standing August 28. The rule
on the stump is six inches long 202
Figure 53. Beaver house and trails in snow. Near Slate River, 2.5 miles
above Crested Butte, Gunnison County, Colorado, Oct. 20,
1905 205
Figure 54. Beaver trail in snow. Near Slate River above Crested Butte,
Gunnison County, Colorado, Oct. 20, 1905 205
Figure 55. Willow brush in beaver pond, cut and stored by beaver. Near
Crested Butte Colorado 206
Figure 56. A beaver dam near Brush Creek, Gunnison County, Colorado,
showing pine logs projecting above the dam. An unusual
occurrence 206
Figure 57. Dam in which willow brush was largely used in construction, and
with which the face is covered. A good example of this type.
Monument Creek, El Paso, Colorado 209
Figure 58. Section of beaver dam showing underpinning of sticks laid cross-
wise to the current. Near Crested Butte, Colorado 209
Figure 59. Series of three beaver dams placed so as to form deep, quiet pools
by the bank of the stream; on Slate River, Gunnison County,
Colorado 210
Figure 60. Diversion dam on Camelian Creek, turning part of the stream
onto the bank to stipply ponds there 210
Figure 61. The big lodge adjacent to Tower Creek, in midst of heavy
Engelmann spriice forest. Diameter 24 feet; height 7 feet,
3 inches above the water 213
Figure 62. Beaver house cut open, showing chamber and entrance. Near
Crested Butte, Gunnison County, Colorado, Sept. 5, 1902. . . . 213
Figure 63. Bank lodge on Camelian Creek. Doubtless during high water
in spring this would be flooded and untenable 214
Figure 64. Lodge in one of the ponds along Cooke City road. An example
of a house lodge built against the bank. Occupied by at least
eight beavers 214
Figure 65. Upper water level on two-level canal at works adjacent to Tower
Creek. The dam is under the log in the foreground 217
Figure 66. Lower water level connecting with pond, and earth slide or chute
from dam. On two-level canal at works adjacent to Tower
Creek 217
Figure 67. Canal and mud banks half a mile above group of ponds at the
big spring by Tower Creek 218
Figure 68. Mud " sign heap " in upper Lost Creek; about a foot in diameter
and four inches thick. The beavers deposit their castoreum on
these piles perhaps as a means of communication 218
Figure 69. Beaver swimming. Photographed at the large pond at Crescent
Hill; about noon July 22, 1921 220
Figure 70. Beaver crossing a dam. Photographed from beside the Cooke
City road near Yellowstone River bridge in mid-afternoon. . . 220
1 TO
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
MAPS
Map I. Map of western part of area examined in Herkimer and Hamilton
Coimties southern Adirondacks, and showing location of beaver
works At end
Map 2. Map of the eastern part of area examined in Herkimer and Hamilton
Counties, northern Adirondacks, and showing beave" activities. At end
Map 3. Camp Roosevelt region, Yellowstone National Park, showing loca-
tion of heaver works, 192 1 At end
HENRY S. GRAVES
Member of Honorary Advisory Council
AN OPPORTUNITY FOR GREAT PUBLIC SERVICE
Bv Hexkv S. Graves
Deo 11, School of Forestry, }'alc Uiiircrsily
Member of Honorary Adz'isory Council, The Roosevelt ]Vild Life
Forest Experiment Station, Syracuse, Nezv York
One of the most encouraging signs in recent years has l)een the
changing public attitude toward the conservation of wild hfe. There
is an increasing" volume of public protest against the unintelligent
destruction of wild life that still characterizes many parts of the
country. Of special significance, however, is the growing apprecia-
tion of the value of wild life to the people of the nation. We are
beginning to realize also that the perpetuation and right use of wild
life involve much more than the enactment of perfunctory legisla-
tion and the employment of politically appointed game wardens.
Wild life is now seen to be a natural resource whose conservation
and proper utilization are of real service in advancing the welfare
of our people. While many persons may still think of wild life con-
servation as primarily of benefit to a limited group of people who
have a taste for shooting and fishing and who can afTord to indulge in
it, their number is rapidly diminishing. The objectives of those
behind the new movement of wild life conservation are much broader
and more far reaching than this. It is a good deal like the good
roads movement. There are many who see in it special advantages
for pleasure drives for owners of automobiles, and the builders of
motor vehicles may be strongly back of the movement for better
roads. But the main objectives of good roads are the opening of
the country to commerce, the development of communities and crea-
tion of new and more comfortable homes, the stimulus to the use of
undeveloped land, and the establishment of new industries, as well
as the encouragement to people to come more closely in contact with
nature.
The i)rotection of bird life is no longer a fad of a few senti-
mentalists. It is a practical problem of safeguarding the farm, field,
garden and forest from insect pests. The dej^letion of our fisheries
takes on new significance now that the price of fish in the market is
approaching that of choice meats. In manv forest regions the jieople
are beginning to see that an abundance of game and fish is attracting
to their communities thousands of visitors who bring large benefits
[113]
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
to the local communities. Farmers are making the discovery that
the presence of wild life in pasture and woodland is a real financial
asset. Purely on the economic side it has been shown that the meat
value of the big game which is killed each year in the country
amounts to no less than 15 million dollars and that effective game
administration would in the long run increase this many fold. The
economic value of the wild life resource is so great that the country
can no longer afford to neglect the necessary measures to perpetuate
and increase it.
There is another side to the problem of wild life conservation,
however, which is just as important and which fortunately is being
increasingly appreciated. I refer to the part played by wild life in
attracting people to the country for recreation and for the mental
and spiritual stimulus that comes from a contact with nature. The
movement for outdoor recreation is not primarily designed for
amusement. It is to furnish the benefits that are derived from a
complete relaxation and change from the routine duties of life and
the inspiration that is derived from an intimate touch with the fields
and woodlands and with the rugged scenery of the mountains.
These benefits will be expressed in better health, greater efficiency,
and a more wholesome point of view for those who are able from
time to time to visit the points of interest in the country that are
now being made readily available.
One of the great attractions to draw the people into the country
is an abundance of game, birds and fish. Many vacation visitors are
interested in wild life chiefly for the opportunities offered for sport.
The largest purpose of providing such sport through the conser\-a-
tion and proper utilization of wild life is the benefit of a sojourn in
the great out-of-doors. But there is an increasing number of people
who derive enjoyment in observing game just as they enjoy the
forests, the trees and flowers. More and more the study of wild
life is becoming a pastime, for scientific study, for game pho-
tograjjhy, for the mere pleasure of contact with conditions where
wild life finds its home.
The conservation of wild life is peculiarly a public problem. In
the first place the game and fish belong to the public itself, which
holds it in trust for the benefit of the people of the country. An
individual does not actually own the fish and game which may
abound upon his j^roperty. Even if the game and fish within the
boundaries of his property are the result of expenditures in pro-
tection and in breeding, they still l)elong to the public and he can
utilize them onlv under the state laws. He can exercise a certain
Opportmiit X (or Public Scn'icr
control over the wild life on his land because he can prevent trespass,
but if it should go beyond the boundaries of his tract he cannot
recover it as in the case of domestic animals. The wild life resource
within a given state does not represent the aggregate of property
owned by individuals in the state but it is an asset of very great value
owned by the people as a whole. There is therefore a direct respon-
sibility on the part of the public to safeguard and perpetuate it.
The existence of jirivate preserves and the efforts of individuals
to protect the wild life upon their property through the trespass laws
and to increase it through special measures are of great assistance.
Many private indi\-iduals find that the benefits, financial or other-
wise, derived from having an abundance of wild life upon their
property are such as to induce them to take measures for its con-
servation. Such i)rivate efYorts are not, however, in the aggregate
sufficient to insure the perpetuation of the wild life resources. Greed
£ind selfishness, indifference and unintelligence are still operating to
deplete and in some places actually exhaust the fish and game and to
make necessary stringent laws and a much more effective adminis-
tration of them than is general in the country today.
Very frequently we make reference to the former days when the
forests abounded in game and the streams with fish. We are only
just beginning to realize that we now face very different conditions
from those existing when there was a wilderness of greater or less
extent in nearly all regions of the country. The wilderness is
rapidly vanishing. Everywhere we are building roads to make acces-
sible the most remote parts of the country. The very movement for
outdoor recreation which we are encouraging in every way is increas-
ing the difficulties in the conservation of wild life. Under these
conditions we have the task not only to maintain the wild life with-
out further depletion but also the problem of restoration and rebuild-
ing where wild life has been exhausted or is approaching exhaustion.
Still again the advance of industry, of agriculture, of stock raising
and other phases of land utilization, is in many instances restricting
the natural home of wild life and frequently the land formerly used
by game for winter feeding grounds and for breeding is now occu-
pied for industrial activities.
The old idea that a little protection is all that is needed for the
perpetuation of wild life is no longer applicable. This is a tradition
from frontier conditions when the population was still so small and
the wilderness so large that the balance of nature could easily be
maintained or, if impaired, could be restored. Nature is very pro-
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
lific. Its power of recuperation under abuse is astonishing, but the
adverse factors are l^ecoming so great that the wild Hfe can no longer
sustain itself without very definite measures of assistance. We now
begin to see that the rule-of-thumb methods of protection are no
longer adequate. We must provide an administration of wild life
by the public which is based upon a knowledge of the habits and life
history of the different species, upon a knowledge of their specific
requirements for food and for breeding places, a knowledge of their
productive capacity, a knowledge of their natural enemies and
diseases, etc. Such knowledge can be obtained only through intel-
ligent study and scientific research. We must have laws for the
protection of wild life, but no laws can be applied automatically.
There must be provision also for intelligent administration adapted
to the requirements for building up the supply of wild life. The
principles of public policy expressed in legislation and the methods
of administration will depend upon the results of the studies of
scientific agencies.
New York State possesses a wild life resource which has a direct
economic value of many millions of dollars and an indirect value to
the people that cannot Ije measured. \ ery wisely the State has now
provided for research and experimental work that will lay the
foundation for maintaining and increasing this resource. The oppor-
tunities before the Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station
for public service are very exceptional. Liberal support should be
given to it to make possible the conduct of investigations of the most
thorough scientific character. Through the work of this institution
sound knowledge will replace guesswork as a background for the
pul)lic policies and for field practice in matters pertaining to wild life
in the State.
It is a gratification that the Experiment Station is intimately
related to forestry. Certain classes of wild life make their home in
the forests. No forester can overlook the increased service of the
forest through the presence of game and fish. In many instances
the provision for the needs of game constitutes an important factor
in the plans of developing and administering a forest. More and
more the responsibility for protecting and supervising the game and
fish will fall upon the foresters themselves. As they show their
competence, the public will increasingly place the work in their
hands. The work of the Roosevelt Experiment Station will be of
great educational value to foresters, not only through the results of
the research but in demonstrating the intimate relation between
forestry and wild life conservation.
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE BEAVER IN HER-
KIMER AND HAMILTON COUNTIES OF
THE ADIRONDACKS*
Bv Dr. Charles Eugene Johnson
Roosevelt Pur Naturalist, Roosevelt ll'ild Life Forest Experiment
Station, Syracuse, Nczv York
Contents
iiitruductudi.
Part I. Status of the Beaver in Herkimer and Hamilton Counties.
1. Relation of the Beaver to the Timber.
2. Relation to Waters, Fish and Fishing.
3. Relation of Beaver Work to Deer in Winter and to
Water Birds.
4. Relation to Private Holdings within the Adirondack
Preserve.
5. Attitude of Local Inhabitants Toward the Beaver.
6. General Public Interest in the Beaver.
7. Sources and Numbers of Adirondack Beavers.
8. Commercial Value and Possibilities.
9. Summary and Conclusions.
10. Recommendations.
Part II. The Natural History of the [leaver.
T. Introduction.
2. General Remarks on Habits.
3. Breeding Habits.
4. Enemies of the Beaver.
5. Food and Feeding Habits.
6. Beaver Architecture.
7. Classification and Description.
8. Historical.
9. References to Literature.
* In the first program presented to Theodore Roosevelt for the investigation
of wild Hfe, provision was made for an intensive study of the beaver; Inn
funds for such an investi^^ation were not forthcoming until Dean Franklin
Moon called the attention of the Trustees of the New York State College of
Forestry to this need, whereupon several of them responded with personal
contributions which supplemented by a contribution from the College, together
with the hearty cooneration of former Commissioner Ellis J. Stalcy of the
New York State Conservation Commission, have made the present recon-
na.issance possible. — The Director.
[1171
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Roosevelt Wild lAfc Bulletin
Introduction
The following report is the result of a pi-eliminary survey under-
taken for the Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station of
the New Y(jrk State College of Forestry at Syracuse, which has
1)een Ijased upon field work extending from July 27 to September 9,
1921. The area chosen for the investigation lies in northern
Herkimer and Hamilton counties along the southern border of the
Adirondack Mountains. This territory, according to information
furnished by Mr. W. G. Howard, Assistant Superintendent of
Forests, of the New York State Conservation Commission, marks
the center of abundance of beaver in the Adirondacks, and from this
area have come the most insistent reports of damage resulting from
activities of these animals.
On the accompanying maps ( maps i and 2 ) are shown the locali-
ties visited by me personally in the course of the investigation and
also other sections, according to definite information given me by
Forest Rangers and other persons, in which beaver are now to be
found. This does not mean that beaver may not be present in the
localities which are unmarked on the maps. In designating the
position of beaver dams and lodges the maps at my disposal were on
too small a scale to permit exact location, so that places marked
represent only an approximation. While the maps show all the dams
and lodges actually seen by me, and recorded on the spot for each
stream and pond as far as they were explored, it is to be expected
that a number may have escaped my notice. This is especially true
in the upper courses of many creeks visited, where more beaver
works would undoubtedly have been found had there been sufficient
time to search for them. It was apparent after a few days in the
field that it would be out of the question, in the time available, to
examine personally all the localities in which beaver probably
occurred. In regard to many places which I was unable to visit I
obtained information from the Forest Rangers, and the locations of
the dams were marked on the map as indicated. The Rangers
expressed their conviction that most of the streams in all of this
region have at least a few beaver somewhere along their courses.
Care was taken to record all lodges observed in order to have a
basis for an estimate of the beaver population. In so doing it was.
of course, necessary to distinguish between occupied and abandoned
lodges. In some localities many beavers do not build lodges, but live
in holes in the banks, and allowance must, therefore, be made for
Fig. 2. Constable Creek, about a hundred yards above view in figure i ; showing
beaver lodge and flooded woodland.
Fig. 3. C oiistablc Creek ; another view of the beaver flow. Mixed birch and
spruce forest.
Fig. 4. Constable Pond, looking toward the outlet. Fringe of spruce timber
under water.
Adirondack Beaver
121
these. Likewise along some streams the Ijeavers do not ljuild dams.
Where dams occur they alone do not furnish any safe index to the
number of animals engaged, for a family of beavers may build one
dam or several as conditions may prompt them. The visible results
of beaver operations are frequently all out of proportion to the
number of animals in\olved in the performance. A dam built by a
single individual or by a pair of beavers, if placed in a favorable
situation may cause such an extensive flooding" or flow as to lead one
to believe that a dozen or more had been engaged on it. With
sufficient time in a given locality it is quite possible to arrive at a
fairly close estimate of the number of beavers, by careful watching
for the animals themselves and by examination and comparison of
various signs, but obviously in a large area and with limited time
only a rough estimate could be made. However, lodges and dams
taken together give at least some idea of the character of the dis-
tribution of the beavers along the streams ; and from this one mav
draw tentative conclusions as to the density of the beaver population.
In the regions investigated the Rangers were always asked to direct
or take me to the localities, if accessible, which were known to have
the largest number of beaver and where the most extensive damage
was being done.
A short account of the natural history of the beaver is included,
as Part II, in this report because such knowledge of its behavior is
a necessary background for any intelligent understanding of the
beaver problem, and it may be of use, also, to the large number of
visitors and dwellers in the Adirondacks who are interested in wild
life and who do not have access to reliable information. To most
people who enjoy the out-of-doors, the beaver with its wonderful
instincts, has a fascination equalled by few other animals. By
reason of its shy and retiring hal^its, when living where it is fre-
quently disturbed, it is seldom seen by the visitor to its native haunts,
and is therefore known to him chiefly by its works. These works,
which are often on a large scale, seem so perfectly adapted to the
animal's needs and so similar to human engineering that one is
readily led into accepting them as the product of a directing intel-
ligence of a very high order. It is not strange that many fanciful
tales have been written and told about this master builder of the
wilds.
I wish to acknowledge the helpful cooperation given me in the
prosecution of this work by the officials of The New York State
College of Forestry and the Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment
122
Roosevelt Wild Life Bwlciiu
Station, as well as by former Commissioner Ellis J. Staley of the
New York Conservation Commission, Mr. W. G. Howard, Assistant
Superintendent of Forests, and Chief Llewellyn Legge of the Divi-
sion of Fish, and Game. For assistance in the field I am indebted
to the Forest Rangers of the Conservation Commission, and
especially to Mr. David Conkey of Beaver River, and Mr. Isaac B.
Robinson of Long Lake, in whose districts the most of my time was
spent and who placed all their available time at my disposal. Mr.
Howard kindly placed in my hands maps and re])orts which greatly
facilitated my work.
PART I. STATUS OF THE BEAVER IN HERKIMER
AND HAMILTON COUNTIES
Relation of the Beaver to the Timber
It may be safely stated at the outset that wherever beavers occur
in a wooded region, a certain amount of damage to forest trees of
one kind or another, large or small, is an inevitable accompaniment
of their presence.
In the region covered by this investigation the damage to timber
appears to be the most definite and serious charge placed against the
species at the present time. This charge at least has the virtue of
being susceptible to ocular proof. The seriousness of this kind of
damage of course depends upon its magnitude. In 1919, according
to Commissioner George D. Pratt, of the New York Conservation
Commission ('20, pp. 48-51), Forest Rangers estimated that a total
area amounting to 8,681 acres had been flooded as a result of beaver
dams in the Adirondacks and that the merchantable timber that had
been killed or was being killed in this area had an estimated value of
$51,425.00. In this report 587 beaver dams had been counted, which
comprised only a part of all the dams scattered throughout the Adi-
rondacks. In 1920 this damage had been increased ('21, p. loi) by
$3,410.00, or to a total of about $55,000.00.
Damage to timber by beavers results from two activities of the
animals: (i) The cutting or girdling of trees, and (2) the damming
of streams and ponds.
Damage through Cutting and Girdling of Trees. The total
damage done by cutting or girdling of trees of all sizes and descrip-
tions is entirely negligilile in comparison with that resulting from
flooding. The beaver, however, like the lumberman, is wasteful in
his methods and much that is cut down is not utilized. As a general
Fig. 5. Constable Pond; flooded bay at inlet. Drowned timber chiefly of spruce.
Fig. 6. One of the dams on Outlet Creek of Lower Gnll Lake ; 146 feet long
and 8 feet, 8 inches high.
Fig. 7. Twitchell L'reek; \ic\v a half mile west of highway. Spruce timber.
long since drovNTied.
Fig. 8. Outlet Creek of Ivussian Pond; showing dam two and a half feet high,
damaging timber along the stream.
Adirondack Beaver
rule I have found the heaver more extravagant and destructive when
he is working in a locaHty of large trees, than where small growths
of the same kind of trees occur, hecause when a sapling up to three
or four inches in diameter is felled, the hark not only of the branches
but also of the entire trunk is utilized for food, while in the case of
larger trees, eight to ten inches in diameter and above, usually only
the limbs are selected ; and often most or even all of these are left
untouched.
During this investigation in the Adirondacks the amount and kinds
of cuttings were found to vary considerably with the locality. When
aspens, or poplars, as they are locally called, occurred in fair abund-
ance among other kinds they of course were the principal trees cut.
Next in order came the birches, and in many localities these were
the most common cuttings, not from choice but because of scarcity
or absence of the more favored aspen. The largest beaver-cut trees
found were birches and aspens measuring from 12 inches to 17
inches in diameter at the lower end of the cut. Young beeches were
occasionally found cut, and many small maple saplings ; also, in
burned-over districts, many small wild cherry trees and a considerable
number of larger ones, three to six inches in diameter. Other kinds
of trees or shrubbery cut by beaver were alders, willows, raspberry,
ash, spruce, hemlock, balsam fir and pine. The spruce, balsam fir and
pine were all of small size, an inch or two in diameter, and were
merely such occasional cuttings of conifers as one usually finds in
beaver haunts. One hemlock a foot in diameter was cut about two-
thirds through, and a little one near it had been completely severed.
Trees of various kinds were frequently seen which had been merely
girdled and then permanently abandoned.
Damage through Flooding of Timbered Areas. No attempt
was made by me to estimate the number of acres of timber of any
sort flooded in the various localities. Such estimates have however,
been published (Pratt '20, p. 50). Many l^eaver flows contain no
merchantable timber, while others contain patches of it here and
there. The actual acreage is in the very nature of the conditions
difficult to estimate with any degree of accuracy without detailed
surveys.
To give a detailed account of all or even most of the many locali-
ties where timber of one kind or another, and in very variable
amounts was found damaged or killed in beaver flows, appears
neither necessary nor desirable at this time. In order, however, to
126
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
convey some idea of the situation as actually encountered it will be
important to describe conditions in a number of localities in the
principal areas investigated. For this purpose I have selected all
the beaver flows in which the most extensive damage was found,
some examples to show where little or no damage has resulted or is
likely to occur, and others which represent fairly average conditions
or noteworthy features in other respects.
I. Big Moose Lake Region. The most extensive flooding and
killing of timber in one continuous body is found along Constable
Creek (map i). From within approximately half a mile of the
mouth of this creek, which is in Big Moose Lake, and extending to
Constable Pond, there is a belt of drowned timber which, according
to my estimate, varies in width from about lo rods at the lower end
to perhaps i8 or 20 rods as it approaches Constable Pond; from
there a much narrower fringe extends along the north and south
shores of the pond. At the eastern end of the pond the two fringes
meet in a bay into which empties Pigeon Creek, and this bay contains
a close stand of dead timber, the bulk of it is spruce. The entire
distance of this flow is about two miles. On the creek I located five
dams in repair. The smallest of these was near Big Moose Lake
and was about 25 feet long and only 15 inches high, between the
water levels. It was in good repair when I saw it although it had
been repeatedly torn out previously, as it was on private land ; there-
fore no damage had resulted from this dam. The next dam, approxi-
mately half a mile up stream, was about 40 feet long and i foot
6 inches high and marked the beginning of the long flow (figure i).
The uppermost dam was the largest, being about 300 feet long and
4 feet high between the upper and lower water levels. In the
stretch included between the second and the uppermost dam four
beaver lodges were found, two of them inhabited and possibly also
the third, while the fourth had been abandoned. Figures 2 to 5
inclusive show the conditions as they were found in this flow. It
will be noted that much of the timber is mixed spruce, birch and
balsam fir which at the time it was killed constituted a rather young
growth in a cut-over district, the trees being about 5 to 8 inches
in diameter and smaller. Constable Creek offers a good example of
the effects of beaver dams of very moderate size and relatively few in
number when placed across small streams normally only a few feet
wide but whose Imnks are low.
As an example of a type of stream where little damage to timber
can result even from large dams, may be mentioned the creek form-
Fig. 9. Lower Gull Lake; dam at outlet flooding narrow fringe of forest
around the lake.
Fig. 10. The lower of the Two Sisters Lakes ; dam at outlet flooding a fringe
of spruce timber.
Fig. II. Ika\cr pond at jiinctinii of Sunshine and Jack Pond (.'reeks. Twitchell
Lake district.
Fig. 12. Dam at outlet of Oswego Pond. Twitchell Lake district. This has
flooded an area extending half a mile alxjve the pond.
Adirondack Beaver
1 29
ing the outlet of Lower Gull Lake. Seven dams were encountered
on this stream. Two of these were the highest found in this region,
and are located about half way between Lower Gull and Big Moose
lakes. The lower dam was 119 feet long and 6 feet high at the
stream's channel. The upper one was 146 feet long and measured
8 feet, 8 inches in height. The banks of the creek are here
rather steep, the area covered by the ponds above the dams was very
small and the damage by flooding negligible. These dams were of
several years' standing (figure 6).
2. TzL'itclwll Lake Region. Twitchell Creek, just west of the
road, presents a stretch of timber of respectable size killed Ijy beaver
flows of past years, although in this part of the creek I saw no evi-
dence of present activity. Figure 7 is a typical example of what I
found along this creek for a distance of about a mile below the road.
Three abandoned lodges and three' old dams that evidently had been
torn out by human hands were observed in this distance.
The ponds and lakes in the Big Moose-Twitchell lakes region,
which were visited and found to have dams across their outlets, are
Chub Pond, ]May's Pond, Big Chief Pond, Russian Pond, lower Two
Sisters Lakes, Lower and L'pper Gull lakes and Queer Lake. At
the outlet of the last named is a recently constructed dam as yet
small so that the water level of the lake has not been seriously
affected. On the outlet creek of Russian Pond is a dam about 65
feet long and 2 feet, 6 inches high, situated approximately 40
rods below the pond itself (figure 8). The dam has not damaged
the pond because of the slope of its shores, but between the pond
and the dam is a belt of drowned timber averaging probably 65 to
70 feet in width. The timber is mostly small spruce and the amoimt
of damage is not serious. Below the dam the creek is about ten feet
wide.
At the outlet of Lower Gull Lake is a dam about 90 feet long and
2 feet, 6 inches high, followed by two smaller dams at seventy-
five foot intervals down-stream. The shore line of the lake has a
fringe of dead trees, small or medium sized, which varies perhaps
from 30 to 50 feet in width. The dam at the outlet is shown in
figure 9, while figure 1 1 shows a flooded bay on the west shore.
Upper Gull Lake presents similar conditions but at the time of
my visit the water had gone down considerably as the result of dis-
repair of the dam at its outlet.
The lower of the Two Sisters Lakes has a narrow fringe of dead
trees of small size along the north shore and in a bay east of the
I30
Roosevelt Wild Life Bullrtin
outlet. Where the outlet stream leaves the lake there is a new dam
117 feet long and 2 feet, 6 inches high. The ground bordering
the outlet is low and the dam has caused a flooding of probably two
or three acres of timber, mostl}- fair-sized spruce, which is d3-ing.
Figure 10 shows the dam at the outlet.
Lily-pad I\)nd ( Twitchell Lake district ) is surrounded by a
])elt of dead timber about 40 to 60 feet wide, chiefly medium-sized
spruce. This pond and a small one to the southwest of it, originally
separate, have now been made into one pond as a result of beaver
flows. At the outlet of this greater pond is a dam 85 feet long and
3 feet, 9 inches high. The water above it at the time of my visit
was 8 inches below the crest of the dam which had been torn open
at one end by men, and had not yet been repaired by the beavers.
The condition of the neighboring Little Birch Pond is similar.
At the outlet of South Pond is a dam 90 feet long and 3 feet
high ; but the banks are steeper here and the amount of dead wood
as a consequence is negligible in quantity.
A beaver pond formed at the junction of what is known locally
as ''Jack Creek" and "Sunshine Creek" is shown in figure 11.
The greatest damage to timber in any one patch in this district
is about Oswego Pond (figure 12), especially along the small creek
entering it from the west. Here the flooded area extends for half
or three-quarters of a mile upstream from the pond. On the inlet
creek from the northeast se\en dams were found, one of w^hich was
about 100 feet long and 3 feet high. Towards the upper limits
of this creek the banks are higher and no serious damage is likely
to occur.
In both the Big Moose Lake and the Twitchell Lake districts
about all the damage to timber that can result from beaver dams
has already been accomplished. This statement is supported also
by the expressions of the District Ranger and local inhabitants.
3. Beaver River Region. One of the smaller lakes of this region
is Loon Lake. Across the outlet on its northeast side is a dam
about 60 feet long and 2 feet, 6 inches high. As a result of this
dam there are patches, covering perhaps three or four acres, of
recently drowned spruce and cedar on the northwest and northeast
shores. The southwest shore at the inlet, contains a larger patch,
my estimate being in the neighborhood of seven or eight acres.
A small creek known locally as the "North Branch" enters the
Fig. 14. View along inlet creek of Witchopple Lake. Because of the low banks
this beaver flow is submerging considerable spruce timber.
Fig. 15. New dam on outlet stream of Razorback Pond, on property of Lham-
plain Realty Company. Stand of large spruce aboAe dam endangered
by flooding.
Fig. 16. Beaver flow on creek entering Round Pond, northern Long Lake region.
Adirondack Beaver
133
Beaver River Flow from the northeast, ahnost due north of Beaver
River Station. The beavers have just recently started their build-
ing operations here and three dams not more than a foot or a foot
and a half high have been placed across the creek near its mouth.
The ground bordering is very low and it is necessary only to raise
the water a few inches in order to affect perhaps eight or ten acres
of spruce in which are included a number of very large pines. A
part of this timber is already turning yellow.
The most extensive damage to timber in this district is at Witch-
opple Lake. At the outlet of this lake is a dam about 175 feet long
and 2 feet, 6 inches high between the water levels (figures 13).
On the adjacent northeast shore is a patch of dead timber, and a
belt also extends eastward along the same shore, visible in the
photograph. The greater part of the lake shore, however, is still
unaffected because of the incline of the ground. The full effect
of the dam may be seen along the inlet stream at the northeast
end of the lake. Because of the low ground bordering this creek
the high water of the lake has inundated the banks the full
length of the stream, from Witchopple Lake to what is called
"Beaver Dam Pond," a distance of approximately half a mile. The
width of the dead timber belt was estimated to vary from about
20 to 25 or 30 rods. The timber is predominantly spruce. Figure
14 is a view along this creek.
At Woods Lake complaint had been made in regard to a new
beaver dam on the creek which is the outlet of Razorback Pond.
The dam in question was found to be about 55 feet long and i
foot, 1.0 inches high, firmly anchored against large boulders (figure
15). The ground above it is low and the dam is favorably placed
for flooding a comparatively large area with but slight increase
in its height. A fine stand of spruce is already in water and unless
the dam is torn out this timber will be damaged.
4. Sabattis Region. In this territory (map 2, insert), accord-
ing to Ranger Willard Sutton, the damage to timber has been insig-
nificant because the land has previously been denuded by logging
and fires. But a case of Ijeaver trouble of a different sort was met
with here which may be mentioned at this point. About two miles
northeast of Sabattis station the New York Central Railway
crosses the outlet creek of Little Trout Pond. This creek is nor-
mally a very small stream and a tile culvert forms its conduit under
the roadbed. A beaver dam a short distance down stream has
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
backed up the water so as to form a pond on both sides of the
embankment. In ackHtion to this the beaver continually plug up
the culvert, I was informed by one of the section crew, so that the
men were obliged to tear out the obstruction every day.
5. Long Lake Region. Round Pond lies east of Long Lake in
Township 50 (map 2). Where the southwest inlet creek enters
the pond there is a dam which rather recently has flooded and
killed several acres of timber extending upstream along the creek.
On the northern tributary of this creek are two dams of considerable
size, only a short distance apart. The upper one measured 125
paces in length and was i foot, 6 inches high. A belt of dead
timber estimated to be from 12 to 18 rods wide extends upstream
from these dams for a distance of about half a mile (figure 16).
On Pine Brook, a short distance to the north of Round Pond,
there is a dam, about a mile distant from Long Lake, which is
100 feet long and 4 feet, 4 inches high between water levels;
measured from the bottom the dam is 8 feet high. It is situated
at a narrow part of the brook, with low ground just above it where
a large pond has resulted (figure 17). Beginning with the pond
the dead timber, which is rather small, extends upstream for a
distance of about a mile. This is cut-over land, and farther up-
stream the creek flows through a burned area where beaver dams
are of no consequence so far as timber is concerned.
Entering Long Lake on the east shore. Township 22, lot 50, is
an insignificant stream known as " Old Landing Creek." This was
explored for a distance of about three miles. Three dams were
located, the largest of which was 150 feet long and 5. feet. 3
inches high from the bottom. These dams had been torn open
on August 18 by Ranger Isaac Robinson and the beaver had as yet,
August 26, made no attempt to repair them. Among the many
large birches and spruces killed in the ponds were four large pines,
the largest measuring 7 feet, 9.5 inches in circumference, waist high.
On the small stream entering Lake Eaton (locally known as
"Clear Lake") from the southwest, and about ten minutes' tramp
from the lake, at the junction of two tributaries, is a dam no feet
long and 7 feet high at the stream's channel. The pond above
covers about one and a half or two acres. The larger trees that
have been killed are birches measuring 9 inches to a foot or
more in diameter. A number of smaller dams occur on one of the
tributaries, but some of them have recently been abandoned.
"Fig. i8. Aspen 17.5 inches in diameter, cut by beaver; north shore of Lake Eaton.
Fig. 20. Salmon Brook, Blue Mountain Lake region. Dead spruce timber in
the long flow on this creek.
Adirondack Beaver
137
On the west shore of Lake Eaton were found the largest beaver-
cut aspens encountered ; the largest measured 17.5 inches in diameter
at the lower end of the cut, the others 12.5 inches, 16 inches, 16.25
inches, respectively (figure 18).
6. Forked Lake Region. At the eastern end of this lake a stream
from the north enters the North Bay. A swath of dead timber
killed by beaver flows some years ago extends upstream for about
half a mile. From there on, beaver operations in progress at the
present time have caused some further damage. Approximately a
mile from the mouth of the creek occurs the largest recent flow met
with on this stream, where about four or five acres of spruce trees
from 6 to 10 inches in diameter are standing in water and have begun
to turn yellow. This is a locality of low ground which is easily
flooded.
I was informed by Ranger Robinson about a large beaver flow
on the Whitney Preserve, along Sperry Brook below Handsome
Pond. Mr. Robinson's plans for taking me to this locality were
unfortunately thwarted by the occurrence of fires in his district which
required his close attention. This flow west of Long Lake, is by
far the largest in that general region, according to Mr. Robinson.
7. Blue Mountain Lake Region. The most extensive beaver flow
in this ranger district occurs on the Salmon Lake stream. About
half way between Salmon Lake and the road to the west of it
there is a dam across this stream which is 75 feet long and 3
feet high (figure 19). A flow containing a belt of dead timber
perhaps 12 rods wide extends upstream for a distance of approxi-
mately one mile. Near the road is another large dam which has
been abandoned. The dead timber in the long flow consists of
rather small or medium-sized spruce and balsam fir mixed with
birch (figure 20).
On the neighboring Mud Pond inlet stream, where it parallels
the highway, may be seen a beaver flow with dead timber for a
stretch of about a quarter of a mile.
8. Indian Lake Region. In this region none of the beaver flows
which I had opportunity to examine had been so destructive to
timber as the major ones mentioned for other regions. As an
example from this territory may be mentioned the private land
of Lot 41, in Township 17. On a small creek on this property
(McCabes Creek) were located three small dams which had been
torn open. As the result of a flow that had previously been caused
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
by these dams there is a belt of dead spruce estimated to be from
lo to 12 rods in width and about a half mile in length. The trees
standing at present are rather small, 4 to 6 inches in diameter,
the larger ones having been cut of¥ by the owners. Figure 21 gives
a view along this creek.
Beaver Flows Compared with other Sources of Dead Timber.
The foregoing examples may be sufficient to show the effect of
beaver flows upon timber. However, one need not spend much time
in the Adirondacks to realize that the beaver constitutes only one
of a number of agencies that have been operative in the destruction
of timber, and that it is not the most important factor. The total
of windfall and the timber destroyed by fire undoubtedly far exceeds
the damage that has been caused or is likely to be caused
in years to come by the beaver. Then there is the timber
drowned as the result of dams constructed by man, as for
example the Beaver River Flow. Waste in lumbering operations
has previously been alluded to. In the Long Lake region in one
or two places I walked on corduroy tote roads constructed for
hundreds of yards from sound forest trees of various kinds cut for
this purpose and then left to rot. If this timber were measured
I believe that it would be found to equal or exceed in amount that
killed in some of the largest beaver flows that came under my
observation.
Indeed the Forest Rangers with whom I talked frankly admitted
that the actual loss of timber from beaver operations was compara-
tively not a serious matter. The destruction by beaver of course
occurs only along those watercourses where conditions are suitable
for or permit of their damming operations, and to that extent it is
limited. The dead timber in beaver flows impresses the observer
rather forcil)ly because it is highly localized, usually standing, and
therefore conspicuous.
Relation to Forest Fires. In the opinion of one Forest Ranger
in whose district there occurred relatively large beaver flows the
most serious aspect of the situation was that the dead timber in
these flows constituted a potential fire menace ; that as the beaver
dams in time would be abandoned and would gradually disintegrate,
the receding water would leave exposed masses of dry timber,
standing and fallen, in which from lightning or other causes destruc-
tive forest fires might originate. This point may be well taken, but
it obviously follows that to destroy the dams or kill off the beaver
Fig. 21. McCabes Creek, Indian Lake region; spruce killed in beaver flow.
Fig. 23. View 011 P'iiie Brook, between Forked Lake and Lons; Lake, taken just
above a beaver dam wliich had been torn out. Formerly a good trout stream.
Fig. 24. Beaver ponds on small tributary of Boulder Brook ; stream normall
about two feet wide. No timber to damage here.
Adirondack Beaver
141
in such places would be to artificially and speedily bring about just
such a hazardous situation. In a state of nature where beaver are
present in some numbers it would seem that dams thus abandoned
by one group of animals would soon be re-occupied by another
group and the period of fire risk would be relatively short, if food
was available.
While it is doubtless true that the dead timber in beaver flows
may at certain times and under certain conditions become a fire
menace, it is none the less true, as another Ranger pointed out, that
beaver flows themselves constitute effective fire-breaks. Elsewhere
the fire protective value of beaver ponds has been pointed out in
Canada ("He Would Conscript Beaver as Fire Rangers" Canadian
Forestry Journal, \"ol. 14, p. 1656, 1918.) and in Wisconsin by
Forester F. B. Moody ('16). Streams a few inches or a few feet
wide are frequently transformed by the beaver into series of pond.s
or flows rods in width and hundreds of yards in length, and whether
they be in heavily forested parts or in more open, cut-over or for-
merly burned areas (figure 25) the barrier afforded by such flows
may on occasion prove of considerable importance in a fire protec-
tion system. Were a sweeping fire to arise in the Adirondack
woods it is quite certainly true that every beaver flow, large or small,
that might be found in the path of the fire would be taken advantage
of by the fire fighters as lines of defense. Every effort would be
made to drive the fire into these flows. In this connection the practical
value of accurately mapping all the beaver flows is apparent. Mr.
W. G. Howard, Assistant Superintendent of the State Forest, New
York Conservation Commission, sends the following comment : " In
reference to the advantage or disadvantage of beaver flows in con-
nection with fire protection, I will say that my feeling is that these
flows are more of a disadvantage than they are an advantage. They
make it impossible to maintain good passable trails, and therefore
render communication difficult. It is my feeling that this disad-
vantage far outweighs any advantage which might accrue from
having a wider strip of water than would be obtained from the
natural stream."
Effect on Logging Operations. In addition to loss of values in
timber, lumber or pulp, logging operations also may be adversely
affected more or less permanently. Streams used for driving logs,
or the tributaries of such streams, it is charged, may have their
waters diverted or held up by beaver dams so that there is insuffi-
142
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
cient depth to carry the logs. Sluices may be continually choked
up by the beaver, necessitating constant vigilance on the part of
someone to keep them open. Where many beaver ponds exist,
exposing a large surface area, the evaporation and retarded flow
may be sufficiently great in dry periods to reduce materially the
amount of water necessary to run logs. According to Mr. H. D.
Cornwall of (jlenfield this loss may be as high as lo to 15 per cent.
In this connection it would seem that the beaver is not altogether
an unmixed evil. There are small streams favorably situared m
logging areas which normally would serve no useful purpose to a
logging concern. As a result of beaver dams such a stream might,
at least in a part of its course, be converted into an avenue of
transportation, not necessarily for logs, though that also might be
possible, but for supplies, and thus be not without a degree of
usefulness. I met with an instance in the Adirondacks where a
beaver flow offered easy transportation of supplies to a fishing club
for a distance of probably half a mile or more where without this
means considerable time and labor and perhaps expense would
undoubtedly have been entailed. In other regions than the Adiron-
dacks, I have many times been personally grateful for the presence
of beaver flows that afforded me easy passage by canoe or boat to
localities otherwise inaccessible.
Salvaging of Drowned Timber. Any person tramping about in
the Adirondacks cannot, I am sure, avoid a feeling of regret that
all the dead wood in the beaver flows, and elsewhere for that mat-
ter, cannot be taken off and made use of in some way. It is true
that most of it is soft wood and not of a desirable kind even for
fuel, but there is much sound wood of harder varieties that might
be utilized not merely for fuel but possibly for lumber for certain
purposes, if fakoi in time. While accessibility and transportation
difficulties are no doubt deterrent factors it would seem that the
inhaljitants of the region in many places should be able to clear
off a part of this dead wood. From what I learned in conversation
with a number of thrifty residents I believe that many of them
would be glad to avail themselves of the opportunity if it were per-
missible for this to be granted by the State. I)i uiaiiy of the locali-
ties that I visited about all the timber that can be reached by beaver
flows has already been killed. While the dams in these places will
continue in repair so long as the animals remain, there is little likeli-
hood that they will continue to grow greatly in height and indefinitely
Fig. 26. Part of meadow formed on site of old beaver pond; Grampus Lake
stream, Long Lake region.
Fig. 27. Big Chief Pond, P.ig Moose Lake region. Part of south shore; beaver-
damaged timljcr removed. An example of injury on a private estate.
Fig. 28. Beaver dam on Big Brook, Long Lake region; 172 feet long, 3 feet,
9 inches high; no timber to damage here. Beaver flows are fre-
quently helpful to man for transportation purposes.
Adirondack Beaver
145
extend the belt of dead timber. The shore line in these places shows
that the present high water level of the ponds has been constant prob-
ably for years. If therefore the dead wood were to be cut off —
and this could be best done in winter — the appearance of the ponds
would be improved, and the possible frre hazard removed. For out-
lying localities this might not prove feasible, but for ponds and
along streams which it may be particularly desirable to restore to an
attractive condition for the benefit of summer visitors, I see no great
difificulty.
Suminary of Localities Visited. The following is a list of the
ponds and streams whose shores I have personally examined and
which contain more or less timber damaged by beaver flows.
Constable Creek.
Constable Pond
Chub Pond.
Big Chief Pond.
Andes Creek.
North Branch, Big Moose Inlet stream.
Upper Gull Lake.
Twitchell Creek.
Lily-pad Pond.
Little Birch Pond.
Jack Pond.
Loon Lake.
North Branch, Beaver River Flow.
Witchopple Lake and inlet creek arising in Beaver Dam Pond.
Razorback Pond outlet stream.
South Branch, Beaver River Flow.
North inlet stream of Lake Lila.
Peaked Mountain Pond.
Stream in Township 21, Lot 95, near Long Lake Post Office,
and streams in Lots 107, 108.
Pine Brook (Forked Lake region).
Round Pond, and also creek entering from southwest and small
northern inlet.
Pine Brook (Cold River region), lower courses.
"Old Landing Creek" (Long Lake region).
Southwest inlet of Lake Eaton.
North Bay Brook (Forked Lake region).
McCanns Brook (Blue Mountain Lake region).
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
Salmon Brook.
Creek on McCabe's and Cross's land (Indian Lake region).
Stream in Township 15, Lot 43 (Indian Lake region).
Streams and ponds about which damage to timber is lacking or
is negligible in quantity :
Queer Lake.
Lower Two Sisters Lake.
Russian Pond.
Pigeon Creek.
Lower Gull Lake outlet stream.
Twitchell Creek, east of highway.
Outlet stream of South Pond.
Northeast inlet of Oswego Pond.
Salmon Lake (Witchopple Lake district).
Greater part of Witchopple Lake shore line.
Upper sources of South Branch (Beaver River region).
L'pper sources of Shingle Shanty Brook.
Mud Pond outlet stream.
Hitchcock Lake.
Long Pond (Sabattis region) and outlet stream.
Thayers Brook (Long Lake region).
Grampus Brook.
Big Brook (Long Lake region), greater part of brook between
Grampus Lake stream and Rock Pond.
Calkins Brook, lower part.
Small pond bordering Calkins Brook.
Cold River, lower part.
Latham Pond and outlet stream.
Boulder Brook and small tributary to west of it.
Pine Brook, for most of its length (exceptions in its lower
course, Lots 55, 56).
Mud Pond (Walker Preserve), and outlet stream.
Sargents Ponds, the western and the middle one.
Cedar River, main stream.
Spragues Pond outlet stream (Indian Lake region).
Salmon Lake (Blue Mountain Lake region).
Relation to Waters, Fish and Fishing
Some persons consider that the most important relation of the
beaver in the Adirondacks is to the waters and fish of the ponds
Fig. 29. Beavurs' "tote road," cut tlirough river bank; near Cold River.
Fig. 30. White birch with double cut having spiral turn. Tree on edge of little
knoll; 3 feet. 7 inches in circumference above upper cut. Big Brook,
Long Lake district.
Fi^. 31. Hemlock one foot in diameter, partly severed by beaver; Loon Lake,
Beaver River district.
Fig. 32. Small dam containing many stones ; outlet of Trout Pond. Beaver River
district.
Adirondack Beaver
149
and streams. About this whole subject however, little can be said
that rests upon a basis of established fact, and until it has been
carefully investigated all that can be said about it must be accepted
merely as expression of opinion, based upon evidence that is largely
circumstantial. Two opposing views were encountered : one main-
taining that the presence of beaver is distinctly harmful to trout;
the other that it is beneficial. The conflicting opinions represent,
I am sure, honest convictions gained by different experiences ; and
it is highly probable that there is some truth in both views ; that
in some situations the results may be harmful and in others bene-
ficial and under other conditions the effect may be neutral.
Arguments Against the Beaver in Relation to Trout. The
harmful effects of the beaver upon Adirondack trout has been dis-
cussed by former Commissioner George D. Pratt ('21, pp. 117-118).
This adverse opinion was probably that of John W. Titcomb, the
Fish Culturist of the Conservation Commission at that time. See
also The Conservationist, Vol. 4, p. 173. These effects are sup-
posed to arise in three ways : ( i ) by dams acting as barriers to the
movements of trout; (2) by excessive warming up of the water in
the beaver ponds; (3) by the changing character of the water itself
in the beaver ponds, — possibly rendered toxic to a sensitive fish like
the trout.
1. Beaver Darns as Barriers. Where beaver dams in consider-
able numbers occur on a trout stream it is believed that the fish
will be unable to surmount these barriers when in the fall of the
year they seek their spawning grounds upstream. This is supposed
to be true, especially in the case of the higher dams, but just how
high a dam it takes to prevent trout from passing to the pond
above is not known. If dams do deter trout from ascending, then,
no doubt, a great many are penned in between dams all along the-
stream. A beaver dam with its projecting sticks and boughs
obviously presents a different and more difficult obstacle from that
of a low natural fall or rapids.
2. Effect of Flo-cvs on Temperature of Water. When the trees and
bushes in a beaver pond die, the summer sun is given unobstructed
play upon an expanse of shallow water. In these ponds changes
of water are slow because of the arrested current. The heating pro-
cess is aided by the evaporation which tends to keep the water at a
low level. The cool water of springs feeding into the ponds is
neutralized, the springs being "killed," according to a local expres-
sion.
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
3. Influence of Floics on Character of Ji'atcr. The water in
most streams below beaver f>onds as well as in the ponds themselves
is more or less amber-or coffee-colored. This is thought to be due
to dissolved substances from trees, especially hemlock, from peat or
from decaying vegetable matter of various kinds. This kind of
water is believed to be injurious to trout, whether it is warm or
cold. The belief rests upon the experience that before the l)eaver
came the water in these streams was clear, the trout were plentiful
and fishing excellent. \\'ith the appearance of the beaver the water
changed, the trout gradually diminished in numbers and within a
few years the streams were abandoned as fishing grounds.
A number of streams which I A-isited were pointed out to me as
having formerly been the best trout streams in their localities. As
an example may be mentioned the creek, with its two branches,
empt\ing into the inlet marsh of Big Moose Lake (map i). I
was informed by Mr. H. H. Covey, proprietor of Camp Crag, and
by others, that these creeks before the introduction of the beaver
were among the best trout spawning grounds of that region. Their
waters were perfectly clear and considerably deeper than they have
been since that time : there was excellent trout fishing. Xow no
trout are found in them and they have long since been abandoned by
fishermen.
I found the creek (figure 22) from its mouth up to the junction
of its two branches averaging perhaps 25 to 30 feet in width. Its
depth 2 feet. 6 inches at the mouth. 3 to 4 feet in the channel
farther upstream, and 6 feet at the junction of its two branches.
The bottom felt firm under the oar. consisting of mud well
mixed with sand. On each branch, a few rods from the junc-
tion, is a beaver dam. The one on the south branch is about 18
inches high between water levels and perhaps 30 to 35 feet long.
The water just above the dam was 2 feet. .7 inches deep : bottom
firm and sandy under the oar. The greatest depth encountered was
6 feet. 3 inches, at a point about 50 yards above the dam. A
short distance farther upstream the creek l>ecomes narrow and
fallen trees prevent further progress by boat. The water at this
point was 2 feet. 6 inches deep and the bottom ^\'as covered with
an inch or two of soft mud, but below this it felt as firm and sandy
as it did below the dam.
The dam on the north branch, about the same distance from the
junction, is 25 feet long and 2 feet high between water levels.
Fig. 34. Part of one of the wings of the high dam shown in figure 33.
Fig. 35. Huge beaver lodge on Cold River; longest diameter 35 feet; shortest,
28 feet; height 7 feet.
Fig. 36. Inhabited lodge. Sargents Pond (easternmost).
Adirondack Beaver
153
This dam had been dynamited twice by Mr. Covey during the week
preceding my visit. The beaver repaired it quickly each time and
except for the wreckage of the okl dam below there was little
evidence that the structure had been damaged. Immediately above
this dam the water was 4 feet, 9 inches deep. The bottom
was of the same character as elsewhere. The pond above the dam
is about 50 feet across, its west shore is swampy, and it contains
grassy hummocks and clusters of dead trees. Beyond the dam
upstream for a distance of about 150 yards the creek has an esti-
mated average width of about 25 feet. Midway in this distance the
depth measured 4 feet, 1 1 inches, and at the upper end the
depth was 3 feet, 3.5 inches ; bottom as before. Beyond this
point, which marks the limit of progress by boat, the creek is so
shallow that the bottom can be seen in the brownish water. Other
dams and similar conditions occur at intervals along its course.
The water of both the north and south branches is coffee-colored
so that where the depth is greater than about 20 to 24 inches the
l^ottom cannot be seen. In a cup of water however, the tinge
ai)pears very slight.
Other waters which were particularly pointed out to me as having
been excellent trout streams before the arrival of the beaver are
Constable Creek, the beaver works on which have previously been
described ; Pine Brook, a tributary of Raquette River between
Forked Lake and Long Lake; Oswego Pond (figure 12) in the
Twitchell Lake district; and Loon Lake, in the Beaver River region.
Pine Brook, according to Ranger Robinson, has in the past been
one of the best streams for trout both as to size and numbers.
For a time after the beaver came it continued to offer good fishing;
then trout became less and less plentiful until now no one goes
fishing there (figure 23).
Opinions Favorable to the Beaver. Champions of the view
that beaver are beneficial rather than harmful to trout are not
wanting. On the trail to Queer Lake, Big Moose Lake region, I met
a party of fishermen consisting of Mr. Frank Davis and his son,
of Mohawk, N. Y., and their guide, Mr. Hobart Casler. Mr.
Davis was emphatically of the opinion that the beaver are not
responsible for the scarcity- of trout and the poor fishing complained
of by many people. He mentioned in support of his statement,
Queer Lake itself, in which there were plenty of trout although
small, that is less than 6 or 7 inches in length. That they
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
were plentiful was in itself evidence that trout were thriving and
propagating there. Other waters he named were Crooked Lake
and Stony Lake. On a stream connected with the former he said
there were 15 beaver dams, but that last spring there was as good
if not better fishing in this stream than ever before. Mr. Davis
declared that he had been coming into the Adirondacks for years
to fish and was thoroughly familiar with the conditions. Each
succeeding year he had been obliged to seek more and more remote
places in order to find good fishing. The cause of this, he firmly
believed, was not chargeable to the beaver but to a class of people
who make a practice of taking under-sized fish. The extension
of roads throughout the Adirondacks had made a steadily increas-
ing area easily accessible to numbers of unscrupulous persons who
have little regard either for the spirit or the letter of the law. The
gradual depletion of trout in the ponds and .streams is the result.
Meanwhile the true sportsman becomes discouraged and provoked,
and occasionally perhaps may be unaware of the true situation and
places the blame in the wrong place.
Mr. Casler, although having no patience with the beaver, which
he believed ought to be exterminated, agreed with Mr. Davis that
there is a prevalent pratice with some classes of people of taking
quantities of under-sized trout.
Another champion of the beaver was found in Mr. H. H. Fish of
Indian Lake. Mr. Fish informed me that he had been a guide
for many years and had been a consistent defender of the beaver
in its relation to trout. He mentioned as examples where fishing
was never better than it was after beaver came, Buell Brook and
Cedar River Flow. Beaver dams, according to Mr. Fish, permit
the formation where springs come in, of deep, cool pools, highly
favorable to trout. ]\Iore food is found in the Ijeaver ponds and
the trout as a consequence grow larger. Mr. Fish admitted, how-
ever, that under certain conditions or in certain localities beaver
dams might have harmful effects, such as preventing movements
of the trout upstream in spawning time, hindering circulation of the
water or allowing of its being warmed to an unfavorable degree
in mid-summer.
For further testimony favorable to the beaver I am indebted
to Dr. Howard Lilienthal of New York City. In a letter of Sep-
tember 30 last he informs me of a conversation he had with "one
of the best guides in the Big Aloose Lake region" who stated '"that
Adirondack Beaver
155
the only difference made by the beavers so far as trout fishing went,
was that the flooding of the land gave the trout so much food and
bottom interest that they did not rise to the fly. He did not believe
that it made any actual difference in the number of trout nor in
their spawning." Abundance of food must be looked upon as a
thing favorable to trout though not necessarily to trout fishing.
That trout in beaver ponds often do not rise to the fly or take
bait seems to be borne out by an experience of my own in Colorado
a few years ago. Numerous attempts to catch trout in pools
between beaver dams resulted in most discouraging failure, but that
trout were there in numbers I had abundant ocular proof.
In Minnesota, Mr. Carlos Avery, State Commissioner of Game
and Fisheries, made a preliminary inquiry into the relation of beaver
to trout and concluded that the relation was a favorable one. Mr.
Eben W. Cobb, Superintendent of Fisheries there, states that :
"Wherever I have heard the matter spoken of by trout fishermen
it has been stated that the trout grow larger and the fishing is
better in the ponds caused by these dams and that they offered a
safe retreat for trout during a period of the year when anchor ice
was running, and also during the hot months of summer as the
trout are safer in the deeper waters during this period." {Cf.,
"Beaver make for better trout fishing," Fins, Feathers and Fur,
No. 22, p. 10, 1920, and Lawrie '21).
Balancing of Opinion. On the basis of my own observations, I
am inclined to believe that there may be a good deal of truth in
both of the conflicting views set forth above. The differences prob-
ably are to be sought in the differing local conditions. A shallow,
relatively broad stream with low banks and feeble current, if
dammed by beaver, results in a series of expansive but shallow
ponds. If contributing springs are few, small and far between,
dams frequent and the soil composed of humus, unfavorable con-
ditions of one kind or another quite probably develop on such a
stream. In the original condition with freely flowing water and
cool shade, trout may have thrived, but in the altered circumstances
one would hardly expect them to do so. On the other hand, a
stream of like size with good current, higher banks, and with springs
more frequent, might by the same number of dams be converted
into a stream in every way more favorable to trout than it was
before. There would be an increase in the depth of the water
without an undue spread at the sides ; the entering springs would
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
furnish cool pools and perhaps an entire lower stratum of cool
water ; and with the increased volume of water would come an
increased food supply.
Mr. H. D. Cornwall, in a letter of September 7 last, informs
me of a conversation he had had with a woodsman who told him
of " having seen trout and bullheads dead and others in a very
much weakened condition swimming on the surface of water in
ponds caused by beaver dams on small streams where in low water
the condition is such that there is not sufficient new water coming
into the pond to freshen it." A similar experience was related
to me by Ranger David Conkey in connection with beaver ponds
which had gone down as a result of disrepair of the dams. While
I personally saw a number of ponds that had been lowered to such
an extent that a large part of the bottom was exposed, I did not
happen to see any evidence of dead or dying fish, although it is
possible that sufficient search might have revealed them. A
decided stench was noticed in one or two such places but so far as
I could determine it seemed to arise from decaying vegetable
matter.
There would seem to me to be little doubt that conditions in
some beaver ponds may readily become fatal to certain fishes, the
trout probably being more sensitive than other species in the Adi-
rondack streams. In periods of drought during the summer months,
with partial or complete drying up of the springs, it is possible that
in the beaver-dammed streams there may be an excessive accumu-
lation especially of carbon dioxide and nitrogen, these gases arising
in the silt and humus on the bottom of the ponds ; for according to
.Shelford ('13. p. 60), "Nitrogen and carbon dioxide are produced
especially near the bottom and if the water did not circulate they
would be too abundant in some places and deficient in others for
animals to live." Again fpp. 59-60), "Several workers have
shown that carbon dioxide is very toxic to fishes. . . . Fishes for
example turn away when they encounter as small an increase as
5 c.c. per liter of carbon dioxide. Since a large amount of dissolved
carbon dioxide is commonly accompanied by a low oxygen content
as well as other important factors, the carbon dioxide content
of water (strongly alkaline waters excepted) is probably the best
single index of the suitability of the water for fishes." Further
(p. 133), "Analyses of the bottom water from ponds with humus-
covered bottoms showed that it contained no oxygen. The open
Adirondack Beaver
157
water of the lakes with the incomplete circulation in summer is
without sufficient oxygen to support life, below the level of circula-
tion." M. C. Marsh ('10, p. 896) makes this statement: "The
water soluble substances in bark and in the wood of some trees
are capable of killing fishes, but while such products are undesirable
in streams the amounts of bark and wood necessary to affect fish
in flowing streams are so large that it is not likely that they do
much direct damage to fishes by the substances which dissolve from
them." An inference that may be drawn from this last quotation
is that in waters with arrested circulation, as for example beaver
ponds under certain conditions, the water solul^le substances in
question may accumulate to a degree sufficient to be fatal to trout and
other species of fish.
In the light of what has been said above it is evident that a
scientific investigation of a number of representative beaver-
inhabited Adirondack streams in their relation to trout would not
only be of important scientific interest but would have much practical
fish cultural value also. The conditions obtaining in the streams
before as well as after the entrance of beavers should, of course,
be ascertained and their history followed over a period of years.
Advantages of Beaver Dams and Ponds. Despite the possi-
bilities for harm enumerated above, beaver dams in the Adirondacks
cannot be viewed solely in an unfavorable light. There as in other
regions, beaver ponds unquestionably serve in many places, as pre-
viously noted, as reservoirs of water which keep creeks running
during dry seasons, and in other localities may have important
value as fire barriers (figures 24 and 25). In periods of hea\'y
rains or at the break-up of the streams in spring they may become
very useful in retarding or absorbing agencies to a degree suffi-
cient to prevent minor floods. Furthermore, the formation of
bottom land and meadows through the activities of the beaver is a
matter of some economic value. It is well known that thousands
of acres of agricultural land in the United States have been formed
as the direct result of beaver dams. In some localities at the
present time the principal grazing lands available are the grassy
meadows that originated in beaver ponds. Figure 26 illustrates such
a meadow found along the Grampus Lake stream in the Long Lake
region. The photograph was taken from an old grass-grown dam
which at one time had held back a large pond of water. The mud
and silt that had been carried down by the stream and settled in
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
the pond furnished soil in which a heavy crop of grass was destined
to spring up after the dam should eventually be abandoned. This
actually happened, and when I was there the usefulness of the
old beaver dam to present human inhabitants was evidenced by
the fact that the meadow had recently been cut for hay.
The beaver ponds act as settling basins for the inwashed soil
which, when carried downstream, silts up the channels and destroys
the breeding grounds of fishes, as well as fills the channels so that
they easily overflow their banks during heavy rains. The importance
of these influences has not been and is not now adequately recog-
nized.
Relation of Beaver Work to Deer in Winter and to Water Birds
It was believed by Ranger Conkey that beaver ponds, at times
in winter, caused some distress among deer because of the raised
water level which permits the freezing over of spring entrances
where deer are accustomed to drink. In their eagerness for water
the deer as a consequence may attempt to get it in places difficult
to reach. He mentioned three instances where he had found deer
that had gotten into water holes to drink and from which they
were unable to get out. Ranger Isaac Robinson, on the contrary,
does not believe that this question of water is a serious one. He
told of seeing many places where deer had regularly passed by open
water without turning aside to drink, their trails in the snow show-
ing this plainly. As the deer eat snow freely, he held that they
were not at all dependent upon open water.
Another point brought out by Mr. Robinson was the claim of
some old guides that beaver ponds destroy a great deal of the
winter food of the deer. He had not himself seen any clear proof
of this. The food alleged to be destroyed particularly is the young
growth of balsam fir ; but also other vegetation or shrubbery found
in the swamps where many deer spend the winter. The idea is that
deer often form the habit of retreating to the same swamps where
they have previously wintered and if such a localit}- should in the
meantime have been flooded they would find their feeding grounds
restricted. This theory assumes that the animals either out of sheer
stupidity or attachment for a local area remain there and suffer
from lack of food instead of seeking better foraging grounds else-
where.
Mr. H. H. Fish, guide at Indian Lake, holds a quite contrary
Adirondack Beaver
159
view. He asserts that deer do not keep so closely to the swamps
in winter as many people seem to think, but frequently go feeding
in numbers on the very tops of the hills. He had himself witnessed
this many times. Instead of being detrimental to deer beaver flows
were, in his estimation, distinctly an advantage, in that they not
only afforded refuges from persons who practice night hunting,
but also because they made travel so difficult under other methods
of hunting that the deer were given a better chance to escape.
Mr. H. H. Covey pointed out as one of the objections to the
beaver, that the little grassy meadows or margins so frequently
occurring along the shores of streams or ponds and forming favorite
feeding places of deer during the summer months, are often sub-
merged by the beaver flows. The deer are thus driven away from
the watercourses to more inaccessible places. The harm in this is
that summer guests are deprived of one of their chief delights, that
of seeing deer. He mentioned particular localities where prior to
the coming of the beaver visitors might daily enjoy the sight of
deer but where now the animals are rarely or never seen.
Relation to Certain Water Birds. A point that may be worthy
of mention is the common occurrence of the Black Duck (Anas
rubripes) that was noted about the beaver ponds in the Adirondacks.
On many occasions I saw what in all probability were locally hatched
broods of this species. They were observed most frequently in the
older beaver ponds and in flows along streams with exposed muddy
shores and plenty of cover in the form of dense stands of alders,
windfall timber or other dead wood.
Other water birds observed in or about beaver flows were : Great
Blue Heron, common ; Hooded A'lerganser, occasional, — the Ameri-
can Merganser also being seen a number of times on natural ponds
and once on Cold River ; American Golden-eye, occasional ; Solitary
Sandpiper, fairly common.
Relation to Private Holdings within the Adirondack Preserve
From the owners of summer cottages or of camps (inns) on lake
fronts came the chief complaints heard in the course of the investi-
gation. Owners of large private preserves, where many beaver are
probably found, were not personally met with and their attitude
toward the beaver was consequently not learned ; but from what was
observed their problem is mainly that of preventing areas of timber
land from being flooded. This requires constant vigilance on the
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
part of the keepers. Of the former group most of the complaints
were heard in the Big Moose Lake district. I learned of five lake
front properties here which had been molested more or less by the
beaver. On one property, situated on a point in what is known as
North Bay, I counted 9 aspens immediately about a cottage, which
had been felled by beaver probal)ly within the last year. The trees
ranged from 4 to 10 inches in diameter. One had been felled so
as to lodge against the cottage roof. Altogether I counted 32 birches
and aspens, chiefly the latter, felled on this propert}- ; but a number
of scattered cuttings were probably overlooked, for the owner
informed me that 42 beaver-felled trees had been counted last spring.
I saw at this place also a white pine 2 inches in diameter that had
been cut rather recently, and 4 smaller ones that were a part of
a newly planted group. A number of shade trees had been protected
by means of wire netting. In a neighboring yard an aspen had been
slightly gashed by beaver two nights previous to my visit.
Most damage of this kind is done during the period of the year
when the people are not at their summer cottages. The resentment
of the owners is but natural. They take pride in making their
grounds attractive and trees are a fundamental part of such a scheme.
A beautiful tree that has required many years to grow may be cut
down overnight ; it cannot soon be replaced. Furthermore, in some
instances trees may have a sentimental value as in a case met with
where one had been planted by a member of the family since
deceased.
Of course much can be done to prevent such depredations of the
beaver, by surrounding the more valuable trees with wire netting ;
but where larger patches of forest are concerned this is not practic-
al)le, though a common enclosure might be sufficient in many cases.
The most extensive cuttings on private grounds in the Big Moose
Lake district were on the propert>^ of Dr. Albert \'an der Veer. A
pond on this property, known as Big Chief Pond, is shown in figure
27. It is about a hundred yards in diameter and was formerly a
very pretty body of water. In addition to trees killed by flooding,
due to a beaver dam across the outlet which more recently has been
kept open, the doctor estimated that approximately 200 trees had
been cut down by beaver about this pond in the last ten or twelve
years. A number of stumps of beaver-felled birches which I
measured there ranged from 6 to 15 inches in diameter.
Wherever beaver depredations affect smaller property- owners
Adirondack Beaver
i6i
they are as a rule more keenly felt than they are in the case of
owners of large estates. Certain camp owners whose patronage con-
sists of summer visitors are concerned about the relation of the
beaver to the ponds and streams of their vicinity. Their contention
is that with the decline of fishing and with the marring of the beauty
of ponds and streams these places no longer offer attractions to their
guests and a loss of patronage is the result. Nevertheless it was
admitted that the beaver and his works are in themselves objects of
interest which many summer visitors are willing to go out of their
way to see.
Attitude of Local Inhabitants toward the Beaver
Of five local Forest Rangers with whom I discussed the question
one expressed himself as in favor of extermination of the beaver,
except in a few places where they could do no harm (figure 28) and
where they might be allowed to exist for the benefit of tourists and
others interested in the animals and their works. The remaining
four were in favor of measures of control, providing for reduction
of the beaver population where damages caused by them required it,
and adequate protection in parts where no serious harm could result.
They regarded the fur value of the beaver as a matter of importance
to the local inhabitants. One inn-keeper, in a locality where beaver
were charged with damage both to timber and to fishing, was
emphatically against protection of any sort. Another one believed
the beaver to be beneficial to trout and fishing and was opposed to
anything like extermination, but was in favor of reduction and con-
trol where damages to timber or other interests demanded it. Dr.
Van der Veer, whose private grounds had suffered much damage,
took a very calm and broad view of the beaver problem. He believed
that extermination would be a mistake; that the animals and their
works are of interest to visitors in the Adirondack's and that their
commercial value as fur bearers is a matter worthy of consideration.
In his opinion, likewise, the object to be sought is proper control.
Dr. D. E. Hartnett, of the Rapshaw Fishing Club at Witchopple
Lake, stated that the sentiment of his club was against the beaver
because they made lakes and ponds unsightly, damaged timber and
interfered with trout streams.
Most of my time was spent in the field and consequently few of
the local inhabitants were met with. According to the Forest
Rangers however, the sentiment of the people of their respective
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
districts upon the beaver question is divided. Owners of land who
are annoyed by the beaver desire an open season and a number are
in favor of complete extermination. In localities where little damage
has been done the attitude is more or less indifferent, but there is a
£jeneral feeling that the local inhabitants should be allowed to take
beaver for fur where the animals are sufficiently plentiful. One man
stated his belief that if many who have complained about damages
from beaver were to be permitted to take and sell them for fur from
such places there would be little further complaint ; that these people
were unwilling to have all the trouble and labor of trapping and
skinning the beavers only to turn them over to the State to be sold,
themselves receiving no compensation.
General Public Interest in the Beaver
As a wild animal the beaver is one of the most interesting on the
continent. It offers valuable material to the student of animals in
nature, on their behavior, on their relations to the woodland environ-
ment and other problems of biological interest and importance.
Because of the accessibility of many beaver colonies from con-
veniently located bases in the Adirondacks. opportunities are open
to students interested in such problems without many of the physical
inconveniences and hardships often attendant upon these under-
takings.
The increasing numbers of summer visitors in the Adirondacks
who camp, travel by automobile, canoe, or by the trails, will find
their interest and pleasure in the region greatly increased by the
presence of the beaver, particularly if they have a general knowledge
of the animals so that they can interpret what they see in the woods.
\\'hen these animals are given proper protection they become rela-
tively tame so that direct observations of their habits are easily made.
Sources and Numbers of Adirondack Beavers
Geographic Races. According to Willoughby ( '20. p. 68) . a
number of the beavers purchased by the State and liberated in the
Adirondacks. presumably between 1904 and 1906. " had been part
of a Canadian exhibit at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St.
Louis, jNIo." ( Cf . also Radford '07, p. 408.) These were undoubt-
edly of the t}-pical Canadian race. Castor canadensis canadoisis.
But others secured at about the same time came from Wyoming.
Dr. Charles C. Adams, Director of the Roosevelt Wild Life Forest
Adirondack Beaver
Experiment Station, has kindly sent me the following memorandum
in regard to the \V)oming heavers, which he received from Dr.
George Bird Grinnell of New York City : " Yellowstone National
Park records say: ' Eighteen heaver caught at Yanceys August 14
to Septemher 11, 1907, hy T. Elwood (Billy) Hofer and shipped hy
express to J. S. Whipple, Old Forge, N. Y., for New York State,
and four died enroute.' This is taken from Mr. Chester Lindsley's
record of animals shipped from the Park. Billy Hofer caught and
shipped many other animals." The most complete account of the
re-establishment and history of the heaver in the Adirondacks is that
by Radford ('07).
According to E. T. Seton ('09, \'ol. i, pp. 448-449) the Wyoming
beaver represents a geographic race ( Castor canadensis frondator) ,
which differs from the Canadian form in being " larger and paler
than the type, with scaly part of tail shorter than twice the width."
Should permission to take beaver be granted it would be of interest
if trappers would save the skulls of the animals and send them to
the Roosevelt Wild Life Station in order that material might be
availalile for possible evidence of crossing of the two races.
Estimates of Numbers. I have before stated that estimates of
numbers of beavers in any considerable area cannot be made with
any great degree of accuracy without much time and careful observa-
tion. The results given below represent merely the closest estimates
that can be made in the circumstances. They have at least the virtue
of being based on certain observed and recorded facts and to that
extent are removed from the realm of pure guesswork. The best
available index to the beaver population is the nimiber of occupied
lodges, and these are the basis for the figures that are to follow.
I shall first refer to the region covered by my own investigations
and consider the figures representing the lodges and the dams (in
repair) recorded by myself, and having in this connection estab-
lished the ratio of lodges to dams I shall su1)sequently use this ratio
in making an estimate for Herkimer and Hamilton counties and
for the Adirondack region generallv, based on the number of dams
reported by the District Rangers in 1919 and 1920. The distribution
of these dams had been plotted on maps in the office of the Superin-
tendent of Forests at Alliany, and these maps were kindly loaned me
by Assistant Superintendent W. G. Howard. Lodges had not been
reported.
My own maps accompanying this article (maps i and 2), were
164
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
traced from State land maps given me by Mr. Howard. Many little
streams and ponds and other unessential details have been omitted
for the sake of clearness. The scale as given on the State maps
was two miles to the inch. Reference to these traced maps will show
the distribution of the dams and lodges located by myself and also
those reported and fairly definitely indicated on my maps by Forest
J^angers. The latter will be omitted in the estimates.
The total number of inhabited lodges found was 84, and of dams
in repair, 168. Along a number of the streams explored where no
hxlges are indicated some douljtiess escaped notice, but I believe that
this number is not large. It is to be noted that the ratio of lodges
to dams is i to 2.
To arrive at an estimate of the numljer of Ijeaver here represented
we may assume that to each inhabited lodge there were at the time
two parent beavers and (on an average) 4 young of the season.
\Ve may add to this an average of four yearlings which had not as
yet built lodges for themselves and would spend the winter in the
parental lodge. This makes a total of 10 beavers to each lodge, and
the 84 lodges therefore represent a population of 840 animals. (Cf.
Seton, '09, Vol. i, p. 452.) A certain number of beavers undoubt-
edly live in bank burrows but judging from the nature of the banks
in this territory I believe their number to be small, probably not as
great as one-fifth of the number that live in lodges. Assuming, how-
ever, that it is a fifth, the bank beavers would number 168. This
number added to 840 gives us 1,008 as the number of beavers inhabit-
ing the watercourses explored. If we assume further that the
remaining watercourses of these districts which I was unable to visit
contained an equal number of beavers, the figure becomes 2,016 ; or,
if there were three times as many, which I believe to be improbable,
then we have 3,024.
We may now turn to the figures representing the Rangers' beaver
dam reports previously mentioned and see what estimates may be
derived from that source. These estimates so far as they concern
Herkimer and Hamilton counties may be considered independently
of those given above in connection with my own investigations, but
it is well to bear in mind that the districts covered by me are included
in the area in which, as will be seen later on, the majorit}- of the
beaver dams reported by the Rangers are located. My purpose is to
arrive at some estimate of the number of beaver in Herkimer and
Hamilton counties and in the Adirondack region as a whole, on the
Adirondack Beaver
165
basis of dams reported by the Rangers. It may be accepted that
many unreported dams existed, and of course many new dams have
l)een built since 1920, but the fact remains that the Rangers' reports
constitute the most complete and definite information we have as to
the distribution and the relative density of the beaver population in
the Adirondack region generally.
It seems important to mention some points revealed by these
rei)orts. With the Forestry Department's maps before me I find
that 5S7 dams for the entire region have been plotted for 1919.
and new dams added for 1920 increase the total to 663. Of this
number 481 dams are divided between Herkimer and Hamilton
counties alone and more than half of these are confined to approxi-
mately the northern third of their area. In other words, only a scat-
tering 182 out of the total of 663 dams reported for the whole Adi-
rondack region are located outside of the two counties named, and
these counties together contain the great majority of the beaver
jiopulation. These facts should be noted since it is usually very easy
to gain the impression that because a species of animal is plentiful
in one part of a region it is equally abundant in all other parts,
although such may be far from the truth. And furthermore, such
evidence as the Rangers' reports furnish should be given due con-
sideration lest any temptation arise to apply sweepingly drastic
measures of control that might properly be applicable only to a part
of the region.
Now as to estimates. Accepting the same ratio of lodges to dams
as previously given, the same number of beavers to a lodge and the
same fraction of bank beavers, it appears that the 481 dams in
Herkimer and Hamilton counties represent 2,886 beavers. And
proceeding in the same wa}- with the 182 remaining dams scattered
throughout the Adirondacks, we shall have 1,092 beavers outside of
Herkimer and Hamilton counties. If all the dams reported should
constitute only one-half the number that actually exists we have
simply to double the sum of the two figures just mentioned, giving
an estimated total of 7,956, or in round numbers, 8.000 beavers for
the Adirondack region as a whole.
Willoughby r20a, p. 628) states that the Conservation Commis-
sion estimates that there are between 15,000 and 20,000 beaver in
the Adirondacks. With regard to natural increase Riley ('21, p.
205) states that: " Likewise, there is very little information about
natural losses and rate of increase. Estimates of the numbers in
i66
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
Long Branch Creek [Rocky Mts.] showed 50 beavers in 1908 anfl
3,000 in 19] (S, indicating an average yearly increase for the period
of a1)out 50 per cent. This, however, is based only on estimates.
]n order to be conservative, an annual increase of 25 per cent has
been assumed utUil such time as mcjre accurate information can be
obtained." The determination of this n(jrmal rate of increase, so
im])ortant in any rational ])lan j)roviding for perpetuating the stock
and for harvesting annually a fair number of beaver skins, certainlv
merits additional field study.
Commercial Value and Possibilities
Beaver as Human Food. I have made it a practice to eat the
meat of the beavers that I have taken from time to time in Minne-
.sota and in my f)pinion it is a very ])alatal)le food. It was prepared
in the same manner as venison. A little care is necessary in skinning
the animal so as to avoid tainting the meat with the castoreum. In
the words of Seton, " The flesh is good and the tail is considered a
delicacy. It tastes like ' calf's head ' with marrow dressing." The
fat has a delicate and. to my palate, a slightly sweet taste.
Castoreum. The castoreum is a substance produced by a pair of
glands in the anal region. It has a peculiar odor which, to me at
least, is neither strong nor unpleasant. It is used in the manufacture
of perfume, and in medicine it is said to be used as a stimulant and
as an antispasmodic. It has been known for over two thousand years
and in olden times was con.sidered as more or less of a ])anacea. Its
commercial value at the present time is probably from $6.00 to
$10.00 a pound, an amount obtainable from about a dozen beavers,
when it is in the form of the castoreum glands removed entire and
dried. I have weighed two pair of the dried glands and this esti-
mate is based on this fact.
Professor Carl \'oegtlin. Professor of Pharmacology, U. S. Public
Health Service, W ashington. D. C. writes under date of March 30,
1922: " Castoreum has been used years ago as a sedative and anti-
f pasmodic for hy steria, hut its use for this ])urpose as for any other
it may have had in medicine has been discontinued. There is really
no justification for the sale of this drug."
Revenue from Beaver. Beaver is one of our most highly prized
furs. As popularly known in coats, collars, muffs and other articles
of apparel it consists of only the dense underfur, the long, coarse
overhair having been removed by plucking. The part played by
Adirondack Beaver
heaver fur in the early history of this country is a very interesting
and imi)ortant one, to which the reader is referred elsewhere
(Alartin, '92).
The qualities of heaver fur are such that it will continue in the
future, as in the past, to command a good price in the markets. It
is a natural resource that has important ])ossihilities and is worthy
of careful attention. The capacity to harvest a couple of thousand
skins or more each year would mean a great deal to the peo])le of
the region or to the State itself, and with a fair amount of considera-
tion given to the distrihution of the heaver and to local conditions,
the Adirondack region should lie ahle to support a sufficiently large
l)eaver population to yield such returns without at the same time
incurring" an undue amount of damage to timher, fishing or other
interests.
In Commissioner George D. Pratt's reports ( '20, pp. 48-51 ; '21,
pp. 99-101) he summarizes the damage to timher done hy heaver
dams in 19 19 at $90.00 per dam. The estimate for 1920 averaged
$22.00 per dam. The total damage for these two years was ahout
$55,000.00, and this is prol)al)ly near the maximum damage, as the
region is ])resumal)ly fully stocked.
If, as I have estimated, there are <S,oco heavers in the Adirondacks
and if their skins are worth on an average of $10.00, their total
value aggregates $<So,ooo.oo, or at $25.00 each, $200,000.00. If an
annual harvest of 1,500 pelts were taken each year at $10.00 each,
the revenue would he $15,000.00; or at $25.00, $22,500.00. li 2,000
were taken from the entire Adirondacks at $10.00 each the income
would he $20,000.00 i)er year; and at $25.00 each, $50,000.00 annu-
ally.
A recently received price list ((uotes average heaver skins as fol-
lows : Xo. I extra large, $33.00 ; No. i large, $26.00 ; No. i medium,
$17.50; No. I small, $10.00; No. 2 large, $to.oo; No. 2, $8.00;
No. 3, $3.25; Xo. 4, $1.50.
W'illoughhy ('20, p. 630) states that: "Beaver skins are worth
from $25.00 to $30.00 each, so it is apparent that the 15,000 or
20,000 husy rcjdents plying their engineering profession throughout
the Adirondacks constitute a half-million-dollar asset, and that the
trapping of their annual increase (which is now jirohahl}' some 3,000
animals) would mean a consideral)le cash dividend." As has heen
shown I consider these estimates of the numher of liea\er too high.
Assuming that there are only 8,000 beaver in the Adirondacks, and
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
allowing 25 per cent as their annual rate of increase, it also seems
fair to assume that 2,000 could Ije killed yearly without diminishing
the stock.
But even this does not tell the whole story hecause there is still
another important potential source of revenue to the State. Mr.
G. W. Bartlett, Park Superintendent of the Algonquin Provincial
Park, Ontario, Canada ('21 j, states that during the last year covered
by his report he received orders for over 100 beavers for shipment
to the United States. He states fp. 117) that: " I would therefore
recommend that the price of live beaver, * * * be put at $150.00
a pair. The dealers we have at times supplied in the States charge
$100.00 per animal, and we have been supplying them at $30.00
each. * * * The price, however, should be at least four times the
value of the pelts, as they represent at least that much additional
cost. A large quantity of fur has been taken out and sold in Toronto,
bringing the nice sum of $14,179.00. '
It would therefore be good policy to use surplus Adirondack
beavers for stocking other regions, and if 100 were sold each year
at $100.00 each that would add $10,000.00 to the $50,000.00 which
can probably be derived from pelts, thus making a total of $60,000.00
annually.
Such a revenue would thus in one year pay for all the damaged
timber, and probably in a few succeeding years for all damages to
property of other kinds. It ought even to produce funds for possibly
correcting the alleged damage to trout streams and for continuous
supervision of such waters.
Recent valuable papers on the methods of cultivating beaver in
the National Forests have been written by Mr. Smith Riley, formerly
U. S. District Forester at Denver. He says ("21a, p. 200) : " The
present status of the bea\er in the Cochetopa Forest in Colorado is
an excellent example of what can be done in the average mountain
region suitable for beaver culture. It is estimated that this Forest
which covers some 900,000 acres contains 12,000 animals distributed
over about half the availal)le water area suitable for production. As
the animals were causing damage to ranch property in one locality
near the Forest boundary, a plan was drawn up for cooperative
trapping with the State game department. It provided for the exter-
mination of the l)eavers where they were committing actual damage ;
for their increase unmolested in streams of the Forest not fully
stocked ; and finally for the transplanting of the beaver to streams
Adirondack Beaver
169
where they do not at present exist, and where food and other con-
ditions are thought favorahle for their propagation." (Cf. Riley '21).
It is evident that one valual)le use of heavers where harmful or
where regions are overstocked would he to transport them to other
suitable localities that need stocking, so that the entire Adirondacks
could he made as productive as possible of beaver fur.
It is clearly evident that the Ijeaver problem should not be handled
hastily and drastically in the supposed interests of a few, when the
State as a whole has so much at stake. P^urther investigations should
be made in order to devise the Ijest methods of using this valuable
resource to the best advantage.
The possible revenue derival)le from the beaver raises the question
as to whether or not it is economically wise to attempt to grow timber
on lands potential l}' suitable for beaver, when a fur crop worth over
$50,000.00 per year can be grown on such lands. It will require
about 40 years to mature a crop of timber on these lands, and
$50,000.00 annually for 40 years totals $2,000,000.00.
Summary and Conclusions
In summarizing the results of this preliminary field study I con-
clude that the chief objection to the beaver in the Adirondacks at
the present time is raised in connection with the destruction of
timber ;• their relation to trout fishing; and the flooding of and injury
to private lands or grounds, especially along water fronts near
cottages and camps.
In some localities considerable damage to timber has resulted from
beaver dams, and some difficulties have been caused to logging com-
panies in moving their logs. In other localities the injury to timlier
has been insignificant and is not likely to increase, because of the
character of the streams or their banks, or because there is no timber
to damage. While occasionally valuable coniferous trees are af¥ected,
the bulk of the timber damaged consists of such soft woods as black
spruce and balsam fir, and this is the basis for the main complaints
of those interested in pulp wood. Many hardwood trees are often
killed ; but while the}' have a potential value they are not generally
lumbered in these districts.
B.eaver floodings or flows constitute only one of a number of
sources of damage to timlier, and the total destruction from this
agency is not so great as from such factors as either windfall or fire,
and is restricted to certain watercourses and the bordering lowland.
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
Beaver flows undoubtedly have a value as fire-breaks and as such
they may on occasion be of assistance in saving from destruction
many times the amount of timber that has been damaged or killed
by them. As reservoirs and as stabilizers of stream-flow during
floods they seem worthy of full consideration, considering the
millions of dollars which New York State has spent on canals, and
recalling her present extensive program for developing water power.
The relation of the beaver to trout or other fish is not definitely
known. Opinions expressed are conflicting and the experiences of
different people interested in the subject are often diametrically
opposed. It seems probable that, depending upon conditions in a
stream, beaver dams at times may be detrimental to trout, at other
times, beneficial. There may be a certain point up to which dams
on a given stream are l)eneficial to trout Imt lieyond it, harmful. It
is a problem deserving thorough scientific study.
Other topics discussed are the relation of the beaver to tourists
and summer visitors, camp or inn owners, scenic beauty, and deer ;
the recreational and biological interest in beaver ; and finally the com-
mercial value of the animals is briefly considered, and an attempt
has been made roughly to estimate their numbers.
Beavers constitute a natural resource from which the State or the
people of the State should derive a permanent annual income. While
the animals may become obnoxious in certain localities, it would
seem perfectly feasil)le to provide specifically for trapping in such
places, as the necessity might arise. A number of watercourses along
which no damage of importance is likely to result, such for instance
as the Beaver River Flow, might be set aside as permanently closed
territory. This would safeguard the species against possible exter-
mination and would ])rovide propagation centers for surrounding
territory. The Adirondack's are in urgent need of just such wild life
sanctuaries. In cut-over or burned-over districts where beaver flows
would appear to be desirable as fire-breaks, restrictions might be
placed upon trapping. On many trout streams beaver dams for a
season or two might be of distinct benefit, and periodic trapping in
such cases would prevent the development of injurious conditions.
Lakes or ponds, or their outlet .streams, so situated that i)reservation
of their wooded shores is particularly desirable might be designated
as territory permanently open for taking beaver. The mapping out
of streams and other waters where beaver might or might not be
taken would seem to offer no verv great difficulties. The District
Adirondack Beaver
Rangers are thoroughly famihar with their respective areas and if
entrusted with this responsil)ihty could d()ul)tless attend to it along
with their other duties.
In view of the conditions found and the number of beavers evi-
dently inhabiting the region investigated it appears advisa1)le tliat the
animals be reduced to an extent sufficient to put a check upon sucli
damage as they may be causing in certain localities to timber, pos-
sibly to trout fishing, and to private property or other interests
within this area. A consideration of all the facts does not appear
to warrant drastic reduction in the numbers of the beavers. So far
as an estimate of numbers is possible in the circumstances I believe
that a reduction of the present beaver population, in the territory in
question, to the extent of about a thousand individuals would accom-
plish the purpose in view. To that end the following recommenda-
tions are submitted.
Recommendations
The present investigation has shown that the l:)eaver of the Adi-
rondacks may be made a valuable source of revenue to the State if
properly managed. The cost of this supervision is slight compared
with the value of the resource. If $25,000.00 can now be derived
annually from Herkimer and Hamilton counties alone, then cer-
tainly a few thousands spent on surveys of the whole Adirondack
region is a slight expense, and this mu.st precede intelligent manage-
ment of this resource.
My recommendations are divided into two groups :
Investigations Needed, i. Surveys similar to the present one
should be extended throughout the Adirondacks to determine the
present status of the beaver for the region as a whole.
2. A special study should be made of the relation of beaver to
trout.
3. The breeding habits need further study in order to determine
the rate of increase, as this should be an important factor in decid-
ing on the number to be killed during open seasons.
4. Further investigations are needed to determine the amount of
food (suitable species of trees) requisite to maintain tlie beaver.
This will give a basis for estimating the number of beaver which
an area can maintain permanently, looking toward a sustained
annual yield of fur.
5. A study is needed of the local species of aspen and birch in
order to know how to secure a sustained yield of beaver food.
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
Suggested Legislation. Legislation at this time must be largely
experimental and provisional because of the following reasons:
1. Defective knowledge of the numbers, rate of increase, and
general principles of management.
2. Practical difficulties of controlling the number to be killed.
On account of these difficulties two plans are suggested, with a
marked preference for the first.
1. That the officials of the Conservation Commission be author-
ized to take, not to exceed 1,000 beavers in Herkimer and Hamilton
counties, and the pelts or live animals be sold. That the beavers
killed, in the main, be taken where they are doing the greatest dam-
age, and when the fur is in the prime, say between December 15 and
not later than February 15.
Beaver skins are not really prime until late in the season, and
while they remain prime until about May and the animals are more
easily trapped when the streams open in the spring, trapping at that
time would unquestional^ly result in the taking of many pregnant
females.
It is possible that a toll of 1,000 would be too hea\y a
drain upon the species, if it were to be taken annually; and the
possiliility also exists that a greater number could be taken without
harmful ef¥ect. Since a true estimate of the beaver population is
not possible the effect of the first season's trapping should serve
as a guide in determining future action.
That pending investigation of the trout problem the Conserva-
tion Commission give special attention to particularly valuable trout
streams and retard the spread of the beaver on or to such streams.
2. While the most accurate method would be for the Conserva-
tion Commission to employ a certain numljer of experienced State
trappers to reduce the number of Iieavers I l)elieve that in a settled
region like that of the Adirondacks the local inhabitants might be
justly given consideration. Their good will is also of importance,
and the sale of the fur would compensate for damages the beaver
may occasionally cause them.
That a short open season, about one month, be declared on
beaver in Herkimer and Hamilton counties. That in the first open
season the maximum number of beaver to lie taken be limited to
one thousand individuals, and that the number that any one person
may take be limited.
That the open season begin not earlier than December 15. and
close not later than February 15.
Adirondack Beaver
173
That the beaver be taken only l)y trapping and without damage
to or destruction of dams or lodges.
That all trappers be licensed and that permits to take lieaver
be issued only to persons who are bona fide residents of the region.
A reasonable fee should be charged for the license.
The Conservation Commission should retain power to close the
.season on beaver whenever in its judgment the welfare of the
species may require it.
PART II. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BEAVER
Introduction
In dealing with the beaver problem a general knowledge of their
natural history is essential not only for a proper appreciation of
their harmful and beneficial influences, but as well for an intelligent
interest by those visitors to the Adirondacks who go there for the
pleasure of living and tramping in the wild forests. The following-
account has been prepared to meet this need.
General Remarks on Habits
While the beaver is essentially aquatic it must come ashore for
such necessities of life as food and rest. Its short legs and heavy
body are ill adapted to ease of travel on land, its gait being slow
and clumsy and more in the nature of a shuffle than a walk ; its
broad tail drags on the ground. Although it lacks neither weight
nor strength its only defensive weapons against an adversary or;
land are its chisel-like incisors and it is handicapped in the use of
them in a fight by a well-nigh imperceptible neck and a limited gape.
Nevertheless it is quite probable that if hard pressed an adult beaver
would be no mean antagonist, for its powerful teeth would crash
through both flesh and bone. Mills states ('13, p. 35) that on two
occasions he has known beaver to kill a bobcat, but the particulars
are not given.
The beaver therefore is naturally ill at ease on land and does
not veture any further than necessary from water. When fright-
ened its first and overpowering impulse is to get to its protecting
element.
The beaver is usually considered as nocturnal and this is gen-
erally true in that most of its major activities are carried on at
night. In remote, undisturbed places however, it may often be seen
quietly moving about or feeding at almost any hour of the day.
1/4
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
Occasionally solitary individuals may he seen lying, in the day-
time, in what I have elsewhere ('21) called " forms/' on the shore
near the water's edge, apparently merely resting, taking a sun-bath,
or dozing. Ranger David Conkey informed me that he also had
observed beaver lying thus in the Adirondacks, l)ut I did not hap-
pen upon any forms during my stay there.
Senses and Voice. As to the senses of hearing, seeing and
smelling, it is probable that, as with the majority of other mammals,
the beaver gets most of its informaiton by means of hearing and
scent. I am aware of no scientific experiments u]x)n the beaver in
captivity to determine the relative rank of the senses mentioned.
From my own experiences in the field I am inclined to place the
auditory and olfactory senses about on a par as to keenness, and
apparently the ones upon which the beaver is most dependent for
warning against enemies. But I am also convinced that the eyes are
not to be rated as altogether short-sighted or dull where it may
obtain an unobstructed view of a moving object. Dugmore ('14,
p. lO/j speaks of young beaver as being able to see a hawk ''even
though it appears as a si)eck in the heavens."' With regard to a per-
son or other feared animal, providing it is motionless, the beaver is
able to discriminate no better than any other rodent, or most other
wild mammals.
The only vocal sounds I have ever personally heard the beaver
make were what might be called low murmurs or gruntings by the
animals when they were in the lodge. Mills, however, says ('13,
pp. 26-27 ) tli^t beavers have a strange, shrill whistle or call, which
seems to be a note of alarm, suspicion or warning ; and that a young
beaver when alarmed " gives a shrill and frightened cry not unlike
that of a lost human child."
Swimming and Diving. In swimming, the propelling organs are
the hind feet. The flat tail serves principally as a rudder and is
capable of being tilted from the horizontal to an angle of probably
forty-five degrees or more. It is possible that it may at times be
used as a scull but I have personally never seen it thus employed.
AMien swimming straight away the beaver strikes out with both
feet simultaneously, luit when turning, the strokes may alternate,
one being more vigorous than the other, and the tail assists. I have
many times observed beaver in captivity use their foet and tail
in this manner and on at least two exceptionally favorable occasions
in the walds. The fore feet are not used in swimming but are held
against the sides of the body.
A d iro II dock B cu vcr
Often when scratching himself or performing his toilet the heaver
draws his tail forward hetween his hind legs and sits u[>c)n the
upper or dorsal surface of it.
The heaver is an expert diver. When alarmed he goes under
with a loud slap against the water with his l)road tail, followed
hy a '■ kaplunk " of the disappearing hody. At other times he may
stealthily sink heneath the surface without a sound.
Seton mentions an instance where he ohserved a heaver that
swam under the surface for ahout a quarter of a mile. A specimen
which I once took in a trap, dove, and after it had heen under proh-
ahly half a minute I took out my watch to time it. At the end of
5 minutes and lo seconds I hegan to fear that the heaver had
escaped and, poking around with a stick to see if it was still there,
after a few seconds located the heaver under the hank ; when I
looked it, it came to the surface. It had heen under water altogether
ahout six minutes and no douht would have remained under longer
had I not disturbed it.
Instinct and Intelligence. Popularly the heaver is sometimes
credited with intelligence bordering closely upon the human kind.
I do not know of any experiments made with the heaver to deter-
mine whether its intelligence is above or below that of any other
species of rodent, but its brain is smooth like that of other rodents,
and it is probable that the beaver so far as mentality is concerned
cannot boast of any great superiority over the rabbit, the squirrel
or the rat. But in the course of the ages it has evolved a set of
instincts, highly complex, at which we cannot but marvel just as
we marvel at the instincts of the ant and of the bee. These instincts
are inherited and at the right time in their life history, when the
proper stimuli prompt them, the young beaver will do certain things,
and do them in the same way and just as well as their parents, without
first having to be shown or taught how. The works of the beaver
usually appear to be so M^ell adapted to a purpose that we some-
times are tempted to believe that the animal must have heen con-
scious of the effect of each step in the process and that the whole
had been carefully planned out beforehand. But we experience
much the same feeling when we consider the ways of the ants and
the bees.
Sociability and Wandering. The heavers are highlv sociable
animals and this characteri.stic finds expression not only in the
works of the colony but also in their indulgence at times in play.
176
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
which, according to Morgan, takes place both on the shore where
they bask about or in the water where a numljer of them may swim
about, ducking each other.
In the summer months many beavers roam about more or less,
frequently to considerable distances from their home locality.
\\'hether this is indulged in by all memliers in a colony or only
l)y the males, unmated individuals and young of the preceding year,
is not certain. It does not seem probable that females with young
of the season would make any extended excursions away from the
home lodge. At any rate, in Minnesota, Colorado and in the Adi-
rondacks I have found lodges occupied by adults all through the
summer, and in some cases there were young of the season also.
Breeding Habits
So far as known the beaver pairs for life. According to Seton
('09, \'ol. I, p. 471) the animals mate in February and the young
are born in May, the period of gestation being accordingly about
three months, or fourteen weeks according to Dugmore. While
.Seton's statements refer evidently to the beaver of Manitoba, the
mating season no doubt is about the same for the Adirondacks.
Persons whom I questioned in the Adirondacks could give me no
positive information on these jwints but seemed to believe that the
}oung were born during May or early June.
The young are born in the lodge or in a bank burrow and vary
from two to six in number, or possibly there may be as many as
seven or eight in some cases, the average being probably four. The
young at birth are said to be fully furred, with their eyes open,
and are able to leave the lodge with the mother when three weeks
or a month old. At this age they are also said to l>egin eating solid
food. They remain with the parents for a year or longer and are
not sexually mature until two years old. In the autumn following
their 1)irth, that is. when they are three to four months old. they
will take part in building dams and lodges. Young beavers separated
from their parents at an early age will build lodges and dams
without first having " learned to do such things from their parents,
the building habit being instinctive.
The mother beaver is said by some naturalists to exhibit con-
siderable concern for her voung when they are in danger and will
come to their defense. It is not definitely known whether the male
takes anv active part in the care of the yoimg. Evidence seems
Adirondack B cave r
^77
to show that he either vokintarily leaves the lodge or is driven away
l)y the female at aiiout the time the young are born and leads a
more or less solitary life in the vicinity, or perhaps associates with
young' of the previous year and with other males that may be in
his neighborhood.
The length of a beaver's life is not definitely known, except
])rol)ably for such as have been raised in captivity. Seton says ('09,
\'ol. I, p. 472) that they live from 12 to 15 years. Enos Mills ('13,
p. 193) mentions a beaver which he had glimpses of "through
eighteen years, and he must have been not less than four years of
age when I first met him."
Enemies of the Beaver
Aside from man the principal enemies of the beaver are con-
sidered to be wolves and foxes, bears, the lynx and the wildcat,
fishers and otters ; and among birds, the great horned owls and the
goshawks. In the north where the wolverine occurs, this animal is
also said to be an enemy. In the Adirondacks the most common
natural enemies are probaljly foxes, great horned owls and gos-
hawks, I)ut the toll taken hy these is of course probably limited
wholly to young beavers pounced upon from time to time when
they are ashore. I found one little beaver in the Adirondacks
which appeared to have met its end in this way.
The muskrat is by some j:)ersons considered an enemy of the
beaver because of the mischief it occasionallv does l)v tunneling
through the beaver dams.
Food and Feeding Habits
Food. In food habits the beaver is vegetarian. \\'here the aspen
or po])lar occurs its bark is eaten to a greater extent than that of
any other tree. The various kinds of bark fed upon have been
mentioned in the fir.st ])art of this report. In the summer months
the beaver undoubtedly feeds also upon a great variety of tender
grasses and sedges, buds and young leaves, as well as roots or
rhizomes of water lilies, flags and other plants grow'ing about
water or in the water ; probably also ground-growing berries.
About the middle of August the beaver begins to prepare for
the winter I)y laying in a supply of freshly cut boughs which are
stored usuall\- in the water by the lodge. When the jiond is frozen
over the animals may then dive beneath the ice from their lodge.
178
Roosevelt Wild Life liullclin
gnaw off a branch and return to the lodge to feed. Through the
summer months the feeding grounds may l)e easily recognized
by the little heaps of peeled sticks found in shallow water along
the shore. In such j)laces, ])artly submerged and partly concealed
by overhanging bushes, the animal sits quietly nibbling ofY the bark
from the twigs as they are held in the forepaws.
Cuttings. Trees are cut down jjrimarily to secure food ; second-
arily the cuttings are used in the construction of lodges and dams,
but many boughs are cut and added to the dam, especially, without
first being stri])])ed of their bark.
In the majority of cases, when there is no snow, a tree is cut
at a height between twelve and eighteen or twenty inches from
the ground. The gnawing may be made entirely from one side, or,
as in the case with most of the larger trees, all around the trunk.
The literature contains records of trees 3 feet in diameter that have
been felled by l)eavers. The largest I happened upon in the
Adirondacks was an asi)en 17.5 inches in diameter.
Most cuttings are made within easy reach of the water but
at times the animals must go farther afield for their food supply.
In the Long Lake district a number of fresh cuttings were found
which had been dragged al)i)Ut one hundred yards, as paced, to the
water.
In dragging the cuttings conspicuous trails are formed. Figure
29 shows where such a trail has been cut through the crest of a bank
about a hundred feet above the water along Cold River. Smaller
Iwughs are seized at the butt, the re.st of the branch trailing behind
as the beaver moves forward : while in the case of heavier poles
the animal probably is forced to move backward as he drags them.
According to Seton, "'Small logs are rolled by one or more beavers
pushing with their hands, their shoulders, their hi])s or their whole
broadsides."
The trees cut l)v the beaver fall in whichever direction they
happen to lean or as the wind or mere chance directs. Most trees
near the water lean that way. Numerous exam])les of poor judg-
ment and wasted efi^orts in tree-felling may be found in the woods
about nianv beaver ponds. Trees standing on the side of a hill may
have a spiral twist to the cut. brought about as the beaver moves
from a higher level to a lower, or vice versa, cutting around the
trunk, l^ach of the two cuts in the birch shown in figure 30 has a
definite spiral turn.
Adirondack Beaver
The time required by a Ijeaver to fell a tree of given size is not
positively known, for only rarely has the operation been actually
observed and recorded. Seton says, "Two beavers can cut down a
three-inch sapling in three minutes and a six-inch tree in an hour or
two. Three are the most that ha\ e been seen working on the same
tree at once." Their work, however, is often erratic and subject to
many interruptions ; many partly cut and abandoned trees may be
found in most beaver-inhabited localities (figure 31).
Photographs l)y Dugmore ('14) and Shiras ('21) show that the
beaver stands erect upon its hind feet, supported by the tail, and
rests its fore feet upon the trunk when gnawing off a tree.
Trees up to about four inches in diameter are usually cut into
sections of various lengths and dragged to the ponds ; in the case of
larger trees only the branches are removed.
The amount of food eaten by a beaver in a year is not known.
We ought to know how much an average colony or lodge needs in
order to know the potential productive capacity of a given area of
forest for beaver. Aspens (Weigle and Frothingham, '11, pp. 16-
17) and paper birch (Dana, '09, pp. 19, 36) grow rapidly and
yellow birch more slowly (McCarthy and Belyea, '20, pp. 19, 42,
49). It probably requires from 10 to 20 years for the aspens and
paper birches to become three or four inches in diameter at the
level where the beaver cuts them, and of a size to attract it.
Beaver Architecture
Character of Ponds and Streams Favored. It is a familiar
fact that beavers usually choose for their dam building operations
small, shallow streams with sluggish current. Running water seems
to be the stimulus that sets the dam-building instincts in motion.
During dry periods when the water in creeks forms only a series
of interrupted pools of still water, damming operations usually
cease. A pond that has no stream entering or leaving" it l)ut is fed
by seepage from springs, and drains off by underground channels,
suffers no damage from dams, except occasionally indirectly from
neighboring sources. Streams whose water averages more than
about 2.5 or 3 feet in depth are rarely dammed, although if shallow
rapids occur much deeper streams may be dammed at such places.
The width of a stream alone does not easily discourage the beaver
and even a swift current is often overcome by anchoring the dam
against various obstacles that may be found in the stream.
i8o
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
Uses and Construction of Beaver Darns, The dam provides the
animals with a sufficient depth of water to insure safety from their
enemies and to provide transportation faciHties as well as safe
storage places for their winter food supply. Since the entrances
to the lodges must \)t rendered secure it is important to maintain
a sufficiently high water level to cover them. The water being too
deep to freeze to the bottom in winter, the beaver is enabled to move
about under the ice and secure his food with the utmost safety.
The materials used in building dams are usually green boughs,
dry sticks, poles, roots, mud and sand, and occasionally stones
(figure 32) are added. When logs are found as part of a beaver
dam they have either drifted down or were there before the dam
was started, the dam probably being built against them in some
cases. The lower side of the dam usually contains exposed sticks
and boughs which are arranged generally parallel with the flow, and
the upper side is covered with mud, muck and entangling rootlets.
Old dams become more or less grass-grown. The length of the dam
is very variable and is governed largely by the character of the
banks and the duration of the colony in the locality. In some parts
of the country old dams have l:)een found measuring thousands of
feet in length, the work of many generations of beavers. In the
Adirondacks the longest dam which I encountered was about 375
feet in length.
Reaver dams require constant attention by the animals. Water
is constantly trickling through or over them, and when neglected
they soon disintegrate.
The height of dams varies within much narrower limits than the
length but is governed largely by the same factors. The two highest
dams that I saw in the Adirondacks measured 8 feet. 8 inches
and II feet, i inch, respectively, from the bottom of the creek
at the main channel to the cre.st of the dam (figures 33, 34). While
the dams are usually substantial and tenacious afifairs. easily sup-
porting the weight of a man and even of larger animals, they ar
times have their weak sjHits and give way before the volume of
water abo\e them. The literature on the beaver contains statements
to the efifect that they sometimes make openings in their dams in
times of heavy rains or floods in order to relieve the pressure on the
dams. Personally T have never seen any clear evidence of this.
Dams mav be straight, curved ui)stream or downstream, zig-zag
or anv other form that the situation and circumstances, accident or
Adirondack Beaver
the vagaries of the animals themselves may determine. There is
no reason to suppose that the beaver selects the site of the dam with
conscious intent or a knowledge of what the effect will be if it is
placed here or there.
Canals. In some situations the beaver digs canals of varying
length which probably serve mainly for transportation purposes.
Where beaver ponds are bordered by open meadow land the tend-
ency to construct canals seems to be most often displayed. Possibly
the animal's reluctance to go overland is partly responsible for the
habit. The canal gives it not only easier means of transportation
but greater security in passing back and forth from its foraging
grounds. The canals vary from a foot to a yard or more in width,
ten inches to two or three feet in depth and from a few yards to
four or five hundred feet in length. The earth is dug out with the
fore feet and dei)osited on the banks, and not infrequently the even-
ness and uniformity of the whole gives it the appearance of having
been done by human hands. Some canals that I have seen in stony,
unsuitable ground were so narrow that they must have greatly
increased rather than diminished the difficulty of transporting
boughs. Channels are often dug in shallow ponds in order to secure
sufficient depth of water for freedom of movement and transporta-
tion. Such channels of course are not usually in evidence except
where the water level has fallen, when the bottom of the pond may
be seen to be traversed by them in various directions.
The Lodge or House. The home of the beaver is either a den at
the end of a burrow in the bank, or a "house" or lodge ( figure 35,
36). The lodge is similar to that of the muskrat but is made of
sticks instead of reeds or grasses. There are as a rule two entrances
to the lodge and they are under water. In the fall of the year the
beaver often brings up mud from the bottom of the pond and daubs
it upon the outside of the lodge in more or less haphazard fashion.
With additions from time to time a lodge may after a few years
become pretty well plastered all over with mud. From mv personal
observations I should say that as a general rule the beaver adds at
least some mud here and there on the lodge, but I have never seen
any uniform application of it all over the structure during any one
season. One lodge which I happened upon in the Adirondacks had
just been started and had a number of daubs of fresh mud in among
the freshly cut boughs of which it was being built.
The interior of a beaver lodge is a more or less dome-shaped
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
chamber with the floor three or four inches above water level. It is
said that sometimes there may be a litter of grass on the floor, or
shredded wood ; at other times there may be no litter of any kind.
The size of the chamljer is variable, from two or three feet to five
or six feet and, in exceptionally large lodges, it has been said to be
as much as 20 feet in diameter. The height of the ceiling may be
from one and a half to two and a half feet. In the great majority of
cases there is only a single chamber ; when more occur it is l>elieved
that they represent separate but contiguous lodges. Like the dam,
the lodge constantly grows by sporadic additions to the outside, of
peeled sticks, poles and mud, so that in the course of a few years
a lodge may attain large dimensions. Of the two largest lodges that
I happened upon in the Adirondacks one measured 32 feet in its
longest diamenter, 29.5 feet in the shortest, and was 6 feet, 7
inches high ; the other was 35 feet and 28 feet in longest and shortest
diameters, respectively, and 7 feet in height.
As a rule a lodge is occupied by a single family of beavers,
which may include the young also of the year before. At times a
lodge may be occupied only by a single individual ; and an excep-
tionally large one may, according to some writers, have as many as
fifteen or twenty occupants.
Beavers that live in holes in the bank are often spoken of as
''bank beavers'' but, contrary to popular notions, they are not a
different variety of beaver ; in other situations they would build
lodges.
While the lodge furnishes a safe retreat in which to rest and rear
their young, the beavers invariably leave it at the approach of an
intruder and seek safety in the water.
Classification and Description
The beaver is the largest of North American Rodentia or gnaw-
ing mammals. It is assigned to the genus Castor of the family
Castoridae. This genus contains the only living representatives of
the family, namely, the North American beaver, Castor caiiade)isis,
and the European Ijeaver, Castor fiber. The American beaver is
represented in different sections of the country by a number of
geographic races or subspecies. These races are, according to Seton,
the type form Castor canadensis eanade)isis. whose range includes the
greater part of Canada and approximately the northern half of the
United States; C.c. caroliiieiisis. of the southeastern states; C.c.
Adirondack Beaver
18
tcxeiisis, limited almost wholly to Texas; C.c. froudator, of the
mountain region of the western and- southwestern states; C.c.
pacificus, of the Pacific Coast region of the United States, Alaska and
Canada. Alore recently, Mr. X'ernon Bailey has descrihed three new
subspecies, inichigaiiciisis, iiiissoitrioisis, and uicxicanus from speci-
mens from Michigan, the upper Missouri River in North Dakota and
from New [Mexico, respectively.
A giant slightly beaver-like rodent, of the genus Castoroidcs, at
one time occurred in North America. Judged by its fossil remains
this animal is believed to have been about the size of a black bear.
Its skull was in form strikingly like that of the present day beaver.
The American beaver is a thickset, heavy-bodied animal, very
similar to the muskrat in general form of body. Its color is reddish
brown above and a paler grayish hue below. The tail averages about
15 or 16 inches in length. Its basal third, approximately, is hairy
and abruptly demarcated from the remaining part which is con-
spicuously scaly, broad and paddle-like, being flattened in the dorso-
ventral direction instead of from side to side as in the muskrat.
The legs are short, and the hind feet are large, the five toes being
connected by broad webs, giving them a striking similarity to the
feet of a goose or swan. The second toe has a peculiar "split nail"
the function of which is not perfectly clear, although it is believed
by some to be used in removing parasites from the fur. The fore
feet are also five-toed but relatively small. They are supplied with
rather long claws adapted for digging. The ears and the eyes are
small, the color of the latter black. The nostrils can be closed when
the animal is under water. The front surface of the upper and
lower incisors or cutting teeth is of a deep orange color.
Outwardly the sexes cannot be told apart except by the more
conspicuous mammae in the female.
The weight of full-grown specimens may vary from 30 to 60
pounds or possibly more.
Historical
Dr. C. Hart Merriam ('86, p. 253) says: "That the beaver was
once abundant in all parts of the Adirondacks is attested by the
numerous remains and effects of their dams ; but at present they
are so exceedingly rare that few people know that they still exist
here." Farther on the same author quotes DeKay, writing in 1841,
with reference to the same general region covered by the present
mvestigation (pp. 254-255) : "In the summer of 1840, we traversed
i84
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
those almost intermiiialjle forests on the highlands separating the
sources of the Hudson and the St. Lawrence, and included in Ham-
ilton, Herkimer, and a part of Essex counties. In the course of
our journey we saw several beaver signs, as they are termed by the
hunters. The Ijeaver has been so much harassed in this State, that
it has ceased making dams and contents itself with making large
excavations in the banks of streams. Within the past year (1841)
they have been seen on Indian and Cedar Rivers, and at Pas-
kungameh or Tupper's Lake ; and although they are not numerous,
yet they are still found in scattered families in the northern part
of Hamilton, the southern part of St. Lawrence and the western
part of Essex counties." Says Alerriam, '"At present [that is, in
i8(S6], there is a small colony of beavers on a stream that empties
into the West Branch of the St. Regis River. It is probably the
colony referred to by DeKay, in 1842, as 'yet existing in the southern
part of Franklin County.' "'
In 1895, it was estimated by H. V. Radford ('07, p. 417) that
there could not have been more than about five or ten beavers in the
whole Adirondack region.
Some Erroneous Popular Beliefs. Among the erroneous ideas
more or less current is the notion that the beaver begins his dam
by felling trees across the stream and that the dam is ljuilt out of
logs.
While the shape of the tail is suggestive of a trowel it is not used
as such ; nor is it used as a raft for transportation of mud or other
things. Mud is carried in the forepaws which have developed hand-
like skill and functions.
It is no more possible for a beaver to suck air out of branches
and poles thus causing them to sink, than it is for a human being
to do so. Green wood is nearly as heavy as water and after being
immersed a short time will sink of its own accord. Dry wood like-
wise becomes water-logged and sulimerges but takes longer. The
beaver makes the sticks or branches stay down at first by partlv
covering them with mud or hy anchoring them among stones or
debris on the bottom.
Beavers have no means for driving poles into the ground and
have never been known to do so.
The beaver does not catch or eat fish. One person in the .\di-
rondacks told me of having seen a photograph of a beaver that had
a fish in its mouth. If not actually intended as a joke such a photo-
graph represents merely an amateurish attempt at nature-faking.
Adirondack Beaver
References to Literature
Bartlett, G. W.
1921. Algonquin Provincial Park of Ontario (pp. 1 16-120).
Report of the Minister of Lands and Forests of the
Province of Ontario for 1920, pp. 1-238. Toronto.
Dana, S. T.
1909. Paper Birch in the Northeast. U. S. Dept. Agri., For-
est Service, Cir. 163, pp. 1-37.
DuGMORE, A. Radclvffe.
1914. The Romance of the Beaver. Pp. 1-225. Phila.
■ Grant, AL-\dison.
1903. Notes on Adirondack Mammals with Special Reference
to the Fur-Bearers. Eighth and Ninth Reports of the
N. Y. Forest, Fish and Ciame Comm. for 1902 and
1903, PP- 319-334-
JoHXsox, Charles E.
1921. Beaver "Forms." Jour, of Mammalogy, Vol. 2, pp.
171-172.
Lawrie, Jas. a.
1921. Beaver vs. Trout — More Testimony. Fins, Feathers
and Fur, No. 27, p. 5.
M.VRSH, M. C.
1910. Notes on the Dissolved Content of Water in its Effect
Upon Fishes. \J. S. Bur. Fisheries, Bull. \'ol. 28, pp.
891-906.
Martin, H. T.
1892. Castorologia, or the History and Traditions of the
Canadian Beaver. Pp. 1-238. Montreal and London.
]\Ierriam, C. H.
1886. The Mammals of the Adirondack Region. Pp. 1-316.
New York.
r^iiLLs, Enos a.
1913. In Beaver World. Pp. 1-228. Boston.
Moody, F. B.
1916. Protection of Beaver in \\'isconsin. Amer. Forestry,
Vol. 22, pp. 220-224.
Morgan, Lewis H.
1868. American Beaver and His \\'orks. Pp. 1-330. Phila.
Pratt, Geo. D.
1920. Ninth Annual Report of the New York Conservation
Commission for the Year 1919. Pp. 1-255. Albany.
1921. Tenth Annual Report of the New York Conservation
Commission for the Year 1920. Pp. 1-319. Legisla-
tive Doc. (1921) No. 95. Albany.
i86 Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
Radford, Harry V.
1907. History of the Adirondack Beaver. Ann. Reports of
N. Y. State Forest, Fish and Game Comm. for 1904,
'05, '06, pp. 3<S9-4i8.
Riley, Smith.
1 92 1. Fur Culture on the National Forests. Jour, of Forestry.
Vol. 19, pp. 594-606.
1921a. Some Observations on Beaver Culture with Reference
to the National Forests. Jour, of Mammalogy, \'ol. 2,
pp. 197-206.
.Seton, Ernest T.
1909. Life Histories of Northern Animals. \'ol. i, pp. 1-673;
Vol. 2, pp. 674-1267. New York.
1913. Wild Animals at Home. Pp. 1-226. New York.
Shelford, V. E.
191 3. Animal Communities in Tem])erate America. Pp. 1-362.
Chicago.
Shiras, 3D, Geor(;e.
1921. The Wild Life of Lake Superior, Past and Present.
Nat. Geogr. Mag., A'ol. 40, pp. 113-204.
Sterling, E. A.
1913. The Return of the Beaver to the Adirondacks. Amer.
Forestry, \'ol. 19, pp. 292-299.
Warren, E. R.
1922. The Life of the Yellowstone Beaver. Roo.se velt Wild
Life Bulletin, Vol. i, No. 2. pp. 187-221.
Weigle, W. G. and Frothingham. E. H.
191 1. The Aspens: Their Growth and Management. L'. S.
Dept. Agri., Forest Service Bull. 93. pp. 1-35.
Willoughbv. Charles H.
1920. Beavers and the Adirondacks. The Conservationist
(Albany), \'ol. 3, pp. 67-70.
1920a. Big Icrease of Beavers in State. State Service (Mag.,)
Vol. 4, pp. 627-630.
THE LIFE OF THE YELLOWSTONE BEAVER*
Bv Edward R. Warren
Collaborator, Roosevelt Field Naturalist, The Roosevelt Wild Life
Forest Experiment Station, Syracuse, New York
Contents
1. Why Study Beavers, and Where?
2. Food of the Beaver.
3. Beaver Engineering.
4. Life History, Other Habits, and Enemies.
5. Value of Beaver to the Park Visitor.
6. References to Literature.
Why Study Beavers, and Where?
HI were to judge from my experience at Camp Roosevelt, in the
northeastern part of the Yellowstone National Park, during the past
summer, no animal except the bear arouses so much interest on the
part of the park visitors as the beaver. Within fifteen minutes' walk
from the camp, near the bridge over the Yellowstone River, and close
beside the Cooke City road, is a fine series of small beaver ponds
(figure 37). Hardly an evening passed during the summer but any-
where from half a dozen to thirty people thought it well worth while
to walk down there and spend an hour or more watching these
fascinating animals, which are obliging enough to go about their
usual activities almost oblivious to the interested observers lined up
upon the bank beside the road. Here one can observe not only the
* This preliminary account of the Yellowstone beaver is the first of a series
of papers on the wild life of the Yellowstone National Park which have been
made possible by gifts to this Memorial Station from joint friends of Theo-
dore Roosevelt and of wild life conservation. The initial aid for this plan
came from Mr. Howard H. Hays, President of the Yellowstone Park Camps
Company. These studies were made with the approval of Hon. Stephen T.
Mather, Director of the National Parks Service, and with the approval and
hearty cooperation of Mr. Horace M. Albright, Superintendent of the Yellow-
stone National P'ark, and of Mr. M. P. Skinner, Park Naturalist. Mr. War-
ren, a very competent field naturalist, contributed his services, and he was
aided by his volunteer assistant, Mr. Ellis L. Spackman, Jr. I gladly avail
myself of this opportunity, on behalf of the Roosevelt Wild Life Station,
to thank these men most heartily for their very substantial and generous
contributions. — The Director.
[187I
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
ponds, dams, lodges and all stages of felled trees and stumps, but
even the beavers themselves swimming alx)Ut in the water, crawling
over the dams, cutting asjjen branches, and busily and audibly eating
the bark. If one is careful, by refraining from making quick move-
ments and unusual sounds, so as not to disturb the animals, the
opportunities for observation are excellent. Indeed, there are few
places in America, even in remote regions, where such opportunities
are equalled.
The park visitors asked me many questions regarding the beaver,
and the following account answers some of these questions of general
interest about them as well as summarizes the results of my own
studies conducted in the vicinity of this Camp and at Yanceys, where
in 1897 and again in 1912, Air. Ernest Thompson Seton conducted
observations which were published in his books " VVild Animals at
Home " and " Life Histories of Northern Animals."'
The region is a very favorable one for beavers and contains several
colonies of special interest. Each of the colonies was surveyed and
mapped, to show the relation of the various ponds to one another.
The dams were measured, and notes taken as to their construction ;
and as far as possible the lodges were studied, although most of
them were inaccessible, and I did not feel justified in breaking into
any of those which I could reach. I measured many stumps to find
their height ; many more were examined to see on which side they
had been cut ; and notes were taken as to the direction in which a
tree had fallen, with reference to the deepest cut. Evenings were
spent in watching the animals themselves and gleaning what informa-
tion I could as to their ways. In short, an attempt was made to
secure as much information as possible concerning the life history
of the animals.
In my work about Camp Roosevelt during the summer of 192 1 I
examined no less than eight areas of beaver ponds and dams, as
follows :
( 1 ) Beside the Cooke City road, near the Yellowstone River bridge ;
(2) South Fork of Elk Creek, from the Petrified Tree to Yanceys;
(3) North Fork of Elk Creek, and bench between the forks, west
of \'anceys :
(4) Near Crescent Hill ;
(5) Along Tower Creek, about two miles above Tower Fall;
(6) Lost Creek, above the Fall ;
(7) Lost Lake, on the plateau above Camp Roosevelt;
(8) The Yancey Meadows.
Fig. 37- The series of ponds beside Cooke City road near Camp Roosevelt,
Yellowstone National Park. Taken from slope of Junction Butte
above Yellowstone River bridge, showing location of ponds, large
aspen gro\e on hillside, and the grove destroyed along the stream.
Fig. 38. Pond No. 2 beside Cooke City road, showing log-piles protecting the
entrances to burrows. These log-piles may in time become lodges.
Yelloi>.'sto)ic Beaver
191
These localities, together with a luimher of sma'ler ponds near hy,
harbor many colonies of lieaver and represent a great variety of
conditions. They are all easily accessible to the tourist by either
roads or trails.
Colony near Yellowstone Bridge. The group of ponds paral-
lelling the Cooke City road, near the Yellowstone Bridge (figure 37)
is the one which visitors to Camp Roosevelt are most likely to see.
If they do not make a special visit to the ponds they are almost sure
to pass them on the way to the Yellowstone or Lamar rivers on
fishing trips. Therefore a somewhat detailed account of them may
not be out of place here. ^Mr. M. P. Skinner, the Park Naturalist,
informs me that there were no beaver at this place ten \ ears ago, so
that all the work here has been done within that period of time.
Here is a steep, narrow gulch, with a small stream of water, and
formerly densely set with aspens, along which have been constructed
about twenty dams of various lengths, making a series of ponds
which form a continuous waterway for several hundred feet. There
are two lodges, and in one pond beaver were living in burrows whose
entrances were protected by log-piles (figure 38). In this pond there
were at least three beavers, an adult and two yearlings. Quite pos-
sibly there may also have been another adult. In one of the lodges
were 2 adults, 3 yearlings, and 3 of the season's youngsters.
A question often asked is : Why do the beavers have so many
ponds? There are several reasons for this. In the first place, these
ponds were most probably not all built at once, but successively,
those lowest downstream first. As the green aspens growing in the
gulch and on the hillside were cut down and used for food, the
animals had to move upstream to get nearer the food supply and so
more dams were built. A beaver always prefers to travel in the
water when it can ; it is too much at the mercy of its enemies when
on land, and also it can float sticks along a pond to the dam, drag
them over the next to the pond below, and thus take them wherever
desired. As practically all the green aspens in this gulch near the
water as well as on the adjoining hillside are now cut. there is but
little available food unless the animals go some distance above the
uppermost ponds, where the space is too narrow and the slope too
steep to make s'zable pools. They do appear, however, to be work-
ing that way. Their other alternative is to go across the road to
the large grove on the hillside above, and opposite the ponds (figure
39). They have cut down some trees there, but it is a dangerous
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
place as they are exposed to attack while going to and fro. It was
reported to me that one beaver had been killed there this season by-
some animal. This large grove should afford a supply of food for
some years to come. I am interested to see what will be the outcome
there, so I have marked the stumps of the trees cut by beaver, over
300 in all, by pounding the end of a half-inch iron pipe into them,
making a circular mark in the wood. This will enable a future
observer to identify the new cuttings.
Another use of a series of ponds is the protection which they give
one another in times of high water. A dam backs water up against
the dam above, strengthening it and helping it to resist increased
pressures, while the ponds and dams still farther above, by holding
back the flood water, distribute it more evenly and relieve the ponds
below. To man, beaver ponds are useful in conserving the water
supply, retaining much of the rain and snow which would otherwise
pass off at once and go to waste.
South Fork of Elk Creek. A mile from Camp Roosevelt along
the main highway, a road branches off to the Petrified Tree. Along
this road one is immediately interested by the series of beaver ponds
and the belt of tall dead timber in the ravine below. A fine forest
sweeps up the slope beyond. The dead timber was killed by flooding
as the result of a series of beaver dams built along the small stream
in recent years. The area was practically abandoned after the
beavers had used up all the aspens nearly to the head of the ravine.
They are still at work intermittently on the few remaining large
aspens in the swale opposite the Petrified Tree ; but little or no effort
is made to keep in repair the works below. The ravine is a tangle
of silty ponds and grass-grown dams, through which many sluices
and channels drain the water. Apparently the bea\ers use it chiefly
as a highway now.
Lower down on the South Fork, in the forest just above the
Yancey cabins, is a newer series of ponds and dams ; but the same
process of flooding the spruce flat and using up the aspen is going
on steadily, and In- and In- the occupants will have to seek new homes.
Whether the colony there migrated from the upper part of the
stream or from some other locality is an interesting question.
North Fork of Elk Creek. Other groups of ponds which at least
some of the visitors see, are those on the North Fork of Elk Creek,
to the west of Yanceys, and on the high flat between the North and
South Forks. In the former group is a very long dam, 350 feet in
Fig. 41. Freslily cut aspen logs, near pond on Ijench above Yancc\s, August 10,
1921. These trees are about 6 to 10 inches in diameter.
Fig. 42. The large pond at Lru^ccnt Hill; \ ilw from the upper end, showing
beaver lodge and fringe of dead aspen.
Yclloivstoiic Beaver
195
length (figure 40). In spite of the great length of dam the jiond is
not much more than 100 feet wide. It contains a medium-sized,
tyjiically shaped lodge. Below this dam is another, the pond belong-
ing to which is nearly filled up with silt, and much of it grown up
lo grass and willows. — a good example on a small scale of the mak-
ing of a heaver meadow. And helow this dam, strung along the
creek for nearly half a mile, are no less than thirteen very old dams.
Some of those farthest down the stream are being ])artially rebuilt
and new ponds are forming.
Above the large dam is another 250 feet in length. The pond
originally formed by this has lieen drained by a tunnel through the
dam at the level of the water in the pond below. Above this is the
unusual occurrence of a double series of ponds and dams. The
easterly one, of five ponds, takes its water from flat, swampy ground.
The westerly group of nine, a series of small ponds, is on the stream
itself.
On the high flat between the North and South Forks is a small
stream along whose narrow guUey the beavers have long since
destroyed all the aspen nearly to its source, their disintegrating dams
now alone remaining. This little stream is fed by cold springs in a
dense old Engelmann spruce woods, along whose margin are fine
mature groves of aspen. The beavers have now dammed the brook-
let clear to the borders of the spruce bog, and a very interesting point
to notice here is that the evaporation from the large pond seems to
nearly balance the inflow, so that no water flows over the dam. If
the flow of water into the pond does increase, from heavy rains for
instance, the beavers at once build up the dam a bit higher, utilizing
every drop of water. This largest pond contains two lodges. IMany
aspens have !)een freshly cut in a fine grove close along the shore
(figure 41). In the marshv ground above, several small ponds have
been dug out and dams built of mud during the past season, as well
as more typical dams. In one of these ponds a small lodge was
constructed l;etween August 10 and September 4. and aspen brush
stored Ijeside it.
Beaver Ponds near Crescent Hi!l. These are located in the
beautiful region at the very head of the North Fork of Elk Creek,
easily reached on horseljack or on foot. The largest of the ponds
(figure 42), at the foot of the Cre.scent Hill clifi's, lies in a perfect
setting of forested hills and open grassy valleys. Most of the nearby
aspen has lieen cut, but the beavers keep the dam in fair repair, so
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
as to maintain a water highway at least, and forage farther and
farther away. Over the divide from this pond is another large one,
without visible outlet or inlet, where much fresh felling of aspen is
going on. The trail to the lower Yellowstone River traverses the
shores of this attractive pond.
The Tower Creek Works. Two miles above Tower Fall, and
adjacent to the Creek, are some fine beaver works wed worth a visit by
anyone interested in the subject. Here is a dam 275 feet long
(figure 43) making a good sized pond, which contains a dense grove
of large spruce killed by flooding. This pond is on the first flat o*"
terrace above the creek, and receives its water supply from a very
large spring a short distance above. Between this pond and the
spring are many small ponds, and there are more below the large
dam. Doubtless when the winter snows are melting and Tower
Creek is high, it overflows this flat and floods these ponds. There is
a giant beaver lodge in the midst of the heavilv timbered flat (figure
61).
The fact that all of the works here are on a large scale makes
them of especial interest. The narrow and very deep ravine running
nearly east and west, resulting in very different types of forest on
the north and south slopes, has had the effect of confining the beaver
cuttings to the broad aspen slope of southern exposure. Therefore
the beaver runways, slides and canals are especially marked and
elaborate there. Figure 44 shows one of the steep and wellworn
slides down which the beavers drag their loads of aspen from the
open groves above, to the nearest corner of the big pond (indicated
in figure 43).
On Carnelian Creek, tributary to Tower Creek, a pretty bit of
engineering work was found. At a bend of the stream was a portion
of an old dam, extending perhaps half way across. A low extension
had been added to it, carrying it enough farther along to deflect
part of the water onto the level bank of the stream, which was quite
low at this place (figure 60). This water supplied a series of three
sizable ponds on the flat, the lowermost of which was several feet
above the creek level at that point.
Lost Creek, Above the Fall. On the plateau above Camp Roose-
velt the beavers are very active, and their dams in all stages of con-
struction and disintegration indicate many years of habitation there.
There are three ponds now in use, one of these containing three
houses (figure 45) ; and some distance above is a newer group of
Fig. 46. Pond No. 14 on Lost Creek, showing gravel washed in. Illustrating
how an abandoned pond may become filled with silt and debris.
Fig. 47. Lost Lake, near Camp Roosevelt. A party of naturalists and boys from
the Forest and Trail Camp on a beaver study excursion.
Fig. 48. I'pper beaver meadows on Lost Creek, above Yanceys. showing old
dam. These were large ponds when Ernest Thompson Seton studied
them in l807.
Yelloivstonc Beaver
four small ponds. Figure 45 shows how high and steep a slope the
beaver will denude of its aspen growth; and figure 46 tells the story
of the silting up of beaver ponds as a result of spring freshets and
summer thunder storms.
One wonders at first how the beavers, clumsy enough on land,
ever reached the upper creek waters, for the high Lost Creek Fall
drops sheer into a deep gorge hemmed in by perpendicular cliffs.
But the creatures find their way to the plateau by other drainage
lines, doubtless from Elk Creek on the north and the headwaters
of some branches of Tower Creek on the south.
Lost Lake. This is an exquisite little lake (figure 47) amid the
hills on the heights back of Camp Roosevelt, and readily reached by
a steep footpath through the lodgepole pine forest. It is long and
narrow, with both ends grown up to thick grass and the margins
dense with luxuriant yellow water lilies. Its shores pitch sharply to
considerable depths, soundings of 48 feet being obtained in it. It is
a spring- fed ravine lake, raised somewhat by the old, low beaver
dam near its rock-rim outlet at the margin of the plateau. There is
one lodge there, and beavers were noted many times swimming about
in the daytime. This is the happy result of its long seclusion, and
the animals will always be unafraid so long as people take care not
to disturb them. The roots of the water lilies would appear to be
about the only readily available food there at the present time,
although a few aspens have been recently cut a short distance back
from the outlet, but nevertheless quite a long way from the open
water and the lodge. There was a channel through the marsh grass
to the dam ; and this and other signs indicated that the lake is a way
station between the Elk Creek and Lost Creek works.
The Yancey Meadows. The final result of the filling up of such
a pond is a beaver meadow, and one cannot find a better example of
this than the one near the old Yancey place (figure 48), where hay
is now extensively cut and stacked for the winter feed of elk and
buffalo, and the Rangers' horses ; and where bands of antelope hc^unt
the margins of the broad lowland. Yet no longer ago than 1897 there
were ponds here occupied by an active colony of beavers. Seton
gives ('09, pp. 455-472) a very full description of them, with a
sketch map. About 1903 or 1904 the beavers abandoned the place,
very possibly because they had exhausted the available supply of
aspen, and it gradually changed to its present condition. I examined
the stream for traces of the old dams, and though I found some of
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
them, in most cases they had decayed and settled down to the level
of the surrounding surface, shoving that a comparatively short
period of time is necessary to form a meadow. Farther down on
the South Fork of Elk Creek, below Yanceys, are old dams which
were broken through by high water twenty-five years ago.
Description o£ Beaver. As muskrats often inhabit beaver ponds.
Park visitors unfamiliar with either animal should bear in mind that
the adult beaver is much larger than the muskrat. In appearance a
beaver is somewhat like a big, overgrown muskrat, with a broad,
flat, scaly tail. Even the brown color of the fur is not at all unlike
a muskrat's. The total length of an adult beaver is about 42 inches,
of which 16 inches is the tail, — the black, scaly portion being about
9 inches long and 4 inches wide. It will weigh 35 pounds and
upward, even reaching 60 or more, although that is unusual. The
hind feet are broad and webbed and the second toe has a curiously
split nail. This latter is said to be used for combing the hair, but
I do not know of anyone who has seen it so used. The forepaws
are small, and the animal uses them much as hands, holding sticks
when gnawing the bark from them, and also using them for digging
up bottom mud and sod which are carried to any desired spot for
building purposes, holding the material with the paws against the
chin.
The fur is of two kinds, — the close, dense undercoat, and the long,
outer guard hairs. These latter are usually plucked out in preparing
the fur for the trade.
The huge incisors or front teeth are the tools with which the beaver
does his wood cutting, and are eminently adapted to the purpose
(figure 49). These teeth on the front side are composed mainly of
a thin edge of very hard enamel, with a broad layer behind of rela-
tively soft dentine. As the tooth is used the softer dentine wears
away much faster than the enamel, so that there is always a sharp
chisel edge on the front of the tooth. These teeth grow continuously
during the life of the animal, and if liy any accident one is broken
or so injured that it does not oppose the one in the opposite jaw,
the latter may grow out to such an extent as to seriously incon-
venience the animal, if not to cause its death from inability to feed.
The incisors are long, and the hidden portions have much curvature
within the skull and lower jaw. Morgan gives the radius of the
curvature of the upper incisors as one inch, and of the lower, one
and three-quarters inches The front of the incisors is deep orange
Fig. 50. Cottonwood tree partly cut l)y a beaver. The rule in the cut is 2 feet
long. Trinchera Estate, Costilla County, Colorado, May 11, 1913.
Fig. 51. Large aspen partly cut by beaver. The tree measured 4.6 feet in
circumference above the notch. Photographed July 22, 1921.
Fig. 52. The large aspen afler it had been felled. Photographed September 4.
lyji. It was still standing August 28. The rule on the stump is
six inches long.
Yellowstone Beaver
203
in color. There are four teeth in the molar series on either side of
each jaw, formed on much the same principle as the incisors, of ver-
tical layers of enamel and dentine, the unequal wear of which gives
a good grinding surface.
Food of the Beaver
The food of the beaver consists largely of the bark of deciduous
trees, of which, in the Yellowstone and other parts of the west,
aspen is the favorite. Willows and alders are also used, but not the
bark of conifers, except occasionally. In summer other plants are
also used ; and I have noticed that they seemed especially fond of
wild rose bushes. The beavers would go up on the hillside, near the
Cooke City road, at Camp Roosevelt, and gather great bunches of
these, holding them in their mouths and trailing them along down
to the water. They sometimes ate them there by the bank, and some-
times they would swim with them to the lodge, diving and carrying
them inside. Cow parsnip, choke cherry and various others of the
plants growing along the shores of the ponds were also eaten. At
Crescent Hill, near Yanceys, we saw beaver trails leading through
the grass to where many thistles had been nipped off close to the
ground. I saw grass carried to the lodge on several occasions, but
there is a possibility that it might have been used for bedding.
One often sees in popular articles the statement that a beaver cuts
a tree so as to make it fall in any desired direction. This is not
true, as the animal makes the cut where most convenient to himself,
and lets the tree fall as it may. On a steep hillside, and with trees
up to six inches in diameter, in a great majority of cases the cut will
be made on the uphill side, or on one side or the other, rarely on the
downhill side, and all the cutting will be done from one side. From
the way the cuts are made, one might suppose the trees would fall
uphill, or to one side, but nearly all of them fall downhill, because
they naturally lean that way.
When the trees are growing on level ground it is a different
matter. They are usually cut quite evenly all round, especially if
the tree is a large one. This is well illustrated in the case of the
Cottonwood in figure 50. A beaver may start to cut a tree, and then
stop work, returning some time later to finish the job. This was
finely illustrated in the case of a large aspen on the North Fork of
Elk Creek, beyond Yanceys (figure 51). This was first seen July
20, and then had a considerable notch in it, not very freshly cut, but
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
done recently. The tree was seen from time to time and on August
28 was still standing, but on September 4 was found to have been
felled (figure 52). The tree measured 4.6 feet in circumference
above the notch when standing.
Why does a beaver occasionally cut a tree and leave it where it
has fallen, unused ? Frankly, I do not know. I have in mind a
lodgepole pine, about 4 feet in circumference, which we found
on Tower Creek by the large spring, about two miles above Tower
Fall. Beaver had cut it, and there it lay untouched. Across the
stump lay another conifer which they had also cut, and likewise had
not used. It looks almost like wanton waste. The big lodgepole
pine was difficult cutting, being of harder wood, and the chips beside
it were much smaller than those cut from aspens. I have found
some of the latter nearly seven inches long, while the largest pine
chips were about four inches long.
The height of stumps varies, ordinarily ranging from 6 to 20
inches. I found a few from 2 to 3 inches high, and a group
of half a dozen from 3 to 4 feet high. One curious thing
about these last is that the trunks were lying there unused. They
appear to have been cut when deep snow was on the ground. In
Colorado I have found the beaver active in the snow, as shown in
figures 53 and 54.
The largest stump cut by a beaver, of which I have personal
knowledge, is a cottonwood in the Colorado Museum of Natural
History, at Denver, which is 2 feet, 5.5 inches in diameter, and
came from the Platte River above Denver. Director J. D. Figgins
writes me that there is evidence of long intervals between the
periods of cutting on this stump. Enos Mills mentions one stump
of 3 feet, 6 inches in diameter, on the Jefferson River, Montana,
near the mouth of Pipestone Creek.
Some measurements were made with the idea of ascertaining how
far a beaver will go from water to cut a tree, but the results were
rather inconclusive. At Crescent Lake old stumps were found 220
feet from the water's edge, but there were no trees farther away,
and there seem to have been none formerly. This was the greatest
distance found. At Lost Creek they foraged 175 feet away from
the ]3onds, in this case to the limit of the aspens and the beginning
of the pines (figure 45).
As cold weather approaches the beaver begins to make provision
for the winter ; so that besides seeing that the dam is in good order.
55- Willow brusli in beaver pond, cut and stored by beaver. Near Crested
Butte, Colorado.
56. A beaver dam near Brush Creek. Gunnison County, Colorado, showing
pine logs projecting above the dam. An unusual occurrence.
Yellozvstone Beaver 207
and the house well plastered with mud, it also begins to lay in a
stock of provisions, in the shape of logs and branches of trees upon
whose bark it feeds. Where aspens are available, these are the pre-
ferred sort, and willows and alders are likewise used, but the alders
seem to be third choice. Where they are found, maple and birch are
also made use of, and are much liked. Whatever species are used,
the wood is taken to the pond and stored in the water. The small
logs or poles are carried to the bottom and forced into the mud
sufficiently to hold them until more is piled on them. While green
aspen does not sink, as I have seen stated in a recent popular article
on the beaver, but floats, it is very heavy, and doubtless after a time
becomes waterlogged, though one often sees freshly peeled green
sticks floating in the pond where they have been discarded.
These food piles are usually at the lodge or close by. When the
pond is covered with ice the owner comes out under water, cuts off
a length and carries it indoors, where the bark is eaten, the peeled
stick being carried out and left in the water. In Colorado I found
a mass of stored willow brush extending 100 feet along the shore,
in water four feet deep, and piled up to the surface (figure 55).
These willows were from three to eight feet long, and it will readily
be seen that they represent much work as well as a large amount of
food.
Beaver Engineering
Dams. Beavers use four different types of construction : dams,
lodges, burrows and canals ; but not every beaver uses them all,
many living only in burrows, and probably are as well or better off
for that. This happens when they are living on a stream too deep
or swift for dams or lodges.
A dam is begun by laying twigs and branches on the bottom, butt
ends upstream, and very likely forced into the bottom. These are
covered with gravel or mud dug from the upstream side, stones also
often being used. More twigs are then laid on top and covered, and
thus the dam is built up until its top appears above the surface and
a pond begins to form. The dam is carried up to the required height
and the top is plastered with mud. The builders keep close watch
on it, and are continually making repairs and additions. A beaver
dam is never finished while the pond is occupied, its owners con-
tinually adding something to it. Perhaps the water may flow around
the end. That is stopped with mud or sticks, whereupon the water
in the pond rises so that the main dam has to be added in order to
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Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
hold it, and then more water goes out around the ends and the
process is repeated. I have but little doubt that many of the long,
crooked dams which we see were thus built, not by design but by
this continual effort to stop the leaking over and around the dams.
Not all dams are built in streams. Some are built across gulches
or on the sides of the valley, to control the water from springs. The
largest pond 1 examined near Camp Roosevelt lies between Crescent
Hill and a low ridge to the east (figure 42). It is 800 feet long by
340 feet wide, and is controlled by a comparatively short dam 165
feet long. This pond is supplied by springs, no surface water flow-
ing into it except in the spring of the year when the snow is melting.
There is quite a series of dams and small ponds below the large
one, and several hundred feet downstream is a new dam which in
time may make a fair sized pond, for the builders have selected the
most suitable site, where the rather wide valley narrows somewhat,
making it possible for a comparatively short dam to back up con-
siderable water.
Also on Tower Creek, about two miles above Tower Falls, is an
extensive series of ponds deriving their water supply from a very
large spring on the flat ground scarcely one hundred feet from the
stream and but a few feet above its level. A low dam had i^een built
across the lower side of the spring, which is now about fifty feet in
diameter, and measures eight feet deep.
Let us return to the building of the dam. On the lower face are
placed many sticks, often those from which the bark has been eaten,
or willow branches are used, and I have seen quite good sized logs
utilized, whose ends projected high above the dam (figure 56).
Whatever the material, these sticks are generally placed up and down
the face, not transversely (figure 57). There is invariably, I think,
a trail over the dam where the beavers cross, and this is always where
the stream is, so that they may go down into the water from above.
It seems to me likely that in beginning a dam some of the branches
are customarily laid across the current, for I have seen a number of
dams which appear to have been thus underpinned. Moreover, when
a dam is cut through, whether by man or by natural agencies, there
are always the ends of sticks showing in the cross section thus
exposed, indicating that thev are deliberatelv laid crosswise (figure
58).
Dams are not always built completely across the stream. I recall
a series of three dams in Colorado, none of which extended all the
Fig. 57. Dam in which willow brush was largely used in construction, and
with which the face is covered. A good example of this type.
Monument Creek, El Paso, Colorado.
Fig. 58. Section of beaver dam, showing underpinning of sticks laid
Crns.swise tn thp riirrent Npar CrfifpA "Rnftp P/^lnrcirln
Fig. 59. Series of three beaver dams placed so as to form deep, quiet pools bj'
the bank of the stream ; on Slate Kivcr, Gunnison County. Colorado.
Fig. 60. Diversion dam on Carnelian Creek, turning part of the stream onto
the bank to supply ponds there.
Vclloivstoiic Beaver
211
way across the river (figure 59). One of these was on one side,
the other two on the other, and they were placed in such a manner
as to deflect the water first to one side, then back again, forming
deep, quiet pools. The diversion dam on Carnelian Creek, already
described (p. 196), also illustrates this method of building (figure
60).
As to the length of dams, they vary from a foot or two up to
several hundred feet in length. The longest I measured was 35c
feet long, on the North Fork of Elk Creek (figure 40). Seton
speaks of one near Obsidian Cliflf which he thought was 400 yards
long. Enos Mills mentions one near Three Forks, Montana, 2,140
feet long, mostly old, more than one-half of which was less than 6
feet high, two short sections being 23 feet wide at the base, 5 at
the top and 14 high. Dams vary in height as in length, but I think
they are rarely more than 6 feet high on the lower face, usually
less. The thickness of the base varies firstly with the height,, and
secondly with the age of the dam, for as the material settles with
age it tends to spread; and silt also settles at the base, so that even
if the structure does not increase in height it may become wider.
If a dam is abandoned it gradually goes to ruin, yet many of the
dams in Yellowstone Park and elsewhere have probably been aban-
doned at times for a number of years, and then repaired and reoc-
cupied by a new colony of beavers.
Lodges. Lodges may be divided into two sorts, those built out
in the water away from shore, and bank lodges. The former must
have a foundation of some sort to start with, as a small island, or
an elevation of the pond bottom sufficient for a beginning. Seem-
ingly the lodge begins with a burrow, covered with mud and sod, on
which sticks are laid, much as in building a dam. The interior is
kept hollowed out as the work progresses, and the structure is more
loosely built above the chaml)er to permit of ventilation. The floor
is a few inches above water level, and is furnished with a bed of
grass or shredded wood fiber. Dugmore says there are two levels
to the floor, the lower for drying and feeding, the upper for a bed.
There are usually at least two entrances to a house. In size they
range from 8 feet to 10 feet in diameter and up. The largest house
I have ever seen and measured is one in the large pond on Tower
Creek previovisly mentioned (figure 6r). It is 21 by 24 feet in
diameter, and 7 feet 3 inches above the water level. Five
entrances were found. Dugmore mentions a house in Newfoundland
212
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
that was 37 feet in its greatest diameter. An old house in a drained
pond in Colorado, which I opened for examination, was 8 feet
wide across the section, and 10 feet the other way (figure 62). The
chamber was 2 feet wide, and extended Imck 4.5 feet. It was a foot
high, but I suspect that the roof had settled. It was furnished with
a bed of swamp grass. Dugmore gives the dimensions of one
chamber as follows: 4 feet 10 inches long, four feet five inches
wide, 2 feet i inch high, lower floor 4 inches above water, bed floor
6 inches higher.
Bank lodges are of two kinds, probably with intermediate .stages
between them. One sort is built against the lank, or w^ith at least
part of the structure projecting into the water, really a burrow
extended and roofed over. The other kind is wholly within the
bank, connected with the water by a burrow, and is simply a burrow
enlarged and covered. A new one and an old one of this latter type
were seen on Carnelian Creek. The former (figure 63) was 4
feet back from the stream bank, 15 inches above ground level,
and 3 feet in diameter. An example of the first kind may be
seen near Camp Roosevelt, below the Cooke City road, and the one
in a pond a little lower down (figure 64) may possibly belong here.
This last is the one which was occupied by a family of beavers in
the summer of 192 1.
Burrows. Besides a lodge a beaver colony always has one or
more burrows in the banks of a pond as additional refuges. One of
these on the North Fork of Elk Creek was 31 feet long, which is
probably unusual, the majority no doubt Ijeing much shorter. One
sometimes sees j)iles of logs and sticks in the water over the entrances
to holes. These may in time develop into lodges. In Tower Creek
I concluded that beaver were living in a log jam where there w-as a
mass of debris high enough and solid enough to afford shelter for
one or more of the animals, and no other place v.-as found where they
might be living. Also at another place on the same stream there was
beside the bank a somewhat confused mass of sticks and logs which
likewise appeared to be used as a dwelling. The creatures are
undoubtedly very adaptable in their choice of dwelling places.
Canals. I am somewhat disposed to tlie belief that in some
respects the canal is a higher engineering achievement than the dam.
To deliberately plan and dig a channel in which to float logs to a
pond, and not only that, but also to build dams in this channel to
hold the water to a desired level, is an intelligent act. This is what
Fig. 6i. The big lodge adjacent to Tower Creek, in midst of iieavy Engelmann
spruce forest. Diameter 24 feet; height 7 feet, 3 inches above the water.
Fig. 63. Bank lodge 011 Cariulian C reek. Doubtless during high water in spring
this would be flooded and untenable.
Fig. 64. Lodge in one of the ponds along Cooke City road- An example of a
house lodge built against the bank. Occupied by at least eight beavers.
I
Yellowstone Beaver
21?
the animals do, however, when the trees are at a distance from the
shore, and the ground is flat enough to permit of carrying water in
on a level, or controlling it by miniature dams. These ditches vary
in width from i to 4 feet, in depth from 8 inches to 2
feet, and the length may be but a few feet or very much more.
Morgan mentions two in Michigan 523 and 579 feet long respec-
tively. There is one on Tower Creek 90 feet long, and another 150
feet. Where the slope of the ground is such that the water would
not maintain its level in the canal, a small dam is built to hold it
back. Thus one of the Tower Creek canals was 17 feet long at
the pond level from the shore to the lower end of the dam, and 23
feet to the upper side of the dam, and above this was another section
of ditch 64 feet long (figure 65). The lower level of course
obtained its water from the pond and was 15 inches deep (figure 66).
The upper level was 9 inches deep and was supplied by drainage
from the marshy ground about it. The canal was from 15 to 18
inches wide. The difference in level between the two parts was
20 inches. The long, gradual slope of the lower face of the dam
facilitated dragging logs over it.
The other canal on Tower Creek was about half a mile up the
creek from the preceding (figure 67). It was connected with the
stream by a trail 23 feet long, and at the time of the examination
this was 2 feet above the water level. This canal was from 3
to 4 feet wide, and 12 to 18 inches deep. The westerly bank was
considerably lower than the other, and was being raised by mud dug
from the bottom. The water supply was apparently derived from
a spring at the landward end.
Life History, Other Habits, and Enemies
The number of young in a litter is from two to five, three or four
being probably most common. They are born during May. I have
not been able to learn at what time they first make their appearance
outside the home nest ; but most writers state that they appear in a
very few weeks. At Camp Roosevelt I was sure there must be a
family in the lodge in one of the ponds on the Cooke City road.
There were two adults (figures 69, 70) and three yearlings seen
almost every evening, but no smaller animals. I looked for them
on my frequent visits, but it was not until August 22 that the young
were seen, three, as large as big muskrats. Having a close look at
one, I estimated its length as eighteen inches, while the yearlings
2l6
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
were 30 inches or less. It is possible, of course, that these young
were not allowed out of the lodge when people were about. They
were certainly well able to take care of themselves when they did
appear.
The beaver we watched were quite playful at times, at least the
yearlings ; and I also saw the kits play together once, but I spoiled
the little game with the noise of a graflex shutter, and it ceased
suddenly with a great splash. The game seemed to be to push each
other about in the water. This appeared to be by placing cheeks and
shoulders together, and pushing, and perhaps pulling, for they may
have been holding with the forepaws. In any event two once rolled
clear over in the water without losing their grip. My assistant said
they made a noise like a young kitten, only sharper. Others have
likened the voice of a beaver to that of a young puppy.
A beaver is undoubtedly at home in the water, even though its
gait on land is a very awkward waddle. The hind feet alone are
used in swimming, the tail not at all, except at times as a rudder.
It is remarkable how quietly they can submerge and swim under
water. One afternoon at the group of ponds by the Cooke Cit)' road
a beaver was in shallow water eating some willow twigs it had cut.
I was attempting to get into a position where I could get a picture,
and was standing on some poles over the water. My movements dis-
turbed the animal and it disappeared ; but after an interval I saw it
floating on the other side, watching me. To get to this place it had
to pass under the poles on which I stood, and yet I had seen no indi-
cation of the passage. It went back and forth several times, always
without detection.
During the summer a fishing party saw a beaver swim the Yellow-
stone in the canyon about half a mile below Elk Creek. It was
working upstream and crossed several times. \\'henever it came to
very swift or rough water it dove and swam under water, coming
to the surface again in a smooth place. It landed so close to a boy
in the party that he laid a fishing rod over its back.
Beavers have a habit of occasionally making little piles of mud,
round and flattened, and depositing their castoreum on them. This
seems to serve in some way as a means of communication with other
beavers. I found one such on upper Lost Creek when making my
examination of that group of dams (figure 68). It was quite fresh
when found, and must have been made one or two nights preceding,
for we had been there just previously. It was a trifle more than a
foot in diameter, and about four inches thick.
Fig. 6". Canal and mud banks half a mile above group of ponds at the
big spring by Tower Creek.
Fig. 68. Mud "sign heap" in upper Lost Creek; about a foot in diameter and
four inches thick. The beavers deposit their castoreum on these
piles, perhaps as a means of communication.
ycllowstoiw Beaver
219
Castoreum is a secretion found in two glands situated in the pubic
region. It has a mild odor which appears to be attractive to other
animals besides beaver. It is used as a bait in trapping the beavers
themselves, a little of it being placed in such a position that the
animal in coming to it is caught in the trap. It was formerly used
as a medicine, still has a market value, and is a regular article of
trade with the fur buyers under the name of " beaver castors."
Beavers have a number of enemies which never hesitate to pounce
upon them whenever they get the chance. When the animal is on
land its awkward gait makes it a comparatively easy prey to such
predatory animals as mountain lions, bears, wolves, coyotes, or wol-
verines. Otters are also said to attack them. If that is the case,
otters must be dreaded foes, for they are as much at home in the
water as the beavers themselves.
Value of Beaver to the Park Visitor
The value of the beaver to the Park visitor is something rather
difficult to put into words, but the creature has a real fascination for
the intelligent tourist. Here is an animal of most interesting habits
which was once to be found over the greater part of the United
States but has since been exterminated from large areas, yet has left
traces of its former presence in such place names as Beaver Brook,
Creek, Kill, River, Lake, Falls, Hill, Dam and Meadow. It can
still be found in abundance in many parts of Yellowstone Park and
the surrounding National Forests, affording opportunity for observ-
ing its habits and studying its works. Surely this is, a valuable
privilege for all who can visit the great Park.
. It is worth while to observe in its native haunts a creature, whose
fur has been an object of pursuit from the earliest days of North
American settlement, and the search for which marked the beginning
of the exploration and settlement of much of our western country,
and which is still to be found undisturbed and free from molestation
by the trapper.
Many a meadow in the thickly settled east was once a beaver pond.
In the Park sanctuary the visitor from those regions may see
meadows which only a few short years ago were ponds inhabited by
colonies of beavers, but which are now yielding hay for the support
of larger animals. Certainly an animal in which the great majority
of tourists are interested is of value both to them and to the Park.
The visitor can learn much about beaver ways without the trouble
Fig. 69. Beaver swimming. Photographed at the large pond at Crescent
Hill ; about noon, July 22, 1921.
Fig. 70. Beaver crossing a dam. Photographed from beside the Cooke
City road near Yellow'Stone River bridge in mid-afternoon.
Yclloicsfoiic Bearer
221
of long excursions into the wilderness, — how they fell trees for food
and habitation, their marvelous engineering skill in damming streams
and constructing lodges, their family life, and their relation to their
surroundings. It is worth while to know these interesting facts at
first hand rather than solely from pictures and books.
References to Literature
DUC.MORE, A. R.\DCLVFFE.
1914. The Romance of the Beaver. Pp. 1-225. Phila.
Johnson, Charles E.
1922. An Investigation of the Beaver in Hamilton and Herki-
mer Counties of the x^dirondacks. Roosevelt Wild
Life Bull., \'ol. I, No. 2, pp. 1 17-186.
Mills, Ends A.
1913. In Beaver W orld. Pp. 1-228. Boston.
Morgan, Lewis H.
1868. American Beaver and His Works. Pp. T-330. Phila.
Seton, E. T.
1909. Life Histories of Northern Animals. Vol. i, pp. 1-673;
\^oI. 2, pp. 674-1267. New York.
1913. Wild Animals at Home. Pp. 1-226. New York.
Warren, E. R.
1905. Some Interesting Beaver Dams in Colorado. Proc.
Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. 6, pp. 429-437.
WILD LIFE AND DEMOCRACY
"Above all, the people, as a whole, should keep steadily in mind the fact
that the preservation of both game and lesser wild life — by wise general
laws, by the prohibition of the commercialism which destroys whole species
for the profit of a few individuals, and by the creation of national reserves
for wild life — is essentially a democratic movement. It is a movement in
the interest of the average citizen, and especially in the interest of the man
of small means. Wealthy men can keep private game preserves and private
parks in which they can see all kinds of strange and beautiful creatures;
but the ordinary men and women, and especially those of small means, can
enjoy the loveliness and the wonder of nature, and can revel in the sight of
beautiful birds, only on terms that will permit their fellow-citizens the like
enjoyment. In other words, the people as a whole through the government,
mv.st protect wild life, if the people as a whole are to enjoy it. This applies
to game also."
Theodore Roosevelt and Edmund Heller.
Life Histories of African Game Animals.
Vol. I, pp. 155-156, 1914-
[222] .
CURRENT STATION NOTES
Viscount James Bryce
In the death of Viscount Bryce, America has lost a friend whose
sympathetic understanding of our democratic institutions and high
ideals of statesmanship have won for him the affection of the
American people. At this period of reconstruction when such
leadership as he gave for a generation is so much needed to extend
international good will, the loss of the " world's greatest Liberal "
is especially felt.
When invited to become a member of the Honorary Advisory
Council of the Roosevelt Station he responded in characteristic
manner :
" I cordially appreciate your invitation to become a member of the
Honorary Council proposed to be created, and as I assume that
membership thereof does not involve active duties, which of course my
residence in England would not permit me to discharge, I have much
pleasure in accepting the honor." He further adds that he is in
" hearty sympathy with the work described [in publications] and
with every plan for preserving wild life and the untouched aspects
of Nature. Theodore Roosevelt did admirable work in that line,
and I rejoice to learn that the impetus is not declining."
He became a member of the Council April 29, 1921, and he died
on January 22, 1922, and was thus a member for less than a year,
but his moral support did the cause much good and that good will
be lasting. His interest in our National Parks led him to write, at
the time that he accepted membership on the Council : " Knowing
well the Yellowstone National Park, I am very glad to hear of the
observations to be carried out there. My address in England is
Hindleap, Forest Row, Sussex, where I observe wild life to the best
of my opportunities." His interest in nature was shown many years
ago by his writing at the age of 21, " The Flora of the Island of
Arran," and his long interest in angling, mountain climbing and in
our National Parks, are only the varied expressions of this apprecia-
tive interest in nature.
224
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
Colonel Henry S. Graves
It is a great pleasure to announce that Colonel Henry S. Graves
has accepted membership on the Honorary Advisory Council of the
Roosevelt Station. As the distinguished former Chief Forester of
the United States Forest Service, that branch of the government
under his leadership made great progress. Colonel Graves, as the
first Director of the Yale Forest School at Yale University, has been
the teacher and inspirer of the largest body of trained foresters which
this country has yet produced. It was mainly under his guidance
and supervision that the various constructive animal and wild life
activities of the Forest Service have developed. This is particularly
true of the development of grazing as a phase of forestry, the
problem of predatory animal control, the Yellowstone elk problem,
and the comprehensive plans for fish and game in our National
Forests. The relation of wild life to the recreational uses of the
forests he grasped far in advance of the times and paved the way
for its unprecedented progress. The antiquated view that animals
were merely a phase of protecting the forest from injury he long
ago discarded, because he saw that animals are not merely an inci-
dent in forestry but an aspect of forest production which is of basal
economic and social value. Colonel Graves has just returned as
Dean to the School of Forestry, Yale Universitv% and this assures
this institution of the leadership which it has so long maintained.
Gifts to the Library and Collections
The former Ichthyologist of the Station Staff, Professor T. L.
Hankinson, on his departure, presented to the Station nearly 200
reprints, pamphlets and books. These are a very welcome addition
to the Roosevelt Wild Life Library. He also presented to the fish
collection over 150 lots of fresh water fishes, a series which for
comparative purposes will be very valuable.
The latest contribution to our game collection is a mounted Moose
head, collected by the donor, Mr. Irving D. Vann, Attorney, of
Syracuse. This very appropriate addition to our game collection
was taken by Mr. Vann in the Touradif River, Rimouski Count}-,
Quebec, September, 1912.
Contributions of the above character materially aid the progress
of the Station, and the Station is grateful to the donors for these
contributions.
Reception of the Bulletin
The first number of the Bulletin has been received so heartily
throughout the State and Nation as to leave no possible chance for
Current Station N^otcs
225
doubt as to the unique field and opportunity for the Roosevelt Wild
Life Station. Examples of a few representative opinions are here
given :
1. " This is an extraordinarily interesting and valuable publication
and will be cordially appreciated by the many friends of Theodore
Roosevelt."
2. " It is not merely interesting, but valuable. That it would be
the latter is to be expected, but so many professional bulletins of the
past have been written from the point of view of mere fact without
making them human that I fear the general public has begun to dis-
trust such publications. There is no reason for that feeling about
Volume I, Number i."
3. " It is the work of supplying this knowledge of animal life
through scientific research and experiments, a knowledge of which
Mr. Roosevelt so clearly saw the necessity, that the Wild Life
Experiment Station has undertaken as its chief, purpose. The first
reports indicate that it has met with a gratifying success in carrying
out the plans of this distinguished naturalist." Editorial, Nczv York
Herald. January 30, 1922.
4. " The first Bulletin of the Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experi-
ment Station of the New York State College of Forestry * * *
indicates that despite the handicap of its cumbrous and complicated
name it is functioning successfully and with definite plans and clear
promise of usefulness. * * * The main facts and principal
figures in the movement so far, [are given] so that any intelligent
reader may know and understand just where the Station fits in
among the many Roosevelt memorial and conservation projects, just
what authority and resources are behind it and just what it expects
to accomplish. Colonel Roosevelt himself, as long ago as 1917, care-
fully examined and cordially approved the project which has a dis-
tinctive and fruitful field of its own, altogether unlike and outside of
the other agencies, corporate or official. * * * Two incidents
of the Bulletin are noteworthy: publication in full of the late George
W. Perkins' memorable paper in 1917 to the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, in which he demanded that the
scientists should teach the world how to use and assimilate the forces,
like steam and electricity, which they have discovered, and a resume
of European plant and animal preservation, which make the Bulletin
as a whole remarkable for range, interest and value, a striking and
welcome contrast to publications of this type and bespeaking much
for its future and that of its supporters." Editorial, Tlie Standard
Union, Brooklyn, February 10, 1922.
5. " This Bulletin would be worth while for the collection of
portraits it contains, if for no other reason, but I am especially
interested in the outline of policy."
6. " It is very well gotten out and is a highly efifective document
so far as the public is concerned, and will certainly be gratifying to
all the friends of the Colonel."
226
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
7. " While I have not had the opportunity to read it thoroughly I
have gone through it sufficiently to get the salient points, and I want
to take this opportunity of expressing my interest in this memorial
to the Great American. No more appropriate memorial could be
devised.
" I am especially interested in the plan to study the animal life.
In his foreword Dr. Grinnell brings out admirably a point of which
I became increasingly aware in my own work, namely, that there is
a great lack of information as to the most common habits of many of
our most familiar wild animals. A rather extended experience as a
writer of animal stories for children has convinced me that it is the
common things, the simple things pertaining to the daily lives of our
woodland and meadow creatures, that are of greatest interest to the
public at large. This is as true of adults as of children. Time and
time again I have had letters of inquiries regarding the traits or
habits of familiar animals which I could not myself answer from
personal experience, and which I have been unable to find in the
published works of our best authorities. The latter have been so
engrossed in the scientific relations of one to another that they have
either overlooked common habits or else have considered them too
trivial to be of interest. It has been astonishing to me to find how
often comparatively little is known of the daily lives of our most
familiar creatures. Therefore I rejoice that the Roosevelt Experi-
ment Station is to take up this line of work.
" I note that it is proposed to assemble a library of books, photo-
graphs, and publications pertaining to forest wild life. I do not see
moving picture films included. [This is an oversight as provision
was made for these. C. C. A.] It seems to me that somewhere in
this country there should be a complete collection of all good moving
picture films of American wild life which have been made or will be
made. I know the American Museum has a very good collection of
such films, but I also know that there are ver}' many films not pos-
sessed by the x-\merican Museum or any other museum. It seems to
me that every motion picture photographer should be willing to con-
tribute a print from every reel he makes providing that he is assured
that such reels are not being used in any way to conflict with his own
use of the material. A museum of mounted specimens is of course
of the utmost value to the student, and to the public at large, but of
equal value it seems to me are motion pictures showing the living
creature in its natural environment and concerned in the daily afTairs
of life." — Thornton W. Burgess.
8. " I have just received the first issue of the Roosevelt Wild Life
Bulletin * * * and have taken a keen delight in reading it.
What you are planning to do at the Roosevelt Wild Life Experiment
Station is, to my mind, one of the most important and significant
things in connection with wild life conservation of this day. So far
as I know it is the only movement and effort of the kind and is, with-
out the possibility of a doubt, on the right track. * * *
Current Station Notes
227
" One of the statements made in the Bulletin which I was glad to
note is that your activities will not be confined exclusively to New
York State. There is the same lack of accurate knowledge of wild
animal life everywhere."
The Beaver Investigations
The present number of the Bulletin is largely devoted to the results
of investigations of the beaver. Although the beaver abounded in
New York State in primeval days, it became almost extinct on
account of the relentless trapping which was permitted. Later, when
its loss became appreciated, beavers were imported into the Adi-
rondacks where they have again become so abundant that they are
now locally injurious.
Although the beaver has been the subject of more detailed studies,
and more books have been written upon this than upon any other
native land mammal, yet our need for knowledge of it has grown
more rapidly with the shrinkage of the wilderness by the encroach-
ments of man than we have been aware. Fifty years ago we were
considered relatively well informed on the beaver, while today the
whole field needs recultivation by more intensive modern methods.
A native of this State, Lewis H. Morgan, in 1868 published a
classic monograph " The American Beaver and His Works," a book
which has not yet been surpassed, and most of our knowledge of this
animal has been derived from other regions than this State. Now
that New York beavers demand attention investigations are needed
to inform ourselves upon the natural history of this species before
they can be properly protected and utilized.
Dr. Johnson's report points out some of the many problems which
now need immediate investigation, and much emphasis is placed upon
the fact that in the absence of a proper knowfedge of them legislation
is necessarily provisional and experimental in character. Laws can-
not command the respect which they should merit when they rest
upon an insecure foundation of fact, and the only remedy is to
increase our knowledge. To make such investigations is the distinc-
tive field of the Roosevelt Station, and is perhaps where it can do
some of its best public service.
This beaver problem raises the question as to whether or not it
would be wise, during this period of provisional plans, to allow
the State Conservation Commission considerable discretionary
powers in their executive duties of caring for the beaver. At the
228
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin
same time the scientific studies should be pushed as rapidly as pos-
sible in order to clear up the most serious defects in our knowledge.
In restocking the Adirondacks with beaver some were secured
from Yanceys in the Yellowstone National Park, the locality at
which Mr. Warren's studies were made. The beaver problem in
Yellowstone Park is quite different from that in the Adirondacks,
in that this Park is a wild life refuge, and the question of commercial
damage does not enter into the problem. The public interest in these
remarkable animals, however, is shared equally by Yellowstone and
Adirondack summer visitors.
The detailed results of Mr. Warren's studies will form another
report which is now completed.
THE ROOSEVELT WILD LIFE MEMORIAL
As a State Memorial
The State of New York is the trustee of this wild life Memorial
to Theodore Roosevelt. The New York State College of Forestry at
Syracuse is a State institution supported solely by State funds, and
the Roosexelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station is a part of this
institution. The Trustees are State officials. A legislative mandate
instructed them as follows :
" To establish and conduct an experimental station to be known as
' Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station,' in which there
shall be maintained records of the results of the experiments and
investigations made and research work accomplished; also a library
of works, publications, papers and data having to do with wild life,
together with means for practical illustration and demonstration,
which library shall, at all reasonable hours, be open to the public."
[Laws of New York, chapter 536. Became a law May 10, 1919.]
As a General Memorial
While this Memorial Station was founded by New York State, its
functions are not limited solely to the State. The Trustees are further
authorized to cooperate with other agencies, so that the work is by
no means limited to the boundaries of the State or by State funds.
Provision for this has been made by the law as follows :
" To enter into any contract necessary or appropriate for carrying
out any of the purposes or objects of the College, including such as
shall involve cooperation with any person, corporation or association
or any department of the government of the State of New York or
of the United States in laboratory, experimental, investigative or
research work, and the acceptance from such person, corporation,
association, or department of the State or Federal government of
gifts or contributions of money, expert service, labor, materials,
apparatus, appliances or other property in connection therewith."
[Laws of New York, chapter 42. Became a law March 7, 1918.]
By these laws the Empire State has made provision to conduct
forest wild life research upon a comprehensive basis, and on a plan
as broad as that appro\ed by Theodore Roosevelt himself.
Form of Bequest to the Roosevelt Wild Life Memorial
I hereby give and bequeath to the Roosevelt Wild Life Forest
Experiment Station of The New York State College of Forestry at
Syracuse, for wild life research, library, and for publication, the sum
of , or the following books, lands, etc.
Map 2. Map of the eastern part of area examined in Herkimer and Hamilton Counties, northern Adirondacks, and showing beaver activities.
PRESS OP
B. LYOH CO. .
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